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200 Westboro Road
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THE LONDON. PHJNTnTG AETD FTTBlilSHLNG COMPXNV. LIMITED

R URAL LI F li

Dcsrribcti anti Ellustrntrli,

IN TllR MASAOEMENT OF

HORSES, DOGS, CATTLE, SHEEP, PIGS, POULTRY,

ETC., ETC. :

l\t\x Crtatnunt in ^taltjj aiib iliscast;

"WITH AUTHENTIC INFORMATION ON ALL THAT RELATES TO

MODERN FARMING, GARDENING, SHOOTING, ANGLING,

ETC., ETC.

BY JOHN SHERER, F.R.G.S.

COMPLETE SYSTEM OF MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

ILLUSTRATED.

THE LONDON riilNTlXC; AND J'CBLISIIING COMPANY, LIMITED,
LONBO-N A^•D NEW YOKK.

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PREFACE.

Deferring to the opinion that the end of all writing ought to be instruction,
the following pages have been produced with this end constantly in view :
but as instruction may belong to the past, without, as well as within, the
limits of existence allotted to man, the object in Rural Life has been to
approximate as nearly as possible to the present, in order that, while we arc
in the land of the living, we may be participators in the enjoyment of the
knowledge which, not only in Rural Life, but in every other condition, is
daily developing itself around us. Thus, then, this Work has been produced
in accordance with the approved principles of the most experienced, intel-
ligent, scientific, and practical men of the present day, engaged in the
pursuits of which its pages are the record ; and the information it contains
is brought down to the time of its i^ublicatlon.

Another end which has been kept in view in the production of Rural
Life, is simplicity and clearness in the arrangement. This, It is believed,
has been obtained, not only by laying the Work out in divisions, as a
horticulturist does his ground, but in subdividing these into chapters, and
these, again, into paragraphs, with, in many instances, separate or inde-
pendent *' headings." This, it is thought, has greatly tended to simplify its
arrangement ; to lighten any heaviness which might otherwise have
appeared in some of its pages ; to facilitate the desire of reference ; and,
altogether, to render Rural Life less wearisome in the perusal. As aU
pleasure consists In variety, the subjects have been disposed in such a
manner as, it is hoped, will secure the reader, whilst seeking for information,
from being baffled by confusion, or disgusted with dulness.

The veterinary portions may, by some, be considered of the first, and
by others of the last, importance. But however tins may be, they have been

NiV PREFACE.

carefully compiled, and not a single recipe given, except upon the authority
of well-established practice. In treating such a subject as Farriery, a due
degree of delicacy has been observed in the phraseology, but never to the
sacrifice of perspicuity. He who would prevent, alleviate, or cure the
maladies of brutes, must, in addressing those who may be ignorant of the
scientific technicalities of language, be permitted some latitude of expression,
in order that what he desires to be done, may be sufficiently understood by
those on whom the duty of carrying out his recommendations is to devolve.
To the other divisions of Rural Life equal attention has been given ; the
principal object having been to reproduce, in as clear a form as possible, the
most recent information on the various subjects of which it treats.

The Engravings are by several of the highest animal artists of whose
names this country can boast ; and they have, as may readily be conceived,
been produced at great expense. But that which is scarce and good must
always command a price proportionate to its value. The original drawings
from which the Engravings have been made, being of a class in which
excellence is rarely attained, they have been procured with a view to
enhance the interest and value of Rural Life; and it is hoped, that
the laudableness and realisation of the desire, will secm-e the accomplish-
ment of the end.

J. S.

London.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

Among the ancients, the literature of Agriculture occupied a far liiglier place than that
to which it has attained in modern times ; although, within tliese twenty years, Great
Britain has made immense advances in the practical manipulations of the science.
Mago, the Carthaginian, who is supposed to have flourished in the time of Darius, and
to have been the founder of the great Punic family, from whicli Hannibal sprung, is
declared to have been the father of agricultural literature. After him come Hesiod,
Theophrastus, Xenophon, Cato, Varro, Virgil, Columella, Pliny, and Palladius — all of
whom say something, more or less, of Agriculture. Among the writers on this science,
if there were no great kings, there were certainly great generals. Columella tells us,
that Mago, the Carthaginian, and Hamilcar, did not consider it beneath their dignity,
when not engaged in the operations of war, to contribute, towards the general stock
of human knowledge, treatises on farming. The books which Mago wrote on the
subject amounted to twenty-eight, which were so highly esteemed, that, on the final
destruction of Carthage, when the whole of her literature was handed over by the
Eomans to their African allies, these were specially excepted, carried to Rome, and
ordered, by the senate, to be translated at the expense of the public. Such an honour
proves the estimation in which his books were held ; whilst it shows how deeply
interested the Eomans were in the subject of Agriculture. On neither Greek nor
Carthaginian Agriculture, however, have we the means of gathering very much
information. In reference to Greece, we know that Attica was arid, and Laconia full
of swamps ; that Megara was deformed with rocks ; and that Corinth depended on
foreign importations for her food-supply. But this is not telling us much ; although
she could not have been destitute of an agricultural literature, since Pliny laments the
loss, in his day, of forty treatises upon the subject. The incidental notices of Herodotus
and Thucydides do not yield us much information ; and although we have the work of
Theophrastus come down to us, it is not very satisfactory as a book on husbandry. The
(Economics of Xenophon are said to have been composed on a farm, which he had
bought and occupied near Smyrna, and which is frequently appended to the
Memorabilia. Farming, gardening, household management, and instructions relative
to the government of wives, form the staple of its pages ; and it contains the passage
in which Cyrus the younger presents himself to Lysander in the character of " The
Persian Farmer."

Passing from Greece to Rome, Cato the censor is the first distinguished personage
that rises before us as an agricultural writer. He inherited from liis father a Sabine
farm, which he cultivated himself, but rather parsimoniously than otherwise. He was
by no means an advocate for " high farming ;" but preferred limiting his outlay to
making active efforts at improvement. He died 150 years before the birth of Christ;
and left room for Varro, one of Pompey's generals and admirals, to take his place in
the list of writers on rural affairs. His work, entitled De Re Rustica, has descended

VI

GENERAL INTEODUCTIOX.

to us, and proves liim to have been a practical farmer ; although he chiefly relies upon
the maxims of Mago, and some Greek writers, for the mode he pursued in cultivating
the soil. He lived nearly throughout the century which immediately preceded the
Christian era ; and was, for some time, librarian both to Julius and Augustus Caesar.
Virgil comes next ; for Cicero can hardly be included in the list. The Georgics are
poems of great originality, embracing much smoothness of versification, and elegance
of diction, with precise, ample, and sound directions for the husbandman. To him
succeeds Columella, who was a native of Spain, and apparently born about the time
of the Christian era. His work has come down to us almost entire, and is divided into
twelve books. Two of these are on farming and farming premises ; but also contain
some directions on the selection and management of agricultural slaves : three on the
vine, olive, and orchard fruits ; two on farming and domestic animals, from which he
excludes the sporting-d g ; one on poultry ; and one on bees. In the ninth book he
breaks into verse on th' subject of gardening; and in three more books treats of the
bailiff, his wife, wine, nnegar, jam-pots, and the kitchen garden. Pliny comes next.
He died in A.D. 79, and was succeeded by Palladius, who wrote fourteen books of
a farmer's calendar, and a poem on the art of grafting. He was a landed proprietor
in Sardinia, and also near Naples. As an agricultural writer he is not very highly
spoken of ; although, in the middle ages, his work was held in considerable estimation.

The names we have thus given of the ancient writers on rural affairs, are spread
over a period of eight centuries ; and yet, throughout that long lapse of time, we look
in vain for any sign of the science of Agriculture being considered a progressive art.
There is not the smallest evidence of improvement. With the single exception of
lucerne, there is no new object of culture introduced ; and the system which the father
unvaryingly pursued, seems to have been equally unvaryingly followed by the son.
What were its characteristics is determined in a very few words — system, accurac}',
carefulness, and a sharp eye against waste. The whole of the maxims of Cato have
a tendency to the repression of outlay ; and the consequence was, that the productive
powers of their lands decreased, as the soil became exhausted from the frequency of the
crops. What is called high farming — by which is meant a large expenditure, with a
view to increase produce — was out of the question ; and instead of looking forward with
a view to the means of success, the Eoman farmer seems rather to have possessed the
faculty of looking backward, in order to preserve himself stationary in his position.
This, of course, was fatal to advancement; and hence the dreary waste of his years,
as well as of his lands, in the agricultural course he pursued. Under the division
on farming, in the following pages, this subject is noticed in greater detail.

Of the system of farriery, as practised among the ancients, we possess very little
knowledge. We have, occasionally, a slight notice from Columella, who treats at
length on the general management of cattle ; and in Renatus, who flourished a couple
of centuries later, the subject of animal diseases is more elaborately handled. He
urges the necessity of a high cultivation of the veterinary art, not only as being a
source of pecuniary gain, but as being the means of enlarging our sympathies with the
sufferings of the lower animals. With the exception of the necessarily crude and
imperfect performances of these two writers on this subject, no ancient treatise, bearing
directly on the diseases to which animals are subject, and composed by a professional
man, has descended to us. There are no evidences whatever, in the writers just named,
that they were acquainted with the sciences of anatomy and physiology — a circumstance

GENERAL 1 NT K( ) DTCTION. vii

somewhat singular, as, both in Egypt and in Greece, considerable progress had been
iiKulo ill human and comparative anatomy. Amon^^ the ancients, Celsus is the only
physician of ctkbrity who is said to have written on veterinary medicine; whilst
Xenophon is the most ancient Greek writer who has specially written upon the liorse.
His performance, however, is confined to the training of the animal for war and the
chase : it is supposed, however, that the ancients had a knowledjjje of the disease which
is called the " glanders," and was known under the denomination of the " moist
malady."

Whatever merit may be assigned to ancient writers on veterinary art, arises from the
dietetic rules, and the works of domestic management they have bequeathed to us. In
other respects they were but in their novitiate. They were powerful in the art of
purging ; but what they have left us on the symptoms of disease, has not tended to
advance our knowledge ; although it is an evidence that they were not inattentive
observers, however far they failed in the application of the proper remedies. In
bleeding they were as great as in purging ; but whatever were their drawbacks, they were
much superior, not only in learning and eloquence, but even in professional ability, to
the vast majority of their pupils of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries.
At these periods, the mental gloom, which had so long darkened the European continent,
began to be dispelled, when, with the general dawn, the works of the ancient veterinary
writers became objects of search and desire; and, as fast as they were found, they were
translated into the Italian and the French languages. The art became a study. Ruini
and others described, anatomically, the body of the horse ; schools began to be established
for professional instruction : and, notwithstanding the immense advantages which have
arisen from the general diflfu.-ion of knowledge, the labours of these first teachers, after
the revival of learning, must still be acknowledged with respect and gratitude. The
medicinal part of veterinarianism was more generally cultivated, and, at least in
some instances, under accredited medical professors. Every branch of the equine
economy — whether as regards the harness or the trappings, equitation, the military
menage, or the riding of the horse ; the methodical treatment of the hoof, accompanied
with the invention of various forms of iron shoes, as well as their scientific adaptation to
the foot — were eagerly pursued, and mostly with success. In the shoeing department,
one Csesar Fiaschi greatly distinguished himself; and either invented or recommended
the welted shoe as a substitute for calkins and forknails, which were then in use. He
is also said to have invented the lunette, a sort of short shoe in the shape of a
half-moon, which, since his time, has met with favour from some of the faculty.

The new art having rapidly diffused itself over a large portion of the European
continent, soon reached England, where the cure of diseased or injured animals had,
from time immemorial, been given over to the tender mercies of leeches and farriers,
whose ignorance generally was only rivalled by their inhumanity. In proof of this, an
expression of Markham, a writer on the subject, is confirmative. " Other torments there
are," says he, after expatiating upon his cures by the use of fire and the knife. It is
probable that the future scintillations of knowledge, first received in this country,
occurred in the days of the Tudors ; as we learn from Blundeville, who wrote in the
reign of Elizabeth, that French and German farriers were not only employed by the
queen, but, in general, by the English nobility and gentry. Yet the progress of our
practitioners was slow — possibly arising from the greater amount of countenance beinc,"
given to the foreigners ; but from the period of which we now speak, to that.of the earlier

viii aENEKAL INTEODUCTION.

part of the eighteenth century, veterinarianism in England, like the lengthening chain of
Goldsmith, only dragged its slow length along. No medical name of the smallest
scientific pretensions appears on the veterinary list throughout that long, dreary interval
in the medical, surgical, or anatomical branches of the art. To be sure, there is a person
of the name of Snape, who crajps up, and who was the farrier of Charles 11, The family
of this man, it appears from his book, had, for upwards of 200 years, served the crown in
the capacity which, it is to be hoped, he himself worthily filled, as he seems to have been
tolerably informed. His anatomical system, arrangements, and nomenclature, were a
copy of the Italian school ; but he was a dissector himself, and described from his own
observations. Besides Snape, there are the names of Stephens, Martin, Clifford, and
Morgan, all of whom are early writers on the veterinary art ; but they are of no merit.
Neither is the work of Mascal, the farrier of James I. This book is ludicrous in the extreme ;
and it may be taken as a significant sign of the ignorance of the age when he wrote in
reference to farriery, that his book passed through numerous editions, notwithstanding that
there were other national and even learned treatises on the same subject. It is difficult
to account for this : but he was the Icing'' s farrier ; and as there is something in position
and a name even in these enlightened days, it is probable that there was a similar
something in those of the Scotch Solomon who sat upon the English throne. To the
above list may be added the names of De Gray and Gervase Markham, who continued to
publish till after the Eestoration. Markham's works have been said to comprise " every
absurd, barbarous, and abominable juggling trick," as well as every useful invention which
had, up to his time, issued from the brains of either ancients or moderns. Whatever
may be the defects and deformities of the works of Markham, however, they had a rapid
and widely-extended sale. They enjoyed a high reputation down to the days of Gibson;
and even long afterwards were held in esteem among the country leeches and farriers.
Fame of this sort is indicative of some merit. Mankind in general are slow to give
praise where it is not justly due ; and that which was conferred on the works of Markham,
seems to have endured longer than that which was extended to preceding writers on the
same subject. It is allowed that his work contains the amplest details of the practice of
farriery as then in vogue, with delineations of the instruments in use, not very differently
contrived from those employed in the practice of subsequent professors. As a specimen
of the nonsense with which some of the writers on farriery disfigured their works, we
may instance an example from Dr. Gray. In a case of farcy, this sage equine
Esculapius orders the medicine to be administered to the ears of the horse, and
drawn up therein. In a case of lameness, he orders a turf to be cut and secreted;
and in proportion as the turf decays and wastes away, so shall the lamieness of the
animal gradually depart. Could folly go further? Yet men like these were the
persons who took upon themselves the cure of the noblest of the lower race of animals,
when unfortunately fallen ill or laid up by some injury, which, in all probability, nature
herself would have cured, but for the officious assistance of these sagacious prac-
titioners.

In the reign of Elizabeth, a person of the name of Blundeville wrote a fashionable
treatise on the " Horse," based on the practice of the continent ; and, in the following
reign, Baret produced his Hipponomie, or the Vineyard of Horsemanship. In this work
is discussed the relative branches, including the principles and practice of racing, and of
that system of equitation peculiar to England. This is followed by a huge folio by the
Duke of Newcastle, who enters into details upon the regular management of the horse,

G E N E li A L 1 .N T liL) 1 ) L CT 1 U N.

IX

according to the method of the continental schools. Yet whatever light had, as yet, been
tliiown upon the subject of vcteriniiry art, down to the reign of George I., the
medical care and treatment of horses, and other domestic animals, was confined entirely
ti> the leeches, farriers, and cow doctors of the period. Such was the deplf)rablc condition
cf this art down to the early part of tlie eighteenth century, wlien it attracted ilie att<^;n-
tion of William tiibson, who iuul acted as an army surgeon in the wars of Queen Anne;
aiul wlio, to a souiul judgment, seems to have added the essentiality of practical knowledge.
He was the first i)rofessional man who, in this country, made the attempt to improve
the veterinary art ; and, like all men of sense and observation, seems to have commenced
in the right way.^ Reasoning analogically, he gave those, or similar, medicines which
acted favourably on the human system, to such animals as were afTected with the same
or a similar class of diseases. His work on farriery forms an era in the annals of
veterinary literature ; and the fundamental parts of his system became the basis of a very
superior practice. A second edition of his work appeared about the middle of the
eighteenth century, when it was followed by another excellent work on the same subject,
by Dr. Bracken, a physician of Lancaster. After him came Bartlet, a surgeon in Bow
Street, Covent Garden, who was rather a compiler than an originator of the art. He,
however, was the first to introduce the impracticable system of short-shoeing, which
had, at that time, been practised in France by La Fosse, a farrier of considerable expe-
rience, and a great practical veterinary anatomist. As Bartlet had no pretensions to the
art of horse-shoeing, he adopted the rules of La Fosse ; and these, fanciful as they seem
to have been, operated beneficially on the practice of England, as it then existed. The
subject, however, was not suffered to rest here. A Mr. William Osmer, a surgeon and a
sportsman, took it up, and published an excellent treatise on horse-shoeing, reducing the
speculative rules of La Fosse to the standard of his own, and that of English experience
generally. His book proved of great usefulness ; and being written in a plain and
popular style, found its way into the hands of great numbers of the shoeing-smiths
throughout the country. Those who had horses, and valued them, were now alive to the
importance of the subject of horse-shoeing. The Earl of Pembroke wrote a treatise on
it, and Berenger published a respectable work on the grand menage, Clarke, then
king's farrier for Scotland, issued a couple of superior treatises on shoeing, and on the
prevention of diseases in horses ; and the eighteenth century may be said to have
become prolific in veterinary publications and practice. France took the lead in the
movement ; but a zeal for the improvement of this branch of science also pervaded
Germany, and other continental states. Colleges were founded and established in various
countries, in which the science has since continued to be regularly taught. A catalogue
of the various continental writers on black cattle and sheep, was made and published in
the Giournal di Literati, of Italy. Since that time, the writers on veterinary science
on the continent have greatly increased, although comparatively few of them have found
their way into this island through the medium of our language.

We have now arrived at 1792, when the Veterinary College, St. Pancras, London,
was established for the treatment of tlie maladies of all domestic animals. At first,
however, the institution did not flourish ; but it gradually gained ground ; and now, a
much more widely-extended view of the benefits to be derived from its instructive
modes of practice to all kinds of domestic animals, is receiving a more favourable
recognition. A large number of valuable veterinary publications have issued from the
press since the commencement of the present century ; and these are still increasing.

GENERAL INTEODUCTION.

The structure of the horse, the diseases to which he is subject, and the injuries to which
he is continually exposed, have been investigated with the greatest success, not only in
Great Britain, but in other countries. Associations have been formed, and colleges
founded, for the advancement of veterinary science ; and eminent practical professors are
engaged in the dissemination of its principles; so that it has now taken a very elevated
position. Its practice is no longer left in the hands of the uneducated and unskilful :
the horse, the dog, and the beasts of the farm generally, are no longer subjected to the
tortures of callous-hearted and presumptuous ignorance, but are placed under the care
of gentlemen who have gained the general respect of the community, and the confidence
of those with whom they come in immediate contact, and whose experience, intelligence,
and humanity entitle them to the onerous position their profession calls upon them
to fill.

As it is hardly possible to over-estimate the value of the Dog to mankind, a com-
prehensive, yet sufficiently full description of all the species of that animal, will be
found in the division assigned to their treatment. In the most primitive ages, the dog
was the follower and the friend of man ; and so much has his wonderful sagacity, united
to his physical qualities, excited the admiration of some nations, that they have even
bowed the knee, and worshipped him. In the first books of the Scriptures he is
frequently mentioned, but not as an animal which had taken its place among the wild
beasts. He is spoken of as one which had become domesticated, and had already iden-
tified himself with the social attributes and idiosyncrasies of the lords of the creation.
From the remotest times he was held in especial veneration by the Egyptians ; was
actually worshipped at Hermopolis the Great ; and, shortly afterwards, in all the towns
and cities of Egypt. Juvenal tells us, " that whole cities worship the dog (Anubis) ; no
one Diana" — a lamentation in which, no doubt, numbers of his mythological country-
men would join. Subsequently, Cynopolis, the "city of the dog," was built in honour
of that animal, and splendid festivals instituted in his honour. In the Greek mythology
he plays a no less prominent part, and guards the gates of Hades in the form of Cerberus,
with three heads, as being indicative of the extreme watchfulness of his character. The
Persian fire-worshippers, like the Egyptians, paid him divine honours, and elected his
shape to symbolise the Good Principle, which enabled them to baffle the powers of evil,
when assailed by them. By the modern Parsees he is still held in high veneration.
Leaving the East, and crossing the Atlantic for the West, we find it stated by
De la Vega that the Peruvians formerly worshipped the dog ; but it somewhat detracts
from any spiritual character with which they may have thought him invested, when we
are told that they fed upon his flesh at their festivals.

If these facts exhibit the profound superstition of the different nations of whom
they are recorded, they also go far in proving the possession of qualities which, in this
animal, entitles it to universal esteem. But it need not be a subject of wonder why the
dog has always held such a high and honourable place in the affections of mankind, as
it is his nature to participate in the general enjoyments, sports, pastimes, and even
duties and cares of those with whom his lot is cast. Those who have given the slightest
study to his habits, must have observed how soon he moulds his disposition to that of
his master, or that of the family with whom he is taken into membership. If he should
chance to be the property of a poacher or a ruffian, his character usually degenerates,
as his natiu-e invariably assimilates itself to that of his possessor. Like his master, he
becomes a sort of lawless animal, surly, gross, and rude, and ready for any sort of rough

GENERAL INTRODUCTION. xi

and terrible work tbat may fall in his way; but if be belong to a family in wliicb order
regularity, gentleness, and good moral dispositions prevail, lie is seldom other thau an
animal of <;ri at kindness ami sociability, lie becomes so tractable and docile that ho
really sometimes seems to know the character of the conversation which is being carried
vu ; and by the silent attention with which he lies and listens, with open eyes, to conver-
sation, one would almost believe that ho understood the whole meaning of wliat was
being said. We have had dogs by the score ; and the last one we had possessed the
peculiarity of frequently sitting before us, and, when we were reading, scannm"- our
countenance for a quarter of an hour at a time, with a curiosity and an interest which no
disciple of Lavater ever surpassed. He sometimes literally gazed us out of counte-
nance, and must have profited wonderfully by his study, as he was a rare physio"-nomist ;
which, however, we think all sagacious dogs, more or less, are. The docility and
intelligence of the dog, however, are in no situation witnessed to such a remarkable
extent as when he has been thoroughly broken-in for the purposes of the sportsman in
^be field. Here ho may be said to be, not only the companion, but the leader or
director of his master; in every sense of the word, a real pointer, that, by his action
and motions, indicates not only the direction, but points to the very spot where the
game shall be found. The possession of the qualities requisite for a service of this
kind naturally brings him into intimate relationship with our rural sports, more parti-
cularly those in which the gun takes a prominent part. This being the case, he has
been, when opportunity occurred, introduced in the following pages, in the division
assigned to Shooting ; where, also, is introduced a condensed account of such birds and
beasts as come under the denomination of game, which, in this country, confers upon
them the privilege of legislative protection. In this division, a brief history of the
gun is also given, down to such weapons as were exhibited in the International Exhibi-
tion of 1862 ; and, in order to complete this portion of the work, a description of the
needle-gun— which may yet become a sporting instrument— so fatal to the Austrians in
the late war, has also been given.

" He to whom an abode in the city lies close at heart, has no need of a country
estate," is one of the maxims of Mago ; but he may, for all that, take a lively interest in
witnessing, in the field, the massive development of our bovine breeds. Accordingly
a large division has been, in the following work, devoted to the description of such of
our breeds of black cattle as have been brought to the highest state of perfection.
The ancient Carthaginian just quoted made the form of the ox a study, and wrote upon
the best means of preserving it in health. "Upon the health of black cattle," says
Varro, "I have borrowed a good deal from the books of Mago, which I make my
herdsmen carefully read." We like this. All agriculturists should follow the plan of
Varro, and make their herdsmen peruse the best works on the management of cattle,
sheep, and such animals as form the stock of a farm, and come more directly under their
care and management. It may interest our readers to peruse the directions of Ma^o
for buying oxen for the plough. The translation is from a minutely critical article In
the Quarterly lievieiv. « The young oxen which we buy should be square in their form ;
large limbed; with strong, lofty, and dark-coloured horns; broad and curly fronts;
rough ears; black eyes and lips; prominent and expanded nostrils; long and brawny
neck; ample dewlaps, pendant nearly to the knees; a wide chest, and large shoulders;
roomy-bellied, with well-boned ribs; broad on the loin, with a straight, level, or even
slightly depressed back; round buttocks; straight and firm legs, by no means weak in

xii GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

the knees ; large hoofs ; very long and bushy tails ; the body covered with thick short
hair, of a red or tawny colour ; and they should be very soft handlers." Oxen answering
to this description would meet with favour even at the present day. As the subject of
cattle, however, has been fully treated in the following pages, we will dismiss it here
with the remark, that the live-stock of Great Britain are distinguished by the early
period at which they become ready for the butcher ; the enormous amount of food they
yield in return for the provender they consume ; and the great proportion of meat, of
the finest quality, to be obtained from them.

With the general development and improvement of everything belonging to
agricultural science, the Sheep has come in for a large share of attention ; accordingly, it
is amply treated of in the division assigned to it. The various breeds are detailed ; and
the manner in which Mr. Bakewell, of Dishley, proceeded to found his celebrated
Leicesters, has been, singularly enough, chosen by Archbishop Whately to illustrate a
position in his treatise on Logic. To the scholastic mind, sheep and logic, brought
into association by a reasoning archbishop, may sound somewhat strange ; nevertheless,
one portion of Bakewell's mode of proceeding is so clearly set forth by the archbishop,
that we will make no apology for placing it before the reader. " He (Bakewell) observed,
in a great number of individual beasts, a tendency to fatten readily ; and in a great
number of others, the absence of this constitution. In every individual of the former he
observed a certain peculiar make, though they differed widely in size, colour, &c. Those
of the latter description differed no less in various points, but agreed in being of a different
make from the others. These facts were his data. * * * * jjis principal merit
consisted in making the observations-, and in so combining them as to abstract from each
of a multitude of cases differing widely in many respects, the circumstances in which
they all agreed." This, as the archbishop has stated it, was the secret of Bakewell's
success. He chose the animals of the form and temperament which indicated the surest
signs of producing fat and muscle ; at the same time declaring, that all that was not
beef in an ox was useless. Thus there was nothing like beef and mutton in the eyes of
Robert Bakewell ; and he himself seems to have been a pretty fair specimen of Ms oivn
rearing, for he was tall, stout, broad-shouldered, and of a brown complexion ; clothed in
a brown loose coat, and scarlet waistcoat, leather breeches, and top-boots. In sheep,
however, he regarded size as a vulgar test of merit ; endeavouring to secure a circular
body, with as short legs as possible ; a small head ; small neck and bones. It is well
known that fat people are not generally large in bone. John Hunter, the great physiolo-
gist, confirmed, at least in one essential particular, the observations of Bakewell ; for he
affirmed that, in the human subjects he had examined, he found that small bones were
the usual concomitant of corpulence.

The Hog has also received its full share of attention. Both the habits and
appearance of this animal are calculated to excite, in a remarkable degree, feelings of
disgust ; yet it is an animal of immense value to mankind. It has emphatically been
designated the poor man's friend ; and there is no other which comes within the
boundaries of the farm-yard more deserving of the distinction. Its flesh is, by tens of
thousands, highly relished, in all the forms in which it can be put upon the table ; and
however unintelligent, stupid, stubborn, contrary, or perverse it may seem in its
disposition, its docility has been frequently proved to be such as to excite ^general
wonder. To its management in health, and its treatment in disease ; to the various
breeds which have extended its reputation ; and to the care which is necessary to bring

GENEKAL INTKODUCTlOX.

it to the high state of perfection to which it is cap:il»lo of attaininL^r^ ii considerable
portion of the following pages has been devoted.

Taking a comprehensive view of the subject of PoULTIlY, i( will be b.un.l that, in .-m
extensive collection, the geographical history and commercial progress of the civilised
globe might, with no inconsiderable degree of certainty, be indicated. "Tims," says
Mr. Richardson, " the peacock* represents India; the golden pheasant, and a tribe of
lucks, China; the turkey (pride of our yard and table) is one of our many debts duo to
America ; the black swan (rival of the snowy monarch of our lakes) reminds us of our
Australian discoveries ; while Canada and Egypt have each their goose. The large, fat,
white ducks — models of what a duck should be — are triumphs of Jiritish breeding,
and afiord a specimen of one of the best productions of Buckinghamshire, since John
Hampden. When, however, we turn to the fowl varieties, we find that Spain and
Hamburg, Poland and Cochin China, Friesland and Bantam, Java and Negroland
(besides our native Surrey, Sussex, Kent, Suflfolk, and Lancashire), have each a cock to
crow for them in our poultry-yards." It is further to be observed, that the same close
attention to the proper kinds of food, warmth, and symmetry of form, which have built
up to their present perfection our short-horned cattle, Leicester sheep, and thorough-
bred horses, have similarly brought out the improving qualities of the fowl. It is thus
that the elegant, though diminutive and spirited, Bantam has been produced ; as well as
the beautiful Spanish and Poland fowls. In 1826, when poultry shows were first
established, with a view to draw a wider range of public attention to this branch of
rural life, they extended into many parts of the kingdom ; and, gradually increasino-,
they were, by 1860, so numerous, that there was hardly a district in England, of
any consideration, but could boast of its society for the improvement of poultry.
Even the Crystal Palace, at Sydenham, has had its shows of poultry, pigeons, and
rabbits. This has not been without its advantages, as it has enabled agricultural visitors
to London to compare what has been doing in the way of improving the lesser denizens of
the farm-yard; whilst at the annual Smithfield cattle show they are enabled to note the
development of meat and fat, and the diminution of offal and bone, in the more stately
occupants of the stall and the meadow. What the last half century has done for cattle,
sheep, and swine, a comparatively limited period has sufficed to effect for the several
varieties of domestic poultry. The increase of size and weight of all classes of improved
fowls, is now so much a matter of course, that, to secure prizes, they must combine with
those essential requisites, higli condition, quality, beauty of plumage, purity of race,
and even uniformity in the markings, as well as in the size and form of the comb and
wattles. To all these particulars due attention has been given in the division in which
the treatment of poultry will be found.

A few years since, some Englishmen accepted an invitation from the French
government, to cross the Channel with their best live-stock and implements, and enter

* At the siege of Lucknow, a touching incident occurred in connection witli this beautiful bird.
When the besieged were broken with sickness, sorrow, and comparative want, one day a bright-winged
peacock lighted on one of the buildings of the beleaguered town, and attracted the eyes of many of
the brave, though forlorn, inhabitants. How a taste of the fresh food of that bird would have been
relished ! Several muskets were presented at it ; but, with an indescribable sense of humanity, they
were lowered again, and the beautiful stranger was sutfered to lly away uninjured. Yet, at that
instant —

" Man's inhumaniiy to man"

was making countless thousands mourn.

xiv GENEKAL INTKODUCTION.

into competition with the picked agricultural and mechanical skill of continental Europe.
Arrived at the appointed spot, and the comparison made, it was found that they were
almost immeasurably in advance of their neighbours in the arts and sciences necessary to
the product of meat and corn in the most economical manner, although they worked
under a climate not remarkable for its congeniality, and on a soil which has, for ages,
been denuded of its virgin fertility. This must have been rather surprising, if not
disheartening, to continental growers, breeders, and machinists ; but the best evidence of
the superiority of British live-stock, and agricultural machinery, is not to be proved by
the medals awarded in Paris or Vienna, but in the constantly increasing exportation of
both to all parts of the world where scientific cultivation has superseded the ruder modes
of by-gone times. In regard to improvements, said the Earl of Carlisle, in addressing
an agricultural meeting of Yorkshiremen, " I saw, on the plains of Troy, the clod-crusher
of Crosskill ; the drills, the horse-shoes of G-arrett ; and the ploughs of Howard and
Eansome :" and, on the banks of the Danube, the Scheldt, and the Po ; of the Mississippi
and the Amazon ; on the shores of the Baltic and the Black Sea ; in Australia, and in
Flanders (the cradle of modern agriculture), to English implements is given the same
preference as that which is awarded them on the more classic ground of Troy. In
so far as our own island is concerned, it has now, for some years, been proved, that
the application of steam machinery to the cultivation of the soil, is, in many ways,
preferable to the modes usually followed ; and models of engines for the farm, which
formerly appeared at our cattle shows, are now replaced by the machines, these
represented in working order. This is the case at the Smithfield cattle shows, where
the machines of several inventors are exhibited, accompanied with hundreds of
testimonials, detailing the practical experience of those who have become purchasers,
and who have given them a fair trial upon their own acres. The exhibition of these,
united to the very extensive evidence in their favour, whether used on the churlish
*' clays," or the *' lighter" soils, completely establish every essential point in the question
of steam-power tillage. The saving of one-third of the farmer's teams, on a large
holding, repays, in a few years, the prime cost of a steam plough ; while two small
farmers can join in the purchase of an apparatus too costly for one. The employment
of several hundred machines in breaking up many thousands of acres in a single season,
has demonstrated that the work is profitable, in point of economy, over horse labour ;
more profitable in the points of excellence and efiiciency, and still more profitable in
the point of augmented produce. From these circumstances, and the importance of the
subject, a division has been devoted to the practice of modern Farming and Agricul-
tural Machinery, in order that the gentlemen who keep their own horses, farm their
own estate, and grow their own beef and mutton, may have at hand a means of reference,
in Rural Life, to suggest such improvements as may arise from the perusal of its
pages.

The cultivation of a garden was the only occupation of our first parents in
Paradise; and from that hour to this, it has been considered, even by those whose
position is such as to have placed one within the reach of their power, to be
the purest of human enjoyments. "How did you endure your poverty?" asked
Alexander the Grreat of Abdalonimus, a Sidonian prince, who had been reduced from a
throne to earn his livelihood by cultivating a garden with his own hands. " May
Heaven enable me to bear my prosperity as well ! I then had no cares, and my own
hand supplied all I required." In this condition he was independent ; and independence

GENERAL INTliODUOTION. xv

and coiitontiiuiit are greatness and lia[)i)iness nnitcd. The praotico of horticulture,
no doubt, helprd to occupy, at h'ast, nuich of the leisure hours of the patriarchs*
Homer's garden of Auinous enjoyed an eternal sumnu r ; and (he fruits it produced were
the apple, the lig, the pomegranate, tiie pear, the olive, and the vine, watered hy
a couple of fountains, and encompassed by a hedge. Judging by the mythology of tho
Greeks, they must have been great admirers of gardens, as well as lovers of ilowers and
vegetables, as they sought to identify some of the most essential and beautiful products
of the earth with the deities whom they worshipped. Thus, tho oak was sacred to
Jupiter, the maiden-hair to Pluto, the cypress to Narcissus, and the lily to Juno. Ceres
had tho poppy, Minerva the olive, and Venus the apple, the myrtle, and the rose.
Flowers, in general, were supposed to have sprung from the tears of Aurora ; while the
trembling of a leaf, or the waving of a few blades of grass, indicated the passing of the
breath of Zephyrus. All this is redolent of the fine imagination and delicious sweetness
which characterised tho taste of the old Greeks. The Romans, too, had their horti,
both flower and kitchen ; and the Piso, the Fabii, the Cicero, the Lentuli, and oth(;r
distinguished names, are derived from ancestors celebrated for the successful cultivation
of those vegetables to which these names were attached. The Britons, in the time of
Strabo, had plots of ground combining the properties of a kitchen garden with those of
an orchard ; and, after the introduction of Christianity, A.D. 507, gardening was
practised as an art congenial to the manners of the Saxons. Under the Danes horti-
culture continued to advance ; and, on the establishment of the Normans in this country,
we find various notices, not only of public, but of private gardens being attached to the
dwellings of the people. In 1107, Brithnod, Abbot of Ely, flourished, and is spoken
of as being an improver in gardening. " He performed a great and useful work,"
says the historian of his monastery : " being skilful in the art of planting and
gardening, he laid out very extensive gardens and orchards, which he filled with a
great variety of herbs, shrubs, and fruit trees." Notwithstanding this, however, it is
questionable whether there was either taste or design in the disposition of his flowers
vegetables, and fruit trees ; although we think it hardly conceivable, that a man could
take delight in an occupation without evincing some principles of design in view, that
it might give a greater zest to his pleasures. But be this as it may, it would appear
that, before the reign of Elizabeth, the art of gardening was nothing more than a piece
of mechanical routine. It had, so to speak, neither taken shape nor form ; but was
pursued as it had always been pursued — namely, without departure from the stereotyped
modes of preceding horticulturists. The mighty and majestic Bess, however, had a
great taste for flowers ; and it was in her reign that the first regular establishment for
the scientific cultivation of plants took place in England. Her successor was also
a great patron of gardening ; as was his son, Charles I., in whose reign the first glazed
edifices for the preservation of tender plants Avere erected. All this, however, is
described more at length in its proper place ; as, also, is the most approved practice
of horticulture in fashion at the present time.

In intimate association with fruits and flowers is the bee, an insect which has,
perhaps, attracted more attention, and undergone more careful examination, than any
other of the insect tribe. To this busy little creature it was deemed necessary to devote
a brief division in the following work, that those who are in possession of a garden may
gratify the natural desire of giving an occasional minute to watching the activity with
which it seeks and dives into those flowers in which it finds the nectar upon which it

xvi GENERAL INTEODUCTION.

subsists, and the honey which it produces. For a very long period, the most diligent
observers were totally at a loss to account for some circumstances in its history ; there-
fore published to the world the most conflicting statements. At length, the Grenevese
naturalist, M. Huber, appeared ; and, in a little work, published during the first decade
of this century, he cleared away the difficulties. Many of the habits and instincts of
the bee, unknown to our grandfathers, appear in the following pages.

Angling is a sport peculiarly congenial to the quiet of Rural Life, and has found
suitable treatment in its proper place. The salmon has not been largely dealt with, not-
withstanding that those who favour the pastime, consider the capture of this fish by the
rod as their noblest prize. When this monarch of the stream is hooked, nothing can
be more exciting ; and the enthusiast, after an hour of terrible anxiety and skill, who lands
him fairly upon the bank, we verily believe would feel less glory in having a Roman
triumph voted to him, than in surveying the fair and silver side of his beautiful captive,
now stretched at length upon the green grass. For the delights of angling we have
stores of literary authorities. From gossiping Isaac Walton, down to John Wilson, the
Christopher North of the Nodes Ar)ibrosiance of Blackwood, we have the names of many
literary lovers of the sport recorded. Even long before their day, the use of the rod was
a delight to some of the lovers of literature. The great Raleigh, when banished from
court, took to it as a recreation and a pleasure ; and Archbishop Laud, in an epistle to
Lord Strafford, in 1638, thus alludes to the salmon, when reposing from the cares of
government, at his new residence in the woods of Wicklow : — " I find by your letters you
are gone a hunting. I hope you will find time to go a fishing too ; for I mean to be a
very bold beggar, and desire you to send me some more of the dried fish (I do not know
what you call it) which you sent me the last year. It was the best that ever I tasted."
To this he adds — " Do not think to stop my mouth with more of your hung beef from
Yorkshire, which was as hard as the very horn the old runt wore when she lived." It is
supposed that the archbishop here alluded to salmon, preserved after the manner of the
Scotch, who call it kippered. Cotton, the poet and voluptuary, occasionally fled from
the world of gaiety in which he lived, to enjoy the pleasures of the rod : Davy left his
laboratory ; and even the ethical Paley quitted his desk and easy-chair, that he might
enjoy some quiet hours by the stream, where meditation unites with silence to lead a
man to thought and reflection.

Such is a brief resume of the subjects treated in the following pages ; and as infor-
mation, rather than amusement, is their aim, it is hoped that the labour of producing
them has not been spent in vain, but that their end will be accomplished.

JOHN SHERER.

London.

RURAL LIFE

DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED.

DIVISION L

HOESES.

rf r,

CHAPTER I.

THE EAKLY AND AXCIEXT HISTORY OF THE ITOKSE.

As it is impossible to ascertain, with, any cer-
tainty, the original country of the Horse, it is,
in a practical work of this kind, unnecessary
to enter upon the discussion of the different
theories -which, upon this subject, have occu-
pied the minds of naturalists, and which have
resulted only in the maintenance of opposite
opinions. Which was the country where the
animal was first brought into a state of sub-
jection, is another unsettled point. Colonel
Hamilton Smith, notwithstanding his exten-
sive researches, seems to have felt the diffi-
culty of this one, and to have abandoned it in

a sentence which appears to indicate a slight
sentiment of despair at the futility of his
labours. "Wo know," he says, in the
twelfth volume of the Naturahsl's Library,
" so little of the primitive seat of civilisation,
the original centre — perhaps in Bactria, in
the higher valleys of the Oxus, or in Cash-
mere, whence knowledge radiated to China,
India, and E'^ypt — that it may be surmised
that the first domestication of the post-diluvian
horse, was achieved in Central Asia, or com-
menced nearly simultaneously in several
regions, where the wild animals of the horse

1

rOSSIL EEMAINS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[aemenian horses.

form existed."* Quitting, therefore, these
regions of probability, we approach those of
greater certainty when we enter upon the
fields of the scientific geologist. Here, from
discoveries that have, in almost every country
of the habitable globe, been made, remains of
the horse have been found imbedded in the
strata of the earth, in juxta-position with
those of other animals. In all the continents
of the Old World, vestiges of his bony structure
have been exhumed, mingled not only with
those of animals which are, now, known to have
had an antediluvian existence, but with those
of the bear, the deer, the elephant, and the
tiger, in every latitude between the extremes
of climate. Geological researches in the New
World have been attended with similar re-
sults ; so that the supposition of Colonel
Smith, that "the post-diluvian horse com-
menced nearly simultaneously in several re-
gions," may, we think, be taken as a theory,
which, at least, has probability to support it.
There is hardly a district in Great Britain in
which equine remains have not been dis-
covered: and when we consider this almost
universal distribution of the animal, and fur-
ther consider his tractability and his adapta-
tion to the manifold purposes for which he is
used in a state of domestication, we behold a
striking evidence of the beneficence of the
Creator to man — " the quintessence of dust"
■ — in placing, so readily, within his reach the
noblest of quadrupeds, and amongst the most
easy to be rendered subservient to his power.

"Eossil remains," says Colonel Smith, "of
the horse have been found in nearly every
part of the world. His teeth lie in the Polar
ice, along with the bones of the Siberian mam-
moth ; in the Himalaya mountains, with lost,
and but recently ascertained, genera ; in the
caverns of Torquay, Ireland ; and in one in-

* If Eastern tradition is to be considered of any value,
Armenia — the mountainous region of tlie Minni — ought
to be viewed as the region where the first post-diluvian
horses were located. This country lies at the eastern
extremity of Asia Minor, occupying an extent of about
300 miles from north to south, and about 430 from east
to west. As it lies on the borders of the Caucasus and
Mount Taurus, it is extremely mountainous, which would
render it unfavourable for the breeding of large numbers
of horses; but it has numerous plains and valleys,
although of greater elevation than those of southern and
western Asia. In the east it is highly fertile, and is the
original country whence some of our liiwst fruits have
2

stance in Barbary, completely fossilised. His
bones, accompanied with those of the elephant,
rhinoceros, tiger, and hyem, rest by thousands
in the caves of Cronstadt, in Sevron, at Argen-
teuil ; with those of the mastadon in the Val
d'Arno ; and on the borders of the Rhine with
the colossal urus. All the remains hitherto
discovered, appear so perfectly similar in their
conformation to the domesticated horse, that
they can scarcely be ascribed to other species
of the genus. From the commixture of their
remains, there cannot be a doubt that they
have existed together with several great pachy-
dermata. But what is most deserving of atten-
tion is, that while all the other genera and
species, found under the same conditions,
have ceased to exist, or have removed to
higher temperatures, the horse alone has re-
mained to the present time, in the same regions,
without, it would appear, any protracted inter-
ruption; since, from the circumstances which
manifest deposits to be of the earliest era,
fragments of its skeleton continue to be traced
upwards, in successive formations, to the pre-
sent superficial mould."

Commencing with the earliest period in
which mention is made of the horse, we find,
that in Judea, horses were, till the days ot
Solomon, very rare. The earliest indirect
notice of him is in the book of Genesis,
xxxvi. 24 ; where it is said of Anah, the son
of Zibeon, that he found mules in the wilder-
ness, as he was feeding the asses of his f:ither.
The mule being the off'spring of the ass and
the horse, it is evident that wild horses, at all
events, had then an existence in the wilderness
of Idumea or Seir, which is the spot to which
reference is made. The earliest direct evi-
dence of the existence of the animal, is in
Genesis xlvii. 17, where Josepix is said to
have given the Egyptians " bread in exchange

come, such as the apricot and the plum. In the warmer
districts, almonds, figs, and pomegranates are cultivated;
and here, according to tradition, Noah and his family
settled on leaving the Ark. It is now divided into
fifteen provinces; the central one of which is called
Ararat, where rises the mountain of the same name, on
the summit of which the Ark rested after the Deluge,
In Armenia and Persia, it is still designated the Kuhi
Nuh— the Mountain of Noah. As horses, no doubt,
formed a portion of the live-stock of the patriarch, here
the first post-diluvian pair must have been located, to be
in accordance with the Oriental tradition, which, even
down to our own time, prevails iu Armenia. — Eo.

EGYPTIAN uousKs.] MODERN VETEKINAUY PKACTICE. [rERSiAN uonBEs.

for their horses." In the very minutely de-
tailed euumeration of the cattle stores of Abra-
ham, Isaac-, Esau, Laban, Job, &l'., thoii'^'li
there is a superabuiulauco of other (iiiadrupcil
property, no mention whatever is made of
horses. Neither in the fourth or tenth com-
mandments are horses noticed with the other
working animals. In the enumeration, how-
ever, of the Eu^yptian cattle property aflected
by tlie murrain, they are mentioned in
precedence of the rest : " Behold the hand of
tlie Lord is upon thy cattle which is in the
field, upon the horses, upon tlie asses, upon the
camels, upon the oxen, and upon the sheep."

In Deuteronomy, chap. xvii. 16, Moses for-
bids the Israelites, in the event of their electing
from among themselves a king, to allow him
"to multiply to himself horses," and thereby
foster a lust of dominion and belligerent pro-
pensities ; at the same time also creating, what
the Lawgiver wished much to prevent — too
frequent a communication with Egypt. In
the Psalms of David, we find —

" A horse for prescn'ation is
But a deceitful thing." — Psalm xxxiii. 17.

And in Eccles. x. 7, " I have seen servants on
horses." Of Dan, Jacob says, on his death-bed,
that, "he shall be a serpent by the way, an
adder in the path, that biteth the horse's heels,
so that his rider shall fall backwards." By
this time, it is evident that the horse is now
tamed and reduced to perfect subjection, for
he is ridden.

Erom whatever country the horse was de-
rived, Egypt was undoubtedly, in the most
early times, his great breeding-place. The Old
Testament proves this by many references; and
Colonel Smith says, that to " Egypt we appear
to be indebted for the first systematic attention
for reviving and improving the breeds of
horses. Numerous carved or outlined pictures
represent steeds, whose symmetry, beauty,
and colour, attest that they are designed for
high-bred types." At Jacob's funeral in Judea,
there came forth, from Egypt, " chariots and

* The achievements of this monarch are supposed to
have been the labours of several kings, attributed by
Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence
is a matter of doubt. Be this as it may, however, there
is no date, perhaps, in the vehole range of profane chro-
nology, more disputed than that of the age in which he
is said to have ascended the throne. Various epochs
have been assigned, with a difference between them of

horsemen a very great company." The He-
brews were pursued into the Ked Sea by
Egyptian horaemnu ; horso and rider bein{>
tlu're overwhelnu'd : and Pliaraoh "took G(K)
ciiosen chariot.s, and all tlie hor-sen and chariots
of Egypt, and all the horsemen, and pursued
the Israelites to the lied Sea." Solomon,
several ccMituries afterwards, obtained all his
horses from I'^gypt. This monarch had 1,1()0
chariots, and 12,000 cavalry, and stalling for
40,000 horses. With this testimony, tho
account given by the Greek writers concurs.
According to them, Sesostris (or Sesonchosi'^,
as others write his name) was the first who
taught men to tame horses and to ride them.*
In Solomon's days, the price of a single horso
from Egypt was 150 shekels, which, according
to Bishop Cumberland's calculation of tho
shekel, is about £17 10*. of our money ; a
great sum in those times.

In this inquiry, tho next in order, after tho
Egyptians, are the Assyrians, who became tho
celebrated cavaliers of the ancient world. Tiiese
people are repeatedly alluded to by the Jewish
prophets, not only as excelling in the beauty
of their horses, and the skill of their horsemen,
but also in all the showy ornaments of eques-
trian garniture. Their proficiency, however,
in this branch of art, did not take place till
long after the Egyptians had invented it, and
attained to some degree of excellence in its
manipulation. Then the Modes, Assyrians^
and Persians, being possessed of more gold
and silver than the Egyptians, decked and
bespangled the animals they rode, with blue,
with purple, and with gold. Persia latterly
became most renowned for its horse-riding,
and clothed its horsemen most gorgeously.
Xenophon says, however, that, before the age of
Cyrus, that country had, from its want of wealth,
or its mountainous character, no horses ; but
that, after his time, from the personal example,
encouragements, and recommendations of their
king, every man in Persia rode on horse -
back.t

nearly COO years: 1618, 1308, and 972 B.C., have all
been given as the periods of his rule. — Ed.

t In the history of Cyrus, furnished by Xenophon, it
is said that this sovereign was the son of Camby.-^es,
king of Persia, by Mandana, the daughter of Astya^es,
king of the Medes. Conformably to the Persian edura-
tional curriculum, he was trained to endure every kind of
l)rlvation, exposure to hardships, constant and laborious

3

SCYTHIAX HOUSES.]

THE HOESE, AXD

[geeek horses.

So universal was this the practice, that it is
understood that the very name of Persia, by
which, ever afterwards, that country became
known, was taken from Peeesh — a word in
Chaldee and Hebrew ; signifying a horseman.
Both in the plains of Assyria and Persia, vast
numbers of horses were reared. We read in
some authors, of no less than 150,000 feeding
on one vast plain near the Caspian Gates.
The ancient Persian horse was esteemed a
gift of the highest value. Alexander the Great
considered the present of one, the noblest that
could be made. That this animal was one of
great beauty, is unquestionable. Vegetius
says — The Persian horses surpassed other
horses in the pride and gracefulness of their
paces, which were so soft and easy as to please
and relieve, rather than fatigue the rider.
Their pace, it seems, was as safe as it was plea-
sant ; and when they were bred on a large scale,
they constituted a considerable part of their
owner's revenue. The Nyssean horses, which
the kings of Persia used in their expedi«
tions, were celebrated as the finest in the
world.

About 500 years before the birth of Christ,
Darius undertook his expedition against the
Scythians — a people possessing neither towns
Bor fields, but living, like the modern Tartars,
in movable camps, upon the milk and flesh of
their numerous herds. The country of this
people was notliiug more than a rude waste,
including, with Tartary, most of the present
empire of Eussia. They therefore had nothing
valuable to lose with an enemy, because they
had nothing to defend; and their force con-
sisted entirely of cavalry. Here, then, in this
barbarous region, the horse seems to have been
completely subjugated, and to have formed the
principal strength of the Tartars in repelling an
invasion of their territory. Notwithstanding
the excellence of the Persian cavalry, Darius was
forced to retreat ; and, before he reached the

exercise, with the most simple habits and diet. Such an
education was the very best to enable a man to become
a subduer and trainer of horses. In his twelfth year, he
accompanied his mother to the court of his grandfather
Astyages, where everything was of tlie most luxurious
description, calculated to enervate, effeminise, and deceive.
But Cyrus resisted the temptations with which he was
encompassed, and gained for himself the admiration of
the sovereign and nobles of Media. When about sixteen,
he accompanied his grandfather to the war against Evil-

Danube, suffered great loss and hardship.
When Xerxes, the succeeding Persian monarch,
and son of Darius, invaded Greece, he ha6
80,000 horse ; which, with his 1,700,000 foot,
took him seven days and seven nights to cross
the Hellespont. In northern Africa, in Mauri-
tania, Libya, and Numidia, horses were nume-
rous ; but they are described as having been
slightly made, and requiring little or no
attention from their owners. Passing into
Arabia, there is no mention whatever made by
ancient writers of the horses of this country ;
and it was not till the later periods of the
Jewish monarchy that they became numerous
in Palestine. Indeed, generally speaking,
Asia Minor had no ancient celebrity for its
horses, with the exception of the country
around Colophon, between Ephesus and
Smyrna, where there was a strong and ac-
complished cavalry. This force was deemed
invincible ; and was frequently employed as
mercenaries by other nations, when engaged
in war.

Passing into Europe, we find that, in Greece,
the art of riding the horse, and most probably
the arrival of the animal himself, did not long
precede the Trojan war. This country lies
between the thirty-sixth and forty-first de-
grees of northern latitude, and is surrounded
by seas, except upon the north, where it is
bounded by Epirus and Macedonia. Its
original inhabitants were Pelasgians, of wliose
origin but little is known, but whose tribes
are supposed to have extensively settled in
both Europe and Asia. The early inhabi-
tants of Greece, however, are not so much to
be distinguished by their respective localities
as by their several tribes ; for it is found, that
as circumstances required, most, if not all of
them, migrated from one place to another.
The Pelasgi, however, chiefly occupied the
Peloponnesus (now the Morea), from which they
ramified iuto Thessaly and other parts. They

Merodach, the successor of Nebuchadnezzar, and regent
of Babylon, who had wantonly invaded the territories of
Astyages. In this war, his conduct was marked by such
wisdom and valour, that he materially promoted the suc-
cess which attended the Median army. After this, he
returned to Persia, and remained with his father
till he was forty years old, when he was recalled to
Media, to undertake the military command under his
uncle Cyaxares, who was only one year older than him-
self. —Ed

OREEK 1I0U8KS.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[cental us.

wore the most powerful of all the tribes, and
were foimd in all parts of Greece. Prom this
c-ircunist:iiice, tlio whole country was, at one
time, callcnl Pelasgia.

From a period previous to the Trojan war,
Grecian fable has transmitted to posterity the
story of the Centaurs — semi-human horses and
semi-equine men, as Ovid calls them — which
warrants the inference that horses had then
first made their appearance in Thessaly,tho most
northern province of Greece — comprising an
extensive vale of singular fertility, and encom-
passed on every side by tlie lofty ridges of Olym-
pus, Ossa, Pelion, ^ta, and Pindus. It was to
the people of this country that the name Hel-
lenes— afterwards adopted as the general desig-
nation of those whom we, from tlie Latin, call
Greeks — was applied, and who early attained
to great power. They must have enjoyed
some degree of consideration before the Trojan
war; for Chiron, their chief, was the preceptor
of Achilles. They must also, however, have been
ignorant of the picture represented by that of
a man and a horse when engaged in the act of
riding and being ridden ; for, as the Mexicans
^lid, when they first beheld the Spanish cavalry,
the Thessalians fled, panic-stricken at the sight
of the double-shaped, incomprehensible monster
that charged them. This is the origin of those
mytliic absurdities which the genius of Greek
sculpture has transmitted to future ages,
chiselled, by the most accomplished art, upon
their marble tablets. It is surmised that these
Centaurs were a tribe of Pelasgi, or emigrants
from Phrygia and the southern shores of the
Euxine Sea, which were occupied, at an early
period, by a colony of Egyptians, planted there
by Sesostris in his Phrygian and Scythian
expedition. Corroborative of this supposition
is the Grecian tradition, recorded by anti-
quaries, that Phylere, the mother of the Cen-
taurs, cohabited with Saturn in Philyreis, an
island near the southern shore of the Euxine ;
and that, from that island, she emigrated to
Thessaly and the mountains of the Pelasgi.
Mr. Touatt, in his able treatise on the horse,
offers another interpretation, by which the
origin of these monsters may more naturally
be accounted for. •'"The Thessalians," says
he, " were the pride of the Grecian cavalry.
Before the other provinces of Greece were
-scarcely ncquaiuted with the miiuo of the

horse, their subjugation of him was bo com
plote, that, in the language of Slmkspearo —

" ' Tlifsc gallanU
Had witchcraft in't — tlu-y prcw into their scaj;
And to sudi wondrous doiiij; hroui^iit their horse,
As they had been iM<-or])scd, and deini-n:iturcd
Willi the brave bea.st.' "

This power of adhesion to the back of tlio
horse, however extraordinary, and however as-
tonishing to the Bard of Avon, has not been
confined only to the ancients. Mr. Dunn, in his
History of the Oregon Territory, and in his
description of the Half-breeds of that country,
lets us into the secret as to how this power is
obtained, and how he has witnessed it exercised
in North America. " The Ilalf-breeds," says he,
" are a well-informed race, and the men are
remarkably ingenious, athletic, and vigorous.
In horsemanship they are singularly adroit:
nor is this to be wondered at ; for, in fact, they
have been trained from their extremest youth
to the management of the horse, accompany-
ing their parents generally in their trapping
excursions on the plains and hills, on horse-
back. One of these practised ' Half-breeds*
would receive applause from Alexander of
Macedon himself, or the best-tutored eques-
trian at Astley's. He would mount tlie boldest
and most high-mettled Bucephalus of the
plains ; give him full play over level and rough,
high and lowj river and hill, until he brought
him back as tame as a mouse. The cleverest
fellow of this school I ever saw, was Joseph
McLoughlin,* a natural son of the present
governor and a half-bred woman. He was a
person of some little distinction from the acci-
dent of his birth, independently of his asto-
nishing equestrian capabilities. In seeing his
feats when managing a wild stallion that
galloped and plunged to desperation — clinging
to the animal as if he were an inseparable part
of him ; playfully tossing his bare head over
the upreared head of the horse; while his
breech clung to his back with the tenacity of
wax, and his heels seemed glued to his ribs,
with his hands fastened in his mane — he com-
pletely explained to me the fabulous stories of
the Centaurs ; for I at once saw that there
was some ground for the old fictions of poets
and painters in drawing a compound animal,
man and horse."

* The name seems to denote either Irish or Scotch origin.

GEEEK HOESES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[GEEEK HOESEiS.

Continuing our history regarding the proba-
ble migrations of the horse, we might trace, even
from the few data afforded by history, his circuit,
with the consequent art of equestrian exercise,
from Egypt (the original and central riding-
echool of the world), into Greece and into
Europe. His probable route, however, was
from Egypt into Assyria and Persia; from
Assyria to Cappadocia, Amazonia, and Pon-
tus ; which, on the river Thermoden, was
also the residence of the Amazons. In
these countries horses were most reared and
most admired; and holding the highest position
among the lower species of animated nature,
they were offered up as sacrifices to the sun.
Erom Pontus they passed, with the streams of
westward-rushing population, to Phrygia and
the southern banks of the Propontis ; and
thence, with "horse-taming" Pelops and the
Pelasgi, they migrated into Thessaly, where,
as already observed, with their novel and
terrifying appearance, they confounded the
simple aboriginal inhabitants.

Even at the time of the Trojan war (1192
B.C.), it is believed that horses were but
rare animals in Greece, and were possessed
only by princes or great men, who kept them
more for the purposes of display and chariot-
drawing, than for use. In the Iliad there are
only two references made to horse-riding, and
but cue in the Odyssey. The first is where
Ulyssus and Diomed capture the horses of
Hhesus, and ride them into the Grecian camp.
The second is where a horseman is exhibited
as riding on four fair coursers, and performing
some of the feata which were the common stock
of Astleyan representations on the south side
of Westminster-bridge. In the Odyssey the
reference is made in the form of a simile,
which compares Ulyssus, after his shipwreck,
bestriding a beam of wood, to the resemblance
of a man astride on horseback.

In these ancient times, the art of shoeing
the horse with iron had not been discovered ;
so that a strong hoof, " hard as brass," and
solid " as the flint," was reckoned one of the
good qualities of a steed. In Oriental coun-
tries, the dryness of the roads rendered this
fortification of the hoof less necessary ; and the
muddy ways, and miriness of the ground's
surface in the north of Europe, we suppose,
first caused and confirmed the practice. Hanni-
C

bal's cavalry, however, lost all their hoofs in
the miry and embarrassing march through tlie
marshy ground between Trebia and Eesulro.
To prevent injury to the hoof, from its contact
with the flinty high-roads, it became the prac-
tice of both Greeks and Romans to attach to
it a sort of sandal, made of sedges or of leather.
This original shoe was sometimes further
strengthened, by having plates of iron at-
tached to it ; and was sometimes adorned with
silver and gold, as we read of in the cases of
the horses of Poppsea and Nero.

Neither did the ancients make use of sad-
dles or stirrups ; and the Numidian horses
had even no bridles, although their armour
and their trappings, in so far as appearance
went, must have compensated for these de-
ficiencies by their gorgeous and extraordinary
splendour. On the fresco representations of
the Parthenon at Athens, neither the bridle
nor the saddle is introduced upon the horse,
nor has the rider any other instrument to
guide him but a small switch or stick. Ee-
ferring to this circumstance, Berenger re-
marks, that it may, in some degree, be difiicult
to conceive how a switch or stick could be
sufficient to guide or control a spirited or
obstinate horse in the violence of his course
or the tumult of battle ; but the attention,
docility, and memory of this animal are such,
that it is hard to say to what degree of
obedience he may not be reduced. There is
no reason why these horses may not be
brought to understand the intention, and obey
the will of their riders with as much cer-
tainty and readiness as our cart-horses in our
crowded streets attend to the voices of their
drivers, by which they are almost solely gov-
erned. Managing the horse without the use
of bridle or spur, indicates the perfect subjec-
tion to which the animal had been brought by
Grecian training ; for it would seem that the
gentlest touch of the rider was sufficient for
him to be guided in accordance with the will
of his master. By a touch on the muzzle he
was stopped, and by a touch of the heel he
was urged forward. The cruel inventions of
the bit and the spur had not yet suggested
themselves to the ingenuity of mankind. Yet
the obedience of the horse would seem to
have then been as complete as the appliances
of a confessedly more advanced period of

noRSE-TEAPPiNGS.] M OD EKN VETERI N AE V I'K A CTICE.

[cHAUiorrt.

civilisation in the arts could make it. At a
later period, we find both tlio bit and tlio
bridle introduced into Grecian Bculi)turc3.
Neptune made the Komans first to teach
" with bits the generous horse to tame."
The saddle is a comparatively modern in-
vention ; and wo have no notice of the
stirrup until about the middle of the 12th
century of the Christian era. It, however,
was in use a century prior to this period ; for,
in the Bayeux tapestry, which was the work
of the wife of William the Conqueror, the
fi;,'ure of a horse appears, with saddle, bridle,
and stirrups. The more ancient heroes made
no use of artificial means for the purpose of
mounting their steeds. Their agility enabled
them to fling themselves upon the backs of
their animals with the utmost ease ; but those
who fought on horseback with the lance or
spear, usually had a loop or a cord depend-
inc about two feet from the bottom of
the shaft, or a small projection on the
shaft itself, by either of which they could
assist themselves nito their seats if neces-
sary. The horse was sometimes trained to
kneel, when his rider was going to mount
liim ; and, as ease and effeminacy further im-
paired the agility of men, short ladders came
into use for the purpose of scaling their
horses' backs. Great men had their slaves
to assist them both to mount and dismount ;
and, subsequently, that all who rode might be
accommodated with the means of easily getting
upon their horses in situaiuMis where other
sorts of assistance could not be procured, the
local magistrates of both Greece and Rome
had proper stepping-stones set up, at conve-
nient distances along the roads. In earlier
times, however, it was not as a ridden, but as
a war-chariot animal, or as an animal for show,
that the horse was principally used. Subse-
quently his speed came to be publicly tested in
competing for the prize at the Olympic games,
founded in honour of Jupiter. Here, in the
chariot races, his qualities were put to a severe
test. The Olympian festival was instituted
776 years before Christ ; and consisted of
sacrifices to Jupiter and Hercules, and in the
exhibition of contests to their honour. Every
fourth year was the period appointed for the
recurrence of the celebration, and an olive
garlaad was the only prize of victory in the

different eierciaos. This, however, became a

distinction greatly envied ; and the interest
taken in the contests, coupled with the nanc-
tity and splendour of the religious coromoniea,
brought together an immense concourse of
spectators, and distinguished it beyond all the
other iustitutions of a similar kind established
in Greece. Not till the twenty-third Olympiad
was the horse introduced into the content;
and not till the twenty-Iiftli as a chariot-racer.
The description of the chariot-racing ia thus
given by Mr. Touatt : —

" The chariots were arranged abreast of each
other at the starting-post — for it will appear
tliat these gave some important advantages —
having been previously decided by lot. An
altar was erected on one side, upon which
stood a brazen eagle, dedicated to Jupiter, and
a dolphin sacred to Neptune. At a signal
from the presiding officer, the eagle, by some
mechanism, sprang into the air; the dolphin
sank under the ground, and away the horses
started. The hippodrome, or course, was
about one-third of a mile in length ; and at
the further end was a pillar, round which the
chariots were to be driven, and back again to
the starting-place, six times — making rather
more than four miles

" The rounding of this pillar was the Urst test
of the skill of the driver and the docility of
the horses, and many an accident happened
there. This dangerous spot was no sooner
passed, than the competitors came at once
upon a strange figure, placed to try the courage
and nerve of the horses. It was an enormous
statue, called Taraxij)pus, the terrifier of tlio
horses ; and, according to old writers, well
worthy of the name. None of them describe
this strange deity ; but all agree that he used
sadly to frighten the steeds, and ofu-n t'>
endanger their lives, and also the life of t.j
driver

" A little further on was a lofty rock, in the
very centre of the course, leaving only a very,
narrow defile, in the passing through which the
skill of the charioteer was severely tried ; while
several men placed on the rock, increased the
confusion and the terror of the horses, by the
continual braying of their trumpets.

" As may be well supposed, the number of
the competitors was much diminished ere the
conclusion of the race. Some ran against the

WAE-H0ESB3.]

THE HOESE, AND

[WAE-HOilSES.

pillar ; others were frightened out of the course
by the horrible statue ; and not a few were
wrecked on that fearful rock. Some were
destroyed on the spot; others who escaped
without serious injury, were derided by the
spectators on account of their want of skill ;
and the fragments with which the course was
covered, rendered almost every step perilous."
The conqueror in such a race, says Pausanias,
well deserved the crown which he received,
and the honours which were bestowed upon
him.

The moral as well as the physical character-
istics of the horse, have, from the earliest
times, formed the subjects of poetical admira-
tion and enthusiasm. This is especially the
case whpu he is viewed as mingling, undismayed,
in the heat of the fray — pawing the ground,
distending his nostrils, dilating his eyes, and
erecting his ears when he hears the braying
of the trumpet, or the clashing of arms at no
great distance from where he is standing. As
the war-steed alone, he is thus sublwiiely de-
picted in the Book of Job : — " Hast thou given
the horse strength ? Hast thou clothed his
neck with his beautiful mane? Canst thou
make him afraid as the grasshopper? The
glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in
the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength. He
goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh
at fc'i", and is not affrighted. Neither turneth
he his back from the sword. The quiver
rattleth against him, the glittering spear aiil
the shield. He swalloweth the ground with
fierceness and rage : neither believeth he that
it; is the sound of the trumpet. He sayeth
among the trumpets ha! ha! and he smelleth
the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains
and the shoutings."

Job was an inhabitant of that country from
which our English breed has been so much
improved by the importation of horses from
the desert ; and this description of the animal,
under the influence of a noble excitement, is
not less remarkable for its accuracy than for
its lofty poetical tone. In the nineteenth
verse of the Scriptures, the Hebrew word is
translated as signifying "thunder;" but it
also signifies the mane of the horse. Accord-
ingly, we have substituted the natural feature
of the .animal for the hyperbolical and un-
meaning attribute of "thunder," with which

his neck is said to be clothed, but which is
quite inappropriate, if not altogether absurd,
in the significance of its application.

In estimating the qualities necessary for
war-horses, much depends upon natural dispo-
sition. Those of a fretful temper being pro-
verbially soft, and not generally to be depended
upon, would be ill-suited for the " tented
field;" and this does not seem to have escaped
the observation of our greatest of dramatists.
Such horses are made by him to symbolise
false friends. Thus he makes Julius Csesar
exclaim —

" Hollow men, like horses, not at hand,
Make gallant show, and promise of their mettle ;
But when they should endure the bloody spur.
They fall their crest, and, like deceitful jades,
Sink in the trial."

Homer, on the other hand, always speaks of
the horse with admiration, and considers him as
by nature invested with great dignity. In his
conception, an additional respectability is con-
ferred, even upon his princes and his war-
grooms, by the titlf^s which he bestows upon
them of " horse-tnmers" and " horse-whippers"
— epithets which, however honourable in days
of remote antiquity, are, in ours, associated only
with the persons and the mean employments
of grooms of the stable and horse-jockeys. It
was the practice of ancient poets, as well as
of people generally, to dilate upon the beauty
and majesty of their horses ; to invest them
with attributes of the loftiest description, and
to place them in situations in accordance with
these high ideas. In this, it must be confessed
they were, to a great extent, justified, not only
by the noble shape and gallant appearance of
the animal, but by his singular disposition,
and, consequently, high price ; his being the
friend and, as it were, the attendant of princes ;
the terrible, yet graceful, accompaniment ot
war ; and never seen, as in modern times,
degraded to the familiar, yet far more useful
purposes of draught in our streets, and hus-
bandry in our fields. In Grecian fable, as
well as in Grecian mythology, he is also repre-
sented in the most imposing situations and
attitudes. Proserpine is carried ofl" by Plautus
in a chariot drawn by four horses. Neptune,
swift as light, strikes the earth with his trident,
and the first-born horse rushes forth from its
I centre. Aurora ushers in the light of the

GBEEK HOBSEs.] MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [onEEK nouBEi.

morning by being represented as drawn by
four milk-white horsoa in a rose-coloured
chariot. These are all striking evidences of
the might and majesty possessed by tiio horse
in the Grecian mind, and of the noble pur-
poses for which they believed him to have been
ordained. The chariot of the Sun is, in Ovid's
beautiful fable of Phaeton, drawn by grey-
footed steeds ; and Ereehouius, a prince, is by
profession, a horse-breaker. In the tlurd
Georgia of Virgil, his wonderful performances
are thus immortalised : —

" Bold Erecboinus was tlie first who joined
Four horses for the rapid race desigu'd,
And o'er the dusty wheels presiding sat:
The LajiithDe to chariots add the state
Of bits and bridles ; taught the steed to bnund.
To run tlie ring, and trace the airy giound ;
To stop, to fly, the rules of war to know,
T'obey the rider, and to dare the foe."
A modern reader, therefore, must enter some-
what into the sentiments and feelings of anti-
quity, in order to perceive the beauty or
propriety of Theocritus's comparison of Helen
to a horse, or of Solomon's likening his love
"to a company of horses in Pharaoh's cha-
riots." The light in which the horse is thus
considered as an ornament of royalty, or an
appendage of war — not only ornamental, but
efficient — is explanatory of many passages
scattered over the pages of the Old Testament,
and of those of the Greek and Latin Classics.
In the days of Xenophon, 600 years later
than those of Solomon, the price of a good
horse was about 50 danks, or £27 12s.; at
least, such was the price paid by Senthes, the
Thracian, to Xenophon, for the steed whereon
he rode during his retreat from Babylon. As
this general was a skilful horseman, as well as a
good judge of a horse, it is interesting to see
the opinions which, in his age, prevailed re-
specting the points of that animal.

" The firsfc thing which ouglit to to looked
at," says he, " is the foot ; for as a house
Avould be of no use, though all the upper
parts of it were beautiful, if the lesser parts of
it had not a proper foundation — so a horse
would not be of any use in war if he had
tender feet, even though he should have all
other good qualities ; for his good qualities
could not be made any valuable use of. Thick
lioofs make a horse's foot better than thin
ones; and it must not be forgotten to see
c

whether the hodfs are high or low, and near
the ground both before and behind. The
pasterns, or bones immediatt-ly above the
hoofs and below the fethtcks, ought not to be
straight like those of a goat, for this would
shake the rider ; and such legs are more sub-
ject to inflammation : nor ought tlieso bones
to be too low, for the fetlock would bo chafed
and ulcerated if the horse w(;re ridden over
ploughed grounds or among stones. The
bones of the legs, being the supporters of the
whole body, ought to be large ; not, however,
too thick with veins. The thighs, under the
shoulders, are both strong and graceful when
they are large ; and when the chest is also
large, it greatly contributes, not only to the
beauty and strength of the horse, but to his
being able to continue a long time in one
pace. The neck should proceed from the
chest, and it should be free about the bend ot
the head, which should have a small cheek.
The eyes should stand well out ; the nostrils
be wide, and the ears small. The loins should
be broad and short ; the haunches large and
fleshy, and such as to correspond wiih the
sides and chest of the animal."

Such is the description of Xenophon ; to
which we may add that of Blundeville, who
thus speaks of the Greek horses: — "The
horses of Greece have good legs, great bodies,
comely heads, and are of a high stature ; and
very well made forward, but not backward,
because they are pyn-buttocked. ISTotwith-
standiug, they are very swift, and of a bold
courage. But of all the races in Greece, both
the horses and mares of Thessaly, for their
beauty, bigness, bounty, and courage, of all
authors, are most celebrated. For which
cause, Xerxes, on his coming into Greece,
made a running of horses in chariots, to be
proclaimed only in Thessaly, because he would
have his own horses to run with the best
horses in Greece. Julius Caesar, being dicta-
tor of Rome, knowing the courage of tiiese
horses, was the first that ordained them as a
spectacle before the people, to fight with wild
bulls, and to kill them."

After the Greeks, the Romans followed
pretty much in the same path, in reference to
the management of the horse. Chariot and
horse-races were, at an early period, nitro-
duced among them ; and down to the reigns of

9

EGYPTIAN HOESES.]

THE HOESE, AND

lEGYPTIAN HOESES.

the Cffisars, the young men belonging to the
equestrian order were enthusiastically devoted
to horsemanship. They performed, in the
field, similar feats to those which the modern
exhibitor executes in the circus-ring : vaulting
off and on ; picking up things from the ground ;
stretching themselves on the backs of the
animals; standing upright; and leaping from
one horse to another, were amongst their

favourite exercises. This people invented the
curb bit, and were the first to employ veteri-
nary surgeons to attend their horses. To each
of their legions horse-surgeons were attached.
But after the overthrow of the empire in the
fifth century, we lose all trace of any progress
having been made in the management and
treatment of the horae, whether in a state of
I health or disease.

CHAPTER II.

HORSES OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.

THE HORSE OF EGYPT. |

Egypt being the country where, it is generally
supposed, the horse was first reclaimed, neces-
sarily takes priority in treating of the difiereut
breeds of that animal as described by travellers
and others, who have had opportunities of
making observations upon their forms, and
testing their qualities in their native climates.
This country was, in the earliest ages, distin-
guished by its culture, and has a length of
about 600 miles, with a varying width. Erom
Syene to Cairo, a distance of about 500 miles,
its great valley is about eight miles in breadth ;
while, in the Delta, it widens, and adds to the
extent of the country about ninety or a hun-
dred miles. It has two great divisions, named
Lower and Upper Egypt. The first comprises
that portion of territory which lies between
Cairo, the Mediterranean Sea, the Isthmus of
Suez, and the Libyan Desert, on the north,
and has Grand Cairo for its capital. The second
extends from Cairo to Assouan, or Syene, and
holds within its area the ruins of ancient
Thebes and Dendera. The river Nile is the
special glory of this country, watering and
fertilising it to an extent which makes it, even
at the present time, as fruitful as it was in
that of Joseph — " There is corn in Egypt,"
having become a proverbial expression to denote
plenty. This river rises in Abyssinia, traverses
10

Nubia and Egypt, and, after a course of about

2,000 miles, enters the Mediterranean. Like

most of the African rivers within the tropics,

it annually overflows its banks; and thus, in

a land where rain seldom or ever falls, fullils

all the purposes which a luxuriant vegetation

demands for the promotion of its growth. Tiie

rise commences about the 17th of June, or near

the summer solstice : by the middle of August

it reaches half its greatest height ; and, towards

the end of September, attains its maximum,

when the waters begin to subside. The fields,

on which a rich sediment has been loft, are

then sown with all sorts of grain ; and, in an

amazing short space of time, the face of the

whole country is variegated with plants of

every hue, and with the rapidly-ripening corn.

As the fertility of the country may be said

almost entirely to depend upon the inundations

of the river, their progress is anxiously watched

and measured by a pillar, called a Nilometer.

This instrument consists of a thin column or

pillar, placed about the middle of the river,

on the point of an island called Ehoda, between

Cairo and Geeza. It has twenty divisions of

twenty-two inches each; and its height is

thirty-six feet eight inches. "When the river

has risen to the proper height, all the canals

connected with the Nile are opened, and the

whole country laid under water.

EGYPTIAN HOESES.] MODEEN VETEEINAEY PRACTICE, [eqyptian iioe8eb.

The domestication of the horse, in this
country, took pLace very early ; and as he was
theu used principally as a war animal, or per-

haps for the ornamental purposes of a state
pageant, he must have hoeu well kept and
properly attended.

EGYPTIAN WAR CHARIOT.

The modern animal, however, has immensely
degenerated. He is no longer the noble quad-
ruped which the poet delighted to describe as
the companion of princes; yet, under the
vigorous government of Mehemet Ali, in 1821,
a veterinary school was established at Abou-
Zabel, of which we have an account in the
7th volume of the Veterinarian. The degene-
racy of the Egyptian horse arose chiefly from
the oppressive system which the Turks long
pursued, in forcibly taking from the population
any valuable animals they happened to have,
and appropriating them themselves, without
giving, in return, the slightest remuneration.
Mr. Wilson— speaking of the corps of the
Mamelukes, the body-guard of the Bey— in
bis JExpedition to Egypt, says— " Although
these horses seldom pass out of a foot-pace,
except for a gallop of a hundred yards, most
of them are foundered ; and none, if qnicldy
trotted ten miles, would be able, from want of
wind and stamina, to go further." The shape
of the animal, too, is neither prepossessing nor
engaging. Burchardt says that he is ugly and
coarse, bearing a stronger resemblance to the
cart-horse than to the racer. He is frequently
to be found with a short thick neck, and thin

legs and knees. His head is, occasionally, fine ;
but the same writer declares that he never saw
good legs in an Egyptian horse. Nor are the
race capable of bearing much fatigue in any
situation; but they are possessed of impetuosity
sufficient to render them very desirable as
cavalry horses; and it is upon this quality
alone, that any celebrity which they enjoy is

founded.

The physical features of Egypt are by no
means unfavourable to the production of a
beautiful breed of horses. The country con-
sists mostly of a long and narrow vale, on each
side of the Nile ; bounded by parallel ridges
of hills and mountains, and covered with a
rich vegetation, in the highest degree con-
crenial to the nature of the horse. The Delta—
Tyin^ between the two extreme branches of the
Nile° and the sea, and taking its name from
its trian<Tular shape, resembling that of the
fourth ktter in the Greek alphabet-is the
broadest and the most fertile part ; and pre-
sents a fine region for successfully rearmg the
animal. Here he might roam at wdl; and, in
the days of old, as ho " increased and multi-
plied " he supplied other countries with his
kind for the purposes of war. It is a remark-

HOESS-STBALING.]

THE HOKSE, AND

[ba-ebaet hoeses.

able fact, however, that although there was a
mounted cavalry in Egypt, and, as already ob-
served, that Solomon's horsemen were mounted
on trained Egyptian animals, there is but one
representation of a man on horseback in the
whole range of the sculptured and painted
antiquities of that country.

In the Adventures of Giovanni Finati, tlie
following anecdote is given of an Arab robber,
who, when the Mamelukes were in Egypt, had
taken a fancy to the horse and the robe of one
of their Beys : —

"When some of the Mamelukes were en-
camped about Minich, a thief set his mind
upon carrying off the horse and wearing ap-
parel of one of their Beys ; and, with this in-
tention, contrived, in the dead of the night, to
creep unperceived within the tent, where, as it
was winter, embers were burning, and showed
the rich clothes of the Bey lying close at hand.
The thief, as he squatted down by the fire,
drew them softly to him, and put them all on :
and then, after filling a pipe and lighting it,
went deliberately to the tent door, and tapping
a groom, who was sleeping near, with the pipe
end, made a sign to him for the horse, which
stood piquetted in front. It was brought ; he
mounted and rode off. On the morrow, when
the clothes of the Bey could not be found, no
one could form a conjecture as to wh^-t could
have become of them, until the groom, on
being questioned, maintained to his fellow-
servants, that their master was not yet re-
turned from his ride ! and told them how he
had suddenly called for his horse in the
night; which, at last, seemed to give some
clue to what had really happened. Upon this,
the Bey, anxious to recover his horse, as well
as curious to ascertain the particulars, ordered
it to be published abroad, that, if the person
who robbed him would, within two days, bring
back what he had taken, he should not only be
freely pardoned, but should receive also the
full value of the animal and of the suit of
clothes.

" Belying on the good faith of his promise,
and possibly, too, not a little vain of his ex-
ploit, the Arab presented himself, and brought
his booty. The Bey also, on his part, punc-
tually kept his word ; but since, besides the
loss, there was something in the transaction
that placed the Bey in rather a ludicrous light,
12

it went hard with him to let the rogue depart
so freely, and he seemed to be considering
what he should do. Whilst thus resolving,
and in order to gain time, he kept continually
asking, over and over again, fresh and more
circumstantial accounts of the manner in which
the stratagem had been conducted : but tlie
other was too crafty not to perceive that no
good was preparing for him, and began to feel
anxious to get safe out of the scrape. He
showed no impatience, however, but entered
minutely into every detail, accompanying the
whole with a great deal of corresponding ac-
tion ; at one time sitting down by the fire,
and making believe as though he were slily
drawing on the diflorent articles of dress, so as
to throw the Bey liimself, and all wlio saw and
heard him, into fits of laughter. When he, at
last, came to what concerned the horse, ' It
was,' he said, ' brought to me, and I leaped
upon his back ; ' and so in effect flinging him-
self again into the saddle, and spurring the
flanks sharply with the stirrup-irons, he rode
off with all the money that he had received for
the animal, in his pocket, and had got much
too far, during the first moments of surprise,
for any of the bullets to take effect that were
fired at liim in his flight ; and nothing further
was ever heard of him or the horse."

The animal of the Bey was, no doubt, of a
better quality than are the generality of
Egyptian horses, or the speed of the robber
would have relaxed soon enough to have
allowed him to have been overtaken by that
of some of the others that joined in the
pursuit.

THE BARB.

Proceeding from Egypt along the northern
coast of Africa, we enter the states of Bar-
bary, which are understood to comprise the
i\Iauritania, Numidia, Africa Proper, and
Libya of antiquity. These, in succession,
answer to the modern Morocco, Algiers, Tuiii.^,
and Tripoli — states which formerly seemed to
constitute one great political confederacy,
though regulating their internal policy and
government entirely independent of each
other. Barbary derives its modern name from
Bar, a desert ; and is divided into two parts by
the Atlas mountains, which extend from east
to west, and are intersected by deep and
beautiful valleys. This, then, is the country

THE BAEB.]

MODEEN YETEEINAET PEACTICE. [the ahabia^.

of the horse known as the Barb. Its original
country is Arabia; and it was brought into
Africa by those Arabs who either voluntarily
left their country, or were driven from it by
force of arms. The true animal is found in
Morocco. Fez, and Tripoli, and is described by
Bereuger as seldom exceeding fourteen and
a-half \and3 high. He further says that the
countenance is indicative of spirit, though fre-
quently rounded, and, in this particular, pre-
senting a marked distinction to that of the
Arabian. The ears are pointed and small, but
occasionally they are to be found long and
drooping. The crest is generally fine, but
prominent, and not overladen with mane. "The
neck is of a good length ; the shoulders flat
and oblique ; the withers prominent, and the
chest almost invariably deep; the back is
moderately curved, and the carcass somewhat
round ; the arms and thighs are muscular, and
strongly marked; the knee and hock are
broad and low-placed; the back-sinews sin-
gularly distinct, and well-marked from the
knee downwards; the pasterns rather long;
the feet firm, and but moderately open at the
bars." ' ^ The croup, as compared with the
Arab, is said to be a little too long ; but the
quarters are muscular and well developed.

The Barb has vastly contributed to the
beauty and excellence of the horses of the
Iberian peninsula; and when higher quali-
ties in the horses of Great Britain were anx-
iously sought, the Barb was introduced, and
has been the means of greatly improving
the racing blood of this country. In Africa
mares are never ridden, but always stallions
—a practice just reversed in Arabia. ^ The
reason for these national peculiarities is ob-
vious. The Arab is almost always at war ;
and as the stallion neighs whenever it smells
the stale of the mare, this would frequently
be the means of alarming his enemies when
secretly approaching their encampments
during the night, in his predatory expedi-
tions. The African pursues a difl'erent
mode of warfare from this. He trusts to
the superiority of his force or skill ; fights
by day ; and therefore rides the animal that
he deems best adapted to carry him safe
through his enterprises, whatever may^
be the danger in which these may involve him.
Bruce, in bis African travels, observes, that

" the best African horses are said to be de-
scended from one of tlie five on which Maho-
met and his four immediate successors fled
from Mecca to Medina, on the night of tho
Hegira." But this must be taken as an Oriental
fiction, rather than as a statement of sober
truth. The aff"ection of the Arab for his horso
is so strong, that there is no origin, however
noble, to which, so far as breed or race is con-
cerned, he would not assign him. D'Arvieui
describes the lamentations of one Ibrahim
Abou Vouasses, over a favourite mare of noble
race which he had parted with, and which he
frequently made a journey to Earaa to see.
" He would embrace her, and wipe her eyes
with his handkerchief, and rub her with his
shirt sleeves, and would give her a thousand
blessings during whole hours that he would be
talking to her. ' My eyes, my heart, my soul !'
would he exclaim, ' must I be so unfortunate
as to have thee sold to many masters, and not
be able to keep thee myself? I am poor, mj
gazelle. Tou know well enough, my sweet,
that I have brought thee up like a child. I
never beat thee, never chid thee, but did
cherish thee as the apple of mine eye. God
preserve thee, my dearest! Thou art beau-
tiful, thou art sweet, thou art lovely. God
defend thee from the evil eye.' And so he
would go on saying a thousand things like
these ; he then embraced her, kissed her eyes,
and went backwards, bidding her the most
tender adieus."

THE ARABIAN HORSE.

It is not a characteristic of either the Eng-
lish or the Scotch mind, to indicate any

lo

THE AKABIAN.]

THE HOESE, AND

[the barb.

affection which they may have for their horses
in such generous expressions of endearment as
mark those of the poor Arab; yet few can
read the touching narrative which Mungo Park
gives of his parting with his horse, the worn-
out associate of his adventures, in the wilds of
Africa, without entering hxrgely into his feel-
ings, and deeply sympathising with his forlorn
and destitute condition. "Early in the morn-
ing," says he, under the date of July 29th,
•• my host observing that I was sickly, hurried
me away, sending a servant with me as a
guide to Kea. But though I was little able
■to walk, my horse was still less able to carry
me ; and about six miles to the east of Modiboo,
in crossing some rough clayey ground, he fell ;
and the united strength of the guide and
myself could not place him again upon his
legs. I sat down for some time beside this
worn-out associate of my adventures ; but
finding him still unable to rise, I took off the
saddle and bridle, and placed a quantity of
grass before him. I surveyed the poor animal
as he lay panting on the ground, with sympa-
thetic emotion ; for I could not suppress the
sad apprehension, that I should, myself, in a
short time, lie down and perish in the same
manner, of fatigue and hunger. With this
foreboding I left my poor horse, and with great
reluctance I followed my guide on foot along
the bank of the river until about noon, when
we reached Kea, which I found to be nothing
}nore than a small fishing village." The horse,
however, did not die, but was restored, and
Park had the great gratification of once more
hearing him neigh on his return to Modiboo,

Major Denham, another celebrated African
traveller, also laments the death of his horse.
After telling us that the animal had car-
ried him from Tripoli to Mourzuk and back
again, and also over the whole journey from
Tripoli to Bournou, he thus philosophises : —
" There are situations in a man's life in which
losses of this nature are felt most keenly, and
this was one of them. It was not grief, but it
was something very nearly approaching to it ;
and although I felt ashamed of the degree of de-
rangement which I suffered from it, yet it was
several days before I could get over the loss.
Let it, however, be remembered, that the poor
animal had been my support and comfort — may
I not say my companion? — tli^ough many a
3.4

dreary day and night ; had endured both
hunger and thirst in my service with tho
utmost patience ; so docile, that he would
stand still for hours in the desert while I slept
between his legs, his body affording me the
only shelter that could be obtained from the
powerful influence of a noon-day sun ; he was
the fleetest of the fleet, and ever foremost in
the race."

In the Biographical Slct 'dies of Horses, by
Captain Brown, we find recorded the following
interesting description of a Barb and his rider
at the Cape of Good Hope : — " I should have
found it difficult to give credit," says Mr.
De Pages, " had what I am now about to
relate not happened at this place, on the even-
ing of my arrival there (Cape of Good Hope),
and had I not been an eye-witness of those
vehement emotions of sympathy, blended with
admiration, which it had justly excited in tho
mind of every individual at the Cape. A
violent gale of wind setting in from the north-
north-west, a vessel in the road dragged her
anchors, was forced on the rocks, and bulged ;
and while the greater part of the crew fell an
immediate sacrifice to the waves, the re-
mainder were seen from the shore, struggling
for their lives by clinging to the different
pieces of the wreck. The sea ran high, and
broke over the sailors with such amazing fury,
that no boat whatever could venture oflf to
their assistance. Meanwhile a planter, con-
siderably advanced in life, had come from his
farm to be a spectator of the shipwreck. His
heart was melted at the sight of the unhappy
seamen ; and knowing the bold and enter-
prising spirit of his horse, and his particular
excellence as a swimmer, he instantly deter-
mined to make a desperate effort for their de-
liverance. He alighted, and blew a little
brandy into his horse's nostrils ; when, again
seating himself firm in the saddle, he instantly
pushed into the midst of the breakers. At
first, both disappeared ; but it was not long
before they floated on the surface, and
swam up to the wreck ; when, taking
with him two men, each of whom held by
one of his boots, he brought them safe to
shore. This perilous expedition he repeated
no less than seven times, saving the lives of
fourteen individuals ; but, on his return the
eighth time, his horse being much fatigued,

AFETCAN HORSE.] MODEKN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [desekt houses.

and meeting a most formidable wave, caused
him to lose his balance, and he was over-
whelmed in a moment. The horse swam
safely to land, but his gallant rider, alas ! was
no more."

Whilst giving a description of the horse's
services in this dangerous undertaking, we re-
gret the writer has not rescued from oblivion
the name of its gallant rider. The exploit of
the horse becomes the more prominent
feature in this description ; but without any
wish to decry the merits of this noble animal,
we think, in justice to its rider, who fell a
sacrifice to his humanity, an effort should have
been made to preserve the name of the man
who had performed such repeated acts of
heroism. The colony was at this time in the
possession of the Dutch ; and, we believe,
a vessel was named after the rider, and a
pillar ordered to be erected to his memory.
The local authorities, however, with the pro-
verbial meanness of little minds, refused to
bestow upon the son a trifling place which had
been filled by his generous father.

THE DESERT HORSE, AND SWIFT HEIRIES
OF AFRICA, Etc.
As we proceed towards the west coast of
Africa, the Barb is said to improve both in
form and gracefulness of action ; but deep in
the Sahara desert, tliere is a species called
the " wind-sucker, or desert horse" — a de-
scription of which, in conjunction with that of
the heiries, will now occupy our attention.
Mr. Jackson, in his account of Morocco, says,
that the shruhach errech, or desert horse, is to
the common horse what the desert camel is to
the camel of burden ; the only difiereuce be-
tween them in point of feeding is, that this
horse requires a portion of camel's milk every
day ; if it cannot get this, and is obliged, from
hunger, to eat barley and straw, particularly
when first brought to Morocco, it falls away.
However, it gradually recovers, fills up, and
becomes handsome to the siglit, but loses all
its former speed, so that it is afterwards em-
ployed to hunt ostriches, at which sport it is
very expert. To the Arabs of the desert, the
<)hase of the ostrich is the most attractive
and eagerly sought of the many aristocratic
diversions in which they indulge ; and the
training through which the horse passes, previ-

ous to the sport, is rather hard. Seven or
eight days before the intended hunt, they are
entirely deprived of straw and grass, and fed
on barley only. They are only allowed to
drink once a-day, and tliat at sunset— the
time when the water begins to freshen : at
that time also they are washed. They take
long daily exercises, and are occasionally
galloped, at which time care is taken that the
harness is right, and suited to the chase of
the ostrich. " After seven or eight days,"
says the Arab, " the stomach of the horse dis-
appears ; while the chest, the breast, and tlie
croup remain in flesh : the animal is then fit
to endure fatigue." They call this training
tecTiaha. The harness used for the purpose in
question is lighter than ordinary, especially
the stirrups and saddle, and the martingale is
removed. The bridle, too, undergoes many
metamorphoses ; the mountings and ear-fla])3
are taken away, as too heavy. The bit is made
of a camel rope, without a throat-band, and
the frontlet is also of cord ; and the reins,
though strong, are very light. The period
most favourable for ostrich-hunting is that of
the great heat ; the higher the temperature,
the less is the ostrich able to defend himself.
The Arabs describe the precise time as that,
when a man stands upright, his shadow haa
the length only of the sole of his foot.

Each horseman is accompanied by a servant
called zemmal, mounted on a camel, carrying
four goat- skins filled with water, barley for
the horse, wheat-flour for the rider, some dates,
a kettle to cook the food, and everything
which can possibly be required for the repair
of the harness. The horseman contents him-
self with a linen vest and trousers, and covers
his neck and ears with a light material called
havuli, tied with a strip of camel's hide ; his
feet are protected with sandals, and his legs
with liglit gaiters called trabag. He is armed
with neitlier gun nor pistol, his only weapon
being a wild olive or tamarind stick, five or six
feet long, with a heavy knob at one end.

The exact position of the ostriches being
known, the plans are arranged ; the horsemen
divide and form a circle round the game at
such a distance as not to be seen. The ser-
vants wait where the horsemen have separated,
and as soon as they see them at their posts,
they walk right before them j the ostriches fly,

15

HEIEIES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[NUBIAN HORSES.

but are met by the hunters, who do nothing
at first but drive them back into the circle ;
thus their strength is exhausted by being made
to continually run round in the ring. At the
first signs of fatigue in the birds, the horsemen
dash in — presently the flock separates ; the
exhausted birds are seen to open their wings,
which is a sign of great exhaustion ; the horse-
men, certain of their prey, now repress their
horses ; each hunter selects his ostrich, runs it
down, and finishes it by a blow on the head
with the stick above mentioned. The moment
the bird falls, the man jumps oft' his horse,
and cuts her throat, taking care to hold the
neck at such a distance from the body as not
CO soil the plumage of the wings. The male
bird, while dying, utters loud moans, but the
female dies in silence.

When travelling in the desert on these
horses, as well as on the heiries, or desert
camels, the bowels of the riders become re-
laxed by the time they have arrived at the end
of their journey. They are then forced to
take a draught of camel's milk, which being
rejected by the stomach, they drink agaiu.
This second draught is, after a longer time,
also rejected ; when a third is takeu, by which
time the tone of the stomach is generally re-
stored to be capable of retaining the beverage,
which is converted into nourishment.

Although hardly coming within the legiti-
mate province of our subject, yet in speaking
of the " wind-sucker," we deem it necessary
to make a few observations on the heirie, of
which he is a frequent companion in the desert.

This animal is, in figure, similar to the com-
mon camel of burden, but more elegantly
formed. The Arab, with his loins, breast, aud
ears bound round, to prevent the percussion
of air proceeding from a quick motion affect-
ing him, rapidly traverses, upon the back of
this abstemious quadruped, the scorching de-
sert, the fiery atmosphere of which parches, and
almost impedes respiration, to such an extent
as nearly to produce sutFocation.

The motion of the heirie is violent, aud can
be endured only by those patient and hardy
Arabs who are accustomed to it. These riders
will make a journey of three days almost with-
out food — a few pipes of tobacco, or a handful
of dates, serving to supply their necessities.

With a bakul, or goat-skin, a porous
IG

earthen vessel filled with water, a few dates,
and some ground barley, the Arab travels from
Timbuctoo to Tafilelt, feeding his heirie but
once, at the station of Arzawad; and this
camel, on an emergency, will abstain from
drinking seven days. In general, he has a
ring put through the upper lip, to which is
fixed a leathern strap, answering the purposes
of a bridle ; the saddle is similar to that used
by the Moors, or what the mountaineers of
Andalusia make use of.

The swiftness of the heirie is thus figura-
tively described by the Arabs : — " When thou
shalt meet a heirie, and say to the rider
'Salem Alic' (peace be unto thee), ere he shall
have answered the salutation, he shall be nearly
out of sight ; for the swiftness of his camel is
like the wind."

The most inferior kind of heiries are called
Talatayee — a term expressive of their going the
distance of three days' journey in one. The
next kind is called Sebayee — expressing an
animal that goes seven days' journey in one ;
and this is their general character. There is
also one called Tasayee, or the heirie of nine
days ; but this species is extremely rare.

THE NUBIAN OR DONGOLA., AND ABYSSI-
NIAN HORSES.

Nubia, or Dongola, lies to the south of
Egypt, and has, on the east, the Eed Sea ; on
the west the Desert ; and is bounded on the
south by Senaar. The Nile is also its great
river, and the date is the principal fruit of the
country. The low shrub of the Senna is
abundant, and the climate is considered healthy
in general. Here there is said to be a breed
of horses distinct from any other which
either Africa or Arabia produces. Ludolph,
who passed through this country in the 17th
century, says, that the horses are spirited,
powerful, and active, and mostly of a black
colour ; that they are used for the chase and
for war ; and that they are not fatigued by
travelling long journeys, for the labour of
carrying or drawing loads is put upon mules.
The appearance of this animal is mostly de-
scribed as especially noble and majestic. He is
usually well-caparisoned ; and although the
colour is generally black, yet there are to be
found some of them bay and sorrel. Bruce,
the Abysainiaa traveller, speaks of the Nubian

AiBTCAN HOESE.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE, [afuican nonnE.

horse in the following terms : — " What figure
the Nubian breed of horses would make in
point of swiftness is very doubtful, their form
being so entirely different from that of the
Arabian; but if beautiful and symmetrical
parts, great size and strength, the most agile,
nervous, and elastic movements, great endur-
ance of fatigue, docility of temper, and, beyond
any other domestic animal, seeming attachment
to man, can promise anything for a stallion,
the Nubian is, above all comparison, the most
eligible in the world. Few of them are less
than sixteen hands high."

Bosman, another traveller, describes the
Nubian horse as the most perfect of his
kind; and says that, in 1816, one of them was
sold in Grand Cairo for a thousand pounds.
Several of the species have been introduced
to England, but with what results we have
been unable to ascertain.

The Abyssinians, according to Bruce, destroy
the elephant for food. " They cut the whole
of the flesh off his bones into thongs, like the
reins of a bridle, and hang these, like festoons,
upon the branches of trees, till they become
perfectly dry, without salt ; and then they lay
them up for their provisions in the season of
the rains." This traveller has given an ani-
mated description of an elephant hunt, con-
ducted by the Africans, who, on such occasions,
are greatly assisted by their spirited horses.

" An hour before day, after a hearty break-
fast, we mounted on horseback, to the number
of about thirty But there was another body,
both of horse and foot, which made hunting
the elephant their particular business. These
men dwell constantly in the woods, and know
very little of the use of bread, living entirely
upon the flesh of the beasts they kill, chiefly
that of the elephant and rhinoceros. ' They
are exceedingly thin, light, and agile, both on
horseback and foot ; are very swarthy, though
few of them are black ; none of them woolly-
headed, and all of them have European features.
They are called agageer, a name of their pro-
fession, not of their nation ; which comes from
the word agar^ and signifies to hamstring with
a sharp weapon. More properly it means the
cutting of the tendon of the heel, and is a cha-
racteristic of the manner in which they kill
the elephant, which is shortly as follows : —
"Two men absolutely naked, without any

D

rag or covering at all about tliem, get on
horseback ; this precaution is for fear of beiug
laid hold of by the trees or bushes, in making
their escape from a very watchful enemy.
One of these riders sits upon the back of tlio
horse, sometimes with a saddle, and sometimes
without one, with only a switch or short stick
in one hand, carefully managing the bridio
with the other ; behind him sits his companion,
who has no other arms but a broadsword, liis
left hand is employed in grasping the sword
by the handle ; about fourteen inches of tlic
blade is covered with whip-cord. This part
he takes in his right hand, without any danger
of being hurt by it ; and, though the edges of
the lower part of the sword are as sharp as a
razor, he carries it without a scabbard.

" As soon as the elephant is found feeding,
the horseman rides before him as near his face
as possible ; or, if he flies, crosses him in all
directions, crying out, * I am such a man and
such a man ; this is my horse, that has such a
name. I killed your father in such a place,
and your grandfather in such another place ;
and I am now come to kill you. You are but
an ass in comparison of them.'. This non-
sense, he verily believes, the elephant under-
stands, who, chased and angry at hearing tbo
noise immediately before him, seeks to seize him
with his trunk or proboscis ; and, intent upon
this, follows the horse everywhere, turning and
turning round with him, neglectful of making
his escape by running straight forward, in which
consists his only safety. After having made
him turn once or twice in pursuit of the horse,
the horseman rides close up alongside of hmi,
and drops his companion just behind on the off
side; and while he engages the elephant's
attention upon the horse, the footman behind
gives him a drawn stroke just above the heel
or what in man is called the tendon of Achilles.
This is the critical moment; the horseman
immediately wheels round, takes his companion
up behind him, and rides off" at full speed after
the rest of the herd, if they have started more
than one; and sometimes an expert agagecr
AYill kill three out of one herd. If the sword
i3 good, and the man not afraid, the tendon is
coramonlv entirely separated ; and if it is not
cut throu'gh, it is generally so far divided, that
the animal, with the stress he puts upon it,
breaks the remaining part asunder. In either

17

ABABIAN HOESE.]

THE HORSE, AND

'AKABIAN HOESE.

case, he remains incapable of advancing a step
till the horseman's return, or his companions,
coming up, pierce him through with javelins
and lances ; he then falls to the ground, and
expires with loss of blood.

"The agageer nearest me presently lamed
his elephant, and left him standing. Ayto
Engedan, Ayto Confu, Guebra Marram, and
several others, fixed their spears in the other
before the agageer had cut his tendons. INIy
agageer, however, having wounded the first
efephant, failed in the pursuit of the second ;
and being close upon him at the entrance of
the wood, he received a violent blow from the
branch of a tree which the elephant had bent
by his weight, and, after passing, allowed it
to replace itself, when it knocked down both
the riders, and very much hurt the horse.
This, indeed, is the great danger in elephant-
hunting ; for some of the trees, that are dry
and short, break by the violent pressure of so
immense a body moving so rapidly, and fall
upon the pursuers, or across the road. But
the greatest number of these trees bend with-
out breaking, and return quickly to the former
position, when they strike both horse and
man so violently, that they often beat them to
pieces."

THE ARABIAN HORSE.

Arabia has been considered, by some natu-
ralists, the original country of the horse, but
upon what grounds it is not so easy to deter-
mine. It has already been shown that Solo-
mon received all hia own horses from Egypt ;
and those which he sent to the sovereigns of
Phoenicia, he also procured from that country.
Even so late as the second century of the Chris-
tian era, there is a record extant, showing that
horses were among the articles exported from
Egypt to Arabia ; and, in the seventh century,
when Mahomet attacked Koreish, near Mecca,
be had no more than two horses in his whole
army. Such circumstances speak strongly
against the assertion that the horse is origi-
nally Arabian ; for if he were so, it is difficult
to account for his scarcity in a country which,
of all others, ought to have been the most

• In Medjed the horse is said to feed regularly on
<lates ; and it has been asserted, that even boiled and raw
flesh are given to them by some of their more wealthy
proprietors. Very little water, however, is allowed

natural for his rapid propagation. At what
time the Arabs began to employ him is not
very clear. At all events, from the facts just
given, it must have been at a comparatively
late era. "Where they obtained their breed, it
is likewise impossible accurately to deter-
mine. In our opinion, Arabia is more likely to
have been supplied from the Egyptian stock,
rather than from that of any other land ; for
if, in the days of Solomon, the Arabian horses
had been distinguished, that monarch would
have supplied his stables with, at least, a few of
them, for the mere purposes of display, if for
nothing else. Taking into account tlie phy-
sical features of Arabia, we should think it is
not very favourable for rapidly increasing the
breed of horses. Designated, in its three
great geographical divisions, as the Stony,
the Desert, and the Happy, it has been com-
pared to a coarse garment with a rich border.
In its centre it presents nothing more than a
dreary plain of sand, alike destitute of water
and vegetation — marked only by the tracks of
caravans. A chain of mountains runs along
the west to the Arabian Sea on the south ; but
it has no river of a magnitude sufficient to
make it important. The few streams which
wander over the country are generally absorbed
by the sandy tracts they pervade, and decrease in
volume during their progress to the sea. The
mountains are few, and its climate is sultry.
Vegetables of every description are scarce.
The cofi'ee shrub, planted on terraces in the
form of an amphitheatre, grows to perfection ;
and the date, the tamarind, and the orange,
also flourish : but horses neither drink cofi'ee,
nor eat tamarinds or oranges ;* and hence are
more likely to have had their origin in a
country much better adapted by nature to
their wants than Arabia seems to be. Burc-
hardt says that the tribes richest in horses,
are those who dwell, during the spring of the
year at least, in the fertile plains of Meso-
potamia ; for, notwithstanding all that is said
of the desert horse, plenty of nutritious food
is absolutely requisite for its reaching its full
vigour and growth. The numerous tribes in
the Eed Sea, between Akaba and Mecca,

them, the Arabs thinking that much liquid affects
the wind, as well as mars the proportions of their
favourite animal, and ••enders him less beautiful to look
upon.

AEABiAN HOUSE.] MODEEN VETElilNAET PEACTICE. [auabian uonsE.

and especially those to the south of Mecca,
aa far as Temen, have very few horses , but
the Kurds and the Bedouins, in the east,
and especially in Mesopotamia, possess more
horses, and more valuable ones, than all the
Arabian Bedouins put together ; for the rich-
ness of their pastures easily nourishes the colts,
and fills the studs. " The number of horses in
Arabia," he adds, "is not more than 50,000
— a number far inferior to that found in any
part of Europe or Asia, on an equal extent of
ground."

According to the same author, there are in
Syria, at the present day, three breeds of
horses — the true Arab breed, the Turk-
man, and the Kourdy ; the last being a mix-
ture of the two former. From the superior
size, and more martial appearance of the
Turkman horse, he makes a splendid figure
when dressed in Turkish trappings ; and,
on this account, is, by the Osmaulis, pre-
ferred to the Arab horses. They are trained
to walk with great grace ; to start suddenly
off at full speed ; to turn with the gentlest
touch, and to stop short instantaneously. The
Arab horse is more hardy, more beautifully
limbed, and much fleeter than the Turkman ;
but he is more slender, and less strong in his
appearance. The esteem in which the Arab
holds his animal, however, has no counter-
part in any other country. The Eev. V.
Monro, in his Summer''s Bamhle in Syria,
when on a visit to the river Jordan, says,
that " one of the Arab escort, a great ruffian,
was mounted on a white mare of great beauty ;
ner large fiery eye gleamed from the edge of
an open forehead, and her exquisite little head
was finished with a pouting lip and expanded
nostrils ; her ribs, thighs, and shoulders, were
models of make, with more bone than com-
monly belongs to the Syrian Arab ; and her
stately step received additional dignity from
the manner in which she took it ; whilst the
carriage of her tail gave the infallible indica-
tion of good family. Having inquired her price,
I off'ered the sum ; whereon the dragoon asked
one-third more. After much abating and de-
bating, I acceded ; and he immediately stepped
back in the same proportion as before. This
is invariably the practice with the Arabs ; I,
therefore, discontinued my attempts to deal.
The Arab said he loved his mare better than

his own life; and that, when mounted upon her,
he felt rich as a pasha. Shoes and stocking*
he had none ; and the net value of his dress ami
accoutrements might be calculated at some-
thing under seventeen-pence sterling."

M. De Chateaubriand, upon wliat authority
we know not, records an instance of recipro-
cal affection between an Arab horse and hia
master ; which, if it be not of pure invention
has seldom, if ever, been paralleled.

An Arab and his tribe had, with complete
success, attacked in the desert the caravan
from Damascus ; and when the Arabs wero
occupied in packing their booty, the horsemen
of the pasha of Acre, who had come to meet
the caravan, rushed suddenly on the robbers,
and killed a considerable number of them, and
made others prisoners. Having tied these
with cords, they took them to Acre, as pre-
sents to the pasha.

Abon el Masseh, the hero of this predatory
attack, had received a ball in his arm during
the engagement ; but as his wound was not
mortal, the Turks had fastened him upon a
camel, and took his horse along with him.

The evening of the day of their approach to
Acre, the party encamped with their prisoners
upon the mountain of Safhadt. The legs of
the wounded Arab were tied together by a
leathern belt, and he was laid near the spot
where the Turks slept. Kept awake, during
the night, by the pain of his wound, he heard
his horse neigh among others picketed round
the tents, according to the Eastern custom.
Eecognising his voice, he could not resist the
desire to see once more the former companion
of his life. Accordingly, with great difficulty,
he managed to crawl on his hands and knees
to his steed. " My poor friend," said he, ad-
dressing the animal of his affections ; " what
canst thou do among these Turks ? Thou
wilt be imprisoned under the roof of a khan,
with the horses of an aga or pasha. Tho
women and children will no longer bring theo
the camel's milk, or barley, or doura in their
palms. Thou wilt no more course the desert,
like the wind from Egypt. No more wilt
thou divide, with thy chest, the refreshing
waves of Jordan. O that, though I remained
a slave, I could at least set thee free ! Let
me try! There, go! return to our tent;
tell mv wife that Abon el Masseh returns

10

AEABIAN HORSE.]

THE nOESE, AND

[ABABIAN HOKSE.

to it no more, and lick the bauds of iny four
children."

Thus speaking, Abon bad, with bis teeth,
gnawed the goat's hair which bad served to
fasten the Arab horses, and the animal became
free. Seeing, however, his master manacled
and bound at bis feet, the faithful and intelli-
gent creature seized bis master bj the leathern
girdle round bis body, set off at a gallop, and
carried him to bis tent. Arriving there, and
letting him drop on the sand, at the feet of
bis wife and children, the horse expired from
fatigue.

The whole tribe wept bis loss ; poets sang
bis merits ; and bis name is constantly in the
mouths of the Arabs who inhabit the country
about Jericho.

If this is not a fiction, truth is certainly
much more strange than romance; but, in this
country, we have but a sliglit idea of tlie degree
of attachment and intelligence, which the habit
of living with the family, of being caressed by
the children, fed by the women, and encouraged
or cbided by the voice of the master, adds to
the natural instinct of the Arabian horse.
The breed of the animal has, naturally, a higher
intelligence than belong to the horses of our
island, arising, perhaps, more from the con-
stancy of their companionship or association
with man, than from any extraordinary endow-
ments which nature has bestowed upon them.

The same author tells us, that when be was
at Jerusalem, there was a Bedouin, who, on
being pursued by the governor's guards, rushed
on bis mare from the top of the bills that
overlook Jericho. The animal scoured, at full
gallop, down a declivity, without stumbling,
leaving bis pursuers lost iu astonishment and
admiration. The poor mare, however, dropped
down dead on entering Jericho; and the
Bedouin, who would not quit ber, was taken,
weeping over the body of bis faithful companion.
"This mare," continues Chateaubriand, "has
a brother in the desert, who is so famous that
the Arabs always know where be is, what be
is doing, and bow be does."

It is generally believed that many Arabs
preserve the pedigrees of their horses ; and that
there are five noble breeds, each of which they
deduce from one of the five favourite mares of
Mahomet. These five races, however, diverge
into innumerable ramifications ; and any mare
20

of superior excellence may be the original of a
new breed, the descendants of which are called
after her. " On the birth of a colt of noble
breed, it is usual to assemble witnesses, to
write an account of its distinctive marks, with
the name of its sire and dam. These genea-
logical tables never ascend to the gt-and-dam,
because it is presumed that every Arab of bia
tribe knows, by tradition, the purity of the
whole breed. Nor is it always necessary to
have such a certificate ; for many horses and
mares are of such illustrious descent that
thousands might attest the purity of their
blood. The pedigree is often put into a small
piece of leather, covered with a waxed cloth,
and hung by a leather thong round the horse's
neck."

In AVeston's Fragments of Oriental Litera-
ture, the following pedigree — much longer,
and, no doubt, far nobler than that alluded to
by the Laird of Cockpen, as belonging to bis
Scotch sweetheart — was found hanging round
the neck of an Arabian horse, bought by
Colonel Ainslie, during the Egyptian campaign
of the British against the French, at the com-
mencement of the present century : —

" In the name of God, the merciful and
compassionate, and of Saed Mahomed, agent
of the High God, and of the companions of
Mohammed, and of Jerusalem. Praised be
the Lord, the Omnipotent Creator.

" This is a high-bred horse, and its colt's-
tootb is here in a bag about bis neck, with his
pedigree, and of undoubted authority, such as
no infidel can refuse to believe. He is the
son of Eabbamy, out of the dam Labadah, and
equal in power to bis aire: of the tribe of
Zasbalab ; be is finely moulded, and made for
running like an ostrich. In the honours of
relationship, be reckons Zaluah, sire of Mahat,
sire of Kallac, and the unique Alket, sire of Ma-
nasseb, sire of Alsheb, father of the race down
to the famous horse, the sire of Lahalala ; and
to him be ever abundance of green meat, and
corn, and water of life, as a reward from the tribe
of Zasbalab; and may a thousand branches
shade his carcass from the hyaena of the tomb,
from the howling wolf of the desert ; and let
the tribe of Zasbalab present him with a festival
within an inclosure of walls ; and let thousands
assemble at the rising of the sun in troops
hastily, where the tribe holds up under e.

ABABiAN HOESE.] MODEEN VETEEINARY PRACTICE. [ahahiak nonsE.

canopy of celestial signs within the walls, the
saddle with the name and family of the pos-
sessor. Then let them strike the bands with
a loud noise incessantly, and pray to God for
immunity for the tribe of Zoab, the inspired
tribe."

At the birth of an Arabian colt it is never
permitted to fall to the ground, but is caught
in the arms of those who are waiting beside
the dam, washed, and as tenderly handled as
if it were destined to become a distinguished
member of the human family. At the end of
a month it is weaned, and then, for a hundred
days, it is nourished with camel's milk. After
this time it is allowed a little wheat, which is
increased by degrees, while the milk continues
to form the largest portion of its aliment.
This mode of feeding continues for another
hundred days, when the foal is sent forth to
pick a little of the herbage that may be
growing round the tent of its owner. Some
barley is also given; and, if the xlrab can
afford it, a little camel's milk in the evening.
All this while it, with its dam, inhabits the
same tent as the Bedouin and his family, who
are to be found, much more frequently, lying
with, or rolling upon the mare and her foal,
than upon their own natural parents. Tims
the animals grow kind and gentle. In the
constant habit of receiving good treatment,
their tempera are never ruffled ; and the
caresses which, from the moment of their
birth, are bestowed upon them, they continue
to return by every means in their power. This
characteristic of the Arab horse is thus re-
ferred to by Bishop Heber, who, in his Nar-
rative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces
of India, says that he was in the habit of riding
a little Arabian animal: — " My morning rides
are very pleasant. My horse is a nice, quiet,
good-tempered little Arab, who is so fearless,
that he goes, without starting, close to an
elephant ; and so gentle and docile, that he
eats bread out of my hand, and has almost as
much attachment and coaxing ways as a dog.
This seems the general character of Arab
horses, to judge from what I have seen in this
country. It is not the fiery, dashing animal
I had supposed, but with more rationality
about him, and more apparent confidence in
Lis rider than the majority of English horses."
A Ereuch authority, in giving his own per-

sonal experience of tiie Arabs and their horses,
says, that Arabian horses in general como
from Nedgid, and are commonly called Nodji.
A more noble race is called Kohloni— divided
into five dillerout families, or noble Clierifs.
These five races, as we have already observed,
are the supposed descendants from the five
blessed mares of the prophet, and are named
Tonaisse, Gilphe, Manegine, Sedie, and Sc-
clawe. Besides these, there are a number of
other families too difficult to enumerate. It
must be owned that there are no certain signs
by which one can ascertain whether a horse is
a Nedgid or a Kohlan ; for " I have conversed,"
says he, " with many intelligent Arabs, who
all assured me that they could not distinguish
them unless the origin of the dam was known
to them. For these reasons they kept their
mares unstained by tlie leap of an inferior
stallion, which is considered one of the prin-
cipal sins in the Koran ; and, as this is an
injunction imposed upon them by their re-
ligion, they preserve it rigidly. If by chance
the contrary should happen, the Bedouin does
not value the foal the least; and however
handsome and promising it may be, he will
part with it for a mere trifle. If a Kohlan
mare is stinted to a Nedgid stallion, the foal
is a Kohlan ; but if only to a Genesidek, the
foal also is only a Genesidek ; and a foal only
of a Nedgid mare by a Kohlan stallion, is
Nedgid. This being the case, among the latter,
many horses will be met with as handsome as
the first, although of an inferior race; but
even the Arabs cannot distinguish them with
out knowing the race of the dam."

Although it is generally asserted that the
Arabs keep a stud-book, our French authority
denies this to be the case ; and he furtlier says
that they do not call together a number of
witnesses when the covering act is performed,
or when the foal is born: all this is false;
"for," he continues, "I have often had oppor-
tunities to observe a leap in the night, where
scarcely any, and but casual witnesses were
present." This, however, might casually be
the case; altliough, generally, where purity ot
breed is to be anxiously kept, veracious wit-
nesses might be called in to testify satisfac
torily to the birth. According to our au-
thority, the mode of proceeding among the
Arabs to procure a foal, is to choose the best

21

AEABIAN nOESE.j

THE HOES^:, AND

[AEABIAIf HOESE.

horse among their own or neighbouring tribe
for a covering stallion, which they travel about
with, as Europeans do ; and it is very difficult
to purchase him, at least during the covering
season. The horse serves three mares daily
at about one Spanish dollar each, and travels
from tribe to tribe, at times to a great distance.
They allow their horses to cover as early as
two years old ; and frequently the mares are
not older. It happens, however, that not
unfrequently they are worthless at three or
four years old. Stallions, mares, and foals
all graze together.

The Arab generally rides without a bridle :
a halter, with a nose-band covered with iron
like a cavesson, serving him instead. In lieu
of a saddle, his noble courser has only a piece
of wadded linen, with two napes for stirrups,
fastened on his back ; and, as in many parts of
Grermany, he seldom has the hind feet shod.

The many scars seen on Arabian horses,
have been caused by firing, which is much
practised, as a remedial agent, in cases of
disease. Many of the horses — even two-year
olds — are disfigured by scars above and beneath
the fetlocks, which at first might be taken
for splents, but which originate from the iron
manacles by which they are fastened to prevent
them being stolen, to which they are much
exposed from their being, during the whole of
the day, left out grazing, and at times suffered
to stray from the camp to a considerable dis-
tance. At night, however, every Arab has
each animal before his tent, with one of his
legs tied, which prevents him from going far
from the spot where his master has, for the
time being, pitched his fragile abode.

Eegarding the formation and shape of their
stallions, the Arabs seem to be quite indif-
ferent. If the animal runs well, is of the
proper origin, and has no superstitious marks,
they use hiai as such, and will, without hesi-
tation, put him to their best mares; but if
the origin of the most splendid-looking stallion
is doubtful, and his marks ill-favoured, he would
not be put to the worst of mares. In candour
it must be owned, that though the stallions
may have great faults in point of form, they,
at the same time, have extraordinary qualities ;
for as soon as they are mounted, all defects
vanish. It would be almost impossible to
detect any, so noble is their appearance.
22

Many stallions with ugly hind-quarters, and
with their tails set very low, appear, when they
are mounted, to carry their tails so erect, that
one might doubt whether they were the
same horses. A few of the finest horses, so
far as look goes, exhibit all the character-
istics of English thorough-breds, but are
much more active and pleasant to ride, when
broken in a little after the European fashion.
When they are taken raw from the desert,
and wholly unused to bridle or spur, they
walk with terror on any paved way. They
are then difficult to be made to trot, as their
habit is to jump, at once, out of a walk into a
full gallop, and stop as suddenly ; but being
very docile, they are easily broken-in properly.

The five principal races, which are said to
have originated from the five favourite mares
of the Prophet, and which only deserve the
name of Kohlan, are mostly met with at
Bagdad and Orfa. Some European judges
prefer the Nedgid to the Kohlan ; but the
Oriental prejudice always returns to the
Kohlan, as its race is bred more in and in,
like our own race-horses. Although it is
difficult to say, with any sort of certainty,
whether a horse is a Nedgid or Kohlan,
yet it may be remarked that the former
has somewhat of a Eoman nose and high
forehead ; whilst a true Kohlan, with a
genuine certificate, has a nose drawn inwards
like a jack or pike, large eyes, wide nostrils, a
broad front, and a beautiful head. One may
buy without difficulty a stallion ; but an Arab
seldom parts with a mare ; and, if pressed by
necessity, he manages as follows : — First, the
price is agreed upon: the purchaser then
begins to use the mare, and the first and second
foals are delivered to the seller, who, if he likes,
has the right to deliver, in return, one foal for
the dam. These conditions often vary ; for at
times the owner will not sell above a fourth of
the mare ; which, in the Arabian language, is
called purchasing one foot.

As few, if any, of our readers are likely to
visit Arabia for the purpose of purchasing
horses, seeing that a better breed now exists
in our own island, it is unnecessary to dilate
on the different tribes of desert Cheicks, who
may, and may not, be trusted in their horse-
dealing transactions with strangers. We may
observe, however, that many of the more

AEABiAN noESE.] MODEEN VETEEINAET PEACTICE. [aeabian uouse.

superstitious Arabs are reluctant to show their
horses to strangers, from a fear of the "evil
eye." The dread of this superstition makes
the Arab never omit offering a prayer to
Mashalla for protection. Should his horse
fall ill after a visit from a stranger, he imme-
diately calls in a sort of wizard, who, after
muttering some cabalistical words, breaks an
egg on the front of the animal ; but whatever
may be the imagined efficacy of this talismanic
operation, the patient not unfrequently dies ;
when the wizard gravely says, " God ordained
it so," or "it was written so." Thus does
the wizard farrier of Arabia slip out of his
dilemma, yet still continues to preserve his
character. A veterinary surgeon, however,
would step in and administer a proper medi-
cine to the animal ; and, without the assis-
tance of any magical nomenclature, would
save the life of the horse, and smile alike at
the remedial egg of the wizard, and the
solemnly absurd and cabalistic mode of its
application. According to European notions,
even some of the prophecies of Mahomet
are sheer nonsense, particularly those about
colour: others coincide with observations of
the present age. If Mahomet actually was
inspired by Allah, our wives would do well
never to permit their husbands to ride horses
which carry the tail on one side, as they are
sure to be soon repudiated; and maidens
ought to stand in awe of bachelors on stal-
lions which have white spots on their thighs.

No people have surpassed the ancient Ara-
bians in the tenacity with which they have pre-
served their ancient character and habits. In
the life of the modern Bedouins, we still trace
the same as that pursued by their remote an-
cestors, who, in the days of Moses, and in those
of Mahomet, dwelt under similar tents, and
conducted their flocks and camels to the same
prings and pastures. Descended from Ish-
mael, whose hand, as we read in the Book of
Genesis, was against every one, the Arab still
keeps up his hostility to all men not of his race.
In the desert he is a robber, and in the town
he has all the vices of civilisation, without
relinquishing those of the savage state. To
see a horde of this nomadic people enter the
desert, with their women, children, horses,
camels, sheep, and goats ; to see them pitch
their tents, and take up their position on some

green spot, amidst a sea of sand, may bo
deemed one of the most extraordinary episodes
that can be witnessed in the great epic of
human existence. M. de Portes, an eye-wit-
ness of a scene of this kind, furnishes us witli
a somewhat minute description of its principal
features.

Eirst appear a few horsemen on tlieii-
mares, sweeping along like the wind, armed
with long lances, encircling in a gallop the
place where they intend to halt, and each indi-
vidual choosing a particular spot, according to
his own fancy. When he has done this, he
immediately drives his lance in the ground,
and fastens his mare to it ; as much as to say,
" Here shall I pitch my tent." By this time
a great many more are arriving; some on
horses, but most on camels ; and in tlie dis-
tance a formidable army is seen marching up,
pde-m^le, very fast. These are their families
and the bulk of the tribe, with their tents,
baggage, and camels ; some of the animals
carrying women or children ; others tents and
furniture; and an innumerable host following
quickly on foot. Those conveying the families
are accoutred accordiog to the wealth of the
owner. The camel of the Cheick carries a sort
of palanquin, in the shape of a canoe, placed
at length, and open in front, that the animal
may be guided in his course. This receptacle
usually contains three or four women, and as
many children ; these last in a state of nudity.
Each family now takes the direction of the
lance, which it knows, and, in an astonishingly
short time, a town appears to have been built.
The whole locality teems with life and bustle ;
men are shouting and talking; women are
getting things into order; whilst naked chil-
dren are running about and gambolling in the
water, wherever they can find a ditch.

The camp is pitched without the least regu-
larity, only the tent of the Cheick is in the
centre, and distinguished from the other tents
by its larger size. All the tents are made of
camel or goat-skins, without elegance or neat-
ness, fastened by two poles six feet high. The
interior is divided by a carpet, one half being
appropriated by the women, the other by the
men and for the reception of strangers. The
furniture consists of a few carpets, straw or
reed mats, which serve as a bed ; but some of
the poorer class sleep on the bare earth, only

23

ABABIAJ* HOESE.]

THE HOUSE, AND

[ababian nOBSE.

covered by a Tialas. The most necessary uten-
sils for cooking are striking addenda to the
Btoek of their household " goods and chattels."
These generally consist of a pot, of metal ; a
large metal or wooden plate ; a cup, of zinc or
wood, out of which they all drink without
being cleaned ; a coffee-pot of copper, and a
cask fabricated of camel-skins.

Simplicity in everything is one of the grand
characteristics of these nomades. In point of
dress, the men wear a long wide shirt until it ac-
tually becomes rotten ; nor do they ever take it
off except at night, when they lie on it, only
covered by a mechlas of coarse wool. They
also go about barefooted. The Anaze's Arabs,
however, display a little more taste. They
never leave their tents unarmed; and their
weapons consist of a sword, a gun, and a
lance; with axes, or other offensive weapons
with which they may defend themselves, or
destroy those upon whom they make war.

The women are habited in a long shift of blue
linen. They also draw a black veil to a knot
under the nose, and let it fall gently over their
bodies. This veil they often arrange in such a
manner as to show a large ring drawn through
the right nostril, and fastened with a chain to
the temple. They are fond of exhibiting their
lips, painted of a blue colour; and they have
many figures eii;;;raved on the chin, cheek,
nose, and neck. They never leave their tents
uncovered. In height they are above the
middle stature — walking nobly and gracefully,
with beautiful black eyes, which they have
the art of making appear larger than they
really are by painting the eyelids : their noses
are well formed ; but the other features of
their countenances are often disfigured by many
different marks. Their hands and arms are
always handsome ; but their feet are rather
broad, never having been compressed by shoes.
The children run about naked, the boys
wearing only a tightly laced girdle of leather
round their loins. The reason assigned for
this custom is, that it makes them strong,
enables them to run fast, and, by compressing

very hardy ; capable of fighting for a whole
day; suffering no injury, though constantly
exposed to the excessive heat of an almost
vertical sun, whilst engaged in exercising with
the lance, or wrestling with each other.

The women attend to the duties of the
household, and occupy themselves with weaving
and spinning. The affairs of the cuisine do
not take up much of their time ; for although
the Arabian is voracious, if an opportunity
offer for him to gratify himself with some-
thing that he likes, he rarely exceeds a pilau
of red rice with melted butter. To this, which
usually serves for dinner, sour milk, dates,
lioney, duphte, &c., are, now and then, added.
The women are obliged to grind the corn,
which they do by means of a rude species of
primitive haud-mill. The bread is baked in
flat cakes upon iron plates. The women fetch
the water, which is to be procured only at
times, and often at a great distance from their
tents. So far as cleanliness is concerned in
reference to their clothing, both sexes are alike
indifferent, generally to a disgusting extent.

In a religious point of view, though ex-
cessively superstitious, they are much less
devout than the Osmanlis. Many, however,
observe the Eamadan ; and they pray in com-
pany, ranged in one line, with a priest at their
head, who has a peculiar pride in converting
"the human face divine" into something as
hideous as possible. Their wealth consists of
camels and horses ; of a few herds of sheep
and goats, which yield them milk and butter ;
they also use camel's milk, but have no cows.
The number of camels is generally very con-
siderable— many possessing ten, twenty, and
upwards ; and the Cheick sometimes owns as
many as 300, of which he annually sells a
considerable number to the Turcomans, who,
it is said, have been known to purchase about
2,000, at the rate of 200, and 250 Turkish
piasters a-piece, from different Cheicks in the
desert. The evening return of the camels to
the camp affords a singular sight to a Euro-
pean. From 5,000 to G,000 of these camp
I attendants, followed by their young ones,

the stomach, does not allow them to eat so j
much as they would otherwise do, if nature gambol along the barren ground like goats;
were left to enjoy the freedom of her own j and their clumsy forms partake largely of the
conditions. The men also wear this belt. The I ludicrous when they endeavour to cast off
children are all usually finely made, none of their usual gravity, and begin to frisk about
them being hardly ever deformed. All are ! with all the wantonness of a young gazelle.
24 '

AEABiAN noESE.] MODERN VETERINAET PRACTICE. [peiisia.k nousE.

During the government of the AVahabees,
horses became scarcer and scarcer every year
among the Arabs. Foreigners rose to be large
purchasers of them, and carried them into
Yemen, Syria, and Bassora, which latter place
supplies India with Arabian steeds. The
reason assigned for their masters parting with
their animals was, that they were afraid of
having them taken from them by their chiefs ;
for it had become the custom, on every frivo-
lous pretext of disobedience or crime, to pro-
nounce the most valuable Bedouin mare for-
feited to the crown.

For the purchase of Arabian horses of true
blood, Syria holds the highest rank in the
opinion of judges ; and Nauran is considered
the best district, as the horse can there be pur-
chased at first-hand, on account of the Arabs
encamping there during the spring. For a
person, however, pursuing the trade as a profes-
sion, Damascus would be the best place to live
in. Those animals which are bought for the
Indian market at Bassora, are obtained at
second-hand from Bedouin dealers, who get
them from the Montifell Arabs, who do not
pay much attention to the preservation of
purity in the breed.

In considering the characteristic features in
the form of the Arab horse, there is a great
deal to excite admiration. His neck is long and
arched, and springs gracefully from the chest.
After the head, the shoulder is superior to
that of any other breed. The shoulder-blade
has a beautiful backward inclination ; and with-
out the smallest indication of clumsiness, is
thickly laid with muscle. The legs, though
fine and small, are strong and solid. In short,
every feature about him, marks his superiority,
and justifies the belief in his capability of
accomplishing many of the feats which have
been chronicled of him.

The comparative excellences of Oriental
horses are thus estimated by a writer in The
Sportsman: — "Taking the comparative excel-
lence of the diff'erent races, Nejid, between
the desert of Syria and Yemen, is generally
reckoned to produce the grandest, or noblest
horses. Hejaz, extending along the Red Sea,
from Mount Sinai to Yemen, and including
in it Medina and Mecca, the handsomest;
Yemen, on the coast of the Red Sea and the
Indian Ocean, and the most fertile part of

Arabia, the most durable; Syria, the richest
\r\ colour; Mesopotamia, the most quiet:
Egypt, the swiftest; Barbary, the most pro-
lific; and Persia and Koordistan, the mos*-.
warlike."

The introduction of the Arabian into En'>
land, and the influence he has had on our
own racing-blood, will be noticed in aaother
place.

THE PERSIAN HORSE.

When, in the days of antiquity, the Persian
horse was considered the best for cavalry in
the East, the improved Arabian breed had no
existence. He is of larger growth than the
Arabian, and his principal points are thus
described by Berenger : — " They are, in general,
small-headed; they have long and somewhat
too fine foreheads, and they are rather too
narrow-chested; their legs are a little small,
but their croups are well- fashioned, and their
hoofs good and firm. They are docile, quick,
light, bold, full of spirit, capable of enduring
much fatigue, swift, sure-footed, hardy in con«
stitution, and contented with almost any pro-
vender." This is a high character ; but since
the time when Berenger wrote, we believe this
breed has somewhat degenerated. It is this
animal which figures on the Assyrian sculp-
tures in the British Museum ; and it was one
of this species which Alexander the Great
received and esteemed as a valuable and most
acceptable present. Under the reign of Cyrus
they became remarkable for the splendour of
their trappings. In Sketches of Persia, by
Sir John Malcolm, he says, that a variety of
horses are now produced in Persia ; but that
the inhabitants of the districts which border
on the G-ulf, still preserve, in a state of purity,
those races of animals which their ancestors
brought from the opposite shore of Arabia.
In Ears and Irak there is a mixed breed from
the Arabian, which, though stronger, is still
a small horse compared with either the Toorko-
man or Khorassan breeds, which, by the sol-
diers of Persia, are most prized. Both of these
latter races have a large proportion of Arabian
blood in them.

Sir R. Ker Porter gives the following ac-
count of the Persian horses, and the mode
in which they are managed : —

•' The Persian horses never exceed fourteen

25

PERSIAN HOBSE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[PERSIAN nORSE.

or fourteen and a-half hands high, yet cer-
tainly, on the whole, are taller than the Arabs.
Those of the desert and country about Hillah
run very small, but are full of bone and of
good speed. The general custom is to feed
and water them at sunrise and sunset, when
they are cleaned. Their usual provender is
barley and chopped straw, which, if the animals
are piqueted, is put into a nose-bag, and hung
from their heads ; but, if stabled, it is thrown
into a small lozenge-shaped hole, left in the
thickness of the mud-wall for that purpose,
but much higher up than the line of our
mano-ers; and there the animal eats at his
leisure. Hay is a kind of food not known
here. The bedding of the horse consists of
his dung. After beiug exposed to the drying
influence of the sun during the day, it be-
comes pulverised, and, in that state, is nightly
spread under him. Little of it touches his
body, that being covered by his clothing— a
.arge nummud from the ears to the tail, and
bound firmly round his body by a very long
surcingle. But this apparel is only for cold
weather; in the warmer season the night-
clothes are of a lighter substance ; and during
the heat of the day, the animal is kept entirely
under the shade.

"At night he is tied in the court-yard.
The horses' heads are attached to the place
of security by double ropes from their halters,
and the heels of their hinder legs are confined
by cords of twisted hair, fastened to iron rings
and pegs driven into the earth. The same
custom prevailed in the time of Xenophon,
and for the same reason — to secure them from
being able to attack and maim each other, the
whole stud, generally, consisting of stallions.
Their keepers, however, always sleep on their
rugs amongst them, to prevent accident : and
sometimes, notwithstanding all this care, they
manage to break loose, and then the combat
ensues. A general neighing, screaming, kick-
ing, and snorting, rouses the grooms, and the
scene for awhile is terrible. Indeed no one
can conceive the sudden uproar of such a
moment, who has not been in Eastern coun-
tries to hear it. They seize, bite, and kick each
other with the most determined fury, and
frequently cannot be separated before their
heads and haunches stream with blood. Even
in skirmishes with the natives, their horses
, 26

take part in the fray, tearing each other with
their teeth, while their masters are in similar
close quarters on their backs."

To see a specimen of the race-running Per-
sian horse, greatly excited the curiosity of Sir
E. K. Porter. Accordingly, he went to the
races ; and as the sovereign was to be present,
doubtless the best animals which the country
could produce, had entered the lists. The
contending horses were divided into three
sets, for the purpose of lengthening the sport ;
and they had been in training several weeks,
often going over the ground on which they
were to run in that time. The consequence
of this was, that when the day on which they
were to run came, they were so reduced iu
weight, that their bodies were nearly cutting
the skin. The distance marked for the race
was rather longer than the distances chalked
out by our sportsmen of Epsom, or New-
market, or Doncaster celebrity. It was twenty-
four miles ; and that his majesty might not
have to wait unamused when he arrived in the
field, the horses had set forward long before,
by three divisions, from the starting-point —
a short interval of time having been allowed
to pass between each set — so that they might
begin to come in a few minutes after the mon-
arcli had taken his seat. The different divi-
sions arrived at the goal in regular order, but
in such a state of fatigue and exhaustion, that
their former boasted fleetness hardly exceeded
a moderate canter when they passed before
the royal eyes.

In almost every book of travels that we read,
connected with those countries where the Ara-
bian and his steed are found, anecdotes illus-
trative of that great admiration and ardour of
affection which the rider has for his animal,
are abundant. The following are given by Sir
John Maxwell: — "An envoy had returned
from his mission, and taken up his encamp-
ment near Bagdad, when an Arab, riding a
bright bay mare of extraordinary shape and
beauty before his tent, attracted his atten-
tion. The Arab, on being asked if he would
sell her, said — ' A¥hat will you give me?'
' That depends upon her age ; I suppose she
is past five ? ' ' Guess again,' said he. ' Eour ? '
' Look at her mouth,' said the Arab with a
smile. On examination she was found to
be rising three. This, from her size and

INDIAN HOUSES.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [indian horses.

symmetry greatly eulianced her value. The breed from

envoy said, ' I will give you fifty tomaiia,' a
coin nearly of the value of a pound sterling.
'A little more, if you please,' said the fellow,
apparently entertained. * Eighty — a hundred.'
He shook his head and smiled. The offer at
Jasfc came to 200 tomans! 'AVell,' said the
Arab, 'you need not tempt me further; it is
of no use. Tou are a rich e/c/^ee (nobleman).
You have fine horses, camels, and mules ; and
I am told you have loads of silver and gold.
Now,' added he, 'you want my mare, but you
shall not have her for all you have got.' "

Who can help admiring the disinterestedaffec-
tion of this semi-savage for his animal! Again —
"An Arab sheik or chief, who lived within
fifty miles of Bussora, had a favourite breed of
horses. He lost one of his best mares, and
could not for a long while discover whether
she was stolen or had strayed. Some time
after, a young man of a different tribe, who
had long wished to marry his daughter, but
had always been rejected by the sheik, ob-
tained the lady's consent, and eloped with her.
The sheik and his followers pursued; but the
lover and his mistress, mounted on one horse,
made a wonderful march, and escaped. The
old chief swore that the fellow was either
mounted upon the devil, or the favourite mare
he had lost. After his return he found the
latter was the case; that the lover was the
thief of his mare as well as of his daughter ;
and that he stole the one to carry off the other.
The chief was quite gratified to think he had
not been beaten by a mare of another breed ;
and was easily reconciled to the young man,
in order that he might recover his mare, which
•appeared an object about which he was more
solicitous than about his daughter."

HORSES OF INDIA AND THE EASTERN
ARCHIPELAGO.

In India there seems to be a considerable
variety of breeds of horses. The performances
of a few of the races, whether in the point of
speed or bottom, are very far from being con-
temptible, even when compared with some of
our own. In such a climate, where every
European must of necessity be mounted, it
becomes of importance, for the army as well
as civilians, that proper attention should be
paid to the selection of the best horses to.

r
the

Although they are, in general,
small, they exhibit ail the evidences of having
descended from a good stock.

The editor of The Horse, published undo
the superintendence of the Society for
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, says—

" The Toorky, originally frona aToorkoman
and a Persian, is beautiful in his form, graceful
in his action, and docile in his temper. It is
said that, when skilfully managed, the grandeur
and stateliness of his carriage are equal to
what the warmest imagination can conceive of
the horse ; his spirit rising as his exertions are
required, he exhibits to his beholders an appear-
ance of fury in the performance of his task, yet
preserving to his rider the utmost grace, play
fulness, and gentleness.

"Next comes the Iranee, well limbed, and
his joints closely knit, and particularly powerful
in the quarters, but with scarcely sufficient
spirit, and his ears large and loose.

" The patient and docile Cozakee is deep in
the girth, powerful in the fore-arm, but with
large head, and sadly cat-hammed ; hardy, and
calculated for long journeys and severe service.
"The Mojinniss have spirit, beauty, speed,
and perseverance.

"The Tazsee is slight, hollow-backed, and,
for that reason perhaps, although deficient in
strength, and leaving as it were his hind legs
behind him, and likewise irritable in temper,
yet sought after on account of the peculiar
easiness of his pace."

A sale of horses, near the Company's stud,
at Hissar, is thus described by an excellent
judge: — '"'Not less than 1,000 horses were
shown. They were all above fourteen hands
and a-half in height, high-crested, and showy-
looking horses. The great defect seemed a
want of bone below the knee, which is, indeed,
general to all the native horses throughout
India ; and also so great a tendency to fulness
in the hocks, that, in England, it would be
thought half of them had blood spavins."

A writer in the Sportsman s Magazine, ex-
presses himself indifierently upon the qualities
of the horses in the East Indies : —

"The small Mahratta horse," he says, "is
an active, serviceable little beast; but, in ten
cases out of twenty, extremely vicious, but will
often make a capital hunter, in fact, being the
only horse in India worth his keep ; the larger

27

HfDIAN nOESES.]

THE HOKSE, AND

[INDIAN HORSES.

horses from Hindostan being adapted only for
the capering of a native Souwarree. They are
leggy, under-limbed, and, as far as vice goes,
regular man-eaters.

"The horses from Guzerat and Cutch are
certainly endowed with greater amiability of
disposition, but are more calculated for pur-
poses of display and parade than for anything
else. The natives are very partial to this
breed, and give long prices for them — frequently
as much as two or three thousand rupees.
They blow them out to an enormous size, by
feeding them on a composition which must be
anything but agreeable to the palate of the
horse. This consists of a kind of paste, made
of pounded grain and sheep's head, wherewith
the poor animal is crammed like a turkey.
The end of the flowing tail, generally reaching
the ground, is dyed of a deep-red colour; a
cruelly sharp bit is put into his mouth ; he is
buried under a ton of bedding covered with
crimson cloth, doing duty for saddle ; and, thus
caparisoned, he is deemed fit to carry one of
the 'pillars of the state.' It is a pretty
sight to see a Souwarree, or procession, accom-
panied by a cavalcade thus mounted. On
such occasions, the individuals forming the
pageant, take every opportunity of displaying
their horsemanship — a cavalier occasionally
darting from the crowd at the top of his
speed, and as suddenly pulling his horse on his
haunches in the midst of his headlong career ;
then wheeling about, and still at full speed,
describing, in an incredibly small space, the
difficult figure of eight, with all the apparent
ease of a graceful skater."

It is unnecessary to specify the excellences
of some of the individual horses which have
acquired celebrity in this country. It is enougli
to say that, generally, they have been found
possessed of sufficient stoutness to carry the
Mahratta warriors tlirough the turmoil of
many a hard-fought day, before their power
was broken by the fall of Seringapatam, or the
death of Tippoo Saib, in 1792. The Mahratta
army was principally composed of cavalry ; and
to see a troop of them, with their knees as hi»h
as the backs of their horses ; their heels firmly
adhering to the horses' sides, and their hands
clinging to the manes or the peaks of their
saddles, is anything but a graceful specimen
of horsemanship. His seat, however, is made
28

perfectly secure by the Mahratta; for, like
practice in everything else, he becomes, as it
were, "to the manner born," and feels suffi-
ciently safe in his seat to impress those who
see him with the idea that he is both secure
and comfortable.

Most of the horses in the East are picketed
during the day, as well as during the night ;
and a rope is carried from each side of the
head-stall, and fastened to a peg driven into
the ground. To the hinder fetlocks a rope is
also tied and fastened to a peg, twenty or
thirty yards behind the animal. Their eyes
are kept covered, and their bodies clothed in
such a way as to presei've the beautiful glossy
appearance of their coats.

In the caparisons of his horse the Mahratta
displays the usual Oriental taste for show and
magnificence. The breast of the animal ia
adorned with especial splendour ; and numerous
coins of diftereut sizes and value are fashioned
into plates, which hang and glitter from his
breast, and very often form a rich booty to his
conqueror. The mane is usually plaited and
braided with silk, decorated with silver knobs,
and terminating in a beautiful top-knot rising
between the ears. Should the warrior happen
to have distinguished himself against his
enemies, a few curious tails, said to have been
taken from the wild cow, very likely will be
found hanging on each side.

"With this Eastern region the imagination na-
turally associates everything that is vast, not
only in regard to the physical features of the
country, but in regard to the riches it possesses,
and the undertakings of its inhabitants. Its
rivers are amongst the largest in the world,
and its mountain-peaks are the loftiest ; its
plains the most extensive, its valleys the most
luxui'iant, and its forests realising all "the
pomp of groves" described by the poet. It is
called by Milton " the gorgeous East," which
showered on her kings barbaric pearl and gold ;
and is the country of the largest as well as the
fiercest of quadrupeds. It has given to the
world the most magnificent bird — the peacock
— of all the feathered tribes; and has, also,
in the institutions of its people, exhibited
more instances of gross superstition, revolting
cruelty, and deep degradation, than any land
on the face of the earth. Its horses, however,
are inferior to tue English breed. Even its

INDIAN HOESES." MODEEN VETEEIN-ART PRACTICE. [ikdian nonsEa.

imported Arabians succumb to the stamina of
our "islanders," whicb are novr, unquestionably,
the finest animals in the world.

To the east of our Indian empire, in Burmah,
Siam, and China, horses are yet of a smaller
breed ; and those of China are usually poor-
spirited, meek, and not well made. In Moore's
Notices of the Indian Arcliipelago, we are
assured that, in every country lying to tlie
east of the Burrampooter, and south of the
tropic, the horse, however diversified, is little
better than a pony. "This fact," says a
writer in the Museum of Animated Nature,
" after quitting Bengal, is first noticed in the
countries of Cassay, Ava, and Pegu. Here
the horse seldom equals thirteen hands high ;
but is active, spirited, and well formed. As
we proceed to the south and west, the horse
becomes more diminutive; and those of Lao,
Siam, and the southern provinces of China, are
inferior in size and beauty to those of Ava
and Pegu. The Siamese and Cochin Chinese
have no cavalry, and make no use of their
ponies, except for riding, on ordinary occasions.
Even for this last purpose they are not esteemed,
the elephant being always preferred as a more
respectable and dignified mode of conveyance.
In the Malayan peninsula there are no plains or
roads ; and the inhabitants, living almost ex-
clusively on the low and woody banks of the
rivers, naturally substitute their canoes and
boats for beasts of carriage and burden ; and
hence the horse has not yet been naturalised
amongst them. Proceeding eastward in the
Malayan islands, the horse first occurs in the
interior of Sumatra ; and here we have two of
the best breeds known in those countries — the
Achin and Batta, both very spirited, but small
and better suited for draught than saddle.

" Of all the countries of the Archipelago, the
horse is most frequent in the island of Java.
The Javanese pony is generally larger than
that of Sumatra, and has more the form of a
horse — is more temperate, and less gay and

* This is the finest and most valuable island of the
Indian Archipelago, and is divided, nearly in its whole
length, by a range of volcanic mountains, attaining the
height of 8,000 feet above the sea. This range ap-
proaches nearest the southern coast, rising into high and
rugged hills, against which the surf dashes violently ; so
that, with the exception of a few bays, where a landing
on the island can be obtained, it is otherwise inaccessible.
On the northern side of this mountain ridge the surface

handsome. Two distinct races may be de-
scribed— one of the plains, and one of tho
mountains. The first is somewhat coarse,
and sluggish in disposition, and bo large as
occasionally to reach the height of thirteen
hands and an inch. The second is small and
hardy, and, as in the case of tlie Kuninghan —
a breed in the interior of Cheribon — soii^etimcs
very handsome, and giving great pleasure to
the eye by his general appearance."

In Java the horse is used both for tho
saddle and as a beast of burden ; but tho
natives never use him for agricultural pur-
poses, or, indeed, for any species of draught.
By Europeans, however, he is extensively used
in carriages ; and on the level and well-con-
structed roads of Java, four of them will draw
a carriage at the rate of twelve, and even
fifteen miles an hour. There is, however, no
real advantage in employing this diminutive
breed for such a purpose, as a pair of Euglisli
post-horses, on the same roads, will go as far
and as fast without the slightest difficulty.
To accomplish this in a carriage of the same
weight as the English horses would draw,
would require twelve Javanese ponies. One
horse, therefore, is equal to six ponies ; and as,
at the utmost, a full-grown horse will not
consume above twice the quantity of food
required for a pony, the charge of maintaining
him, in proportion to the work he is capable
of performing, is no more than one-third.

The horse, but of an inferior breed, is found
on the islands of Bali and Sombolk; also in
the island of Samharra, where there are two
different races — those of Samboro and Bima.
The last, especially those of Gunong Api, are
by far the handsomest breed of the Archi-
pelago, and are extensively exported. Passing
Samharra, the horse is traced to Elores, Sandal-
wood island, and Timor ; but nowhere further
to the east, being unknown in the Moluccas,
New Guinea, and the neighbouring islands.
Next to Java,* the horse is found in greatest

is low and swampy, intersected by a great number of
rivers and fine bays, where good anchorage is obtained, in
moderate depth, during the south-east monsoon. The
mouths of all the rivers, however, are choked up with
mud or sand-banks ; and when they are swelled by the
torrents, they inundate all the low lands. The eastern
extremity of the island is but thinly inhabited, and very
little cultivated. All the European settlements are on
the northern coast; but a magnificent mihtary road, con.

29

rNDIAIf HOUSES,]

HRE HOESE, AND

[INDIAN HOUSES.

abundance on the Celebes, the breed of which
is, on the whole, pronounced the best in the
Archipelago.

Within the Eastern Archipelago, as in other
parts of the world, the colour of the horse
has a singular connection with temper, quality,
and locality. The prevailing colour of the
Archive ponies is piebald, which becomes
rarer and rarer as we proceed eastward. A
Eima pony of this colour is as rarely seen as
a black Arab. The prevailing colour of the
Batta pony is bay and mouse-colour. In
Java the best horses are those of the most
prevalent colours— namely, bays and greys;
the roan and mouse-coloured liorses are very
generally good. The worst colours are black
and chesnut. The Javanese have such a
dislike to the latter colour, that chesnut horses
are not permitted to appear at their public
tournaments. Bays, greys, and duns, are the
best and most frequent colours in the Bima
ponies. Blacks and chesnuts are not frequent,
but they are not considered inferior. Greys
and bays prevail among the ponies of Celebes
and the Philippines, nearly to the exclusion of
all others. In the plains of Celebes herds of
wild horses exist — no doubt the descendants of
a domesticated stock.

Of the speed of the Arab horses in India,
we have the following account of an extraor-
dinary match, for 1,000 rupees, which arose
out of a conversation amongst several oCBcers
in one of the performances of the late Mr.
Osbaldeston. The distance to be run was
seventy miles in four hours and ten minutes,
and the number of horses was to be unlimited.

Eleven horses, the number which it was
proposed to employ in the match, were, in the
course of a couple of days, mustered by the
parties and their friends, and were exercised
■every morning on the race-course here for the
short time intervening between the making
and coming off of the match.

structed by the Dutch, traverses the whole length of the
island. For upwards of a century the Dutch remained
in undisturbed possession of Java, where, however, their
rule was most oppressive and odious to the natives ; but
in August, 1811, a British force took by storm Batavia,
their capital, and the whole colony subsequently sur-
rendered. Under the government of Sir Stamford Raffles,
whose memory is held by the inhabitants in affectionate
Veneration, the prosperity of the island rapidly increased.
But in 1816 it was restored to its former masters.

30

The backers of Old Time were numerous ;
and, in fact, the general opinion was that the
match would not be won: the grounds for
which were, that the roads were known to bo
in a bad state ; that the Bore Ghaut, a steep
and winding descent of four miles, with a
precipice on one side of the road, had to be
passed ; added to which, was the probability,
nay almost certainty, of obstruction from the
droves of bullocks carrying grain up the
country, with which the road is usually at
this season thronged. It was, moreover, sup-
posed that the horses in training were by no
means equal to the performance ; and that an
accident, of which there appeared more than
a probability, would infallibly lose the match.

From the confidence of the parties them-
selves, however, the betting, at starting, was
even on the match being performed in four
hours ten minutes ; three to two against four
hours ; three to one against three hours fifty
minutes ; and ten to one that it was not
won in three hours and thirty minutes.

On the first making of the match, two
watches on the chronometer principle, which
had been selected for the occasion, had been
placed in the hands of a watchmaker; and
these having been set on the day preceding
the match, one was taken on in the mail to
Pauwell by the umpire, whilst the other was
reserved for the start at Poena.

At a quarter past five o'clock in the morning
of the day appointed for the event to " come
ofi"," Mr. Eawlinson, riding twelve stone,
appeared at the starting- place; and the word
"oflf" having been given, the match com-
menced.

Only one, and that not a very large drove of
bullocks, was met between Poena and Ehan-
dalla; the distance, forty-four miles, having
been performed in exactly two hours, without
any accident having occurred. Here a violent
horse had been injudiciously stationed; and

The population is estimated by the British surveys at
more than 5,000,000. The inhabitants consist of Java-
nese, who inhabit the interior parts, and are in general
the cultivators of the soil ; Malays, Chinese, Dutch,
English, and mixed castes. The Chinese are shopkeepers
and traders. The Malays are altogether a servile race,
and are the servants and drudges of the colonists. The
Javanese are of the Hindoo family, their language being
a dialect of the Sanscrit ; and their religion is Moham-
medanism, wlvich they embraced about three centuries ago.

TOOKKOMAN noESE.] MODERN VETERINABY PRACTICE. [TunKisn nonsE.

immediately on his being mounted, the curb
turned round in his mouth, and he ran away
with his rider the v?hole way down the Ghaut ;
but lucidly was, after two or three narrow
escapes, pulled up safe at Kolapoor. The last
horse, when within a couple of miles of home,
suddenly leapt off the road into the fields,
and alighting on bad ground, fell. No injury,
however, was sustained by either horse or
rider, who immediately remounted, and arrived
in Pauwell at twenty-eight minutes to nine
o'clock— thus winning the original match with
fifty-three minutes to spare.

The horse which ran between Wargaon and
Carli, was the only one of those employed in
the match which had ever appeared on the

turf. J

The match was ridden with great nerve and
judgment throughout by Mr. Rawlinson, son
of Mr. Rawlinson, of Chadlington, Oxford-
shire ; and the horses were Arabs belonging to
the officers.

THE TOORKOMAN HORSE.
Turkistan is that part of South Tartary
north-east of the Caspian Sea ; and has been
celebrated, from early times, for producing a
pure and very valuable breed of horses. They
are called Toorkomans ; and are said to be pre-
ferable even to the pure Persians for service.
They are large, standing from fifteen to sixteen
hands high; swift, and iuexhaustible under
fatif'ue. Seme of them have travelled 900
miles in eleven successive days. They, how-
ever, are somewhat too small in the barrel ;
too long on the legs ; occasionally ewe-necked,
and always have a head largely out of pro-
portion-, yet such are the good qualities of
the animals, that one of the pure blood is
worth two or three hundred pounds, even in
that country.

The inhabitants of this country generally
lead the same sort of life as their ancestors,
being norcades, or wanderers. They dwell in
tents, which are removed from place to place
as their lands become exhausted and pasturage
fails to supply them with their necessities, or
as they themselves "increase and multiply,"
and their flocks become too numerous; when,
like Abraham and Lot, they separate— the one
party going to the right, and the other to
the left. The flesh of the sheep and the horse

forms their chief article of aubaistcnce ; for, aa
the poet says, the Tartar first rides his horse,
then eats him. To him the horse is, of all
animals, the most valuable. What the camel
is to the Arab, and the reindeer to the Lap-
lander, the horse is to him the prime source
of his wealth.

Captain Eraser, in his journey to Khorassan,
thus relates the impression which these horsea
made on him : — " They are deficient in compact-
ness ; their bodies are long in proportion to their
bulk ; they are not well ribbed up ; they aro
long on the legs ; deficient in muscle ; falling
off below the knee ; narrow-chested ; long-
necked ; head large, uncouth, and seldom well
put on. Such was the impression I received
from the first of them, and it was not for somo
time that their superior valuable qualities were
apparent to me."

Mr. John Lawrence says, that it is related,
on the authority of a certain Prussian count,
that a German prince having, with the utmost
care and expense, raised a most valuable breed
of horses from a son of the well-known English
racer, Morwick Ball, it was one of the first
imperial acts of Napoleon I. to honour the
proprietor with a military order to have tho
whole of them marched to Prance, which was
promptly executed.

On the same authority it is stated, that an
Arabian horse was obtained in Germany (pro-
bably by the way of Turkey and Hungary),
which proved superior, for the beauty, strength,
and worth of the stock he produced, to any
which had been before known in that country.
The name of this famous stallion was Turk,
mainatti, a name in equal estimation, in Ger-
many, with that of the Godolphin Arabian in
England. The valuable stock of this horse
has spread over the country; and young
Turkmaiuatti, some time, ably supported tho
honour of his family.

It is not unreasonable to suppose that
this horse was a native of the country we
have just been describing, instead of an
Arabian. It is, however, from Arabian Bures
that the Toorkomans trace their breed.

THE TURKISH HORSE.
The Turkish horse is descended princi-
pally from the Arab, crossed by the Persian
and certain other bloods. The body however,

TUEKISH HOESE.]

THE HOESE, A.ND

[tUEKISH HOESE.

is even longer than the Arabian's, and the
crupper more elevated. He has contributed
materially to the improvement of the English
breed. The Byerley and the Helrasley Turk,
are names familiar to every one conversant
with horses, and connected with our best blood.
Asiatic Turkey is the largest and most
valuable portion of the Ottoman empire, oc-
cupying the central part of the temperate
zone in the west of Asia, He has no country
more interesting, and few richer in historical
remembrances, whether sacred or profane.
The garden of Eden is, by many topographical
writers, supposed to have been situated be-
tween the point where the junction of the
Tigris and the Euphrates takes place, and
the Persian Gulf; hence it becomes the re-
puted scene of the primitive creation of man.
Here, according to them, Adam and Eve were,
in a state of innocence, placed.

" His fair large front and eye sublime, declared
Absolute rule ; and hyacinthine locks
Round from his parted forelock manly hung,
Clustering, but not beneath his shoulders broad ;
She, as a veil, down to the slender waist
Her unadorn'd golden tresses wore
Dishevell'd."

Both Europe and America received from
this land their religion and their letters ; the
former from Palestine, and the latter from
Phoenicia; and the principal events in the
life of our Saviour, took place within its
boundaries.

The inhabitants of a country bo eminent in
renown, and so high in arts and civilisation,
must, at a very early period, have had the
horse reduced to a state of domestication.
Here was the Assyrian empire, one of the
greatest of antiquity ; and here Nineveh, its
capital, was laid waste in accordance with the
denunciations of the prophet Nahum. From
these remote times, the Turkish horse has
been a prominent object in war ; and no animal
has a more majestic, a more noble and brilliant
appearance when carrying his rider, and ex-
hibiting his costly caparisons.

Evelyn, the author of Sijlva, thus describes
one of these animals which had been sent over
to England in the reign of Charles II., and
which he seems to have been fortunate enough
to have seen. " I never beheld so delicate a
creature !" he exclaims ; " somewhat of a bright
32

bay, two white feet, a blaze; such a head,
eyes, ears, neck, breast, belly, haunches, legs,
pastern, and feet ; in all respects beautiful, and
proportioned to admiration ; spirited, proud,
nimble, making halt, turning with that swift-
ness, and in so small a compass, as was
admirable." The learned and benevolent Bus-
bequius, who was ambassador at Constantinople
in the seventeenth century, is equal to Evelyn
in his admiration of the Turkish horse.

" There is no creature so gentle as a Turkish
horse, nor more respectful to his master, or
the groom that dresses him. The reason ia,
because they treat their horses with great
lenity. I myself saw, when I was in Pontus,
passing through a part of Bithynia called
Axilos, towards Cappadocia, how indulgent
the countrymen v.ere to young colts, and how
kindly they used them soon after they were
foaled. They would stroke them, bring them
into their houses, and almost to their tables,
and use them even like children. They hung
something like a jewel about their necks, and
a garter, which was full of amulets against
poison, which they are most afraid of. The
grooms that dress them are as indulgent as
their masters; they frequently sleek them
down with tlieir hands, and never use a cudgel
to bang their sides, but in case of necessity.
This makes their horses great lovers of man-
kind ; and they are so far from kicking, wincing,
or growing untractable by this gentle usage,
that you will hardly find a masterless horse
amongst them.

"But, alas! our Christian grooms' horses
go on at another rate. They never think them
rightly curried till they thunder at them with
their voices, and let their clubs or horsewhips,
as it were, dwell on their sides. This makes
some horses even tremble when their keepers
come into their stable ; so that they hate and
fear them too. But the Turks love to have
their horses so gentle, that at the word of
command they may fall on their knees, and in
this position receive their riders.

" They will take up a staff or club upon the
road with their teeth, which their rider has
let fall, and hold it up to him again; and
when they are perfect in this lesson, then, for
credit, they have rings of silver hung on their
nostrils, as a badge of honour and good dis-
cipline. I saw some horses, when their master

TUBKiSH HORSE.] M 0 D E R N V ETERIN AR Y PR ACT I C E. [tuekisu iiorsk.

was fallen from the saddle, stand stock still,
without wagging a foot, till he got up again.
Another time I saw a groom standing at a
distance, in the midst of a whole ring of
horses ; and I saw some horses, when tlieir
master was at dinner with me in an upper
room, prick up their ears to hear his voice ;
and when they did so, they neighed for joy."

There can be no doubt that the law of
kindness, constantly operating upon the horse,
has the best possible influence on the dis-
position of the animal, and inspires him with
sentiments of a correspondingly amiable de-
scription. The Turks have him so docile
and tractable, that they do not hesitate to
play at ball, with a goif-stick, on his back.
This game is played both in Turkey and
Syria, and proves the perfect state of training
to which the horse has been brought, as the
smallest touch of the bridle makes it wheel,
gallop at full speed, or suddenly stop, as the
will of the rider commands.

In Syria, and other parts of western Asia,
the horse is fed upon chopped straw and
barley ; and of this provender a certain quantity
is given morning and evening, none being sup-
plied in the interim. " In the spring season,
the horses are fed, from forty to fifty days, on
green barley, cut as soon as the corn begins
to ear. This is termed lying down to grass ;
during which time the animals remain con-
stantly exposed in the open air ; and for the
first eight or ten days are neither curried,
mounted, nor led about. After this they are

* Of the various tribes inhabiting Syria, some are
indiscriminately found everywhere, whilst others are con-
fined to particular sites. The Greeks proper people
certain villages, and form a class of labourers for the
country, and drudges for the towns. In many respects
they resemble the Irish, and are, like them, " the hewers
of wood and the drawers of water.'' The Maronites form
a corps of the nation which occupies almost exclusively
the territory comprised between Nahr-el-Kelb and Nahr-
el-Bared, a region extending from the summit of the
mountains on the east, to the Mediterranean on the
west. The bordeiing tribes, the Druses, occupy the
space from Nahr-el-Kelb to Sour, the ancient Tyre. The
country of the Metualis comprehends the valley of Becka,
as far as Sour. But this tribe is now dispersed, and
likely to become extinct. As for the Ausarichs, they
are scattered over the mountains of Autakieh, chiefly in
the paslialic of Tripoli. The wandering or pastoral
tribes abound principally in the plain of Antioch ; the
Kurds, in the mountains situated between Alexandretta
end the Euphrates ; and the Bedouin Arabs, on all the

dressed as usual, and rode out gently ; but are
never much worked during the grass season.
Some feed the horses witli cut barley in the
stable-yards; but the general practice is to
confine them to a certain circuit by means of
a long tether, in the barley-field. This grazing
is considered of great service to the health of
the horse, and imparts a beautiful gloss to
his coat."

Everywhere in Asia Minor, as well as in
Arabia, Persia, and neighbouring countries,
we meet with anecdotes which indicate, to an
extraordinary extent, the affection which the
natives bear for the horse. Burchardt relates
a story which, whilst it places the speed and
endurance of one in an eminent point of view,
at the same time, shows how even an enemy
will express his admiration of an animal ridden
by his foe. " A troop of Druses* on horseback,
attacked, in the summer of 1815, a party of
Beoouins, and pursued them to their encamp-
ment ; the Bedouins were then assisted by a
superior force ; and becoming the assailants in
their turn, killed all the Druses except one,
who fled. He was pursued by some of the
best mounted Bedouins; but his mare, although
fatigued, could not be overtaken. Before his
pursuers gave up the chase, they called to
him, and begged to be permitted to kiss his
excellent mare, promising him safe-conduct
for her sake. He might have taken them at
their word ; for the pledge of an Arab, in such
circumstances, might have been relied on; he,
however, refused. They immediately left the

frontier of Syria adjacent to their deserts, and in the
plains of Palestine. The nation is divided into two
classes; the people, and the Cheiks or nobles. They live
in the mountains, villages, hamlets, and isolated houses.
The country is essentially agricultural ; each inhabitant
has the :ight over his own farm or pasturage ; the Cheiks
are only distinguished from the other natives by a variety
in their dress. In other respects they have the same
rights and privileges. Among the Maronites there are
neither mendicants nor robbers, as among the Arabs;
and both by day and night the traveller may pursue his
course unmolested. They are monogamous ; and, like
the Persians, choose their wives without seeing them.
Although Christians, they preserve the Arabic custom of
the tahori : and the next of kin of the man assassinated,
has the right of taking his revenge. According to a recent
census, the Maronite population is estimated at 120.000
souls, of whom the men bearing arms amount to 30,000 —
a considerable population for a district measuring some
150 square miles, and abounding in rocks, and all tbo
beauties of natural scenery.

3t

TUEKISH HOESE.]

THE HOESE, AIN'D

[etjssiaw hohsb.

pursuit, and blessing the noble beast, cried
out to the fugitive, ' Go and wash the feet of
your mare, and drink off the water.' This
expression is often used by the Bedouins to
show the regard they have for their mares."

Some of the Turkish, as well as Toorkoman
horses, incline to have white legs, against
which there is a prejudice held by a great
many English grooms — on what account we are
not aware, as the celebrated horse Bucephalus,
of Alexander the Great, we believe was a
skewbald. A writer in the Sporting Magazine
thus combats this prejudice: — "Turn to the
banks of the Euphrates — to the decayed, but
once splendid seats of the caliphs of the
Black Banner — to the cradle of the Arabian
Tales — to the Queen of the East, Bagdad,
the beloved capital of the great Haroun al
Easched^and there we have a breed of horses
uniting the fire of the Persian, with the sym-
metry and enduring qualities of the desert
breed. Go further to the southward ; cross
the great river ; roam among the settled tribes
who have pitched their tents on the very verge
of civilisation, near unto the great cities, the
dwellings of slaves, as they are not inaptly
termed by the Bedouins; and you may lay
your hands on the flowing manes of a race
of horses — all chesnut, with the starting pro-
minent eye like an ember glowing, * full of fire
and full of bone,' and all singularly and in-
variably stamped with the peculiar distinctive
marks of their caste — the white blazed face
and white legs (generally three) ; white up to
the knee — perhaps the ancestors of the great
Eclipse; a chesnut also, with these remarkable
marks, and which sometimes break forth in
his most distinguished descendants — to wit
Sultan, his son Beiram, Harkaway, and a
number of winners of our great stakes."

The Turkish horse is sometimes harnessed
to carriages, in the Ottoman empire, where the
art of coach-building is still in its infancy— a
circumstance which is accounted for by the
sedentary character of Turkish habits. The
secluded manner of life to which the women
of this country are subjected, applies also to
the habit of the head of the family himself As
for journeys or promenades, they are in accord-
ance with the jealous manners of the people,
who restrict their rambles to parks or secluded
retreats in the environs of mansions. In cop
34

sequence, carriages are so rarely used that they
are comparatively useless ; nevertheless, they
are to be found as accessories to the best estab-
lishments, where they are employed to convey
the ladies from the harems to the mosques, to
the public baths, and the resorts of pleasure,
possessed by the richest Turks in the environs
of their residences, or to their country seats in
the neighbourhood. For such purposes it is
not necessary that the carriages should be of
substantial build, similar to those subjected
to the wear and tear of London streets. It;
is, in general, one of these slim vehicles, with
its dais covered with drapery, and with decora-
tions, reminding us of the French carriage of
the seventeenth century.

The Turks prefer horses for riding ; whilst
the Arabs prefer mares. According to Burc-
hardt, the price of an Arab horse, in 1810 —
1816 was from £10 to £120. Some, however,
have brought £500 ; and Burchardt mentions
a sheik who paid £400 for a mare, and agreed
to give to the seller the first female colt she
produced, or to keep the colt and return the
mare.

THE CIRCASSIAN HORSE.

On the plains of Circassia, large herds of
horses, and flocks of sheep, are reared for pur-
poses of commerce by the Tcherkesses. The
most valuable breed of the former has a con-
siderable amount of both strength and speed ;
and is distinguished by having a mark upon it,
of a full horse-shoe. Each breed has some
peculiar mark ; to forge which, or place it on
an inferior animal, is punishable with death.
Most of the wealthiest families make it their
aim to have a peculiar breed of horses for them-
selves, and, in their own estimation, consider
it as excelling that of any other tribe.

THE RUSSIAN HORSE.

The Eussian empire comprises all the north
part of Asia, and a large portion of Europe,
In point of physical extent, it is the largest
empire in the world, embracing an area ex-
tending from the 18th to the 170th degree of
east longitude, and from about the 44th degree
of north latitude to the Frozen Ocean. In a
country so extensive, it is not to be expected
that the horse presents, to our observation, the
same features in one place, that it does in

BTTSSiAK HOESB.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [Russian hobsk.

another. Those animals devoted to the pur-
poses of pleasure, as well as those which form
the heavy cavalry, are, originally, mostly the
descendants of Cossack blood, but greatly im-
proved by having been crossed with Poland,
Prussian, Holstein, and English blood. The
horses forming the lighter cavalry, are, as they
have ever been, mostly Cossacks, which have
never been tried to be improved, but which are,
nevertheless, extremely hardy, capable of con-
siderable endurance, and well adapted for the
duties they have to perform. For a long period
it was believed that no horse, except the Arab,
was equal to the Cossack for bearing privation,
and, at the same time, uniting with this quality
so great an amount of speed as it has been
found to possess. In 1825, however, the con-
trary was proved. Two Cossack horses were
selected from the best breeds on the Black Sea,
the Don, and the Ural, and run against two
English ones, which greatly excelled the others
both in speed and stamina. On this occasion,
the English horses were not of the best breed,
and were named Sharper and Mina. The
account given of this trial of speed and en-
durance, shows that it was attended with cir-
cumstances the very reverse of such as we
should wish to be the accompaniment of similar
contests.

" On the 4th of August, 1825, on the chal-
Jenge of the Cossacks, a race, of the cruel dis-
tance of forty-seven miles, out and home, was
agreed to. The four horses to start together;
and the first in, to take the whole stakes.

"On starting, the Cossacks took the lead at
a moderate pace — the English horses following,
at the distance of three or four lengths ; but,
before they had gone half a mile, the stirrup-
leather of Sharper broke, and he ran away
with his rider, followed by Mina; and they
went more than a mile, and up a steep hill,
before they could be lield in.

*' Half the distance was run in an hour and
four minutes Both the English horses were
then fresh, and one of the Cossacks. On their
return Mina fell lame, and was taken away.
The Cossack horse, likewise, began to flag,
when the accompanying Russian began to
drag him on by the bridle, throwing away the
saddle, and putting a mere child on his back.
Sharper, likewise, evidently showed the eflects
of the pace at which he had gone when running

away, and was much distressed. The Cossacks
then had recourse to foul play, and actually car-
ried on their horse— some dragging him on by a
rope, and the bridle at his head ; others pulling
him forward by the tail; whilst others kept
alongside of his quarters to support hira ; and
they relieved each other at this fatiguing work.
Sharper did the whole distance in two hours
and forty-eight minutes; and the Cossack
horse was warped in, eight minutes after him.
At starting, the English horse carried three
stone more than the Cossacks; and, durin"
the latter half of the race, a mere child had
ridden the Cossack."

The barbarous cruelty displayed by the
Muscovites in this contest, with the unfairness
of their whole proceedings, require no com-
ment. They were chagrined at being defeated,
and wreaked their ill-feeling upon their animal,
because he had not more strength than had
been given him by nature.

The last Czar Nicholas was as anxious for
the improvement of the Cossack horses, as he
was for the general development of the resources
of his country ; and, with that view, instituted
races in different parts of his empire. In
southern and western Russia, lauded pro-
prietors have recently devoted much of their
attention, not only to the horse, but to cattle,
endeavouring to bring up their various breeds
to as high a state of perfection as they can.
Russian noblemen, now, have generally large
stables ; and the stud of the Russian Countess
OrlofF Tshesmensky alone, was composed of
1,320 Arabs, English, natives and others. The
ground, attached to this stud, comprised
nearly 1,100 acres ; and the number of grooms,
labourers, and others, amounted to 4,000. The
better breed of the Tartar horse is sketched
by Berenger, in his Treatise on Horsemanship ;
and although this species would seem to be
but of a moderate stature, still they are strong-
spirited, bold, and active. They have good
feet, but narrow ; and their heads are lean and
well-shaped. Their fore-hand is long and stiff";
but the legs are over-long. With all these
imperfections, however, they are good and
serviceable horses, endowed with great speed,
and not readily succumbing to labour. They
are reared in a manner similar to those of the
Arabs — being caressed and fondled, and made
companions of. When they are six or eight

35

SWEDISH HORSE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[SWEDISH HOSBE,

months old, the Tartars make their children
ride upon them ; exercise them in small excur-
sions ; dress, and, by degrees, reduce them to
gentle habits of domestication. After awhile
they are made to undergo hunger, thirst, and
other privations ; but men do not begin to ride
them until they have reached their fifth or
sixth year. Then they are mounted by their
masters, who exact from them the severest
duties, and who gradually inure them to sup-
port an almost incredible degree of fatigue.
They are made to travel two or three days at a
time, almost without resting, and pass four or
five days without better nourishment than a
handful of grass, and without water.

Such are the principal portions of the mode
in which the Tartars train their horses, is given
by Berenger. The discipline is certainly severe.
In the Ilazeppa of Lord Byron, we have a
beautiful description of a idndred animal to
that of the Tartars in the Ukraine : —

" The steeds rush on in plunging pride,
But where are they the reins to guide ?
A thousand horse, and none to ride !
With flowing tail, and flying mane,
Wide nostrils — never stretch'd by pain —
Mouths bloodless to the bit or rein,
And feet that iron never shod,
And flanks unscarr'd by spur or rod —
A thousand horse, the wild, the free,
Like waves that follow o'er the sea.
On came the troop. * * *
They stop, they start, they snuff the air,
Gallop a moment here and there,
Approach, retire, wheel round and round,
Then plunging back with sudden bound,
They snort, they foam, neigh, swerve aside,
And backward to the forest fly."

This description is applicable to the wild
horse, as he is witnessed in his native state,
and when we can hardly imagine a scene more
sublime than a thousand of his kind, bounding
over the vast steppe, with their manes streaming
in the wind, until the whole troop is lost in the
distance.

THE SWEDISH HORSE.

Mr. Lloyd, in his Field Sports of the North
of Europe, says, that "the Swedish horses are
small, though hardy, and capable of considerable
exertion ; their manes and tails are usually left
in a state of nature ; they are seldom cleaned ;
and, when in the stable, even in the most severe
weather, are rarely littered down. This treat-
36

ment of their horses arises as much from igno-
rance as neglect on the part of the peasants.
In saying this, however, I am willing to admit
that many of them are almost as fond of these
animals as if they were their own children.
The average price of a good horse, of the de-
scription I am now speaking of, may be taken
at from five to eight pounds." "■>

The horse of this country ia fed almost en-
tirely on bread, composed of equal parts of
oatmeal and rye. To this a considerable quan-
tity of salt is added : if setting out on a long
journey, a little brandy is given him. Sir A.
Brooke, in his Travels in Sweden, says — " We
were not a little entertained at the curious
group formed by the peasants and their steeds
breakfasting together; both cordially partaking
of a hard rye cake. The horses sometimes
belong to three, or even more propriLiors; it is
then higlily amusing to observe tho frequent
altercations between them, each endeavouring
to spare his own horse. Their affection for
their horses is so great, that I have seen them
shed tears when they have been driven beyond
their strength. The expedition, however, with
which these little animals proceed, is surprising,
when we consider the smallness of their size,
which hardly exceeds that of a pony. The
roads being universally good through Sweden,
they frequently do not relax from a gallop from
one post-house to another."

In the Scandinavian forest, it often hap-
pens that the wild bear attacks the horse, and,
fastening upon him, is borne along by the
animal whilst writhing under the wounds in-
flicted by the claws of the ursine monster.
When this is the case, the bear tries to retard
the progress of the horse by grasping with one
of his paws at the surrounding bushes, which
he often, under such circumstances, tears up
by the roots. Should he succeed, however, in
catching hold of a tree that is firmly embedded
in the soil, it is then all over with his victim ;
for, owing to his immense muscular power, the
career of the horse is at once stopped, and he
is almost immediately brought to the ground.

It seems rather extraordinary that so clumsy
and ill-shaped a looking brute as a bear, should
be able to run down a horse ; but such, whether
owing to the fears of the animal, or to the ad-
vantages of ground, is, beyond doubt, of every-
day occurrence. Until he has brought bis

LAPLAND HOESE.] MODEEN VETEEINAET PEACTICE. [laplattd nonsB.

victim down, however, it is said, the bear sel- all outlets guarded. The first thing to be done
dom makes use of his teeth ; but he strikes his j is to secure the restive reins. Selecting a
victim on the back and sides with his terrible j long thong or cord, a Lap takes a turn of
paws, in the same manner as if with a sledge

hammer. Sometimes, however, the horse, by
flinging out behind, makes his escape ; for it is
not an uncommon circumstance for a bear to be
killed, and found minus an eye or a fang, which
the peasants suppose, and with some reason, has
probably been caused by the heels of horses.

The wounds which the bear inflicts upon
cattle, when be attacks them, are sometimes
dreadful to look upon. Mr. Lloyd says that
he saw a horse that had been within the
clutches of one of tliese monsters, some few
days previously, but from which he had been
rescued, owing to an accidental circumstance.
In the back and neck of the poor steed, were
holes of such a size, that, without exaggera-
tion, he could almost have buried his hand in
them ; this horse, however, died a few days
subsequently.

The suff'erings of animals, when attacked by
a bear or other wild beast, must olten be
dreadful. JS^early the whole of the hind-quar-
ters of a cow, or a horse, have been actually
devoured, and yet the poor creatures have been
found alive.

THE LAPLAND HORSE.

The Laplanders are comprised in two distinct
classes, differing entirely from the Swedes in
points of person, habits, and language. Tliey
consist ofa nomadic and a settled class— the one
pursuing a wandering life, and the other living
in towns. The reindeer is both their solace
and their wealth ; but they are possessed of a
small, eager, and willing species of horse.
This little creature is employed in drawing
sledges over the snow in winter, and, in summer,
is turned into the forests, where he selects
certain districts to feed in, and from which
he rarely wanders. When these districts no
longer supply hina with pasture, from the
change of the season having set in, he volun-
tarily returns to his master to be re-yoked to
the sledge, or to draw wood for the winter.

To be present in an encampment of Swedish
Laps, when preparing to milk their " Eeins,"
or deer, is one of the most exciting scenes
that can be presented to human observation.

The herd is driven within the inclosure, and

both ends round his left hand, and then
gathers what sailors call the higlit in loose
folds held in his right. He now singles out
a rein, and throws the bight with unerring
aim over the antlers of the victim. Sonietimes
the latter makes no resistance ; but, generally,
no sooner does it feel the touch of the thong
than it breaks away from the spot, and is
only secured by the most strenuous exertions
of its capturer. Every minute may be seen
an unusually powerful rein furiously dragging
a Lap round and round the inclosure, and
occasionally fairly overcoming the restraint of
the thong, and whirling its antagonist prostrate
on the sod. This part of the scene is higtdy
exciting; and one cannot but admire the
great muscular strength and the trained skill
evinced by all the Laps, women as well as
men, who happen to be engaged in it.
The resistance of a rein being overcome,
the Lap will take a dexterous hitch of the
thong round his muzzle and head, and then
fasten him to the trunk of a prostrate tree,
which, with many other trees, has been brouglit
within the level inclosure for tliat special
purpose. Even when thus confined, some of
the reins plunge in the most violent manner.
Men and women then indiscriminately engage
both in singling out milk-reins, and in milking
them. A wooden bowl is held in the operator's
left hand, and he then slaps the udder of the
rein, several times, with the pahn of the right
hand. After this he moistens the tips of his
fliitrers with his lips, and then rapidly completes
the operation. Tiie amount of milk yielded
by a single rein is, noticing only bowls which
had not previously receiveel contributions, little
more than a gill; others give at least double,
and a few tiirice that quantity; but the fair
average is about half a pint.

This milk is as thick as the finest cream
from the cow, and is luscious beyond descrip-
tion. It has a pleasing aromatic smell, and, in
flavour, reminds us most strongly of cocoa-
nut milk. No stranger can drink much of
it at a time — it is too rich. "When the rein is
milked, the operator takes up a small portion
of a particular species of moss, and carefully
wipes the drained udder and teats with it ; and,

37

HOEWDGIAN HOESE.]

THE HORSE, AND

[DANISH nOESB.

from time to time, the bowls are emptied into
the kits, &c.

It is impossible to give an adequate idea of
the impressive, exhilarating appearance of the
whole inclosure. Every soul seems, at this
time, fully occupied, for even the little Lap
children are practising the throwing of the
lasso, and evincing great dexterity, although
their strength is insufficient to hold the smallest
doe. Many of the young reins attempt to
suck the parent doe, but are always beaten
away by the Laps. Great quantities of the
loose hair on the backs of the reins, at this
season fall to the ground at a touch. Of these
the women form beds, on which to stretch
their reindeer skins, and thus save them from
contact with the mud floor of the huts.

THE NORWEGIAN HORSE.
Norway is one of tlie most mountainous
countries in the world, and possesses a larger
breed of horses than Sweden. Of their saga-
city and affection, the following story may be
taken as a proof: — The master of one of these
animals had been dining at the neighbouring
town, and, when it was time to return, had
drank so much that he could not keep a firm
seat in his saddle. The horse seemed to be
aware of his master's condition, for he regu-
lated himself, as well as he could, according to
the unsettled motion of his rider ; but, hap-
pening to make a false step, his master rolled
oft' his back, and hung with one foot entangled
in the stirrup. The horse immediately stopped,
and, twisting his body in various directions,
endeavoured to extricate him, but in vain. The
man was severely hurt, and almost helpless;
but the shock had brought him to his senses.
The horse looked at him as he lay on the
ground, and, stooping, laid hold of the brim of
his hat, and raised his head a little ; but the
hat coming off, the man fell again. The animal
then laid hold of the collar of his master's coat,
and raised him by it so far from the ground
that he was enabled to draw his foot out of the
stirrup. After resting awhile, the man re-
gained the saddle, and reached his home. Gra-
titude towards the preserver of his life, made
the man ever afterwards cherish the horse
with the utmost kindness, until old age
brought the termination of its career.

In Norw ay, as in Sweden, the horse is some-
38

times attacked by bears ; and if he happen to
have a mare or foal with him, he places either
behind, and then attacks the others with the
utmost fury with his fore-legs. When he ad-
heres to this mode of beating off his enemy, he
is generally successful ; but if he turns round
to strike with his hind legs, the bear imme-
diately runs into him, and he is lost.

In Iceland there is said to be a breed of
horses, descended either from the Norwegian
or the Scotch.

In Finland, there is also a breed of horses
which are said to be beautifully formed, and
very swift, although not more than twelve
hands high.

THE DANISH HORSE.

The Danish horses are of such an excellent
size, and of so strong a make, tliat they are
preferred to almost all others for draught.
There are some of them perfectly well shaped ;
but tliis is but seldom seen, for, in general,
they are found to have a thick neck, heavy
shoulders, long and hollow back, and a narrow
croup ; however, they all move well, and are
found excellent both for parade and war.
They are of all colours, and often of whimsical
ones ; some being streaked like the tiger, or
mottled like the leopard. A good many years
ao'o there was an importatioa of some Danish
horses in London, which were considered to
have good action, and to be very serviceable.

Of the horses belonging to the Eeroe
Islands, subject to the Danish crown, Be-
renger thus speaks : — " They are small of
growth, but strong; swift, and sure of foot,
going over the roughest places with such cer-
tainty, that a man may more surely rely upon
them than trust to his own feet. In Suderoe,
one of these islands, they have a lighter and
swifter breed than in any of the rest. On their
backs the inhabitants pursue the sheep, which
are wild in this island. The pony carries the
man over places that would otherwise be inac-
cessible to him ; follows his rider over others ;
enters into the full spirit of the chase, and
knocks down and holds the prey under his
feet until the rider can take possession of it."

THE FLEMISH OR DUTCH HORSE.
The Flemish horses are a large race, and
powerfully formed. They were once fashion-

FEENCH HOESE.] M 0 D EE N Y ETEKI N AR Y PR ACTI C E. [qerman uokhe.

able in this country as carriage-horses ; but
they and their descendants are now chiefly
employed in agriculture.

THE FRENCH HORSE.

In France, horses of the Bretagne (Brittany)
breed are strongly made, and have, generally,
black hair, or brown bay ; good legs and feet,
with a hardy mouth, and a head short and
clumsy. The horses of Tranche- Comte are
said to have the legs of tigers, and the bellies of
hinds ; but they are short and thick, and of
the middle size, being much better adapted for
draught than for riding. The horses of Gas-
cony are not unlike those of Spain, but they
are not so handsome and active. The best
come from Limousin, where they bear a strong
resemblance to the Barb, and, like them, are
excellent for the chase. They are, however,
slow in coming to perfection ; should be care-
fully treated while young ; and also should not
be backed till they are eight years old. Nor-
mandy furnishes the next best, which, though
not so good for the chase, are yet better for
war. Besides these, there are the horses of
Poitou, &c. — all differing from each other in
some essential degree ; for France, in its vast
extent, has various breeds. Great exertions
have been made in that country to cope with
England in the production of horses. Napo-
leon I. used every means to procure some of
our best blood-animals, and he imported largely
from Arabia. But all efforts liave hitherto
proved unavailing, notwithstanding the French
nobility have gone so far as to procure English
grooms and jockeys to manage their horses.
The beauty, strength, and fleetness of the
English horse still bears the bell from all other
countries. At Waterloo, the charge of our life-
guards proved irresistible ; much of which irre-
sistibility must be attributed to the horses they
rode, as the French horses are very inferior.

France is said to contain no fewer than
2,500,000 horses ; which, of course, includes
every description of the species. Of mares there
are about 1,,S00,000, the greater number of
which are used for the breeding of mules. Inde-
pendent of these, somewhere about 40,000
horses are annually imported into this country,
either with a view to the improvement of the
native breeds, or for the purposes of sale. In
reference to the horse employed on the road,

Mr. Hoiiel, in a work on the varieties of the
horse in France, says — " I have not elsewhere
seen such horses at the collar, under the dili-
gence or the post-carriage, or in the farm-cart.
They are enduring and energetic beyond de-
scription. At the voice of the brutal driver,
or at the dreaded sound of his never-ceaain*'
whip, they put forth all their strength, and
keep their condition when other horses would
die of neglect and hard treatment."

The editor of The Horse says — " Every coun-
try that has occupied itself with the ameliora-
tion of its breed of horses, has deemed it neces-
sary to have a public register of the names
and progeny of those of an acknowledged race.
England has had its stud-book nearly halt a
century, containing a list of all the horses of
pure blood that have existed in the country.
France, in the year 1S37, had her first stud-
book, in which are inscribed the names of two
hundred and fifteen stallions of pure English
blood imported into France, or born there ;
two hundred and sixty-six Arabs, Barbs, Per-
sian, or Turkish horses ; two hundred and
seventy-four English mares of true blood, and
forty-one Eastern mares. This progeny was
also traced so far as it was practicable," A
work of this kind must necessarily form an
epoch in the equestrian annals of any country
where it is kept or produced.

THE GERMAN HORSE.
The German horses were originally from
Arabian and Barbary stocks ; nevertheless they
appear to be small and ill-shaped ; it is said,
also, that they are weak and washy, with
tender hoofs. There are, however, some ex-
ceptions, as there are so?ne studs, in which
particular attention has been paid, as well to
their breed as to their management. The Hun-
garian horses are excellent for the draught as
well as the saddle.' Formerly gipsies were the
principal horse-dealers in Hungary; but now
there are several noble studs scattered over
the country, the trade has, in a great measure,
passed out of their hands. The Hussars, who
use them in war, usually slit their nostrils;
which is done, as it is said, to prevent their
neighing; but, perhaps, without any real
foundation. The cream-coloured breed ot
horses, used for the state-carriages of the
court of Englaud, are of Hanoverian breed.

39

GEEMA.N nOESE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[ITALIAN HOESE.

The imperial establishment for the breed-
ing of horses at Mesohagye's, near Carlsburg,
in Austria, is both an excellent and exten-
sive one. It is decidedly the finest in
the Austrian dominions for the breeding of
horses. The Duke of Kagusa describes it
as standing on forty thousand acres of land of
the best quality, embracing an area of forty-
five miles— surrounded, in its whole extent, by
a steep and broad ditch, and a plantation sixty
feet wide. Orif^inally it was designed to re-
cruit the cavalry ; but now it is devoted to
the object of obtaining stallions of a good
breed, which are sent to different depots, with
a view to keep up the necessary supply for the
various provinces. To produce these, one
thousand brood mares and forty-eight stallions
are kept ; two hundred additional mares, and
six hundred oxen, are maintained to cultivate
the ground. "The plain," says the duke, "is
divided into four equal parts, and each of
these subdivided into portions, resembling so
many farms. At the age of four years, the
young horses are all collected in the centre
of the establishment. A selection is first
made of the best animals, to supply the
deficiencies in the establishment, in order
always to keep it on the same footing. A
second selection is then made from the
other horses : none of these, however, are sent
away until they are five years old; but the
horses that are not of sufiicient value to be
selected, are sold by auction, or sent to the
army to keep up the cavalry, as circumstances
may require.

"The imperial treasury advances to the es-
tablishment, every year, eighteen thousand
florins, and is reimbursed by the sale of one
hundred and fifty stallions, which are sent to
the provinces every year, at the price of one
thousand florins each ; and by the value of
the horses supplied to the cavalry. The
value of a florin ia about 2s. Id. English
money. All the other expenses incident to the
maintenance and tear and wear of the es-
tablishment, are defrayed by what it, in itself,
produces. This is, therefore, an immense
estate — a farm on a colossal scale — with a
stud in proportion, managed on account of
the sovereign, and which produces a consider-
able revenue, independently of the principal
object which is attained — the propagation and
40

the multiplication of the best breeds of horses.
He can always supply the wants of his army
at a price almost incredibly small. Eor a
horse of the light cavalry he pays only one
hundred and ten florins; for the dragoons, one
hundred and twenty; for the cuirassiers, one
hundred and forty ; for the train, one liundred
and sixty; and for the artillery, one hundred
and eiglity. It is a great element of power
to possess at home such an immense resource
against a time of war, at an expense so far
below that which the powers of the west
and south of Europe are compelled to incur."

It is from the originally warlike character of
the Germans that their country takes its name
— Germany being derived from the Teutonic
Ger-mann, a warring man.

In Prussia the government has established
some extensive studs in different parts of
the kingdom, and many noblemen of this
country are in the possession of excellent es-
tablishments of their own. About the mouth
of the Vistula there exists a large breed of
horses well-adapted for agricultural purposes ;
but in the royal studs, attention has more
especially been paid to the improvement of
the cavalry horse, which now takes very high
rank.

THE ITALIAN HORSE.

Of this animal little need now be said.
Like everything else in this naturally fine
country, the horse " has fallen from his high
estate," and is now all but worthless. The
races, as they were wont to be run in the
davs of Mrs. Piozzi, are thus described by the
pen of that lively lady : — " The street is covered
with sawdust, and made fast at both ends.
Near the starting-post are elegant booths,
lined with red velvet, for the court and first
nobility. At the other end a piece of tapestry
is hung, to prevent the creatures from dasliing
their brains out when they reach the goal.
Thousands and tens of thousands of people,
on foot, fill the course, so that it is a great
wonder, to me, still that numbers are not
killed. The prizes are exhibited to view in
quite the old classical style — a piece of crimson
dama^k for the winner; a small silver basin
and ewer for the second ; and so on, leaving
no performer unrewarded.

" At last come out the horses without

SPANISH iiousK.] MODERN VETERINAKY PRACTICE. [pouiuuui:9k iiousi

riders, but with a narrow leathern strap hung
across their bodies, which has a lump of ivory
fixed to the end of it, all set full of sharp
spikes like a hedgeliog ; and this goads them
aK.ng while galloping, worse than any spur
could do; because the faster they run, the
more this odd machine keeps jumping up and
down, and pricking their sides ridiculously
enouch ; and it makes one laugh to see that

thus describes them :— "The neck is long and
arched, perliaos sonewhat thick, but clothed
with a full anu flowing mane ; tlie head may
be a little too coarso- the ears long, but well-
placed; the eyes large, bola, and full of fire;
their carriage lofty, proud, and noble ; the
breast large ; the shoulders sometimes thick ;
the belly frequently too full and swelling; and
the loins a little too low; but the ribs round,

y

me-

some of them are so tickled by it, as not to | and the croup round and full ; with the legs
run at all, but set about plunging in order j well formed, and clear of hair ; and the sinews
to rid themselves of the inconvenience, instead ] at a distance from the bone; active and read
of driviiifT forward to divert the mob, who ; in their paces; of quick apprehension; a -'
leap and caper, and shout with delight, and i .-i.. ^„.i.M..i . _i.„j..-..i. ^- ^.i *.

lash the laggers along with great indignation
indeed, and with the most comical gestures."
Eaces of a similar kind take place at Eome.

THE SPANISH HORSE.

Spain was early celebrated for a breed of
fine horses, which took its rise in the Moorish
Barb, when that peninsula was subject to the
Moors. When Rome was at its highest splen-
dour, the horses of Calpe— the modern Gibral-
tar— were in high repute. This part of Spain
being situated at the south-western extremity of
the Peninsula, opposite theBarbary coast, horses
were readily imported from north-western
Africa; and hence the origin of the genettes.
The Spanish horses are well made and hand-
some, as well as very active and nimble; they
have fine eyes, handsome legs and heads, and
are docile, and easily managed.

For many centuries they took rank after
the Arabian and Barb ; but they could not be
considered as being other than Barbs them-
selves, having been only transplanted to Eu-
ropean soil, where, although they might have
become slightly altered iu appearance by the
change, they suffered no material injury. "I
have seen many Spanish horses," says Solleysel,
"and they are all extremely beautiful. They
are the nu)st proper of all to be drawn by a
curious pencil, or to be mounted by a king,
when he unbends to show himself iu his ma-
jestic glory to the people."

The common breeds of the Spanish horses,
however, are not to be confounded with the
warrior sorts — they having nothing extraordi-
nary in them. It is in Andalusia, Estremadura,
and Granada, that the highest races are to be
found. Berenger, who was an excellent judge,
Qt

mory singularly faithful ; obedient to the utmost
proof; docile and affectionate to man, yet full
of spirit and courage."

The food of the modern Spanish horse con
sists principally of chopped straw, with a little
barley. During the Peninsular war, when
the French and English cavalry horses were
placed on this fare in Spain, they at first
became very much weakened, and many of
them died ; but, when they grew a little accus-
tomed to it, they regained their strength, and,
consequently, their spirit and courage.

THE PORTUGUESE HORSE.
The Lusitanian or Portuguese horse was,
at one time, so highly celebrated for its speed,
that the Eoman historian, Justin, compares
it to the velocity of the wind. Berenger, how-
ever, who lived before the glory of the Spanish
horse had entirely faded away, says that "the
Portugal horses are in no repute, and differ as
much from their neiglibours, the Spaniards, as
crabs from apples, as aloes from grapes."
After the annexation of Portugal to Spain, the
latter country was preferred for establishing
studs; and the former directed its attention
rather to the rearing of cattle for the shambles
and the plough, and mules and asses for
draught. Here, then, the horse became rather
the associate of pomp and pleasure ; and such
as were wanted, were mostly imported from
Spain. The horse is now, however, receiving
greater attention than, for a long period, has
been devoted to it.

THE IRISH HORSE.
In some of the rich grazing counties of
Ireland, such as Meath and Eoscommon, a
larcre long blood-horse is reared, of considerable

41

iniSH HOESE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[native Hotisn.

value ; but he seldom has the elegance of the
English animal. He is larger headed, more
leggy, ragged-hipped, angular, yet with great
power in the quarters, much depth beneath
the knee, stout and hardy, full of fire and
courage, and among the best leapers in the
world. He is not generally, however, so tall as
the English horse, being stunted in his growth ;
for the poverty and custom of the country
impose upon him much hard work, at a time
when he is unfit for labour of any kind. For
this reason, too, the Irish horse is deficient in
speed. There is, however, another explanation
of this; and that is, that the thorough-bred
Irish horse is not equal to the thorough-bred
English. Comparatively speaking, he is a
weedy, leggy, wortliless animal, and very little
of him enters into the composition of the
hunter or the hackney.

For leaping, the Irish horse has long been
considered unrivalled. It is not, however, the
leaping of the English horse, striding, as it
were, over a low fence, and stretched at his
full length over a higher one. It is rather the
proper jump of the deer — beautiful to look at,
and, both in height and extent, unequalled by
the English horse. Much of this difterence
of leaping in the two countries, no doubt,
depends on the training, and on the nature of
the fences in Ireland, where there are so many
inclosures with stone walls.

There are very few horses in the agricultural
districts of Ireland, exclusively devoted to
draught. The minute division of the farms
renders it impossible for them to be kept.
The occupier even of a tolerably sized Irish
farm, wants a horse that shall carry him to
market, aud draw his small car, and perform
every kind of drudgery — in short, a horse of all
work; therefore the thorough draught-horse,
whether Leicestershire or Suffolk, is rarelv
found in Ireland.

If we look to the general commerce of Ire-
land, there are few stage-waggons, or drays
■with immense cattle belonging to them. In
the north, some stout horses are employed in
the carriage of linen ; but the majority of the
garrons used in agriculture or commercial pur-
suits, are miserable and half-starved animals.

There is a native breed in Ulster, hardy, and
sure-footed, but with little preteusion to either
beauty or speed.
42

THE HORSE IN HIS NATIVE STATE.

We have purposely reserved, till now, our de-
scription of the horse in his native state, as seen
in the boundless Llanos, or savannas and
prairies of South and JS'orth America, where he
is entirely free, and where he is seen to the
greatest advantage amidst his native pastures.
To form anything like a correct idea of this
noble animal in his native sim|)licity, we must
not look for him in the pastures or the stables
to which he has been consigned by n)an ; but
in those wild and extensive plains where he
has been originally produced, whether in the
Old or the New World, and where he ranges at
will and riot in the unrestrained license of a.
rich, a varied, and a luxuriant vegetation. In
this state of haj^py independence he disdains
the assistance of man, which only tends to
servitude. In the interminable Llano, or
prairie, where he wanders at liberty, he seems
no way incommoded by the inconveniences to
whicii he is subjected in Europe. The verdure
of the broad expanse of grass supplies his
wants ; and the climate that never knows a
winter, is, perhaps, more congenial to his con-
stitution than any other, as he naturally seems
to be fond of heat. His enemies of the forest
are but few, for none but the larger kinds will
venture to attack him : and any one of these he
is, singly, mostly able to overcome; while, at
the same time, he is content to find safety in
society ; for the wild horses of those countries
always herd together. A gentleman describ-
ing what he himself had witnesvsed with a
friend whilst travelling in South America, thus
notices the horse in his native or wild state : —

"About half-past ten we discerned a crea-
ture in motion at an immense distance, and
instantly started in pursuit. Fifteen minutes'
riding brought us near enough to discern, by
its fleetness, that it could not be a butialo;
yet it was too large for an antelope, or a deer.
On we went, and soon distinguished the erect
head, the flowing mane, and the beautiful pro-
portions of the wild horse of the prairie. He saw
us, and sped away with arrowy swiftness, till he
gained a distant eniinence, when he turned to
gaze at us, and suff'ered us to approach within
four hundred yards, and then bounded away
again in another direction, with a graceful
velocity delightful to behold. We paused, for

NATIVE HORSE.] M OD ERN V ETERI N AET PR A CTI C E. [native nonsE.

to pursue bim with a view to capture, was out
of the question. Wiien he discovered we were
not following him, he also paused, and now
seemed to be inspired with curiosity equal to
our own; for, after making a slight turn, he
came nearer until we could distinguish the
inquiring expression of liis clear, bright eye,
and the quiet curl of his inflated nostrils. We
had no hope of catching, and did not wish to
kill him, but our curiosity led us to approach
him slowly. Vf e had not advanced far before
he moved away, and, circling round, approached
on the other side. He was a beautiful animal —
a sorrel, with jet black mane and tail. As he
moved we could see the muscles quiver in his
glossy limbs ; and, when half playfully, and half
in fright, he tossed his flowing mane in the
air, and flourished his long silky tail, our admi-
ration knew no bounds, and we longed — hope-
lessly, vexatiously longed — to possess him. We
might have shot him where we stood ; but had we
been starving, we could scarcely have done it.
He was free, and we loved him for the very pos-
session of that liberty we longed to take from
him ; but we would not kill him. We fired a
rifle over his head ; he heard the shot, and the
whiz of the ball, and away he went, disap-
pearing in the next hollow — showing himself
again as he crossed the distant ridges — still
seeming smaller, until he faded away a speck
on the far horizon's edge."

The wild horses which exist in the Llanos of
South America, are descendants of those in-
troduced by the Spaniards. In the province of
Cumana, there are great numbers in the
forest, wandering about in companies, gene-
rally to the nutuber of five or six hundred.
Tliey occupy the great savannas, where it is diffi-
cult even to disturb, far less to catcli them. In
the dry season, they are sometimes obliged to
go eight, ten, and even more miles in search
of water; and when this is the case they set
out in regular ranks, four abreast. Five or
six scouts pre<;ede tlie troop by about fifty
jjaces. If tliey perceive an enemy they neigh,
and the troop stops; if they evade him, they
continue their march; but if any one dares to
march across their squadron, they turn on him
and crush him under their feet. No foe is
capable of withstanding their attack. They
.have a regular chief, who marches between the
scouts and the squadron — a kind of adjutant,

whose duty consists in hindering any indi-
vidual from quitting the ranks. If any one
attempts to straggle, either from hunger or
fatigue, he is bitten till he resumes his place.
When wild horses are feeding, should anv
stragglers be threatened with danger by an
enemy, a particular signal, which they all un-
derstand, is given, when they close into a denso
mass, and trample the assailant to death.
When they themselves resolve upon making
an attack, their leader shows the example ; and
if he considers a retreat necessary, he gives the
signal, and it is instantly obeyed.

The wild horses of Tartary, although easily
domesticated, materially differ in character
from those on the plains of South America.
They will not suffer a stranger to join them.
If a domesticated horse come in their way,
unprotected by his master, they attack him
with their teeth and their heels, and speedily
destroy him. They readily submit, however,
to the dominion of man, and become perfectly
docile and faithful.

Among the Tartars, the flesh of the horse
is a frequent article of food; and although
they do not, like the Indians of the Pampas,
eat it raw, their mode of cookery would not
be very inviting to the European epicure.
They cut the muscular parts into slices, and
place them under their saddles; and after they
have galloped thirty or forty miles, the meat be-
comes tender and sodden, and fit for their
table ; and, at all their feasts, the first and
last, and most favourite dish, is a horse's head.

AVhen water was not at hand, the Scythians
used to draw blood from their horses, and
drink it ; and the Dukes of Muscovy, for
nearly two hundred and sixty years, presented
Tartar ambassadors with the milk of mares.
If any of this milk fell upon the mane of
the horse, the Duke, by custom, was bound to
lick it off.

Troops of wild horses are occasionally met
with in the central parts of Africa, the deserta
of Arabia, and in a few other parts of the
world ; but nowhere do they equal the
domesticated horse in form, strength, or even
speed.

The Quagga, in the Zoological Society's
valuable collection in Eegent'fj-park, London,
belongs to the same family of animals as the
horse (fquidce). This specimen is brown;

43

WILD HOESE.]

THE HORSE, AND

[wild hoesb.

Iicad, neck, and withers, or front of body,
blackish streaked; lower part of body, legs,
and tail, white. The hoofs are flattish beneath.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, where
it lives on the open plains. Tlie Qungga is
said to derive its name from tlie sound of its
voice. Thus we read in Pringle: —

" Tlie timorous quagga's wild whistling neigh
Is heard by the brak fountain far away."

Methuen, in his Life in the Wilderness, in-
forms us, that when the supply of antelope
meat of his party was exhausted, they occa-
sionally had recourse to a steak from the
quaoga, and found it very sweet and good,
though it looked coarse, and was marbled
with yellow fat. He advises travellers in the
wilderness, who have an antipathy to anything
like horse-flesh, to try to get rid of their
dislike as fast as possible; and assures us tliat
the Griquas, a nation who dwell in St)uth
Africa, prefer the meat of the quagga to almost
any other; while his cook ApoUos, who was
with the British troops in their expedition
to Natal, and was blockaded with them in
the trenches by the Boors (when they were
compelled to feed on horse-flesii), was par-
ticularly fond of quagga steaks, and regarded
them as the most savoury food he could
obtain.

THE WILD HORSE OF SOUTH AMERICA.

All travellers, who have crossed the plains
extending from the shores of La Plata to
Patagonia, have spoken of numerous herds of
wild liorses. Some affirm that they have seen
ten thousand in one troop, all apparently
under the command of a leader, the strongest
and boldest of the herd, whom they implicitly
obey. A secret instinct teaches them that
their safety consists in their union, and in a
principle of subordination. The lion, the tiger,
and the leopard are their principal foes, which,
as we have said, they trample to death, being
led on by their leader, which is the first to
face the danger/ iShould the prudence of their
leader suggest the necessity of a retreat, the
wiiole troop follow in his wake.

]n the thinly inhabited parts of South Ame-
rica it is dangerous to fall-in with any of these
troops, as when they see a horse mounted,
they approach as near as they dare, and call
upon the mounted horse with much eagerness.
41

On such an occasion, if the rider be not on
the alert, and have not considerable strength
of arm, and sharpness of spur, his beast will
divest himself of his burden, take to his heels,
and be gone for ever.

Captain Head gives tlie following account of
a meeting with a troop of wild horses, where
the country is more thickly inhabited. Some
poor captured animals are supposed to be
forced along by their riders, at their very
utmost speed : — " As they are thus galloping
along, urged by the spur, it is interesting to
see the groups of wild horses one passes. The
mares, which are never ridden in South Ame-
rica, seem not to understand what makes the
poor horse carry his head so low, and look so
weary. Tlie little innocent colts come running
to meet him, and then start away frightened ;
while old horses, whose white marks, on the
flanks and backs, betray their acquaintance
with the spur and saddle, walk slowly away
for some distance; then, breaking into a trot
as they seek their safety, snort and look behind
them, first with one eye, and then with the
other, turning their nose from right to left,
and carrying their long tail high in the air."

The same pleasing writer describes the
system of horse-management among the rude
inhabitants of the plains of South America.
Tliey have no stables, no fenced pastures.
One horse is usually kept tied at the door of
the hut, fed scantily at night on maize; or, at
other times, several may be enclosed in the
corral, which is a circular space surrounded
by rough posts driven firmly into the ground.
Tiie mares are never ridden or attempted
to be tamed, but wander, with their fouls,
wlierever they please.

When the Gaucho, the native inhabitant of
the plains, wants horses for himself or for the
supply of the traveller, he either goes with
his lasso to the corral, and selects those,
possibly, who, on the preceding day, had for
the first time been backed, or he scampers
across the plain, and presently returns with an
unwilling, struggling, or subdued captive.
When the services of the animals have been
exacted, he either takes them to the corral,
and feeds them with a small quantity of
maize, if he thinks he shall presently need
them again, or he, once more, turns them loose
on the plains.

•WILD nORSE.]

IMODEEN VETEIIIXA"RT PEACTTCR

[wild TionsE.

Travellers give some amusing Accounts of
the manner in which all thia is efl'ected. Miers
thus descrihes the lasso, simple in its con-
struction, but all-powerful in the hands of the
Gaucho.

"The lasso is a missile weapon used by
every native of the United Provinces and
Ciiili. It is a very strong plaited thong of
equal thickness, half an inch in diameter, and
forty feet long, made of many strips of green
hide, plaited like a whipthong, and rendered
supple by grease. It has, at one end, an iron
ring above an inch and a-half in diameter,
through which the thong is passed, and this
forms a ruiniing noose. The Gaucho, or
native Peon, is generally mounted on horse-
back when he uses the lasso. One end of
the thong is afBxed to his saddle girth : the
remainder he coils carefully in iiis left iiand,
leaving about twelve feet belonging to the
noose-end, in a coil, and a half of which he
holds in his right hand. He then swings
this long noose horizontally round his head,
the weight of the iron ring, at the end of
the noose, assisting in giving to it, by a con-
tinued circular motion, a sufficient force to
project it the whole length of the line."

AViieu tiie Gauchos wish to have a grand
breaking-in, they drive a whole herd of wild
horses into the corral. "The corral was quite
full of horses, most of which were young ones
about two or three years old. The capitar
(chief Gaucho), mounted on a strong steady
horse, rode into the corral, and tiirew his lasso
over the neck of a young horse, and dragged
him to the gate.". For some time the cole was
very unwilling to leave his comrades; but tlie
moment he was forced out of the corral, his first
idea was to gallop away : however, a timely
jerk of the lasso checked him in the most
efiectual way. The peons now ran after him
on foot, and threw a lasso over his fore-legs,
just above the fetlock; and twitciiing it, they
pulled his legs from under him so suddenly,
that I really thought the fall he got had killed
him. In an instant a Gaucho was seated on
his head, and, with his long knife, and in a few
seconds, cut oft' the whole of the horse's mane,
while another cut the hair from tlie end of his
ta;l. This, they told me, was a mark that the
horse had been once mounted. They then put
fc piece of hide iuto his mouth, to serve for a

bit, and a strong hide halter on hia head. The
Gaucho who was to mount, arranged hia spurs,
which were unusually long and sharp; and,
while two men held the horse by his ears, he
put on the saddle, which he girthed extremely
tight, lie then caught hold of the horse's
ear, and, in an instant, vaulted into the saddle;
upon which the man who held the animal bv
the halter, threw the end to the rider, and,
from that moment, no one seemed to take any
further notice of him.

"The horse, instantly, began to jump in a
manner which made it very difficult for the
rider to keep his seat, and quite different from
the kick or plunge of an English horse: how-
ever, the Gaucho's spurs soon set him going,
and off he galloped, doing ever}tliing in his
power to throw his rider.

"Another horse was immediately brought
from the corral ; and so quick was the opera-
tion, that twelve Gauchos were mounted in a
space which, I think, hardly exceeded an hour.
It was wonderful to see the difl'erent manner
in which difterent horses behaved. Some would
actually scream while the Gauchos were girding
the saddle upon their backs; some would in-
stantly lie down and roll upon it; while some
would stand witiiout being held — their legs
stiff', and in unnatural positions; their necks
halt bent towards their tails, and looking vicious
and obstinate; and I could not help thinking
that I would not have mounted one of those
for any reward that could be offered me, for they
were invariably the most difficult to subdue.

"It was now curious to look around and see
the Gauchos on the horizon, in different direc-
tions, trving to bring their horses back to the
corral, which is the most difficult part of
their work ; for the poor creatures had been
so scared there, that they were unwilling to
return to the place. It was amusing to see
the antics of the horses — they were jumping
and dancing in different ways, while the right;
arm of the Gauchos was seen flogging them.
At last they brought the horses back, appa-
rently subdued, and broken in. The sa<l(lles
and bridles were taken off, and the young
horses trotted off towards the corral, neighing
to one another."

The manufacture of the Gaucho's b >ot.-i is
somewhat singular. " Tliey are formrd of the
ham and part of the leg-skiu ofaco.'t takeu

45

VriLD HORSE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[wild hoesb.

reeking from the niotlier, wliich is said to be
sacrificed for the sole purpose, just at the time
of bearing when the hair has not begun to
grow. At this stage the skin strips off easily,
and is very white and beautiful in texture and
appearance. The ham forms the calf of the
boot; the hock easily adapts itself to the heel ;
and the leg above tlie fetlock constitutes the
foot; the whole making a neat and elegant
half- boot, with an aperture suiBcient for tlie
great toe to project through."

When the Gaucho wishes to take a wild
horse, he mounts one that has been used to
the sport, and gallops over the plain. As soon
as he comes sufficiently near liis prey, "the
lasso is thrown round the two hind-legs;
and as the Gaucho rides a little on one side,
the jerk pulls the entangled horde's feet late-
rally, so as to throw him on his side, without
endangering his knees or his face. Before the
horse can recover the shock, the rider dis-
mounts, and snatching his poncho or cloak
from ins shoulders, wraps it round the pros-
trate aninud's head. He then forces into his
niouth one of the powerful bridles of the
country, straps a saddle on his back, and
bestriding him, removes the poncho; upon
which the astonished horse springs on his
legs, and endeavours, by a thousand vain
efforts, to disencumber himself of his new
master, who sits quite composedly on his back^
and, by a discipline which never fails, reduces
the animal to such complete obedience, that
he is soon trained to lend his whole speed and
strength to the capture ot his companions."

These animals possess much of the form of
the Spanish horse, from which they sprung.
They are tamed, as has been seen, with far less
difficulty than could be thought possible; and,
although theirs is the obedience of fear, and
enforced at first by the whip and spur, there
are no horses that so soon and so perfectly
exert their sagacity and their power in the
service of man. They are possessed of no
extraordinary speed; but they are capable of
enduring immense tatigue, and are frequently
ridden fifty or sixty miles without drawing bit.
Indeed, it is known that they have been urged
on by the cruel spur of the Gaucho, more than
a hundred miles, and at tlie rate of twelve
miles in the hour.

Like the Arab horses, they know no inter
46

mediate pace between the walk and the gallop.
Although, at the end of a day so hard, their sides
are horribly mangled, and they themselves so
completely exhausted, there is this consolation
for them — that they are immediately turned
loose on the plains, and it will be their own
fault if they are speedily caught again. The
mare is occasionally killed for food, and, espe-
cially, on occasions of unusual festivity. Gen-
eral San Martin, during the war for indepen-
dence, gave a feast to the Indian allies attached
to his army; and the flesh of niares, with the
blood mixed with gin, formed tbe whole of the
entertainment.

On such dry and sultry plains the supply of
water is often scanty. When this is the case,
a species of madness seizes on the horses, and
their generous and docile qualities are no longer
recognised. They rush violently into every
pond and lake, savagely mangling and trampling
upon one another ; and the carcasses of many
thousands of them, destroyed by their fellows,
have occasionally been seen in and around a con-
siderable pool. This is one of the means by
which the too rapid increase of this quadruped
is, by an ordinance of Nature, prevented. It
is observed by Humboldt, that during the
periodical risings of the large rivers, vast
numbers of wild horses are drowned. Tiiis is
especially the case when the Apure is swollen,
and when these animals attempt to reach the
rising grounds of the Llanos.

The bolas is another instrument which is
occasionally brought into requisition by the
Gauchos for the catching of wild horses. It
consists of two balls, of two kinds, attached tr
thongs. The first is composed of three rounc
stones, about the size of a man's fist, covere'i
with strong leather, and attached to a common
centre by tough leathern cords, three feet
long. The smallest of the three is taken in
the hand; and, after whirling the others vio*
lently round the head, the whole are thrown to
the distance of about one hundred teet, when
they so maim and entwine themselves round the
limbs of any living creature, that it is impos-
sible to escape from them. Tlie other kind is
a single ball of the same size, except when it
is made of iron or copper, it being then
smaller. It is also covered with leather, and
lias a leathern thong attached, by which it
IS whirled round, and, at tlie hard gali.-p,

WILD HOUSE.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[wild iionsK.

projected with immense force to the distance of
five hundred feet. Tlie launching of tliis weapon
amidst a tribe of wild horses, is thus described
by Robertson, in his History of Faraguay : —
" The herd consisted of about two thousand
horses, neighing and snorting, with ears erect
and flowing tails, their manes outspread to the
wind — aflTriglited the moment they were con-
scious of pursuit. The Gauchos set up their
usual cry ; the dogs were left in the distance ;
and it was not till we had followed the flock
at full speed, and without a check, for five
miles, that the two headmost peons launched
their bolas at the horse which each had
respectively singled out of the herd. Down
to the ground, with frij^htful somersaults, came
two gallant colts. The herd continued its
headlong flight, leav7jg behind their two pros-
trate companions. Upon these the whole
band of Gauchos now ran in ; lassos were
applied to tie their legs ; one man held down
the head of each horse, and another the hind
quarters ; while with singular dexterity, two
other Gauchos put the saddles and bridles on
their fallen, trembling, and nearly frantic
victims. This done, the two men who had
brought down the colts, bestrode them as they
still lay on the ground. In a moment the
lassos which bound their legs were loosened,
and, at the same time, a shout from the field
so frightened the colts, that up they started
on all fours, but, to their astonishment, each
with a rider on his back, riveted, as it were,
to the saddle, and controlling them by means
of a never-before-dreamed-of bit in his mouth.
The animals made a simultaneous and most
surprising vault; they reared, plunged, and
kicked ; now they started off" at full gallop,
and anon stopped short in their career, with
their heads between their legs, endeavouring
to throw their riders. Immovable sat the two
Indians ; they smiled at the unavailing efforts
of the turbulent and outrageous animals to
unseat tliem ; and, in less than an hour from
the time of their mounting, it was very evident
who were to be the masters. The horses did
their very most ; the Indians never lost either
the security or the grace of their seats ; till,
after two hours of the most violent efil>rts to
rid themselves of their burden, the horses
were so exhausted, that, drenched in sweat,
with gored and palpitating sides, and banging

down their heads, they stood for five minutes
together, panting and confounded; but they
made not a single eff'ort to move. Then came
the Gaucho's turn to exercise his more posi-
tive authority. Hitherto he had been entirely
upon the defensive. His object was simply to
keep his seat, and tire out his horse. He now
wanted to move it in a given direction : way.
ward, zigzag, often interrupted was his course
at first ; still the Gauchos made for a given
l)oiiit, and they advanced towards it ; till, at
the end of about tliree hours, the now mastered
animals moved in nearly a direct line."

In 1537, horses were first landed at Buenos
Ayres, in South America ; and betweeu forty
and fifty years afterwards, they were found
wild at the Straits of Magellan. From that
time to this, they have continued to multiply
and extend the range of their existence.
North, south; east, and west, the horse
abounds in the American hemisphere. At
Terra-del-Fuega, almost every man, woman,
and child, have their horses ; even the Indians
have them : and, it is not a little remarkable,
that the countless troops that now skirr the
Llanos of the South, and the prairies of tlie
North, should all have sprung from the
Iberian stock first taken into Mexico by
Cortes, and into Peru by Pizarro.

We have already alluded to the fact of the
horse having been, at some remote period, a deni-
zen of the American continent. Professor Owen
thinks that they existed there even before the
creation of man. In his work on Britinh Fus.sil
Mammals, he says — "The species of equiis
which existed during the Miocine periods of
geology, iu both North and South America,
appears to have been blotted out of the Fauna
of those continents before the existence of
man. The aborigines, whom the S[)anish con-
quistadores found in possession of Peru and
Mexico, had no tradition or hieroglyphic indi-
cative of such a quadrni)ed ; atid the horses,
the invaders imported from Europe, were
viewed with astonisliment and alarm. The
researches of Mr. Darwin and Mr. Lund, have
indisputably proved that the genus equus was
represented during the Pliocine period, by a
species (equus curvkleus) which is shown to be
distinct from the European fossils, and also
from the existing species. Fossil remains of
the horse have been found also in North

47

AMERICAN HOBSE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[AMERICAN HORSE.

America. Tlie geographical range of tlie genus
equus was, tlieretbre, more extensive at tlie
Pliocine period, than that of the rhinoceros, of
which both the fossil and the existing species
are confined to the Old World of the geogra-
phers. Tlie horse, in its ancient distribution
over both hemispheres of the globe, resembles
the mastadon, and appears to have become
extinct in North America at the same time
with the mastadon gigunteus, and iu South
America, with the mastadon of the Andes,
and the megatherium. Well may ]\Jr. Darwin
say — 'It is a marvellous event in the hi.story
of animals, that a native kind should have dis-
appeared, to be succeeded, in after ages, by the
countless herds iutroduced with the Spanish
conquerors.' "

THE NORTH AMERICAN HORSE.

Traversing the isthmus of Darien, and enter-
ing North America, we find herds of wild
horses, the offspring of those which formerly
escaped from the Spanish possessions in
Mexico — even abounding on the extensive
prairies that lie to the west of the Mississi|)pi.
They were once numerous on the Kootannie
Lands, near the northern sources of the
Columbia. The young stallions live iu sepa-
rate herds, being driven away by the old ones,
and are easily ensnared by using domestic
mares as a decoy. The natives are acquainted
with the Spanish-American method of taking
them with the lasso. Major Long mentions
that " horses are an object of a particular
hunt to the Osages. For the purpose of obtain-
ing these animals — which, in their wild state,
preserve ail their fleetness — they go in a large
party to the country of the Eed Canadian
river, where they are to be found in consider-
able numbers. Wlien they discover a troop,
they distribute themselves into three parties,
two of which take their stations at different
and proper distances on the route, which, by
previous experience, they know the horses
will most probably take when endeavouring to
escape. This arrangement being completed,
the first party commences the pursuit in the
direction of their colleagues, at whose position
they at length arrive. The second party then
continues the chase with fresh horses, and
pursues the fugitives to the third party, which
generally succeeds in so far running them
48

down, as to noose and capture a considerable
number of them."

The domestic horse is an object of great
value to the nomadic tribes of Indians that
frequent the extensive plains of the Missouri,
&c. ; for they are not only useful in transport-
ing their tents and families from place to place,
but one of the highest objects of the ambition
of a young Indian, is to possess a good horse
for the chase of the butlalo — au exercise of
which he is passionately fond. To steal the
horse of an adverse tribe is considered to be
nearly as heroic an exploit as killing an enemy
on the field of battle ; and the distance to
which they occasionally travel, and the priva-
tions they undergo in their horse-marauding
excursions, are almost incredible. An Indian
who owns a horse, scarcely ever ventures to
sleep after night-fall ; but sits at the door of
his tent, with the halter iu one hand, and his
gun in the other ; the animal's fore-legs being,
at the same time, tied together witli thongs
of leather. Notwithstanding all this care,
however, it happens vei-y often that the hunter,
siiffering himself to be overpowered by sleep
for a few moments, awakes from the noise
made by the thief galloping off with his animal.

In Great Britain, opportunities by which
the svvinnning powers of the horse might be
tested, rarely occur. Mr. Darwin says, that
wheu he was in South America, "I crossed
the Lucia near its mouth, and was surprised
to observe how easily our horses, although not
used to swim, passed over a width of, at least,
six hundred yards. On mentioning this at
Monte Video, I was told that a vessel contain-
ing some mountebanks and their horses, being
wrecked in the Plata, one horse swam seven
miles to the shore. In the course of the day,
I was amused by the dexterity with which
a Gaucho forced native horses to swim a river,
lie stripped off his clothes, and jumping on
the back of the animal, rode into the water till
it was out of its depth ; then slipping off over
the crupper, he caught hold of the tail ; and as
often as the horse turned, the man frightened it
back by splashing water in its face. As soon
as the horse touched the bottom on the other
side, the man pulled himself on, and was firmly-
seated, bridle iu baud, before the horse gained
the bank. A naked man on a naked horse ia
a fine spectacle. I had uo idea how well the

CANADIAN HOKSE.] MODERN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [Canadian hoese.

two animals suited each other. The tail is
a very useful appendnge. I have passed
a river in a boat, with four people in it,
which was ferried across in the same way as
the Gaucho. If a man and horse have to
cross a broad river, the best plan is for the
man to catch hold of the pommel or mane, and
help himself with the other arm."

In Pennsylvania, a horse called the Cones-
toga, long in the legs, and light in the carcass,
is found. Its height is about seventeen hands,
and it is used principally as a carriage-horse.
This animal is pretty general in the middle
states. In Kentucky and Yirginia, the Eng-
lish horse, with a fair quantity of blood, is
found. Also in the Southern states, where
purity has had greater attention. Shark, the
best English horse of his day, was the sire of
the best stock in Virginia; and Tally-ho gave
his offspring to the Jerseys.

THE CANADIAN HORSE.

Winter travelling in Canada is sometimes
very expeditious ; and it is surprising with
what speed a good Canadian horse will go,
when drawing a cabriolet over the ice. In-
stances have occurred of their travelling ninety
miles, in one of these vehicles, in twelve
hours ; but, when this happens, the roads must
be very smooth and hard.

The Canadian horse is a remarkably hardy
animal ; his best pace is a trot ; and although
he is accustomed to much bad usage and hard
work, he is the most willing creature in the
world — as the jockeys term it — for he never
refuses the draught. In the coldest weather
horses come into Quebec from the country,
and are left standing in the open air, without
any covering, for hours together, while their
owners are transacting their business, or
drinking; yet they seem not to be any the
worse for it. In the winter, like all other
quadrupeds of that country, they acquire an
increased quantity of fur to protect them from
the cold ; and the curry-comb is never used.
When they have been heated by fast driving
on a cold day, they appear to have a sort of
icicle at every hair ; and icicles, two or three
inches in length, often hang at their noses.

In the winter season, travelling on the ice
is at all times dangerous ; and it is very
common for sleigh, horses, and men, to fall

H

through the ice where the water is some
hundred feet deep : luckily, however, the weak
places are of no great extent, and the traveller
extricates hiiiuselt' from the sleigh as quickly
as possible, wlien ho lays hold of the ice,
which is generally strong enough to support
him, thougli it will not bear the weight of the
horses. The pulling of tlieae out is done in a
manner perfectly unique, the horses being often
nearly strangled to save them from suffocation.

When the horses fall through — for there are
generally two in these sleighs — their struggles
only tend to injure and sink each other ; but as-
they have always round their necks a rope with.
a running noase, the moment the ice breaks,,
the driver and passengers jump out, and
catching hold of the rope, pull it with all
their force. This, in a very few minutes,,
stops the breath of the horses ; and no sooner
does this happen, than they rise in the water,
float on one side, and are drawn out on strong
ice, when the noose of the rope being loosened,
respiration returns. In a short time, the
horses are on their feet, and as much alive
as ever. This operation has been known to be
performed two or three times a-day on the same
horses. The Canadians state, that horses which
are often on the lakes, become so accustomed
to being hanged, that they think nothing at all of
it. But, though the case is very common, the
attempt does not always succeed ; for it some-
times happens that both sleigh and horses go.
to the bottom, if not extricated in time.

Another remarkable fact respecting tho
Canadian horses, is said to be a great fondness-
for fish. To what extent they carry this-
singular appetite we have never heard de-
scribed. The kind of fish is said to be a species
of cod ; and the manner of catching them is by
cutting holes in the ice, and putting down either
nets or lines. Over this hole a temporary house
is built, large enough to contain half-a-dozen
fishermen, and a stove to keep them warm.
Such as cannot afford deals to build a house,
substitute large pieces of ice, with which they
form a kind of defence against the weather,
and literally pursue their piscatory sport in an
ice-house.

A correspondent of the Fenny Magazine,
sent to that periodical the following instance
of sagacity in the North American horse:—
"A short distance below Port Erie, and about

49

CANADIAN HOESE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[CANADIAN HOESE.

a mile from where the river Niagara escapes
over a barrier of rock from the depths of Lake
Erie, a ferry has long been established across
that broad, and there exceedingly rapid, river;
the distance from shore to shore being a little
over one-third of a mile. On the Canada side
of the river is the small village of Waterloo ;
and opposite thereto, on the United States'
side, is the large river of Black Eock, distant
from the young and flourishing city of Buifalo
two miles. In completing the Erie canal, a
pier or dam was erected — up and down the
river, and opposite to Black Eock, at no great
distance from the shore, for the purpose of
raising the waters of the Niagara to such a
height that they might be made to supply an
adjoining section of the Erie canal. This pier
was a great obstruction to the ferry-boats ; for,
previous to its erection, passengers embarked
from terra firma on one side of the river, and
were landed, without any difficulty, on the
other ; but, after this dam was constructed, it
became necessary to employ two sets of boats
— one to navigate the river, and the other the
basin ; so that all passengers, as well as goods
or luggage, had to be landed on this narrow
wall, and reshipped. Shortly after the erection
of the pier- dam, a boat, propelled by horses,
was established between this pier and the
Canada shore. The horses moved upon a
circular platform, which, consequently, was put
in motion ; to which other machinery was con-
nected, that acted upon paddle-wheels attached
to the sides of the boat. The boat belonged
to persons connected with the ferry on the
American side of the river ; but, owing to the
barrier formed by the pier, the horses employed
on the boat were stabled at night in the village
of Waterloo. The two horses — for that boat
had but two — worked admirably, considering
the very few lessons they had had previous to
their introduction upon the main river. One
of the horses employed on the new ferry-boat,
had once been a dapple-grey; but, at the
period I am speaking of, he had become white.
He was still hale and hearty, for he had a kind
and indulgent master.

" The first evening after the horses had been
a short time in the stable to which they were
strangers, they were brought out for the purpose
of being watered at the river — the common
custom of this place. The attendant was
50

mounted on the bay horse ; the white one was
known to be so gentle and docile that he was
allowed to drink where he pleased. I hap-
pened to be standing close by, in company with

my friend W , the ferry contractor of the

Canada side, and thus had an opportunity of
witnessing the whole proceedings of " Old
Grizzle," the name that the white horse still
went by. The moment he got round the
corner of the building, so as to have a view of
his home on the opposite side, he stopped
and gazed intently. He then advanced to the
brink of the river, when he again stopped, and
looked earnestly across for a short time ; then
waded into the water until it had reached his
chest — drank a little, lifted his head, and, with
his lips closed, and his eyes fixed upon some
object upon the furthest shore, remained for a
short time perfectly motionless. Apparently
having made up his mind to the task, he then
waded further into the river until the water
reached his ribs, when oif he shot into the
deep water without hesitation. The current
being so strong and rapid — the river boiling
and turmoiling over a rocky bed, at the rate
of six miles an hour — it was impossible for the
courageous and attached animal to keep a
direct course across, although he breasted the
waves heroically, and swam with remarkable
vigour. Had he been able to steer his way
directly across, the pier-wall would have
proved an insurmountable barrier. As it was,
the strength of the current forced him down
to below where the lower extremity of this
long pier abuts upon an island, the shore of
which being low and shelving, he was enabled
to effect a landing with comparative ease.
Having regained terra firma, he shook the
water from his dripping flanks ; but he did not
halt over a few minutes, when he plunged into
the basin, and soon regained his native shot-e.
The distance from where Grizzle took the
water, to where he effected a landing on the
island, was about seven hundred yards ; but
the efforts made to swim directly across against
the powerful current, must have rendered the
undertaking a much more laborious one. At
the commencement of his voyage, his arched
neck and withers were above the surface ; but
before he gained the island, his head only
was visible. He reached his own-stable door — ■
that home for which he had risked so much —

fl

■■■I

.J

BEiTisn HORSE.] MODEEN VETERINAET PRACTICE. [bthtish nonsK.

to tlie no small astonishment of his owner.
This unexpected visit evidently made a favour-
able impression upon his master, for he was
beard to vow, that if old Grizzle performed
the same feat a second time, for the future be
should remain on bis own side of the river,
and never be sent to the mill again. Grizzle
was sent back to work the boat on the follow-
ing day ; but be embraced the very first oppor-
tunity that occurred of escaping, swam back
in the way he had done before ; and his owner
not being a person to break the promise he
had once made, never afterwards dispossessed
him of the stable he had long been accustomed
to, and treated him with marked kindness and
attention."

THE BRITISH HORSE.

Having detailed, with as much fulness as we
deem necessary, the principal features and
characteristics of the horses of those nations
which have, more or less, held his qualities in
high estimation, we now proceed to give a
concise history of the English animal, and to
trace the improvement of the indigenous breed
of this country to its present exalted state.
"We may felicitate ourselves upon the fact, that
the efforts of our breeders and trainers to im-
prove the horse, have been crowned with the
most decided success ; for our animals are
vastly superior even to the parent stock, to
which we were first indebted for that new
infusion of blood which has given them greater
size, strength, and speed than are found in the
horses of any other country.

The early history of the English horse is
involved in too much uncertainty to allow us
to speak with decision upon even the proba-
bilities of his nature. It is said, however, that
be was comparatively small ia size, and of a
wild and uncultivated form. "When the island
was invaded by Csesar, be found the British
horses regularly harnessed to war-chariots ;
but it is supposed probable, that after the
people had advanced from barbarism into a
tolerable degree of civilisation, the use of the
animal was principally diverted to domestic
purposes. This supposition rises out of the
consideration of our insular position, which
naturally made the ocean the element upon
which we were best able to cope with our foes,
and superseded the necessity of establishing

an armed cavalry, until contention broke out
among ourselves. ]iy the Romans, liowevor,
the character of the horse of tliis country must
have been changed. In their cavalry were
horses from Italy, Gaul, and Spain ; and these
crossing with the indigenous breed of Britain,
would produce another race different from that
which had hitherto occupied the island. In
the seventh century, it is on record, that the
English then made use of the saddle, and that
bishops and others rode on horseback. Before
this period these dignitaries of the church
pursued their journeys mostly on foot, and
only made use of a horse when the circum-
stances were of such a character as to demand
it. To mark tlieir humility, they rode mares
only — the female animal being, at that time,
deemed neither so handsome nor so valuable as
the male.

At a subsequent period, during the Saxon
sway, it would appear that an excellent breed
had risen up ; and that in the time of Alfred,
a master of the horse was appointed to look
after the breeding and the training of that
animal. This is an important fact, inasmuch
as it forcibly indicates the height to which the
horse had now attained in the royal estima-
tion. This ofiicer, in every subsequent reign,
was attached to the sovereign, more particu-
larly on state occasions.

On the death of Alfred, Athelstan succeeded
to the throne, and this prince received from
Hugh Gapet, of France, a present of several
German running-horses. This, then, was the
cause of another cross in the English breed ;
and, as the horses presented were likely to be
of the very best kind, we may conclude that they
had an improving influence. The animal had
now attained a high reputation ; for we find
that Athelstan, a.d. 930, forbade the exporta-
tion of horses, except as presents to monarchs.
He also laboured to improve the breed, which
had already began to be considered valuable
on the continent.

About a century and a quarter later, "Wil-
liam the Conqueror invaded England, and the
success of his expedition soon produced a
corresponding effect upon the breed of English
horses. In his army were several Spanish
animals, ridden by Norman knights ; and the
war-horse upon which he himself rode, was a
native of Spain. The cross which took placa-

51

BRITISH HORSE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[BRITISH HORSE.

-with these tended greatly to raise the fallen
character of the Euglish horse for activity,
spirit, strength, and beauty. After the Con-
quest came the Crusades, which brought the
Euglish into an acquaintance with the fine
horses of Syria and Arabia, and enabled many
of our barons to possess themselves of some of
these species. Kichard Coeur-de-Lion himself
purchased two of the breed at Cyprus, celebrated
for their speed and beauty. We are not aware
whether these ever found their way to Britain ;
but about fifty years later, in the reign of
Henry II., we have the first mention of an Ara-
bian horse having been introduced to this coun-
try. In order to carry the knight of the Middle
Ages, invested in all the pomp and panoply of
war, a strong animal was necessary. Accord-
ingly, spirit, as well as power to carry liis rider,
must have been amongst the principal quali-
ties requisite to be obtained in the war-horse;

THE EN'GLTSH WAR-HORSK.

and these would naturally force themselves
upon men as the first objects of cultivation.
52

At this period the bead of the war-horse
was adorned with a crest, which, with his
flanks and chest, were either wholly or par-
tially protected by a mail covering. Indeed,
the body of the animal was, in some instances,
completely clothed in steel, and his bridle
decorated with every adjunct of splendour that
the purse of his rider could afford. Bells not
unfrequently formed a part of his equipment ;
than which, in the language of an old trouba-
dour, " there was nothing so proper to inspire
confidence in a knight, and terror in an
enemy."

At the early part of the twelfth century,
Smoothfield, or Smithfield, begins to be spoken
of as a horse-market, a tournament field, and
a race-course. Here horses of every descrip-
tion were to be seen, from the mighty and ma-
jestic charger, down to the light and sleek, am-
bling palfrey. Smithfield, however, has long
since passed from the character of both
a field and a race-course. It is no
longer what it was ; and whatever may
be the glories of its reminiscences in
the mind of the metropolitan anti-
quary, it will soon cease to be remem-
bered as having been the busy locality
even of a cattle-market.

Passing over the reigns of future
monarchs, many of whom laboured to
improve the breeds, we come to the
days of James I., who was a great
lover of field sports, and also a
great encourager, if not absolutely the
establisher of horse-racing in Scotland.
When he came to the English throne,
he brought, from his own country, the
same passion for sports ; and as he
was partial to racing, he determined
to try the Arab breed in this exercise.
Accordingly, he bought an Arabian,
for which he gave five hundred pounds,
but which was not very favourably esti-
mated by the then Duke of Newcastle,
who wrote a book on horsemanship,
and pronounced the pet ol James
worthless. Tiiis judgment so materially
damaged the Arabian in the eyes of
English breeders, that the Arab lost
caste immediately, and none of his
kind regained proper position for nearly a cen-
turv afterwards.

BRITISH HORSE.] MODEEN VETERINAET PEACTICE. rBumsH nonsE.

In the reigns of Elizabeth and James, a
considerable number of writers appeared on
tlie subject of the liorse, and of farriery.
]51underville, the earliest now known, and one
of the ablest, describes the generality of horses
in the reign of Elizabeth, as either weak or
sturdy jades, adapted only to draw ; with, how-
ever, some very creditable exceptions indeed.
As an example, he states the fact of one of
them having travelled for a wager eighty miles
within the day. The great breeders of the
country had been accustomed to import, for
the stud, "The Turk, the Barbarian, the
Sardinian, the Neapolitan, tiie Jennet of Spain,
the Hungarian, the high Almaine (German),
the Eriezland, the Elanders, and the Irish
Hobby." Nevertheless, in those days, horses
could not have been very numerous in Eng-
land, since Queen Elizabetli experienced the
utmost difficulty in mounting two or three
thousand cavalry.

Throughout these early periods, as in modern
times, riding on horseback, and trying the
speed of horses, was peculiarly an English
diversion. The country sports of hunting and
hawking are of very ancient date; and our
old chronicles furnish us with accounts of the
constant diversions in Smithfield, then an ex-
tensive plain, where, as already observed,
London citizens met, matched, and raced their
horses ; the superior social orders joining and
taking part with the citizens.

The unfortunate Charles I. instituted races
in Hyde-park ; and, after him, Cromwell kept
his stud ; but racing did not, throughout the
wars and the Protectorate, flourish as it had
done in the days of James I. ^With the
restoration of the merry monarch, racing, which
liad just lived a fitful season during the reign
of the first Charles, was began again with spirit.
At this period, with the exception of a few
Arab stallions and mares, of a most uncertain
lineage, introduced during the last reign, the
description of horses to be met with in Great
Britain, consisted of the Aboriginal race, the
ponderous Norman war-horse, and the un-
vicldy Elanders mare, used by the nobility
10 drag their state-coaches, and to carry
the pillions, upon which English dames were
wont to jog behind their burly masters. It
would be easy to trace all the variations of
the horse, known in this country by the very

significant names of " half-bred," from these
three sources. Of course we look for them
no further back than the first introduction of
Arab and Persian blood ; and we find them the
produce of the stallions of those countries
crossed with the English, Norman, and Eian-
ders mares. Thus, from the first, descended
the old English lumter, showing all the cross-
made, hardy franiowork of his dam— the
blood-like 'head, and flat sinewy legs of his
sire. The roadster, from the same sire, was
the produce of the second-class of our native
mares. As distinct classes, probably no speci-
mens of either are now to be found, their
descendants constituting the endless ramifica-
tions of all the tag-rag nondescripts, by which
the drudgery of town and country work is
performed.

In the reign of Queen Anne the Arabian
was brought again into fashion. A Mr. Darlev
was the means of this; and it is to the off'spring
of the animal — further noticed in our next
chapter — which goes by this gentleman's name,
that we are principally indebted for the breed
of horses which we now possess, and which is
unrivalled for strength, speed, and beauty.

The peculiar English system of breeding,
essentially and usefully different from any
other country in Europe, had an early com-
mencement; but it was confiued to the supe-
rior, chiefly to the sporting classes. This system
has been gradually and progressively improved
to the present time. Within the period of its
existence we have produced specimens in every
variety of the animal, bordering on attainable
perfection. Such, however, it must be acknow-
ledged, have been, even in our most vaunted
periods, sufficiently scarce ; and our numbers of
scientific and judicious breeders have at no
period formed the majority. The average,
however, of English horses, has possessed a
fair proportion of the English principle. Hence
their being always in demand for foreign studs.
" The coursers of the East," says Mr. Touatt,
" might have been easily procured ; a new
supply of Arabian blood might have been
obtained from the native country of the Barbj
but French and Italians, Germans, Eussians,
and Flemings, have flocked to the British
Isles. The pure blood of the present Barb
and Arabian has been postponed, and all have
deeply drawn from that of the thorough-

53

PONIES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[ponies

bred English horse. This is a circumstance
with regard to which there is no dispute. It
is a matter of history, and it is highly credit-
able to our sporting-men and breeders,"

This national principle of horse-breeding
consists in matching the horse and mare in
respect to size, substance, blood, and a certain
conventional symmetry, so as to obtain a form
in the foal, in which may subsist a union of
strength and ability for labour, with the
powers of activity and speedy progression.
We proceed on the principle that, generally
speaking, "like produces Hke," although to
this rule, like most others, exceptions appear.

As we imported foreign horses, invariably
improving upon those models, so we originally
imported the art of farriery and veterinary
science from the schools of Italy and Erance,
improving upon them likewise. In the earlier
periods of which we have been treating, the
farriers of note, and the riding-masters in
England, were generally Italian and French.
They were, indeed, sufficiently barbarous and
unenlightened ; but our native artists were in-
conceivably more so, when the length of time
is considered, through which their art had been
in universal practice m all its branches,

PONIES AND GALLOWAYS.

There is still one breed of horses, which
may be considered aboriginal in Great Bri-
tain, and which is the Slietland ponies — called
SheUies by the natives of Scotland. The de-
scription of these astonishing little animals
almost exceeds belief. They are less in size
than the Orkney horses ; for some are but nine,
others ten hands high ; and they are thought
big horses if eleven ; but although they are
BO small, they are full of vigour and life. Some
of the smaller sizes often prove the strongest.
Many of them are so diminutive that an able
man could lift them up in his arras ; yet it is
said they will carry him and a woman behind
him eight miles forward, and as many back.
Summer or winter they never enter a house,
but, in some places, run upon the mountains,
in troops ; and if, at any time, in winter they
are straitened for food, they will descend from
the hills when the ebb is in the sea, and feed
upon the sea-weed. Winter storms and
scarcity of food, bring them frequently so

about the end of June, when they are at their
best. They live to a considerable age, reach-
ing twenty-six, twenty-eight, or thirty years;
and are good for riding at twenty-four. Those
of a black colour are esteemed the most capa-
ble of endurance. The pied often prove not
so good. The smallest of the breed are in the
northern isles of Tell and TJnst. The coldness
of the air, coupled with their scanty provender
and hard usage, may influence their growth
to a large extent ; for, even if bigger horses
are brought into these islands, their offspring
will, in a little time, degenerate.

After viewing these little shelties, which are
almost of as much importance to the cotter of
their country, as the fleet Arabian of the
desert is to his master, we feel lost in admira-
tion at the wisdom of that Power who has
adapted animals just to suit the situation in
wliich they can be of most service to man.

Vie, now and then, see some of these small
creatures in the southern parts of England,
harnessed to a light garden chair, or some-
times carrying an almost baby rider. There
are several of them in Windsor-park. It would
be curious to watch the stock of these little
animals, and to see what improvement, in size,
a richer pasture would have upon the small-
ness of their original breed.

Besides the Shetland, there is the Highland
pony, which is not pleasant to ride, except at
a canter. His habits make him hardy, for
he is rarely housed in the summer or the
winter. The Rev. Mr. Hall says, that when
these animals come to any boggy piece of
ground, they first put their noses to it, and
then pat on it, in a peculiar way, with one of
their fore-feet ; and from the sound and feel of
the ground, they know whether it will bear
them. They do the same with ice, and deter-
mine, in a minute, whether they will proceed.
The Welsh pony is one of the most beau-
tiful little animals that can be imagined. He
lias a small head, high withers, deep, yet round
barrel, short joints, flat legs, and good round
feet. He runs with great speed ; has a wild
and roguish look ; and is just such an animal
as a spirited girl of sixteen would delight to
I be perched upon. When seen tossing his
' mane on the sides of his native mountains, no
quadruped can be more attractive. The A¥elsh

low that they do not recover their strength till , ponies are said to be indebted to the celebrated
54

POKIES.J

MODERN VETEEINAET PEACIICE.

[ponies.

Merlin, for their form and qualities. They will
live on any lure, and can never be tired out.

WELSH PONT.

The New Foresters, notwithstanding their
Marsk-blood, are generally ill-made, large-
headed, short-uecked, and ragged-hipped ; but
hardy, safe, and useful ; with much of their
ancient spirit and speed, and all their old
paces. The catching of these ponies is as
great a trial of skill, as the hunting of the wild
horse on the Pampas of South America, and a
greater one of patience.

A large number of ponies, of little value, used
to be reared in Lincolnshire, in the neighbour-
hood of Boston ; but the breed has been ne-
glected, and will, probably, be suffered to die out.

The Exmoor ponies, although generally
ugly enough, are hardy and useful. A well-
known sportsman says, that he rode one of
them half-a-dozen miles, and never felt such
power and action in so small a compass before.
To show his accomplishments, he was turned
over a gate at least eight inches higher than
his back ; and his owner, who rode fourteen
stone, travelled on him from Bristol to South
Molton, eighty-six miles, beating the coach
which ran the same road.

There is, on Dartmoor, a race of ponies much
in request in that vicinity, being sui'e-footed,
and hardy, and admirably calculated to get
over the rough roads and dreary wilds of that
mountainous district. The Dartmoor pony is
larger than the Exmoor, and, if possible, uglier.
He exists there almost in a state of nature.
The late Captain Colgrave, of the prison, had
a great desire to possess one of them of some-
what superior figure to ita fellows ; and having

several men to assist him, they separated it
from the herd. They drove it on to some rocks
by the side of a tor, an abrupt pointed hill — a
man following on horseback, while the captain
stood below watching the chase. The little
animal being driven into a corner, leapt com-
pletely over the man and horse, and escaped.

The horses which were formerly used in
Devonshire, and particularly in the western
and southern districts, under the denomination
of pack-horses, are a larger variety of the
Exmoor or Dartmoor breed. The saddle-horses
of Devonshire are mostly procured from the
more eastern counties.

It was, we believe, Buffon's opinion, that all
horses have been derived from one common
stock, and the difference between them in
point of strength, size, speed, &c., has been
accomplished only by food and climate. This,
however, has been disputed ; and the question
may be difiicult to answer, whether the pony
and large English horse were, or could be,
originally from a common stock. It is, how-
ever, not impossible that they might have had
one common origin ; for if we reflect on the
changes which the different modes of feeding
effect in the condition of animals, it is not so
improbable as it may at first appear.

Without pausing to discuss the question
whether a horse will represent in size what it
feeds on, we adduce a circumstance which has
some bearing upon it, and which fell under
the personal observation of the gentleman to
whom we are indebted for it. His father had
a mare that brought him no less than fourteen
colts, and all by the same horse, and not one
of which, at three years old, was under seven-
teen hands high. She was in the fifteenth
foal by the same horse, when he sold her to a
neighbouring farmer, reserving the foal, which
was to be delivered in a twelvemonth.

At her new master's, she was comparatively
starved, and she came back at the expiration
of the year, so altered as scarcely to be recog-
nised. The foal, four months old, was very
small. The little animal was put on the most
luxuriant diet, but it did not reach more than
fifteen hands high, at the expiration of the
third year.

Dr. Anderson says that there was once a
breed of small elegant horses in Scotland,
similar to those of Iceland and Sweden, and

65

GALLOWAYS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[galloways.

which were known by the name of Galloways.
The best of these sometimes reached the height
of fourteen hands and a-half. One of this
description he possessed, it having been bought
for his use when a boy. In point of elegance
of shape, it was a perfect picture , and in
disposition was gentle and compliant ; it moved
almost with a wish, and never tired. Tlie
Doctor rode this little creature for twenty-five
vears ; and twice, in that time, rode a hundred
and fifty miles, without stopping, except to
bait, and that not above an hour at a time.
It came in, at the last stage, with as much ease
and alacrity as it had travelled the first. The
Doctor says, he would have undertaken to have
performed on this animal, when it was in its
prime, sixty miles a day for a twelvemonth
running, without any extraordinary exertion.

A Galloway in point of size, whether of
Scotch origin or not is uncertain, started when
coaches were running, from London with the
Exeter mail ; and, notwithstanding the nume-

rous changes of horses, and the rapid driving
of that vehicle, it arrived at Exeter — one hun-
dred and seventy-two miles — fifteen minutes
before the mail. A gentleman who saw this
animal about twelve months after his wonderful
performance, described him as being wind-
galled, spavined, ring-boned, and a lamentable
picture of the ingratitude of man towards a
willing and faithful servant.

In 1754, Mr. Corker's Galloway went one
hundred miles a-day for three successive days,
over the Newmarket course, and without the
slightest distress.

A Galloway belonging to Mr. Sinclair, of
Kirby-Lonsdale, performed at Carlisle the ex-
traordinary feat of one thousand miles in a
thousand hours !

Galloways have greatly decreased in point
of numbers. Many of those which are now in
use, are obtained either from Wales or the
New Forest. The Galloway ia supposed to
have originally been of Spanish extraction.

CHAPTER III.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE HORSE ; THE SUPPOSED DEGENERACY OF THE RACING BREED, ETC.

Before considering our Eacers, and their
kindred breeds in this country, it may be as
well to make a few general observations on
the racing animal, and the supposed deteriora-
tion of his blood. The subject is one of
great interest, and merits the thoughtful con-
sideration of all those who are more especially
connected with the genus equidce. Some
have supposed that the deterioration may have
arisen from the fashion of the present mode of
breeding for lengtli of stride, and for short races.
This, however, might be easily altered by our
present stock, without proceeding to the neces-
sity of employing fresh blood to invigorate it.
There are others, again, who insist that nothing
less than a national establishment will prevent
our horses from becoming sorry jades.

The English horse is so identified with the
glory of the country, that we could hardly look
56

upon any one as possessed of patriotic feelings,
who would see, without a sigh, the degeneracy
of our native breed.

There is, at present, one circumstance, how-
ever, which places us in a novel situation in
respect to the horse, which time only can de-
velop. "We allude to the eflect that railroads
may have had upon the breed. It is a well-
known fact, that, at the commencement of the
railway system of travelling, many spirited
coach-proprietors gave almost hunters' prices
for their cattle, and that there was a regular
demand for horses of any size for the use of
coaches. This traffic having in a considerable
degree ceased, it will become a matter for con-
sideration whether there will be any stimulant
for breeding sufficient to carry it on with pro-
fit and spirit ; or whether it will be abandoned,
and treated with indifierence.

EACE-HOBSES.] MODERN VETERTNAEY PEACTICE. [nACE-HonsES.

In the event of such a misfortune, we con-
fess we should have hailed with joy a national,
or any other establishment which might have
had the effect of preserving to us our present
breed. AVe will not say the time may not come
when the legislature may be called upon to de-
vise some plan to prevent a native degeneracy,
if needed ; because we feel convinced that that,
or any other measure, would be resorted to, to
prevent what would be considered a national
calamity, if not a real disgrace. There formerly
were, and still are, two opinions upon this sub-
ject ; and fearing that there may be some truth
in the degeneracy of the racing blood, although
not, we hope, to the extent entertained by the
projector of a national establishment, whose
plan was published some years ago ; yet, as the
subject has a certain interest, we preserve the
general features of the scheme propounded.

If we admit, for the sake of argument, that
our horses, now-a-days, are neither so durable,
nor possess the speed of an Eclipse or a Chil-
ders, does it follow that the breed has become
degenerate ? Are the circumstances in other
respects so exact, that we have no other alter-
native than to place it to the score of degene-
racy ? Has the racing blood of this country
become so intermixed and assimilated, as to
have produced the inconvenience, and to have
become the opprobrium of good breeders ; in
short, has our racing blood arrived at that
pitch of relationship, which constitutes what is
called breeding " in-and-in ? " Is the manage-
ment of racers now as formerly ?

Both Eclipse and Childers were about six
years old before they raced ; and at the present
day, horses run at two and three years old.
Is it to be expected that animals worked
at so tender an age, can be durable? "We
only ask whether the difference of manage-
ment between running horses at five or six,
and two or three, may not account, at least,
for their want of durability ?

The following are the remarks of the pro-
jector of a National Establishment, upon
the course which should be pursued in reference
to this subject, should it ever be taken up by
government.

A national establishment should commence
its functions by obtaining from the East a
considerable number of well-selected ponies.
The better portion would be found to possess

much natural speed, stoutness under severe
exertion, with limbs and feet peculiarly adapted
for moving rapidly on a hard surface. It
would bo puerile to bring from so great a
distance, such ill-shapen and attenuated crea-
tures as those now usually imported under
the name of Arabians ; or to employ persons
to purchase, who have not had experience of
the best horses under severe exertion. They
would search in vain amongst Orientals for
those properties which are acquired under a
system of continued selection. Looking only
for natural qualities, they should select animals
as nearly in a state of nature as they can find
them ; having good symmetry, a full amount
of muscle, and whatever natural speed the best
animals of the best race are found to possess.

"When brought to England a further trial
should be made. In this we should be content
with a degree of speed which is natural, and
an amount of structural power as nearly
natural as could be procured. The offspring
of these small horses should be tried in each
succeeding generation ; and we should be
satisfied, for a few years, to see the natural
speed of the race gradually augment ; retaining
only for breeding such as went through their
trials satisfactorily.

It would be folly to buy horses of largo
structure in the East, as such would be found
to have less speed than the smaller ones ; while
factitfous structure can be given by ourselves
with only too much facility.

"Whenever the public shall become alive to
the deteriorated condition of our saddle-horses,
and anxious to obtain such as are more usetul,
the first step must be a recurrence to nature
for those properties which art has destroyed.
It has been shown that, in the absence of
fresh blood, the elongated skeleton of the
modern racer can only be shortened by a
process which would render him a starveling.
The character of the whole race has been
reduced, in this respect, to a common level.
Some individuals may be more compact than
others ; but all have lost something which
fresh blood only can restore. If we rear them
at a reasonable expense, their growth is stunted
— if on rich grass, they lose their speed.
"Whether we try to renovate this exhausted
race, or substitute another, the objects we
seek are a more compact form and greater

57

RACE-HOESES.J

THE HOESE, AND

y^RACE-HOESES.

vigour ; and these can only be found in horses
which are nearer to a state of nature. So
long as individual differences in a race enable
us to correct individual defects, we may dis-
pense with fresh blood, but no longer,

A national establishment, having selected
horses from amongst a fine race, distinguished
by their symmetry, their natural speed, and
full amount of muscle, should carefully
observe how far the artificial properties
afterwards given to the race, diminished its
natural ones. A mass of facts would, after
some years, be obtained and recorded, calcu-
lated to throw, for the first time, a steady light
on the distant, as well as proximate, conse-
quences resulting from factitious causes. These
facts are not likely to be collected under any
system less permanent and comprehensive than
one under the control of a national establish-
ment. Its stock should be divided into two
portions; both should be placed under the
influence of continued selection for speed and
stoutness ; but one should be maintained at a
structure as nearly naturalas possible. "With
such conflicting properties as speed, vigour,
and great structural enlargement, a reserve of
more natural animals cannot be dispensed
with. The enlarged portion of the stock should
again be divided into two classes, one being
kept for breeding, the other for working. The
size of the former should be allowed to become
as large as is required to enable it to produce
animals sufficiently powerful for working ;
every efibrt should be made to keep down the
stature of the breeding animals to that point
which suffices, by the aid of rich food, to pro-
duce working animals sufficiently powerful ;
increasing the stature of the race as little, and
that of the individuals as much as possible.
In breeding horses of the best race, it might
be found desirable to have one portion of less
speed, but more muscular, than the other, in
order to meet that variety of demand which
necessarily exists in a highly civilised nation.
There should be a certain amount of foreign
blood in the horses of our heavy cavalry ; but
foreign horses, having a degree of speed which
is incompatible with much muscular power,
are not so well calculated for heavy cavalry as
such as have less speed, but more muscular
and constitutional power. Mambrino, Sweet-
william, or Sedbury, were better fitted for
58

producing proper stock for cavalry than Sharke.
This animal was more advanced by art than
the earlier horses as respects speed ; but he
was not so well calculated for enabling us to
produce powerful saddle-animals. If a foreign
race is to assist in the production of our heavy
cavalry horses, it should possess as much
structural power as can be combined with a
sufficiency of actiou, vigour, and sustaining
strength.

The natural qualities of the horse are found
nearest perfection when they are in a condi-
tion the least removed from one of nature.
Artificial structure is obtained b}' rich food,
and artificial speed by continued selection.
The course of the breeder is easy, so long as
it is in one direction ; that is, in advance.
When, however, the form of a whole race has
become deteriorated, the symmetry, which is
lost, can only be recovered by going back to
nature. A national establishment would, in
this case, renovate the enlarged portion of its
stock by having recourse to the animals whose
stature had been little increased. Such an
institution should ever be at work, preparing
smaller animals, by means of trials and con-
tinued selection, for being crossed when re-
quired with that enlarged portion of its stock
which, from time to time, became deteriorated.
The smaller animals, until wanted, should be
kept in a state of nature as nearly as possible.
They would thus retain their vigour while
acquiring all the advantages derivable from
continued selection ; they could be maintained
at the least possible expense ; at one which the
sale of the annual draughts would nearly or
wholly repay.

If a new race were to be formed, under the
system we have now recommended, capable of
running long distances, and carrying consider-
able weight without distress, premiums might
be again granted to the winners of certain
feats upon the turf. To attempt to make
modern racers run longer distances, or carry
more weight than at present, would be both
cruel and useless. A national establishment,
undertaking to form a new race of foreign
horses, could not be said to succeed, unless it
supplied the country with as swift, stout, and
powerful animals as were the earlier racers.
Knowing accurately the powers of the new
race, it could point out the nature of the

EACE-noRSEs.] MODEEN VETEKINARY PEACTICE. [uACE-uoRSKa.

running for wliich premiums might properly
be granted ; and great tasks might again be
performed on the race-course without any of
the cruelty which attends the present modes
of running.

The stallions, whose stature had been ade-
quately enlarged in the establishment for sup-
plying the demand of the farmers in the great
breeding counties, should be let out under
strict regulations, or, in those counties, main-
tained by the establishment in a condition best
calculated to preserve their vigour. Mucila-
ginous food, and other expedients, had recourse
to, by private individuals, to make the animals
very fat, should not be resorted to. The
stallions of a national establishment should
make their way to public favour by the good-
ness of their stock. No horse should leave the
establishment, as a stallion, labouring under
any essential defect. If a public establish-
ment supplied the breeding counties with the
best class of stallions at a cheap rate — bred
within its own precincts — the public would be
eulightened by example ; and, becoming gradu-
ally accustomed to see the best forms, would
no longer be satisfied with bad ones.

In determining the utility of some such
plan as here proposed, the reader will do well
to ask himself the following questions. Is
there a strong disposition in every fine race of
the horse, whose structure has been enlarged
by unnaturally rich food, to become either
coarse or weedy ? Are the plans adopted on
the race-course, to prevent coarseness, more
than palliative ? And are not some of them
objectionable ? Is it not better to recur to
nature, when art has disposed a domesticated
race of horses to coarseness, than to such a
palliative as that of breeding on one side
from old parents ? Is not this substituting
weediness for coarseness ? If we adopt a
system under which both coarseness and
weediness are avoided, by recurring, when
necessary, to I'resh blood, we should be able
to rear and work horses at the least possible
expense. Under this system any essential
loss of vigour would be instantly repaired by
the most economical means. In maintaining
vigour in a race of horses without coarseness,
we should have laid the best foundation for
giving to it those artificial qualities which
result from ajinual trials, and continaed selec-

tion. It is in our power to modify greatly the
acquired, as well as the natural, properties of
Oriental horses ; but we cannot combine the
highest degree of transient speed with the
compact skeleton and muscular power dis-
played by the earlier horses, and required
when great distances are to be traversed, or
much weight to be carried.

The practical utility of the projector's plan
and speculations may create doubt in some
minds as to the propriety of ever adoptin"-
them to the extent of his views. They may,
however, stimulate inquiry, and, at some
period, be productive of all the benefit the
most sanguine may anticipate. It is a subject
of vital importance, and of grave deliberation.

We hear of much despondency expressed
that our breed of horses will die out, and that
its advantages, some of our continental neigh-
bours are of opinion, will not long remain with
us : they are fully aware of the source whence
we derived this superiority, and, in con-
sequence, have endeavoured to establish races
on the English plan, which, together with a
more careful selection of stallions and mares
than we observe in England, will very soon,
they say, enable them, to excel us ; and they
anticipate a day, not very distant, when we
must send to the continent, if not for speedy,
at least for sound horses. This hint aboui:
soundness may be worth attention ; but, for
the rest, there can be little to apprehend.

The following account for the demand of
the racing blood of this country, would, how-
ever, make it appear that, in foreign countries,
the English race-horse was, at no distant day,
held in great estimation.

England, where, during the last century,
the improvement of her breed of horses has
been cultivated with unwearied zeal and a
lavish expenditure, is now reaping a golden
harvest in return for her enterprise and spirit.
Purchasers arrive from the four quarters of
the globe. America has taken up the specula-
tion with an ardour worthy the scion of " the
old country;" and .b" ranee, more especially
under the reign of JS^apoleon the Third,
seems to think it even of national importance
to encourage the breeding of horses upon a
better principle than that of crossing the
Flanders mare with the Norman stallion.
With the view of turning the attention of tho

59

EACE-HOESES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[EACE-nOHSES.

Erench farmer to a new source of rural
industry, the royal breeding stud in Nor-
inandy is conducted on a scale of which we
have no example in this country. Their stud
of stallions is enormous ; and during the
season, many of the best sort are sent all over
the country.

Germany purchased largely of our best
blood : Holstein, Belgium, Denmark, and
Eussia have bought from us : but no pur-
chasers formerly came to the English market,
or evinced the talent and spirit of the Ame-
ricans. France will never be a vent of any
consequence for our racing stock, as such.
Her government will import our stallions,
and encourage the speculation in others, as
the means of introducing a better description
of horse for general use, particularly for
cavalry ; but she will not offer, by the gift of
])ublic money, any inducement for the intro-
duction of race-horses into that country.

We have no fear, however, of France rival-
ling us in the breed of horses, so long as we
have the law of primogeniture, and so long as
France is without it. The expenses of the
race-course will never be supported in France
.'n the same way as in England, on that very
account. In a country like France, where
property is so divided, and in a country like
England, where money is in such masses — the
race-course being a luxury as well as a pleasure,
becomes the employment of the nobility of the
land : the law of primogeniture preventing the
division of estates, secures, at once, the expe-
rience and the means of perpetuating the
breed of horses of the first quality, from gene-
ration to generation ; and this is one of the
causes of our superior breed of horses.

In fact, France does not require such a breed.
She has, comparatively speaking, very few cus-
tomers for thorough-bred horses, winch would
rather encumber than be useful to her.
Beyond the army and the court, there are not
many Frenchmen but would be content with a
moderate-priced horse ; and, we believe, would
rather avoid tlie extra care and attention
which a higher-bred animal might subject them
to. The French, as far as our experience
goes, are an economical people, not likelv to
encourage any expense which they possibly
can do without ; and therefore are perfectly
contented with tlieir present breed. There
60

are no hounds kept in the provinces, because
there are no primogeniture estates of twenty
thousand pounds a-year to support them ;
there are no subscription packs, for the same
reason that there are no private ones : property
is so divided and subdivided, that if it secures
comforts, the people are satisfied, and are too
wise to embark in anything which they deem
extravagant. There is no encouragement to
stimulate the breed of hunters ; and the breed
of blood horses will, we suspect, remain limited,
rather tlian be greatly extended.

We avail ourselves of the following descrip-
tion of a breeding stud, which will confirm
the above observations, and show to what
extent the breed of the English race-horse
was, not many years back, kept up by our
native gentlemen sportsmen.

Within a few miles of Thetford, in Nor-
folk, and almost adjoining each other, were
situated two of the most celebrated breedin"'
establishments in England — Eiddlesworth and
Euston ; the former, the seat of Mr. Thornhill ;
the latter, of his grace the Duke of Grafton.
The proudest feature in the social condition
of the land we live in, is, that the promotion
and support of objects of national importance
which everywhere else is looked upon as the
business and peculiar province of a govern-
ment, either originates in individual enter-
prise, or is the result of public spirit, sup-
ported by private wealth or influence. Two
princely instances of this are before us. Here
a national business — it is such, in fact, be-
cause no other country possesses the material,
or the knowledge of its use — which from its
nature is not suited to the merely professional
man, is conducted with all the care and skill
that could be brought to bear upon any under-
taking solely embarked in for the purpose of a
profitable return.

The Eiddlesworth stud consisted of thirty
mares. In loose boxes were three of Mr. Thorn-
hill's yearlings, about to be sent to Newmarket.
A bay colt, by Emilius, out of Mercy, attracted
considerable attention on account of its size ;
it was a horse in all but the name. Some
Eussians who visited Eiddlesworth, absolutely
refused to believe it, till they looked into its
mouth. The second was a chesnut colt, by
Sir Patrick, out of Mangle-wurzle, with size
and substance for a four-year-old. The third,

AEAB HOUSES.] MODEEN VETEEIXAET PEACTICE. [aeab horses.

a bay colt, brotlier to Mendizabel, by Mer-
chant, out of INEisuomer's dams. These tliree
yearlings averaged, each, iit'teeu hands two
inches high !

As tar as the example of these yearling colts
go, there can be no cause for suspecting de-
generacy ; for, with their immense growth,
they had substance as well as height — one of
which might be taken for four years old. If
these splendid and gigantic animals had bad
justice done them, they would not have been
put to severe work before five or six years
old; yet they were going into training at
Newmarket directly. Where there was so
much strength and substance developed at so
early a period, surely it cannot be unnatural
to suppose that, if time were given for the con-
solidation of those powers, instead of racing
them at two years old, we should not have to
deplore the want of durability in our racing-
stock. If we sin against nature, however, we
must take the consequences ; for we can never
do that with impunity.

It might be interesting here to draw a com-
parison between the English racer and the
parent stock, as to the difference between them
in point of size. The principal cause of this,
perhaps, arises out of the superior kind of food
which the one receives to the other, and which
thus increases the structural economy of the
animal. We will, however, rather proceed to
give a description of two of the most beautiful
Arabs ever seen in this country. They were a
])resent from an Eastern prince, the Imaum of
Muscat, to his majesty William the Fourth,
and show the difference, in a most striking
manner, of the present breed of English racers
to that from which they are derived.

The first \vas a black stallion, standing four-
teen hands three inches high, branded M on
the off-quarter. Tiiis horse was the most
esteemed of the two; his colour, in Arabs
of the highest class, being rarely or ever met
with. Tears were consumed in selecting this
pair sent to his majesty, and no limit put upon
their price. Great as the difficulty has ever
been to convey a just idea of the horse with
the pencil — to put upon paper, words to effect
such a purpose, is a ten times more hopeless
task.

The first impression that the sight of this
little, unpretending animal, made upon one,

was anything but such as are in accordance?
with our usual anticipations. The issue waa
precisely such as one experiences in contem-
plating a highly-finished picture— tlie moro
you gaze upon it, the more its beauties be-
come developed. In this country, we are by no
means familiar with the Arab — many have not
even seen one: but if the portraits with which
every sportsman is familiar of the Darley or
Godolphin Arabians, be faithful delineations
of the animals they profess to represent, the
whole model of the Arab horse, as shown by the
one in question, differs toto ccelo from them.
" Here I had before me," continues the author
of this description, " one, selected by a prince
whose subjects have ever been celebrated for
trafficking in the purest blood of the desert. I
could not doubt his claim to legitimacy. I
have said his height is fourteen hands tliree
inches ; bis form so angular, that at the first
glance it seems to defy all claim to symmetry.
The whole character of shape and bearing is
closely allied to that of the deer. When you
come to a minuter examination of the parts,
individually, then you are convinced how pure
the fountain must have been whence such
blood was obtained. The bead of this horso
can be likened to nothing but exquisitely
chiselled marble; there is literally no flesh
upon it ; it is marble, too, to the touch. The eye
is small, but clear to transparency ; the cheek-
bones are prominent ; and there is a fixedness
about the ears that helps you to think you are
really looking upon the work of the sculptor.
The jaws stand very far asunder, the nostrils
are large and high, and the windpipe is of an
extraordinary size. The neck is light, and set
on similarly to the deer's : the shoulders more
fleshy and upright than suits our taste ; but,
below the knee, the legs are perfection : you
find quite as much bone as in the largest sized
English blood-horse, and the tendons are in
your grasp like iron. His carcase, without
being very full of substance, is round, and
tolerably deep ; his quarters, what we express
by vulgar. His thighs are very thin and
sinewy, his loins narrow, his hocks perfectly
clean and slightly inverted — he is what we call
* cat-ham'd.' The tail is well set on ; the dock
small; the hair fine and scant, giving it the
appearance of a mule's more than that of a
horse. His shanks are short, and hard aa

Gl

ARAB HOESES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[RACE-nOItSES.

adamant; the pasterns flexible; the hoofa singu-
larly hard, but healthy ; and the feet open and
roomy. Tou read his temper in his eye ; he
is a light-hearted animal, without the slightest
taint of vice."

The other stallion, a bright bay, is described
almost in the same words. His head is less
perfect, and the bone smaller; but his quarters
are fuller, and more softened down by the
swell of the muscles. His back, whicli, like
the other, is rather inclined to be hollow, is
xiot more than eight or ten inches from hip to
shoulder. " I never saw a pony's so short.
His height is, as nearly as possible, the same
as the black; in middle piece he has the
advantage. They were both brought out for
me, and I saw them in all their paces. In
their action, as in their lean, spare forms, you
detect nothing superfluous; it is quiet and
graceful, and entirely without any expression
of exuberant exertion. Utility is the charac-
teristic of the Arab horse. I can imagine
liim going for days together without fatigue:
nature intended him for this, and she has fitted
him for endurance. The impression of his
extraordinary speed was long o vulgar error,
which is now fast exploding. No Arab that
ever trod the sand, could live in company with
an English race-horse, weight him for inches,
or after any fashion you will : with the size of a
G-alloway, you cannot have the stride essential
to great velocity. Speed, regular and long
sustained, no doubt he possesses : our blight of
degeneracy is yet unknown to the desert-bred.
Before I part with these horses, I cannot
but regret that one or two of the mares at
Hampton Court were not put to them. Surely
nowhere could the experiment have been so
properly made. That their stock in the first,
or tenth generation, could compete with
Emilius or Sultan, no one supposes ; still
they are crystal streams, fresh drawn from
the spring, whence it is acknowledged we
derived the fertilisation of our own turf. If
only to trace its progress, it might be a
useful lesson, probably a guide of great impor-
tance."

In giving the description of these two very
extraordinary high-bred Arabians, selected by
a prince who spared no expense, and brought
from his own dominions, which is a country
also renowned for the breed of horse?, we can-
62

not but suppose that these specimens were of
the very highest caste, and the perfect repre-
sentations of their kind.

The gentleman to whom we are indebted
for the description of these two beautiful
small Arabs, says that there is no resem-
blance whatever between them and the por-
traits of the Godolphin and the Darley Ara-
bians. This, no doubt, is very true ; for these
were horses of considerable size and power, and
their immediate descendants became racers.
To them, however, the English breed is so
much indebted, that, under the head of tlie
English Eacer, we shall have something to say
of both the last-named horses.

AVe shall now return to the stud at Eiddles-
worth — an establishment which, although only
in the hands of a private English gentleman,
is sufficient to show to what sort of personages
we are indebted for the superiority of the
English horse, and for the beauty and speed
with which wealth and art have united to in-
vest him.

Our first duty is to introduce our readers to
the sires of the three yearling colts, of which
we have already spoken, and which averaged
fifteen hands two inches high. The following
is the description of an accomplished sports-
man who visited them.

" I now followed my obliging conductor (the
stud-groom) for a visit to the stallions. Their
boxes, each with a large walled yard attached
to it, are close to his dwelling-house, around
which, also, lie various commodious houses for
the young stock when it is first taken up,
previous to being taken away by tlie pur-
chasers, or sent for training to Newmarket.
The stallions all lie out— that is to say, their
boxes are left open ; and unclothed, and un-
touched, they have the run of the yards,
night and day, till generally the second week
in December. They are then shut up,
groomed, and put into condition preparatory
to the approaching season. The first I saw
was Merchant, by Merlin, out of Quail, by
Gohanna. He is a powerful, short- backed
chesnut horse, and his stock have shown well.
He is a favourite at Eiddlesworth, probably
on his sire's account, Merlin having ever been
high in Mr. Thornhill's estimation.

" Next to him came St. Patrick, by Walton,
his dam by Dick Andrews. This is a very

ijACU-HOBSEs.] MODEEN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [nACE-uousES.

fine-looking chestnut horse, hired, I believe,
from Mr. Dodsworth. He is light topped,
with a good deal of the character of Actajon
;ibout him : his frame is beautifully moulded ;
his legs, which have tasted the iron all round,
well under him ; fine withered, deep gaskined,
with thighs and quarters quite perfect. He
is short in the pastern, a quality pronounced,
by most men, as demanding praise, but as
little esteemed by me as its opposite, long.

" lu the post of honour, the dwelling nearest
lo himself, Tyler introduced me to the steed
whose own performances, and those of his
descendants, place him without any parallel
in the annals of British racing — Emilius,
by Orville, out of Emilius, by Stamford,
grandam by Whiskey, out of Grey Dinmont.
' And this,' said I, * is Emilius !' as a rough-
coated animal, with an eye like a star, came
snorting up to me. He was quite €?i deslia-
hille to receive company, as it was evident
he bad been recently indulging in a roll
among the mire of his exercise-paddock. The
moment I laid my hand upon his shoulder, he
stood still, looked complacently upon me, and,
notwithstanding his having been surprised a
little mal-apropos, accorded me a reception
quite in keeping with his acknowledged liigli
breeding. Taking this horse as the standard
of perfection of the English blood-horse of the
nineteenth century, I will state, as well as I
can, the i-esult of a very careful examination
of him, and thence draw such inferences as
are relevant to my present purpose. He was
then in his sixteenth year; and his height
over fifteen hands two inches. In colour he
was a rich blood-bay (when in his spring
form), with four black legs. He was all
over sound, and without blemish, save in his
ofi" fore leg, with which there seemed to have
been something amiss below the knee. Pro-
bably the most skilful anatomist would fail in
discovering one point of his symmetry faulty.
This latter phrase may require explanation:
what I mean by it is, that although his frame
should be pronounced perfect, as it was ; that
in its symmetry, the harmony of each part
with the whole, the fitness and relation of
every point for its assigned function, defied
criticism. You saw before you a form moulded,
for speed and strength, as the imagination of
the most experienced painter would pourtray

it. We know that he was swift and strong-
let us see if his physical development agreed
with the idea ailixed by the eye for power.

" ' Tyler,' I inquired, * have you a morsel
of string ? Never mind,' seeing that he was
going to procure it for me at his house. I
removed my watch-guard.

" 'Ah !' said he, seeing the use to which I
was about to apply it, * you are going to mea-
sure his leg I see : well, I have not seen sucli
a thing done since the time that his royal
highness the Duke of York was staying at
Eiddlesworth. The duke, I remember, came
one morning, and took the size of Merlin's
near fore-leg just under the knee, and its
circumference was full nine inches and a
quarter. Now, sir, I like Emilius's leg much
the best : it is shaped, as I call it, like a fiddle,
with the strings sfandiiig well out from it, the
way that a horse's muscle and sinew should
do.'

" Having carefully taken my measurement
of his near leg, I entered it in one of the
leaves of my pocket-book. It is now before me,
,.iid gives the circumference at exactly eight
inches and a-half. This was a little less
than the measurement of the ofi:'-leg. I need
hardly remark, that the apparent advantage on
Merlin's side is easily explained, if his limb
was rounder, and consequently less oval than
that of Emilius. This would give him, how-
ever, no actual superiority, the shape of the
bone and sinew of a horse's leg being an oval —
shallower, of course, as it extends from bone
to niuscle. For this horse, I was given to
understand, Mr. Thornhill refused eight thou-
sand pounds.

"Nothing could be more characteristically
English than the establishment at Eiddles-
worth. Tyler, the stud-groom, was an honest,
obliging yeoman, with his mind on a level
with his calling. The stock which he pro-
duced and reared during a long period of
superintendence and care, was the best evi-
dence of his fitness for such occupation. I
spent a few minutes in his cottage, and it was
just the head-quarters in which I should have
expected to find him. Everything was ycrupu-
lously neat ; all the comforts that his condi-
tion could require, were there in abundance ;
and the elegancies were in perfect accordance.
The walls were decorated with the inodt cele-

63

BACE-HOESES.]

THE HOKSE, A.:N D

[BACE-HOE3E3.

brated feats of the white and scarlet. There
was Sam winning the Derby in 1818 ; Sailor,
victorious for the same stakes in 1820 ; a fine
plate of Orville ; and one of Herring's admi-
rable likenesses of Emilias. In front of his
dwelling ran a sparkling stream, and just
beyond it was a moving zoological panorama,
such as no nobleman in the land could show,
and which may be called a description of the
once celebrated stud at Eiddlesworth."

In France, as already observed, there is not
the same inducements as in this country
for fostering and encouraging thorough-bred
horses. Napoleon I. used to send studs into
the different French provinces, to maintain
the highest breed. One of these, at Auch,
capital of Gascony, consisted of horses of
various countries— the Arab, Barb, &c. ; and
among these was one which attracted much
attention. He was an English thorough-bred,
Btanding full sixteen hands high ; was called
Eomulus, and was said to be above thirty
years of age. He had all the appearance of
age, having lost his flesh ; but there was his
eye and noble forehand, which indicated both
dignity and high breeding. There was nothing
to resemble him. The other stallions were
full of flesh and pretty ; but the English horse,
for size and speed, never could appear to more
advantage than when in such company. They
certainly were handsome and beautiful to look
at ; but Eomulus had the same appearance of
nobility and dignity over bis tribe, as may be
supposed to have been possessed by John P.
Kemble, in Coriolanus, over a common actor.

We have spoken of the division of property
in France being very minute; and in Gas-
cony, especially, most of the farms are very
small, and cultivated chiefly by their pro-
prietors. In many of these patriarchal abodes
will be found the great-grandfather, sur-
rounded by a portion of his descendants, at
the same fire; for here the daughters bring
their husbands home; and it is a pleasing
sight to see them all engaged in one general
interest and pursuit : the young girl handling
a pitchfork, and filling the cart, with as
much animation and zeal as her brothers.
But—

" England, with all thy faults, we love thee still."

Here we see the large broad hand, and the

64;

hale complexion of wholesome labour ! We
turn our thoughts to Manchester, to Shefiield,
Birmingham, &c., and the thin, pallid, ema-
ciated appearance of their inhabitants ; and
we never feel the contrast so strong between
the happiness of the followers of agriculture,
and that of those engaged in manufactures, as
at the time when we compare the harmony and
quiet incident to rural pursuits, with those of
the city. With the condition of riches we
have here nothing to do. It is of the condi-
tions of men we are speaking ; and what we
are mostly thinking of, is the barn with its
wheat ; the yard with its dogs, cows, pigs, and
poultry ; the fields, and the horses.

Since the days of Napoleon I., we should
think the breed of horses may have, in some
degree, improved in France, as a tolerable
sprinkling of English mares would have been
left in that country by the army of occupation ;
and a long peace no doubt enabled the French
government to avail itself of all opportunities
to improve their breed. It is therefore natural
to suppose that her cavalry and artillery may
now be better horsed than they were. Hunt-
ing, however, is not a popular amusement in
France. TheEevolution took away the game-
laws, and the rights of the Seigneurs; nor
would the present race of French farmers sub-
mit very quietly to witness their lands tra-
versed by dogs and a field of horsemen ; there-
fore, we do not suppose that there is any
probability of hunters being wanted beyond
the royal chases.

England is therefore so differently situated
to France, that what may suit one country,
and, in its effbcts, may be beneficial, to the
other might be considered a nuisance. A
farmer, in England, surrounded by the squire-
archy of his neighbourhood, and partaking of
the joys and amusement of the chase, thinks
nothing of the damage which a field of horse-
men and dogs may do to his corn-crop ; be-
lieving he may be repaid for the damage done
by their encouraging the demand for horses, of
which he is himself the breeder. However, if
he does complain, and there is reasonableness
in the demand, there is always wealth enough,
and we believe liberality enough, to indemnify
him for any damage he might sustain on
account of the hunting establishment; con-
sequently he becomes a partner and preserver

•r

m

65

ENGLisn EACEK.] M O D EE N VETEllI X AR Y PK A CT I C E. [enolish baceb.

of the sport, in protecting the foxes, so essen-
tial to the amusement of the chase, and is
looked upon as a favourite in his aristocratical
ueiehbourhood — a circumstance which insures
to him respectability and position.

In France, where, comparatively speaking,
there is little disproportion of wealth, it would
be, we think, impossible to create any hunt-
ing establishments that would be of a nature
sufficiently large to be an encouragement for
superior-bred horses. As to breeding these

for the turf, we believe there will be a very
few studs of tliorougli-bred luirses kept.
Looking, then, at France in this view, we do
not think she will take the palm of breeding
the best horses from us. Neither do we
think sucli horses necessary for Franco ; if slio
obtain a good breed, it is sufficient for all
useful purposes, without straining after that
which, without inordinate wealtli, might prove
an incumbrance rather than an interesting
posesssion.

CHAPTER IV.

BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

THE RACER.
Before entering on our description of the
Eacer, we will briefly trace the rise and pro-
gress of the English race-course, which has
long enjoyed a world-wide renown.

It has been customary, says the elder
Eandal Holme, one of the city heralds, time
out of mind, upon Shrove Tuesday, for the
Company of Saddlers of the ancient city of
Chester, to present to the drapers a wooden
ball, embellished with flowers, and placed upon
the point of a lance.

Mr. Lysons, in his Magna JBrittania, men-
tions some old articles of a race, for two bells,
among the corporation records, the earliest
date of which was 1512.

This ceremony was performed in the pre-
sence of the mayor, at the cross in the Eoody,
an open place near the city. " But this year
of 1540," continues Holme, " the ball was
changed into a silver bell, valued at three
shillings and sixpence, or more, to be given to
him who shall run the best and furthest on
horseback, before them, on the same dav,
Shrove Tuesday."

In 1610, Mr. Eobert Ambrye, or Amory,
ironmonger, sherifl" of the City of Chester, at
his own cost, did cause three silver bells to be
made, of good value, which bells he appointed
to be run for with horses, " upon St. George's-
day, upon the Eoode Dee, from the new tower

to the netes, there turning to run up to the
water-gate ; that horse which come first there
to have the beste bell ; the second to have the
seconde bell for that year, putting in money
and sureties to deliver in the bells that day
twelvemonth." The other bell was run for on
the same day, upon the like conditions. These
trophies were taken to the course with much
pomp and ceremony. Chester races are now
held the first week in May, which comes as
near the original time (old St. Greorge's-day)
as possible.

These bells were denominated St. George's
Bells, and, in the last year of the reign of
James I., 1634-'5, John Brereton, innkeeper,
Mayor of Chester, first caused the horses
entered for this race, then called Sfc. George's
race, to start from the point beyond the new
tower, and appointed them to run five times
round the Eoody ; and, according to the
younger Eandel Holme, " he who run the last
course, or trayne, received the bell, worth
eight or ten pounds, and to have it for ever,
which monies were collected of the citizens
for that purpose." By the author's having
added that the winner of this race was to
have the bell for ever, is implied, that it had
been formerly used as a temporary mark of
honour by the successful horseman, and after*
wards returned to the corporation. This
alteration was made April 23, lG2i.

(35

ENGLISH EACEE.]

THE HOESE, AXD

[EXGttSH EACEU.

Sir Thomas Chaloner, who wrote in the
early part of Elizabeth's reign, mentions
Henry YIII. as a great admirer of horses,
and of his having imported some from Turkey,
JSfiiples, Spain, and Elanders, to improve the
English breed.

John Northbrook, a puritanical writer, in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who, though
very severe against cards and dice, interludes,
and other idle pastimes, allows of horse-
racing— a proof that it was no uncommon
amusement at that time, when it was con-
sidered as a liberal sport, practised for
pleasure rather than profit, without the least
idea of reducing it to a system of gaming. It
is ranked witli hunting and hawking, and
opposed to dice and card-playing, by an old
Scotch poet, who laments that the latter had,
in a great measure, superseded the former;
and Conimenius, in 1590, says that tilting, or
the quintain, is used instead of horse-races,
which, he adds, are grown out of fashion.

Before the reign of James I., trials of speed
were not practised, as at the present day ; nor
were any horses kept solely for the purpose of
running at stated seasons. It is, however,
certain that this comparative mode of ascer-
taining the goodness of horses, was not only,
previously to this period, known, but that
private matches were made between gentle-
men, who, relying on their own skill, rode
their own horses.

Soon after the accession of this monarch,
who was " inordinately attached to the sports
of the chase," public races were established ;
and particular horses becoming known for
their swiftness, their breed was cultivated, and
their pedigrees recorded with the greatest
exactness. It was now that they began to be
trained expressly for the purpose, attention
being paid to the quantity and quality of the
animal's food, physic, sweats, and clothing :
the weights, also, which seldom exceeded ten
stone, were rigidly adjusted. Camden says,
that most of the celebrated races in the kins:-
dom were called Bell Courses — hence origi-
nated the adage, " He bears the bell." In this
reign, the value of Enghsh horses began to be
duly appreciated, and many were purchased
and exported to Erance. Thus, with all the
pedantry of this Scottish Solomon, it is evident
lie was a noted admirer of all that appertains
66

to the horse; and it is easy to imagine him
invested in his sporting garb of forest-green,
with a feather in his cap, and a horn at his
side, contriving, in the most advanced state of
age and imbecility, when unable even to sit on
horseback without assistance, to follow the
chase, although unable to keep his seat in the
saddle without being laced, or tied up in it.

Sir Simon D'Ewes, in his Journal, speaks of
" a horse-race, near Linton, in Cambridge-
shire, in the reign of James I., at which town
most of the company slept on the night of the
race

Gatherly, in Yorkshire ; Croydon, in Sur-
rey ; and Theobald's, on Enfield Chase, when
the king was resident, were the spots where
races were run. The Arabian, for which James
paid five hundred pounds, and which was ridi-
culed b}^ the Duke of Newcastle, was of a bay
colour, a little horse, and no rarity for shape.
He was trained, but disgraced his country by
being beaten in England by every horse that
ran against him.

Butcher, in his Survey of Stamford, informs
us, that a concourse of noblemen and gentle-
men met every Thursday in March, together
in the vicinity of that town, in mirth, peace,
and amity, for the exercise of their swift-
running horses. The prize they ran for was a
silver-gilt cup with a cover, of seven or eight
pounds, provided by the alderman for the time
beins. This sum was raised out of the interest
of a stock formerly made by the neighbouring
nobility and gentry, the well-wishers to the
town.

Eaces were held at Newmarket, in the latter
end of the reign of Charles I., although the
Bound Course was not made till 16G6. In
this king's reign, races were also run in Hyde
Park, as appears from a comedy called the
Merry Beggars, or Jovial Crew, 1641. "Shaii
we make a fling to London, and see how the
spring appears there, in Spring-Garden and iu
Hyde Park, to see the races, horses and foot ?"

At this epoch, however, the country was
distracted by scenes which came too closely
home to the bosom of every man to allow
attention to be paid to subjects which caw.
alone be prosecuted with effect in periods of
tranquillity.

Burton, in his Anatomy of Melancholy, men-
tions horse-racing as the disport of great men,

ENGLISH KACEU.J MODERN VETElilNAEY PEACTICE. [enolish eaceb.

and good in itself, though many gentlemen,
bv such means, gallop out of their fortunes.

On the restoration of Charles .11., the great
patron of the turf, this sport, so congenial to
the habits and manners of a free people,
revived. The glory of Newmarket, long ob-
scured, first by the violent spirit of contending
factions, and next by the puritanical sentiments
which pervaded the English mind during the
Cromwellian era, again shone in meridian
splendour. The palace, erected by James I.,
and which had fallen to decay during the civil
wars, was rebuilt for the better accommodation
of the "merry monarch," who personally
attended, and not only gave public rewards,
but kept and entered horses in his own name ;
thus giving an aftable patronage to the sport,
at which he seemed to be one of the happiest
of the spectators. AVe are told by the quaint
Evelyn that his majesty ran his own horses.
"On the 10th October, 1671," says he, "after
dinner I was on the heath, when I saw the
great match run between Woodcock and
rieetfoot, belonging to the king and Mr. Eliot
of the bedchamber, many thousands being
spectators ; a more signal race had not been
run for many years."

When his mnjesty resided at AVindsor, races
were held on Datchet Mead : he also occa-
sionally visited other places where these sports
were instituted — Burford Downs, in particular,
as may be inferred from the following doggrel
verses, written by Matthew Thomas Baskervile,
about the year 1690.

" Next, for the glory of the place,
Here has been rode many a race.
King Charles the Second I saw here,
But I've forgotten in what year ;
The Duke or Monmouth here, also,
Made his horse to sweat and blow ;
Lovelace, Pembroke, and other gallants,
Have been venturing here their talents ;
And Nicholas Bainton, on Black Sloven,
Got silver plate by labour and drudging."

To Charles we are also indebted for the
breed of our present race of running-horses.
With a view to the improvement of our native
stock, the Master of the Horse, by some said
to have been ISir Christopher AVyvill, and by
others Sir John Fenwick, was sent into the
Levant to procure horses and mares for breed-
ing. The mares thus procured, and also many
of their produce, have been styled Royal

Mares. Dodsworth, though foaled in England,
was a natural Barb. His dam, a Barb mare,
was imported at this period, and waH called a
royal mare. When twenty years old, and
with foal, after the king's death, she was sold
for forty guineas.

At this period, the prizes run for became
more valuable. Instead of bells, pieces of
plate were substituted, as bowls, cups, &c.,
usually estimated at one hundred guineas
each ; and upon trophies of victory, the ex-
ploits and pedigrees of the successful horses
were commonly engraved, whence, perhaps,
much curious information might be obtained,
regarding the merits of the various victors.
Plates, also, of different value were given ia
various parts of the country, and which were
generally advertised in the London Gazette.

William III., notwithstanding the gravity
of his character, frequently visited Newmarket;
whilst Queen Anne kept race-horses, and
entered them in her own name. Her mnjesty'a
brown horse, Star, won a plate at York, July
30, 1714, at four four-mile heats, the Friday
preceding her death, which occurred on Sunday,
August 1st. George I., in 1720, discontinued
the Cups, as prizes to be run for, and ordered
one hundred guineas in specie to be paid to
the successful competitor.

As an illustration of the turf manners at
about the period at which we have arrived,
it is interesting to know that there was, at
Newmarket, the keeper of the liorses ot no
fewer than four of our sovereii^Mis. Tiiis illus-
trious individual was Tregonwell Framptoa,
who kept the running animals of William III.,
Anne, George I., and George II.

Frampton was born in the troublesome
reign of Charles I., in whose time horse-racing
commenced at Newmarket, and was the owner
of several running horses. Amongst these
there was one matched to run against old
Merlin, at Newmarket. IMrrliu was placed
under the care of one llescitine, a groom at
Newmarket; upon whom Frampton's groom
endeavoured to prevail to run the two
horses a private trial at the stated weiglits
and distance agreed for in the match, ob-
serving that, by that means tliey might both
make their fortunes. Hesekine refused, but
in such a manner as to give the otiier hopes of
brin2;in2r him to compliance.

67

ENGLISH EACEE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[ENGLISH EACEB.

In the meantime, Heseltine took the oppor-
tunity of communicating, bj a letter sent into
Yorkshire, the proposed offer to Sir William
Strickland, Bart., who was principally con-
cerned in making the match. The baronet
returned for answer that he might accept it,
taking care to deceive Mr. Erampton's
groom by letting Merlin carry seven pounds
more weight than what was agreed upon.
Heseltine shortly afterwards consented to the
proposal of Mr, Erampton's groom, who had
secretly received instructions precisely similar
to those given to Heseltine.

These lionest grooms now prepared the
horses accordingly, and ran the course agreed
to in the articles ; when, after an excellent run.
Merlin won by something more than his own
length. This being communicated to each
party by his secret and faithful groom, each
flattered himself with certain success. Sir "\V.
Strickland, very naturally, concluded that, as
Merlin had proved himself superior with even
wseven pounds extra on his back, he would very
easily win the race ; while Mr. Erampton was
decidedly of opinion that, as his horse had run
Merlin so hard, carrying seven pounds more,
he could not fail ultimately to win. In con-
sequence, proposals were made and accepted
to an enormous amount, even to an extent
greater than was ever known ; some gentlemen
— in the secret — staking not only all their
cash, but other property besides.

At length the hour arrived when this im-
portant business was to be decided. The
horses started ; and the race was won by
Merlin by about the same distance as in the
private trial. In a short time the secret be-
came known; and, though it had originated
with Mr. Erampton, it is certainly not a little
singular that Sir AY. Strickland should adopt
the very same expedients.

Several gentlemen were completely ruined
by this race; and it excited so much attention
throughout the country, that the circumstance
was at length noticed in parliament, and a
bill passed in consequence, to restrain the rage
for betting.

By this bill it was enacted, " that no sum of
money, exceeding ten nounds, betted, laid, or
agreed to between any party or parties, in
future, shall be recoverable by law,"

Eor a number of years Erampton was styled
68

the father of the turf, and died on the 12th of
March, 1727, aged eighty-six.

Let it alwaj's be remembered that the grand
and important division of race-horses, in re-
spect to their qualifications, is into the stout
and the speedy.

By the first term is meant such as are stout
of heart, cool in temper, and firm in constitu-
tion ; generally not remarkable for readiness
and speed, but calculated to succeed in a long
race. By the second, such as are usually said
that speed is their best, it is meant that they
are best qualified for a short race, possessing a
promptitude in the higher degrees of velocity,
which must necessarily be of a relatively short
duration. These are generally free, and of a
warm temperament ; and sometimes, but not
invariably, of a weak and washy constitution.

It may be easily conceived, that the degrees
of variation or approximation, in both of these
respects, must be infinite, rendering it fre-
quently no easy matter to determine positively
to which class a horse belongs. As to the
extremes, there are horses which have barely
racing speed, their sole virtue consisting in
their great powers of continuance, by which,
in a four-mile race, they were wont to wear out
their more speedy antagonists. On the other
hand, there are such as no measures of art can
enable them to get through a long course in the
company of reputed running- horses. These
have their distance, beyond which Nature has
put it out of their power to go. Of this
description were Eireaway, Masquerade, and
Eocket of former days. The two first were
most successful at the distance of a single
mile ; the last, at that of one quarter, or half
a mile at most. It is not in the course of
nature, that phenomena like Childers and
Eclipse — to be spoken of immediately — should
be often produced, uniting the extremes of
both speed and stoutness, giving the go-by and
the distance to all possibility of competition.
The most useful racer, perhaps, is the animal
that partakes in a nearly equal and consider-
able degree of both qualities, but with a supe-
rior turn towards speed. Such was the
famous Shark, and such was the opinion of
Chifney, the jockey of the Prince of Wales,
afterwards Greorge IV.

The expression, to make the play, or to go
along, will be easily understood, as leading

ENGLISH EAGER.] MODEEN YETERINAKT PEACTICE. [ekglish haceb.

away in a race, at a pace of very coBsiderable
speed, upon a horse which is presumed to be
stout and long-winded, in order to distress
those antagonists which are known, or sup-
posed to be inferior in stoutness. The object
of this is, that such as are fatigued and ex-
hausted by long and sharp running, may not
have it iu tlieir power to reserve their superior
speed for the last push. Amongst horses of
equal game, the play may be made by those
which are in the best condition.

Tf''aiti?iff, or malcing a waiting race, is plainly
the opposite practice of the above. Here, the
rider of the speedy, weak, or jadish horse,
always aims to keep in the rear, and go as
slowly as possible, until the last few hundred
yards, when he well knows his power of speed
will be turned to the best account.

Having thus briefly traced the early history
of horse-racing in England, and explained some
of the terms of the turf, we now come to speak
of the selection made of those sires from which
our racing-blood has derived its celebrity.

The English race-horse, like the game-cock
and the bull-dog, are England's peculiar pro-
ductions, unequalled for high courage, stout-
ness of heart, and patience under suffering.

Cockfightiog is a wanton and barbarous
sport, and is happily now nearly obsolete
among the more cultivated classes ; and what-
ever cruelties may happen on the race-course,
in the punishment administered by some
jockeys to their animals, they are at least not
very apparent, if they in reality have an exist-
ence at all. That the practices of the turf have
frequently been such as to degrade its character
there can be no doubt ; still, looking at its
sport in a national and general way, the emula-
tive spirit which is inspired by our races, is of
immense importance in maintaining the charac-
ter of the EnfTiish horse. The term thorough-
bred, as applied to the horse, both in Great
Britain and Ireland, indicates him to be either
a remote or immediate pure, unmixed de-
scendant of the south-eastern courser, Arabian,
Barb, Turk, Persian, Syrian, Egyptian, or of
the neighbouring countries. The preference
given to antiquity and purity of racing-blood
has always been considered due to the produce
of the Arabian and African deserts.

In the general outline of the figure, limbs,
the shape of the head, and in the countenance,

the modern Englisli race-horse l)ears the
strongest resemblance to the Arabian ; but
from the great care and higli keep which he
has through so many descents enjoyed in this
country, he is of far greater heiglit and bulk,
and equally superior in point of power. Art
is the handmaid and improver of nature ; and,
notwithstanding the boasted speed of animals
in the natural state, there is no doubt of the
superiority of the trained courser. Thus the
British race-horse, even at an equality of size and
power to carry weight, is far swifter and stouter
in turf phraseology, and more lasting than
the natural courser of the desert of the oldest
pedigree. Such is the universal experience
from trials in this country, and such would, in
all probability, be the result, were the rival
horses taken young, and trained and tried
upon an equi-distant and neutral soil. This
opinion may not altogether coincide with the
sentiments of those who have been accus-
tomed to read and believe in such narratives
as recount, without investigation, the speed
and extent of the journeys performed in a
given time by Arabian horses. A little aid,
however, may be given to the judgment of
these gentlemen, by recalling to their minds,
that there are no mile-posts in the desert ; no
clocks or watches wherewith to measure time;
no clerks of the course to start the horses, or
judges to drop the flag at the ending-post;
and that the jockey himself is often the only
spectator. He is likewise often the only re-
later of his horse's performances ; whilst in all
the Eastern writings, ancient or modern, ex-
aggeration is the predominant characteristic.

In the early periods of the turf, recourse
must have been had to foreign horses for racers,
and also to the bastard breeds, as they were
then styled, or mixtures between foreigners
and the lightest native breed of the country.
Spanish jennets, the descendants of Barbs,
were trained: in short, any well-shaped nag
with good action in the gallop, was deemed
a racer.

The idea of thorough-breed and its peculiar
qualities, had not then taken place ; but was,
afterwards, gradually and experimentally de-
veloped. The mild climate and gramineous
soil of this country, always congenial to the
nature of the horse, were found highly to
improve, in size and power, the progeny ol

09

AEABIAX HORSES.]

THE HOESE. AND

[ARABIAN HORSES.

such horses as were brought from the south.
Hence, assisted by the systematic care of our
turi-breeders, the British race-horse has beau
brought to the state of beauty, symmetry,
and perfection in which we now behold him,
and that superiority which all the world ac-
knowledges and admires.

It is now upwards of one hundred years
suice, in this country, the greatest attention
has been paid to pedigree, and to preserving
the racing-breed pure and unmixed. Acci-
dental mixtures there certainly have been, for
such are upon record ; but they have been
comparatively few — mere drops of common, in
the grand stream of pure and high racing-
blood. Such crosses have been occasionally
apparent perhaps for several generations, in
the form and qualities of the produce; but
they have been obliterated by time, and are
not discoverable in the remote descents.
"Within this period, the phenomenon has now
and then appeared of a horse not thorough-
bred, such as in the cases of Sampson and
Eiiv Malton proving winning — even capital
racers. But such exceptions will not induce
experienced sportsmen to infringe the general
rule, of breeding from, or training horses for
the course, which are not thoi'ough-bred. The
same rule holds, however anomalous it may
seem, with respect to foreign horses of the
purest blood, from which our thorough-breed
is derived. None of them — and the expe-
riment has often been repeated — whatever
their age, size, or condition, have been found
capable of contending on the course, from a
race of one hundred yards to one of a bun.
dred miles, with their relatives and brethren
in blood — the race-horses of this country.

The ill-success of the Arabian purchased
by King James I., and already alluded to,
brought the studs of the desert into such
disrepute, that we read of but few of them
in the scanty annals of the turf, until the
reign of Queen Anne, the last of the Stuarts
Vtho has occupied the British throne.

THE DARLEY ARABIAN.
Early in the reign of Anne, the famous
Darley Arabian was imported. He was sent
from Aleppo by Mr. Darley, a merchant, who
had settled there, and who had procured him,
through his connections, from the Arabian
70

deserts. He is one of those few horses, on
the purity of the blood of which we can have
a certain reliance. Tlie form of this animal
is said to have exhibited every point desirable
in a turf horse. The general characteristics of
the racer are the Arabian head, the curving
and tapering neck, the slanting, lengthened
shoulders, the fully-developed muscular quar-
ters, the bending hinder legs, the flat limbs,
somewhat short downward from the knee, and
the long and springing pastern. The Darley
Arabian had these excellences, and was the
sire of that wonderful racer, Elying Childers.
If a judgment might be formed as to the
original country of the horse, from the per-
formances of the descendants of this animal,
then the desert must have been the native
soil of the general courser; but as we have
already given our opinions upon this point,
it need not again be touched upon here.

The great success of Mr. Darley with his
imported stranger, turned the current of
fashionable opinion, among English sportsmen,
so much in favour of the horses of Arabia,
that it became a common inducement to style
all horses brought from the Levant, Arabians,
whether or not they might have been really
such, or Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, Turks,
or Barbs. This has occasioned much con-
fusion and uncertainty ; but it has been ex-
perienced, that the horses of all these coun-
tries are, in certain degrees, endowed with
the properties of the race-horse, and the blood
of our Euglish thorough-bred horse is derived
from a mixture of all those, although doubtless
that of the Arabian and Barb predominates.

THE GODOLPHIN ARABIAN.

The Godolphin was imported into this
country about five-and-twenty years after the
Darley Arabian. Both of these horses were
the most celebrated and valuable for their
blood and high form, which have yet appeared.
There are sufficient reasons, however, for the
supposition that Lord Godolpliin's horse was
in reality a Barb.

The portrait of the Godolphin Arabian, by
the artist Stubbs, gave rise to some unfavour-
able criticisms by his brethren of the pencil, in
respect to the elevation of this horse's crest,
which was said to be excessive, indeed totally
out of nature. It was therefore asserted

TMm nT:^i.^U(iSr(nrium

'JCIEIM ^K'KiS" X7 JC J":

AEABIA.N uMiSEs.] MODERN VETEEINAET PRACTICE. [eace-hoeses.

that the painter had drawn on his imagina-
tion, in order to adorn a horse with such a
lofty and swelling forehand. But, be this as
it may, the Godolphia Arabian has been of the
greatest importance in the improvement of
the breed of the racing stud. At the present
dar, we have artists who seize with avidity the
occasion of taking the portraits of celebrated
horses, and it is not to be expected tl.at any
doubt of a likeness will take place in future,
however great may be the winning horse of
his time.

The fate of the Grodolphin Arabian seems to
have been as chequered as that of many other
public characters ; and he was as much in-
debted to accident for the development of his
powers, as some of the higher breeds of the
" lords of the Creation" have been. So little
was he valued in France, that he was actually
employed in the drudgery of drawing a cart
in the streets of Paris. What an ignoble oc-
cupation for the blood of an Arab ! A Mr.
Coke brought him to England, and gave him
to Williams, master of the St. James's Coffee-
house, who made a present of him to the Earl
of Godolphin. Though now elevated from the
cart in the streets of Paris, to the stud of a
British nobleman — whose name the Arabian
afterwards bore — his merit was still unappre-
ciated to the fulness of its extent; and it was
not until he had produced a colt foal, the famous
Lath, the most elegant and beautiful as well
as the best racer of his time, that he was now
treated " according to his deserts." He then
became, even in a higher degree than the
Darley, one of the progenitors of our
thoi'ough-bred horses.

The Godolphin was fifteen hands in heiglit,
of great substance, of the truest conformation
for strength and action, beai*ing every indica-
tion of a real courser. His colour was entire
brown bay, with mottles on the buttocks and
crest, excepting a small streak of white upon
the hinder heels. He was imported into
Prance from some capital or royal stud in Bar-
bary, whence it was suspected he was stolen.
He was foaled in 1724 and died in 1753.

THE WELLESLEY ARABIAN.

We introduce this horse because he has

been considered, although erroneously, the

finest specimen of a superior Arabian. He

bore a considerable resemblance to the larf^er
war-horse of Europe, possessing the delicate
skin, and various other attributes of the
south-eastern courser. But it is with reason
supposed that he was the produce rather ot
some country bordering on the land of deserts,
than in Arabia itself. In England, the Arabian
or Barbary horse, in process of time, acquires
an increase of size, and fulness of form,
together with a considerable expansion of tlie
hoofs. This is, no doubt, the effect of lower
and more moist grounds, and more succulent
food than can be found in the deserts. There
the dryness and purity of the air and soil com-
press the animal body, impart a superior firm-
ness and elasticity to the tendinous and
fibrous system, allowing greater powers in a
smaller compass of substance, and exalting the
tone and vigour of the animal spirits. Eor
these reasons horses are chosen from the
deserts for their fleetness and courage, and
from the mountainous regions for coursers.
A few of the offspring of the Wellesley
Arabian were trained, but not with sufficient
success to raise his reputation as a covering
animal. This is the last Arabian, or foreign
horse trained from, in this country.

THE DEVONSHIRE, OR FLYING CHILDERS.
Childers, a bay horse, somewhat upwards of
fifteen hands in height, was foaled in 1715,
and was the property of Leonard Childers,
Esq., of Carr House, near Doncaster, and sold,
when young, to the Duke of Devonshire. He
was the immediate descendant of the Darley
Arabian ; and his history, as a racer, is so well
known, and has been so often repeated, that a
few items of it will here suflice. It is said
that he was first used as a hunter, and that in
the field, both his high qualities and his head-
strong, if not vicious disposition, were dis-
covered. He was, however, void of any taint
of restiveness. It is probable that, like
Eclipse, he did not start on the course until
five, perhaps not until six years old, when he
beat all the horses of his time, at whatever
distance. He was never tried in running a
single mile ; but since his time, the measured
and attested performances of far inferior horses,
leave not the shadow of a doubt of his ability
to run a mile witiiin one minute of time!
A horse called Eiretail, ran, in 1772, a mile in

71

EACE-nORSES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[nACE-nOESES.

sixty-four seconds. Carrying nine stone two
pounds, he ran over the Bound Course, at
Newmarket, three miles, six furlongs, ninety-
three yards, in six minutes and forty seconds,
when he was judged to move eighty-two feet
and a-half in one second of time. He like-
wise ran over the Beacon Course, four miles,
one furlong, one hundred and thirty-eight
yards, in seven minutes, thirty seconds, cover-
ing at every bound a space of twenty-five feet.
He made a spring or leap of ten yards, upon
level ground, with his rider on his back.
These are a few of the celebrated feats of this
famous horse, which, in 1741, died at the age
of twenty-six.

BLEEDING CHILDERS.
Bleeding Childers, so called from his fre-
quent bleedings at the nose, afterwards called
Young Childers, and finally Bartlett's Chil-
ders, was full brother to Flying Childers. He
was never trained ; but proved a very superior
stallion. The Hampton-court Childers, sire
of Blacklecs, was son of the Devonshire Childers.
There were, in all, six nearly contemporary
racers and stallions of the name of Childers.

KING HEROD.
King Herod, descended by his dam from
Elying Childers, was of the highest reputation
as a racer; whilst, as a stallion, he stands
among the first, if he be not really the very
first, in modern times. He has been ranked
higher than Eclipse in this respect ; some of
his stock having been not only among the most
speedy, but the generality of them the stoutest
and best constitutioned horses the turf, at any
period, has produced. He was a bay, about
fifteen hands three inches high, and foaled in
1758. He was got by Tartar, out of Cypron.
There was another Tartar, got by Blaze ; but
Tartar, the sire of King Herod, was got by
Croft's Partner — one of our most famous
racers — out of Meliora, by Eox. Partner,
grandsire of King Herod, was foaled in 1718.
He was a chestnut horse, of great power, exqui-
site symmetry and beauty, and immediately
succeeded Flying Childers, as the best animal
at Newmarket, giving weight to, and beating
horses of the highest repute, over the course.
He was got by Jig — no pedigree of dam — son of
the famous Byerley Turk, and shows a pedigree
72

through a list of highly reputed progenitors,
concluding with the well-known Old Vintner
Mare. Partner died in 1747, aged twenty-
nine. Cypron, King Herod's dam, was got
by Blaze, a son of Flying Childers, out of Sir
AVilliam St. Quintin's Selima, got by the
Bethell Arabian, and boasting in her lineage,
Champion, the Darley Arabian, and Old Mer-
lin. King Herod's pedigree consists of the
oldest and purest blood.

Whilst speaking of the pedigrees of horses,
however, we may here observe, with Admiral
Rous, that " nothing can be more unsatisfac-
tory than the pedigrees of English race-horses
up to 1750. Although Charles II. and Queen
Anne kept magnificent studs, and agents were
employed by the masters of the horse of
several successive sovereigns, to purchase
valuable Eastern blood, no records were
kept, and we are in ignorance respecting
the breed of the royal mares. It was not
until 1791, that ]\Ir. Weatherly, the keeper of
the Match-Book, obtained a list of pedigrees
collected by a private gentleman. A register
was then kept, and the Stud-Booh was pub-
lished in 1808. Since that time a regular
account has been kept of the produce of
thorough-bred stock ; but many proprietors of
brood mares will not take the trouble to
register their foals. . . . The original in-
tention of the compiler of the Stud-BooJc, was
to register all the winners in the official Bacinfj
Calendar; but a cloud hangs over the book,
threatening a formidable class of rivals to dis-
pute the value of the orthodoxy of the pure
breed. . . . Although it is an axiom in
breeding animals, from man downwards, that a
fresh cross of good blood is most desirable, we
have failed to have made any improvement in
our race-horses by importation of any Eastern
blood during the present centuiy, simply
owing to the extraordinary superiority which
our horses have obtained in point of strength,
size, and speed, over the original stock."

Herod, like Childers and Eclipse, did not
start upon the course until five yeai-s old. He
never ran anywhere but at Newmarket,
Ascot Heath, and York, and always over the
course, or four miles ; stoutness or game, and
ability to carry weight, being his play. He
ran five times for a thousand guineas each
race, and won three of them. The last race

BACL-nORSES.j

MODEEN VETEHINART PRACTICE.

fllACE-nOIlSES.

he won was against Ascliam — a curious one,
from the circumstance of two aged horses
carrying featliers, five stone seven, and six
stone, lie won several matches for five hun-
dred guineas, and a sweepstake of tliree hun-
dred guineas, nine subscribers.

The fiime of this racer as a stallion, in the
Tu)f Register, is truly splendid. In nine-
teen years — namely, from 1771 to 1789 —
four hundred and ninety-seven of his sons
and daughters won for their proprietors, in
plates, matches, and sweepstakes, the sura of
£201,505 ds., exclusive of some thousands
won between 1774 and 1786. He was
the sire of the celebrated Highflyer, bred
by Sir Charles Bunbury, which was never
beaten. Herod also got Woodpecker, Bour-
deaux. Anvil, Hammer, Sting, Adamant,
Plunder, Quicksand, Eantipole, "Whipcord,
and many others, among which were the
speediest horses of their day. Tuberose,
Guildford, and Latona, were rare examples of
the family stoutness, and Laburnum was an
excellent and useful racer. The list of brood
mares got by Herod is very large.

King Herod first covered the property of
Sir John Moore, Bart., at ten guineas. In
1774 his price rose to twenty-five, at which it
remained till his death, in 1783, in the twenty-
second year of his age.

This noble animal was so shamefully ne-
glected in his latter days, and his body so
encrusted with dung and filth, that, it is said,
the immediate cause of his death was a mortifi-
cation in his sheath. Many much later in-
stances are known of covering stallions ne-
glected in a similar way. George IV., when
Prince of Wales, formerly allowed the breeders
in the vicinity of his residence in Hants, the
use of a well-bred stallion gratis, excepting
the groom's fee of a crown : the consequence
of which was the exhaustion of the animal.
So many mares were sent, that it was impos-
sible for nature to support the continued de-
mand ; and the result was the most wretched,
puny, spindle-shanked produce to be imagined.

MARSK.

This horse was foaled in 1750, and so named
from the place where he was bred, being the
property of John Hutton, Esq., of Marsk,
Yorkshire, who afterwards disposed of him to

his royal highness, William, Duke of Cumber-
land. He was got by Squirt, son of Bartlett'a
Childers, out of the Ruby mare. She was
from a daughter of Bay Bolton and Ilutton's
Bhick Legs — Fox Cub— Coneyskins — Hut-
ton's Grey Barb — a daughter of the Byerley
Turk, from a Bustler mare. This is one of our
highest bred pedigrees, going back to the reign
of Charles I. In the year 1750, the duke
made an exchange of a chestnut Arabian with
Mr. Hutton, for the colt, which his royal
highness afterwards named Marsk.

In Mr. Ilutton's Stud-Boole, printed by
Weatherby in 1801, appear the following ex-
tracts : —

" In the year 1750, his royal highness the
Duke of Cumberland, gave me — John Hutton
— a chestnut Arabian in exchange for a brown
colt, got by Squirt, bred from the Ruby mare ;
and which his royal highness afterwards called
Marsk.

" My Black Legs was got by the Mulco
Bay Turk ; his dame by Coneyskins ; his grand-
dam was the old Club-foot mare, got by Mr.
Weekes's Hautboy."

" The above are true copies from Mr. Hut-
ton's Stud- Book. E. Geldaet.
" Marsk, October, 1801."
The history of Marsk, like the Godolphia
Arabian, was highly eventful, and distinguished
by alternate depression and elevation.

He was a capital racer, and beat Brilliant ;
but he was an uncertain horse. Being in low
estimation as a stallion in the duke's stud,
he was sold at his royal highness's sale, at
Tattersall's, to a farmer for a trifling sum ;
and in 1766, as will be observed in the
history of Eclipse, covered country mares and
foresters, at half-a-guinea. When Mr. Wild-
man, the purchaser of Eclipse, found his in-
telligence respecting that colt correct, he
thought it advisable to get into his possession
his sire, and bought Marsk of the farmer for
twenty pounds, who professed himself happy
at being well rid of a bad bargain.

This animal has been styled the " prince of
horses."

It is suflBcient to say that, besides so man;:

other racers of high reputation, he was the sire

of Eclipse, Shark, Pretender, Honest Kitt,

Masquerade, Leviathan^ Salopian, and Pontac.

Shark won sixteen thousand and fifty-seven

73

BACE-HOESES.]

THE HOESE, AIs'D

[kace-uouses.

guineas, in matches, sweepstakes, and plates ;
beating the best horses of his day, at their own
play, whether for speed or stoutness.

Marsk seems to have had the caprices of
fortune imparted to him as an inheritance
from his sire. Squirt, after running with
great repute, became a stallion in Sir Harry
Harpier's stnd, who esteeming him of no
worth, ordered him to be shot. As the hunts-
man was leading him out of the dog-kennel,
he was begged off by the stud-groom ; and
tliis poor, despised, death-doomed animal after-
wards got Marsk, the sire of an immense
number of excellent horses, whose united
winnings are not now to be calculated. The
immediate progeny of Marsk, however, realised
to their owners upwards of seventy thousand
pounds.

Marsk died in July, 1779, in his twenty-
ninth year.

ECLIPSE.

Eclipse, fully master of sixteen stone, was
bred by William, Duke of Cumberland, of
Culloden memory, and foaled during the great
eclipse in 1764, whence the name given him by
the royal duke. He was got by Marsk, a
grandson, through Squirt, of Bartlett's Childers
— to be noticed further on — out of Spilletta.
Spilletta was got by Eegulus, son of the
Godolphin Arabian, out of Mother Western,
which mare was got by a son of Snake, full
brother to William's Squirrel, her dam by Old
Montague, grandam by Hautboy, out of a
daughter of Brimmer — her pedigree not pre-
served. Such is the carefully chronicled evi-
dence of the purity of our race-horses from
Oriental blood.

The proportions of this animal, as given by
Mr. St. Bell, the founder of the Veterinary
College in St. Pancras, are as follows : —

The length of the head of the horse is supposed
to be divided into twenty-two equal parts, which
are the common measure for every part of the body.

Three heads and thirteen parts will give the
height of the horse from the foretop to the ground.

Three heads, from the withers to the ground.

Three heads, from the rump to the ground.

Tliree heads and three parts, the whole length of
the body, fi'om the most prominent part of the
chest to the extremity of the buttocks.

Two heads and twenty parts, the height of the
body, through the middle of the centre of gravity.
74

Two heads and seven parts, the height of ti:e
highest part of the chest from the ground.

Two heads and five parts, the height of the per-
pendicular line which falls from the articulation of
the arm with the shoulder directly to the hoof.

One head and twenty parts, the height of the
perpendicular line which falls from the top of the
fore-leg, dividing equally all its parts to the fetlock.

One head and nineteen parts, the height of the
perpendicular line from the elbow to the ground.

One head and nineteen parts, the distance from
the top of the withers to the stifle. The same
measure also gives the distance from the top of the
rump to the elbow

One-and.a-half head, the length of the neck from
the withers to the top of the head. The same
measure also gives the length of the neck from the
top of the head to its insertion into the chest.

One head, the width of the neck at its union with
the chest.

Twelve parts of a head, the width of the neck in
its narrowest part.

The same measure gives the breadth of the head
taken below the eyes.

One head and four parts, the thickness of the
body from the middle of the back to the middle of
the belly.

The same measure gives the breadth of the body.

Also the rump from its summit to the extremity
of the buttocks.

Also the distance from the root of the tail to the
stifle.

Also the length from the stifle to the hock.

Also the height from the extremity of the hoof to
the hock.

Twenty parts of a head, the distance from the
extremity of the buttocks to the stifle.

Also the breadth of the rump or croup.

Ten parts of a head, the breadth of the fore-legs
from their anterior part to the elbow.

Ten parts of a head, the breadth of one of the
hind-legs taken beneath the fold of the buttocks.

Eight parts of a head, the breadth of the liam
taken from the bend.

Also the breadth of the head above the nostrils.

Seven parts of a head, the distance of the eyes
from one great angle to the other.

Also the distance between the fore-legs.

Five parts of a head, the thickness of the knees.

Also the breadth of the fore-legs above the knees.

Also the thickness of the hams.

Four parts of a head, the breadth of the pastern,
or fetlock joint.

Also the thickness of the coronet.

Four-and-a-half uarts of the head, the breadth of
the coronet.

Three parts of a head, the thickness of the legs at
their narrowest part.

EACE-nOKSES.]

MODEEN VETEEINART PEACTICE.

[HACE-nOESES.

Also the breadth of the hinder-leg;.?, or shanks.

Two-and-three-quarter parts of a head, the thick-
•less of tlie hind pasterns.

Also the breadth of the shanks of the fore-leo;s.

Tvvo-and-a-quarter parts of a head, the tliickness
of the fore pasterns.

Also the breadtli of the hind pasterns.

One-and-three-quarter parts of a head, the thick-
ness of the fore and liind shanks.

Such are the proportions of this famous
horse, which in form, constitution, and action,
seemed to comprehend every excellence for
the course. When a yearling, be was pur-
chased by Mr. Wildman, a sporting sheep
salesman of Smitbfield, for seventy-five guineas,
on the decease of the Duke of Cumberland,
at the sale by auction of bis royal bighness's
stud. Marsk, the reputed sire of Eclipse,
subsequently, on the New Forest, covered
country and forest mares at balf~a-guinea
each. But, after the transceudant qualities of
Eclipse were established, the same Marsk
covered at one hundred guineas a mare, and
was advertised in succeeding seasons by Lord
Abingdon, bis proprietor, at two hundred or
three hundred guineas a mare. Wildman bad
a friend in the old duke's stud, from whom be
obtained a bint of the superior form of the
Eclipse colt ; but making the journey in baste,
he did not arrive until the sale had com-
menced, and bis object had been already
knocked down at seventy guineas. Appealing
instantly to bis watch, which he knew to be a
correct time-piece, he found the hour had not
arrived by several minutes at which tlie com-
mencement of the sale had been publicly ad-
vertised, and thence firml}^ insisted there bad
been no lawful sale, and that the lots knocked
down should be put up again. The knight of
the hammer, well aware of the resolution and
pecuniary weight of Mr. AVildman, very pru-
dently oftered him the chance of any lot be
should choose. Eclipse was put up again, and
Wildman purchased tlie yearling at an advance
of five guineas.

Immediately previous to Eclipse running for
the King's Plate, at Winchester, in 1769,
Colonel O'Kelly purchased the half share of
bim for six hundred and fifty guineas ; and,
afterwards, the remaining share for eleven
hundred guineas.

Eclipse, for what reason has never been

published, did not appear upon tlie turf until
he was full five years old, when he was entered
at Ej)som for the Maiden Plate of fifty pounds.
There can be no doubt that liis trials at Epsom
had been watclied, as the odds at startiu"'
were four to one in his favour.

O'Kellj was, doubtless, well aware of the
qualities of bis maiden horse, by the large
sums he then betted at such considerable odds.
In running the second winning-heat, the whole
five horses were close together, at the three-
mile post, when some of the jockeys used their
whips. Eclipse was quietly jogging on at a
moderate rate ; when, alarmed by the crack of
the whips, he bounded away ; and, notwith-
standing his jockey held him back with all bis
strength, not one of his competitors could
save bis distance.

In running over tlie coui'se at York, in the
following year, for the ISnbscripLion Purse
against Tortoise and Bellario, two first-rate
racers, but aged, Eclipse took the lead; and
the jockey, being unable to hold him, he was
more than a distance before his competitors at
the end of two miles, and won the race with
the utmost ease. At starting, bets of twenty,
and in running, one hundred pounds to a
guinea were oflered on Eclipse. On a certain
race, O'Kelly bet five and six to four that he
posted the horses — that is to say, named, before
starting, the order in which they would come
in. When called on to declare, he named —
" Eclipse first, the rest in no place ;" and won
his money — Eclipse distancing all the rest.
Being distanced, they were, consequently, in a
sporting sense, in no place.

Eleven King's plates, the weight carried for
all of them being twelve stone (one excepted,
ten stone), were won by Eclipse. In twenty-
three years, three hundred and forty-four
winners, the true progeny of this matchless
courser, produced, to their owners, the sum of
£158,071 125., various prizes not included.

About the year 1779, a noble duke, or some
sporting member of bis family, demanded of
O'Kelly how much he would take for Eclipse?
The reply was—" By the Mass, my lord, and
it is not all Bedford Level that would purchase
him." AVe state, on the authority of the
keeper of a sporting coflee-house, frequented
by Colonel O'Kelly, that this gentleman asked
the sum of twenty-five thousand pounds down,

75

RACE-HOESES.]

THE HOESE, AND.

[eace-hoeses.

un annuity of five hundred pounds on his own
life, and the annual privilege of sending sis
mares to the horse, as the price for Eclipse.
O'Kelly affirmed, that he had acquired upwards
of twenty-five thousand pounds by Eclipse.

Of the speed of this animal too much cannot
be said ; but we have no rule by which to judge
of his stoutness or game, since no cotemporary
racer was able to run for a moment by his side,
far less able to try his power of continuance.
If it be said, that he contended with middling
horses only, the two or three capital ones that
met him, having passed their prime, it must
be remembered that those liorses he distanced,
and probably could have doubly distanced.
The jockeys rarely if ever held liim. The
liorse was always allowed to ruu according to
his own will, yet he never swerved from his
course, and, at the ending post, pulled up easily
enough. O'Kelly, his proprietor, was yet
apprehensive that he might, at some time,
break away ; and when the horse run over the
course at York, with twelve stone, which he
was judged to have performed in eight minutes,
a number of men were placed at the ending
post, with the view of stopping him, in case
the jockey should be unable to pull him up —
a precaution which proved entirely needless.
He never felt the whip or spur on any occasion.
The only cotemporary which was supposed
to have any pretensions to contend with
Eclipse, was Mr. Shaftoe's famous Goldfinder,
by Snap, a beautiful and long-reached brown
animal. He was never beaten, and would
have met Eclipse, to run for the King's plates,
but he broke down previously.

The characteristics of the Eclipse racers
were speed and size ; and many of tliem bent
their knees, and took up their feet in the
gallop, with extraordinary activity. If few of
them were stout, still fewer of them wanted
steadiness, a restive or swerving horse being
seldom found of that blood.

The eye of Turf science is directed, in the
portrait of Eclipse, to the curve in the setting-
on of his head, to his short fore-quarter, to the
slant, extent, and substance of his shoulder,
the length of his waist, and the breadth of his
loins ; to the extent of his quarters, and the
length and substance of his thighs and fore-
arms. Although a strong, he was a thick-
winded horse ; and, in a sweat or under severe
76

exercise, was beard to blow at a considerable
distance.

Eclipse first covered at fifty guineas ; aftei-
wards at twenty, being stinted to fifty mares,
exclusive of those of his owner ; ultimately
at thirty guineas. In his progeny are ranked
no fewer than three hundred and thirty-four
winners.

In 1788, his feet having been neglected, he
was removed from Epsom to Cannons, in a
four-wheeled carriage, drawn by two horses,
his groom being an inside passenger with him.
The old racer and his attendant took their
necessary refreshments on the road together.
This splendid quadruped died at Cannons in the
following year, on February 28th, aged twenty-
five years ; and, according to the precedent of
the Godolphin Arabian, cakes and ale were
given at his funeral. His heart weighed
thirteen pounds ; and his skull was extremely
large. It was shown to Dr. Spurzheira, one of the
celebrated founders of phrenology, who thus
remarked upon the powers of the animal,
judging from the craniological development: —
" The leading characteristics of Eclipse," he
said, " were a remarkably large brain, not only
in proportion to the size of the animal, but to
horses in general ; indicating great and high
courage, unusual sagacity, but deficient in meek-
ness, or rather possessed of a vicious temper."
He further remarked that considerable difficulty
must have been experienced in rendering such
an animal subservient to his rider ; but that,
when subdued, he could be best governed by
gentle treatment, and would prove docile under
proper authority. The professor's observations
have been esteemed remarkably correct.

There was an uncertainty in Eclipse's pedi-
gree, arising from the circumstance of his dam
having been barren in the previous year, and,
in the next, covered by both Shakespeare
and Marsk, and not coming to Shakespeare's,
but to Marsk's time. A strong resem-
blance, however, existed in Eclipse, to the
progeny of Shakespeare, in the particulars
of colour, temper, and certain peculiarities ot
form.

Mr. John Lawrence, who was well acquainted
with this animal, says — " Never, to the eye of a
sportsman, was there a truer-formed galloper
in every part ; and his countenance and figure,
as he stood in his box, notwithstanding his

BACE-HOBSES.] MODEEN VETERINAEY PEACTICE. [eace-hoeses.

great size, suggested the idea of tlie wild horse
of the desert. His resolute and choleric temper
was well known ; and although he held a very
iUmiliar and dumb converse with us over the
bar, we did not deem it prudent to trust
Durselves alone witli him in his apartment.
Jfe was nevertlieless very kind and friendly
with his groom."

In observing on the general character of the
running of this animal, we cannot but remark
that it was impossible to make a tool of him,
(•ven had it been desired, or had his owner
intended to do so. He was no horse that
could win a race to-day, and be beaten on the
morrow by another horse of inferior powers.
Jle seemed to have made up his mind to be
always a winner, and resisted all the attempts
of his jockeys to force him to accommodate
liis pace to that of his opponents. He took
tiie lead, and gallantly maintained it, in spite
of all opposition. "Were tliere more horses of
the temper of Eclipse, there would be less
/.'nesse practised on the race-course of the
[)resent day.

In closing the history of this animal, we must
quote a few more extended observations of
Mr. St. Bell, on some of his proportions.
The Essay of that gentleman is replete
with sound and practical information, ex-
pressed in clear and intelligible language ; and
is worthy of the perusal of all those that take
an interest in such things as have a tendency
to enhance the strength, beauty, speed, and
5>plendour of the horse.

" The difference which results from peculiar
conformation," says Mr. St. Bell, "militates, in
some respects, against the rules laid down in
the geometrical table in use in the veterinary
schools on the continent of Europe, and
)>roves that no common standard of measure-
ment can apply generally to different species.
As each species, and even each individual, has
its own peculiar beauty, we cannot pretend to
establish any general rule of beauty for the
horse. Were a man to collect the various
beauties of individuals, it might, indeed, serve
as a model for the painter, or the statuary,
but would be of no use to direct him in the
choice of a horse. Eclipse was never esteemed
handsome ; but in maJcing, he was nearly per-
fect, and speedy in proportion. &-

" We may propose that the legs of Eclipse,

in their flexion in the gallop, described each a
circle of three hundred and sixty degrees;
and, consequently, the extent of the action of
each leg was the same in extension. To this
may be added the force of action, without
which a horse cannot even walk. This mus-
cular, and merely mechanical force, can only be
computed by experiment ; and well organised
as Eclipse was, as to his muscles and the
length and direction of his legs, we may ven-
ture to assert that, free of all weight, and
galloping at full speed, he could cover an
extent of twenty-five feet at each complete
action of the gallop ; that he could repeat this
twice and one-third in each second ; conse-
quently that, doing his utmost, he could run
nearly four miles in six minutes and two
seconds.

" The excellence of the make of Eclipse
may fairly be inferred from his superior speed ;
for this speed could result only from a har-
monious combination in the organs of pro-
gression. Let us now suppose these same
organs defective in their proportion, and in-
quire what w^ould be the consequence.

" The Croup and Eump. — An examination
of the bones of the ilium, confirmed me in my
opinion, held during life, that the croup in
Eclipse was disproportionately large. The
extent of the os jJtihis and iscJuu7n caused him
to go too wide behind. His hind-feet, instead
of being parallel with his fore-feet, stood out-
ward. This defect, which caused a wavering
in the croup, in his gallop, together with
other small defects, was overruled by his great
muscular powers. A much greater fault in a
racer is, when the croup is too narrow, and
the muscles, which communicate with the loins
and extremities, thin, and, consequently, weak.

"The SnouLDEE and Arm. — In Eclipse,
the shoulder was too much loaded ; but if too
spare, the muscles will be weak, and the mo-
tions of the shoulder confined. The propor-
tion of the arm is commonly determined by
that of the shoulder-blade. These two parts,
forming together the sides of an angle,
more or less open, give to the muscles which
move them, a quicker or less power, in propor-
tion as this motion is made further from, or
nearer to, the axis of the motion.

"The Hind Leg— the Thigh. — Eclipse
was remarkable for length in his hinder parts.

77

EACE-HOESES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[eace-hoeses.

67

The thigh, with the os-ilium, formed a con-
siderable angle, whence followed a great ex-
tent of motion. The length of the tibia gave
beautiful proportion to the leg ; and the hock,
from its size, and perfect make, must have
produced the greatest possible degree of ex-
tension. The leg, pastern, coronet, and foot,
fully corresponded."

In order to see at a glance the dimensions
of Eclipse, we make the following extract from
the same authority : —

Height and Length of Eclipse.

Inches.
Height from the withers to the ground . 66
Height from the top of the rump to the

ground

Length of the body, taken from the most
prominent part of the breast to the ex-
tremity of the buttocks 69

Length of the Bones of the Legs.
Fore-Legs.

Shoulder-blade 18

Humerus, or arm ........ 12

Cubitus 16

Canon shank 22

Pastern, coronet, and hoof 8

Hind- Legs.

Os-ilium 12

Femur, or thigh 15

Tibia 12

Shank or leg 14

Pastern, coronet, and hoof 9

The skeleton of this splendid animal, after
passing through various hands, is now kept
in the New Veterinary College, at Edinburgh,

for which it was purchased for one hundred

guineas from Mr. Bracy Clark, by Professor

Gamgee.

BAY M ALTON,

This horse was the property of the Marquis
of Eockiiigham, and ran the four mile course
at York, in seven minutes and forty-three
seconds, a feat which had never been accom-
plished before in so short a time, by seven
Beconds. He combined great speed with con-
siderable stoutness.

One of the severest plate-races on record,
was run at Carlisle, in 1761, and in which there
were no fewer than six heats, and two of them
were dead heats, each of which was contested
by the winner of the plate. The winning
horse, therefore, ran twenty -four miles, and
yet did not break down ■
78

In 17G3, at Salisbury, and over a four mile
course, there were four heats between two
horses — the Duke of Grafton's Havannah,
and Mr. Wildman's Pam. Yet there was no
breaking down.

One or two more instances of the combined
speed and stoutness of former racers, are
worthy of being placed on record.

In October 17'il, at the Curragh meeting,
in Ireland, Mr. Wilde engaged to ride one
hundred and twenty-seven miles in nine hours.
He performed it in six hours and twenty-one
minutes, and employed ten horses. Allowing,
therefore, for mounting and dismounting, and
a moment for refreshment, he rode for six
hours, at the rate of twenty miles an hour.

In 1745, Mr. Thornhill exceeded this, for
he rode from Stilton to London, two hundred
and thirteen miles, in eleven hours and thirty-
four minutes ; which is, after allowing the least
possible time for changing horses, twenty miles
an hour for eleven hours, and on the uneven
ground of the turnpike-road.

In 1762, Mr. Shaftoe, with ten horses, and
five of them ridden twice, accomplished fifty
miles and a quarter, in one hour and forty-
nine minutes. In 176:3, this gentleman won
a more extraordinary match. He was to pro-
cure a person to ride one hundred miles a day,
on any one horse each day, for twenty-nino
days together, and to have any number of
horses not exceeding twenty-nine. He ac-
complished it on fourteen ; and on one day ho
rode one hundred and sixty miles, on account
of the tiring of his first horse.

Mr. Hull's Quibbler, however, afibrds the
most extraordinary instance on record, of the
stoutness as well as speed of the race-horse.
In December, 1786, he ran twenty-three miles
round the flat of Newmarket, in fifty-seven
minutes and ten seconds.

POT-S-OS.

This was one of the numerous progeny of
Eclipse, and holds a foremost place in the
racing ranks. He was a chestnut foaled in
1773, his dam being Sports-mistress. He was
bred by the Earl of Abingdon. At the New-
market first spring of 1788, his proprietor had
intimated his intention of disposing of some
of his horses, whilst Pot-8-os was engaged in a
sweepstake of one hundred guineas each, eight

ItACB-EOESES.]

MODEEN VETERINAKT PEACTICE.

[EACE-noaSE3.

subscribers. As the horses were starting,
Lord Grasvenor asked the Earl of Abingdon
the price of Pot-8-os. "Fifteen hundred
guineas," was the reply. " With the chance of
the race ?" " Oh, certainly !" The transaction
was closed ; and, in a few minutes after, Pot-
8-03 and the subscriptions were Lord Grosve-
nor's. This horse died at Heme Park, New-
market, in 1800, aged twenty-seven. His pro-
geny hold a place in our best pedigrees.

HIGHFLYER.
This is one of the most celebrated racers on
record. He was never beaten, and never paid
forfeit. He was a bay horse, descended from
King Herod, and foaled in 1774. Sir Charles
Bunbury bred and sold him to Viscount Bo-
lingbroke, and he afterwards becarse the pro-
perty of Mr. Eichard Tattersall. He flourished
between the years l776-'80 ; witnessed the
establishment of tlie St. Leger, the Derby,
and the Oaks ; and when he was christened,
the statesman, Charles James Eox, was present
at a festive meeting. Although he never
started after five years old, his winnings
amounted to upwards of nine thousand three
hundred pounds, and his immediate descendants
netted about one hundred and seventy thou-
sand, four hundred pounds. He died at " High-
flyer" Hall, Cambridgeshire, an elegant villa
near Ely, the property of Mr. Tattersall, Oc-
tober 18th, 1793 aged nineteen years.

ESCAPE.

On the 20th of October, 1791, Chifney, the
jockey of the Prince of Wales, afterwards
George IV., rode the prince's famous horse
Escape, by Highflyer, in a sweepstakes, from
th.e Ditch-In, a distance of about two miles,
against Skylark, Pipator, and Coriander; and
the last won. On the following day Chifney
rode Escape against the same horses over the
Beacon course, a distance of four miles, and
won. The betting on this race was four and five
to one against Escape. Public rumour stated
that the prince had gained a vast sum ; but he
gave a flat denial to his having won above four
hundred pounds on the race ; and having be-
lieved, as it was generally rumoured, that Chif-
ney had ridden hooty, a public investigation
took place, and the whole resulted in the final
retirement of his royal highness from the turf.

Escape beat the best horses in England,
over the course of four miles, and was him-
self beaten on the same course, by middling
horses. He beat Nimble, one of the speediest
liorses of his day, across the Plat, a distance
of a mile and a quarter; and was beaten on
the same course, in a private trial, by Don
Quixote, and Lance — horses, we believe, of in-
ferior speed to Nimble — several lengths before
half the course was ran, and very easily, and
a great way at the end ; yet in another trial,
two miles over Epsom, he beat Baronet and
Pegasus, giving the former, a horse of his own
year, and a winning racer, the enormous weight
of twenty pounds. Baronet nevertheless beat
him, at the same weight and distance, a few
days after, at Ascot.

Erom a detailed account of the trials and
public races of Escape, he clearly appears to
have been a most uncertain runner. He seemf;
to have possessed capital speed, and even great
powers of continuance, when well to run;
but to have been materially afiected by the
very slight and very usual mistakes in train-
ing; to have been subject to have the edge
of his speed totally blunted by a few degrees
of overwork; and his powers, both of speed
and continuance, paralysed and rendered inert,
by want of due exercise, or by errors in feed-
ing, more particularly near the time of his
running. There, also, most assuredly, is a
perfect analogy of nervous sensibility, of irri-
tability, and vacillation of fibre, between the
human animal and the race-horse. As men
difler, so do horses ; and the warm-tempered,
free, unequal, and nervous Escape, ought to
have had for his trainer, his manager, and his
jockey, such discriminating persons as could
fully appreciate his temperament and disposi-
tion. Hard-headed and indiscrimiuating grooms
of the common type, could have no real con-
ception of the delicacy, vigilance, and care with
which such an animal required to be treated.

As the failure of this horse led to the trial
of Chifney, his rider, and the retirement of
the Prince of Wales from the turf, this seems
the proper place to give the opinions relative
to the management of a race-horse, elicited
from Chifney at his trial ; and, although
they are the sentiments of an uneducated,
yet they are those of a practical man, aad,
on that account, deserving a place in tbu

79

EACE-HOESES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[llACE-UOESES.

work. We may premise that Chifney entered
into the service of the running stables in
1770, and was regularly trained to his voca-
tion, under the celebrated professors Eox and
Prince. Eiding, he says, "he learned him-
self. In 1773, I could ride a horse in a
better manner in a race, to beat others, than
any person ever known in my time. In 1775,
I could train horses for running better than
any person I ever yet saw." In 1784, he
lived with Lord Grosvenor, riding his lord-
ship's race-horses. He afterwards entered
into the service of Thomas Panton, Esq., with
whom he continued four years, until his en-
gagement in the service of the prince. During
his continuance with Mr. Panton, he rode
most of the Duke of Bedford's race-horses ;
and tells us, he was assured by Mr. Panton,
that " the Duke of Bedford was always highly
pleased with his riding, as he always rode to a
T, as his grace told him." His grace is well
known to have been very precise in his direc-
tions to his jockeys ; and appears to have been
so well satisfied with Chifney, that, in all pro-
bability, had not his grace then meditated a
total retirement from the turf, he would have
engaged him for life. Immediately on quitting
the service of Mr. Panton, he was engaged by
his royal highness the prince, at a salary of
two hundred pounds per year.

" I have said," observes Chifney, " that
horses change in their twice running. If a
horse is in perfect fitness for running, he
immediately becomes exhausted, little or much.
He must then change in his running. A
horse cannot keep his perfect fitness for
running more than one race till rested. I
have seen one sweat between a horse's twice
running, change him for the worse, asto-
nishingly It is destruction to horses to
sweat them in the manner they are sweated
at Newmarket, as the practice there is to
sweat them once in six days — sometimes
oftener; and between these days of sweating,
it is usual for the horse to go out twice a day,
each time having strong exercise. In these
sweating-days the horses are mostly covered
with cloths, two or three times doubled, and
go in their sweats six miles, more or less, and,
at times, go tolerably fast. Directly the horse
pulls up, he is hurried into the stable, which
is on the spot for that purpose. As soon as
80

he gets in, there is often more clothes thrown
upon him, in addition to those he had been
sweated in. This is done to make the horse
sweat the more ; and he stands thus for a time
panting, before he is stripped for scraping ;
and with being thus worked, clothed, and
stoved, he is, at times, so affected, that he
keeps breaking out into fresh sweats, which
pour from him, when scraping, as if water had
been thrown on him. Nature cannot bear
this. The liorses must dwindle.

"Now I think, in the first place, that the
horse has been too long at this sort of
work for his sinews ; then the clothing and
stoving him force his juices from him in such
quantities, that his spirit, strength, and speed
must le destroyed ; and much clothing jades
horses. A horse don't meet with this destruc-
tion when he runs, for then he is likely to be
lighter in his carcase, lighter in his feet,
having plates on, not shoes, which are won-
derfully in favour of his sinews ; and he is
without clothes, and not stoved, and his course
in running is very seldom more than four
miles ; therefore, this difference between
sweating and running is immense.

" When a horse pulls up from his running,
he has time given him to move gently in the
air, and is usually scraped out upon the turf,
and by these means he perspires no more than
suits his nature.

" Horses should have different brakes, against
weather, to scrape in. Buildings for this, I
think, would be most properly made after the
horse-dealer's rides in London ; open in front,
being out of the weather, and not out of the
air. Places of this sort would be much the
best for horses to saddle in ; for saddling
in close, dark stables, makes them, at times,
break out with great perspiration when under
that operation. Besides, in fine roomy places
of this sort, there would be proper space, &c.,
for noblemen and gentlemen sportsmen to
command a sight of the horses at saddling ^
and horses are less timid, when in a crowd,
than they are when not in it, yet hear it.

" When a horse is first taken into work,
after having had a long rest, his carcase is then
large and heavy; and the practice is to put
more clothes upon him, and order him to go a
longer sweat. But the horse, in this stage of
his training, is the less able to bear more

EAOE-HOKSES.]

MODERN VETERINAEY PRACTICE.

[UACE- H0ESE8.

clothes, and go further in his sweats ; for, he
himself being heavy, has, with boy and clothes,
at times a great weight upon his legs. There-
fore, what with this pressure, and his work
heating him, it makes his sinews full and
weak ; and thus working a little too fast, or
too long, upon his sinews at one stretch, they
are forced out of their places. This once
done, the horse seldom stands training after.

" It is ignorant cruelty that causes a num-
ber of horses to be unskilfully lamed at New-
market; when gentlemen not only lose the
use of the animals and their money, but they
are deprived of the sport they otherwise might
have.

" The principal care in training horses for
running, and hunters and hacks for hard
riding, is, to train the legs to be able to carry
the carcase. To do this they should first be
used to short exercise, short gallops, short
sweats, and time given between their work for
their sinews to rest, or the best of legs will
become destroyed.

" The legs of horses are very soon destroyed
at first coming into work ; but when they
have had time to be well trained, scarcely any
running or riding will hurt them.

" Some few, I am informed, have a way of
pinching their race-herses in their meat and
water. This is another certain way of perish-
ing a horse in his spirit and strength. Where
a horse is too large in his carcase, he should
be well fed, as horses are, I believe, for the
most part, at Newmarket ; and, instead of
pinching him in his water, where a horse is
greedy of it, he should he watered very often,
and, at all times, as much as he will drink given
to him. He will then drink less, and come
straight and strong in his carcase.

" The outcry is, Why are there so few good
runners, or that the turf-horses degenerate ?
Some say they think it is from running horses
too young. My opinion is, that the best run-
ning mares are trained till their ru?ining is
gone from them little or much ; then they are
turned into the stud, exhausted of their juices.
Perhaps they drop a foal in the following
year, and so on, year after year, suckling one
foal while breeding auother. The mare thus
turned into the stud, is drained of her
strength ; and being kept continually breeding,
without she lays herself barren a year or two

M

by her mis-standing to the horse, she will

remain bereft of her strength. But the chance
manner of her being allowed to lay herself
fallow, gives her an opportunity of recovering
her juices or strength, to enable her to breed
a stronger foal, provided the horse that is put
to her, is in the same proper state. As it ia
with the mares, so is it with the horses. They
are turned out of training into the stud,
drained of their nature ; and the better run-
ners they are, the more are they pressed with
mares, and in such numbers as to exhaust
their prolific powers.

" These are my reasons why the turf-horses
degenerate in length, speed, and beauty."

Lord Coleraiue was confederate on the turf
with his friend, Mr. Robert Pigott, when his
celebrated horse. Shark, was at his best ; Mr.
Pigott trusted the whole management of his
stables to him. He says —

" I do not believe there ever was a better
horse than Mr. Robert Pigott's Shark, except-
ing Eclipse, which was a very uncommon
horse. I will tell you what Shark could do,
by which you may give a tolerably good guess
whether you have nearly the best horse of
his year. Run five or six of your young colts
together, one mile : if they all come in well
together, you may be sure that not one of
them is worthy to be kept in training, except-
ing you have one amongst them which is an
uncommonly large-sized colt, large-limbed, and
loose made. It is possible that, when he
comes to his strength, and fills up, he may
turn out a good horse. If you have one colt
which, in the trial, runs clear away from all
the rest, you may expect that he will turn out
a good runner. Take him, about a fortnight
after, run him with two of the others which
were the two first of those beaten ; for you
must not run him with the worst or last of
the lot. Let him give them both twenty-ono
pounds. If he does not beat them cleverly,
you have no right to expect that he is the
best, or nearly the best, horse of his year. I
will mention a wonderful trial, when Shark
was coming six years old. He ran from the
Ditch-In. I borrowed a mare, a good runner,
of Mr. Vernon. I think her name was Ata-
lanta, but I cannot mention her name for cer-
tain. I gave Mr. Vernon fifty guineas for the
hire of her ; but then I agreed to have her

81

IIACE-H0BSE3.]

THE HOESE, AND

[llACE-HOESES.

for a fortnight before the race, iii our stables,
that he should not run her to death, by which
I might have been deceived in the trial. I
promised him to run her only once, from the
Ditch-In, and, on the third day, again one
mile only, and then to return her. John
Oakley rode Shark, and Anthony Wheatly
rode the trial mare. Shark gave all the other
horses, except the mare, twenty-one pounds.
There were three others — my horse St.
G-eorge, Salopian, and Jack of Hicton. The
mare carried four pounds more than them ;
consequently Shark gave her only seventeen
pounds. As the mare and the rest of the
horses were coming down the small declivity
just past the Furzes on the town side. Shark
had beaten them full three hundred yards :
so much so, that I rode up to Oakley and
told him to pull Shark up, and go in, in the
centre of the group. St. George and the
mare had a very severe race ; he just won
it ; the other two were beaten three or four
lengths.

" St. George had been turned out in a
paddock, at my own house, in Berkshire, for
ten months, and well fed with corn the whole
time. Before I turned him out, I ran him
with Salopian, across the Elut, and Salopian
beat him shamefully.

" E-emember, every horse, including the
mare, was of the same age — six years old.
Twenty-one pounds is the test of speed ; and
this your colt must be able to give to one
which is a tolerable good runner, and not to
one which cannot run at all, or you have not
the best, or nearly the best colt of the year. —
So much for racing."

After recounting the achievements of some
of these old racers, the author of The Horse
asks, "What are our racers now?" and
answers, "They are speedier, longer, lighter, but
still muscular, although shorn of much of their
pride in this respect." He continues — " They
are as beautiful creatures as the eye would
wish to gaze on ; but the greater part of them
give-in before half the race is run : and out of
a field of fifteen, or even twenty, not more
than two or three of them will live, in the
exertion of their best energies, far within the
ropes. And what becomes of them when the
struggle is over ? After the severe racing, as
it is now called, of former times, the horse
82

came again to the starting-post with not a
single power impaired ; and, year after year,
he was ready to meet any and every rival. A
single race, however, like that of the Derby,
now occasionally disables the winner from
ever running again ; yet the distance is only a
mile and a-half. The St. Leger is more de-
structive to the winner, although the distance
is less than two miles. The race of the day
has been run ; some heavy stakes have been
won by the owner ; the animal by whose exer-
tions they were gained is led away, and it is
sometimes an even chance whether he is ever
heard of, or, perhaps, thought of, again. He
has answered the purpose for which he was
bred, and he has passed away."

By this quotation, it is evideuu that Mr.
Touatt thinks, with Chifney, that the present
character of racers has degenerated. Stout-
ness has been sacrificed to speed, and the
horse has finished the object of his birth and
training, when he has won a Derby. But
what says the greatest existing authority on
this very point.

" A very ridiculous notion exists," says Ad-
miral H. J. Eous, " that because our ancestors
were fond of matching their horses four, six,
and eight miles, and their great prizes were
never less than four miles for equal horses,
that the English race-horses of 1700 had more
powers of endurance, and were better adapted
to run long distances, under heavy weights,
than the horses of the present day ; and there
is another popular notion that our horses
cannot now stay four miles.

" Erom 1600 to 1740, most of the matches
at Newmarket were above four miles. The
six-mile post, in my time, stood about two
hundred yards from the present railroad
station — Six-mile Bottom — and the eight-mile
post was clear, south from the station on the
rising ground ; but the cruelty of the dis-
tances, and interest of horse-owners, shortened
the course in corresponding ratio with the
civilisation of the country. Two jades may
run as fine a race for eight miles, as for half
a mile; it is no proof of endurance. You
onay match any animals for xohat distance you
please, hut it is no proof of great capacity.
We have no reason to suppose that the pure
Arabian of the desert has degenerated — his
pedigree is so well kept ; his admirers in the

BACE-HOHSES.] MODERN VETEEINARY PEACTICE. [eace-hohses.

East are as numerous, and his value in that
market bas not been depreciated. In 1700,
the tirst cross from these horses, were the
heroes of the turf. Look at the portraits of
rijing Childers, Lath, Eegulus, and other
celebrated horses, including the Godolphin
Arabian. If the artists were correct in their
delineations, they had no appearance of race-
horses ; they, of course, were good enough to
gallop away from the miserable English gar-
rans of that era, as a good Arab, or Barbary
horse, like Vengeance, would run away from a
common hackney in the present day. Amongst
the blind, a one-eyed man is a king.

"My belief is, that the present English
race-horse is as much superior to the race-
horse of 1750, as he excelled the first cross
from Arabs and Barbs, with English mares ;
and again, as they surpassed the old English
racing hack of 1650.

" The form of Flying Childers might win now
a £30 plate, winner to be sold for £40 ; High-
flver and Eclipse might pull through in a £50
plate, winner to be sold for £200. This may
be a strong opinion ; it is founded on the faith
that, whereas one hundred and fifty years ago,
the Eastern horses, in their first cross, were the
best and fastest in England ; at this day, a
second-class race-horse can give five stone to
the best Arabian or Barb, and beat him from
one to twenty miles. I presume, therefore,
that the superiority of the English horse has
improved in that ratio above the original stock."
The majority of the plates run for during
the last century were given to six-year-old
horses, carrying twelve stone four miles, from
an impression that a horse should not be
trained to run a distance under that age.
Before 1770, plates, weight for age, were of
rare occurrence. At the commencement of
the present century, the inauguration of three
and four-mile heats, with ten stone four pounds,
to eleven stone six pounds, formed the condi-
tions upon which the royal plates were usually
contested. The system of short races, and
liglit weights, was introduced by tSir Charles
Bunbury, and the conditions of the royal
plates were gradually altered to suit the new
style of racing.

However strong may be the conviction, in
the minds of some admirers of the horse, that
the modern racer is deiiciieraLing:, there are

man}' facts which might be adduced to prove
the contrary. As to the matter of stoutness,
we th.ink, from all we can learn, there can be
no question, notwithstanding the opinion of
Admiral Eons. Yet neither Flying Childers
nor Eclipse kept the turf for more than two
seasons ; and we have Catherina running one
hundred and seventy-one races, and winning
seventy-six times ; we have Fisherman running
one hundred and twenty races, and winning
sixty-nine ; we have Euphrates running ninety-
two ; Isaac, ninety ; Zohrab, ninety ; and Po-
tentate, eighty-seven. These figures are little
indicative of that degree of degeneracy which
some writers would endeavour to make us believe
has taken place in the breed of our racers. .

Having devoted a considerable space to the
racers of the last century, we will now briefly
record the performances of a few of the present;
and passing over Fleur-de-lis, and some others,
wo may commence with the celebrated

BEESWING.

This horse was, in 1833, bred by Mr. W. Dede,
of Nunnykirk, Northumberland. Her sire
was Doctor Syntax, the winner of twenty-nine
races out of forty-four starts. Her dam, by
Ardrossan, out of Lady Ei'za, by Whitworth^
Sylvia, by young Marsh. Her blood is trace-
able up to the Darley Arabian. She made her
public delut at Newcastle, in June 1835, for
the Tyro stakes, but ran out when in a good
place. In 1836 she ran for the great St.
Ledger, which was won by EHs, the horse of
Lord George Bentinck, who, on this occasion,
had his animal conveyed in a van, the first
time that this mode of conveyance was adopted
among racing sportsmen. Beeswing ran eight
seasons, starting sixty-four times, and winning
fifty. She netted to her owner, seven thousand
and eighty pounds.

ALICE HAWTHORN.

This fine animal was foaled in 1838, and
bred by Mr. John Plummer. Her sire was
Mully Moloch, the victor over some of the
be.^t horses of his day. In 1854, in his twenty-
fourth year, he figures before the world as the
sire of eighty-two winners, of whom Alice
Hawthorn was the most famous. Her dam
was Eebecca, by Lottery. Alice started sixty-
nine times, and won fifty and a-half races,

83

EACE-HOESES.]

THE HOESE. AND

[eace-horses.

netting, ia all, seven thousand eight hundred
and ninety-four pounds.

She subsequently fell to the stud ; and, in
1857, produced Thormanby.

BEADSMAN.

This beautiful horse was the winner of the
Derby in 1858, and was bred by Sir Joseph
Hawley, baronet. He was got by Weatherbit,
out of Mendicant. He was a black-brown
horse, standing fifteen hands two and a-half
inches high. He had a beautiful blood-like
head, with a fine full eye ; rather long ears,
well set on ; a bending neck gracefully joining
to his head ; great depth of girth, rather light
in his back ribs, good loins and back, muscular
quarters and thighs ; large arms, rather small
in tlie bone, but strong tendons. He very
much resembled his dam, the winner of the
Oaks in 1846.

GOVERNESS.

This mare was bred by Mr. Gratwicke, and
got by Chatham out of a Laurel mare, the dam
of Oxonian, Ehedycina (winner of the Oaks in
1850), Student, Instructress, &c. She was a fine
strapping animal, standing rather more than
sixteen hands and an inch ; and a good even,
coloured chestnut, without any white, except a
blaze in her face; and, for so large a mare,
had a good head; powerful and muscular all
over, and possessed of a wonderful stride.

The Derbies of 18G0, '61, '62, '63, '64, 'G5,
and ^66, were won successively by Thormanby,
Kettledrum, Caractacus, Macaroni, Blair-
Athol, Gladiateur, and Lord Lyon.

Such are a few of the racing celebrities ^ve
have chosen, to illustrate the runningr of the
present century ; and it now becomes a duty
briefly to discuss the humanity of the question
as to whether the modern system of racing
short distances, is preferable to the old system
of lieats, and long distances. Morally, this is,
perhaps, the most interesting portion of our
subject, and demands the attention of every
man possessed of such sentiments as are incul-
cated by the gradual development of civilisation.

In Ohservations on Breeding for the Turf,

by Mr. N. H. Smith, we find this subject

touched upon. "The style of racing now,"

observes that gentleman, "is totally difierent

84

from that of former days. At present they
run, except at country races, with light weights
and short distances, where speed only can
excel. Formerly they ran with high weights
and long distances, where bottom or stoutness
was equally necessary ; and hence it may be
presumed, that tlie horse possessing qualities
which might have brought him into distinction
then, would not be calculated to obtain now
an equal fame at Newmarket. It is, therefore,
very natural to suppose, that this difference in
our style of racing, may, in a certain degree,
have altered the character of our racing stock.
By a reference to former sporting publications,
it appears that the horses were then smaller —
most likely shorter in the leg — and, no doubt
capable of carrying weights and running in
better than the present racers, which most
probably are, generally speaking, longer in the
leg, with less substance. It must be allowed
that the horse that can go a good distance
the best with high weights, is, for all general
purposes, and particularly for giving a value
to any intermediate breed between the racer
and draught-horse, the best sort of horse to
resort to as a stallion ; but there is something
inhuman in the former practice of running
four-mile heats with twelve stone weights,
which must reduce the speed of the best
horse in the world to a pace to which a race-
horse ought never to be reduced. It is not
racing, but a severe trial of constitutional
strength, of the most distressing nature to the
poor animal, and better calculated to gratify
butchers and hawkers, than the tastes and
feelings of gentlemen."

Independent of whatever cruelty might have
been exemplified in the length of the former
racing-course, there is yet another cruelty which,
in the excitement of this sport, is apt to escape
general notice. We allude to that which is
inflicted by the jockey upon the sides of the
animal he rides, by means of spur and whip,
urging him on to the utmost of his speed,
or rather beyond his utmost, when the animal
is literally ready to drop. It ought to be
considered an established maxim on the turf,
that the efforts of a horse to win a race, are
limited only by his physical powers. It is, we
believe, generally admitted that the horse
enters into the spirit of the race as thoroughly
as does his rider ; and, without whip or spur,

BACE-lIOnSES.]

MODEEN VETEEINAET PRACTICE.

[uACE-nOESBS.

will generally exert his energies to tho utmost
to beat his opponent. It is beautiful to see
liira advancing to the starting-post, every
motion evincing his eagerness. The signal is
;;ivcn, and he springs away ; he settles himself
in his stride; the jockey becomes a part and
portion of him, every motion of the arms and
bodv corresponding with, and assisting the
action of tho horse. On he goes, eager, yet
husbanding his powers. At length, when he
arrives at that distance from which the rider
Imows that he will live home at the top of his
speed, the hint is given, and off he rushes.
The race now in reality begins, and every
nerve is strained to head his competitor. Then,
too, comes the art of the rider, to keep the
horse within his pace, and with admirable ffive
and taTce, add to the length of every stride.
Then, perhaps, the spur may be lightly and
ykilfully applied, to rouse every dormant energy.

A sluggish, lurching horse, may need more
punishment than the humane observer would
think justifiable; but the natural ardour of
the race-horse, roused at the moment of the
grand struggle, by the moderate application of
the whip and spur, will bring him through, if
he can win.

An anecdote of Forrester will aiford suffi-
cient illustration of the natural emulation of
the racer. He had won many a hardly con-
tested race ; at length, over-weighted, and
over-matched, the rally had commenced. His
opponent had been waiting behind, but had
now overtaken him, when, till within distance,
they continued to be close together. It was a
l)oint that could scarcely be decided; but
Forrester's strength was failing. He made
one desperate plunge — seized his antagonist
by the jaw to hold him back, and could be
scarcely forced to quit his hold.

In like manner, a horse belonging to Mr.
Quin, in 1753, finding his adversary gradually
passing him, seized him by the leg, and both
riders were obliged to dismount, in order to
separate the animals.

With horses such as these, exhibiting the
highest evidence of being thoroughly endued
with the true emulative spirit, what need for
a severe application of the whip or spur ?
AVould the pain, which they by these instru-
ments inflict, have carried such horses over
one additional inch of ground ? In all pro-

bability their lacerations would have been
thrown away ; they miglit have shortened
the stroke for the animals which, perhaps,
would have become enraged, and have sus-
pended every exertion. AVhat says an autiio-
rity upon this subject.

" Those persons who insist u])on an innate
quality in what is termed ' blood,' are led to
believe that there is something in the nature
of a thorough-bred horse which enables him
to struggle in a race far beyond his natural
capabilities, and which is distinguished by the
term ' game.' We do not think there is. AVo
learn from experience, that horses often allow
themselves to be beaten by others which are
inferior to them, from sheer ill-temper; but
their efforts to run a race, we consider to be
merely limited by their physical powers, the
effect of a proper arrangement of their parts ;
and that the operation of the mind, or spirit,
has nothing at all to do with it. The hero at
the Olympic games had, and the champion of
the British boxing-ring may have, feelings
which, from the superiority of their nature,
and tlie fact of their character, interest, and
future happiness being all involved in the
event, might have induced them to struggle,
even to the very verge of life ; but the same
sense of honour, and the same spirit of emu-
lation, cannot, at least, in anything like the
same ratio, be ascribed to the race-horse. If
his own acting potvers be unequal to those of
others opposed to him in the race, he yields to
that superiority; although it must be admitted,
that what are called sluggish horses will not
try to exert themselves to the utmost, unless
urged to it by the spur and whip ; and others,
when spurred and whipped, slacken, instead of
increasing their speed."

To this subject it is unnecessary to give fur-
ther attention here: meanwhile, we may ob-
serve, that a diminutive brain is usually asso-
ciated with dull senses ; whilst a large one is
generally possessed of much sensibility, saga-
city, and courage ; but, whatever may be these
pliysiological distinctions or differences, let us
always remember, that though

" The gcn'rous horse,
Restrain'd and awed by man's inferior force,
Does, to the rider's will, his rage submit,
And answers to the spur and owns the bit ;"

humanity towards him, as well as towards all

85

THE HUNTErt.]

THE HOBSE, AND

[the nUNTEB.

other animals, is one of our most imperative
duties.

THE HUNTER.

Before entering on a particular description
of the horse, to which this portion of our work
is to b» devoted, we shall enumerate the
variety of horses which, under their different
appellations, are characterised by more or less
distinctive features. We have already de-
scribed the racer ; but the hunter, the hack, or
hackney, the roadster, the lady's horse, or pad ;
the coach, cavalry, and dray horse, have yet to
follow. In sporting language, the term horse
mdicates one uncut, or a stallion. Gelding
has always been a common and familiar term.
A horse below thirteen hands — four inches to
a hand — in height, is styled a Pony; above
that height, and below fcjurteen hands, a Gal-
loway. The term coh, refers to a truss, short-
legged nag, able to carry any weight. The
pach-horse has long since disappeared from
amoner us. The cock-tail, a new term in the
slang of the inferior turi', indicates a racer not
thorough -bred. The icelter horse, is a term of
lono- standing, but of unknown derivation. It
points to either racer or hunter, master of the
highest weight. The designation, tliorough-
Ired, belongs to the racer of pure Arabian
or Barb blood ; and the term is likewise ap-
plicable to the horses of other nations of the
south-east. A nag, in which the show of blood
predominates, is culled blood-like, or a blood-
horse. The degrees of blood in an English
horse are expressed by the terms, half-hrtd,
three-parts, and seven-eighths hred. The first,
or half-bred, is the produce of a racer and
common mare, or vice versa — the last cross
not so frequent, nor deemed so successful ;
the second, of the racer and half-bred ; and the
third, of the racer, and the three-part bred
mare. This last may, and has, sometimes,
raced capitally. Several examples of suc-
cessful seven-eighths bred racers, have oc-
curred at various periods. Perhaps no in-
stances have ever occurred, of a three-part
bred horse saving his distance in runing two
miles with thorough-bred racers.

Tlie conventional form of the horse, as to

the great essentials, may be held referable to

every variety ; for example, the head should

be lean, argutum caput, neither long nor short,

86

and set on with somewhat of a curve ; the
thropple loose and open ; the neck not re-
versed— cock-throppled — but rather arched;
the loins wide and substantial ; this, more
especially, if the back is long ; the tail not
drooping, but nearly on a level with the spine;
the hinder quarters well spread, as a support
to the loins, and as a security against the
pasterns, in progression, being cut by the
hoofs ; the hinder legs should descend straight,
laterally from the hocks, as a preventive to the
defect styled sicJcle-houghed, or hammed; at
the same time, the curve from the hock should
be so placed, that the feet may come suffi-
ciently forward to prop the loins, and that the
horse may not be said to leave his legs behind
him ; the muscles of the tliigh and fore-arm
should be solid and full, though some horses
are heavy and overdone by nature in those
parts. The horse, of whatever description
should not be leggy; and, of the extremes,
short legs are preferable. The canon, or leg-
bone, below the knee, should not be long, but
of good substance ; and the pasterns and feet,
of a size to correspond with the dimensions of
the horse ; the hoof should be dark, the feet
and frog tough, and the heel wide and open ;
the fore-feet should stand perfectly level, the
toe pointing forward in a right line, otherwise
the horse will knock, or " cut in the speed,"
however wide his chest ; in plain terms, he will
strike and wound either his pasterns, or his
legs immediately below the knees, or both ;
the feet standing even, the horse being equal
to his work, will seldom, perhaps never, knock
or cut, however near the hoof may approach.
A full, clear, azure eye, he also should have.

Such are the requisites of form, whether
taken in their widest extremes for the racer
or the cart-horse. Eor the hack, hunter, or
racer, there are certain other requisites of
form and quality. The principal of these are
the deep, backward-declining, and, as it is
called, the counter, or coulter shoulder, well
elevated fore-hand, deep girthing-plaee, with
sufficient racing blood to give lightness, action
of body, and fineness to the hair and skin.
This description applies with perfect aptitude
to the hunter, which should have, moreover,
great strength of loin and fillet, and should
not be high upon the leg. Nor is any addition
necessary for the running-horse, or racer, but

THE HUNTEE.]

MODEEN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE.

[the huntee.

Greater general length, wliich is the usual
result of full or tliorough blood. As to our
coach-horses, such was wont to be the modern
rage for speed, that even our mails and stages
miglit have been said to consist, in a con-
siderable degree, of racers and hunters ; and
our private coaches of huutiug-like horses on
a large scale.

In regard to the natui'al and peculiar form
of the slow draught horse, he carries his sub-
stance in a round, full, and horizontal manner ;
his chest is widely developed ; his shoulder
rather round and bluff than deep, and its
summit, the apex, or top of the fore-hand, not
high and acute, but wide. Such a form seems
best adapted to the collar, and to enable the
animal to draw, or move forward, heavy
weights; we, nevertheless, daily see numbers
of first-rate draught horses with deep flat
shoulders. It used to be held, that a low
shoulder facilitated draught ; and such was the
form of the old Suffolk sorrel cart-horses, the
truest and most forceful pullers of their kind.
They were the only breed, collectively, that
would draw dead 'puUs ; that is to say, would
continue repeated pulls, going down upon
their knees to an immovable object — for
example, a tree. This, draught horses in
general, even the most powerful and the best,
cannot be brought to do, whatever may be the
severity used towards them ; at the second or
third pull, gibhing, as it is called, and turning
their heads, as if to point with their eyes,
towai'ds their failing loins, is a common
circumstance.

Such are the general characteristics of the
lower grades of horses ; and taking the middle
of Charles the First's reign, as the date of the
introduction of the Eastern animals into this
country, it allows us about two centuries and
a quarter for the manufacture of the English
thorough-bred horse, in his form as he is
found in Great Britain, and in Great Britain
only. To preserve him in his purity, Arab and
Persian mares were, also, imported at the same
period, their produce then, as now, being con-
sidered and treated purely with reference to
the turf, as their ultimate destination. The
cross between the Arab stallions and the
native mares, was held as the fittest for the
field — strength, with a little breeding, enabling
any kind of equine flesh on four legs, to canter

from daylight to noon, alongside the long-
eared, short-legged liarrier, or beagle of that
day.

The hunter is generally a horse between
fifteen and sixteen hands in height, from tiie
half-bred to the thorough-bred species; and
ought to be of a lofty fore-hand, and shoulder
well formed for action, with wide and substan-
tial loins, moderately short legs and pasterns
and sound feet. The fashion of riding full-
bred and speedy horses, so prevalent of late
years, was equally prevalent in the beginning;
indeed, was original in the system. But this
chiefly takes place in light-soiled counties.
Upon strong and heavy soils, a powerful, well-
shaped, half-bred horse, may perform satisfac-
torily, and make a good figure ; but upon light
lands and downs, the speed of the high-bred
courser is too much for his powers, and he
cannot long hold his way in such superior
company. On a general consideration, the
three part or seven-eighth bred horse is best
adapted for hunting — since, at the same time,
acknowledging the superiority of the thorough-
bred horse, it is so extremely difficult to
obtain him of that make and form which shall
sufficiently combine strength with speed, to fit
him for his duties.

Hunting is obviously one of the most severe
labours of the horse, yet one that is so gene-
rally attractive to him, that there are well-
authenticated anecdotes of old hunters, in-
spired by the music of their fellow-sportsmen,
the hounds, breaking pasture over the most
dangerous fences, following the chase, and
coming first in at the death.

Until he has attained his sixth year, the
joints of a horse are not sufficiently fixed to
carry him well through a season's hunting;
although, at five, he should be cautiously and
moderately used in the field. His education
consists chiefly in being taught to leap the
bar, standing, since generally all horses will
take a flying leap, in some manner or other.
The practice of furzing the leaping-bar around,
is well known ; but some grooms are too harsh
and hasty with the young horse, whence many
animals, of irritable tempers, can never after-
wards be made staunch leapers. One of the
most extraordinary leaps made by a horse was
done at Birmingham, by an animal belonging
to a Mr. Beardsworth. On the ground being

87

THE HUNTER.]

THE HOESE, AND

[THii: HUNTER.

accurately measured by some gentleman who
witnessed the performance, it was found that,
in passing over a bar three feet six inches
high, the leap was taken at the amazing dis-
tance of seventeen feet seven inches from it,
and the whole space of ground covered was
twenty-seven feet eight inches. The horse
was fifteen hands and a-half high, and carried
upwards of twelve stone. He was afterwards
ridden over the same bar several times, and
cleared upwards of eigl«t yards without much
apparent effort.

The first property of a good hunter is, that
he should be light in hand. Eor this purpose,
his head must be small; his neck thin, and
especially thin beneath; his crest firm and
arched, and his jaws wide. The head will
then be well set on. It will form that angle
with the neck, which gives a light and pleasant
mouth.

Tiie fore-hand should be loftier than that of
the racer. A turf horse may be forgiven if
his hind quarters rise an inch or two above his
fore ones. His principal power is wanted
from behind; and tlie very lowness of the
fore-hand may throw more weight in front, and
cause the whole machine to be more easily and
speedily moved. A lofty fore-hand, therefore,
is indispensable in the hunter ; the shoulder
should be as extensive as in the racer ; also as
oblique, and somewhat thicker ; the saddle
will then sit in its proper place, and will con-
tinue so, however long may be the run.

The barrel should be rounder, to give greater
room for the heart and lungs to play, and send
oxygenised blood in greater quantities to the
larger frame of this kind of horse ; room to
play is all the more essential when the run
continues unchecked for such a length of time
as to begin to be distressing. A broad chest
is an excellence in the hunter. In the violent
and long-continued exertion of the chase, the
respiration is exceedingly quickened, and
a great deal more blood is hurried through the
lungs in a given time, than when the animal is
at rest. There must be sufiicieut room for
this, or the beast will be blown, and possibly
destroyed. The majority of the horses that
perish in the field are narrow-chested.

The foot of the hunter is a most material
point. It is of consequence in the racer ; yet
it is a notorious fact, that numbers of our best
88

thorough-bred horses have had very indifferent
feet. The narrow contracted foot is the curse
of many of the. racing blood. The work of the
racer, however, is all performed on the turf,
and his bad feet may scarcely incommode him ;
but the foot of the hunter is battered over
many a flinty road and stony field; and if
not particularly good, will soon be disabled and
ruined.

The position of his feet, also, requires atten-
tion. They should, if possible, stand straight.
If they turn a little outward there is no serious
objection ; but if they turn inward, his action
cannot be safe, particularly when he is fatigued
or over-weighted.

The body should be short and compact,
compared with that of the race-horse, that he
may not, in his gallop, take too extended a
stride. This, in a long day, and with a heavy
rider, would be a serious disadvantage, from
the stress on the pasterns ; and more serious
when going over clayey ground, during the
winter months. The compact, short-strided
horse will almost skim the surface ; while the
feet of the longer-reached animal will sink
deep, and he will wear himself out by efi'orts
to disengage himself.

The hunter may be fairly ridden twice, or
if not with any very hard days, thrice a week ;
but, after a thoroughly hard day, and evident
distress, three or four days' rest should be
allowed. They who are merciful to their
horses, allow about thirty days' work in the
course of the season ; with gentle exercise on
each of the intermediate days, and particularly
a sweat on the day before hunting. There is an
account, however, of one horse which followed
the fox-hounds seventy-five times in one season.
We are not aware that this feat has ever been
exceeded.

"We have before said that the horse fully shares
in the enthusiasm of his rider ; and it is beautiful
to watch the old hunter, who, after many a
winter's hard work, is turned into the park to
enjoy himself for life. His attitude and his
countenance when, perchance, he hears the
distant cry of the dogs, are a study for the
contemplation of the artist.

" I was entertained by listening to an Arab
peasant," says Sir John Malcolm, in his
Sketches in Persia, "describe a fox-hunt which
he had seen in the English style. 'There

TUE IIUNTEK.'J

MODEEN VETEEINAEY PRACTICE.

[the huntee.

came tlie fox-devil ; lie poiutiug with a crooked
stick to a clump of date-trees ; there he came
at a great rate. I hallooed, but nobody heard
me, and I thouglit he must get away ; but,
when he got quite out of sight, up came a
large spotted dog, and then another, and
another. They all had their noses to the
ground, and gave tongue — whow, whow, whow
— I was friglitened. Away went these devils,
who soon found the poor animal. After them
galloped the Foringees (a corruption of Frank,
the name given to a European over all Asia),
shouting and trying to make a noise louder
than the dogs. No wonder they killed the fox
among them.' "

The following is related by a Wiltshire
gentleman, who was an eye-witness of the
scene he describes : — " I lent a fine and fiery
mare to a friend from town, who had come
down to try his Essex dogs against our Wilt-
shire breed : at the close of a very fine day's
sport, we had to beat a small furze-brake, and,
for the purpose of better threading it, my
friend dismounted and gave the bridle of the
mare to the next horseman. Puss was soon
started ; the " halloo" was given ; the person
who held my mare, in the eagerness of sporty
forgot his charge, loosed his hold, and, regard-
less of any other than his own steed, left mine
to run, like Mazeppa's, " wild and untutored."
But, to the astonishment of all, instead of so
doing, or even attempting to bend her course
homewards (and she was in the immediate
neighbourhood of her stable), she ran the
whole course at the tail of the dogs ; turned,
as well as she could, when they brought the
prey about, and afterwards by very much out-
stripping all competitors (for the run was long
and sharp), she stopped only at the death of
the hare, and then suflTered herself to be quietly
regained and remounted. This I conceive to
be certainly an extraordinary proof of a natural
love for the sport ; but what renders it more
remarkable is, that I had only attempted to
ride her twice before, after any hounds what-
ever. The brace of dogs that were slipped at
this course were my own, and the groom had
been in the habit of exercising them with the
mare. Whether this had any efiect on her
actions I am not competent to give an opinion,"
The passion of horses for hunting was, on
one occasion, exemplified in a most extraor-

dinary manner. Three of the horses of the
Brighton coach chanced to have finished their
stage, and to have been standing, unharnessed,
at the instant Lord Derby's stag-hounds
passed in full cry. They started off and
joined the hunt, and had the gratification of a
run of some length, until the hounds were
whipped ofi". Even after this, they followed
the stag till they got up to his haunches, and
then chased him three miles on the high road,
when the stag taking a high fence, left them
snorting on the wrong side, to be secured by
those in quest of them.

This deer was more fortunate than one
which was hunted by the same pack, as the
result will show. Some years since, the Earl
of Derby turned out from the Oaks a noble
deer, for a day's sport, which, after having
traced a very long tract of country, entered
the grounds of the late Mrs. Smith, of Ashted,
near Epsom, Surrey, and being closely pur-
sued by the hounds, it actually leaped through
the drawing-room window, the sash of which
was down, followed by the pack in full cry.
The consternation occasioned in the family, by
this strange event, was indescribable. At
that critical moment no one was in the apart-
ment, some ladies having quitted it a few
minutes previously. The window was almost
dashed to atoms, and every part of the room,
with its rich carpet and corresponding furni-
ture, covered with blood and dirt. The animal
was soon dispatched by the ferocity of the
dogs ; and perhaps so curious an event is not
to be found in the annals of sporting. As a
companion, however, to this scene, a stag, gra-
duating towards the city of Oxford, at length
took to one of the streets, through which he
was followed by the hounds in full cry, into a
chapel, and there killed, during divine service.
A horse that had, a short time before, been
severely fired on three legs, and was placed in
a loose box, with the door, four feet high,
closed, and an aperture over it little more than
three feet square, and standing himself nearly
sixteen hands, and master of fifteen stone,
hearing the cheering of the huntsmen and the
cry of the dogs at no great distance, sprung
through the aperture, without leaving a single
mark on the bottom, the top, or the sides.

If the horse, then, be thus ready to exert
himself for our pleasure— and pleasure alone

8D

THE HTTNTEE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[the hunteb.

is liere the object — it is indefensible and
brutal to urge bira beyond his own natural
ardour, so severely as we sometimes do, and
even until nature is quite exhausted. It is,
perhaps, not now so frequent ; but formerly
*ve scarcely ever heard of a " hard day," with-
out being likewise informed, that one or more
horses either died in the field, or scarcely
reached home before they expired. Some
have been thoughtless and cruel enough to
kill two horses in one day. One of the
severest chases on record was by the king's
stag-hounds. There was an uninterrupted
burst of four hours and twenty minutes. One
horse dropped dead in the field ; another died
before he could reach the stable; and seven
more within a week afterwards.

It is easily conceivable, and it does sometimes
happen, that, entering as fully as his master
into the sports of the day, the horse disdains
to yield to fatigue, and voluntarily presses on,
until nature is exhausted, and he falls and
dies. Much oftener, however, the poor animal
has, intelligibly enough, hinted his distress ;
unwilling to give in, yet painfully and falter-
ingly holding on; when the merciless rider,
rather than relinquish one hour's enjoyment,
tortures him with whip and spur, until he
drops and expires.

However unwilling the hunter may be to
abandon the chase for the time being, he who
" is merciful to his beast" will soon recognise
the symptoms of excessive and dangerous dis-
tress. To the drooping pace, staggering gait,
heaving flank, and heavy bearing on hand, will
be added a very peculiar noise. The inex-
perienced person will fancy it to be the beat-
ing of the heart ; but that has almost ceased
to beat, and the lungs are becoming gorged
■with blood. It is the convulsive motion of
the muscles of the belly, called into violent
action to assist in the now laborious office of
respiring.

In this dangerous situation, life almost
quivering in the horse's nostrils, Mr. Youatt
says —

" Let the rider instantly dismount. If he
has a lancet, and skill to use it, let him take
away five or six quarts of blood ; or if he has
no lancet, let him cut the burs with his
pocket-knife as deeply as he can. The lungs
may be thus relieved, and the horse may be
90

able to crawl home. Then, or before, if pos-
sible, let some powerful cordial be adminis-
tered. Cordials are, generally speaking, the
disgrace and bane of the stable ; but here, and
almost here alone, tliey are truly valuable.
They may rouse the exhausted powers of
nature ; they may prevent what the medical
man would call the reaction of inflammation ;
although they are the veriest poison when in-
flammation has commenced.

" A favourite hunter fell after a long burst,
and lay stretched out, convulsed, and appa-
rently dying. His master procured a bottle
of good sherry from the house of a neighbour-
ing friend, and poured it down the animal's
throat. The horse immediately began to
revive ; soon after got up, and walked home,
and gradually recovered. The sportsman may
not always be able to get this, but he may
obtain a cordial-ball from the nearest farrier,
or he may beg a little ginger from some good
house- wife, and mix it with warm ale, or he
may give the ale alone, or strengthened with a
little rum or gin. When he gets home, or if
he stops at the first stable he finds, let the
horse be put into the coolest plg^e, and then
well clothed, and diligently rubbed about the
legs and belly. The practice of putting the
animal, thus distressed, into * a comfortable
warm stable,' and excluding every breath of
air, has destroyed many valuable horses.

" We are now describing the very earliest
treatment to be adopted, and before it may
be possible to call in an experienced practi-
tioner. This stimulating plan would be fatal
twelve hours afterwards. It will, however, be
the wisest course, to commit the animal, the
first moment it is practicable, to the care of
the veterinary surgeon, if such there be in
the neighbourhood, in whom confidence can
be placed."

The labours and the pleasures of the hunting
season being passed, the farmer makes little
or no difl'erence in the management of his
untrained horse ; but the wealthier sportsman
is somewhat at a loss what to do with his.
It used to be thought, that when the animal
had so long contributed to the enjoyment of
his owner, he ought, for a few months, to be
permitted to seek his own amusement, in
his own way, and he was turned out for a
summer's run at grass.

lkLIIJiLili#i"lj _ i^iHi* Hiwiwiii ■mil 1111. «■

%

1=:
so

THE HUNTER.]

MODERN YETEHINARY PRACTICE.

[the nUNTEE.

The pages of the Sporting 3Iagazine con-
tained, some years back, a controversy on the
merits of summering the hunter. Two cele-
brated writers were engaged in it ; one under
the signature of Nimrod, who recommended
summering the hunter in the stable ; the oppo-
nent to this measure was the veteran John
Lawrence, who advocated the summering of
the hunter in the field as the best means
of renovating him, and restoring him to his
pristine vigour. This controversy was carried
on in no very measured or complimentary
terms.

The practice, however, of turning out the
hunter seems to us so natural as well as
beneficial to the animal, that we feel surprised
that a dispute upon such a question could
have arisen. The following remarks upon this
subject seem so judicious, that we cannot with-
hold them from our readers. They proceed
from the same writer on the Horse, to whom
we have before alluded.

"Fashion, which now governs everything,
and now and then cruelly and absurdly, has
exercised her tyranny over this poor quadruped.
His field, where he could wander and gambol
as he liked, is changed to a loose box ; and the
liberty in which he so evidently exulted, to an
hour's walking exercise daily. He is allowed
vetches, or grass occasionally ; but from his
box he stirs not, except for his dull morning's
round, until he is taken into training for the
next winter's business.

" In this, however, as in most other things,
there is a medium. There are few horses who
have not materially suffered in their legs and
feet, before the close of the hunting season.
There is nothing so refreshing to their feet as
the damp coolness of the grass into which they
are turned in May ; and nothing so calculated
to remove every enlargement and sprain, as the
gentle exercise which the animal voluntarily
takes while his legs are exposed to the cooling
process of evaporation, which is taking place
from the herbage he treads. The experience
of ages has shown that it is superior to all the
embrocations and bandages of the most skilful
veterinarian. It is the renovating process of
nature, where the art of man fails.

"The spring grass is. the best physic that
can possibly be administered to the horse.
To a degree, which no artificial aperient or

diuretic can attain, it carries olT every humour
which may be lurking about the animal; it
fines down the roundness of the legs; and,
except there be some bony cularfement
restores them almost to their original form
and strength. "When, however, the summer
has thoroughly set in, the grass ceases to bo
succulent, aperient, or medicinal ; the ground
is no longer cool and moist, at least during tlio
day ; and a host of tormentors, in the shape of
flies, are, from sunrise to sunset, persecuting
the poor animal. Running and stamping to
rid himself of his plagues, his feet are battered
by the hard ground, and he newly, and perhaps
more severely, injures his legs. Kept in a
constant state of irritation and fever, he rapidly
loses his condition, and sometimes comes up to
August little better than a skeleton.

"Let the horse be turned out as soon .13
possible after the hunting seasoii is over. Let
him have the whole of May, and the greater
part, or possibly the whole of June ; but when
the grass fails, and the ground gets hard, and
the flies torment, let him be taken up. Ail
the benefits of turning out, and that which a
loose box and artificial physic can never give,
will have been obtained, without the incon-
venience and injury which attend an injudi-
ciously protracted run at grass, and which,
arguing against the use ot a thing from tho
abuse of it, have been improperly urged against
turning out at all."

Stable-summering the hunter is favourably
considered by Count Veltherin. "I hope," he
says, "I may be permitted to adduce some-
thing from my own experience, having, for
nearly thirty years, constantly had at my
country seat from seventy to eighty horses —
partly saddle, partly coach, draught, and breed-
ing horses and colts ; and that, from preililec-
tion to horses, I have always bestowed ])ar-
ticular attention upon them. For a long thne
it has not been customary, on well-managed
estates in this part of the country, to turn
horses to grass in summer, or to give them
green food in the stable, with the exception of
brood mares and their foals."

Mr. Appleby, in his Letters on Condition,
thus states his method of summering the
hunter: — "The first step I should take would
be to put the horse into a loose box, if con-
venient, and, by degrees, diminish his corn,

91

THE HACKNEY.]

THE HOESE, AND

[the hackney.

giving him an hour's walking exercise as usual.
I should then give him two doses of physic,
which would not only cool his habit of body,
so as to prevent the danger of iuflamraatory
attacks, but would have such an effect on his
legs as would enable me to see what injury had
been done to them in his work, whether there
were any ligamentary enlargements, any injury
to the joints or sinews, any callous substances
produced by blows; or, in short, anything
going wrong. The clear state of his legs,
which this treatment will produce, would pre-
vent the possibility of working in the dark, as
they will become prior — to use the language of
grooms — in three weeks, than they would at
the expiration of three months' run at grass in
the summer." Mr. Appleby, however, further
observes, that, under favourable circumstances,
he would strongly recommend turning out.
" In case of having recourse to blistering, it is
most serviceable ; and, after spring, almost
necessary; but then the hunter should be
turned out only at night, and into a place
•where there is but little grass, and have two,
if not three feeds of corn a-day ; but nothing
else to eat till he goes out, unless it be a few
vetches, for four or five days at a time, when
they are young and tender, in the months of
May or June ; but these should not be repeated
more than three or four times, as they tend to
make horses very foul ; and when in pod are
most injurious to them."

When we come to speak of the economy of
the stable, we wdl also treat of the manage-
ment of the hunter.

THE HACKNEY.

A Hack, in the modern stable phrase, signi-
fies a road horse, and not merely a horse let
out to hire, as some of the uninitiated suppose.

The road horse is more difficult to meet with
in perfection than even the hunter or the
courser. There are many reasons for this.
The price of the hackney, or the horse of all
work, is so low, that he who has a good one,
will not part with him ; and it is by mere
accident that he can be obtained. There are
also several faults which may be overlooked in
the hunter, but which the road horse must
not have. The hunter may start, may be
awkward in his walk, or even his trot ; he
may have thrushes or corns ; but if he can go
92

a good slapping pace, and has wind and bottom,
he can both be ^w< up loith and prized; but
the hackney, if he be worth having, must have
good fore-legs, and good hinder ones too ; he
must be sound on his feet, even tempered, no
starter, quiet in whatever situation he may be
placed, not heavy in hand, and never disposed
to tumble down.

The hackney, like the hunter of the present
day, is always a horse with some portion of
racing blood; the whole English race, even to the
cart-horse, being more or less imbued, and
equally improved by it. Thus our road horses
are half, three parts, seven-eighths, or thorough-
bred. The two latter degrees are, in several
respects, not so well fitted for the purpose
of travelling as the former : chiefly on ac-
count of the tenderness of their less and
feet, their longer stride, and straight-kneed
action, not so well adapted to the English road
pace, the trot. Nevertheless bred hackneys
are elegant and fiishionable, and, when good
canterers, pleasant to ride ; insomuch, that a
certain colonel of the guards of former days,
insisted there was the same difference to be
felt in riding a bred hack and one without
blood, as between riding in a coach and in a
cart. One good property in thorough-bred
road horses is, that they seldom shy — many of
them never.

The road horse should have a considerable,
lofty, yet light fore-hand or crest ; a deep and ex-
tensive shoulder ; be well raised at the withers ;
straight backed, and have substantial loins and
wide fillets, the croup not suddenly drooping,
nor the tail set on low. The head should not be
thick and fleshy, nor join abruptly to the neck,
but in a gradual or tapering form ; the eye full,
clear, and diaphanous. The fore-arms and
thighs, with plenty of muscular substance,
should be of reasonable length, but the legs
should, at no rate, be long. Much solid flat
bone beneath the knee, is a great perfection in
a hackney ; and the feet, standing straight,
turning neither inwards nor outwards, should
be of tough, dark, shining horn, and the heels
wide and open. The saddle-horse's fore-feet
should closely approach each other, the wide
chest being rather adapted to the collar. Not-
withstanding this near approximation of the
fore-feet, no apprehension need be entertained
of the horse's cutting himself in speed, or

THE HACKNEY.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [the hackney.

knocking his pastern joints, since these defects
arise almost invariably from the irregular
pointing of the toe, inwards or outwards, for
which, neither a wide chest nor the most skil-
ful farriery has ever yet provided a sufficient
remedy. A saddle horse, of any description, can
scarcely go too close before, or too wide behind.

Perhaps the best pedigree for a road horse
to have, is to be bred from hackney stock on
both sides, more particularly for a trotter. The
high road is the proper theatre of exercise for
such horses ; but there may be sometimes a
necessity for exercising them on the pavement,
as is the case in London, where the pace should
never exceed the slow trot.

The author of The Horse says — " The hack-
ney should be a hunter in miniature, with
these exceptions. His height should rarely
exceed fifteen hands and an inch. He will be
sufficiently strong and more pleasant for work
below that standard. He should be of a more
compact form than the hunter, and have more
bulk, according to his height ; for he has not
merely to stand an occasional, and perhaps
severe burst in the field, but a great deal of
every-day work. It is of essential consequence
that the bones beneath the knee should be
deep and flat, and the tendon not Md in. The
pastern should be short, and although oblique
or slanting, yet far less so than that of the race-
horse or hunter. There should be obliquity
enough to give pleasant action, but not to
render the horse incapable of the wear and
tear of constant and, sometimes, hard work.
The foot is a matter of the greatest conse-
quence in the hackney. It should be of a size
corresponding with the bulk of the animal —
neither too hollow nor too flat ; open at the
heels, and free from corns and thrushes. The
fore-legs should be perfectly straight. There
needs not a moment's consideration with the
public, to be convinced that a horse with his
knees bent, will, from a slight cause, and
especially if he is over-weighted, come down.
The fact, however, is, that a horse with bent
fore-legs has rarely broken knees. The back
should be straight and sliort, yet sufficiently
Jong to leave comfortable room for the saddle
between the shoulders and the haunch, without
pressing on either. Some persons prefer a
hollow-backed horse. He is generally an easy
one to go. He will canter well with a lady ;

he may not carry so heavy a weight, nor stand
such hard work, but it is a great luxury to ride
him. The road horse should be hi^'li in tho
fore-hand, round in the barrel, and deep in the
chest ; tlie saddle will not then pass too for-
ward, but the girths will remain firmly fixed in
their proper place."

A good hack will travel fifty or sixty miles
a day with ease; but for long-continued
journeys, thirty or forty miles a day is as much
as should be required. Let no man expect
great performances, unless his horse be full of
hard meat, and in conditioj^. Should a man
be forced to ride an animal a journey with his
full burden of grass-flesh upon him, he must
at first ride him moderately ; and by virtue of
good solid corn-feeds, his horse will, in a month,
attain condition.

Many persons ride long stages — say thirty or
forty miles — without feeding ; but it is incon-
siderate, and is injurious to the horse. INIode-
rate feeds at the difierent stages, and an ample
one at the last, are most beneficial ; a quartern
of oats, with a handful or two of beans, are
sufficient quantities during the day ; at night,
half a peck of oats and a few handfuls of beans ;
so that a hack upon a journey of considerable
length, may be allowed from a peck and a
quarter, to a peck and a half of oats. Hasty
travellers will yet find an advantage in starting
at a very moderate pace, and in finishing the
last three miles of a stage, especially in hot
weather, as leisurely as their haste will admit,
since, by such means, they will save time; as
their horses, on reaching the inn, will be the
sooner dry, and ready to feed. On the road,
the horse may be indulged, every eight or ten
miles, if he requires it, with a few go-downs of
water ; and in hot weather, over hard roads,
and with fast travelling, when the shoes acquire
a burning heat, it is most refreshing to the
animal to ride him over his pasterns, momen-
tarily, through any water that may be accessi-
ble. But a caution of much moment must
have place here. Be the weather hot or cold,
a horse in a state of perspiration, should never
be kept standing any length of time in water.

In fast travelling, every horseman of common
sense will ease his hack up the hills ; in going
down also, if he values his own neck and his
horse's knees, he will do the same.

AVe have heard of a respectable butcher, who

93

THE HACKJfEY.]

THE HOESE, AND

[the hackney.

kept some good horses. He liad a famous
mare that carried him from Birmingliam to
Nottingham and back within the twelve liours.
This was no mean performance, the distance
there and back being close upon a hundred
miles. The butcher spoke of it as not being
much of an effort. He said the general pace
of his horse was eleven miles an hour, and on
going down hill he sometimes dismounted,
which he considered to be very refreshing to
the mare, he being a heavy man.

"When a hack, always known to ride quiet,
does not set off readily, or makes a stop on the
road, the rider may be assured that it arises
from some sudden painful bodily affection, or
something misplaced and galling in his fur-
niture. The rider should instantly dismount,
and examine both horse and tackle, at all
points. The animal may be suddenly griped,
or seized with a fit of stranguary, which will
appear from his dilated nostrils, sweating at
the ear-roots, staring coat, and attempts to
stale. Aged and worked hackneys are liable
to the stranguary ; in which case, all the rider
can do is to lead him about gently, and give
him time to void the dripping urine.

Arrived at the inn, and the horse cool, no
extra care or solicitude is required ; he may be
led into the stable, stripped, rubbed over
whilst eating a lock of hay, and soon be ready
for his feed of corn.

There is nothing more refreshing to a hard-
ridden animal, and for abating the excessive
and painful heat and tension in his joints and
sinews, than to have his feet and legs well
washed and bathed in warm water. It is a
good precaution used, if the inside of the saddle
be made dry and comfortable. If he should
not feed well, nor eat his corn with an appetite,
it is a hint that rest would be acceptable ; and
it should be complied with.

It will be wise to keep the old adage in view,
"that a master's eye makes his horse fat;"
either himself or his groom should attend at
every feeding-time, to see that the horse has
justice done in his food, as to quality as well
as quantity.

There are many highly interesting anecdotes
illustrative of the intelligence of the liackney.

Seldom do we meet with so near an approach
towards mind in the brute creation, as was
evinced by a horse of Horncastle, Lincolnshire.
94

A Mr. Treevor, of this place, was in posses-
sion of a horse, which was, at times, let loose in
a yard adjoiuing the stable, where stood a pump
and a water-trough. This horse was endowed
with an amount of sagacity rarely possessed
by the same species. He actually could pump
from the well the water he wished to drink.
As the pump was frequently used by many
persons in the course of a day, it was supposed
the docile animal had learned this extraordinary
art by noticing them. As the yard which
surrounded the pump was always open to
public inspection, many persons have seen
him elevating the handle with his nose,
and then pressing it down in the same way.
Such of our readers as may have experienced
the corroding bitterness of that sorrow which
the unkindness of prejudiced neighbours inflict,
will doubtless admire, as a pleasing trait in the
character of this noble animal, the amiable
instinct, the generous friendship which inclined
him to supply a fellow-companion, another
horse in the same yard, with a daily banquet
from the trough, into which he pumped for him
a sufficiency of water, even before he attempt^id
to satisfy himself. Such an instance of neigL .
hourly kindness is rarely exhibited, even anion, '
mankind, far less among animals of a much
inferior race, and not possessed of even tb
highest quadrupedal instincts.

Again, a horse having been turned into a
field by its owner, Mr. Joseph Lane, of Fas-
combe, in the parish of Ashelworth, was missed
the next morning, and the usual inquiries were
set afoot, as to what could have become of him.
He had, it seems, been shod a few days before;
and, as it frequently happens, got pinched in
one of his feet. Feeling, no doubt, a lively
sense of the necessity of being properly shod,
and desirous of relieving the cause of pain, he
contrived to unhang the gate, which opened
into liis p^isture, with his mouth, and make the
best of his way to the smithy — a distance of a
mile and a-half from Fascombe — where he
waited respectfully at the door, uutil the
bungling artist got up. The smith rehites,
on opening his shed, that he found him there;
that the horse advanced to the forge, and held
up his ailing foot; and that he himself, uf)on
examination, discovered the injury, took t<ff the
shoe, and replaced it more caretuUy, which
having done, the sagacious creature set off at

THE HACKNEY.] MODEliN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [tiik hackwkt.

a merry pace honiewarda. Soon afterwards
Mr. Lane'a servants passed by the forf^e in
quest of the animal ; and, upon inquiry, received
for answer — " Oh, he has been here, and got
re-shod, and is gone home again."

A curious instance of the faculty of memory
exhibited in a hackney, occui-red at Bristol,
some years ago. A pei'son recognised a horse,
bestrode by a countryman, to be one which he
himself had lost about nine months before.
He seized his property, and put in his claim.
" This is my horse, and I will prove it in two
minutes, or quit my claim." He then liberated
the animal from restraint, let him go at large,
and declared his proof to be in the fact that the
horse would be found at his stables at some dis-
tance ; a circumstance verified in a few minutes,
by the two claimants and several bystanders
repairing to the stables, where they found the
horse "quite at home."

The hackney has often figured in trotting,
matches, a few of which have, from time to
time, found their way into print, even beyond
the ephemeral fame of a sporting paper.

A curious match once took place on the
Beaconsfield-road, when a Mr. Causton under-
took to trot his horse seven miles in haL-au-
hour ; and accepted bets that he performed
each mile within four minutes and twenty-two
seconds — a piece of nice calculation, which
was achieved in good style.

A horse belonging to Mr. Dyson, which
had been picked up in Smithfield for a trifle,
having accomplished thirty miles in two hours
and forty-nine minutes, was produced by Mr.
Brian against another, which cost seven
pounds, to perform forty miles in four hours,
carrying fifteen stone. This struggle "came
off" over a ten-mile piece of road, near
Hockerill, for one hundred guineas. The
lanky emblem of blood and bone, above
seventeen hands high, was mounted by an old
jockey of the same build, and did the first ten
miles in fifty-four minutes ten seconds, the
second ten miles in fifty-six minutes fifty
seconds, the third ten miles in sixty-three
minutes, and the fourth ten miles in sixty-
three minutes forty seconds — winning by two
minutes and twenty seconds under the time.
The horse never once broke from a trot ; and
the rider was more fatigued than the animal
he bestrode.

The second great matcli between tlie slate-
coloured American horse, and j\Ir. Hyson's
AVonder, was another extraordinary instance
of trotting. It took place on Sunbury-com-
mon. The match was for Mr. Fielder and
Mr. Dyson to ride their own horses. Mr.
Dyson took the lead, and was fifty yards
a-head at the end of the first mile, and the
American horse never had a chance at any one
period, and was beaten with the greatest ease,
by about two hundred yards. Neither horse
broke through the match, and the ground —
three miles — was done in eight minutes and
forty-three seconds. "What makes this per-
formance the more wonderful, is not only the
speed, but the extraordinary weights which
were carried. The riders were both weighed,
to determine a bet, at Kingston, after the
match, when Mr. Fielder was found to be
thirteen stone twelve pounds, and Mr. Dyson
fifteen stone four pounds, without saddles.
By this it appears that the winner gave the
American horse twenty pounds. The slate-
coloured horse was considered, for years, the
best in America. Another horse belonging to
Mr. Williams, beat the slate-coloured Ame-
rican, and was backed to trot three miles in
nine minutes, for one hundred guineas. It
had been reported that the horse was lame,
and, up to the evening before starting, six to
four was the betting on time, and more than
two to one was betted before starting. When
at speed the lameness was not apparent ; but
the horse was more than three minutes doing
the first mile, and there was no increase of
speed during the match. The horse broke
into a gallop near the George Inn, when
about one hundred yards from home ; and the
pressure of horsemen was so great at his
heels, that the jockey turned him with diffi-
culty, and the match was lost by forty
seconds. Some thousands w'ere depending on
this race.

A hackney mare, of Mr. Dixon, of Barbican,
started at the four-mile-stone on the Eomford-
road, to trot thirty miles in three successive
hours, carrying Mr. J. Coxeter, weighing
nearly fifteen stone. Notwithstanding the
heavy weight the mare carried, she performed
the distance in thirteen minutes and twenty-
seven seconds within the given time.

So long ago as 1785, a similar match wa8

95

THE HACKNEY.]

THE HOESE, AND

[the UACKNEr.

made to trot thirty miles in two hours and
a- half, and the accounts state that this was
accomplished, leaving four minutes to spare.

Tom Thumb, an American cob, trotted one
liundred miles in harness, over five miles of
road on Sunbury-common, in ten hours and
twenty-three minutes; and this was con-
sidered, and admitted to be, an extraordinary
feat.

Eattler, another American, the property of
the same proprietor, beat the celebrated Welsh
mare. Miss Turner, over ten miles of ground
between Cambridge and Godmanchester, going
the distance in thirty minutes and forty
seconds ; and this was certainly a feat unpre-
cedented in the annals of trotting in this
country. The same animal, driven by Mr.
Osbaldeston, his then master, performed five
miles of road, between Wittlesford-bridge and
Eoyston, in thirty minutes fifty-eight seconds,
beating Mr. Payne's Eochester, an American
entire horse, whose nose touched the wheel of
the squire's cart on passing the winning-post.
Eattler, ridden by his master, beat Mr. Law-
ton's Driver — a pony which had performed
seventeen miles within the hour — trotting
thirty-four miles in two hours, eighteen
minutes, and fifty-six seconds. <

If, however, the feat of Tom Thumb was
considered unprecedented, we have to record
a time-match which leaves his performance in
the shade — that of a mare, the property of
Mr. Dixon, of Knightsbridge, which went over
precisely the same ground, and completed the
hundred miles in nine hours, fifty-six minutes,
and fifty-seven seconds ! A match cart had
been provided for the occasion; and, at
twenty minutes to six o'clock on an April
morning, the mare started, driven by Mr. W.
Stacey, a farmer residing in the vicinity of
Kingston, under whose surveillance she had
been in training since the previous November,
when the match was made. She finished her
first twenty miles, with great spirit, in two
minutes less than two hours, and was then
taken out, and had some gruel given her. In
three minutes and a-half she was again on the
move, and rather increased her speed in the
next twenty miles, to make up for her stoppage,
but was still within the four hours ; and thus
she continued, at the same pace, till she
^ad completed eighty miles, finally winning
96

with three minutes and three seconds to
spare ! She showed no symptoms of fatigue ;
and, on entering her stable, began to eat her
hay as if she had only come off a moderate
stage. After resting an hour, she was gently
walked to her training-stable, a distance of seven
miles, and continued well afterwards. During
her match, she was taken out at the comple-
tion of every twenty miles, and cordial-balls,
washed down with gruel, administered on each
stoppage.

This mare was all English, and no doubt
was entertained that she could have accom-
plished her undertaking in less time. So con-
fident, indeed, was her trainer in her powers,
that he offered to back her to do the same
distance in nine hours and a-half.

Captain Halford's match to trot eight
miles and a-half in half-an-hour, and to carry
eleven stone, with a horse londfide his pro-
perty, for one hundred guineas ; and a second
match, for a like sum, took place over a two-
mile piece of ground at Merston Vale. The
ei"ht miles and a-half were done in twenty-
nine minutes and fifty-seven seconds.

A manoeuvre, not dreamt of, was here prac-
tised; a jockey of ten stone immediately
mounted the same horse, and proceeded on
the second match, to the astonishment of all
present. The match was lost by thirteen
seconds.

Of the comparative merits of the horse and
the pony, as hacks, a good judge thus writes : —
" It is, and has for a long time been, a
favourite opinion of mine, that a good pony is
the best rough-and-ready hack in the world.
In a pony is contained, within a small space,
what one might call the concentrated essence
of strength and speed.

"It is generally supposed, and I am per-
suaded of the correctness of the supposition,
that if you want to ruin a young horse, your
best plan is to starve him whilst he is young.
Every rule, however, has its exception, and
the case of the forest ponies is a most marked
exception to this one. Starved in his early
youth, the Eorester, though small and stunted
in appearance, is endowed generally with a
more hardy constitution and more untiring en-
durance, than any other species of horse in
this country. Until he is three years old, the
forest pony is scarcelv looked after, and then

THE HACKNEY.] MODEEN VETEEINAEY PRA.CTICE. [the lady's nottSB.

he is taken up by his poor proprietor, ex-
hibiting a shatrgy coat, an immense pot-belly
ewe neck, big head, and ragged mane and
tail. To look at him in this stage of hia
career, you would suppose that a full-grown
donkey was more than an equivalent as an
cxcliange for the animal calling himself a
horse, in the style in which he appears. If his
owner cannot sell him immediately, he puts
him into his cart, and he is supported by a
lock of hay at night. The poor animal
becomes crippled, by hard work put upon him,
in his fourth year ; and is, therefore, consigned
to the cart of the costermonger or travelling
tinker, there to drag on, in hunger and toil,
the existence which commenced in hardship
and privation.

"But let us turn from this scene of woe,
and suppose our pony born under a more
auspicious star. A gentleman sees him when
he is first caught ; and as he flatters himself he
is a bit of a judge, observes a good point or
two ; he has plenty of good feed to spare,
and takes compassion upon the poor starve-
ling's hard lot. After a summer and autumn
of good living, with an improved appearance,
and a spice of wickedness in his eye, the
pony is, in the winter, driven into the straw-
yard, and shares with the cows all the little
comforts of a warm and sheltered shed by
night, and a crib well filled with hay by day.
During this time his master sees what an
improvement has taken place in his nag,
and, in the spring, gives orders for him to
have a little taste of the saddle and bridle
in the way of breaking in. Physicked, stabled,
and clothed, the dust of four years is, with
no little difficulty, extracted from his jacket,
and his natural colour is at length opened to
the view. He is at last mounted by his master,
who discovers that the ragged rascal bought
by him out of charity, is by no means unworthy
of his purchase-money : he congratulates him-
self upon his bargain; and always sup-
posing our gentlemen to be a light weight-
about ten, but certainly under eleven stone —
he discovers, when his nag is five years old,
and in good condition, that he is, without
any exception, the best hack that he ever
obtained at any price; and, moreover, that
by means of good and generous keep, his
personal appearance is so wonderfully altered

and improved, that no one could have recog-
nised in him the least degree of likeness to
the puny forester, that was purchased at the
edge of the common for the very sporting
price of eight pounds !

" Such, reader, has been the case with me ;
and I shall ever bless the hour when I rescued
from the cart of the costennongor, my gallant
little grey. Of course, for hunting, nothiw
but a full-sized horse will do, whatever be a
man's weight; but for coursing and hacking
about, give me a good pony. Then again, the
prime cost of ponies is not only infinitely
less, but they can be kept in condition at a
much less expense than a horse : their con-
stitutions are twenty times as hardy ; and if
your stud consisted only of them, you would
never be called upon to pay a farrier's little
account. But the pony not only shines as a
hack for the saddle ; in harness he is both
useful and ornamental. According to my
notions of good taste, there is no turn-out of
any nature or kind so pretty as a pair of
handsome ponies and a single-bodied wicker
carriage. Perhaps I shall be told, in these
economic days, that it will not do on account
of the expense, as two horses are dearer than
one. That position is an erroneous one • for
it is by no means an easy task to meet with a
good machiner fit for a four-wheeled carriage,
well broken, sound, fresh, and handsome, for
fifty pounds. I could undertake for that
money to buy a pair of ponies, young, hand-
some, and well-broken; and I might almost
add, harness into the bargain. Then, as to
the keep; two ponies of thirteen hands in
heio-ht, can be kept well on the same food
that is required by one large horse in hard
work. They will give an air and style to a
vehicle, which, with one horse, would look
shabby and commonplace ; and, moreover,
will do more work, and go with more ease to
themselves, and therefore, of course, more
pleasant to the driver."

THE LADY'S HORSE.
Much care seems in general to be used in
the selection of ladies' horses ; and ladies them-
selves seem to be sufficiently attentive to the
necessary accomplishment of horsemanship.
This is evident from the comparatively few ac-
cidents which happen to them when riding.

07

THE COACH-HORSE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[the coach-house.

This delightful exercise is now very fesliion-
able, and we feel assured that it is an exercise
which combines health with pleasure to the
riders, whilst it exhibits both tlie elegance and
the grace of the fair horsewomen in a most
marked degree.

For elegance, a lady's pad should have a
considerable show of blood, and should seldom
exceed fifteen hands in height. The paces
should not be rough ; and an easy slow trot,
the pace of health, is a valuable qualification.
The canter is of the chief consequence, and
it should be made naturally and handsomely,
the neck kept gracefully curved, the mouth
having pleasant feeling. Such as have these
qualifications are natural canterers, and will
last at it, and, at the proper signal, will drop
into the trot or walk, without roughness,
boggling, or changing of legs. But the first
and grand consideration is going safely ; for a
horse deficient in tliis respect, is, perhaps,
always most liable to fall in his canter. The
most graceful canterers may be observed to
lead generally with the off-leg; but no doubt
there is such an error as a horse, both in his
canter and gallop, going with the wrong leg
first, to the considerable uneasiness of the
rider. This is most felt upon worn and battered
brutes, which change their legs to procure a
momentary ease.

THE COACH-HORSE.
Before entering upon a description of our
carriage stock of horses, we will take a glance
at the past, and briefly trace the history of the
use of carriages in this country, and recount
some feats of pedestrianism, which, previous to
the making of roads, necessarily occurred as a
means of communication between one locality
and another. It is even within our own recol-
lection, when, in Scotland, the half-silly beggar.
or gaberlunzie, was employed to carry letters
and messages over ten miles of country, from
one friend to another; and our ancestors,
instead of communicating by post, were obliged
to use running footmen, whose extraordinary
performances were sufSciently rapid even to
raise astonishment. In making a comparison
between the former modes of travelling and
the present, we feel a glow of satisfaction at
the immense improvement which has taken
place, and which almost seems to realise the
98

expression that time is left to pant after us.
The invention of the steam-engine has proved
of the utmost importance. The mechanical
genius of England has adapted it to carry a
sliip over the bosom of the Atlantic, with
almost as much safety and certainty as the
Locomotive whirls her train over the well-laid,
rail. By reducing space within a comparatively
limited period of time, steam has become a great
means of civilisation. It has connected the me-
tropolis of the empire with the smallest of the
British Isles ; is the most rapid conductor of
commerce; and is continually adding to our com-
forts, by, as it were, bringing "the ends of tho
earth together." In fact, fifty years ago, men,
the most advanced in knowledge, and the most
sanguine in the expectation of realising im-
provements, would be overwhelmed with asto-
nishment at the immense stride the arts and
sciences have taken in so short a time.

" In by-gone days, in Scotland," says
Chambers, " tliey had a class of officials called
running footmen, of whose pedestrian powers
many surprising examples are noticed by tra-
dition. Eor instance, in the Duke of Lauder-
dale's house, at Thirlstane, near Lauder, on
the table-cloth being, one morning, laid for a
large dinner party, it was discovered that there
was a deficiency of silver spoons. Instantly,
the footman was sent ofl^" to the duke's other
seat of Lethington, near Haddington, full
seventeen miles oflT, and across hills and moors,
for a supply of the necessary articles. He
returned with a bundle of spoons in time for
dinner."

Again, at Hume Castle, in Berwickshire,
the Earl of Home had one night given his
footman a commission to proceed to Edinburgh,
thirty-five miles off", in order to deliver a
message of high political consequence. Next
morning early, when his lordship entered the
hall, he saw the man sleeping on a bench ; and,
conceiving that he had neglected his duty, was
about to commit some rash act, when the poor
fellow awoke, and informed Lord Home that
his commission had been executed; and that,
having returned before his lordship was stirring,
he had only taken leave to rest himself a little.
The earl, equally astonished and gratified by
the activity of his faithful vassal, rewarded him
with a little piece of ground, which, to this day,
bears the name of the post rig — a term equi-

THECOACH-noBSE.] MODEEN VETEEINART PEACTICE. [the coach-housb.

valent to the postman's field, and an unques-
fu.nable proof, as all the villagers at Hume
dovoutly believe, of the truth of the anecdote.
The custom of keeping a running' footman did
not cease amongst noble iamilies in Scotland
till the middle of the last century.

The Earl of IVlarch, father to the Duke of
Queensberry, and who lived at Ncidpath Castle,
near Peebles, had one named John Mann, who
used to run in front of the carriage, with a
long staff. In the head of the staff there was
a recess for a hard-boiled egg, such being the
only food taken by Mann during a long
journey.

JS'ext to the pedestrian feats of our fore-
fathers, were their equestrian performances.
The pedestrian was almost independent of
roads; and hence the amazing rapidity of his
feats. The rider was not just so independent ;
but still a rough way was of less consequence
to him than to a wheeled vehicle. Hence
it arises that some journeys performed on
horseback, in former times, are not much less
wonderful than the above examples of rapid
pedestrianism.

Some horsemen of the present day would
think it no mean feat, we suspect, to perform,
on horseback, one hundred miles a day ; yet
this appears insignificant, compared with the
account of the rapid travelling of the mes-
senger who conveyed to Edinburgh the tidings
of the death of " Good Queen Bess."

Queen Elizabeth died at one o'clock on the
morning of Thursday, the 24th of March,
1603. Between nine and ten. Sir Eobert
Carey left London, after having been up all
nisht, commissioned to communicate the intel-
ligence to her successor James, at Edinburgh.
That nicht he rode to Doncaster, a hundred
and fifty-tive miles. Next night he reached
Witherington, near Morpeth. Early on Satur-
day morning he proceeded by Norham, across
the Border; and, that evening, at no late
hour, kneeled beside the king's bed at Holy-
rood, and saluted him as King of England,
France, and Ireland. He had thus travelled
four hundred miles in three days, restuig
during the tft-o intermediate nights. But it
must not be supposed that speed like this was
attained on all occasions.

"When we consider the state of the roads at
the period at which this performance took place,

it cannot be otherwise viewed than as some-
what extraordinary.

At the coininenccment of tho religious
troubles, which happ(med in the reign of
Charles I., when matters of the utino.st im-
portance were debated between the king and
bis northern subjects, it uniformlv a|)|)ear8
that a communication from Edinburgh to
London, however pressing might be the occa-
sion, was not answered in less than a fortnight.
The crowds of nobles, clergymen, gentlemen,
and burghers, who, at that time, assembled in
Edinburgh, to concert measures for opposing
the designs of the court, always returned to
their homes after dispatching a message to
King Charles, and assembled again a fortnight
after, in order to receive the reply, and to
take such measures as might be called for.
Even till the last century was pretty far ad-
vanced, the ordinary riding-post between
London and Edinburgh, regularly took a week
to the journey.

lu consequence of the inattention of our
ancestors to roads, and the wretched state in
which these were usually kept, it was long
before coaching, of any kind, came much into
fashion. Though wheeled vehicles of various
sorts were in use among the ancients, the close
carriage or coach is of modern invention. The
word coach is Hungarian ; and the vehicle itself
is supposed to have originated in Hungary.
Germany certainly appears to have taken the
precedence of the nations of Western Europe
in using coaches. They were introduced
thence into England some time in the 16th
century; but were, after all, so little in vogue
throughout the whole reign of Elizabeth, that
there is no trace of her having ever used oue.
Wheel-carriages, however, having some resem-
blance to chariots, such as were used by the
ancients, were brought into fashion in the time
of Eichard II. ; for we find that " he rode from
the Tower of London to the Miles End, and
with him his mother, because she was sick and
weak, in a whirlicote." This veiiicle was little
better than a litter put upon wheels. In the
reign of Elizabeth we find it mentioned in
Stone's Surve)/, " That divers great ladies made
them coaches, and rode in them up and down
the countries, to the great admiration of all the
beholders."

Lord Grey de Wilton, who died in 1593,

THE COACH-HOESE.]

THE HORSE, AND

[the COACH-HOESE.

introduced a coach into Ireland, the first ever
used in that country. One was introduced
into Scotland, we rather think from Prance,
about the year 1571. It belonged to the
famous Secretary Maitland, of Letliington, who,
during the civil war between the adherents of
Mary and those of her son James, made a
journey in that vehicle from Edinburgh Castle,
which he was holding out for the queen, to
Niddry in "West Lothian, for the purpose of
holding a consultation with some others of her
friends ; the first time, it is believed, that a
close carriage was ever used in Scotland.

Eynes Morison, who wrote in the year
1617, speaks of coaches as recently intro-
duced, and still rare in Scotland. For a long
time, these conveniences were only used by
old people, who could not well bear riding.
The young and active despised them, as tend-
ing to efierainacy, and as not being so quick
of movement as the horse.

The Duke of Buckingham, in 1G19, first
used a coach with six horses ; a piece of pomp
which the Duke of Northumberland thouglit
proper to ridicule by setting up one with
eight. Charles I. was the first British sove-
reign who had a state carriage. Although
Henry IV. was killed in a coach — the only
one, by the way, he possessed — his ordinary
manner of appearing in the streets of Paris
was on horseback, with a large cloak strapped
on behind, to be used in case of rain.

In Scotland, previous to the time of the
civil war, coaches were only used by persons
high in the state. When the Earl of Eox-
burgh, an aged minister, was endeavouring to
appease the Covenanters, in 1637, he was
pulled from his coach in the High-street of
Edinburgh, and maltreated.

Taylor, the Water-poet, complains, in the
reign of Charles I., that large retinues of
men were now given up by the great, since
they had begun to use coaches.

Till 1564, the only mode of travelling,
equivalent to that by stage-coaches and loco-
motive carriages in the present day, was by
the strings of horses led by the carriers. It
is these caravans that EalstaflT and his friends
are described by Shakespeare as attackin"- at
GadshiU.

About the year just mentioned, the lono-
waggon for goods and passengers came into use.
100

Stage-coaches originated less than a century
later, and were for a long time confined to the
great lines of road throughout England ; and,
till 1678, there were none for distances to
which the term stages could be applied. The
journey from London to Oxford, in the reign
of Charles II., required two days, the space
being fifty-eight miles. That to Exeter, one
hundred and sixty-eight miles and a quarter,
required four days.

In 1703, when Prince George of Denmark
went from "Windsor to Petworth, to meet
Charles III. of Spain, the distance being
about forty miles, he required fourteen hours
for the journey, the last nine miles taking six.
The person who records this fact, says that
the long time was the more surprising, as,
except when overturned, or when stuck fast in
the mire, his royal highness made no stop
during the journey.

In 1742, stage-coaches must have been
more numerous in England than in Charles
II. 's time ; but it does not appear that they
moved any faster. The journey from London
to Birmingham, one hundred and sixteen
miles, then occupied nearly three days.

The rate of coach-travelling, previous to the
country being intersected with railroads, ex-
cited almost as much wonder among ourselves
as it did among foreigners. The horses were
then very hard wrought ; for the art of road-
making had not attained its present state of
excellence, a»d, in wet weather, some of the
coaches might be half-axle deep or more.

"When I was a school-boy," says a writer,
giving a description of the road between Lon-
don and Parkgate — the principal place where
passengers landed from Dublin, before Holy-
head became the regular station for the Dublin
packets — " Parkgate, in Cheshire, was the port
whence the Dublin packets sailed : there were
a few at Holyhead ; but there all the principal
intercourse between the countries was eflfected.
At that time, probably not one craft of any
description passed in a month between Dublin
and Liverpool. Upon the arrival of a packet
at Parkgate, the passengers made their way,
as they best could, to Chester, diverging
thence to the several places of their destina-
tion. I believe there might be a stage of
some kind or other, that undertook to deposit
people within some limited ti:ne in London

(SOIM© f® MAmKET

fMATELLIM© OART i f ALILIE©!! ,

THE COACH-HORSE.] MOUEBN YETEEINARY PEACTICE. [the coach-house.

plying for public hire; but tho manner of
accomplishing tiie journey was most usually
by means of post-coachea. These carriages
were supplied by a person of the name of
Paul, of the White Lion, who was celebrated
at that period all over England for the mag-
nificence of his stud. With him it was a
hobby, and must have been a very expensive
one. He kept no colour but greys, and of
these, he had always from thirty to forty pairs
in his stables. I can well remember what
splendid cattle they were — his boys wearing
black velvet caps, gold bands and tassels, and
yellow silk jackets. He built his own car-
riages, dark brown, lined with scarlet morocco
— doing the whole thing upon a grand scale.
A party of six, with one or two servants,
would contract with Paul for a set down in
London. He sent with them one of his own
carriages, with its team of greys, and postil-
lions : they accomplished the stages as ar-
ranged every day — probably of five-and-twenty
miles each — and at the end of eight or nine
days found themselves in the metropolis.
With this fashion of travelling commenced my
experience of the road ; having made my first
visit to Babylon the Great through the agency
of one of these long jobs. At a later date I
can call to mind, on an occasion of being sent
for home in the Midsummer holidays, sticking
fast in the middle of the turnpike-road be-
tween Whitchurch and Malpas — the latter
certainly no misnomer. This antecedent of
M'Adam was a desert of red sand, quartered
by cart-wheels to the depth of two or three
feet ; and as the phaeton in which I made my
journey ran upon wheels of about half the
diameter of those by which the ruts had been
formed, of course we were let in up to the
axles, where we were anchored. Thio took place
in the nineteenth century!"

Long before the commencement of the pre-
sent century, however, many of the leading
lines from the metropolis, for a circle of from
twenty to fifty miles around it, were far ad-
vanced towards their present excellence ; but
■where a journey of two or three hundred miles
was to be performed, it went so small a way in
the matter of expedition, that the first sixth-
part of it could be accomplished at eight miles
an hour, where the remainder could with diffi-
culty be done at a better speed than four.

A\nien the use of carriages first began to
supersede the old method of transporting mea
and merchandise upon horseback, it became
absolutely necessary to devise some plan for
formuig a solid surface upon the bridle-ways
of sand, which off-ered as little support to a
wheel as a fallow to the coulter of a plough.
Hence arose the system of paving the coutro
of the turnpike-roads, so generally adopted in
most of the midland counties, and of wliich
many specimens are still in existence, more
particularly in Cheshire and Lancashire. With
the heavy waggons, and their slow pace, while
the great reduction in the draught upon this
pavement effected a vast saving in the horses,
the roughness of the surface was felt as no
inconvenience. The gentry, in their coaches
suspended from flexible C springs, passed
smoothly-over them ; and, as it was almost tho
universal fashion to drive from the saddle,
accompanied by outriders, the servants also
escaped dislocation. But there was a class of
devoted wretches for whom no such good luck
was found, and who, in an honest effort to
procure their daily bread, underwent the
agonies of an earthly purgatory without any
parallel in a Christian land. When Mr.
Palmer invented mail-coaches, as might be ex-
pected, he committed a few small oversights ;
among these were the boxes of the coachmen,
which were without springs, and were con-
structed upon the common principle. The
consequence was, that the scats upon which
tliey were destined to perform their vocations,
were pieces of pine, or other obdurate plank,
supported upon standards springing from the
beds of the fore-axles. These " devil's sedans"
were covered with a tanned bull's hide, to
which, as a material for sitting on, granite is
as an air cushion. An old sufferer, who for
the last ten years of his life drove between
Chester and Birkenhead, was on the Holyhead
mail from Chester to Stafford in those hard
times for dragsmen. For better than five-
and-thirty years this martyr was a most com-
municative coachman, and, withal, had an am-
bition for saying smart things. On one occa-
sion, when asked how his constitution could
have supported such inhuman exercise, and
whether it had not proved fatal to men less
robust than he was ? " Why, sir," he replied,
" it was well enough when once we got used to

101

THE COACH-HORSE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[the COACn-HOllSB.

it : but I assure you tlie case-hardening was no
ioke : some died under the operation, and
some did not ; but there never was a man who
tried it that it did not make him think of his
latter endy'

The epoch from which we may date the
rapid advance in improvement as regards
every department of the road, is coeval with
tlie system of remodelling our highvTays upon
the plan of Mr. M'Adam. That the scheme
of road-making which bears the name of that
gentleman was not of his invention, all who
have travelled in Scotland and Ireland must
have known. Still we are indebted to him for
its introduction into this country, and for
many judicious innovations by which he
brouo-ht it to its present perfection. As the
facilities for locomotion improved, so did the
appliances to aid it.

The call for increased speed upon the com-
mercial roads was afterwards answered on the
Birmingham line by the appearance of three
"Tallv-ho's," distinguished as the "Patent,"
the "Independent," and the " Eclipse." Look-
ing back to the time they were at work —
their chronoraetrical regularity for half a score
years — their pace, and the style in which they
were worked through the country, and not at
the ends alone, we shall hardly find anything
in the mail-coach line altogether more complete
than thev were. Awful forebodings attended
their starting : their speed was pronounced
suicidal, and the waste of human life that was
to result from it fearful to contemplate. But
tliese speculations all proved vain. The only
fatal accident we recollect occurring to any of
them, was the death of poor Peck, the guard,
who was killed by a fall off his coach while it
was standing still.

In the way of fast-work, however, combined
with the fashion in which it was done, certainly
the pas must be given to the coaches which
were put on the Brighton road by Mr. Israel
Alexander. Of these there was but one opinion
expressed by such as possessed experience in
the coaching business, coupled with a wonder,
how, by having all England to choose from, it
was possible to get together such a lot of horses.
On this road the public found elegance com-
bined with speed. Taken all in all, Alexander's
*' Criterion," with a certain then noble marquis
for dragsman, was perhaps the most correct
102

specimen of a stage-coach that has ever ap-
peared; but a vast deal of money was sacrificed
during the short reign that this concern kept
its place in the public eye.

It is now time to speak of the carriage
horse.

The Clevelands, and the powerful blood-like
carriage stock, bred in Yorkshire, and other
northern counties, came from the best of the
Norman mares, crossed by the Arab only, the
Persian blood being considered less likely to
throw stock combining symmetry and sub-
stance. In his magnificent work on The Illus-
trations of tlifi breeds of the Domestic Animals
of the British Islands, Professor Low says,
in reference to the Cleveland Bay, that "it is
the progressive mixture of the blood horses of
higher breeding with those of the common
race, that has produced the variety of coach-
horse usually termed the Cleveland Bay; so
called from its colour and the fertile district of
that name in the North liiding of Yorkshire,
on the banks of the Tees. About the middle
of the last century, this district became known
for the breeding of a superior class of powerful
horses, which, with the gradual disuse of the
heavy old coach-horse, became in request for
coaches, chariots, and similar carriages. The
breed, however, is not confined to Cleveland,
but is cultivated through all the great breed-
ing districts of this part of England. It has
been formed by the progressive mixture of the
blood of the race-horse with the original breeds
of the country. To rear this class of horses,
the same principles of breeding should be
applied as to the rearing of the race-horse
himself. A class of mares, as well as stallions,
should also be used, having the properties
sought for. The district of Cleveland owes
its superiority in the production of this beau-
tiful race of horses to the possession of a defi-
nite breed, formed not by accidental mixture,
but by continued cultivation. * * * *
Although the Cleveland Buy appears to unite
the blood of the finer with that of the larger
horses of the country, to combine action with
strength ; yet many have sought a further
infusion of blood of the finer, with that of the
larger horses of the country to combine action
with strength ; and others have sought a still
further infusion of blood nearer to the race-horse.
They are accordingly crossed by hunters, or

THE CAVALRT HOUSE.] MODERN VETEKINAEY PRACTICE. [oBAroHX homi.

troopa were found quite rqual to the task of
repelling the forniidiihle charge of the cuiras-
siera at Waterloo. ]n a national point of
view, there are few objects to which the evo
of government ought to be more vigilantly
directed, than to the improvement of our
cavalry horses, or to the due proportioning of
their capacity to the duties they have to
perform. "If from the habit of running short
distances," says the author of The ILorse, " and
at the very early ages of one and two years,
with light weights, there is a deterioration in
the strength and stoutness of our thorough-
bred horses, they will become every year less
and less fitted for getting stock sufficiently
hardy and powerful to do credit to the courage
and discipline of our cavalry."

thorouQ;h-bred horses, and thus another variety
of coach-horse is produced, of ligliter form and
higher breeding ; and many of the superior
Cleveland curricle and four-in-liand horses are
now nearlv thorough-bred. The bay colour is
in the most general estimation, but the grey
are not unfrequently used."

The principal points to be looked at in the
coach- horse are a deep and well-jiroportioiied
body, bone under the knee, and tough feet,
perfectly sound, and somewhat open.

Before, and in some parts, the cruelties prac-
tised towards the coach-horse were very great,
often arising out of the competition of different
proprietors; but these are now much dimi-
nished. A more generally enliglitened senti-
ment of humanity pen^ades the country in
reference to the brute creation; still, in the
metropolis, instances of cruelty may not unfre-
quently be witnessed towards the over-worked
horses of the omnibus and cab.

The former kind of vehicle, w"hen first used
in London, had usually three horses ; but now
it has generally only two. These trot and
stagger up Holborn-hill, Blackfriars-bridge,
and other metropolitan hills, with little allow-
ance made for their acclivity, thus punishing the
poor animals, and distressing their wind ; when
perhaps only the difference of five or ten
minutes' delay in the journey, might enable the
horses to perform it with comparative ease.

The Erench say, "England is a hell for
horses;" but qualify the censure by a compli-
ment that " England is a paradise for women."
But however the complimentary portion of
this sentence may be taken, the censure as
respects our treatment of the horse, remains
in all its severitv.

THE CAVALRY HORSE.

In the breeding of cavalry horses, a different
proportion of blood is necessary, according to
the kind of service for which they are in-
tended. Some of those for the lighter troops
have more blcod in them than others, and the
household troops are from half to three-fourths
bred. Eormerly the cavalry horse was large
and heavy ; and, notwithstanding the grand
and imposing action which he exiiibited, with
the beautiful style of going to which he was
trained, he was "found wanting" when brought
into active service. Yet our heavy household

THE CART OR DRAUGHT HORSE.

The cart breed was the cross between the
Norman stallions and the largest of the
Elanders mares, a race substituted in latter
years for the pack-horse — bved probably from
our own breed and Norman horses — when the
improvements in roads enabled the adoption
of wheel-carriages for the transit of mer-
chandise, to supersede the conveyance by back
loads. Thus the aboriginal blood — impoverished
by an uninterrupted course of breeding in-
and-in — by the introduction of fresh seed,
became renovated and invigorated; the com-
mon consequence of such change whether in
animal or vegetable life.

It speedily became obvious to all who were
engaged in breeding cattle of every description,
that vast advantages resulted from the change
OF BLOOD, Hence arose the practice of hiring
the males of various kinds from distant
districts for the season. It is to this practice,
as much as the improved methods of treatment,
that we owe the excellence of every species of
our live stock. Perhaps, it is hardly necessary
to observe, that to the difference of soil, is
to be attributed such variation in the latter
breeds, as have now settled into distinct
classes.

Cleveland horses of the heavy sort, have
been known to carry upwards of seven hundred
pounds, sixty miles in twenty-four hours, four
times a week.

The Suffolk Punch, a horse of a slower pace,
is the produce of the Norman stallion aud

103

THE STABLE.]

THE SOESE, AND

[the stable.

the Suffolk cart mare; but the true Suffolk,
like the true Cleveland, is, now, nearly extinct.
The Punch takes his name from the round
punchiness of his own form, and is a valuable
animal, although degenerated. The Suffolk
was wont to be crossed with some of our
hunters, and the Duke of Eichmond got many
excellent carriage horses from this union.

The Clydesdale is another excellent breed
of draught horses, especially adapted for the
agricultural purposes of a hilly country. It
is chiefly bred in the Vale of the Clyde in
Scotland, whence it derives its name. One of
the dukes of Hamil-ton originated the Clydes-
dale by crossing the Lanark mare with the
Planders stallion. Most of the southern parts of
Scotland are supplied with the Clydesdale from
this district ; and he has found his way even
into some of the southern counties of England.
Speaking of his appearance and qualities, Mr.
Low says, that " the Clydesdale horse, as he is
now bred, is usually sixteen hands high. The
prevailing colour is black; but the brown or
bay is common, and is continually gaining
upon the other, and the grey is not un-
frequently produced. He is longer in the
body than the English black horse, and less
weighty, compact, and muscular, but he steps,
out more fully, and has a more useful action
for ordinary labour. He draws steadily, and
is usually free from vice. The long stride,

characteristic of the breed, is partly the result
of conformation, and partly of habit and
training ; but however produced, it adds greatly
to the usefulness of the horse, both on the
road and in the fields. No such loads are
known to be drawn, at the same pace, by any
horses in the kingdom, as in the single-horse
carts of carriers and others in the west of
Scotland. Although they are inferior in
weight and physical strength to the black
horse, and, in figure and strong action, to the
better class of the draught horses of Nor-
thumberland and Durham, yet they possess pro-
perties which render them exceedingly valuable
for all ordinary purposes. On the road they
perform tasks that can scarcely be surpassed ;
and in the fields they are found steady, docile,
and safe."

The heavy black horses, such as we see in
the brewers' carts of London, are bred princi-
pally in the midland counties from Stafford-
shire to Lincolnshire. They are majestic-
looking animals ; and as they have great loads
to draw, they require to have great weight
themselves, so as not to be shaken in the
performance of their duties. All our heavy
draught horses, and some even of the lighter
sorts, have recently been much crossed by
the Flanders breed. This has improved them
by raising the fore-hand, flattening and deepen-
ing the legs, and giving them greater activity.

CHAPTER V.

ECONOMY OF THE STABLE, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE.

Sanitary improvements in all that relates to
the well-being and happiness of the inhabi-
tants of our larger towns and cities, have, for
a number of years, occupied the attention
of philanthropists aud medical men ; and
whilst the dwellings of the human have been
gradually undergoing a change for the better,
we are happy to say that some of those of
the equine species have been receiving atten-
tion. This, however has not been so general
as it is hoped it will yet become. We have
104

still to lament, with Mr. Stewart, in his ad-
mirable work on Stahle Economy, that " stable
architects have not much to boast of. Their
sole ideas are limited to shelter and confine-
ment. If the weather be kept out, and the
horse be kept in, their objects are attained.
If light and air be demanded, the doorway
will admit them. If the horse has room to
stand, it matters little, though he have none
to lie ; and if you can get him into the stable,
what consideration is it, though his loins be

ORNAMENTAL STALL DIVISION

IIMFROYED STABLE FITTINGS BY MESS^^^s GEORGE SMITH S-O GLASa.^W,

THE STABLE.]

MODEEN YETEEINART PHACTTCE.

[the 8TABLX.

strained, or his liauncli bruised in getting out
of it."

Loftiness is oiio of tlie most desirable at-
tributes of a stable, and duo regard ought to
be paid to its proper ventilation, for liorses as
well as men are poisoned by breathing in an
impure atmosphere. We will, therefore, here
consider some of the moat essential requisites
of a healthy stable.

AIR.

Mr. Clarke, of Edinburgh, was the first to
advocate the use of well-ventilated stables;
and after him. Professor Coleman, of the Vete-
rinary College, established them in the quarters
of the cavalry troops. Their advantages were
soon made apparent in the discontinuance of
diseases that formerly dismounted whole troops
of soldiers, and in the consequent pecuniary
saving which they effected to the government.
Chemical science has now ascertained, with
the utmost exactitude, the atmospherical con-
ditions required for the preservation, in a
healthy state, of the animal functions, and
Lavoisir adduces a striking instance of the
sensible malaria of an atmosphere breathed
over and over again by a number of animals
confined within a limited space. He shows
that when the air out of doors contained
27 parts of oxygen, and 73 of nitrogen = 100,
the air in the lowest ward of the central
hospital at Paris, contained 25 parts of oxygen,
71 nitrogen, and four of fixed air ==100.
Before the play in the theatre of the Tuileries,
the air was 27 parts oxygen, 73 nitrogen;
towards the termination of the performance,
it was 21 parts oxygen, 76^ nitrogen, and
2i fixed air. Thus, in the hospital, the oxy-
gen, or living principle, had decreased as twenty-
one to twenty-seven, or nearly one-fourth.
This proves the necessity of having a well-aired
stable for the horse, as well as a well-aired
house for oneself to live in. "We have fre-
quently observed," says Mr. Karkeek, "a
kind of balance between the i-espiration and
the digestion ; and he who is a careful ob-
server of horses in a healthy, as well as in a
diseased state, must have noticed that there is
a certain balance between the quantity of vital
air received into the lungs, and the quantity
of food which can be digested in the stomach."
Again, "the blood requires pure air as its

food; the first efiect of tlio air is to remove
the carbonic acid, which the venous blood
Lakes up in the circulation ; and when this irt
ellected, tlie properties of the blood become
instantly changed. In the commencement of
this process, the air ia the active agent, and
removes the carbonic acid from the circula-
tion ; but when this ia eflected, the blood then
becomes the acting power, and attracts a
portion of the atmosphere. The pure air, or
at least it ought to be so, then occupies the
place of the carbonic acid which ia just re-
moved."

These facts are sufilcient to show the neces-
sity of having the stable well-ventilated. In-
deed, the principal cause of mango, bad eyes,
glanders, grease, swelled legs, and inflamed
lungs, witnessed in many horses, is on account
of the smallness, and the ill-ventilated state
of their stables. A stable, therefore, with a
loft over it, should never be less than twelve
feet high ; and if it is to contain three
horses, it should not be less than twenty,
or twenty-two feet long, and fourteen wide.
An aperture should be made near the top of
the wall opposite the door, to allow the foetid
or foul air to escape ; and to admit the fresh
and wholesome air, other two holes, of the same
size, should be made on each side of the door,
at about the height of a foot from the ground.
Stables, however, are not, at all times, built
in situations where the convenience of a good
ventilation can be readily obtained. Where
this is the case, the following remarks by Mr.
Brett, veterinary surgeon of the 12th Lancers,
when in the Manchester barracks, supply
some hints.

" Suppose a stable to be blocked up by other
buildings on all sides except at its two ends.
In that case I propose to have a large wooden
tunnel, two feet square, running the whole
length of the stable under the mangers ; and
if it should be a double stable, one tunnel
under each row of mangers. These conduits
are to come through the end walls of the
stable, and to be open at both ends on the
outside, for the purpose of admitting a thorough
draught or body of air through them. This
main stream of air is to be equally dispersed
about the stable, by means of perpendicular
wooden shoots, or chimneys, six inches square,
emanating from this main tunnel, one at the

105

THE STABLE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[the stable.

head of each stall partition. They should
be seven or eight feet long, so as to avoid a
draught on the horse's eyes, and open at
their tops like chimney-tops, and should stand
out two feet from the wall. The rarefied state
of the air in the stable, will cause a constant
flow of cool air through this main tunnel,
and up these chimneys ; and will equalise the
temperature of the stable, and entirely obviate
the draught of wind that blows in at the
horizontal holes in the walls of our stables
as at present ventilated. These perpendicular
chimneys may have one or two other apertures
in them besides the one at their tops, at
diiferent heights, that may be opened or closed
at pleasure, to admit air by means of a door
with a hinge and button, opening on that side
next the wall, whereby a direct current of air
upon the horse will be averted. If these air
passages should not be thought sufficient, other
horizontal tunnels branching from the main
one, might run from it at right angles under
each stall partition, and terminate in a per-
pendicular wooden chimney, six feet high at
each heel-post."

The window of the stable should be at the
south-east end, and the door at the opposite
end. The window should be as high as the
ceiling will admit of, and in size proportionate
to that of the stable. In a stable of twelve feet
high, it need not come down more than four
feet, and will then be eight feet from the
ground, and out of the way of being broken.
The frame of the window should be movable
upon a pivot in the centre, and opened by
means of a cord running over a pulley in the
ceiling, and fastened by means of another cord.
With a window of this kind, in a stable with
three or four horses, no other ventilation will
be required. A person never need be solicitous
ibout finding openings for the air to enter,
when there is sufficient room above, and means
tor it to escape.

It is unnecessary to enlarge on this branch
of our subject, as enough has been said to
show the absolute necessity of keeping up
a supply of pure air in the stable. That its
temperature may be known, no gentleman's
stable should be without a thermometer, which
should never be allowed to sink below forty
or fifty degrees in the winter, or ascend above
seventy in the summer.
106

LIGHT.

This is another of the most important
elements in a well-constructed stable.

Where much light is admitted, the walls of
a stable should not be white, but of a stucco,
or lead colour, and better if painted ; for then
they may always be washed clean with soap
and water, as well as the stalls, rack, and
manger. This should be done once in two or
three weeks, or a month at furthest. If the
walls are boarded up to the height of about
five feet, and this, as well aa the stalls, painted
of a light wainscot colour, it will look ex-
tremely neat, and the under part of the wall
will be kept drier, and appear more comfortable.
A stable should be lighted by means of an
Argand lamp, suspended from the ceiling, and
movable. This will give a far better light, i3
cheaper, and more secure than any other con-
trivance whatever, except gas-light; and, if
properly trimmed, will burn without a particle
of smoke. As a general rule, dark stables are
uncleanly ; and they are the frequent cause of
making the horse start, and of giving him sore
eyes, w hen he emerges from them. No stable,
however, should have too strong a light, as,
like the bed-room of his master, it is a place
of rest. The proper quantity, then, should be
regulated, which a little observation will very
soon enable every possessor of a horse to do.

THE FLOOR.

A stable, when properly paved, and kept
moderately clean, requires only a shallow wide
gutter, twelve inches wide, and one inch deep.
The best floor for a stable, by far, is hard
brick; and next to that, limestone, not less
than one foot square. The floor of the stall
should never incline more than one inch in a
yard; and the inclination should be continued
back to the gutter only. "If the reader,"
says Mr. Lawrence, " will stand for a few
minutes with his toes higher than his heels,
the pain he will feel in the calves of his legs
will soon convince him of the truth of this
remark, ' that too great a slope strains the back
sinews, of the leg.' Hence, when a horse is
not eating, he always endeavours to find his
level, either by standing across his stall, Or-
el se as far back as his halter will permit, so
that his hind legs meet the ascent on the other

THE STAIL.]

MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[the havokb.

side of tbe channel." Ifc is also romarked by
Mr. Blaine, that —

" In the stables of dealers in carriage horses,
an ascent in the standings of nearh' two inches
in the yard is sometimes made, to give a
greater appearance of height to the yet unfur-
nished four-year-old horses, which are thus
often passed upon the unwary as horses of five
years old. Is no strain put upon their legs ?
Our experience, which has been somewliat ex-
tensive in these matters, convinces us that the
inequalities in the standings of horses is a
fertile source of contraction of the feet. What
but the pain and inconvenience which follow
an uneven position, occasions horses, when not
feeding, to be so frequently found standing
across instead of lengthways in their stalls?
How frequently, also, will the horse, boxed in
a stall, be found with his croup turned towards
tbe manger ? To avert these evils, and yet to
prevent the retention of the urine, the smallest
possible slope should be allowed, which should
proceed uniformly to the bottom of the stall.
A central grating, with a cesspool, is an im-
perfect remedy for the evil; for there must
still be a general inequality of surface to carry
the urine to the centre. It is further injurious
by retaining the urine we wish to avoid ; and,
moreover, it promotes a draught of cold air
from without, if it be so constructed as to
carry the urine out of the doors. It may, also,
be remarked, that a central cesspool is utterly
useless for mares. It is, therefore, the best
plan to furnish each stall with a grating placed
over a small trapped drain, at tbe foot of each
stall, which will carry off both the urine and
the washings into one general cesspool out of
doors, and from which, being stopped by the
trap, nothing offensive can pass up through
the gratings."

THE STALL, THE MANGER, AND THE RACK.

The width of a stall should not be less tlian
six feet, clear. But when there is sufficient
room, it is a mucii better plan to allow each
horse a space of teu or twelve feet, where he
may be loose, and exercise himself a little.
This will be an effectual means of avoiding
swollen heels, and a great relie: to animals
that are worked hard.

"With respect to the rack and mangei' — the
manger should never be lesa than eighleen

inches deep ; eighteen inches from the front to
the back part ; and two feet in k-ngth.

In post and waggon stables, where tiio stall
is made for a pair ot horses, the manger will be
placed at each end, and the rack in the centre.
It will then be necessary to put one bar in the
centre of the rack, on tiie top, from tlio front
to the back part, to prevent tlie horse from
throwing out the hay with his nose.

The rack may have staves in the front
like a common rack ; but it is better to have
it partly closed in front. The back part of
the rack should be an inclined p'ane, made of
wood ; should be gradually sloped towards the
front, and should terminate about two feet
down. Such a rack will hold more hay than
ever ought to be put before one horse. The
advantages of this rack are numerous. The
saving in hay that may be effected by its use
is so apparent, that it need not be dwelt upon.
A greac saving also may be made in oats, by
so fastening the horse's head during the time
of feeding, that he cannot throw any of them
out of the manger. If a horse is allowed a
peck of oats a day, and has, as be may have,
one-eighth part of them thus saved, it will
amount to nearly a peck in a week. There
must not, however, be a diminution in bis
allowance on this account. A horse should
have one peck of oats in twenty-four hours;
but then he should not have more than from
eight to twelve pounds of the best hay in that
time, given at four, or three times at least.

Tills kind of rack and manger, from being
boarded up in front, will effectually prevent
the litter from being kept constantly under
the horse's head and eyes, by which he is
compelled to breathe the vapours which arise
from it. It will also prevent him from getting
his head under the manger, as sometimes
happens, by whicii means, not unfrequcntly
the poll-evil is produced.

The length of the halter should be only
four feet from the head-stall to the ring,
tlirougii which it passes. This will admit of
the horse lying down with ease, which is all
that is required.

The ring sliould be placed close to that side
where the manger is, and not in the centre of
the stall. The sides of the stalls should be
sufficiently high and deep to prevent their
occupants from biting or kicking each other.

107

LITTEB.]

THE HOESE, AND

[qroomiitg.

LITTER.

Instead of having a large corn-chest in the
stable, a handsome seat might be made at the
bacb part of it, extending as far as may be
necessary. In this there may be partitions to
separate the beans or the bran ; and places
might be made to rest the arms upon, so that a
gentleman might sit down comfortably, and have
the pleasure of seeing his horses taken care of.
A comfortable stable will be found conducive
to the health of the horses, and will be an
inducement to the groom to attend to every
little circumstance which may contribute to
cleanliness. He will not allow the smallest bit
of dung to remain swept up at one end, or into
a corner, as it commonly is. The pails should
be kept outside, and not standing about the
stable, as they usually are. If it be necessary
to take off the chill from his drink, it is much
better, and more easily done, by the addition
of a little hot water, than by suffering it to
stand in the stable : and while the horses are
at exercise, the litter should be all turned out
to dry, and the brick floor well washed, or swept
out. Some litter should always be allowed for
a horse to stale upon, and this should be
swept away as often as it is necessary, to pre-
vent offensive smells. Litter dried during
the day, will serve again as well as fresh straw
for the bottom of the bed, and be perfectly
free from smell. That which is necessary to be
kept under a horse, that he may stale with
•comfort, and without splashing himself, is not
considerable, and may be changed once a- day.
A great saving might be made in it, by turn-
ing it out, and drying it ; and if a shed were
built adjoining the stable, this could be done at
all times, and the horse might be cleaned in
the shed in wet weather.

Neither dogs, fowls, nor goats, should ever
be permitted to enter a stable; and dung
should be kept at a distance from it. Whilst
speaking of these general arrangements, it
may not be amiss to notice a good contri-
vance in cleaning horses ; that is, to have two
straps, one on each side of the stall, about one
yard from the head of it ; by these the horse
may be fastened during the time he is cleaned,
and he will be effectually prevented from
biting the manger or the groom. He will also
be kept back in the stall, which will enable
108

the groom to clean more perfectly the front of
his fore-legs, chest, and neck ; and to move
round him. This is better than strapping him
to the rack. When the common rack and
manger are preferred, the rack-staves should
be straight, and brought nearly down to the
manger. This may be done without the
necessity of a hay-loft, and the manger may be
made deep and wide, as already described.

GROOMING.

Although it is not usually the case that
gentlemen, themselves, look after their own
horses when they are stabled ; still, we pre-
sume that many desire to have such a know-
ledge of the stable department, as will enable
them to judge of the competency or incompe-
tency of their grooms ; for it is not the good
fortune of every one to have a thoroughly pro-
fessional groom, who understands his business,
and who is trustworthy in all the parts he has
to perform in it. There are some who under-
take the duties of grooms without understand-
ing hardly anything about a stable ; and while
gentlemen do not inform themselves of the
necessary duties and business of this depart-
ment of their establishments, they are likely
to be greatly imposed upon, or injured, through
the ignorance, indolence, or artfulness of the
pretenders they may have engaged. Little as
may be thought of the merits of looking after
a horse, it has been remarked, that not more
than one in ten, upon the average, of stable-
men employed in livery-stables and dealers'
yards, know even the simple process of properly
cleaning or dressing one, though this is the first
or principal thing required of them, and nearly
all they have to do. This is the case even after
they have followed the occupation for years, and
been industrious, pains-taking men, who did
not spare their labours. Since such is the fact,
it is evident that there is more art attached to
this profession, than at first suggests itself to
the mind.

There are certain natural qualifications which
should be preferred and sought after, if they
can possibly be found, in the person that has
the care and management of valuable horses.
Above all things he should be sober, mild, and
patient in his temper, so that he is not easily
provoked ; for material injury has been done
by passionate persons incautiously striking

GROOMING.]

MODEEN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE.

[UUOOMINO.

horses in a wicked manner, with whatever in-
strument might he in their way ; sometimes
the corners of tlie curry-comh, the broom-stick,
twitch-staff, or even the stable-fork. "We have
heard of a groom, who, in a fit of rage wliilst
stopping a horse's feet, for which he had a
small trowel, actually drove it into the animal's
side between two of his ribs. The person who
looks after horses should be industrious, and
not sparing of his labour at any hour or season ;
for horses require much attention to make
them fresh and comfortable ; and if a groom is
sparing of his labour, they will soon show it,
as there are few kinds of work harder than
grooming a horse properly. It is true, that
an indolent groom may escape censure or com-
plaints of persons not very particular or dis-
ceruing; but those who are judges cannot be
imposed on. The appearance and condition of
the animal will discover itself, and cannot
escape their notice : for when a person knows
that everything is allowed to keep his horses
in proper condition, and also Jciwivs lohen his
horses are in the condition in ivhich they ought
to he, he will never be satisfied to see them
otherwise.

There is no good groom that has not a pride
in seeing, not only his horses, but everything
in his department in the first style of condition
and cleanliness. "Where this disposition exists
all goes well. Confidence is inspired, and a
trust, which otherwise might be withheld,
freely and voluntarily reposed in him, regard-
ing all that appertains to his system of man-
agement. With these natural qualifications
there are practicable requirements, which, with
attention, observation, and an apt capacity,
may easily be acquired.

The grand aim of a groom ought to be to put
his horses in what is called condition : let us,
therefore, consider what is meant by condition.
This word is variously applied to the state of
the horse, though widely dififerent from what is
here implied. Eor instance, we say, a horse is
in condition for sale ; that implies he is in
flesh, his legs clean and fresh, his coat decently
fine, and perfectly sound ; a horse may he all
this, hut not in condition for work. Another
horse is said to be in good working condition.
Such might be said of a post-horse, that is bare
of flesh, his joints enlarged, and his legs puffed
with windgalls ; yet this horse is capable of

doing much work ; and his being worked raoro
than is requisite to keep him in condition, has
put him out of condition.

Condition, therefore, without an expletive,
implies that perfect state of body and limbs
in which the whole system is in the most vigo-
rous state, and capable of the greatest exertion,
if required. This cannot be either obtained or
preserved without strictly adhering to three
things ; viz., proper food, proper grooming, and
necessary exercise. Neither of these must b©
omitted, nor injudiciously employed; for, like
medicine, properly administered, each does
good, but is capable of doing much injury, if
profusely taken or misapplied.

Stable hours should be kept with strict regu-
larity. All animals appear to have a knowledge
of time ; and it may be observed, in many in-
stances, that they observe the periods as cor-
rectly as those who attend them, and who, let it
be remembered, have recourse to time-pieces.
The horse knows his stated hours ; and if he is
not attended to, particularly to feed and water
at the accustomed time, he will be watching
and fretting with much anxiety, and oftentimes
will call and ask for his food, in such a manner
as those accustomed to horses cannot fail to
understand. Eegular and stated hours should
be punctually kept, with as little variation as the
season or circumstances may require — say five
o'clock in summer; but as the days shorten, a
later hour is admissible, unless horses are to be
ready at an early hour for hunting, or other-
wise. In such cases, two hours, at least, before
they are wanted, the stable should be visited.
If this is not done, and if sufficient time ia
not allowed to look after thinys, they cannot
be done as they should.

The first duty of the groom on going to
stable, after throwing his eye round to see if
any horses are loose, cast, or the like, is to rack
and feed. The judgment in racking is to give
the horse but little at a time, that he may eat
it with an appetite, first clearing out his rack,
&c., &c. If a horse leaves hay that is good
and sweet, some cause must be assigned for it,
and it must be examined into. Sometimes cats
will foul the hay ; and horses are very nice in
their food, when not kept scanty. If the ani-
mal appear to be in health, and the hay has
not been blown on by other horses, but is fresh
and sweet, it may reasonably be supposed that

109

GBOOMINO.]

THE HOESE, AND

[GEOOMIN&.

he is too plentifully fed, and leaving hay for
the sake of oats : this should be guarded
against ; therefore, if hay that is good and
clean in moderation, is given to him, it is better
to shorten his allowance of oats, to bring his
stomach to a comparatively small quantity.
His morning's racking should be one quarter
of his daily allowance, which, on the average,
is about three pounds for his breakfast ; for
abundant feeding in the morning is not good.
A horse cannot work agreeably to himself when
over-full; and, therefore, the plan of feeding spar-
ingly in the morning should be adopted. If you
want some exertion from him, do not suppose
that a full belly will make him perform it better.
It is the food that he has digested, and from
which he has obtained that nutriment and its
consequent stimulus that is to support him in
his work, and not what you cram into him at
the time you want him for great exertion. A
good horse, in proper condition, will not flag
in twelve hours, if he is required to be at
work that time, and, on a moderate computa-
tion, supposing he has carried his rider a hun-
dred miles, without, as it is termed, drawino-
bit. This, however, is not to be expected from
every horse ; none but thorough good animals,
in proper condition, can undergo such extra-
ordinary exertion.

The quantity of hay which should be given
should be well shaken, to clear it from dust
and seeds ; aud if it is very dry, as it some-
times will be, it ought to be sprinkled with
water, to make it more agreeable to the horse,
when he will eat it with better appetite. Many
horses, when they perceive, or instinctively
suppose they are going out with the hounds,
or have seen the rider come into the stable
with his scarlet coat on, and in Ms ivhite cords,
refuse to eat their hay or oats. This, we ima-
gine, arises from an impatient anxiety re^^ard-
ing the animating prospect of the chase, of
which most horses are fond, but some uncom-
monly so ; but whether they disregard their
food from this feeling, or whether they refuse
it, knowing they will be better able to gallop
with an empty stomach, it is difficult to deter-
mine; certain it iw, however, that horses never
perform the worse for it ; and it may be taken
as not a bad prognostic, when a horse refuses
his food under such circumstances. It is verv
common, however, for a horse to be off his food
110

after any great exertion; and this is by no
means a pleasant circumstance, especially to a
true horse-man.

After having racked with hay, the next feed,
as it is termed, is to serve him with oats. Here
we are proceeding in the routine that is to be
daily observed ; for, were we to treat of things
out of this regular order, young hands might
be studying what they should do, and what
ought to be done first ; aud it is no uncommon
circumstance to see some, that have been in the
stable employment for a considerable length of
time, not know what to do first, and occasion
themselves trouble and loss of time, by doing
that which is not urgently required. In serv-
ing the oats, whatever is deemed a sufiicieut
allowance for the horse, for the day, whether
it may be three quarterns or a peck, one-
fourth of the quantity should now be given. As
sweet and clean food is most agreeable to the
animal, as well as beneficial, carefully sift the
corn from dust, blow away the chaff, and pick
out anything which may be deemed unfit or
unpleasant. Frequently will be found among
them, rat's dung and cat's dung; therefore clear
the manger with a whisp of hay or straw, and
throw in the oats ; let them be spread with the
hand, to prevent the horse from taking too
greedy a mouthful at a time, and swallowing
them without chewing.

While the horses are eating their first feed of
corn, which, it must be recollected, is to be
given immediately on entering the stable in
the morning, prepare the saddles and exercising
bridles, that they may be ready to be taken
out. These being ready, and placed on for
exercise, give the horses a ie^ff go-downs of
water ; then, if it be an establishment of some
considerable extent, give orders to the stable-
boy to make fair the stable during your ab-
sence, in the following manner. If it should
be a single- horse stable, this process may not
be required so minutely : first, throw all the
dung otf the litter, clear out behind, then turn
up the driest aud best of the litter under the
manger, and the wet and muck turn out behind ;
this being removed to the dung-heap, sweep
clean out, then take a bucket of water, and wash
the stall out well. After the water is run and
swept away, take the bedding that has been
put under the manger, and place it behind the
horse's stall, against the wall ; by doing so, aR

GBOOMING.]

MODEEN VETEKINART PRACTICE.

[OBOOICWQ.

the disagreeable smell that may probably arise
from the bedding being allowed to remain
under the manger, will be removed, and, in all
likelihood, the horse prevented from being
afiected with diseases of the eyes, glanders,
inflamed lungs, &c., &c. This being done, take
a little of the litter and shake it in the stall,
for most horses stale on first coming into the
stable, from exercise, and this will induce them
to do so freely. Thus will the stable be free
from any efiluvia which arise from the dung
and urine.

The stable being made clean, next com-
mences the cleaning of the horses. This is a
work that requires more knowledge and judg-
ment than at first appears. The curry-comb
is the first thing to be applied, and great atten-
tion should be paid to the proper mode of
its application. Some horses require much of
the curry-comb ; others, none : this depends on
the state the animal is in, the time of year, &c.
Horses that have their coats long and full of
dust, such as are just taken up from grass, or
such as are come out of persons hands, that
either do not know, or do not take the pains to
keep their coats clean and fine, will require the
free use of the curry-comb. In reference to
the comb, its teeth and sharpness should be
proportioned to the thickness, length, and foul-
ness of the coat. For horses that have been
kept in stable, properly groomed, and have
their coats fine, thin, soft, and clean, requiring
no other use of the curry-comb than merely
to clean the brush, or occasionally to rub off
any dung that may be on them, the teeth of
the comb should be remarkably even and
dull, not to scratch them.

These things being attended to, after strip-
ping the clothes off, the curry-comb should
next be used, always beginning on the near
side at the hind-quarters, and using it in pro-
portion to the length and foulness of the coat.
If the coat is fast on, long, full of dust,
and very filthy, it may be used freely to loosen
it, or the sweat that is dried and fastened
on the skin and roots of the hair, will appear
like a white and saltish dust ; but it is not to
be expected that all the dust shall be got out
at once. It must be a work of time; and to
attempt it by iising the curry-comb too miTch,
the coat will be set on end, the pores of the
skin will he opened, and the horse will, in con-

sequence, be very liable to take cold, which will

obstruct that imperceptible perspiration which,
in a healthy state, is always going on; and
which, if suppressed, causes to be thrown up an
ichorous discliargc, wliich will dry into small
scabs. The coat will then stare, put on a rus-
setty appearance ; be rough, and have a ven'
disagreeable look when compared with those
horses whose coats are fine and clean, such as
the race-horse, or the hunter, when got into
proper condition. Another thing to be ob-
ser?«d is, that if it be during the season when
the horse is changing his coat, when the hair
will come off freely with the curry-comb, it is
not advisable to be too free in the use of the
comb for the purpose of removing the coat,
but let this have its time to come off. "With
good feeding the end will be obtained quicker
than by scratching the horse's skin with the
comb. Providence has wisely ordained that
the horse's coat, if exposed to cold, shall grow
long, and if he is kept warm, it will remain
short.

Proceeding to curry on the hind -quarters,
for the purpose of unmatting the hair and
loosening the dust, it is necessary to descend
down the quarters, particularly remembering
to rub off all dried dung, and taking care not
to injure or scratch the horse's legs. It is to
be observed that the curry-comb is not to
be used below the hock, unless some dung
may be there. Whilst employed here, you
must handle the comb very lightly ; and with
grey or white horses, stains are very trouble-
some to remove ; but if a wet sponge is taken,
and the hair well moistened where the stain is,
then a knob of common stone-llue — such as is
used by washerwomen — put into a piece of
flannel, and rubbed well on the stains, will be
able to remove them. When this is dry, it
must be well brushed off.

After having curried the horse's hind-quar-
ters, proceed on to the back, loins, flank, belly
shoulders, arms, chest, and neck, omitting no
part to which the comb can be conveniently
applied. Tender places, or such as have thin
hair, need not be touched, neither need the
head be touched. Horses are not ticklish
when they are full of the dust occasioned by
the natural and imperceptible perspiration of
the body ; but as they become clean, and their
coats short and fine, they are exceedingly

111

GEOOMINQ.]

THE HOESE, AND

[qeoomino.

ticklish, and, therefore, it is necessary to be
careful to stand in a secure place. After
having curried the near side, proceed in like
manner to curry the off side ; but with the
difference of using the left hand, which, after
a while, becomes the most convenient. This
done, the next proceeding is to whisp off the
dust raised by the curry-comb, and to rub and
whisp well those places which were not proper
for the comb to touch. For this purpose, a
whisp of some half- worn straw should be made,
but a hay-band is better, which should be pre-
pared for the purpose, by half untwisting it ;
loosening it thus, it will be doubled about a
foot in length, and, loosely twisting it together,
it will not scatter so fast, till you have made it
as thick as you can grasp. If it is dry and
harsh, sprinkle it with water. This will make
it work pleasanter, and the dust which is in-
tended to be removed, will adhere to it, and
not fly about so much.

In whisping the horse, begin at his head,
taking the whisp in the left hand for the near
side, and resting the right hand on the most
sonvenient part of the animal, to steady your-
self while the whisp is applied. Then change
its situation, beginning first at the top of the
neck, down to the shoulders, then the under
part of the neck, the chest, particularly between
the fore legs, down the arms, knees, and the
sinews and fetlocks, taking care to rub out
the dirt well from the heels, where the curry-
comb cannot be brought into use. Having
done this, proceed on in the order of his car-
case, on the back, sides, belly, croup, and so
on to his hind legs, which ought to be cleaned
as carefully as the fore ones. After this, whisp
in the same manner his off side, only changing
the whisp from the left to the right hand.

Proceed next to brush the horse over, after
having first cleaned the brush well with the
curry-comb. Begin at the croup or rump, and
well brush the body backwards and forwards,
the brush being in the left hand ; for the near
side, work up in all parts as before, and finish
at the top of the neck ; then in leaving it,
brush the horse tlie straight way of the hair,
and finish at the near fetlock and heel behind.
The same plan should be pursued on the off
side, changing the brush to the right hand.
Many stable-men attend much to those places
that are most conspicuous to the eye, such as
112

the fall of the neck, the shoulders, and hind-
quarters. These parts shine the most ; and they
do not fail to point out these to you, and say
how well they look, which may satisfy some
persons, but a judge will not be deceived
by external appearances. He expects the
parts not immediately in view to be equally
attended to.

After the brushing, which causes much of
the dust to be floating about, when a part of
it, in all probability, will again settle on the
horse, he should be wiped all over with a
linen cloth, beginning, as with the whisp or
brush, at the head, and so proceeding to every
part. This being done, put on his clothes
before finishing with his head, mane, tail, and
legs, that he may not chill or take cold while
you are about them.

It must be understood that we are here
treating of the method to be pursued in the
hackney stable, and not in the racing and
hunting stable, though there is very little
diflerence in treating the hunter and the
hack, except it be in a greater addition of
clothing and more dressing, the days he may
be lying at rest.

The clothes being properly put on without
wrinkles, perfectly smooth, and especially under
the roller, loosen the horse's head, take off his
stall-collar, and turn him round in the stall, to
give his head and ears a complete rubbing and
brushing, which is not so easily done with the
stall-collar on. The head is now to be brushed
over in every part, particularly at the root of
the ears, and under the throat ; then, with the
dusting-cloth, rub and wipe him well ; pull his
ears through the hands, observing that they
are clean and soft, and moderately cool ; then
comb out his mane and foretop, with a sponge
or water-brush, wet the top or roots of the
mane, and pass a small cloth for that purpose
over it. Tliis cloth being passed from the near
side at the top of the mane, and pulled over to
the off-side, will make the mane lie smooth.
Next put on his stall-collar, and comb out his
tail; wipe away any dirt or filth that may be
remaining under the tail with a wet sponge,
and after with the cloth. The feet of the ani-
mal are next to be examined, and the dung and
litter picked clean out, and,if necessary, washed.
Lastly, the legs are to be rubbed with a clean
loose whisp of straw in each hand ; for which

OEOOMIXG.]

MODERN VETEEINAKY IMiACTICE.

[exkucise.

purpose you should go down on both knees,
pass the whisp over the logs and tendons,
then finish with passing the hands down in
like manner, to feel that tliey are perfectly
smooth, and that there are no particles of the
straw or thistles, which might be among it,
adhering or sticking to the hair. These rub-
bings will increase the circulation, and, conse-
quently, will promote the absorption of any
fluid which may be detained in those parts,
and whicli, too frequently, occasions swelled
legs ; and, if neglected, the heels may crack,
and produce grease, which, with a little extra
trouble, may, at all times, be prevented.

The morning's business of the stable being
thus completed, the horse will require nothing
until noon.

Before proceeding further, we will show the
reasons for feeding the hackney, which is not
to be fed in the same manner as you would a
hunter that has extraordinary work to do ; yet
a hackney should be always in a condition to be
able to perform ordinary work with ease to
himself and comfort to his rider.

Moderate exercise for a good hackney is
about thirty or forty miles an end, without
drawing bit, at the rate of from eight to ten
miles an hour. This may be called ordinary
work : but to gallop twenty miles, or trot six-
teen in an hour, extraordinary work, which, to
accomplish, requires a horse to be put through
a regular mode of training.

But to return. At noon give him the like
quantity of hay as in the morning, and his feed
of corn ; set the stable fair ; that is, put the
htter to rights and remove the dung. This is
all that is necessary till watering-time, which
is about four o'clock, when the horse should be
stripped and brushed.

There are some lads who can hardly be per-
suaded of the necessity for this, alleging that
they cleaned the animal perfectly well in the
mornins:; that he had not been out of the
stable, and that the clothing prevented dust
from settling on him ; therefore, they cannot
conceive the necessity for it ; and many others
may be of the same opinion ; but the imper-
ceptible perspiration, which is always going on,
occasions a scurf, the removal of which greatly
relieves the horse. Besides, stripping the
cloths off, and brushing him over, greatly re-
freshes him, and puts the blood into a freer
Q

circulation. Wipe him down as before, finish-
ing with rubbing his legs, which must never bo
omitted, combing the mane and tail, &c., then
watering. If there is not a probability of the
horse going out, let him have a greater quan-
tity of water tlian in the monting; and if he
be not greedy for water, ho will not drink more
than will do him good ; but, if you perceive his
belly getting too large, and he appears washy,
he must be restricted. Set the stable fair
again, and the work is done until the final
doing up for the night.

At about eight o'clock finish for the night
by giving him his remaining allowance of hay,
which should be double what was given him in
the morning, and his remaining feed of corn.
Give more abundantly at night, because it will
be in so forward a state of digestion in the
morning, as not to oppress the wind of the
horse when working. This will be a guide
how you should vary it upon particular occa-
sions, so as to have the animal hi good heart
and spirits, but empty, when wanted for expe-
ditious purposes.

The last thing is making up the beds and
setting all fair. In making up the beds, con-
trive to lay all the worst of the litter in the
middle or bottom, where the horse is most
likely to spoil it. In throwing down the litter
which was placed behind the horse in the
morning, reserve the cleanest and driest part
to top the bed with, making this up high on
each side, and fullest towards the bind quar-
ters, that it may be soft and pleasant for him,
whichever side he may lay on, as some horses
turn frequently in the course of the night.
Now throw out all dung, and sweep clean ; see
that all the stall-collars are secure, loose cloths
taken off, and everything set fan-, and the rou-
tine of the stable is finished.

EXERCISE.

Exercise is so essential to the horse, that
feedin'^ and grooming would be of little use,
were it neglected, or altogether omitted. It is
admitted, that great numbers of horses are
killed or spoiled by being over-worked ; and
it may be doubted whether as many are not
injured in London for want of work. In the
metropolis there are several persons who keep
horses, but who are so occupied with business,
that they cannot ride them out oftener than

113

EXEECISE.l

THE HOESE, AND

[exebcisb.

once in a week, and many don't ride them once
in a month. The horses of these persons stand
at livery, and they are ordered to be exercised.
Men employed in livery stables, have seldom
less than six or eight, and we have known
some to have ten livery-horses to look after.
These men, if they rub off the dung, and occa-
sionally give them a brush over, omit exercise,
not finding time for it. Gentlemen do not
like to see or know that boys are permitted
to ride their horses; and, without they keep
grooms of their own, their horses will go short
of exercise.

Consider, then, those horses that are kept
in a livery-stable from week's end to week's
end, in many places confined and filthy ; that
are sometimes moved about, which they call
exercise, but which is merely a ride of, perhaps,
fifty or sixty yards long, in a place made up of
litter and dung, with a manure-heap at some
part of it. In these cases horses literally
breathe only air strongly impregnated with
the evaporation of dung. Under such circum-
stances, it is surprising that they are so well
as they are. The disorders with which they
are frequently afilicted in such a condition, are
principally couffh, not improperly called a stable
cough, also weakness in the legs, so that they
often make a drop, as it is termed. Various
humorial diseases, such as swelled legs, grease^
farcy, and, in all probability, inflamed lungs
and glanders, also, are the result. At their
best, when they look plump and well to the
eye, they are faint, and what is termed foggy,
and unable to perform more than what would
be common exercise for horses in condition.

Since, therefore, exercise and air are so
beneficial, let us consider in what manner
exercise should be given. This is to be regu-
lated according to circumstances. Where
animals work two or three days in the week,
the resting days require no more than airing
exercise, for every horse should have, at least
two days in the week, such work or exercise
that will give him a good sweating, which
throws out, through the pores of the skin, what
might lodge in the system and create diseases.
It likewise frees the horse of the scurf ad-
hering to the skin, and occasions >the coat to
look fine. Those days, therefore, that the
horse is not wanted for work, he must be
exercised for the fresh air which is bracing
114

and strengthening to his limbs, refreshing the
body, and creating an appetite. The most
eligible time for this is in the early part of the
day ; but, in wet weather, the best opportu-
nities that appear must be taken advantage of.
If but one horse is kept by a gentleman,
he should order his groom, as soon as the stable
has been cleaned out in the morning, which is
while the horse is eating his first feed, to brush
him over, and put on his exercising saddle and
bridle. In cold weather, if it is only intended
to walk him, the cloth or sheet may be kept on
him under the saddle. In warm weather, how-
ever, we do not recommend this ; for, though a
horse's coat may be something the fiuer by
being kept warm, yet he is certainly the more
liable to take cold when he is necessarily de-
prived of it. The most open and airy places
should be taken for exercise, during which the
step of the horse should try to be improved ;
and, when he has only walking exercise, he
should at least be walked two hours, which
will be sufiicient. By aimiiig to extend his
walk, he may be greatly improved. On
returning, thoroughly clean him, and give him
his feed. He might be watered while out,
provided it can conveniently be done. If a
horse is hearty, and inclined to flesh, we would
rather recommend the like exercise in the
afternoon, where persons have time and con-
venience, than to shorten his feed for that
purpose. It would be much better for the
horse ; but every one cannot allow his time to
be so taken up, for it would be nearly equal to
training, and may not be thought necessary.
It is more than the generality of horses require ;
and many inferior-bred animals which look well
to the eye, cannot, for a continuance, stand the
ordinary work that a horse has in training.
Such is the amazing dift'erence of horses. If
inquiry be made of many training-grooms,
concerning some high-bred colt or other, why
he is not hrought out, they will answer "he
would not stand his training;" though, per-
liaps, in numerous cases, training, in the pre-
sent day, is screwed up to too tight a pitch.

Should the work of the horse be so moderate
as not to occasion a sweat, it is beneficial, about
twice a week, to give exercise strong enough
to sweat hiai. This may be done in the pace
he is mostly ridden hi, that lie may be prac-
tised and improved in it. If he be admired

EXERCISE.]

MODEEN VETERINAEY PEACTICE.

[exehcise.

for his trot, it would be wrone; to f:»allop him,
as such an act might unsettle him in his
esteemed pace. Therefore trot him out for the
space of two miles to bring him to a com-
fortable sweat, and walk him back. Thus his
limbs are extended ; his muscles made supple ;
and his ligaments and tendons strengthened.
Inactivity debilitates, and over-exertion may
sprain and weaken, but moderate exertion is
good both for man and beast.

The sweating of horses occasions considerable
labour to clean them; and indolent grooms,
and those who have several animals to look
after, avoid this part of their business as much
as possible. Some would persuade us that
there is no necessity for it; but reason and
experience teach otherwise.

When a horse is brought in from work or
exercise, if in a sweat, or wet and dirty with
sloppy roads and rain, he should not be left
until made completely dry, clean, and comfort-
able. Some horses, in good condition, will rub
dry and clean in a short time ; but others, with
long and curly coats, and some from constitu-
tion or ill condition, are a long time before they
can be made dry; hence, clipping has been
introduced ; but this we are decidedly opposed
to, as it is to be prevented altogether by good
grooming. Besides, dipt horses are apt fre-
quently to take cold ; hunters, especially, in a
slack day. We have known an industrious
groom to work at a horse for four hours, and
not leave him until perfectly dry ; and we have
known others to cover them with a cloth, and
leave them to dry, before they would clean them.
Much depends on the habit the animal has been
used to, constitution, condition, &c., whether
he will take injury from being left in his wet
and dirt. Those horses, however, that have
been properly groomed, and have all care taken
of them to keep their coats fine, and, on all
occasions, made dry and comfortable, will be
liable to take cold, if neglected at these times.

Some persons are fond of physicking or
bleeding their horses, when there is no appa-
rent cause or reason for it. Many grooms
take upon themselves the duties of bleeding
and physicking at their own discretion. 1l
is, therefore, necessary to assign some reason,
and to show when, and for what purpose,
such modes are to be pursued. It is best to
follow such methods as preclude the necessity

of either ; for, with proper feeding, exercising,
and grooming, there will seldom bo occasioa
for physic ; but sloth or idleness is the parent
of disease; and tluis it hap|)C'n3 with horses,
when they are well fed, and have little or no
work — horses not being ir.tended to stand in
a stall, and fatten like a bullock — the blood-
vessels get overcharged, and a partial stagna-
tion takes place, so that the economy of the
whole system becomes obstructed, and cannot
perform its several functions. The stomach
cannot digest its contents ; the lungs become
oppressed, and have not the requisite freedom
of expansion ; consequently, if timely relief bo
not given, a catalogue of disorders must ensue,
for nature always strives to unburthen herself
in some way or other. When any symptom
of approaching illness or disorder appears,
which may discover itself in various ways,
such as by the animal refusing his food, by
the appearance of languor or dulness, heaviness
of the eyes, heat in the mouth, swelling of the
legs, itchings, breaking out in various parts,
&c., it will then, in general, be proper to
bleed, as a check, and also to allay the irri-
tability of the system. In these cases, bleed
according to size, constitution, and the nature
of the forboding symptoms of the attack. If
a horse is very fat, the same quantity must
not be taken from him that would be required
were he in good working condition ; for hia
fat, in the first place, debilitates him, and then
taking blood in large quantities does this still
further. We have known fat horses frequently
fall, in consequence of five or six quarts of
blood being taken from them at a time, from
the erroneous idea that because they were fat,
they could lose so much more blood. If, on
showing any of the preceding named symptoms,
and the horse happens to be overloaded with
fat, great caution respecting bleeding should be
shown, and not a too large quantity abstracted
from him; but with horses in condition for
work, five or six quarts may be taken without
danger. In bleeding, sometimes, after pinning
up the orifice, the horse shakes himself. If so,
it may be taken as a sign that the object has
been gained, and that the inflammatory action
that was going on in the system, has been
reduced.

If, however, symptoms and circumstances be
compared together, to account, if possible, lor

115

CONDITIONING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[conditioning.

the cause of complaint ; if the horse has been
well kept, consequently full of flesh, and little
or no work — for we do not call walking a
horse about to stretch his limbs, sufficient to
keep him in health — it may reasonably be
concluded that the blood-vessels are prevented
from performing their natural functions, and
evacuations must relieve them. In this case,
we prefer a course of alteratives to violent
physicking, as less dangerous.

It may so happen that a horse over-fed,
and too little worked, may not discover any
symptoms until after a day's riding, and work
as some would call it, and from that circum-
stance it might not be attributed to the want
of exercise ; but here we deceive ourselves,
for disease, or the seeds of disease, may have
been lurking in the horse, and could not de-
velop themselves until he was put to unusual
exertion, which might necessarily cause the
discovery sooner than it otherwise might take
place.

If a horse has been in regular work or
exercise, with a young and tender constitution,
he will sicken at unusual exertion. This is
termed, taking too much out ofTiim ; but, in such
a case, the loss of a little blood, with two or
three days' rest, will restore him. Sometimes,
however, taking too much blood, and, at the
same time, when the horse is very hot, sufler-
ing him to cool too fast, will, in all pro-
bability, instead of decreasing, increase any
inflammatory disposition the system may be
susceptible of; but if, at the first, we observe
that he does not dung, or empty himself freely,
as horses generally do when in health, this
will draw attention to his state, and he must
have speedy relief, to prevent disease coming
on in a more dangerous form.

CONDITIONING THE HUNTER.

Every sportsman should know what are the
best means to be adopted to get his hunters
into condition, and the care and management
necessary to their well-being through the
season. Hunters are usually turned into good
grass after the season is over, though a great
deal has been said by some against such a
practice. Still we have seen its good efiects
as often as stabling them ; but one man may
have convenience to stable his hunters all the
summer, and ten others may not have this ;
116

consequently, an additional expense would be
incurred. But as that which we are about to
write is for the use of hunting-men, we shall
speak on general principles, which, from prac-
tice, we know to be correct.

Grass, it is well known, be it of ever so
good a quality, is not a substantial food. It
is cooling and opening ; and though it makes
a horse fleshy, nevertheless, it is not that
description of flesh which a horse can work
on. If we were to attempt to gallop him to
the excess which frequently occurs in hunting,
we should find him faint and weak, and the fat
which has accumulated in the cellular mem-
branous cavities, would be thrown off" in the
form of a white lathering sweat. This, if
checked, might produce inflammation of the
lungs, and the horse become a subject for the
knackers. Therefore, the first thing to be
done to alter this state of the system, in the
best and most expeditious manner, is to bleed
and physic, but with caution, always paying
great attention to the constitution of the
animal.

In the case of horses being taken up from
grass, the warmth of the stable is very apt to
incline them to itch, and to make them rub
themselves a great deal. When they are so
inclined, bleeding is highly necessary.

As Viorses usually have their shoes taken ofi"
when turned out to grass, the first thing to be
done is to re-shoe him ; then he should be
bled according to his size ; from two to four
quarts of blood will be sufficient to take from
him. After this let him stand quiet, with his
head tied up to the rack, without food of any
kind for three or four hours. While he is
full of grass, he will not drink much water;
but after living on dry food, he will drink
plentifully if he is allowed. There is no neces-
sity, however, for stinting him in water until
he has taken his physic.

His coat will be exceedingly foul, and full of
knits ; therefore he will require some good
dressings; and the opening of his coat, and
the taking of the dirt out, will require him to be
clothed. Accordingly, buckle a cloth on with
a good broad roller, pretty tight, to assist in
reducing the size of his belly. If he has
been in the stable three or four days, and
emptied the grass out of him, a dose of physic
may first be given to him, preparatory to

coNDiTioNrNG.] MODEEN VETEEINAET PEACTICE. [coNDixioimfO.

which — the day on wliicli he takes his niedi- '
cine — he should bo kept on cold bran mashes ;
then, at night, say an hour bc>fore the last
visit to the stable, bis medicine should be
administered to him. The motive for giving
the medicine at night, is because some horses
having weakly constitutions, the medicine is apt
to gripe them, which, on the following day,
will be perceptible, and, witli this advantage,
it will occur in the day time, when every horse
may have attention from any quarter it may
be necessary to require it. Having done this,
either tie him up close, or put on a muzzle, so
tliat he may be kept without food all night.
This, on giving him a little exercise in the morn-
ing, will occasion his medicine to operate much
quicker than any other way. Immediately on
returning to stable, give him a handful of the
best hay — first having offered him some chilled
water to drink — and a bran mash slightly
warmed ; for, from the sickness occasioned by
the medicine, horses are, sometimes, with diiS-
culty induced to eat anything warm during
the operating of the physic ; but in such cases,
we have invariably horned down about two
quarts of gruel at intervals, which, in a short
time, bas restored the tone of the stomach.
This treatment, with good hay, is the only
food necessary till his physic is set, as it is
termed— that is, done working. Were more
substantial food to be given, it might lessen
the effect or operation of the physic, or be
thrown out whole and undigested ; conse-
quently, it is best not to give any.

Here it is requisite to caution the gentle-
man or the groom, to be certain that the
drugs, of which the medicine is composed, are
genuine and good. There is no more serious
evil than giving to a horse lad and cJiea])
drugs ; and we have experienced this evil to a
very great extent, especially in the country.
When we have sent a prescription to be made
up, whether it bas been from ignorance of
the quality of the drugs, or whether from
avarice, thinking a cheap or spurious article
might do for a horse, we will not pretend to
say ; but physic, prepared with bad materials,
not only deceives and disnppoints its pur-
chaser, but may do infinite mischief, even to
the extent of causing the loss of a valuable
horse. Therefore, we recommend physic to
be bought of sucb vendors as are respectable,

and who prepare it in large quantities. AVo
recommend this, because sucli are not so likely
to have stale drugs ; and also are, from expe-
rience, likely to be good judges of their quality :
whilst, giving a horse-prescription to im
apothecary, or country druggist, he will pro-
bably prepare it with drugs that have beer*
years in his shop, and perhaps, originally, not
of the best quality.

Every groom should be expert at giving a
ball. There is an art in doing this properly,
which a looker-on cannot easily discover ; and,
as it is a material thing to give it well, we
shall here point out such particulars as may
assist the young practitioner.

In giving a ball, great celerity must be used;
for if it is not done quickly, it becomes dis-
aerreeable to the horse, and difficult to the
operator. A balling-iron is frequently used
by those who are not expert at it, aud it may
be best for those who are not in the habit of
giving balls ; but those who are accustomed to
give them, will do it as well, and sooner,
without this instrument.

Before attempting to give the ball, you should
be certain you are tall enough to reach, should
the horse raise his head. Let the person who
stands on the near side, and holds the mouth
of the animal open, put the ball partly into your
waistcoat pocket, so much remaining out, that
you can easily take hold of it when you have
"drawn out the tongue of the horse. Stand
before him, and take the farthest hold of the
tongue with the left hand, drawing as much
out of the mouth as it will admit, and in such
a manner as will enable you to press it against
his grinders, which will effectually prevent
him from shutting his mouth. Having accom-
plished this, fold the right hand in as small a
compass as possible, holding the ball at tbe
extreme end with the three first fingers : then
put it over the root of the tongue, thrusting it
as far in as you can. This done, withdraw the
hand, let go the tongue, and bridle the nose
in a little, to prevent the horse from coughing
it up. You must now wait patiently until
vou see it pass down, and be very attentive,
for you cannot be too certain of having seeu
it swallowed. If he hesitates to let it pass
down, elevate his head a little, and again
bridle in the nose, and that will occasion him
to swallow it. Some horses will, if you are

117

CONDITIONING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[conditioning.

not mindful, bold the ball at tbe top of tbe
throat, till you loosen the bead, and then
cough it up again ; or suffer it to be lodged at
the extremity of the grinders, when you will
perceive them chewing it, and at last ejecting
it from their mouths: if the whole of this
operation be not done expertly, the horse will
make the more resistance. We have seen
awkward persons torment the horses, ami
spoil several balls, before they could get one
fairly down.

As much water as he will drink may now be
given. AVarm water will occasion the physic
to operate the sooner, if be will drink it ; but,
as before stated, offer gruel if he refuses the
tepid water. After a few hours, give water
that has been standing in the stable some
hours ; the raw chill will then be taken off, and
will not hurt him. If the physic be prepared
without calomel, or other mercurials, which is
not proper medicine for conditioning horses,
on such occasions cold water should never be
administered. If all goes on well, and to
your wish, you must not strip his cloth oft',
nor dress him till liis physic has done working,
which generally will be about the third day.
"While his physic is operating, he must not be
taken out, though, if it can conveniently be
done, he may be put in a loose box, which will
afford him exercise quite sufficient until his
physic is set. Great care should be exercised
in keeping his bocks, legs, and thighs clean.

When the physic has so operated as to
keep the body open for about twenty-four
hours, giving him copious and loose stools, you
may forbear using means of promoting further
operation. Let him stand until his dung is
set, and then give him his corn; strip and
dress him well. The next day take him out,
and give him gentle exercise.

About the sixth or seventh day from tbe
time he took his first dose, the second may be
administered, ordering the horse as directed
before, and again letting the same time elapse
between. The third dose may then be given ;
and this, in general, is sufficient to thoroughly
cleanse him from that faint or foul condition
which green food naturally occasions. Proper
diet and exercise will then get him into wind
and condition for hunting : but before we pro-
ceed with that part, we shall make some fur-
ther remarks on physic.
118

We have noticed the manner of ordering a
liorse in physic, under the circumstances of
the medicine properly operating and achieving
its end satisfactorily ; but, from various causes,
it may so happen that physic does not take a
proper course, or effect the expected object.
If physic does not operate in the space of thirty-
six hours, there must be some reason for it.
It may proceed from its quality, or it may
arise from the ball not being completely ad-
ministered ; for when a ball is not adeptly
given, and the horse gets part of it in his
teeth, he may only swallow a part, and the
residue may be dropped in his litter, and
never after be discovered. It may likewise
proceed from the habit or constitution of the
horse not being easily moved, so that he may
require a stronger dose ; and some animals
will keep physic longer in them than others,
before it operates.

Whatever the reason may be, we should not
be in haste to administer another dose until
we had used the ordinary expedients, and
waited to observe the effects.

When physic does not operate in the space of
thirty-six hours, keep the horse warm, for that
will assist the operation, and administer about
a quart of gruel, into which about a pint of
mild ale may be put ; warm and horn it down ;
then in a quarter of an hour afterwards, let
him be moved about at a brisk walk, or gentle
trot, but not sufficiently to heat him, or in any-
wise make him sweat. At night, give him a
moderately warm mash, into which put about
a handful of ground malt ; and if it does not
operate by the next morning, we should then
be inclined to doubt whether he had really
taken the physic, unless he has appeared sick,
which will be known by his being heavy and
dull, and refusing his hay. On the other
hand, if he has only a soft evacuation, it may
be in consequence of the warm gruel or mash
which has been given him. But if he throws
out a copious thin stool, having been sick
with it, it may be concluded that he has had
all his physic, or, at least, the greater part of
it ; yet, if his body is not kept open four-and-
twenty hours, having several copious evacua-
tions, we may consider his physic not to be
sufficiently strong, and should increase the
next dose accordingly; for, in general, the
first dose of physic operates the most. We

CONDITIONING.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [conditioninq.

therefore increase the second a little if we
think it necessary, and particularly if we do
not exactly know the constitution of the horse,
it being safer to under-do than to over-do it ;
and by the second dose we can pretty well
judge what his constitution will bear, and, of
course, proportion the dose accordingly.

On the other hand, it occasionally happens
that physic operates too powerfully, owing to
various causes, and sometimes to the constitu-
tion or habit of the horse's body. It may be that,
at the time of administering physic, he is weaker
than at other times ; and sometimes it may be
that the drugs are of a deleterious nature. In
these cases, you will observe the horse only
partialis pvirge, accompanied by a kind of
involuntary discharge, running down his hind
quarters underneath, and all down his hocks
and legs in a continuous wet and slimy kind of
stream. On these occasions, the horse must be
kept still, and great care taken that he does
not take cold, whilst he should be wiped as
dry and clean as possible. The evacuations
being of a very sharp and acrimonious nature,
if you find they do not abate in due course
of time, proper remedies must be given, or
the bowels may become so mucli irritated,
that superpurgation may be the consequence.
The best thing to give then is rice gruel,
which is made in the following manner. Take
a large teacup-full of rice, put it into a good-
sized saucepan, and boil until the rice is
perfectly soft, with two quarts of water. If
the whole of the water is absorbed by the
rice, put in two quarts more, and when this
boils, take it off the fire, and strain it through
a piece of tamis, squeezing the rice as much
as you can. AVhen this is done, break up
the rice as fine as possible, and put it back
into the gruel. "When at a proper heat, give
the hcrse about half, and, in about an hour^
the remainder. Bran mashes must not now
be given, but dry and strengthening food, if he
will eat. If the first quantity of rice gruel does
not have the desired effect, repeat it. This
gruel may be improved by dissolving an ounce
of gum-arabic to give with it, which will tend
to remove the irritability, and, at the same
time, strengthen the stomach, if impaired by
the excessive operation of the purging medi-
cine. When the purging has been thus ex-
cessive, we should let a clear week elapse

from the time the dung was set, before we
give another dose, to let the Btomacli and
intestines recover their lost tone, occasionally
administering the dissolved gum-arabic in his
water, which will greatly assist that purpose.
A'"ou must, consequently, bo mindful that the
next dose be less in quantity.

Horses having gone through their physic,
you proceed, by proper exercise and diet, to
get them into wind and condition for hunting.
The physicking has taken between three aud
four weeks to get them cleansed from their
soft foggy food, and now, about the same
space of time is to be allowed to get the flesh
firm, the coat clean, the limbs strengthened
by exercise, and the wind improved by suitable
management of diet. As so much pains has
been taken to cleanse the body of soft and
foggy food, we must now be careful that
nothing but clean wholesome food should be
given to the horse. For this purpose, a rack-
rein and muzzle must be provided, and they
must be alternately used. When the one is
taken off", the other should be put on : for
instance, put on the muzzle when it is ex-
pected that the horse will lie down at night.
This is to prevent him from eating his litter,
which some horses will do even when it is very
foul. When fresh litter is given, many will
prefer it to their hay : and although clean
straw is not injurious to horses that are not
required to gallop much, yet hunters aud
racers are not permitted to eat it, because it
oppresses the wind. The rack-rein is an iron
chain, fixed at the head of the stall, which
passes through a ring sewed in front of the
nose-band of the stall collar. It is fastened in
the same manner as a dog's chain to the ring
in the collar ; and, when dressing the horse, it
can, after passing it through the collar, be
made to fasten him as short as may be thought
proper ; but, at other times, the chain must be
lon*^ enough to permit the horse to feed out
of his rack, or out of his manger, though not
to let his head reach down to his litter.

The first thing to be done in the morning,
on coming to stable, is to take off" the muzzle
and put on the rack-rein ; then throw into the
manger about a quart, or a little better, of
oats, according to the constitution of the horse,
for some are poor feeders, and must be treated
in such manner as will best invite, or occasion

119

CONDITIONING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[conditioning.

tliem to eat ; while others, ou the other hand,
will eat all that is set before them, and must
be stinted to a proper allowance. The oats,
for these occasions, should be the best that can
be procured — dry old oats, short and plump,
clean from all kind of seeds, which are fre-
quently to be found, particularly amongst fo-
reign oats ; perfectly sweet, free from dust,
and white and clear. The oats should be well
sifted, and the husks, chaff, or any light oats
blown away, and the manger should be per-
fectly clean. When the horse has eaten his
oats, clear his dung from behind, him, but bu
careful not to disturb bis wet litter, so as to
occasion the vapour or stench to arise. Tou
may strip oiF his cloths, rub the dung, if any,
off his hind quarters, hocks, &c., and giving
him a light brush over, put on his exercising
cloth and saddle ; then turn him round, brush
his head and ears, put on his bridle, and take
him out for exercise. The stripping and brush-
ing are as refreshing to the horse as washing
is to ones- self after getting out of bed in the
morning. While the horses are out at exer-
cise, a person should be left at home to clear
away all the wet dung, immediately setting
doors and windows open, in order to have the
stable sweet against their return, and all the
stalls set fair, and the stable cleanly swept.

Eor exercise, choice should be made of the
driest and most open piece of turf, sod, or
heath that is in the neighbourhood, and, like-
wise where there is some gradual ascents, if of
half a mile or a mile in length all the better,
to give the horses some genth breathings, in
order to bring them into wind. They should be
walked the first half hour, letting them empty
themselves, yawn, stretch their necks, and enjoy
the sweet refreshing morning air, which is invi-
gorating, bracing, and strengthening both to man
and beast. The walks should be so managed as to
bring the horses about this time to a convenient
place tc give them a gentle gallop ; beginning
slow, and gradually increasing the pace till you
finish at a half or three-quarters speed. The
length of the gallop should be proportioned to
the strength or condition of the horse. If he
is faint, so as to sweat soon, stop in time, and
walk him, that he may recover his breath, and
cool himself. He must not be put into a tho-
rough sweat, except on those days appointed
for that purpose, which should be about twice
120

a week till he commences hunting, and then
he will not require any sweating in exercise.
In this manner, alternately walk and gallop, so
as not to sweat him till you find it time to re-
turn, which you should so manage as to keep
him out about two hours. After the conclu-
sion of the last gallop, the horse having reco-
vered his breath, and cool, it should be con-
trived to have water at hand to let him drink,
and then allow him an hour's walk home.
If the water should chill him, and make liis
coat stare, a gentle gallop to warm him will be
proper, hut he must not he sweated.

Horses generally prefer to stale on litter, as
they are not then splashed by it ; and if the
wet litter is spread in a convenient place, with-
out the stable — some yards are thus purposely
strewed — the horses, standing a minute or two
before they are put in the stable, or during the
time the groom dismounts, will stale, by which
means the stable will be kept clean and healthy.
When put into the stable, a bit of hay, well
shaken from dust and seeds, should be given.
The quality of hay for hunters should be the
choicest that can be procured, grown on a rich
meadow, and cut before it gets too ripe.
Hay, when it stands too long before it is cut,
may answer the farmer's purpose by seeding
his ground, and wanting less making ; but to
be good for a horse, and especially a hunter, it
should be cut when young, before it seeds, and
with the sap in it. If it is then well made,
and got in, in the dry, it will, fourteen months
after, cut out as green as a leek, and the flowers
will retain their beauty nearly as well as when
growing. Hay will never be better than when
twelve or fourteen months old : but such as we
have described is not always to be procured ;
yet good meadow hay, that has not been
heated too much in the stack, may be purchased
very frequently. Indeed, we have heard
some experienced followers of the chase say,
that they preferred it a little brown ; but, if it
is twelve months old, having a fragrant sweet
smell, it cannot be too green. New hay must
not, on any account, be given. We give this
caution because of the faintness which is in
new hay, and which will be as detrimental as
giving him grass ; that is to say, if it is meant
to preserve the horse in good hunting con-
dition.

Having put the horse to the rack-rein with

iM TMis ]p^aD)]D(n)Cie:

i2^ TMK ^fJP.=S^JB-]LM

coxDiTioNiNO.] :MODEli]S' VETEEINAEY PliACTICE. [conuitionino.

a bit of Imy before Inm, wliisp his legs, for tlieso
ought always to be the first and last things
attended to, and particularly after physic;
then strip his clothing half off ; that is, to about
the middle of the back, and give the fore-quar-
ters a good thorough dressing. This being
done, get dry clothing, and place on the parts
cleaned, slip off the exercising cloths, and dress
well his hind-quarters. This being done, re-
move the clothing from his fore-quarters, and
brush him well over, agreeably to the manner
we have before directed. After this, give his
feed of oats, being double the quantity, or
nearly so, to what was given before going out ;
then having whisped his legs as the last thing,
shake up his litter, and set the stable fair ; if he
has cleaned the rack of the hay — for it is best
to give but little at a time, that he may eat it
with better appetite — you may give a bit
more, if you think it necessary, but never give
more than he ivill clear ivith a good appetite.

Having been up at the stable and out at
exercise since five o'clock at this season of the
year, it will now be high time to breakfast.
Leave, therefore, the hunters on the rack-
rein, while you are discussing your morning
repast, and they will finish their hay.

On returning to the stable, observe that all
have cleared their racks. If they have had
sufficient time, and the racks not clear, take
the hay away, loosen the rack-reins, put on the
muzzles, and leave them for three hours quiet,
that they may lie down if they are so disposed.
It is a desirable thing for horses to rest their
legs at all convenient opportunities.

This will bring you to what is termed middle
day, or it may be one o'clock; for, as the days
at this season are beginning to get shorter, you
must be at the stable as punctual as the clock,
so that you may contrive to be at home from
exercise before dark. Tou should proceed
now, in like manner, as in the morning, putting
on the rack-rein, giving them a mouthful of
hay, and a feed of oats in moderation ; for they
are not to be tilled or incumbered with food,
particularly hay, when they are going to be
taken out. "While the horses are feeding, clear
the dung from behind them, as in the morning ;
then strip and brush them over previous to
putting on their exercising cloths and saddles,
and take them out, as in the morning. If you
are situated in a country that nft'ords a variety {

of suitabh; places for exercise, vary these as
often as convenient. This will bo the inoro
agreeable to both horse and man. Keep oft"
the gravel roads, choosing to go on the turf as
much as possible. Having been out about two
hours, in which time you have given the iiorses
two gentle breathings, let them have water,
and return.

The stable, as before, in your absence, should
be cleared of all wet litter, and aired and re-
freshed against your return. After giving the
horses the opportunity to stale, bring them into
the stable, and repeat the rubbing of their loo's,
thoroughly dressing them, having, at the same
time, given them a mouthful of hay to amuse
them. After dressing, give them a feed of oats,
and a bit more hay, if they have cleared the
rack of what they had at coining in. This will
bring you to about five o'clock in the afternoon,
at which time you may leave them on the
rack-rein to eat their hay ; and between seven
and eight return to finish up for the night. If
a sufficienc}'' was given them at leaving stable
at five o'clock, they will need no more, the
horses having had three hours to take their
hay. If a horse is a slow feeder, he ought to have
cleared his rack by this time; and such horses as
have not done this, should have it taken from
them ; for the horse that is glutted with hay
will not have any appetite for it ; and as it is
always standing by him, you should be mindful
not to give too much, so as to occasion him
to leave any. Tou have now to feed with oats
for the last feed ; see that all their cloths are
put on right, not atwist, but smooth, and with-
out a wrinkle about them, and that every horse
finishes his corn, not leaving any; then loosen
the rack-rein, put on the muzzle, and make up
a good bed. Having plenty of dry litter, and
a large stall to lay his legs out at full length,
leave him for the night.

This is the daily duty of the hunting stable,
without any material difference, except on the
days appropriated for sweating, whic!: must be,
at least, two in the week, till the imnting com-
mences. When this takes place, and if the
horse be hunted twice in the week, there will
be no occasion for sweating exercise.

We would not recommend hunters to be
kept over-warm with cloths. They are Ire-
quently exposed to cold and wet ; and the more
tender thev are kept, the more likely they are

121

CONDITIONING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[conditioning.

to take cold ; therefore, hoods and fillet-cloths
nriv be dispensed with ; but we think it highly
necessaiy that each horse should have two
cloths — one for exercise, which will occasionally
be brought home wet and dirty ; the other for
putting on in the stable. The cloths should be
occasionally scoured ; and the exercising cloth,
as often as it gets damp by rain, sweat, or dirt,
carefully dried.

On the days for giving the horses sweating
exercise, which may be on Tuesdays and Satur-
days, or any other days equally distant, contrive
that the sweats may be given as contiguous to
liome as possible, particularly if the air is thin
and piercing. The object of this is to enable
vou to get home in good time for the purpose
of scraping and rubbing them dry. When a
horse is in a thorough sweat, and a chilling air
penetrating under a wet cloth, he is almost
sure to take cold, cough, &c. ; therefore, the
stable or rubbing-house should be conveniently
at hand to prevent such a circumstance from
occurring.

After having walked the animal for about an
hour, bring him to the place where it is in-
tended to gallop him, and begin very mode-
rately, gradually increasing his speed till it
attains to half or three-quarters, if he is
hard to sweat. Continue him at that rate
until he is in a proper perspiration, which will
be sooner or later, according to his state. If
he is fleshy and foggy, he will perspire soon, and
his wind will be distressed. In this case, he
must be galloped the slower, not to distress
his wind, but to make him sweat, which will
reduce his fat, and bring him into wind as that
diminishes. If tlie horse is in good wind, and
hard to sweat, his condition is improving, and
stronger gallops may be given him without
injury. The object and intention of these
sweats are, to those that are in wind, to keep
them so ; and to those that are not in wind,
by strong exercise, to get them into that desir-
able condition, by reducing all grossness arising
from too much fat. The exercise, likewise,
cleanses the coat, and makes it sleek and soft ;
for the imperceptible perspiration continually
going on, adheres so closely to the roots of the
hair or coat, that it is not easily got out ; but
these profuse sweatings bring it away, when,
if the coat is-well dressed after a good sweat-
ing, it becomes much finer.
122

The condition of the "havae is to be dis-
covered and judged of by his sweating. If he
perspires soon, and puts on the appearance of
soap lather, he is then what is called foggy,
and must have strong exercise to carry it ofl'.
If he requires strong exercise to bring him to
a sweat, and the sweat is clear like water, and
dries soon, he is then in good condition, and
fit for immediate work ; but if he perspires
profusely with little exertion, and it is thin,
though like water, and he is a long time
drying, it shows a weak, faint habit of body.
Indeed, we may call it a bad constitution, that
will not bear much work, especially as a
hunter. Some horses sweat more profusely
than others. This, however, is not always to
be regarded as weakness, if it proceeds from
strong exercise, and soon dries. Constitutions
differ in horses as much as in men.

The horse having had his sweating gallop,
should be brought into the stable, and well
scraped and rubbed dry, with all possible dis-
patch. A clean dry cloth — not the one he has
been sweated in — should be put upon him,
and should be made clean against its being
required again. If he had no water while out,
give him some after he is perfectly cool and
comfortable; and if the weather is cold,
the chill should be taken off, but it need not
be made warm. Water that has stood several
hours in a warm stable, is sufficiently chilled,
and may be given ; or, after rubbing him,
he may be walked about, and v.-ater given, and
a gentle gallop taken, to warm him, but not to
heat him. Then he should be brought home.

A horse treated in this manner will, in three
or four. weeks, after having been through his
physic, be fit for hunting, if proper regard is
paid to his feeding. His food should be of
the best and cleanest quality, and the quantity
should be regulated according to circumstances;
such as size, constitution, &c., &c. Having
ai-rived at this stage, the daily exercise of the
horse will now be, on the average, not less than
twenty miles a day. With this exercise, the
quantity he eats will not hurt him, if he does
not get too fat; for the hunter must have
plenty of good feed, but must not be bur-
thened with flesh. If he feeds heartily, he
must have strong exercise to keep his flesh
down. If inclined to run to belly and be fat,
he must be stinted proportionably, or occa-

CONDITIONING.] MODET^N YETERINAEY PEACTTCE. [oonditionino.

sionally given alterative medicine ; but when
he comes to hunt throe times a week, there will
be no necessity to stint him, and ho will never
be burthened with flesh with such exercise.

The horse being got into condition, and the
hunting season commenced, the sweating pro-
cess ceases, and instead of giving exercise, to
keep his flesh down, and preserve his wind,
the exercise is now for tlie purpose of walking
ofl" stiftuess, occasioned by over-exertion ;
bracing the system which may have been
relaxed by excessive work, and creating an ap-
petite. Hard running and long distances, con-
tinued for many hours, will afiect a horse more
or less, particularly at the beginning of the
season, before he is accustomed to it, so that
his appetite will fail as well as his limbs become
stiff". Attention must, therefore, be turned
towards recovering him from that debility
which is caused by over-fatigue.

Toung horses, and such as are not seasoned
for hunting, though in condition, are mostly
affected by severe days. These, therefore,
must not be expected to hunt more than one
day in the week ; for it will take nearly the
rest of the week for them to recover from
a hard run, either with fox or stag. Seasoned
hunters, however, will stand their work twice,
and, in many cases, three times a week ; though,
for a continuance, this is too much for any
horse, unless it is with harriers only, where
there is seldom much hard running.

To order the horses well when they hunt, feed
and dress them much after the same manner as
before directed ; only, when going out in the
morning, rather shorten their allowance of hay
in the evening, and increase their corn, but do
not gorge them. They should always have a
good bed to invite them to lie down, and stretch
their legs ; but the muzzles must be kept on ;
for, though many do not constantly use these,
yet, if they be used at all, this is the most proper
time to do it. In the morning the horse should
be put on the rack-rein, but hay should not be
given him. This we would recommend for
constant practice ; and if it is made a rule not
to give him hay until he comes home from
exercise, he will not pine, or look or long for
it. If the distance is considerable where the
hounds are to meet, or if the covert be twelve
or more miles distance, the horse may have a
moderate feed of oats. Let him be thoroughly

cleaned, his legs well rubbed, and his saddle put
on, moderately girthed, at least au hour boforo
going out. This will cause liiin to empty iiim-
self ; for most horses, when the saddle is put
on, relieve themselves by dunging if they can.
A quarter of an hour before wanted, put on
his bridle, and have him ready, buckling hiiu
to the stall-reins. Let him stand till wanted,
with a cloth thrown over the saddle.

When a horse returns from hunting, it neces-
sarily follows that all expedition should be used
to get him clean, and made to feel comfortable.
If there has been very hard running, and ha
comes home leg-weary and tired, cleaning will
be more refreshing than feeding, and therefore
must be first attended to. He may have a sweet
bit of choice hay put into his rack to amuse
him, if he will eat while he is dressing ; bur
when it has been a long day, and hard riding,
many animals will be off" their feed, particu-
larly young and unseasoned horses. Tiiis, as
a matter of course, is to be expected, though it
is most desired that they should feed, which is
a sign of a constitution for extraordinary
labour. On the hounds being drawn ofi^, and the
day's hunt finished, the horse should be tho-
roughly cleaned. His head and ears should be
particularly well rubbed, and his body made
perfectly dry in every part. He should be
minutely examined to see that he has received
no injuries from stakes, stumps, boughs, bram-
bles, thorns, rails, flints, &c. ; likewise, that be
has not been galled with the saddle, girths, or
breast-plate, if he has worn one. "When he
has been refreshed with a thorough good clean-
ing, he will be more inclined to feed than
before ; but if he will not, his appetite will come
as his weariness wears off.

On returning home from hunting, it is usual
to let the horse drink — for he is sure to bo
thirsty — at some convenient pond. But ho
should not be suffered to drink too mucii at a
time. About ten go-downs will be sufiicient,
till he is ridden to another convenient place,
where he may be allowed to have the like
quantity, and thus by degrees he will quench
his thirst before he gets home, which will be
better than letting him drink a vast quantity
of cold water at once. Should an opportunity
not have been had of giving him water on the
way home, he must, on his return, have it with
the chill off; and what is even better than this,

123

CONDITIOIXG.]

THE HOESE, AND

[CONDITIONINO.

a bucket of chilled water, but not warm, into '
which about a handful of oatmeal should be :
thrown. When his thirst has been partly
quenched he will probably eat. I

The legs, from excessive labour will, ofj
course, be weary, and often inclined to heat
and inflammation, particularly if the horse has
been ridden among brambles, thorns, or furze.
The greatest attention must, therefore, be paid
to them. Hot tcater should always be ready
against his being brought in from hunting, for
the purpose of washing his legs ; for nothing is
more grateful and refreshing to these members,
when they burn with heat and weariness, than
soaking them well in hot water. It opens the
pores of the skin, and draws out the lieat. Let
the water be hot, and bathe the legs well with
it, having two pieces of woollen cloth, one to
remain in the water, whilst the other is being
used, so that by alternately changing them the
leg will be kept constantly warm. Apply these
well round the fetlock, joints, and pasterns. Do
this for at least three-quarters of an hour ; after
which wipe them as dry as possible with a
sponge ; then carefully feel with your hands for
any brambles or thorns that may be lodged in
the skin ; for the hand may now discover what
the eye cannot perceive. Whatever may be
found of this kind, must be picked out with
care, so as not to enlarge the apertures they
themselves have made, nor break or leave any
part of them in. Much care, therefore, is ne-
cessary in extracting these foreiga bodies ; for
they frequently produce a blemish, from the
scab or scratch they occasion, by which the
value of the horse is greatly deteriorated.

In some instances we have known thorns to
penetrate so deep as to break within the skin ;
and, if such are not discovered, which it is
sometimes difficult to do, an abscess will form.
If this should be the case, immediately on
discovering it, take linseed meal, four ounces,
common turpentine, one ounce : mix well
together with scalding water, and apply warm
to the part affected, in the shape of poultice.
This, in all probability, will draw out the
offending particle ; after which it must be
dressed, as a common wound, with tincture of
myrrh and aloes, three or four times a day.

A case of the above kind occurred with a
valuable horse, when the village farrier was
Bent for. This professor opened the tumour
124

on the top or upper part, the consequence of
which was that there was little or no discharge.
He then introduced a piece of tow saturated
with butter of antimony ; the consequence of
which was a wound of an amazing extent. The
veterinary surgeon was then sent for, when a few
days' poulticing, accompanied with cooling medi-
cine, produced a healing process ; but the horse
had always a blemish. Being a well-known
good hunter, however, this did not take so
much off his value as might have been expected.
Had the stupid fellow punctured below, instead
of above the abscess, it would have relieved
itself, and prevented the blemish, and, of
course, the disagreeable eye-sore.

We mention this, in order to show the
necessity of carefully examining for thorns.
Should a similar circumstance happen, take
a middling-sized abscess lancet, and open the
abscess at the bottom. By this means the
accumulated pus will discharge itself. Then
treat as above. Apply a bandage round the
part, which will keep the lips of the wound toge-
ther, and accelerate the healing of it.

Having carefully searched, and extracted
brambles or thorns, whisp and wipe the legs
pei'fectly dry. After this, and after the
animal has had his water, if he will not feed,
it is most likely for the best. Extraordinary
exertion, perhaps, more than he has been sea-
soned to, may have caused an inward or sym-
pathetic fever ; and, until he has had rest, free
circulation of air, and a little cooling medicine,
the appetite will not return. In such a case
give — Barbadoes aloes, one drachm ; ginger, two
drachms, formed into a ball, with half an ounce
of common soap. Give this to the horse if his
appetite has not returned by the morning after
the chase. Some persons mahe themselves
very uneasy on such occasions ; and many are
for giving a warm mash, which, of all things,
the horse will not eat. Others are for giving a
cordial ball, or something comfortable in the
shape of a warm drink, all of which is of no
use whatever. We recommend patience until
the morrow ; and if it should be deemed neces-
sary, repeat the medicine. If nothing of a
dangerous tendency exhibits itself, such as in-
flammation of the lungs, &c., make him up a
good bed, and leave him to rest.

In the morning, the horse will, in all proba-
bility, feed a little ; you must then proceed as

CONDITIONING.] MODERN VETERINAET PRACTICE. [conditionino.

before directed, and take liim out to exercise ;
after which, take linseed meal, two ounces,
glauber salt, two ounces, warm water, three
pints ; give this drink the moment he comes
in from exercise, and in the course of two days
the horse will be lit for work again. Keep
giving hira sufficient exercise to take off that
stiftuess which naturally occurs Irom extra-
ordinary exertion ; and the fresh air will greatly
contribute to recover his lost appetite.

Though we term this walking exercise, we
do not mean that you are not to exceed a
walk the whole time you are out. What we
mean is to give the animal such exercise as
will put the blood in free circulation without
overheating it. A gentle gallop, therefore,
may be given him for a short distance, but not
such as will cause him to break out in a sweat,
particularly after giving water : gallop by way
of warming it. Choose the airiest place for
exercise, such as open downs, or high and dry
grounds ; and when you return to stable, the
horse, if he has not been very sick indeed, will
have found his appetite.

Horses that become weary, and sicken at a
day's hunt — which may be the case with even
good animals, at the commencement of the
season, or young horses, till they get properly
seasoned to their work — will require some days
to recover before they are fit to hunt again.
A week's respite may be necessary with some ;
others will recover in half the time. The
sooner the horse comes to his appetite, the
sooner he will be fit for labour, provided he
has not been nursed with warm mashes and
comfortable drinlcs, as tliey are termed, which
have a tendency to relax and open the body,
and should only be given when he is in reality
ill; but loss of appetite from over-fatigue only
requires rest to be restored ; therefore, avoid
all the nostrums of the stable; which we are
sorry, in too many instances, abound.

With regard to heat, or inflammation from
the saddle or girths, washing the parts with
goulard, is, perhaps, the best thing that can
be done ; and to the legs, if hot and swollen
with fatigue, is the best repellant and cooler,
and should be always kept ready at hand for
such occasions. To prepare it, get a quart
bottle, and take — extract of lead, 4 dracinus ;
water sufficient to fill the bottle. The stable
Ehould never be without this lotion. It is

cheap, efficacious, and ought always to bo at
hand. Washing the logs— whicli may have re-
ceived scratches, &c., in hunting— with it, will
heal them quicker than any otlier application.

Tiio feet are likewise to bo attended to at
all times. On the horse's return home, all
road-dirt, or gravel, should be carefully picked
out ; and particular care should be taken that
no gravel is lodged under the shoe at the heels
and quarters, as by such lodgment, corn may
be produced, with all its natural consequences
of tenderness and lameness. AVhen the legs
are washed with warm water to cool and
refresh them, it will, at the same time, be well
to relieve with it the feet, whicli must have un-
dergone a considerable quantity of labour.
AVater is very beneficial to the feet, which are
less injured by travelling on wet roads than on
dry ones ; and the hoof at grass, being con-
tinually wet with the dew and moist ground,
is in a better state than when kept in the
stable. The casual wet met with in exercise
on the roads, or the moisture of the turf or
grass, where exercise is given, will contribute
to preserve the feet from the injurj"- which
continually standing in a hot and dry stable
occasions. It is, perhaps, not too much to
say, that one -half of the pleasure-horses kept
in London, incur lameness, and are ruined by
standing so much in the stable.

Training the hunter is a simple process, all
that is required being to bring him into good
wind, without, at the same time, reducing him
too low in fi-esh, or injuring his sinews ; since,
on a long chase, more especially over a heavy
country, a horse needs the aid of his fuL
bodily strength, and of his unimpaired tendi-
nous and muscular powers. It is extremely
dangerous to ride over the country, a horse
which is weak in his joints, or has the commou
hurt in his back sinews; but the danger is
tenfold in taking a flying leap upon such an
animal where the opposite descent is con-
siderable, and the stress upon his lower limbs
in his landing, with a heavy weight upon his
back, must be excessive. Training must com-
mence with two or three doses of physic should
the horse be gross, and not have been pre-
viously trained. A young horse, in his first
training, will require most work; but it is
better rather to under-do than exceed in this,
because if a horse come into the field rather

125

CONDITIONING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[teimmins.

imder-worked, being full of good meat and
heart, the easy remedy is to favour and ride
him carefully the first week or two; but
should the training groom set you upon him
liarassed and weakened by too much exercise,
he will get worse as the season advances, and,
perhaps, be totally ruined by the end ; ex-
clusive of the risk of failing in a long and
important day. Old hunters from spring
grass, which they ever ought to enjoy, can
scarcely be trained too lightly. The true test
is, to see that their wind in its course is free
nnd unembarrassed. To this point, however,
their exercise must at any rate extend. The
lighter the horse's clothing the better, in
view of the heats and colds he must necessarily
undergo in the chase. An early morning's
gallop, at a good steady stride, but not speedy,
of a mile or two, with a canter after water in
the afternoon, is sufficient for the hunter, and
two months ought to bring him into good
condition. A young horse may have, once a
week, a tolerably sharp rally for one or two
miles, a method which should never be prac-
tised with a seasoned hunter ; to which, indeed,
walkino- exercise may be often substituted for
the gallop.

Some think that even the simple process
now described is not necessary, and that
horses that are taken up and worked in the
day, and with a feed or two of corn, and
turned out at night, with an open stable or
shed to run into if they please, are as active,
healthy, and enduring, as those which are
most carefully trained, and confined to the
stable during the hunting season. Many a
farmer has boasted that he could beat the
most numerous and the best appointed field,
and that his horse never wanted wind, and
rarely tired.

It is true that the farmer may enjoy a good
day's sport on the animal that carries him to
market, or possibly, occasionally performs more
menial drudgery; but the frothy lather with
which such a horse is covered, in the early
part of the day, unmistakeably evinces his
inferiority. There is, however, one point in
which the untrained horse has the advantage.
Accustomed to all weathers, he rarely suffers,
when, after a sharp burst, there comes a sudden
check, whilst the pampered and shivering
stabled horse is exposed with him for a con-
126

siderable time to a piercing north-easter. The
one cares nothing about it ; the other may
carry home the seeds of dangerous disease.

TRIMMING.
Many gentlemen attached to their horses,
are sometimes fond of trimming them. This
operation frequently fills up a leisure hour in
the morning, and there is a self-gratification in
being able to perform it without the assistance
of any one. AYe have known some gentlemen
so celebrated for squaring a horse's tail, that
they have frequently been invited to perform
that operation for many distant friends ; con-
sequently it will not be out of place to in-
troduce the method of performing this opera-
tion in the most gentlemanly and skilful
manner.

Trimming is one of the principal duties in
the business of a groom, and every one who
has the care of horses, should qualify himselt
to perform it, as it is allowed to set off an
animal to much advantage. Many horses are
exceedingly troublesome to trim, and, in order
to accomplish it, require most extraordinary
means to be adopted. We have known large
sums of money given for trimming such
troublesome horses. We are of opinion that
the animals become so from the improper
methods taken with them at first, by those
who had not patience to coax, nor ability to
accomplish by compulsion, and therefore em-
ployed such means as made the horse des-
perate, without being able to effect their pur-
pose. Most horses have such a dislike to be
trimmed, particularly about the head, that
few stand without the twitch ; and if they
stand tolerably quiet with that, it is as much
as can be expected ; but if, with a little coaxing,
it can be done without the twitch, it will be
the better. There is great care, skill, and
judgment required in trimming: care, that
you do no injury, by the unsteadiness of the
horse, with your scissors; skill, that you may
not disfigure him by scoring, notching, and
the like ; and judgment to trim him in such a
style as will be most proper and advantageous
to his appearance.

Begin at the head— first, with the foretop,
and clip close and smooth only that part on the
forehead which is in the way of the front of the
bridal and stall-collar. Next clip away that

TRIMMING.]

MODEKN VETERINAEY PEACTICB.

[teimmino.

part on the poll, where the head-stall of the
bridle, or stall-collar comes, taking care to
remove as little towards the node as possible ;
or, if the animal is clipped beyond where the
head-stall of the bridle comes, it will disfigure
the neck. The next point is to trim out the
ear, which will be found a little difficult to do ;
and few horses will stand quiet to have it done
without being pinched with the twitch.

The scissors most handy for trimming ears,
are such as are narrow in the blades, the points
not too sharp, but well cut. Begin with
clipping the inner part of the ear, going not
too near the edges, till the long hair on
the inside is cleared out ; then gradually ap-
proach the edges, drawing the outside skin of
the ear- back, so as not to clip so close as to
leave the edge of the ear bare, and thereby
disfigure it. The outside skin of this organ is
very loose; and as it is held with the left
hand, while being clipped with the right, it is
:;pt to be drawn so far forward as to deceive
the operator, by making him clip too near the
edge. Care must therefore be taken that no
notches or scallops appear on this part. Having
clipped to the edges, and no farther, the out-
side hair will stand projecting beyond these,
quite even and regular if the operation has
been properly done.

At the bur and root of the ear, a quantity
of long flossy hair grows, which must be partly
clipped away, and that on the inside must not
beieft in scores and notches. You finish with
the scissors, by clipping the hair that projects
round the edge of the ear, cutting it all round,
so as to preserve the exact beauty and shape
of the organ, leaving, to be singed at the root,
a quantity of hair which the scissors would
only score.

All superfluous hair about the face and
beard, under the eyes, and about the nose
and lips, should be clipped as closely as possible.
Eough horses, lately come from grass, and
coarse-bred ones, have a quantity of unneces-
sary hair growing very thick under the throp-
ple, and about the throat. This must be re-
moved.

The fore-legs are the next parts to be
handled, and great pains should be taken with
them. Thorough-bred animals, kept in the
stable, and properly groomed, seldom require
trimming about these members, as all super-

fluous hair rubs off with their dressings. AVhen
lately taken in from grass, liowever, a littlo
long hair will appear on the back sinews, and
on the fetlock-joints, which may bo taken off,
by using a small quantity of powdered resin,
say as much as may be taken up between tlie
finger and thumb ; and this will remove it with
as much ease to the horse, as facility to the
person trimming. Let the compressed hairs be
cut to any length, provided no ridges will be
seen ; and if properly done, it will scarcely be
perceived that it has been touched. The
coarser the breed of the animal, the more
useless hair will be found on the legs, and
within the pastern. "Where it is abundant, it
must be removed with the scissors, beginning
next to the heel. Clip it clean out within the
pastern, and under the fetlock-joint. The ad-
joining part will then be able to be so nicely
tapered, that the sudden break from short to
long will not appear, which otherwise would
be the case. The soft spongy piece of flesh
at the back extremity of the pastern -joints,
can be pared down, if necessary, with a sharp
knife, and the portions above left in such a
manner as to resemble the legs of a thorough-
bred horse. The hair, up the back sinews,
must be raised with the comb, and cut in
equal lengths, tapering it towards the sinew,
in such a way as to prevent the appearance
of all scores or ridges, allowing that portion
next to the back sinews to be the shortest.

As there are some horses a little bent at the
knee, the hair, within that joint, should not be
chpped too close, as it will make that defect
appear more conspicuous, and defeat the object
of trimming, which is to make the animal ap-
pear to more advantage than belonged to it
before the operation was put in practice. Care
must, theretbre, be taken to conceal as many
of the defects as exist. Where the legs are
straiglit, however, all the flossy hair within
that joint may be removed. Eound the coro-
net of the hoofs the hair should be clipped
regular and even. The four legs being thus
trimmed, there only remains the tail for the
further operation of the scissors ; for the mane,
unless it is what is called hogged, must not be
touched with that instrument.

As fashion and fancy are ever wavering, the
tail and ears have always been subject to such
changes as are agreeable to the taste of the

127

TBIMMING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[trimming.

times. At one period, a switch tail ; at an-
other ; a full bushy tail ; then a blood tail ; then
another; and then again a short switch tail,
about a foot and a-half long. This being the
case, it may here be as well to make a few re-
marks upon them separately and individually.
The switch tail requires no cutting ; the long
hair being left on it after the end of the dock
is broken off, is pulled underneath, and at the
sides, with an iron instrument, made for the
purpose— but now seldom to be seen, except
m the carter's stables— till it is tapered to
a point, leaving only about eight inches below
the dock.

There is much reason in this sort of tail,
seeing that nature designed this appendage to
strike the flies from the bodies of such animals as
are possessed of one. Man, however, to accom-
modate himself, denudes the brute of its natural
property, simply because the tail annoys him
when it is switched about in hot or dirty wea-
ther, thus depriving the animal of that which |
was intended for its own especial comfort.

The bushy tail is permitted, to preserve all
the hair that grows upon it. Holding the tail
to that elevation in which the animal usually
carries it, the scissors are employed to cut in
a perpendicular direction, within about half an
inch of the end of the dock. There is much
art and ingenuity in cutting tails of this kind
perfectly square, leaving both sides of equal
length, and permitting no projections or hol-
lows at the end.

The brush-tail was formerly deemed suitable
to such horses as were well nicked, and carried
it high, and bent upwards. A tail of this kind
was rounded in such a manner, that, when it
was up, it resembled the hair of a brush. Much
ingenuity is required to cut it true and even.

The blood tail has been in vogue for many
years, and is perhaps the most becoming of
any. It requires the least art or ingenuity in
cutting. The hair has only to be combed out
and held together with the left hand, when the
ends are cut oft square, at a proper length,
generally about three inches below the end of
the dock. After this it is combed out, and
any irregularities that may appear are taken
away. The hair of the blood horse's tail is
generally thin, and of an easy flowing nature ;
and having always a becoming appearance, is,
as we have said, greatly iu fashion.
128

The thin tail is a mean representation of the
blood tail; and tails of half or inferior bred
horses, are fuller and more bushy than those of
blood animals. Hence, to bring these to some
resemblance of the blood tail, the under hair
is plucked to thin it, and by such means they
are made to appear like a thin ragged tail.
The ends are squared in the same manner as
blood tails are done.

Thin-tailed horses have, in general, been re-
marked to be good ones. But the difierenco
between them and blood animals is easily dis-
covered; and for this reason should, perhaps,
be more properly denominated ragged-tailed.

After all these operations, which we have so
minutely described, there only remains for the
mane to be pulled and singed. To do this,
first, comb it thoroughly, laying it very smooth
and even. Then begin at the top, and taking
hold of a few of the longest hairs at the points
with the right hand, separate them from the
other hair, by moving the comb in an upward
direction. If you have hold of no more than
would be about the thickness of a straw, twist
the hair round the back of the comb, and pluck
it out. Continue to act iu like manner till
that part is reduced to the thinness and length
desired. Proceed in the same way down the
mane, making all alike, and repeatedly combing
it out. Hairs left longer than the rest must
be plucked, not cut. The fore-top is a great
ornament, and should be left long, so that it
will tuck under the bridle, and reach three or
lour inches below. The extreme ragged points
may be taken off" with the scissors, so that the
mane may be left thin at the points. It is not
to be squared, however, so as to look thick and
bushy. Singeing now finishes the operation of
trimming. Eough horses, newly taken from
grass, usually require a good deal of singeing
all over,, they having long downy hair project-
ing beyond the rest of their coats.

Eor the purpose of singeing, a candle with a
large wick is required, and the head is the first
part to commence with. The long downy hair
which projects beyond the rest, may be singed
to a level with the coat. The outside of the
ears will have some; and there will be much at
the bur of these. The candle must not be kept
long in one place, or it may burn the animal ;
therefore, where there is much singeing re-
quired, it is better to rub the singed part, to

TEIMMINO.]

MODERN VETElilNARY PK.iCTlCE.

[food.

let it cool, and apply the candle again. Take
care, however, not to continue this so long as
to blister the skin. The places whicli want the
most singeing, are at the root of the ears, the
thropple, about the throat, and the adjoining
part of the neck. Put the hand now over the
eyes, and singe all the light straggling hairs
perceived about them and the brows, forehead,
cheeks, beard, and the like. The thropple and
throat require nuniy repetitions, the hair being
so abundant and tliiek, that it is extremely
necessary that frequent wipiugs be resorted to,
to see that the singeing has not been performed
irregularly.

The head and throat being operated upon,
and finished, with a candle, the remaining parts
of the body are to be singed with straw. For
this purpose, take as much long clean straw at
a time as has about the thickness of three
fingers, and lighting one end, begin at the neck,
and pass the flame from one part to another.
Great care must be taken not to singe the
mane ; proceeding thence to the chest, shoul-
ders, breast, and every part where long and
downy hair is perceived projecting beyond
the general coat, being cautious not to make
the blaze too large, or continue it too long in
cue place, particularly where there is but little
hair, as under the flank, and within the thighs,
&c. Then giving the horse a good wiping,
and brushing over completely, the trimming is
finished.

"VVe may observe, that horses which have
been kept for a time in the stable, and pro-
perly groomed, have not those long downy
coats, and consequently do not require singe-
ing all over the body. The beard, the ears,
mane, and the tail, are generally all that a
blood animal requires to be trimmed when he
is kept in the stable. Coarser animals, how-
ever, require the heels and other parts to be
trimmed, though the coat may be kept in
such a state as not to stand in need of it.
"We have observed that some horses are trouble-
some to trim. The means usually adopted, in
addition to the twitch on the nose, or some-
times on the ear, are those of the gag with
the halter, put through the mouth, and over
the ear: the more that horses struggle with
these appliances, the more they gag and pinch
themselves.

To keep the legs still, while trimming, a

person should be employed to hold up one
while the other is undergoing the operation.
If a hind leg, a side-lino may bo put on to
draw up the other, which ia not being trimmed.
These are the usual expedients, but they
ought only to be put in practice when the horse
cannot be coaxed to stand without them.

An abundance of litter in the stall is ad-
visable, as it may prevent accidents in the
event of the horse struggling hard whilst
undergoing the operation.

FOOD.

In regulating the food of a horse, the first
points to be attended to are quality aiid quan-
tity, which ought to be proportioned to his
habit of body or constitution, and the nature
of his work. If tlie quality is bad, it will make
him foul, and will not afford the same degree
of nutriment that clean wholesome food will
yield : if he is fed too plentifully for the work
or exercise he has, it will make him too fleshy
and gross, and probably do him material injury.
Again, if a disproportionate quantity of hay ia
given, it will cause him to drink too freely ;
blowing him out with a description of food
which aff"ords the least nutriment. A horse
thus fed cannot endure much labour, and his
wind becomes distressed.

Hay, however, is the natural food for horses,
but is not sufficiently strengthening for
them to work upon now-a-days ; therefore, to
be kept in condition, they must be fed
sparingly with it, although it be of the very best
quality. The quantity necessary for a horse
depends much on his size, constitution, and
the nature of the work he has to perform.
Hence, if he is put to fast work, his food
should be of that quality that aff'ords the most
nutriment, that lies in the smallest compass,
and requires the least water to digest it.
When these are attended to, his wind will be
the least distressed. If his work is hard, that
is, continued for several hours, but not at any
extraordinary speed, he may have a greater
quantity of hay, and even of beans with his
oats. Chaff", if sweet and good, is proper for
some animals that have thin light carcases, and
not worked hard. Such as eat their corn greedily
without masticating it, and scatter it among
their litter, should have a handt'ul or two of
good sweet clover chaff; which will be iiifiuitely

129

TOOD-l

THE HOESE, AND

[MANGEB-rEEDTNG.

serviceable, as it will oblige them to chew or
masticate their oats with the chafF before they
can swallow it. But though chaff is filling, it
must BE sjparmghj given, as it fills them up,
and inclines them to drink much, when they
will appear plump and fair, hut not he in con-
dition for %corlc. It is most proper for slow
draught horses.

The quantity of hay necessary for a saddle-
horse, is from eight to sixteen pounds 'per day,
according to size, constitution, and his work.
About twelve pounds will be found generally
sufficient ; but large carriage horses require
from sixteen to twenty pounds. If horses get
lank and hollow in the flank and quarters,
their allowance should be increased ; but, on
the contrary, and for the sake of having them
flit and plump, they must not be supplied with
too much hay and water. An animal when
fat, is less fit for work than when lean, pro-
vided his leanness is not occasioned by starva-
tion, for he may be rendered poor by his work
exceeding his keep. If a horse is stinted to
an allowance that keeps him in tolerable con-
dition with only a little walking exercise, and
then put to work without an increase of food,
he will, of course, become thin ; but if not
given so much work as to exhaust his strength,
as well as his flesh, he will be nothing the
worse for it. Increase his food, and he will
be better for w'ork than before.

Oats of quality are the most nutritious food
for saddle-horses, when given in proper quan-
tities ; say three-quarters per day, provided his
■R'ork is no more than exercise ; but if the
horse is kept to constant hard work, he is in
no danger of being over-fed if he has as much
as he can eat. The qualities of oats will be
discussed further on.

Beans are excellent and stimulating for hard-
worked animals; but of their properties we
shall speak under their own specific headings.
Here, however, we may observe that the small
and plump bean is usually the best, by all means,
for such horses as are either lightly worked or
required to go at speed, as they need more
water to digest them, and swell in the stomach.
They may, however, be allowed to animals
that travel at a moderate rate, or such as are
employed in draught work. They are also
good for coach or omnibus horses if given in
small quantities.
130

Water is usually given twice a day ; some,
however, give it three times ; but this plan of
watering does not do so well for travelling as
for draught horses. Soft water is esteemed
preferable to hard spring water ; hence rivers
and running streams, or such springs as supply
ponds, where the water gets impregnated and
softened by a loomy or chalky soil, is better
than hard spring pump water. The quantity
in this, as in food, must also be regulated by
circumstances, size of horse, constitution, &c.
Some animals will not drink immoderately, and
may safely be left to their discretion ; wiiile
others, if permitted, will swill, and render
themselves incapable of work, by causing im-
moderate perspiration and distress of wind.
"When the work is done for the day, a reason-
able quantity may be allowed. Half a stable-
pailful of water is generally sufficient for the
morning.

MANGER-FEEDING.

The system of manger- feeding which has now,
for some years, been adopted on the road, arose
no doubt from a desire in the proprietors of
horses to till the stomachs of their animals in
the shortest possible space of time, in order
that they might get more rest on the road;
and among farmers it is becoming more general.
It is certainly well adapted for horses not over-
worked through speed ; whilst it is an econo-
mical way of feeding, as by mixing a portion
of chafi" with the corn and beans, the animal is
compelled to chew his food. He cannot bolt
the straw or hay ; and while forced to grind the
chafi", he also grinds the oats and beans. By
the adoption of this plan more nourishment is
yielded, and the stomach is more slowly filled.
Independently of this, the increased quantity of
saliva thrown out in the lengthened grinding
operation softens the food, and renders it better
fitted for digestion.

Chaff may be composed of equal quantities
of clover or meadow hay, and wheaten, oaten,
or barley straw, cut into pieces of a quarter or
half an inch in length, and mixed well to-
gether ; the quantity of oats or beans is after-
wards added, and mixed with it. The beans>
and oats should be bruised, because the whole
oat is apt to slip out of the chaff and be lost ;
but when it is bruised, and especially if the
chaff is a little wetted, this will be less likely

MANGEE-FEEDiNO.] MODEEN VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [manqer-feediko

Ho

to occur ; and even if a portion of it escape the
grinders, it will be partly prepared for dii};es-
tion by the act of bruising. Tlie prejudice
against bruising the oats is, in so far as regards
the slow draught horse, entirely unfounded.
The quantity of straw in the chad" will always
be sufficient to counteract any supposed pur-
gative quality in the bruised oats. Animals of
quicker draught, unless they are naturally dis-
posed to scour, will thrive better with bruised
than with whole oats ; inasmuch as a greater
quantity of nutriment will be extracted from
the food, and it will be easy to proportion the
quan' ity of straw or beans necessaiy to coun-
teract any mischievous consequences to the
bowels of the horse. The principal alteration
that should be made in the diet of the post or
stage-coach horse, should be to increase the
quantity of hay, and diminish that of the straw.
Two trusses of hay may be cut with one of
straw. It is remarked by Professor Stewai-t,
that " many horses swallow their corn in great
haste ; and when much is eaten, that habit is
exceedingly dangerous. The stomach is filled
— it is overloaded before it has time to make
preparation for acting on its contents — the
food ferments, and painful or dangerous colic
ensues. By adding chafl" to his corn, the horse
must take more time to eat it, and time is
given for the commencement of digestion be-
fore fermentation can occur. In this way
chaff is very useful, especially after long fasts."
This system, however, is not well adapted to
either the hunter or the race-horse; because
their food must be in smaller bulk, in order
that the action of their lungs may not be im-
peded by the distention of the stomach ; still
many hunters have gone well over the field,
which have been manger-fed, the proportion of
corn, however, being materially increased.

Eor the agricultural and cart-horse, eight
pounds of oats and two of beans should be
added to every twenty pounds of chafi". Thirty-
four, or thirty-six pounds of the mixture, will
be sufficient for any moderate-sized horse,
even with hard work. The dray and large
•waggon-horse may require forty pounds. Hay
in the rack at night is, in this case, to be
omitted altogether. The rack, however, may
remain, as it is useful for the sick horse, or to
contain tares, or other green meat, w^hich may
occasionally be given.

rses take great delight in this provender-
but damaged straw should not bo '

UBcd for
g cliali; as the corn it contains may tempt
a horse to eat, even if it bo not good. Moro
injury is done by eating damaged hay or
musty oats, than is generally imagined. There-
fore the advantage of this system of manger-
feeding, will, as a matter of course, be entirelv
counteracted, if it be made the vehicle fo*r
the consumption of unwholesome materials.
One of the most important advantages to be
derived from manger- feeding is, that the ani-
mal, by the union of eating nutritious matter
with the more bulky kind (hay-chafl"), his
stomach is filled the sooner, and has, con-
sequently, more time for rest — a very con-
siderable consequence to a horse on the road.

Where the manger system of feeding is not
adopted, or where the hay is still given at
night, and chaff and corn in the day, there is
no error into which the farmer is so apt to
fall as that of giving an undue quantity of
hay, and that generally of the worst kind. If
the manger system is good, there can be no
necessity for hay ; or if there is, only for a
small quantity of it; but if the rack is over-
loaded, the greedy horse will be eating ai!
night, instead of taking his rest; and when
the time for the morning feed arrives, hh
stomach will already be filled. He will theri,
from the want of sleep, be less capable of
work, and from the long-continued distention
of the stomach rendering it impossible for his
food to have been properly digested.

It is a good practice to sprinkle the hay

with water in which salt has been dissolved,

as it is more palatable to the animal. Indeed,

the horse will leave the best unsalted hay

for that of an inferior quality which has been

moistened with brine ; and there can be no

doubt that the salt very materially assists the

process of digestion. The preferable way to

use the salt is to sprinkle it over the diflerent

layers as the rick is formea. From its attrac«

tion for water, it would combine with that

excess of moisture, which, in wet seasons, is

I the cause of too rapid and violent fermentation,

and of the hay becoming mow-burnt, or the

I rick sometimes catching fire, and it would

' become more incorporated with the hay. The

j only objection to its being thus used is, that

1 the colour of the hay is not so briixht; but

131

OATS.]

THE HOBSE, AND

[baulet.

this would be of little consequence for liome
consumption.

The comparative advantages of chaff and
rack-feeding, are thus given by Professor
Stewart : —

" Where the stablemen are careful, waste of
fodder is diminished, but not prevented, bj
feeding from the manger.

" Where the racks are good, careful stable-
men may prevent nearly all waste of fodder,
without cutting it.

" An accurate distribution of fodder is not a
very important object.

" No horse seems to like his corn the better
for being mingled with chaff.

"Among half-starved horses, chaff-cutting

promotes the consumption of damaged fodder.

" Full-fed horses, rather than eat the mixture

of sound with unsound, will reject the whole,

or eat less than their work demands.

" Chaff is more easily eaten than hay. This
is an advantage to old horses and others
working all day— a disadvantage when the
horses stand long in the stable.

"Chaff ensures complete mastication and
deliberate digestion of the corn. It is of con-
siderable, and of most importance in tliis
respect. All the fodder need not to be
mingled with the corn; one pound of chaff
being sufficient to secure the mastication and
slow ingestion of four pounds of corn.

"The cost of cutting all the fodder, es-
pecially for heavy horses, is repaid only when
hay is dear, and wasted in large quantities.

"Among hard-working horses, bad food
should never be cut."

We will now briefly enumerate the principal
vegetables which enter into the food of the
horse.

OATS.

In almost every part of Great Britain, oats
have been selected as that portion of the food
which is to afford the principal nourishment.
They contain seven hundred and forty-three
parts out of a thousand, of nutritive matter,
and should be old, heavy, dry, and sweet.
New oats will weigh ten or fifteen per cent-
more than old ; but the difference consists prin-
cipally in watery matter, which is gradually
evaporated. New oats are not so easily ground
down by the teeth as old ones, and form a
132

more glutinous mass, difficult to digest. There-
fore, when eaten in considerable quantities,
they are apt to become so unwholesome as to
occasion colic, and even staggers. Oats should
be plump, bright in colour, and free from
unpleasant taste or smell. The musty smell
of wetted or damaged corn, is caused by a
fungus which grows upon the seed, and which
has an injurious eftect on the urinary organs,
and often on the intestines, producing profuse
staling, inflammation of the kidney or colic,
and also of the bowels. This musty smell
may be removed by kiln-drying the oats, but
care should be taken that too great a degree
of heat is not employed. This, however, should
be sufficient to destroy the fungus, without
injuring the vitality of the seed. Kiln-burnt
oats are not so grateful to the animal, as they
acquire a heating quality, which not unfre-
quently produces inflammation of the eyes, and
mangy aflections of the skin. All the expense
of threshing the unthreshed oat-straw would
be saved if cut for chafl". It is better than
barley straw, but does not contain so much
nourishment as that of wheat. When the
horse is fed on hay and oats, the quantity of
the latter must vary with his size and the
work to be performed. Nine or ten pounds
a day will be a fair allowance for one of
fifteen hands one or two inches high, in mode-
rate work, with a proportionate quantity of hay.
In summer, when green food is given daily,
reduce the quantity one-half. Such animals
as work on the farm, have from ten to fourteen
pounds, and the hunter from twelve to sixteen.
There is no kind of food that can be safely
substituted for good oats; as they have an
inherent strengthening property which is not
possessed by other kinds of food.

For the weary and tired horse, a pint of
oatmeal thrown into a pail of water, is an
admirable drink. It forms, also, an excellent
gruel for the sick horse, leaving it to be drunk
of his own accord when slung in his box, and
water is denied him. As a poultice it is also
excellent, having more stimulating properties
than linseed meal when used alone.

BARLEY.
Barley is a common food of the horse on
various parts of the continent, and, before the
introduction of oats, seems to have constituted

WHEAT.]

MODEEN VETERINAEY PRACTICE.

[beaxs.

almost his only food. It is more nutritious cuuistance arises from the water p.assint* rapidly
than oats, containing nine liundrodaiultwi'nty througli the stomach and small intestines in

parts of nutritive matter in every thousand.
There seems, however, to be something neces-
sary besides a great proportion of nutritive
matter, in order to render any substance whole-
some, strengthening, or fiittcning. AVliere
horses are very hardly worked, barley does not
seem to agree with them so well as oats. They
are more subject to inliammatory complaints,
and particularly to surfeit and mange. "When
barley is given, the quantity should not exceed
a peck daily. It should be always bruised,
and the chaff should consist of equal propor-
tions of hay and barley-straw, and not be cut
too short. If the farmer has a quantity of
spotted or uusaleablebarley whichhewishesthus
to get rid of, he must very gradually accustom
his horses to it, or he will probably produce
serious illness among them. For animals that
are recovering from illness, barley, in the form
of malt, is often serviceable, as tempting their
appetite and restoring their strength. It is
best given in mashes — water, considerably be-
low the boiling heat, being poured upon it,
and the vessel or pail kept covered for half an
hour.

GRAINS.
Grains fresh from the mash-tub, either alone
or mixed with oats or chalf, or both, may be
occasionally given to draught horses; they
would, however, afford very insufficient nou-
rishment for such as are employed iu quicker
or harder work.

WHEAT.

"Wheat is, iu Great Britain, more rarely given
than barley. It contains nine hundred and
fifty-five parts of nutritive matter. "When
farmers have a damaged or unmarketable
sample, they sometimes give it to their horses,
and, being at first used in small quantities,
they become accustomed to it, and thrive and
work well. It must, however, always be bruised
and given iu chafl'. Wheat contains a greater
proportion of gluten or sticky adhesive matter
than any other kind of grain. It is difficult of
digestion, and apt to cake and form obstruc-
tions in the bowels. This will oftener bo the

its way to the cacum, carrying off with it all
the starch, which is the most nourishing pro-
perty of wheat, and leaving the sticky masa
behind to accumulate and harden, and obstruct
the intestines, and frequently to destroy the
animal. A horse that is fed on wheat should
have very little hay. The proportion shoulil
not be more than one truss of hay to two ot
straw.

AVhcaten flour, boiled iu water to the thick-
ness of starch, is given with good effect in
over-purging, and this especially if combined
with chalk and opium.

BEANS.
Beans contain only five hundred and seventy
parts of nutritive matter, yet they add con.
siderably to the strength of the horse. This
fact forms a striking illustration of the prin-
ciple, that the nourishing or strengthening
effects of the different articles of food, depend
more upon some peculiar property which they
have, or some combination which they form,
than on their actual quantity of nutritive
matter. There are many horses that will not
stand hard work without beans being min"-led
with their food. Those that have a tendency to
purge, it may be necessary to restrain by the
astringency of the bean. There is no traveller
who is not aware of the difierence in the
spirit and endurance of his horse, whether he
allows or denies him beans on his journey.
They afibrd not merely a temporary stimulus,
but they may be daily used without losing
their power, or producing exhaustion. Two
pounds of beans may, with advantage, be
mixed with the chaff of the agricultural horse,
during the winter. In summer, tlie quantity
should be lessened, or they should be alto-
gether discontiniied. They are generally given
whole, which is very absurd; for the young
horse, the teeth of which are strong, seldom
requires them ; while the old horse, to which
they are in a manner necessary, is scarcely
able to masticate them. He, from being
unable to break them, swallows many whole,
and drops much corn from his mouth, iu the
ineiiectual attempt to crush tiiem. Beans

case if the horse is suliered to drink much ' should not be merely split, but bruised. They

water soon after feeding upon it. This cir-

will even then give sufficient employment to

133

PEAS.]

THE HORSE, AND

[the tuenip.

the grinders of the animal. Some postmasters
use cbafF with beans instead of oats. "With
liardly-worked horses they may possibly be
allowed; but in general cases, beans, without
oats, would be too binding and stimulating,
and would produce costiveness, and probably
megrims or staggers. Neither the hard-worked
coach-horse, nor the washy one, nor the old one,
could perform their tasks without them. To
turf horses they are sometimes given as a
stimulant. The straw of the bean is highly
nutritive, and is usually given to horses.

PEAS.

Peas are occasionally given, and appear to
be, in a slight degree, more nourishing than
beans, and not so heating. They contain five
hundred and seventy-four parts of nutritive
matter. Eor horses of slow work they may be
used; but the quantity of chaff should be
increased, and a few oats added. They have
not been found to answer with animals of
quick draught. It is essential that they should
be crushed ; otherwise, on account of their
globular form, they are apt to escape from the
teeth, and many are swallowed whole. Ex-
posed to warmth and moisture in the stomach,
they swell very much, and may painfully and
injuriously distend it. Many horses have
died from gorging themselves with peas ; and,
on opening them, their stomachs have been
found to have burst by the swelling of the
vegetable. In proof of the swelling property
of them, let a small phial be filled with them,
tightly corked, and warm water poured upon
it ; the peas will burst it in a few hours.

In some northern countries, the meal of the
pea is not only given as food to the horses,
but, in cases of diabates, is used as a remedy.

TARES
Of the value of tares, as forming a portion
of the late spring and summer food of the
stabled and agricultural horse, there can be no
doubt. They are very nutritive, and act as a
gentle opening medicine. "When surfeit-lumps
appear on the skin, the horse begins to rub
himself against the divisions of the stall, and
the legs swell, and the heels threaten to crack :
a few tares cut up with the chaiT, or given
instead of a portion of the hay, will often
aflbrd. sometimes immediate, and generally rapid
134

relief. Ten or twelve pounds may be supplied
daily, and half of that weight of hay sub-
tracted. It is an erroneous notion, that,
given in moderate quantities, they either
roughen the coat or lessen the capability for
hard work. Tares furnish a greater propor-
tion of food for a limited time than almost any
other kind of forage croo.

RYE GRASS.

Hje grass supplies a valuable article of food,
but is inferior to the tare. It is not so nutri-
tive; is apt to scour; and occasionally, late
in the spring, it has appeared to become in-
jurious to the horse.

CLOVER.

Clover, for soiling the horse, is inferior to
the tare and the rye grass, but nevertheless
is useful when these cannot be obtained.
Clover hay is, perhaps, preferable to meadow
hay for chaif. It will sometimes tempt the
sick animal, and may be given with advantage
to horses of slow and heavy draught; but
custom seems properly to have forbidden it to
the hunter and the hackney.

LUCERN.

Lucern, where it can be obtained, is to be
preferred even to tares, and sainfoin is superior
to lucern. Although they contain but a small
quantity of nutritive matter, it is easily di-
gested, and perfectly assimilated. They speedily
put both muscle and fat on the horse that is
worn down by labour, and they are almost a
specific for hide-bound. Some farmers have
thought so highly of lucern as to substitute it
for oats. This may do for the agricultural
horse of slow and not heavy work ; but the
animal from which speedier action is sometimes
required, as well as the one of* all work, must
have a proportion of hard meat within him.

THE SWEDISH TURNIP.
This root is an article of food the value of
which has not been sufficiently appreciated,
and particularly for agricultural horses. It
does not contain much nutrition, but is easy
of digestion, quickly fattens the animal, and
produces a glossy skin. It may be given once
a dav — at night after the work is done, when
it will be extremely grateful.

POTATOES.]

MODEEN VETERIXARY PRACTICE.

[bread.

CARROTS.

The virtues of this root are not sufTiciently
esteemed, adding to the strength and stamina
of the horse in health or in sickness. Some
farmers allow a bushel of sliced carrots a-day,
with chaff, without any oats ; and tlie horses
are said to be equal to all slow or agricultural
work. Stewart, in his Stable EcoJiomij, re-
marks, that "this root is held in much esteem.
There is none better, nor, perhaps, so good.
"When first given, it is slightly diuretic and
laxative; but, as the horse becomes accus-
tomed to it, these effects cease to be produced.
They also improve the state of the skin. They
form a good substitute for grass, and an ex-
cellent alterative for horses out of condition.
To sick and idle horses they render corn un-
necessary. They are beneficial in all chronic
diseases connected with breathing, and have a
marked influence upon chronic cougb and
broken wind. They are serviceable in diseases
of the skin, and, in combination with oats, they
restore a worn horse much sooner than oats
alone."

POTATOES.
Potatoes have been sliced and given with ad-
vantage in their raw state, mixed with the
chaff; but, where there has been convenience
to boil or steam them, the benefit has been
much greater. Some have given boiled pota-
toes alone ; and horses, instead of turning from
them, have come to prefer them even to the
oat; but it is better to mix them with the
manger feed, in the proportion of one pound
of potatoes to two-and-a-half of the other in-
gredients. Professor Low says, that fifteen
pounds of potatoes yield as much nourishment
as four-and-a-half of oats. Von Thayer says,
that three bushels are equal to one hundred
and twelve pounds of hay ; and Curwen says,
that an acre of potatoes, in the feeding of
horses, goes as far as four acres of hay. In
feeding a horse on this root his water must be
much curtailed.

BREAD FOR CATTLE AND HORSES.

The French frequently feed their horses on

bread ; and various other attempts at economy

are practised out of the common management

of feeding them wilh raw corn, which, no doubt,

may bo beneficial. Wo have hoard of a team
of liorses, at Liverpool, to which boiled corn
was always given, and tho water boiled after-
wards to drink. This was said to nouritth thera
at much less expense than tlie common method
of feeding adopted.

It is equally necessary to seek for economi-
cal food for cattle as for man. To lessen tho
consumption of food in rearing, preserving, and
maintaining the liealth and strength of cattle,
is to save so much for the benefit of mankind.
Many neglected plants, growing in marsliy
ground, the tender leaves of difl'erent trees de-
prived of their resin by infusion, chopped straw,
&c., are substances and resources which may be,
and are in many instances, usefully employed.

In Sweden, oat bread is used for horses, and
is found much cheaper and more salutary than
the simple grain. It may be remarked that
horses always pass some parts of the oats they
have eaten, whole ; their stomachs labour much
to digest food, some part of which is entirely
lost, and is even dangerous to them. Oats
ground and baked would not occasion these
inconveniences.

Experience has shown, that in Sweden, one
ton of oats makes four hundred and eighty
loaves, on which a horse may be better kept —
at the rate of two loaves a day — for two
hundred and forty days, than if he had had six
tons or even more of raw oats. The husk of
the oats remains mixed with the flour ; and the
weight of the water, a large quantity of which
is necessarily employed in making the dough, is
gained. It has also been calculated in Sweden,
that after all expenses have been taken into
consideration, a great saving is effected by
feeding horses on bread made of oats and rye.
There liay is never given without mixing it with
two-thirds of chopped straw, and adding to it
bread broken up. The better to preserve this
bread, it should be made in the shape of calces ;
and if it be prepared like biscuit, it will keep
for a lengthened period of time, without losing
its nutritive qualities.

Good bread for cattle may be made from the
farinaceous parts of the horse-chestnut, acorns,
maudragora, dog's-grass, &c. These sub-
stances may be used in the composition of
bread for cattle, together with potatoes reduced
to powder.

In all agricultural experiment-s, we must

135

TTJRNIKa-OUT.]

THE HOESE, AND

[turning- OUT,

i.ever allow ourselves to be discouraged ;
creatures accustomed to a particular diet, will
sometimes refuse a superior one for that to
which they are habituated. It should be fre-
quently presented to them, and before long
they will relish it. Why should not leaves,
chaff, straw, heath, fern, &c., reduced to powder,
be mixed with this bread ? Beetroot, or
potatoes a'jd flour, will serve as a vehicle for
all these substances ; whilst experience soon
proves the quantities for producing the neces-
sary proportions to form the required material
of a substantial consistence.

In closing this portion of our work, it may
be desirable to many to be made acquainted
with the nourishing properties known, by
chemical analysis, to exist in several of the
most necessary vegetables.

1,000 parts of wheat contain 955 parts of
putritive matter ; barley, 920 ; oats, 743 ; peas,
574 ; beans, 570 ; potatoes, 230 ; red beet,
148 ; parsnips, 99 ; carrots, 98.

Of the grasses, 1,000 parts of the meadow
cat's-tail, contain at the time of seeding, 98
parts of nutritive matter ; narrow-leaved mea-
dow grass in seed, and sweet-scented soft
grass in flower, 95 ; narrow-leaved and flat-
stalked meadow grass in flower, fertile mea-
dow grass in seed, and tall fescue, in flower,
93 ; sweet-scented soft grass, in flower, and the
aftermath, 77 ; florin cutin, 76 ; tall fescue,
in the aftermath, and meadow soft grass, in
flower, 74 ; cabbage, 73 ; crested dog's-tail,
and brone, when flowering, 71 ; yellow oat,
in flower, 66 ; Swedish turnips, 64 ; common
turnips, 42 ; sainfoin, and broad-leaved and
long-rooted clover, 39 ; white clover, 32 ; and
lucern, 23.

TURNING OUT TO GRASS, OR THE STRAW-
YARD.

When horses have been hard worked, turn-
ing out becomes a natural consequence, to
refresh their limbs : they are occasionally
turned out wlien not wanted for present use.
The hunter, when the season is over, is turned
into good grass, which cools the system, and pre-
vents too great an incumbrance on the master's
pocket. It also refreshes his limbs, which, if
he has been regularly hunted throughout the
season, stand in need of it. If, however, he
has only occasionally been so, and is now
13G

wanted for the road, there is no necessity for
turning him out. AVe have heard of horses
having been kept in a stable twelve years
without eating any green food, yet have con-
tinued in health and condition : while there are
some constitutions that will not look well in the
stable for almost any continuance of time, but
soon sufler from indi";estion, and hide-bound
when their coats assume a chill and russet
hue. Grass, however, is by no means impro-
per for horses. On the contrary, it is good-,
and such as are kept for pleasure, and only
moderately used, may be put to grass, and
yet, with a little corn, worked occasionally all
the summer.

Turning-out in winter to a straw-yard, is a
practice with those who maintain a liorse foi
pleasure in summer, and have no occasion for
him in winter. Those who cannot aff'ord the ,
expense of keeping a horse in the stable in
winter, endeavour to persuade themselves that
it is beneficial to the animal to be put into the
straw-yard, and famished with cold and hunger
for five or six months. Consequently, this
practice is not to be recommended. Far better
to sell the animal if the expense of stabling
him cannot be afforded.

When gentlemen have convenience of their
own to turn horses out in winter, there is no
doubt of their being taken care of. In open
weather there is good pasturage ; and in hard
weather, an out-house or stable to lie in, with
plenty of hay. But as we are here speaking
of straw-yards, where all that come are taken
in, the practice of sending them to such re-
positories is a dangerous, if not a bad one. Not
but that some animals may seem well enough
when they are deeply bedded with clean and
wholesome straw, of which they can cull the
ears to fill themselves ; but where they are
taken in for pay, some men scarcely ever think
their yards are overstocked, and provender,
which is scarcely fit for the horses to lie upon,
becomes their food.

Giving green food in the stable is called
soiling. It is not often convenient for those
who keep no more horses than they have use
for, to turn them out to grass, more particu-
larly in a season when people take pleasure on
horseback, or travel on business. The work of
animals of this description is hardly to be called,
exercise; which frequently consists of an

TUENiNO-ori.] MODERN VETEEINARY PRACTICE.

[PIITSICKINO.

average, of not more than ten miles a day, and
at a pace seldom exceeding more than six or
eight miles an hour. Under such circum-
stances, green food in the stable has a cool-
ing influence, and acts as an alterative, and
therefore should be given. Indeed, there are
some constitutions that do not thrive witliont
it, dry food for a long continuance of time not
agreeing with them, but making them lank and
thin. Such descriptions of horses arc hardly
worth keeping, except for light work, as their
paces and action may be very pleasing.

Green food being a kind of natural physic,
cooling, and operating as a gentle laxative,
many deny the necessity of any other kind of
medicine. In its operative principle, more
especially if the animal works on it, his litter
■will be verv soft, if he does not quite scour.
This is a great benefit to the horse, by clear-
ing out the alimentary canal, and producing
that healthy secretion of functions nature is
so desirous of. After a time, however, the
purgative principle passes off, and he voids his
dung in rather a soft state than otherwise. An
animal kept on green food should not be put
to immoderate work, as it may produce in-
flammation of the intestines, and its frequent
consequence — death.

To those who have not given this part of
our subject the consideration it merits, it may
be as well to observe, that green food, when
cut, soon spoils. Therefore, those who buy
the bundles of vetches or tares which are
brought into market, must be careful to see
that they are fresh and cool. Such vegetables
being frequently cut the day before, and tied
up in bundle, are full of moisture, and become
heated, and soon begin to rot. They should,
therefore, be fresh every day, and no more
taken in than can be consumed, as they soon
spoil if they happen to be pretty moist. If,
therefore, there is no certainty of a regular
supply, a good plan is to untie the bundles,
and spread them on the spare room of tlie floor
of the hay-loft. This will preserve them fresh
for two or three days. Should the animals
be in the habit of feeding on chaff", ifc is good

policy to have a layer of vetches cut up with

it. This will bo found cooling and refreshing,
especially if the weather is warm, and the
horses in full work.

PHYSICKING.

In the course of this work wc shall have occa-
sion to make reference to cathartic and other
balls. Those which, from experience, have been
found the most beneficial, we have arranged in
the subjoined form, and distinguished them b^
numbers, so that an easy reference, at all
times, may be made to the different ingredients
of which they are composed.
No. 1.

Barbadoes Aloes . . . . 1 oz.

Ginger (powdered fine) . . 2 drachms.
If for immediate use, form into a ball, with
treacle ; but if not, with soft soap. "When the
horse is properly prepared with bran mashes,
as directed in our preceding pages — " On the
Management of Hunters" — this ball will be
found sufficiently strong for any animal.

No. 2.

Barbadoes Aloes .
Ginger . . . .

. . G drachms.
. . 1 ,.

Form into a ball, as prescribed for No. 1. This
ball is generally found strong enough for saddle-
horses of all descriptions.
No. 3.

Barbadoes Aloes .... 4 drachms.

Ginger 1 d

Though this quantity of aloes will act as a
drastic purge on some constitutions, it will
scarcely move others. In the above foriiiulio
of purgative medicines, you have simply those
that actually stimulate the intestines to get
rid of their contents.

No. 4.

Barbadoes Aloes .... 5 drachms.

Cape Aloes c 5 „

Ginger „ .....•• 2 „
Mix, and form into a ball, with soft soap, for
large carriage or cart horses ; then treat as
above. This will be found to prove pretty
effective.

BEEEDING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[breeding.

CHAPTER VI.

BREEDING ; BKEAKING-IN ; CASTRATION.

BREEDING.
Having already touched upon this important
subject, we shall here more particularly enter
into it; for it is unquestionable, that within
the last thirty years our horses have under-
gone a considerable change. The opinion,
among those who may be supposed to be the
best capable of forming a correct judgment,
is, that there are fewer good hacks and hunters
than there were formerly ; and, if such be the
case, it must necessarily form one of the first
considerations of breeders to endeavour to dis-
cover the causes of this deterioration, and to
adopt such means as may be the most likely
to restore the breed, as well as to improve
the character of our horses. Whether con-
sidered socially or nationally, this is an object
of too much importance to be neglected.

Our observations will here be of a general
nature, and will be very simple. The first
axiom we would lay down is, that " like pro-
duces like ;" that the progeny will inherit the
qualities of its parents. Eeferring to the sub-
ject of diseases, we must again state our con-
viction, that there is. scarcely one affliction
by which either of the parents is afiected,
that the foal will not inherit, or, at least, ex-
hibit a predisposition to. So certain is this
the case, that it may safely be affirmed that
even ill usage or hard work, where either has
been so excessive as to lay the seeds of disease
in the parents, such disease will indubitably be
found to descend to their progeny. Undeniable
evidence, repeated again and again, has decided
the fact, that blindness, roaring, thick wind,
broken wind, spavins, curbs, ring-bones, and
founder, liave been bequeathed, both by the
sire and the dam, to the oftspring. It should
likewise be recollected, that although these
blemishes may not appear in the immediate
progeny, they frequently will in the next gene-
ration. Hence the necessity of some know-
ledge of the parentage both of sire and dam.
Mr. Baker, of Beigate, speaking of hia own
138

experience in this matter, says — " A foal had
apparently clear and good eyes ; but the first
day had not passed before it was evident that
it was totally blind. It had Grutta Serena.

" Inquiry was then made about the sire, for
the mare had good eyes. His were, on the
slightest inspection, evidently bad ; and not one
of his colts had escaped the direful efi"ects of
his imperfect vision.

" A mare had been the subject of farcical
enlargement ; and not being capable of per-
forming much work, a foal was procured from
her. She survived; but the foal, soon after
birth, evinced symptoms of farcy, and died.

" A mare was lame from navicular disease.
A foal was bred from her, that, at five years,
could scarcely go across the country, and was
so^d for a few pounds. The mare was a rank
jib in single harness ; the foal was as bad."

Peculiarity of form and constitution are also
inherited. This is a most important, but ne-
glected consideration ; for however desirable
or even perfect may have been the conforma-
tion of the sire, every good point may be neu-
tralised by the defective form, or want of blood,
in the mare. There are niceties here, of which
some breeders were wont to be aware, and
they employed their knowledge to prevent it
to great advantage. "When they were careful
that the essential points were good in both
parents, and that some minor defect in either
should be met, and got rid of, by excellence
in that particular point in the other, the re-
sult was creditable to their judgment, and
highly profitable. Other breeders, less skilful,
often so badly paired the animals, that the
good points of each were, in a manner, lost.
The defects of both were increased, and the
produce far inferior to both sire and dam.

Of late years, these principles have been
much lost sight of in the breeding of horses for
general use ; and the following is the explaua
tion of it. There are nearly as good stallions aa
there used to be. Eew horses but such as aro
well-formed and valuable, will be selected and

bueedtko.]

MODEllN VETERINARY PRACTICK.

[UUEEDINO.

rctainoil as stallions. Tiiov are always the very
[)rime of tlio breed ; but the mares uro not
uliat they used to be. I'ovorty luuj induced
many of the breeders to ])art wiLii those from
whieh they used to raise their stock, and which
were worth their weight in gold ; and the jade
on which the farmer now rides to market, or
which he employs on his farm, costs him but
little money, and is only kept because he can-
not get much money for her. It has, likewise,
become the fashion for gentlemen to ride mares,
almost us frequently as geldings ; and thus the
better kind are taken from the breeding ser-
vice, until old age or injury renders them worth
little for that purpose.

In the third volume of The Veterinarian,
this will be found strikingly pointed out by
Mr. Castloy, an intelligent veterinary surgeon.

It ought to be as deeply impressed as pos-
sible on the minds of breeders, that peculiarity
of form and constitution are inherited from
both parents; that the excellence of the mare
is a point of quite as much importance as that
of the horse ; and that out of a sorry mare, let
the horse be as perfect as he may, a good foal
will rarely be produced. All this is recognised
upon the turf, although poverty or careless-
ness has made the general breeder neglect or
forget it.

In the midland counties it is recognised in
matching the breed of cart-horses ; and the
strict attention which has been paid to it, has
brought our heavy draught animals to almost
the same perfection, in their way, as it has
brought our blood horses. It is an unaccount-
able fact, however, that in our saddle-horses,
our hunters, and, to a great extent, our car-
riage-horses, this should be left to chance.

That the constitution and endurance of the
horse are inherited, no sporting man ever
doubted. The qualities of the sire or the
dam descend from generation to generation,
and the excellences or defects of certain
animals, are traced, and justly so, to some
peculiarity in a ipr-distant ancestor.

It may, perhaps, be affirmed with justice,
that there is more difficulty in selecting a
good mare to breed from, than a good horse,
because she should possess qualities somewhat
opposite. That sufficient room may be given
for the growth of the foelus, her carcase should
be long, and yet with this there shaald be

coiiipactncss of form and Bhortneas of log,
AVhat can be expected from the practice of
those who purchase worn-out, Hpavined, foun-
dered nuires, about which they funey tlioro huvo
been some good points, and hend thom fur
into the country to breed from ; aud, with all
their variety of shape, to bo covered by tho
same horse ? In a lottery like this, there
may be, now and then, a prize, but there must
bo many blanks. If horse-breeders, possessed
of good judgment, would pay the same at-
tention to breed and shape as Mr. Bakewell
did in sheep, they would probably attain
their wishes in an equal degree, and greatly
to their advantage, wliether for the collar or
the road, for racing or for hunting.

As to the shape of the stallion, little satis-
factory can be said. It must depend on that
of the mare, and the kind of horse wished to
be bred ; but if there is one point which
we should say is absolutely essential, it is
this, "compactness" — as much goodness and
strength as possible, condensed into a little
space.

Next to compactness, the inclination of tlio
shoulder will be regarded. A huge stallion,
with upright shoulders, never got a capital
hunter or hackney. From him the breeder
can obtain nothing but a cart or dray-horse,
and that, perhaps, spoiled by the opposite
form of the mare. On the other hand, au
upright shoulder is desirable, if not absolutely
necessary, when a mere slow draught animal
is required.

It is of no little importance, tliat the parents
should be in full possession of their natural
strength aud powers. It is a common error
to suppose that because a mare has once been
good, she may profitably be used to breed
from when she is no longer capable of ordinary
work. Her blood and perl'ect frame may
ensure a foal of some value, but he will inherit
a portion of the worn-out constitution of her
from whom he sprung.

On the subject of breeding in and in — that
is, persevering in the same breed, and selecting
the best on either side — much has been said.
The system of crossing requires larger ex-
perience and judgment, perliaps much larger
than breeders usually possess. The bad
qualities of the cross are too soon engrafted
on the original stock ; and once eugrafted there,

L39

BKEEDlNa.J

THE HORSE, AND

[BKEEDrNG.

are not, for many generations, eradicated.
The good qualities of both are occasionally
neutralised to a most mortifying degree. On
the other hand, it is the fact, however some
may deny it, that strict confinement to one
breed, no matter how valuable or perfect, pro-
duces gradual deterioration. The truth here,
as in many other cases, lies in pursuing the
middle course. Crossing should be attempted
with great caution, and tlie most valuable
points of the same breed should be preserved,
but varied, by being frequently taken from dif-
ferent stocks, with reference to either one or
more excellences which these may have been
discovered to possess. This is the secret of
the turf. The pure south-eastern blood is
never left, but the stock is often changed with
manifest advantage.

A mare is capable of breeding at three or
four years old. Some have injudiciously com-
menced to breed at two years old, before the
form or strength of the mare is sufficiently
developed, and with the development of which
this early breeding will materially interfere.
If she does little more than farm work, she may
continue to be bred from, until she is nearly
twenty ; but if she has been severely worked,
and bears the marks of it, let her liave been
what she might in her youth, she will deceive
the expectations of the breeder in her old age.
The mare comes into " season" about Feb-
ruary, and continues "horsing," at intervals,
until the end of June or middle of July. Her
term of gestation is from eleven to twelve
months ; but some have been six weeks beyond
the eleven months. We may take, however,
eleven months as the average. In running
horses that are brought so early to the starting-
post, and whether they are foaled early in
January or late in April, rank as of the same
age, it is of importance that the mare should go
to cover as early as possible. For other breeds,
the beginning of May is the most convenient
period. The mare would then foal in the early
part of the following April, when there would
begin to be sufficient food for her and her colt,
without confining them much to the stable.

From the time of covering to a few days be-
fore the expectation of foaling, the drauglit
mare may be kept at moderate work, not only
without injury, but with decided advantage.
Her labour may be continued up to the very
140

time when she is expected to foal — of which
she will give at least a day's notice, by the ad-
hesive matter that will appear about her teats.
"When this is observed, it will be prudent to
release her from work, and keep her near home,
and under the frequent inspection of some
careful person.

"When nearly half the time of pregnancy has
elapsed, the mare should have a little better
food. She should be allowed one or two feeds
of corn in the day. This is about the period
when mares are accustomed to slink or abort
their foals, or when abortion occurs. At this
time, therefore, the eye of the owner should be
frequently upon them. Good feeding and mo-
derate exercise will be the best preventives
against any mishap that may be likely to occur.
The mare that has once sliuked her foal is
liable to a similar accident again, aud

ever

therefore should never be suflered to be with
other mares about the time that this usually
occurs, which is between the fourth and fifth
months ; for such is the power of imagination
or of sympathy in the mare, that if one sufters
abortion, several others in the same pasture
will be certain also to prove abortive and share
the same fate. Farmers wash, paint, and tar
their stables to prevent some supposed infec-
tion. The infection lies in the imagination.

If a mare has been regularly exercised, aud
apparently in health while she was in foal, little
danger will attend the act of parturition. If
otherwise, and any signs of danger, it will be
better to have recourse to a well-informed
practitioner, rather than run the risk of injur-
ing the mother by the violent, and frequently
injudicious attempts which are often made to
relieve the animal.

So soon as parturition has taken place, the
mare should be turned into some well-shel-
tered pasture, with a hovel or shed to run into
when she pleases; and as, supposing she has
foaled in April, the grass is scanty, she should
have a couple of feeds of corn daily. The
breeder may depend upon it, that nothing is
gained by starving the mother and stinting
the foal at this time. It is the most important
crisis in the life of the horse; and if, from
false economy, his growth is arrested, his puny
form and want of endurance will ever after-
wards testify to the error that has been com-
mitted. The corn should be given in a trough

UnEEDIXO.]

:M'>i)i:iix vi:ti:im x A i; V practice.

[iJUKKDISa.

on the ground, that the foal may partake of it
with the mother. AVhcn the now grass is
abundant, tlio quantity of corn may be gradually
lessened.

After foaling, the mare maybe made to per-
form a moderate amount of labour in about a
montli. The foal is at llr-it shut iu the stable
during the hours of work; but as soon as it
acquires sufficient strength to toddle after the
mare, and especially when she is at slow work,
it will be better for the foal and the dam that
they should be \ ogether. The work will con-
tribute to the health of the mother; the foal
will more frequently draw the milk, and thrive
better, and will be hardy and tractable, and
gradually familiarised with the objects among
which it is afterwards to live. While the
mother, however, is tlius worked, she and the
foal should be well fed ; and two feeds of
corn, at least, should be added to the green
food which is supplied to them when turned
out after their work, and at night. The mare
will usually be found again in " season," at or
before the expiration of a month from the time
of foaling, when, if she be kept principally for
breeding purposes, she may be put again to the
horse.

To return, however, to the foal. It is not
generally known that the refusing to suck,
which is the cause of the death of many foals,
as well as the scouring, which about the third
day kills many more, are both produced by irri-
tation, and consequent inflammation of the
bowels, from the retention of a few small hard
faeces in the rectum. These are generally more
in quantity in proportion as the keep of the
mare has been higli.

The cure is simple* a few hours after the
foal has been dropped, a tallow candle sJiould
invariably he passed into the rectum; and when
the passage has been sufliciently softened, the
faeces can easily be extracted by the finger.

In cases where scouring kills foals at a sub-
sequent period, it is generally to be attributed
to the foal heating itself by violent exercise.
Consequently the mare, for the first day or two
that she is let out — supposing her to be housed
— ought only to be walked about with a halter,
and the same practice pursued at the time of
her first " horsing."

Some mares will not allow their foals to suck.
This arises from the tenderness of their teats.

In such cases thoy should have their lieads tied
up, and, if necessary, bo otlu-rwise prevented
from kicking while they are milked by hand.
Tliu milk should be rubbed over the teats for a
short time, after which they will allow the foal
to suck.

Should the mare's milk be obstructed ano
fail, either from her having taken cold orolier
cause, if out, she should immediately be tn«eu
up to the house, and enticed to lie down itpDn
a largo and deep-littered bed of fresh straw, in a
loose box, and every method adopted to cuin-
fort her, and to encourage the secretion of milk.
To promote this end, as much warm mild ale
should he allowed as she will drink. Sliould
she refuse this she may be drenched with a
couple of quarts, to he repeated as frequently as
may appear necessary — her food being the
finest and most fragrant hay, sweet grains,
with mashes of corn and pollard. In cases of
chill, and great weakness, tlie old well-known
article, cordial ball, may be given iu warm
ale.

Should, however, the case be inflamma-
tory, from previous high condition and fulness

of blood, COEDIAL BALL AND ALL STIMULANTS

SHOULD BE STitiCTLT AVOIDED, aud the regimen
confined to warm water and gruel, in as copious
quantities as can be administered. Should
further measures of similar tendency be indi-
cated, a mild solution of Epsom salts — ten or
twelve ounces in a pail of warm water — may be
given, which she may be induced to drink by
means of being kept short of water. Should
the symptoms demand it, a moderate quantity
of hlood may he drawn, but not otherwise.
Daily walking exercise abroad, the mare being
clothed, if necessary, should follow this treat-
ment, until she is sufficiently recovered to bo
returned to her pasture.

During her inability to give suck, the foal
must be sustained on cow's milk. This alien
milk will generally disorder and gripe the foai,
tor which the best remedy is two or three spoon-
fuls ofrhuharh in powder, tvilh an equal quantity
of maynesia, in warm gruel. This medicine
should be given to the foals of working marcs,
which are often griped by sucking pent milk.
The disorder arising from wet and cold, a table
spooiful each, of the best brandy and syrup
of white p)oppies, may be given several times.
Mares that give birth early, aud in bad weather,

141

BEEEDIKQ.]

THE HOESE, AND

[BEEAKING-rN".

ehould invariably be brought to the house to
foal.

Mares travelling with young foals ought not
to go above fifteen miles a day, and their pace
should be entirely regulated by the natural pace
of the foals, which must never be hurried so that
they be left behind. Every mile or two the mares
should be allowed to stop a little, and the
foal be permitted to suck and rest itself.
Thus the journey ought to occupy the whole
of the day.

Mares having dead foals, ouglit to lose a
little Hood, he fed moderately on cooling masJies
with a little nitre, and on kg account be al-
lowed COEN. Moderate walking exercise is
very desirable for mares before foaling ; and
alternate mashes of plain and of scalded bran
are much to be recommended.

It should be observed that geldings must
not be admitted among the brood mares, as by
leaping them, or harassing them about, abor-
tion may be occasioned.

In five or six months, according to the
growth of the foal, it may be weaned. It
should then be housed for three weeks or a
month. There can be no better place for this
than the rick-yard, as affording both food and
shelter. The mother should then be put to
harder work, and have drier meat. One or two
urine balls, or a physic hall, will be useful if
the milk should be troublesome, or she should
pine after her foal.

There is no principle of greater importance
than the liberal feeding of the foal during the
whole of his growth, and at this time in parti-
cular. Bruised oats and bran should form a
considerable part of his daily provender. Should
a dairy be upon the ground, a plentiful supply
of new milk will, in a wonderful degree, hasten
his development. The farmer may be assured
that money is w^ell laid out which is expended
on the liberal nourishment of the growing colt;
yet, while he is well fed, he should not be ren-
dered delicate by excess of care. A racing
colt is often stabled ; but one that is destined
to be a hunter, a hackney, or an agricultural
horse, should merely have a square rick, under
the leeward side of which he may shelter him-
self ; or a hovel, into which he may go at night,
or at any time run out of the rain. — By attend-
ing to these observations, their good efiects
will soon make themselves apparent.
142

BREAKING-IN.
The process of breaking-in should commence
from the very period of weaning. The foal
should be daily handled, partially dressed, ac-
customed to the halter, led about, and even
tied up. The tractability, and good temper,
and value of the horse, depend a great deal
more upon this than breeders are aware.
Everything should be done as much as possible
by the man by whom the colts are fed, and
whose management of them should be always
kind and gentle. There is no fault for which
a breeder should more emphatically correct his
servant than for harshness towards the rising
stock ; for the principle on which their after
usefulness is founded, is early attachment to,
and confidence in man ; aud obedience, im-
plicit obedience, resulting principally from his
attentions.

There is nothing of greater importance to
the owner of the horse than his being well
broken. To insure this, great care should be
taken to put the animal under the care of a
man well qualified for his duties ; for nothing
is easier than to spoil the mouth of a horse, if
left to the management of an injudicious person.
It has been observed that more horses ha^e
been spoiled in the breaking than can ever be
recovered afterwards, even if mounted by the
most skilful riders.

After the second winter, the work of break-
ing-in the cart colt may commence in good
earnest. The animal may first be bitted,
with such an instrument as will not hurt his
mouth, and much smaller than such bits as are
in common use. With this he may be suffered
to amuse himself, aud to play, and to champ
for an hour, on a few successive days.

Having become a little tractable, portions of
the harness may be put upon him, and, last of
all, the blind winkers. In a few days after-
wards he may go into the team. It would
add to his confidence and feeling of security
if another horse could be put before and an-
other behind him, besides the shaft horse.
Let there be first only the empty waggon, and
let nothing be done to him, except that he
may have an occasional pat or kind word. His
companion horses will keep him moving, and
in his place. In some instances not much
time passes, not even the first day, before he

BRKAiciNU-m.] MODEEN VETERINAEY PEACTICK

[BitliAK12ia>UI.

will begin to pull with tho rest, wlioii liia loail
may bo gratlually inoreadi'd.

Tho agricultural horso is wanted to rido as
well as to draw. His first lesson should,
thoreCoro, bo given when ho is in tho team.
Let his i'eeilor, if possible, bo first put upon
hiiu : ho will be too much hampered by his
harness, and by tho other horses, to make
Muich resistance ; and, in tho majority of cases,
will quietly and at once submit. In riding,
no whip or spur should bo used in giving the
animal his first lessons.

"When he begins to understand his business,
backing, tho most difficult part of his work,
may be taught hira. To accomplish this he
must first be made to back well without any-
thing behind him, then with a light cart, and
afterwards with some heavier load, taking the
greatest care not seriously to hurt the mouth.
If the first lesson causes soreness or inflam-
mation of the gums, the colt will not readily
submit to a second. If he has been rendered
tractable before, by kind usage, time and
patience will do all that can be wished Here.
Some carters are in the habit of blinding the
colt when teaching him to back. This may
be necessary with the restive and obstinate
one, but it should be resorted to only when all
other attempts to back him have failed. It
is an admirable plan to teach a horse to back
without blinkers, for many accidents have oc-
curred from horses h.iving had their bridles
slipped oft', and through not being accustomed
to see the vehicle behind them, have become
terrified, and set oiF at full speed, to the de-
struction often of themselves and of whatever
object with which they may come in contact.

The colt having been thus partially broken-
in, the necessity of implicit obedience may be
taught him. This is not to be done by
severity, but by firmness and steadiness. The
voice will go a great way, but whip or spur is
sometimes indispensable. The application of
either of these instruments, however, is not to be
of such a severe kind as to excite the animal to
resistance, but to convince him that his driver
or master has the power to enforce submis-
sion. Few horses are naturally of a vicious
disposition. It is generally bad usage w'hich
has first provoked resistance, which has
brought upon them severer chastisement, and
which, as a matter of course, the fear or the

stubbornnesB of tho quadnipod has atill fur-
ther iucreaHi'd. Open warfare then onaues;
dislike takes place on both sides; tho man
liates tho horso, and tho horso hatoH tho man ;
when both aro rendered unfit to perform their
dutica pro|)erly together. Correction may, or
must bo used, to enforce implicit obedience
after tho education has proceeded to a certain
extent, but tho early lessons should bo incul-
cated with kiudness alone. Young colts an;
sometimes very perverse ; many days will oc-
casionally pass before they will permit the
bridle to be put on, or the saddle to bo worn ;
but one act of harshness will often double or
treble this time. Patience and kindness will,
after a while, prevail. This, succeeded by ad-
ditional kindness and soothing on the part of
the breaker, and no inconvenience or pain being
suffered by the animal, all resistance becomes
at an end.

The same principles will apply to the break-
iug-in of the horse for the road or the chase.
The handling, and some portion of instruction,
should, as we have said, commence from the
time of weaning. The future tractabilitv of
the animal depends much on this. At two
years and a-half, or three years, the regular
process of breaking-in should come on. If it
be delayed until the horse is four years old,
his strength and obstinacy will be more diffi-
cult to overcome. A headstall is put on the
colt, and a cavesson, or apparatus to confine
and pinch the nose, affixed to it, with long
reins. He is first accustomed to rein, then
led round a ring on soft ground, and at length
mounted and taught his paces. Next to pre-
serving his temper and docility, there is nothing
of so much importance as to teach him every
pace, and every part of his duty, distinctly and
thoroughly. Each must constitute a separate
and sometimes long-continued lesson, taught
by a man who will never 8uff"er his own temper
to overcome his discretion.

After the cavesson has been attached to the
headstall, and the long rein put on, tho first
lesson is, to have him led quietly about by the
breaker. A steady boy should follow behind,
and occasionally threaten with the whip,
but never give an actual blow, his only duty
being to keep the colt up. When the animal fol-
lows readily and quietly, he may be taken to the
ring, and walked round, right and left, in a very

143

BEEAKING-IN.]

THE HOESE, AND

[breaking-tn.

fimall circle. Care should be taken to teach
him this pace thoroughly, never suffering him
to break into a trot. The boy with his whip
may here again be necessary, but not a single
blow should ever be administered.

Becoming tolerably perfect in the walk, he
should be quickened to a trot, and kept steadily
at it ; the whip of the boy, if needful, urging
him on, and the cavesson restraining him.
These lessons should be short. The pace
should be kept perfect and distinct in each,
and docility and improvement rewarded with
Trequent caresses and handfuls of corn. The
length of the rein may now be gradually in-
creased, the pace quickened, and the time ex-
tended, until the animal becomes tractable in
these his first lessons ; towards the conclusion
of which, crupper-straps, or something similar,
may be attached to the clothing. These, play-
ing about the sides and flanks, accustom him
to the flapping of the coat of the rider. Any
annoyance which they may at first occasion
will pass over in a day or two, when the ani-
mal finds that no harm to him arises from them.

Next comes the bitting. The bit should be
large and smooth, and the reins should be
buckled to a ring on either side of the pad.
The reins should at first be slack, and very
gradually tightened. The object of this is to
prepare the animal for the more perfect man-
ner in which the head will be afterwards got
into its proper position, when he is accustomed
to the saddle. Occasionally the breaker should
stand in front of the colt, and take hold of
each side-rein near to the mouth, and press
upon it, which is a mode of beginning to
teach him to stop and to back at the pressure
of the rein. Every act of this sort should be
rewarded by some soft or gentle endearments,
and no eagerness or desire to punish any oc-
casional carelessness or waywardness which
the yet unbroken animal may be inclined to
display.

The colt may now be taken into the road or
street to be gradually accustomed to the objects
among which his services will be required.
Here, from fear or playfulness, a considerable
degree of starting and shying may be exhibited.
A.S little notice as possible should be taken of
these symptoms of timidity or wildness. The
same or a similar object should be soon passed
again, but at a greater distance. If the colt
144

still shies, let the distance be farther increased,
until he takes no notice of the object ; then he
may be gradually brought nearer to it, usually
without the slightest difficulty. If, however,
there is an attempt made to force him close to
it in the first instance, the remembrance of
the contest, which such an act generally causes,
will be associated with the object, and the habit
of shying will be established.

Hitherto, with a cool and patient breaker,
the whip may have been shown, but will
scarcely have been used. The colt must now,
however, be accustomed to this instrument of
authority. Let the breaker walk by the side
of the animal, and throw his right arm over
his back, holding the reins in his left ; and oc-
casionally quickening his pace, let the horse be
touched with the whip very gently. It is
astonishing how soon the association of the
touch of the whip and the quickening of the
pace become fixed in the mind of the animal.
If necessary, the touches may gradually fall a
little heavier, and the feeling of pain be the
monitor of the necessity of increased exertion.
The lessons of reining in, stopping, and back-
ing on the pressure of the bit, may continue to
be practised at the same time.

He may now be taught to bear the saddle.
Some little caution will be necessary in putting
it on at the first. The breaker should stand
at the head of the colt, pat him, and engage his
attention, while one assistant, on the off-side,
gently places it on the back. Another, on the
near side, will then slowly tighten the girths.
If the animal submits quietly to this, as he
generally will, when the previous process of
breaking-in has been properly conducted, the
ceremony of mounting may be attempted on
the following or on the third day. The breaker
will need two assistants to accomplish this
operation. He will remain at the head of the
colt, patting and making much of him. Tiio
rider will then put his foot into the stirrup,
and bear a little weight upon it, while the man
on the off-side presses equally on the other
stirrup-leather ; and, according to the docility
of the animal, he will gradually increase the
weight, until he balances himself on the stirrup.
If the colt is uneasy or fearful, he should be
spoken kindly to and patted, or a mouthful of
corn given to him: but if he offers serious
resistance, the lessons must terminate for that

i;i:EUviN(i-iN.] MODHKX VETEKINARY PRACTICE. [uuKAKiNO-iy.

day ; he may probably be in better humour on
tlie noxt.

"Wlu-n till' riili'i- has balaiu-cd liimst'lf for a
minute or two, he may gently throw liis leg
over, and (juietly seat himself. The breaker
will then load the animal round the ring,
the rider sitting perfeetly still. After a ft'w
minutea ho will take the reins, and handle
them as gently as possible, guiding the horse by
the pressure of them ; patting him frequently,
and especially when he thinks of dismounting;
and, after having dismoinited, ofl'ering him a
little corn or green meat. The use of the rein
in checking him, and of the pressure of the leg
and the touch of the heel in quickening his
pace, will soon be taught him ; when the educa-
tion will be nearly completed.

The horse having thus far submitted himself
to the breaker, these pattings and rewards
must be gradually diminished ; and implicit
obedience mildly but firmly enforced. Severity
will not often be necessary. In the great
majority of cases it will be altogether uncalled
for: but should the animal, in a moment of
waywardness, dispute the command of the
breaker, he must, at once, be taught that he is
the slave of man, who has the power, by other
means than those of kindness, to bend him to
his will. The plan of the education of the
horse is similar to that which experience and
wisdom have suggested to be adopted in the
education of the child. Pleasure is, as much
as possible, to be associated with the early
lessons ; but firmness, or, if need be, coercion
must be called in to confirm the habit of obe-
dience. Tyranny and cruelty will, in the horse,
more speedily excite a feeling of disobedience
even than in the child ; and, on every possible
practicable occasion, a desire to resist the
power of command. The restive and vicious
horse is, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred,
made so by ill-usage, and not by nature. jSoue
but those who will take the trouble to try the
experiment, are aware how absolute becomes
the control which the due admixture of firm-
ness and kindness will soon give him over any
horse. The breaker should keep in his mind
continually the Latin proverb, " quod factum
est his factum est ;" what is well done, is twice
done.

Shying is very frequent among young horses ;
and, where it appears, it should be particularly

attended to by the breaker-in. It nriseH from
several causes— namely, fear, roguery, want of
work, or defective vision. Tlio more racing-
blood a horse has, the less ho is subject to this
infirmity or vice. The only remedy for it, it)
to hold hard and keep quiet. As to the whip
and spur, and the silly cheeking a really fearful
animal with a sharp curb, as though the intent
were to break his jaw-bone, is an injudicious^
if not a cruel practice. Mr. Lawrence savs —
" With aflected shyers, some severity mav bo
necessary. ' Chaps' generally fix upon some
particular shying butt: for example, I recol-
lect having, at difierent periods, three hacks,
all very powerful ; the one made choice of a
windmill for the object or butt, the other a
tilted waggon, and the last a pig led in a
string. I was once placed in a very danger-
ous predicament by this last, on a road filled
with carriages. It so happened, however, that
I rode the two former when amiss from a
violent cold, and they then paid no more
attention to either windmills or tilted waggons,
than to any other objects, convincing me that
their shying, when in health and spirits, was
pure afiectation. It is a thing seldom, per-
haps never, thought of or attended to, which
however detracts nothing from its conse-
quence, to accustom colts, during their break-
ing, to all the chief objects of their terror,
which may occasion the vice of shying. After
a colt shall have been a considerable time in
hand, and his education nearly finished, should
he be a careless and blundering goer, not sufii-
cieutly bending his knees, he should be fre-
quently, but with great care, exercised daily
in a slow trot, over rough and uneven roads.

" To connect vices with their anomalies
together, I once had a fine hunting mare, au
incorrigible biter; as a proof of which, before
she came into my possession (but I was unap-
prised of it), she had killed a stable-boy ; yet
her biting was entirely confined to the stable,
nor did she ever show either that or any other
kind of vice abroad, riding perfectly quiet."

These defects in the horse will be more fully
spoken of when we come to treat of his dan-
gerous habits or vices in another part of this
work. There also we will notice the power of
the Irish "whisperer," Sullivan, over the
animal ; and notice IMr. Earey's mode, which,
in conjunction with the recent inventions of

145

CASTKAXIOK.]

THE HOESE, AND

[CASTKATION,

Dr. Bunting, are likely, at no distant day, to
sinjersede all the more antiquated systems of
breaking-in.

CASTRATION,

The period at which this important opera-
tion may be best performed, depends much on
the breed and form of the colt, and the pur-
pose for which he is destined. For the
common agricultural horse, the age of four or
live months is the most proper time, or, at
least, before he is weaned. Very few horses
are lost when cut at that age. The operation
should be performed when the weather is not
too hot, nor the flies too numerous. "We,
liowever, enter our decided protest against the
recommendation of valuable, but incautious
agricultural writers, that " colts should be cut
in the mouths of June or July, when flies
pester the horses, and cause them to be con-
tinually moving about, and thereby prevent
swelling." One moment's reflection will con-
vince the reader that nothing can be more
likely to produce inflammation, and conse-
quent swelling and danger, than the torture
of the flies hovering round, and stinging the
sore part.

If the horse is designed either for the
carriage or for heavy draught, the farmer
should not think of castrating him until he is
at least a twelvemonth old ; and, even then,
the colt should be carefully examined. If he
is thin and spare about the neck and shoulders,
and low in tlie withers, he will materially im-
prove by remaining uncut another six months ;
but if his fore- quarters are fairly developed at
the age of twelve months, the operation should
not be delayed, lest he become heavy and
gross before, and perhaps has begun too de-
cidedly to have a will of his own. No specific
"ge, then, can be fixed ; but the castration
should be performed rather late in the spring,
or early in the autumn, when the air is tem-
perate, and particularly when the weather is
dry. No preparation is necessary for the
sucking colt, but it may be prudent to bleed
and to pliysic one of more advanced age. In
the majority of cases, no after treatment will
he necessary, except tliat the animal should be
sheltered from intense heat, and more par-
ticularly from wet. In temperate weather he

will do much better running in the field than
nursed in a close and hot stable. The mode-
rate exercise which he will take in grazint^
will be preferable to perfect inaction. A large
and well-ventilated box, however, may be per-
mitted.

The manner in which the operation is pei-
formed will be properly left to the vetm-inary
surgeon. No comuiorj gelder should, now-a-
days, be permitted to perform this operation.
The old way of opening the bag, or scrotum,
on either side, cutting ofl" the testicles, and
preventing bleeding or haemorrhage, by the
temporary compression of the vessels while
they are being seared with a hot iron, may
not, perhaps, be entirely abandoned. There
is at least an appearance of brutality, and, we
believe, much unnecessary pain inflicted, when
the spermatic cord — the vessels and the nerve —
is tightly compressed between two pieces of
wood, as in a powerful vice, and left there
either until the testicles drop off", or is re-
moved on the following day by the operator.

To the practice of some farmers, of twitch-
ing their colts at an early period, sometimes
even so early as a month, there is stronger
objection. When the operation of twitching
is performed, a small cord is drawn as tightly
as possible round the bag, between the testicles
and the belly. The circulation is thus stopped,
and, in a few days, the testicles and the bag
drop off; but not until the animal has greatly
suffered. It is occasionally necessary to tighten
tlie cord on the second or thii'd day, and in-
flammation and death have frequently ensued.

A new mode of performing this operation
has recently been introduced — the operation
by Lorison. It has the merit of apparently
inflicting far less pain upon the animal, and
entirely supersedes the brutal firing system.
In performing it the scrotum is cut in the
same manner as we have already described,
and the vas deferens exposed and divided. A
pair of forceps, made for the purpose, is then
used to seize the artery, which is twisted half-
a-dozen times round. As soon as the hold of
the artery is relinquished, the coils are left
untwisted, and the haemorrhage has ceased.
The testicle is removed, and there is neither
sloughing nor danger, neither of whicli is
desirable.

146

BIDING.]

MODEKN VETEEINAKY P"R\rTIP'^

[bidiwo.

CnAPTEU VII.

luniMi : i.KAriNO.

RiniNG. j

In a treatise which lias ibr its object a full
tli'scription of the horse iu every situation in
which that noble animal ia employed, it cannot
be deemed out of place to devote a brief space
to the equestrian art, to which, more especially,
that quadruped was originally subjected. In
our observations upon training the horse, we
have not even alluded to what is called the
grand menage, but have strictly confined our-
selves to that branch of breaking-iu which
constitutes the proper education of the English
horse for the field and the road. Accordingly,
those animals which require a higher degree
of perfection iu the menage, we have purposely
left to the care of those professors of the riding-
schools, whose business it is to teach horses to
perform such feats as not only display their
wonderful docility, tractability and agility ; but
their sagacity, as well as the entire subjection
to which they have been reduced by the power
of man. Therefore the horsemanship to which
wo shall here confine ourselves, will be restricted
to that which is practised in the modern English
school.

"When the horse is led out, saddled and
bridled, the next object of the rider ought to
be to examine the state of the various equip-
ments of his horse, and to ascertain that every
part of them is strong, and has been so placed
as to insure his own safety as well as the
comfort of the animal he is to ride. The first
object will be the bridle, to see that the head-
stall be of a proper length, neither too loose
nor too short; to see the curb-chain hooked
in its proper place, leaving the snafile above,
and clear; the fore-top hair placed under the
band of the bridle, and the reins untwisted and
even.

The saddle should be put perfectly even
and centrical on the back of the horse, so as
not in the least to impede the motion of his
shoulders ; and the girths, buckled one over
the other, sufBciently tight to retain the
saddle firmly in its place. The real horseman

inspects everything; lie loaves nothing to
clianco. When a groom once knows that liia
horse has to uiulergo the critical examination
of his master, it will have a tendency to make
him careful in bringing the animal out in a
perfect state.

Mr. Lawrence thus describes the next pro-
ceeding : — " The nag being led out and held,
the jockey, that is to be, approaches the near
left shoulder; and gathering up the reins
between the fingers in his left hand, the thumb
upwards, at the same time weaving his fingers
into the mane of the horse, he acquires a hold-
fast and purchase. The whip is held with the
reins, in the left hand. With his right hand
he then takes hold of the stirrup, the flat aide
of the leather being placed towards him, and
into the stirrup inserts his left foot. Next,
placing his right hand on the cantle or after-
part of the saddle, and making a moderate
spring or vault, being cautious, at the same
time, to keep his foot and spur clear of the
horse, he seats himself, and the left hand still
retaining its hold of the mane, with the right
he adjusts the stirrup to that foot. Being
seated at his ease, as in a chair, and looking
forward between the ears of his animal, he will
find himself iu a square and even position with
him. The two forming a perfect centaur."

His next object is to adjust the reins, sup-
posing tliem the bridoon or snafile, and curb,
which should be done by leaviug the rein of
the latter rather slack, the chief pressure being
upon the snafile rein ; the curb he reserves for
occasional use, when a more than ordinary
command over the mouth of the horse may be
necessary ; the curb rein may then be drawn
with the requisite force. The right foot being
fixed in the stirrup, the whip, with its handle
upwards, is gently withdrawn from the left to
the right hand, and its usual place is down
behind the calf of the leg. As to the seat, a
man will sit upright, as in his chair; but ia
the common, and more particularly the sporting
seat on horseback, the spine is bent in a

147

KIDIXG.]

THE HOESE, AND

Feidtno.

Bmall degree outward, being directly coutrary
to the form in military equitation. The stirrup
leathers should be of such length as to admit
of the knee being sufficiently bent to retain a
firm hold of the saddle; but not to that degree
as to hoist the rider much above it when he
stands in his stirrups. Nor should they be so
long as to represent him as being a straight-
kneed jockey, which detracts from his power
on horseback, and is dangerous in respect to
that pressure which has sometimes occasioned
rupture in the belly of the rider. The foot, for
the road or for sporting, indeed for the most
secure seat, should be placed home in the
stirrup, the toe rather elevated, and turned
somewhat outward ; thence arises a centre
union of force between the foot and the knee,
the toe being turned out, and the knee inward,
pressing the saddle, which assures a firm seat.
This is the very essence and groundwork of
the seat in the speedy trot and gallop ; and
when to it are added the firm grasp of the
thighs and the hold on the bridle, the stability
of the seat is perfectly secured.

In military riding the seat is said to depend
entirely on the equipoise, or balance, a point
of consequence, no doubt, but which, on try-
ing occasions, can only be maintained as above
stated. It has been observed of bad horse-
men that they can scarcely keep their spurs
from the sides of their horses ; but such can
never be the case with the above seat, in
which the greater difficulty is to reach their
sides with the spurs. The act of spurring,
contrary to the military mode, is performed
with a kick, the toe being somewhat more
turned out.

In dismounting, the left hand, inclosing the
reins, resumes its former place in the mane,
and the rider lands from the same side on
which he mounted, with his horse safe in hand.
Particular situations may render it necessary
to mount on the oft" side. The convenience is
■considei able when the animal will stand still,
unheld at the head, to be mounted ; a point of
•obedience, however, to which some spirited
and impatient horses can scarce]}^ be reduced.
When a horse is held for mounting, it should
be by the checks of the bridle, not tlie reins,
and least of all by the curb rein.

Being mounted, the rider may find the
stirrup-leathers too long or too short. In
148

applying the remedy the attendant should be
careful to draw the buckle of the stirrup-
leather to the top, and to leave the pad of the
saddle smooth and even. The arms should
hang easily down the waist, and, though the
elbows are bent, they must not be awkwardly
elevated or protruded. The bridle is held
about level with, or rather above the pommel
of the saddle, at a length somewhat beyond
it, towards the rider. The reins should not
be held so long and loose as to diminish the
power of the rider in supporting the horse by
a pull, in case of a false step. Few are left
now of the school of Bakewell, who taught
that the rider could afford his animal no pos-
sible support in case of stumbling, but that,
by pulling at him, would rather accelerate his
fall. The horse, well aware of the purpose for
which he is mounted, will, in general, proceed,
on his head being loosed ; if not, an intima-
tion, by gently moving the reins, or pressing
his sides witli the calves of the legs, will be
sufficient. If a steady and quiet hack — and on
such only a tyro should be mounted — he will
commence with a walk, and, in all probability,
continue that pace till put forward by his
rider. Horses, indeed, full of good keep, high
spirited, and having had little work, will, at
starting, be impatient of a slow pace, and cut
a few capers ; on which the rider has nothing
to do but to sit quiet with a mild and steady
hand, until this merry fit is over. The proper
starting pace, the walk, being continued at the
rider's option, the intimations above described,
or a gentle touch on the buttock with the
whip or stick, will cause the animal to advance
to his next pace, the slow or jog-trot — the best
pace of the horse, perhaps, to those who ride
for their health's salce, granting the motion be
not too rough. In the walk, the slow trot,
and the canter, the rider sits on his saddle as
in his easy chair. In reference to the move-
ment of the horse in the canter, Mr. Blaine
says, " that the hind-legs are thrown in, and
while elevated, the oft' fore-leg becomes raised
from the ground, but the near fore-leg is not
elevated until the hinder ones are replaced;
and this constitutes the grand difference be-
tween the canter and the gallop. The sensa-
tion to the rider is as different as possible, and
so is the action to the eye also. If this be
established, it will call to mind that the whole

niuixo.]

!\rODERN VETEllINAKV I' i; A (" T I C K.

[UIUINO.

weirjlit of the boil^' must at one time rest com-
plotfly on tlie near tbro let; ; and that this
does tako phice in the canter, is evident from
the efl'ects observed ; for it is a reuiarkablo
fact, though seldom noticed by old writers,
that in all cantering horses tho near fore leg is
more deteriorated, and exhibits more ellects of
work than tho oil". Judicious horsemen, sen-
sible of this, do not tliereforo permit their
norses always to lead on the same leg, but
frequently change the centre, and gallop,
canter, and trot sometimes with the right, and
sometimes with the left shoulder forward.
The right foot is usually employed in the lead,
when a horse is breaking-in as a * canterer,'
and it is proper so to commence the breaking-
in. If the horse is awkward, or strikes off
falsely, tighten the near rein, which, inclining
his head to the left, naturally advances his
right shoulder, and produces the disposition,
when he is pressed forward by the hand, the
whip, or the heels, to canter with the right
shoulder forward. But wo revert to our cau-
tion to avoid the con/inued use of the leading
leg, which the reader may rest assured will
sutler greatly, and become eventually con-
tracted iu the foot, gorged in the pastern, or
lamed by splints. Some professed horse-
women use a screw-crutch for their saddle, by
which they can shift their seat ; and to those
who ride a great deal, this is a very salutary
custom, as the constant use of one posture
has drawn the figure of the rider hei'self a
littb awry." In the speedy trot he makes
more use of his knees, hitching, or his body
rising or falling in unison with the motion of
the horse. This motion of rising in the
stirrups saves an immense amount of fatigue
to the horse and unpleasantness to his rider.
The Romans condemned the trot, and called it
the crucifier or torturer. In the swift gallop
the rider stands in his stirrups, chiefly depend-
ing on the grasp of his knees and thighs.
Formerly it was the practice to ride a galloper
with stirrup-leathers too short, which made the
seat unsteady, and too much dependence was
placed for support on the reins. It is ob-
viously impossible to lay down a precise rule
in this case. The length at which to ride a
racing-pace, whether trot or gallop, must be
left to the judgment and convenience of the
rider, with the remark that, of the extremes.

riding loo .short is the worst. Rising in the
trot, and lifting and working the horse along
with the reins in tho gallop by tho jockey, are,
no doubt, practices purely English.

Beyond tho slow trot, tho motion of few
horses is sufliciently smooth and easy to en-
courage the rider to sit upon tho saddle, nor is
the appearance of such a seat very graceful.
It is preferable then, if more speed in tho trot
be desired, to advance to that degree in which
the rider may rise in his stirrups; in order to
perform this easily and gracefully, the rate
must be somewhat considerable. To put tho
animal into a canter, a touch of tho left heel,
and a gentle pull of the right rein, for which
the right hand may be used, is the proper
method.

Of the liand-gallop, with the riglit shoulder
forward, Mr. ]31aine says — "At the instant the
horse elevates his fore quarters by means of
the muscles of the loins, he throws his fore
legs also forwards, through the agency of the
muscles distributed to the shoulders and arms ;
but it appears that he does not elevate his
fore limbs equally ; the right is raised a little
more, and it is likewise carried a little further
forward than the left, which makes the action
a pace not a leap. During this elevation, and
in some instances preparatory to it, the ri'dit,
or oft' hind foot, moves slightly forward, but
only sufficient to gain a true centre, and to
correspond with the increased forwardness of
the right shoulder; the near hiud leg, it must
be remembered, yet remains fixed. The fore
extremities now reach the ground, the near
fore a little before its fellow, the oft" fore
doubling over it and placing itself a little
beyond it ; and the slower the gallop, the
more considerable will be the distance between
the placing the fore legs. As soon as the near
fore leg has met the ground, and before the
oft" fore has yet taken its lull bearing, the
hinder legs are moved in the following manner:
— the near hind elevates itself; and, as it
reaches the ground, the oft" hind passes it and
becomes placed also. It is now that the horse
begins to be all in air in this pace; for on the
next spring that the hind quarters make — the
lore quarters being already elevated froiu tho
last impulse — the animal is, of necessity, com-
pletely detached from the ground. The next
period when he is likewise so, is when the fore

149

EIDINQ.]

THE HOESE, AND

[riding.

quarters, meeting the ground, gain a new im-
pulse by their rebound ; the haunches are again
thrown in to take their share in the support,
and, also, to give their impelling power to the
mass."

The simplest of all the paces of the horse is
the full gallop. " Simple as it is, however,"
says the same eminent veterinary surgeon,
"it cannot, in any instance, be commenced
■without the intervention of the slower gallop,
in which one of the hinder legs is first
advanced to establish a new centre ; for it
would require too great an eff'ort to raise the
fore parts at once from a state of rest by
means of tlie loins, and to throw them for-
wards at the first action to a considerable dis-
tance by means of the hauuches and thighs.
The fact is well known to jockeys and other
sporting characters, and they often derive
profit from the circumstance, by wagering
with the unwary, that no horse shall be found
to gallop one hundred yards while a man runs
fifty, provided each start together ; in which
case so much time is lost in acquiring the due
momentum, that the man has often won ; make
but the race for one hundred and fifty yards,
and the horse would beat ; for now the im-
petus being acquired, he arrives at sufiicieut
momentum to overtake his antagonist. In the
extended gallop, the fore parts, when raised,
are forced forward by the alternate flexions and
extensions of the angles of the hinder parts ;
and as both of the fore and both of the hind
legs, in the racing gallop, become opposed to
the ground in succession at the same moment
— that is, as the two fore feet at once beat the
ground togetlier, and then the two hind, so it
is evident that the gallop, if full, is nothing
more than a repetition of leaps. Quickly as
these leaps are repeated, yet the surface of
ground passed over at each of them must
necessarily be great to accomplish the pace at
which the good racer goes. Hambletonian, in
his match against Diamond, is said to have
covered eighty-three-and-a-half feet of ground
in a second ; and by the calculations of M.
St. Bel, Eclipse covered eighty-five feet of
ground in the same time, when at the top of
his speed. Every turf amateur must have re-
marked the horizontal position of the body in
the racer at the momentous struggle. Every
departure from a rectilinear form of the body
150

would detract from the rapidity of its flight,
and, therefore, even the head and neck are
carried so as to fall within the line of the
trunk. As a compensation, however, for the
loss of the power sustained, the limbs are
most extensively flexed, that the circles they
form may be more extended."

On any critical occasion, whether arising
from embarrassment on the road, or from un-
quietness in the horse, the reins may be taken
separately in each hand ; and this is mucti
practised both in riding and driving. Ii
obviously increases the power of the ridei
over his animal, and is useful in cases of start-
ing and shying, or in any attempt to turn
round, in plunging, kicking, or rearing. In
the latter case, common sense will inform the
rider, that he must lean forward with slack
reins, or he may pull the horse o'/er ; certainly
one of the most dangerous accidents among
the many which appertain to equestrian art.
Whilst leaning forward, he should apply his
spurs sharply to the sides of the horse — a
punishment which will cure him of this vice,
granting it is curable.

In the opposite habit of kicking out behind,
which some animals have the knack of doing
very high, with jerks not very comfortable to
the rider's back-bone, the precisely opposite
course is to be adopted, to avoid a somersault
over the shoulders of the horse. The rule
now is — sit back, sit fast, pull hard, holding the
head of the animal as high as possible, and
spurring with force at every interval of kicking.
Having the opportunity also, use the whip
eftectually on the thigh, the belly, and, if
necessary, on the jaws. In a confirmed case
of vice, nothing skort of intimidation and
absolute conquest will succeed. Such severity,
indeed, instead of a cure, may sometimes pro-
duce desperation ; and when patience and
mild measures will succeed, they are infinitely
preferable. We would always recommend
that spurs be worn. With a restive horse
they are indispensable; and in the case of
being placed between two objects, one of
which alarms him, and the other dangerous
for him to come in contact with, the spur on
the dangerous side is of unspeakable use, as
constituting the principal dependence in aid
of the hand of the rider to keep the horse in
his safe and r^roper place.

R litis a.]

MODERN YT/rEIMXAin' PI{A(^TICE.

[uiuiNa.

Adams, an equestrian writer, saya, the
body must iilways bo in a situation, not only
to preserve its balance, but to maintain its
seat. The distinction between the balance
and the seat may be thus marked. Tiio
balance is the centrical or equilibrium position
of the body, whatever may be the motion of
the horse. The seat is the horseman's firm
hold of the saddle, in situations where he
mi«»ht be liable to be thrown over the animal's
neck, or to fall backwards over his tail.

To preserve the balance, it is evident the
body of the rider must keep in the same direc-
tion as the horse's legs. For example, if the
horse move straightly and uprightly on his legs,
the body of the rider must be preserved in a posi-
tion similarly upright ; but if the horse bends
or leans, as when running in a circle, or trot-
tinsr round a corner, the rider must lean in
the same direction, or his balance will be lost.
The balance, indeed, may be preserved by a
different seat ; but the seat will not be secure.

Mr. Adams further remarks, that if the
hand is held steady, as the horse advances in
the trot, the fingers will feel, by the contrac-
tion and dilatation of the reins, a small sensa-
tion or tug, occasioned by the measure of
every step. This, which is reciprocally felt in
the horse's mouth, by means of the corre-
spondence, is called the appui ; and while the
oppui is preserved between the hand and the
mouth, the animal is in perfect obedience ^o
the rider, the hand directing him with the
greatest ease, so that he seems to work by the
will of the rider rather than the manipulative
power. The hand then possesses, indepen-
dently of other aids, more than sufficient
strength to control and direct the horse that
is broken and obedient.

Berenger furnishes us with five directions on,
the functions of the hand. They are these: —

1. Hold your hand three fingers' breadth from
your body, as high as your elbow, in such
manner that the joint of your little finger be
upon a right line with the tip of the elbow ;
let your wrist be sufficiently rounded, that
your knuckles may be kept directly above the
neck of the horse ; let your nails be exactly
opposite your body, the little finger nearer to
it than the others ; your thumb quite flat
upon the reins, which you must separate by
vuttiug your little finger between them, the

right rein lying upon it. Thio is the firut and
general position.

2. Does your honso go furward ; or rather,
would you have him go forward ? ]f so, yield
to him your hand ; and for that purpose, turn
your nails downward in such a manner as to
bring your thumb near your body ; remove your
little linger from it, and bring it into the place
where your knuckles were in the lirst position,
keeping your nails directly above the neck of
your animal.

3. If you would make your horse go back-
ward, quit the first position, and let your wrist
be quite round. Then allow your thumb to bo
in the place of the little finger in the second
position, and the little finger in that of the
thumb ; turn your nails quite upward, and
towards your face, and your knuckles will be
towards your horse's neck.

4. If vou would turn your horse to the right,
leave the first position, and carry your nails to
the right ; then your hand upside down, in
such a manner that your thumb be carried out
to the lefc, and the little finger be brought to
the right.

o. If you would turn to the left, quit again
the first position; carry the back of your
hand slightly to the left, so that the knuckles
may come under a little, that the thumb may
incline to the right, and the little finger to the
left.

These different positions, however, adds
Berenger, are, when taken singly, insufficient,
unless the horseman be able to pass from the
one to the other with readiness and order.

We have spoken of terrifying the vicious
horse into subordination by severity; but a
man of right feeling and rellection will always
endeavour to render the labour of his animal
as little irksome, and as comfortable to him as
possible, and will, therefore, give him his reiu,
and bear as lightly on his mouth as may be
consistent with such a hold upon him as the
necessity of the emergency may require. If it
appears we have laid much stress on the fixed-
ness and grasp of the reins, we intended that
grasp, like the curb of the bridal, to be only for
occasional use ; but by no means that the rider
should be a mere fixture, as though nailed to
the saddle. On the contrary, he should learn
to sit at his ease, pliable to tlie motions of his
horse, and in full possessiou of a just equipoise.

151

niDING.]

THE HOESE, AI^D

[eidikg.

In speaking of bridles, Tve should observe
that the curb alone, and with single rein, is an
unfair bridle, and entirely deceptive to the
rider, since its first effect is to torture, and
ultimately to harden the mouth of the animal^
depriving it of that sensibility which is the
basis of what we sliould call a good mouth.
The curb, beside, is an awkward bit with whicli
to effect the turn, it being only calculated for
pulling straight forward. In former days the
snaffle was deemed the severest bit, no doubt
from its having been made small and sharp.
Since then the snaffle has been changed into a
mild bit, although hard and sharp snaffles still
remain. Young horses should be first put to
work with mild bits, and chiefly accustomed to
the snaffle, which will ensure a good mouth,
sufficiently hard for fair pulling, yet with a
due share of sensibility and liability to be
affected and acted on by the occasional use of
the curb. The snaffle bit should be of con-
siderable thickness, particularly at the ends
next to the reins, and not made so long that
the joint will work into the bars of the mouth.
Many riders prefer a good snaffle-bridle horse
to any other; still we think there is an ad-
ditional convenience in the double-reined bri-
dle, in case of a rein breaking.

In reference to the lady's horse, her pad

should indicate considerable blood ; and should

rarely exceed fifteen hands in height ; its paces

should be rough ; and the trot should be both

slow and easy, which is the pace of health,

and which is a valuable quality. The canter,

however, is the principal requisite, which

should be both natural and graceful ; the

neck handsomely curved, and the mouth

possessed of a pleasant feeling. "Whatever

may be the natural beauties of such animals,

however, the grand consideration is in the

safety of their step ; for a horse deficient in

this respect, is perhaps, in his canter, always

most liable to " kiss the ground." The most

graceful canterers may be observed to lead

generally with the off" leg; but, no doubt,

there is such an error as a horse, both in his

canter and gallop, going with the wrong leg

first, to the great uneasiness of the rider.

This is more particularly felt on worn and

battered horses, which change their legs to

procure for themselves a momentary cessation

from weakness, weariness, or pain.

152

The person who attends for the purpose of
assisting a lady to mount her animal, should
be close to her, join his hands, by placing his
fingers within each other, to form a stirrup
for her left foot, as near to the ground as
possible. Her left knee must be quite straight,
which will facilitate tlie assistant's eff"ort to
place her in the saddle — an act facilitated by
a moderate spring from herself.

Some masters teach their lady pupils to
ride on either side of the liorse, and recom-
mend the pommel of the saddle to be made
very low, that the knee may not be thrown
too high. They also recommend that the
pommel be made with a screw, to be taken off
in case of a lady wishing to change sides when
she rnay desire it.

Ladies' riding-shoes should be always straight-
soled, as, in case of accident, there is the risk
of the foot hanging in the stirrup, when the
sole, according to the old fashion, is hollow
next the heel. A lady's pad should par-
ticularly be accustomed to walk off" quietly;
and with respect to his improvement in that
pace, it is accomplished by touching him gently
behind with the whip.

In case a lady should have to dismount with
the assistance of only one person to hold her
horse, steps or a chair are requisite. If there is
not this convenience, she springs from her seat ;
and should her pad, which is so often the case,
be upwards of fifteen hands, she may some-
times meet with a strained ankle, or some other
accident. Having an assistant, she gives him
her left hand, and holding herself by the
crutch of the saddle, she alights. Her pre-
liminary act, however, is gently to change her
whip from the right to the left, or bridle hand,
leaving its end to hang down the near shoulder
of her pad, placing the reins upon the upright
horn of the saddle, on which, also, she rests
her right hand. Her garments clear of giving
any obstruction, she may then, turning a little
to the right, make her spring towards the
assistant, who is ready to break her fall. She
should be careful, on quitting the stirrup, to
keep her knee upon the crutch, as a security
in case of the horse starting. It is perhaps
unnecessary to mention, that a gentleman who
attends a lady on horseback, rides on her near
side; and that it is one of his first duties,
to keep himself between the lady and any

LKAl'lNO.J

-^lODERN VETERINAKV P U A CT K' H.

[leavino.

carriages or horsemen that may bo inoL wilh
in passing and repassing' tlu'in.

LEAPING.
As to leaping, initiatory practice may be
had at tlie bar, at school, or at any iences
which may present themselve3. The rules for
sitting, in a leap, are precisely tho same as
those which refer to an animal when unquiet,
and alternately rearing and kicking. If it is
a flying leap, sit last, give the nag his head,
and preserve your own circumspection. It
may bo often necessary to touch your horse
with the spur or whip towards the finish of
his leap, in order to make him clear his hind
le"s ; but in the whole of this feat, much
ought, indeed must be, confided to the animal
himself. If seasoned, and a staunch fencer, it
is a perilous thing to drive him at a leap that
he, most assuredly the best and safest judge,
has refused. How many accidents have hap-
pened from this vain-glorious practice! Nor
is it always prudent to drive a raw horse, by
the force of whip and spur, at a fence that has
alarmed him, as it may render him habitually
desperate and careless.

The way to make a horse a steady, prompt,
and safe fencer, is to suffer him to take it by
degrees, and spontaneously. Some very ex-
cellent hedge-fencers are naturally shy of
timber, in particular palings and hurdles.
Such horses cannot be safely put to these im-
pediments of any considerable height.

For leaping, the Irish horse is unrivalled.
It is not, however, the leaping of the English
horse, striding, as it were, over a low fence,
and stretched at his full length over a higher
one; but it resembles the jump of the deer.
The training of the Irish horse must, we sup-
pose, make this difference, as in riding, in
that country, a horseman has to meet with
fences very different from those character-
istic of England — stone walls being common.
"We will, however, more particularly enter
into a description of some of the varieties of
leaps.

The standing leap is naturally the first to
be described ; and although some daring Mel-
tonians may pronounce it as somewhat slow,
still it requires very skilful management to ac-
complish it well. In a little treatise, entitled
Graceful Eiding ; a Foclcet Manual for

Equestrians, by .Mr. Waite, a riding-master,
wo have tho movements whicli occur in tho
standing-leap, very clearly and briefly de-
scribed. "Let the rider," Hays this professor,
" take up his horse at an animating pace ; halt
him with a tight hand upon hia haunches;
when rising at the leap, the rider should only
just feel the reins, so as to prepare for slacken-
ing them when ho springs forward, yielding
them without reserve, as at the time tho horso
must bo left quite at liberty. As tho horse's
hind feet come to the ground, the rider must
again collect him, resume his usual position,
and move on at the same pace, and his body
must be inclined forward as the horso rises,
and backwards as he alights."

In the flying-leap the horse must not be
hurried, " but taken up at a brisk pace, with a
light and steady hand, keeping his head per-
fectly steady and straight to the bar or fence.
This position is the same as in the standing-
leap ; and the aids required are the same as
for making a horso canter. If held too tight
in the act of leaping, the horse is likely to
overstrain himself and fall. If hurried at a
leap, it may cause hini to miss his distance,
and spring too soon or too late ; therefore his
pace must be regulated, so that he may take
ins spring distant enough, and proportionate
to its height, so that he may clear it. When
Hearing the leap, the rider must sit perfectly
square, erect, pliant and easy in the act of
.leaping: on arriving at the opposite side of
the leap, throw the body well back, and again
have the horse well in hand."

AVe have spoken of the Irish horses as being
excellent leapers ; and in what is called the
doithh leap, or luck jump, their vast stretch is
exemplified to an extraordinary extent. It is
observed by Mr. Apperley, in vol. xi. of the
Encijclopcsdia Britannica, the power which
some horses have of giving an additional im-
Detus to their flight after they have left the
ground in a leap. "After all," says he, "tho
most extraordinary fact relating to the leapiug
of horses, is the power they have of extending
themselves, by a second spring as it were,
when, on being suspended in tlie air, they per-
ceive something on tho further side of a fence
for which they were not prepared. That they
occasionally do this under good horsemen, all
qood horsemen of experience can vouch lor;

153

LEAPING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[leaping.

but whence the fulcrum ia derived, it would be
difficult to determine."

In reference to this power in the horse, Mr.
Blaine is of the same opinion, and, indeed, cites
Mr. Apperley in support of it. The buck-leap
is not made when the horse is at the top of
his speed, but when at a trot, canter, or short
hand-gallop. Buck-leapers, however, are not
considered very safe, especially if there is
fatigue in the cases of the animals making
them. "The horse, in such a case," says Mr.
Blaine, "not being able to bear the jar of a
secondary effort of the joints to relieve him-
self, the attempt often brings him down, and
thus it is that buck-leapers are seldom safe
ones. We would caution the nervous rider
aeainst the dangerous custom which some have,
at every downward leap, of grasping the cantle
of the saddle with the whip-hand, for it not
only displaces the body, and, consequently, un-
steadies the seat, but it has likewise dislocated
the shoulder. We have seen others elevate
the whip-hand at every flying leap ; and the
action appears to have become so natural to
them as not at all to discompose their seat.
In Ireland this is very common ; and among
the regular 'Pats,' it is accompanied with a
vociferous 'hough,' the rise of the hand and
voice being synchronous ; neither is it impro-
bable that, from custom, both the action and
sound are inspiriting to the rider — perhaps to
the horse also."

What are called the trial-leaps of the Irish
horses are, perhaps, the most extraordinary
instances of springing power that are to be
found in any country in the world. They are
taken over stone walls of six feet high, built
firm throughout by coping and dashing. When
Mr. Blaine was with his regiment in Ireland,
he had opportunities of witnessing some of
these daring feats. " Over these walls it was
a very common occurrence for their crack
fieldsmen to ride, but it was owned that some
of the stones were usually displaced in the
leap. Indeed, it was this very circumstance
that deprived the enterprise of half its danger.
A good horse there, when hunting, seldom
baulked such a leap ; for he is aware that

either his knees or his breast will displace the
first tier of loose stone ; the next rider who
follows does the same ; and each one who
succeeds, is in more and more peril from the
loose stones, which very frequently give horse
and rider an awful somersault. That high
fencing-horses are almost, as it were, indigenous
to Ireland, we might conclude from the cir-
cumstance that, at one of the great horse fairs
held at Ballinasloe, the parish pound, which is
six feet in height, forms the trial-leap of the
high-priced horses bought there, each of which,
we are told, is expected to leap it ere the bar-
gain is concluded. It is also recorded of a
descendant of old Pot-8-os, from an Irish half-
bred mare, that she leaped a wall of seven feet
high, built for the purpose, in Phoenix Park,
Dublin.' =

On the 24th of February, 1792, an Irish
bay horse, for the honour of Ireland, leapt
standing, the wall of Hyde Park, which was
six feet and a-half high on the inside, and
eight on the outside, where a long bed of
dung was laid to receive him on his descent.
This horse was the property of Mr. Bingham.
It was twice done by the same animal, which,
on the second leap, merely displaced a few
bricks. Steeple-chasers, of later years, are also
said to have achieved some extraordinary leaps.
Charity, winner of the Newport Pagnel Steeple-
Chase in 1841, cleared twenty-eight feet and
a bank; and Peter Simple, at the Liverpool
Steeple-Chase, cleared the artificial water-cut,
opposite the Grand Stand, leaving his mea-
sured foot-prints thirty-two feet from bank to
bank.

We will conclude these feats of leaping by
giving a sustained instance of this power in the
horse ; and which shows the wonderful stamina
possessed by some of the species. A match
was made between Sir Charles Turner and the
Earl of March, upon these conditions, that the
former should " ride ten miles within the hour,
in which he was to take forty leaps, each leap
to be one yard, one quarter, and seven inches
high." The stake was 1,000 guineas, which
Sir Charles, with great ease, won upon a Gal-
loway, in thirty-six minutes.

154

Q

1^

aoou roiNTs.]

AlODJ-KN VKTKKl N'AliY IMPACT ICE.

f(JO()D I'OIVTS.

CIIArTER A'TII.

i»UB(irASlN(i A HOUSK ; CIIOOSINO ; EXAMlNATUtN FOR DEFECTS AND DISKASE ; JIDCINC oK ACE llY

Tin; TEETH.

REMARKS ON TIIK PURCHASING OF A
HORSE.

Soundness in a liorse is one of tlio first
requisites in its purchase or sale; and there
are few subjects upon which greater doubt,
difTiculty, and annoyance has arisen, than
upon tlie condition and qualities of the animal
that is about to pass from the hands of one
master to those of anotlier. There are few
trades in which there is more deception prac-
tised than in the one pursued by tlie horse-
dealer. " Beautiful as tlie animal is," says the
editor of The Horse, " and identified as he is
BO much with our pleasure and our profit, he
has been the object of almost universal regard ;
and there are few persons who do not pretend
to be somewhat competent judges of his form,
qualities, and worth. From the nobleman,
with his numerous and valuable stud, to the
meanest helper in the stable, and not ex-
cluding even the mechanic, who scarcely crosses,
or sits behind a horse once in a twelvemonth,
there is scarcely a man who would not be
offended if he were thought to be altogether
ignorant of horse-flesh. There is no subject
on which he is so positive ; there is no subject
on which, generally speaking, he is so deficient ;
and there are few horses, on some points of
which, these pretended and self-sufiicient judges
would not give a totally opposite opinion.

"The truth is, that this supposed knowledge
is rarely founded on principle, or is the result
of the slightest acquaintance with the actual
structure of this animal, or that form and
connexion of parts, on which strength, or
fleetness, or stoutness, must necessarily de-
pend. If we were constructing or examining
a machine composed of levers and pullies, and
by which we purposed to raise a great weight,
or to set in motion certain bodies with a given
velocity, we should fail in our object, or ex-
pose our ignorance of the matter, if we were
not aware what kind of lever, or connexion of
levers was necessary, and in what situation
the ropes should be placed, and in what direc-

tion the force should be applied, and by what
mt'ans we could obtain mechanical advantage,
and by what peculiar construction it would in-
evitably be lost."

These observations show to us the necessity
of studying the anatomy of animals, before we
have any pretensions to be critically acquainted
with the cause of their powers. However, it
will be sufiicient for our general readers to
lay down the commonly received opinions on
points which constitute what may be considered
an eftective animal.

As everything in nature is adapted to some
especial purpose, so has every horse its own
particularity. Horses, however, not only differ
in kind, but, like men, in utility, in temper, in
stamina, they also differ. The selection of
them, therefore, in regard to these particulars,
constitutes one of the nicest duties of the
judge or buyer, who must readily perceive good
or bad conformation; trace genealogy in the
outline, and discover their excellences and
their opposites with readiness and certainty.

It requires some experience, but more at-
tentive observation, to be what is termed, in
equine phraseology, a good judge. To know
at once, at a glance, whether the nag is likely
to suit ; whether ho is cut out for a hackney,
or is calculated for harness, is a power which
only extensive observation and experience can
give. Does he look like a hunter, or has he
any good looks about him ? Does he show any
blood, or is he all over a mongrel 'i The man
who knows these things, we sliould recommend
to the uninitiated in the mysteries of horse-
dealing, to make purchases for them.

At the risk of repeating ourselves a little,
we must here generally describe tlie outward
appearance of the horse again, in order to
bring this more directly under the notice of the
readers who may have the intention of pur-
chasing one. In the first place, the head
should be small. A large head is considered a
bad point, inasmuch as it really, under certain
circumstances, detracts from the powers of the

155

GOOD POINTS.]

THE HOESE, AND

Fgood points.

auimal. He lias, in fact, more to carry. It is
a burden to him ; and the only way in which he
can possibly carry it to advantage, is at the
extremity of a short and upright neck. Next
to size, its shape becomes a consideration.
The forehead should be broad and flat, the
eye staring and full of tire ; the ears thin, fine,
and often erect ; the nostrils circular, dilated,
and reddened within ; the lips soft, thin, and
hairless ; the jowl extended, and the cheeks
well marked. This, at least, is what it should
be in the thorough-bred ; and, as a general
rule, the nearer any other description of horse
approaches to this, the better is the family he
springs from, and the more sanguine we may
be in determining the extent, variety, and ex-
cellence of his qualities.

After the head comes the neck, which, if
good, will make the crest form an arch, or
agreeable curve, frona the poll to the withers.
It will be of proportionate length, and will
progressively increase in breadth as it ap-
proaches the chest. A long neck, if it is
straight, or but little curved, is objectionable.
It has been said that short-necked horses are
better winded than others, because the air has
less distance to pass to and from the lungs ;
but it is an opinion to which little deference
may be paid. The neck should be thin — at
least, not thick and heavy — and rounded and
straight along its lower margin. Should the
canal of the jugular vein be deep, and the
windpipe full and prominent below it, we mav
regard it as a sign of good wind. If the arch
of the neck is reversed, i. e., below instead of
above, and the crest, or what ought to be the
crest, near the withers, is hollow and sunken,
the animal is, as we have before observed, said
to be "ewe-necked," which is one of the
greatest natural deformities common to these
parts. Under such circumstances, it is usual
for a dealer to say that " the neck is put on
the wrong side upwards;" but, in reality, it
appears to arise from its junction with the
chest being too low down.

Of all the points of a horse, the shoulder,
for a hackney or a hunter, is of the utmost
consequence. Without a good shoulder, no
animal can ride well. He may be a good
harness-horse, or he may race well, but it is
physically impossible for him to carry his rider
with ease and pleasure on the road. But how
15G

are we to know what it is that constitutes a
good shoulder, and what it is that makes it
a bad one ? To instruct the reader upon
these points, it will be necessary to say some-
thing on its internal mechanism. The scapulas'
or shoulder-blades, are attached to the ribs by
many powerful muscles, which move them,
during the action of the auimal, round their
own axes ; or, at least, in a very similar way ;
and though, they can only revolve through the
small segment of a circle, that segment is
greater in proportion as they are more ob-
liquely placed against the sides of the chest ;
hence it will be seen, that what is called an
oblique shoulder, is most advantageous for
motion. It is said, that the best shouldered
animals have generally thin withers ; but this
anatomical condition is not indispensably
necessary to the formation of a good shoulder,
although we are aware that there are some
judges of a contrary opinion. If, in viewing
the fore parts of a horse, we find he rises upon
the withers, and that no traces of his blade-
bone can be seen under the skin, but that all
appears smooth and level, we may conclude
that the shoulder is oblique. A more certain
proof of this, however, will be found by carry-
ing the eye from the top of the withers to the
extremity of the point of the shoulder. If it
is upright, or nearly so, unless it be in a
thorough-bred horse, such an animal is only
fit for the collar. That horses have been fast
runners on the turf with bad shoulders, is no
proof that they would not have galloped
better with good ones ; and we must recollect,
that, in a racer, the hind quarters are con-
sidered of primary importance. On the road,
however, we know that bad shouldered animals
are neither pleasant nor safe hackneys. They
step short ; are puddling walkers ; roll about
in the trot, and are exceedingly liable to fall.

Tlie fore legs, Mhen viewed laterally, should
descend in a straight line from the bottom of
the shoulder; but when seen in front, they
ouiiht to incline ccutlv inwards. If the elbow
projects directly backwards, and the toe points
with precision forwards, we may rest satisfied
that the horse is not twisted in his fore legs.
Turning the toe in or out in standing, is apt
to be accompanied with distortion, or de-
formity of the limb. Tliis circumstance,
therefore, is seldom seen without materially

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MODERN VETEHINARY PHACTICE.

GOOD POINTS.]

lessoning the valiio of a horse. Of tlic two
faults, turning tlictn out is the greater; for
the pointing inwiinls is seKloni carried to
extreme. A good arm is broad anil thick ;
long, when compared to the leg, and marked
exteriorly by nmyeular j)rominences. Tho
elbow cannot prt'ject too far back ; and tho
more plump tho muscle is immediately above
it, wo may conclude that so nnieli the greater
are the powers of the anin-.al.

The knees ought to be large, broad in front,
and distinctly marked with several bony
knobs ; lateral thickness is also of much im-
portance. AVIien the radius — the bone of the
arm — instead of descending in a straiglit Hue,
is directed backwards, so that the knee appears
to recede from it, tlie horse is said to be calf-
kneed, a term which expressly conveys the
idea we have of this formation, which is always
objectionable for the saddle, thougli it may do
for the collar. The leg should fall in exactly
perpendicular from the carcase, and be short
when compared with the arm — tlio converse
of this being indicative of weakness — and of
sufficient breadth to enable a purchaser, even
at a distance, to distinguish the tendons and
bone, with perfect clearness in their relative
situations. If this cannot be done, there is
reason to suspect tiiat he is wliat is called
gummy — an eftect produced by hard or pre-
mature work, for it is never a natural defect.
Should the legs be round and straight below,
they are called sliJty, and are never firm and
good ; but the best, and only correct way to
judge of these members, is to pass the hand
down them. If they measure much round,
and the sinews feel firm, hard, and distinct,
like ■well-braced cords ; and if the intervening
spaces between bone and sinew are clean — free
from gum — we may pronounce them good.

The fetlock, as a joint, should be of large
dimensions, in proportion to the other parts.
No joint, in fact, is too large, provided its bony
prominences are seen with the naked eye, and
its ligaments perfectly perceptible to tiie touch
of our fingers. Knuckling over in the fetlock
is a sign of either original mal.formation, such
as uprightness in the pasterns, or else is the
result of hard work ; and the tottering aflec-
tion of the limb, accompanying this state, is
caused by local debility, and excessive irrita-
bility in the nervous system. The pasterns

[good points.

always deserve tlie attention of tho buver:
whou good, their lengtli is in proportion to
that of other purls ; and tla-y siiould huvo a
considerable obliijuo inclination downwards
and forwards to the foot. Jlorsen willi very
oblicpie pasterns, are likely to break down;
and, for this reason, they should never bo bhod
with tliin-heeled shoes. On tho other hand,
if they are very nliort and upright in theso
joints, they are seldom or ever sure-footed, and
will, from work, soon become stilty or groggy.

The hoof is the next point to be considered,
and we cannot be too careful in its examina-
tion. "No foot, no horse," is a trite, but verv
true saying. I'irst, we siiould look to its size.
A small foot is not only objectionable in itself,
even though it be a natural formation, but is
often a characteristic of disease ; and a small
and upright hoof is a morbid leature in a horse.
White hoofs are to be viewed with suspicion,
for they are really weaker, and more liable to
disease than black ones; and if an animal has
one white, and the other dark, and he is lame,
in nine cases out of ten, it will be found that the
halting arises from some affection in the white
hoof. It must be observed, too, that the na-
tural form of the hoof is not destroyed by
narrowness at the heels. A good hoof is cir-
cular in the tread, or nearly so, measuring as
much from side to side as from toe to heel:
but it is frequently found that hoofs that are
morbid, measure as much from toe to heel
as twice the lateral diameter. On the other
hand, the wall of the hoof, which should, at all
times, be perfectly smooth and free from ridges
— the contrary indicating disease — may be very
oblique ; in which case it is not only circular,
but spreads out, in the tread, to such a degree
as enables a judge at once to pronounce it in a
state of morbidity. Large horses, bred in low
marshy situations, are most subject to this kind
of foot; and the strong and upright foot is
likely to become contracted ; so is this one sub-
ject to a disease called ileshy soles. Indeed,
in the former, the sole is concave ; but, in llio
latter, it is flat, on whicli account dill'ereut
modes of shoeing are necessary, in order lo
meet the requirements of each case.

In speaking of tlie body or carcase, it may bo
subdivided into tho chest, the belly, and tlie
loins. So far as regards the constitution of
the horse, bis stamiua, or his bottom, no part

157

GOOD POINTS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[OOOD POIIS-TS.

is of more consequence than the chest ; bat like
that of many other parts, no particular construc-
tion of it is, for all sorts of animals, the best.
The chest of the cart-horse should be circular,
broad in the bosom, and large in the girth ;
that of the thorough-bred, more circumscribed,
but not flat-sided, very deep, and also exten-
sive in the girth ; so that the two difier more
in width than in depth. A full and prominent
breast is a fine point; and the ribs should
stand out with sufficient curve to afford space
enough within. For this reason some prefer
a shoulder of middling thickness, if it is an
obhque one; because, besides the one men-
tioned, it has another advantage — of enabling
the rider to feel that he has something sub-
stantial under him. A narrow-carcased horse
is always exceptionable, for he is commonly
an indifferent feeder. If we expect dura-
bility in a horse, the barrel should be round,
and capacious enough to give room for the
heart and lungs to play. This organisa-
tion is essential to those animals from which
hard work is daily expected. The opposites of
this form are generally of weak constitution,
although they may give sufficient satisfaction
to those riders who merely use them for summer
recreation. They are generally what is termed
loasJi.y, parting with their food too quickly, and
perfectly incompetent to perform any great
labour, or endure continued hard work,

The back should be perfectly straight, as
one that is hollow indicates want of strength,
although such a form is often extremely plea-
sant to the rider. A roach back, the reverse
of a hollow back, is by no means handsome,
but it is stronger. One objection to it, how-
ever, is, that it is apt to chafe from the saddle.
The loins are a point which merit the most
particular attention. A hollow back and a
narrow loin are generally indicative of natural
weakness ; but the latter is far more exception-
able than the former. A horse so formed can
seldom carry much weight, is easily knocked
up, and often proves a bad feeder. His con-
stant hoUowness in the flank, and his lank ap-
pearance altogether, after a day's hunting,
amply demonstrate his utter incapability of
sustaining the great exertion necessary to the
satisfactory performance of his situation.

The manner in which the tail is set on must
not be overlooked. A horse that carries two
168

good ends — of which the head forms one, and
the tail the other — always looks grand and
showy. Above all others of his species, the
charger should possess these points in perfec-
tion, to coincide with the grandeur of his car-
riage in the ostentatious parade of a field-dav.
In most horses this posterior appendage should
form, when elevated, a straight line, or nearly
so, with the back. A gentle declivity of the
croup, however, from the summit of the rump,
denotes the blood-like quarter, and adds much
grace to this part in the thorougli-bred animal.
Should this line, however, decline very much,
the quarters lose much of their beauty as well
as their natural power. Nothing is so ugly, in
a full-quartered horse, as to see the tail set on
low down, and, as it were, springing abruptly
from the rump. The dealers fig all horses in-
discriminately ; but this is certainly injudicious,
for it subjects those which naturally carry good
tails, to the same suspicion as it does those which
may be really figged to answer the purposes of
the dealer. Eiery and spirited hackneys sel-
dom require nicking ; and hackneys are often
called cock-tails, in contradistinction to those
that are thorough-bred, which never carry any
but a drooping tail. A cocked-tail is incom-
patible with a blood-quarter ; hence blood-
horses should never be figged or nicked.

The quarters may be full, small, or fine and
blood-like. Eull quarters are such as are pos-
sessed by cart-horses, large machiners, and
hackneys able to carry weight. These animals
are wide in the hips, though these are but in-
distinctly marked, in consequence of being
enveloped by large, coarse, and flabby muscles.
People are too apt to regard wide iiips as an
objectionable point, from their giving to the
horse the appearance which is called ragged, and
which is produced by a bad loin, and lank, flat,
and weak quarters. Were these parts well
formed, the hips might be pronounced of the
best description. The small quarter is one
that is often seen in a horse of this form ; and
though its general contour may be regular and
uniform, it is altogether disproportionately
small when compared with the carcass. If it
grows narrow towards the hinder part, the
animal is said to be goose-rumped.

Of all other structures, the blood-like quar-
ter is the best adapted for speed. In the
blood-horse the tail is set on high up, and the

MUSTLES «f liar HOKSE

GOOD POINTS.]

MODEEN VETEBINAPvY TRACTICE.

[defects.

Lips aro lofty atul prominent, but not ragged ;
BO tliat many of our best racers aro higher
boliiiul than before; the spaces between them
ami the points of tlio quarters great, as are
also those between the latter parts and the
stillea. The haunches want the jilump and
round appearance of the full quarter; but so
far from either being lank or thin, tliey are
.striped with bold and prominent muscles, free
■from the adipose and cellular substance which
constitutes the flabbiuess of those with full
quarters, and are so distinct, that even through
the skin, we can distinguish where one ends
and another begins. The stifles should pro-
ject boldly forwards, and have a perceptible
irregularity of surfiice. Thighs, when long,
thick, and muscular, are pronounced to be
'• good." The hock, of all other parts in tlic
racer, is of the utmost importance ; it should
be broad, flat, and of largo dimensions. The
propulsion of the animal machine is effected
chiefly by those muscles which are attached to
the point of the hock ; so that the more this
projects, the greater the force these can exert,
simply on the principle of the lever.

The half-bred horse, with good hocks, pos-
sesses the same advantage in hunting as the
racer does on the turf. The point of the hock,
as we have before observed, cannot stand out
too much ; indeed, the greater its dimensions
altogether, the better, provided it be not
gummy, or that its various bony projections
and sinewy parts are distinctly seen or felt.
If the hock is narrow, its point round and not
well defined, it is said to be straight; and,
from its being liable to curbs, is called a curhy
hock. Should its point be directed inwards,
and the toes turned outwards, the horse is
said to be cow-hoclced, or cat-hammed. As
this is a part very liable to disease, as well as
to original mal-formation, the nicest examina-
tion is required to detect all that may prove
disadvantageous or injurious to its function,
the proper performance of which is of so much
importance, that the propulsion of the \Yhole
machine depends chiefly upon it.

In spite of the old adage, " that a good horse
is never of a bad colour;" still colour is, by
many persons, esteemed of considerable im-
portance. Bays and browns are considered,
generally, good colours, as they are almost
invariably accompanied by black legs, and, as

a consequence, good black hoofH, which aro
always preferable to white ones. Chestnut
colours and roans aro much up])roved of. The
dark iron-grey is ol'ten a colour sought after;
yet, horses of this colour, as they advance in
years, gradually become lighter; and, ut the
age of eight or nine, will be nearly white.
(J rooms have an objection to this colour, and
with some justice; for the animals stain them-
selves so frequently by even lyiug down, that
it is almost impossible to keep them clean
without washing them, and this renders them
liable to take cold. There is also an objection,
generally, to the natural softness of their hoofs,
a circumstance which makes it difllcult to shoe
them firmly and well.

Such, generally speaking, may be considered
the essential properties of an elTective animal ;
and what constitutes sometimes its opposite we
will now consider more particularly.

Tlic editor of The Horse says — " That horse
is sound in which there is no disease, nor
any alteration of structure in any part which
impairs, or is likely to impair his natural use-
fulness. That horse is unsound that labours
under disease, or that has some alteration of
structure that does interfere, or is likely to
interfere with his natural usefulness. One
horse may possess great speed, but is soon
knocked up ; another will work all day, but
cannot be got beyond a snail's pace : one with
a heavy forehead is liable to stumble, and is
continually putting to hazard the neck of his
rider; another, with an irritable disposition
and a washy make, loses his appetite, and begins
to scour if a little extra work is exacted from
him. The term unsoundness cannot be applied
to either of these ; it would be opening a door
to endless wrangling. The buyer can discern,
or ought to know, whether the form of the
horse is that which will render him likely to
suit his purpose ; and he should try him suffi-
ciently to ascertain his natural strength,
endurance, and manner of going. Unsound-
ness, we repeat, has reference only to disease,
or to that alteration of structure which is con-
nected with, or will produce disease, and lessen
the usefulness of the animal."

These principles will be best illustrated by
a brief consideration of the usual supposed
causes of unsoundness.

jBroJcen.-hiees certainly do not constitute

159

DEFECTS.]

THE HORSE. AISTD

[defects.

uusoundness after the wounds are liealed,
unless they interfere with the action of the
joint ; for the horse may have fallen from mere
accident, or through the fault of the rider,
and received no injury beyond the blemish.
No person, however, will buy a horse with
broken knees until he has thoroughly tried
him, and satisEed himself as to his form and
action.

- Capped HocTcs may be produced by lying on
an unevenly paved stable, with a scanty supply
of litter, or by the habitual vice of kicking. In
neither of these cases, however, would they
constitute unsoundness, although in the latter
they would be an indication of vice ; but, in the
majority of instances, they are the consequence
of sprain of the hock ; and, when accompanied
by enlargement, constitute uusoundness. A
special warranty should always be taken
against capped hocks.

Contraction is a considerable deviation from
the natural form of the foot ; but not neces-
sarily constituting unsoundness. It requires,
however, a most careful examination on tlie
part of the purchaser or veterinary surgeon, to
ascertain that there is no heat about the
quarter, or ossification of the cartilage ; that
the frog, although diminished in size, is not
diseased ; that the horse does not step short,
and go as if the foot were tender ; and that I
there is not the slightest trace of lameness.
Unless these circumstances, or some of them,
are detected, a horse must not be pronounced
to be unsound because his feet are contracted ;
for many horses possessed of feet singularly
contracted, are perfectly free from lameness.
A special warranty, however, should be required
wliere the feet are at all contracted.

Corns manifestly constitute unsoundness.

The portion of the foot in which they are

situated will not bear the ordinary pressure

of the shoe; and any accidental additional

iDressure, emanating from the growing down of

the horn, or the introduction of dirt or gravel,

will cause serious lameness. They render it

necessary to wear a thick and heavy shoe, or a

bar shoe, for the purpose of protecting the

weakened and diseased part; and they are

very seldom radically cured. They are usually

found in white feet with weak low heels ; but

they are too common in feet of all colours,

Gougli. This is a disease, and consequently

IGO

unsoundness. However slight may be its de-
gree, and of whatever short standing it may be,
although it may sometimes scarcely seem to
interfere with the usefulness of the horse, yet
a change of stabling, or slight exposure to wet
and cold, or the least over-exertion, may at
other times cause it to degenerate into many
dangerous complaints. A horse, therefore,
should never be purchased with a cough upon
him without a special warranty ; or if — the
cough not being observed — he is purchased
under a general warranty, that warranty is
thereby broken.

It is not law, however, that a horse may be
returned on breach of the warranty. Unless
the seller of the horse has contracted to take
him back, he is not necessarily bound to do so.
He is liable in damages, however. Lord Ellen-
borough says — " I have always held that a
warranty of soundness is broken, if the animal,
at the time of the sale, had any infirmity upon
him that rendered him less fit for present
service. It is not necessary that the disorder
should be permanent or incurable. "While he
has a cough he is unsound, although that may
either be temporary or prove mortal." In
giving judgment upon another case, the same
authority said — " I have always held it, that a
couf^h is a breach of the warranty. On that
understanding I have always acted, and think
it quite clear." According to this judge, there-
fore, cough is a breach of warranty.

Boaring, Wheezing, Whistling, Iligh-Uow-
ing, and Grimting, being the result of altera-
tion of structure or disease in some of the air
passages, and interfering with the perfect
freedom of breathing, and especially when the
horse is put on his speed, without doubt con-
stitute unsoundness. There are decisions to
the contrary, which are now universally ad-
mitted to be erroneous. Broken wind is still
decidedly unsoundness.

Crih-hiting. Altliough there is some dif-
ference of opinion on this point, nevertheless
crib-biting must be regarded as unsoundness.
This unnatural sucking in of the air must, to
a certain degree, be detrimental to digestion,
dispose to colic, and interfere with the strength,
usefulness, and health of the horse. Some
crib-biters are good goers ; but they probably
would have possessed more endurance had
they not acquired this habit ; and it is a well-

DEFECTS.]

MODERN VETERINAEY PRACTICE.

[defects.

established fact, that as soon as a horso be-
comes a crib-biter, lie, in more than nine cases
out of ten, begins to lose condition. Ho is
not, to the experienced eye, tlie same animal
ho was before. It may uot lead to absolute
disease, or it may rarely do so to any con-
siderable degree ; but a horse that is deficient
in condition, must, to that extent, have his
capability for extraordinary work diminished,
although not so often as to be apparent in
ordinary work ; and so fiir, the horse is unsound.
Altliough the habit may have had its origin in
a mere trick, yet, when it has become con-
firmed, the animal is greatly deteriorated by it.

The wear of the front teeth, and even the
frequent breaking of them, make a horse old
before his time, and sometimes render it diffi-
cult, or almost impossible, for him to graze,
when his state or the convenience of the owner
requires that he should be turned out.

Curb constitutes unsoundness while it lasts,
and perhaps while the swelling remains, al-
though the inflammation may have subsided ;
for a hotse that has once thrown out a curb,
is, for a while at least, very liable to do so
again on the slightest extra exertion. Ahorse,
however, is not returnable, although he should
spring a curb five minutes after the purchase ;
for it is done in a moment, and does not ne-
cessarily indicate any previous unsoundness or
weakness of the part.

Cutting, as rendering a horse liable to seri-
ous injury of the legs, and indicating that he
is either weak, or has an awkwardness of gait
inconsistent with safety, is rather productive
of unsoundness than is unsoundness itself.
Many horses go lame for a considerable period
after cutting themselves severely ; and others
have dropi)cd from the sudden agony, and en-
dangered themselves and their riders. As some
doubt, however, exists on this subject, and as
it is a very material objection to a horse, cut-
ting, when evident, should have its serious
consequences provided against by a special
warranty.

Enlarged Glands. The enlargement of the
glands under the jaw has not been so much
considered as it ought, in an estimate of the
soundness of the horse. Simple catarrh will
occasionally, and severe afi'ection of the chest
will generally, be accompanied by swelling of
these glands, which docs uot subside for acou-

siderablo time after tho c<ild or fever has ap-
parently been cured. To Hiiglit etdargements
of tho glands under tho jaw much atlentioii
need not be paid; but if they are of co«.
siderablo size, and espocially if they are teuder,
and tho glands at tho root of the ear j)artici-
pate iu the enlargement, and if the membrane of
tho nose is redder than it should be, we should
hesitate in pronouncing that horse to be sound.
Tho tumidity must, in our opinion, be con-
sidered as a symptom of disease.

Enlarged Hock. A horse witli enlarged hock
is unsound. Tiie structure of this complicated
joint being so materially aifected, that although
the animal may appear for a considerable time
to have the capacity of doing ordinary work,
he will occasionally fail even in that, and a few
days' hard work will always lame him.

The Eyes. That inflammation of the eye of
the horse which usually terminates in blindness
of one or both eyes, has the peculiar character
of remitting or disappearing for a time, once or
twice, before it fully runs its course. The eve,
after an attack of inflammation, regains so
nearly its former natural brilliancv, that any
one even well acquainted with horses will not
always recognise the traces of former disease.
After a time, however, the inflammation returns,
and the result is decisive.

As the horse is being led out of the stable
into the light, his manner and action should be
closely observed. If he turns his ears so as to
catch whatever noises may be coming irom
different directions, lifting his feet unusually
high, hanging back on tho halter, and aj)pa-
rently taking every step with caution, sus-
picion should at once be awakened that all is
uot right with his eyes. When the animal is
given to start, it is, by many, considered a sigu
of some degree of defective vision. There is
one cause of blindness by which the initiated
buyer may be readily deceived : this is in the
case of Gutta Serena, or paralysis in the optic
nerve. "In this irremediable aflection," says
the author of The Horse, " the textures of the
eye appear natural and unimpaired. There is
no apparent alteration of structures, no cloudi-
ness, no opacity ; the only indication being the
large and unmoveable state of the pupils, whicl
remain equally distended in the dusk of even-
ing and tho glare of the noon-day sun."

If a man buys a horse actually blind, he will

161

DEFECTS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[defects.

certainly repent of his bargain, but he cannot
get rid of it. He must therefore be careful,
as the law will not protect him if he does not
use common precaution.

Lameness, from whatever cause arising, is
unsoundness. However temporary it may be,
or however obscure, it lessens the utility of the
horse, and renders him unsound for the time.
How far his soundness may be afterwards
affected, must depend on the circumstances of
the case. A lame horse is for the time an un-
eound one.

Lord Ellenborough, in the case of Elclon v.
Brogden, says — " I have always held, and now
hold, that a warranty of soundness is broken
if the animal, at the time of sale, has an infir-
mity upon liim which renders him less fit for
present service. It is not necessary that the
disorder should be permanent or incurable.
While a horse has a cough he is unsound ;
although it may either be temporary or may
prove mortal. Tlie horse in question having
been lame at the time of sale, when he was
warranted to be sound, his condition subse-
quently is no defence to the action." This
judgment is confirmed by the decision of Mr.
Baron Parke ; but lawyers, as well as doctors,
sometimes differ in their judgments. Chief
Justice Eyre says — " A horse labouring under
a temporary hurt, which is capable of being
speedily cured or removed, is not an unsound
horse ; and where a warranty is made that such
a horse is sound, it is made without any view
to such an injury ; nor is a horse so circum-
stanced within the meaning of the warranty. To
vitiate the warranty, the injury the horse has
sustained, or the malady under which he
laboured, ought to be of a permanent nature,
and not sucli as may arise from a temporary
injury or accident."

Neurotomy. A question has arisen how far
n horse that has undergone the operation of
the division of the nerve of the leg, and has
recovered from the lameness with which lie
was before affected, and stands his work well,
may be considered to be sound. It was the
opinion of Chief Justice Best that such a horse
was unsound ; and, in our opinion, there can-
not be a doubt about the matter. An animal
on which this operation has been performed
may be improved ; may cease to be lame, may
go well for many years ; but there ia no
162

certainty of his continuing to do so ; and he is
unsound.

Fumiced-foot. When the union between
the horny and sensible lamina, or little plates
of the foot, is weakened, and the coffin-bone
is let down, and presses upon the sole, and the
sole yields to this unnatural weight, be-
com.es rounded, and is brought in contact with
the ground, and gets bruised and injured, that
horse must be unsound, and unsound for ever,
because there are no means by which we can
replace the coffin-bone in its original situation.

Lateral Cartilages. When these become ossi-
fied, it almost invariably causes lameness, and
constitutes unsoundness.

Qmdding. If the mastication of the food
gives pain to the animal, in consequence of
soreness of the mouth or throat, he will drop
it before it is perfectly chewed. This, as an
indication of disease, constitutes unsoundness-
Quidding sometimes arises from irregularity
in the teeth, which wound the cheek with their
sharp edges ; or a protruding tooth renders it
impossible for the horse to close his jaws so as
to cliew his food thoroughly. Quidding is
unsoundness for the time ; but the unsound-
ness will cease when the teeth are properly
filed, or the soreness relieved, or the cause of
the imperfect chewing removed.

Quittor is unsoundness.

'Ring-hone. Although when the bony tu-
mour is small, and on one side only, there is
little or no lameness, yet there are a few in-
stances in which a horse with ring-bone has
worked for many years without lameness.
From the action of the foot, and the stress
upon the part, tlie inflammation and the forma-
tion of bone contract a tendency to spread so
rapidly, that we must pronounce the slightest
enlargement of the pasterns, or around the
coronet, to be a cause of iinsoundness.

SavuJcrach is manifestly unsoundness. It
may occur without the slightest warning ; and
no horse can be returned for the appearance of
one that is sprung after purchase. The usual
cause of this disease is too great brittleness of
the crust of the hoof; but there is no infallible
method of detecting this, or the degree in
which it must exist, to constitute unsoundness.
"When the horn round the bottom of the foot
has chipped off so much that only a skilful
smith can fasten the shoe without pricking the

DEFECTS.]

MODERN VETEllINARY PIIACTK^R.

[u/.tKCTb.

horse, or even when there is a disposition in
the horn to chip and bivak olV in a much less
di*f;rt'i> than this, tho animal may probably be
roturnud as unsountl ; for this briltlenoss ot'tlic
iTust is a didoaso ot the part, or it is such an
aitei-ed strncturoof it as to interfere materially
witli the usefulness of the horse.

Sjjnrin is uiisoumlnoss, uhether tho bony or
the blood-spavin. In the first, lameness is pro-
duced, at least at starting, in ninety-nine cases
out of a hundred ; and there is enlargement of
the hoek, which rapidly spreads witli quick and
hard work, although tho horse may bo capable
of, and may even get better at slow work. If
there is no lameness, still a spavined horse
should be rejected, because the bony enlarge-
ment is too near a very important and compli-
cated joint, and on the least injury or sprain
of that joint, would spread over it, and materi-
ally interfere with its motion.

Boff or Blood-spavin is unsoundness, be-
cause, although it may not be productive of
lameneds at slow work, the rapid and powerful
action of the hock in quicker motion will pro-
duce permanent, although not considerable
lameness, which can hardly ever be with cer-
tainty removed.

SpUrit. It depends entirelj'- on the situation
of the bony tumour on the inside of the shank-
bone, whether it is to be considered as un-
soundness. If it ic not in the neighbourhood
of any joint, so as to interfere with its action,
and if it does not pi-ess upon any ligament or
tendon, it may be no cause of unsoundness,
although it is often very disagreeable to look
upon. It does not lessen the capability and
value of the animal.

Stringhilt. This singular and very un-
pleasant action of the hind leg must be deter-
mined as a sign of unsoundness. It is an
irregular communication of nervous energy to
some muscle of the thigh, observable when tho
horse first comes from the stable, and gradually
ceasing on exercise. It has usually been found
in those horses that have a more than common
degree of strength and endurance; but, how-
ever this may be, it must be set down in the
catalogue of those morbific affections which
more or less deteriorate the qualities of the
horse.

Thichening of the lack sineics. Sufllcient
attention id not always paid to the fineness of

tho legs of tho In.rse. If the flexor tendons

have been sprained ho as to produce con-
siderable thickejiing of tho ccllulur HubBtanco
in which tlieir sheaths aro enveloped, they
will long afterwards, or perhaps always, bo
liable to sprain from causes by wliich thev
would otherwise be scarcely alfected. Tii'o
continuance of any considerable thickness
around tho sheaths of tho tendons, indicates
[)reviou8 and violent sprain. Ti)i8 very tiiick-
ening will fetter the action of the tendons ; and
after much quick work, will, from the very
Iriction, occasionally renew the inflammation
and the lameness ; therefore, such a horse
cannot be sound. It requires, however, a littlo
discrimination to distinguish this from the
guDiminess or roundness of leg, peculiar to
some breeds. There should be an evident
difference between the injured leg and tho
others.

Thorouglipin, except it is of great size, is
rarely productive of lameness, and therefore,
when unaccompanied by any such appearance,
cannot be termed unsoundness. As it is the
consequence of hard work, and now and then
does produce lameness, the hock should bo
most carefully examined, and there should be
a special warranty against it.

Th'ush. There are various cases on record
of actions having been raised because of the
thrush in horses, and the decisions have been
much at variance, or perfectly contradictory.
Thrush has not always been considered oy
legal authority as unsoundness. AV^e, how-
ever, consider that it is so. This disease con-
sists of a discharge of foetid matter from tho
frog, accompanied with considerable tender-
ness of the part, and sometimes of the whole
foot. It is not uufrequently brought on by
the horse standing in the stable without exer-
cise; but it is most commonly caused by th'^
negligence of the groom allowing tho frog to
become rotten from the filth of the stable.

Wiiidgalls. There are few horses perfectly
free from windgalls, but they do not interfere
with the action of the fetlock, or cause lame-
ness, except when they are numerous or large.
They constitute unsoundness only when they
cause lameness, or are so large and numerous
as to render it likely that they will cause it.

In the purchase of a horse the buyer
usually receives, embodied in the receipt, what

163

WAEEANTT,]

THE HORSE, A.ND

[WAEEANTT,

is termed a warranty. It sHould be thus ex-
pressed : —

"Eeceived of A. B. forty pounds for a grey
mare, warranted only five years old, sound,
free from vice, and quiet to ride and drive.
"£40. C. D."

A receipt including merely tlie word " war-
ranted," extends only to soundness : " war-
ranted sound" extends no further. The age,
freedom from vice, and quietness to ride and
drive, should be especially named. This war-
ranty embraces every cause of unsoundness
that can be detected, or that lurks in the con-
stitutiC'H at the time of sale, and to every
vicious habit which the animal has hitherto
shown. To establish a breach of the warranty,
and to be enabled to return the horse, or re-
cover the price, the purchaser must prove that
he was unsound or viciously disposed at the
time of sale. In cases of cough, the horse
must have been heard to cough previous to
the purchase, or as he was led home, or as
soon as he had entered the stable of the pur-
chaser. Coughing, even on the following
morning, will not be sufficient; for it is pos-
sible that he might have caught cold by change
of stabling. If he is lame, it must be proved
to have arisen from a cause that could not
have occurred after the animal was in the pos-
session of the purchaser, " No price will
imply a warranty," or be equivalent to one;
there must be an express warranty. A fraud
must be proved, in the seller, in order that the
buyer may be enabled to return the horse or
maintain an action for the price. The war-
ranty should be given at the time of sale. A
warranty, or a promise to warram the horse,
given at any period antecedent to the sale, is
invalid ; for the horse is a very perishable
commodity, and his constitution and his use-
fulness may undergo a considerable change
within the compass of a few days. A war-
ranty after the sale is invalid, for it is given
without any legal consideration. In order to
complete the purchase there must be a transfer
of the animal, or a memorandum of agreement
or the payment of earnest-money. The least
sum will suffice for earnest. No verbal pro-
mise to buy or to sell is binding without one
of these. The moment either of these is ef-
fected, the legal transfer of property or de-
livery is made ; and whatever may happen to
164

the animal, the seller retains or is entitled to
the money. If the purchaser exercises any
act of ownership, by using the horse without
leave of the vendor, or by having any operation
performed, or medicines given to him, he
thereby makes him his own. The warranty of
a servant, we believe, is considered to be bind-
ing on the master, notwithstanding that Lord
Kenyon had some doubt on this subject.

If the horse should be afterwards discovered
to have been unsound at the time of warranty,
the buyer may tender a return of it ; and if it
is not taken, may raise an action for the price.
The vendor, however, is not bound to annul
the contract, unless he had so agreed to do.
Although not legally compelled to give notice
to the seller, of the discovered unsoundness, it
will be better for it to be done. The animal
should then be tendered at the house or stables
of the vendor. If he refuse to receive him, the
animal may then be sent to a livery stable and
sold. After this, an action — the horse having
been tendered — may be brought for expenses,
as well as for price. The keep, however, can
be recovered oiily for the time that necessarily
intervened between the tender and the deter-
mination of the action. It is not legally ne-
cessary to tender or return the horse as soon
as the unsoundness is discovered. The animal
may be kept for a reasonable time afterwards,
and even proper medical means used to remove
the unsoundness ; but courtesy, and indeed
justice, will require that the notice should be
given as soon as possible. Although it is
stated, on the authority of Lord Loughborough,
that " no length of time elapsed after the sale
will alter the nature of a contract originally
false ;" yet there are cases on record in which
the plaintiff was nonsuited because he did not
give notice of the unsoundness in a reasonable
time. The extent of this reasonable time must
depend on many circumstances.

It used to be supposed that the buyer had
no right to have the horse medically treated,
and that he would vitiate the warranty by
doing so. The question, however, would be,
has he injured or diminished the value of the
animal by so doing ? It will generally be pru-
dent for him to refrain from all medical treat-
ment, because the means adopted, however
skilfully employed, may have an unfortunate
effect, or may be misrepresented.

ANvV^'OMT of the HORSE.

TN'AKItANTY.]

^rODERN VETEHINART PRACTICE.

[WAUHANTT.

The purclinsor, possibly, may like the horso, p[unrd, nnd prevents him from bo closel

notwithstaiuliiiij^ his discovered defect, and ho
mar retain and hrin;:; his action for tho do-

Iv exam-

inin<» tho horse* na ho otherwiMo would havo
done; but if ho buys a blind horse, thinlunfj

preciation in vahie on account of the unsound- ' him to be sound, and without a warranty ho
ness. Few, howi'ver, will do this, because tho . has no remedy. Tho law supposes every ono
retention of the horso will cause a suspicion ' to exercise common circumspection and com-
tliat the defect was of no threat consequence, mon sense.,

and will give rise to much cavil about tho
amount of damaLres ; and, after all, very slight
damages will probably be obtained.

Upon this point Lord Eldon says — " I take
it to be clear law, that if a person purchases a
horse that is wr.rranted, and it afterwards turns

A man should have a more perfect know
ledge of horses than falls to the lot of most,
and a perfect knowledge of tho vendor too,
who ventures to purchase one without a
warranty.

If a person buys a horso warranted sound.

out that the horse was unsound at the time of and discovering no defect in him, and relying
the warranty, the buyer may, if he pleases, ] on the warranty, resells him, and tho unsound-
keep tho horse, and bring iin action on the | ness is discovered by the second purchaser, and
warranty, in which he will havo a right to the horse returned to tho first purchaser, or

recover the difierence between the value of a
sound horse and one with such defects as ex-
isted at the time of warranty, or he may return
the horse, and bring an action to return the
full money paid ; but, in the latter case, the
seller has a right to expect that the horse
shall be returned to him in the same state in
which he was when sold, and not by any means
diminished in value; for, if a person keeps a
warranted article for any length of time after
discovering its defects, and, when he returns it,
it is in a worse state than it would have been
if returned immediately after such a discovery,
I think the party can have no defence to an
action for the price of the animal on the ground
of non-compliance with the warranty, but must
be left to his action on the warranty to recover
the difference in the value of the article war-
ranted, and its value when sold."

Where there is no warranty an action may
be brought on the ground of fraud ; but this is
very difficult to be maintained, and few pos-
sibly will hazard it. It will be necessary to
prove that the dealer knew the defect, and that
the purchaser was imposed upon by his false
representation ; and that, too, in a case in
which a person of ordinary circumspection
might have been similarly deceived. If the
defect was evident to every eye, the purchaser
has no remedy. He should have taken more
care. If, however, a warranty was given, it
extends to all unsoundness, palpable or con-
cealed. Although a person should ignorantly
or carelessly buy a blind horse, warranted
sound, he may return it. The warranty is his

an action commenced against him, he has his
claim on the first seller, and may demand of
him not only the price of the animal, or the
difference in value, but every expense that
may have been incurred.

Eeal exchanges, whether of one horse for
another, or a sum of money being paid in
addition by one of the parties, stand on the
same ground as simple sales. If there is a
warranty on either side, and that is broken,
the exchange is vitiated ; and if there bo no
warranty, deceit must be proved.

The trial of horses on sale is a very intricate
one; and often leads to doubts and disputes.
It is well known that a horse from a dealer's
stable is seldom or ever fit for hard work
until he has undergone some preparation and
training. It is right that the purchaser should
have a trial of him, but he should try him in a
fair way ; that is, in a way consistent with the
state in which the animal is. If a horse from
a dealer's stable is galloped far and fast, it
is probable that he will soon show distress ;
and if 1)0 is pushed farther, inflammation and
death may ensue. The dealer rarely gets com-
pensated for this ; and if it should occur soon
after the sale, the animal is returned, if alive, or
an action is brought for its price. When acci-
dents have arisen in the fair trial of a horse,
the decisions of the courts of law have been
strangely contradictory ; and, indeed, it is often
difficult to determine whether the fault rests
with the horse or the rider. If the horse
is retained after the specified time of trial, he
is supposed to be sold, with all his faults.

165

PUECHASIIfG.]

THE PIOESE, AXD

[PUECHASING.

lu London, and in most great towns, there I horses ; and that important advantage con-
are repositories for the periodical sale of horses tinned undiminished to his successors. I first

by auction. They are of great convenience to
the seller, who can, at once, get rid of an animal
with which he wishes to part, without waitiiig
nonth after month before he obtains a pur-
chaser, and is thus relieved from the nuisance
or fear of having the horse returned on account
of breach of the warranty, because in these
places only two days are allowed for the trial ;
and, if he is not returned within that period,
he cannot be afterwards returned. They are
also convenient to the purchaser, who can thus
in a large town soon find a horse that will suit
him, and which, from this restriction as to
returning the animal, he will obtain twenty or
thirty per cent, below the prices of the dealer.
Although an auction may seem to ofier a fair
and open competition, there is no place at
which it is more necessary for a person not
much acquainted with horses, to take with him
an experienced friend, and, when there, to
depend on his own judgment or that of his
friend, heedless of the observations or ma-
no3uvre3 of bystanders, the exaggerated com-
mendations bestowed upon some horses, and the
thousand faults found with others. There are
always numerous groups of low dealex's, copers,
and chaunters, whose business it is to delude
and deceive.

In speaking of the convenience and useful-
ness of the London horse repositories, Mr.
John Lawrence says : —

"It was perhaps about the year 1740, or
somewhat later, that Beavor, supposed to have
first introduced the plan of sale in this mode,
opened the horse repository in Little Saint
Martin's Lane, London. He was succeeded by
Aldridge, father of Mr. Aldridge, who retired,
parting with the concern to Mr. Morris.
Tattersall's repository at Hyde Park Corner,
was opened about the year 1760, by Mr.
Tattersall, who had previously resided at
"Worcester, and was proprietor of the stallion,
Young Traveller. He was also engaged awhile
in London, with Beavor. After the then
Duke of Cumberland's decease, his stud was
sold at Tattersall's in 1765. Old Tat, as he
was, in due time, familiarly called, was so for-
tunate at his very outset, as to obtain the
countenance and patronage of persons of the
highest distinction, who took an interest in
166

knew old liv. Tattersall, in 1773. He was a
shrewd, assiduous, and observant man, precisely
one of those qualified by nature to be faher
forhmce, the maker of liis own fortune; and he
aciiieved it, becoming the founder of an opulent
and respectable house."

We shall now endeavour to put the unwary
on their guard against the nefarious and cheat-
ing practices of what are called Horse-clmunters.
There is scarcely a provincial newspaper pub-
lished in which some of these individuals do
not figure, either as advertisers, or before the
magistrates in some equivocal transaction. The
horse seems a conductor to all sorts of villany.
He is himself the object of great cruelties, and
is surrounded by the most heartless of man-
kind. There is no article of commerce carried
on in which a man has more right to have his
suspicions excited than in horse-dealing. If a
man goes to a repository, it would almost be
the next thing to a miracle if there was not a
cliaunter to oppose him. He runs up the price
to the inarTc, gives the horse a good character,
and expresses his high admiration of his great
qualities. The same was wont to be done to
a large extent in Smithfield, as well as in
places of private bargain, where the cliaunter
Vv'ould approach, and make an open, though
fallacious offer, bidding very near the price
asked.

There is another swindling method practised
among farmers' servants, or countrymen who
are not likely to know much about country
notes. They are what are called liberal pur-
cliasers, and pay what is asked ; but pay in
worthless money. In this case the country-
man is so pleased with tlie liberality of his
customer, that he is disarmed of all suspicion ;
and like the stranger in London, he is deprived
of his horse as the other is of his money by
such kind, friendly fellows, that do not know
what to do with him or for him, until they de-
spoil him of all the cash he has got.

Some time ago, an instance of doing a coun-
tryman occurred in Somersetshire. A farmer
sent his man to Staftbrddale Fair, to sell a
horse, which he speedily did for £24, being
the price he asked. Elated with his success,
he returned in great good humour with him-
self, and laid the money on the table before

PURcnASiKo.] MODERN VETEEINAUT PRACTICE. [pubcdasixo.

his master. Tho farmer was equally pleased ;
but on a litllo closer exam innt ion, ho found
tlmt poor Jolui had been duped by sharpers.
The notes paid him were a ten-pound note
and a five-guinea note— of banks which had
stopped payment— and a one-pound Dorset-
shire note, altered into ten. John attempted
to trace the swindlers, but without sueeoss.
The same gan^ passed a ten-pound note of a
bank that had stopped nearly fifty years before.
There seems some fatality connected with
hor.-e-Hesh, that immediately leads to roguery.
Yv'e never heard of any directions given for the
purchase of a horse, but that among the first
cautions was, "never buy one of a friend."
Such seems the overwhelming contamination
of this traffic, that friendship itself is no secu-
rity against rascality ; and the moment a man
has one to sell, some degree of suspicion seems
to attach itself to him. Tho horse-dealer
seems almost, by common conpcut, to be placed
out of the pale of respectability; and if his
conduct were in a parallel with his character,
he would be a most accomplished deceiver.

A. dealer in a large way has generally a stock
of horses on hand, from which it may be easy
to select. If not, his general resources are
such, that he can very quickly supply any per-
son with what he wants. To the uninitiated
in buying horses, a respectable dealer is the
most eligible party to transact business with.
"When we reflect on the catalogue of dis-
eases, imperfections, and vices to which a horse
may be liable, and which is left to the tyro to
discover, the risk he runs in making a purchase
is immense. Although he may give a good
price for a horse, even more than its value,
still he runs less risk in buying from a re-
spectable dealer than from strangers. If he
may have paid a top price, he is unlikely to
be so cheated as he might be by the chaunling
tribe. The dealer has a residence ; and if there
be anything to complain of, he knows where to
find him. It is natural to suppose that a dealer
has an opportunity of selling a horse at a
better price than most other individuals ; and
it being his trade, it is but reasonable that he
should have his profit. Therefore, in recom-
mending a tyro to commence his buying from
a dealer, we do so on account of believing it to
be the least hazardous of any other; for we
will not indulge the aspirant after knowledge

of the horao in tho hoj)o that ho may gain it
without sulfering some pecuniary losses, as well
as disappointment.

After he has gained some experience, it will
bo quite time enough for him to enter the
bazaars and repositories, to trade on his own
judgment ; and if he has a taste for the pursuit,
he will not rest satisfied till he has matured
that judgment to such an extent as to find
pleasure as well as profit in exercising it.

Dealers never like to take a horse back ; and
when this is done, the purchaser must expect
to make some considerable sacrifice. No man
likes to return money for any article that lio
may have sold in his shop ; but to a dealer in
horses, it is particularly objectionable. Per-
sons who discover a horse returned, may natu-
rally enough suppose that it was from some
fault; and although the fact might be from
some sheer caprice, still his value would be
decreased in the opinion of those who knew it ;
and before he can be sold for his former value,
he must wait till a stranger comes, who may
know nothing of his being a returned horse.
Persons conversant with buying and selling
horses never think of returning them, unless
from unsoundness ; but the unskilled, or those
who are not in the habit of disposing of horses,
may naturally apply to the party to take them
back again, and think him, perhaps, an unfair
dealer if he refuses, on their allowing him a
few guineas to boot. The fact is, a quick
return is the very soul of horse-dealing; for
without it, the expense soon eats the profits
up. A fresh horse is more likely to meet with
a purchaser than such as have lain longer in
the stables. Hence the dealer's repugnance to
returned horses.

In looking out for a horse in a dealer's
stables, the attention of some attendant is soon
attracted, when he will endeavour to put the
horses into a fidgetty state by his presence, in
all probability with a whip in his hand. But
this should, at once, be checked. The object
is to see the animal in a state of repose, and
as far from any exciting causes as possible. It
may be difiicult to take a quiet survey; for
the attendant is not always obedient, but will
often persevere in exciting what is wished to
be seen in a quiescent state ; and sometimes
parties desirous of purchasing are compelled
to leave the stables in disgust.

167

PFECHASING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[PUECHASING.

If, however, an animal likely to suit the pur-
pose for which he is wanted is seen, return the
next day, and take an opportunity of seeing him
ia the stable. A horse in his stall is, so tar as
it goes, one of the most satisfactory situations in
which he can be examined. By watching the
motions of his legs and feet, lameness may be
easily detected should it exist ; and so may his
quietness in the stable be tested. Much know-
ledge of his disposition may be traced in his
countenance, which, to the horse, as well as
to the man, forms a general index to his dis-
position. There is not a surer index.

"We will now suppose that a suitable horse
has been seen, and that his price has been
ascertained, when the ceremony of examining
for purchase will commence. On being as-
sured that he is quiet to approach, you will
give some gentle warning with your voice, and
go up to him on his near (left) side, and
laying your hand on his forehand (to regard
bis height), you will proceed thence to examine
his eyes, mouth, and countenance ; still holding
his head, and turning your own to the right-
about, you have a view of the curve of his
neck, the height of his foreliaud, the position
of his shoulder, and the substance of his
forearm. Eeturning to his forehand, you
descend to his legs and feet, minutely ex-
amiuing with your fingers every part, from
above, below, withinside, and without, not
forgetting the knees, as the value of the ani-
mal depends much on their perfect state.

Having satisfied yourself respecting his fore
parts, your eye will glance over his back,
girthing-place, carcass, and loins ; thence pro-
ceeding to his hind quarter, and the setting
on of his tail. Tou will judge how far he
agrees in each and every respect with those
rules of proportion already laid down in this
work. The hinder legs and feet will demand
a share of attention equally minute as the
fore ones ; nor should the inside or hollow of the
hock be passed by without careful examination,
since it often happens, that the injuries of
hard labour are most apparent in those parts.
A survey of the other side will complete the
stable examination. Some prefer examining
the eyes in the stable. To do this, place the
horse in such a position as will let the light
fall only in one direction, and see that they
are of the same size, and equally full; that the
168

haws are not prominent, and that one does
not project more than the other; that the
eyes are perfectly clear and transparent, and
that their pupils are exactly alike in size as
well as in colour.

Mr. John Lawrence, in speaking of the too
common practice of dealers using the whip,
gives the following caution, as well as ex-
presses his honest indignation at its practice.

" Suffer no person belonging to the seller to
be with you in the stall — unless you know
and are well satisfied with the dealer's cha-
racter— during your inspection, that the horse
may not be rendered unquiet, either designedly,
or at the mere presence of an habitual tor-
mentor, A short time since, I had occasion
to examine an animal for a friend at the
stable of a considerable dealer. He was a
very beautiful and well-shaped nag, but, as
is commonly the hard fate of such, he ap-
peared to have done too much work. The
attendant, from a superabundant share of
regard to my safety, must needs hold his head
whilst I exanlined his legs, still assuring me
he was perfectly quiet. Nevertheless, every
time I attempted to feel below his knees, the
horse started, and flew about the stall in a
strange manner, to the no small risk of my
toes and shins. Whilst I stood musing and
wondering what could possibly ail the animal,
I discovered a short whip under the arm of
the jockey, with which he had, no doubt,
tickled the neck and chest of the horse, when-
ever I stooped down with the intent of
handling his legs. I wished this adept good
morning.

"A fair quiet stable survey is a material
prelude, the horse being under none of that
excitement which will probably take place in
him when abroad upon the show ; unless,
indeed, he should have been previously subject
to that most barbarous stable discipline which
I, too often, witnessed in days of yore ; but
which, I hope, does not exist at the present
time — at least, not in so great a degree, or so
usually disgrace the conduct of our dealers,
I refer to the daily, probably hourly, attendance
of a fellow with a whip, who flogs and cuts the
horses up and down in their stalls, causing
them to jump and fly about as if mad; keeping
them in such a constant state of apprehension,
that they dread the approach of any human

PURCHASINO.]

3i()i)i:iiX A' i:ti:ki XA i:v n: ac ruM^..

[PUBCUASINQ.

being. The motive of this was to render them
active, ready, ami livily on a show, and to hido
defoi'ts; and, as an oxa<,'i;oration of this mon-
strous barbarity, the unfortunate cripples had
even an additional share of this dise-iplino,
being whipped and beaten most cruelly for put-
ting out, in order to ease, a crippled limb. This
was a constant practice at the repositories,
with the poor worn-out machiners and post
hacks ; and I have related, in my own treatise,
the case of a beautiful mare — so totally worn
out, that every step she took was obviously
attended with acute torture — whipped, and cut,
and beaten, and checked with the curb, witli all
the force that a powerful ruffian could exert,
whilst the tears were dropping from her sight-
less eyes."

To return. The horse being led out,
will most probably be placed upon rising
ground, for the purpose of showing his fore
quarters to advantage, which, also, affords the
buyer an opportunity of another examination
in a good light. Now is the time for regarding
whether he be sound or not ; for though the
dealer may declare that he is as sound as a
hell, still we should disregard what he may say
on that subject, and judge for ourselves.

Having spoken of the eyes, we must now
regard his wind. If good, on being nipped in
the gullet, he will utter a noise that cannot
fail to strike the ear as the emission of a sound
pair of lungs ; but if these are diseased, he will
give vent to a dry, husky, short cough. "We
have, however, seen a strong man sometimes
pinch the gullet of a horse with all his might,
without being able to make him cough. There
IS another way of detecting a broken-winded
animal, and that is by directing attention to
bis flanks ; which, under such circumstances,
will work either much quicker than ordinarily,
or heave deeply, and with great irregularity.

Besides these, there are two other defects,
which, though not anything like so distressing
to the animal itself, are disagreeable to hear.
Those horses affected with them go under the
denomination of "whistlers," and "roarers."
The first may be known by the peculiar
wheezing he is addicted to, when put to sudden
or long-continued exertion; and the other by his
making a roaring Boise under similar circum-
stances. Either will display itself by the pur-
chaser giving him a smart cut with his whip.

After niai^iii:^ r, itain that there is no en-
largement of the glands, tiuit tlie nostrils are
fre(! from any fa'tid smell, and that that most
terrible of all diseases, the glanders, may not
be apprehended, pass tlie hand down his legs,
and if any unnatural protuberance or pufli-
ness is found, or if, in feeling first one leg and
then the other, any difference between them
is discovered, disease, moro or less, is present.
Tiie animal may not bo lame, but ho is not
clean upon his legs. Splints, windgalla, and
ringbones, may be present without occasioning
lameness ; but they are all unnatural, are con-
sidered blemishes, and are all to be regarded
with a suspicious eye, as either denoting past
hard work, or betokening future evils. On
the same principle, a horse may have a spavin,
and be only stiff from it at starting ; or he may
have a curb, or a thorough-pin, and be per-
fectly sound ; but these are still blemishes,
and, as such, detract from his intrinsic value.

Tiie horse is next trotted in hand, or ridden ;
during which, the first look-out will be to dis-
cover whether he bends his knees sufficiently,
and goes clear of both hind and fore legs;
whether he goes wide enough behind, and
whether his feet stand straight. His reining
may then be observed, to see in what state he
carries his head, whether be appears light in
hand, or otherwise. Should he thrust out his
head, he will go heavy in hand. Tlie mode in
which be is shod should also be well observed.
A second-hand horse, or one which bas been
a considerable time in work, may be warranted
sound ; but care should be used to observe
whether be knuckles with bent knees, or has
any other impending cause of unsoundness.
Animals which appear stale and dingy in their
coats, with perhaps a mixture of grey hairs;
and one low in flesh, and dull, with his coat
'dead, may be suspected of rottenness. There
may be no objection to buying a horse merely
because he is low in condition. The appear-
ance of such an animal will be readily per-
ceived ; and a horse merely suffering from not
having had a kind and generous master, oughb
not to prove an impediment to his again having
one. Indeed, we have often felt great pleasure
in restoring a horse which has sufl'ered from
neglect, to good condition. Many a good one
has been restored, even after be bad been sent
to the knackers.

IGO

TEETH.]

THE HOESE, AND

[TEEin.

A naturally vicious horse will show his dis-
position in the designing glance of his eyes,
and by laying back his ears. It is true, the
kind and playful horse will lay down his ears ;
but he will not be a very skilful physiogno-
mist who cannot easily discriminate between
the countenance of a vicious and a playful
one. The wicked and resolute expression of
the one is generally so determinedly indexed,
that there are but few men who will not
instantly discover it. It is hardly necessary
to caution our readers against the purchase of
such an animal.

These various examinations of the intended
purchase may probably give satisfaction, as far
as the eye is concerned ; yet there may be
solid objections to be adduced against their
being made final. The horse has now been
shown to every advantage by the seller. He
has been ridden by a jockey, accustomed, by
his profession, to make the most of any animal
he has to show ; by one whose able hands and
habitual use of the spurs, do not fail to com-
mand the most implicit obedience from the
animal, and which will make him put his best
foot forward. A buyer, expecting to find the
accomplishment of all this under his own
management of the horse, may find himself
very unpleasantly deceived. Many horses are
occasionally restive when mounted by a timid
rider, and have cunning enough, very soon, to
ascertain that fact; while, with a good and
fearless rider, they will go quietly.

We should always recommend, before the
buyer pays his money, that he should claim
the privilege of riding the animal several miles
on the high road, in his walk, trot, canter, and
gallop, and then judge for himself whether he
is likely to suit him in his paces or not. It
should be remarked, that the wind and con-
dition of horses made up for sale, must not be
put to immediate and too severe tests ; and if
wanted for hard work, should have sufficient
preparation by moderate daily exercise, and
pui'ging, if necessary.

We have purposely refrained from alluding
to the teeth till now, these being incontestably
the parts of the body capable of furnishing
the most certain indications of the number of
years that the animal has lived ; and the in-
cisors, or nippers, in particular, are here our
best informants. They are, indeed, the only
170

teeth that give correct ideas of the age of the
horse throughout almost the entire duration
of his life. The difficulty of examining the
molars or grinders, and the irregularity of
their table, prevent our being able to obtain
any result from their inspection. The period
of the protrusion of the tushes varies much ;
and they do not rub against each other,
but sideways and across, and can only be
considered as an accessory means of judging.
Besides, the mare is not always provided with
them.

Professor Owen, in his treatise on The
Principal Forms of the Skeleton and the Teeth,
says, that teeth, like bone, are the result of
the combination of certain earthy salts with a
pre-existing cellular basis of animal matter.
" The salts are nearly the same as those in
bone, but enter in a larger proportion into the
composition of the tooth, and render it a harder
body. So composed, teeth are peculiar to the
back- boned — vertebrate — animals, and are at-
tached to parts of the mouth, commonly to the
jaws. They present many varieties as to
number, size, form, structure, position, and
mode of attachment; but are principally
adapted for seizing, tearing, dividing, pound-
ing, or grinding the food. In some species
they are modified to serve as formidable
weapons of offijnce and defence ; in others, as
ends in locomotion, means of anchorage, in-
struments for uprooting or cutting down trees,
or for transport and working of building mate-
rials. They are characteristic of age and sex ;
and in man they have secondary relations,
subservient to beauty and speech.

" Teeth are always related to the food and
habits of the animal, and are therefore highly
interesting to the physiologist. They form,
for the same reason, important guides to the
naturalist in the classification of animals ; and
their value, as zoological characters, is en-
hanced by the facility with which, from their
position, they can be examined in living or
recent animals ; whilst the durability of their
tissues renders them not less available to the
paljeonthologist in the determination of the
nature and affinities of extinct species, of
whose organisation they are often the sole
remains discoverable in the deposits of former
periods of the earth's history.

" The substance of teeth is not so uniform

TEKTII.]

MODERN VETERINAKY PltACTlCE.

[teeth.

aud clmrnctoristio of such. In another part
of his work, Profi-ssor Owen Ht-locts tho
liorso ns an cxatuplo of bucU herbivorous
dentition.

Tlio f^rinding teetli of this uiiiiiuil are "six
in number, on eaeli side of both upper and
lower jaws, with tliick, square crowns of ^reat
loiigtl), and deeply implanted in tho sockets;
those of the upper jaw being slightly curved.
AVhen the summit, or exposed ends, of these
teeth begin to be worn down by inaatication,
the interblended enamel, dentine, and cement,
show the pattern figured in tho accompanying
engravings. It is penetrated within by a
valley, entering obliquely from behind for-
wards, and dividing into, or crossed by, the
two crescentic valleys, which soon become
insulated. There is a large lobe at tho
end of the valley. The outer surface of the
crown is impressed by two deep longitudinal
channels. In the lower jaw the teeth are nar-
rower, transversely, than in the upper jaw, and
are divided externally into two convex lobes,
by a median longitudinal fissure ; internally
they present three principal, unequal convex
ridges, and an anterior and posterior narrower
ridf^e. All the valleys, fissures, and folds, in
both upper and lower grinders, are lined with
enamel, which also coats the whole exterior
surface of the crown. Of the series of six
teeth in each jaw, the first three, p 2, 3, 4,
are premolars ; the rest, m 1, 2, 3, are true
patternof the folds of enamel I molars, used lor the purpose of grinding the

that penetrate the substance of the tooth, and j food."

add to its triturating power,

is almost endless ; but it

would seem that the folds

have an invariable tendency

to a transverse direction

across the crown of the ^^

tooth in the rodents. Tliis ;3=.-'

direction relates to the shape ^^- — =- — ■ -

of the joint of the lower y, , , / ;

jaw, which almost restricls

it to horizontal movemcn: -

to and fro, during the act ^

of mastication. In the trne-

,..,,,. . , GRINDIVG SURFACES OF THE UPPKR AND LOWER MOLARS OF A HORSi..

hooted herbivorous annuals,

in which the joint of the lower jaw allows The accompanying plates show the appear-

a free rotatory movement, the folds of ance of the teeth at diilerent ages, and indi-

enamel take other forms and directions, cate the age of an animal by their lonu

with modifications, constant in each genus, and marks.

' 171

ns in bone, but consists commonly of two or
more tissues, characterised by the proportions
of their earthy and animal constituents, and by
the size, form, and direetion of the cavities in
tho animal basis, which contain the larth, the
fiuid, or the vasenlar pulji.

" The tissue which fiu-ms the body of the
tooth is called ' dentive.'

" The tissue which forms the outer crust of
the tooth is called the ' cement.'

" The third tissue, when present, is situated
between the dentive and cement, and is called
' enamel.' "

The teeth called compound, or comjdex, in
mammalia, differ, as regards their composition,
n. only by the difi'ereut propor-

tion and disposition of con-
stituent tissues. The accom-
panying cut isthelongitudinal
section of the incisor of a
iiorse ; d is the dentive, e
the enamel, and c the cement,
a laver of which is reflected
into the deep central depres-
sion of the crown ; s indicates
the coloured mass of tartar
and particles of food which
fill up the cavity, forming the
" m.ark" of the horse-dealer.
In pursuing this interest-
ing subject still further, we
find that the variety in the

/7

^^-

SECTION OF HORSE S
INCISOR.

THE HOESE, A^^D

TEETH.]

Pig. 1 shows the end of a jaw which marks
four years and a-half old. The horse-dividers
newly shot out, are still quite fresh, and not
as yet on a level with the incisors or nippers.
The inner edge of the latter are still un-
touched, and lower than the external edge.
The sucking corner teeth are much more worn,
and present only the extremity of the funnel.

Eig. 2 shows a horse just closing up to five
years old. The corner teeth have appeared a
short time, and are quite fresh and untouched.
The nippers begin to lose the mark ; the ex-
ternal edge of the dividers has undergone
some wear ; but the inner edge is nicked, and
as yet untouched, and lower than the outer.

Eig. 3 represents the age of a six-year-old.
The nippers have lost their mark ; the dividers
have nearly lost theirs ; but the inner edge of
the corner teeth is still untouched, and also
slightly nicked.

Eig. 4 exhibits a jaw, in which the incisors,
or nippers, mark seven years old complete ;
and both the nippers and dividers have en-
tirely lost the mark; the inner edge of the
corner teeth is on a level with the outer, in
consequence ot the tear and wear they have
undergone.

Eig. 5 shows an eight-year-old : all the
teeth have lost the mark, and the nippers have
begun to assume the oval form. The re-
mainder of the funnel is close to the inner edge
of the table of the tooth.

Pig, (5. — This engraving is taken from the
teeth of a horse that was eight years old off.
All the incisors have lost the mark, and tlie
septum of the root appears on the table of the
nippers, in the shape of a small transverse
zone, situated in front of the funnel, and quite
close to the outer edge of the tooth.

Eig. 7 exhibits the mouth at nine years old.
The incisors or nippers are rounded, and the
dividers have likewise begun to assume a
rounded form. The remainder of the funnel
of these four teeth is round, and quite close to
the inner edge of the tooth. Tiiese teeth also
show the septum of the root, which is most
prominent in the nippers.

Eig. 8 exhibits the mouth of a ten-year-old.
Here we see merely the rudiment of the funnel
in the nippers, as well as in the dividers ; whilst
the remainder of the central enamel touches
the inner edge of the table of the tooth. The
172

[teeth.

nippers and the dividers are rounded, and the
corner teeth present an oval form.

Eig. 9. — Erom the appearance of the teeth,
as here represented, the horse has attained his
eleventh year. All the incisors are rounded,
and now carry only a slight trace of the cen-
tral enamel, which touches the inner edge of
the table of the tooth. The septum of the
root appears in all the teeth, and the re-
mainder of the funnel is smaller in the nip-
pers than in the dividers and corner teeth.

Eig. 10 shows the mouth of a twelve-year-
old, the nippers having lost the central enamel,
and the septum of the root being rounded.

Eig. 11 — This engraving is taken from the
mouth of a horse thirteen years off. The nip-
pers have become triangular ; the dividers are
also assuming that form, and the corners are
still rounded. The septum of the root is
rounded in the four latter, and is seen in the
middle of the table. The tushes are very much
worn.

Eig. 12. — The horse to which this mouth
belonged, ruight have been thirteen or four-
teen vears of age. The nippers are triangular,
and the dividers are becoming so. The tushes
are still more worn than in the preceding
figure.

We will now briefly recapitulate the most
important points to be attended to, in this
chapter, in the purchase of a horse. However,
it must be borne in memory, that
" Whoe'er expects a perfect horse to see,
Expects what never was, or is, or e'er shall be."

It is well known that there is a general idea
in the Ciinds of many, that a hoi'se begins to
decay after he has attained his eighth year.
Than this nothing can be more absurd. Mr.
Blaine remarks, that "a very considerable at-
tention to the subject, over a wide field of
observation, has impressed the writer with the
propriety of drawing the following comparison
between the ages of horses and men ; that is,
at these several periods of comparison, the
constitutions of horses and of men may be
considered as in an equal degree of perfection
and capability for exertion, or of debility and
decay, according as youth or age preponderates.
Thus the first five years of a horse may be
considered as equivalent to the first twenty
years of a man ; or thus — a horse of five years
may be comparatively considered as old as a

A (^E Df Qi^ H OK ^Sli

4' J Yf^rs f'/r^

If Years C'ld

Cenn/i^ 3 Years 0/d

21 Yea7-s Old

7 Years (Ud

,S' Years Old

r) Years- fRd

12 Years 07J

23 '2 Yeats CM

U Yeai-s Old

/.', ,>rJ6 Year.y O/d

SKELETON.]

:M0J)K1{\ VETEIUNARV I' K A (" 1' K" i:.

[hkeleton.

raan of twenty ; a horse of ten years, as a man
of forty ; a horse of tifteeu, as a man of fifty ;
a liorso of twenty, as a nmu of sixty ; of twenty-
live, as a man of seventy ; of thirty, as a man of
ciglity ; and of thirty-five, as a man of ninety.
So far from this comparison being too mucli in
favour of the horse, we are disposed to think
it too little so. Horses of thirty-five years of
age are as common as men of ninety, provided
it be taken into the account that there are, at
least, fifty human subjects to every horse ; and
unquestionably, a horse of forty-five is less rare
than a man of one hundred and ten."

In enumerating tlie qualities to bo attended
to in the purchase of a horse, Professor Stew-
art gives the following summary : —

The Head. — For the eyes; for cataract,
glass eyes, and specks. The nostrils ; for glan-
ders, tumours, and cold. The glands between
the branches of the lower jaw ; for enlarge-
ment. The throat; for mark of crib-biting
strap, and the tenderness which accompanies
cold. The teeth ; for the age and marks of
crib-biting. The veins of the neck ; to see that
both are entire.

The Fore Leg axd Shouldee. — The seat
of the collar ; for tumours. The point of the
elbow ; for tumours. The knee ; for blemishes
and stiffness of that joint. The shank ; for
speed-cut, splint, and strain. The fetlock-joint ;
for enlargement, mud-galls, neurotomy, string-

halt, and marks of cutting. Tho pastern ; fur
ringbone.

The Foot. — For side-bones; sand-crack, con-
traction, thrush, corns, and Qat- solos. Tho
shoe; for signs of cutting.

The Tuunk QuAurKus. — Eacli side of tho
chest ; for marks of blisters and rowels. Tljo
space between the fore legs ; for the same.
The stifle ; for enlargement. Tho groin ; for
rupture.

TuE Hock. — For capped-hoi-k ; thorough-
pin, bone-spavin, and bog-spaviu — not blood-
spavin. Then the horse should be mounted
and ridden a few hundred yards at a gallop, in
order to quicken his breathing, and thereby
display the presence or absence of roaring,
thick wind, or broken wind.

As to the prices to be given for certain
horses, Lord "William Lennox says, that a
hunter of the best description, if in a dealer's
possession, should be about £loO, the odd £50
to be more or less as the horse appears to be
worth it. A strong and likely hack, £10 to
£00. No more should be given for this sort
of animal, as good ones can always be got at
that price. A horse for general work — that is,
either for the field or in harness, £G0 to £S0,
a little more or a little less, in accordance w ith
the apparent qualities of the animal. From
these prices, he says, "you must resolve not to
deviate easily."

CHAPTER IX.

SKELETON OF THE HOKSE ; HIS ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION'.

Iw his Introduction to his great work on Na-
tural History, Buflbu remarks, that it is only
by comparing that we can judge ; and our know-
ledge turns entirely on the relations that things
bear to those which resemble them, and to those
which differ from them ; so if there were no
animals, the nature of man would be far more
incomprehensible than it is. The truth of this
is made at every step we take in the science of
comparative anatomy, which, from time to time,

has revealed the most unanticipated wondera
relative to the most extraordinary resemblances
in the structure of animals perfectly distinct.
For example: who would, beforehand, expect
that the same bones would be found in the
horse as in the seal? Yet a comparison of
their skeletons demonstrates this to be tho case
to a very great degree. Of all animals, the
rhinoceros, rather than the camel or tlie dro-
medary, has the nearest affinity to tlie horse;

173

SKELETON.]

THE HOESE, AND

[skeleton.

altliough a different modification of the entire
skeleton may be traced in the animals with
toes in even number, as compared with the
horse and other odd-toed hoofed quadrupeds.

HORSE (Eqmcs Cahallus).
The vertebral formula of the horse is — 7
cervical, C ; 19 dorsal, D ; 5 lumbar, L ; 5 sa-
cral, 8; and 17 caudal. Eight pairs of ribs
directly join the sternum, 60, which consists
of seven bones and an ensiform cartilage. The
neural arches of the last five cervical vertebrse
expand above into flattened, subquadrate, hori-
zontal plates of bone, with a rough tubercle in
place of a spine ; the zygapophyses, z, are un-
usually large. The perforated transverse pro-
cess sends a pleurapophysis, pi, downwards and
forwards, and a diapophysis, d, backwards and
outwards, in the third to the sixth cervicals
inclusive ; in the seventh the diapophysial part
alone is developed, and is imperforate. The
spinous processes suddenly and considerably
increase in length in the first three dorsals,
and attain their greatest length in the fifth
and sixth, after which they gradually shorten
to the thirteenth, and continue of the same
length to the last lumbar. The lumbar dia-
pophyses are long, broad, and in close juxta-
position ; the last presents an articular con-
cavity, adapted to a corresponding convexity
on the fore part of the diapophysis of the first
sacral. The scapula, 51, is long and narrow ;
and, according to its length and obliquity of
position, the muscles attached to it, which act
174

upon the humerus, operate with more vigour ;
and to this bone the attention of the buyer
should be directed, as indicative of one of the
good points of a horse. The carocoid is
reduced to a mere con-
fluent knob. The spine
of the scapula, 51, has no
acromion. The humerus,
53, is remarkable for the
size and strength of the
proximal tuberosities, in
which the scapular mus-
cles are implanted. The
joint between it and the
scapula is not fettered by
any bony bar connecting
the blade- bone with the
breast-bone ; in other
words, there is no clavicle.
The ulna, represented by
itsolecranal extremity, 54,
is confluent with the radi-
us, 55. The OS magnum, in
the second series of carpal
bones, 5Q, is remarkable for its great breadth,
corresponding to the enormous development of
the metacarpal bone of the middle toe, which
forms the chief part of the foot. Splint-shaped
rudiments of the metacarpals, answering to the
second, ii, and fourth, iv, of the pentadactyle
foot, are articulated respectively to the trape-
zoides and the reduced homologue of the unci-
forme. The mid- digit, Hi, consists of the me-
tacarpal, called "cannon-bone," and of the
three phalanges, which have likewise received
special names in veterinary anatomy, for the
same reason as other bones have received them
in human anatomy. " Phalanges" is the gen-
eral term of these bones, as being indicative
of the class to which they belong; and " hae-
mapophyses" is the general term of parts of
the inferior arches of the head-segments ; and
just as from the modifications of these hsema-
pophyses, they have come to be called " max-
illa," "mandibula," '• ceratohyal," &c. ; so the
phalanges of the horse's foot are called — the
first, "great pastern bone;" the second, " small
pastern bone;" and the third, which supports
the hoof, the " coffin-bone ;" a sesamoid ossicle
between this and the second, is called the
"caronary." The ilium, 52, is long, oblique,
and narrow, like its homotype, the scapula;

SJaEILETON «lt BOTTi- SITKl'CTil'KE OF TME HORSE

zoo. CLASS.]

jrODEliN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[zoo. ctJdm.

tho iscliiuin, G3, is unusually produced back-
wards. Tlio extreme points of tlieae two bones
show the extent to which tlie bending muscles
and extending muscles of tlio leg are attached ;
and, according to tlio distance of these points
'rom the thigh-bone, tho angle, at which
they ftre therein inserted, becomes more fa-
vourable for their force. Tho longer, there-
fore, and the more horizontal the pelvis, the
better tho bind-qu.irter of the horse ; and its
qualities for swiftness and maintenance of
speed, depend much on the " good point" due
to the development of this part of the skeleton.
The femur, G5, is characterised by a third
trochauter springing from the outer part of the
shaft, before the great trochanter. There is a
splint-shaped rudiment of the proximal end of
the fibula, G7, but not any rudiment of the
distal end. The tibia, GG, is the chief bono of
the leg. The heel-bone, " c»lcaneum," is much
produced, and forms what is called the " hock." j
The astragalus is characterised by the depth !
and obliquity of the superior trochlea, and by
tlie extensive and undivided anterior surface,
which is almost entirely appropriated by the
naviculare. The external cuneiforme is th(>
largest of the second series of tarsals, being in
proportion to the metatarsal of the large middle
digit, Hi, which it mainly supports. The dimi-
nished cuboides articulates partly with this,
partly with the rudiment of the metatarsal,
corresponding with that of the fourth toe, iv.
A similar rudiment of the metatarsal of the toe,
corresponding with that of the second, ii,
articulates with a cuneiforme medium — here,
liowever, the innermost of tho second series ot
tarsal bones.

In the zoological classification of the horse,
he is placed in the division vertebrata — the
class mammalia — the tribe ungulata — the order
pachydermata — and the family solipida. The
generic character is, front teeth, in the upper
jaw, six, parallel ; in the lower jaw, six, some-
what projecting ; canine teeth, one on each
side, iu both jaws, remote from the rest ; feet
vtith undivided hoofs.

Of the solipida, there are several species, as
the horse, the ass, the mule, the zebra, and the
quagga.

Equus CahaUics is the common horse.

£quus asinus, the ass, which has long been
condemned to a state of the lowest servitude,

and considered as a species of less dignity tban

tho horse; and has acquired, in most parts of
Europe, a character of contempt. In its
natural state, however, it exhibits an appearanco
superior both in beauty and vivacity. It is a
native of Asia, living, like the rest of this gonus,
in a gregarious manner. It is also said to bo
found in Africa, but very rarely iu Syria and
Arabia, where it was, in ancient times, ex-
tremely common. In its natural state its
colour is white, or a very pale silver grey, with
a tinge of straw-colour on the sides of the neck
and body. Along the back runs a deep brown
stripe of thickish wavy hair, to the beginning
of the tail. This stripe is crossed over tho
shoulders, as in the tume animal, by anothei
of similar colour ; but it is said that this is
peculiar to tlie male.

The food of the wild ass consists chiefly of
saline, or bitter and lactescent plants. It ia
also fond of salt or brackish water. The
manners of these animals very much resemble
those of tho wild horse. They assemble in
troops, under tho conduct of a leader or
sentinel, and are extremely shy, vigilant, and
.swift.

The mule is nothing more than a hybrid
animal, between this species and the horse;
differing in strength, size, and beauty, accord-
ing to the predominancy of its parental species,
^lules are little used in this country ; but in
Spain and some other parts of Europe they
are in much esteem, and are remarkably sure-
footed.

Equus zebra, or the zebra, is a native of tho
hotter parts of Africa, being found from
^Ethiopia to tho Cape of Good Hope ; living
iu large herds, and possessing much of tho
manners both of the wild horse and the a&j.
It is both extremely swift and vigilant. It is
of a wilder disposition than either of the
former animals ; and even such as have been
taken very young, are with difficulty brought
to any degree of familiarity, and have rarely
been made to submit to tho bridle.

Equtis quapga, or the quagga, is nearly allied
to the zebra, but marked with fewer and larger
nunds, of a brown colour, and chiefly disposed
on the fore parts of the animal, while the
hinder parts are spotted. Tho ground-coloup
of the quagga is of ferruginous tinge, especially
on the thighs and back. It is of a more dociio

175

SPLINTS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[splints.

nature than the zebra, and is said to have
been domesticated at the Cape. It inhabits
the same parts of Africa as the zebra, but is

found in separate herds, never associating with
that species, perhaps on account of the in-
herent ferocity of the latter.

CHAPTER X,

SPLINTS; bone-spavin; kingbone; anchylosis.

SPLINTS.
Splints are bony excrescences, situated on
the inside of the fore leg, and rarely occur on
the outside, in consequence of that part in the
structure of the horse being more under his
direct weight. When the horse has one of his
fore legs off the ground, there is more weight
thrown on the inside of the leg that is on the
ground ; consequently, the small inside bone
united to the shank bone has more work to
perform than the outer one, from the super-
abundant weight it has to sustain ; hence in-
flammation frequently begins in the attach-
ment of the large to the small bone, which is
of a cartilaginous substance, and, on tlie
slightest exertion, readily assumes a disposition
to form bone. But splint will frequently
occur in horses that never have done a day's
work. Even when young, and racing about
the fields at grass, splint will be produced ; but
•when this happens from such a cause, it seldom
produces lameness, as the coolness of the
atmosphere in which they are kept acts as a
sedative, and reduces the inflammation. Splints
arising from travelling, exhibit much more in-
flammation than they do when they arise from
the cause just mentioned. This is frequently
caused by the warmth of the stable in
which the horse has to lie ; and although the
disease may not have assumed a form above
half the size of a pea, it will be the means of
producing the most painful lameness. Another
cause of splint is occasioned by the speedy-cut,
which is just under the knee. This has been
known to proceed so ftir, that valuable horses,
good hackneys, have been doomed by it to slow
work during the remainder of their lives. The
cause of this is from its interfering with the
176

bones of the knee, or proceeding inwards, and
thereby affecting the suspensory ligament.
The remedies for splints are now more humane,
and have a better effect, than those formerly
in use. The practice at tlie Royal Veterinary
College, is to divide the skin above and below
the enlarged bone ; then to pass a seton im-
mediately over it, changing and dressing the
seton, consisting of coarse tape, every day with
a digestive ointment, composed of the following
ingredients : —

Hog's Lard . . .
Common Turpentine

6 oz.

2 „

Another method practised at the College was
to cut down on the top of the splint, and divide
the periosteum, or the membranous skin-like
substance immediately attached to the bone ;
the stretching of which, in consequence of the
bony excrescence or splint, is the cause of the
lameness. These remedies, however, though
practised at this royal establishment, are not
calculated for practice either in town or country,
as both of them leave a considerable llemish,
which always deteriorates the value of the
horse. The following mode of treatment leaves
no blemish, and is generally successful. If the
case is a recent one,

Spirit Turpentine 1 oz.

Olive Oil 2 „

Eub this well on the part, night and morniagi
and wind a woollen bandage moderately tight
round tiie leg. By removing the ordinary
shoe, and putting on a thick-heeled one, it
will greatly relieve the affected part. Should
the lameness not disappear in the course of
three days, then some stronger application

'/;

^ J ^

V 5

^ i
> ^

SPLINTS.]

irODEEN VETEKINAUV riiACTICR

[no>'E-8PAVijr.

must be made, more especially if the spliut
is larrro.

MiTcurial Ointment

1 oz.

Kub a piece of this, about the size of a liazlc-
mit, on tlie part, morniiij^ aud niglit, as long as
any rotnains : then apply

Blister Ointment 2 drachms.

Ev this method of practice splints will be got
rid of witliout the fear of blemish or injury to
the leg. If there is an obligation to have
recourse to the last remedy above named, have
a cradle on the neck of the horse, as he may,
by biting it, bo kept more safe from blemish.

During the application of the local remedies,
take of —

Cape Aloes G drachms.

Resin, powdered, 6 ,,

Common soap, to form into a mass.

Divide into three balls, and give one every
second day. For food, give half bran and half
corn, made moderately wet. Mr. Youatt says,
that if splints are worth while to meddle with
at all, their treatment is very simple ; and
recommends the hair to be closely shaved off
round the tumour — the application of a little
strong mercurial ointment rubbed in for two
days, to be followed by an active blister. If
the spliut is of recent formation, it will gene-
rally yield to this, or to a second blister.

Professor Sewell introduced anew treatment
of splints. He removed any inflammation
about the part by fomentations or poultices,
and then performed the following operation.
He commenced by pinching up the skin imme-
diately above the bony enlargement, witli tlie
finger and thumb of the left hand ; and with
the knife, or lancet, or scissors, made an orifice
sufficient to introduce a probe-pointed bistoury,
with the edge on the convex side. This he
passed under the skin the whole length of
the ossification beneath, cutting through the
thickened periosteum down to the bone. Tiiis
being satisfactorily completed, he drew the
knife several times backwards and forwards —
inserting a small tape or seton, which, if the
tumour was of long standing, was kept in a
few days. Tliis operation is attended with
very little pain to the animal.

2 a

nONE.Sl'AVlN.
This is an exostosis or bony enlargement in
or about the inner part of the hock joint; but
more particularly at its lower part; or, in
some cases, at the upper end of the leg bone,
though spavin may occur on any part of the
hock. From the peculiar construction of the
hock joint, the number of bones which are
there, and its being the seat whence the prin-
cipal propelling motion arises, it is little to be
wondered at, that horses are so very liable to
spavin. Young animals are especially subject
to it, in consequence of farmers and breeders
putting them to work at too early a period.
Farmers generally commence using their young
horses in the summer, to assist in drawing
their hay or bringing in their corn. Now, as
colts pull awkwardly at first, any sudden strain
made on uneven ground, or a sudden start
forwards, or from the violent exertion put on,
the animal will, in all probability, strain his
hock. Tliis being a very complicated joint,
any of these causes may produce considerable
inflammation, lameness, and spavin ; though
there are a great number of horses affected
with what is termed spavin, that never go lame
at all, and some of them even very excellent
hunters. This arises from the situation in
which the bony enlargement has it seat. If it
is at the upper end of the leg bone, and in such
a situation as not to interfere with the small
bones of the hock joint, it may grow to a very
considerable substance, and but slight lame-
ness exist. Should this be the case, the
treatment of spavin may consist in the use
of gentle counter-irritants, which invariably
remove the lameness in a very short time.
Cooling lotions or repellers, as they are exceed-
ingly slow in their operation, and seldom cr
ever restore the horse from lameness, are not
to be recommended. In colts, however, the
mildest methods should be preferred, though
their effects are much slower. For a miid
application, take —

Cantharidcs, powdered
^Vhite Wine Vine<:ar .

4 drachms.
4 oz.

Put tlicse into a six-ounce bottle, and let the
mixture stand three or four days, shaking the
bottle four or five times a day. At the ex-
piration of that time it will be fit for use,

177

BOIfE-SPAYIN.]

THE HOESE, A.ND

[eingboke.

Eub about two table spoonfuls of the lotion
on the hock night and morning, shaking the
bottle well each time. Should this not have
the desired effect, apply a

Strong Blister.

Cantharides, powdered ... 6 drachms.

^Mercurial Ointment .... 4 „

Hog's Lard 2 ounces.

Clip the hair off close, say an inch and a-half
further round than the spavin extends. Eub the
blister well in with the hand. In all probability
this blister will remove the spavin entirely, or
at least the pain and lameness ; for, when
once bony matter is formed, it is difficult to
completely remove it. Be careful that the horse
wears a cradle in every case of blistering.

Some spavins may require a second or third
blister. In such cases repeat the above at an
interval of about three weeks — not earlier — to
prevent the chance of having a blemish.

With full-grown horses, as well as with old
ones, this disease is with difficulty remedied.
As success, however, sometimes attends even
the milder methods, it should not, even at any
age of the animal, deter us from trying other
remedies. Bold adventurers succeed some-
times with them, "where superior skill, under
the direction of prudence, fails ; but notwith-
standing this, their more frequent ill effects,
by exciting excessive pain and inflammation,
and even causing death, should induce great
caution in their use.

If the ointment is not effectual, recourse
must be had to firing. In this operation care
must be taken not to fire through the skin;
for wherever this is done, a blemish will be
certain to be left. Lay the following blister
on lightly, but on no account let it be rubbed
in, or a blemish will be the result.

31ild Blister,
Cantharides, powdered ... 2 drachms.
Hog's lard 2 oz.

Smear this, or lay it lightly on the part
fired. In the course of five weeks, should this
first firing not have had the desired eflect, fire
again, and extend beyond the edges of the
first operation, and apply the blister again.
Mr. White, in his Compendium of the Veteri-
nary Art, says that the only cure for this com-
plaint is firing, and blistering immediately after.
178

The practice for the cure of spavins made
use of at the Eoyal Yeterinary College, is by
introducing setons over the diseased part,
dividing the skin above and below the spavin,
about two inches; then with a blunt seton
needle, introducing tapes — generally two — and
dressing daily with digestive ointment, com-
posed of the following proportions : —

Common Turpentine ...... 3 oz.

Hog's Lard 8 do.

These are melted together over a slow fire.
The setons are suffered to remain for about a
fortnight, being changed daily at each dressing.
In some cases a very good effect is produced
by this mode ; but, like all other remedies, it
is not applicable to all stages of the disease ;
in the early or incipient state, it may be
considered a good remedy. During the ope-
ration of any of the above methods of practice,
the following medicine should be adminis-
tered : —

Cape Aloes ......

Linseed meal with soft soap,

2 drachms.

formed into a moderately sized ball. Give
one about every third day. Medicine that
will act on the urinary organs must not be
given while using so much blistering ointment.

RINGBONE.

This disease takes its name from its situa-
tion, which is at or about the joint of the large
and small pastern bones. Erom the existence
of great inflammation, it spreads round the
coronet, capping the hoof with a bony ring.

This is produced by the ligaments having
been injured by over-exertion; and it more
fi-equently occurs in the hind than in the fore
limbs. Overweighting the animal will produce
it, or putting him to work before he finished,
as it is termed. Any severe strain, and even
blows will produce it. And, as it is not un-
common for ill-tempered grooms or carters to
kick their horses about their fetlocks, the
eflect of such an act may be to set up inflam-
mation, and ultimately to produce ringbone.

Horses aflected with ringbone, may or may
not be lame. It all depends on that degree of
inflammation which would increase the greater
deposit of bony matter, and occasion the
disease to spread, which it frequently will do,

^■

V;

Hi.

i^ ^

nixr.noNE.]

MODERN VK'l'KKlNA K V I* li A CTl C IL

[anciiylosih.

even so far timt the cofTm-boiip, and the navi-
cular, or nut-bono, partake of tho iliscaso.

" Horses with short uprii^'ht joints," says
tlio editor of The Horse, " aiul with small fici
and high aetion, aro oftenest, as may bo sup-
posed, the suhjeets of this disease, which is the
consequence either of concussion or sprain of
the pastern joints. It is also more frequent
in the hind foot than the fore ; because, from
the violent action of the hind lepjs in propel-
ling the horse forward, tlio pasterns aro more
subject to ligamentary injury behind than
before ; yet the lameness is not as great there,
because the disease is confined principally to
the ligaments, and tho bones have not been
injured by concussion ; while from the position
of the fore limbs, there will generally be in
them injury of the bones to be added to that
of the ligaments. In its early stage, and when
recognised only by a bony enlargement on
both sides of the pastern joint, or in some few
cases on one side only, the lameness is not
very considerable, and it is not impossible to
remove the disease by active blistering, or by
the application of the cautery ; but there is so
much wear and tear in this part of the animal,
that the inflammation and the disposition to
the formation of bone rapidly spreads."

If the horse should be lame, the best plan
to adopt is, to relieve the vessels as near the
part as possible, by bleeding in the foot to the
amount of at least two quarts. After replac-
ing the shoe, and applying a pledget of tow,
administer the following ball : —

Aloes, Cape 6 drachms.

Ginger 1 do.

Form with soft soap.

Should this not De sufficient to purge the
horse, increase the dose, as may be necessary,
with a drachm or two of aloes, at the same
time having the horse fed on bran mashes for
at least a day previous. "When the physic is
set, apply the mercurial blister as prescribed

in the case of spavin, and keep it open by

occasionally ap|)lying hog's lard to tho part
for live or six days. In the coutho of threo or
lour weeks, should tho animal not have got rid
of his lameness, recourse nujst Ixr had to firing,
which should bo done at least half way up tho
largo pastern bone, and down to tho hoof, in
what is called diamonts. After this, lay some
mild blister on ; and, in most cases, the lame-
ness will be altogether removed. If it should
not, repeat the firing, and blister again.

ANCHYLOSIS.
The origin of this disease is an inflammation
of tho ligaments, connecting joints togetlier,
and occurring in the fore legs, particularly
between the large and small pastern bones.
It may also arise from sprain or laceration, as
well as from various other causes, such as
tumefaction of the ends of bones, caries, frac-
ture, dislocation. As tho horse becomes ased.
stiffness in the joints is also apt to occur.
Anchylosis, however, is a disease which more
frequently occurs in the spine, or back-bone,
than in any other part. "When this is the
case, the horse is termed rigged in the back,
because he is most generally affected about
the loins. The difficulty he shows in turning
— giving to his body a kind of jerk, according
as he may be turned either to the left or the
right — has given rise to the term rig ; and if
he be trotted, he will have such a rolling gait,
accompanied with such apparent weakness,
that what is the matter with him is at once
perceived. There aro, however, many horses
called clanked in the hack, which may, in a
measure, be restored, for slow work, by giving
them as much rest as possible ; as this kiua
of anchylosis of the back-bone does not inter-
fere with the animal employed in slow farm
labour. If the disease takes place in either
tho fetlock joints, pasterns, knee, hock, ot
stifle, the horse will be totally useless, and
a cure is impossible.

179

TEACTUBES.]

THE HORSE, AND

[feactubes.

CHAPTER XL

FIIACTUEES. — THE head; PaBS ; LIMBS; BLADE-BONE; ABM; ELBOW; SHANK-BONE; THIGH-BONE;
PASTERNS ; COEFIN-BONE, AND NAVICULAR BONE.

FRACTURES.
Pbactubes mean a division of a bone into two
or more parts, or fragments. A simple frac-
ture is vrhen the bone only is divided, and
not protruded through the skin. A com-
pound fracture is a division of tlie bone, witli
a laceration of the integuments, the bone
mostly protruding. A comminuted fracture is
where the bone is splintered in more than one
direction. A fracture is also termed trans-
terse, oblique, &c., according to its direction.

The fractures that most generally occur are
in the head, occasioned by horses running
violently against a post or bar ; the ribs, hip-
bone, thigh-bone, and, indeed, all bones of the
leg, caused either by falls, or kicks from other
horses. "We will first consider

FRACTURE OF THE HEAD.

Although this is not a very common case,
still, it is likely to occur. A case illustrative
of the manner in which it sometimes happens^
took place in India. At the usual watering-
time of the horses in the afternoon — about
five o'clock — one of them broke loose from the
hands of the man who attended him. This
occasioned a tremendous outcry among tlie
soldiers, many of whom ran after him, and so
frightened the animal, that he fled with all the
reckless speed he could command. In this
state he made a desperate rush into his stand-
ing in the stable, and fractured hie skull
against its top bar with such violence, that he
was knocked down by the effects of the blow.
He received a wound on the head about au
inch wide. Fearing that concussion of the
brain had taken place, the veterinary surgeon
had the horse bled to the amount of six
quarts, the head frequently fomented with
warm water, and no food given to the animal
that night. In the morning he appeared
better. The fomentations were kept up, •and
six drachma of aloes given him. This treat-
180

ment was continued for two days, when the
process of healing the skin was commenced,
and accomplished in about a week.

At the end of the third day, when about to
discharge the horse as cured, it was found
that he was attacked with Jock-jaw. This cir-
cumstance suggested that the bone must have
been fractured, and that pressure on the brain
was the consequence. The horse was imme-
diately cast, and two sections in the skin,
forming two sides of a triangle, made with the
scalpal. On examining the parietal bone, it
was found that the skull had a perpendicular
fracture of about an inch and a quarter in
length, and that a piece of bone had been
splintered ofi^, about three-quarters of an inch
long. The splintered bone was now extracted
with a pair of sharp-pointed forceps, the skin
drawn down, and half-a-dozen sutures attached.
The fracture was then treated as a common
wound, and dressed with digestives until
granulations began to form. Under this
treatment, it was completely healed in about
three weeks. The lock-jaw yielded, by de-
grees, to copious bleedings and solution of
aloes, day by day, until purgation was pro-
duced. This interesting case is represented
in the accompanying Plate of the horse's
head.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.—" FRACTURES."

A shows the situation of the parietal suture,
running perpendicularly up the front of the
head.

B, the fractured part, just on the suture.

C, the skin dissected and laid back, the
upper part being held in its situation by an
assistant.

FRACTURES OF THE RIBS.
Fractures of the ribs frequently occur, and
are very often produced by kicks from other
horses, more especially when at grass than at

u

H
O
<

PRACTUBES.]

3[0DEKN VETEUlNAlii' PRACTICE.

[yUACTUUES.

any otlier time. Tlicy are, also, freqiuMitly the
itli't't of blows dealt to such aiiiinala ad are
iisi'd in larj^e towns by costerinongers and
dustmon, who, if a horse cannot travel at the
rate they rciinire, a lar-^e stick is made to re-
sound on his sides with an inhunciiiily only
equalled by the ignorance of the brute who is
entrusted with the use of such a weapon.
These fractures generally unite of themselves ;
Nature setting up the healing process herself,
and the accident seldom or ever coming to
light until the beast finds its way to the yard
of the knacker, " The two ribs behind the
elbow," says Hurtrel d'Arboval, "are the
most subject to fracture ; and the false ribs,
from the yielding motion which they possess,
ere least liable."

FRACTURE OF THE SPINE.

Fracture of the spine may arise from lying
down in a narrow stall, in which there is diffi-
culty in rising again ; or sometimes from the
horse turning over in the standing, whilst
lying down, so that there is not room for him
to get his hind legs clear of the stall-post.
"Where this is the case, he struggles to regain
his feet, and the ligament of his back becomes
so much strained, that inllammation com-
mences, and in all probability terminates in
anchylosis. It sometimes occurs in casting a
horse to perform an operation, notwithstanding
every possible care may have been taken to
prevent it.

For this fracture there is no remedy. In
the eleventh volume of the Veterinarian, Mr.
AV. C. Spooner relates a case of spine-fracture
of considerable interest. A horse had been
clipped about three weeks, and was subse-
quently sharply galloped upon rough ground,
and pulled up suddenly and repeatedly, with
the object of sweating him- - After this, he did
not go so well as he had done previously, nor
would he canter readily, although he had been
much used to that pace. Two days before he
was destroyed, the groom was riding him at a
slow pace, when he suddenly gave way behind,
had to be carried home, and he could not
afterwards stand. He had, it is supposed,
slightly fractured the spine when being sud-
denly pulled up, but without displacing the
bones. There are, doubtless, many similar
cases to this.

Attempts have been made to euro this frac-
ture by blisters and charges, but uuvcr with
any good ellect.

FRACTURE OF THE LIMBS.
As in all other cases of fracture to which
the horse is liable, those of the limbs are as
difficult to euro as any. Consequently, in
many instances, the animal has to bo de-
stroyed ; but many fractures of the limbs may
be restored so far as still to make the horse of
considerable value. This will especially bo
the case if ho is a well-formed stallion, or if
she is a good mare. The breed of either may
not only be kept up, but may be useful fur
many purposes. Of a case of fracture of the tibia,
Mr. J. S, Mayer gives an interesting account.
A horse had received a blow on this part of the
leg, but for two or three days little notice was
taken of it. "When he, however, was called in to
examine him, he found the tibia to bo obliquely
fractured, about midway between the hock
and the stifle, and a small wound existing on
the inside of the leg. The process of setting it
was as follows : — The leg, from the stifle down
to the hock, was well covered with an adhesive
compound, then wrapped round with fine tow,
upon which another layer of the same adhesive
mixture was laid, the whole being well splinted
and bandaged up, so as to render what was
a slightly compound fracture a simple one.
The local inflammation and sympathetic fever
that supervened were kept down by anti-
phlogistic measures. At the end of six weeks
the bandages and splints were removed, and
readjusted in a similar way as before ; and, at
the termination of three months from the
time of the accident, he was discharged cured :
the splints being wholly taken off, and merely
an adhesive stay kept on the leg. The horse
is now at work, and quite sound, there being
merely a little thickening where the callus is
formed.

FRACTURE OF THE BLADE-BoNE.
Fracture of the blade-bone is not at all un-
frequent, and particularly the neck of tlio
bone. This is caused either by kicks, or falls
when going at a fast trot ; so that when tlie
horse comes to tlie ground, one leg is ex-
tended before him, and the other under his
bodv. With coach-horses, it most frequently

181

FEACTUBES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[rEACTUEES.

takes place. The remedy is, first to draw
about four quarts of blood from the plate
vein, at the anterior part of the leg. The
animal should be slung, so that the feet just
touch the ground. This being completed,
bathe well with flannel dipped in hot water.
Eepeat this until the inflainination appears to
subside. Feed with cold bran mashes, and
give the following ball : — •

Cape Aloes 4 drachms.

Linseed Meal 1 do.

Form with soft soap.

If this should not be sufficient to keep the
system cool, repeat it in three days.

Apply the following liniment to the shoul-
der: —

01 Terebinth 2 oz.

01 Oliva 2 do.

Continue this treatment for about three
weeks, then give the horse a month's run at
grass, where he will be most likely to lie quiet.
By the end of this time he will probably be
fit for work.

FRACTURE OF THE ARM.

This bone is frequently fractured from its being
so exposed and so very liable to kicks. When it
occurs, however, there is a much greater proba-
bility of efiecting a cure of it than there is in the
fracture of the blade-bone. In treating for it,
the horse must be slung lightly, as in the pre-
ceding case ; but, instead of taking blood from
the arm, let it be taken from the jugular vein
of the neck. Treat in every other respect as
directed for the foregoing ; and take a piece of
very broad tape, four yards long, and bind it
round the fractured part tolerably tight. Let
it remain on two days, then remove and apply
more of the liniment ; after which put the tape
on again, and continue in this manner until
the horse can put his foot to the ground.
When he is able to do this, remove the sling,
and let him have a loose box for a week or
two before he is turned out.

Mr. Gloag, of the 10th Hussars, tells us of
an entire black cart-horse, which was grazing
in a field into which some mares had been
accidentally turned. One of them kicked him
severely a little above the knee. He, how-
ever, contrived to get home ; and being care-
fully examined, there was found a simple frac-
182

ture of the radius, about an inch and a-half
above the knee. The ends of the fi-actured bone
could be heard distinctly grating against each
other, both in advancing the leg, and turning
it sideways from the body. He was imme-
diately placed in a sling not completely
elevated from the ground, but in which he
could occasionally relieve himself by standing.
The leg was well bathed with warm water, and.
the ends of the bone brought as true to their
position as possible. Some thin slips of green
wood were then immersed in boiling water
until they would readily bend to the shape of
the knee ; and they were tied round the joint,
reaching about nine inches above, and six below
the knee, the ends of them being tied round
with tow.

FRACTURE OF THE ELBOW.

This is one of those fractures which must be
united in the same manner as we have seen prac-
tised in regard to the arm. There is, however,
sometimes great difficulty in keeping the limb
sufficiently relaxed to accomplish this ; there-
fore, when the horse is slung, a side line should
be put on, or, as a makeshift, the end of a halter
fostened round the pastern, and passed up to
the sling-tackle ; the foot being drawn about
four inches off the ground, to relax the flexor
muscles. When this is done, proceed in the
same manner as recommended in the preceding
practice of the arm.

Mr. Touatt recommends a large quantity of
tow, saturated with pitch, to be placed round
tlie elbow, and confined with firm adhesive
plasters, the ground being hollowed away in
the front of the injured leg, so that no pres-
sure shall be made by that foot.

FRACTURE OF THE SHANK-BONE.
When a fracture of this bone takes place, it
may be restored, with good management ; be-
cause bandages and other compresses may be
applied with greater facility, and in greater
variety, after securing the horse by means of
assistants. The first article to have ready is
a leathern bandage something like a leathern
boot, about seven inches long, with holes in it,
as represented in one of the engraved sheets of
this work. This must be so made, that, when
it is laced, it should not touch the edges by a
quarter of an inch. Being prepared with this.

FllACTVEES.]

MOTtEKN VETEKINA"RT PT^ACTTCE.

[foactubeb.

])lace the ends of tlio fnicturi-il liinl) as cvfiily
iu contact as ])ossible ; then got an assistant to
lace the boot tight on, which will act as a kind
of pplont, to socnre the bone in its proper
situation. After this, bandage the leg well
Jroin the knee to the fetlock, with four yards
of a llannel bandage. Hemovo all straw and
litter ; and if much iiTitatiou appears about him,
give-
Cape Aloes ....;. 4 drachms.

Resin 1 do.

Soft soap to form the ball.

The flannel bandage must not be removed for
at least a week ; when a little of the liniment
prescribed for the fractured blade-bone may be
poured iu at the top of the boot, so that it may
run dowu between the boot and leg. Pursue
this plan until the boot can safely be removed,
then apply the liniment and the woollen bandage
only. For food, if the animal is accustomed
to the stable, give half bran and half oats made
damp. If the accident occurs while the horse
is at grass, give bran mashes only.

In the representative plate, A shows the
form in which the boot is to be made; B
B, the lengtli from top to bottom, about seven
inches ; C, the lace to draw the edges together [
within a quarter of an inch, in order to give it
the requisite tightness.

FRACTURE OF THE THIGH-BONE.

Tlie thigh-bone is somciimes fractured at its
lower head, where it joins the bones of the
hock, though this is by no means a common
case. There is no doubt, however, that many
horses are killed from the appearance of the
fracture ; the leg, below where it has occurred,
dangles and shakes about, as if only sustained
by the common integument — or skin — so that
the horse literally goes on three legs. It arises
sometimes in consequence of the temper of the
horse, or it may occur from a sudden slip of
the hind leg on wet slipperv stones, iu going up
hill.

A horse had got his leg entangled between
the foot-board and the bar, and so near to the
middle that he could not extricate it. He con-
sequently made a sudden plunge, and snapped
his tliigh just above the head of the lower end
of the thigh-bone. He was put into a friend's
stable, bard -by where the accident happened,

and the vi-trrinary surgeon wan imnicdiatelv
sent for. The K'g was dangling as if by a piece
of cord, and the liorBe was reatless, and Hwcat-
ing jirofusely from the pain he was HuHV-ring.
Tlie treatment was as follows: —

The surgeon ilrst got an old horse-collar,
which ho put on the horse ; then a roller, to
which was fastened the top of the collar, with
a strap to prevent its getting forward on to
his neck. The bow part of a halter was then
put round the fetlock joint of the fractured
leg, passing the other end between the foro
legs of the horse, and into the collar, the end
of which was given to an assistant to hold
until the horse's leg was got into a proper
situation. A good woollen bandage was next
procured ; and the gentleman to whose house
the horse had been taken, fortunately happened
to have by him three parts of a bottle of
liniment, composed of oil turpentine and oil
olive. Two table-spoonfuls of this liniment
was gently rubbed on the part ; then the man
who held the halter was desired to draw tho
leg gently forward, until the parts were brought
as even together as possible. This being satis-
fitctorily accomplished, an assistant, with tho
bandage, bound the parts up tight and firm ;
after which the halter was made fast to tho
bottom of the collar. The bone was now re-
placed. The bandage was not removed for a
week, when the limb was found to be doinf?
well. The liniment was continued, and the
line kept to the foot for three weeks, when the
horse was able to be moved about a few
yards. On account of the restlessness of the
animal, no medicine could be given him, and
two men sat witli him day and night. His
principal food was bran mashes, as a sub-
stitute. This animal being an entire horse,
and a favourite, the owner would have him
castrated, which operation was performed on
him ; and, on getting well, he turned out one
of the best gig horses in the country.

Another case was that of a fine brown horse
belonging to a gentleman residing in Ked
Lion-street, Holborn; and the accident oc-
curred when going up Holborn Hill, during
the frost of a winter day.

The horse was placed under the care of a
very skilful metropolitan veterinary surgeon;
but the owner of the horse, regretting tho
accident very much, wished he could get rid

183

DISLOCATIONS.]

THE HOESE, A,ND

[dislocations.

of him at five pounds. The veterinary surgeon
who treated the last case, bought him at that
price, vrith a further stipulation that he should
have stable-room, and a man to look after him
for a month.. Within that period the horse
was removed to his owner's stable, whence
he was turned out for another month. By
this time he had become perfectly upright,
and was sold for twenty-five pounds. During
the month the horse remained with the gentle-
man of whom he was purchased, he underwent
the same treatment as described in the other
case.

FRACTURES OF THE PASTERN BONE, THE
COFFIN-BONE, AND NAVICULAR BONE.

There is no remedy for these. "When the
fracture is in the lower pastern, and of neither
a compound nor a complicated nature, it may
be reduced by proper bandaging ; and this has
sometimes been the case. When it is in the
upper pastern, it is easily discovered, and is
often the result of a violent efibrt made by the
horse to prevent himself from actually falling
when he has made a stumble. In treating for

it, if it runs laterally across the bone, a band-
age steeped in some adhesive matter is applied
from the coronet to the middle of the leg.
Over this some damp or wet pasteboard should
be moulded, and afterwards enveloped in a
linen bandage.^ A small spleut should next be
applied, before and behind, on each side, and
the hollow places filled with tow, with the view
of giving them an equal bearing. Should this
not be sufficient to insure security, other
splents, thicker and broader, should be placed
over those, extending to the knee or the hock.
In reference to the coffin-bone, Mr. Percivall
says — " Buried as the coffin-bone and navicular
bones are within the hoof, and out of the way
of all external injury, as well as of muscular
force, fracture of them cannot proceed from
ordinary causes." Erom whatever causes these
fractures are produced, however, " Let your
remedies," says Mr. Mayer, "be governed by
those principles of science, those dictates of
humanity, and that sound discretion which,
while they raise the moral and intellectual
superiority of man, distinguish the master of
his profession from the bungling empiric."

CHAPTER XII,

DISLOCATIOIS'S. — THE STIFLE-BONE; SESAMOID BONES.

THE STIFLE-BONE.
Dislocation of the stifle-bone frequently
happens from kicks and slips out of the hind
leg, so that the boce becomes thrown out of
its socket. When this happens, the limb be-
comes totally helpless, and the horse draws it
after him in the most distressing manner.

The treatment is to extend the limb forward,
and fasten it in the same manner as described
for fracture of the tibia. Having done this,
place one hand against the bone, and press
moderately from you with tlie other ; then
take hold of the point of the hock, and you
will feel the stifle-bone snap into its place or
socket. A re-occurrence of this accident can
184

only be prevented by using counter-irritants
all round the joint. Eor these take

01 Terebinth 3 oz.

01 Oliva; .0 3 do.

Apply three or four table-spoonfuls to the
stifle, all round the joint, morning and niglit.
This will create considerable swelling; and by
so doing, keep the stifle-bone in its socket.
Should this not be found sufficiently powerful
to retain the bone in its place, take

Cantharides 1 oz.

01 Terebinth 4 do.

Shake well together when used.
This will occasion a considerable swelling, but
will Jiave the desired effect.

THB SESAMOIDS.] M ODERN VETERI N AR Y PR ACTI CE. [tub sesamoids.

THE SESAMOID RONES.

Sesnmoids is the wiuno ^ivcii to tlioso bones
wlvicli are situated at the baek part of the let-
lock joint, and are attached, at the upper end
or point, to the suspensory ligament, the llexor
tendons passing in a concave groove between
the two, in their passage to the pastern and
coUin-bones. They ta!ce their name from their
resemblance to maize, or wliat is perhaps
better known as Indian wheat. They have a
peculiar elastic movement. Every step the
liorse takes, and more especially in the fast
trot or gallop, they partially descend, on hia
putting his foot to the ground. This is easiest
seen in long-pasterned horses, where the fetlock
— hair — almost seems to touch the ground. If
the animal is over-weighted, this will be dis-
tinctly observed.

The inelastic connection which these bones
have below, to the head of the large pastern
bone, and the decided elastic connection they
have above to the suspensory ligament, clearly
show how easy they may be partially, if not
altogether dislocated. This is more ready to
happen on the inner side, in consequence of
the superincumbent weight being thrown on
that side when the other foot is in the air, or,
to speak more plainly, off the ground.

The action of the sesamoids being back-
wards and downwards, the upper end of the
elastic attachment expands ; and this expan-
sion, driven to excess, either by over-weight,
heavy ground, or when the animal is at the
top of his speed, brings the non-elastic attach-
ment below into such violent action, that the
bones become incapable of contending with it.
The consequence of this is, that the liga-
mentous attachment is ruptured. This is not
an unfrequent case ; for in racing as well as in
hunting, the horse sometimes makes a sudden
drop, which, in many instances, is taken for
what is termed "breaking down;" but it is
no such thing. It is the rupture of a portion
of the lower attachment of the sesamoid bones,
principally on the inner side — when this side of
the fetlock joint will appear much larger than
the outer. If the hand is passed down the leg.

over the part, pressing gradually aa it is moved
down, the seat of partial dislocation will at
once bo discovered, not only by the projection
of the upper end of the bone, but by tho
))aiti whicli tho horse will show ht:nMo!f to bo
Builering on pressing tho most prominent part
of the bone.

This accident has occurred, and tho inflam-
mation run BO very high, that the whole of
the leg, up to tho knee, has been swollen to
such an extent, that the disease has been taken
for strain in the back sinews, when, iu fact, it
entirely arose from this partial dislocation of
one of the sesamoid bones.

The curative treatment of this disease always
involves a considerable space of time ; although
the time might be very much shortened if per-
sons discovered the part affected at once. All
liniments, or blisterings, will never perma-
nently remove it, though they may relieve it ;
but when the horse is brought into use again,
he becomes lame. On this account recourse
must at once be had to firing; not in a partial
manner, but it must be extended a little above
the bifurcation of the suspensory ligament —
say about an inch, and as far as half-way down
the large pastern bone. Fire all round the
leg completely; then lay lightly on it —

Cantharides
Host's Lard .

4 drachms.
2 oz.

Take the necessary precaution to prevent tho
animal either rubbing or biting the leg. "Whilst
he is in the stable, give him bran mashes cold,
and

Cape Aloes 4 draclims.

Ginger 1 do.

^lix, to form a ball, with soap.

If he should be costive, which is sometimes
the case, repeat the medicine before he has a
run at grass, which he ought to have in about
nine days after the firing. The accompanying
explanatory engraving, showing a section of
tho foot, its bones and ligaments, with the
appearance of the hoof in a healthy and
diseased state, will greatly assist the reader in
obtaining a knowledge of tho anatomy of that
important member of the horse.

185

OEEASE.]

THE HOESE, AjS^D

[geease.

CHAPTER XIII.

geease; mange; suefeit; mallenders; sallendeks; warts; hide-bound; farcy.

GREASE.

EoRMEBLT this disease was a pest to tlie
stables of almost every horse-master in the
kingdom ; and though simple in itself, the real
cause of it lay in obscurity for many years. It
is not only disagreeable, but painful in the
greatest degree, and not unfrequently lays the
foundation of other diseases, such as cracked
heels, canker, and their kindred affections.
Nothing was more common than to see it in the
stage and hackney-coach horses, the farmer's
horse, and, indeed, every kind of horse except
the racer. Grease is an inflammation and
suppuration of the vessels of the skin, gene-
rally in the hind legs ; the circulation being
weaker thei'e, on account of their being situated
at a greater distance from the heart, when,
from a want of uniformity of action with the
other parts in the circulation, a congestion
takes place.

The cause of this disease is the quickening of
the circulation by the horse being brought into
a hot stable, most likely with his hind legs wet,
the evaporation of which produces cold, to be
followed by congestion, as the warm stable
increases the action of the heart.

It does not aflfect all horses alike, nor all
parts alike, certain descriptions of animals
being more susceptible to the disease tiian
others. Thorough-bred horses, such as the
racer, are the least subject to it, principally
from the fineness of their skin, and the care
which is taken of them — proper attention
being paid to the temperature of their stables.
If a thorough-bred horse were exposed to cold
for years, his skin would become thicker and
thicker ; and such horses would degenerate.

There are many circumstances which pre-
dispose to grease. The first is, thick skin and
white hair, which is a proof of a weak circulation.
Another circumstance is the colour and make
of the animal — light chestnut, with white legs,
narrow chests, and long legs. "Everything,"
says the editor of The Horse, " that has a ten-
18(5

dency to excite inflammation in the skin of the
heel, is a cause of grease. Therefore, want of
exercise is a frequent source of this disease.
The fluid which accumulates about the extre-
mities, and is unable to return, is a source of
irritation by its continued pressure. When
high feeding is added to irregular or deficient
exercise, the disease is still more likely to be
produced. "Want of cleanliness in the stable
is a frequent source of grease. When the
heels are imbedded in filth, they are weakened
by the constant moisture surrounding them —
irritated by the acrimony of tlie dung and the
urine, and little prepared to endure the cold
evaporation to which they are exposed when
the horse is taken out of the stable. The
absurd practice of washing the feet and legs
of horses when they come from their work, and
either carelessly sponging them down after-
wards, or leaving them to dry as they may, is
however, the most common origin of grease."

This disease often breaks out in October,
when the legs of the animal begin to feel the
change of season, and are wet and cold. After
being brought into stable, the heat causes eva-
poration to take place ; and in proportion as
liorses become cold, so are they susceptible of
heat, if not governed by specific limits.

Grease may be either local or constitutional.
In its local form it is generally severe in pro-
portion to the relative temperature the parts
have been exposed to. Heat after cold is then
an exciting cause, and according to the pre-
vious cold, it acts ; the cold being in part gov-
erned by moisture, and the length of time
occupied in evaporating : if, therefore, the legs
of an animal with much hair, hold most water,
and produce much cold, so will they be pro-
portionably liable to grease.

Erom these facts, it is natural to conclude,
with Mr. Youatt, that the practice of wash-
ing the legs, without they are afterwards wiped
dry, is bad ; for, by rubbing them quite dry,
there is done to the vessels of the heels a
sunilar act to that which the heart is doing: to

GREASE.]

l\ror>E"RX VT:TEKTXArvY PTtACTICE.

1 MANOE.

tlic arteries ; namely, iiu-reasiiip; tlie eireulation,
and preventing congestion and inlhimination.
If the dirt cannot be perfectly rubbed oft" it is
better to leave a little of that than have a great
deal of grease.

In order, then, to avoid grease, when horses
are brought into the stable, let them have as
much air as possible, by opening the windows, so
ns to make the increase of circulation gradual.

Many opinions have been advanced, to show
that grease is only local; but other cases
show it to be tlioroughly constitutional. This
is proved by the fact of many horses having it
during a number of years, though the greatest
pains may have been taken with them to pre-
vent it. " There is no rule without exception ;"
and impurities may be lurking in the system.
If this is the case, nature takes tliese means to
get rid of them, and wisely selects those parts
as remote as possible from the vital principle
of action ; for, it is well known, from the kind
of horse, and the care constantly taken of him,
if it appears at all, it must arise from diseased
blood, or an hereditary taint from sire to dam.

In the treatment of grease, the first thing to
be done is to bleed the horse according to size
and condition, to the extent of from three to
six quarts. After this, give him bran mashes
only ; regulate him as directed in the article
on Conditioning Hunters: at night, give him
one of the doses of physic, as recommended at
the conclusion of the same article. Take a
bucket of warm water, and some soft soap, and
well wash out his heels ; free them from all
scurf and scabs, dirt, and any other offensive
matter that may be lodged in them. This
done, get for a poultice four ounces of linseed
meal ; pour sufiicient hot water to make it of a
proper consistency ; then, just as about to
apply the poultice, have ready a pot of diges-
tive ointment, composed of the following : —

Common Turpentine 4 oz.

Hog's Lard 12 do.

Melt together over a slow fire.
Mix about two ounces of this with the poultice,
and fasten it round the horse's legs by means
of an old stocking, which should first be drawn
on the leg, tied round the hoof, and then
turned down to receive the poultice in the
hollow of the heel. Poultices do no good ex-
cept they are always kept moist. Therefore,
at night repeat the washing with the soft soap,

itc, and also the poultice. Do this until the
heels are thoroughly clean and appear hrallhy ;
then eoMimencu healing them with tin; fol-
lowing : —

Common Turpentine 2 oz.

I log's Lard 2 do.

Alum, finely powdered .5 do.

Melt the turpentine and lard together; then
sprinkle in the alum, and stir till cold. Should
this not be found sufficiently strong, add

Sulphate of Zinc 1 nz.

These remedies are generally found sufficient
to heel the cracks and sores of the heels ; but
care must be taken not to stop the discharge
too suddenly, and especially if of a constitu-
tional nature.

Some constitutions will not even admit of
ointment being applied. If such be the case,
prepare

Sulphate of Zinc 8 oz.

Boiling Water 2 pints.

Apply this lotion frequently to the heels.

If a mild lotion be required, first use alum
instead of the zinc, varying the dressing as it
may be requisite.

At the end of five or six days, give another
dose of physic, as directed before. The horse
should have exercise, if the weather is dry ;
but on no account should his legs be suffered
to get wet. A bandage round them will be
found highly beneficial ; and, by all means,
put him in a loose box, or bay of a barn, that
he may exercise himself at liberty. "When the
process of physicking is concluded, give diu-
retic balls, composed of the following ingre
dients : —

Resin, powdered 8 oz.

Isitre, do. 4 do.

Juniper Berries 4 do.

Soft soap, to form the n.ass, and divide into twelve.

Give one of these balls every second day.
By this treatment grease will be got rid of;
but constantly bear in miud, to prevent it
there is nothing to equal cleanliness.

MANGE.

This distemper is so universally known,
that a general description of its most pre-
dominant features is unnecessary. Let it
suffice that a mere superficial view of it

187

MANGE.]

THE HORSE, AND

[maxgs.

instantly conveys to the spectator a very strong ]
idea of wretchedness and poverty. Nothing,
indeed, can convey this stronger than seeing
nature exhausted, and sinking under a com-
plication of disease, debility, and poverty.

This disease, however, is very little seen
amongst horses of any estimation ; on the
contrary, it is almost entirely confined to the
lowest stables, and the lowest proprietors. It
is observed to fall chiefly upon those that
are ill-fed, or scarcely know what corn is, at
least, by tlie taste, but are kept entirely on
the refuse of provender, barren pastures, musty
hay, separated hay-bands, swampy mossy
ground— so poor, that it yields the smallest
portion of nourishment. From such feeding,
nature may support a wretched existence, but
cannot be furnished with such sustenance as
is necessary to the maintenance of the frame
of the horse in a healthy state. From this
mode of living — rather starving — originates
the severe and inveterate disease known as
the mange ; and where it has been allowed to
commit its ravages to a considerable extent, it
is in the last degree painful to contemplate
the poor animal that is suffering from it. It
is a pimpled vesicular corruption, and is in the
highest degree contagious. " Among the truly
healthy, so far as my experience goes," says
Mr. Blaine, " it never arises spontaneously ;
but it does readily from a spontaneous origin
among the unhealthy."

It is by low feeding that the mange is often
generated, when the blood becomes thin and
weak, and loses a considerable portion of its
vital principle. Thus extravasated and unre-
strained, its morbid efiects and virulence soon
display themselves upon the surface, with a
severe and constant irritation and itching, prin-
cipally about the neck, and under the hair of
the mane ; though all parts of the animal are
subject to it, occasioning him to be constantly
rubbing himself, till with this and the loss of
hair from different parts, he bears the uni-
versal appearance of approaching excoriation.
Many persons of the old school are in the
habit of applying powerful caustic applications,
which may have the desired effect ultimately ;
but the pain the poor dejected brute under-
goes beneath such treatment, suggests to
humanity that immediate death would be
much more merciful.
188

The mange itself is found in the existence
of a parasite burrowing in the skin, known as
the Acarus scahiei equo, which bears a strict
analogy to the parasite which produces tlie
same disease in the dog, and the itch in man.
It belongs to the family of mites, and is found
in all kinds of preserved animal and vegetable
substances. It has eight legs, and has an
uncommon power of tenacity in adhering to
the skin.

In treating for the mange, commence to
feed, night and morning, with half iran and
half malt, or with equal parts of oats and hran.
It is preferable to have the malt made slightly
wet, not sloppy. Sprinkle a handful of coarse
hrown sugar in it ; then mix all together, and
give morning and night. Eor the middle- day
feed, give a quartern of sweet oats, with a
handful or two of chaff. During this treat-
ment, which must be continued for at least a
week, when it will begin to soften his skin,
give the best and sweetest hay that can be
procured.

At the expiration of a week, when the
frame becomes more invigorated, discontinue
the mashes, and let the diet be changed to
good oats, with a handful of bran night and
morning, first sprinkled with water, that one
of the following powders may just adhere
to it : —

Sulphur • . . 1 lb.

Prepared Antimony 1 do.

Eub these well together in a mortar, and
divide into twenty-four equal parts. For the
middle-day feed, continue the oats and chaflf,
dry. External applications may now be begun.
Eor these, procure a pail of warm water, and a
quarter or half a pound of soft soap, or more
if required, and tie a portion of it in a linen
or woollen rag. Let every infected part be
thoroughly washed, and well cleansed with
this, by forming a substantial lather, till no
scurf or filth remains on the surface. Then
rub tenderly with a linen towel until dry, and,
on the following morning, begin to rub in a
necessary portion of the following ointment
upon every part affected, as the urgency of
symptoms may require ; and repeat daily until
satisfied of the cure : —

Mercurial Ointment (weak) . . . . 8 oz.

White Hellebore, powdered ... 3 do.

Olive oil, sufficf-^nt to make it soft.

UAVGE.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[suhfkit.

Or, uso the followin«:j, which may he a mure
convtMiieiit a]>[)lication : —

"NVliitf lli'llfbori', pcnvclcred . . . . -1 oz.
Boil tliis ill thivo pints t)t' wattT until rt'Juccil
to one quart ; then add — •

Muriate of tjuicksilver ... 2 diaclims,
after having been dissolved iu

Muriatic Acid 3 drachms.

This lotion is to bo applied to all the aft'ected
parts •with a small piece of sponge, having first
poured a portion of it into a saucer. This is
a verv eflicacious remedy, and the disease has
been perfectly cured by it in three dressings.
It should not be applied, however, until the
horse is sufficiently strong to bear the appli-
cation.

Continue the use of the powders before
mentioned, with, occasionally, nitre iu his water
— an ounce is sufficient at one time — for three
weeks or a month ; and so soon as it is con-
ceived, by his condition, that he is in a state to
bear it, take away a moderate portion of blood
— say between two or three quarts ; give him
afterwards two mild doses of physic, selected
from the prescriptions on that article. This
will be found greatly to renovate him.

The horse, from his previously impoverished
condition, will be much restored by the fol-
lowing tonic medicine : —

Sulphate of Iron 12 drachms.

Gentian, powdered . . . . 12 do.

Ginger, ditto .... 6 do.

Form into a mass with honey, divide into six
balls, and give one every day. By this means
his constitution will be strengthened; and
that poverty-stricken look with which he had
before been stricken, will gradually disappear.
Witli regard to the horse's trappings or ap-
pointments, such as the saddle, bridle, clothing,
or harness, either gig or cart, they should be
well washed and cleansed with soft soap and
hot water. The stable should be well limed and
whitewashed, so that every particle of the
disease may be totally eradicated. This and
good keep will prevent a recurrence of the
affliction. In the treatment of tiie mange,
Mr. Touatt doubts the propriety of bleeding
in some conditions of the patient. " If mange
is the result of poverty, and the animal is
much debilitated, bleeding will increase the
evil, and will probably deprive the constitution

of tlie power of rallying. Physic, liowever, ia
indispensahlo in every case. It i.s the firHt step
in tile progress towards a cure. A incrciirial
ball will be preferable to a common aloetic one,
as more certain and eifectual in its operation,
and tho mercury probably having somo in-
fluence in mitigating tho disease. In thin,
liowever, mange, in the horse, resembles itch in
tiie human being. Medicine alono will never
effect a cure. There must be some local ap-
plication. There is this additional similarity —
that which is most eflectual in curing the itch
in the human being, must form the basis of
every local application for the cure of the
mange in the horse. Sulphur is indispensable
for every unguent for mange. It is the sheet-
anchor of the veterinary surgeon. In an early
and not very acute state of mange, equal por-
tions of sulphur, turpentine, and train oil,
gently but well rubbed on the part, will bo
applied with advantage. I'arriers are fond ol
the black sulphur ; but that which consists of
earthy matter, with the mere dregs of various
substances, cannot be so effectual as the pure
sublimed sulphur. A tolerably stout brush,
or even a curry-comb lightly applied, should
be used, in order to remove the dandritf or
scurf wherever there is any appearance of
mange. After that, the horse should be
washed with strong soap and water as far as
the disease has extended; and when he has
been thoroughly dried, the ointment should be
well rubbed in with the naked hand, or with a
piece of flannel. More good will be done by a
little of the ointment being well rubbed in,
than by a great deal being merely smeared
over the part. The rubbing should be daily
repeated."

SURFEIT.

Of surfeits there are two kinds, originating
in different causes ; one being no more than
an advanced stage of hide-bound, or out of con-
dition, which, having been long neglected,
continues to increase, with all its concomitant
symptoms, till tho blood becomes affected, and
Nature sets up this process to relieve herself
through the skin.

The other kind of surfeit may be attnbutea
to drinking cold water. This differs from the
other in cause, but very little in effect ; and ia
that kind where, from ignorance or inattention,

189

STJEFEIT.]

THE HORSE, AND

[mallendees.

a horse is suffered to drink immoderately of
cold water when in a violent perspiration, and
the blood, consequently, in the highest degree
of circulation.

The shock nature sustains by this revulsion
may be easily imagined. The blood, when in
its greatest velocity, is instantaneously checked
by the sudden application of cold to the
stomach. The stomach and skin having an
intimate sympathy, the pores of the latter
become, as it were, instantly plugged up, when
serous parts of the blood, which extravasates
itself, and, by an effort of nature, is propelled
to the skin for transpiration, is obstructed, and
has its passage to the surface absolutely pre-
vented, and rendered impracticable. Thus
fixed, it becomes united with the perspirable
matter already confined there — forming a
morlid combiuation — and is, in the course of
time, compelled, by the progress of internal
inflammation, to make its way through the
skin, upon which it, at last, appears in a variety
of forms, assuming distinct degrees of malig-
nancy, according to the state, habit, and consti-
tution of the subject at the time of attack.

In treating for this disease, first remove cu-
taneous obstruction, correct the acrimonious
state of the blood, and gently quicken the circu-
lation. The better to gain this object will be
to take away a moderate portion of blood,
about three quarts, that the impetus may be
encouraged ; open the body with warm bran
mashes; and according to the mildness or inve-
teracy of its appearance, give — as the case may
require — either two or three of the following
purging balls, allowing sufficient time between
each dose, and exerting more than usual pre-
caution on account of avoiding cold ; for
although this quantity of mercury will be
remarkably gentle in operating, and may be
administered with the greatest safety and
effect ; still great care is required in all cases
where this mineral is given, whether to man or
beast.

Barbadoes Aloes 6 drachms.

Calomel 1 do.

Ginger 1 do.

Soft soap, sufficient to form the ball.

After the course of physic has been regularly
gone through, let strict attention be paid to
the directions set down relative to food, dress-
ing, and water. In three days after the last
190

dose of physic, begin with the following course
of alterative powders : —

Antimony, powdered 1 lb.

Sulphur . . 1 do.

Cream of Tartar 4 oz.

These are to be well mixed together, and
divided into twelve equal parts, giving one
every night with a feed of corn ; which, being
first sprinkled with water, the powders will
adhere to it, and ensure their consumption.
A handful of chaff is excellent to make the
powders adhere. "Whilst giving the alteratives,
occasionally give an ounce of nitre in the
morning water.

Should any trifling eschars, scabs, or exco-
riations prove obstinate upon any part of the
body, they may be washed with a solution of
zinc.

Zinc 1 oz.

Boiling Water 6 „

Dissolve the zinc in the boiling water, and
apply to the sores, with a small piece of
sponge. This must be continued until the sores
are healed.

MALLENDERS.

These are cracks, situated directly on the back
part of the knee-joint ; occasioned, in general,
more by neglect in grooming, than by any
casual or constitutional defect in the subject.
The matter they discharge is, in some cases,
thin, and of an acrimonious nature. In others,
it forms a kind of glutinous discharge, and
makes an appearance of small scabs, or scurfy
eschars upon the surface, constituting a want
of flexibility, and frequently causing consider-
able lameness. The first thing to be done is,
to have the parts well washed with soft soap
and warm water ; repeating the washing night
and morning, till the eschars relax from their
rigidity, and separate of themselves. This
will be considerably promoted by rubbing in
lightly, after each washing, a small quantity of
hog's lard, which will loosen the scabs, and
cause them to fall off much easier when
washed.

As soon as the cracks are perfectly free
from scabs or scurf, apply the following oint-
ment :■ — •

Strong Mercurial Ointment . . 1 oz.

Hog's Lard 1 ».

Gunpowder, finely powdered . 4 drachms.

WABTS.]

MODEHN VETEKINARY PRACTTCi:.

[niDE«BOUN]».

Let thoao bo well worked toi^jetlicr, ami ap-
plied inoruiiig ami night. Tliia will stinuilaU'
the parts, and make them quickly heal. The
washing, morninp; and night, niuat bo continued
about an hour previous to applying tho oint-
ment ; whicli will give the parts time to dry.
Sliould a percept i bio foulness in tho subject
justify the measure, take away a proper
cjuantity of blood, according to the size of the
animal ; and, occasionally, put an ounce of
nitre in his water, for a fortnight ; or, give
half a dozen of diuretic bulls, as follows : —

Powdered resin 3 oz.

Linseed meal 1 ,,

Soft soap to form the mass.

Divide into six, and give one every morning
the first thing. Should these remedies appear
not to assist the cure, and the cracks not heal
so fast as desired, then proceed to stronger
means.

Cape aloes ....... 8 dtaclinis.

Calomel 2 „

Form into a mass, with linseed meal and soft
soap, and divide into two balls. Give at
intervals of about five days, according to the
strength of the horse.

SALLENDERS

Are situated upon the fore part of the hock,
and are to the hind legs what mallenders are
to the fore legs. They originate in the same
cause, and are cured by the same means.

WARTS
Are troublesome things on account of the itch-
ing sensation with which they are attended.
They are, also, extremely offensive to the eye
of the owner, especially if they bleed much,
besides making it highly disagreeable to ride a
horse in such a state. The only means to re-
move them is, either by ligature, or the knife.
In many cases it is necessary to have the
horse cast. Some warts are situated in such
places, that one has not an opportunity of pro-
perly getting at them, without incurring con-
siderable danger. If it be the intention to re-
move them by ligature, take of

Arsenic 1 diaclim.

Tlog's lard . ^ 1 „

Mix, and apply to that part of the ligature
embracing the wart, once a day ; or apply, in
the same manner, butter of antimony, anoint-

ing the part witli tho feather-end of a i)en.
The Uiost ellectual manner, however, iy to
remove them with tho knife; and immediately,
but slightly, cauterise tho part. This has
been found to answer better than any other
application.

HIDE-BOUND.

This disease has been attributed to many
causes, and appears in a want of llexibility of
the skin, which is pervaded by a general stiff-
ness, that seems to form an entire adhesion to
the flesh, without the least partial separation
or distinction. There is plainly perceived
underneath the hair, a kind of dusty scurf,
that raises it up in different parts, and gives it
another hue, the coat, in many places, forming
an appearance of two or three colours, and
showing at once that the insensible perspira-
tion, which should always be going on, is
either retarded, or wholly stopped.

The horse exhibits a general languor, dull-
ness, heaviness and weakness. His excrement
is dark, foul, and very offensive. He sweats
much upon every moderate exertion, and his
coat stares, the hair turning different ways,
the eflluvium of which is highly disagreeable,
and affords evident proof of weakness and de-
debility.

The probable cause of all this is most ap-
parent in bad food, and want of that proper
care which the animal requires in the stable.
These are the principal causes of this disease •
still there are others, all centring in poverty ;
such as allowing him to feed on the long, lank
grass, which is found in low swampy lands in
the autumn, and musty hay, or bad oats, which
may in some degree allay hunger, but not
gratify the appetite ; for being in itself desti-
tute of the quality of superior food, it does
not sufficiently contribute to the generating of
blood, or stimulating the system.

The sources for the supply of chyle being
thus obstructed, tho lymphatics are deprived
of their due proportion of nourishing fluiJ, and
become, not only in some measure contracted,
but in a great degree inactive. This, with the
want of external care and dressing, contribute
to an almost universal obstruction of the cuta-
neous pores.

Although we have called hide-hound a disease,
yet, under judicious management, it is scarce!/

101

HIDE-BOUND.]

THE HOESE, AND

[faect.

entitled to that designation, being in fact no
more than a temporary inconvenience. To
cure it, therefore, take away about two quarts
of blood, and in three or four hours after, give
a mash of malt, oats and bran, equal parts,
continuing the same every night for a fort-
night, stirring in it one of the following
powders :

Flour of brimstone 12 oz.

Antimony 1 lb.

Let these be well rubbed together, and divided
into twelve parts. Give other feeds, morning
and noon, of equal parts of oats and bran
moistened with water. If the continuance of
the bran should relax his body more than
seems judicious, put into his feed a handful of
split beans, and the same quantity of chaff.
This method of treatment will be found to
succeed ; but it should be accompanied with
regular and substantial dressing, air, exercise,
sound good oats, the best sweet hay, and fresh
soft water. "When by this means, he begins
visibly to improve in his hide, coat, and condi-
tion, let him have, twice in the week, a brushing
gallop, to produce a tolerable sweat, and
enliven the circulation, taking great care to
let him stand still until he is perfectly cool.
Then dress him thoroughly, and persevere in
this every night and morning until he is well.
Should this method be unattended with suc-
cess, there must be lurking in the system
something else that should be removed. Take,
therefore,

Blue pill . . • . , . . 2 drachms.

Aloes, Cape 4 „

Give this in the evening, and keep all food from
him during the night. In the morning treat as
in administering a dose of physic. In the course
of four or five days, repeat the medicine, and,
if a third dose should be required, which will
be ascertained from his appearance, let him
have it, taking care that he does not get chilled
during the action of the mercury. The follow-
ing powder has been recommended to be given
daily in his food without having recourse to
\he preceding preparations : — ■

Cantharides, finely powdered . 5 grains.

Pimento 5 drachms.

Sulphate of Iron 2 do.

Should the animal reject his food with this in
it, form it into a ball, with treacle, and give it
for a week or a fortnight as the occasion may
192

require. In the early part of summer, a good
piece of grass will be found of great service.

FARCY.
This is one of those diseases, to cure which,
and its co-disease, glanders, the veterinary
profession have been more puzzled than with
all the other diseases to which the horse is liable.
Eor a long period the cause of this complaint
was hidden in obscurity. All old writers said
it was something the matter with the blood,
but could not tell what. The Erench studied
the disease, and its nature, but still little pro-
gress was made towards elucidating its cause.
"We are now, however in a position to be able
to define the disease in a much more en-
lightened form, although its cure cannot at aU
times be effected.

Farcy may be defined to be an inflammation
and suppuration, attendant with ulceration of
the absorbents of the skin. It was formerly
thought to be a disease of the veins, but this
is not the case. Its seat or locality is in
the superficial absorbents of the skin cover-
ing the veins. Were it otherwise, the veins
would ulcerate and open, and considerable
bleeding take place. Externally, the skin may
be said to be the only visible part susceptible
of farcy ; but when the disease becomes violent
the lungs partake also of it. Every part of
the skin is susceptible of the disease, but not
all parts equally so. AVherever the skin is
thinest, there it is much more liable to become
affected than where it is thick.

The commencement of the disease is gene-
rally accompanied with swelling and inflamma-
tion, and, at length, a single tumour appears.
This goes on until matter is formed, suppura-
tion takes place, and of course ulceration.
The tumours do no always suppurate, but
often become hard and scliirrous. These, in
the old farriers' language, are called " hiids, or
farcy buds ;" there are frequently many of
them, forming a kind of chain enlarging to
an alarming degree. Such are the common
symptoms and appearance of the disease. It
takes place most frequently in the hind legs.

There is a poison connected with this dis-
ease, which, if applied to the skin of a sound
horse, will produce inflammation and matter
of the same kind ; and if the matter becomes
absorbed, it will, in all probability, produce

TARCT.]

MODEKN VHTRRTNAKV I'KACTICE.

[fauci.

glanders. But in all cases this might not
occur, as there aro some constitutions much
more susceptible of disease than others.

However, this exi)erinient proves the in:itter
to be contai^ioiis, because it is possible to pro-
duce it on a heullhy aiiiiual. There is nnotlu'r
curious fact connected with this poisonous
matter. If it is inserted deep below the skin,
it does not produce farcy; but is absorbed
into the system, and may produce glanders.
In this case the absorbents do not inllame,
which would prove farcy to be a skin disease,
in which the deep-seated absorbents become
aflected, and the superficial ones not so. From
this cause, if a horse with farcy were to be
flaved at this stage of the disease, there would
not be the least appearance of it under the
ekin ; nor can it be produced in a sound
horse without an abraded surface. It may
be produced, however, if applied to the mem-
brane of the nose of the animal in such a
manner as not to abrade the surface. Pro-
fessor Coleman's opinion is, that one horse in
a stable cannot communicate it to another,
without an abraded surface. This would seem
to prove that it is generated, and that con-
stitutional diseases cannot be produced except
by contact. If poisoned atmosphere be in-
haled, disease may be propagated by breath-
ing it, whilst contagion requires the actual
contact of the diseased animal ; though there
is little or no distinction, for the poison dot b
not come in contact with the lungs under
infection. Such diseases are mostly the effect
of crowded and filthy stables, and such as are
contagious may be produced without contact.
With regard to farcy, it has been questioned
whether one in one thousand ever becomes
affected by the actual touch of this matter,
showing clearly that it is not a local disease.
Formerly it was thought by some to be caused
by drinking cold water, and eating beans ; but
it is more likely to be produced by a poisoned
atmosphere — an atmosphere over and over
again impregnated witli what escapes from the
lungs, the skin, the dung, and the urine.
During the French war, when an expedition
was despatclied to Quiberon, the horses which
were shipped on board the transports had to
be closed in under the hatchways, so that the
poor animals were well-nigh suffocated with
beat. The consequence of this was, that when
2o

they were disembarked, nearly every ono of
them was cither farcied or glmidered.

Pure air is so important to life, in every
condition, that even the strongest animal, if
deprived of it, soon exhibits symptoms of dis-
tress. Farcy, therefore, is a consecjuenco of an
impure atmosphere, and is intimately connected
with glanders. " They will run into each
other," says Mr. Youatt ; " or their symptoms
will mingle together ; and before either arrives
at its fatal termination, the otlier will generally
appear. An animal inoculated with the matter
of farcy will often bo afflicted with glanders,
while the matter of glanders will frequently
produce farcy. They are different types of the
same disease. There is, however, a very material
difference in their symptoms and progress;
and tliis most important one of all — that while
glanders is incurable, farcy, in its early stage
and mild form, may be successfully treated."

The same writer further adds, that farcv,
like glanders, springs from contagion and bad
stable management. " It is produced by all
the causes which give rise to glanders, with
this difFereuce — that it is more frequently
generated, and sometimes strangely prevalent,
in particular districts. It will attack, at the
same time, several horses in the same ill-con-
ducted stable, and others in the neighbourhood
who have been exposed to the same predis-
posing causes. Some have denied that it is a
contagious disease. They must have had little
experience. It is true that the matter of farcy
must come in contact with a wound or sore,
in order to communicate the disease ; but
accustomed, as horses are, to nibble and play
with each other, and sore as the corners of
the mouth are frequently rendered by the
bit, it is easy to imagine that this may be
easily eft'ected ; and experience tells us that a
horse having farcy ulcers, cannot be suffered to
remain with others without extreme risk."

Horses most predisposed to farcy, are those
that are narrow-chested, with flat sides and
long legs. Common farriers say they can cure
the disease, because they think it is a merely
local affection, and consequently easily treated.
In tiiis ^"^lief, they burn the ulcers, aud may,
in some instances, perform a partial cure, if
the poison has not thoroughly pervaded the
system. But in most cases, when thus locally
treated, it breaks out again even at the end

193

FAEOT.]

THE HOESE, AND

LTFAEOT.

of twelve months, and sometimes terminates
in glanders. When the lungs are not touched,
a cure is sometimes effected by such treatment.
If the disease is purely local, as when the buds
are on the legs only, indicating that it is con-
fined to the lymphatics of the skin, the disease
may be reduced ; but if the poison has got
into the system, a perfect cure may, in general,
be despaired of The probability, however, of
expelling the disease will depend upon the
circumstance of its being local or constitu-
tional ; and, if the latter, to what extent the
system has been affected by it. Should the
membrane of the nose have become at all
ulcerated, or the membranes lining the bones
of the head, have begun to secrete and dis-
charge a disagreeable matter, the chances are
a hundred to one of succeeding in a cure.

If the horse should be in tolerable condition
he should be immediately bled, according to
strength, size, and constitution ; and the fol-
lowing ball given to him : —

Cape Aloes 8 drachms.

Ginger 1 do.

Form with soft soap.

Treat as directed in administering doses of
physic. Should the farcy buds diminish, or
no increase take place in those which are
formed, give a second dose of medicine, and
treat as before. The next thing to be done is
to lay the farcy buds open. These will be
found principally on the inside of the hind leg,
frequently down the neck, in the line of the
jugular vein, along the back, and frequently
on the face. When found in this last, the cure
is always doubtful. Some persons open the
buds with a lancet, and apply the actual cautery,
to destroy at once by fire what is imagined
cannot be done any other way : but objection
has been taken to this mode of treatment.
It is better first to open all the abscesses with
a lancet, after squeezing out the matter, which
must be exceedmgly carefully done, for the
pain the horse experiences when undergoing
this operation makes him very fidgetty ; and
it is sometimes attended with great danger.
After all the matter is cleared away from the
sores, a little sulphate of zinc should be applied
to each of the opened buds. This application
will be found highly beneficial on first opening
the buds. If this has been done in the morn-
ing, let it be agaiu repeated at night ; then ou
194

the morrow, wash the sores well with the fol-
lowing lotion.

Extract of Saturn .■..,.: 2 ozs.

Spirits of Wine, camphorated . . 8 do.

White Wine Vinegar 1 pint.

Mix well together, and keep it close stopped
for use ; then take of —

Prepared Antimony . . , . . 1 lb.

Sulphur « . 12 ozs.

Cream of Tartar. ...... 8 do.

Incorporate well in a mortar, and divide into
twenty equal parts, giving one part every
night in his corn, first sprinkling with water
to insure the adhesion of the powders. This
proportion is meant for the distemper in its
mildest state, when the buds have made their
first appearance.

Should the distemper be in a more advanced
stage, bleeding should be repeated, in a proper
time and in a moderate degree ; and upon the
scabs or eschars peeling from the buds, they
should be occasionally washed well with the
following : — •

Corrosive Sublimate .... 2 drachms

British Brandy ^ pint.

White Wine Vinegar .... 1 do.

Tinct. Myrrh and Aloes ... 2 ozs.

Water ^ pint.

First dissolve the sublimate in the brandy,
then add the other articles, and shake well
together: or, take

Sugar of Lead 1 oz.

Sulphate of Zinc ..... 1 do.

White Wine Vinegar .... 1 pint.

Water | do.

Mix together.

Tor internal medicines, an immense number
have been tried, and some with excellent
effect ; but the variety being great, the right
one is not at all times chosen. The following
formula, however, has been found excellent.

v^aniuuiL
Arsenic

ins . .

. 4

gruiiis.
do.

Sulphate

of Iron .

. 1 drachm

Gentian

o . • O

. 1

do.

Ginger

. 1

do.

Form into a ball with soft

soap.

G

ive one every morning,

first

thing.

Or,

Corrosive

Sublimate .

. ,

,

4 grains.

Su.(jiiate

of Iron .

, ,

,

2 dr

ichms.

Form into a convenient-sized ball, with linseed meaJ
and soft soap.

rAncY.]

MODERN VETEKl-NAiii i'liACTICE.

[faboy.

Give every morning. Or,

Blue Pill 2 tlraclims.

Aloes 1 do.

Ginger 1 do.

^lix together for one ball, witli .-i liltlo oil of
turpentine, and give one every seeond morning.
Great oaro must bo taken to watch the hor.se
that he does not become salivated. If cither
of the foregoing prescriptions should appear
to take his appetite away, let him remain for a
day or two, without giving him any of them.
AVhilst administering these medicines, the
horse should be well kept, and fed without
stint. Au ounce of nitre may occasionally be
dissolved in his morning water, as he will then
be most likely to drink. A little green meat
will bo good for him ; and when he is getting
better, give him a run at grass in some place
handy, and a feed of corn morning and evening.
Speared malt is excellent at this time ; also,
about a teacupful of linseed poured into a
quart of boiling water ; mixing with it, eight
or nine good potatoes, well boiled and worked
up together. This may be given with his
corn at his mid-day feed. He may, at first,
refuse to take it ; but this dislike will, by a
little perseverance, soon be overcome, when the
benefit that will arise from it will be, at once,
apparent. Carrots are very good, chopped up
fine; also turnips of the Swedish kind, as
they contain more saccharine matter than any
other ; also parsnips ; but of these, a few only
should be given at a time ; for, if given in
quantities, they are apt to cause gripes. The
treatment, as practised at the Eoyal Veterinary
College, is by administering from two to five
drachms of sulphate of copper, in solution, in
about a pint of water ; increasing or decreasing
the dose, as circumstances may require ; and
also applying to the sores daily a solution of
the same sulphate, in the quantity of two
ounces to a pint of water. In the recent
edition of White's Compendium of the Veteri-
nary Art, edited by Mr. Spooner, that gentle-
man says, that the treatment of farcy " must
be very similar in its nature to that recom-
mended for glanders, but with a much greater
probability of success. The system must be
supported by a generous, though not too
stimulating, diet, and the vegetable and mineral
tonics administered aa in glanders; but, if

the sulphate of copper bo employed, two or
tliree drachms will bo a Hunii-iently htrong
dose. Carrot.s or green food will bo a useful
addition to tlio diet. Tlu; hiids Bhould bu
opened witli a lancft, and, wlnii Ihc mutter in
evacuated, a caustic should be a|»plied to tho
ulcers. The lunar caustic will form a useful
application; but other caustics may bo em-
ployed. An ointment composed of two drachma
of hydriodate of potash; lard, or palm-oil,
two ounces ; mercurial ointment, two ounces,
should be rubbed daily in tho course of tho
enlarged lymphatics. The horse should bo
exercised daily, and properly groomed; and
the above treatment continued until all symp-
toms of farcy entirely disappear." la tho
Materia Medica there is a better form of this
ointment, in which the mercury and the iodine
are chemically combined.

The same gentleman observes that the most
favourable symptoms presented by this disease
are often delusive ; for even when it appears to
have succumbed to the skill of the practitioner,
it breaks out again and again, and sometimes,
when the morbid poison has thoroughly pene-
trated the system, after many months, it will
make its appearance in the form of fatal farcy
or glanders,

Mr. Blaine tells us of a horse so dreadfully
afflicted with farcy that it was unable to stand,
when it was drawn into a field of tares, and
left there to take his chance. When the poor
brute had devoured all that was within his
reach, hunger forced him to search for more ;
and managing to crawl along, and eat as he
went, he eventually recovered.

The dinioclide of copper has been introduced
by Professor ]\Iorton, and beneficially used in
farcy, as well as in such other diseases, as
have a resemblance to glanders. It is usually
combined with the root of gentian, to which
small quantities of cantharides may be added
with advantage. When an increased soreness
of the diseased parts appear, its application
should cease for a time, although this is an
indication of the absorbent vessels being stimu-
lated into increased action.

Water farcy is entirely different from the
common farcy, of which we have here been
treating, and is spoken of in another part of
this work.

195

WIKD GALLS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[B0G-SPAVI5T.

CHAPTER XIV.

SWELLINGS AND TUMOURS. — WINDGALLS ; BOG-SPAVIN ; THOROUGH-PIN ;

ABSCESS ; TUMOUR ON THE KNEE.

CAPPED HOCK : SEROUS

WINDGALLS.

WiNDGALLS consist of a kind of cyst, or sac,
attendant on most, or all joints, and frequently
occasion lameness, and, if not this, tliey are a
great eye-sore. These sacs are situate on
both sides of the tendons, just above the fet-
lock joints, on the fore, and not unfrequently
on the hind legs likewise. They become
enlarged, generally, from hard work, causing
a greater determination of blood to the part,
and continue to increase until they become
disagreeably large. It is from this circum-
stance, that liniments, or lotions, are applied
to them to reduce them, and this apparently
takes place ; but when the animal is again put
to work, they as certainly begin again to
enlarge, and when they grow to the disagree-
able size we sometimes see them, thev never
af^ain contract, so far as to allow the affected
part to assume its original form.

Eor the cure of these unsigiitly things, lini-
ments, lotions, and even blistering have little
or no effect. Perhaps the best plan to be
adopted is first to clip the hair off" all round
the leg, over the fetlock joint, and about three
inches above the seat of the enlargement.
When this is done, the whole of the clipped
part should be well rubbed with mercurial
plaister, thoroughly melted. This should be
effectively applied with a paint-brush, and
none of the parts overlooked. This done, a
flannel bandage, about three yards long, and
about three inches broad, should be bound
tight round the leg, and allowed to remain so
situated for a fortnight ; when by clipping it
with a pair of scissors down the front of the
leg, it may be allowed to fall off, and tlie limb
be set at liberty. A cradle must be used.
Should this mode of treatment not be found
effectual, the parts may be fired, or the burses
opened in the following manner: — Have the
horse cast, and with a pretty large abscess-
lancet lay open the enlarged hursce at bottom,
or lower part, to such an extent as to enable
the finger to be introduced, which should be
196

done and turned in it several times. This will
break the membrane of the sac. Then put a
suture in the wound, and draw the lips of it
together, and allow the animal to rise. This
treatment will, at first, cause some little
swelling, which should be bathed well with
warm water, two or three times a day, and a
bandage applied. When the inflammation
has considerably subsided, treat the puncture
as a common wound. If the case is a bad one,
and the windgalls very large, so soon as the
inflammation has subsided, cast the horse
again, and fire the parts, which has been found
to act very successfully. The horse should
have a loose box, and a dose or two of physic,
during the time he is resting. In the treat-
ment of these enlargements iodine and mer-
curial ointments have been advantageously
used in proportion of three parts of the former
to two of the latter. Blistering causes their
disappearance for a time ; but, with work, they
are sure to return.

BOG-SPAVIN

Is a disease, very common where there is
hard work, especially in young horses, when
they have been too early used. The hock ia
liable to more diseases than any other joint
belonging to the horse ; it being designed for
very extensive motion ; but the motion of it,
during natural labour, is very different from
that which occurs when an animal is thrown
upon his haunches, or pulled up suddenly, or
when taking high and wide leaps. These
violent motions of the joint, are, as may well
be supposed, likely to produce disorder. Bog-
spavin, then, is an enlargement of the mucus
capsule, situated immediately in the bend of
the hock, and near to the superficial vein,
passing obliquely over the part ; in fact, it may
be said to be a corresponding disease to wind-
galls in the fetlock joint. It does not always
produce lameness.; but, when so large as to
do this, and prevent the horse from working,
the tumour should be immediately opened aa

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THOBOUOH-piN.] MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [capped hock..

directed in wiiulj^alls. Great care, liowever,
must be taken not to puneturo tlio vein, wliieh
may be easily prevented, by tyin-,' a liUet of
tape round the bottom part of the thigh. This
will enable the course of the vein to bo dis-
covered, and, consequently, avoided. Having
made the puncture, and found out the mucus,
put into tiio wound a little sulphate of zinc,
and proceed in all other respects as described
for windgalls.

The editor of The Horse says, that the old
and absurd method of passing a ligature above
and below the enlarged portion of the vein, and
then dissecting it out, is not in the advanced
Btage of veterinary science practised by any
surgeon who regards his reputation ; it being
merely the consequence, not the cause of the
disease. The only method of relief which holds
out any promise even of temporary success is
exciting considerable inflammation on the skin
and thus rousing the deeper seated absorbents
to carrv away the fluid cflused in the enlarged
bag. For this purpose, blisters or firing may
be tried ; but in the majority of cases the dis-
ease will bid defiance to all appliances or will
return and baffle our hopes when we bad
seemed to be accomplishing our object.

Where there is bog- spavin the horse should
only be used for ordinary work. Hard or
rapid work is out of the question.

THOROUGH-PIN

Is a bursal enlargement, situated in the
upper and back part of the hock, the tumour
fshowing itself on either side ; hence its name,
thorough-pin. This seldoni occasions lame-
ness. It is caused by over-weighting, immo-
derate riding, and ill-management in the break-
ing of young horses.

For its treatment proceed precisely as
directed for windfalls and hog-spavin.

" I have," says Professor Spooner, " known
a troublesome and obstinate lameness produced
from the upper thorough-pin, or perhaps ratlier
from some strain of the tendon which attended
it. It gave way, however, at length, to a seton
placed over the part — not througii it. I have
also succeeded in removing a very large tho-
rough-pin in the lower situation in a high-class
race-horse, by the long-continued application
of equal parts of iodine and mercurial oint-
ment; previously, however, stimulating the

part with a mild liquid bli.stcr. Tho Bubject
was a race-horse of great value, and the tho-
rough-pin entirely disappeared in about two
weeks. In such cases the synovial fluid in tho
thorough -pin coagulates, and becomes orgauiaed
and firm."

CAPPED HOCK
Is a largo swelling, rising at the point of tho
hock; and although seldom detrimental to tho
action of the horse is, however, very objection-
able to the eye. It is produced chiefly by kicks,
lying on hard stones, or other injuries to which
the point of the hock is so very liable. It is
sometimes hereditary. This may be taken as
proved from the following fact. A veterinary
surgeon was called in to see a horse, and was,
at the same time, requested to look at a brood
mare, and two of her colts, lying in a field close
at hand, which were considered of excellent
make and form. The dam was a known good
one. She was a light chestnut mare, and the
colts were of the same colour, one a three-year
old, but the other a yearling ; and all three,
dam and colts, were afi"ected with capped hocks.
There had been a colt, which would then have
been two years old, but it had been dead about
six months, and he had capped hocks too.
These were all got by difl'erent horses. This
goes a great way in proving that like begets
like.

If capped hock is not relieved soon in its
early stage, it frequently becomes of consider-
able size, and what is strange, the skin seems
to thicken as it becomes larger.

In treating for it in an early stage repellents
such as the following should be used —

Sal-ammoniac 1 oz.

Si)irits of Wine 1 do.

Vinegar 8 do.

Eub some of this lotion on the point of the
hock, nigiit and morning. Should this not
promote the absorption of the fluid, introduce
setons on each side of the hock, and keep the
discharge up for a fortnight, dressing every day
with digestive ointment, composed of

Common Turpentine 4 oz.

Hog's Lard 4 do

Melt together over a slow fire, and dress the
setons with it, when these are changed every
morning.

Should this not Lave the desired effect at

197

SEEOUS ABSCESS.]

THE flOBSE, AND

[the knee.

once, puncture with a lancet, and fire in the
manner represented in the engraving, entitled
Capped Hock. Whilst using the above reme-
dies, give a mild dose or two of physic.

SEROUS ABSCESS.

This kind of tumour is produced by various
causes, and is situated at the point of the
elbow. It sometimes grows to an amazing
size, even to that of a child's head. Serous
abscesses are not always alike in their contents,
Bome of them containing a yellowish fluid, and
that in a considerable degree. This may be
discovered by the undulating feeling they have
when pressed between the thumb and finger.
Others are hard, will not yield to pressure, and
sometimes approach to callosity. Both kinds
are generally produced in heavy dray-horses
by their lying down on rough paved stables,
and frequently when they double their fore
feet up under them. The large calkins of the
shoes then just come in contact with the point
of the elbow, and a bruise will produce them.
They may sometimes be caused by kicks, but
this is not usually the case. If it were so the
horse would instantly go lame, whereas by
bruising gradually, the disease continues grow-
ing, and may produce lameness.

In treating for these tumours, supposing
they contain the serous fluid, take up the skin
in the most dependent part, and make an orifice
with the seton scissors to let out the fluid.
Then insert the finger, as if preparing to place
3n a tent, which should be done with tow,
smeared over with the following digestive oint-
ment:

No. 1.
Sulphate of Copper, finely powdered . 1 drachm.

Common Turpentine 2 ozs.

Hog's Lard 4 do.

Melt the turpentine and the lard together'
and when nearly cold, sprinkle in the sulphate
of copper. Or,

No. 2.

Red precipitate 4 drachms.

Common Digestive Ointment . 4 ozs.
"What is here meant by the common digestive
ointment, is the turpentine and hog's lard alone.

This will promote a healthy discharge, if the

first recipe does not. Keep this open for a
week or nine days. If the parts should swell
much, foment them three or four times a day,
with flannels dipped in hot water, until the
swelling abates. Professor Spooner treats this
tumour in the follovring manner. " If the col-
lection of fluid be not extensive, we may first
endeavour to disperse it by external stimu-
lants ; in this attempt, however, we shall gene-
rally fail, when we must evacuate it by making
a considerable opening, so as to admit a free
escape of the fluid, which will again form ; or
what will still be better, we may insert a seton
through the tumour. After this a solution of
blue or white vitriol should be injected, so as
to stimulate the sides of the cavity and pro-
duce an altered action. After some time pus
will be secreted instead of serum, and then the
part will soon get well."

The hard kind of tumour must be treated in
another way ; and the only way it can be, to be
effectual, is, at once to make an incision down
the middle of the tumour, and dissect it com-
pletely out, then insert a pleget of tow, smeared
with No. 1 ointment above, and sew up the
wound until within an inch and a half of the
bottom, which orifice must be kept open during
the suppurative process; but when that has
stopped, dress as for a common wound, with
compound tincture of myrrh.

THE KNEE.
Sometimes enlargements on the knee take
place, but they are of little consequence. — A
itumour about the size of a walnut formed on
the knee of a horse. It was punctured with a
very small abscess lancet, the matter squeezed
out, the part blistered, and the horse ordered
to be turned out. In a month, he came up,
and no person could discover the place that
either the puncture or blister had made. The
horse was of great value. The same line of
practice we would recommend in all similar
cases, as it is simple, and not likely to be
attended with much danger; whereas a more
complicated course might be followed by
evil consequences. AVhere a simple mode
will eff"ect our object, it is always best to
adopt it.

198

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INIODERN VETERINARY PR ACT I TK.

[tiik kyk.

CnAPTER XV.

TUE Eii: AND ITS DISEASES.

THE EYE IN GENERALr— THE MUSCLES OF
THE EYE.

Ik speakinc: of tlio muscles of tho eye, tlie
orbicularis first comes under our notice. This
muscle surrounds, and is attached to the bones
of the orbit. It passes under the loose skin
of the upper eyelid, which has great motion ;
and its ollice is to close the eyelid perfectly,
or to assist in ])erforming the involuntary act
of winking. The antagonistic muscle to tliis
is the levator paljjelrce, rising from the pos-
terior part of the orbit, and passing over the
orbit, contiguous to the lachrymal glands,
which are placed in the hollow of the orbit
above the eye. This pair of muscles is in
almost unceasing action, and like all other
muscles would become weary ; but by acting
in opposition they obtain intervals of rest.
Thus, when the eyes are shut, the orbicularis
is in action ; but when awake, the levator 2^(il-
pebrcs. This last, however, is relaxed by the
act of winking, which is clearly one intention
of winking: another is to allow the tears to
pass over the orbit for the pur;iose of removing
extraneous matter, by means of the action of
the eyelids.

To accomplish the various movements of the
eye, there are four straight muscles, two
oblique, and one retractor, or drawing-back
muscle, the powers of which are very supe-
rior to those in the muscles of the human
subject. Returning, however, to the straight
muscles, we commence with the levator ones,
which rise from the posterior part of the
orbit, pass over the retractor muscle, and are
attaclicd to the sclerotic coat. They are for the
purpose of directing the eye upwards. Tiie
eye always acts in unison with these muscles.
The next are the abductor, which originate in
the posterior part of the orbit, and are inserted
into the anterior part of the sclerotic coat
on the outside. These direct the eye from
the nose. The depressors rise in the pos-
terior part of the orbit, and are inserted into
the inferior part of the sclerotic coat. The

adductors have the same origin, and are inserted
into the sclerotic coat towards tho inner can-
thus. All these muscles acting together, have
the power of drawing the eye into the orbit;
but their action is inconsiderable.

Tho oblique muscles are two. One takes its
rise from the inferior part of the orbit, and ia
inserted into the sclerotic coat below. Tho
other, called the irochliaris, also rises in tho
same part, and going through a pulley-like
adaptation, is inserted into the anterior part
of the sclerotic coat, and thus draws the eye
forward. The principal use of these muscles
is to act in opposition to those which are
straight, by drawing the eye forward.

The retractor occult, rising from the supe-
rior part of the orbit, surround the optic nn-ve,
but are separated from it by adeps (i. e., lut) ;
and that the fibres may not aflect thu nerve,
they are not attached to the sclerotic coat,
where the nerve emerges. Here we may men-
tion how the inner and outer canthus may be
distinguished. AVhen the eyes are separated
from the body, it is the broad side which forms
the inner canthus, over which the haw plays.
In the structure of birds, for example, there is
an organisation somewhat similar to tho haw
in the horse, called the membrana nictitans, a
semi-transparent membrane, having a muscle
and a tendon. In the horse this is carlilnir'^
edged with black, at the anterior part fasteiK i
to the conjunctiva by the cellular membrane ;
and if an attempt is made to pass the finger
between the eye and the haw, the action will
be prevented by the conjunctiva, showing that
the conjunctiva is a reflected membrane over
the cellular attachment. Tho haw is divided
into two parts. The anterior part is convex
on the outer surface, and concave on the inner,
to fit the convexity of the eye. The haw acts
as a kind of shield ; but not being suflicieut to
cover tlie whole orb, whilst in its natural situa-
tion, the retractor muscle acts first, by whicli
means the ball of the eye presses upon tho
adeps, and the haw, in consequence, is forced

199

THE ETE.]

THE HOESE, AND

[the ETE.

over the eye, showing that it has no separate
movement, but is dependent on the retractor
muscle, and performs its functions by moving
a part to which it is least attached.

The lachrymal glands ax'e placed above the
levator palpelrce, lying close to the sclerotic
coat, and moisten the eye.

The eyelids are peculiar in the horse. The
bottom one has no lashes, but the upper one
has a double row iu the centre, but not extend-
ing from cantJius to cantJius. They are seldom
diseased, or even the cause of disease.

The conjunctiva is immediately connected
with the eyelids, the haw, and the orbit. It
possesses three different structures ; that is,
three separate degrees of vascularity. It lines
the inner surface of the eyelids, and covers the
eye-ball, being reflected over every part. This
membrane is highly vascular in that part
■which lines the eyelids, and is less so over the
opaque cornia, and still less over the transpa-
rent cornia, never admitting red particles of
blood, unless in a state of inflammation. The
eyelids possess a secretion of their own, to
protect them from the tears, which, though
congenial to the eye, are not so to the edges
of the palpehrcB. It is a well-known and
somewhat singular fact, indicating the dif-
ferent degrees of susceptibility to which
different parts of the animal structure are
liable — that the salt that is in tears will at any
time inflame the cheek, but not the eye ; whilst
warm water applied to the eye, will inflame
it, f^nd be congenial to, and relieve the cheeks.
The apparent use of the eyelid is to pro-
tect the eye from foreign matter, and also to
regulate the admission of light. Independent
of these, the inner surface of the upper eye-
lids, covered by the conjunctiva, is connected
with the tears, which flow between the eye-
ball and the lid, the conjunctiva being thus
prevented from coming in contact by a fluid.
The eyelids also secrete a fluid of their own,
which prevents any tendency to irritation.
The action of the lachrymal glands is carried
on, at intervals, even in sleep, though there
may be but little wanted; but any foreign
matter, even the wind, will excite their action.
This is occasioned by the nerves of the eye-
ball being irritated, and the tears, iu conse-
quence, being thrown out to alleviate such
irritation. Between these glands aud the
200

mental character of the horse, there is also
great sympathy; and when their action is
excited, so that the secretion has become too
great to be carried off by the nose, the tears
flow over the cheeks, which constitutes weeping.
This secretion is also aflected by the action of
the retractor muscle, which, operating with
the adductor muscle, the eye-ball is brought
to the inner canthus, and the haw forced over
the eye-ball. Extraneous matter very seldom
occasions blindness ; for the tears and the eye-
ball moving in one direction, and the haw in
a contrary one, any such matter is quickly
dislodged.

The use of tears is to keep the parts moist
and transparent, and to remove the waste from
evaporation, which is always going forward in
moist external surfaces. Having performed
their office of lubricating the eye-ball, and the
parts attached, they pass into the duct, called
puncta lachrymalis, situated at the inner
canthus of the eye. This duct in the horse is
little larger than in the human subject, and
passing through a canal, partly bony and
partly membranous, terminates at the lower
end of the nostrils, much increased in size.
The construction of this junction in man is
much more complicated than it is in the horse,
and is very frequently subject to disease by
becoming obstructed. In the horse this very
seldom occurs ; and when it does, it is attended
with but very trifling inconvenience. The
action of the haw takes place from any cause
which produces pain or inflammation ; and this
may be continued so long, that the retractor
and adductor muscles will permanently con-
tract, when the haw, being completely power-
less of itself, is left protruded out. When
this is the case, there is no difficulty or danger
in cutting it out with a pair of scissors.

In the horse there is no opaque cornea
visible; whilst in man, it constitutes a promi-
nent feature of the organ ; aud although it does
not appear to give any additional perfection to
the vision, it adds greatly to the beauty aud
expression of the eye.

The transparent cornea is more or less con-
vex iu all animals. In horses, it is not cir-
cular, but horizontally oblong, being more
contracted at the outer than the inner part.
The ball of the eye is also denser aud more
trausparent. By a law of optics, the rays of

THK KYE.]

MODERN VETERINAPvY PT^NrTTri'

["tiik kvk,

lii^lit pas3 through a tninsparont eonirx body,
nud become bent, whilst convcyiiii; objoots to
v focus, which again convoys tliom to the
retina, thus constituting vision. In somo men
tl\o cornea is frequently too convex, in conse-
ijueuce of which tho rays of light are brought
to a focus before they reach tho retina.
This constitutes near-sightedness ; the reverse
taking place with old people, tho cornea
being too flat. Of defective sight iu the
horse it is more difficult to judge ; but there
is no doubt that many horses with prominent
eves, and very convex, have imperfect vision,
as they, invariably, are very apt to shy, or to
start.

In eiamining the eye, and looking into the
anterior chamber, which contains the aqueous
humour, the iris appears, the centre of which
is perceived in the opening called the pupil.
Looking steadily at it, there is a blueness
apparent, showing that there is free access to
the back part of the eye through the pupil,
and also showing that the iris divides the
humours of the eye into two spaces, which are
called the anterior and the posterior chambers.
The iris appears to hang as a curtain between
the cornea and the crystalline lens, and is com-
posed of two orders of muscular fibres. It
demonstrates the colour of the eye ; as, for
instance, when it is black, or blue, it forms
an eye of the same colours. In bay horses it
is of a cinnamon colour. Sometimes it is
white, constituting a wall eye, with which
tliere are generally associated white hairs on
the eye-lashes and orbit. The colour of tho
outer part of the iris is no criterion for the
posterior, which is generally black, and is the
part that is of service to the sight of the
animal. The shape of tho iris, at the circum-
ference, is oblong, like tho transparent cornea.
It is very muscular, and its fibres are radiated,
and wound round the circumference with
another order of muscular fibres. Another
order winds round the inner margin, and the
union of the two is by the radiated expansion
of one order of fibres and of the blood-vessels.
The opening of the iris, or the pupil, is not
a solid body, but a passage left for the rays of
light to penetrate to the posterior chambers ol'
the eye. The iris undergoes many changes, as
to size, in all animals. In the horse it changes
its form, from round to oblong, and vice versd.
20

In cats, the changes are well Ht-en ; for, in a
strong liglit it becomes cxtrenK'ly oblung, but
perpendicular; whil.st in tlio horso it ia hori-
zontal. The object of this adaptation ia at
once obvious. In order to secure ita prey tho
cat haa to look upwards and downwards, but
not laterally ; whilst the horso has to look ia
all directions ; so that, although the pupil be-
comes horizontal, it is never very narrow.
Tliere is also, in tho horse's eye, a peculiarity-
of structure which seems to have the power of
excluding light. This is effected by four glan-
dular bodies, two placed at the lower edge of
the upper margin of tho iris, and two at tho
lower margin. These a'-e not seen in a weak
light, when the pupil is large ; and seldom in
the dead subject ; but make their appearance
in prominent eyes, under a strong light. They
are black, and covered with the nigrum pig-
mentum, or black paint, which, in the dead eye,
becomes a mucous. These bodies may almost
be called an internal eyelid, and, united to the
iris, they complete the curtain.

By observing the effect of different degrees
of light on the iris, it will be seen that it be-
comes stimulated by the action of the rays,
and expanding, through the nervous energy,
makes the pupil much smaller. On the other
hand, if the iris contract, the pupil appears so
much larger. This portion of the optical organ
is possessed of an abundance of nerves and mus-
cular fibres. The muscular fibres are of two
orders, the one appearing a kind of sphincter —
signifying to shut up— at the inner margin,
and which when excited by a strong light, at
tlie same moment, contracts. The transverse
order relax and elongate, and thus the pupil is
diminished. The stimulus of light being re-
moved, the transverse preponderate and dimi-
nish the iris, whilst they enlarge the pupil.
It would appear that the circular or sphincter
order, require a very strong stimulus to be
able to overcome the constant superabounding
power of the transverse order, the varied action
of the pupil taking on different forms, accord-
ing to the strength of light. In a weak light
these become circular, from the transverse
fibres being in full play ; but, as in a strong
light the pupil becomes oblong, it would appear
that the transverse fibres have not an equal
power of relaxation, except at the top and
bottom ; for, at the corners, they scarcelv relax

201

THE ETE.]|

THE HOESE, AND

[the etb.

at all. There is considerable sympathy be-
tween the iris and the retina, as in cases of
gutta Serena, or glass eyes, as it is termed ; or
when the optic nerve and the iris have lost
their sensibility.

In considering the outer coats of the eye,
we will commence with the sclerotic, which is
composed of tendinous material, very dense,
but not equally thick all over, the thickest
part being its posterior. This part, as it re-
ceives more pressure against the orbit, wheu
under the influence of the retractor muscle,
nature has proportioned the means to the end,
and made it thicker, in order that it might be
capable of repelling the pressure it was destined
to receive. Anteriorly, there is a groove re-
ceiving the posterior edge of the transparent
cornea, called the ciliary processes — the white
folds at the margin of the uvea in the eye,
covered with black matter ; there is a passage
through the sclerotic coat for the optic nerve,
which does not pierce it at its centre, but
pierces the sclerotic and choroid coats at the
inferior part.

The choroid coat is on the inner side of the
sclerotic, and is very vascular, possessing many
blood-vessels, nerves, and absorbents. Its ap-
pearance varies in different animals. In white
ferrets, and also in those classes of persons
commonly called " albinos," with long white
hair, the colouring matter is wanting, and the
arteries of the coat are alone seen. The con-
sequence is, the bottom of the eyes look red,
"Where this formation exists, there is an inca-
pability of seeing in a strong light, objects
being best seen in the dark, which is most
properly called a diminution of light ; and in
sympathy with such, the eye-lashes are always
white, and the hair of the head white also,
Frequently in smaller animals all the hair is
white, as we find in white mice and white rats.
In man, generally, both surfaces of the choroid
coat, the one in contact with the sclerotic coat,
the other witli the retina, are covered witli a
black pigment, which, in the dead animal, be-
comes a kind of mucus. But here there is a
difference according to circumstances. Negroes
have it much blacker than the inhabitants of
temperate regions, and have a power of ab-
sorbing superfluous rays of light, to an extent
that renders vision even painful. Thia coat,
in borses, is of great importance. All the
202

pigment or colouring matter below the optic
nerve, being about one-third of the whole, is
black, but above it is green and blue, which are
separated from the other by a distinct hue.
This compound, in the living eye, imparts to it
the appearance of sky-blue, which, seen through
the humours, is of a greyish hue. Horses fre-
quently, and by very eminent men, have been
pronounced unsound from having this grey
cast or shade in the eye. The optic nerve
having pierced these two coats within, tlie
black covering is lined here with a little pig-
ment. It is then distributed over the whole
of the surface, as far as the junction of the
opaque cornea with the ciliary processes. The
object of this variegated coat, and why it should
occupy the superior part in particular, is, that
the rays of light may pass through the nerve
going beyond the retina. In man, from the
colour of the pigment, the rays become ab-
sorbed, and terminate accordingly ; but in a
pigment that is not black, they do not termi-
nate, but are reflected back, striking the nerve
a second time, and the effect is then an in-
creased degree of vision. In the horse, the
rays strike the nerve twice, but only at the
upper part, where the green pigment is situated.
The rays thus received are obviously the weak-
est, especially when the head of the animal is
near the ground, which is his natural position
when in the act of grazing ; the black pigment
then receives the strong superior rays ; and
thus by a skilful combination the light is
equalised, and sharp keen sight produced.

" The reader may see in the dusk, or even
when duskiness is fast yielding to utter dark^
ness," says Mr. Youatt, " the beautiful sea-green
reflection from the eye of the horse. ... If
the reader has not examined this beautiful pig-
ment, he should take the earliest opportunity of
doing so. He will have a beautiful illustration of
the care taken by the Supreme Being that each
shall suit his situation. The horse has not the
intelligence of man, and may not want, for any
[)urpose of pleasure or improvement, the vivid
picture of surrounding objects which the retina
of the human being presents. A thousand
minute but exquisite beauties would be lost
upon him. Ir', therefore, his sense of vision
may not be so strong during the day, it is made
up to him by tlie increased power of vision in
the uiirht."

^lODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

THE ETB.]

The cri/sfalJine lens is not exactly ft porfi-ct
IcMis, tlio ftiitoric^r siili- briiit; rather the flattest.
It is contained in a perfect capsule or bag, ft
fluid separating tlie eapsulo from tho lens,
which is called the liquor morgagni, from IM.
!Morgagni, the name of its first discoverer.
This capsule does not adhere to, but is con-
fined in its position by the tunica vitrea, being
reflected over its edge, at which part, also, it is
surrounded by the choroid coat, formed into
folds, called the ciliary processes. It was for-
merly doubted how these parts grew ; but
doubts were dispelled on its being discovered
that both arteries and veins are situated in
these parts. Tiie lens is not only flatter an-
teriorly, but is not of the same structure
throughout, the outer surface being like a
mucus or jelly; whilst within, it becomes harder,
even to the centre. From this arrangement
tlie rays of light are bent from one degree to
another, in proportion as they approach the
centre — the crystalline lens acting as a refract-
ing glass, receiving the rays, in some measure
refracted by the cornea and aqueous humour,
and bringing them to a focus on the retina.

" When either the cornea or the crystalline
lens is too convex," says Mr. Spooner, "the
object is brought to a focus too soon, and vision
is indistinct, and the person near-sighted."
This, he adds, as we have already observed, is
a frequent defect in the eyes of horses that
shy, in which we often find full goggle eyes.
"When, however, the cornea or the lens is too
flat, a contrary effect is produced, and the
object is not converged soon enough. This is
often a complaint in old people, who are
relieved by convex glasses, whilst the former
defect is relieved by concave lenses.

The iris has an involuntary power of
changing under difierent degrees of light. It
also has another power independent of the
efiects of light — namely, that of looking at a
minute object, though the light be weak, and
becoming larger as the pupil gets smaller, and
vice versd. The pupil being small, the rays
are confined to such as proceed from the
object alone. Thus there is no confusion of
images on the retina, but the smallest object is
seen ; and, as in the last instance, when the
object to be seen is large, the iris contracts,
that the rays may be admitted from all parts
for a perfect representation.

[the eye.

In examining tho ciliart/ processes, they are
nothing more than a continuation of tlie cho-
roid coat which surrounds tho capsule of tho
crystalline lens. They are called choroidea,
and are tho actual foldings of that membrane.
Their object is to prevent tho passai;(! of any
rays of light on the outside of tho lens, which
otherwise would render vision imperfect.

The vitreous humour is of a peculiar com-
position. Although it seems to be a kind of
jelly, it is not; but nearly of the same fluidity
as the aqueous humour. This appearance
arises from its being contained in cells, and
not in a single capsular bag. A proof of this
is found in the breaking of the cells, when the
fluid drops freely. It is also admirably formed ;
for being in contact with the expansion of the
optic nerve, it cannot alter its position, or be
injured by pressure.

The phenomenon of vision is both curious
and grand. In the first place, all objects to
be seen require a sufficient quantity of light to
render the optic nerve sensible. Although
different animals require difierent degrees,
man requires the most — a fact demonstrated
by the construction of his eye, which has a
small transparent cornea, and a black pigment.
The vision, to be perfect, must be painted on
the retina; and here is a curious fact, that
though we have two eyes, we see only one
object; yet there is an object painted on each
retina, but only one on the sensorium. Being
possessed of only one sensorium, so long as
the object is the same, there is only one im-
pression formed ; but immediately objects
change, there are difierent impressions fornied.
All objects on the retina being painted upside
down, the rays of light cross each other, and
meet in a point near the lens, when they pro-
ceed through the vitreous humour nearly in
the same right lines.

Objects presented to the eye have their
images painted on the black part of the retina,
the rays of the incident pencils converging to
their proper foci there, by the refraction of tho
different humours; and for this office they are
admirably adapted ; for as the distance between
the back and front of the eye is very small,
and the rays of each of the pencils that form
the image fall parallel, or else diverging on the
eye, a strong refractive power is necessary for
bringing them to their foci at the retina: but

203

USTLAMMATION.]

THE HOESE, AND

[iNFLAMMATIOIir.

each of the humours, by its peculiar form and
density, contributes to cause a convergence of
the rays : the aqueous from its convex form ;
the crystalline by its double convexity and
greater density than the aqueous; and the
vitreous by a less density than the crystalline,
joined to its concave form.

The structure of the eye is in general adapted
to the reception of parallel rays ; but, as the
distances of visible objects are various, so the
eye has powers of accommodating itself to rays
proceeding from different distances by altering
the distances of the crystalline from the retina,
which is done by the action of the ciliary
ligaments. We will now speak of the diseases
of this organ.

INFLAMMATION.

The conjunctiva is that membrane which
lines the eyelids, and covers the cornea and
the haw of the eye. Its inflammation is one
of the most common diseases to which this orb
is subject.

When inflammatory appearances have be-
come manifest in this part, the first thing to
be ascertained is, whether the transparent
cornea is affected or not. One sign is, that
the iris, at the border of the pupil, will not be
seen without difficulty. Attention must then
be directed to the other eye ; and not finding
the pupils exactly alike as to size, &c., it may
safely be inferred that the smallest is in a state
of disease ; the sphincter muscle of the iris
having become contracted from sympathy.
The next thing to be observed is the blood-
vessels of the membrane under the eyelid. If
these appear turgid, and even if there is only
one of them shooting into the transparent
cornea, it is a diseased eye. Attention must
then be directed to the glandular bodies at the
upper edge of the iris ; and if these are not
alike in colour, it may be predicted that the
horse will go blind from the effect of little
lymph being lodged there from previous inflam-
mation. The haw is likewise a criterion to go
by. If the haw is not the same in each eye,
but one protruding more than the other, the
indication is bad. These incipient appearances
of this disease are of great importance ; for as
this disease is the one to which the horse is most
usually subject in the eye, it should be vigilantly
watched, as it frequently results in blindness.
204

This disease generally comes on in the night,
and is then thought of but little moment ; the
groom supposing the eye to be injured by the
halter, or by rubbing it against the manger,
or some rough place in the stall ; but this is
seldom the case ; and, as to producing it by
blows, it is exceedingly difficult to wound the
eye. If, however, it should be occasioned by a
blow, there will be an abrasion on the external
surface ; on examining which, it will be easy to
determine how to proceed. Take of

Extract of Saturn ... 4 drachms (| oz).

Spring water sufficient to fill a common-sized
wine-bottle.
Apply this lotion frequently every day. Or,

Take Sulphate of Zinc 1 oz.

Dissolve in the same quantity of water as
above. Either of these recipes, if the inflam-
mation arises from a blow, will effect a cure' in
a few days.

This disease does not often attack aged ani-
mals, if they have not been previously affected
with it. They are most subject to it between
four and six years old, when their growth
is becoming nearly completed, and when, if
highly kept, a plethoric habit is produced ; the
solids of the body ceasing to grow, and the
deposit of fat becoming greater than the sys-
tem requires. Young horses are, in early life,
but little susceptible to this disease. When
an attack commences, if nothing is done to
prevent it, the inflammation increases rapidly,
until the pupil is hid, and the whole surface
of the eye appears bloody. This, however, may
be wholly removed. The attack flies from eye to
eye ; first beginning in one, then in the otlier
eye, probably at the interval of some months,
till one or both become blind. If one only
is lost, the general opinion is, that the other will
become perfectly sound, and be much stronger.
Erom these circumstances it would seem not
to be a local disease, but constitutional. It is
produced generally by living in a poisoned at-
mosphere. In cases where it has appeared, it
has been observed that the horses either do
not perspire at all, or perspire profusely, from
languor. The inflammation having its origin
in the conjunctiva, all the other parts partake
of it. The iris secretes pus, which falls into
the posterior chamber, where absorption takes
it up, or probably ulceration takes place.
Even the constitution appears to undergo a

4^"

5^

''^ ''
^
^

5te4

IKTLAMMATION.] MODERN VETEEI

change, when bliiulnesa ensues. This periodi-
cal oplithalmia «jenerally ceases when one or
both of the eyes go out, although, at first sight,
one cannot tell how tho constitution has been
afiectetl by the loss of this organ, or seo a
reason why the inflaniniation sliould not recur
at intervals.

Tho disease may also arise from tho effects
of purging ; but this only causes tho constitu-
tional tendency to tho disease being brouglit
into effect, producing debility from the medi-
cine becoming tho exciting cause. The disease
then is constitutional, and requires effectual
remedial measures to be adopted. Take of

Bhie Pill 12 drachms.

Opium 2 do.

Linseed Meal 1 oz.

Form into a mass with soft soap,

and divide into six balls. Give one every
second morning fasting. Or, take of

Sulphate of Copper .... 12 drachms.
Or, of

Sulphate of Iron 12 drachms.

Form either of these into a mass with
linseed meal and soap, and divide into six
balls, and give one every morning about eleven
o'clock. These two last are 3trengthenit>^,
and when the disease arises from debility, will
be found of essential service. Bleeding gene-
rally, according to the strength of the animal,
should not be omitted, as it will relieve it in
all its stages, though not eventually cure it.
A good lotion may be composed of

Common Salt, -^ table-spoonful and a-half.
Spring Water, as much as will fill a wine-bottle.

Bathe the eyes several times in the day with
this ; or, take either of the lotions prescribed
for blows in the eye.

The insertion of setons between the jaws have
done good for a time ; and considerable benefit
has arisen from the following prescription —

Tartar Emetic 1 drachm.

Hog's Lard 1 oz.

Form into an Ointment.

Eub a little on the side of the horse's cheek,
and also underneatii the eye, until small
pimples appear. Great care must be taken
to prevent its going into the eyes.

For simple ophthalmia, local and general
bleeding and physic are adviaed. Warm fo-

NAET PRACTICE.

[CATAttACT.

mentations should bo at first uHcd, and tho fol-
lowing lotion applied six or eight tirne.i a day :

Cold Water i ,,i„t.

Tincture of Opium. , . , . . 1 oz.

When the inflammation has abated, but a film
is still leit on the cornea, apply with a cainel'H
hair brush, twice a day, a few drops of tho iui-
lowincr :

Distilled Water
Nitrate of Silver

1 oz.

1 or 2 grains.

The horse should be kept in a cool and clean
stable, where there arc no offensive exhalations
from manure.

Mr. Peall relates an experiment which ho
made on a horse affected with ophthalmia. " I
have ordered him," he says, " to be removed
from the stable, where I observed he kept
both eyes shut, into the open air, or to a very
cool situation, and have watched the effects of
the change. In the course of half-an-hour I
have commonly found him begin to open his
eyes gradually ; and in the course of two or
three hours, to keep them open boldly, and lor
a continuance, even though the situation he
was placed in was not darkened or shady ; for
it cannot be denied that strong light is very
prejudicial in such cases. Now to prove that
the stimulus of the volatile alkali — the vapours
of foul litter — was more offensive to the in-
flamed organ than that of light, I have placed
the animal again in a hot stable, which did not
admit much light, and, in the course of a few
minutes, have observed him begin to close his
eyes gradually, and, after an hour or two, to
keep them constantly shut. Not satisfied,
however, with this, I have removed the horse
back again to a cool situation, and have ob-
served the same effects to be produced as have
been already detailed."

CATARACT.

Tho common termination of the foregoing
disease is cataract; which is inflammation in
tho capsule of the lens with opacity. The
opacity invariably begins in the centre, from
its being the hardest, and having less of living
power, so that the circulation becomes more
easily aflected. There being no simple cataract
in the horse, many appearances of the lena
take place when the eye is affected by the dis-
ease. In some, a general determination of

205

AMAUEOSIS.]

THE HOESE, AND

["W0UND3

blood to the coats of the eye, when irritation
ensues. The retractor muscle then acts from
sympathy, which produces pressure on the
tunica vitrea, and the cells of the vitreous
humour are destroyed, together with the cap-
sule of the lens. To prevent the lens floating
about, lymph is thrown out, forming an arti-
ficial capsule. By this action of the retractor
aiuscle, the aqueous humour is pressed upon
by the lens through the other parts, and this
humour against the transparent cornea. To
prevent the eye from bursting, the humour
becomes absorbed ; the lens is thrown against
the iris, which dilates, coming in contact with
the transparent cornea; the pupil in con-
sequence becomes lost. From these compli-
cated effects, an operation is both difficult and
useless. It has been performed several times
at the Eoyal Veterinary College. But even if
imperfect vision is restored, it is detrimental to
the horse, causing him to shy, and rendering
him unsteady and dangerous. When cataract
occurs in the human subject, couching is prac-
tised ; but, in the horse, this is all but imprac-
ticable.

GUTTA SERENA, OR AMAUROSIS,

Is another disease of the eye of the horse,
consisting of a paralysis of the optic nerve,
which becomes insensible to the light, though
admitted througn a perfect organ. It is much
more common in the human subject than in
horses. Blistering behind the ears, on both
sides, has been repeatedly tried for it, but
without any success. Kowels between the
jaws, kept open for a length of time, have also
been tried, but without any satisfactory result.

On one occasion, a young veterinary surgeon,
just emanated from the Royal Veterinary
College, and who had not seen any practice
previous to his going to that establisiiment,
was called to a horse affected with inflamma-
tion of the eyes. He at once pronounced the
necessity of taking blood ; but being rather a
timid operator, he, in striking the phleme, only
just touched the jugular vein, the blood scarcely
deigning to flow. Consequently he pinned up
that side, and proceeded to the other, with no
better success. The result was, that the
horse's neck became greatly swollen, and
though it was well bathed, it had no effect.
Suppuration took place, and the horse lost tlie
vein on both sides : but while this was going
on, the inflammation entirely left his eyes.
The gentleman to whom he belonged kept
him for two or three years after, but no in-
flammation ever returned.

Gutta Serena has followed an attack of
stomach staggers, and, in many instances, has
come on from excessive loss of blood after
castration, and from ruptured liver. It has,
also, appeared in a temporary form after
apoplexy, and during gestation.

In treating for it, copious bleeding at the
neck, followed by a dose of physic, is recom-
mended. Local applications to the eye are of
little service.

"When the disease proceeds from the livei^
stomach, or any other viscera, bleeding is not
always to be adopted, but should be regulated
by the general health of the animal. AVhen
the above treatment fails, calomel, combined
with opium, may be tried, and, in obstinate
cases, strychnine.

CHAPTER XVL

wounds — wounds in general; wounds of the head; chest; abdomen; joints; sheaths of

tendons; arteries; veins; knees; gun-shot wuunds; sutures.

WOUNDS IN GENERAL.
Wounds are a species of injury to which
horses are not only perpetually liable, but
206

they consist of so many difFeredt kinds, and
require such various modes of treatment —
according to the cause, appearance, situation,

■WOUNDS.]

l\rODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[wounds.

depth, ami state of the wound, or habit of the
Bubject— tliat to discuss the whole of them
with all possible or probable circumstances
III which they appear, would be to write a
volume on them alone. Even that space
would, perhaps, not wholly be exhausled w hen
we consider the simple and complex characters
which they frequently assume, and the diilicul-
ties which, in uumeroua instances, are involved
in their treatment. To enlarge, therefore,
upon every probable means by which a wound
may be received, is unnecessary ; accordingly,
we will exhibit their most prominent features,
with the best means of their cure.

"Wounds in general are subject to a great
deal of variety, both in their nature and ex-
ternal appearance. The diflerences depend, in
a very great measure, on the nature of the
injured parts, the manner in which the wound
has happened, and its extent.

Flesh wounds are, in appearance, nature,
and degrees of danger, quite different from
those of the tendons. There is also an essen-
tial difference between such as are made with
a sharp-cutting instrument, and others, in
which the fibres, besides being divided, have
suffered considerable contusion and laceration.
A wound made with a narrow-pointed instru-
ment, is also of a very different nature from
one that has an ample orifice.

The degrees of dimger attending every
wound, depend very much on some of the
following circumstances : —

The extent of the injury ; the more or less
violence which the fibres of the part have
suffered, besides their division ; the nature of
the blood-vessels, or nerves, which happen to
be cut; the nature of the wounded part, in
respect to its general power of healing favour-
ably or not; w^hether the operations of the
system at large, and life itself, can be well
supported or not, while the functions of the
wounded part are disturbed, interrupted, or
suspended by the accident; the age of the
patient, the goodness or badness of his con-
stitution, and the opportunities which there
may be of receiving proper aid and assistance
of every kind.

As a general observation, we may state,, that
a wound that is hiade with a sharp-cutting
instrument, and which takes the chai'acter of
a mere incision, is attended with less hazard

than any other kind of wound whatever. The
fibres have only simply been divided. They
havo BU./ered no contusion, nor laceration;
and are, consequently, Il-hs likely to infiamo,
suppurate, or slough, and likely to admit
of being united again in a very expeditious
manner.

Lacerated woumis, are those in which the
fibres, instead of being divided by a cutting
instrument, have been torn asunder by some
violence, capable of overcoming their force of
adiiesion. The edges of such wounds, instead
of being straight and regular, are jagged and
unequal.

Con/used ivounds is a terra applied to such aa
are occasioned by some blunt instrument, or
surface, which has violently struck a part of
the body.

Lacerated and contused wounds differ from
simple incised wounds, in appearing, at first
view, much less alarming than the latter, while
in reality they are much more dangerous. In
simple cut wounds, the retraction of the parts,
and the bleeding, are generally much more
considerable than in a lacerated wound of the
same size. Notwithstanding these circum-
stances, however, they commonly admit of
being healed with far greater ease. Indeed,
lacerated and contused wounds are scarcely
ever attended with any serious effusion of
blood, even though some large blood-vessels
may be injured. In judging of the severity of
these, this is apt to lead some persons, even
practitioners, astray ; for, in proportion as there
is little bleeding, it may with safety be con-
cluded that serious violence has been done to
the fibres and blood-vessels.

A punctured wound is one that is made with
a narrow- pointed instrument, and has its ex-
ternal orifice small and contracted, instead of
being of a size proportionate to its depth. A
wound produced by the thrust of a sword or
bayonet is an example of a punctured wound.

Wounds of this description are in general
infinitely more dangerous than incised ones,
notwithstanding the latter have the appear-
ance of being by far the most extensive. Tho
degree of danger, in cases of punctured wounds,
always depends on the additional injury, and
rough violence, which the fibres have suffered,
besides being divided.

Some of tho disagreeable consequences of

207

•\VOUNDS.J

THE HOESE, AND

[■WOUNDS.

such wounds are also imputed to the frequent ]
great depth to which they are liahle to extend.
In consequence of this, important parts and
organs are often injured. Such cases are less
easily cured, owing to the difficulty of ex-
tracting any extraneous substances which may
happen to be lodged in the wound. AH punc-
tured wounds and stabs are at the same time
dangerous, inasmuch as they are particularly
apt to be followed by a considerable amount
of inflammation, fevers, deep-seated abscesses,
sinuses, &c.

Wounds of this description are, in this
country, not very common. The stings and
bites of certain insects, and the bites of vipers,
mad dogs, cats, &c., are the only instances
which we meet with. The only insects to be
dreaded are the stings of the wasp, or the
hornet. This insect, to appearance, is the
most formidable creature of the winged tribe
in Britain, the sting being frequently attended
with the most acute pain and inflammation.
Even the sting of the wasp, should it occur
where the skin is thin, such as on the inside
of the thigh, occasions extreme pain and
irritation.

WOUNDS OF THE HEAD.

"Wounds of the head of the horse do not so
frequently occur as might be expected. The
principal occur on the ears, the eyelids, the
nose, or the salivary gland or duct. This duct
is situated at the angle of the jaw, where the
pulse of the animal is felt. It is sometimes
liable to be torn, when the saliva escapes by it,
instead of passing on to the mouth to mix
with the animal's food. It also frequently
occasions great debility.

Erom the situation of the parotid duct, and
its liability to become wounded, what is called
a salivary fistula may be the consequence,
unless steps are immediately taken to afibrd
relief. The cheek and face become considerably
swollen ; to prevent the increase of which, the
actual cautery should be used. A budding-
iron, however, is the best instrument; after
using which, draw the lips of the wound
together with a suture, and apply adhesive
plaister over the whole, in strips, about a
quarter of an inch apart, first cutting the hair
close ofl" all round the part, that the plaister
may adhere more firmly.
208

Lacerations of the horse's ear sometimes
occur. In such cases have him cast, and the
lacerated part cut ofi". After this operation,
if it should not look at all pleasant, remove as
much more as will make it do so; then crop
the other ear to correspond. This is the only
method that can be pursued, as, from the little
vascularity of the ear, it being principally
composed of gristle, union cannot be expected
to take place.

The eyelids frequently become lacerated,
and very much torn, from nails or splinters of
wood about the rack, manger, or standing.
In this case, a small curved needle, with
whity-brown thread, should be taken, and
sutures introduced in such a manner as to
bring the parts as much in contact and as
near to the appearance they had before the
accident took place. After this, use the fol-
lowing : —

Sulphate of Zinc ^ oz.

Spirit of Wine 2 do.

Water 16 do.

Apply this lotion to the parts afiected three
or four times a day.

Wounds of the nose, or nostril, sometimes
occur, and are exceedingly difficult to heal, in
consequence of our not always being able to
apply proper remedies. The only thing to be
done is to sew up the lacerated parts, and
apply compound tincture of myrrh, as in a
common wound. It is difficult, in such cases,
to recommend another distinct mode of treat-
ment without the real nature of the wound is
perfectly ascertained.

WOUNDS OF THE CHEST.

These wounds occur mostly in large towns,
where there is considerable movement with all
kinds of vehicles ; when the shaft of one car-
riage comes in contact with the horse of the
one he may chance to meet, enters his chest,
and often causes immediate death to the horse.
In such cases the first thing to be ascertained
is the depth of the wound ; and, in order to
restrain the rapid action of the circulation,
copious bleeding must be used. A piece of
tow, well smeared with digestive ointment,
should be introduced into the wound, in order
to procure a discharge as soon as possible.
The horse should be kept without food for at
least twelve hours ; at the expiration of which,

WOUKDS.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[wounds.

a ball, composed of the following ingredifiils,
sboulil bo given : —

Aloes 4 (Jiachms.

Kosin 2 do.

Form Nvitli soft soap nrul linsi'ed meal.

If, by this time, the parts should have beconio
much swollen, bathe them well with hot water;
and if the discharge is once produced, it is a
sign that the animal is going on well. Con-
tinue the dressing, with the medicine occa-
sionally, and a cure will soon be effected.
Should the wound, however, not have been
made in the direction before named, but have
entered the cavity of the chest, and the lungs
become in anv means ruptured, the case is then
hopeless. This will easily be ascertained by
air rusliiiig out of the wound, and by the pecu-
liar scarlet hue of the blood.

If swelling should take place between the
legs, or under the chest, take the phleme and
strike it, to let out the air which has been ex-
travasated.

WOUNDS OF THE ABDOMEN.

"Wounds of the abdomen generally arise from
the horse having been gored with the horns of
some mischievous bull or cow, whilst in the
field, or by his having been staked, or not un-
frequently by some of the hooks carelessly
attached to the harness. These have some-
times been the cause of frightful lacera-
tions, when lock-jaw has been known to su-
pervene.

When they are so severe as to penetrate the
cavity of the abdomen, they are attended with
much danger. If any of the intestines should
protrude, they should be carefully replaced,
unless they should be very cold, or mortifica-
tion appear; in which case the parts should be
well bathed with warm water, not too hot at
first, but made warmer by degrees, until it
approaches to blood-heat ; then, after return-
ing the intestines, sew up the external wound,
and apply a roller, padded, to the part. Neither
food nor water should be given, but clysters of
gruel, and also gruel as a draught ; but this
sparingly at first. AV^hen the roller is to be
removed it should be done with the greatest
caution; and if appearances are favourable,
a pleget of tow, and a large adhesive plaister
over the whole ; then the padding and the rol-
ler should be applied as before. In such cases
2i

e()i)ion8 bleeding nh<>uld be used, as booh oh the
first dressing is over. Jf morlificution uhould
have taken place, tho horse will soon evince
it; but, shtiuld better fortune attend the
treatment, he must be brought on bv degrcee,
and not be fid loo freely lor some time.

WOUNDS OF JOINTS.

From the tendinous and membranous nature
of the parts which surround the large joints,
wounds in them, wluther of a punctured or
incised kind, are attended with great danger;
and, although these joints are not very sensitive
in a sound state, yet, when inllamed they be-
come exceedingly so, and frequently are the
cause of violent pain and fever.

Superficial wounds of the joints are often dis-
agreeable cases ; but the danger is always
increased when the injury penetrates the cap-
sular ligament. When this is the case, it may
be detected by the introduction of a probe, and
frequently by a discharge of the synovia, which
is secreted by the inner membrane of the cap-
sular ligament of the joint, for the purpose of
facilitating its motion. But as a discharge of
a similar kind may proceed from mere wounds
of such (Jjurscd viucosce) synovial bags, as in
the case of windgalls, &c., that lie under the
tendons of muscles, in the vicinity of joints,
we might be deceived, were we not acquainted
with the situation of these little membranous
bags. Wounds which penetrate large joints,
must be held as much more dangerous than
those in which only these bursa are opened.

Almost all the joints of the horse are liable
to be laid open, and their cavities exposed.
The stifle, the pastern, and the knee, have been
seen all at once, completely exposed; but the
knee-joint is, of all others, the most fre-
quently liable to accident. It does sometimea
occur to the shoulder-joint, but very rarely.
When a joint is penetrated, there is an escape
of synovia, or, as it is commonly called, joint-
oil. In consequence of the escape of this fluiJ,
the ends of the bones are brought together,
occasioning, in conjunction with the air getting
in, considerable inflammation through the
whole extent of the capsular surface, and caus-
ing that exquisitely tender sensation which the
horse feels on having the joint touched. In
some cases the fever runs so high as to prove
fatal. AlU instance of this occurred at the Eoyal

209

■WOUNDS.]

THE HOESE, AN^D

[wounds.

Veterinary College. A large cart-horse was
brought in with an open joint. Ultimately
the opening closed, but new granulations
formed, and a wound about the size of half-a-
crown was the consequence. This wound was
ordered to be dressed with spirits of turpentine,
which was accordingly done ; but, from symp-
tomatic fever, the animal died in three or four
(lavs. When a joint is early discovered, after
being penetrated, the synovia will flow white
and pure, or it may have a little tinge of blood
in it ; but, if the accident is not discovered for
three or four days, the joint-oil will be found
to put on a yellowish colour, and the dis-
charge be considerably increased. If means are
not speedily taken to close the external open-
inw, coagulable lymph is thrown out; and in
consequence of the inflammation being great,
the vessels may inosculate together, and in all
probability a stifl:' joint will supervene. In
some cases, the pain and irritation are so great,
that the animal either sinks under it, or be-
comes a mere skeleton. But this need not be
considered a matter of surprise, when we reflect
on the treatment of the old farriers, who, in
general, made use of strong stimulants, taken
from their long list of infallible nostrums.

The treatment of open joints, if discovered
in their recent state, may not be so difficult.
The first object to which attention should be
directed is to remove all extraneous matter,
such as dirt, gravel, and any other substance that
may aggravate the aftected part. Then proceed
to close the wound, which must be first com-
menced by clipping oflE" the hair for some dis-
tance all round it. If not large, strips of
adhesive plaister should be applied, drawing
the lips of the wound as closely as possible
together, and placing over them a pleget ol
tow, and immediately after a linen bandage,
about three yards long, and four inches wide,
so that the shutting-up of the cavity may be
complete. In addition to this, the symptoms
of irritation, both local and general, must not
be neglected; for if the symptomatic fever is
high, the case must be treated accordingly.
This will be discovered by the animal having
lost his appetite, the heat and dryness of his
mouth, as well as the quickness and weakness
of his pulse, and his breathing short. Il
these are the symptoms — which in all proba-
bility will occur — immediately take from two
210

to four quarts of blood, and give the following
ball :—

No. 1.
Cape Aloes ...... .1 drachm.

Digitales .2 do.

Linseed Meal U do.

Form with soap.
Give a ball of this kind night and morning,
until the fever and irritation are abated. Or,

No. 2.

Cape Aloes 1 drachm.

White Hellebore 1^ do.

Linseed Meal 3 do.

Form into a ball, and give as the first. By
this means the irritation will be allayed, the
fever abate, and the beating of the pulse be-
come less rapid.

When the wound is more extensive, or more
irregular, sutures should be employed with
the pleget of tow, as before described. The
part should be well bandaged, and every means
taken to keep the horse aa still as possible.
Use a neck- cradle, lest, from the irritation, he
may be inclined to gnaw the part affected. If
these appliances have not the desired effect,
recourse must be had to the actual cautery ;
and, if the opening is not too large, the budding-
iron, of as good a shape as can be used, must
be brought into operation, and the edges
lightly touched with it. If the wound should
be large and irregular, use a firing-iron care-
fully. These means have succeeded when all
others have failed. Let the iron be heated to
a dull red heat, which will be quite sufficient;
and care must be taken not to insinuate it too
far, otherwise considerable inflammation may
follow. A stoppage of the synovia will show
when the cautery has been sufficiently applied,
when a pleget of tow must be put over it, and
a poultice of bran, wetted frequently with the
following : —

Sal-ammoniac, powdered . . . 4 oz.

Sugar of Lead 1 do.

Vinegar 3 pints.

AVater , . 1 do.

If the oozing of the synovia recommences,
apply the iron again ; and, as often as the
oozing appears, repeat it, by which success may
eventually be calculated on. In some aggra-
vated cases blisters have been immediately
applied with good effect. Rowels are some-
times employed as near the part as convenient,

WOUNDS.]

MODERN VETERIXAKV PRACTICE.

[worxus.

but tlioro is little faith to bo put in tlioin. | bocoine useful in tlio suppression of lircinorr-
Give bran uiaslies, or lialf bran nnd oats made lia<»o on tlio prineiple of pressure; tlic eau-

tlanij) : it' tlien- is uiueii ilillu-ulty in uiluiinis-
tering the fever-bulls, give of

Glauber Salts 4 oz.

Linseed Mt-al - do.

Hot Water 1 'P'^rt

tery-caustics and styplies are otberwiHo ap-
plied.

Tbe different tbin'^a tliat Imvo been praised
as infallible, in tbeir application to wounded
arteries, would seldom or ever bavo succeeded

I^Iix well together for a diiiik, ami repeat it | without compression. This was always requi-
moriiing and night. In mixing tbe meal witli site, even in the using of caustics, which were

bound on with suflieient tightness to resist tho
impulse of the blood in the artery and tho
premature separation of the eschar, occasioned
by the actual or potential cautery.

AVhen tbe blood does not issue from any
particular vessel, but from numerous small
ones, compression is preferable to the ligature.
Tbe em{)loyment of the latter renders it
necessary to tie the whole surface of the
wound. The sides of the wound should be
brouf^ht accurately together, compressers placed
over tbe part, and a roller applied with suffi-
cient tightness to make effectual pressure, but
not so forcibly as to produce a danger of tho
circulation being completely stopped. If com-
pression can ever safely be trusted in bleedings
from large arteries, it is when these vessels lie
immediately over a bone, against which they
can be advantageously compressed.

The ligature, being well known to be a safe
and easy means of stopping haBuiorrbage, is
attended with much less pain tlian former
methods. It may, indeed, be set down as a
rule, that where large arteries are wounded,
no styptic application whatever should bo
trusted; but iminediate recourse should be
had to the ligature, as being, when properly
applied, the most simple and safe of all
methods. In explaining the action of the
li (mature, when applied round an artery, with-
out including the surrounding parts, we bavo
found the internal coat of the vessel is torn
throu"h by it. If the ligature is tied round
with sufficient tightness, it will cut through
tbe inner and middle coats ; and although it is
immediately removed, the vessels always be-
come permanently impervious at tbe part
which was tied as far as the tirst collateral
lied to that side of the wound which is branches, above and below tbe obstructed

parts. This division of the internal and
middle coats of tbe artery, produces an ob-
struction to the circulation of blood through

211

the above, do so lirst in a basin with a little
cold water, to prevent its clotting together.

^vou^■DS of the sheaths of tendons.

This sort of wounds frequently occur both
in tbe bind and fore legs, during hunting,
staking, and tho stubbing-in of coppices.
Tbev are also sometimes produced by the
stable-fork, and are often attended with con-
siderable pain. Tbeir treatment differs in no
respect whatever from that laid down in the
description of wounds of tbe joints.

WOUNDS OF THE ARTERIES.
Every one who pretends to deal with the
wounds of a horse, should have an intimate
knowledge of tbe course of the arteries, so
that in performing operations he may avoid
wounding them. For stopping the flow of
blood there are several methods ; and unless
they are performed with perfect coolness, they
are apt to be done in such a manner as may
be tbe cause of proving fatal to tbe patient.
How necessary, therefore, is it that every
practitioner should have a thorough acquain-
tance with the arterial system. Bleeding
from arteries is stopped generally by compres-
sion and astringents, by ligatures, by the actual
and potential cautery ; sometimes by styptics ;
and not unfrequently, if the artery be only
wounded, by dividing it altogether.

It must be plain to every one who under-
stands tbe course of tbe circulation, that pres-
sure made on that part of a wounded artery
which adjoins the wound nearest the heart,
must check the effusion of blood. The cur-
rent of blood in the veins, running in tbe
opposite direction, requires tbe pressure to be
app

most remote from the heart ; and as pressure
is the best means of impeding hasmorrbage, so
is it the most effectual. Tbe ligature, the
applicatiou of a roller and compressers, only ' its canal

WOUNDS.]

THE HOESE, AXD

[wounds.

There must be a small quantity of stagnant
blood, just witbiu the extremity of the artery ;
but this does not, in every instance, imme-
diately form a coagulum capable of filling up
the canal of the artery. In most cases, only
a slender coagulum is formed at first, which
gradually becomes larger by successive addi-
tions. This coagulum is always at first of a
tapering form, with it," base at the extremity
of the artery. But its formation is not mate-
rial ; for, soon after tlie ligature has been
applied, the end of the artery inflames, and
the wounded internal surface of its canal
being kept in close contact by the ligature,
adheres, and converts this portion of the
artery into an impervious, and, at first, conical
sac. It is to the effused lymph, that the base
of the coagulum adheres, when found to be
adherent. Lymph is also efi'used between
the coats of the artery, and among the parts
surrounding its extremity. In a little time
the ligature makes the part, on which it is
directly applied, ulcerate, and, acting as a
tent, a small aperture is formed in the layer of
lymph effused over the artery. Through this
aperture, as long as the ligature remains, a
small quantity of pus is discharged; and
finally, the ligature itself escapes, and the
little cavity, which it has occasioned, granu-
lates, and fills up. Tlie external wound then
heals, leaving the cellular substance, a little
beyond the end of the artery, somewhat
thickened and indurated ; but, if it should be
in a situation where a bandage can be applied,
it ultimately becomes absorbed.

As all styptics are not to be depended on,
the judicious practitioner will seldom apply
them, as they generally tend to irritate, and
rarely do good. They are sometimes, how-
ever, proper to be applied to diseased surfaces,
where the vessels seem to have lost their natu-
ral power, or disposition to contract or draw
themselves together again.

Firing, or the actual cautery, is an excellent
styptic to stop the bleeding of an artery, as
in docking, castration, &c. It is generally re-
sorted to as the safest styptic iu operations of
feslulous withers, and iu dissecting out fungus
fli'.-h, where there is a number of small arteries
w liich are apt to be wounded. The actual cau-
tery is the only means that here can be em-
ployed with any good effect. In these cases
212

the horse's body should be kept open with
alterative medicines; such as the foUowino': —

Cape Aloes 2 drachms.

Sulphur 3 do.

Form into a ball with soft soap.
Give one occasionally, and feed with half bran
and half oats made damp.

WOUNDS OF THE VEINS.
"Wounds of the veins are generally produced
by incautiousness in blood-letting ; and al-
though this operation is performed by some of
the greatest bunglers that possibly could take
a phleme and blood-stick in hand, yet it is fre-
quently so dexterously done, that no evil
effects spring from it. Still, it does happen
even with the most experienced practitioner,
either from inattention in pinning up the ori-
fice, drawing the skin a considerable way out,
or not adjusting the lip of tlie wound equally
together, that blood becomes extravasated into
the surrounding cellular membrane. This,
however, may sometimes arise from the foul
constitution of the horse, when every little
scratch or wound has a tendency to inflame
and suppurate. "Where this is the case, apply
the following: —

Sal-ammoniac . , . . . , 1 oz.
Extract of Saturn -^ do-
Vinegar 1 pint.

"SVater 1 do.

Shake these well together in a bottle, and
apply frequently during the day. If absorp-
tion takes place, and the parts regain their
former appearance, all is well ; but if the
tumour suppurates, and on pressing the part
a fluctuation is felt, a depending opening
should be made, or a seton introduced tlirough
it. If inflammation should rise from the vein
itself, it must spring from the use of rusty or
unclean phlemes ; but the probability is, that
it has been punctured through, in cousequeuae
of driving the phleme with too great violence
in the act of bleeding. It also sometimes
arises from the horse being suftered to have his
head at liberty immediately after bleeding, in-
stead of being tied up for at least two or three
hours; the pin causing irritation, the horse
is inclined to rub against anything that is in
his way, such as the edge of the manger, &c.
Sometimes this morbid action arises from the
constitution. "When this ia the case, it begins

wounds]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[wounds.

to make its appearance in about two or ihrco
days after tlie oporation of bluod-ltttinj;;, by a
small tumour at tlu> situation of tlie orifice,
the lips of wiiich unclose and look red, with a
sort of ichorous discharge, sonu'tinu-s accom-
panied with blood. In this case, if the pro-
gress is not stopped, the tumefaction extends
along the course of the vein towards the
head ; the vessel becomes hard, and the bli)od
contained in the trunk, I'orms into a iirm
coagulum, bv which it becomes impervious,
and all attempts to save it afterwards prove
a failure. Suppuration of the tumour now
begins to makes its appearance ; but this is not
always the case in the immediate part where
the original puncture took place; abscesses
will form in various situations above. If not
taken in time, the morbid action will extend
upwards so as to involve the side of the head
as well as the neck in the disease ; and when
this occurs, it greatly interferes with the horse's
eating and drinking. In such instances symp-
tomatic fever is apt to run high, and, from the
excess of irritability brought on, the animal
frequently becomes a victim.

The treatment for inflammation of this sort
is altogether dillicult, and frequently doubtful.
It has been by some writers thought, that in
the early stage of the disease, the better plan
is to close the venial orifice, which is to be
done by the use of the budding-iron, applied
to its outer edge. But tiiis, by others, has
not been approved ; for if sloughing of the
part is caused, it will not remove the main
disease. It may, however, have a tendency to
heal the orifice without having any connexion
with the vein, where the disease may be going
on all the time, to a very considerable extent.
It is also said, that the ichorous oozing once
being stopped, the vein will become in all
respects as it was at first. This, however, has
been either questioned, or wholly denied ; ior
if the vein once takes on inflammation, its
obliteration is certain to follow. Nor is this
of so much danger as many persons would
have us believe. tStill, in such cases, the head
of the horse should be kept tied up, so that he
may have as little motion as possible.

The treatment adopted in such cases, and
pursued with most success, has been, instead
of using the cautery, to heal up the original
wound — to keep that wound open, then intro-

duce a probe as far as poa»ib!o, np the course
of the vein towards the head. AVIilmj thid Imn
been done, the operator hhould ft-el down upon
the end of the probe with his fing.-r, cut down
on the course of the vein about an inch above
tho end of the probe, and apply a ligature
firmly. The probe-pointed history should then
bo taken, and a slit made uj) tho length of
the vein, which may bo obliterated. Lt-t tluG
wound be well washed with warm water, and
a suture or two aj)plied, and a piece of tow or
tape dressed with digestive ointment, until sup-
puration takes place. After this, in all pro-
bability, the sutures will come awav, when
dressing as for a common wound, with com-
pound tincture of myrrh, should be begun. ]f
abscesses or sinuses have become formed, the
best method of treatment to be adopted is to
introduce setons, so that the matter formed
may escape by a depending orifice. Sometimes
these sinuses assume an indolent manner,
and become very troublesome. "Where this
happens, inject them with a solution of sulphate
of zinc, which will generally be found suQi-
cieutly strong to answer all purposes. Tor
this injection take of '

Sulj)hate of Zinc 1 02.

^\'iiter 4 do.

Let tlie water be warm, and dissolve tha
sulphate of zinc in it. This injected into the
sinuses will be found of great service, and less
irritable than corrosive sublimate, copperas, &c.
During the application of the foregoing reme-
dies, give the following : —

Blue Pill 8 (h-achms.

Cape Aloes 8 do.

llesin 8 do.

Form iato a mass with linseed meal and soft soap.

Divide into six balls, and give one every second
morning, first thing on going to stable.

It sometimes happens that the plate and
thigh vein becomes inflamed, in consequence of
the phleme being driven in too far, and punc-
turing the facia and parts uuderneatij tho
vein. Should this be the case, the best appli-
cation is, to bathe well with hot water five or
six times a day, and make up a ball of the fol-
lowing ingredients :^

Cape Aloes ; . 4 drachms.

liesin 2 do.

Porm with sofl soap,
and give one every second daj.

213

WOUNDS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[wounds.

BROKEN KNEES.
Horses, in the act of falling, endeavour, as
much as possible, to save their head from com-
inf in contact with tlie ground; but if not able
in time to put forth their fore leg to do this,
tbe knees generally become the sufferers, and,
in some cases, to a very considerable extent.
In such accidents, great laceration, open joint,
and, at least, shaving, as it were, the hair com-
Dletely off the knee to a greater or less extent
generally occur.

Should the cavity of the knee be opened, and
joi7it oil escape, sufficient instructions as to the
proper method of treatment to be adopted,
have been given m the article Wounds of the
Joints, to which we beg to refer. But when
the laceration only extends to the skin, there
is only one safe, and, we should say, proper
mode of treatment. In the first place, all irri-
tating applications are to be avoided ; and, in-
stead of them, the knee and surrounding parts
should be well bathed with hot water for at
least half-an-hour. A poultice, composed of
linseed meal and warm water, should then be
applied, and continued until the inflammation
13 subdued. After this, apply the following: —

Extract of Saturn 2 drachms.

Tincture of Myrrh, compound . 2 oz.

Water 3 do.

Apply this to the wounded knees, until they
are skinned over; then put on a mild blister,
which will prevent, in many bad cases, even
the appearance of a scar, if well managed.

This being accomplished, the next thing is
to promote the growth of the hair. Many
recipes are given to make the hair grow, but
most of them are useless ; for nothing iacts
specifically in this way. AYIiatever gently
stimulates the skin being the most proper for
this purpose, use every day a little of the
digestive ointment, wliich is an article no stable
ouglit to be without ; or use the following,
especially if the knees are black : —

Digestive Ointment . , . . 1 oz.
Gunpowder, rubbed fine ... 1 drachm.

Mix, and rub the part with some of it dally.

GUN-SHOT WOUNDS.

Gun-shot wounds are made by hard bodies
violently projected from cannons, muskets, and
214

other fire-arms. Those from the rifle, how-
ever, occasion by far the greater number.
They are the most considerable of the con-
tused kind of wounds; and what is to be said
of them, will apply, more or less, to all con-
tused wounds, according to kind and degree.
Daily observation shows that balls which ob-
liquely strike a surface, do not penetrate it.
but are reflected, although they may be im-
pelled with the greatest force, and although
the body struck may be as soft and yielding
as water. This alteration in the course of the
ball, not only occasionally happens on touching
the surface of a body, but also sometimes after
it has penetrated its substance. A bone or a
tendon may change the direction of a ball, if it
touches them obliquely. Hence it is manifest
how it happens that the track of a gun-shot
wound is not always straiglit, and how the
balls sometimes run under the integument for
a considerable distance, both in the body and
the limbs.

A ball, when it strikes a part of the body,
may cause four kinds of injury. JFirsf, it may
only occasion a contusion, without penetrating
the part, on account of its being too much
spent, or on account of the oblique way in
which it has struck the surface of the body.
Secondly, it may enter and lodge immediately
under the surface of a part, in which case, the
track of the wound has only one aperture.
Thirdly, it may pierce through and through;
and then there are two openings, one at the
entrance, and the other at the exit of the ball.
In such cases, the circumference of the aper-
ture, where the shot has entered, is usually
depressed ; that of the opening whence it
escaped is elevated. At the entrance, there is
commonly more contusion than at the exit of
the ball; and the former is generally nar-
rower; the latter wider, and more irregular,
especially when the round smooth figure of
tlie ball has been changed by its having struck
a bone. Fourthly, a cannon-ball may tear ofi"
a whole limb.

Gun-shot wounds differ very much, according
to the kind of body projected, its velocity, and
tlie nature and peculiarities of the parts struck
by it. The projected bodies are mostly bullets,
sometimes cannon-balls. Erom the contusion
which the parts sufter on the violent passage
of the ball through them, there is most com-

■WOUNDS ]

^rODET?N VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[WOQXDS.

nionly a part of the solids surrouiuliiip: the
woiimi, ili-aiK'neJ, wliii-h is afterwanls thrown
off in tl>o form of sU)ui,'h, and wluch prevents
8iH-h woniuls from hi>alini» so readily at
first, and makes most of them suppurate.
This does not take place equally in every gun-
shot wound, nor in every part of the same
wound ; and the diHerenco commonly arises
from the variety io the velocity of the body
projected ; for, where tiie ball has passed witli
little velocitv, whicli is sometimes the case at
its entrance, but still more frequently at the
part last wounded, the injury may often be
healed by the first intention.

Foreign bodies are more frequently met
with in gun-shot wounds than any others, and
are commonly of three kinds. Firsi, pieces
of clothing, leather, part of a girth, or other
things which the ball may have forced before
it. Secondly, the ball itself. Third/ 1/, loose
splinters of bone. It is only when the ball
strikes a naked part, does not touch a bone,
but goes through and through, that the wound
can be free from extraneous matter. Foreign
bodies are the cause of numerous unfavourable
symptoms, by irritating sensitive parts, and
exciting pain, inflammation, haemorrhage, and
long suppurations. They are more productive
of such evils, the more uneven, pointed, and
hard they are. Hence spicula; of bone are
always most to be dreaded.

"When a ball strikes a bone, the concussion
produced is another occasion of bad symptoms
to be added to those already mentioned.
AVhen sliglit, its effects are confined to the
part injured. Sometimes they extend to the
ueiglibouring joints, in which they produce
considerable inflammation, frequently abscesses,
and, in many cases, stifl" joint, rendering the
animal ever afterwards useless.

From the circumstance of the inner surface
of gun-shot wounds being more or less dead-
ened, they are late in inflaming. But when a
ball has fractured a bone, and caused great
injury to the softer parts, independently of
what has been caused immediately by the ball
itself, the inflammation will probably rapidly
come oii, because the deadened parts will bear
no proportion to the laceration, or wound in
general.

"When the ball moves with little velocity,

not 80 likely to bo fractured, and the parta
are less deadened. JIow ever, w hen ihu velocity
is just enough to splinter a bono which is
touched, the splintering is generally more ex-
tensive than if the impetus of the ball had
been much greater, which would rather havo
taken a piece out. When tho ball moven
slowly, it is more likely to be turned by any
resistance it may encounter in its passage
through parts; ami hence the wound is more
likely to take a winding course. When a ball
enters a part with great velocity, but is almost
spent when it comes out again, in conse-
quence of the resistance it has met with, thero
may be a great deal of sloughing about the
entrance of the wound, and little or none
about the exit, owing to the difl'erent degrees
of celerity with which the projectile has tra-
versed the parts.

As the ends of the torn vessels are contused
and compressed, gun-shot wounds have little
tendency to bleed much ; and unless very con-
siderable vessels are lacerated, they do not
bleed at all : sometimes not in this case. The
greatest danger of bleeding is always when
the dead parts are detached eight or ten days
after the injury. Angular, uneven bodies, sucii
as pieces of iron, cut lead, &c., always occa-
sion far more dangerous wounds than round
even bodies, like leaden bullets. Wounds oc-
casioned by small, are frequently more perilous
than others produced by larger balls, because
their track is so narrow that it cannot be
traced, nor the extraneous body itself so easily
extracted. Such a shot oftentimes injures a
viscera, when there is not the smallest ex-
ternal symptom of this being the case. Some-
times a great part of the danger arises from tho
number of shots whicli have entered.

In treating for gun-shot wounds, the first
thinf" to be done is to ascertain, if possible,
their extent; which is, at all times, best done
with the finger, in preference to a probe.
Besides, in extracting the ball, or any foreign
piece of matter, which ought always, at once,
to be extracted, the finger will act as a
director. If extraneous substances remaining
in the wound, either loosen gradually, and
come into view, they may be easily removed ;
but if they be easily removable, or continue
concealed, they may prevent the cure, and

the mischief is generally less ; the bones are | frequently give birth to a fistulous ulcer. In

215

VrOLNDS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[wounds.

some instances foreign bodies remain in during
life, without inconvenience ; and, in other
cases, after a time they bring on a renewal
of inflammation and suppuration. Sometimes
a foreign body changes its situation, and
afterwards makes its appearance at a part
altogether away from its original seat, where
it may excite inflammation and suppuration.

"When tlie ball lodges in the wound, it is
often difficult to trace it, as the parts collapse
after its passage ; and as it does not regularly
take a straight direction through the injured
part, but oftentimes a very tortuous one,
which is more apt to occur as the ball is
more spent. In every case in which it is not
easily discoverable, all painful examinations
should be abandoned, and the foreign body
left in its situatior', where it rarely creates
any trouble.

Sometimes tlie ball may be both easily
found and extracted. If the integuments
under which it is lodged, should be so contused
that they will probably slough, they are to
be considered as already dead ; and an opening
is to be made in them for the extraction of
the ball. But when the ball lies so remotely
from the skin that it can only just be felt,
and the skin itself is quit® esinjured, no
counter-opening ought to be made. The
wound will heal better with the ball left in,
and far less inflammation take place in the
vicinity of this extraneous body, than about
the orifice of the wound. A counter-opening
always renders the inflammation at the bottom
of the wound as great as at its orifice. It is
better to let the wound heal up, and extract
the ball afterwards.

As a certain portion of tlie parts surround-
ing the orifice made by the ball, becomes
bruised, sloughing must be expected, as it is
the operation of separating the bruised or
dead bodies from the living. In some cases
this takes a little time, when it should be
hastened on, by applications such as the fol-
lowing: —

Oil of Turpentine • . • , , , 3 oz.
Olive Oil 3 do.

Shake well together in a bottle, and rub some
on, for a distance of six inches all round the
wound. This will stimulate it to put on the
suppurative process. Apply a tent in the
wound, smeared over with the common di-
216

gestive ointment. When the suppurative pro-
cess appears too great, desist from applying
the liniment, and use, instead, the following
lotion : — •

Alum 1 oz.

Sulphate of Zinc 2 drachms.

Water ........ 1 pint.

Dissolve the alum and zinc in the water.

Apply this two or three times in the day. The
horse should be supported well ; for, in general,
these cases come at a time when provender is
short, as in time of warfare, &c. Bleeding in
gun-shot wounds is not to be recommended,
unless symptomatic fever should run high ; and
even then it should be done with caution ; for
it frequently happens, when the sloughing
takes place, the wound bleeds rather more than
is to be desired. In such cases use an astrin-
gent lotion. As before stated, keep the horse
well, or disappointment in all the treatment
may in a great measure be the result. Give
the following every morning: —

Sulphate of Iron 10 drachms.

Grbger 12 do.

Gentian 12 do.

Linseed Meal 6 do.

Form into a mass with soft soap.

SUTURES.

In the treatment of wounds, sutures have
been frequently mentioned. It may therefore
not be improper to name those principally in
use, and the method of applying them.

A suture, in surgery, means a mode of unit-
ing the edges of a wound, by keeping them in
contact with stitches.

The Inferrupied Suture. — The wound being
cleansed of all clots of blood, and its lips brought
evenly into contact, a curved needle, armed
with a ligature of thread doubled, or good twine,
is to be taken, and carefully passed from with-
out, inwards to the bottom, and so on from
within outwards. Care must be taken to
make the puncture far enough from the edge of
the wound, lest the ligature should tear quite
through the skin and flesh. The other stitches
are only repetitions of the same process. The
threads having been all passed, generally begin
to tie them in tha^middle of the wound ;
though if the lips of the part be carefully held
together by an assistant, it will not be of great
consequence which stitch ia tied first. The

UL0SB8.]

VETRRTVAin" PPvArTTrE.

[ULCIBS.

comrium rulo is, that oiio auturo is Biidi-
cieiit for every inch of tho wouml ; but in some
instances a stitch must bo nioro frciiuently
made than tliia, partiouhirly when a wound
gapes very much, in consequence of a trans-
verso division of nnisoles. It is necessary to
pierce the skin at a sudieient distance from
the sides of the wound, lest the thread should
cut throui^h the llesh in a short time ; the dis-
tance should bo about three or four-tenths of
nn inch. "When a wound is very deep, it would
be wrong, and even, in many instances, dan-
gerous to drive the needle through a vast
ihiclcncss of parts. Other wounds, of consid-
erable length, might not be in some places
four-tenths of an inch deep, though it is true,
sutures — the interrupted one at Jeast — can
never be requisite at such points.

The interrupted suture obviously receives its
name from the interspaces between the stitches;
and it is the one most frequently employed.
Its action is always to be assisted and sup-
ported, either by a bandage, if the wound is

in the limbs. If in other bituntiouH, by adhe-
sive plaister, Ac.

The Glover s Suture. This hud rIho tho name
of tlie cunlinut'd suture. It was executed by
introducing tlie tieedlo first into one lip of tlio
wound from within outward.s, then into tho
other the same way, and in this manner tho
whole track uf the wound was sewed up. Hut
the glover's suture is now almost fallen into
desuetude, as improper to be employed in cases
of common wounds. When it is remembered
in making this suture, how many stitches are
unavoidable, bow unevenly they are made, and
in what a puckered state the suture drags tho
edges of tho skin together, and what irritation
it produces, we can no longer be surprised at
its now being never practised.

The Ttcistcd Suture is not very applicable to
the horse, though by some writers it is recom-
mended for certain wounds, as the eyelids, lips,
nostrils, &c. It may be advantageous in somo
cases, but the interrupted has been preferred
to all others, and on all occasions.

CHAPTER XVIL

ULCERS. — TJLCBKa IN GENERAL ; POLL-EVIL ; FISTULOUS WITHERS ; ULCERS IN THE MOUTH ; STRAJfai.ES ;

VINES.

ULCERS IN GENERAL.
Ulceration is the result of a certain process
which sores sometimes undergo in animal
bodies. In this process the lymphatics appear
to be, at least, as active as the blood-vessels.
An ulcer may be defined as a chasm formed
on the surface of the body by the action of
the absorbents in removing parts back into
the system. Or, in other words, it consists of
the absorption or removal of substance. It is
a useful process of nature, though very usually
a troublesome disease. At first, Ic may be
difficult to conceive how a part of the body
can be removed by itself; but there is not
more difficulty in concdiVing this, than how a
body can form itself. Both facts are equally
well confirmed. When it becomes necessary
2 p

that some whole living part should be re-
moved, nature effects the object by conferring
a new activity on the absorbents, and by
throwing the part to be absorbed into a stati-
which yields to this operation. Tlie absorp-
tion of whole parts in disease, arises from
several causes, but those we have principally
to contend with, either arise from the parts
becoming bruised, or from constitutional irri-
tability.

Ulceration, or, in other words, absorption,
takes i)lace much more readily in the cellular
and adipose substance, than in muscles, ten-
dons, nerves, and blood-vessels. Hence, in
the progress of pus to the skin or surface of
the body, ulceration often takes a circuitous
course. The skin itself being highly organ-

217

OLCEES.]

THE HORSE, AND

[poll-evil.

ised, considerably retards the bursting of
abscesses, so that when ulceration is spreading,
the edges of the skin hang over the ulcerated
part.

"When the disease takes place, in conse-
quence of the death of an external part, it
occurs first on the outer edge, between the
dead and living substance.

Abscesses constantly make their way to the
surface of the body by ulceration.

The parts which are situated between an
abscess, or any extraneous substance, and the
nearest surface, are those which are most sus-
ceptible of the disease. This is one of the
most curious phenomena connected with the
process under consideration. It shows that
there is a principle in the system, by which
parts are always prone to free themselves from
painful or disagreeable affections. Slight pres-
sure from without will even produce a thicken-
ing of parts, such as pressure from the saddle,
the harness, &c. ; but, though this may occur,
still there appears to be a corresponding back-
wardness to admit disease.

There is one difference between the advance-
ment of an encysted tumour, to the surface of
the body, and the progress of an abscess in
the same direction, viz., that the former does
not excite ulceration of the cyst, but an in-
terstitial absorption of the sound parts, be-
tween the cyst and the skin, till the cyst and
the external skin come into contact. When
this has occurred, inflammation takes place,
and absorption becomes accelerated into
ulceration. In an abscess, the progressive
ulceration begins in the cyst, at the same time
that the interstitial absorption, in the second
part covering the matter, is going on. The
action of progressive absorption is to remove
surfaces contiguous to irritating causes, as in
the case of tumours, pressure becomes a cause.

That pressure is a frequent cause of ulcera-
tion, is daily proved by the efiects of harness
and other parts of the furniture of horses.

That irritating substances produce ulcera-
tion, needs no illustration.

Progressive absorption may occur, either
with or without suppuration. We have in-
stances of the latter, in cases of extraneous
bodies which travel about the system without
producing irritation enough to give rise to
the secretion of pus.
218

Absorption, with suppuration, in other words
ulceration, either happens in consequence of
suppuration already begun, in which event the
pus acts as a pressure, or when absorption
attacks external surfaces from particular irri-
tations or weakness, in which suppuration
must follow.

The principal ulcerations to which the
horse is most liable are poll-evil, fistulous
withers, ulcers of the mouth, and strangles.

POLL-EVIL.

This, of all ulcers, in the horse, is the most
troublesome to deal with ; for, though the
veterinary surgeon may complete a cure, the
time and.expense incurred, neither remunerate
him for his applications and trouble, nor do they
gain him any credit as a professional man. In
this disease, the old farriers went violently to
work with all the scalding materials the drug-
gist's shop could supply ; but the milder system
adopted by the modern veterinary practitioner,
has, in a great measure, done away with their
unskilful and unsnrgical modes of treatment.
Still it happens, unfortunately, that this
disease is not generally brought under the
notice of the veterinarian until the village far-
rier has expended all his recipes and knowledge ;
and after all this it is more than ten-to-one, if he
has really discovered the part that is aflected.
We will therefore endeavour to point out the
nature and real situation of poll-evil.

Foil-evil is an unhealthy inflammation,
which takes place at the back of the ears from
blows or bruises, or other injuries which the
horse may have sustaind on that part. It is
frequently found in farm or cart-horses, which
are sometimes cursed with evil-disposed carters
who, in a passion, will strike them about the
head with the butt-end of their whips, or
whatever they may chance to have in their
hand. We have seen a horse knocked down
senseless, with comparatively a slight blow at
the back of the ear. Now, there is a mucous
capsule at the conjunction of the head with
the first bone of the neck, over which passes
the ligamentum colli, or as the farriers term it,
the pax-fax of the neck. These parts, from
blows or other injuries, contract inflammation,
and hence an ill-conditioned ulcer is formed ;
and from its situation being near the head or
knowl, it is called poll-evil. Chestnut horses are

rOLL-ETIL.]

JIODKRN VETElilNAliY PliACTlCE.

[roLt-rvii,

more ausoejitiblo of it tlmii liorsca of any otiior
colour: at loast such has beeu observed to bo
the case ; and it is attributed to the delicacy of
constitution in light die.stnut aninmls, more
than to auytliiiiijj else. There is scarcely a case
of poll-evil that, either directly or indirectly,
arises from constitutional disposition. Hay-
seeds about the head may induce the liorse to
rub, and, in consequence, produce irritation ;
dragging back in the halter may occasion
bruises, and both of these actions may produce
ulceration.

PoU-tfvil, when first discovered, will fre-
quently yield to repellent applications, of which
the following may be tried — -

Sal-ammoniac 4 oz.

Sugar of Lead 1 tlo.

Vinegar 1 jnnt.

Apply this lotion constantly to the poll of the
head, by keeping cloths on continually wet.
In applying the cloth, have it sufficiently large,
to allow two holes to be cut in it, so that it may
be passed easily over the horse's ears, by which
means it will be retained in its place. This
cloth can easily be renewed, or with a sponge
apply more of the lotion ; in the meantime
feed ou bran mashes, and give —

Cape Aloes 6 drachms.

Juniper Berries 2 do.

Form with soft soap.
Let a ball, composed of these ingredients be
given twice a- week.

Should the tumour appear stationary, and
the process of absorption not likely to com-
mence, great benefit has been found from ap-
plying a liquid blister, composed of —

Cantharides , . 1 oz.

Vinegar 3 do.

Spirits of ^^'ine 1 do.

Put these togetaer, in a bottle, and frequently
shake it. In eight or ten days it will be lit
for use. liub about two table-spoonfuls on
the tumour night and morning.

"When all hopes of preventing an abscess
have ceased, it must then be promoted, by
stimulating tbe skin, and instead of poultices
or applications of warm water, the following
should be applied —

Oil of Turjientine ~ oz.

Oil of Olives 2 do.

Eub this well into the swelling, night and
morning, until on pressure under the finger

and thumb, it is found to fluctuate. When
the maturation ia pcrlect, which iiuiy be known
by tlie soft feel of the tumour, the next thinfj
to be taken into consideration is, to efl'ect tho
evacuation of tho contained matter, at the
most depending situation, to prevent tho for-
mation of sinuses. Nothing is so good in this
case as introducing setons on both sides of
tho neck. Should tliese act well, a speedy
cure may be anticipated. But when from im-
proper management, matter baa not onlv
formed, but has been suffered to remain, or
has only evacuated itself by a superficial open-
ing either natural or artificial, and not from
one in a depending situation, whereby a re-
accumulation of pus has taken place, the con-
sequence is that the ligaments have taken on
disease, which may have extended under the
cervical ligament, leaving it hollow below. In
such cases the healthy secretion always ceases,
and instead of it a thin ichorous or glairy dis-
charge is set up. This ichorous matter pene-
trates into the interstices of the muscles, when
sinuses become formed in every direction, and
if not speedily relieved, caries of the bones of
the neck is the consequence. From this ne-
glect, or bad treatment of the disease, horses
may frequently be seen with what is called a
stiff neck, poking their noses and heads out in
the most disagreeable manner imaginable. To
prevent these eflects active measures should
be taken. An experienced veterinary surgeon,
who can handle the scalpel with dexterity and
confidence, should, at once, be called in, and the
horse immediately cast. "When this has been
done, a careful examination should be made
with the probe and the finger, that the extent
and direction of the sinuses may be ascertained.
This should not be negligently or slightly done
so as to have a doubt upon the mind, but with
the utmost precision and certainty. As you
have got the horse confined, and fairly under
your command, the most critical examination
must be made, for the cure will greatly depend
upon this, and the horse, to a large extent, be
relieved from unnecessary pain. In making
this examination the finger will be found of
much more service than the probe ; therefore,
carefully examine the ulcer with it, more espe-
cially, if caries should have taken place ; for
this must be dissected out before a cure caa
possiblv be eioected. Of these things the old

219

POLL-ETIL.]

THE HOESE, AND

[wiTHERa.

farriers knew notliing; consequently, if they
could Leal the external opening, they imagined
they had accomplislied a great feat ; and hence
the liability of the parts to become diseased
again. Hard and callous edges must be re-
moved, and the smaller sinuses laid open, so as
to form a cavity. If all this is not thoroughly
attended to, and done when the whole seems
on the point of healing, a new tumour will
suddenly arise as the result of the carious
bone, or of some portion of ligament remaining
in the abscess. In this case, the experienced
veterinarian, who is expert with the knife, and
fully acquainted with the anatomy of the parts,
will not hesitate how to act. In the hands of
the common farrier, much injury has frequently
been done from the injudicious use of the knife.
Even the cervical ligament has been known to
be divided by ignorant pretenders, who having
no character to lose, grope on in the dark for
the paltry fee of a few shillings, sooner than
acknowledge themselves in error. Instead,
therefore, of hazarding any of these evils, the
practitioner will be justified in this state of the
case in introducing setons, even to the number
of three or four on each side, going down to
the bottom of each sinus, no matter how deep
it may be. "When this has been dexterously
done, dress the setons with the following mild
blister ointment, every day : —

Cantharides, powdered . . 2 drachms.

Hog's Lard 3 oz.

Continue this until the matter becomes of a
good consistence. Where cases of great ob-
stinacy occur, and this fails to produce a
good effect, stronger means must be adopted.
Therefore use the following :

Corrosive Sublimate ... 2 drachms.
Water 2 oz.

Dissolve the sublimate in the water, and in-
ject the sinuses with the mixture. If this
does not produce any amendment, proceed to
scalding, in order to overcome the morbid
action, and produce a kind of inflammation,
from which healtliy granulations may follow.
To obtain this try either of the following :
No. 1.
Arsenic, finely powdered . . 2 drachms.
Digestive Ointment . . . 4 oz.

No. 2.
Corrosive Sublimate ... I5 drachm.
Digestive Ointment . . . 4 oz.
220

No. 3.
Butter of Antimony ... 3 drachms.
Oil of Turpentine . . . . 2 oz.

To render any of the above properly applica-
ble melt either of them in an iron ladle to a
scalding heat, and, as the horse lies on the
ground, carefully pour the liquid into the
wound, putting in, at the same time, a little
tow. At the end of four or five days, slough-
ing will commence. After this apply digestive
ointment, and treat as a common wound. If the
wound should not be going on satisfactorily ap-
ply the scalding composition again. Splints ex-
ternally applied by pressure, have been found of
great benefit in the treatment of Poll-evil. In
the fifth volume of the Veterinarian, Mr. A.
Gray says, "A mare was sent to me, and I
proceeded to examine the extent of the disease.
I found two deep sinuses, one on each side of
the neck, the bones of which could be dis-
tinctly felt with the probe. After cleaning
away the matter I took a scalpel and laid both
orifices open, in an oblique direction down-
wards ; then, having fomented the parts with
warm water, I dressed the wounds with tinc-
ture of myrrh and aloes ; and, in order to
apply pressure to the parts — for in this I
founded all my hopes of success — I had two
pieces of wood prepared, about twelve inches
Ions: and three broad; thicker in the middle
than at the edges, which were rounded off", and
also a long flannel bandage, four inches broad.
I then placed two pledgets of tow next the
wounds, putting on the pieces of wood, one on
each side, and then applied the bandage over
all, and as tightly as I could, without im-
peding deglutition. It is necessary while
putting on the bandage, to keep the nose ex-
tended, in order to adapt the bandage more
perfectly to the part, and apply it more
closely. I removed the bandage, night and
morning, and had the parts well fomented and
dressed with the tincture. In the course of
four weeks the mare was well."

FISTULOUS WITHERS.
This disease is, in general, the consequence
of neglect, or the careless manner in which the
saddle is fixed to the back of the horse. AVhen
it is too wide in the trees, the pressure,
coming repeatedly on the withers with double
force, the parts become bruised and pinched,

■WITHEns]

MODEEN VETET^INARY PRACTICE

[ULCEBS.

and inevitably begin to form matter. It is
frequently tlie case that this ia uot taken
notice of till the evil hna been repented, and
bruise upon briiiso inllieted, when inflainina-
tion and swelliiiir ensue, threatening an una-
voidable suppuration. This culpable neglect
is sometimes followed by error, for, during
tbe time tbat the process of nature is going
on, and the matter in the tumour forming, the
repellent lotion, as prescribed for poll-evil is
generally used. Here now begins a terrible
struggle between the powers of nature and
art; for these applications failing in repelling,
or dispersing the contents, have their proper-
ties distributed over the integuments, where,
by repeated application, an induration is pro-
duced very unfavourable to the abscess in its
more advanced state. Nature, at last, becomes
predominant, and effects her purpose. The
tumour suppurates, and, as a consequence, a
discharge comes on, but without one of those
advantages tliat would have been acquired had
the efforts of nature been attended to and
properly encouraged, instead of being opposed.
This is the origin and progress of what con-
stitutes a confirmed fistula, which falls under
the very method of cure described in the case
of poll-evil. It should be remembered that
all sinuses or cavities into which the probe can
be passed should be laid open, taking care to
make no transverse opening across the withers,
and to avoid dividing the long ligament. Care
should be taken to make the incisions on each
side, or on both s,des, in a longitudinal direc-
tion, if it should be required. Should tlie dis-
charge not assume a healthy appearance, a
preparation of the following proportions should
be made :

Digestive Ointment . , , , 2 oz.

Red Precipitate 2 drachms.

Form into an ointment, and apply every morn-
ing to the wound, until the discharge becomes
more healthy. Should this application be suc-
cessful, in obtaining a healthy discharge of

ing process. If the lotion ia not used, it may
be as well to warm the precipitate ointment in
an iron ladle, and pour some of it into the
wound, so that it may penetrate every ttinuH
that has been formed.

Incisions or scarifications should bo made
whenever necessary, and all callous, hardened
parts dissected out, and, if required, two or three
setons passed in the most depending situutiona.
This method should be pursued in preference
to any other, unless the wound has been suf-
fered to proi-eed some considerable time, and a
vast formation of proud or fungus flesh allowed
to be formed. Then the knife becomes the
only remedy, Tliis mode of treatment should
have the preference on all occasions ; con-
sequently, if the milder metliod should not
succeed in restoring the parts, then the scald-
ing method, as prescribed in poll. evil should
be resorted to.

Let it be borne in mind, however, notwith-
standing the recommendation of all these re-
medial measures, that this disease, when first
discovered, may be completely removed by re-
pellent applications, but, when bruise after
bruise is suffered to go on, and matter to be
formed, repellents do more harm than good.
If none of the preceding applications should
be at all successful, proceed to scalding, such
as described under the heading of poll-evil.

If a clean sore can be obtained by cutting
open the part freely, and if there are no
sinuses, Professor Spooner recommends mild
dressings or tents of digestive ointment, tinc-
ture of myrrh, &c. These, however, seldom
effect a cure, therefore repeated dressings with
caustic ointment, must generally be resorted to

ULCERS IN THE MOUTH.

Ulcers in the mouth sometimes proceed from
the irritation of too severe a bit, or from soino
sympathetic inflammation, such as a ra^fTed
tooth, and frequently from constitutional irri-
tation, when watery tumours, similai to ("urn-

pus, try the following, in order to heal the boils in tlie human subject, frequently appear.

As a remedy for this, the following preparation
is recommended to be applied to the sores
three or four times a day:

wound as soon as possible :

Vinegar

Compound Tincture of Myrrli
Tincture of Cantharides . ,

2 oz.
1 do.
1 do.

Inject this mixture to the bottom of the wound
two or three times a day, and it will produce a
l.calthy secretion of pus, and promote the heal-

Spirits of Wine .
Vinegar . ,
Honey . . ,
Alum, burnt

2 oz.
2 do.
1 do.

4 dradutis,
221

STRANGLES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[STEAKGLES.

Take a small stick, with some linen or tow tied
to the end of it, and apply this as often as
above directed. As all persons do not know
the meaning of burnt alum, make it thus.
Buy an ounce of common alum, put it in tlie
fire-shovel, and set it on the fire, when the
heat will evaporate the watery matter from the
alum, leaving that which is burned, and which
is technically called alumen ustum.

STRANGLES.

The apparent sensation of suffocation is the
probable origin of the name of this disease,
with which many horses are, at some period of
their lives afflicted. Although subject to it
at all times of life, the periods of attack are
mostly when they are rising three or four
years old. Horses, at that time of life, are
generally taken in from grass, though colts at
grass frequently become affected ; but animals
removed from grass to a warm stable, are much
more liable to tscke the disease, which would
lead to the inference that it is the heated atmo-
sphere, combined with the stench of the dung
and urine, which produces inflammation and
suppuration of the submaxillary glands.

This is brought on, nine times out of ten,
when the horse is brought into the stable,
either to be broken into saddle or harness. In
those cases where it takes place out of doors,
poverty is the principal cause, producing ex-
treme debility, and, most frequently, horses so
attacked, and in so weak a state, generally, or
at least most frequently, become victims to the
disorder, and not unfrequently are affected
with glanders.

The first attack generally commences with
a dull sluggish heaviness and inactivity, the
horse becoming dispirited, losing his appetite,
having a hollow husky cough, occasioned by
the irritabdity of the inflamed glands, and sore
throat. To excite a degree of moisture in the
mouth, with tlie view of allaying this disagree-
able sensation, he is often picking his hay, but
eating little or none. A degree of sympto-
matic fever comes on, and a consequent clammi-
ness and thirst is perceptible ; but the animal
appears to have great difficulty in swallowing
water. As tlie disease advances, he becomes
proportionally languid and inattentive. Be-
tween the jaws there is an apparent swelling
of the glands, which is, at first, very hard,
222

exceedingly painful, and visibly increasing.
He now swallows with great difficulty, heaves
at the flanks, and his whole appearance urges
the necessity of an immediate attempt to
relieve nature.

For the treatment of this disease care must
be taken not to bleed the animal, unless the
febrile symptoms run very high, and then only
in small quantities, as would be done in catar-
rhal affections ; for the debility with which it
is accompanied will not allow much blood to
be taken from him. In almost any case, a
couple of quarts should not be exceeded,
unless there is much heaving at the flanks,
and the pulse is hard and quickened, and the
extremities cold. " Unless the symptoms of
fever are particularly severe," says Professor
Spooner, " and inflammation of the windpipe
and lungs is threatened, it is better to avoid
blood-letting ; and if employed, it should be
with moderation. The bowels should be mode-
rately relaxed, for which purpose two or three
drachms of aloes may be given in a ball; but
rarely, if ever, repeated. Two drachms of
nitre, and one of tartarised antimony, may be
given twice a day in a mash. He should avoid
drenching as much as possible, in consequence
of the soreness of the throat. A stimulating
liniment should be rubbed on the swelling,
and a warm linseed meal poultice applied and
changed twice a day."

Use a nose-bag, frequently replenished with
hot water and bran, for the purpose of steam-
ing the nostrils, and promoting a discharge.
Should the tumours break inwardly, you will
find this of great service. The next thing to
be done is to promote the suppuration of the
swelling as quickly as possible ; but this must
not be attempted by poultices. These have a
tendency to do much more harm than good,
unless there is a man constantly in attendance,
for the moment the poultice becomes cold, it
acts as a repellent to the tumours, and ob-
viates what is wished to be produced. Take,
therefore, of

Oil of Turpentine
OHve Oil . .

3 oz.
3 do.

Apply this liniment to the throat, and tumours
between the jaws, three times a day, having
first clipped oflf the hair close, to allow the
liniment to act quickly. Should this not pro-

BTltAKOLES.]

MODERN VETEKINART PRACTICE.

lvivks.

duco suppuration 80 spooilily ua untii.-i[):ito(l,
usft tlio Ibllowini;:

Cnnthariilfs '^ ilraclmis.

Oil of Turpentine . . . -<>/..

Olive Oil '^ '!"•

Shako well together in a bottli\ t\)r two days,
aiul apply as directeel in the lornier.

Either of these applieatit)n3 will produce a
speedy suppuration of tho tumours, and on
feeling them, they will bo found to undulate ;
at this period the lancet may be introduced to
let the matter out; but never lance the
tumours unless there is a perfect certainty
that matter has formed. If tho tumour should
break of itself, and the opening be small,
enlarge it with the lancet. Have the parts
now well fomented, and washed with warm
water two or three times a day ; always re-
membering to wipe them dry with a linen cloth.
This being done, a hood should be placed on
his head, with a piece of flannel to cover the
jaws. AVhen the discliarge has terminated,
and the orifices made with puncturing appear
red and healthy, proceed to the healing process,
which naturally of itself would take place ; but
it is necessary to assist nature. To do this,
take

Sulphate of Zinc .... 1 drachm.

Vinef^ar 2 oz.

Watery solution of Aloes. . . 3 do.
Dissolve the sulphate in the acid, then add the
solution of aloes.

Apply this mixture to the sores, morning and
night.

Eor feed, any nourishing diet will be proper ;
but whatever this is, it must be given in small

then princi[ially when horscH aro aHi'dod bv it
at grass, and especially in conHftjuence of their
being oiili/ colls. At this timo they uro not
brought under tho eye of the master ho often
as they otiierwiso would be. But if tho horso
is kept in tho stable, tho danger generally
occurs from neglect, or absolute cruelty, in
riding or driving to extremity. When tho
disease has commenced, and gone so far as to
produce fever, and then indammation, it gener-
ally terminates in glanders ; consequently tho
greatest care as to cleanliness is of tho highest
importance, such as sponging the nostrils well
out every morning and evening ; and he sliould
be kept warm.

VIVES.

Vives is the name given to strangles, when
the parotid gland alone is attacked. How
the name arose we cannot now ascertain ; but
as the disease is generally known by that term,
it would be folly to change it in a general work
of this kind.

It consists of an injlammation and enlarge'
ment of the parotid glands, situated and com-
mencing at tlie base of the ear, and continued
down to the angle of the jaw. By old farriers
it is called bastard strangles ; but this is an
error, for they never suppurate ; but occasion
great pain to the horse whilst eating, in conse-
quence of the action of the jaw continually
pressing on the enlarged gland.

These swellings at times become so fixed,
that cough and considerable irritation are pro-
duced about the anterior part of the epiglottis,
which covers the wind-pipe in the act of swal-

quantities. Try the horse with half bran and j lowing, to prevent food passing down that tube,
oats slightly wetted ; and when he begins to and when food comes in contact with it, cougli

swallow tolerably well, give Lira a little
speared malt in his feed. This will rouse him
from that debilitated state the disease has
reduced him to ; and to further strengthen his
system give the following:

Cape Aloes G draenms.

Sulphate of Iron .... 6 do.

Gentian 12 do.

Linseed Meal . . . .12 do.
Form into a mass with soft soap, and divide into
six balls.

Administer one every second day.

There is a consolation in this disease that a
symptom of danger occurs but seldom, and

is almost sure to take place. In consequence
of this, the irritation is frequently so great,
that tho horse will cough repeatedly, with such
violence, that it would lead one to suppose
that the rupture of some vital part must bo
the result.

In this disease, stimulants, in order to pro-
mote a discharge, should never be applied, lest
there should be left a blemish, which will
greatly lessen the value of the horse. Tho
method found best in treating for it is to
apply tho following : —

Ammonia ...... 1 oz,

Olive oil 4 do.

223

EASTAUD STRANGLES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[bheumatism.

E-ub about two table-spoonfuls of this lini-
ment on each gland, morning and night, and
take of

Cape aloes ..... 6 drachms.

Ginger 1 „

Form into a ball with soap,

and give. If the horse's throat should be
at all sore, giving a ball is always attended
with difficulty ; and should this be the case,
take of

Glauber salts 4 oz.

Linseed meal 2 do.

Mix the linseed meal with a little cold water
first in a basin, then take about a quart of hot
water, and dissolve the salts. When this is
done, mix altogether, and carefully horn it down.
This must be repeated morning and night,
until the swelling goes down, and the horse
begins to feed better. Should the ball have

been given, five or six days should be allowed
to intervene before the dose is repeated.

Some animals are extremely awkward, either
to give a draught, or to make take a ball.
Should such be the case, take of

Sulphur 12 oz.

Glauber salts, finely powdered . 1 lb.
Well work together in a mortar,

and give one in the horse's feed morning and
night.

Eor feed, bran mashes should be given cold ;
but if he should not take to these well, a
handful of sweet oats should be mixed with
them to entice him to eat. In all cases when
sick horses are to be fed, the hands should be
free from unpleasant smells, as the senses of
the animal are so exceedingly delicate, that
the least offensive smell will cause him to re-
fuse all kinds of food, let hia appetite be ever
so good.

CHAPTER XVIII.

KHEUMATISM. — ANTICOR; LAMPAS ; WARBLES; SiTFAST ; BRUISES; BARBS.

RHEUMATISM.

EnEUMATisM in horses has, in England, been
little treated on ; though the French have
written considerably on it ; and this, in all
probability, was the cause of drawing the atten-
tion of the veterinarian to the subject.

The disease is characterised by fever, pains
in the joints, increased by the action of the
muscles belonging' to the joint, the disease fre-
quently flying from one joint to another, and
this most frequently in young horses. In
aged animals the back and loins become the
parts principally afiected ; the horse going
stifl", scarcely able to turn, and his legs moving
under him more like jointless props than legs.
It is frequently preceded by shivering, heat,
thirst, and quickened pulse ; and some persons,
from these symptoms, are apt to think that
inflammation of the lungs has taken place.
However, the young surgeon must not be de-
ceived by these appearances ; for after the
224)

above symptoms the pain soon commences and
fixes on the joints.

Eheumatism may occur by pain in the joints
without fever, and this mostly with coach or
hack horses, from being ridden or driven hard,
until they perspire very much, and are after-
wards allowed to stand in a draft of wind. It
may arise also, at all times of the year, espe-
cially when there are frequent vicissitudes of
weather, from heat to cold. Obstructed per-
spiration is the principal cause which produces
rheumatism. We have an account of a horse
affected with sciatica, a species of rheumatism,
which he suddenly caught. The gentleman to
whom he belonged, had been riding rather
sharp in the mouth of March. On coming
home, he turned the animal into the stable, his
groom at the moment being otherwise em-
ployed. On the man going to see him, he
immediately led the horse to a pond in the
yard, to water. Consequently he received a

BiiEUMATiBM.] IMODETiX YETEHINATlY PRACTICE.

["a NT ICO R.

Biidden chill from tho wator ; niul tho wind b-^ blod ; for the cold nml wt-t j,'tMicrally uro tl>o

being cold at the reason of tho year, added to
the dilatory manner in wliieh grooms work al
their horses, an attack of sciatica was tlie re-
sult. Thia waa sliown by the horse tirst lifting
one hind leg, then the other, and especially in
wet weather and after strong exercise. In thia
case, the ho. se's urine was always thick and
muddv, made in small quantities, and very
frequently. Thia was a case of confirniod
chronic rheumatism. The horse was purchased
by a coach proprietor for little more than half
his wortli. Jle was worked for about five years,
but never recovered, and ultimately died ot
inflammation of the lungs.

This disease most frequently attacks coach
and hack-horses in the back and loins. For
the treatment of such, abstract about three
quarts of blood, according to size and consti-
tution ; and if the inflammatory symptoms are
severe, give the following : —

Barbadoes Aloes, from 4 to 6 drachms.

Ginger 1 »

Digitalis 1 n

Form a ball with soft soap.
After the bowels are freely opened, take of

Oil Turpentine . . . . 2 oz.

Olive Oil 2 do.

Ammonia , .... 4 drachms.

Apply some of this liniment to the spine,
where the stiffness appears greatest, which
will, in all probability, be across the loins.
Should this not prove efl'ectual, success in the
treatment has often resulted from the intro-
duction of setons, one on each side of the back-
bone, near the loins ; dressing, at the same time,
with digestive ointment. Before introducing
these, cast the horse.

"When this disease attacks young horses, it
is generally in the acute form ; but it is mostly
unaccompanied with fever. Colts, about two
or three years old, are mostly subject to it, and
principally in the winter months, when they
are at grass, and the pasture is bad, not con-
taining any nourishment. Acute rheumatism
arises as much from debility as any cause,
the colt not being able to bear up against the
inclemency of the weather. As soon as the
lameness is discovered — for here the joints are
the principal seat of disease, especially the
fetlock joints — have him immediately housed ;
and should it arise from debility, he must not

eaii-es, and he n quires tonic nudicineM to rouce
and strengtlicn his system. In the lirst place,
therefore, take of —

Gt'iitiaii, pDwdercd . . . I'J <h,iflini8.
Aiiise-seed, do. . . .1-' „

Liquorice, do J _' „

Antirnuiiy, do. .... 1 Ui.
Sulphur 1- oz.

Kub well together in a mortar, and divide into
twelve packets. Give one night and mornini;
in the feed of the horse. For food, give good
hay, and half oats and bran, three times a
day.

Applv flannel bandages to all the logs, round
the fetlock and pasterns. This, in general, will
remove the pain, after having rubbed in some
of the foregoing liniment; but the joints must
not be bathed, as, by so doing, the evaporation
arising afterwards will produce cold, and con-
sequent stiffuess, leaving the matter worse than
it was at first.

Some of the old farriers have termed this
disease, theflijing lameness, in consequence of
its frequently going from one part to another ;
but we may remark, that should The Modern
System of Farriery fixU into the hands of agri-
culturists, &c., where the term has become fa-
miliar, they will then know how to detect and
treat the disease

ANTICOR.

This is a disease of the chest or belly, being
a species of tumour formed by the debde state
of the absorbents ; they, in consequence, not
being able to perform their functions: hence
a serous fluid becomes deposited in the
cellular membrane, which greatly abounds in
these parts ; and the fluid running together to
the most pendent part, forms the tumour called
anticor, from its being against or near tho
chest, or the heart. The disease is not fre-
quent in this country, but it is common on tho
continent. In treating for it, bleeding is not
to be recommended ; but give halT bran and
half oats made wet, for corn feeds, and plcnt)
of good hay ; then take of

Ca]ie Aloes, ....

Kesin

Sulphate of Iron .
Linseed Meal . . .
Mix, and form into a mass with soft soap,

22o

6 drachms.
6 „
10 „
4

LAMPAS.]

THE HORSE, AND

[bruises.

Administer one of these balls every morning.
Put an ounce of nitre into the water of the
horse every night.

LAMPAS.

This consists of an enlargement or tumefac-
tion of the roof of the mouth or palate, and is
particularly to be observed in young horses.
In some cases the enlargement becomes so
prominent, as to project below the teeth of the
upper jaw. This generally occurs when the
horse h changing his teeth, or the tusks mak-
ing their appearance. Another cause is, when
horses are first taken from grass — which is, of
course, soft food— and then put into a stable on
hay and oats, both being hard meat, which oc-
casions the palate to enlarge and inflame.
Erom this cause the horse is not only deprived
of a great portion of the nutriment necessary
to his support, but he becomes poor, weak, de-
jected, and altogether out of condition. Its
origin has been attributed to the change which
takes place on being taken from grass and put
into warm stables. This, however, is not likely
to be the case, for breeders of horses generally
have their stables cool enough.

In treating for lampas, scarification has been
recommended; but tliat operation has not
been generally successful, although it has been
recommended by many veterinary surgeons.
This disease more frequently comes under
the notice of the common farrier than that of
the surgeon ; and by its so doing, custom has
established a useful and expeditious extirpa-
tion of it by the actual cautery (represented
in our Plate of Instruments) : and though no
advocate for violent remedies where they can
possibly be avoided, yet this is a cure so
speedily effected by an expert operator, and
the suftering to the animal is so very trifling,
that when a comparison is drawn between the
temporary inconvenience and the immediate
advantage, no hesitation can be made respect-
ing the operation.

When the operation has been performed,
the horse should be allowed to wash his mouth
out with clean water; and nothing should be
applied to the wound, which will heal of itself
in a iew days. If an application is made, it
will only increase the pain of the animal, and
in a few seconds he will have it all licked off
again.

226

WARBLES.
These are swellings or tumours formed on
the sides or some part of the back, in conse-
quence of the unequal pressure of the saddle.
They may also arise either from the excessive
heat and friction, or the edge of a narrow
saddle-cloth coming directly under the seat of
the rider, and not uufrequently from the girths
being too short, and the buckles at either one
side or the other being set below the saddle
pannel. If the pressure is repeated, and the
groom does not perceive it, the tumour will
sometimes suppurate. A sore will be the
consequence ; and it will probably be somewhat
troublesome for several weeks.

As soon as the tumours are perceived, and
before matter is formed, the following repellent
should be used several times in the course of
the day, and applied to the tumour, with a
piece of sponge : — •

Sal-ammoniac . . . , 2 oz.

Sugar of Lead . . , , ^ do.

Vinegar 1 pint.

Water 1 do.

The horse must have perfect rest in a loose
box or barn, and a saddle or anything irritating
must be kept from him. If the tumour re-
mains hard, and has no appearance of going
away, it then becomes what is termed

A SITFAST.

For this there is only one certain and
expeditious cure. All applications in the
shape of blisters, liniments, &c., meant to
soften the tumour, will avail nothing. There-
fore, take a scalpel, and dissect the tumour
completely out, and dress with common diges-
tive ointment, in which has been rubbed down
a little red precipitate. When this has brought
the wound to a healthy appearance, treat it
two or three times a day with compound tinc-
ture of myrrh.

If, in the first instance, warbles should
break, wash and dress first with the ointment
as above, and then heal with the tincture. In
the meantime, let the saddle pannel be altered,
that a recurrence of the accident may not
happen.

BRUISES.

These consist of tumours, which are formed
by external injuries, such as kicks from other

btone] MODEKN VETERl

borses, or pnsaionnte grooms, OJi tlie leys and
otlior pnrta of the boiiy. If the bruise is aliglit,
and even tliough lamenesa is the result, it fre-
quently booiimes reduced almost apparently of
itself; but if tlie injury siiould be severe, the
extravasated blood will then become a source of
pain and irritation. In some cases the blood is
thrown out instead of becoming absorbed;
coagulates, and, at length, becomes vascular,
when the enlargement remains permanent.

The treatment of bruises varies according to
ciroumstauces. If the case is not too severe,
take of

Camphor 1 oz.

Spirits of AViiie 8 do.

Dissolve the camphor in the spirits, and rub
on a portion every morning and night, or
take

Brandy 4 oz.

Vinegiir 4 do.

Mix, and apply as above. If the bruise is in
such a situation as will admit of a bandage,
never omit it — flannel is the best. If the
tumour remains hard and unyielding to the
above treatment, stimulate the absorbents by
applying mercurial ointment, well rubbed in
for three or four days; alter which apply a

NAKY PRACTICE

[btonb.

blister. Should this nut succeed, recourtje
must bo bud to firing.

IJARIiS.
These are small lumoura situated under the
tongue, and frequently the cause of much
pain, so that the horse, without great dillieultv,
cannot nuisticate his food. Tliey are ea^*ilv
seen on draw ing the tongue on one side, where
two little prominences make their ap[)earanco.
They arise from an inflammatory action, exist-
ing in the salivary ducts, produced either from
symptomatic or local fever, and are generally
attended with a large flow of saliva. The
farriers of former days used to recommend
their being entirely removed, by nipping
them oir with a pair of scissors ; but there is
no necessity for this. The following treat-
ment will do away wiLli them. Take of

Alum 1 oz.

Water 4 do.

Dissolve, and apply with a bit of sponge, tied
to the end of a stick, several times a day.
Gi"e the horse an ounce of nitre in his water,
for about five or six mornings, and a reduction
in the enlargement will soon be perceived ; and
by-and-by they will altogether disappear.

CHAPTER XIX.

STONE. — STONE IN THE INTESTINES; THE KIDNEYS; THE BLADDEE.

STONE IN THE INTESTINES.

TiiE horizontal situation of the body of the
horse, and the nature of his food, render him
particularly liable to concretions in the intes-
tines, which generally take place in the colon,
from a peculiar curvature which this has of
doubling on itself. At this curve, stone is
usually found.

Most of these concretes, however, are in
their beginning composed of salubrious matter,
which first collects around some accidental
nucleus, as a nail, or stone. It also very fre-
quently occurs amongst millers' horses, from a
portion of the griudiug-stones, by friction

having become mixed with the food upon
which horses are commonly fed. From frequent
deposits of a portion of the alimentary con-
tents coming in contact with the nucleus,
layer upon layer becomes formed, utitil, in
some cases, they are of an enormous size.
These calculi, in many instances, are so dense
and hard as to admit of a fine polish ; while some
are of a softer nature, and appear more liko
indurated dung, and will break easy. Hair
balls have frequently been found in the intes-
tines, especially in neat cattle; and are very
troublesome, being the cause of great incon-
; venience.

227

fiXOSE.J

THE HOESE, AND

[stone.

Horses do not appear to suffer so much
from calculi as might, at first, be expected;
and then the disease only appears like an
attack of gripes, caused by some obstructed
dung in the intestine, giving pain. When the
passage is rendered free, the pain immediately
ceases. Calculi frequently, or always, however,
bring on a fatal strangulation, and consequent
inflammation. In such cases the horse usually
falls a victim.

The cure of this malady is out of our power,
and its prevention is little less so, unless we
perceive the horse addicted to eat roots or lick
up the earth, to which he is sometimes given.
The only chance of prevention, then, is to give
bran mashes for a day or two, until his dung
becomes moist. If in regular work, let him
resume his usual food.

STONE IN THE KIDNEYS.
Stones sometimes form in the kidneys, or in
their C3":ities. In the horse they accumulate
till they iill the whole of the cavity ; and we
have heard of a case, in which, from the
inflammation produced thereby, the kidneys be-
came totally absorbed, and a large tumour was
formed in their place. This animal could with
difficulty walk: he was accordingly ordered to
be destroyed ; and on opening him, it was
found that the right kidney had become a
complete stone.

STONE IN THE BLADDER.

Though this disease is not so frequent in
the horse as in the human subject, still we
have no doubt of its occurring more frequently
than is generally supposed. This is made
pretty evident at the yard of the knacker, for
very many calculi are there found, after death,
in the bladder. The symptoms of its presence
are frequent inclination to make water, voided
in small quantities, and accompanied with ex-
cessive pain. Sometimes a sudden stoppage
of it takes place ; and this is very frequently
attended with extremely sharp spasmodic pains.
The horse then walks wide behind, or appears
loth to move along, and occasionally reels
about, with a staggering gait. The remedy was
discovered, and, we believe, first brought into
practice, by Mr. Sewell. The presence of stone
in the bladder is not very difficult to discover ;
for, if we examine the bladder, and introduce
228

the hand up the rectum, and feel for the bladder,
just beyond the bone called the pubis, there it
will be met with. When this is the case, try
whether there is any hard substance present.
If so, it is stone in the bladder.

For the removal of the substance, introduce
a long, well oiled whalebone staff up the
urethra, until the end of it is felt just under
Vae anus ; then take a scalpel, and cut per-
pendicularly down upon it, and enlarge the
opening to about an inch and a-half. Into
this opening pass a long whalebone probe, or,
as it is called, a sound ; the end of which will
be felt to strike against the stone. Being
satisfied of this, withdraw the instrument,
and introduce your forceps, for the pur-
pose of extracting the stone. If the opening
should not be large enough, take a concealed
history, and cut up a little, as the horse is
supposed to be lying on his back. Then en-
deavour to seize the stone, and withdraw it
whole. Should this not be practicable, the
stone must be taken hold of by degrees, and
broken down by means of the forceps. Then
withdraw the pieces, and empty them. Continue
to do this until perfectly satisfied that the
whole of the stone is removed. This being
done, inject warm water into the bladder,
which will give the horse great ease. He
may now be allowed to get up, when, in all
probability, some sediment and urine may
escape from the wound for a day or two.
This need not occasion any alarm ; but con-
tinue to bathe the parts two or three
times a day with warm water. After this
time, the wound will close, the urine pass off
in its natural channel, when the wound should
be treated as a common one, by applying to it,
twice a day, compound tincture of myrrh.
Should the horse take on any appearance of
fever, give him, in his feed, with half bran and
oats, made slightly wet —

Antimony 12 oz.

Sulphur 12 do.

Digitalis e drachms.

Mix, and divide into twelve powders. Adminis-
ter one in his feed every night.

With mares the operation is less difficult,
as the parts may be dilated instead of being
cut; but to them the use of a round-headed
catheter, sufficiently large in the bore to
allow the sound to pas? through it, is recom-

W0BM8.]

MODEHN VETERTNATIY PRACTICE.

[WOBMI.

mended. Wlion tliis is introduced, and the
urine dnwii otV, piisa the sound down tlie
catlioter into llu' bhuKler. Ihivin-: iiccoin-

Bntisfii'd yourHi'lf of tlio onlculi bi-ing there,
proceed iih before directed for u horse.

This operation does not geuerully luil if con-

pliahed this, wilhdraw the catheter, and liaving ducted with euflicient caro.

CHAPTER XX.

-WOUMS TN general; jaundice, or yellows; DIARRUCF a, looseness, or SCOtJRINO;

CRIB-BITING.

WORMS IN GENERAL.
"Wn"EN worms have secured a settlement in
either the stomach or intestines of the horse, he
becomes a prey to perpetual annoyance, till
efiectual methods are taken for their total ex-
tirpation.

Tliere are three kinds of worms to which the
horse is liable ; first, the long white worm, very
much resembling the common large earth-worm,
but much longer and harder. At its middle it
is about the size of a large swan-quill, and
regularly tapers off to the ends. Tlie length
of these worms varies from six inches to
twelve, and they generally occupy the small
intestines, and are at times exceedingly trouble-
some, frequently occasioning gripes, and not
unfrequeutly inflammation, by their excessive
irritation.

Another kind of worm is the small thread or
needle-worm, which is frequently found in all
the intestines, but more particularly in
the large. It has also been found in some of
the blood-vessels, in the windpipe, and in the
lungs. This worm occasions great disturbance
in the system when it becomes numerous, but
not to the same extent as the last named.

There is a third kind of worm, called bots,
which comprises two species. For almost all
we know of this worm, we are indebted to Mr.
Bracey Clark. Its history is simply this : —
A species of gad-fly, " the sestrus eqtti, is, in
the latter part of the summer, exceedingly
busy about the horse. It is observed to be
darting, with great rapidity, towards the knees
and sides of the animal. The females are de-
positing their eggs on the hair, and which ad-

here to it by means of a glutinous fluid, with
which they are surrounded. In a few days
the eggs are ready to be hatched, and the
slightest application of warmth and moisture
will liberate the little animals they contain.
The horse, in licking himself, touches the egg;
it bursts, and a small worm escapes, which ad-
heres to the tongue, and is conveyed with the
food into the stomach. There it clings to the
cuticular portion of the stomach, by means of
a hook on eitiier side of its mouth ; and its
hold is so firm and so obstinate, that it must
be broken before it can be detached. It re-
mains there, feeding on the mucus of the
stomach during the whole of the winter, and
until the end of the ensuing spring; when,
having attained a considerable size, and being
destined to undergo a certain transformation,
it disengages itself from the cuticular coat, is
carried into the villous portion of the stomach
with the food, passes out of it with the chyme,
and is evacuated with the dung. Tiie larva, or
maggot, seeks shelter in the ground, and buries
itself there; it contracts in size, and becomes
a chrysalis, or grub, in which state it lies in-
active for a few weeks ; and then, burst-
ing from its confinement, assumes the form
of a fly. Tlio female becoming impreg-
nated, quickly deposits her eggs on those
parts of tlie horse which he is most accus
tomed to lick, and thus the species is per-
petuated."

A horse affected with worms will be known
by a dry yellowish matter adhering to the
fundament, and running two or three inches
down below. This is merely the soft part of

229

TYOUMS.]

THE HOESE, AND

["WOEMS.

the worm, whicli, in making its escape, irritates
the sphincter muscle, and becomes crushed.
This frequently occurs in cart-horses. AYorms
are also often to be detected in the dung, espe-
cially the thread worm and the long white worm.
The long worm is too strong in itself to be
crushed by the sphincter, and the thread worm
is too small for any impression to be made on
it. There are other symptoms which indi-
cate the presence of worms in the horse. Eor
example, they occasion irregular appetite ; ren-
der the bowels at one time costive ; and, as irri-
tation arises, making them again loose, with an
unhealthy secretion attached to the dung.
AVhen hots are prevalent, the animal is fre-
quently rubbing his tail against the sides of
the stall, or against a post, and betraying
many symptoms of a restless uneasiness.

The long white worm is very hurtful. Horses
affected with it may eat well, and appear
hearty, but they do not thrive. They become
hide-bound ; and in consequence of the skin
sympatlusing so much with the stomach, the
coat stares, and feels rough. This worm is
very frequently attended with a short dry
cough ; sometimes it produces gripes, with hot
breath, which smells very disagreeable.

Eor the treatment of worms, there are but
two articles that any reliance can at all be
placed in, and that can lay claim to approba-
tion ; and one of these is calomel. Antimo-
nials and preparations of tin have each their
advocates, and so has train oil. A few of the
products of the vegetable kingdom, in the opi-
nion of some, are never-failing, such as rue,
savin, box, &c., and also tobacco. Experience,
however, has determined the specific efi'ects of
calomel in this case as absolutely infallible, be-
fore tlie power of which every species of woruis
and their oviparous remains, indiscriminately
fall, and are totally exterminated without the
shadow of a doubt. So soon, therefore, as they
are suspected, or at least so soon as they are
ascertained to have taken possession, it will be
prudent to prevent a horse from getting injured
in his appetite, reduced in flesh, or altered in
condition by their constantly preying upon the
contents of the stomach or alimentary canal.
To do this, first prepare him as for a dose
of physic, by giving bran mashes, &g., and
let the dose be adapted to the strength, size,
and condition of the subject by these rules. If
230

the horse is thorough bred, and delicate in
form, take —

No. 1.

Calomel 1| drachm.

Linseed Meal 2 do.

Form the ball with honey.
In administering this ball be particular.
Give it the last thing at night ; then put the
setting muzzle on, and let the horse remain
without food until the morning, when give a
warm mash of bran. Replace the muzzle ; and
when leaving him, give a handful of sweet hay.
Proceed in this manner until about six o'clock
at night, when administer the following : —

Barbadoes Aloes 5 draclmis.

Gentian 2 do.

Form into a ball with honey.

Put on the muzzle again, and by the time
you visit the stable in the morning, it is ten to
one but the physic has operated. He must
now be treated — but with the greatest care — •
as in the ordinary course of physic. Probably
the reader may not at first imagine why the
calomel is recommended to be given alone-,
but a small quantity of this medicine so given,
eicfhteen hours before the aloetie medicine
is given, is not only more elficacious locally,
but the whole S3'stem becomes impregnated
with it. Another thing, superpurgation is not
so likely to supervene. There is also another
reason; the horse will purge without being taken
out to exercise, which when exhibiting calomel is
very advantageous, as he does not run so much
risk of taking cold. After the lapse of about five
or six days, repeat both the balls, as directed
above; but do not increase the quantity of the
calomel or aloes, until the operation of the
second dose has been observed, when a judg-
ment will be able to be formed w-hetlier the
aloes will require increasing or decreasing in
quantity. If the horse should want it, or you
think the worms are not altogether dislodged
from their hold, give a third dose.

If tlie animal is strong in make, and more
like a hackney or coach-horse for size, he may
be given,

No. 2.

Calomel 2 drachms.

With the aloetie balls increased 1 do.
Proceeding as before laid down.

Should he be a large, strong, and foul wag-
gon-horse, the calome' ball may be increased to

JAUNDICE.]

MODEKN VETEETXART PRACTICE.

[JAUNDIOB.

two drachma nnd n-linlf; and if a vorv larpjo
horse, evon to tlirco tlnu'l\ina, and tlio uloi'tic
ball in proportion. By proceodin<j in this
courso, tho subjtrt will, in a few days, with
proper caro and attention, and fjood food and
exercise, be freed from tho insects with which
he has been tiirmented.

As there will, however, most nndtiulitmlly, b(>
horses, tronhled witli worms, in the possession
of those who, from the nature of their voca-
tions, cannot submit them to so long a respite
from business as is necessary for a regular
course of the preceding medicines, it will
naturally be expected that an effectual substi-
tute should be held forth for the satisfaction
of all parties : consequently, wo now come
to the second remedy, which has been found
very efficacious in expelling worms.

Glauber's Suits 4 oz.

Linseed Meal 1 do.

Hot Water 1 quart.

First mix the meal in a little cold water, to
prevent its getting lumpy ; and when sufficiently
worked up, put it into the salts and hot water.
Give this drtijght with a horn every morning
fasting, for six successive mornings. The
horse may go to exercise, or slow work of any
kind. If he should be perceived to perspire
a good deal, and appear faint, discontinue
the niedicines for a few days ; then commence
again, until satisfied the worms are completely
removed.

JAUNDICE, OR YELLOWS.

This is a disease usually called yelloivs, and
is common to horses of every description. It
arises from various causes, the most material
of which we shall endeavour to explain.

The more simple and least dangerous com-
plaint passing under this denomination, arises
solely from an obstruction in the biliary ducts ;
for the horse has no cystic duct, or gall-
bladder, like most other animals. By this
obstruction the bile does not flow into the
intestines, where, by its peculiarly stimulating
property, it excites the peristaltic motion by
which they expel their contents. The bile thus
impeded in its usual progress, becomes ab-
sorbed, incorporating itself again with the
blood, and, through the system of circulation,
diffusing itself over every part, and denoting its

presence by an early appearance of vfUowneM
in tho eyes, mouth, tongue, nnd Balivn. To
these invariable symptoniH may bo added, thoHO
not altDgether so certain in tiicir early ntato —
a general heaviness nnd dnllnesM, nccompanied
with loss of nj^petite, nnd consequent n-jeclion
of food; the animal taking little more than will
barely sustain nature. All this is attended
with a slight Bymptomatic fever, which keeps
pace with tiie disi-ase. A sluggishness, or aver-
sion to motion, is plainly perceptible ; a foul
faint sweat appears upon the least exercise,
and the urine is of a dark brown, or saflVon
tinge: the dung varies much in diiferent sub-
jects, but is, in all, many degrees paler, and
more undigested than that of horses in high
condition.

The indications ot cure naturally arise out
of the very description of the disease, to cfiect
which there will not be considerable difficulty,
provided it be taken in its early stage, when it
iiiav, most probably, be totally removed by the
following :—

Cape Aloes 12 drachms.

Calomel 6 do.

Liquorice, powdered ... 6 do.

Linseed Meal 2 do.

Form into a mass with sofi soap.

Divide into twelve balls, and give one every
second day. Give the horse half bran and
oats wetted for morning and evening feed, and
scalded bran mashes for his middle-day lecd.
If the bran mashes do not suflicieutly relax
the bowels, give occasionally a clyster of warm
water, into which throw a handful of bait.

During this course of medicine, every atten-
tion must be paid to appetite, food, and gentle
exercise. Mashes of malt and bran may be
occasionally given at night, to keep the body
lax, and not sutler it to get too much debili-
tated, but to make the evacuations regular.

The disease, if arising from the cause before
mentioned, and treated in its infancy, will
generally submit to the above course; but in
more advanced cases, double the quantity may
be required ; and, in addition, three or four
quarts of blood taken from the animal will be
found highly beneficial. In almost all cases,
however, the above balls will be found to have
the desired efi'ect. Should you not be so fortu-
nate, or the disease happen to be in a large
cart-horse, increase the dose of aloes a little,

231

JAIJKDICE.]

THE HORSE, AND

[diatirf(EA.

according to circumstances. If the horse should
be weak and emaciated, decrease it a little.
After the medicine has completely set, and ttie
animal appears to be going on well, give the
following : —

Cordial Ball.

Anise-seeds 1 oz.

Ginger 1 do.

Liquorice 1 do.

Caraway Seeds 1 do.

Treacle sufficient to form the mass.

Give an ounce of this mixture every morning
fasting. Should the subject be a cart-horse,
increase the quantities of each, and give an
ounce and a- half for a dose.

During the time of taking this, let the
former instructions relative to food, exercise,
dressing, &c., be strictly adhered to, with such
other attentions as circumstances may require,
remembering to relinquish the medicine every
second morning, or once in three mornings ;
but not to discontinue it entirely till all symp-
toms disappear.

A distinct kind of this disease, arising from
a remote and very discouraging cause, is that
which originates in an induration, or schir-
rosity of some part of the liver, and which
will be indicated by pressing the hand
sharply against the region of that organ on
the right side. In this species there is little or
no hope of obtaining a cure. "We can only
palliate the disease. The first thing to be
done, is to extract blood, to the quantity of
three, four, or five quarts. This is of course
premised to reduce the contents of, or take off
Home degree of stricture from, the vessels.
Eemove obstructions of the body by mashes of
bran and speared barley, for two or three days
previous to administering any medicines.
When the bowels are pretty lax, give

Calomel 6 drachms.

Antimony , . . . 6 oz.

Sulphur 6 do.

Rub well together in a mortar, and divide into
six powdera. Give one of the powders in his
feed every other nigiit, first having slightly
sprinkled the corn with water. On the inter-
mediate days, in the mornings, give

Glauber Salts 3 oz.

Linseed Meal 2 do.

Cream of Tartar . , • . 1 do.
Dissolve the glauber salts and cream of tartar
232

in a quart of warm water, then add the meal,
being first mixed with a little cold water.
Horn this draught down carefully ; and if the
disease appears to be removed, give a course of
the cordial ball, as directed in the preceding
case.

DIARRHCEA, LOOSENESS, OR SCOURING.

This disease is indicated by a weakness in
the absorbents to take up the watery matter
secreted within the intestines ; consequently,
an increased action of the peristaltic motion is
set up to get rid of this watery fluid ; and from
this cause the evacuations of the dung are pro-
duced in a liquid form. It is not like dysentery ;
for here the purging, from the first, continues
until arrested, the dung also being in a con-
stantly fluid state, there being none of that
slimy matter attached to it that is in dysen-
tery. There is little or no fever connected
with this disease ; and if the pulse should
at all become quick or hurried, it proceeds
more from debility than from any other cause.
This is diiferent in those horses which are
likely to purge from excitement; for many
horses, full of good keep, with their bowels
regularly open, sufficiently healthy, on going
to hounds, commence purging instantly. This
must spring from nervous excitement. Some
horses, more especially light chestnut ones,
are liable to purge from the least excitement.
Flat-sided, long, lank-legged animals are more
subject to intestinal, and other internal dis-
eases, than any other kind of horses. In
diarrhoea, however, the horse appears dull,
heavy, and inactive, seemingly oppressed, and
visibly overloaded, though without any appear-
ance of pain, but subject to gene/al disquie-
tude ; whilst the discharge is large in quantity,
dark in colour, and foetid in smell.

Diarrhoea seems to depend on an increase of
the peristaltic motion, or of the secretion of
the intestines ; and besides the causes already
enumerated, it may arise from many others,
influencing the system generally, or the par-
ticular seat of the disease. Of the former
kind are colds, checked perspiration, excite-
ment, and other disorders, drastic cathartics,
spontaneous acidity, &c. In this complaint,
each discharge is usually preceded by a mur-
muring noise, with a sense of weight and un-
easiness in the hypogastrium ; and then a horse

STABRnSA.]

MODERN VETERINAHY PRACTICE. [cbib-bxtino.

is called tvash-hcUird. AViion it ia protrnctcd,
the niiiinal lo.-;ea his a]r|)t.'titt.', his couiitiMianco
becomes dull, the ekiu KeiieniUy liiv, hard,
and the coat staring. Ultimately great de-
bility and emaciation, and swelling of the legs,
ot'ten supervene. Sometimea the disease arisis
from ulceration of the surface of the in-
testines. The bile also, from some peculiar
change in its nature, occasioned principally
by bad food, will produce diarrhoea. The
disease, though not so much thought of as it
ought to be, is the cause of many a valuable
animal becoming a victim, from iiiij)roper
treatment ; for some people are apt to go to
the other extreme, and administer a long list
of astringents to stay the purging, which is
liighly improper. Debility, and dtbility alone,
is the cause of diarrhoea, let it be brought on
by whatever means it may.

For its treatment, first, a proper attention
should be paid to the food of the animal, such
as his hay and corn, which ought to be of the
very best quality. Then give of

Blue Pill .... U oz.

Sulphate of Iron. . . 16 drachms.

Glauber Salts ... 16 do.

Liquid Laudanum . . 16 do.

Linseed Meal ... 16 do.

Mix the sulphate of irou with the glauber
salts together in a mortar, and pound them
very fine ; then add the other ingredients,
working them well together.

Divide into twelve balls, and give one morn-
ing and night.

Boil a teacupful of rice, until it is entirely
soft; then squeeze it through a thin tamis, or
cloth, and give it in the horse's water to drink.

Should these means not succeed, give the
following : —

Sulphate of Iron . .
Arsenic ....
Gentian ....
Cape Aloes .
Mix well together, and form into a mass, with soft
soap.

Divide into twelve balls, and give one every
morning.

By pursuing this course of strengthening
medicine, the horse will speedily regain his
appetite, and his usual courage and power.
In some cases it is recommended to give a
few cordial halls, aa prescribed in the foregoing
2 H

12 drachms.

1 do.
12 do.
12 do.

case, at intervals, until the diHoaso id i-ntirely
removed.

CIUIMHTING.

The peculiar action of crib-biting cannot bo
mistaken, on seeing the horse? that has it, feed ;
for, at every swallow, an eructation is [)roduced,
which, by making the edge of the mangiT a
fixed point, he is enabled to do with ease.
This has, by sume writers, been said to be ex-
ceedingly ])ainful to the animal; but, very fre-
quently, we find crib-bitters not only high-con-
ditioned animals, but fat ; and whatever creates
pain, cannot produce fat. Still there is a dif-
ference in crib-biting horses. Some will crib
badly, and get fat ; others will become lean ;
and this appears extraordinary at first sight,
but is of great importance ; for, as the horso
keeps in ilesh or condition with crib-biting, or
falls ofi', so will he bo sound or otherwise.

The disease, or habit, more properly speaking,
takes place mostly in young animals ; and here
our opinion diifers from many others ; for wo
think it is frequently occasioned by uneasiness
in cutting the breeding-teeth. Sometimes the
cause is, from horses being ill- fed, when they
are particularly hungry. Many animals wear
away their fore teeth to such a degree that
these will not meet, which arises from the
inability to gather up their food. But there
is one decided symptom of taking in air, and
expelling it also at the same moment; for, if it
is observed that the horse, while swallowing,
expels air, and at the same moment inhales
fresh, it is shown in the operation by the ex-
pansion of his nostrils.

By some writers, crib-biting has been de-
scribed as similar to dyspepsia in the human
subject ; but this is impossible, or bow would
one Iwrse take it from the other standing in
the same stable ? — which we have known fre-
quently to be the case ; and it is a well-knowu
fact, that no training groom will allow a crib-
biter to stand in his stable. "We could give
numbers of instances to prove the propensity
of its being infectious, having had upwards of
one hundred and fifty hack horses at one time,
and four or five of them rank cribbers.
There have been persons who have attempted
to introduce cures for crib-biting, but they have
not always proved infallible. One is, to buckle
a strap round the neck of the horse tightly,

233

DROPSY.]

THE HOESE, AND

[deopst.

which will prevent it for the time being ; an-
other is, to have a number of sharp-pointed
studs driven into the strap, to prick the neck
and throat every time the subject swallows.
Now, if these were efficacious, dyspepsia might
be easily cured by tying a neckerchief a little
tighter than common ; but it is not so, for
remove the straps from his throat, and he is
as bad as ever.

Professor Coleman says crib-biting arises
principally from long fasting, and the noise
which arises from the air that is swallowed.
But we would ask how spasms of the stomach
arise when a man has been without food or
drink the whole of the day ? Does not the
stomach secret wind of itself? or why take a
glass of gin or brandy to remove any wind that
may be in the stomach ? One may feel blown
up, as it is said, without food. As gas is gene-
rated in the dead, so is it in the living subject.
Debility alone will generate it equally in the
horse as in the man, only with this difference —
that the man can indulge, and the horse cannot.

Some say that giving horses bad keep will
produce the affection ; but there is no truth in
this ; for if we look at the horses of farmers,
which are kept on the refuse of the farm, we
do not find more crib-biters in them than else-
where. No ; but we find them principally
amongst high-fed horses ; and the reason for
this we shall endeavour to explain. — Highly-fed

animals are rarely subject to have much hay
given them ; consequently, the stomach never
becomes so full as when it is distended with
natural food, such as hay or grass only ; for
we never heard of a crib-biting horse at grass
or on hay only. The real cause is found in a
spasmodic affection of the diaj)hragin, generally
produced by an error in the dietary of the
animal ; for if you feed with a considerable
quantity of corn, and little hay, crib-biting is
produced, and vice versd.

To obviate this affection, the whole of the
veterinarians have been equally puzzled. Some
years ago, a Mr. Tare invented a kind of
muzzle, through which the horse could eat, but
was not enabled to seize the manger, in conse-
quence of two iron bars being fixed longitudi-
nally to the mouth part. This invention, how-
ever, like many others, entirely failed ; for,
when removed, the horse would take to his old
habit again. Prepared chalk, in two-ounce
doses, has been tried, but with no better suc-
cess. The only thing found, in the shape of a
palliative, has been to remove the horse thus
affected into a stable by himself, without
manger, stall-sides, or anything he can take
hold of; and give all his food on the ground,
both hay and corn. By this means this
troublesome affection has been removed in a
great degree, though an entire cure has not
been effected.

CHAPTER XXI.

DROPSY — OF THE HEAD ; THE CHEST; PERICARDIUM; BELLY; SKIN J SWELLED LEGS.

DROPSY.
Deopsy is a preternatural collection of serous
or watery fluid in the cellular substance, or
different cavities of the body. It receives dif-
ferent appellations, according to the particular
situation of the fluid.

When it is diflused through the cellular
membrane, either generally or partially, it is
called anasarca.

When it is deposited in the cavity of the
234

cranium, it is called hydrocepTialus ; when in
the chest, liydrotliorax ; when in the abdo-
men, ascites; and when within the scrotum,
hydrocele.

We thus particularly enumerate the special
names this disease takes, in accordance with
its situation, that the reader may not be led
astray by the pretender, or country farrier
These diseases are of a family nature, and prin-
cipally originate in debility : such as long-con-

DROl'ST.]

MODEllN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[DB0P8T.

tinued evacuations, the 8uppressit)n of urine, be found for their cause. If they appear in a

'":n''"L'r'a iiorse, not hav in-; been recently ridden,
it may naturally bo concluded that it ia con-
gestion of the brain, which may exi«t without
any viaible pain or pressure. Should this bo
the case, the animal must not be bled, but
take of

the sudden striking-in of eruptive humours,
the obstruction of the lungs, exposure for a
length of time to a moist atmospliere, laxity of
the exhnlents, defective absorbents, topical
weakness — in which case it is most frecpientj
and, indeed, it may arise from anything that
produces debility.

DROPSY OF THE HEAD.

This atiection does not frequently attack the
horse ; but when it does so, it is very likely
to puzzle the young practitioner, as he may be
apt to take it for the staggers, the symptoms
being very like those which appear in that
disease. Water in the head, when it occurs in
the horse, is generally in consequence either of
injuries done to the brain itself, or of blows
from falls, or from schirrous tumours, or ex-
crescences within the skull, from original
laxity, weakness in the brain, or from general
debility, and an impoverished state of the
blood.

AVith respect to its proximate cause, very
opposite opinions are still entertained by many
clever writers ; which, in conjunction with the
equivocal nature of its symptoms, prove a
source of considerable embarrassment to both
old and young practitioners. . Some believe it
to be inflammatory, and, in consequence, bleed
largely. Slight inilaramation, in the first case,
may cause a deposition of fluid on the brain ;
but this inflammation has, by its eflects, pro-
duced debility. A torpor of the absorbent
vessels may also occasion the disease, and a
consequent debility in those vessels to perform
their functions.

It sometimes happens in horses that are
brought up immediately from grass, and ridden
rather sharper than they ought to be, which
causes congestion of the brain ; but as we
shall have to speak of that disease in its proper
place, we will now enter on the symptoms of
dropsy in the head.

AVhon a horse is attacked witli tliis, he re-
fuses his food, hangs his head down in the
manger, is dull, and seems careless of all kinds
of nourishment ; hanging liimself forward, rest-
ing his whole weight on his fore legs, looking
as if he was going to sleep, and wanted rous-
ing up.

When these symptoms appear, a reason must

Watery solution of Aloes
Nitre ....
Linseed Meal

'1 do.
. '1 do.
Mix for a drink, and give immediately.

Let the horse have plenty of room, such as
a loose box, or bay of a barn. Let him havo
plenty of straw, in case he should lie down,
and be inclined to roll or knock himself about.
Should this treatment not appear to reliete
him, apply a blister to the poll or back of tho
neck, composed of

Cantharides
Ilog's Lard

2 drachms.
2 oz.

Let this ointment be well rubbed in beliind
the ears.

Should the disease be occasioned by blows,
or falls, &c., examine the head well for any
convincing proof of the pain that may be exist-
ing there. Should there be evidence of this,
do not hesitate immediately to open the tem-
poral artery, and abstract as much blood as
you can, without the horse's fainting. Should
he begin to tremble, it is time to leave ofi", for
the object has been gained.

Secure the artery in the following manner: —
Have a curved needle, armed with doubled
whity-brown thread, and take up the lips as
directed in sutures ; then lay a pledget of tow
over the orifice, tie up the suture, and tho
bleeding will be stopped.

For feed, give very little, or no hay, but
bran mashes. Do not give any corn. We re-
commend bleeding, if tiie disease arises from
blows, because this is most likely to stimulate
the absorbents to perform their natural func-
tions. For the medical treatment, proceed as
before directed.

DROPSY OF THE CHEST.

This, as a primary affection, is not common
in the horse ; but, as a secondary attack, is fre-
quent, and more especially in an attack of in-
flammation. It consists of a collection of fluid
within the cavity of one or both of the plurae;

235

DEOPST.]

THE HOESE, AND

[deopst.

and when this is the case, there can be no doubt
of its arising from debility. Many gallons of
fluid have been found so formed within a very
short space of time ; in some instances pus has
been discovered ; in others, matter and other
coagulahle masses.

The causes of this disease are found prin-
cipally to be connected with the termination
of inflammation of the lungs, and are gene-
rally to be discovered by the peculiar action of
the horse in breathing, and even in his method
of standing — straddling wide with his fore legs.
Not unfrequently his breathing is accompanied
with a jerk ; and if close attention is paid, the
water in his chest may be heard to make a
sudden noise, as if disturbed. This arises
from the lungs taking in air, and, in con-
sequence, becoming dilated, and occasioning
the rumbling noise in the chest with the
water. Horses that are ill-treated, and have
bad keep, will sometimes have dropsy of the
chest, when little or no inflammatory action
has been going on. Such as have it from
these causes, may perform slow work for some
time without the disease being discovered, the
poverty of the masters not enabling them to pro-
cure assistance in time, whereby bad condition
is produced in the horse, and consequent debi-
lity, until nature takes compassion on the poor
animal, and finishes his career in death. On
opening the animal, a quantity of yellowish
serous fluid is found floating about his chest,
the lungs are contracted and smaller, on account
of the fluid interfering with them in the cavity,
when the horse is then pronounced rotten.

In treating for this disease, care must be
taken not to determine too hastily on bleeding ;
for this should never be done, even though
the pulse is quick, for the quickness is in con-
sequence of dehility, and not arising from fever.
"When the aflEection is formed, it is seldom or
ever that any iuflammatory action remains ;
consequently, blood-letting would be highly
injurious, and the result would prove that the
cause had been mistaken for the eff*ect. Ex-
perience, of course, is the best guide in such
cases.

JNIedicines to promote nausea are frequently
said to have a good eft'ect ; but we have not
found this to be the case, although we have
tried them several times, such as white helle-
bore, in two-dram doses, every five hours. In
236

administering the following, however, our most
sanguine expectations have been realised.

Sulphate of Iron . . . . 2 oz.
Juniper Berries . . . . 2^ do.

Myrrh 2 do.

Antimony 1 lb.

Sulphur 8 drachms.

Form into a mass with soft soap.

Divide into twelve balls, and give one night
and morning.

Eowels and setons sometimes do good in
this disease, but they are so long in acting
that we would recommend blistering the sides
and chest in preference. Give the most nutri-
tious food possible ; oats, with a few beans in
them for corn, with the best old hay, and let
oatmeal, or rice, be boiled in the animal's water.
Should the above remedies fail, the last re-
source is to puncture, or tap the chest.
Although this operation is delayed almost to
the latest period of the disease, and very unfre-
quently succeeds ; still we have been successful
in a cure, when driven to this extremity. The
earlier it is performed, however, the greatei
the probability of its having the desired eft'ect.

AVe will now describe the mode of perform-
ing the operation.

The situation most eligible for the opening,
is that wherein a depending orifice may bo
gained for the complete evacuation of the
water, without danger of wounding important
parts by the puncture. If it is carried too
low, the mediastinal folds, or even the pericar-
dium may be endangered ; but this would only
occur where the puncture was attempted per-
pendicularly, so as to make it between the
cartilages of the ribs ; but in either of the
costal openings, between the seventh and
tenth ribs, about an inch above their termina-
tion into cartilage,* an opening may be first
made by a scalpel, towards the anterior edge
of the rib, to avoid wounding the intercostal
vessels, first drawing the skin a little forwards
or backwards, to ensure a future closing to
the access of air. Having done this carefully,
introduce a three-inch trochar, by penetrating
the muscle between any of the above-men-
tioned ribs; then withdraw the trochar, and
allow the cannula to remain in until the whole
of the fluid is drawn off". Having performed
this operation, and the discharge of the fluid
* See Plate f Skeleton.

a,
o

a

a'

a
>

N

<u

Oh

1

OJ

S

tH

■<

<

H

M

N

c=3

^

^
fo

^

^1

'00

^

P!

t?

■i

•H

1

Hi

IV

r^

riA

H

H

DBOPST.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[dbopbt.

is such as to carry conviction that you were
corrt'ct in your juiisjjmont, puncture the oppo-
site cavity in a siiuihir manner. If the droi)sy,
or accumulation of thiicl is fully formed that
is, if one or both cavities be nearly filled with
serosity — less caution is necessary in the intro-
duction of the trochar ; and if tlio operation
is performed early in the disease (which, in
general, it should be, to ensure success), then it
is necessary to proceed more cautiously, to
avoid puncturing the lungs.

Having introduced the trochar only bo far
as to observe the gush of Uuid, put the can-
nula forward, and retract the other so as to
have the cannula alone in the orifice. The
cannula must be pushed up to its collar, where
it will remain until the fluid is all drawn ofY.

Coagula, or even the inflation of the lungs,
is sometimes found to obstruct the flowing of
the latter portions of the fluid. To obviate
this, introduce a probe into the cannula occa-
sionallv, until you are satisfied that the whole
has come away.

When the wh.ole of the fluid has been with-
drawn, take out the cannula, and close the
orifice by adhesive plaister, or by the common
suture. Tou must not think of performing
the operation a second time, although this is
frequently done with the human subject; for
having drawn off the fluid, reliance must be
placed on the medicine before prescribed.
Should water again accumulate, the debility
will be so much the more increased, and the
natural consequence will be that the animal
will sink under the disease.

DROPSY OF THE PERICARDIUM.

Dropsy of the pericardium is an increased
collection of fluid in the sac surrounding the
heart ; therefore called dropsy of the heart.
The symptoms are the same as in the pre-
ceding case ; but there is no means of cure
for it; therefore, we must submit to nature in
this case, and allow her to perform her own
operations, obeying her laws.

Frequently the veterinary surgeon is blamed,
in this disease, for the losing of an animal which
it was impossible to preserve.

DROPSY OF THE BELLY.

This, like the last-named disease, seldom oc-
curs in the horse ; but when it does, there is

frequently great dilliculty in detecting it. It
may take place afti-r inllamiualion of noine of
ihe abdominal vi.><cera ; and connistM of nii in-
creased deposit of fluid within the cavity of
the belly. Here is formed what is calKd ihe
peritoneal sac, only of such dimensioiiH as to
hold its natural organs, such as the stomaclj,
liver, intestines, &c. If water escapes into
this cavity, it at once becomes a foreif,'n b(uiv,
and is known by the tension of the abdomen,
and by the undulations which are felt by ono
hand, when the belly is gently struck by the
other. Also, if the ear is placed on one side
of the belly, and some person desired lightly to
force the opposite with the hand, the undu-
lating motion of the water will be heard per-
fectly distinct.

In this disease, the urine is made in small
quantities, the thirst is great, and the breath-
ing quick and laborious. This is in conse-
quence of the fluid having taken up a portion
of the cavity of the abdomen, and the lungs
having become pressed upon, and not left suf-
ficient room to perform their natural functions.
From the abdominal viscera, too, pressing ui)on
the diaphragm, the flesh becomes wasted, as
well as the adipose matter, which is frequently
found fl.oating in the fluid.

For this continuation of symptoms we can-
not always rely on a cure ; but the disease for-
tunately happens but seldom, and then it is
frequently the sequel of some other disorder of
the viscera. If the animal, however, has sta-
mina sufiicient, there is a probability of re-
covery. Diuretic medicines are the only means
to rely on, combined with tonics; and we can-
not recommend anything better than the pre^
scription laid down for dropsy in the chest.
If possible, give exercise, rub the legs well, and
bandage with flannel. AV'e have found a cure, it'
taken in time, efl'ected by blistering all fbu'
legs ; and where the blisters rise well, this is
pretty certain of being the case.

WATER FARCY, OR DROPSY OF THE SKIN.

The proi)er name of this disease is anasarca;
but we have kept to the name it is generally
known by, and that because it most frequently
happens with young horses, and consequently,
not having left the hands of the agriculturist,
who might be somewhat puzzled without the

local name.

237

DROrSY.J

THE HOESE, AND

[swelled legs.

"Water farcy is described as a species of
dropsy, rising from a serous fluid being spread
between the skin and flesh ; or, ratlier, it is a
general collection of lymph in the cellular sys-
tem. It shows itself first by a swelling under
the horse's belly. This tumefaction is soft and
inelastic, and when pressed upon by the finger,
retains its mark for some time. By degrees it
ascends and occupies the trunk of the body and
the neck ; even the eyelids, face, and nostrils
appear bloated ; the lips are much swollen ; also
the legs and the sheath become greatly en-
larc^ed. When the disease arrives to this pitch,
breathing becomes difficult, the urine small in
quantities, and dark coloured ; the bow^els are
costive, and perspiration much obstructed. A
remarkable thirst, attended with emaciation of
the whole body, takes place ; and to these symp-
toms may be added, a dull heavy appearance,
and sometimes a cough.

In some cases the watar oozes out through
the pores of the skin ; and the hair, which is,
during the spring and the fall, rather longer
than at other periods, becomes covered with
the fluid thus effused.

This disease may be brought on by all the
causes which produce the last-named ; but
here we should say that debility is the chief
cause. It is very frequent in the spring and
the fall of the year, when horses are weak from
moulting. "When the disease is partial, it is
not so difficult to cure as when it has become
general. In treating for it, we must proceed
to rouse the system by giving tonics, the most
successful of which will be found in the follow-
iAg:—

Cantharides

, 1 drachm.

Sulphate of Iron

. 2 oz.

Sulphate of Copper .

. . 2 do.

Gentian .

. . 4 do.

Mustard

. . 3 do.

Ginger

. . 3 do.

Mix, and form into a mass with soft soap

Divide into twenty-four balls, and give one
every morning.

If the swellings bave become considerable,
puncture them with a middle-sized phleme, or
lancet, in several places, and allow the fluid to
evacuate.

Great care must be taken to keep the
horse warm. He must be clothed well, and
well dressed morning and night; by which
238

means tbe exhalants of the skin will be opened,
and the animal greatly relieved. Attention
must also be paid to hia feeding, and the most
nutritious kinds of food given him ; oats, with
beans, malt, and occasionally a few carrots.
When the weather will permit, let him have
exercise, with his clothing on. This will de-
termine blood to the skin, and give him great
relief; always remembering to put on him, after
he has been dressed, a dry cloth. Do not for-
get to bandage his legs well with new flannel
bandages. If he should not be in the debili-
tated state described, give him, in addi-
tion to the medicine prescribed, two or three
times a week, at night-time — ■

Aloes, Cape . . . .12 drachms.

Nitre 12 do.

llesin 12 do.

Mix, and divide into six balls.

SWELLED LEGS.

Swelled legs is a very prevalent disease of
the horse, principally affecting the hind, or
only one of the hind legs, although the fore
are not exempt from the affection. It arises
from various causes ; but the one we have now
to speak of, is occasioned by a deposition of
fluid in the cellular membrane of the limbs —
commonly in their lower parts, below the
knee to the hoof. If the disease is suffered to
increase, the skin cracks, and ultimately dis-
charges pus, and then the complaint falls
under the head " Grease," which is treated of
in its proper place.

Swelled legs may be brought on by poverty,
or wet straw-yards, especially where the animal
has not been fed well, but kept on the out-
sides of hay-stacks, or that musty bad hay
with which the farmer can do nothing else.

The complaint may supervene on other long-
protracted diseases, and any of the above causes
may produce it. Bad grooming will also bring
it on ; and the disease is very painful, and at
times occasions lameness, and gives a great
deal of trouble.

In all the foregoing stages, it is not difficult
to restore the patient ; for it is evident that the
disease has arisen from the debility of the
absorbents to take up the eff'used fluid, and
return it into the system. In treating for it,
therefore, we must employ tonic medicines to
arouse them to a new action. Bleeding is not

DIABETES.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[diabetls.

at all necessary ; but we wouUl recomiiioiul i\\c
following : —

Sulphate of Iron .... l-> .In.rl.ms.

Cape Aloes 12 do.

Juniper Berries ....<> «o.

Myrrh 0 do.

Form into a mass with soft soap.

Divide into six balls, and give one every morning.
Let the horse's legs be well rubbed and ban-
daged. Give him gentle exercise once or twice
a day; and these things being attended to,
with good grooming and nutritious diet, as
sweet oats, with a little chall' and bran, and
occasionally a few carrots and speared barley,
will restore him. Avoid, of all things, giving
beans, as, when a horse comes from grass, or
the straw-yard, and beans immediately given
to him to force him, as it is called, the heels
generally, after swelling, become cracked.
This leads us to consider those other causes
which occasion swelled legs, as heated and
foul atmosphere, standing long in dung and
urine, living high in the stable, and having

little or no work. ]n coach-horHcs in particu-
lar, where their jounieya do not exceed ei^^htor
ten miles a ilay, which are genenilly performed
in an hour, or a trillo of time more, the diHeiwo
ia brought on by their titaiuling in the stablo
twenty-three hours out of the twenty- four.
Horses coming into hot stables with their
heels wet from having been in water, and
not immediately attended to — in most of tlieso
cases local debility is the cause ; but we
should not say general debility ; because it
occurs to horses high fed and exercised, as'
well as to plethoric animals, which sometimes
are neglected. In treating for swelled legs in
plethoric horses, bleeding will be highly neces-
sary, with a course of physic — according to
strength and constitution — of the purging-
balls. After this, administer a dozen of diuretic
balls, as prescribed in the list of medicines at
the end of this work ; and proceed as recom-
mended in the article Condition, to which we
beg to refer the reader ; and which will bo found
to contain all the directions necessary.

CHAPTER XXII,

DIABETES; BLOODY URINE ; STRANG UAKY ; URINARY ORGANS.

DIABETES, OR PROFUSE STALING.

Diabetes is not frequently found in the horse ;
but as it is occasionally, it deserves notice.
Its indications are great thirst, accompanied
with a voracious appetite, gradual emaciation
of the whole body, and a frequent discharge of
urine, containing a large proportion of saccha-
rine and other matter, voided even in a quan-
tity exceeding that of the aliment or fluid
introduced. These are the characteristics of
this disease. But it is always much milder
when symptomatic, than when it appears as a
primary affection. It may be occasioned by
the too frequent use of strong diuretic medi-
cines, severe evacuations, or by anything that
tends to produce an impoverisa-id state ot the
blood, or general debility; such as bad hay,
heated oats, or such as may have been long on
their passage, either from the Baltic or Ireland.

It has, however, taken place, in many instances,
without an obvious cause.

That which immediately gives rise to the
disease, has always been considered as obscure,
and various theories have been advanced to
account for it. It has been usual to consider
it as the effect of relaxation of the kidneys, or
as depending on a general coUiquation of the
fluids. The liver has been thought, by some,
to be its chief source ; but this organ is hardly
ever affected by it.

The primary seat of the disease, although
not absolutely determined, is considered, by
the majority of practitioners, to be dependent
on a primary aHection of the kidneys.

It sometimes comes on so slowly and imper-
ceptibly, without any previous disorder, that it,
now and then, attains to a considerable degree,
and subdiita long without being accompanied

239

DIABETES.]

THE HOESE, AXD

[UEINB.

by evident disarrangement in any particular
part of the system. The intense thirst which
always, and the voracious appetite which fre-
quently attend it, being often the only re-
.Tiarkable symptoms. It, however, generally
happens that a very considerable affection of the
stomach precedes the coming on of the disease ;
and that in its progress, besides the symptoms
already mentioned, there is great dryness and
roughness of the coat.

Under a long continuance of the disease,
the body becomes much emaciated; the legs
swell, great debility arises, and the pulse is
weak and small.

In some instances, the quantity of urine ex-
pelled is much greater than can be, by any
means, accounted for from all sources united ;
and when subjected to analysis, it is found to
contain a considerable quantity of saccharine
matter.

On dissecting and examining the kidneys of
horses which have fallen victims to this disease,
they have invariably appeared to have been
much affected. In some instances they have
been found in a loose flabby state, much en-
larged in size, and of a very pale colour. In
others, they have appeared much more vascular
than when in a healthy state, approaching
pretty nearly to what takes place in inflam-
mation. The bladder, in almost all cases, is
found to contain a considerable quantity of
muddy urine.

In treating for it, there have been a great
variety of remedies proposed ; but their success
is generally precarious, or, at least, only tem-
porary. Medicines determining blood to the
skin, are good for it ; therefore we recommend
the following: —

Antimony , . . • . . 1 lb.
Sulphur 1 do.

Eub together in a mortar, and divide into two-
ounce packets. Give one in the feed, morning
and night ; first making the feed slightly damp,
that the powder may adhere to it.

It" the horse should appear weak and much
debilitated, give him one of the above powders
in his feed every night, and the following the
first thing in the morning : —

Opium I drachm.

Catechu 3 do.

Arsenic 10 grains.

Form into a ball with syrup of buckthorn.
240

In addition to this, give about a pint of fresh
lime-water, with a horn, every mid-day. To
make the lime-water, take of quick-lime,
light and fresh-burnt, one pound ; put it into
an earthen vessel, and pour upon it two gallons
of water ; let it stand until the lime is settled,
then pour off" the clean water. It must be
kept in bottles, well corked. Keep the horse
warm, and well clothed, and give moderate ex-
ercise. Do not ride him, but lead him, the
groom riding another. Great attention must
be paid to his food. If it is at a time of the
year when new hay can be got, give some to
prevent him from being thirsty. Oats must
not be given, but barley, speared, or wheat
with it ; but not much.

BLOODV URINE.

This is a disease generally caused by some
injury done to the kidneys, in straining to draw
heavy loads, or carrying heavy burdens. It may
be caused by ulceration of the kidneys, pro-
duced by violent exercise, or bursting some of
the smaller vessels or other urinary passages, or
any causes that may occasion rupture of the ca-
pillary blood-vessels in those parts. If there
is a sudden discharge of pure blood by the
urinary passages, it comes from the kidneys;
but if a small quantity of dark-coloured
blood, whether it be mixed with purulent
matter or not, it proceeds from the bladder.

In prescribing for a cure, avoid giving diure-
tics, for they are very hurtful ; and endeavour
to restore the parts to a healthy state as soon
as possible. With a view to this desirable end,
give the following : —

Catechu 3 drachms.

Opium 1 do.

Alum 2 do.

Aloes, Barbadoes . . . 1 do.
Form into a ball with honey or treacie.

Give one morning and night.

Many persons apply hot sheep-skins to the
loins, but we never saw much good effiect arise
from their application. On applying the follow-
ing, however, great good will arise to the loins
of the animal.

Liquor of Ammonia . , . , 2 oz.

Olive Oil 2 do.

Eub this on the loins morning and night.
Mix, and when applied, shake the bottle well.
If the horse is in high condition, take three or

BTBANOrABT.]

MODEKN VETEKINAKY PRACTICE.

[btbakouaht.

four quarts of blooi.1 from him, aiul kot'p Iiim
warm.

STRANUU.\RY. OR OBSTRUCTION OF URINli:.

Thi3 disease consists of an obstruction, or
temporary suppression of urine, and may arise
from dilVorent causes ; for, the parts appro-
priated to the secretion and excretion of urine
are so numerous, that the exact cause of the
disease becomes a matter of ambiguity and
uncertainty, even to very good judges.

Stranguary, sometimes, is a concomitant of
inflammatory colic, and is then the effect of
pressure from the indurated ficces, or hardened
dung, retained in the rectum. AVhen it docs
not arise from this cause, it may proceed from
inflammation of the kidneys themselves, from
ulceration, spasms in any particular part, in-
flammation of the neck, or the bladder itself.

"When it is the consequence of colic, and
proceeds only from that cause, it may be con-
sidered merely symptomatic, and may be en-
tirely subdued on its first appearance, Tlie
signs of the suppression are too palpable to be
mistaken. The animal is in an almost per-
petual position to stale, without effect — indi-
cating, by action and attitude, the expectation
of an unusual discharge ; when, after frequent
straining, the effort terminates in a groan of
seeming disappointment. He does not, in
general, appear in acute pain, but seems full in
the flank, somewhat dejected, and, to a minute
observer, appears not only conscious of his
inability to stale, but as if supplicating assis-
tance and relief.

The most certain means of affording relief
is to abstract about three or four quarts of
blood, which will re);?x the parts ; then intro-
duce the hand into the rectum, and remove all
hardened dung. This operation — which, by
the old farriers, is called hack-raking — being
done, throw up an emollient clyster, com-
posed of —

Thin Gruel .... 3 pints.
Common Salt .... 3 table-spoonfuls.

Let this be injected nwiderattrly warm, and
retained in the body as long an posMible, by
keeping the tail pressed down against tlio
fundament. If the bleeding and clvMlcru have
not iuid the desired effect in a moderalu time
repeat the clyster, and give —

C:>mi)lior 2 (Irachin*.

Nine 1 (,/..

Form into a ball witli treacle.
Administer as soon as possible.

These are safe, mild, and efficacious mea-
sures, and, in general, produce the desired
effect, without any uneasy sensations, liepeat
the remedies every four or five hours, until the
object is gained.

Tlius much for stranguary occasioned by
spasm, or inflammation of the neck of the
bladder; but it may proceed from inflam-
mation or ulceration of tiie kidneys, accom-
panied with a paralytic afl'ection or palsy of
the parts; in either of which, symptoms are
frequently doubtful, and seldom certain. Cir-
cumstances may constantly vary in different
subjects, so as to render the true seat of
disease a matter of conjecture only.

Tiie only symptoms to which some certainty
may be attributed are the following : — If pro-
ceeding from spasm, on either part, there may
be frequent periodical relaxations, which will
permit the urine to flow in small quantities
for a very short time, when it may as suddenly
stop. In this case, the urine will be of its
usual colour, or at times rather darker, as if
not perfectly complete in its secretion from
the blood. In such a case the treatment
should be as just pointed out, but with the
addition of repeating the bleeding.

AV^here the case originates in palsy, or ulce-
ration of any of the above-named organs, ful-
filling the functions of the evacuations, no
great expectation of cure can be indulged in,
especially if the case is really one of palsy,
which approaches certain death, and which ex-
hibits all tlie characteristics of the most dan-
gerous species of disease.

2 I

'Zi^

CASTBATTON.]

THE HOESE, AND

[CASTEATIOK.

CHAPTER XXIII.

CASTRATION, OR GELDING; HERNIA, OR RUPTURE.

CASTRATION, OR GELDING.
The operation of castrating a horse is by the
removal of his testicles, when, in technical
language, he becomes what is called a gelding.
The operation is the cause of the loss, to a
cousiderable degree, of that fiery disposition
sometimes displayed in the entire animal, or
stallion. The geldiug is considered of so
much more general use, that few entire horses
are kept, except in the racing stud, or by
individuals, to breed from.

The proper time for castrating colts, is
when they are about twelve, or from that to
eighteen months old; but we have known both
testicles, even at that age, not having de-
scended into the scrotum. When such is the
case, the operation must be delayed a few
months longer. Some breeders, according to
the custom of their locality, will have their
colts cut when they are only about three
months old ; but, for all general purposes, we
should recommend that colts should not be cut
earlier than at twelve months. By this time
they are better formed, and it is at a time
when they cannot be used for any kind of work.
In Yorkshire they do not cut until the
animals are three or four years old ; hence the
high breed of coach-horses in that county.
Breeders there work them until they are
nearly four or more years old, then castrate
and bring them out at five years fit for the
dealer ; and, with the exception of cart-horses,
they are the most valuable kind to breed from.

There is a great difterence in castrating
young colts and old horses — the former re-
quiring no preparatory means to be employed,
in consequence of their having been con-
tinually at grass. Not so, however, with old
horses, which should be bled, and liave a dose
of physic, and be fed on bran mashes for a week
before the operation takes place.

In effecting the operation, the mode of pro-
ceeding is to have the horse led out on to
some soft straw or loose manure, then the
hobbles put on, and the animal cast on his left
side. The off hind leg should be secured with
242

the side line, passed through a web collar
buckled round the neck, and the line taken
round the heel, and again through the collar.
Before the operation is commenced, everything
should be made perfectly and securely fast, that
there may be no possibility of its giving way.
Having everything in readiness— such as the
smallest scalpel, the clams armed with fresh
tow, and a curved needle armed with fine
pack-thread, in case of accident — take one of
the sacs of the scrotum firmly in the left hand ;
then having the scalpel in the right, make a
section in the skin in the most depending part
of the bag, through tlie integuments, and of
sufiicient length for the testicle to protrude.
Having accomplished this, lay down the
scalpel, grasp the protruded testicle with the
right hand, and gently draw back the scrotum
witli the other, so as to expose the spermatic
cord, on which fasten the clams sufficiently
tight to prevent its slipping. All this being
done, take the searing-iron, of a dark red heat,
and saw the testicle oft'. AVe say saw, because
if a saw-like motion is made, the end of the
cord becomes cerated, and then requires but
little more from the iron. Although in all
cases it is necessary to touch the end of the
cord again before loosening the clams, to pre-
vent bleeding, it is easily accomplished, pro-
vided due care is used. The clams may now
be gradually loosened; and if blood does not
appear, proceed with the other in the same
way. Should a little blood escape from the
first orifice, do not feel alarmed, for it may be
only from the struggling of the horse, which
may be permitted now to get up, and let him
be placed for a 'ie.'ff days in a barn or out-
house. AVhea the horse has been housed,
give a diuretic alterative ball, composed of the
subjoined ingredients : —

Cape Aloes .... 3 drachms

Resin 2 do.

Form into a ball with soft soap.

Continue the feed of bran mashes for three
or four days, then turn him out.

We have never found this simple method to

CASTRATION.]

M01")T:rvX VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[CARTEATIOir.

fail, if proper care were taken ; alllu)ii';li it is
a matter of WDinler to us that many horses
do not die, from the nninh brutal manner
in wliielv the operation is pertornied in aomo
counties. Some veterinariana will not per-
form the operation at all, as it requires all the
skill of the surgeon.

AVhilst serving in India, there was a case in
which we were con.sulted, the subject of which
was a beautiful chestnut horse. Although he
was perfectly quiet and docile, the scrotum
had become so much enlarged in one of the
sacs, that it hung down within a few inches of
the hock of the animal. On examining this,
the testicle was found remarkably small ; but
it contained a considerable quantity of fluid,
which proved the fact that the horse was
affected with hydrocele. The fluid could
readily have been extracted ; but fearing the
bag might fill again, it was determined to per-
form an operation. Accordingly, on cutting
through the tunics of the scrotum, at least
three quarts of yellowish fluid escaped. At
this time it was difficult to retain hold of the
testicle, from the considerable enlargement of
the scrotum. However, this was done, and
the clams put well on ; but not being con-
tented with doing well, the testicle was imme-
diately removed with a scalpel, leaving the
cord only within the clams. AVith the hor.-.Vs
struggles, and the cremaster muscle being oa
the stretch, he easily withdrew it from be-
tween that instrument, when the cord of
course receded into the sac, and bleeding com-
menced most furiously. A straight needle was
then taken, and the glover's suture intro-
duced, when the scrotum filled with blood to a
tremendous extent. The horse was then
ordered to be kept quiet by himself, and six
drachms of aloes given him, with bran mashes
and hay. On the following day, the scrotum
was immensely large. Some warm water and
a sponge was then procured, and the stitches
becun to be cut. When this was done, it was
found that three parts of a common stable-
pailful of coagulated blood came tumbling
down through the orifice made for the escape
of the testicle. The scrotum was now well
syringed with warm water, into which about
two ounces of chloride of lime had been put,
until all appeared safe, and no discharge of
blood whatever was seen. The scrotum was

dressed in tluH manner for three or four davs
internally, and regularly balhed with warm
water outwardly, and around the uhealh, three
times a day. In three days ovtr a month iho
horse was fit to be ridden.

The clams used in India are made from a
round piece of wood about the size of tho
hanille of a sweeping-broom, and are about
live inches long. They are slit down tho
middle; so that they have two flat sides, with
a groove about the size of a goose-quill up the
middle. This groove is filled with corrosive
sublimate, one drachm, and hog's lard suifi-
cient to form an ointment. They are, before
placing on the cord, tied together at one end,
then at the other pressed together with pincers
and tied at the other : these are taken off on
the morrow after the operation.

In performing the operation of castration,
there are cautions required, and those of
moment ; and although the operation is mainly
performed by ignorant men, who are called
cutters or gelders, and, to all appearance,
things go on as they should do; yet if any
alteration for the worse takes place, these men
do not understand what to do. It therefore
behoves every man who undertakes the opera-
tion, to be well informed, not only of the parts
involved in it, but their means of cure.

The greatest enemy the operator has to
contend with, is inflammation of the parts.
Should this take place, and the horse walk
stiff on his hind legs, moving with a straddling
gait — especially if he be an old one — the parts
should be well bathed with warm water three
or four times a day, and each time wiped
thoroughly dry ; then the enlarged scrotum
and sheath should be rubbed all over with
o-ood digestive ointment, some of which may
be introduced into the sac, which will promote
a discharge. Give tho ball, as recommended
before, every second day, until the swelling
goes done.

The food must be regulated according to
the ar^e or size of the horse; but much cora
must not be given him ; bran mashes, greeu
food. Six'., are the best. To old animals, if
attacked with swellings after the operation,
a dose of physic must be given; and they
should be bled. All the other applications
will be needful to be attended to, precisely in
the same manner as directed for young horses.

243

HBfiNIA.]

THE HOESE, AND

[hernia.

Lock-jaw not unfrequently supervenes on
this operation in India, ia consequence of the
injury the nerve sustains, from the operator
pulling at the testicle too forcibly, as already
described.

HERNIA, OR RUPTURE.

Hernia, or rupture, is the displacement of a
portion of the abdominal contents, from the
cavity outwards, by some of the natural, or by
some artificial openings. The intestines are
by far the most common of the abdominal
viscera. Wlien such displacement occurs
through an oiiening, and the protruded part
can be readily returned, it is considered as
reducible hernia. If, on the other hand, the
opening is too small, of course it becomes
irreducible. If the mouth of the sac around
the intestine constricts, and produces inflam-
mation of the gut, it then forms what is called
strangulated hernia, and sometimes proves
fatal, unless relief be promptly obtained.

From the position of the horse, stallions are
frequently affected with scrotal hernia, from
the scrotal cavity remaining open to the
abdomen, and the intestine descending ; but
this is not the case with geldings, for the
absorption which takes place after castration,
almost prevents the possibility of scrotal hernia.
In India, scrotal hernias are almost of daily
occurrence, especially with horses which have
violent action to perform, and are of a loose
weak nature. Castration is not general in
India ; and the relaxing state of the climate
may be considered to be the principal cause of
this, as the operation is attended, not only
with inconvenience, but great danger.

Omental hernia is exceedingly common in
the East, where the operation of castration
having been performed on a horse, the omentum
protrudes of itself. The clams were put on,
and the finger introduced into the sac, which,
as far as it could be felt, was ripped ofi". The
horse did well afterwards. Accidents, violent
♦ exertion, kicks, gores from neat cattle, may
produce ventral hernia in any part of the
Cfwity, and they will form a pouch or sac.

Horses may die from strangulated hernia;
the death of which may be attributed to simple
ententes, or any other cause. There was, in
Devonport, a case of a black horse, which, on
being brought into stable, evinced symptoms of
244

ententes. He was bled to about six quarts ;
ordered gruel with clysters, as if for enterltes.
Some hours afterwards it was found that
the horse was not better. Counter-irritatioa
was then prescribed, but to no efiect- The
horse died soon afterwards ; and on opening him,
a strong ligamentous cord, as tliick as a man'a
finger, was found inserted into the peritoneum,
and continued up to the mesentery, into which
it was equally firmly inserted. Now, by some
violent exertion in going on the roads of
Cornwall, where the horse was worked, the
intestines had been thrown over this cord, and
could not replace themselves. Strangulation
was the consequence, clearly showing that vio-
lent exertions produce the disease. — To return,
however, to our subject.

Most cases of reducible hernia, originating
in accident to the walls of the abdomen, can
only be supported by a bandage ; the great
force of the abdominal muscles, and our in-
ability to keep the animal perfectly still while
the parts unite, preventing their permanent
reduction.

With scrotal hernia, however, we have a
much greater advantage ; and although the
temporary reduction of the gut may be com-
monly aflected by the application of the texis,
or by pressure, we have performed this opera-
tion when the accident never occurred again.

The symptoms whicli indicate scrotal hernia
appear in some of the actions of the animal. He
paws continually ; lies down, and as frequently
gets up ; sweats profusely about his loins and
quarters ; sometimes takes a roll ; but this ap-
pears to be done with sucli difliculty, that after
immediately doing so, he will jump up so sud-
denly, that it is difficult to get out of his way.
If the horse is an entire — for we have heard
writers talk of scrotal hernia in geldings, al-
though an instance never came under our notice
— examine well the scrotum, in reference to its
fulness and tensity. Being satisfied on this
point, have the horse's four legs secured, and
drawn by a rope until he completely lies on his
back. This being done, endeavour to return
the gut, by taking hold of the scrotum of the
diseased side, and pressing it back through
the fore finger and thumb. Should this not
be readily accomplished, recourse must be had
to the operation for hernia. When this is the
case, take the diseased sac into the left hand

BTBAIN8.]

MODERN VETERTNAKY PTJArTICi:.

[BTRAiyS.

lightly; then, instead ot'ciittintjiit tlio most prii-
duloiis j>iirtofthes;u',a3 in castration, ciiutiously
cut into tlie sac near the seatn or pubis, runnin<j
between the saes of the serotmn. Next take
tlie scalpel, and divide the inte-^iiini. nts care-
fully, until the contents of the sac can be felt
with the fin^;er. The opening made should be
so small as only to admit the point of the
fore iin<:er. If the sac should bo large or di-
lated, tirst make an incision on the side, tliat
the fore finger may be introduced as far as
possible ; tuen a second cut should be made,
allowiug the fiuger to bo the dire"*^^'^" This

being accomplished, introtluco the fmger into
the abdomen, and feel fur the abdominal ring.
When this has been accomplirthed, tako a bin-
tory, and run it down by your finger, and
partially cut through the ring, keeping the
edge of the history bearing forward and up-
ward. Should you succeed in reducing the
hernia at first, the object is gained ; but if not,
vou may cautiously try again, and divide the
ring, should such be required. Immediately
castrate the horse on that side. Give a gentlo
dose of mcdiciue and soft food, as braa
mashes, &c.

CHAPTER XXIV.

STRAINS. — STRAINS IN GENERAL; IN TnE SHOULDER; BACK SINEWS ; OVER- STEPPING ; BREAKING-D0T7N ;
RUPTURE OF THE BACK SINEW; STRAIN OF THE FETLOCK JOINT; COFFIN JOINT; ROUND BONE;
STIFLE JOINT; ON CURB.

STRAINS IN GENERAL. 1

Strain's are of two kinds; the one originating'
in the ligamentary parts, by which the different I
joints are preserved in contact : the other, in
a relaxation of the muscles or tendons, or in a
rupture of any of the membranes covering or
adhering to such tendons, the purposes of
which are the direct office of motion. Hence
it is, that the farrier and the groom are so fre-
quently at a loss for their definition of any
particular lameness, fixing by conjecture upon
any part, and attributing it to any cause but
the right one. In giving their judgments, of
course, they are seldom directed by any mental
information, having little or no conception or
scientific knowledge of the structure of parts,
their purposes or appropriations.

The elastic part of a tendon or sinew, is that
which is the muscular, of which, in fact, the
tendon is a continuation only, with this differ-
ence, that the tendon is made by nature to
occupy a much smaller space than the muscle;
for it would destroy the synmietry of the ani-
mal if the mn?cles of the fore leg were to extend
down to the heel, instead of that fine uniform
make which the tendon gives, especially to the

race-horse. The tendon is not of that elastic
nature that some writers have described, but it is
in the muscular end where the elasticity exists.
This, at first sight, may appear strange, for the
injury takes place in the tendon, and not in the
muscle ; and for this reason, the non- elasticity
of the tendon and its sheath will rather sub-
mit to rupture, from want of the elastic
quality. These tendons, or sinews, are strong
substances, composed of innumerable threads
or fibres, possessing the properties of extension
and contraction to a certain degree, beyond
which their flexibility cannot be extended
without palpable injury and certain lameness;
for by overstraining their elastic quality, small
as it is, rupture is the consequence, accom-
panied with lameness in proportion to the
injury sustained.

To render this idea as clear as possible, let
us suppose that a horse is going at his best
pace on the trot, and in so doing his toe covers
a prominence, or the edge of one. In such a
case the heel has no support ; and the conse-
quence is, an extension of the tendons, or a
rupture of the same ; by which means part of
nature's work is destroyed, and what is termed

STRAINS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[strains.

letting down of the back sinews, has taken place.
Instances of this are frequent on the turt,
when the horse is said to be " broken down."

When this has happened, the first thing to
be done is to prevent, as much as possible, in-
flammation from taking place in the parts.

To this end, take away, so soon as convenient
after the injury is sustained, a portion of blood
adequate to the state and strength of the sub-
ject, from a vein as contiguous to the part
affected as may be consistent ; and as success
will in a great degree depend upon the earliest
applications, take of

Vinegar 1 quart.

Make this hot, and add extract of Saturn, one
ounce.

Foment the leg wdtb this until it is ex-
hausted— say for two or three times a day ;
and after each fomentation, bandage the
leg well and firm, with a woollen bandage.
Give bran mashes for a day or two, and the
following : — ■

Cape Aloes . , , . 2 drachms.

Juniper Berries . . . 1 do.
Form into a ball with soft soap.

Give one every other night.

After fomenting with the above for two days,
use the following embrocation. Let two or
three table-spoonfuls be gently and gradually
rubbed into the affected part, every night and
morning, always remembering to use the ban-
dage tolerably tight and firm : —
Liniment for Strains.

Barbadoes Tar ....

Spirits of Turpentine

Opodeldoc

Mix well together, and keep well stopped for

2 oz.
2 do.
4 do.

"Whilst applying this liniment, rest must be
given to the animal. Too much stress cannot be
laid upon this first necessity, from which the
greatest good must certainly result. It is to the
want of patience and mercy only, that we are to
attribute the blemishes to be found in such an in-
finite number of fine horses. Were such horses
indulged with proper time in the field, or the
luxury of a loose box, many of them would
be saved from having their legs seared with
the hot iron. Although the present age is full
pf equestrian sagacity and penetration, few can
be found, whose reason or experience has de-
monstrated to them the absolute necessity of
246

time and rest to restore the tone of a relaxed
muscle or tendon.

AVhen the horse has continued in the stable,
under the treatment mentioned, for at least a
fortnight, he should, if in the winter-time, have
his liberty in a loose box, bay of a barn, or large
stable, where he will, by a natural attention to
his own ease and safety — unless hurried, driven,
or disturbed, which should by all means be pre-
vented— sufficiently guard the injured parts.
On the contrary, if in the summer, he should
be turned into a paddock or pasture, alone, at a
distance from other animals, where he cannot,
by their neighings, be excited to any exertion
of spirit or extravagance that may occasion a
relapse. In either case, if the enlargement of
the part does not subside, and the lameness
bears no visible marks of amendment so soon as
may be reasonably expected, take him up, and
apply a liquid blister, composed of the following
ingredients : —

3Iild Liquid Blister.

Cantharldes, powdered ... 4 drachms.

Vinegar 4 oz.

Mix well together.

This must be gradually rubbed over the
whole part for at least half-an-hour, letting
it, if possible, be entirely absorbed around the
seat of pain; then apply the bandage as before
described, and shorten the halter, to prevent
the horse from gnawing the part. At the
expiration of three or four days, he may
either be turned otit, or put into a loose box,
as the time of year may serve; but let the
time of year be what it may, a loose box is
preferable to anything. When be is first
brought into use, let bis work or exercise be
gentle, for fear of a relapse. If this should
occur from some accident or misadventure, the
following lotion must be applied to the affected
part : —

The best Vinegar, or Verjuice . . 1 quart.

Common Salt 4 oz.

Rub the parts well with this twice a day.

By pursuing this mode of treatment, we
have seen the complete cure of many, without
the necessity of firing, which is in general by
far too hastily adopted, and hurried on by the
frequently unnecessary anxiety of the farrier.
With all kinds of strains, however, the animal
must have rest ; and to this alone, nine times
out of ten, the cure is to be attributed. Even

BTnATNS.1

MODEltN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[STRAIXS.

lifter firing, in extreme cases, turiiint; cut, and
t:ikin<; the liortio up souiui, tho oun^ or souiui-
noss is rather to bo assignod to the rest than
the firing.

Strains in the ligainonlary parts are in gene-
ral oceasioned by sudden jerks, short turns, or
they may arise iVoni the limbs sinking in deep
ground, and tlie exertions wliich have to be made
to get tliem extricated. The ligamentary parts
being situated at the junction of bones, and,
in some cases, covered with muscles and soft
parts, no great expectation of relief can be
formed from the eilicacy of external applica-
tion, when the seat of pain is unluckily so
remote from tlie surface. AVe will now, how-
ever, enter upon a more especial description
of strains, and their mode of treatment, when
they occur in particular parts of the anatomical
structure.

STRAIN IN THE SHOULDER.

Strain in the shoulder was formerly called
chest, or body founder. AVhere there is strain
in the shoulder, there cannot be the slightest
mistake in discovering it, for the horse, in his
pace, makes a circuitous or rotary motion of
the leg that is aftected, and drags his toe on
the ground, in endeavouring to bring it forward.
He also, if we may be allowed tiie term, ap-
pears to hutch up that side altogether, in
endeavouring to walk.

These strains are frequently the consequence
of a side wrench, or slip, by which the fore
legs become so widely separated, that the
muscles are stretched to an unnatural extent,
or, in some cases, are actually ruptured ; the
greatest pain being evinced. The ligamentous
attachment also participates in the injury, as
the muscles of tliese parts are of themselves
of a peculiarly delicate and tender nature, so as
easily to become ruptured. Slioulder strains do
not frequently occur ; though grooms and
farriers, and other persons connected with
horses, are often led, from habit, to attribute
to them every lameness they do not under-
stand, and the seat of which does not make
itself evident to the untutored senses ; for, on
viewing a horse in front, the muscles of
one shoulder will sometimes appear wasted.
Though this be so evident, it requires more
than usual explanation to make even in-
telligent persons believe that the evil did

not originate where it appears to liavo done.
In all affections of tlie feet, where tlu'ro
is much [tain and lainenctss, nine timed
out of ten, tho lameness is placed on llio
shoulder, and this in consequence of persons
not knowing the real seat of disease; for the
horse will draw his fore legs closer together,
wlien the spine of tlie blade-bono becomes
prominent, and the whole substance seeina
lessened. Tlie origin is from inaction, in
which case muscles always diminish ; added to
which, the })ain the animal is continually in,
occasions him to give rest to the diseased
limb.

It is very necessary, therefore, to be ablo
accurately to distinguish shoulder strain ; and
if proper attention is paid to the rules before
laid down, as to the action of the leg, there
will be but little difficulty in at once pro-
nouncing where the seat of lameness exists.
AV^hen the horse is at rest, the limb is gene-
rally pushed forward, the animal scarcely daring
to touch the ground with it, the toe only jusl
resting on it, as we see when he seems to be
in tlie act of lifting the leg. By these means
it is easy to distinguish shoulder strain from
diseases of the feet ; for in those cases, the
horse puts his foot straight out — what is called
pointing — ^resting on the entire foot. These
symptoms being so entirely different to affec-
tions of the feet, there can be no difficulty in
determining between the two, especially if, in
taking the leg off the ground, and extending
it forward as much as possible, the muscles of
the chest are at the same time pressed. This
will at once determine, in the miud of a judge,
the seat of lameness.

The seat of the lameness being discovered,
we refer the reader to that portion of the
W'Ork treating of Strains in General; and,
as a remedy, we recommend the use of tho
liniment directed for strains.

Some people prefer what are called repellents,
or cold applications ; but these will be always
found to fail, nothing answering so well as a
remedy that will promote the action of the ab-
sorbents, and, at the same time, act as a counter-
irritant. Should the injury to the parts occa-
sion a degree of fever, let blood be taken from
the jugular vein, according to the size and
strength of the animal. Apply then the tar
liniment; but do not apply a common blister,

247

STRAINS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[strains.

whether the lameness arise from a ligamentous
strain of the shoulder, or from the muscles of
the chest ; for, at best, either blemish or
eschar will be produced. As a mild applica-
tion in the form of a blister, we recommend
the mild liquid blister in the article on Strains
in General. Apply as directed under the
head of that article, rubbing on the affected
part, morning and night, until tlie swelling
and inflammation will not allow this to be
continued longer. Be not alarmed at this,
but wait for two or three days, and the
swelling will subside, when the application
should be repeated, until the same effects
again prevent the application. In this way a
mild inflammation should be kept up for a
week or ten days, in accordance with the abate-
ment of the disease. It is very seldom neces-
sary to continue the application after the
second time, the disease generally yielding by
that time to its use. This will be found a
much more eligible mode of practice than the
common blister ointment.

In addition to the above remedies, the
alterative medicine, as before directed, must
not be forgotten to be given, as it will not
only keep the system cool, but will promote
the absorption of any extravasated fluid that
may have taken place iu consequence of the
injury.

There is one thing in strain of the shoulder,
which must in nowise be lost sight of; and
that is rest. We have already mentioned this
in the article on Strains in General; but it
cannot be too deeply impressed on the minds
of the keepers of horses ; for, though the lame-
ness may disappear on bringing the animal
first to work, iu nine cases out of ten, the
lameness will return on the least exertion. We
would, therefore, again recommend at least a
month or two in a loose box, or in a field
wliere he can be quiet, previous to using him,
though he may not appear lame.

Horses sometimes, from other horses, receive
kicks, which aftect the shoulder, and occasion
considerable lameness, when there is no strain
whatever. When such is the case, bathe the
shoulder well with warm water ; after which,
wipe completely dry, and apply the tar lini-
ment, as directed before. Insert a rowel in
the chest, which will be preferable to bleeding
in the plate vein.
248

STRAIN OR CLAP IN THE BACK SINEWS.
A strain, or clap in the back sinews, is not
thought so much of by some writers as it
really deserves ; but it rarely occurs, that a
horse when once strained in his back sinews, or
tendons, or their sheaths, ever becomes able to
perform much hard work. Still, we have known
both race-horses and hunters to be capable of
work after an accident of this kind ; but not
frequently so. However, as the disease is one
which often occurs, we must do our best to
alleviate the acuteness of the pain under which
the animal labours when visited by such an
affliction. **

Referring to the article on Strains in
General, it is there stated, that laceration of
some of the ligamentous fibres may occasion
the aflection ; still it is, however, more gen-
erally confined to a distension of those parts,
and of the sheaths of the tendons beyond their
structural capacity ; although there is little
reason to doubt that the tendons themselves
are also sometimes acted on. This disease
may occur to the hind legs, as well as to the
fore ones ; but we never saw it attack the hind
legs. It may, however, be brought on in the
fore legs by treading on anything suddenly ;
such as in downward leaps, in attempting to
recover a false step, or treading unevenly on
any hard or prominent substance. It is also
occasioned frequently by lowering the heels too
much, or too suddenly, by which the tendons
are brought too much into action. When the
injury has occurred, inflammation, with all its
attendants of heat, swelling, pain, and lame-
ness, and, in all probability, an incapability of
extending the limb, come on. The eft'usion
fi'om the ruptured vessels may be absorbed
with proper treatment ; but if coagulate lymph
is once formed, it will either be accomplished,
or, perhaps, not at all. More especially this will
be the case if the lymph should be thrown out
between the tendon and its sheath, where it is
not so readily absorbed, and where it may
form callosities around the back sinews, which
so frequently follow these accidents, and, by
their enlargement, obstruct the motion of the
limbs, which is felt in a great degree after ex-
ertion, and is shown in a particular manner at
first starting. Having become warm, however,
the lameness apparently leaves him ; and it is

oveb-steppinq] modern VETERINAUT PTIACTICT3. [nnEAKiKO-Di.wN.

then said bv persons wlio have to drive suoli a | cannot pot out of the way of the hind ones,
horse, " Oh ! it wilt (/o ojj'as he hecovws warm ;" I When tliia ocrurH it is very liable to injure llio
not at all rt'lK'otiiiu; on the sulVcriiiKs of the fore leps, and, in some cases, bo iiiuc-h so, nu to

poor animal. The artion of exeirise, oceasiun-
ing friction, prudiiccs warmth, stimulates the
iibsorbenta to ttike up the lliiul Iroin the
mouth of the ruptured vessels, and conse-
quently, for ft time, or when the liorse is in
action, the swelling and lameness either
partially or wholly disappear. i'rom these
circumstances, the advantage of hand-rubbing
and the flannel bandage will at once be per-
ceived.

Por the treatment of strain in the back
sinews, we must refer our readers to where we
have treated of strains in general. Here, how-
ever, we may add, that on the first discovery
of the accident, the shoes should be taken olf,
and the heels turned up about half an inch.
This will greatly relieve the pain under which
the animal may be labouring. Bleed in the
plate vein ; next bathe the leg in warm water,
and use the "tar liniment," as before directed.
If symptomatic fever should come on, use the
alterative medicine, and a cooling diet, as bran
mashes, and a few carrots, now and then ; corn
need not be so plentifully given.

Should the repetition of the liquid blister
not be successful, have recourse to firing ; and,
with care, this operation may be performed
not only with neatness, but as scarcely to be
seen. We have, in severe cases, been obliged
to fire twice, which has proved successful ; still
we do not recommend firing until all other
remedies fail ; and previous to which, we would
advise the application of mercurial plaister ;
or, perhaps, what may be more convenient,
mercurial ointment. Take of

Mercurial Ointment (strong) . , , 2 oz.
Kub a portion of this on the diseased part,
first warming it to make it ])liable, morniug
ana night, for three days ; then, waiting one
day, apply the liquid blister as before described.
Put a cradle on the neck of the horse, to pre-
vent his biting the parts ; and if he appears
rritable, tie him up to the rack.

OVER-STEPPING.
Over- stepping, or, as it is called by some,
over-reaching, arises from a peculiar length of
action which the hind lejis have to the fore

throw the horse dnwn.

()ver-ste|)ping Homctimes liappeiiH from the
toe of the hind foot being too long, and not
squared oil" properly. It may also occur from
bad rilling, in j)ulling up short, or by a \uirnQ
galloping with the wrong leg first, which alto-
gether alters his gait, so much bo as to bo
uncomfortable to both " man and beast," Tho
consequence is, that in the attempt to get
himself into the proper mode of gallop, he will
strike his hind foot against his fore leg; and, if
he does not come down, will lacerate the leg,
sometimes in a terrible manner. AN'^henever
tlie wound is such as to leave a flap of skin,
whether it is U[)ward3 or downwards, or side-
ways, it should immediately be cut ofl*as close
as possible, as a reunion of the parts can
never take place; and by leaving the flap, and
attempting to efl'ect the reunion of the parts,
there would be a thickening and a greater
blemish, and its removal would be found
necessary at last.

Though we have introduced this afFection in
the chapter on Strains, it probably would have
been better in the chapter on Wounds ; but it
so frequently happens that the tendons become
injured by the blow inflicted, that we may be
pardoned for including it with diseases of the
tendons.

In treating for over-stepping, poulticing wilV

be highly advisable ; and nothing can be better

than a warm bran poultice, which should be

applied until the inflammation is subdued,

always recollecting to bathe the leg in hot

water, AVheu the inflammation is removed,

use the following two or three times a day : —

Hog's Lard . . • . . .2 oz.

Alum, finely powdered ... 3 do.

Sulphate of Zinc , . . . i do.

Work these ingredients well together in a
mortar, and apply as above. A cure may be
expected in a few days,

BREAKING-DOWN,

Breaking-down is a terra so generally under-
stood, that it is familiar to all sportsmen and
horsemen, though, in medical language, it ia
called ^^riiplure of the suspensory ligaments.

ones, in consequence of which the fore legs , This is an accident that most frequently occurs
2k' 249

EUPTUEE.]

THE HORSE, A.ND

[coffin joint.

to young horses, either in breaking or train-
ing, and more particularly so to the race-horse
than to any other. The severe training the
race-horse has to undergo at the present day,
makes him exceedingly liable to rupture the
suspensory ligament ; as the fixed point of it
being immediately under the knee, and then
inserted into the heads of the sesamoid bones,
puts this ligament so much upon the stretch,
that at every bound the horse takes, there is
no wonder it becomes ruptured ; especially
when we take into consideration the age at
which horses are brought to the course now-a-
days, to what they formerly were, and also the
pace at which they go. Though the distance
may be short, it is tlie pace that kills.

It has been supposed by some, that this
accident has arisen from a rupture in the
flexor tendon ; and we have known, after the
operation of neurotomy, the flexor tendon to
be partially divided, and the horse go as if
rupture of the suspensory ligaments had taken
place. The limb, in such a case, betrays the
greatest- weakness, and the fetlock is almost
brought to the ground.

A perfect cure is seldom obtained ; but there
have been cases where horses have broken
down, and been able to race again, and become
valuable. AVe could relate several instances
of the sort ; but we will rather proceed to the
cure of breaking-down.

The first thing to be done is to bathe the
lesf well in hot water : then send for the shoe-
ing smith, and direct him to put on a high-
heeled shoe, in order to relieve the parts. The
horse, in consequence of the pain he endui-es,
will be anxious to eat. Therefore give him
cold bran mashes, and the alterative ball, as
prescribed in " Strains in General." This
being done, apply the tar liniment, as before
directed, well bandaging the leg, from the
knee to the fetlock joint, or a little below it.
If, after the trial of this application for about
a fortnight, it does not succeed, proceed to
firing ; for the mode of performing which, see
Plate.

RUPTURE OF THE BACK SINEW.

This is an injury that does not frequently
occur, though the former injury is in many in-
stances mistaken for it ; but they are not the
same cases. Though the membranes and the
250

small vessels supplying them with blood, fre-
quently become ruptured, and occasion great
lameness, still the substance of the sinew rarely
is ruptured. In such a case we should recom-
mend the same treatment as in the preceding,
which will be always found the best; and if
necessity requires it, recourse to firing must be
had. Here rest will be a grand auxiliary, and
in a loose box, if possible ; for, from the fre-
quent excitements which a horse has in the
field, he is apt to forget his lameness for the
time, and commence galloping about, much to
his detriment, and to the retardmjBut of his
cure. Slinging has been recommended in cases
of this injury ; but the great difficulty in keep-
ing horses suspended is such, that we never
saw any good arise from it.

STRAIN OF THE FETLOCK JOINT.
This arises from injury done, to the liga-
mentous and tendinous connexion of these
parts, either from long-continued exertion, or
from the eff"ects of more momentary, but vio-
lent efforts ; such as are made in leaping,
or alighting on unequal or stony ground ; by
which means the leg may be turned aside,
similar to sprain of the ankle of the human
subject. Another cause is, that some horses,
let them be going at whatever pace they may,
occasionally have a peculiar drop behind. This
principally arises from debility, or from the
animal having travelled too far, and exhaustion
taken place. Though this at first seems but
trifiing, it occasions great pain to the horse.
Here the tar liniment will be found of great
benefit, seldom failing to remove the lameness
in a few days. In all these cases, the warm-
water bath and the flannel bandage should be
used.

STRAIN IN THE COFFIN JOINT.

Strain in the coffin, as it is termed by far-
riers and grooms, is not so common a case as is
generally thought to exist ; for its being con-
fined partially to the hoof, prevents its being
subject to those strains to which other joints
are liable.

When a horse becomes lame, an attentive
examination of the feet and coronet should not
escape the attentive observer; but if heat is
found about the coronet, this is not to be taken
for the disease.

BTBAINB.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

The lateral lij;aiuc»ta iiiiitiii<? the small pas-
tern bone to the coUin bone, beinj^ the seat, of
disease, not iinfrequently ossilic matter ia He-
ereted, arisinij i'roin tbo inflammation that pro-
ceeds from the strain. To ascertain if tliis be
tiie ease, pass the hand carefully down the fet-
lock-joint, until it comes to two little promi-
nences. Just above the.se is the junction or
union of the large and small pastern bones : and
where this disease exists, considerable heat
will be felt; and on pressure, the horse will ex-
hibit considerable pain and uneasiness.

In treating for this kind of strain, bleed in
the pastern vein, or, probably, what will be more
convenient, take blood from the foot: pi-evious
to which, immerse the foot in hot water for at
least half-an-hour, changing the water as it be-
comes cool, xifter this, apply the mild blister
ointment, as directed in the list of medicines.
Should this prove ineffectual, have recourse to
firing.

STRAIN OF TIIE ROUND BONE.

The old farriers attribute lameness behind
to strain in the round bone, or stifle, just as
their fancy Jeads them to favour one or the
other, liowevei', sometimes the ligaments of
this joint become injured by violence. A
horse in a narrow stall, may injure himself,
either by turning round, or by getting up, or
lying down ; and we have known some so
much injured, tliat what with their exertions
in getting up, and with the narrowness of the
stall, they have considerably injured them-
selves in making an effort to rise. This in-
jury has arisen from the ligaments of ttie
articulation bone of the thigh with the pelvis
becoming strained.

For the treatment here we must not employ
either blister or setons, for the deep-seated
situation of the injury prevents this mode of
treatment being of much avail ; and if the
part is fired over, there is then a confirmed
blemish. The best thing to do is to use

Tartar Emetic
Hog's Lard .

1 drachm.
1 oz.

Rub these well together, and apply to the
parts affected, morning and night, until pim-
ples arise ; then desist. Apply a little hog's
lard occasionally, to make the parts supple ;
and all will, in a short time, be right.

STRAIN OF Tlir. .STIFLK-JOINT.

Injury or strain of the Htifle-joint freijuently
rtCvMirs from the horso slipping nuddenly out-
wards, and causing the ligaments to become
extended beyond their capacity. It may also
arise from kicks or other injuries. In such
cases the limb has a peculiar rotatory motion,
being dragged after the animal with the
greatest pain, and apparently even with a con-
siderable effort to move at all. Sometimes
the muscles of the thigh are the parts alono
which are injured, and which produce the
lameness.

For treatment, wo recommend the " tar
liniment," which wo have always found to
have the desired effect. Should this not suc-
ceed, try the mild liquid blister, set down in
" Strains in General." Do not think of
firing, as the blemish thereby incurred is a
stain in the horse's character ever afterwards.

ON CURB.

This affection has been generally applied to
a partial dislocation of the os calcis ; but this
is not the case, it being a rupture of the mem-
branes of the sheath of the tendons just passing
over the lower end of the metatarsal bones of
the hock-joint, which sheath is placed there to
strengthen the parts where the most consider-
able point of action in the hind extremity is
required, llence this affection arises so fre-
quently from any sudden action ; from leaps,
or where the propelling motion is brought
most into use ; also rearing, or a sudden slip
will produce it. It frequently makes its ap-
pearance unexpectedly from the above causes-
Curb may appear without lameness, from
malformation of the hock, which is called
sichlcd hocked, though no curb in reality
exists. The lameness arising from curb is
excessively painful to the horse, though some
writers deny this ; but any thexcal rupture
camiot possibly occur without giving great
pain, as the animal cannot move without
bringing the diseased parts into action.

For the cure of curb, the practice at tho
Royal Veterinary College, is to put on a high-
heeled shoe, and bathe the hock frequently
with cold water, or cold salt and water ; but
these applications seldom or ever succeed.
"When this is the case, a seton is passed over

25J

^JfrLAMMATIONS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[mrLAMMATIONS.

the part, which has just as much effect as
passing a seton down the fore leg, in order to
remove this accident. For feed and medicine

we refer to the article on " Strains in
General ;" where all the required informatiou
will be found.

CHAPTER XXV.

INFLAMMATIONS.

The term inflamviation is generally under-
stood as expressing that state of a part in
which it is painful, hotter, and somewhat more
turgid than it naturally is ; such topical
symptoms, when present in any considerable
degree, or when they affect very sensitive
parts, being attended with fever, or a general
diseased action of the system.

The susceptibility of the body to inflamma-
tion is of two kinds — the one original, con-
stituting a part of the animal economy, and
beyond the reach of human investigation ; the
other acquired from the influence of the
weather, sudden changes from hot to cold, and
also from cold to hot stables, not well venti-
lated ; blows, kicks, &c. The first kind of sus-
ceptibility cannot so well be diminished by
art, as some animals are exceedingly liable to
inflammatory attacks from their form ; such as
narrow-chested horses, or light chestnut ones.
The second may be lessened by the mere
avoidance of the particular causes upon which
it depends.

Inflammation may, with great propriety, be
divided into the healthy and the unhealthy.
Of the first, there can be only one kind ; of
the second, there may be many, according to
nature and situation, and kind of disease. It
may also be divided into the acute and chronic.
Healthy inflammation is generally quick in its
progress, for which reason it must always
rauk as an acute species of the affection.
Chronic inflammation is always accompanied
with a diseased action, as exemplitied in
iumours, &c.

PRINCIPLES OF INFLAMMATION.
There is much foundation for believing that
252

healthy inflammation is obedient to ordained
principles, according to the tone of the consti-
tution, or the structure or situation of the
parts aflTected. The nature of the existing
cause can have no share in modifying its
appearance, whether this be occasioned by the
application of heat, or by violence done.
Healthy inflammation is always the same in
its nature, and all the influence is propor-
tioned to the degree of violence accompanying
these causes.

The observations of experience, as being the
only solid basis of all medical as well as other
knowledge, has infcv'aed the practitioner, that
parts which, from their vicinity to the source
of the circulation of blood, undergo inflamma-
tion more favourably, resist disease better
than those parts which are more remote from
the heart. The extremities are more prone to
inflammation and disease in general, than
parts nearer the heart ; and when inflamed or
cracked, they are longer in getting well. The
circumstance of their being depending parts,
which retards the return of blood through the
veins, must also increase the backwardness
of such parts in any salutary process.

Inflammation, when situated in highly or-
ganised and very vascular parts, is more dis-
posed to take a prosperous course; and is
much more reducible by art, than parts of an
opposite texture. The nearer, also, such vas-
cular parts are to the heart, the greater will
be their tendency to do well in inflammation.
Hence, inflammation of the skin, cellular sub-
stance, muscles, &c., more frequently ends
favourably than the same affection of bones,
tendons, ligaments, &c. It is also more
manageable by surgery ; for those parts which

oiLAMMATiOKS.] MODERN VETERTNAKY IMIACTICE. [inflammatiovb.

are not what anatomists term vascular, scimm
to enjoy only interior j)o\vt>rs ot" life; and this
explains tho diiliculty of riMnovintj any in-
Haniiuat.'iry action tliat may arise in tiie teiulons
of the lej,', which, from their whiteness, are
not very vascular.

But inflammation of vital parts, though these
may be exceedingly vascular, cannot go on so
favourablv as in other parts of resembling
structure, but of dilVcrent functions; because
the mutual operations of universal health
depend so much upon the sound condition of
such organs. Tiie truth of this observation is
illustrated in cases of inflammation of the
stomach or lungs, «&e.

In strong constituHons, inflammation always
proceeds more propitiously than in weak ones ;
for where there is much strength, there is con-
siderable irritability. In weak-constitutioned
horses, the operations of inflammation are back-
ward, notwithstanding the part in which it is
seated may, comparatively speaking, possess
considerable organisation and powers of life.

Inflammation, wherever situated, is always
most violent on that side of the point of
inflammation which is next t^ the external
surface of the body; and this is particularly
exemplified in gun-shot wounds. Suppose a
ball were to pass into the thigh, to within an
inch of the opposite side of the limb, we
should not find that inflammation would be
excited along the track of the ball, but on the
side next the skin which had not been hurt.
If a ball should pass quite through a limb,
and carry into the wound a piece of the
saddle clothing, lodging in the middle, equi-
distant from the two orifices — which is not
unfrequently the case in cavalrv regiments —
the skin immediately over the extraneous body
would inflame, if the passage of the ball were
superficial.

We see three very remarkable eflfects follow
the prevalence of inflammation — viz., adhe-
sions of parts of the body to each other, the
formation of pus, or suppuration, and ulcera-
tion ; a process in which tho lymphatics
are more concerned than the blood-vessels.
Hence the terms adlunive, suppurative, and
ulcerative inflammation.

All parts of the body, however, are not
equally liable to each of the preceding conse-
quences. In the cellular membrane, and in

the circum.^ci ibcd cavities— csppcialjy tho cavity
of tho chest- tho adhesive Htago takes plnco
more readily than in theotherB; suppuration
may bo said to fiillow next in order of fro-
qucncy ; and lastly, ulceration. Now, tho
ulcerative stage of inflammation moMt fre-
quent in die horse, attacks tho air-cells of
the lungs, or the kidney.s, but docs not seem
to afl'ect, more than partially, any other mucous
membranes. The suppurative inllammatitni
comes on more readily than either the adhesive
or the ulcerative stage. Adhesions, which
originate from the slightest degree of inflamma-
tion in other situations and structures, can
only be produced by a violent kind in the
above-mentioned parts. Ulceration is more
frequently met with upon mucous surfaces
than adhesive ones.

The cellular membrane appears to be much
more susceptible of the adhesive inflamiuatioa
than the adipose, or fatty cells, and much
more readily passes into suppuration. Thus,
we see the cellular substance, connecting
muscles together, and the adipose membrane
to the muscles, inflaming, suppuratirig, and
the matter separating the muscles from their
lateral connections, and even the fat from the
muscles, while the latter substance and the
skin are only highly inflamed. But it must
be allowed, that in situations where fat abounds,
we Very frequently meet with abscesses. Tiiis
is so much the case, that fat has been ac-
counted a more frequent nidus for the collec-
tion of matter, than the cellular substauce.
We have spoken above of the inflammation of
the fats ; but this is not an expression strictly
true. Fat has no vessels, or principle of life,
or action of its own ; consequently, we cannot
suppose it can either inflame or suppurate.
We know that it is itself a secretion ; and,
when an abscess is formed in it, we under-
stand that the mode of action in the vessels
naturally destined to deposit fat, has been
altered to that adapted to tho formation of
pus. When we speak of the fat being in-
flamed, we mean that the membianous cells
in which it is contained, and by which it is
secreted, are thus affected.

Tiie dcei)ly-situated parts of the body, moro
especially the vital ones, very readily admit of
the adhesive stage of inflammation. Tlie cir-
cumstance of deeply-seated parts not so readily

253

IKFLAMMATIONS.]

THE HORSE, AND

[inflammations.

taking on tbe suppurative stage of inflamma-
tion, as the superficial ones do, is strikingly
illustrated in cases of extraneous bodies ; which,
if deeply lodged, only produce the adhesive
inflammation. By this process, a cyst is formed,
in which they lie without any inconvenience ;
and they may even gradually change their
situation without disturbing the parts through
which they pass : but no sooner do these same
bodies approach tlie skin, than abscesses im-
mediately arise.

All inflammations, attendant with disease,
j)artake of some specific quality, from which
simple inflammation is entirely free.

When the constitution allows the true adhe-
sive and suppurative stages to occur, it is to
be regarded as the most healthy.

SYMPTOMS AND NATURE OF HEALTHY IN-
FLAMMATION; PHLEGMON.

Swelling, heat, and pain are the principal
symptoms of phlegmonous inflammation ; and
this term is usually applied to a circumscribed
tumour. These are the first appearances ob-
served in every case of phlegmon ; and when
they are slight, and the part aflected is of no
great extent, they have commonly very little,
and sometimes no apparent, influence on the
general system. But when they are more con-
siderable, and the inflammation becomes exten-
isive, the soft parts are more swelled than the
harder ones.

Although all the symptoms of inflammation,
such as swelling, throbbing, tension, may be less
inanifest when the afl'ection is deeply situated,
yet they certainly exist, as in poll-evil, fistu-
lous withers, &c. Frequently, in horses dying
of inflammation of the lungs, the air-cells of
these organs are found crowded with a larger
jiumber of turgid blood-vessels than they have
when in the healthy state. Coagulable lymph,
and even blood, ai'e extravasated in the sub-
stance of these viscera, which of course become
heavier, and feel more solid.

The extravasation of coagulated lymph,
■which is one of the chief causes of the swell-
ing, is also one of the most characteristic
signs of phlegmonous inflammation. Common
inflammation exists wherever the blood-vessels
appear to be more numerous and enlarged
than they are in a natural state, accompanied
with an eftusion of coagulating lymph, whether
254

upon the surface of a membrane, or a bone, or
in the interstices of the cellular substance,
and attended with throbbing and acute pain
in the part aflected. Various causes produce
inflammation.

REMOTE CAUSES.
The remote causes of inflammation are
several in number, but very easy of compre-
hension, because only divisible into two general
classes. The first includes all such agents as
operate by their stimulative or chemical quali-
ties— as, for instance, cantharides, large doses
of aloes, heat, &c. The second class of causes
are those which act mechanically ; such as
bruises, wounds, &c. After saying thus much,
it seems quite unnecessary to give a detail of
each particular remote cause.

One remote cause, however, and not the
least singular, is cold ; which appears to act in
diflereut ways. Eirst, it may be applied in
such a degree, and for such a length of time,
as to destroy the vitality of the part directly,
in which case sloughs are formed. In India
this is a frequent occurrence with b jth the
horse and the native Indian. In the horse, it
is called by the native harsatee, and is exceed-
ingly troublesome to be healed. Likewise m
the native, in the cold season, it is not uncom-
mon for pieces to come out of the thighs (which
are principally bare) as large as half-a-crown.
In the horse, from the troublesome teasing of
the flies, it becomes exceedingly annoying to
the surgeon. Secondly, it may be applied in a
less degree, or for a shorter time ; and after-
wards a stimulant, such as heat, may be applied,
which will excite inflammation. The produc-
tion of inflammation by any agent, depends, in
a great degree, upon the suddenness of the
operation of the agent which excites it ; for a
quantity of stimulus, which, if suddenly ap-
plied, would produce inflannnation, may be
applied slowly witli impunity. Hence, every
slight stimulant will produce inflammation and
sloughing, in parts which have been weakened
by cold. Thirdly, a part sympathises very
much with the contiguous ones. If a part is
weakened by having its action reduced, and if
then the debilitating cause is removed, the
action of the part will be increased from sym-
pathy with the neiglibouring parts. But, as
the action ought to be very little, the power

iNFr.AMMATioN.] MODERN VETERTNATIT PTlACTfCE. [inflammatk.:?.

l)cMng snmll, iiiflnmmntion must arise from tlio
ju-tion being increased beyond the power.
"NV'e onght, tlierefore, in this ease, to diminish
tlio action of the neighbourinj:; parts, in order
to prevent an extension to a part which cannot
bear the eflect of it without becoming diseased.

PROXIMATE CAUSE.

Numerous opinions have been entertained
upon this subject; but almost every theory lias
been built upon the supposition of there being
some kind of obstruction in the inflamed parts.

AViiile the circulation of the blood was un-
known, and the hypothetical notions of the
power of the liver, in preparing and sending
firth the fluid, continued to prevail, it is not
astonishing that the theories of so many writers
should be imperfect.

It was formerly supposed that the liver was
the centre of the vascular system, from vrhich
the blood went forth by day to the extremi-
ties, and returned again by night. If, then, any
peccant matter irritated the liver, the blood
was sent out more forcibly ; and if, at the same
time, any part of the body were weakened, or
otherwise disposed to receive a greater quantity
of fluid from the rest, then a swelling was pro-
duced by a flow^ of humours to this place.
Fluxions, or flows of humour to a place
might happen, either from weakness of the parts
which allowed the humours to enter more
abundantly, or from the place attracting the
humours, in consequence of the application of
heat, or other agents.

The ancient writers who suppose that the
blood had very little motion, and that its course
could easily be directed or changed, recom-
mended heat to some part which was remote
from a recent inflammation, by which they
imagined that the current of blood was altered,
and a revulsion made. A revulsion was also
made by raising a tumour in some other part,
or giving nature an opportunity of discharging
the humours from distant parts, by applying
blisters, &c. When blood was drawn from the
vicinity of the fluxion, or congestion, the mode
was called derivation, which only dillered froni
revulsion in the distance to which ttie humour
was drawn being less. Our present object is
only to trace the leading doctrines which have
at different times prevailed, as being the proxi-
uiate cause of inflammation.

From the theories of fluxion and cniigostion.
which were quite incompatible with the lawn of
circulation of the blood, we turn O'lr attention
to the doctrine of obstruction.

IJy some writers obstruction has been
strongly advocated, attributing it to a visciditv
of the blood, and also imagining it to occasion
a resistance to the circulation in the part
aflected ; hence, incri'a>ing it in the other
vessels, proving an irritation to the heart, and
augmenting the force or attraction of the blood
in that part of the vessel which was behind the
obstruction, causing heat and pain, ami conse-
quently an acrimonious state of the fluids, to
be followed, in all probability, by gangrene.

The viscidity cannot be admitted as a proxi-
mate cause of inflammation, because we have
no proof, say some authors, that this state
ever exists ; for, as they say, " "Were a
viscidity to occur, it would exist in the whole
mass of blood alike, and could not be supposed
to produce only a local disorder." This, how-
ever, is not true, for all parts are not so suscep-
tible of taking disease as others ; consequently,
any poison producing inflammation that may
have been taken into the system, may afiect one
part, and that only ; and this from the suscepti-
bility of the part.

As for the supposition of the co-operation
of an acrimony of tlie fluids, the proportion of
the saline matter of the blood has never been
proved to be greater in this than in any other
state of the body. Even were a general dis-
order of this kind to be admitted, no rational
explanation of the proximate cause of local
inflammation could be deduced from it.

According to the opinion of one of our best
authors, inflammation is to be considered only
as a disturbed state of parts which require to
be restored to a natural mode of action. In-
flammation in itself, therefore, is not to be
considered as a disease, but as a salutary
operation, the consequence either of some
violence, or some disease. Tiie same author
further remarks, that the act of iuflammation
is to be considered as an increased action of the
vessels; which action, at flrst, consists simply of
an increase, or distension, beyond the natural
size of these. This increase seems to depend
on a diminution of the muscular power of the
vessels; whilst, at the same time, the elastic
power of the artery is to be dilated in the same

25.3

INFLAMMATION.]

THE HORSE, AND

[iNFLAMMATIOlT.

proportion. This is, therefore, something more
than simply a common relaxation. The whole
may be considered as a necessary operation of
nature. Owing to this dilatation, there is a
greater quantity of blood circulating in the
part, wLich is in accordance with the common
rules of the animal economy ; for whenever a
part has more to do than simply to support
itself, the blood is there collected in a larger
quantity ; and nature never errs. The swelling
is produced by an extravasation of coagulable
lymph, with some serum; but the lymph
differs from the common lymph, in conse-
quence of passing through the inflamed vessels.
It is this lymph which becomes the uniting
medium of inflamed parts. Vessels shoot into
it, and it has even the power of becoming
vascular itself. The pain proceeds from spasm.
When a part cannot be restored to health,
after injury by inflammation alone, or by
adhesion, then suppuration, as a preparatory
step to the formation of granulations, and the
restoration of the part, takes place.

An increased action of the vessels is now
universally regarded as the proximate cause of
inflammation. This opinion is greatly sup-
ported from a review of the several existing
causes of the affection, which, being in general
of an irritating nature, must, when applied to
any living or sensitive parts, occasion a preter-
natural exertion of the vessels. The method
of cure, as we shall presently show, tends also
to coiifirm this doctrine with respect to the
cause of inflammation.

SYMPTOMS OF INFLAMMATION FURTHER
CONSIDERED.

The essential symptoms are swelling, heat,
and pain. — Swelling.— Thh effect arises from
several causes. Eirst, from the increased quan-
tity of blood in the vessels. Second, from the
effusion of coagulating lymph and the deposi-
tion of a new matter. Third, from the inter-
ruption of the absorbents, or their incapacity
to perform their office or functions.

Heat. — It was formerly imagined that heat
was produced by the attraction of the red glo-
bules, of which blood is composed, against the
»ide3 of the vessels. Modern philosophy, how-
ever, teaches us, that a fluid may flow with the
utmost velocity through a pipe, for a thousand
years, without producing a single particle of
256

heat. The most commonly received opinion
now is, that the production ot animal heat de-
pends on the different degrees of power which
arterial and venous blood have to combine with
caloric ; whilst in the minute arteries, the blood
is combined with certain substances. In con-
sequence of this, its capacity is diminished, and
heat is given out. When the venous blood,
however, has been freed from such substances
in the lungs, its capacity is increased, and
the heat which is given out by the decom-
position of the air which we inhale, is ab-
sorbed. These facts show that the augmented
heat of inflammation arises from the increased
velocity of the circulation in the part affected.
More blood is transmitted into the minute ar-
teries ; the capacity of a greater quantity of
this fluid for heat is of course necessarily in-
creased, and more caloric extracted.

Faiti. — This is observed to be the greatest
during the diastole of the arteries. The affec-
tion is probably owing to the unnatural state
of the nerv^es, and not to mere distension, as
many have asserted. Were the latter cause a
real one, the nain would be proportioned to it,

THE BLOOD IN INFLAMMATION.

Blood, when taken out of the living vessels,
spontaneously separates into two distinct parts;
the serum, and the crassamentum. The latter is
a compound substance, consisting chiefly of co-
agulating lymph and red globules, which are
the heaviest ingredients in blood. Blood taken
away from an animal affected with inflam-
mation, is longer in coagulating, and coagu-
lates more firmly than under any other cir-
cumstances, lieiice, the red globules not
being so soon commingled with the lymph,
descend by their gravity ; and being moro or
less divested of the red colouring matter, they
are, from their appearance, termed the buffy
coat, or inflammatory crust. The firmer and
more compact coagulation of the lymph presses
out an unusual quantity of serum from it, and
the surface of the sizy blood is often formed into
a hollow, the edges being drawn inward. These
changes are, in some cases, a more infallible sign
of the existence of inflammation, than the state
of the pulse itself. At the same time, they are
probably only a criterion of some unusual ope-
ration going on in the system. In peritoneal
inflammation, the horse, sometimes, seems to

iwTLAMMATioN.] MODERN V KT K IM N A 11 Y PRACTICE [inflammation.

be in the most feeble state ; and the pulse,
abstractedly considered, would then rather in-
tluco the practitioner to employ tonics and
sliinulants, than evacuations; but should the
continuance or exasperations of the disorder,
or any other indication, lead to the use of the
lancet, then the Itijfi/ coat and the concave, sur-
face of the blood, clear away all doubt con-
cerning the existence of inllaiiunation.

TERMINATION OF INFLAMMATION.

LiJIammation is said to have three different
terniiuations; or, in other language, after it
has continued a certain time, it either subsides
entirely, induces a disposition in the vessels to
form pus, or completely destroys the vitality
of the part.

AVhen the inflammation is to end in the
first-named manner, which is the most favour-
able, the pain becomes less, the swelling
abates, and every other symptom gradually
disappears, till at last, the part is wholly re-
stored to its natural size. There is no forma-
tion of pus, or any permanent injury of struc-
ture. This termination of inflammation is
termed resolution. It is fortunately the most
common, as well as the most desirable manner
in wiiich the affection should end.

If, however, notwithstanding the applica-
tion of the iisual remedies, the several symp-
toms of heat, pain, &c., instead of diminishing,
rather increase, and the tumour gradually
acquires a larger size, becomes soft, and some-
what prominent in the middle, or towards its
most depending part, the inflammatiou has
ended in suppuration.

The worst, but happily the least frequent
consequence of common inflammation, is the
death or mortification of the part alfected.
The signs of this disastrous event are a change
of colour in it, from being of a bright red, to a
livid hue ; small vessels, filled with a thin
fa'tid serum, arise on its surface, and air is
plainly felt to exist in the disordered locality.
The pain, indeed, is diminished, but the pulse
sinks ; while the tumour is gradually metamor-
phosed into a black fibrous mass.

These are the three most usual termina-
tions of inflammation. By many writers, how-
ever, another disorder has been treated of,
in which inflammation is apt to end — namely,
scirrhous. But, although that complaint may,
2 L

perhaps, in a few iiKstuuces, follow inflainina-
tion, yet it is far from being a common con-
sequence of it. lltMice, ulthougli iiillamma-
tory aihi-lion may justly be mcnlioiud au
one of tiie many exciting causes of acirihous,
yet the consideration of this disorder can
never with jiropriety bo introduced into uu
account of inllamination.

Common inllammation, particularlv when it
ailects glandular parts, is often observed to
leave indurations behind it. Such indurations,
however, are not at all malignant, and are
very dillcrent in their nature from what is im-
plied by a real scirrhous.

TREATMENT OF INFLAMMATION,

The grand principle to be observed in the
treatment of inflammation, is to endeavour to
lessen that immoderate action of the arteries,
which is now commonly considered as the
proximate cause.

The first circumstance to be attended to, in
all cases in which resolution is to be attempted,
is the removal of all such exciting causes of
the disorder as may happen to present them-
selves, foreign substances in wounds, fre-
quently excite inflammation, and ought to be
extracted as speedily as possible. A piece of
bone, or a nail taken up in the foot, or even a
thorn in the leg, often gives rise to the afl'ec-
tion, and requires immediate removal. Such
things as these may often be detected and re-
moved at once ; and this is doing a great deal
towards the cure of the inflammation. Many
of the exciting causes are only of momentary
existence ; yet, though they may no longer
exist, the process of inflammatiou continues to
follow the violence and irritation which were
suddenly produced, and still remain. Hence,
when taking away, if possible, the remote
cause, it is proper, by other means, to mode-
rate the increased action of the vessels.

If inflammation is consequent on an in-
creased action of the vessels, and if a greater
quantity of blood is impelled into, and circu-
lates through the diseased part than is neces-
sary in the natural state, it follows that hlccd-
i?ig must be a principal means of relieving it.
The reason of this is, that it lessens the action
of the whole arterial system, and, of course, of
that part which is aft'ected, and thereby dimin-
ishes the quantity of blood transmitted to the

257

INFLAMMATION.]

THE HOESE, AND

[inflammation.

part affected, by reducing the whole mass in
the circulation.

Bleeding, however, is often misemploj^ed,
especially when regarded as the only remedy
for this disease, and other steps are neglected.
The obstinacy and vehemence of the process,
in weak constitutions, prove that depletion is
not invariably proper. When inflammation is
combined with an unhealthy state of the ali-
mentary canal, blood should be taken away
with great caution. A great deal of indura-
tion, with little pain and heat in the inflamed
part, the probability of a long and copious
suppuration, and the dependence of the in-
flammation on local weakness, are particular
instances in which phlebotomy should be spar-
ingly employed. Bleeding is quite unneces-
sary when the disease is local, and symptomatic
fever low.

On the other hand, bleeding is highly bene-
ficial in all cases in which the disease is simple
and uncomplicated, and attended with a high
degree of febrile disturbance. Hence, inflam-
mation of the eye, which is a most sensitive
part, particularly requires a free evacuation of
blood. Inflammation of the lungs, brain, or
stomach, which are organs, the sound state of
which is highly essential to the regular con-
tinuance of all the various operations in the
animal machine, particularly demands the em-
ployment of the lancet ; for, if a successful
effort is not promptly made to stop such in-
flammation, death itself, in all probability, will
be the result.

The sooner that bleeding is practised, the
greater will be its efilcacy, and the more
rapidly the blood will be evacuated. Bleeding
near the part affected is usually more effectual
than when done in a remote situation. These
remarks chiefly relate to general bleeding ;
but in local inflammation, topical bleeding is
scarcely ever improper. It is always a point
■worth considering, whether bleeding in or near
the part, will answer better than taking blood
from the general habii ; for less may be re-
moved in this way, and the constitution not so
much affected. Although, in many cases, the
general habit may be relieved by bleeding, yet
the part specially affected will always require
this most. That local bleeding has a very
considerable influence on the inflamed part,
is proved by the sudden relief obtained from it.
258

The modes of performing local bleeding are
by the lancet ; or, if in the feet, by first re-
moving the horn with the drawing-knife, and
puncturing the vein with a strong abscess
lancet ; other parts, such as the thigh-vein,
pastern, &c., are also bled with the lancet ;
the eye, likewise, with the small eye-lancet,
the temporal artery, &c. But never bleed in
the jugular or the plate-vein with any other
instrument than the common phleme and
blood-stick: but particularly the jugular; for
should a misfortune happen with any other in-
strument, an action at law might be the con-
sequence.

In continuation of the treatment for inflam-
mation, the bowels must not be forgotten ; and
in exhibiting medicine in such cases, great
care is necessary. The exhibition of small
doses of aloes is good, or Glauber's salts, in
the shape of draught, will be found very effica-
cious, and is a principal means of diminishing
inflammation.

Direct purging is in nowise to be recom-
mended ; as it frequently ends in superpurga-
tion and death. Saline medicines must lessen
the quantity of circulating blood, inasmuch as
they increase the secretion from the intestinal
arteries. Hence they must operate beneficially
in the cure of local inflammation, much upon
the same principle as bleeding does. A very
great authority and writer, was of opinion, that
purging lowers action without diminishing
strength ; by which we are probably to under-
stand, without producing a very lasting or
permanent loss" of strength. With respect to
mild laxatives in inflammation, none are pre-
ferable to the above ; but, of the two, the saline
draught is preferable to the aloetic. AVe may
here remark, that besides the benefit which the
local ii}flammation derives from the judicious
administration of purgatives, the costiveness
and heat which usually attend the symptomatic
fever, are also relieved by the same means.

Nauseating medicines, which have the power
of producing sickness, lessen, for a tinje, the
action, and even the general powers of life.
This is in consequence of every part of the
body sympathising with the stomach, and the
eftect may be very quickly excited. Sickness
lowers the pulse, makes the small vessels con-
tract, and rather disposes the skin to perspira-
tion. But nothing more than nausea should

INFLAMMATION.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [inflaj^uatxok.

be caused. Nausealinpj nu'dieiiies employed
iil'ter bleedinp once or twiee, are oWru prodiio-
tivo of considerable bciielit ; but there lire
some afleetiona in wliieli they cannot be used,
^iueh as iuilammatioii of the 8tt)inaeh and in-
testines. In all suprrficial inllammations,
however, they may be safidy and advantage-
ouslv exhibited, as well as in most internal in-
flammatory aflVetions, especially in the lungs.
Indeed, in every instance in which there is an
urgent reason for putting n sudden check to
the continuance of the alVection, tliey may be
used. The employment of nauseating doses
of white hellebore or digitalis, to the amount
of l-\ to 2 drachms, three or four times a day,
is very efllcacious.

Opium has been frequently recommended
bv many veterinary surgeons ; and we liave
seen its good effects, especially in inflamma-
tion of the bowels. During its employment,
the bowels should be kept open by clysters.
Care must be taken to give it in sufficient
doses ; for small quantities not only fail in
fulfilling the object, but frequently produce
quite an opposite efiect. It likewise occasions
a moisture on the surface of the body, which
experience shows is eminently serviceable in all
inflammations. Opium, combined with aloes,
is an excellent remedy in cases of inflamma-
tion of the feet ; no person but such as may
have used this drug, would believe the relief
given to so painful a disease.

In all cases of inflammation, corn must be
prohibited ; and even when the inflammation is
abated, great care must be taken in administer-
ing anything of a highly stimulating nature.
Watery, cooling, mucilaginous drinks, taken in
a lukewarm state, are the most proper, such
as oatmeal gruel, and mashes of bran with
chilled water. These take off heat, and tend
to soothe the increased action of the whole
arterial system. The stable in which the
horse is kept, should not be warmer than
his comfort requires ; for, of all things, heat
keeps up any increased action in the body in
the most powerful manner. For the same
reason, the animal should not be covered with
a superfluous quantity of clothes.

The whole body, but more especially the
inflamed part, should be preserved as free as
possible from every kind of motion. Exercise,
and muscular exertion of every kind, accele-

rate the circulation; and hence tlieir periii-
cious efli'ct on innaninuitioii, by deUTmining n
larijcr quantity of blood to the part aflVctcd.

With the exci'ption of what hat* bct-n 8tated
concerning topical bleeding, all the fon-going
remarks relate to the general treatmt nt of
inflammation. Wo bhall next consider its
local eflects.

It has been already observed, that inflam-
mation is attended with an increanc of heat in
the part aflected ; and it is a well-known fact,
that the action of the arteries, as well as any
other action carried on in the animal economy,
is promoted and increased by the influence of
heat. For this reason, an obvious mode to bo
pursued is, to reduce the temperature of the
inflamed part by the topical application of
cold; and, in particular, by continually ab-
stracting the heat generated in the part, by
keeping up a constant evaporation from its
surface.

Preparations of lead, and otlier sedative and
astringent substances, are such as are in the
greatest repute for bringing about the resolu-
tion of inflammation.

AVe have remarked, that cold applications
used in the resolution of inflammation, are
commonly such as are of an astringent and
sedative quality; but the whole class of medi-
cines which are found to possess these proper-
ties, can never be recommended as topical
remedies for phlegmonous inflammation. The
sulphate of zinc, and sugar of lead, combined
with vinegar, are the only medicines of an
astringent and sedative class, whicii seem to
have acquired permanent celebrity for their
efficacy in resolving inflammation.

Extensive experience, and long-established
trials, have now fully confirmed the virtue of
all local remedies, in which the sugar of lead is
the active ingredient. The preparations of
lead certainly merit the appellation of seda-
tives. An abatement of the difl'erent symp-
toms of pain and tension, and the communi-
cation of an agreeable soothing sensation to
the part, are almost always the direct palpa-
ble effects. Every man of experience and ob-
servation will allow, that while there is a
chance of accomplishing resolution, no local
applications to phlegmonous inflammation are,
in general, so proper as cold lotions, contain-
ing the acetate of lead.

259

I]S'rLAMMATIO>'.]

THE HOESE, AjSTD

[iNFLAWMATIO'.

Many objections have been raised against
the lead lotion, from its poisonous quality, but,
iu inflamed parts, there is an impediment to
absorption, and this circumstance may tend to
render the employment of lead a matter of
safety.

Sugar of lend, with vinegar and water, as
follows, is the best method of applying it.

Sugar of Lead .... 4 drachms.

Dissolve in Vinegar . . . 4 oz.

Then add Water .... 2 lbs. (1 quart).

When not inclined to employ a solution of
lead, try the sulpliate of zinc. For this pur-
pose, four drachms of this metallic salt is to be
dissolved in a quart of water. Take a piece of
linen, well wetted with the lotion, and apply
it to the inflamed part.

Many persons ascribe very little real eflBcacy
either to the acetate of lead, or sulphate of
zinc, contained in the above applications ; and
they attribute all the good that is produced,
entirely to the evaporation kept up from the
surface of the inflamed part, and to the cold-
ness of the fluid in which the metallic salts
are dissolved. Those who entertain these sen-
timents, think the application of cold water
alone, quite as eflicacious as that of any medi-
sated lotion whatever.

There are particular cases of inflammation
m which the extravasation of blood and lymph
into the interstices of the inflamed part is ex-
ceedingly copious, while the swelling is con-
siderable, and the pain not particularly great.
In such instances, it is a grand object to rouse
the absorbents, in order to remove the extra-
vasated fluid ; and with this view, a more
powerful discutient lotion than the Saturnine
one should be employed bometimes it is
better to use embrocations and liniments, than
any sort of lotion ; and we have found it to
succeed in general the beat ; and for this pur-
pose recommend

Oil of Turpentine , , , . 3 oz.

Olive Oil 3 do.

Mix, and apply to the part.
Or, take
Mustard Oil : 4 oz.

Apply this alone, and it will be found very
eflicacious, especially if the disease is iu the
joints.

When the part afiected is not very tender,
or when it lies deep, applications of hot vinegar,
2G0

or the Saturnine lotion, have been applied,
but with little or no good effect. Alcohol and
ether have acquired some celebrity as local
remedies for inflammation. Perhaps one great
reason why they are not more extensively
used in this way, is the expense attending
such treatment, as these fluids evaporate with
great rapidity. Alcohol may possibly prove
useful from its astringent qualities ; but it
seems much more rational to ascribe its virtue,
as well as that of ether, to the powerful man-
ner in which the evaporation of such fluids de-
prives the inflamed part of its heat.

WARM APPLICATIONS, EMOLLIENT POUL-
TICES, AND FOMENTATIONS.

The absurdity of attempting to reconcile
every useful practice with a philosophical
theory, is, in no instance, more strikingly ex-
emplified than iu the opposite descriptions of
local applications which are deemed of service
in inflammation. The generality of cases un-
doubtedly receive most relief from the use of
cold sedative astringent lotions ; but there are
constitutions and parts which derive most
benefit from the local employment of warm
emollient remedies.

Inflammations of the foot, broken knee, and
strain of the back sinews, may be specified as
examples in which, generally speaking, warm
emollient applications are better than those
which are cold and astringent. In all cases
of inflammation, however, which manifestly
cannot be cured without suppuration, the
emollient plan of treatment ought to be- at
once adopted, as in either fistulous withers or
poll-evil ; for the sooner the matter is formed,
the sooner the inflammation is stopped. The
inflammation attending gun-shot wounds, is
of this description ; also, injuries received from
the goring of cattle in the field, &c.

Warmth and moisture together, or, in other
words, fomentations, are commonly had re-
course to, in cases of inflammation ; but when
the warmth is as much as the sensitive princi-
ple can bear, it excites action. In many
cases warmth does no good, and therefore it
might be supposed to increase the action of
dilatation, and do harm ; but if the pain should
arise from the contraction of the inflamed
vessels, benefit would be the result, tnough we
must doubt whether this change is produced,

FETEU.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

ri.VEB.

as niakiiii; llie vt'ssi-ld cDiiLraL-L would probiibly
give case.

In acklition to what liaa boon already ob-
servod, it seonis almost impossible to j,mvo any
useful practical advice, witli respect to tlioso
cases in which warm emollieut applications
should be used in preference to cold astringent
ones. The veterinary sur!:;eon, however, who
consults the feelinj;s and comfort of the animal
under his care, will seldom commit any serious
error. Hence, in all cases in which ths first
kind of topical applications seem not to pro-
duce the wonted degree of relief, let the
second sort be tried. From the opportunity
of comparison, a correct judgment may then
be easily formed.

Seqardinq jwuUices, the linseed meal should
take the preference, and it is easily prepared.
Put as much hot water into a basin as the
size of the poultice requires ; previous to
which, mix the meal with cold water, so that
it does not clot in lumps when brought into
contact with the hot w ator ; then gradually
mix, till the mass is of a proper consistence.
Yery i'requently, a little sweet oil or hog's
lard is also added, to keep the application
soft and moist for a longer time.

Fovientations are excellent ; and in most
cases of recent inflammation, as strains or
bruises, nothing can be better. The benefit
we have perceived from the application of
warm fomentations, has been surprising.

Bv pursuing the treatment here recom-
mended, the resolution of the inflammation
will, in general, begin to take place, either in
the course of three or four days, or in a
shorter space of time. At all events, it may
usually be known, before the expiration of
this period, how the disorder will terminate.

If the heat, |min, and other attendant nymp-
toms abate, and especially if the tumour begina
to decrease, it may tlien bo couHidered almost
a certainty, that, by a continuance of tho
same jjlan, a total resolution will, in timr. bo
eflocted.

On the other hand, when all tin- ni'.. rent
symptoms increase, and particularly wlien tho
tumour becomes larger and comparativelv soft,
attended with a more violent throbbing pain,
it may then be concluded that tho case will
proceed to suppuration. Hence, an imine-
diate change of treatment suggests itself; and
such applications as were proper while resolu-
tion seemed practicable, are to be discon-
tinued, and others substituted. This remark
refers to the employment of cold astringent
remedies, which, when suppuration is inevit-
able, only do harm, by retarding what cannot
be avoided, and by affording no relief of tho
pain and other symptoms. If the inflam-
mation, however, should be already treated
with emollients, no alteration of the topical
applications is requisite, in consequence of the
inevitability of the formation of matter. In-
deed, emollient poultices and fomentations aro
the chief local means, both of promoting sup-
puration, and of diminishing pain, violent
throbbing, &c., which always precede this ter-
mination of inflammation.

"When the system is too much reduced by
the injudicious continuance of the rigorous
a)iti])hIot/istic treatment, the progress of tho
ensuing suppuration is always retarded in a
disadvantageous manner, and the animal be-
comes too weak to support either a long-
continued, or a profuse discharge, which it
may not be possible to avoid ; but which should
be especially noticed.

CHAPTER XXVI.

FEVERS.— FEVER IN GEKERAL ; INFLAMMATORY FEVER; COMMON FEVEIl ; BISTEMPEP, OH IXFI.UENZA ;
MALIGNANT FEVER; SYMPTOMATIC FEVER; CATARRH, OR COMMON COLD.

Under the head of Fever in General, we can j the horse. It is particularly interesting to
only class inflammatory fever aa belonging to j veterinary surgeons, as being the frequent

2G1

TEVEli.]

THE HOESE, AND

[fever.

consequence of surgical operations, especially the iufiammation be near the heart, but per-

after firing or blistering.

This fever is known and distinguished by
several names ; some calling it inflammatory,
some symptomatic, and others sympathetic.
It is sometimes idiophatic ; that is to say, it
occasionally originates at the same time with
the local inflammation, and from the same
causes. In other instances — indeed, in all
ordinary surgical cases — it is symptomatic, or,
in other words, it is produced, not directly by
the causes which originally produced the in-
flammation, but in consequence of the sym-
pathy of the whole constitution from the dis-
turbed state of the part.

The idiophatic inflammatory fever is said to
be always preceded by chilliness. The symp-
tomatic, or sympathetic inflammatory fever
sometimes takes place so quickly, in conse-
quence of the violence of the existing cause, or
of the local inflammation, that no preceding
coldness is observable.

If, however, the local inflammation is more
slowly induced, and consequently operating
more gradually on the system, then the cold-
ness is evidently perceived.

The symptomatic fever induced by wounds
or other injuries, is excited more slowly, and
its period of formation is longer. This fever
is not produced when the inflammation only
afiects parts in a slight degree, but it con-
stantly makes its appearance if the local in-
flammation is considerable, or if it afiects very
sensitive parts.

The degree in which this fever is excited,
does not altogether depend on the absolute
quantity or violence of the inflammation, but,
in a great measure, on the degree of local
inflammatory action, compared with the natural
power and action of the part aftected. Parts,
in which the action is naturally slow, are
extremely painful when inflamed, and the
system sympathises greatly with them. Hence
the constitution is very much affected when
tendons, hones, or ligaments are the parts
inflamed. Severe inflammation of a large
joint, every one knows, is apt to excite a
most alarming, and even a fatal derangement
of the system.

In common parts, as muscle, cellular mem-
brane, skin, &c., the symptoms will be acute,
the pulse strong and full, and the more so, if
202

haps not so quick as when the part is far
from it.

If the inflammation is in tendinous, liga-
mentous, or bony parts, the symptoms will be
less acute. The stomach will sympathise more,
the pulse will not be so full, but perhaps
quicker ; there will be more irritability, and
the blood will not be so much pushed into
the small vessels ; and therefore it will forsake
the skin.

It seems to be a material circumstance, that
parts near to the heart, always exhibit symp-
toms more violent, and the constitution is
more affected, than when parts are situated
further from that source of circulation.

If the heart or lungs are inflamed, either
immediately, or affected secondarily by sym-
pathy, the disease produces more violent effects
upon the constitution, than the same quantity
of inflammation would produce, if the part
affected was not a vital one, or one with which
the vital parts did not sympathise. If the part
is such as the vital ones readily sympathise
with, then the sympathetic action of the latter
will aflfect the constitution.

When the inflammation is situated ia a part
not very essential to life, and causes a general
affection of the system, called inflammatory fever,
the pulse is fuller and stronger than in general,
and the blood is pushed further into the ex-
treme arteries, than when the inflammation is in
a vital part. The animal, after showing many
occasional symptoms, is at first rather roused.
The pulse is as described when the consti-
tution is strong and not irritable ; but if this
is extremely irritable and weak, as in many
animals it is, the pulse may be quick, hard, and
small, at the commencement of the iufiam-
mation, just as if vital parts were affected.
The blood also may be sizy, but it will be loose
and flat on the surface.

The ordinary symptoms of inflammatory
fever, accruing in consequence of local inflam-
mation in common parts, are as follows : the
pulse is frequent, full, and strong ; all the secre-
tions are diminished ; the animal is restless ; the
perspiration is obstructed ; the skin is dry and
hot ; the hair staring ; the urine high-coloured,
and made in small quantities ; and the mouth
hot and dry, attended with great thirst. These
are the consequences.

FEVKItS.]

MODERN VETERINAKT PRACTICE.

I'TETKnS.

TO UKLIKVL: INFLA-MMATOHY FK\ Kll.
As tho ffbrilo ilisturbiuifi' of tho t^vstcm is
produced, aiul eiiLirely kept up, iu almost
everv iuatance, by tho loeal iullamiualiou, it
must be evideut that tlio uieaiis employed lor
diminishing tho excitin-j; cause, are also the
best for abating the constitutional eilects.
Hence, it very seldom happens that any par-
ticular measures are adopted expressly lor the
fever itself, as this aftection is sure to subside
in proportion to the local lessening or resolu-
tion of the inilammation. But wlien the fe-
brile disturbance is considerable, and the iu-
fl.nnmatiou itself ia also considerable, the agi-
tated state of the system may have, in its turn,
a share in keeping up, and even in increasing
the local alf'^'ction, and should be quieted as
much as possible. However, in these very in-
stances, we should probably be led to a more
rigorous adoption of the autiphlo^'istic plan of
treatment, from an abstract consideration of
the state of the local inflammation itself, with-
out any reference to that of the constitution.
Indeed, the increased action of the heart and
arteries, and the suppression of the secretions,
require the employment of antiphlogistic means,
with alterative medicine, which will, in all pro-
bability, restore the animal in a few days.

But we think it riglit to repeat, that it is
hardly ever necessary to have recourse to such
an evacuation as general Heeding, merely on
account of the fecer, as this is only an effect,
which invariably subsides iu proportion as the
local cause is diminished.

COMMON FEVER.

Common fever is a rare occurrence in the
horse; but it is not so much its extreme rarity
which renders its existence disputed, as that
the constitutional tendencies of the animal are
such as seldom allow general fever to prevail iu
him without a more active and local translation
of the inflammation to some vital organ.

AVe have frequently met with this fever, and
are convinced that many inflammations of vital
organs begin by an attack not local, and con-
fined to that immediate part, but by one which
exists iu the first instance, as a general, difl'uscd,
inflammatory action of the vascular system at
large. Most veterinarians are aware, that it
ia a common practice, when a horau is observed

at tho very first approiich of illiu-ss, to rouse
him by several mcauH. Atnong hurHC-dealers,
especially, and other proprieloru of liorHcs,
wlu'n disease occurs in t'ne spring of the year,
it is tiio custom to watch them narrowly, and
to put 8omo plan into practice of tho above
kind, immediately after which they frequently
observe no more of the complaint. It, how-
ever, tho first cold fit is passed over without
attention, a hot stage generally succeeds. Iu
due time the horse again shivers, his hair
stares, and he becomes subjected to other
symptoms of illness, and the disease ia then
fully formed. The means pursued for this
end are various ; but they are all such as teiul
to rouse tho flagging powers, during the cold fit,
into such a degree of increased action, as consi-
derably to overbalance the augmented vascular
action produced by the morbid attack, as shall
be greater than the increased action of the
complaint. It is upon justly appreciating tho
two degrees of action, and upon putting the
forced one against the diseased one in sufli-
cient strength, that the salutary effort consists.
Were such a plan to be put into practice
when a topical inflammation of some im-
portant and vital organ had actually taken
place, it would, most undoubtedly, greatly ag-
gravate it ; but as in diff"used inflammatory
action constituting fever, there is a specific
character not wholly dependent on the in-
crease of the vascular power, so the production
of an artificial action, greater than the diseased
one in the earlier stage, will sometimes over-
come tho febrile one.

The causes of this fever are a plethoric state
of the body in general, full feeding, with but
little or no exercise, sudden alteration in
diet, excessive fatigue, and great and rapid
change in temperature. Long deprivation, like-
wise, from either food or water, particularly the
former, may bring it on ; but an alteration of
cold to heat is certainly the most common
of tho existing causes, as well as of most of
the inflammatory attacks of the horse. The
vessels of the skin seem, in these cases, to bo
first acted on, and this from a sudden chill, in
consequence of coming in contact with a cold
atmosphere, producing those symptoms ; first,
a shivering fit, the skin shaking violently, the
hair staring, the legs, ears, and muzzlo feeling
intensely cold. All these symptoms remain

263

mVEES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[fevers.

according to tlie violence of the attack. The
horse's mouth is generally found dry and hot,
and he is seeu frequently to lick his lips, as if
he wished for some moisture. The skin is
found alternately hot and cold, with occasional
sweatings ; the bowels rumble, and are flatu-
lent, and he appears altogether uneasy, and
seems more in want of a restorative than any-
thing else, by v/hich means the debility and
fever would be carried off.

Such is usually the first stage of fever ; but
it is very common for it, at this period, to sink
its specific character of true fever, into a local
attack on some particular organ, as the brain,
lungs, bowels, kidneys, and not unfrequently
the feet. Under any of these circumstances,
the primary character of fever is lost, and the
remaining febrile symptoms become secondary
and symptomatic.

The preference it may have in these in-
stances for any one organ over another-, is not
easily accounted for ; but it may be connected
with local circumstances, particularly with
such as have had a tendency to produce an
unusual determination of blood to a part.
Violent and long-continued exercise will in-
duce a disposition to it in the lungs, from the
very great quantity of blood forced through
them during exertion. AVater, if thrown over
a horse when hot, is very apt, by checking
perspiration, to bring on a state of the bowels,
or of otlier viscera, predisposing them to in-
flammation.

A heavy and awkward rider, travelling a
great distance, subjects the kidneys to such
injury, that they often require but little addi-
tional stimulus to assume inflammation. It
is equally notorious, that severe riding in tlie
enow, or the custom of washing the feet when
a horse is very hot, particularly in frosty
weather, will produce, by reaction, a determi-
nation of blood to these parts, with a febrile
irritation. The consequence of severe and
injudicious management, may, by translation,
be converted into acute founder, and such ap-
pears the origin of many acute founder cases.
The disease is then said to have settled in the
horse'' s feet. It remains to be noticed, that in-
dependent of these purely local attacks, there
is great reason to believe that this fever not
unfrequently degenerates into the catarrhal
epidemic ; for many cases which commence
204

with a simple rigour, are often prevented from
proceeding further by overcoming the first
attack.

Should none of these attacks occur, how-
ever, but, on the contrary, should this fever
remain, after the first stage, purely idiopathic
(vvliich is very seldom the case), ib is invari-
ably the same in any two subjects, although
marked by sufficient general characters to de-
scribe them. The pulse loses fullness, but is
hard, and increased in quickness.

What we have described, may be considered
as constituting the principal stage of this
fever, to which, under favourable circum-
stances, there succeeds a softer and less fre-
quent pulse. The countenance looks more
lively; and although the muscular weakness
rather increases, the irritability lessens, tlie
secretions also return to their natural state?
the mouth feels cool and moist, and the heat
of the body becomes gradually natural. Slight
sjMuptoms of returning appetite also appear,
under which circumstances a resolution of the
fever is formed.

Eor the treatment of simple fever, which
generally comes on after a journey, the groom
should immediately report the same the in-
stant the cold fit or rigour comes on ; then
procure two or three men to work at the
horse with dry straw with all their vigour,
whilst he, in the meantime, is preparing the
following drau";ht : —

Good Ale (warmed) .

.

1 quart

Ginger . . . .

.

. ^ oz.

Anise Seeds .

,

. ido.

Give immediately ; and after rubbing the ani-
mal well, clothe him warm, give him a good
bed of clean straw, and bandage his legs up
with flannel. Should the reader have one of
the cordial balls, recommended in the list
of medicines at the end of the first section of
this work, take one and break it up, and dis-
solve it in the warm ale. If warm ale cannot
be immediately procured, take half-a-pint of
gin, and three half pints of water, to which
add either the ginger or the cordial ball. On.
the morrow give the following alterative : —

Cape Aloes 2 drachms.

Juniper Berries .... 1 do.
Form into a ball with soft soap, and sufficient
linseed meal.

rEVTJiis.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE

[fevkhb.

After tins feed tho horao ns usinil. IIo will
be lit for work in two days' time.

Tlie distompiT, or intluenza in liorsoa, at-
taoka tlioin at all seasons of the year, and
under almost any circun)stances ; bnt it is in-
finitely more prevalent at some times, and
under some eireumstan'ces, than at others.
This is especially the case in the spring, near
the sea-coast, and when the wind is blowing oif
the sea from the south-east. This has been
demonstrably proved. No age is exempt from
this disease. In large towns, horses are
very liable to it, particularly if their heads
are fastened in a south-east direction, and
the rack at the top left completely open.
Occasionally, however, it rages in a truly
epidemic form, when the liability to its attack
is almost uniform among all varieties, with the
exception that, even under this state, young
animals, and those newly brought into stable
management, are more liable to it than older
ones. Tlie spring appears to be the time of
year when they are most subject to this disease,
the prevalence of which is materially increased
by the variable state of the atmosphere, as
in great and sudden changes from dry to wet,
and from heat to cold, and still more certainly
if these are accompanied with an easterly wind.
Now and then it is found to occur in wet
autumns also. It has been disputed whether
it is contagious ; but on this point we do not
think it difficult to decide, for we have seen a
number of horses stabled together, and some
of them not the least affected, while others,
standing near them, have suffered greatly from
an attack. This can only be attributed to the
susceptibility of the constitutiou of some to
be afiected by the disease more readily than
others, though it may appear to exhibit all the
characteristics of contagion.

Many foreign writers have fallen into the same
error with some of our English veterinarians,
and confounded this disease with percemonia,
and other diseases of the chest. This mistake
is not to be wondered at in practitioners of
moderate experience, from the circumstance of
these diseases possessing some symptoms in
common, and, in fact, from itself frequently
terminating in that complaint ; but this is
to be attributed more to unskilful treatment
than to a disposition of the disease, in itself,
to such a result ; for, in a sea-coast practice,
2 M

wo could count, in one year, three humlred
cases in which not a single patient was lost.

The first indication of tlio disenHo ia a loss
of appetite. The horse loi)ka dull and heavy ;
his legs and ears are cold ; his mouth warm
and dry; and he fncpiently attempts to blow
his nose, from which comes a purulent dis-
charge, aiul he breathes rather hard. The pa-
rotid glaiids under his ear, and extending to
the angle of the jaw, are much swollen. Some-
times the suhmaxillary glarid, between the
jaws, become swollen, but not frequently. His
ears continue cold, and he cougiis dreadfully ;
the violence would almost lead to the belief
that some important organ would be ruptured.
This continues sometimes for three or four
minutes, with such distressing violence to the
horse, that it pains the observer. Sore throat
is always an attendant on inflammation of the
tonsils. The animal cannot swallow his driidc
but with such difficulty as ratlier to resemble
sucking than swallowing; if he is inclined to
eat, the hay is quidded, and returned again,
from an incapability of passing it over the
glottis. Sometimes the inflammation proceeds
down the windpipe, and then the cough is ex-
treme. It is also sore to the touch on the
outside of the throat. Indeed, in some cases,
the horse evinces great restiveness when the
hand is laid on his throat, on tlie enlarged
glands, or the windpipe. In some cases the dis-
charge from the nostrils becomes of a mucous
character ; but this is a favourable omen.

The causes of this disease, as before de-
scribed, are principally dependent on a vari-
able atmosphere, acting upon a peculuir apti-
tude in the constitution of the horse to be-
come affected. In some years, this aptitude is
more general than in others; and if an
unusually variable temperature takes place in
the climate, with atmospheric moisture, the
disease assumes a more epidemic type.

In treating for it, the animal must never bo
bled ; for, what is this distemper ? — nothing
more than sore throat, which may extend as
before described; but, then, bleeding is bad,
because no vital organ is aflected. Remove
the soreness from the throat, and the animal
gets well. The very fact of the horse having a
difficulty of swallowing, proves that the dis-
temper extends little or no farther than the
rima and epiglottis, the membranes of which

265

METERS.]

THE HORSE, AND

[feyees.

are of such a delicate nature, that certain
atmospherical changes will affect them. The
means of cure are so exceedingly simple, that
it almost doubly strengthens this fact. Use
the following receipt, which will seldom, if
ever, be found to fail : —

Glauber Salts * . , . , 4 oz.

Linseed Meal 2 do.

Let these be well mixed with two quarts of
hot water; and when of a proper heat, let
them be carefully horned down. Eepeat them
night and morning.

This draught will lower the inflammatory
action that may be going on in the system,
and the horse's mouth will get gradually cool,
and everything in the shape of fever leave
him.

In such cases of this distemper, the attempt
to give a ball cannot be made, for the soreness
of the horse's throat will prevent him from
swallowing it. Let warm water, or chilled
water, in which a handful of oatmeal has been
mixed, be placed in his manger, so that he
may indulge in it should he think proper. If
his bowels should at all appear costive, back-
rake, and give two or three clysters, until there
are evident signs of a relaxation of the bowels. If
the horse should make frequent efforts to blow
his nose, without discharging anything, apply
a nose-bag made of coarse cloth, with a por-
tion of scalded bran in it to steam his head.
This will produce the desired discharge, and
you may rest satisfied that he is progressing
towards a better state. Bandage his legs, and
dress him well ; give him good warm bedding,
and prevent, as far as possible, all draughts from
entering the stable. For food, bran mashes
will be the best thing, but only in small
quantities, and cold, for he will not eat much
until the soreness of his throat is removed. If
large quantities are given at once, and the dis-
charge from the nose becomes copious, he will
refuse his fooii afterwards. Horses will
scarcely touch warm bran mashes at any time
of the disease. Therefore, if a few vetches or
grass can be procured for him, he will be most
likely to eat them. To remove the soreness
of the throat, make use of counter-irritants ;
the best of which is composed of the following
ingredients : —

Oil of Turpentine 3 oz.

Olive Oa 3 do.

2G6

Mix, and rub tbis liniment all round the throat,
on the swelled glands ; and if the disease
should have been of some days' standmg, rub
on about half-way down the neck, as far as
the windpipe can be felt. Should this lini-
ment not be found suflSciently strong, take of

Mild Blistering Liquid . . . 4 oz,
and apply to the parts, morning and night.
(See List of Medicines.)

In consequence of the difficulty of swallow-
ing, and the consequent debility arising from
the want of proper nourishment, the horse
naturally becomes weak, and requires art to
assist nature, after all febrile symptoms are
gone, which will easily be ascertained by the
recovery of his appetite, the coolness of his
mouth, and his spirits being greatly enlivened.
At this time you may venture to give him the
following tonic ball : —

Sulphate of Iron ... 12 drachms.

Aloes, Cape .... 6 do.

Gentian 12 do.

Mix, and form into a mass with honey.

Divide into six balls, and give one every morn-
ing.

In proceeding as before described, no fear
need be entertained as to success in curing
the distemper, no matter in what shape it maj
have made its appearance.

MALIGNANT FEVER.

IlaUgnant or putrid fever in horses is of
rare occurrence ; and when it does occur, it is
generally a sequel of the distemper just de-
scribed ; principally arising from the debili-
tated state to which the animal is brought by
too much Heeding for that disease. The system
is consequently so much lowered from its
natural standard, that the disease may take on
a putrid or typhus form. When the disease,
from improper treatment, is allowed to arrive
at this state, it then may, in some measure, be
said to become infectious, but not iu any other
form of the disease.

The malignant epidemic of horses always
commences by similar appearances to those
which characterise the mild epidemic. In fact,
the one is only a heightened degree of the
other, pushed into a putrid type ; not by
the violence of its action, as supposed by some,
but by reducing the arterial system below
its proper standard. Another proof of this

rEA'ETlB.]

MODERN VETEllINARY PllACTICE.

[rEVXB&

di'bilitv oxi^tinj; in tlio inalif^iiant kind, is seen
in tlie purging wliicli is usually pivsi'i\t, and a
fcBtid, stinkinpf disclinrf^o from tlio nose also-
The breath is likewise jiarticularly disacjrecablo,
and the pulse quick and small, attended with
extreme weakness.

In treatinc: of nialis^nant cpidi'mic, it is
hardly necessary to say anything about bleed-
ing, as that may be considered the principal
cause of the disease. As soon as any appear-
ances of malignity present themselves, the
most active means must be employed to sup-
port the strength, rouse the action of the
system, and destroy tlie putrid tendency. For
the accomplislimcnt of this, take a nose-bag,
and fill half-lull witli bran ; then take
Chloride of Lime . . . . 2 oz.
Water (warm) .... 1 gallon.

Moisten the bran with this liquid, and put the
bag on the horse's head, that he may inhale
the chloride, which will remove the putrid
tendency. Care must be taken not to have
the water too hot. Repeat three or four
times a day, for about half-an-hour each time.
Give malt mashes, and nutritious glysters,
either of rice-water or starch, and administer
the following ball: —

Cantharides .... 5 grains.

Arsenic 5 do.

Sulphate of Iron ... 2 drachms.

Aloes, Cape , . . . 1 do.

Juniper Berries ... 1 do.

Let these be well incorporated ■with honey,
and given every morning, or every second
morning. By this method of treatment a suc-
cessful termination of the disease may be
anticipated.

SYMPTOMATIC FEVER.

A symptomatic fever is a degree of inflam-
mation and increased circulation, occasioned
by some distinct or local pain, and is not a
disorder within itself; but probably the eflect
of, and dependent on, some other disease for its
being produced. This fever is so influenced
by the cause, and so entirely regulated by its
changes, either for better or worse, as to be
constantly reduced to an alleviation of the
original complaint, and totally dispelled by a
removal of the disease to which it is a conco-
mitant. The fever being only a symptom of
Bome other, the mere eflect of preternatural

heat excited by extreme pain, and not a
distinct disease, let the original cause bo re-
moved, and, as a matter of course, the eflccl
will cease.

It has been repeatedly urged by authors of
great repute, that every fever is one and the
same disorder, only appearing difl'erentlv, ac-
cording to the various circumstances it meets
with in dific-rent constitutions ; and much
might be advanced in favour of this assertion.
For want of due attention to the diflerence of
stages, many fine horses have been hastily
condemned. Persons should not only be ac-
curately nice in the discrimination of disease,
but, by attending minutely to circumstances,
endeavour to develop the indications of nature,
and strengthen all her eff'orts. In such cases,
no person can be too well acquainted with the
qualities of medicines, or with what is to bo
expected from their efi'ects ; and should have in
view, on every emergency, their operations,
whether certain or probable relief is to be
obtained. These ends should be promoted by
every fair and gentle means which circum-
stances may justify, or discretion dictate.

Symptomatic fever is most frequently
brought on by a general cutaneous obstruc-
tion, or sudden constriction of the pores of the
skin, which will constitute the foundation of
every fever to which the animal can possibly
be subject. Inflamed feet will produce it ;
tumours of almost all descriptions ; even nail-
ing a shoe on too tight will produce sympto-
matic fever; besides wounds, and almost all
operations that are attended with severity,
blisters, &c.

With respect to symptoms, the most certain
of these are, a universal heat, and disordered
pulse ; a palpable disquietude and uneasiness,
shifting from place to place. Tlie horse labours
under difiicult respiration ; his mouth is very
dry, his tongue parched and hot; be declines
his food, but will drink water; and sometimes
seizes his provender with seeming eagerness,
then drops it in disappointment. The body is
generally costive ; and in the early stage of
disease, there is a alight proportion of obstruC'
tion of urine.

Let a fever proceed from whatever cause,
the modes of cure are still the same ; such as
diminishing the preternatural heat to that
degree which constitutes its healthy state.

2G7

FETEES.]

THE HORSE, AND

[feteus.

Remove all internal obstructions ; and by a
proper and judicious administration of medi-
cines, calculated to subdue the original cause,
all dependent symptoms will certainly subside.
Eor tliis purpose administer emollient clysters,
after having back-raked the horse, so that easy
evacuations may be promoted, and give

Digitalis . . , from H to 2 drachms
Aloes, Cape .... 1 do.
Make into a ball, with soft soap.

Administer one every morning, which will
lower the action of the heart and arteries, and
entirely remove their inflammatory action : or
give the saline draught, as prescribed. (See List
of Medici7ies). Give nitre, about an ounce in
the horse's water every night ; feed with bran
mashes, or green food, if it can be provided
fresh ; if not, a few sliced carrots mixed with
his mash, and a handful of oats, will entice him
to eat, and prevent that considerable debility
which frequently arises from symptomatic
fever. Have his legs well rubbed, and mode-
rately clothed, and let him be well littered
down with clean dry straw.

CATARRH, OR COMMON COLD.

Catarrh, or common, cold, is one of the most
frequent attacks of fever to which the horse is
subject. Cold, indeed, is an indefinite name
for catarrh, which consists in an inflammation
of the rima glottis, or top of the windpipe,
which is covered with a highly sensitive mem-
brane, even more sensitive than the nerve
itself.

This is the seat of catarrh and cough ; and
when it is affected, the horse is said to have
caught cold. This expression, however, is apt
to mislead from the true nature of the real
cause ; for this cold defines no particular de-
gree in which it has been caught. The truth
is, it is the change from one degree of tem-
perature to another, the warm air acting as a
stimulus, and the cold as a sedative ; and thus
people, without reflection, attribute the attack
to catching cold. Horses are necessarily ex-
posed to these variations of temperature many
times a day ; and this is demonstrated par-
ticularly in man, without going to individual
cases, but to numbers ; for, in removing a
whole regiment from comfortable barracks to
open camp, cold operates, but no catarrh ; but
on again returning to barracks, which pro-
268

duces the effect of high temperature, catarrh
becomes common ; and it is a known fact,
tliat deaths are never so few as in the open
field.

Horses that are kept in the open field in
winter, are not attacked with catarrh, inflamed
lungs, grease, &c. ; but when brought into the
stable, catarrb immediately makes its appear-
ance. This sudden change cannot be referred
to simple heat, but to a poisoned atmosphere,
which is generated in stables, breathed many
times over ; nature not having intended
animals to breathe the same air a second time.
The closer we adhere to her laws, the less pro-
bability is there of disease.

Horses will certainly lose flesb by being
kept in cold fields ; for animal oil wants a cer-
tain temperature for its increase. Horse-
dealers are well aware of this in preparing
their animals for sale. By these facts, dif-
ferent changes are proved ; hence badly-con-
structed stables, and contaminated air, are the
veterinary surgeon's best friends.

Thus, then, taking cold is, properly speak-
ing, taking heat, the disease being of an in-
flammatory nature.

Catarrh being proved to be an inflammation,
originating in congestion, cold cannot possibly
produce this, but the direct contrary. This
may be proved by bringing a frozen animal to
the fire, by which means you excite inflamma-
tion, and destroy him ; but if you rub him
with snow, he revives, because the snow, with
friction, is warmer than the body, and becomes
of a sufficient degree of heat. But the idea
that cold produces catarrh, arises from its
existing mostly in cold weather ; but what the
cold does is this — it renders the parts more sus-
ceptible of heat. Persons may ask, why aro
the cartilages of the windpipe more particu-
larly affected ? The» answer is, that they have
been made thus sensitive as a kind of safe-
guard to the lungs ; and when we consider
that, in bringing horses into stables, it is from
cold to heat, and from a pure to an impure
atmosphere — this being more than a simple
change — the question then arises, how are we
to prevent it ? We must acknowledge that
all animals fatten sooner in a warm tempera-
ture than in one of the reverse ; but then the
change must be gradual, being mindful that
the air all this time should be pure ; for the

TEVERS ]

ATODERN VETElllNARY PRACTICE.

[fxtebb.

diseases of horses mav almost nil be referred
to ignoraiiiM.^ ami iu'-,'leot ; ajul, in the same
manner, tliia will, to a very largo extent, apply
to all animal creation.

As it is neeessary to have horses stabled,
for our many frequent uses, pure air has as
much to do with the prevention of catarrh, as
anything else ; for a poisoned atmosphere pro-
duces more or less efiect upon nil animals, in
accordance with their habits. AVe, ourselves,
are born in a comparatively impure atmo-
sphere, and brought up in it ; but use witli us
is second nature. A horse, on the contrary,
comes into the world in a pure atmosphere,
never breathing the same air twice. Therefore
the opposite must take greater effect on horses
than on us ; and hence we seldom see them ill
until they are brought into stables. Then the
horse becomes sick, and the owner is surprised ;
but it ought to be a greater surprise that the
animal should live at all. Although no advo-
cate for cold stables, yet we are no friend to
such as are heated by dung and urine.

Horses generally become diseased during
the night, the impure air then collecting ; for
during the day there is a partial ventilation.
Most persons on visiting a stable the first
thing in the morning, are well aware of the
effect of the air on their eyes.

Common catarrh often takes a great hold of
the constitution ; the irritation causing cough,
and not unfrequeutly ending in chronic cough,
from the irritability of the nerves, occasioned
by the previous attack. If the inflammation
attacks the membrane which lines the nose, a
discharge will be the consequence, sometimes
from one or both nostrils ; nature endeavour-
ing, by this means, to relieve herself. This
inflammation frequently, or almost always,
affects horses coming into large towns. Horse-
dealers are well aware of this, and often try to
prevent it, by turning them into a loose place,
for the attack seldom or ever comes on whilst
they are on the road in exercise, and breath-
ing pure air. Mistaken kindness will often
permit them to rest when the journey is over ;
but, however much the horse may have tra-
velled, he should have walking exercise the
next day. The first few days are of the
greatest consequence.

The cause of catarrh, according to the doc-
trine laid down at the Koyal Veterinary Col-

lego, is common cold ; but other causes will
[M'oduee the same effects, and deserve great
attention Jrorn every possessor of hor.><e8.
What is called cold, may arise not only from
breathing impure air in stables, but from tho
real applicalion of cold, when the animal is in
an excited state, or in a state of perspiration,
and allowed to stand in a draught of air.

In this, as in many other diseases to which
the horse is subject, cold acts differently upon
different constitutions; the injury sustained
being in some respects regulated by the degree*
of heat, or perspiration, in which the animal
was at the time of his being exposed to the
original cause, from which some idea may bo
formed of its probable duration and severity.
The effects of cold are not only soon dis-
covered where there is constant attention and
care, but an observation may be very early
made on what part it more immediately directs
its attack. In all cases, either of the eyes,
throat, or the head, it will discover itself, more
or less, in a cough, or in an obstruction in
breathing, according to the severity of the
attack. So soon as a horse is in this state, a
symptomatic fever attends, which is to bo
understood as a degree of febrile heat, or irri-
tability, dependent on the original cause, and
which gradually ceases as the primary disease
is found to d-acline.

In treating for this, bleed moderately, say
two or three quarts — not enough to debilitate
the animal ; that is, according to his size, state,
and condition. In about three hours give him
a bran mash, having first removed all his hay
out of the rack. Mix an ounce of nitre with
his water morning and night. Continue thi#
treatment for two or three days, giving occa-
sionally a handful of sweet hay, wetted. This,
in many cases, when taken in the early stage,
will prove successful. Should this treatment not
produce the desired effect in the early stages,
and should the attack have been neglected,
and the disorder have made rapid progress;
should the cough be ^nolent and constant, tho
horse very dull and heavy, declining all kind
of food, and the symptomatic fever running
high ; perhaps the disease will not imme-
diately submit to the above treatment so soon
as may be wished or expected ; therefore repeat
the bleeding in two or three days at farthest,
according to the state aud necessity, altering

269

ROAEING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[eoaeinq.

the maslies to equal parts of malt and bran,
scalded with boiling water. When nearly
cool enough for the manger, stir in it—

: oz.
do.

Glauber Salts ....
Liquorice, powdered .

Let this be repeated every night and morning,
continuing the noonday feed dry, and the nitre
as before. Good grooming and gentle exer-
cise must not be neglected.

It should be remembered, that cough, or
colds, thus treated, before they have been
suftered by neglect or. penury to become obdu-
rate by long standing, generally submit to a
very small degree of trouble or expense ; whilst
tardiness in procuring expeditious relief, is
often productive of evils that no future as-
siduity can relieve. A critical discharge at
the nostrils may come on, which may termi-
nate either in chronic cough, brolcen wind, in-
flamed lungs, or even in glanders. To obviate

these misfortunes, if they do occur, give a
dozen of the following balls, not neglecting the
nitre in the water : —

Turkey Figs ...... 4 oz.

Liquorice, powdered . , . . 4 do.

Aniseed 4 do.

Ginger „ . 1 do.

Caraway Seed, powdered . p . 1 do.
Honey sufficient to form into a mass.
Divide into eighteen balls, and give one every
morning.

To say precisely in what time the cure will
be completed, is impossible ; but this method of
treatment is strongly recommended.

The treatment for cough, at the Eoyal
Veterinary College, is —

Cape Aloes . .... 1 drachm.

Linseed Meal, about ... 2 do.
Soft soap to form the ball.
Give one every morning. Sometimes a dram
oi 4ijgitalia is combined with the above.

CHAPTER XXVIL

COUGHS ; PvOARTXr, ; CHRONIC COUGH ; THICK WIND ; BROKEN WIND.

ROARING.

Tub horse is very subject to this disease,
especially carriage-horses, and particularly
those of the Yorkshire breed, whose fine up-
standing height, of from sixteen to eighteen
hands, and their long necks, cause them to
be sought after in London for the carriage.
In driving them, the coachman is enabled to
shorten his bearing-rein to any length he
thinks proper, and thereby bring his horses'
necks into a beautiful curve. This is done
to exhibit thein in style, or what these knights
of the whip call, bringing them out in form,
though, by such means, the disease called
roaring is produced. In many cases where
this disease exists, it is exceedingly unpleasant
to hear the noise the horse makes every time
he breathes ; indeed, in some cases, it is so
distressing, that from exertion the animal will
fall ; yet, this tight bearing-rein must be used.
270

Let U3 here, however, explain what it is that
principally is the cause of this complaint.

Roaring is occasioned by anything that ob-
structs the air-passages, or, in other words,
anything that impedes the air from passing up
and down from and to the lungs. Inflammation
of the fine secreting membrane which lines the
windpipe, will frequently produce it, from an
alteration of the arterial action, by which an
effusion of coagulable matter may be thrown
out, and become organised, and, in consequence,
remain as a permanent obstruction to the pas-
sage. Inflammation of the lungs will also some-
times occasion it ; strangles also will, by pro-
ducing getieral inflammation round the throat,
frequently cause it. But the most painful
cause of roaring is, the tight reining-in of
carriage-horses, by which the windpipe be-
comes distorted, or, in other words, contracted
and diseased. The horse, in his natural state,

BOABINO.]

MODERN VKTK RIN'AKY PKACTICR. [ciikonic couoii.

feeds oft* tlie grouiul ; c'oii.siuiucntly, liis uock
id at lull strotcli ; bul ulicn lie bicoiiies dDinos-
tiojitoil, this natural strolcli of it is rumovetl
from hiin, for ho has his rack level witli liis
heail, and tlie manger but littlo lower, so that
those muscles of the throat, counectinj; the
\vinil[iipe with the spur-hone, as it is sometiiiioa
called, and the inner sides of the posterior
part of the jaw, become, in a manner, useless ;
consequently, contraction takes place ; and as
nature finds but little or no use for them in
such a case, so absorption takes place, and they
become shortened. It is from this cause that
we frequently see cart-horses, when turned
out to grass for a few hours, spread their fore
legs so cxtraordiifarily wide. This is the
natural consequence of their not being able to
reach the ground from the contraction and ab-
sorption of a portion of these muscles.

Another cause, and, perhaps, the principal
cause of roaring, is the partial absorption, or
lapping over of the ligamentous cartilego union
existing between each ring of the windpipe,
fi'om the horse's head being so bridled in by the
bearing rein. (See Flate). It has been re-
marked by a very eminent practitioner, and one
particularly so at the Eoyal Veterinary College,
that the throat-strap being buckled too tight
may be the cause ; but, if this were the case,
not one out of every cart or waggon horse
would escape, especially when we take into
consideration the heavy harness with which
they are appointed ; but this is not the case
with carriage or saddle horses, the harness of
which is of the lightest description, and espe-
cially at the present A^y.

In treating for roaring, we must premise
that its cure is very difllcult, indeed not prac-
ticable. It may, however, be prevented; and,
as "a preventive is better than a cure," we
will endeavour to describe how this is to be
accomplished. In the first place, the rack out
of which the horse eats his hay should be
altered. It should be on the ground, so that
the horse's neck shall be on the full stretch, or
as it is in a state of nature when in the act of
cropping his food. By this means, those liga-
mentous attachments of the rings of the wind-
pipe would become elongated, or be kept in
their natural situation. That corrugation of
the membrane, which might, under other cir-
cumstances, become thickened, would be re-

moved, and so prevent a contraction or reduc-
tion of the compass of tho air-pasnago, by
which tho unpleasant noise of roaring is pro-
duced. Nature never intended a horse to Imvo
his hay just opposite his nose. All horses in
India feed otF the ground, and it is a rare thing
to meet with a roarer there.

CHRONIC COUGH.

Chronic cough consists in a violent action of
the diaplu-agm, and tho abdominal muscles
producing a forcible expiration of tiie air from
the chest, ejected with much violence, with the
intent of removing any extraneous body that
may intercept the passage of tho air. When-
ever it accompanies a general aflection of tho
constitution, it most frequently assumes tho
chronic form. Catarrh, and inflammation of
the lungs, are usually attended with cough ;
and even if those diseases are removed, chronic
cough supervenes. It is, also, a very common
attendant of thick wind, broken wind, glanders,
and pulmonary consumption. Worms also
will produce coughs. It also exists, at times,
without any attendant difficulty of breathing,
the horse eating well, and appearing in good
condition Sometimes a chronic or permanent
cough appears to afi'ect the animal when goinfi'
to stable in the morning, or at the different
feeding times. This is in consequence of ad-
mitting the cold air into the stable, which
becomes a source of irritation to the air-
passages. It is no uncommon thing for horses,
on first go n,' out to exercise, to cough ; but;
this is in consequence of coming in contact
with cold air. A cough of this description is
very common, and will sometimes aflect tho
horse for years, yea, even his whole life. In
other instances it does not end in so harmless
a manner; but, upon any occasional cold
taken, becomes aggravated ; and when this
repeatedly occurs, the bronchiju become so
permanently affected, that chronic cough is
established.

The eflects and termination of chronic
cough are dependent in a considerable degree
upon the causes producing it. iVom what we
have observed of the termination of inflamma-
tion of the lungs, it will be easily seen that an
irritation often remains iu the air-passages
after that disease, as well as in some cases of
catarrhal affections. In either of these cases,

271

CHEONIC COUOH.]

THE HOESE, AND

[thick wikd.

any cliange of atmosphere excites these ex-
cessively irritable parts into action ; making
the horse cough whenever he is moved in or
out of the stable ; for the air being either
hotter or colder than what was before
breathed in the regular way, becomes a source
of irritation. Drinking cold water will, from
the same reason, produce the same effect for a
time, if given in the stable; but if a horse is
allowed to drink at a pond, where the water is
of tlie same temperature as the atmosphere,
no ill effects will result. Any irregularity of
motion or hurry in the pace of the animal will
produce this cough ; and in some cases, it is
continued to such a length of time, as to be
truly distressing. There are instances in
which the irritability of the bronchial mem-
brane itself, does not seem so much increased
as to alter either the quantity or quality of
the mucus secreted. It may become inordinate
in quantity, where horses, when they cough,
discharge it at the nose, or it may be more acrid
in quality ; but, in either case, it proves a
source of continual irritation. In some ca:es,
the deposit of adhesive matter in the air-pas-
sages, arising from catarrhal inflammation or
inflamed lungs, will produce chronic cough,
and the deposit will then cause irritation. This
deposit of lymph-like matter is sometimes
removed by the violence of the cough ; and by
administering expectorants, a separation is
frequently obtained, when great quantities of
this obstructive matter is brought up. In
Bonie constitutions, a large portion of it becomes
absorbed, and this may be assisted to a great
extent by administering proper medicines.

The remedies for chronic cough are applied
in accordance with the symptoms it exhibits;
and when it appears from a want of mucous
secretion, we know of no medicine so effective
as the ball prescribed in catarrh. On the
other hand, if the mucous secretion should
flow in such quantities as to cause the horse
to be weakened by it, then it will be proper to
administer the following : —

Sulphate of Iron . . . 2 drachms.
Gentian . . . i ^2 do.

Aloes 1 do.

Honey to form the ball.
One of these balls to be given daily.

If the secretion should be of an acrid, watery
description, a course of mercurial medicine
272

should be tried, being careful, at the same
time, that the animal does not get a chill
during the time this medicine is being given
him. The following is recommended as
good : —

Blue Pill 2 drachms.

Ginger 1 do.

Form into a ball, with soft soap.

Give one of these balls every second day for
a fortnight. If the horse should reject his
food in the course of the exhibition of the
medicine, desist from giving it for a i'ew days,
and commence again. This we have known
to remove very severe attacks of chronic
cough, and frequently, when attended with
worms, when the coat was staring and dry,
and the stools foetid and slimy.

In chronic cough, great attention should be
paid to the food of the animal— never to give
clover. It is heating, and altogether unfit for
horses so affected. Chaff, also, is not to be
recommended in this disease. Good sweet
oats and hay, both made a little damp, will be
found the best. Carrots, occasionally, are ex-
cellent ; so also are a few Swede turnips ; or
even a few potatoes cut up will afford great
relief. Occasionally, bran mashes, with a little
scalded linseed, will also prove useful.

In cases of chronic cotigh, where it appears
of an aggravated nature, insert a rowel in the
chest, and dress with the digestive ointment.
(See Ointments, in the medicinal part of this
section). Keep the rowel in for at least a fort-
night. Should the cough be very severe, apply
the following liniment to the whole length of
the horse's windpipe night and morning.

No. 1.
Oil of Turpentine . , . . 3 oz.
Olive Oil 3 do.

Apply as above directed.

Or, No. 2.
Cantharides . . . o . , 1 oz.
Olive Oil 5 do.

Let these remain in a bottle for about six
days, occasionally shaking it, and then apply
as above directed. In cases of coagulable
lymph being deposited in the windpipe, these
liniments will greatly tend to remove it.

THICK WIND.

This disease is generally the sequel to in-
flamed lungs, which baa thickened the air-

TUICK W'NU.]

:^IODE]iX VETRIUXARY PliACriCE.

[uitOKLN WIND.

passngcg, and consequently prevented a free
and unimpeded respiration. It is a disease
rarely occurring of itself, but euperveniiig
after some otlier inflammatory attack to which
the air-passagos may have boon subject, such
aa catarrh, &c. Long-continued exercise,
quickened beyond the capacity of the lungs to
bear, is frequently a cause ; and such is par-
ticularly the case when horses are driven or
ridden hard with full stomachs. It is also not
unfrequeutly produced when horses are too
fat, or, in other words, out of condition, when
inflammation is superinduced in the air-paa-
eages. Confinement will frequently produce
it, by eiciting an inflammatory diathesis,
especially if over-feeding, with a want of exer-
cise, be added to it.

Tlie remote causes of thick wind are to be
found in morbid vascular action. The proxi-
mate causes are more obscure ; but the
examination of morbid subjects, in most in-
stances, shows some disorganisation in the
structure of the lungs. A deranged state of
the lungs, and especially if the atmosphere is
at all thick and heavy, will give rise to it.
The most usual appearance it presents, is a
morbid alteration in the minute bronchial
ramifications of the blood-vessels, occasioned
either by a thickening of their own mem-
branous structure, or by a deposit within them
of coagulable lymph, which, necessarily, con-
tracts or lessens their functional capacity,
rendering air-passages much smaller than they
are in a natural state, when difllculty of res-
piration is produced, and the animal is called
foggy, or thick-winded.

Thick wind is easily discovered by any per-
son at all acquainted witb horses. A sense of
fulness in the right side of the heart induces
the animal to respire hastily. The force with
whicb this is done occasions the sound so well
known as the distinguishing mark of thick
wind, which often degenerates into, what is
called, broken wind.

For the treatment of thick wind, there is no
ybetter remedy than the cordial pectoral hall,
given in the list of medicines at the end of
this section, administered occasionally in the
morning, when the afiection appears, more
than usual, to distress the animal, and render-
ing him apparently less capable for the per-
formance of his duties.

2n

HIIOKKN WIND.

This aflfoction of the lungs and air-pasaagcH
has a long time puzzled both English as well
as French writers on vetoriiuiry suhjcots, but
without eitlior being satisfied, until the all-
penetrating genius of Professor Coleman, of the
Koyal Veterinary College, threw a liglit on tho
subject before unknown. The theory of that
gentleman is a correct one. He discovered it
to be a rupture of the air-cells of the lungs,
so that tlie tiiin membrane covering those,
becomes raised up ii\ small bladdt^rs, wherever
the rupture takes place. This opinion baa
been thoroughly proved, on examination after
death, in such subjects as bad been affected
with the complaint when living. The alteration
in the structure of the broken-winded lung is in
general very considerable. It has been asserted
that, in very few instances, no change whatever
has been detected, and the lungs have presented
little or no morbid appearance ; but this we
should very much doubt, having dissected seve-
ral horses affected with broken wind, and
having examined their lungs minutely, and
always found great derangement in them.
The alteration consists principally in an em-
physematous state, dependent on the air, as
above stated, being extravasated not only
throughout the parenchyma in minute air-
bubbles, but also extended over the thin mem-
branous covering. This extravasation is, in
most cases, so complete, as to render the lungs
specifically lighter than ordinary, and to make
them crepitate and crackle under the hand.
They are also, in every instance, of a paler
colour.

The invariable presence of emphysema in
such cases being fully established, it is not to
be wondered at that a cure has never been
established for broken wind. Some writers
have said that there may be a possibility of
cure, but without making mention of the
curative means. "We shall, therefore, offer our
opinion as to the best means of relieving the
disease, without making any pretensions to
the discovery of a perfect remedy.

AVhere broken wind exists, it is easily
known by tho peculiar action occasioned by
the respiration of the horse. The cough, also,
which accompanies it is of a peculiar kind,
and seems to be forced o.it with a sort ot

273

BEOKEN WIND.}

THE HOESE. AND

[broken wind.

grunting noise. The difference between the
inspirations and the expirations — the breath-
ing-in, and the breathing-out — is also most
remarkable, but easily accounted for. Inspi-
ration, or the act of drawing in the breath, is
effected with the ordinary ease ; but the ex-
travasated air already diffused through the
cellular tissue, is still the real cause of this
difficulty, by offering a resistance to the com-
plete ejection of the atmospheric air contained
in the bronchial cells. Consequently, the
broken-winded horse inspires with ease, but
respires with a protracted and great effort, by
means of very forcible contractions of his
abdominal muscles. The respiration is per-
formed by two apparent efforts, in one of
which tlie usual muscles operate, and in the
other the auxiliary muscles, particularly the
abdominal ones, are put on tlie stretch to
complete the expulsion more perfectly. When
this has been done, the flank falls with peculiar
force, and these muscles resume their relaxa-
tions.

Horses affected, may receive a palliative
to the distress under which they frequently
labour; but a perfect cure is impossible. The
best remedy we have been able to discover to
relieve broken wind is the followinsf, and
ought always to be kept in the stable, espe-
cially if the horse is required to do some extra
work : —

JEhr Brohen Wind.

Gum Galbaniura

Amoniacum

Assafoetida

Antimony

Form into a mass with honey.
Divide into twelve balls, and give
sionally.

Horses, from their prone position, are liable
to pursiveness and broken wind ; for in
them the intestines press much against the
diaphragm, or midriff, and, in consequence, on
the lungs, and thereby cause the oppression of
breathing. One remedy is, having particular
care to their exercise and feed. The exercise
should be gentle, and moderate as to its con-
tinuance. The food should always be the best
of the respective sorts, and frequently given
in small quantities, that the stomach may

2 oz.

2 do.

2 do.

4 do.

one occa-

never be too full. All dry food, such as corn,
hay, bran, &c., should always be moistened
with water to prevent thirst, which generally
attends this afiection ; particularly the haj,
the flavour of which is much improved by
damping, or sprinkling it with water. The
corn should be increased in quantity, and less
hay given ; and what is given should be of the
best description, sweet, clean, and well shaken,
to divest it of all dirt and dust. Care should
be taken not to make the hay too wet ; for, if
so, the horse will not eat it.

When there is convenience, broken-winded
horses are best when kept out at grass at all
times, their corn being continued as when
they stood at hay ; but when kept at grass
for the purpose of relieving their wind, they
should not be taken up to stable, except for
immediate use ; for, if taken from grass to dry
meat, they become more oppressed in their
breathing, from the difference of the change of
food. If convenience cannot be had for con-
stant running in the field, they may be soiled
in a loose box in the stable, with any green
food that may be in season at the time.

By care, in this method, numbers of horses
have been much relieved, and made useful for
many years.

There is also a small degree of broken wind,
which, by dealers, is called pursiveness. Many
pursive horses evince several signs of broken-
windedness, yet never become thoroughly
broken-winded, if not ill-used, or neglected.
Great and foul feeders are always more or less
thick-winded; and, except their diet and exer-
cise are carefully managed, they will readily
become so.

Due attention being paid to the diet and
exercise of pursive horses, according to the
directions already given for the broken-winded,
tar-water, to the quantity of one or two pints
each, may be administered the morning they are
going to work. If to this be added a pint of
warm ale, it will be found of great benefit in
relieving the wind. Another excellent remedy
for pursive horses is the cordial pectoral ball.
The stable where horses are at all affected in
the wind, however slightly, ought never to be
without a good supply of this invaluable
medicine.

274i

OLAN'DERS.]

MODEliN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[ai,.\NDEU8.

CHAPTER XXVIIL

JLANDERS.

Glanders is a discasp, tlie treatment of which
has proved a perfect puzzle to tlie most scienti-
fie veterinarians. |

There is no doubt that it is contagious, and it
is generally thought incurable. The vast num-
ber of horses which have fallen victims to '
glanders, especially in the army, and in estab- ,
lishments where large numbers are kept, has i
attracted particular attention to the subject,
especially in Trance and Italy ; where, so
carlv as about the beginning of the last cen- j
tury, many attempts were made to discover a
remedy for it.

Lafosse, an eminent French veterinarian,
considered it a local disease, and thought he
had found a successful mode of treating it, in
perforating the bones which cover the frontal
sinuses, and injecting, through the opening,
astringent and other liquids.

After this opinion had beep published, some i
English farriers made a trial of it ; and others
poured detergent lotions into the nostrils, the
nose being drawn up for the purpose, by
means of a pulley. Attempts were also made
to cure it by arsenical fumigations ; and some
went so far as to burn out the submaxillary
glands between the jaws, or to slough them
out by caustics. Tlie various preparations of
mercury, copper, iron, and arsenic, have like-
wise been used. At the Royal Veterinary
College, a solution of from two to five drachms
of the sulphate of copper, combined with a
little linseed meal, is the remedy made use of.
Prom the circumstance of horses having
sometimes escaped the disorder, though they
have been standing in the same stall or stable,
or drinking out of the same bucket or trough
with a glandered animal, many have been led
to doubt its being contagious ; and the little
care that some large proprietors have taken to
prevent the spreading of the disorder, in con-
sequence of such an opinion, has been the
cause of very numerous and serious losses.
That the glanders is contagious, has been
clearly and indisputably proved by numerous

experiments, and the manner in which it is
propagated has likewise been satisfactorily da-
monstrated. At tlio same time, it must bo
admitted, glanders will arise from inoculation ;
and this not by wilful intention, but from
accident ; for, suppose a glandered horse to
have stood in a stall, and some of the matter
from his nostrils to have hung about the man-
ger— a fresh horse coming into that stall,
may, from its strangeness, smell about, when
any rough substance that he may come in con-
tact with, may occasion an abrasion of the skin.
Should this abrasion touch tlie poisoned mat-
ter of glanders, the horse will decidedly be-
come affected.

In a general way, however, close unwhole-
some stables, hard work, and bad provender,
sudden changes from cold and wet weather to
hot stables— in short, anything that will weaken
the animal considerably, is likely to produce
glanders and farcy. There will be no longer
any danger in admitting this opinion, if, at
the same time, we keep in view the contagious
nature of the disorder, in whatever manner it
may be produced. For, if such cruel and
foolish treatment of horses does' not produce
glanders or farcy, it may produce otlier
disorders, which are often more speedily fatal ;
and if it does not actually produce a dis-
order, it weakens the constitution to such
a degree, that the animal is rendered more
susceptible of the contagion of glanders, as well
as of other diseases. It is from this cause that
glanders spreads so rapidly among post and
coach-horses; while, among horses of a
different description, its progress is generally

slow.

Some writers have said that glanders has
often been generated in the cavalry, by putting
the horses, immediately after coming from
camp, where they are constantly exposed to
the weather, into warm stables, and giving
them a full allowance of oats. This, it is true,
has often brought on inflammation, and in-
flammatory disorders of several descriptions,

275

GLANDEKS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[glanders.

which have proved very destructive, especially
the catarrhal kind ; iu which cases they are
accompanied with a discharge from the nostrils.
The acrimony of this discharge will sometimes
even ulcerate the nostrils, and the disease
would then be considered as a decided case of
glanders. Frequently we have known the
distemper, or epidemic catarrh, produce this
effect.

The first symptom of this disease is generally
seen in a discharge of glairy matter from one
or both nostrils ; principally, or usually from
one only, and more frequently from the left
than from the right nostril ; a swelling of the
submaxillary glands, or kernels between the
jaws, and generally on the side of the jaw
corresponding to the affected nostiul, and fre-
quently attended with cough ; the membrane
of the nose, especially that which covers the
cartilaginous part, or septum, becomes, from
the fineness of its texture, ulcerated ; as do the
many small blood-vessels distributed thereon.
In consequence of this, it becomes more sus-
ceptible of the disease, especially in its acute
form.

Sometimes, however, glanders is accompanied
by a disorder of the superficial absorbents of
the skin, named farcy, which has been con-
sidered by many authors as a distinct disorder ;
but we think that it is always a symptom of
glanders, whether it appear in a local or con-
stitutional form.

Glanders is divided into two stages — the
acute and the chronic ; or the first and the
second stages. Acute glanders is generally
attended with acute farcy, such as chancrous
ulceration about the lips, face, or neck, with
considerable or painful swellings on different
parts ; some of these swellings appearing in,
what the old farriers called, a corded, or
knotted vein. Ulceration and swelling of the
hind leg, or sheath, and sometimes of the fore
leg, with corded veins, and what is termed
farcy-buds on the inside of the limbs, also
accompany glanders. Acute glanders often
spreads rapidly, and either destroys the animal,
or renders him such a pitiable and hopeless
object, that the proprietor is usually induced
to have him destroyed,

Ciirouic glanders is generally very mild in
the first stage, and does not affect the appe-
tite, or the general health and appearance of
276

the animal. Horses affected no further with
it, when properly fed and taken care of, and
worked with moderation, will often continue
in regular work for several years. Many
glandered animals have been known to get rid
of the disorder while working ; and, on several
occasions, fresh -purchased horses, and par-
ticularly if old ones, have escaped the dis-
order. Hence it is that many have been led
to believe that the glanders is not contagious.

The second stage of glanders is marked by
ulceration within the nostrils, or an appear-
ance in the matter which indicates ulceratiooi
though it is sometimes too high up to be seen.
The matter is in larger quantity, more gluti-
nous, sticking about the margin of the nostril
and upper lips, and occasionally obstructing the
passage of air, so that a sort of snuffling noise
is made in breathing.

The matter is frequently streaked with
blood, and the horse sometimes bleeds from
the nostrils in working. When this happens
in the first stage of the disorder, however
early it may be, it indicates the approach of
the second stage. The matter begins to have
an offensive smell, which it scarcely ever has
in the first stage. In the second stage, the
matter is generally discharged from both nos-
trils ; whilst the glands under the jaw become
larger, harder, and fixed more closely to the
jaw-bone. They are also generally more
tender to the touch than in the first stage.
The inner corners of the eye are also mattery.
The animal loses flesh and strength, and is apt
to stale more than usual. He coughs heavily
and hard, and at length dies in a miserable
condition, generally farcied as well as glan-
dered. It is with this disease as it formerly
was with small-pox inoculation, and is now
with vaccination. If a person happens to
meet with one or two cases, or even half-a-
dozen, of horses escaping the glanders, after
standing in a stable with one that is glan-
dered, he thinks himself fully warranted in
concluding that the disease is not contagious.
Satisfied with this decision, he gives himself
no further trouble about it, and pays no atten-
tion to anything that may be said or written
in opposition to his own opinion.

It is a remarkable circumstance, that glan-
ders cannot be communicated by applying the
matter which is discharged from the nose of a

GLANDEItS.]

MODERN VKTKKINAKV I'KACTICE.

[ULANDEBS.

i^landercd horse, to the nostrils of a sound one,
even though a piece of lint soaked in the
matter is put up the nostrils, and kept in con-
tact with the pituitary membrane tor a short
time, or even if the matter is thrown up the
nostrils by a syringe. But if the smallest
quantity is applied in the way of inoculation,
either to the membrane of the nostrils, or to
any part of the body, there will be produced a
glamleroua ulcer, from which farcy-buds and
corded lymphatics will proceed. After a short
time the poison will get into the circulation,
and the horse will be completely glandered.

The circumstance of glanders not being
communicated by a]iplying matter to the nos-
trils, enables us to account for a horse
escaping the disorder, as he sometimes does,
after being put into a glandered stable, or
standing by the side of a diseased animal.
AYe have great reason to believe that glanders
is frequently communicated by accidental in-
oculation. Glanders can also be communi-
cated by the air, by the effluvium which issues
from the glandered horse, ia the same way
that putrid fever is communicated ; yet we
knew a traveller who used to journey from
Deptford to London daily, and who kept two
liorses in the same stable, one of whicli was
highly glandered, and remained so for three
years ; but the other horse never caught the
infection, which would lead to the supposition
that there must be, in some instances, a
predisposition to the disease before it can be
caught. Glanders, it has been said, cannot
be produced by the matter applied to an old
wound or ulcer ; but of this we have great
doubts. A sound horse has been inoculated
with glanderous matter which had been mixed
with ten times its weight of water. This pro-
duced some degree of inflammation, and a
small ulcer of a suspicious nature ; but after
two or three days the ulcer got quite well.
This shows that glanderous matter may be so
far weakened by dilution with water, saliva, or
the watery secretion from the lower part of a
glandered horse's nostrils, wjen be has the
affection in a very slight degree only, as to
render its being incapable of communication to
others. On the other hand, when a large
opening is made in the skin of a sound horse,
and a piece of tow or lint, soaked in the glan-
derous matter, is put into it, in the manner

that rowels are inserted, the disorder is com-
municated iu 80 violent a degree, that tlio
animal is destroyed by it, generally in a few
days. The same efl'ect may be produced if
glanderous matter is mi.xed with a little warm
water, and injected into the jugular vein of a
sound horse.

A horse affected with glanders, may inocu-
late himself, and thereby produce farcy. Horses,
when out at grass, are frequently affected by
an itching, and are apt to bite their heel.i,
when the flow of matter from the nostrils in-
oculates them, and produces farcy. The pos-
sibility of this circumstance taking place may
be easily proved by inoculating a glandered
animal iu any part of his body with some of his
own matter. There are many ways in which
a sound horse may be accidentally inoculated
with the matter of glanders, for the slightest
scratch in any part of the body is sufficient.
Horses that are cleaned with a curry-comb,
are very liable to be scratched iu those parts
where the bones are most prominent ; such aa
on the inside of the hock, the knee, and on
the shank-bones. To such scratches glan-
derous matter may be applied even by tlie
hands of the groom, after he has been examin-
ing the nose of a glandered horse, or wiping off
the matter from his nostrils. It may, also, be
done by the horse himself transferring glan-
derous matter from the nose of a diseased
animal, or from the manger, or other part
where any matter has been deposited ; for
horses are very fond of rubbing their noses
against the manger or stall ; and a glandered
animal will generally rub off the matter from
his nose against the manger, the rack, the stall,
or against another horse. If a sound horse
happens to stand by one that is glandered, they
will often be seen nabbing, or gently biting
each other, or rubbing their noses together,
when glanders to the sound one may be the
result. In short, when we know that glanders
is thus communicated, we can conceive a variety
of ways iu which a horse may be accidentally
inoculated. On one occasion, at the Koyal
Veterinary College, two grooms, who had tho
superintendence of the glandered stables, be-
came, themselves, affected with the disease,
and were obliged to be removed into an
hospital.

AVhen a horse has been twitched, he gene-

277

GLAXDEIIS.]

THE HORSE, AND

[glandees.

rally rubs big nose and lips with considerable
force against the manger, and may thus easily
iaoculate himself with a glandered splinter or
Aail. The parts where the local farcy first
appears, are those most likely to be acciden-
tally inoculated ; namely, the inside of the
hocks, the knees, the shanks, the lips, and the
under-jaw, where grooms are often trimming
off the long hair with sharp-pointed scissors,
or singeing with a candle, and causing an
itching, which makes the horse rub the part
against the manger. In this way the heels
frequently become wounded. Horses that ar,?
kept on grains, bad hay, or any kind of bad
provender, are liable to itching humours, which
make them nab or bite their skin, and scratch
the hind leg with the opposite foot. We may
often see them bite, rub with the nose, and
alternately scratch with the hind foot, the other
leg. Even after inoculation, a month may
elapse before the disease makes its appear-
ance ; and in all experiments for the production
of glanders, some days, at any rate, will elapse
before any ulcer or chancre is produced. It
will be a week or two before farcy-buds or
corded lymphatics will appear; and in some
cases, probably, a month before the running
from the nostrils will come on, except when a
young ass is the subject of experiment. If we
reflect upon all these circumstances, there will
be no difficulty in admitting the following con-
clusions, in reference to glanders — namely:
That glanders ia a contagious disorder, com-
municable by inoculation, or by the effluvium
proceeding from a glandered animal, that may
have been kept in a stable with others, which,
from weaker constitutions, have greater sus-
ceptibility to be afiected by the disease, than
others of a more robust and strong constitu-
tion. It has been also asserted by some clever
veterinarians, that swallowing a quantity of
the matter made into balls will produce the
disease ; but this we never found to be the
case, as we have tried it in several instances,
both on horses and asses. In doubtful cases —
that is, when there is much difficulty in deter-
mining whether the discharge from a horse's
nostril is glanderous or not (and such cases
frequently occur) — he should be removed to a
stable, to remain by himself Then purchase
an ass, which may always be obtained for a
lew shillings, and inoculate him with some of
278

the glandered matter. "We have generally
done this in the inside of the fore lew, on the
plate-vein ; and in two or three days, ample
proof will be aflbrded, in the actual condi-
tion of the horse, whether your judgment be
correct or not. We recommend this plan,
because a valuable horse may be preserved at
the expense of a iew shillings. If the matter
is really glanderous, a peculiar kind of sore or
chancre will be produced. From this ulcer,
corded veins, as they are termed, will proceed,
and farcy-buds, or small tumours, will take
place. In about a week the animal will run
at the nose, and, in a short time, take on all
the appearance of complete glanders.

In such a case, the disease is always very
rapid, and always proves fatal. If the matter
is not glanderous, no effect will be produced
by it. In large establishments, where many
horses are kept, this will be found a valuable
test for determining with certainty the nature
of a discharge from the nostrils. However
mild the glanders may be, and although
ulceration of the nostrils cannot be seen, and
the quantity of matter that may be discharged
is small, and the animal appear in good health
and condition, the ass will be as certainly
affected by the matter as if the disease were
in the last stage, or in its most virulent degree.

For the sake of those gentlemen and agri-
culturists who may reside at some considerable
distance from a regular veterinary surgeon, we
will describe the method of performing the
operation of inoculation.

Cut off a little hair to the size of half-a-
crown, from the inside of the fore legs, where
you can feel the vein. We prefer this part,
because we have found the poison act quicker
when injected here than in any other place, it
being immediately on a large vein, which
renders the communication of tlie poison to
the system more expeditious. Then take a
lancet, and introduce it under the skin, for
about three-quarters of an inch in length.
The orifice must be wiped free from the few
drops of blood which may make their ap-
pearance. Have ready lint or tow that has
first been well impregnated wnth the glandered
matter, and introduce it into the opening with
a probe, or small slip of wood. This being
done, make a small wadding of tow, and place
over all. Apply a bandage to the part, to keep

01 ANUKUS.

l\rODETlN VETEKTXArvY PRACTICE.

[0I,\MDKR.S.

in the lint, nnd let it remnin for a few days,
and patit'iitly wait tlio result.

If tlio mattor is glaiuliM-ous, tlio part will
become e.Xfessivcly sore in about two days, and
a scab will form on it. Tliia, in a short time,
will be thrown oft', leaving a peculiar kind of
ulcer, which will often spread rapidly, causing
a painful swelling of the adjacent part, with
corded veins, or farcy-buds. After this, glan-
ders will soon appear. No other matter will
produce such au ellect; showing at onco tl"<)
nature of the disease.

When colts are kept at grass, as they gene-
rally are, until three or four years old, they
will have passed tlirough a disease by which
the whole constitution appears to be depurated,
and consequently becomes invigorated. This
is called strangles, which most frequently occurs
when colts are kept on poor pasture, and which
debilitates the animal to such au extent, that
it often degenerates into glanders. AVhile the
colt is at grass, and kept well, the disease gene-
rally runs its course without much inconve-
nience to the animal, and without requiring the
uiterference of art ; but when he is takeu up,
broken-iu, put to work, and kept in hot sta-
bles, and incautiously fed upon hard and
stimulating food, before strangles has taken
place, a horse has often this disease with great
severity.

Sometimes strangles comes on, and does not
pass through its course in the natural way ; the
swelling under the jaws does not suppurate, or
become an abscess, but remains hard ; or a
superficial opening takes place, from which
a small quantity of matter is discharged, and
this is sometimes supposed to degenerate into
glanders.

This kind of glanders often terminates in
consumption. It is accompanied with cough,
and tlie discharge is generally from both nos-
trils, and more like pus than the matter wliich
comes from the real glanders arising from
contagion. From its not being contagious,
however, it should be distinguished by another
name. "NVe would restrict the term glanders
to those discharges from the nose which are
capable of communicating the disease to other
horses. This would be found highly useful in
practice.

We now come to the consideration of the most
difficult part of this subject, namely, the cure

of glanders; and it is needless to say anything
of tho niodo of prevention beyond obKerving,
that this can only bo accomplished bv taking
caro that no glanderous matter cornea in
contact with tho horse, or mixes with his food
or water; and tliat the only method of purify-
ing an infected stable is, to remove everything
on which glanderous matter may have fulk-n,
and to thoroughly wash and scrape tho tixturef<,
such as tho rack and manger. The stable
should be well whitewasheti, and the stall
strewed with a solution of chloride of lime.

We have observed that glandered horses
have, in several instances, been known to get
entirely free from the disorder while employed
in moderate work, and carefully fed and at-
tended to, with little or no medicine. Tho
general opinion of both English aed Frencli
veterinarians, we believe is, that glanders is
incurable, but that farcy is curable. During
an extensive experience, we have succeeded in
curing many cases of farcy, when it has been
a local disorder ; but such cases are generally
followed by glanders, although there has been
often a considerable interval — from a few
weeks to a few months — between the dis-
appearance of the one, and the appearance of
the other. AVhen glanders and farcy appear
at the same time, or when farcy breaks out in a
glandered horse, it would depend upon the state
of the blood, as to its impregnation with the
glanderous poison, whether we should recom-
mend him to be immediately destroyed. AV'e
would, however, make an exception to this
where a glandered horse has inoculated himself.
Then the farcy is at first only local ; but as
it soon becomes a fresh source of contamina-
tion, and, in a short time, increases the dis-
order, it always becomes necessary to destroy
the animal. The cure of glanders cannot bo
accomplished without great care and consider-
able expense ; and rarely at all, we believe,
except in its first stage, or mild form.

The expense of the cure does not depend so
much on the sort of medicines employed, as the
length of time that is necessary to eftect it ;
and it also must be recollected, that in saying
the disease is curable, it is by no means to be
understood that there is a certainty of success
in adopting any mode of treatment. There-
fore, unless the horse is of considerable value,
in good condition, and glandered only in a mild

279

THE HOKSE, AXD

EPILEPSY.]

def^ree, it is not worth while to attempt the
cure. It should also be recollected, during the
treatment, that so long as there is any discharge
from the nostrils, there is danger of its com-
municating the disease to other animals. Calo-
mel has been tried, even to salivation, without
the desired effect; also, Ethiop's mineral, or
quicksilver rubbed down with chalk ; but these
are fallacious, and we may say, useless. Tonic
medicines, and those principally of the mineral
kind, have been resorted to ; and the present
practice of the Eoyal Veterinary College, for
this disease, is to administer certain quantities
of sulphate of copper. This was formerly done
in balls ; but it is now found much more con-
venient, and we believe is more beneficial to
the animal, to be exhibited as follows: —
Sulphate of Copper, from 2 to 5 drachms.
Linseed Meal . . . . 1 oz.
Warm Water . . . . 6 do.
Dissolve the sulphate in warm water ; then add
the meal, stirring them well together, until in-
corporated. Give this draught every morning.
We have seen some good effects arise from
this, when the horse has commenced with it in
the early stage of the disease ; but when the
disease has got a firm hold of the lungs, it is
of little or no avail. We have succeeded in
several cases, when advised of the state of the
animals in time, by giving the following, either

[epilepsy.

in form of a ball, or a solution, as in the
last : — •

Sulphate of Iron ... 3 drachms.

Gentian 3 do.

Form into a ball with treacle.
It is better to give this in the form of a
ball ; whilst the horse should be turned out into
a pasture of grass by himself, to prevent all
possibility of his coming in contact with any
other horses. If possible, a warm shed should
be in the paddock or field. Give the ball
about the middle of the day, and, every night
and morning, a feed of good oats and beans.
By turning the animal out, he will breathe the
natural air, not respiring his own over and
over again, as if in the stable. Then, by the
tonic medicine and good feed, if he is of any
constitution at all worth the expense, it will
be found that this is the only practicable
means of removing glanders. Constitution
has so much to do with the disease, that if
well supported by art, these are the only
means to be adopted. We should say, never
treat a horse affected with glanders in a stable.
The horse, also, by hanging down his head to
gather his food, relieves himself, and the dis-
charge comes more freely from him. However,
practice and experience in the treatment of
this disease, must be the leading features for
obtaining a knowledge of it.

CHAPTER XXIX.

EPILEPSY; PALSY; SPASM; COLIC, OR GRIPES; TETANUS, OR LOCK-JAW; STRING-HALT.

EPILEPSY.

The affection termed epilepsy, frequently
affects cart and waggon horses more than any
other kinds ; and in diflerent counties and
localities, it assumes a variety of names, such
as meagrims, sturdy, turnsick, the falling-sick-
ness, the falling -evil, &c. The aftection, in its
first attack, comes on suddenly, and without
any previous indications. The animal, if in
exercise, stops short, shakes his head, and
looks wandering ; ia which state he continues
2S0

a short time, and then will go on as before.
If the case should be a violent one, he fre-
quently falls to the ground, or commences
turning round and round, until he drops ap-
parently senseless.

The whole system appears agitated by
strong conviilsions ; he dungs and stales in-
sensibly, at times becoming exceedingly vio-
lent ; at others, appearing as if life were ex-
tinct, unconscious to everything around him ;
his eyea seeming fixed, and often his jaws

KPILEPSY.]

MODERN VETERINAKY PRACTICE.

[palsy.

are so closely set, that lii.s mouth cannot bo
loiwd open. At other timea ho labours
uniK-r convulsive motions, and his limbs
ehako so violently, that ho even breaks the
pavement with his feet, if he fall in such a

P.\LSY.

I'ulsi/ is wlicn a part of tho body Iosch its
power of moving;, or feeling, or both. Tliia
disease, amonyst tho old farriers, wua called

situation. Sometimes, wldle the legs are still', plant-struck, or shrew-run.

the head and body are violently agitated.
These varieties of symptoms frequently at-
tacking him alternately, it is not to be
wondered at that the allection should remain
on him, in some instances, two or three hours,
more or less, and then that he should recover,
sometimes without any return of it ; at others,
the fits are more or less troublesome, according
to the success of the means applied for relief.
As the fit goes off, there is generally a foam-
ing at the mouth ; the foam being white, and
resembling that of a healthy animal.

The causes of epilepsy are several. It
appears to be dependent on a kind of spas-
modic affection of the brain, either from too
tight reining up, or the colhir pressing too
hard. It may also arise from blood being
forced to the head by constitutional disorders.
AYorms is a cause of it. Horses of very full
habit, plethoric, or over-fed, are liable to
it, particularly when not having constant
exercise.

For the curative means for epilepsy, nothing
can be done while the horse is enduring the
fit but the following, which will be found
excellent : — •

Strong Liquor of Ammonia . . 1 oz.
AVhile the convulsion, or fit, is on, hold the
bottle of ammonia frequently to his nose ; and
in all probability he will immediately j'lmp
up, or, at least, in a very short time, with the
fit driven from him. Should he be a large
cart-horse, in high condition, take four or six
quarts of blood from him ; feed him on cold
bran mashes, and give a dose of physic or two,
according to his strength or size. The mer-
curial ball, composed of blue pill and aloes,
is also very good in this case. If it can be
procured, occasionally feed with grass ; but
hard food must be lessened. "We have seen
some poor farmers' horses attacked violently
with this disease, and have attributed it to the
excessively hard and bad arrangement of the
harness with which they were furnished. There-
fore too much care cannot be bestowed on the
gearing with which a horse is caparisoned.
2o

If there is only a trembling, or shaking in
the part, or if only one limb is attacked, it Ih
seldom dangerous. Jiut when it seizes both
limbs behind, the case is very troublesome and
difficult to cure. Tlie horse going at the slowest
pace, reels about, and, with difficulty, is able to
stand at all. On turning round, he is obliged
to form an immense circle, to accomplish the
act, which frequently ends in a fall.

This, of course, would lead our attention to
examine the horse's loins, which always occa-
sion him to exhibit pain on pressure; showing
that there must be some morbid action going on
in the spinal marrow ; either in the substance
itself, or the parts that cover it. Or, perhaps
from some accident, a small portion of bone is
pressing upon it there ; and consequently de-
prives the posterior nerves of their action.
We have no doubt that it may occur from
turning in a narrow stall ; for it is truly dis-
tressing to see some horses placed in such hen-
coop stalls as they are, when, in endeavouring to
come out, they twist themselves almost double.
As this affection is not of unfrequent occur-
rence, every person who knows the value of a
good hackney, will be glad to see it removed.
The stimulating applications are the best, such
as the following : —

Cantharides, powdered . . . 1 oz.

Oil of Turpentine .... 2 do.

Olive Oil 3 do.

Mix, and shake well together in a bottle,
and apply a portion of it over the loins, night
and morning.

Or,

Tartar Emetic .... 2 drachms.
Hog's Lard . . . . 2 oz.

Form this into an ointment, and apply, until
small pimples arise. Give the mild mercurial
alterative ball — (Sicq List of Medicines') — every
second or third day. Some people are ex-
ceedingly fond of applying what are called
changes, and ordering a run at grass for a iev
months. A cure by such means is sometimes
effected ; but in this case, as in many others
among tho old farriers, the praise is agcribed

281

BPASMS.]

THE HORSE, AND

[colic, oe gripes.

to the least deserving part of it. The farrier
says, " It was my change that restored the
horse;" leaving rest and Br. Green com-
pletely out of the question. In India there is
a disease called Jcumree, wliich always ends
in complete paralysis of the hind quarters.
Most of the horses used in that country are
stallions ; and these are the subjects that be-
come aftected. AYe never saw it in a mare or
gelding, with the exception, that the horse, on
the commencement of the attack, had gone
through the operation of castration, which is
imagined to be a remedy for it ; but we never
found one cured by this, or any other remedy ;
for the horse will continue getting worse and
worse, until he is unable to rise at all, and is
consequently destroyed.

SPASMS.
Spasm is an irritability of the muscular fibre,
excited by an action of the nervous system,
producing various affections, known under the
general name of spasm, but subdivided ac-
cording to the part aftected with this excite-
ment. When universal, it forms tetanus ; when
confined to the bowels, it forms gripes; and
when it attacks the neck of the bladder, ob-
struction to the urine follows. Inflammation
of the sensorium, or of the nerves, or of the in-
vesting membranes of these organs, can produce
this excitement. Thus, in phrenites, the horse
is excited to exertions much beyond his usual
powers. Irritation occasioned by foreign sub-
stances can also produce it; perhaps, by ex-
citing an immediate inflammation, although the
instantaneous spasm which follows mechanical
pressure and irritation, both in the sensorium
and the nerves, can scarcely be accounted for
thus.

In medical treatment, sedatives act either
by allaying the nervous excitement, or relaxing
the part aftected with spasm ; such as opium,
tobacco, &c.: antispasmodics, also, by rousing
the heart and arteries to a new action ; as gin
and pepper, spirit of turpentine, rendering the
part above or below the disposition to be ex-
cited. In very violent cases of spasmodic af-
fections, copious bleeding, combined witli solu-
tions of aloes and opium, are powerful anti-
spasmodics. In the spasmodic state of the neck
of the bladder, nauseating medicines are found
to be the best antispasmodics ; such as digitalis,
282

or white hellebore. The remedies which act by
altering tlie susceptibility of the parts, are prin-
cipally bleeding, purging, or clysters, and other
evacuants, which diminish the excess of power;
and are, therefore, extremely proper in plethoric
subjects, or wlien the spasm is attended with
great vascularity. AVhen, on the contrary, the
spasm attacks a subject already in a debili-
tated state, recourse must be had to the stimu-
lant remedies, to bring the part to a state to
resist the impressions. (See List of Medicines^.

SPASMODIC COLIC, OR GRIPES. '

Spasmodic colic is, amongst agriculturists,
known as fret gripes, &c. Although it is
termed flatulent, or windy colic, wind is not
so predominant a symptom as it is in the
human subject. The small intestines seem
more the situation of spasmodic colic than
any other part of the horse ; but there are
instances where the large intestines have be-
come aff'ected; and when it proceeds so far
back as the rectum, the bladder then also par-
ticipates in the convulsion, and frequent ejec-
tions of urine occur. In other instances the
neck of the bladder suflers, and suppression of
urine then becomes remarkable ; but these
are only in extreme cases. Colic is dependent
on a spasm of the muscular structure of the
intestines. We have evident proof of this
from the appearances which present them-
selves after death, where cases have proved
fatal ; when the small intestines, more espe-
cially, will be found puckered and drawn toge-
ther ; or some portions will afford marks of
violent contractions, as though they were tied
round with a cord. Occasionally we find an
interception, or one portion of intestine in-
vagiuated within the other ; in which case in-
flammation is usually brought on by it.

Spasmodic colic, however, generally exists
without inflammation, though it frequeutly
terminates in it, when suffered to have a long
continuance, from there being no speedy
remedy at hand, or no surgeon living in the
neighbourhood to administer proper relief.
Eubbing the belly with a hard stick, &c.,
should, on such occasions, on no pretence
whatever, be done. Powerful purgatives to
overcome the costiveness, usually present, fre-
quently have this tendency ; but a still more
frequent cause is the invagination of one por-

COLIC, on GRIPES.] I^rODERN VETERIXA"RT PRACTICE, [colic, on oripes.

tion of iiitostiiio witliiii nnollior. In nttciuU
ing to the meilicnl treatment of colic, care
sliouUl be takon that it is not confoumied
with iiillammation of tlio bowels; tho romo-
dies for each of thoso diaoascB being diainetri-
callv opposite to each other.

Spasmodic colic generally nialces its appear-
ance very suddenly, and is not marked, as in
inllamniation of the bowels, by previous indis-
position ; the horse being, at once, attacked
with considerable uneasiness, shifting his posi-
tion from side to side, pawing the ground, and
stamping with his feet, impatiently and vio-
lently.

In a few minutes after tliis, tlie pain will
appear to go oft", and leave the animal toler-
ably easy; but in inflammation of the bowels,
the pain constantly occasions the stamping,
and it does not pass away, even for the shortest
space of time. As the colic proceeds, remis-
sions of pain become less and less. The horse
lies down frequently, and, on rising, shakes him-
self, looking anxiously round to his sides, and
sometimes, in desperate cases, even biting at
them, or snapping at them with his teeth.
He also strikes at liis belly with his hind feet,
as if determined to remove his sufferings
himself. In inflammation of the bowels, the
above symptoms are seldom so severe, the
pain not being so great. Wlien on the ground,
he frequently rolls on his back; in which
situation he will remain four or five seconds,
or probably roll over ; neither of which he
does in simple inflammation.

The pulse is the next thing to command
attention, which, in colic, seldom becomes
much altered from its natural state, unless
the affection has existed some considerable
time, when marks of general irritation some-
times present themselves ; the pulse being
somewhat hardened and quickened. Occa-
sionally, when the paroxysms are on, a slight
alteration may then be felt ; also in the
early stages, should the pain be great ; but
slight alterations comu and go as the pain
passes off.

If the horse is under the immediate influ-
ence of existing spasm, he will, in some in-
stances, present a full bounding pulse, but
oftener a wiry, though quickened beat ; both
of which may be taken for inflammation. The
legs in colic are but seldom affected, and

never remain cold fop considerable periods of
time together ; but tho coat stares, and the
horse breaks out frequently into cohl swcatH.
He often attempts to stale, without effect; at
other times ho stales frequently. Oonerally
ho is costive; a few dry balls only being forced
from him during tho spasmodic fits.

Spasmodic colic is produced by cold super-
veniiig on heat, either through the medium of
application to tho skin, or by sudden applica-
tion to the bowels, in the form of cold water,
taken when tho horse is very warm. Costive-
iieas will sometimes occasion it, through im-
proper food ; also tares, or vetches, given on
their being first cut. When they are full of
moisture, the animal is apt to eat greedily of
them ; and especially if the weather is warm.

In some, gripes are frequent, under every
variation of food, situation, habits, &c.; so as
to give reason to suppose there must be some
peculiarity of formation, hereditary tendency,
or the presence of calculi in the intestines of
such animals as are subject to them.

For the cure o? gripes, we should recommend
bleeding, more or less liberally, according to tho
violence of the disease, or its longer or shorter
duration ; or its continuance, without miti-
gation. Extensive bleeding is one of the most
powerful relaxers of spasm with which we are
acquainted ; and, instead of its being an anta-
gonist to the antispasmodic treatment, usually
adopted by internal remedies, it is found to bo
infinitely increased in efficacy ; and especially
when conjoined with opium. Though most of
the ordinary cases of gripes will pass away
with the common treatment of stimulants, and
many go off without any treatment at all, yet
bleeding is always a safe and prudent precau-
tion, as a preventive of inflammation ; and, in
more aggravated cases, it becomes essentially
necessary, both to combat tho inflammatory
tendency, and to promote the relaxation of the
spasmodic irritation. It is likewise particularly
to be noticed, in violent or protracted cases, to
counteract the irritative qualities of the anti-
spasmodics, which, in simple gripes, may do no
harm, yet may do so when an inflammatory
tendency is at all suspected, or already begun.
In every such case, bleed liberally ; say, at
least six quarts ; which, if the horse is in any-
thiuc: like moderate condition, cannot do barm.
AVe have known horses bled in the mouth for

283

LOCKED-JAW.]

THE HORSE, A.ND

[locked JAW,

gripes ; but never saw any good arise from it.
Giving the animal a brisk trot for about a
quarter of an hour, after either of the following
remedies, we have proved to be exceedingly
beneficial ; but he should never be made to go
faster than the trot. Brushing the belly well
■will be of service ; but never rub it with a
Btick, as this tends to bruise the parts, more
than to do good. AVe have known the tur-
pentine liniment, rubbed well all over the abdo-
men, to be a great assistant in removing the
spasm. Hot fomentations we do not approve,
as the water that may lodge in the hair, when it
becomes cold, will frustrate all good intentions.
As internal remedies, either of the following
will be found very efficacious in removing the
disease : —

No.l.

Ground Black Pepper . . . | oz.

Tincture of Opium . . . 1 do.

Good Ale (warmed) ... 1 pint.

No. 2.

Common Gin ^ pint.

Tincture of Opium . . . . 2 oz.

Good Ale (warmed) ... 1 pint.

Tf costiveness should be present, give —

No. 3.

Oil of Peppermint .... 2 drachms.

Castor Oil 6 oz.

Tincture of Aloes . . . . 4 do.

Should the costiveness continue, the horse
must be back-raked, and warm clysters ad-
ministered, with a handful of salt thrown in
each, about three quarts at a time, until the
bowels are relieved. Should other means of
assistance not be ready at hand, give the fol-
lowing.—

Ground Black Pepper . 1 teaspoonful.

Common Gin , . . -^ pint.

Good warm Ale ... 1 do.
Should the disease continue longer than may
have been expected, repeat the remedies until
relief is obtained. If the clysters should not
have the desired effect, take a large onion,
peel, and quarter it, and pass it up the
rectum, which will speedily stimulate it to
action.

TETANUS, OR LOCKED-JAW.

Tetanus, or Locked-jaw, is a violent spasmodic
contraction of the muscles, coming on in the
elevation of the lower jaw, and extending,

284

more or less, to all the muscles destined to
perform voluntary motion. This disorder,
which may be excited by different causes, is
much more common in hot climates than in
tempefate. However, it too frequently occurs
in this country, and happens to be one of
great difficulty to cure, especially in conse-
quence of wounds ; and more particularly after
injuries of tendons and ligamentous parts.
It is one of the most fatal symptoms which
can possibly arise in these cases, and there-
fore demands the most assiduous attention of
the veterinary surgeon.

Tetanic complaints generally affect middle-
aged, or old horses, more frequently than young
ones. The causes producing them are cold
and moisture applied to the body while it is
very warm ; and sudden vicissitudes of heat
and cold ; or they may be produced by punc-
tures, lacerations, or other lesions of nerves in
any part of the body. There are, probably,
some other causes of this disease ; but they
are neither distinctly known, nor well under-
stood. If the disease proceeds from cold, it
commonly comes on in a few days after this
being taken ; but if it arise from puncture,
or other lesion of a nerve, the disease does not
come on for many days after the lesion has
happened — very often, when there is neither
pain nor uneasiness remaining in the wounded
part ; and very frequently when the wounded
part has been entirely healed up. The disease
sometimes attacks suddenly, with great vio-
lence; but, more generally, it makes its ap-
proaches by slow degrees to the violent stage.
In this case it comes on with a sense of stiff-
ness in the muscles of the neck, which, gradu-
ally increasing, renders the motion of the head
difficult and painful. The haw of the eye,
also, will be seen protruding, on the least
motion of the hand being raised towards the
head.

As the rigidity of the neck increases, there
is commonly, at the same time, a sense of un-
easiness felt about the root of the tongue,
which, by degrees, causes a difficulty in, and,
at length, an entire interruption of swallowing.
Willie the rigidity of the neck goes on in-
creasing, there arises a pain, often violent, at
the lower end of the back, which makes the
tail stick out with a quivering motion. When
this pain arises, all the muscles of the neck.

locKED-JAW.] ]\rODERN VETEllINART PRACTICE.

[LOCKEO-JA.'Vr.

aiul particularly those of tho upper part of it,
are iuiinediately atlocted witli 8pasin, lis it
were, drawiiiu; tho upper part of tho head
violeiitlv ai\d stroiii^ly baekwartlH. At the same
time, tlio muscles which draw up the lower jaw,
and which, upon the lirst approach of the
disease, were allected, nro now generally
iilllicted with more violent spasm, and aet the
teeth so closely together, that they do not
aduiit of the smallest opening.

This is what has been named loclced-jaw, or
tetanus, and is often the principal part of the
disease. When it has advanced thus far, the
pain at the top of the neck and lower jaw is
renewed witli violence. As it proceeds, a
greater number of muscles become affected
with spasm. After those of the neck, those
along the whole of tho spine become affected,
bending the trunk of the body strongly back-
wards, whilst the horse keeps his fore legs
stretched directly out before him.

At the extremities, botii the flexor and tho
extensor muscles are commonly at the same
time affected, and keep the limbs rigidly ex-
tended. Though the extensors of the head
and back are usually the most strongly affected,
yet the flexors, or those muscles of the neck
which pull the head forward, as well as the
muscles which should pull down the lower jaw,
are also, often at the same time, strongly
afl'ected with pain and spasm. During the
whole of the disease, the abdominal muscles
are in a violently spasmodic state, so that the
belly of the horse is strongly contracted, and
feels as hard as a piece of board.

At length, the flexors of the head and trunk
become so strongly affected, as to balance the
extensors, and to keep the head and trunk
almost in a straight line, and so rigidly ex-
tended, that they are incapable of being moved
in any way. It is to this state the term tetanus
has been strictly applied.

At the height of the disease, every organ of
Voluntary motion appears to be affected, and
amongst the rest, the muscles of the face. The
eyes also seem distorted, commonly rigid, and
scarcely movable in their sockets. The nose
also appears drawn up; and the spasms are,
everywhere, attended with most violent pain.
The utmost violence of spasm is, however, not
constant; but, after subsisting a minute or
two, the muscles admit of some remission of

their contraction, although of no such relaxn.
tion as can allow tho action of their antago-
nists. Tho remission of contraction gives also
some remission of pain ; but neither is of ion-'
duration. Tho attacks of the disease are sel-
dom attended with any fever. Wiien tho
spasms are general and violent, tho pulse is
contracted, hurried, and irregular; and tho
respiration is allected in like manner. Tho
heat of the body is commonly not increased.
The extremities are generally cold, with a cold
sweat over the whole of the body. Blood is
frequently drawn in this disease ; but it never
exhibits any inflammatory crust ; and all ac-
counts seem to agree, that the blood drawn is
of a looser texture than ordinary, and that it
does not coagulate in the usual manner. It is
no less extraordinary, that in this disease, tho
natural functions are not either immediately
or considerably affected ; and it is usual for the
appetite of hunger to remain through its whole
course.

Tliis disease frequently follows docking and
nicking ; it has also been known to occur after
castration.

To cure tetanus is very difHcult. So
many remedies have been tried, and so many
failures arisen, that there can be no certain
remedy pointed out for the removal of so dis-
tressing an affection. The cold bath had, i'oi'
a long time, its advocates ; but without any real
good. If one horse got well under such treat-
ment, it was applied to all, but not with genera.'
success ; consequently, it fell into disuse.
Bleeding, as a relaxant to the spasmodic action
of the muscles, has also shared the same fate.
Blistering the whole course of the spine has
met with no better success. Even the old far-
rier's remedy, of docking the tail about an
inch, does not seem to carry a specijic with it.
Unctions, balsamic, and spirituous embroca-
tions, which many practitioners have recom-
mended, are not only useless remedies, but
even hurtful. If the case arise from a wound,
a local inflammation ought to be excited in the
wounded part itself, and the inflammation
roused as high as may be consistent with the
resolution afterwards. We certainly know
that nothing promotes a general phlogistic
diathesis through the system more than a
wound, attended with a high degree of inflam-
mation ; but this is not alwavs to be obtained,

2^5

INFLAMMATIONS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[INFLAMMATIONS'.

though the strongest stimulants the whole list
of medicines could produce may be applied ;
for we have found that in wounds productive
of tetanus, there is an absolute want of this
inflammation, so necessary to the cure and
well-being of the patient. To obtain this in-
flammation, the best thing to do is to enlarge
the wound as much as may be convenient, and
insert a pledget of tow, dipped in warm oil of
turpentine.

We have restored a horse from tetanus by
a strong solution of aloes, combined with
laudanum, as under : —

. 3 oz.
. Ido.

Give this mixture frequently ; say every three
hours. If the jaws are so closely set that it
cannot be given to the horse by the mouth,
have his head elevated by force, and pour the
mixture into a quart bottle ; then carefully
pour it down one of his nostrils ; which, after
a little time, he will not resist. When he has
bef^an to take the above without much di65-
culty, break a little of the cordial pectoral
ball with it. Continue this until you see a
change for the better; which will be known by
the jaws becoming loose, when a favourable ter-
mination to the disease may be expected. Give
clysters the whole of the time you are exhibit-

Spirituous solution of Aloes
Laudanum ....

ing tlie medicine. We have administered
prussic acid ; but never with any good effect.
We have also administered brandy, with the
cordial pectoral ball dissolved in it, with good
effect. In conclusion, we should never give
a case of tetanus up, until we have tried every
means possible.

STRING-HALT.

String-lmlt is an involuntary and convulsive
motion of the muscles, which either extend or
bend the hock ; principally considered in the
superficial muscles, or the facia lying on the
inside of the thigh, and causing the horse to
twitch up one or both his hind legs in a most
remarkable manner. Strains and blows are
the causes to which this disease is generally
attributed. We once were called to a horse
that had been cast into a ditch, and we were
obliged to employ ropes to extricate him. He
had struggled very hard whilst in the ditch,
but, when released, he had the aff"ectiou of
string-'halt in the leg that was underneath. A
cure is seldom effected. We have known soap
liniment, well rubbed on in the inside of the
thigh, to relieve the disease ; but never saw a
perfect cure. On some parts of the continent
it is considered a graceful movement when in
both legs.

CHAPTER XXX.

INFLAMMATION OP THE BRAI>f, OK MAD STAGGERS; INFLAMMATION OP THE STOMACH, OR STOMACH
STAGGERS; INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS; PULMONARY CONSUMPTION.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN, OR MAD

STAGGERS.

Mad Staggers is one of those diseases
which, happily, seldom aff'ects the horse ; and
it is fortunate for the poor animal that such is
the case, for the pain arising from it must bo
intolerable. This disease, like many otliers
has acquired various names, constituting, in
former practice, a variety of different diseases ;
though by the advancement in veterinary
Boience, they have all been nearly reduced
286 '

under two heads. These names were applied
to such disorders as principally affect the liead,
having their seat in the brain, or vessels lead-
ing thereto ; such as apoplexy, convulsions,
epilepsy, stag-evil, frenzy, or fever, &c., &c.

Mad staggers, or inflammation of the brain,
may be defined as being a determination of
blood to the brain, causing considerable pres-
sure on that organ, as well as on the vessels
leading to it. How far the pretended accu-
racy, formerly distinguishing one of these

TKFLAMMATI0N8.] MODERN VETERINAKT PR.\( TKM^. [inflammatioxs.

diseases from nnotiuM-, may bo nppreoiablo by
moilerix comprelu'nsioii, or ivceivo giMionil
criHlit, wo know not; but oontVss, whore tho

patient, and throws himself about in n most
extraordinary manner, as if ho were fri^jhtened ;
or he falls into n drowsy state, holding his

judijmeut has to be formed from observation head low, and resting it on tho manger.

alone, maile by a close scruliny of the
patient, circumstances very seldom so far
concur as to enable us to form so singular a
distinction. Experience and observation may,
undoubtedly, do much, in a collection of simili-
tudes and probabilities, but never suflicient to
enable us to ascertain the distinct, invariable
causes and efl'ects of diseases, where the most

Tiien, all of a sudden, he will commence
throwing himself about again. If tho disease
should not be s|)eedily alleviated, but continuo
for a day or two, ho will exhibit a kind of
vacant stare, or watchfulness; tho eyes will
appear set, as it were, in the head — ^their sight
almost gone; his nostrils expanded, his head
raised as high as he possibly can, as if staring

trilliii" dillerence is hardly acknowledged. I at the rack, lie now becomes more furious
More particularlv is this the case wheu it is and violent ; dashes about the pavement in
considered that the cause of all these disor- ' convulsive and insensible struggles ; perhaps,
dors is iu the original seat of nervous irrita- j falls, then suddenly rises again, to renew his
bility, the brain ; or in those parts connected i violence.

with, or dependent on its structure and pur-
]ioscs ; except when tlie diseases are under-
stood to be symptomatic, or dependent upon

Diseases originating iu the most abstruse
recesses of nature, though of a very com-
plicated construction, may proceed from a

some original remote cause — as the effect of variety of Cfl«/sf5, clearly comprehended ; as, iu
hots, preying upon the stomach or intestines, ! all probability, they may likewise do, from
internal ulcerations, or complaints not imine- many that we are entirely unacquainted with.
diately discoverable. These may sometimes Among the former is that which originates

happen, but very rarely, to affect the frame
with symptoms truly alarming.

Horses, upon the approach of any of those
disorders whose seat is directly in the brain,
or nervous system, display considerable weak-
ness and inactivity ; seeming to move reluc-
tantly, reeling, or staggering in their walk ;
frequently blinking with their eyes, as if their
vision were imperfect, and feeling some disa-
greeable impression, or uneasiness, from the

in the increase of the velocity of the blood,
instantaneously affecting the brain, as we find
when we exceed the bounds of humanity, and
exhaust the strength and power of an animal,
made by nature sufficiently strong to accom-
plish almost every task the ingenuity or
avarice of man might be supposed to invent.
In corroboration of this, the premature deaths,
occasioned by increasing the velocity of tho
blood beyond the limits prescribed by nature.

effect of light. They are also much averse to I extend principally to post-horses, in the

being handled about the head, and are brought
out of the stable with difficulty. In time, a
visible tremor comes on ; and, after reeling, or
frequently turning round, if loose, they fall
almost lifeless to the ground, having only the
perceptible power of breathing with violence
and agitation.

Horses affected with staggers have a disin-
clination for food of all kinds. They have also
a slight discharge of moisture from the eyes,
which, if attentively observed, even in the
earliest stages of the disease, will be found
inflamed, and somewhat flushed in colour.
Hence the blinking of which we have spoken.
The nostrils also may be observed redder than
usual ; but this is not always a true symptom.
As the disease advances, the horse appears im-

treme heat of summer; and may be attributed
to the impatience of travellers, or inhuman
drivers.

To these, some, but very few, private horses
may be added, being hard driven upon long
journeys ; and others, imprudently ridden and
improperly managed during chases of great
length, in strong deep countries, with fleet
hounds.

Others become the subjects of these disor-
ders, from great irritation in the stomach and
bowels ; the powerful effects of bots in the
intestinal canal; sharp and acrid medicines; a
repulsion of any morbid matter from the sur-
face, without its being carried off by proper
evacuauts, &c. They are frequently known
to attack very suddenly ; at other times their

2S7

INFLAMMATIONS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[titflammatioxs.

approach is indicated by the symptoms before
recited.

The most rational method of ctore for these
diseases is, by correcting or discharging the
primary cause, which will be to allay the
spasms, and to reduce the extreme degree of
irritability, by strengthening the nervous sys-
tem. To obtain this end, the first step will,
at all events, be to draw blood, the quantity to
be regulated according to the state of the sub-
ject. In cases of real alarm and danger, take
from six to eight quarts away at once ; and we
have seen much relief obtained in bleeding
from the jugular vein, and the thigh vein, both
at the same time. It causes a greater revul-
sion in the system, although it becomes abso-
lutely necessary afterwards to stimulate and
rouse the animal powers. As little can be
done during the time of the fit or paroxysm,
prepare a clyster of warm water, in which a
handful of salt should be put, and given as
soon as possible.

Should spasms or convulsions prove so
violent, that by a contraction of the muscles
the jaws become locked, or fixed for any con-
siderable length of time, recourse must be had
to nutritive clysters, that the constitution may
be supported. Notwithstanding its inability
to receive aliment by other means, there are
several kinds of nutritive clysters, that may
easily and expeditiously be prepared, consist-
ing of broths of different kinds, which most
houses have in readiness. Oatmeal gruel, in
which a little starch has been mixed, is an ex-
cellent strengthening clyster. These clysters
should frequently be given, until a ball can be
safely administered. If the mouth be not suf-
ficiently open to admit of the hand being safely
introduced, take one of the cordial restorative
balls — see List of Medicines — and dissolve it in
about a pint of warm water, and carefully horn
it down. This will rouse the system from the
debilitating effects of the spasms.

If the horse is not sufficiently relieved, but
still keeps drowsy, and inclines to hang his
liead down, or bear against anything, as it
were, for a resting-post, immediately bleed again
from the opposite jugular vein, and also from
the opposite thigh-vein, taking as mucli blood
away as he can possibly bear. Then take of
Tartar Emetic .... 1 drachm.
Hog's Lard . . . . 1 oz.
288

Form into an ointment, and rub the whole at
once on the forehead. This will cause pimples
to rise, which will speedily relieve the brain.

Should any local paralytic affection, or con-
traction of the muscles, produce a stiffness or
inactivity upon any part, recourse must be had
to friction, with penetrating embrocations ; for,
during the paroxysms of the disease, the animal
is so liable to injure himself locally, that it is
necessary to use stimulating applications to
remove the bruises, &c., that he may have
received. Tor this purpose take

Oil of Tar 4 oz.

Oil of Turpentine .... 2 do.

Spirits of Wine 2 do.

Mix, and apply to the parts affected, night and
morning. This must not be negligently done,
and should be persevered in for twenty minutes
at each dressing.

Horses of a full plethoric habit, when at-
tacked with this disease, should, as soon after
recovery as they are able to bear it, be brought
under a course of regular evacuations ; such as
are most applicable to their size, state, consti-
tution, and condition. If they are inclined to
fluctuating humours, or viscid heavy foulness,
give one or two purging-balls, according to
strength, &c., as before remarked. (See List of
Medicines). If purgative medicine should be
considered too strong, change it to alterative,
which will act more mildly, and have a good
effect. Give, at the same time, soft food, as
bran mashes, or mashes with a little corn in
them.

If the disease should have arisen from worms
affecting the stomach, administer the mer-
curial purging-balls ; for which, see List of
Medicines.

INFLAIMMATION OF THE STOMACH, OR
STOMACH STAGGERS.

Stomach staggers is a disease to which many
horses fall victims ; few, or rarely any, recover-
ing from the effects of its attack. Geuerall}'
speaking, it almost always proves fatal ; and al-
though many practitioners have boasted of being
possessed of a remedy, and although many cures
have been said to have been effected by them,
such cures have not taken place in what may
be denominated stomach staggers. In exam-
ining horses that have died of this disease, the
stomach has been generally loaded with hard,

iNFi.AMMATioys.l AT(M)ERN VETERINARY TliACTlCK. fiNKLVM.MAnoNs.

dry food; so large sometimes in quantity, that , TIuto is notliin<^ except excesaive exertion,

it is ilifliciilt to concL'ivo liow it couUl havo sus-
taiiiod tlio load.

The disease may exist in a great variety of
degrees ; for it may go on until tlio stomach
contains from fifty to sixty pounds ; but, iu
such a v-Mso, we consider it to bo of the worst
description, and absolutely incurable. The
same disease, however, tliough in a consider-
ablv less degree, occurs much more tVequently
than the public are aware of. It is often
curable by simple means, and without diffi-
culty; and yet often terminates fatally,
through ignorance, or unskilful management.
As the degree in which the disease happens is
various, so are the symptoms diversiiied, and
distinguished by a variety of names. They all
originate, however, in the same cause, and
that is indigestion. The name staggers has
been applied, when the disease exists iu a
sufiicient degree to disturb the functions of
the brain : but this does not happen until the
vital power of the stomach has, to a certain
exteut, been impaired by a continuance, or a
frequent repetition of improper feeding ; and
this morbid state is more rapidly induced,
when, in addition to improper feeding, the
animal is worked hard, and generally ill-
treated. How often do we see a great num-
ber of horses confined the greater part of
a market-day iu the court or stable of a
public-house, without food, and none given to
them until they return home, probably a dis-
tance of many miles, when they are permitted
to eat, even to repletion, nothing but bad hay.
Thus is a load of indigestible food taken into
the stomach, at a time when its vital power
has been diminished by fasting ; but such is
the power of this important organ, that it will
resist for a time even this treatment ; and it
is only by a repetition of such injuries that it is
at length rendered incapable of digesting suffi-
cient food to restore itself and sustain the body.
Tliat degree of exhaustion, or diminished
power, or, rather, that debilitated condition of
the btomach which gives rise to staggers, is
seldom curable. If the animal docs recover
from the disease, the morbid state of the
stomach is such, that unless he is afterwards
fed in the most careful manner, he generally
dies suddenly; and the supposition is that
this is the result of some other disorder.

perhaps, that does so much injury to the
8tt)maeh as bad hay ; and when tlie.xu cuusch
are combined, the most formidahlo diseases
are produced, and almost all of them depend
on the diminished energy of the stomach.

If we consider the im|)()rtant odice of the
stomach — namely, the preparation of food in
order to form blood, and thereby repair the
waste or wear which all the muscles are con-
stantly undergoing —what can be expected
when it is su[)[)lied with food that contains
but little nutriment, and requires its utmost
exertions in order to digest it ? The exces-
sive exertions in which horses are commonly
employed in this country are sufficiently
known. Custom, we fear, has so familiarised
many avaricious horse proprietors to these
cruel exertions, as to prevent them from view-
ing the situation of the horse as they ouglit ;
and we frequently hear them boasting of their
driving or riding an animal so many miles iu
a short space of time, as if the merit of
the perfortnance was due to them instead of
to the quadruped The stomach-staggers,
however, is not so common as it used to be.
We have known farmers absolutely ruined by
the disease, from its having continued among
their horses until all of them have been de-
stroyed. The better feelings which have taken
place among this class, and which are still
spreading, render diseases among their horses
far less frequent than they used to be. A con-
currence of the causes before noticed — that is,
excessive exertion and improper feeding — were
wont to be most frequent amongst post and
stage-coach horses ; and it is here that
diseases of the digestive organs are oftenest
to be met with. Stomach-staggers, how-
ever, is not the symptom that occurs ; it is one
of a difiereut description ; that is, flatulent
colic, or gripes. The condition of the stomach,
which produces this, is exhaustion of its vital
power ; differing from that which produces
stomach-staggers, not only in degree, but also
in kind. In stomach-staggers, the power of
the stomach is so gradually diminished, that
the disorder almost imperceptibly takes place,
and is rarely observed until it is incurable. In
the other, the disease is more rapidly de-
veloped, and therefore the eflect is different.

In most instances this disease has termi-

289

INFLAMMATIONS.]

THE HOKSE, AND

[iNFLAMMATIOKS,

nated fatally, in consequence of medical advice
not being called in early enough, and its
ravages snflered to go on until the animal is
irrecoverable; but even if the veterinarian is
called in early, be is frequently baffled in his
attempt at a cure, let his abilities be ever so
great ; for, if he administer medicine in the
shape of balls, they become completely neutral-
ised, in consequence of the over-distention of
the stomach, and the consequent inflammation
set up, A draught, however, should be given
as early as possible. Some writers have re-
commended a solution of aloes in large doses,
but this we consider quite contrary to good
practice ; for, tliough the grand object should
be to remove the contents of the stomach as
early as possible, aloes would be most likely to
debilitate that organ, and produce nausea ; con-
sequently it would be incapable of acting on its
contents ; for costiveness of the stomach and
intestines cannot be overcome without acting
on both, and that iu a very different manner.
To overcome the one, use the following
clyster : —

Common Salt 8 oz

Tincture of Aloes .... 4 do.
Warm Water 2 quarts.

Inject — after first back-raking — and hold the
tail well down upon the anus, that the horse
may retain the clyster as long as possible.
Kepeat this operation until the bowels are
quite empty. At intervals, apply to the region
of the stomach —

Oil of Turpentine
Olive Oil . .

4 oz.
2 do.

Eub this well in ; and should it not have the
desired effect, repeat the quantity. At the
same time give the following : — ■

Common Gin 1 pint.

Tincture of Myrrh . . . . 2 oz.

Camphor 1 do.

First dissolve the camplior in the gin ; then
add the tincture. Give this new-milk warm.
If the animal sliould not appear better in the
course of an hour, repeat tlie draught. This
will, in all probability, stimulate the stomach
to a new action, to get rid of its contents.
We have restored several horses by the above
treatment ; and, if taken in time, we question
its ever failing. Everything having passed off
agreeably, administer good gruel frequently;
290

but give little or no hay, aa that will tend to
irritate the stomach in its weak state. Bran
mashes, with oat or linseed meal mixed in
them, will be good enough ; but refrain from
giving corn of any kind, until satisfied he is
perfectly recovered, as the least irritating food
may occasion a relapse.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

This disease is one of the greatest diffi-
culty with which theveterinarian has to contend,
as it proves so frequently fatal. It was not un-
derstood by the older farriers, and consequently
they administered hot stimulating drugs, which
they conceived would banish or eradicate a
disorder, which generally ended in death,
until the establishment of the Royal Veteri-
nary College, when a new system of practice
was promulgated. The disease is now under-
stood, and thousands of horses that would ha-ve
been doomed to the dog-kennel, have lived to
follow the chase; saying nothing of the nume-
rous roadsters and hacks, as well as draught-
horses, that have lived double their time, from
the well-known knowledge and experience
which have been diffused through the veterinary
world during the present century. There is iu
the human subject a disease called pleurisy,
which consists of an inflammation in the thin
membrane which covers the substance of the
lungs, which, being intimately connected with
the substance of the lungs itself, and the cavity
of the chest, has been thought to have been a
disease of itself in the horse ; but such is not
the case. The pleura of the horse is seldom or
ever the situation of the disease. If the pleura
should be diseased iu the horse, it is in con-
nection with the substance of the lungs. When-
ever the blood is prevented from circulating
freely through the lungs, it becomes the origin
of several other disorders.

Disease, it is well known, is not always sent
as a punishment, but is intended by nature as a
process by which the animal economy should be
changed or restored ; and nature provides many
more forces than one, to remove a portion of all
kinds of animals periodically. This law rules
the vegetable kingdom also. But the diseases
of horses mostly spring from their artificial
life ; and to none are they more subject than
to inflammation of the lungs.

Against the symptoms of pneumonia, or in-

INFLAMMATIONS.] MODERN VETERINAHT PRACTICE. [inflammations.

the pnu'titioner from mislakiiij^ tlii'in for those
of i-al.-inh, or of the imu'oua iiuMnbraiu's in
coiitimiitv, with which thi-y may be coii-
fouinii'd ; tliough tho experieiiciHl votcrinarian
will readily distinguish between the two. In
the catarrlial epidemic, the extremities do not
continue invariably cold, but are sometimes
cold and sometimes warm. The distress of
countenance is uot so great ; sore throat is
commoidy present; breathing is less laborious,
and the [)uLse seldom oppressed.

The cough in catarrh is generally deep,
and very painful ; a weakness, not correspond-
ing with the violence of the symptoms, is very
early seen in the complaint; and, though the
lining of the nostrils may be inflamed in catarrh,
it is seldom so much so, '\'( pneumonia be coming
on, as to present a purple hue. The principal
necessity which exists for making a careful dis-
tinction between the two diseases, arises from
its not being found prudent, in the catarrhal
affection, to push the bleeding, and other parts
of the depleting system, so far as in the pneu-
monic; and also from the greater necessity of
placing the horse in a cool temperature in the
latter, to what exists in the former. Inflam-
mation of the lungs has, also, by the inex-
perienced, been occasionally mistaken for colic;
because the animal sometimes exhibits consi-
derable uneasiness, and often looks round to
his sides; in which mistaken cases, the treat-
ment generally pursued has been such as to
increase the disease. But, in colic, acute pain
is shown to be felt. By turns the horse lies
down and rolls, and then suddenly rises,
stamping with his fore feet, or kicking at his
belly with his hind legs ; while, in peripneumonia
he never lies down, but stands stupidly quiet,
exce[)t now and then, when he may look at his
flanks, but without any of the indications of
pain to which he is forced by colic. It may be
added, also, that the nasal membrane, in colic,
remains unaltered in colour, unless inflam-
mation of ihe lungs be at hand.

CAUSES.

The alternation of heat, with cold, is pro-

bably the most usual cause of this complaint.

It was formerly considered that it could only

be produced by removal from a warm to a

flammation of tho lunga, it is necessary to guard the Budden access of a warmer medium pro-
duces it also, though certaiidy not to an eipial
extent. Exposure to Kimple cold has been
said never to produce this disease; and, though
turning horses to grass without preparation
may emaciate them, it never produces peri-
pneumony: but this appears not to be; borne out
by experience, and has occasioned ill conse-
quences. Human subjects, horses, cows, sheep,
and dogs, are all more liable to coughs, cold^,
and pneumonic affections, in cold than in warm
climates. The persons wlio slaughter horses in
London, are accustomed to expect a great
number in the winter, especially if it is severe
and frosty, from the fatal effects of inflamed
lungs. Hunting on a cold scent, with frequent
checks, or travelling with a cold wind blowing
against the chest ; washing the legs and body
with cold water while the animal is hot; a
sudden removal from a warm stable to a cold
one — any of these may cause inflammation of
the lungs, if great care is not taken ; and, as
has been remarked, the removal from a cold
stable to a warmer one, or from grass to a warm
housing, without preparation, may also produce
it. In i'act, so liable are horses to afiections ot
the chest from a change of temperature — whe-
ther it be from a warmer to a colder medium ;
or otherwise, from a colder to a warmer — that
it is very seldom a horse is brought from a
dealer's stable, that does not, in a day or two,
exhibit some cough. When he is removed
from a cold temperature into a hot one, it is
evident that the hot medium immediately at-
tacks the seat of inflammation ; and as hot air
must tend to accelerate the circulation, it is
not difficult to give a reason why it produces the
disease, and this more certainly if the heated
air is less pure than that which the animal was
removed from. "When, on the contrary, the
removal takes place from a warm to a colder
situation, perhaps a similar eftect also takes
place. The cold air immediately aflects the
lungs, which may, by its sedative properties,
particularly if the change is very great, be sud-
denly weakened. But it is not only by appli-
cation to the immediate cellular substance of
the lungs, through the medium of respira-
tion, that cold acts injuriously on them. It
oftener exerts its baneful influence through the
medium of the skin, with which these organs

colder temperature; but it is now known that | are connected by a sympathetic and peculiar

291

INFLAMMATIONS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[inflammations.

union, and which is liable to be at all times
exposed to the vicissitudes of temperature ; for
botii skin and lungs appear emunctores of the
fcecal parts of the blood, and hence the sym-
pathy between them is observed to be very
great. Anything, therefore, that may prevent
the exit of this fcecal matter, called perspira-
tion, from the vessels of the skin, will throw
much more of it on the lungs. When, there-
fore, in addition to these occasional causes, we
consider that the lungs are very large, as well
as very important organs, and that in an ani-
mal of speed tliey are peculiarly extensive in
their surfaces, and extremely vascular in their
structure, we shall be at no loss to account for
their tendency to inflammation.

This tendency, also, seems much heightened
in common with the proneness to other dis-
eases, by artificial life ; for in a state of nature,
or one nearly approaching to it, they are seldom
attacked. Even cows experience this increased
tendency, arising from artificial habits, as may
be observed in those kept near London, and
other great cities, where they are more arti-
ficially supported, and subjected to occasional
housing.

Cure of Injiammaiion of the Lungs. — The
principal modes of cure are two : first, to
lessen the increased vascularity or distension
of the lungs, by bleeding ; and second, to
endeavour, by external stimulants, to change
the diseased action : that is, by raising an
external inflammation, we try to lessen the
internal one ; and it must be remarked, that
as this disease is obstinate and quickly fatal,
so the treatment must be active and imme-
diate. The cure should therefore be promptly
begun by bleeding, according to the age, size,
and strength of the animal, regard also being
paid to the length of time the disease has
existed ; for, when the treatment is com-
menced too late, the bleeding cannot be carried
to the extent that it may be, at an earlier
stage of the complaint. As a general rule,
bleedings for inflammation of the lungs,
should nevf>- be continued longer than is
necessary to raise the pulse ; that is, sup-
posing this to be previously in a depressed
state, which, in tv\XQ pneumonia, it usually is:
and in every stage it is quick, and without
fulness, even though somewhat hardened.
More good is, also, gained by one bleeding
202

within the first twenty-four hours of thg
disease, than from numerous repetitions of it
afterwards. From a moderate-sized horse,
five, six, or seven quarts, or even more, may
be drawn ; and should the symptoms indicate
a necessity for it, particularly if the pulse
rises on the first bleeding, in five or six hours
take three or four quarts more ; and as long
as the breathing continues laborious, the ex-
tremities permanently cold, and the pulse
depressed, but rising on the flowing of the
blood — so long the bleeding should be repeated
to the amount of two or three quarts at a
time, at intervals of six or eight hours. This
is recommended under a supposition that the
treatment commences soon after the attack ;
but if otherwise, and violent symptoms have
existed thirty-six or forty-eight hours, the
bleeding must be repeated with more cau-
tion, and the pulse most attentively watched ;
or the opposite extreme may be fallen
into, and such debility succeed, as may pro-
duce the very event desired to be avoided-^—
namely, the hastening of gangrene or efi^usion.
It is of considerable importance to draw the
blood quickly, by means of a large orifice, as
directed under General Inflammation, and to
suffer the blood drawn, to cool gradually with-
out disturbance, when the bufty surface will
have an opportunity of showing itself, and afibrd
conclusions to be drawn whether bleeding
should or should not be further persisted in.
Immediately after the first bleeding, some active
stimulants should be applied to the surface of
the chest. Blisters have the effect of takmj,'
off" the hair, which disfigures the horse for a
long time afterwards ; and therefore their use
is sometimes objected to. They, however, act
by stimulating the parts not immediately
affected, and prove a counter-irritant ; and
there is no specific virtue in one matter more
than another, beyond its degree of stimulating
action to the part to which it is applied. The
degree of irritation necessary, must be pro-
portioned to the degree of inflammation it is
intended to counteract, by also becoming a
counter irritation. (See Blisters). If that
be very considerable, the medicinal stimulant
must be so likewise ; and we know of none
whose energy is great in this respect, that
will not raise the cuticle, and separate the
hair. Consequently, as blisters act powerfully

INFLAMMATIONS.] MODERN VETERINAllY PRACTICE.

[consumption.

as stitnulaiita, aud piirticiilarly na tlioy coii-
timio such action lor some time, tliey Hliould
uevor bo dispensed with. AVheiiever, there-
fore, the symptoms are at all iirf^ent, [)roceed,
at once, to blister tho chest, ami between tho
tore lei^s, and also from the sides behind the

Should this not relieve the cough 08 much as
desired, give —

Linseed Mi-al . . . . •_) oz.

Oatiiual 2 lio.

^^'a^m Water

Mix well t()i,'i'thcr, and boil.

2 ijiiartii.
Admini.ster this

elbows; as it should be remembered that draught every six hours, until relief is obtained
active blistering is the quickest mode of sub- i With regard to food, no particular anxit-ty need
duing the intlammatiou. The state of the be maniteatcd for tho first twenty-four hours,
bowels should be next attended to, and gentle daring which, the less the animal cats the bet-

relaxatiou encouraged ; but not purging. To
obtain this end, back-rake, and throw up a
laxative clyster (see List of Medicines) ; but
active purging must, by all means, be avoided.
Mr. Colemau formerly recommended, after
blistering or i-owelling, that the horse might
be turned out into the opeu air, however cold,
without other medical treatment than nau-
seating doses of aloes. Latterly he recom-
mended, and with very great propriety, a well-
ventilated box, with slight clothing, taking
care that the legs are well rubbed and ban-
daged, either with woollen bandages, or, if not
with these, with hay or straw ; aud should
this not have the desired efiect of producing
warmth in the extremities, a blister to be
applied to them, which would be found more
efficacious. The muzzle, ears, and the whole
of the head, in fact, may be considered as an
extremity, and, as such, should likewise be
particularly attended to. The ears may be
hand-rubbed, and the head clothed in a neck-

ter, uidess green food can be procured for him.
This being more cooling and opening, should be
given, if possible; but, in its absence, bran
mashes may be allowed cold, with only a small
quantity of hay. Corn should on no account
be given, or the head steamed with hot mashes.
As before observed, we must abstain from pro-
ducing purging, and also carefully endeavour
to avoid costiveness. The extremities must
also be carefully examined, as to their hotness
or coldness, and every endeavour made to keep
tliem as warm as possible. By steadily pursu-
ing this mode of treatment for a day or
two, it will then be seen whether the pa-
tient is getting better or not. If the fever
and iuflamnuition appear to have quite lelt
him, still continue the linseed and oatmeal
gruel, in which, once a day, put

Pul. Gentian .... 1 drachm.

Sulphate of Iron ... 1 do.
If the disease should occur ia mild open
weather, the horse would be greatly benefited

hood; and the animal littered well up to the | by being turned to grass, for one or two hour
belly with clean straw. It must, at the same
time, be kept in mind, that the more care
taken to promote warmth in the surface and
the extremities, by clothing, &c., so the more
care should be taken to counteract anv ten-
dency these means might have to encoura"-e
arterial excitement, which is best effected by a
cool and pure temperature of about fifty degrees.
For internal medicine, take of the followin"'
immediately after the first bleedin": —

Cajie Aloes I drachm.

Digitalis 1 do.

Nitre 3 do.

Mix with honey to form a ball.

Give every six hours, or ofteuer, according to
the urgency of the disease. In cases where
cough is present and troublesome, add to the
former —

Liquorice powder ... 2 drachms.

in the warmest part of the day —

PULMONARY CONSUMPTION.
Pi^lmonary consumption may also be called
chrouic inflammation of the lungs. It is u
disease that commences slowly, but almost
always ends fatally. It frequently follows cold,
or is a sequel of acute inflammation of the
lungs. In these instances, the horse, for some
time, seems not to be afiected with any disease,
though the lungs are decidedly touched the
whole time, lie is, however, occasionally ob-
served to be affected, aud gradually a short dry
cough comes on ; the coat becomes also harsh,
dry, and altogether unsiglitly. As the disease
advances, we always distinguish a peculiar
smell about him, rising both from his skin and
his dung. At length the appetite becomes
affected, and pus, mixed with mucus, whicu

2uy

riGESTlON.]

THE HOESE, AND

[digestion.

in the latter stages is mixed with coagulse, is
observed to be passed from the nostrils. This
escapes by the mouth also, as well as the uose,
in the act of coughing. In the still more ad-
vanced stages, the discharge increases, and is
attended with au exceedingly disagreeable
^inell. The hair falls off in patches, the body
wastes, and the complaint either degenerates
into farcy or glanders, or the animal sinks
under the disease itself. If a horse is de-
stroyed in the early stages, the tubercles ap-
pear like knots, or kernels, dispersed through
the substance of the lungs. They are some-

times smaller, or larger, as the case may be;

mostly darker, but sometimes lighter, than the
surrounding substance. In later stages these
are found to degenerate into abscesses, and
terminate iu universal ulceration. When
horses are opened at this point of the disease,
they are said to be rotten.

Horses affected with consumption, may do a
considerable deal of slow draft work, by occa-
sionally giving them one of the restorative balls
(see List of Medicinfs) ; but a perfect cure
is impossible; palliatives being the ouly reme-
dies that can be made use of.

CHAPTER XXXI.

DIGESTION ; INDIGESTION

DIGESTION.
By digestion is meant that process by which
the food, or certain parts of it, are converted
into a white fluid (resembling milk), named
chyle. To render it fit for undergoing this
process, which is performed by the stomach, it
is necessary that it should be perfectly masti-
cated, and mixed with saliva. Supposing, then,
that the food is of good quality, and in suffir
cient quantity, a defect in the organs of masti-
cation, a deficiency of saliva, or a want of vital
power in tlie stomach, must render the opera-
tion imperfect, and the chyle formed by it
unfit for the purpose for which it was de-
signed— namely, the formation of pure blood.
Mastication is often rendered painful, and,
consequently, is imperfectly performed, by a
defect iu the grinding teeth ; that is, by keen
edges, or sliarp points being formed iu the
upper grinders, which wound the cheeks, and
sometimes are the cause of ulcers being formed
there.

Horses constantly fed on dry food, and
never allowed grass, are the most subject to
this, The upper and under grinders do not
meet each other horizontally, but have an
oblique inclination inwards; and the grinders
of the upper are more distant from each other
294.

than those of the under jaw. By this arrange-
ment, the food, as it is grouud, falls inward
upon the tongue.

The inside of the upper grinders, when
worn down nearly to tlie gum, as happens
frequently in horses of the above description,
allows some portions of the corn to fall into
the mouth before it is masticated, and this is
generally swallowed unbroken. The horse
feeling sensible of this, tries to throw the
wear upon the outer edge by an inclination
and ])eculiar motion of the jaws, which the
French express by the phrase ''^ /aire les
forces.^' In doing this he often wounds the
cheek with the upper grinder, which, in such
cases, is always worn to a very keen edge.
The cheek inflames and swells, and becomes
still more liable to injury. Iu this way a per-
manent thickening of the part takes place,
and, not unfrequently, deep ulcers. From this
cause a horse swallows a considerable portion
of his corn without chewing it ; and such corn,
being indigestible, is always voided with the
dung. For a time, this defect may be reme-
died, by rasping the outer edges of the upper
grinders with a concave file made for the pur-
pose. Whenever corn is found in the dung of
the animal, there is reason to suspect the

"-^%%

a :§

^ ^ ^

DlULbllU.N.l

MODERN VETRIilN'ATlY PRACTICE.

[iNDioKsnoy.

existence of tliia defect; but sotuctimoa a
horse will swallow com um-lu'wcil, I'lercly
from eiigeniesa in leoilini^. IMinij; tlic toflh
does not, however, iiUbril porinuneiit relief; for,
if a horse is again fed on corn, tiio teeth once
more soon wear to a sharp edge, and the injury
is repeated ; and though filing oif the sharp
points prevents him, for a time, from wounding
his cheeks, it does not prevent the corn from
falling, unchewed, into his mouth, and from
being swallowed in that state. There is not,
however, so niuoh difiieulty in niatiticatiiig hay,
provided the animal is allowed t;uilieient time.
It does not so readily fall into the mouth until
it has undergone considerable chewing, and
then it is more easily placed under the grinders
again, by means of the tongue. The hay is at
length masticated with great difGculty, and,
after being kept in the mouth a considerable
time, is rolled up like a chewed quid of tobacco,
and thrown out into the manger. Such horses
are named by dealers, quidders ; and unless
led ui)ou bruised oats, or soft food, must bo
starved. In such cases the muscles of deglu-
tition, or swallowing, are more or less para-
Ivsed ; so that if the animal is turned out, the
grass will return through his nose, instead of
being swallowed, and he will be starved to
death. Horses having such defects in their
grinders, should be fed with bruised oats,
grains, bran, or other food that does not re-
quire mastication.

"When a horse is at grass, there is a sufE-
cient supply of saliva for the purposes of mas-
tication, swallowing, and digestion; but when
be is taken into the stable, and fed upou dry
food, there must, of necessity, be a deficiency
of saliva. The only method of compensating
for this deficiency, and of randering the I'ood
as fit as it can be made for mastication,
swallowing, and digestion, is to dip the hay in
water, and make the corn quite wet. This
should never be omitted.

There is one cause of imperfect mastication,
however, which should not be permitted to
happen in the stable ; yet it often does happen:
anil that is, dentition, or cutting teeth, espe-
cially when a horse is changing his grinders,
■wiiich he does between the third and fifth
year — not partially, as has been stated, for all
the grinders are changed for permanent teeth.
A horse ought to be kept out during a great

part of this perind ; ami if ho is kept in, when
lie is observed to fhcw with great diniculty,
he should inivo soft food. A want of vital
power in the stoiiujch, is a disease \Nhieh, in tli«
horse, exists more frequently than persons are
aware of, and arises wholly from improj)cr
feeding, assisted however, too often bv im-
moderate work. By improper feeding is meant
the quantity and quality of the hay that ia
commonly given. This injures the stomach,
not only by its deficiency in nutritious matter,
and the impure chyle generated from it —
thereby leading the animal to eat a greater
quantity than he otherwise would — but by the
distension which the stomach suffers, which
does it a serious injury, rendering respira-
tion difficult, and weakening the whole mus-
cular system. When a horse is constantly fed
in this way, not only the stomach, but all the
large bowels are loaded, and the diaphragm is,
to a great extent, prevented fi'om performing
its office.

INDIGESTION.
In a healthy state of the stomach of a
horse, his appetite is such as to lead him to
eat only such food as is fit for the formation
of pure blood. This food is grass, for he is
certainly by nature a graminivorous animal.
His stomach is remarkably small, and requires
to be frequently supplied ; therefore, in a state
of nature, we find him almost constantly feed-
ing. How great, then, must be the change
which he suffers when taken into the stable;
and what serious evils ought we not to
expect, unless this change is gradually brought
about, and his diet and exercise carefully
attended to! When we consider in what
manner ho is generally treated, there cannot
be any difficulty in believing that the stomach
must, of necessity, be brought into a morbid
condition. The labour he is employed in is
generally excessive : the food which is most
natural to him is often deficient in nutri-
ment; for even grain is not suitable, because
not natural to him ; and we find that horses
which have always been kept in a state of
nature will refuse grain, and require some
time, and the stimulus of hunger, to be
brought to eat it. Good hay will always be
preferred by them, especially when it has that
fragrant amell, and greenish colour, whicli it

295

INDIGESTION.]

THE HOESE, AND

[mDiaESTioiT.

ought always to have. But, considering the
use to which horses are applied, grain becomes
a necessary diet ; and, if properly dispensed, is
the best food that can be given them. Hay,
when really good, and allowed in moderation,
is a very suitable diet, but requires to be
assisted with grain, in a quantity proportionate
to the work to be done. Some grain should
always be given ; as, without it, the quantity of
hay necessary for the support of the animal
would so distend the stomach, as to induce
gradually, by a continuance of such feeding, a
morbid, or depraved appetite. As it is, the
hay generally given, even what is considered
good, is so deficient in nutriment, difficult of
digestion, and is eaten in such immoderate
quantities, that the laborious exertions re-
quired in the muscular structure of the
stomach to extract what nourishment it does
contain, is such, as must of necessity bring on
a morbid or depraved appetite ; aud what is, if
possible, of still greater consequence, an ex-
hausted state of sensorial power.

Wheaten straw, when the reed has been
carefully separated from it, is much better
fodder for horses than what is called middling,
or indifferent hay; but the daily quantity
should never exceed four or five pounds.
Grain must be more freely given in this case,
of course ; but such a diet is far better than
that commonly given to horses in this country.

In France, wheaten straw is very commonly
used as food for horses ; and the manner the
owners have of distributing their diet, well de-
serves the imitation of the dealers in this coun-
try. The daily allowance is given at three differ-
ent times — viz., a moderate quantity early in the
morning, a smaller quantity at noon, and the
largest portion at night. It is a general prac-
tice, in this country, to give an immoderate
quantity of hay at a time. To give even bad
hay, to distribute the daily allowance injudi-
ciously, both of water and oats — to give beans
unbroken, and to work horses while their
stomachs are distended with food, much
evil is done, and many fatal diseases brought
on. So general are these practices, that we
meet with but few horses with stomachs in a
perfectly healthy condition. So numerous are
the degrees of morbidness of the stomach,
between the healthy state and that extreme
degree of derangement, when the appetite has
296

become depraved, inordinate, and even vora-
cious, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to
bring each of them under a distinct head. It
will be sufficient for the purpose we have in
view, to notice them, as they relate to the
organs of respiration ; that is, to treat of those
diseases of the lungs and their appendages,
arising from a morbid conditioD of the diges-
tive organs. These diseases are commonly
known by the name of chronic cough, roaring,
and hroken wind. To accomplish this in a
manner sufficiently clear and intelligible, it is
necessary to give a concise description of the
organs of respiration, and those of digestion.

The mouth, the tongue, the throat, and the
passages to the stomach and lungs, are covered
with cuticle, but of various degrees of thickness ;
so that the sensibility of the different pa^ts is
nicely adapted to the purposes for which they
are designed. These purposes are — gathering
the food, masticating it, moistening it with
saliva, and swallowing it. The first is effected
by the front teeth ; the second by the grinders ;
the saliva is separated from the blood by three
pair of glands, named parotid, sublingual, and
submaxillary.

The latter have always been described as
lymphatic glands ; but there is no difficulty in
demonstrating that they secrete saliva, and
their excretory ducts may be seen near the
tonsils. The parotid glands pour out their
saliva through an opening between the second
and third grinder, on each side ; and the sub-
lingual by two small tubular papillae under the
tongue. It is by the motions of this organ
that the saliva, necessary not only to facili-
tate mastication and swallowing, but likewise
to perform a very important purpose in the
stomach, necessary to digestion, is produced.

The masticated food is placed, by the motions
of the tongue, into the upper part of the gullet,
or oesophagus, which is named pharynx. The
pharynx is large, and capable of considerable
dilatation, but soon contracts into a small
but strong muscular tube, named oesophagus.
The part where the oesophagus begins, is so
contracted as to have the appearance of a stric-
ture; and it is here that the strong cuti-
cular, or, as it is commonly named, insensible
coat of the stomach, begins. When ^he food
gets into the pharynx, it is swallowed into the
oesophagus, and thence falls into the stomach,

rxFLAMMATiONS.] MODERN VETERINAllY PRACTICE. [iwrLiMMiTioKi.

bv the imisi-uhir contract Idii of thoso parts.
Tliere id a glandular cavity on each sido of tho
throat, uaiiK'd tonsil, which secretes a imicous
fluid, wbicli is retained in tlio cavity until
wanted, by a scuii-cartilagiuous flap. This has
been described as the opeuing of the eustachian
tube; but tliis opening is situated itninediately
above it. The mucous fluid is forced out by
tho action of gaping, when it is wanted. The
tonsil is the part affected in strangles; and
the matter formed in this glandular cavity,
passes d )\vu through the excretory duct of the
submaxillary gland, inflames it, and causes it
to become an abscess. This abscess is cora-
uionlv, but erroneously, supposed to be the seat
of strangles. The horse's stomach has nearly
one-half of its surface lined with a strong cuti-
cular membrane, which lines the oesophagus,
and terminates abruptly, and by a fringe-like
edge. It is on this part that bots are usually
found. Sometimes, however, they leave tliis
part, and attach themselves to the sensitive

part of tho utomach — properly so named —
where tho food is nourished and rendered fit
for being converted into blood. In the horse,
digestion and ciiylilicatioix aro performed in
tho stomach only, not by any particular juice
that is formed there, but by virtue of its sen-
sorial power, which it derives in comnuju with
all the vital organs ; and, in a more especial
manner, from the cerehrum or brain, and Irom
that part of the brain named corpora pi/rami-
dalia, through the eight pair of nerves, or jjar
vagum, as tliey are termed.

It appeared necessary to go thus far into a
description of the digestive organ — that is, the
organs subservient to digestion — in order to
impress upon tho reader's mind the importance
of the stomach in tlie animal economy ; and to
show how liable it must be to become diseased,
when frequently distended with unwholesome
food, containing little nutriment, and requir-
ing great exertion to be digested — such as the
hay often given to horses.

CHAPTER XXXII.

INFLAMMATIONS. — INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART ; BOWELS; INTESTINES; LIVER; KIDNEYS; BLADDER;

NECK OP THE BLADDER.

INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART.
Inflammation of tlie heart is a disease that
rarely affects the horse ; but it does occur
sometimes in conjunction with inflammation
of the lungs. In such cases, a quantity of
water becomes effused in the pericardium, and
constitutes water at the heart. The symptoms
are so very much like those of inflammation of
the lungs, that it is frequently mistaken for
that disease. However, this is rather an ad-
vantage than otherwise ; for here the same
remedies may be brought into application.
Still, there is one symptom by which inflam-
mation of the heart may be discovered to have
a distinct existence from all other diseases ;
that is, by the rebounding noise that organ
makes at every pulsation, which may be clearly
beard by any person standing in the stable,
2 Q

though unacquainted with the disease. Also,
by placing the ear to the chest, it will be found
that, at every pulsation of the heart, the fluid
in the pericardium makes that undulating
noise so peculiar to this disease, that it is
almost impossible, with a little attention, to
mistake it. On examining the pulse at the
usual place, it will be found hard and wiry,
and occasionally to have a fluttering motion.
This will at once suggest the necessity of im-
mediately drawing blood, not in a definite
quantity, but as the pulse becomes affected;
for if too much be taken, it will increase the
debility which the horse is labouring under.
However, bleeding must be resorted to ; and
that as extensively as possible. After this, the
bowels must be examined ; and if at all costive,
be must be back-raked, and clysters of warm

297

INFLAMMATIONS.]

THE HOESE, AND

[INFLAMMATION'S.

water and salt thrown up until the passage
becomes free and open. Also, take of

Solution of Aloes . . . 2 oz.

Glauber Salts . . . . . 4 do.

Linseed Meal . . » . . 1 do.

Hot "Water .... 2 quarts.

Mix, and give every six hours. This will not
only allay the irritation of the heart, but will
moderately open the bowels as required. Place
the animal in a loose bos, or bay of a barn,
and treat, in other respects, as for inflamma-
tion of the lungs.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.

Next to inflammation of the lungs, inflam-
mation of the howels is the most frequent and
fatal of the local affections to which the horse
is subject, and of which there appears two dis-
tinct kinds ; the one affecting their villous
coat, or surface, and producing purging ; the
other attacking the peritoneal coat, and usually
accompanied with obstinate costiveness. It is
the latter that forms the subject of our present
consideration ; the former will be treated of
hereafter. From an imperfect acquaintance
with the art, it has been common for farriers
to mistake inflammation of the bowels for spas-
modic colic, and the error has often proved
fatal to the affected horse ; for the comfort-
able things, and heating drenches given on
such occasions, always increase tlie inflam-
mation, and frequently produce gangrene. A
careful distinction should, therefore, be made
between the two, which may readily be done,
if sufficient attention is given to the difference
of characteristics which they severally display.

The symptoms of inflammation in the bowels
are usually first indicated by a shivering fit, to
which succeeds heat of skin, restlessness, loss
of appetite. The mouth is particularly hot
and dry, and the inner membranes of the eye-
lids, and the linings of the nostrils, rather
redder than natural. As the inflammation
advances, the pain increases, and forces the
animal to lie down and get up again fre-
quently ; but, as the pain is less acute, he very
seldom rolls on his back, as he does when
afilicted with gripes. Sometimes, however, he
kicks at his belly, or stamps with his feet ; and,
in all cases, scrapes his litter or stall with his
hoofs, and looks wistfully round towards his
sides. The pulse is frequent ; sometimes rising
298

to seventy, and hard and wiry ; but in gripes
or colic the pulse is scarcely ever affected ; and
even the breathing, in inflammation of the in-
testines, is not usually so laborious as we at
first might expect, in consequence of the pain-
fulness the belly is labouring under. In this,
like most other inflammatory cases, the extre-
mities are cold ; while the surface of the body
is often hot, but scarcely ever exhibits any
natural perspiration. The bowels are usually
confined ; and if any evacuation takes place, it
consists of hard, dry matter, rather inclining
to a black colour. The urine is made sparingly,
and is high-coloured ; and a strong sign of
the complaint is a very early and excessive
debility.

The causes are various ; but they are gene-
rally dependent on the application of unseason-
able cold ; such as washing when hot, or
plunging the animal into a river. The drink-
ing of cold water has likewise produced it,
though more frequently this occasions spas-
modic gripes. A long retention of the faeces
may bring it on ; as likewise hernia, or intus-
susception, which is occasioned by one part of
a gut becoming invagiuated within another.
It may also be produced by metastasis, or the
translation of the inflammatory diathesis of
another part, or of general fever, or by the
communication, by continuity, of the inflamma-
tion from other parts, as we have often wit-
nessed. Another, and not unfrequent cause,
arises from flatulent colic, either neglected or
improperly treated, which many times dege-
nerates into inflammation of the bowels under
such circumstances. Calcular concretions have
also brought it on.

In treating for this disease, as for most of the
other inflammations of important organs, it
requires very energetic and early measures to
be adopted. Indeed the treatment must here
be still more prompt than in most other cases,
as an instance of recovery seldom occurs where
the treatment has been delayed beyond the
second day. In fact, twenty-four hours of this
disease frequently destroys the horse. Bleed-
ing is the first thing to be done ; and if the
subject be young, large, and plethoric, six
or seven quarts may be safely taken away.
Should the symptoms, after this, continue un-
abated, the same may be repeated in four
hours, to the amount of four or five quarts

TKSCEEi- €)F TME ABBv^MEIf ©F TME KOMI

L Suspensory lig'a.nienr

2 The IJiapb ragrn ,

3 The Liver .

4 The Stcmach .

5 The Omenium .

6 The SpLeen .

7 Pancreas .

8 Diiodenini! .
S Aorta ,

10 Vena Cava .

11 Vena Pcanax'jin .

12 The Kidneys .

13 Vena Psnali-s
14- The Uretei-s

1615 Ven^e Seminales.

1616 0-?ariiim .
1717 Art Seminalis.
18 18 Coriena Enteris.

19 The Entens .

20 The Bladder

21 Pari of the rectum .

INFLAMMATIONS.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [inflammations.

more; nor should even n third blt.'eclin<jj, thougli
in a lesa dojj^roe, bo omitted in other four hours,
if the irifl.iniinatory appearances have not be-
come mitii^atoil. The blooding may be known
to have a sahitary on'oot by the pulse boccuning
softer and fuller, particularly if it shows a dis-
position to rise as the blood ilows. Here also
it is proper that the blood bo abstracted
quickly, and from a large orilicc.

As soon as the tirst bleeding is over, the
animal should be back-raked, in order to re-
move any hardoncd dung that may obstruct
the passage, and which, if sulfored to remain,
will infallibly aggravate the complaint, and,
indeed, in many instances, is the cause of it.
The distressing stranguary that sometimes
accompanies inflammation of the bowels, is
also, frequently, as much produced by the
pressure of hardened excrement, as by any-
thing else.

It is not the dropping away of a few balls
of hardened dung, or the passage of some
thin glairy matter, which shows that no ob-
struction exists ; on the contrary, when these
are present, a most obstinate costiveness may
yet remain farther up in the passage ; and a
flow of thin faeces may escape by a groove,
formed by the side of an obstructing portion
of dung. Unless, therefore, there be an evi-
dent free passage to all the fsecal matter, and
unless the excrement be wholly softened, it is
always proper to rake ; for it must not be lost
sight of, that whether as a consequence, or a
cause, constipation aggravates the disease, and
is always present.

A complete recovery seldom, if ever,
takes place, until these faecal matters are re-
moved. It is always of consequence to bear
in mind, that as the state of the bowels, is
such as not to render it prudent to allow of
strong purgatives being given by the mouth,
so the greater activity is required to empty
them mechanically, and by the assistance of
clysters, which should be thrown up very fre-
quently. The next thing to be done is to raise
a brisk external inflammation over the bellv,
to lessen thereby the internal affection ; and,
in this case, even cantharides are hardly quick
enough in their action. A more speedy deter-
mination to the skin may be made, by first
fomenting the belly with hot water for a
quarter of an hour, and then by applying a

large mustard poultice, farther liquified with
oil of turpentine, or with the li(juid blister
(see List of Mfdicines), which may bo .spread
on coarse linen, or a horse-cloth. What, how.
ever, is still more preferable, ia the fleshv side
of a newly stripped sheepskin, covered with it,
and then applied close to the belly by means
of flannel rollers, to retain it in its situation.
AVlien tliis has remairu'd on for three or four
hours, if an evident abatement of symptoms
does not show itself, proceed to blister in the
usual way. It next becomes a consideration
as to what remedies may be given by the
mouth, which must greatly depend on the de-
gree of costiveness with which the animal is
distressed. In a ca-se where the obstruction
does not appear obstinate, we should recom-
mend that castor and linseed oils be given
combined— six or eight ounces of each, shaken
together, with a little gruel. When the bowels
are more closely constricted, take of—

Solution of Aloes . . . . 2 oz.

Sokuion of Khubarb . . . 2 do.

Good Gruel i quart.

Repeat this every three or four hours, till full
evacuation is obtained. Before the costiveness
is overcome, care must be taken not to in-
crease the distension of the bowels with
much liquid given by the mouth ; but when a
passage is obtained, take about three quarts of
good oatmeal gruel, and the same quantity of
linseed-meal tea. Mix these well together,
and keep them constantly warm, and occa-
sionally horn a little down; when consumedi
repeat the quantity.

This must be the only food given to the
horse until a decided amendment is apparent,
when he may, by slow degrees, be brought
into the use of his ordinary food ; but this, at
first, must be dealt out to him with a verv
sparing hand, lest the disease return, in whicii
case it almost always proves fatal. In case
the animal is very restless, a loose box would
be the most preferable place for him ; or, if
situated in the country, where no such tliitif^
can b^ obtained, the bay of a barn, or even
the floor, well littered down with straw,
would be preferable to a stable or stall.

INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES FROM
SUFERPURGATION.

As the former affection consists of a phleg-

299

IITFL A MM ATIOITS . J

THE HORSE. AN'D

[iNELAMMATIONS.

monous inflammatory attack on the peritoneal
covering of the iutestines, this is usually an
affection of their villous surface, the conse-
quence of the administration of improper
purging medicines, either as to quantity or
quality, by which such a state of irritation is
produced as ends in inflammation. It is
always accompanied with purging ; whereas the
former has almost always costiveness con-
nected with it. Neither is the pain so acute
in the latter ; consequently the horse seldom
exhibits so much uneasiness by rolling or
stamping. The pulse is also quick and small,
but seldom hard. If the symptoms of in-
flammation be very active ; that is, if the pain
approaches distress, if the extremities feel
cold, and the pulse betokens much vascular
action, three quarts of blood may be drawn ;
but, unless these appearances exist in force, it
will be more prudent to omit it. Stimulants
should, however, be applied to the bowels, as
directed in inflammation of them ; the cloth-
ing, also, should be warm, and means taken to
keep up the circulation in the extremities by
hand-rubbing and bandaging. The stable
should likewise be kept warm, and the follow-
ing drink given every four hours : —

Prepared Chalk , . . . 1^ oz.

Rice 2 do.

Boil the rice in three pints of soft water, until
it is a complete jJwZp; then squeeze it through
a fine cloth. Add the chalk to the liquor,
breaking down the lumps, and give at a proper
warmth. As before instructed, give every four
hours. Should this not appear to relieve the
animal, take of —

Laudanum 1 oz.

Gum-arabic 2 do.

Pirst boil the gum-arabic, in rather more than
a quart of good oatmeal gruel ; then add the
laudanum, and give as before directed. During
the exhibition of the medicine, continue to
apply clysters of rice and water, made as
shown above.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.

The liver of the horse is, of itself, seldom
the first affected with inflammation, though,
when other great abdominal inflammations
take place, it frequently participates in the
disease.

The symptoms of this complaint generally

3U0

commence in appearances not very unlike a
slight attack of inflammation of the bowels ;
but they are unattended with that rising up
and lying down, which, so frequently, is an
accompaniment of the latter disease. Still,
the horse will often turn his head to his
right side, evincing considerable pain ; and if
his right side be pressed with the hand, he
will make a peculiar grunting noise, indicative
of suftering. If he be turned round in his
stall, to the right hand, it will be with great
difficulty, which will further show the pain he is
labouring under. The extremities are gene-
rally cold ; considerable heaving at the flank
takes place ; the pulse is quick and hard, and
the mouth is hot, attended with a yellowness
of the lining of the membrane which covers it.
The nostrils and the conjunctiva of the eye also
participate in this yellow tinge. These ap-
pearances, taken collectively, are the indica-
tions which lead to the discovery of this
complaint.

The disease is frequently attended with
costiveness ; and in consequence of the secreted
bile not passing oft' in its usual way, it be-
comes absorbed in the system ; and hence
that yellowness of the skin and of the
finer membranes. Occasionally, a disagreeable
morbid secretion is set up, and the horse's
dung becomes loose, and remarkably black,
attended with an exceedingly offensive smell.
If the disease should terminate in violent
discharges of the above-named black foetid
stools, the animal frequently falls a victim
in a comparatively short time — not longer
than two or three days.

Por the cure of inflamed liver, first bleed to
the full extent of the powers of the animal;
and, if necessary, repeat in five or six hours.
Well blister the sides of the belly ; and if
costiveness should appear, back-rake, and
throw up clysters of salt and water every
three hours ; then take of —

Blue Pill 2 drachms.

Cape Aloes 3 do.

Form into a ball with honey ;
and repeat every six hours until it operates.

In cases where purging has commenced, the
bleeding should be more moderate and sparing,
unless the inflammation run high ; in which
case discretion must be the guide in the mode
of treatment to be adopted, for a repetition cf

iirrLAMMATiONS.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE. [inflammation.

bleeding is sometimca hero less advisable than
in the fornior instance. Take of —

Linseed Meal ... .2 ounces.

Oatmeal ~ *!'>•

Cateclui Piil 1 ill'-

Make into good gruel, with three pints of
soft water, and give morning and night. If
the horse appear weak, and much debilitated,
take the following : —

Cape Aloes fi drachms.

Sulphate oflron ... 6 do.
Powdered Opium ... 4 do.

Blue Pill G do.

Form into a ma^ss with honey ;

and divide into six balls. Givo one every
second day.

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.

The horse is very liable to this affection,
which is of such a dangerous nature, that if
remedial means are not early resorted to, mor-
tification may take place, and the death of the
animal be the result.

The symptoms of this disease are various —
the animal, for the most part, being dull ; the
urine also is made in small quantities, and is
the colour of porter, and occasionally blood3\
As the inflammation increases, the urine be-
comes sometimes wholly suppressed. He
stands with his hind legs wide apart, as if
attempting to stale ; exhibits great thirst,
and is frequently inclined to drink ; but this
must be guarded against. Diuretic medicine
of every description must be carefully avoided,
as tending to determine more blood to those
organs than is necessary. The legs are apt to
swell greatly, and there is a difficulty in
moving him in the stall, from the pain which
he evinces in his hind quarters. This disease
sometimes arises from severe exercise, if taken
with a heavy rider. Cold rainy nights will
produce it, where the water lodges consider-
ably on the region of the loins.

For the treatment, the principal sheet-
anchor is bleeding plentifully, to the amount
of from four to six quarts ; and, if the inflam-
matory symptoms still continue for the space
of four or five hours, bleed again. After the
first bleeding, proceed to back-rake, and clear
the rectum out well ; then throw up clysters
of warm water, until the bowels appear to
have a free passage. A blister over the loins

might do good ; but hero it \h better avoided,
as the active principle of tho blister lying in
the Spanish flies, may become ahBorbed, and,
entering into tho system, do conHitler:il>ly moro
harm than good; therefore uso tho fiUowin"
ointment ; —

Tartar Emetic . . .2 drachms.

IIo'j's Lard . ^ . . 2 ounces.

AVork well into an ointment, and apply to tho
loins, night and morning, until pimples make
their appearance ; then desist. Tie a cradle
round the neck, to prevent him biting tho
part. Clothe moderately ; bandage the legs ;
and for litter, give plenty of good clean straw.
For drink, give gruel frequently, in small
quantities ; feed with hay of the best quality,
and moderately; givo half bran and half oats,
made moist with cold water. Also administer
the following every morning: — •

Antimony Pul. . . , .12 ounces.

Brimstone Pul 4 do.

Cape Aloes 12 drachms.

Mix with honey, to form a mass ;

and divide into twelve balls. Give one every
morning, the first thing.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.

The bladder may become inflamed through-
out its whole body, or the affection may bo
confined to the neck of it only ; and as dif-
ferent symptoms arise, as either the one or the
other of these are the immediate seat of
disease, so we shall describe them sepa-
rately.

AVhen a mucous membrane is inflamed, it
ceases to secrete mucus. This takes place in
the inflammation of the internal coat of the
bladder ; and when it ceases to secrete the
irritable portion of mucus, it is constantly
endeavouring to rid itself of it.

This complaint may be distinguished from
inflammation of the kidneys, by what has been
said with regard to that disease ; and irom in-
flammation of the neck of the bladder, from
what follows.

As the inflamed bladder cannot long retain
its contents, so there is a frequent evacuation of
a small quantity of urine ; and, on passing tho
hand up the rectum, the bladder will be found
hot and tender, but empty. The horse will
also be observed to have a disposition to dung
frequently, as wpU as to stale, from the sym-

301

HTDEOPHOBIA.]

THE HOESE, AND

[htdeophobia.

pathy of the rectum with the bladder. The
fever is generally considerable, and the pulse
is harder and fuller than natural ; but as the
disease proceeds, it usually becomes op-
pressed. Its causes may originate in the
translation of fever ; perhaps sometimes by
cold, alternating with heat ; and it has been
occasioned in mares, by passing some irritating
substance up the urethra, to excite them.

Sometimes inflammation of the bladder ter-
minates fatally, in consequence of mortifica-
tion ; but if mucus be again secreted, there
is every hope that all things may terminate
well, a complete restoration effected, and
the animal, after a time, be as capable of
performing his duties as ever.

For the cure, bleed according to the height
of the fever ; and, if no alteration take place
for the better, bleed again, as the pulse may
indicate ; back-rake, throw up clysters of
warm water, holding the tail down firm, to
prevent their speedy rejection. However, if
such should be the case, have ready plenty of
hot water to continue the injections, as in this
case they act as fomentations to the bladder,
and thereby greatly tend to relieve it. Eor
internal remedies, give the same as in the pre-
ceding article,

INFLAMxMATlON OF THE NECK OF THE
BLADDER.

Sometimes the neck of the bladder takes on
inflammation alone ; and this occurs more fre-
quently to horses than to mares.

It is to be distinguished from inflammation
of the kidneys, because, in passing the hand
up the rectum, the bladder will be found dis-
tended. This will also prevent its being mis-
taken for inflammation of the body of the
bladder. The frequent making of a little
water will not, however, distinguish either of
the foregoing complaints from this, as, in
inflammation of the neck of the bladder, there
is sometimes a small quantity of urine evacu-
ated at diflferent times ; for, after the bladder
is distended, there will be, by the force of the
distension, a few drops now and then squeezed
out. In this disease, however, frequent
staling will not take place until the bladder
is fully distended ; whereas, in the former
disease, it will come on at the very first ; and
likewise in the latter case, the distended
bladder may be felt even by the belly. The
treatment of this disease is so very much like
the two preceding cases, that a repetition of
them is here quite unnecessary,

CHAPTER XXXIII.

MOHBID POISONS.— nYDROPHOBUi BITES OF KEPTILE3 ; VEGETABLE POISONS; MINERAL POISONS;

STINGS.

HYDROPHOBIA.
This disease seldom attacks the horse ; and
when it does, it arises from the bite of some
other animal ; such as a dog, or cat, that may
be allowed to remain in the stable.

We never saw more than two cases of mad-
ness, and those were frightful enough. The first
was in a large bay carriage animal, which oc-
curred at the Royal Veterinary College. The
symptoms which made their appearance first
were, his refusing all kinds of food and water ;
he was then taken with a kind of shivering fit,
302

after which he broke out into a profuse sweat,
stared vacantly around him, began to be ex-
tremely restless in his stall ; and was then
placed in a loose box. No sooner was he
placed there than he began to roll and tumble
about, reeling and staggering from one side of
the box to the other ; biting at the manger and
rack with the greatest violence ; biting his
own sides until they bled, and raising his fore
feet as high as he could. Indeed, the sight
was terrifying to behold ; foaming at the
mouth, with eyes glaring and glassy. From the

uTDiioiMKnuA.] MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[I'OIBONS.

agonising torment the poor animal was in, lio
was left for a short time ; but on retuniitig to
the box, he was lying on tlie lloor, con)j)letely
exhausted, lie was immediately ordered to
be destroyed.

The most satiataetory symi)tom3, in eases of
this kind, is tho dread of water which the
horse usually exliibils. Professor Diipuy
iMves us an aeeount of this circumstance: —
" A rabid horse was confined in one of the
siek-boxes. His food was given to hiui
tln-ough an opening over the door, and a
bucket was suspended from it, and sup-
plied with water by means of a copper tube.
As soon as he heard the water falling into the
pail, he i'ell into violent convulsions, seized the
tube, and crushed it into pieces. AVhen the
water in the bucket was agitated, the convul-
sions were renewed. He would occasionally
approach the bucket, as if he wished to drink ;
and then, after agitating the water for an in-
stant, he would fall on his litter, uttering a
hoarse cry ; but he would rise again almost
immediately. These symptoms were dread-
fully increased if water were thrown upon his
head. He would then endeavour to seize it
as it fell, and bite with fury at everything
within his reach, his whole frame being dread-
fully convulsed."

Mr. Youatt says, that if a horse is bitten
under suspicious circumstances, he should be
carefully examined, and every wound, and even
the slightest scratch, well burned with the
lunar caustic (nitrate of silver). The scab
should he removed, and the operation re-
peated on the third day. The hot iron does
not answer so well, and other caustics are not
80 manageable. In the spring of 1S27, four
horses were bitten near Hyde Park, by a mad
door. To one of them the lunar caustic was
twice severely applied — he lived. The red-hot
iron was unsparingly used on the others, and
they died. The caustic must reach every part
of the wound. At the expiration of the fourth
week the horse may be considered to be safe.

The other case was that of a cart-horse, the
symptoms of which were so very like the pre-
ceding, that they need little or no description ;
the horse liaving been shot after the attack had
been on him about three hours. To prevent
such cases, no dogs should be suffered to sleep
in stables.

BITES OF RKITILKS.
Reptiles frequently inllict fatal wounds;
but in this country tho udder is tho only ono
that wo have known to bite either horses or
cattle ; and wlien this occurs, and ia attended
with swelling, take of —

Oil of Turpentine . . , . . 2 oz.
Olive Oil 4 uo.

Mix, and rub a portion of the liniment on tho
parts alfected, morning and night.

VEGETABLE POISONS.

Of this class of poisons we have only the
yew-tree that produces any particularly dele-
terious efl'ects upon horses ; and when this is
once eaten, the animal wastes away by degrees,
until death puts a period to his sulFeringa-
Two horses that had been employed in carry-
ing fodder, were thoughtlessly placed under a
large yew-tree, of the leaves of which they
eagerly partook. In three hours they began
to stagger; both of them dropped; and before
the harness could be taken oft" them, they were
dead. On being opened, a large quantity of
yew-leaves were found in their stomachs, which
were contracted and inflamed. The water-
dropwort; the water- parsley ; the common
hemlock ; euphorblum, or spurge ; colocynth ;
elaterium; bryary root ; savoin ; and common
brake, are all classed among the vegetable poi-
sons ; but there is little danger of the horse
hurting himself by them.

MINERAL POISONS.
The numerous minerals given in veterinary
practice, do not produce the same poisonous
efl'ects which might be anticipated from their
name and properties, and which they ajipear
to have when given to the human subject.
Arsenic and corrosive sublimate are both used
in veterinary practice ; but, in all probability,
the former will soon disappear from the medi-
cal list.

STINGS OF HOUNETS.
These are very annoying, and are frequently
the cause of much pain and irritation to tho
horse. AVe have heard of a horse being at-
tacked by hornets, and stung until the inflam-
mation occasioned proved fatal. The best

303

THE FOOT.]

THE HOESE, AND

[corns.

Application in sucli cases is vinegar, which put
on the inflamed parts, two or three times a
day. The spirit of turpentine is also good,

and, if administered with discretion, and a pro-
per regard to quantity, mixed with a certain
proportion of oil, may be beneficial.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

DISEASKS OF THE FEET.— THE FOOT IN GENERAL ; CORNs ; INFLAMMATION ; CONTRACTION, OR NAVI-
CULAR DISEASE ; GROGGINESS ; PUMICED FOOT ; THRUSH ; SANDCRACK ; PUNCTURED FOOT ; OVER-
REACHING ; aUITHOR ; CANKER ; F.ALSE QUARTER.

THE FOOT IN GENERAL.
Whoever has seen the anatomy of the horse's
foot, must acknowledge it to be one of tlie
finest pieces of mechanism ever fashioned by
Nature. It ought to form a part of the study
of every man who keeps a horse ; and if those
lovers of horses, the country gentlemen, were
well acquainted with the anatomy of the foot,
they would, themselves, have an opportunity
of preventing the many errors committed by
bungling farriers in the shoeing of their horses,
and the veterinary surgeon would receive less
blame than sometimes falls to his lot. Por
example: the veterinarian is supposed to be
proprietor of a shoeing forge, with several
workmen ; and, above all, he is supposed to
have Q. foreman, to see that all shall be right.
What is the consequence? A gentleman
sends for the surgeon, and informs him that
his horse is ill-shod at his establishment, and
he scarcely can ride him, he stumbles so. The
consequence is, that the surgeon orders him
to his forge, and promises he will see and
attend to the shoeing himself. He does so,
and the shoes are taken olf, and in all proba-
bility their having been nailed on too firmly is
the cause of all tlie evil. Tliis being attended
to, under the master's eye, immediate relief is
given, and the horse is sent away with satis-
faction. But how is it tliat neither the fore-
man, nor any other of the workmen could
discover this, but the master alone. Now, if
the master have any medical practice, he can-
not be in two places at once. Therefore the
shoeing department must be left to the fore-
man, who, unfortunately, frequently under-
stands as much about the matter as the piece
304

of iron he is working on ; but, in case of a
repetition, the surgeon gets the blame ; and, in
all probability, he stands a chance of losing an
employer. Many persons would say, "How
is this ; the man has shod horses for these
twenty years, and he ought to know ?" An
easy answer follows : " Does he know the ana-
tomy of the horse's foot ?" " No ; I am not
aware that he does."

But to return to the foot. It will not be
necessary to advert to the anatomy of that im-
portant organ. Our business is to point out
its various diseases, with the best means of
cure, which we shall endeavour to do ; and as
corns are so common, we shall treat of them
first.

CORNS.

Corns originate in an injury done to one of
the most vascular parts ; and itself is equally
vascular, and instead of tending to increase the
cuticle (i. e., the horn) over it, derives its
principal character from being inimical to
every future growth of it. These very trouble-
some aftections arise from injury done to the
vessels of the sensitive sole, exactly at the sur-
face of union between it and the horny sole,
whereby blood becomes extravasated within
the angle of the inflexions of the heels ; that is,
between the outer crust and the bars. They
appear, in every instance, the effect of improper
pressure, by which the sensitive vascular sole
becomes acted on between the horny sole and
the heels of the coffin-bone. This disease is
equally produced, whether thf pressure arise
from the horn of the sole, or the horn of the
walls ; and it is from the pressure of the walls

C0BN8.]

MODERN VETERINAKY PRACTICE.

[corns.

of the heels bruising the sensitive solo, that
corns are so common to contracted feet, and
also to weal; hoofs. It is also to the increased
weakness of the inner wall and heel of the
hoof tliat corns are so much more frequent in
the inner than the outer heel ; and it is from
the superior strength of the hinder heels that
they are less liable to them. But though the
contraction of the walls of the heels docs often
occasion the complaint, it is much more fre-
quently the consequence of pressure of the
sole, the very form of which shows that it
never was intended to bo thus acted on; for
the crust meets the ground, and the sole re-
cedes from it in every part. The general
mode in which injurious pressure is given
to the sole, is either by an improper form of the
shoe applied, by not removing the horn op-
posed to the seat of corns, or by neglecting to
renew the shoe at, proper intervals. To one
or other of these errors most corns may be
attributed.

Bad shoeing operates in various ways, but
in none more commonly than by the thickened
unequal heel of the shoe, which is, in general,
formed into a sort of clubbed end, that pre-
vents its presenting a level surface towards
the foot; on the contrary, a bulbous projec-
tion indents itself into the very part, as though
purposely placed there to produce this injury.
The custom, also, of making the seat of the
shoe slant, or level inwards, is, we believe,
sometimes productive of corns ; but the heel,
for nearly an inch before its termination,
should be made perfectly flat, and the same
thickness as any other part of the shoe.

Neglecting to prepare the foot for the shoe
is also a fruitful source of corns ; for that part
of the horny sole which fills up the acute
angle, between the crust and the bars, the
pressure on which is so injurious, is, in a state
of nature, protected by the prominences of the
frog and bars, as well as by the inclined direc-
tion of the latter; but as artificial habits alter
the shape of the foot, this part becomes ex-
posed. Therefore, in preparing a foot for the
shoe, this angular portion should bo so pared
as to remove it from contact with the iron,
without weakening the horny covering of the
sensitive sole. For so surely as this part
becomes subjected to pressure for any con-
eiderable length of time, so surely extravasa-
2s

tion will take place, and a corn bo formed, all
the more rapidly if the Iieela are weak.

The third conjinon cause is the ncf^lcct of

removing, or renewing, the shoes at proper
intervals. AVheti a shoo has been long worn,
the growth of the hoof carries it forward, by
which the parts originally opposed to tho
heels are carried beyond them, and now presa
on tho sole, often becoming indented within
the lino of tho crust, and producing a most
injurious pressure. Sometimes, also, either
from tho original form of the shoes, or by long
wear, they become loose and "springy,'' as
smiths call it, at the heels ; in w Inch cases
gravel is apt to make its way between tho
shoe and the foot, aud, by the pressure of tho
heels during action, is indented into the sub-
stance of the horn. Other gravel is received in
the same manner, which presses the first still
onward, till at last it meets tho sensitive part.
Aa soon as this takes place, inflammation
ensues, and a very difi'erent complaint is
formed to that of common corns ; for in every
instance of this kind, suppuration proceeds,
and the matter, unable to make its exit below,
or sideways, forces its way upwards, aud a
small tumour appears at the coronet, which
breaks, and discharges a purulent matter.

But the common eflect of pressure from
long-worn shoes, is the extravasation of a little
blood ; which, on paring away tho horn at tho
angular point of the heel, or heels, appears as
a black or red speck, as it may have been
longer or more newly thrown out from its
vessels ; and it may bo followed with tho
paring knife to its source in the sensitive part.
If the injury has been considerable, this blood
itself may irritate, and, similarly to gravel,
produce suppuration. In general cases, how-
ever, this extravasation remains unchanged ;
and, unless attended to, a weakened action of
this part of the solo becomes permanent, and
blood continues to be thrown out ever after,
upon any occasional renewal of the pressure.
In such cases, the horn itself, over the part,
proves a source of future irritation ; therefore,
horses with old corns, only go well when
fresh shod and their hoofs are newly pared ;
for as soon as tho portion of sole between the
bars grows to a level with the surrounding
horn again, the sensitive solo receives a fresh
bruise, and lameness once more appears. It

305

COENS.J

THE HOESE, AND

[INPLAMMATION".

is by conteraplatiug this possible termination
of corn, that the law has wisely considered
every horse with tiiis complaint as unsound.

In treating for corns, when they first ap-
pear, it is not difficult, by proper means,
entirely to remove them ; but when they have
existed some time, the injured parts become
weakened, and the diseased action of throwing
out blood, instead of secreting horn, becomes
characteristic of them. As soon, therefore, as
corns are discovered, the cure should be imme-
diately attempted ; first, by removing, with a
fine drawing-knife, every portion of diseased
horn around, and the whole of the extravasa-
tion likewise; avoiding, however, the wound-
ing of the sensitive sole underneath. Having
done this, take a pledget of tow, and well
moisten it with compound tincture of myrrh,
over which put tow sufficient to fill up the
hollow of the foot; put on a bar-shoe, and
secure the tow in the hollow of the foot by
two sticks, laid across each other, and fastened
underneath the edge of the shoe. This will
act on the sensitive sole, by destroying the
unsound parts, and by stimulating the re-
mainder to a healthy secretion of the parts to
produce new horn. Change the dressing
every day, and care must be taken not to let
the foot get wet. In this way corns may be
permanently cured, when not of too long
standing.

When the derangement of this part of the
Bole, however, has become habitual and perma-
nent, a,palliative treatment only can be pursued.
In the first place, the pressure of the horn
must be guarded against, by a regular and fre-
quent paring-out of that portion between the
inflexion of the heel ; and if the hoof be very
strong, and at all disposed to contract, the
quarters also should be attended to, and not
allowed to become too high, or too thick. We
have also, in very strong feet, found the use of a
short shoe sometimes of the greatest service ;
but, to a weak foot, either a chambered or a
bar-shoe is preferable. When the weakness
is very considerable, or the corn a very bad one,
a bar-shoe will be found the best support, and
should be constantly used ; remembering, in
those aggravated cases, to remove occasionally
all the surrounding horn likely to press on the
injured part; at the same time, taking care not
to let the frog rest continually on the bar of
306

the shoe, or it may be apt to bruise it. When-
ever such a horse is shod, it is proper for the
corn to be dressed with some active stimulant ;
such as tar, well rubbed in, and covered well
with tow to keep the wet and moisture from it.
By doing this regularly when shod, and about
once a week also in the intermediate time, we
have rendered horses, before useless, able
afterwards to work with comfort to themselves,
and satisfaction to their owners. In slight
cases of corn, the shoe proper to be used is
one of rather more substance than common,
with the web a little wider than usual, and
its width equal throughout ; that is, as wide
at the heels as at the toe. It should also ex-
tend to the termination of the heel, and no
farther, and be well laid ofi" the quarter, which
is, generally, the inner one. This will allow
the quarter to expand ; and, in all probability,
prevent a repetition of the pressure from the
bone above. This shoe will afford ease and
protection. Future pressure must be avoided
by keeping the seat of corns clear from offend-
ing.

ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE FEET.

Of all the definite and well-marked diseases
incident to the horse, this has been most mis-
taken among the old farriers, and the least
noticed among the modern. In many works
on Farriery it is not even mentioned ; and, in
most, is little more than hinted at.

This is almost unaccountable, as it is a dis-
ease that is very common among horses.
When this disease has come under the notice of
the common farriei', he has considered it to be
a disease of the chest, in consequence of the
horse resting his fore legs, because of the
muscles and cellular membrane having become
absorbed and wasted away. Hence has arisen
the name of chest-founder ; and most of the
applications were made to the chest of the
animal, instead of his feet. It frequently
happens that metastasis takes place, or transla-
tion of fever from one part to another, as iu
inflamed lungs, &c. The feet then frequently
become aflfected, whilst the lungs become re-
lieved. In some cases obstructed perspiration
will produce it, from sudden alteration of tem-
perature, and standing a long time in the
stable, especially if it be kept immoderately
warm. The vessels of the feet not being able

i>FL.vMMATiox.] MODERN VETERIXAllT PRACTICE. [i>rLAMM.viiu.v.

to bear the sudden alteration, distend ; and
inflammation beoomea tho conscquonce. In
many cases it occurs prior to an attack of
symptomatic fever ; both diseases being fre-
quently occasioned by loiif^-continucd exertion,
particularly on hard roads, with subsequent
exposure to cold. Under such circumstances,
inflammation of the feet may bo confined to
one foot, or two ; or it may attack the whole
four ; but it is more common to the fore feet.

AVhen a horse labours under inflammation
of the feet, persons in attendance on him can-
not discover, quickly the seat of disease ; con-
sequently, /he continues to get worse and
worse, until a veterinary surgeon is called in,
when it is found that the horse is breath-
ing with diflaculty, and, in all probability, is in
a profuse sweat. The groom then informs him
that the animal has been labouring under a
severe shiverinc; fit, frequently lying down,
stretching out all-fours, and groaning with in-
tense pain. The practitioner soon discovers
the seat of disease from the peculiar manner in
which the horse stands. lie also discovers a
singularity in his shifting and lifting up his
legs ; standing, by drawing his hinder legs
under towards his chest, to relieve the fore less
from the weight that is naturally upon them.
The practitioner will, however, be commonly
saved the trouble of much doubt in his ex-
amination, for he will, in general cases, not be
called in till the features of the complaint are
Eufficiently developed, by the utter impossi-
bility to make the horse remain on his legs.
On the contrary, when forced up, ho will lie
down again almost immediately, exhibiting
every symptom of distress and uneasiness.

As soon, likewise, as the complaint has risen
to any height, the feet will be found intensely
hot, and the pastern arteries pulsating very
strongly. These symptoms alone will serve to
mark the disease. There is sometimes a little
tumefaction around the fetlocks ; and when one
foot is held up for examination, it gives so
much pain to the other, that the horse is in
danger of falling. The poor brute groans and
breaks out into profuse sweats, to be succeeded
by cold fits. His eyes are moist and red ; and
his whole appearance shows that he is la-
bouring under a most painful inflammatory
afiection.

In this state the complaint exhibits itself

the first two, three, or four days, after winch
its ofl*i'ct3 are various. In tho worst cases,
when the symptoms wo have stated have evi-
denced themselves a few days, a slight suppu-
ration of tho hoof, at the coronet, may bo ob-
served. From this may be pressed a small
quantity of reddish icluir, or thin matter.

Thi.s inflammation, however, is not sufllciently
active to force off the hoofs, which have, in a
great measure, gradually become imperfect, and
sometimes deformed. This imperfect resolu-
tion may be known before its efiects on tho
horn have become apparent, by the very pecu-
liar gait the horse has when taken out, and
which once seen, can never be forgotten. His
manner is to throw his feet forward in a seem-
ingly burlesque style, and bring them down
with an odd action on the heel. In fact, he
clearly shows that he has lost the proper sen-
sibility of his feet. In other cases, again, of
imperfect resolution, the lamina?, losing their
elasticity and power, yield to the weight and
stress of the coffin-bone, which becomes pushed
backwards, and, in its passage, draws with it
the anterior crust of the hoof, which thus falls
in. The pressure also of the coffin-bone de-
stroys the concavity of the horny sole, which,
instead, becomes convex or pumiced, leaving a
large space towards the toe, filled with a semi-
cartilaginous mass, which is not the unfrequent
termination of inflammation of the foot.

"When the attack is not commenced with
extreme violence, or when an early and judi-
cious treatment has been adopted, the inflam-
mation becomes easily removed, and, in the end,
the animal will recover the use of his feet.

In treating inflammation of the feet, there is
but one certain path to pursue ; and that is, on
first discovering it, to bleed largely, to the ex-
tent of six quarts, at least ; and give cold bran
mashes, and prepare the horse as for a dose of
physic {^QQ List of Medicines ; where you can
select a ball of any strength, according to tho
size or power of the animal). The next object
is to attend to the feet themselves.

After removing the shoes, pare the feet out
nicely, to as great an extent as they will ad-
mit; which will not be very much, in conse-
quence of the hardness of the sole, produced by
the inflammation. This done, rasp round the
foot and the edges of the wall, so that a shoo
may be lightly nailed on when required. This

307

INrLAMMATION.]

THE HOESE, AND

[CONTBACTION.

being finished, bleed each foot largely at tlie 1

toe- then lightly nail on the shoes (after suffi- CONTRACTED FEET; OR. THE NAVICULAR

' O J n \ J T^TCC A CT7'

cient blood has been taken from the feet), and

place a pledget of tow on each orifice. Over all
place a poultice of cold bran, made wet with
water ; and frequently have cold water squeezed
over it from a sponge. In addition to this,
apply to the fetlock-joint, what is now termed
n "swab" (to be bought of any of the saddlers);
but, in case this cannot be done, take a piece of
coarse woollen cloth, of sufficient width to go
round the leg, and of sufficient length to hang
down over the hoof. This must be constantly
kept wet with cold water. Sponge-boots we do
not approve, as they are apt to induce " thrush,"
or at least make the frog so rotten, that in
mending one bole another is made. The horse
should not be encumbered with much litter,
unless behind, for his fore legs to stand on ; and
what is given should be made wet with water.
By this means he will have an opportunity of
cooling his fore legs as much as possible ; and
should he be inclined to lie down, which in the
early stages of the disease he may, the litter
behind will prevent him from iujuriag his hips
or his hocks.

Should the febrile symptoms not seem so
speedily to abate as may be desirable, bleed
^"ain from the jugular, to the amount of four
quarts. An opportunity will now be obtained
of gently moving the horse about, which will
enable a judgment to be formed as to whether
there is any amendment in bis feet. If so, the
dressing must be continued as before ; bearing
in mind, that the orifice made in the foot will
occasion some degree of lameness.

If the lameness, however, should still appear
to be greater, or not at all relieved, bleed in
both plate-veins, abstracting about two quarts
from each vein ; but do not even think of blis-
tering the coronet, though we kuow that some
practitioners are favourable to this. Give an-
other dose of physic, which is better, in these
cases, than all the blisters in the world. By
adopting these cooling remedial measures, an
amendment both in the feet and the constitu-
tion of the horse will be perceived. This, like
all other diseases of the feet, will require care
and attention, even after the animal has got
apparently sound ; and will be productive of
good. If, while at grass, he should lose his
foot-stopping, let it be immediately replaced.
308

DISEASE.

Contracted feet is a disease that has been
long known ; and " navicular disease" arises,
nine times out of ten, out of the former, or is
occasioned by it.

Contracted feet are those which have the
horn of the crust lessening the natural size of
the foot, and pressing upon the sensitive parts
within, and thereby causing pain and lame-
ness. This occurs principally on the inner
quarter of the crust, because it is the weakest, or
thinnest of the two, and is generally the conse-
quence of had slioeing. There are other causes,
however, which contribute to inflammation of
the feet ; such as too hot stables, and standing
on hot dry straw, with little exercise to put
the feet into action.

The navicular disease proceeds in a great
measure from contracted feet ; for, as before
observed, as the horn of the crust presses on
the soft and sensitive parts within, so the
elastic parts become fixed, and the multiplicity
of these parts contained within the hoof get
diseased, in consequence of being squeezed up,
as it were, in a vice: the coffin-bone, the
navicular bone, and not unfrequently the
small pastern-bone, all become more or less
injured.

The reason why the navicular bone is more
subject to disease than either the coffin or the
pastern-bones, is in consequence of its attach-
ments, and the work it has to do. Every time
the horse raises his foot, this bone ascends also,
and descends when he puts his foot to the
ground; the flexor-tendon, also, being fixed
into the coffin-bone, and the navicular bone
immediately above it, the small pastern-bone
working immediately above that, the whole of
the weight of tlie animal is thrown upon tliis
bone. We ask, then, how can this bone per-
form its proper functions, when prevented by
contraction of the horny box, or hoof, in which
it is contained? Of course, any person of
common sense will answer, "it cannot!"
Hence arises the complaint called navicular
disease. "We have mentioned that the small
pastern rests on the navicular bone. In con-
sequence of the confinement of these bones,
their action is not free ; and the lower end of
the small pastern-bone chafing against the

CONTRACTION.] :\rODErvN veterinary practice. [coN'TiiACTioir.

navicular bono, seta up inflammation, and tho ,
liorso goes lame. It unfortunately happens,
however, that the poor animal, especially if ho
is a hariiesi^-horse, is still doomeil to suflVr
until tho inllainmation runs so high, that tho
absorbenta commence their work by removing
the fiue membrane with which tho navicular
bone ij! covoroJ, and absorbing tho gristly cover-
ing also, Tho inflammation still being kept
u|i, the bone becomes all'octed, and caries, or
mortification, may tako place ; and then tho
navicular disease has arrived at its height.

The principal causes of these diseases we
believe to be bad shoeing; though in going
over our subject, we shall, in all probability,
mention others of a minor nature.

The old-fashioned method of preparing and
rasping the feet, has occasioned more lame-
ness than any one thing ; for what with
paring the frogs away, and opening the heels,
as it is termed, with scarcely touching the
sole of the foot, was enough to produce con-
traction ; added to which, there was the ac-
companiment of a very high-heeled shoe.
These means, with a little thought, will im-
mediately explain to the experienced horse-
man, why the feet of his animal become con-
tracted.

Owners of horses are sometimes to blame in
not having their feet pared frequently enough.
If the horse should wear his shoes rather light,
they will let him go as long as six weeks
without paring, and even longer ; not thinking
of the injury the foot is, all this time, sus-
taining by its improper growth. 'No man
should let his horse go, without removing the
shoes, longer than a fortnight, and new shoes
should be put on every month. An oppor-
tunity is then given both of examining and
paring out the feet properly, and watching
that they do not grow out of form ; but the
custom of nailing the shoes oa so exceedingly
tight, particularly where the crust is not
strong, must affect the feet, and prevent the
ordinary expansion.

Shoes of a bad form are very hurtful, except
it be for slow-working cart-horses, which have
feet of all shapes.

Thick-heeled shoes are sometimes the cause
of contraction ; but we have seen thin-heeled
shoes produce it, by constantly bearing too
much on the frog. Still, a moderate bearing

on tho frog ia highly necessary. But there
are so many strangely fashiuned feet which
pass through tho hands of a smith, that it ia
next to an impossibility, unless hy he a clevef
fellow, for him to know wtiat Kind oi slioo u»
tho best to be generally adapted to them.

AVo have read of authors wondering how it
was that farm-horses had such fine open feet,
when they are the worst shod, and mostly
with high calkins; but we think tho matter ia
easily solved, when we reflect that their feet
are kept open from pressure below ; and, though
they may have high calkins, and the frog con-
siderably cut away, it is forgotten that tho
rough land they have to plough, or harrow,
perhaps is in balls, the size of large potatoes,
all acting as so many expanders while the
horse is going over them. Again, if the
weather be wet, and the soil damp, this keeps
the feet cool and moist ; and, of course, renders
them more susceptible of expansion.

Artificial heat has a great tendency to pro-
duce contraction, especially in hunting-stables,
where horses are kept in the highest con-
dition ; also, in racing-stables, where they are
kept on good dry litter, half-way up their legs,
and every hole and crevice stopped to pre-
vent the least air from coming iu. The heat
that is thus generated, dries up the hoof, and
necessarily disposes it to contract.

Heat also, applied by the shoeing smiths,
will produce it, if not discontinued ; for heat,
as they apply it to the foot, has a different
tendency during the actual time they are
applying it, from the gradual continued heat
of the stable. Moisture, on the other hand,
has a directly opposite efiect, its application
greatly tending to counteract the contractile
disposition. It also softens the hoof, and
assists the weight of the horse in expanding
the foot ; but sometimes, from the extreme
thickness of the hoof, it will not even yield to
moisture. In the natural state, it is well
known that the hoofs must be accustomed to
considerable moisture, of which they are
mostly deprived in artificial life. A horse
confined to the stable, frequently doea not
get his feet moistened once a day ; but in a
state of nature, half his feet may be said to be
exposed to moisture half his time, either from
dew, or from being immersed in rivers or
ponds. Farmers' horses are much more bcue-

809

COITTEACTION.]

THE HOESE, AND

[CONTEACTIOK.

fited than many others, most of them being
generally turned out, and therefore less sub-
ject to this disease ; though, certainly, the
cutting away of the frogs and bars more than
is necessary, is the principal cause of con-
traction in them. Long standing in the stable
will frequently produce it, more especially if
one foot happens to be lame, which will fre-
quently become contracted from the want of
the necessary and natural weight to preserve
it in a state of expansion.

The symptoms of contraction of the foot,
and navicular disease, are seen in the hoof
becoming lengthened ; and the frog, instead of
having that fullness seen in the natural frog,
appears squeezed between the heels, and is
not unfrequently ruptured. The feet of all
horses do not in contraction become lengthened ;
but where the heels are very weak, the inside
lieel may be observed, on standing immediately
behind the animal, to turn-in remarkably
sharp. When this is the case, horsemen term
it being toired in. Sometimes the contraction
is principally perceptible round the coronet ;
but this arises when the disease is subsequent
to inflammation of the feet, and the usual
secretion at the coronet goes on, but an un-
healthy secretion becomes set up. This, how-
ever, is not a common case, as contraction
generally begins below.

The hind feet are seldom or ever very liable
to contraction ; and when that does take place,
it is not attended with those serious conse-
quences which result when the disease attacks
the fore feet, little attention being required to
restore them.

The horses of dealers are very liable to con-
traction, from being removed from the cooling
pasture of the farmer, and then travelling,
perhaps, from a hundred to a hundred and
fifty miles, to be immediately placed in a hot
stable. These animals, if their feet are not
kept moist, are sure to go lame in tlie course
of a week's time. Contracted hoofs are almost
always produced by the causes already detailed;
and the general concavity of the sole, with the
thickness of its substance, greatly adds to the
pain usually felt in progression. From the
pain the horse is in during his standing iu the
stable, he sometimes puts one leg before the
other, the most painful one being generally
pointed under the manger. This, by horse-
310

men, is termed ^^ pointing, ov fencing,'^ and is a
certain sign of the disease. Such an animal,
when going on the road, is always inclined to
canter; for, if in a walk, or trot, where one
fore leg is iu the air at a time, it is ten to one
but the weight of his rider brings him down.
Whenever, therefore, this is observed, however
free from lameness he may appear, such feet
are diseased ; and frequently, on close inspec-
tion in these cases, a shortened step may bo
detected, and a sudden drop of the knee, or
fetlock joint, termed ^^ going feelingly^'' as
though he were passing over hot bricks ; for
such horses seldom or ever step true, but
always trip, or stumble.

Nor can we wonder that lameness should be
the consequence of contraction, when we con-
sider how exquisitely sensitive are the inter-
nal parts of the foot, and how completely they
fill up the cavity, which, being lessened, must
subject the otlier parts to pressure, between
the hard substances of the coffin-bone, the
walls, and sole. Inflammation frequently goes
on to that extent, that a deposit of coagulable
lymph takes place between the laminae, and
sometimes over the sensitive sole, which, in a
great measure, destroys its natural sensibility.
This is called, by the old farriers, " numbness'''
of the foot ; but this is not the end of the
matter, for the inflammation will extend
to the bones and cartilages ; and while the
former throw out bony matter, the latter will
become absorbed, and bone be deposited to
supply their place. This necessarily produces
great lameness and pain to the poor animal.

In treating for this disease, we must observe
that feet are of such variety, that a general
prescription would not be of much use ; but, as
we have said that contraction may arise from
extei'nal as well as internal causes, iu many
cases palliatives only can be administered.
Fortunately, however, where internal derange-
ment has not taken place, although the pres-
sure may be great, and considerable lameness
ensue, still the ill effects are not of a lasting
nature ; for by enlarging the hoofs, the pres-
sure may be removed, and the pain mitigated
or entirely taken away. No means, of course,
would be equal to a perfect cure ; and conse-
quently it would not be wise to recommend
a tedious and expensive process, when a pal-
liative mode ought to be adopted ; but in the

CONTRACTION.] MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[uUOOGINfSf.

latter case, a perfect euro nmy follow a ju-
dicious mode of treatiuout, and thercforo those
circuuistauces should not prevent us from try-
ing it. If the conUactiou has not been of long
duration, by proceeding slowly and carefully,
this object may bo obtained, and particularly if
the cause of the disease is ascertained, and if
there is every reason to believe that the inter-
nal parts are not materially alVccted.

There have been invented, by many inge-
nious and clever veterinarians, a variety of me-
chanical contrivances to remove contraction of
the foot ; but few of them have been attended
with permanent success, though, iu some in-
stances, they have allbrded temporary relief;
but as soon as they were removed, the foot
contracted much faster than before.

All these are now done away with, and a
more simple and effectual plan has been
adopted. This is by applying moisture, and
having more regard to shoeing. In extreme
cases the operation of neurotomy must be
performed. In cases of contraction, take
blood from the plate-veins — say two quarts
from each — and administer alterative medicines
every other day. (See Medicines). Apply
swabs, or woollen cloth, round the hoofs, as
directed iu the last article, always kept wet
with cold water; then direct the farrier to pare
out so much of the sole as will cause it to yield
to the pressure of the thumb. He must be
careful not to remove the bars, or any part of
them. The frog likewise must not be cut
away, except such ragged parts as may be
injurious. The heela may now be rasped
down, until they are as low as the crown of
the frog, if they will admit of it; if not, as
close as possibly can be done. This being
accomplished, place on an old thin shoe, witla
but one nail in the inside, so that it does not
press on the inner quarter. Remove all
bedding, excepting a little every other night,
as the more he stands, the quicker will be the
expansion. Give hini cooling diet, such as
half bran and oats, made tolerably wet ; carrots,
or clover, grass, «S:c., &c. Continue this treat-
ment for a week, and watch the progress of it ;
and, if he should not be particularly lame, let
him be exercised two hours, morning and
night.

At the Royal Veterinary College, there is
an ingenious contrivance to apply moisture to

the feet: the floor is t:ilten up where the
fore legs of the animal wuuld come, and the
earth is removed. The paving is then re-
l)laced, atul cemented, ho aa to bo water-ti"ht.
The hor.se is then led into this ftanding, where
ho renuiins a considerablo time, up to his
knees in water. The object of this is to applv
continual moisture, adding pressure at Ih'o
same time ; for the moisture must bo accom-
panicd with pressure, or the end will not bo
answered. It is with a view to this purpose
that we would order f(jur hours' exercise per
day in this disease. INIany persons are fund
of scoring the hoof at the quarter, with a Sue
drawing-knife, so that it may have a hinge-
like action ; but this is of no service without
the application of moisture, for the scorino's
become so dry, that they make the matter
worse than it was.

Supposing every resource to have failed in
the successful treatment of this disease, we
must, at the last, have recourse to excising a
portion of the pastern nerve, which is termed
neurotomy. This is the only remedy in extreme
cases, which are then termed the navicular
disease. How to perform this operation we
will describe when we come to the subject of
Operations.

GROGGINESS.
Groggy feet, by stablemen and grooms, for a
length of time, used to be considered an in-
flammation of the laminas; but, since the
anatomy of the horse's foot has become known,
it has been discovered to be an inflammatory
action going on in the articulating cartilages
and their membranes; also in the ligaments
connecting the large and small pastern bones
which have sometimes been corroded, and iu
such a state of disorganisation, as to tend to
a bony deposit, and eventually to anchylosis,
or stiff joint. "We know of no treatment
likely to relieve the parts but firing, and re-
peated blistering. In this complaint the horse
will go upon his toe, the joint immediate! v
within the hoof being stiff. Many workin<»
animals in London are affected with this
disease, the poor animals sometimes being so
excessively lame, as to excite the commisera-
tion of every one who sees them. Professor
Stewart, in his Stable Economi/, says, " that it is
common among all kinds of fast workers ; and

311

PUMICED FOOT.]

THE HOESE, AND

[pumiced foot.

long journeys at a fast pace will make almost
any horse groggy. Bad shoeing and want of
stable care may help to increase, but never
can alone produce grogginess. It is one of
the evils of excessive work." In most cases
it admits of no remedy.

PUMICED FOOT.

Pumiced foot is a morbid secretion of the
sensitive laminse, which forces the hoof from
those laminated parts which cover the cofl&n-
bone, so that a partial separation takes place
between the two, whilst an inflammatory
attack goes on slowly and gradually. This
may be observed by the front of the hoof
giving way, or falling in, and receding from
its usual obliquity ; the sole also, at the same
time, becoming nearly flat. This is the time
that the horse begins to falter, and show
lameness, especially , if going over newly-
repaired roads ; when, ^if he should tread on a
sharp stone, it will probably be with difiiculty
that he will save himself from coming down.
Prom this curious disease, he appears to
secrete little or no horn for the shoe to lie
upon, which makes feet of this kind ex-
ceedingly difficult to shoe ; and still, what
appears strange, the sole becomes thinner and
thinner, and at length bulges out, forming a
perfect convex. This convexity becomes
greater, or less, as the disease is more severe.
Large cart-horsea are very subject to pumice,
especially those used in large towns, where
they are continually battering their feet on
the stones, producing a slow inflammation,
ending in pumiced feet from irritation.

The pressure which the coffin-bone, thus
displaced, makes on the fleshy sole, sometimes
causes an absorption of its own edges, but
always an interruption to the healthy secre-
tion of horn. The sole, therefore, being unable
to bear the weight of the animal, as it would
be in a healthy state, loses its concavity, and
yields to the altered form of the parts above
it. The whole of the parts within become
deranged in structure, as well as situation,
and the receding of the coffiu-boue towards
the heels, where it rests, produces an altered
line of declivity.

Palliatives are the only means by which
this sort of feet can be treated with any
degree of success. A cure is impossible, as
312

the parts can never be reinstated in their
original form. Here, shoeing is the principal
remedy ; and, with this properly done, we have
known many horses with pumiced feet work
well for a considerable time. "With regard to
the shoeing, particular attention must be paid
to the thinness of the wall, or crust ; also, the
sole being so exceedingly thin, in putting on,
the greatest care is necessary, that no part of
the shoe bears thereon. Most smiths are
acquainted with the kind of shoe that is best
for pumiced feet, it being rather a peculiar
one. The framing of this shoe is with an
exceedingly wide web, and made thick enough
to be, what is called, chambered out very
much, almost covering the sole altogether.
This is done in order to prevent stones, &c.,
from injuring the sole of the foot. This shoe
should be carefully nailed on, with more than
the usual number of nails ; but allowance must
be made for the extra number in the size, as
"^ye*," or " sixes," will be sufficiently large.
This sort of shoe we have found generally to
answer exceedingly well ; but where it has not
answered, we have placed on a bar-shoe, and
shouldered it down at the quarters, so that it
did not touch the crust, or heels behind.
Prom the form of this shoe, we have seen
great benefit arise. After having it placed
on, the sole and crust should be well smeared
with the following : —

Alum pul 2 oz.

Tar 3 do.

This application, occasionally used, will harden
the hoof and sole ; for moisture, in this disease,
must be strictly avoided ; and horses so afiected
should never be turned out to grass.

A similar afiection to pumiced feet, known
by the name of a "Seedy Toe," is thus de-
scribed by Mr. Spooner, in his work on the
foot of the horse : — " It can scarcely be called
a disease, but it is rather a natural defect,
which may be considerably increased by labour
and bad shoeing. It arises from too great
dryness of the horn, which renders it brittle,
and causes its fibres to separate. There is a
want of that tough elastic material which
connects the longitudinal fibres together, and
produces that strong bond of union between
them and the horny laminae of the sole.
There is a hollow space within the foot, which
sometimes extends upwards and around, so as

THRUSn.]

MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[riiuL'sit

to admit a large probe. Neither the bone nor
tlio lamina', liowevor, are exposed, but arc
still protected by the internal portion of tlio
crust. Tlio only thing to bo done is to anoint
the foot ocoaeionally, particularly the allocted
part, with tar and grease. A blister may
also be applied to excite the development of a
new growth of horn, that which has become
dry and brittle being occasionally cut away."

THRUSH.

TJirusJi is well known to be a disease of the
frog of tlie foot, and is defined to be a rupture
of the cleft of the frog, from which is dis-
charged a highly oftensive kind of foetid or
ichorous matter. In fact, this complaint con-
sists of a diseased action of the sensitive frog ;
for, instead of secreting that elastic horny
substance, composing the healthy frog, it se-
cretes pus, which escapes between the cleft of
the horny frog.

Some consider it as of trifling importance,
but we have seen it of the greatest conse-
quence, and would recommend great caution
in the treatment of thrush, though almost
every groom has a sovereign remedy for it ;
but he probably looks no further than the seat
of the disease, not thinking that another affec-
tion of the foot is proceeding rapidly, as
thrush will sometimes lay the foundation for
contraction, by the excitement of the parts
around.

The disease is frequently produced by mois-
ture ; more especially if it be of an acrid ten-
dency, as that of dung, urine, &c. ; but in this
case, the hind feet are generally the parts most
aflected, from their being more in the dung
and urine ; and there is great danger of its
producing grease and canker, if sufiered to go
on for a length of time. Contraction is a
cause of thrush, by squeezing the heels to-
gether, until the rupture of the frog takes
place. It is not, however, a general cause, as
there are many contracted feet without thrush.
The difierent actions of the secreting organs |
is here made plain ; the inflammatory action I
going on in sensitive lamina?, increases the '
growth of horn, so that the frog never comes
in contact with the ground: this, of course,
promotes contraction, and the contraction rup-
tures the frog; and all for want of what?
taoiQ frog-pressure ; for as the frog is deprived
2s

of its nJiiavvX frog-prcssurc, so do the lieols con.
tract, and so will tho fni<r become ducn-ased ;
consequently, diminishing tho secretion of
horny frog. A horse, with an open tiirush,
or what is termed a running thru.sli, cannot bo
considered safe; for a Btono getting into tho
cleft of tho frog, will invariably bring him
down, from tho great pain which the pre.s:iuro
of this foreign substance gives him.

It has been argued by some very clever men,
that thrush is purely local ; but wo have seen
many cases where it has been constitutional.
For example, many horses which have had
thrushes, have had them stopped, the parts all
dried up, and clean feet brought to view. But,
in a few weeks' time, examine their eyes, and
it is ten to one but they will be found either
Mind, or going blind. AVe have used all kinds
of depletive medicine ; also tonics ; but all to
no purpose. Should there be fear of the horse
losing his sight, it is better to put up with
thrush, which can easily be again produced, by
stopping the fore feet with hot horse-dung for
a couple of nights.

Thrushes are generally stopped with littb
difficulty. Almost every astringent will stop
the flowing of thrush. We have known them
stopped with tincture of myrrh and tow; but
in such cases we should not class thrush ainonjr
the constitutional, but among the local diseases.
Further, horses seldom or ever, with such
thrush, go lame, unless it is allowed to go on,
when the inflammation, in consequence, pro-
duces contraction. Tar alone is a very good
remedy. The following is what we have gene-
rally used : —

Calamine, prepared . . . . 1 oz.

Wliite Vitriol 1 drachm.

Tur 3 oz.

Mix well together; but before using, the frog
should be well examined, and all the decayed
parts, sinuses, or wherever the discharge has
made its way, removed, so that the applicatioa
may be thoroughly applied. This will, also,
prevent a further harbour for dirt and mois-
ture. The whole frog must now be smeared
well over with tho mixture ; then a pledget of
tow taken, well charged with it, and forced to
the bottom of the cleft of the frog, and into
every other fissure or opening that may be,
omitting none. The back parts of the frog,
where it joins the heels, are sometimes cracked.

313

EANDCBACK.J

THE HOESE, AND

[SANDCRACK.

These, also, should be anointed. To dress the
feet neatly, great care should be taken that
the tow does not hang out, as it may catch
objects, and thereby be drawn out. To pre-
vent this more effectually, take a good-sized
piece of tow, and place it over the frog, fasten-
ing it with two thin pieces of wood, laid across
each other. If the case is a bad one, renew
the dressing every day ; but should it not be
so, every second day; always observing the
stoppage of tow, to prevent dirt and moisture
from getting in.

"When a horse is affected with thrush, he
should, in no case, be turned out; for the
night- dews, besides other liabilities to come in
contact with moisture, will inevitably undo all
that has been done towards eradicating the
disease. Hunters, that have what is called a
summer's run at grass, rarely come up to
stable, but some of them have got thrush, evi-
dently from the moisture. The groom, pro-
bably, thinks this of little importance at the
time ; though coming into a warm stable, &c.,
with such an affection, soon proves that the
foundation of contraction is laid.

A great many, on this account, assert that
thrush is the cause of contraction. In the
above case we would strongly recommend the
bar- shoe, shouldered down from the quarters.

SANDCRACK.

SandcracJc may be termed a division of the
horny fibres of the hoof, in a direction from
the coronet downwards. It is more common
to the fore than the hind feet. "When the bind
feet are affected, it is chiefly amongst cart-
horses, but not from the same cause as the
fore feet of other horses. Cart-horses, with
their immense high-heeled shoes, are apt, from
the least irritability, to rub one foot, or the
heel of one foot, against the front of the other,
thereby causing a sore at the coronet, which
splits the hoof downwards, and becomes what
is termed sandcrack.

In the fore feet of horses, the disease fre-
quently attacks the quarters, as well as the
front of the hoof, especially if this is hard and
dry naturally. It may also be brought on by
injuries done to the coronet; such as those
which arise from stubs, bruises, &c.

The fissure, or cleft, is not always of the same
depth ; and is sometimes of such a trifling na-
314

ture as not even to penetrate the horn, where
it causes very little inconvenience. This is the
state in which sandcrack should be looked to
• — that is, in its early stage — when the curative
process will be much milder, and the disease
brought quicker to a termination. At other
times it goes through the horn, but does not
divide any of the sensitive parts underneath.
However, neglect, and continued work, will
commonly bring any case from the slightest
to the most aggravated state. "When the
crack has completely penetrated the hoof, it
becomes a most painful affection, and produces
extreme lameness. Tliis pain arises princi-
pally from the edges of the horn pressing upon
the soft parts, whenever the foot is put to the
ground.

In treating for sandcrack, different methods,
according to the nature of the disease, must
be adopted. In the first place, having exam-
ined the foot well, the sole should be par-
tially pared out, and the heels lowered, and a
shoe put on, laid off the quarters moderately,
if the crack is in front. Tour next attention
must now be given to the cleft or fissure.
Not the least particle of dirt should be suf-
fered to remain in it ; but should there appear
fungus or proud flesh, the probe should be used
to feel whether sinuses have been formed. If
so, all horn that may cover them, must be re-
moved with a fine drawing-knife, and laid com-
pletely bare, to prevent their going further.
Touch the fungus then with lunar caustic, and
fill the fissure up with tow, saturated in com-
pound tincture of myrrh, first pouring the
sinuses full, if there be any, and covering the
whole with another piece of tow. This done,
bind the whole on with a piece of well-tarred
twine. Let this dressing be carefully applied
for two or three days, when, if the fissure is
going on well, take a firing-iron, and draw it
aci-oss it, both at the top and bottom. This
will prevent its extending either way. Draw
your lines almost to the quick, but not through.
After this, dress the foot again, binding well up,
as before directed. On a second examination,
if the parts do not suppurate, they will be found
dry, and looking kindly. If this is the case,
take a fine drawing-knife, and pare down the
edges of the fissure, taking care not to draw
blood ; and observe if there appear any oozing
at the edtres. If so, apply a little of the solu-

5=^

cO F° pQ fC

PUNCTURED FOOT.] MODEEX VETETtTXART PRACTICE, [puxctcked foot.

tion of nitrate of silver to tlio edges, with tlie
point of ft featliiT: thon procei'd to ilrosa the
•woiiiul with tar, till tho fissure full, ami smear
the foot all over with it. Have ready a pledget
of tow, which place over all, as before. Put on
a bar-shoe, and lay it off well at the fissure, so
that tiiere may be no bearing. Tiicn take the
brush, and apply tar all over tho foot again.
Repeat this dressing at least twice a week.

During the disease, the horse should have
eight or tea alterative balls. (See List of
Medicines).

PUNCTURED FOOT.
Punctured foot is a very com men thing with
horses, and is frequently attended with a great
deal of pain ; and in some cases it is followed
by death. As the under part of the foot is so
continually exposed to sharp bodies of every
kind, whilst travelling, it need be no cause of
wonder that the foot does occasionally strike
upon something by which it receives a punc-
ture. Sometimes, even the heel of the shoe
may be too long ; and if accidentally the animal
should step on it, and partially pull it off, a
nail will probably pierce the foot. The acci-
dental puncture of a nail during shoeing, is
also one of tho most frequent causes of it.
Injuries of this kind are proportioned in their
effects to the parts injured. A puncture
through the fleshy frog, even to the vascular
portion, is not so productive of bad conse-
quences, as probably may be a more super-
ficial opening made through the centre of the
sole, which may destroy the animal. AVhen-

spongy flesh make its appearance through,
touch it lightly with diluted butter of anti-
mony, and put tho dressing over the part. Theao
simple modes of dressing will be fuund to have
a much more beiu-ficial eflcct than niont
of those violent caustics, so much in com-
mon use.

Sometimes deep posterior punctures may
penetrate as far as the tendon itself, and pro-
duce great pain and inflammation. In such
cases, if the accident be early discovered, in-
troduce a little tow, saturated with tincture of
mvrrh. If the inflammation be great, bleed
from the plate-vein, and give alterative medi-
cine (see Medicine) every second day.
Should this not reduce the inflammation so
quickly as desired, apply a bran poultice, as be-
fore directed.

The most common cases of puncture are
those which arise from a wrong direction of a
nail, during the operation of shoeing, in which
it either presses on, or actually wounds the
sensitive laminoB. This is frequently known to
the workman; but, through laziness, he will
not draw it out again, or a great deal of injury
might be prevented. Were the nail immedi-
ately taken out, and a little tincture of myrrh
poured down the hole, the smith might intro-
duce a much smaller nail, and all things would
go on well.

If suppuration, however, should arise, the
shoe must be taken ofi", and the horn that may
have been covering the confined part must be
neatly cut away, to its tarthest extent, de-
taching a portion of the fleshy part from the
horny sole. Should it proceed upwards, and

ever a puncture is made of suflicient depth to

penetrate the bony connections, and synovia j break out at the coronet, it sometimes takes a

escapes, the parts should be carefully examined long time to heal ; but recourse must be had to

with a probe ; and if the suppuration has not every means to prevent such an unhappy cir-

commenced, apply compound tincture of myrrh curastance. However, after having pared out

on a small bit of lint. This treatment, in a the sole as directed, next take the probe, and

few days, will heal the wound. Do not forget I ascertain if any other sinuses are formed

to place a large pledget of tow over all to keep
out the wet and dirt.

If this treatment has been neglected, and
Buppuration has taken place, a bran poultice,
moistened well with goulard water, should im-
mediately be applied to the part affected, morn-
ing and night ; and be renewed every day^
until a healthy secretion takes place, when
the wound should be dressed with compound
tincture of myrrh. Should anything like

If

not, proceed at once to poultice with linseed
meal, into which a large piece of digestive oint-
ment should be well worked. (See Medicines).
Repeat this every day until the wound
begins to look healthy. When such is the
case, apply tincture of myrrh (first having
placed on the shoe), and a large pledget of
tow over all, fastened in with two pieces of
stick, crossed, as instructed iu other applica-
tions for the feet. Five or six days may

315

OYEIl-EEACHING.l

THE HORSE, AND

[qttittoe.

elapse before the discovery of the disease. If
so, have the shoe taken off, and let the smith
tap round the foot with his hammer. If the
horse does not flinch, let him try vrith his
pincers, by which he will easily discover the
seat of lameness, when he should act as directed
above.

OVER-REACHING.

"Wounds about the coronet are very common,
from one foot being set on the other. Hence
it is called over-reaching, and generally occurs
from a blow of the hind foot against the fore
foot, wounding the edge of the coronet, or that
part between the hair and hoof. We have known
the hind foot strike as high up as Vaefetloclc,
and make a complete sore ; but such is to be
considered only as a simple wound, or rather
as a laceration, or bruise. In no case let the
old farriers dress the sore, as they invariably
apply caustic remedies, which will make the
matter much worse than before. Eirst, wash
away every particle of dirt that may be in the
sore, or around it, with warm water and
sponge ; then take a pledget of tow, and satu-
rate it in compound tincture of myrrh, and
bind on with a linen bandage. Eepeat this
morning and night until the wound is healed.

As we have here given a remedy for over-
reaching, a preventive cannot be out of place.
Over-reaching generally occurs in horses
having thick, upright shoulders, which par-
tially deprive them of the action of the fore
leg, as they cannot throw it out in the bold
manner in which horses whose shoulders are
placed more obliquely, do. The consequence of
this is, that the hind legs, having more freedom
of action, reach the fore legs before they are
able to get out of the way, which is the cause
of what is called over-reaching.

To prevent this disagreeable affection, the
horse should be shod high before, which will
assist him in getting his fore legs on ; and
without calkins behind, which will render their
action slower, and thereby make all four legs
work in unison.

QUITTOR.

Quittor is one of the most troublesome

wounds of the foot the veterinarian has to

contend with. It must have existed some

time when a peculiarly unhealthy state ex-

316

hibits itself, the ulcerated surface producing a
diseased secretion, which may spread consider-
ably around, and, in consequence, afiect other
parts. The tracts, called sinuses, are not diffi-
cult to ascertain, when we see the foot de-
pending ; and we all know that matter is sure
to find a deepened orifice, if possible ; but,
when covered with horn, how is that to bo
obtained ? Simply by the spreading of the
matter itself amongst sensitive parts, which, in
their turn, become diseased. Now the prin-
cipal care should be to lessen all this, or, m
other words, to remove the irritation then
existing. But if the injury should extend to
the ligamentous and cartilaginous parts, their
living powers being small, a very difterent
complaint is formed, and sometimes a very
tedious and troublesome one springs up, from
the difficulty of forming granulations in parts
with such small living powers.

Quittor may arise from pricks in shoe-
ing, punctures, and over-reaching ; but with
draught-horses, the most common cause is
from wounds, or bruises, inflicted by a tread
on the coronet. AVe never saw this disease
in the front of the foot. It principally occurs
at the quarters, in the neighbourhood of the
lateral cartilages ; although we have heard
some say that the whole margin of the coronet
is liable.

The great difficulty of treating quittor, from
its being so unpleasant a disease to contend
with, brought into use, by the older farriers,
some of the most violent means of cure. These
they adopted from their ignorance of its na-
ture : the burning out with a red-hot iron
was one of their favourite plans ; but, happily,
this is nearly abolished.

A quittor, when it had entered on the
process of ulceration, and had dead portions of
matter thrown ofl: by suppuration, the farrier
would say a core is come out. The wound
should then be treated as a simple wound, or
abscess ; for farriers are too apt, on these occa-
sions, under the idea of assisting the coring
out, to introduce strong stimulants. Eeduce
the inflammation as much as possible, and
thin the surrounding horn ; and if the matter
appears to penetrate in a direct line, down-
wards only, make an opening in the hoof
below; but, in other cases, merely dress in
any mild way, either with a weak solution of

QUITTOK.]

MODERN VETEEINART PRACTICE.

Biilpliatc of zinc, or compound tiiictnro of
iMvrrh. Put the horse on bran mashes, and
j',ivo alteratives. (See MfJicinrs).

AVheu the ooinphiint liaa assumed tlio ap-
pearanec of conlirmed quitter, and no lonj^er
retains tlio character of a simple bruise,
wound, or abscess, it must then be considered
as an ulcer, composed of difterent branches or
minuses, or, as the old farriers term them,^>/};ci\
Here the coriug-out system has been abun-
dantly used. On some occasions of bad quitter,
a portion of ossified cartilage has come away ;
and this is by no means au uncommon oc-
currence.

In treating for quittor, the first thing to be
done, is to examine well with a probe the ex-
tent of the ulcer, with the number and direc-
tion of the pipes. Should one of the pipes
run inward, and come in contact with a firm,
hard body, it is more than probable the bone
is bare. Portions of the coffin-bone have
been known to slough off; but we never
knew a horse recover when that has been the
case. If the capsular ligament becomes ulce-
rated, and the joints exposed, such a case is a
hopeless one, when the pipes run at the back
of the cartilages ; but when these take an in-
ward direction, they produce a hopeless case.
If the direction of the sinuses, however, is out-
ward and downward, or backward towards the
heels, the cure then may not prove difficult.
The next object ia to stimulate the parts to a
healthy action, which may be done by intro-
ducing any of the following : — Verdigris, or
corrosive sublimate (finely powdered), butter
of antimony, arsenic, solutions of potash, and
lunar caustic. These are all excellent reme-
dies for the disease. Prudence and humanity
dictate that the mildest should be tried first.
Therefore try zinc, powdered fine, and fill the
orifice full, nearly up to the skin, and gently
pressing it to the bottom of the wound ; then
lay a bit of tow over the sore, and bind on
with a bit of broad tape. Keep the horse as
quiet as possible ; and he must not be allowed
to go out to grass or to work. If the milder
treatment fails, a liquid stimulant, with which
you will be able to reach all the sinuses, must
be used. Tincture of cantharides, with tur-
pentine, or a mild solution of caustic alkali,
or the lunar caustic, introducing small pledgets
of tow with whichever of these may be

[CANKEE.

Bcltcted, or which may appear tho best for
combating tho disease. Should theao also
fail in producing tho desired object, more
active stinuilants must be resorted to. Thuro-
foro mix about au ounce of tur with finely
powdered corrosive sublimate ; then take small
pieces of tow, and impregnate well with tho
mixture; next place one of tho pledgets thus
impregnated at tho end of tho probe, and
lightly press it to tho bottom of tho sinus.
Do the same until every one ia charged ; then
fill up to tho top of the orifice with the mix-
tures. Caution must bo used when intro-
ducing the pledgets, so that no force may be
felt in the operation. If the quittor should
be what the farriers CdWfoul, mix a drachm of
verdigris \\ith the above. It would be well to
thin the horn a little round the parts, as it
will have a tendency to remove the pain that
naturally arises. Let the dressing remain on
for two or three days, until sloughing takes
place. If the parts look red and clean, it may
be expected that, by simple dressings of tinc-
ture of myrrh, the wound will heal, from its
healthy appearance.

If, unfortunately, this should not be tho
case, proceed again in the same manner aa
before, until a healthy appearance is made.
During the application of these remedies,
alterative medicines, every second day, must
not be neglected to be given. (See Medicines).

CANKER.
CanJccr is one of the most obstinate and
destructive diseases to which the horse is
subject. It consists in the separation of the
horn of the insensitive from the sensitive sole,
caused by suppuration having taken place
between the two, and may be variously pro-
duced. It may spring from neglected thrush,
in which the sensitive sole participates in the
inflammation of the sensitive frog. Neglected
grease will sometimes occasion it. In both
cases it is frequently engendered amongst
cart-horses, particularly where they are crowded
together, for there is more grease and thrush
iu large cart-horse establishments than in any
other ; and if care is not taken in time,
canker soon shows itself. It often arises from
pricks ; and when such is the case, the flexor™
tendon becomes injured — in all probability
locked-jaw may supervene. Treads, bruises,

817

CANKEB.]

THE HOESE, AND

[pALSE QUABTEE.

or bad corns may now and then occasion it.
It seldom occurs in the fore feet, clearly show-
ing that dung and urine are among the gene-
causes.

Canker is a formation of fungus, or proud
flesh, produced by an unhealthy secretion, and
has the appearance of a cauliflower. In treat-
ing for it, the first thing to be done is to
reduce this to a level with the parts that
appear healthy. This will be efiected with a
sharp scalpel; and although considerable
bleeding will take place, it need give no alarm.
Have a bottle of butter of antimony ready
(see Medicines), and, with a feather, touch
every part of proud flesh, and between the
parts. Next proceed carefully, with a probe,
to examine what extent of the sensitive is
separated from the horny sole ; and exactly to
the extent of separation must the sole be
nicely pared away, with a very fine and sharp
drawing-knife ; for the horny sole, once sepa-
rated, never re-unites, but becomes a foreign
body, and, as such, injurious. Every portion
of separated horn should be carefully removed ;
and this must be attended to at every future
dressing. Again examine, with the probe, if
the disease has proceeded in any other direc-
tion. If so, it must be treated as above,
by a careful removal of all detached parts ;
let these be cut away, neatly and evenly, and
no rough edges suffered to remain.

By using the above means the fungus may
be removed ; but so long as any of this fungus
continues sprouting or growing, so long the
cankered action is going on. Before pro-
ceeding further, that must be completely done
away with ; for while it is there, no secretion
of firm horn will take place. If a secretion of
thin horn, which will sometimes occur over
many portions of the surface, is perceived, it
must be carefully removed at each dressing,
until the application of caustic stimulants and
pressure produce a healthy surface, and a
proper quantity of pus only, which will finally
end in good horn. After the whole of the
sole has been brought to secrete good matter,
sprinkle it with the following : —

Sul. Zinc, finely powdered , , . i oz.
Verdigris Ido.

Or,

Blue Vitriol ........ 1 oz.

Alum 1 do.

Sprinkle either of these all over the sole, so as
lightly to cover it ; then lay a pledget of the
finest and cleanest tow on the whole ; fill the
cavity with other tow thickly over the bottom
of the foot, fastened in with strips of wood, as
before directed, crossing each other. This
will keep up a firm and equal pressure. After
this, take a piece of coarse cloth or sacking,
and wrap the whole well up in it. This will
keep the foot dry, as nothing tends to in-
crease the growth of proud flesh so much as
moisture.

There is a great fault in not dressing cank-
ered feet sufficiently often. They ought, at
least once a day, to be dressed ; and if the case
is bad, they ought to be examined morning and
evening. Trouble, in this disease, must not be
considered ; for if the foot becomes neglected,
the parts are much longer in healing, and>
when healed, are not nearly so firm as if well
attended to. Horses affected with this disease
should never be turned out. In order to
avoid moisture, the mild caustic mode of treat-
ment, with the pledget of tow nicely fitted
into the foot, will be found to equal any
dressing, when applied with care. Alterative
medicines should be given every second day.
(See Medicines).

FALSE QUARTER.
JFahe quarter generally arises from one or
the other of the preceding diseases ; in both of
which, from the injury done to the coronary
vascular ligament, at one particular part, it can
never afterwards secrete horn in a perfect line ;
but the interruption which first originated be-
tween the old and the new horn, continues to
be propagated. Consequently, it is called false
quarter ; and it, of course, very much weakens
the foot. Sandcrack is sometimes produced hy
it. The only remedy is, to continually blis-
ter the coronet at the quarter; and to shoe
with a bar-shoe, well laid off" at the seat of
disease. The hoof may be dressed with tar,
or the foot-ointment (see Medicines), and
kept as free from dirt as cossible.

318

BHOEI^O. 1

AfO-pERN VETERINAET PRACTICE.

[snoEiJfo.

CUAITKU XXXV.

SHOEING

SnoFTNG, liko all other thiugs connoctcd willi
the liorso, has received coiisitlerablo iin-
provemeut3 within the last half century. In-
deed, the great improvement made in this
department of art, since the establishment of the
Royal Veterinary College, precludes the neces-
sity almost of olleriug an opinion at all on the
subject ; and the able works of Professor Cole-
man, Mr. Bracy Clark, and Mr. Groodwin, set
forth all that is necessary on the subject. A
few observations here, however, seem to be de-
manded from us. The anatomy of the foot
of the horse is now clearly understood, and
without such knowledge no man can shoo one
properly; and the benctit derived from this
knowledge cannot but rejoice those who recol-
lect the numbers of valuable animals that were
formerly crippled and rendered useless by igno-
rance of shoeing. The post-horses, stagers, and
hackney coach-horses, were composed princi-
pally of crippled horses, or such as were termed
groggy in the feet. These poor animals would
stand with their feet forward, or, as it is called,
pointing, in the greatest anguish, shifting from
foot to foot alternately, to gain a little ease,
their very countenances expressive of extreme
pain ; but now, comparatively, few so affected
are to be seen. With care, the foot may be
preserved to the last. Formerly, a young horse,
fresh from the breeder, \TOuld, in the space of
two years, have his feet gradually become unfit
and unsafe for any gentleman's riding, and in his
very prime he would be cast off to hard labour,
rendered more intolerable by increasing pain.

Though the improved system has now become |
almost so general, that every person employed in
shoeing horses knows how it ought to be done ;
nevertheless, there should be, in practising it,
a degree of care >vhich some men will not
observe ; but will pursue their own way, and
fancy they know better than all the veterinary
surgeons in the world ; and, in spite of every
endeavour to teach them, they will do as
they like at last. It may be necessary to ap»

l)riso the man who forges the shoe, whetlier
Lho horse is apt to interfere, which is called
e-utting ; or whether he over-reaches with his
hind foot, striking against his fore shoo ; which
is extremely unpleasant. These things may bo
prevented to a great extent, or, indeed, totally,
by making a proper shoe, and placing it accord-
ingly. The interfering is remedied by leaving the
inner heel as high as possible, and paring the
outer heel in moderation, whilst the inner heel
of the shoe is made thicker than the outer. This
raising of the inner heel throws the fetlock
joints outwards, or wider apart; which, with
that part of the toe that is liable to interfere,
pared close, and the shoe nowise projecting,
will prevent the interference, or what is called
cutting.

The hind shoe striking against the fore, is
prevented by shortening the heel of the hind
shoes, so that the hind foot moves in unison with
the fore foot; for this striking arises, principally,
with heavy forehanded horses, that cannot get
their fore feet so quickly out of the way of the
hind; and produces that unpleasant noise
which arises from their striking, and which, at
times, is almost beyond bearing.

AVhen horses, newly shod or removed, go
unsteadily or unsafe, which before went safe
and well, it is reasonable to suppose that the
shoes have not been put on properly. "We
have seen horses, on being removed from the
farrier's shop, go as if crippled at every step,
and, to all appearance, as if it were with the
greatest difficulty they could keep themselves
from falling down. The shoes may seem to
be put on right enough, and the nails may
appear to be properly driven in, so as not to
touch the sensitive part of the foot; but
the evil arises from the shoe not having an
equal bearing; that is to say, not equal at the
heels and at the toe: but we have no objec-
tion to the shoe bearing on the outer heel,
hut it should not, hy any means, hear on the heel
and quarters inside ; for if this be the case,

319

■RESTBAIKTS.J

THE HOESE, AXD

|_BESTBAINTS.

corn, contraction of the hoof, thrush, &c., will
be produced. Although we do not approve of
the shoe being so hot when it is applied, as to
sear the foot, yet its application should be
made when it is moderately hot, to show
where the shoe bears, and where it does not,
that the rasp may take down some places till
the bearing becomes equal. This is a less
evil than putting the shoe on at hazard, where
there is not equal bearing on the outer side
and toe. The driving of the clenches down
too much, may cause pain and uneasiness;
but it is not so likely to pinch when the shoe
sits solidly, as when it does not. Eor this
reason, in shoeing, advise but two nails to he
driven in the inside, and those tivo next the toe.
Ey this the shoe is neither drawn nor warped ;
for, you must recollect, the shoe not being
elastic, and it being nailed to an elastic body,
something must give way ; and the elastic body
will, sooner than the non-elastic : and, further,
this occasions the shoe frequently to break;
and, what is most singular, the breakage almost
always takes place at the quarters where the
most elasticity exists; proving that there is
not so much fault in the iron, as in the con-
finement by the shoe of the elastic part of the
hoof.

When extreme lameness, and consequent
uneasiness happen immediately after shoeing,
the shoes should be instantly taken oif, to
ascertain how they were fitted on ; though it
frequently occurs, that drawing out the two
back nails of the inner quarter will at once
give relief. Not that we are to expect horses
with bad feet to go so pleasantly in new shoes
as old ones. Those with thin flat feet cannot
be supposed to go so well as those with strong
feet ; consequently a different shoe is required.
A shoe to, suit soft thin feet, ought to be well
chambered out, as it is called, with a broad
web, and only bearing on the edge of the
crust : but horses having such feet should have
the bar-shoe ; and until it is, in some measure,
settled to the foot, the horse will go tender
and unpleasantly.

The substance and weight should be pro-
portioned to the work or employment of the
horse. Never load the foot with more iron
than is necessary to preserve it. If the foot is
light, let the shoe be light also ; and if the
horse works principally on the road, his shoes
should be somewhat stouter. In thus propor-
tioning the weight of the iron to the strength
or weight of the hoof, a large part of the art ot
properly shoeing horses is involved.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

OPERATIONS AND EESTRAINTS.— BRONCHOTOJIY ; (ESOPIIAGOTOMY ; NEUROTOMY; DOCKING; KICKING;
CROPriNG: BLEECTIING; PURGING; FIRING; BLISTERIxNG.

"When it is necessary to perform any painful
or unpleasant operation on the horse, from his
strength and power of resistance, it is neces-
sary, for our own security, as well as for the
safety of the animal, to restrain him in such a
way as to prevent any danger that might
otherwise arise from his struggles. Horses,
like men, difi'er much in temper ; and some of
them, when undergoing any operation, bear
pain very difierently to others : but it is always
wise to be guarded against the worst ; and very
few important operations should be attempted
320

without casting. Great care should be taken to
be as humane as possible, and prevent as much
pain as lies in our power; though, at times,
means are obliged to be resorted to.

There are other restraints besides the Jiohhle,
such as the twitch. This latter instrument is
most frequently used by all classes of horse-
men; for there is hardly an operation per-
formed that does not require the twitch, wliicli
no stable should be without. Still, if used
with violence, it is apt to make an animal
more uneasy and restive than otherwise j couse-

f^

^

i

t

^

>^

BESTUAINTS.]

MODEEN VETERIXAllY PRACTICE.

[UEiXUAlXia.

qupiitly, great care is required in usinj; it. To
make a twitch, the stall" should bo about thirty-
six or thirty-eight ineliea long, with a Binall
ring-bolt driveu firm into one end; then a
piece of sash-line should be put through the
eye of the bolt, and the ends tied together,
about six inches from the end of the bolt.
This completes the twitch.

Most persons, and especially the inexperi-
enced, guard only against the hind feet; but
they will find that a blow from a horse's fore
foot, if properly directed, will como with ter-
rible force. In all operations, there foro, it is
best to blindfold the animal, as by so doing he
becomes greatly intimidated ; nor will he often
strike without being much irritated.

Another kind of instrument, principally
used by smiths, is what are termed harnacles,
■vrhich is a kind of clam, with a gaugiug-ring
to regulate its tightness, and is sometimes ap-
plied to the horse's ear at the time of shoeing.
It is, we believe, at times used for the nose ;
but not unless the animal is first blindfolded.
Sometimes all can be done that may be
wanted, by an assistant holding up the oppo-
site leg. With regard to holding up the hind
leg, one hand should always have a fast hold
of the point of the hock. The horse cannot
move then without giving warning ; and should
he feel inclined to kick, you will be enabled to
get from him without danger. It is highly neces-
sary that these precautions should be attended
to, for two reasons ; the one, to prevent any
accidents that tlie operator may be liable to;
and the other, that he may not be suspected,
by those around him, of not knowing his
business.

There is another restraint, called the side-
line; and though very simple in its nature, of
great use, and now in very general application.
Many veterinarians use only the side-line, con-
sidering it to be quite sufficient both for the
safety of the man and the horse ; but, if the
animal makes a sudden plunge, it is ten to one
that he comes down altogether. It consists of
a hobble-strap, and about six or seven yards of
rope, nearly the thickness of a man's thumb,
and is termed a neck-collar. To make use
of the side-line properly, a roller, made on pur-
pose, should be used. It should have several
rings on the pad part, both on the sides and
top, to answer convenience. All things being

ready, put on this, and then slip the neck*
cuUar on, down to the horso'a shoulder, and
strap the neck-collar to a ring of the roller.
By this means, if the horse should by chance
hold down his head, the side-line will not get
shifted (which it would do, if fastened round
the neck alone). Now buckle the side-line on
to the fetlock, on the side on which you are to
stand ; pass the line or ropo through the horse's
legs, and through the neck-collar, taking it
back, after giving it one turn round the collar,
to the fetlock. Do the same there ; then bring
it back again to the collar, where make
fast. After this confinement, anytiiing may
be done with the horse on the side on which
the line is.

Hobbles are used when a horse is to be cast ;
and then one hobble-leather is placed on each
fetlock, each leather having what is termed a
D ring attached to it ; one ring and leather
being fastened to a long rope, very supple, but
strong, and about an inch and a quarter in dia-
meter. In putting on tJio hobble, observe
which side you want to cast on. If it be on
the olf-side, place the rope-hobble on the near
fore fetlock, then buckle the three others on,
and, taking the end of the rope, hand it to an
assistant to thread the ofi'-fore-foot D ring.
Let him pass the rope to the ofi'-hiud hobble-
ring, when you will receive it, and pass it
through the ring of the hind hobble of your
side. After this, carry the rope up to the near
fore foot again, and put it through the ring
there ; which ring must be considerably larger
than any other, because there is double the
quantity of rope in it. All this time the horse
should be blindfolded. Having your proper
strength ready, desire them to pull steady, and
together; then you will place your hand against
the horse's ribs, at the same time pushing him,
when he goes down easily. There is a plan
used at the Eoyal Veterinary College, of one
person having a piece of webbing fastened to
the roller, who stands at the opposite side, and
gives a smart pull, just as the horse is otf his
legs, which quickly brings him over. By fol-
lowing the above directions, the horse may bo
said to be rather let down than cast or thrown.

The moment the horse is thrown, the rope
must be fastened with what is termed a half-
hitch, in which a small pad of straw is inserted,
and by which means the rope is drawn much

321

NEUROTOMY.]

THE HOESE, AND

(nefeotomt.

tighter. The person at the head must keep
that secure; for all the eflforts to disengage
himself are first begun by endeavouring to get
his head at liberty, so that he may raise his
fore parts. Plenty of straw should be placed
underneath his head, so that he may lie as
easy as possible. Care also must be taken
that the horse breathe freely when down, and
that no more time be wasted in the operation
than is absolutely necessary, as many animals
struo^o-le the whole of the time, and exhaust
themselves very much.

BRONCHOTOMY.

Broncliotomy is an operation performed on
!he bronchia, or wind-pipe, in bad cases of
strangles, or when tumours exist in the throat,
which threaten the animal with suffocation ;
or if an apple, potato, or a piece of carrot has
slipped into the oesophagus, &c.

The operation of tracheotomy is not of a
difficult nature, and consists in making a lon-
gitudinal section through two or three of the
rings, occupying about an inch square, that
may be taken away from the front of the car-
tilaginous substance. A flexible tube should
then be introduced into the opening, and re-
tained there as long as possible. — This opera-
tion has been performed in cases of roaring ;
those who performed it thinking the obstruc-
tion much lower down than it is.

CESOPHAGOTOMY.

The oesophagus may be readily divided, in
cases of strangulation, from the obstruction of
too large a ball, an apple, or from the accu-
mulation of dry bran and chaff, which some-
times takes place in greedy horses.

NEUROTOMY.

I^eurotomrj, or the nerve operation, spoken
of some time back, now comes under our
notice. We have stated that this operation
was performed for diseases of the feet, princi-
pally of such as are dependent on a contracted
form, or otherwise altered in the form of the
hoofs, excepting the pumiced hoof. The nerves
having been long known as the medium of
sensation, many cases of lameness in the feet
occur, which render horses useless, principally
from the pain and tenderness consequent on
the pressure of some parts of the foot, long
322

since altered by disease ; but which are not
now actively engaged in a disorganising pro-
cess.

Where there is reason to expect considerable
disorganisation of the internal parts of the feet,
such as ossification, or total absorption of the
articular cartilages, or diseased alteration of
the bones within ; the horny box, or where
inflammation of the laminae may have wholly de-
stroyed their sensibility, or where the mucous
capsules have, from disease, ceased to yield any,
or but a partial supply of synovia — in all such
cases the operation cannot be expected to re-
store the mobility of anchylosed parts, nor
can it restore the lost organisation ; but, even
in such cases, when morbid processes are not
actually going on, but seem stationary, and
the animal is rather suffering under the efiecta
of former than of present disease, this opera-
tion has, by rendering the animal less suscep-
tible to the pain of pressure, enabled him to
move and exert himself with more ease to him-
self, and benefit to his owner. When violent
inflammation is in the foot, however, that must
be removed, or tried to be removed, before
the operation is attempted to be performed.

Sometimes it has happened, in such cases,
by removing sensation and rendering the
animal willing to exert himself more than the
state of the parts will allow, that great aggra-
vation of the disease has frequently followed.
We believe it has never been found to answer
in the disease called pumiced foot ; the opera-
tion there being particularly hurtful. Neither
should we recommend it in any disease of the
foot, until we had tried every other means
without accomplishing some good Should suc-
cess not attend other applications, we should
not then hesitate in immediately performing
this operation. In others, according to cir-
cumstances, with the exception before insisted
on. Neurotomy has been found to render
many horses with contracted feet, and other
wise foot-lamed, not only useful, but has ren-
dered them nearly as perfect, in their mode of
going, as ever. Some have hunted, many have
made excellent roadsters, and all have been
fitted for carriage work of every description.

The importance of tliis operation, though
great in veterinary practice, is in some mea-
sure removed, when attended with misfortune
afterwards. This may arise from the iuflam-

HEUBOTOMT.]

MODERN N^ETERINARY PRACTICE.

[neueotomt.

mation not being properly subdued at the time
of perfurniing the operation; 8o that the disease
still went on. with all its eonsequences. llow-
ever, we prefer the higlier to the lower opera-
tion, as wo have seen less ill consequenees
arise from it. Some veterinarians prefer the
lower one. For rinc;-bone, the lower one should
never bo praetised. One reason for givini;
preference to the upper operation to the lower
is, that after tho operation, the end of the
nerve freqiiently draws itself up, and forms a
bulbous end. This coming in contact with the
joint, the horse goes as lame as ever in the
course of a few days. AVhat is the conse-
quence ? Why, the higb operation is obliged
to be performed, and the horse is immediately
upriglit. If a similar formation manifests a
disposition to attach itself to the higher part
of the nerve, in this mode of operating, it be-
comes protected by the tendon, and nothing
further is heard of it ; for, where no lameness
returns, there is reason to suppose that the
disease is overcome.

AVhilst practising in Devonshire, a very large
proprietor of liorses, and a mail-contractor,
had the misfortune to lose an animal, by both
hoofs coming off, and which was not discovered
until after he had arrived in the hotel-yard.
He evinced not the least lameness during his
journey, and was driven by one of the most
humane men who ever sat upon a box. Another
instance occurred to the- same gentleman, and
by the same coach. On taking the horses off,
cue of the leaders appeared to go stiff before ;
and thinking it was a slight inflammatory action
of the foot, his feet and legs were bathed in hot
•water. On the morrow, however, he could not
move his fore feet in the stall, and, of course, a
more minute examination was required. This
enabled us to detect the bones grating to-
gether at the large and small pasterns. The
horse was immediately de;>troyed, and both
large and small pasterns were fractured in an
oblique direction : — one of the specimens the
owner presented us with.

Description of the FJate of Nerve Opera-
tion.— This plate shows the two methods that
have been coamiouly employed in performing
the operation of neurotomy. It is of the
greatest importance to observe that the nerve
should be divided with a very sharp knife.
The neurotomy knife is the best to use, and

should bo always kept in good order. Some
operators uso curved bistorya und Hcirtaora,
which are superfluous. When tlie diviBion is
made with sci.s.sor.s, that part of tho nerve may
become numbed, and then it is that tho bul-
bous lump forms, much to tho disadvantage of.
the horse, as well as to the success of tho
operation.

Description of the Figure. — A represents
the horse's leg taken off a few inches below tho
knee, and also the foot removed. B the situa-
tion for tho high operation. C tho nervo
running behind the artery. D tho artery.
E a blunt-ended needle, armed with whitey-
brown thread, to take up the nerve with. Tho
reason of its being blunt is, to prevent it from
injuring the arterj'. ¥ the two tenaculum,
employed to show the parts. The one on tho
left hand represents the operator's finger
drawing back the skin ; the one on the right
shows the finger of an assistant, whilst tho
operator inserts the armed needle under the
nerve. Gr the situatipn of the low operation.

We remarked that preference was given to
the high operation, performed even a little
higher than the locality marked in the plate.
Eor, when performed in this part, the nervous
communication with the foot is more com-
pletely cut off", and the cicatrix is quite out of
the way of being struck with the other foot.

In this part, the nerve lies rather deeper,
especially on the inside of the leg, than it does
nearer the fetlock -joint ; but there is no difll-
culty in finding it, if a little cellular menibrano
is carefully removed. Three-quarters of an
inch of the nerve is quite enough to be cut
away, and tho incision of the skin need not
exceed one inch. After the nerve has been
cut out, tho wound should be closed by one
stitch, and a linen bandage should be applied,
moistened with cold water, and allowed to
remain on for a day or two, when it may bo
removed, and the wound dressed with com-
pound tincture of myrrh, and tow dipped
therein. Apply the bandage again.

Mode of Ferforming the Operation. — Tho
first thing to bo done is to cast the horse in
the most convenient and easy place that caa
be selected. Allow the leg intended to bo
operated upon to be taken out of the hobbles,
and fasten a piece of webbing round the
pastern, to be held firm by an assistant ; the

323

NEUROTOMY. ]

THE HOESE, AND

[DOCKma.

leg should be suffered to rest on a bundle of
hay, or straw, to raise it up for the conve-
nience of the operator. All things being thus
arranged, the hair must be clipped close off
the part intended to be operated upon,
whether it be for the high or the low
operation. Then sponge with water; and
when the instrument has been used, have
ready the sponge in case of profuse bleeding,
which is sometimes the case, and is apt to
cause confusion, unless the blood be imme-
diately taken up. The pulsation of the artery
will now be readily recognised. Then cut
down a little posterior to such pulsation, but
still keeping the finger on the artery. When
a section has been made of about an inch,
completely through the skin, lay the knife
down, and open the orifice with the thuuib
and finger, and have it sponged, when the
nerve will be seen running immediately be-
hind the artery, perfectly white. Next intro-
duce the blunt-ended needle, under the nerve,
and draw it through as far as convenient.
After finely dissecting the cellular membrane
from the nerve, it may be divided as high up
as the section will admit. This will occasion a
violent struggle in the horse ; but dissect as
far down as may be thought proper, and excise
what quantity of nerve you like, and he will
make no resistance whatever. The skin should
be now drawn neatly together, and a stitch or
two placed in it; then dress as before de-
scribed. On removing the bandage, after the
first day or two, dress with compound tincture
of myrrh. Small pledgets of tow, dipped in
this mixture, and applied every day, will soon
make the parts heal.

It may clearly be seen, that the motive for
using the nerve operation, is to relieve pain.
Stallions, with pumiced feet, suffer greatly
from pain ; and we may be sure, where such is
the case, it unfits them from getting healthy
progeny. After the nerve operation many
of them have proved healthy and vigorous.
Marcs also, which, from the same causes, have
ceased to feel the periodical cestrum, or incli-
nation for tlie horse, after the operation have
resumed their fecundity. The operation is,
therefore, not only beneficial in removing
lameness, but also bodily pain arising from
other sources ; which makes it very necessary
to be understood.
324

DOCKING.

Docldng is an operation performed almost
on all horses, excepting the racer and the cart-
horse ; both of which are allowed to enjoy
nature's gifts without any curtailing. Still,
we cannot but say, that from the improvement
which docking makes in our hackney horses,
it is not likely that it will fall into disuse.
The excessive docking, however, that some
horses undergo, does not add to their beauty ;
although some argue that a short dock
strengthens a horse. Eor ourselves, we are
no advocate for the short dock ; neither do
we approve of docking colts almost as soon as
dropped, as being at all beneficial to the future
growth of the animal. Early docked colts
will have less hair on them than at a more
matured age; and as the irritation occasioned
by docking in these young animals, makes
them apt to rub their tails against anything
they come near, it is the cause of making the
hair either very rough, or rubbing it off alto-
gether. The length of the dock must be left
to choice ; about nine inches is the general
length now-a-days. When the leugth has
been determined on, the long hair should be
fastened back from that part, while, about an
inch or two below, it should be shorn clear
away. Apply the docking-machine to this
part, first finding a joint, and the dock is
removed at one stroke. Various means have
been adopted to stop the bleeding ; but none
is equal to the actual cautery, which, if mildly
applied, answers every purpose without further
trouble. Simple as this operation may appear,
the old farriers were wont to make a dreadful
fuss over it ; and what with burning the
horse's tail half off, and resining it besides, it
became a matter of wonder that the animal
escaped locked-jaw, which frequently super-
venes on docking, and the violence used after-
wards.

The bleeding scarcely ever proves fatal, and
seldom injurious, therefore there is little neces-
sity for cauterising ; but if the bleeding
should continue, the thiug to be done is, to
take a handful of flour, and, applying it to
the end of the dock, draw all the long hair
down over it, and tie as close to the dock as
possible. This will soon plug up the ends ot
the arteries, and stop the bleeding.

yiCKlNO.]

IMOPF.UX VKTEKTXArvV riJArTTCR

[nicking.

Many persons nro \cvv foml of elevating Wo should Imvo mentioned that, previous to
the tail', with an idea tliat'tho horse will carry ! casting the animal, the hair of tho tail ought
one that is much superior, if done so. IJut ] to have been plaited, mid tho end neatly turnt-d
this is not the case. If lock-jaw should make i back, and bound linn with wax-end. AVhcn
its appearance, immediateh' operate anew, all this has been done, tako tho nicking-knifo,
without restraining the blood at all, ns its loss j which is double-edged, and which makes it
will bo both useful and necessary in such a more convenient, and prevents the trouble of

case. Administer large doses of opium, or, if
the moutii sliould bo so much closed, laudanum
in gruel must be given frequontly ; say, an
ounce at a time ; of tiie opium, four drachms.

If it should put on a gangrenous appear-
ance, apply oil of turpentine to the part
several times a day. Hot applications be-
tween applying tho turpentine will also be of
great service.

KICKING.
The practice of nicking is now almost out

turning. Tlio mode of making tho sections
must be left to the discretion of tho operator.
Tliey should, however, always be made in tho
middle of a tail-bone, not at a joint, which will
easily be discovered by tlie prominences rising
at either end of tlie bone. This should be
carefully attended to, otherwise the most serious
consequences may arise.

It is the practice with some veterinary sur-
geons to make a section through the integu-
ments only, beginning at the roots of the hair
on one side, and carrying it across the bellies

of date. There is little doubt it originated from of the muscles; then doing the same on the

the circumstance of large fine horses carrying
their tails ^^ tucked in,'" as it is termed, but
■which tended to reduce their value, except
when they happened to be under excitement,
then thev would carry their tails erect enough.
"With nicking, as with castration, a favour-
able time of the year should be selected for it ;
and we should recommend the spring, when
the weather is not too hot or too cold ; for, in
cold weather, the granulating process may
become stopped; and, in very hot weather,
lock-jaw may supervene. The modes of
securing the horse for the operation are
various. The break, or trevis, was a favourite

other side ; and, lastl}', making these sections
meet by a light and careful division of tlie in-
teguments only, on the median lines of the
tail. Such is not only a very cautious, but a
proper mode for young practitioners, and is
also consistent with good practice; but it is
apt to take up more time than older and more
experienced veterinarians are willing to give it.
The first section should not be nearer, in the
smallest horse, than two inches and a-half ; and
in full-sized animals, three, or three inches and
a-half, as the centre of the tail-bones may ind"-
cate. In mares, one section less than that in a
horse is admissible. The most expert operator

mode of the old practitioners, but it is now j will, however, find it prudent, when the sec

entirely done away with. A strong rail, or
leapiug-bar, across a stall, was another means ;
but these were used only by grooms and
dealers. Most veterinarians are in the habit
of casting the horse for this operation, and we
ourselves have always done so ; for the more
eecure and safe the horse can be made, the
less time is taken up in the operation, though
dealers are sometimes very expert at perform-
ing this operation standing. The more secure
way, however, is preferable.

The horse being properly secured, have the
twitch ready to place on the nose. Have also
two bundles of straw or hav, and raise the all complete, the bleeding that ensues need

tions are made, to examine them caremlly,
that they are all equal in depth, and that the
depressor-muscles have been completely di-
vided.

Should any difference appear in these re-
spects, and should such unequal division be
allowed to remain, the operation will bo in-
complete, and the horse would, in all pro-
bability, carry his tail awry. Added to which,
any portion of the muscle being left undivided,
would tend to prevent the others from retract-
ing, and might also serve to promote a reunion
of them. Being satisfied that the sections are

horse's feet, so that he may lie on his back ;
prop him up in this position with the hay or
straw, by placing a bundle on each side of him.

not be considered of consequence, nor will it
show itself until the tail is relaxed. The ends
of the tendons must now be looked to, and,

325

NICKING.]

THE HORSE, AND

[nicking.

witli a sharp and strong pair of scissors, the
projecting ends thereof nipped off; enough
will always protrude to be taken hold of with
the forceps.

The removal of these ends will not only
separate the attachments of the muscles fur-
ther from each other, which, if reunited, would
of course frustrate the operation; but their
removal will greatly facilitate the healing of 1
the wounds.

The section being thus completed, the hae-
morrhage must be restrained, which is done in
various ways. Some do this by means of strips
of cotton, tow, hemp, &c., which is twisted,
and inserted into each nick, and separately
tied on the back of the tail. As good practice
as any is to take a piece of lint, or a pledget of
tow, and introduce it into each section suffi-
cient to fill it up, over which place linen strips,
long enough to tie on the back of the tail,
which is then tied sufiiciently tight to restrain
the bleeding. Should the bleeding, however,
continue to be more than was anticipated,
place another, rather broader, linen bandage
over each section. It becomes necessary now
carefully to watch these bandages, that they
do not create too much heat and inflammation
in the tail. Should this be the case, and the
bleeding not be stopped, take a sponge which
has been dipped in cold water, and squeeze the
water on the top of the tail several times a
day. This will cool the parts, and also tend
to stop the bleeding. "When perfectly satis-
fied on this point, loosen the bandages a little ;
and if all things look favourable, let the tail
remain until the morning, when snip the
bandage, and set the member free.

Many persons difier in their mode of after-
dressing the sections. Some prefer lint only ;
others lint with tbe mild digestive ointment,
and a bandage over all, in both instances.
There is one advantage in dressing with the
digestive ointment (see Medicines) ; and that
is, it is apt to promote the suppurative pro-
cess, while the other is not. By promoting
suppuration, there is more chance of avoiding
lock-jaw; but in the first dressing, nothing
promotes the healing process so much as dry
lint. "Watching the wounds, that they be kept
from dirt and fungus, leave them to heal of
themselves, without any application but the
bandages.
326

"Were a nicked tail left to itself, there is no
doubt but the divided muscles would again
unite, and the tail be carried nearly as it was
before. To keep the divided end apart, there-
fore, it is necessary that the tail should ba
suspended until the parts become cicatrised,
and such junction prevented. In former days,
a cushion, or pad, was formed, and fixed to
the horse's rump, by means of buckles and
straps, and the tail fastened back to this
pad.

The Irish nicked horses may always be
readily discovered from their having a peculiar
curl-up at the end of the tail. This is caused
by their having the last joint of the tail
broken.

The modern mode of suspending the tail is

by double pulleys, which is not only a simple

mode, but a convenient one, as they are

capable of being regulated at pleasure. The

apparatus consists of two pulleys fixed to a

beam or joist in the stable, as wide apart as

the stall in which the horse is placed. The

wheels of these are made sufficiently large to

admit of a kind of roller — similar to one used

for window-blinds — and about a foot, or a foot

and a-half longer than the stall is wide.

Another pulley, corresponding to the two

others, runs loose on the roller, with this

addition — that instead of having an end to

fasten up anywhere, there is a larger wheel,

but made only wide enough for the suspension

cord to run on. This done, the end of the

line must be made fast to the horse's tail, by

means of first having introduced a good strong

skewer through the plait, and double at the

end of the tail. Then take another pulley,

one end of which is to be fastened to a beam

or joist, immediately behind the horse, and as

far back as possible. The line fastened to the

pulley on the roller is passed over the one

just nailed up, and to the end of this line a

weight is suspended. By this pulley being in

a right line with the centre of the stable,

the horse is in no danger of having his tail

grow asido ; but if he has a tendency to rest

on one side of the stall more than on the

other, take a bundle of furze, and nail against

the side of the stall he may be so inclined

to bear against, and vice versa. The weight,

for the first day or two, should not be more

than will keep the tail straight; then, by

CUOPPINO.]

MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[bleeding.

additional weight, elevate the tail a little from
tue horizontal lino, advancinp: every two or three
days, until it has attained the lieight desired ;
but never go to the perpondicuUir or erect
position. Tho elevation, however, ought to
depend on tho height the tail is wished to
bo carried in future. The carriage of the
tail sliould therefore be examined every two or
three days; keeping in mind, that after the
pulleys are no longer used it frequently droops
a little.

AVith regard to giving the horse exercise
during the time t]ie tail is in pulleys, we
should say it is decidedly wrong, and would
cause the animal great and excruciating pain
on being placed in them again. It would be
very like tearing open an old wound. But
there is a means of keeping him in health
without exercise, by giving him an ounce of
nitre in his water, two or three times a week,
and an alterative powder (see Medicines) every
day in his feed, which should be half bran
and half oats, made moderately wet, so that
the powders may easily adhere to it; not
sloppy, that the medicine can run off.

Some attention will be requisite with regard
to the tail, to prevent the hair coming off;
but this will happen in some measure, no
matter how great muy be the caution used.
At the end of about seven or eight days
the tail should be taken out of the pulleys,
and unplaited ; then it should be carefully
combed out, and a little hog's lard applied to
the roots of the hair; when make fast again.
This should be done every five or six days ;
and it is the only and best means to keep the
hair on, though some cannot be prevented
from falling off.

The only things now to be mentioned, are
the casualties attending the operation of nick-
ing, the principal of which is inflammation.
This may run so high, as to produce mortifi-
cation, lock-jaw, &c. ; but as we have before
treated of these specifically, there is no neces-
sity for here repeating what has already been
said, which will be found under their re-
spective headings.

CROPPING.

Custom has nearly abolished the practice of
cropping. Circumstances, however, may occur
to render it necessary; such as one ear

becoming blemished ; therefore, at tho makers
of surgical instruments, we can always obtain a
sort of curved clams, called cropping irons.
Into these one of tho ears is intruducc-d, and
the upper part is cut off at one stroke, with a
knife of sufiicient length. The portion cut off
will serve as a guide for forming tho other
crop. In this operation a young i)ructitioner
is apt to be alarmed at tho retraction of tlio
skin from the cartilages ; but the exposed
edges disappear in a few days. Horses often
continue for a long time very shy about tlie
head after cropping ; consequently, both bridle
and halter should be used without a forepart or
fronting, till the ears are quite well. Tho
bridle should also be made to unbuckle on
one side from the bit, so that the head-stall
may be dropped on, without the hand being
raised to pass over the ears. This will naturally
operate in dissipating the customary shyness
which otherwise so long remains, and which is
never wholly lost, if force and cruelty be
afterwards used. Gentle means will be always
found to be best.

BLEEDING.

Bleeding is practised in several ways. Blood
is sometimes taken from the arteries. If the
trunk be considerable, it may be punctured,
but must afterwards have a ligature passed
around it. If it be less considerable, it will
be sufficient to divide the trunk of the vessel,
which having emptied all its ramifications,
recedes by its muscularity within the integu-
ment, and the bleeding stops. The temporal
artery is occasionally opened on both sides.
These arteries may readily be detected at three
or four inches below the root of the ear, iu a
line with the nostrils. The angular artery is
sometimes opened for inflammation of the
eyes.

Bleeding at the toe also abstracts blood from
both veins and arteries. In drawing blood
from the foot, it should not be done iu the
ordinary way of paring down the marginal
line, with part of the sole, but the sole only, as
close to the marginal line as may be; then a
fine drawing-knife, or strong lancet should bo
taken, and the veins running round the margin
of the foot punctured, when, from the great
vascularity of the foot, the blood will flow
copiously.

327

fSLEEDING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[PUEGmO."

"Witli regard to instruments employed to let
blood, the common blood-stick and phleme,
and a variety of lancets, are in use. The lan-
cet is the most surgical-looking instrument ;
but, perhaps, the phleme is preferable in country
practice, where necks of all thicknesses have to
be contended with. We have seen some prac-
titioners make one puncture through the skin
first, then another through the coats of the
vein ; and without some experience the vein is
also apt to be altogether missed, in attempting
to do it with a lancet. The lancets and phlemes
should be always clean, and highly polished ;
and, after bleeding, their points examined.

Blood is most frequently taken from the
jugular vein, though there are other superficial
veins, from which blood may be taken with
advantage, such as the plate and thigh veins.

The proper place for bleeding at the jugu-
lar vein is about two inches below the branch-
ing ofi" of that vein, towards the head. To
perform the operation, the principal require-
ment is a steady hand. If the intention is to
bleed on the near side, take the phleme in the
left hand, and bold it with the finger and
thumb. Then, with the middle and third
fingers raise the vein by carrying the hand the
backward way of the hair. The vein being
raised as high as required, strike the phleme
with the blood-stick in the centre of the vein.
Let your assistant receive the flowing blood in
a bucket, whilst you replace your tackle, and
prepare, with a pin and tow, to bind up the
orifice. This being done, let a wet sponge be
applied, and remove the blood.

In abstracting blood, it should be an inva-
riable rule never to let it fall on the ground.
A bucket is generally the usual utensil for
receiving it. By chance a graduated can is
sometimes met with, in well-regulated stables ;
and exceedingly useful it is ; as then you have
a certain measure, by whicl) you can regulate
the quantity of blood wished to be taken away.
Ton will frequently find you take much more
on the graduated principle, tlian if you trusted
to chance. As, for example, in a large horse,
with a strong attack of inflammation upon him,
on the first bleeding the recovery mainly de-
pends. Tou are here working in the dark ;
jbr it will be next to an impossibility to ascer-
tain what quantity of blood is tf'.keu, without
some measure for a guide.
328

In all inflammatory afiections, it is important
to draw the blood from a large orifice, and as
quickly as possible, though the general system
may be weakened from hastily drawing blood.
The disease, however, gives way to such treat-
ment much quicker than if blood were drawn
from a small orifice.

There are two kinds of blood-letting, termed
local and general.

Local blood-letting is abstracting blood as
near to the part aftected as possible ; and a
few ounces thus abstracted frequently does
more good than if a quart were taken from the
system generally.

General Heeding is that wherein the system
at large partakes of the operation, depleted by
the stores more immediately derived from the
heart.

Blood-letting, in veterinary practice, is very
important. The amazing quickness with which
some diseases run their course, and which ap-
pear to be only arrested by blood-letting, is, ia
many instances, to be considered as our only
sheet-anchor ; and therefore is so much resorted
to in most fevers, and those internal inflamma-
tory aifections to which the horse is so ex-
ceedingly liable. Blood-letting is also impor-
tant as a criterion of the state of the disease^
certain appearances of the abstracted fluid pre-
senting certain indications which act as a guide
for future treatment. Indeed, if it were not
from a knowledge of the difierent states of the
blood and the pulse, we should be in continual
error ; therefore, the state of the blood in health,
as well as in sickness, should be well attended
to.

PURGING.

Purging, it is well known, is produced in tlie
horse with the view to renovate him, and to
bring him into condition; and though it may
be treated lightly by a great many persons,
still it is a very important matter, especially
when we read of the number of race, and other
horses, that annually foil victims on account of
the bad management they receive during the
time of their physic. Though almost every
groom declares he can put a horse through ins
doses of physic as well as any man, yet, were
he asked how the medicine acts, or, if things do
not go on quite so well as expected, what is the
reason, he ia completely puzzled, and does not

PUEUINU.]

MODERN VETEKINAET PEACTICE.

[I'lUUINO.

know where to look for an answer, or how to

explain the meaning of cathartic, or purging
nietlioinc.

Cathartics, or pnrging medicines, act by
stinuilatiiig the intestines to a more frequent
evacuation of their contents. They also in-
crease the matter so expelled ; and, under
some circumstances, alter tlie quality of it too.
This being the simple operation of purging, it
is evident that many erroneous notions are
entertained relative to it.

Purging is nsed to reduce swelled legs ; but
no purgative will act on the legs immediately ;
for it cannot, in the first instance, remove
fluids from any other parts but the stomach
and bowels. Ultimately it may remove the
fluids from other parts to make up the defi-
ciency, and thus the legs become lessened.

Notwithstanding there are certain peculi-
arities of constitution generally, and certain
states of the alimentary canal, which particu-
larly render this process very salutary to the
horse, and which are essentially necessary
to keep him up to that standard of condi-
tion which is now the pride of every gentle-
man and sportsman; still, purging has its
limits, and, if carried too far, which is some-
times the case by those ignorant of its effects,
it ends in the serious injury, and even the
death of the animal.

There are various uses to which purgative
medicines become applicable, but they may
generally be arranged under such as are given as
remedies for existing diseases. Those exhibited
as a preventive against a probable one also,
are greatly used for promoting a certain state,
called condition.

Cathartics are most beneficially used against
inflammation, and almost all diseases of in-
creased action, except such as affect the alimen-
tary canal. By increasing the waste of the
watery parts of the blood, cathartics tend to
deplete the system, and to lessen arterial ac-
tion. In active inflammation they greatly
assist bleeding, and, in other cases, are supe-
rior to it, and can be advautngeously employed
when that cannot be, with propriety, attempted,
as in fevers possessing a low or putrid cha-

advantages here are striking. In plethoric
cases, which produce hltous deposits in the
legs, itc, as in horses just removed from grass,
wo depend on jmrgatives for their removal.
In pursy, thick-winded animals, physic not
only prevents further accumulation, but also
stimulates the absorbents to tako up >omo of
the existing deposit. In dyspeptic cases, in
hide-bound, in lampas, and others, arising from
the deranged functions of the stomach, mild
purgatives act in the most salutary manner.

In the removal of worms, also, tliey act
most beneficially, by ejecting them, as well as
the nidus in which they are lodged.

As preventives, purgatives are extensively
employed when horses are taken from grass, or
the straw-yard, and at once removed into a
heated temperature, covered with clothing,
and fed with a full diet. Were it not for
bleeding and purging, more particularly the
latter, we should find all the consequences of
plethora show themselves soon after ; as hide-
bound, surfeits, swelled legs, cracked heels,
ophthalmia, and, not unfrequently, inflamed
lungs also. Here, and in all similar cases,
purgatives carry oS the superabundant blood
formed.

It is another fact, which serves to exemplify
the absence of analogy between the action of
purgatives on the horse and on the human
subject. When an emaciated horse is removed
from hard work, and harder fare, and at once
put to rest and a full diet, so far from his con-
dition being improved, unless lie has been pre-
pared for the change by previous purging, his
skin becomes fixed, his belly still more and
more tucked up, and his hair often actually
falls off". The same change, when accompa-
nied by a judicious use of purgatives, operates
so much to his advantage, that in a few weeks
he becomes almost a new animal.

Physic is also most beneficially given at
particular seasons, as at the spring and fall,
to obviate the effects of the diflerent stat«
into which horses fall at those times ; being
then apparently weak and emaciated, yet, at
the same time, suftering from increased arte-
rial action, employed in working the periodical

racter; for such appear to be often dependent I change in the constitution. At these times,
on some morbid change within, or some morbid I two or three mild purges will stimulate the
combinations formed by the biliary fluid, which defective digestion, remove morbid accumula-
purging acts particularly u^n ; so that its tions from the bowels, occasioned thereby, and,

li u

329

PUli&ING.l

THE HOESE, AND

[PUEGING.

by a sympathetic effect between the skin and
the alimentary canal, they will assist in the
change of the new hair for the old.

Furgaiives are given to fromoie condition ;
and if their tardiness of action altogether shut
them out from any other medicinal use, their
beneficial influence in producing condition,
would, of itself, render the subject important
to all those connected with horses. If, like-
wise, they excited only the condition required
in the young, the robust, and the already lust}'
animal, it would cause little surprise, and
the method of action would be clear ; but
when we know that they equally promote it in
emaciated animals, even wdthout apparent dis-
ease, it requii'es an intimate acquaintance with
the requisite functions of the animal, to enable
us to account for the fact. In such cases we
give mild doses only, which prove a valuable
stimulant and tonic to the stomach and bowels,
thus promoting their digestive powers, and
consequent capability of separating more or-
ganic molecula from the ingesta. They also
stimulate the sluggish biliary and pancreatic
secretions, which are so necessary to a healthy
digestion, and formation of chyle, from which
alone strength and bulk can be augmented.
Luxury and refinement have introduced an
artificial state of condition beyond that; sim-
ply, a healthy functional state.

Such condition is not only necessary to bring
the animal up to our present ideas of beauty,
but also to enable him to undergo exercise,
which, in a state of nature, was not expected
from him, as hunting, racing, &c. To promote
this state, purgatives are indispensably neces-
sary ; and it is from this view that the subject of
physicking derives its popularity with the mere
horseman : though we hold it in no less con-
sideration under every point of view connected
with the well-being of this valuable animal.
In promoting condition, purgatives not only
act favourably on the digestive organs, but
their beneficial influence extends to the other
solid and fluid parts of the body also. By
their means the watery parts of the blood are
removed, the absorbents become stimulated,
and take up all the interstitial fluid interposed
between the moving masses, as well as that
distributed within the cellular membrane ; and
by this means strength is augmented, and the
weight of useless matter diminished. The uu-
330

necessary adeps, or fat of the body, is also re-
moved by the same process, which allows
the muscular fibres to be more rectilineally
placed, and, in their action, to be constantly
gaining a greater increase of power. It is
thus that physic draws up the belly, and
hardens the flesh. The lungs also are enabled
to act more advantageously by its agency, their
capacity being greatly enhanced by the ab-
sorption of incumbering matter, either solid or
fluid. In this way the wind, as well as the
strength, is increased by perfect condition.

Salutary, however, as may be the operation
of purgatives on horses, judiciously managed,
and properly timed, yet hurtful in the ex-
treme, and often fatal, are the consequences
brought about by an ignorant employment of
them, and an erroneous mode of managing
them when they are employed. In all inflam-
matory affections of the stomach and bowels,
cathartics must be highly injurious, except in
inflammation of the bowels, when the obstruc-
tion cannot be overcome by any other means.
They are almost equally hurtful in inflamma-
tion of the lungs ; and it is probable, from the
powers they call forth in the horse to produce
purging, occasioned by his structural pecu-
liarities, that in all great visceral inflamma-
tions, active purgatives should be admitted
with caution. In farcy and glanders, they
seldom do other than harm ; and in chronic
aftections, attended with great debility, they
are only admissible in some peculiar instances,
specified in the treatment of such diseases.
Physic is hurtful, however, principally from
the frequency and quantity sometimes given.
Grooms suppose that every ordinary case re-
quires three doses ; the reason for which,
many have humorously thus given : — " The first
being intended to stir up the humours ; the
second to set them afloat ; and the third to
carry them oftV

To very young horses, and to delicate
feeders, the giving of three doses of physic
must be attended with most injurious conse-
quences, and such as they cannot recover from
for months ; sometimes never. In such cases,
one or two very mild doses are all that is re-
quired, or ought to be permitted ; and it is
doubtful, without some " foulness," as it is
termed, or rather extreme fulness and plethora,
whether, in ordinary cases, two moderate doses

punoiNo.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[pUttOINQ.

be not all tlmt is noeesaary to ensure the con-
dition of sadillo and carriage horses. It is an
unfortunate prejudice, engendered by igno-
rance, and kept alive by obstinacy, " tliat to do
jiinch good with physic, it must be very ntrong."
"We have many times been told by grooms,
that the dose of physic given could not bo
strong enough, for it had not purged the
animal more than fiftoen or sixtoon times. In
many cases, those knowing gentlemen are not
satisfied unless a horse have from twenty to
thirtv evacuations. Super-purgation has de-
stroyed hundreds of animals, and it has irre-
parably injured thousands. Extra purging
debilitates the horso more than the human
subject, probably from a lax state of bowels
being more common in man, owing to the
presence of both cystic and hepatic bile, as well
as a dependent situation. It is hardly pos-
sible to conceive a more deplorable object
than a horse under the action of a too
strong purgative ; the liquid aliments escaping
almost involuntarily from his anus, excoriated
with the violence and frequency of the ejec-
tions ; the belly drawn to the flank, cold sweats
bedewing the frame, appetite totally lost, and
the strength so decreased as to leave tlie
animal hardly the power of tottering from one
stall to another: and yet to this state does the
brutality and ignorance of a number of the
old farriers doom the horses of their employers.
The number and strength of the physicking
doses are not the only evils to which the
horse is liable, from improper purgation ; the
articles used are likewise of an injurious
nature. Frequently, with the coarsest aloes,
the groom's prescription directs gamboge,
which greatly increases its drastic qualities.
Keither, indeed, are these persons, or indeed
some practitioners, so attentive to previous
preparation as they should be.

A powerful dose of physic, given to a horse
at hard work, and on full keep, without previ-
ous mashing, hurries the hardened faeces for-
wards, until they are formed into an impene-
trable mass. Inflammation ensues, and on the
third day the horse is found dead, and swollen
immensely. In hot -weather, inflammation
supervenes on physic, when at all too active,
and dysentery is a very common consequence of
summer purging. "Wlien good physic has been
properly given, it has been often rendered in-

jurioua, and even dcRtructive, owing to the
carelessness of the persona nttcnding tlie
animal. Cold water, at such times, muHt not
bo given ; the door nuist not bo l.jft opcu, or A
sudden cliill nuiy bring on iiillammation of tho
bowels ; also immoderate exercise nujHt bo
carefully avoided, and only such given as will
make tho horso comfortably warm, and tlien
he should bo brought immediately into tho
stable.

Of the proper articles to be used in purging,
a great discrepancy of opinion [)revails ; but if
the distinction between laxative and purga-
tive be maintained, it would tend to reconcilt
these difterences. There are numerous articles
which simply relax the bowels, i. e., slightly
increase their peristaltic motion ; but very few
which produce active purgation. Of the for-
mer, bran, calomel, neutral salts, castor, lin-
seed, and olive oils are the most usual ; but it
must be confessed, that with the exception of
bran, all the others occasionally fail. There
are some other medicines which act on the
bowels, but they are not to be depended on as
purgative medicines. The most proper we
shall place at the end of this section.

The purgative for horses is, almost in every
instance, aloes. Much difference of opinion
exists on the preference due to the various
kinds of aloes ; nor can we ever arrive at a
just conclusion on this subject, until we unite
a conclave of lionest druggists, both wholesale
and retail, from whom alone something like a
knowledge of the various sorts can only be
expected. For all large horses, however, we
should decidedly use the Barbadoes aloes for
purging; and for small, thin animals, the Cape
aloes. But neither large nor small horses
should ever be attempted to be purged without
first relaxing the bowels with bran mashes.

The quantity of aloes requisite for purgation
is also very various, and must depend on the
animal's customary food and constitution. This
is a matter not to be wondered at, but, never-
theless, is a strong reason against leaving the
management of purging to ignorant hands.
Some horses are exceedingly difllcult to purge,
whilst others are easily affected. Old, gene-
rally require more than young animals, to
purge them ; and if at hard meat, it makes
much difference in tliis respect. These facta
serve to show the extreme necessity of pre-

331

PUEGING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[PFEGING.

scribing a very moderate quantity as the first
dose for a horse with whose constitutional
peculiarities we are unacquainted. The requi-
site quantity is also greatly dependent on
various other circumstances. Horses fresh
from grass purge with a much less dose than
those long stabled ; and for such as are used to
bran mashes as daily food, a moderate quantity
only is requisite ; while in other instances, by
mashing three times a day for several days,
four or five drachms may do the work of eight.
This shows the extreme importance of pre-
vious mashing, particularly in weakly horses,
and also in such as have been previously ac-
customed to much hard food. Form, also, in-
fluences the quantity requisite. A thin, nar-
row-chested, lank-sided animal will purge more
readily than a circular, deep-carcassed one. It
may be considered, therefore, that the quantity
required to purge horses, both prudently and
effectually, ranges between five drachms and
ten; the extent of which range will serve to
indicate that something more is requisite than
a blind acquiescence in any acknowledged re-
ceipt, or invariable form. Thus far as regards
the account of aloes generally ; we shall pre-
sently advert to them more particularly. For
the formation of physic-balls, and the quanti-
ties required, see List of Medicines.

When it is thought proper to give mercu-
rial physic for worms or skin affections, two
drachms of calomel may be given in a mash
the night previous, first mixed with a table-
spoonful of flour. This, by lying all night in
the horse, may, perhaps, assist its efficacy, par-
ticularly in case of worms ; and the aloetic
ball may be given the next morning; recol-
lecting, at the same time, that it should be
something less strong, on account of the calo-
mel already administered. In giving physic,
the intestines should always be prepared by
bran mashes, which should be given two or
three days previously ; nor, indeed, should the
physic be ever administered until the stools
present some appearance of softening. The
first dose given to an animal with whose con-
stitution we are not well acquainted, should
be a very mild one ; for, as we have before re-
marked, some horses being so much more easily
purged than others, it is necessary to use dis-
cretion ; and if the dose does not operate, it
can do no harm.
332

Exercise is of the greatest importance in
physicking; but not to the severity of either
trotting or galloping. Brisk and continued
walking is all that ought to be allowed. Half
the quantity of any cathartic, with sufficient of
walking exercise, will operate nearly as much
as a double dose without ; so that the degree
of purging may be always regulated nearly to
our wish. When physic does not work kindly,
the exercise should be repeated at short inter-
vals— say two hours — until it does ; and thea
it should be altogether omitted, in case of
bringing on fatigue. Chilled water must be
given, as it is particularly necessary to recol-
lect that ample dilution of the bowels is of
the utmost consequence to ensure the physic
working kindly. Entice the horse, therefore,
to drink by every means ; and on no account
forget the necessary precaution of giving him.
pure water from a perfectly clean pail. When
it is either smoked or greasy, it cannot be ex-
pected that an animal possessing a delicate
palate will drink. During the working of the
physic he should be kept warm, both in the
stable and by clothing ; and he must be exer-
cised (if in winter) in clothes proportioned to
the cold.

When a purge is to be given, proceed as
follows : — After having fed with bran mashes,
for a day or two previous to the one in which
you intend giving the ball, give the purge the
last thing at night, keeping the animal warm.
In the morning, when you come to the stable,
offer him warm water, or chilled, but not cold.
If you take him out to exercise immediately,
the medicine, in all probability, will operate in
the course of twenty minutes, or half-au-hour.
AVhen such is the case, go home at once, and
give a handful of the best sweet hay you can
procure. This will recruit his spirits, and he
will then be able to eat his mash, which give
in about an hour after. '^ Cease now to exer-
cise, until the physic is what is termed set,
when feed in the usual way, until another dose
is given. Wliy we recommend giving the
medicine at night, is in consequence of its
sometimes producing gripes, which generally
come on in the night after the morning on
which the medicine has been given, and which
may cause inflammation of the bowels, and
the death of the horse, when no one is present
to attend to him. But if the medicine is given

KHrNO.]

MODEEN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[riRixo.

as directed, nt lu-^'lit, tlicii there ia the t'ollow-
m<; day to watch him, and take advuiitago of
auvtliing that niny occur.

It occasionally happens, that notwithstand-
ing every attention, physic will not work on
the second day ; in which case, let nothing
tempt tho practitioner to give another doso
immediately ; for it sometimea happens that
purgatives will not act until tho third day. But
when a case of non-purgation occurs, always
wait until the third day, when, if no symptoms
of purging appear, either let the horse rest
altogether for two days longer, and then give
him rather a stronger dose, or commence by
administering to him a quarter of the original
dose every sii Lours, till it purges ; giving
him mashes, exercise, and warm water, as
before directed. Let it also be remembered,
that it is erroneous to encourage liquid
purging to twenty, thirty, or more dejections.
Ko good attends this practice. We never
wisli any horse to have more than from twelve
to thirteen liquid evacuations. All beyond
this weakens the intestines, and injures him.

In the usual course of physic, on the next
day after the operation of the purgative, the
faeces will resume nearly their former con-
sistency and shape, when the physic is said to
be set. If it, however, continues to operate
with nearly the same violence as on the day
before, it must be regarded as super-purgation,
and recourse must be immediately bad to the
treatment already directed for that disease.
If otherwise, he may now return to his former
habits, giving him corn at first rather sparingly,
with moderate exercise ; and, in five or six
days from the physic setting, if the operation
has been only ordinary, a second dose may be
given, which is commonly required to be a
little stronger than the first. After this, with
the same caution, if it be deemed necessary, a
third dose may be given, which is usually con-
sidered a course of physic ; but the number of
doses ought never to be under the arbitrary
direction of custom, but should be regulated
by existing circumstances.

FIRING.

Firing is performed for two purposes ; one

for the forming a permanent bandage, which

it does by destroying the elasticity of the

skin, and lessening its surface ; the other for

raising an active inflammation, and thereby
exciting absorption. Sometimea it is used to
answer one of these purposes only ; and some-
times to promote both conjointly.

Tho Arabs fire tho joints of their young
colts to strengthen them, by tho constant
bandage tho cicatrix forms to the part. Somo
English breeders of blood-horses have done
tho same ; but it is rare.

In splents, spavins, and ring-bones, firing is
used as a strong stimulus to the surrounding
absorbents, to remove any extraneous sub-
stance recently deposited ; hence the osseous
matter which forms such swellings, becomes
swallowed up by these vessels, and is thus
removed. These are instances where firing is
used, principally to promote external inflam-
mation to relieve an internal one. But even
here, the future pressure, occasioned by tho
cicatrix, is an assistant, and often a principal,
in the removal of the adventitious deposit.

To increase the original inflammation, or to
keep it up, it is common in these cases to
apply a blister over the firing. In enlarge-
ment after violent strains we fire the \e"s,
both to excite the absorbents and to remove
the deposit of coagulable lymph ; and also, by
straightening the skin, to act as a permanent
bandage ou the part for the future. The
various cases in which firing is considered
necessary are dispersed through the body of
this \vork ; and it would be unnecessary to
enumerate them here. "We may observe, how-
ever, that as it is a painful operation, it should
never be resorted to but when absolutely
necessary ; and the more so, as it leaves a
permanent blemish. As blisters act in the
same way, except that they leave no perma-
nent blemish ; so, when absorption only is
required, their repeated application will often
supersede the necessity of firing ; and as they
can be applied as often as wished, as pro-
moters of absorption merely, they are, in many
instances, greatly to be preferred. On the
subject of blistering immediately after firing
different opinions are entertained.

A morbid sensibility, or rather an affection
of feeling, induces some to blame the adoption
of such remedial agents as do not square with
the popular outcry. A life devoted, as ours
has been, to the amelioration of the miseries of
some of the noblest of the brute race, prevents

333

TIEING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[BLTSTEUINr*.

US from inflicting unnecessary or needless pain
on them ; but when, by momentary addition to
their suffering, years of future pain may be
prevented, we would not court popularity by
joining in decrying all painful operations.

AVhen it is of consequence to keep up the
irritation, or even to increase it, which we dare
not do by deeper firing, or by lines too near
each other, blistering, immediately after, is ad-
missible. Such cases occur in long-continued
enlargements, ligamentary, or osseous diseases ;
but, when firing is applied to four stale ex-
tremities, or even to two, which present only
the ordinary appearance of disease, it is not
only unnecessary, but it is wantonly cruel. It
is also dangerous, and has proved destructive.

The mode of firing difiers according to cir-
cumstances. The general mode adopted at the
Eoyal Veterinary College is in straight lines,
up and down the course of the hair, or in per-
pendicular lines ; the reasons for this are well
known. If it be applied as a bandage, in no
direction can it corrugate the skin in so eftec-
tive a manner, as by lines drawn inversely to
the action, as well as the enlargements of the
parts. As the principles of the firing-iron
have become perfectly known, it is unnecessary
to expatiate upon them here.

As there are several methods of firing, so
are there several kinds of irons used for it, of I
various sliapes. The principal are, the searing-
iron, which is used for the tail, and wliich is
probably called into request more frequently j
than any other. Then the hudding-iron, for
touching cavities, and searing farcy-buds.
There is, also, the common firing-iron, the
iron to remove lampas, and some others, ac-
cording to the particular purposes forwhicb
they may be required. To practitioners these
are all pretty well known, and all should be
tolerably thick at the back to retain the heat ;
and, when used, should only be heated to a
dull-red heat.

"Wlicn performing the operation of firing,
care should be taken to have a piece of board
near, to rub the edge of the iron on. This will
prevent its getting too sharp, and cutting
through the skin. The iron, also, by this
means becomes cleared of all scales, which
would be a very great interruption to the ope-
rator if he bad no means of speedily removing
them.

834.

Firing is not so simple an operation as many
persons are inclined to consider it ; for, if the
true skin is penetrated, a wound is produced,
and great inflammation and ulceration may
result, and leave a bad blemish. To prevent
this, if the iron be made very hot, it must bo
passed very quickly and lightly over the parts ;
then, as it gets cool, it can be drawn more at
leisure ; and, if the parts should not be level,
they must be lightly touched over again, in
order to make the whole look well. Eing-
bones, or old spavins, require the most severe
firing, and are even then not very successfully
treated. AVe have, in that case, fired a second
time, which, in many instances, has had the
desired efiect. In all cases of firing, the hair
must be closely clipped ofi" the parts, for the
smoke arising from burning is apt to confuse
the operator.

AVe have heard of some operators chalking
out the lines first ; but we never saw such a
practice. After the firing is completed, a mild
blister ointment should be lightly applied to
the parts ; after which the animal should have
rest, and not immediately be put to work

BLISTERING.

Blistering is an operation of great utility,
and, when attended with care, it is as safe a
one as can be performed. It acts more as a
local blood-letting, if care be taken to lance
the vesicles as they may arise ; for, if these are
not quickly removed, the serum may become
again absorbed, and the surface restored by a
slight eifort of inflammation, without havinsr
the desired eff"ect. They then become more
like what is called siveating-hlisters, because
the cuticle, or scarf-skin, does not rise; but
when, by continued irritation, or by rupturing
the vessels, the cutis becomes exposed, suppura-
tion succeeds, and the part becomes thoroughly
blistered.

The salutary action of blisters depends, first,
on the stimulus they give to the absorbents;
and next, on the inflammation they excite,
proving a counter-irritant to some other part.
They act in the removal of injurious deposits,
as enlargements arising from strains of the
back-sinews, or ligaments ; sometimes they do
good when applied to spavins or splents ; but,
should either of these diseases be of long
standing, stronger applications must be had

TAMINO.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[tamino.

ret*our3o to, or the uiildor blistiTs usihI, and
ropt'atcd t'very day. ^Mercurial ointinent, well
rubbed iu on any bony oxcresceuce, tor a day
or two previous to applying tho blister, will
greatly tend to promote the absorption of tho
oilendinix parts.

Iu inllaininatory afTectiona, wo find blisters
of great importance, acting as counter-irritants;
and it appears singular that two inflamma-
tions seldom exist iu tho neighbourhood of
each other; therefore, when such an aflectiou
has taken place iu any part, and it is desired
to be removed, we raise an artificial inflamma-
tion iu its neighbourhood by means of blisters.
In iiillauimatory affections of the lungs and
bowels, it is proper to blister the chest, belly,
Ac, by which means the inflammatory action
may be shifted from the vital organs to parts
of less importance; for if a horse affected with
inflamed lungs be blistered either iu the
chest or belly, and if the blister does not
properly rise, he will probably die of slieer
debility. The blister oiutment generally ought
to be bought at the druggist's, as it is some-
times made of such irritating materials, that
the animal is put to the most excruciating
pain imaginable, when we well know that the
blistering properly lies iu the cantharides
only.

Before applying a blister, the hair should
be cut ofl" as closely as possible from the part,
and around it. The blister ointment should
then bo well rubbed in for ten or fifteen
minutes, on which thorough application of it,
its operation mainly depends. Having done
this, smooth the hair downwards, and spread a
little more ointment on the surface, with a
spatula. If there is occasion to blister the

pasterns and fetlocks, apply n little hog's InrJ
to tho hollows of tho heels. This will often
prevent tho formation of grease or troubleaomo
sores from tho discharge of tho blister fulling
on these parts.

Another caution i.-<, that when a blister is
acting, tho litter should all be removed from
under him, lest tho straws tickle and irritate
his legs 80 much, that ho may not only at-
tempt to gnaw them, but strike them against
the manger, or one against the other. I'o
prevent this, the horse must be tied up to tho
rack for at least two days, when the prin-
cipal irritation will have left him. But never
blister without putting a cradle round his
neck. It will prevent him biting his legs, or
attempting to do so. Cradles may generally
be had at most of the turners' shops; or,
should there bo an obligation to make one,
! take eight or ten pieces of broom or mop-
handles, and cut them into lengths of about
two feet long, and make holes in both ends,
so that they may bo threaded with a piece
of strong cord, and then fasten them around
the horse's neck. The horse then becomes
effectually prevented from biting or tearing
himself. If blistering once does not answer
the purpose anticipated, and you determine to
blister again, first wash off, with soap and
water, all scurf that may have been left by tlie
first, before applying the second blister. A\^hen
it is intended to turn a horse out after blister-
ing, care should be taken that all the parts
are healed, or flies and dust may get into the
sores, and become exceedingly troublesome.

Sweating blisters are generally of a milder
nature than others, and in consequence fre-
quently applied.— (See Blistering Linimenty

CHAPTER XXXVIL

RESTIYENESS.— T.\MIXG SYSTEMS PURSUED BY THE "JUMPER," ITIE " WHISPERER," MADAME I6ABELIE,

AXD MR. RAREY; VICES.

It has been said of naturally vicious norses, I temporarily subdued by some master spirits,
that however they may have been cowed and I they are never to be depended upon ; but will

335

TAMING.J

THE HOESE, AND

[taming.

return to their dangerous practices on any
opportunity which their caprice may dictate^
or chance may throw in their way. The fol-
lowing statement of facts quite bears out this
opinion, and shows the danger of keeping any
naturally vicious animal, under the impression
that he may become quiet and harmless.

Eestiveness may be considered the effect of
bad temper, and, perhaps, worse breaking;
and like all other habits founded on nature,
and fixed by an evil education, it may be
considered inveterate. Whether it appear
in the form of kicking, rearing, plunging, or
bolting, or in whatever way it may threaten
danger to the animal or its rider, it rarely ad-
mits of a cure. It may be true, that a reso-
lute and determined rider may, to a certain
degree, subjugate the animal ; or the horse
may form his attachments, and, with some par-
ticular person, become comparatively, or per-
fectly manageable ; still we believe it to be a
rule that admits of very few exceptions, that
he neither displays his wisdom, nor consults
his safety, who thinks he has so far subdued a
restive horse, as to be able, at all times, to
repose trust in him.

An excellent veterinary surgeon, and a
man of great experience in horses, says, in
The Veterinarian — " Erom whatever cause the
vicious habits of horses may originate, whether
from some mismanagement, or from natural
badness of temper, or from what is called in
Yorkshire, a mistetcli — whenever these ani-
mals acquire one of them, and it becomes in
some degree confirmed, they very seldom, if
ever, altogether forget it. In reference to
driving, it is so true, that it may be taken as a
kind of aphorism, that if a horse kicks once in
harness, no matter from what cause, he will be
liable to kick ever afterwards. A good coach-
man may drive him, it is true, and may make
him go, but he cannot make him forget his
vice; and so it is in riding. You may con-
quer a restive horse ; you may make him ride
quiet for months, nay, almost for years toge-
ther; but I affirm, that under otlier circum-
stances, and at some future opportunity, he
will be sure to return to his old tricks again."

This writer gives two singular and conclu-
sive instances of the truth of this doctrine.
^'When a very young man," he says, "I re-
member purchasing a horse at a fair in the
336

north of England, that was offered very cheap,
on account of his being unmanageable. Ifc
was said that nobody could ride him. I found
that the animal objected to have anvthing
placed on his back, and that, when made to
move forward with nothing more than a saddle
on, he instantly threw himself down on his
side with great violence, and would then en-
deavour to roll upon his back.

"There was, at that time, in Yorkshire, a
famous colt-breaker, known by the name of
' Jumper,' who was almost as celebrated in
that country for- taming vicious horses into
submission, as the famed ' Whisperer' was in
Ireland. I put this animal into * Jumper's'
hands, who took him away, and in about ten
days brought him home again, certainly not
looking worse in condition, but perfectly sub-
dued, and almost as obedient as a dog ; for he
would lie down at this man's bidding, and only
rise again at his command, and carry double or
anything. I took to riding him myself, and
may say, that I was never better carried for
six or eight months, during which time he
never showed the least vice whatever. I then
sold him to a Lincolnshire farmer, who said
that he would give him a summer's run at grass?
and show him a very fine horse at the great
Horncastle fair.

" Happening to meet this gentleman the fol-
lowing year, I naturally enough inquired after
my old friend. ' Oh,' said he, ' that was a bad
business — the horse turned out a sad rebel.
The first time we attempted to mount him,
after getting him up from grass, he in an in-
stant threw the man down with the greatest
violence, pitching him several yards over his
head ; and, after that, he threw every one that
attempted to get on his back. If he could not
throw his rider, he would throw himself down.
We could do nothing with him, and I was
obliged at last to sell him to go in a stage-
coach.' "

In the next story, "Jumper's" counterpart,
and superior, the Irish " Whisperer," is brought
on the stage, and, although he performs won-
ders, he cannot radically cure a restive horse.
"At the Spring Meeting of 1804, Mr. Whal-
ley's 'King Pippin' was brought on the Cur-
rai^h, at Kildare, to run. He was a horse of the
most extraordinarily savage and vicious dispo-
sition. His particular propensity was that of

TAMTTTO.]

MODERN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

[taxttko.

{[y'uvj; at and worrying nuy pordoa wlio cnmo
within his reach ; and if ho had an opportunity,
ho would get hia head round, soizo his rider by
the log with hia tei'th, and drag him down iVoni
hia back. For this reason he was always rid-
den iu what is called a sword ; which is no-
thing more than a strong Hat stick, having
one end attached to the cheek of the bridle,
and the other to the girth of the saddle, a con-
trivance to prevent a horse of this kind from
getting at his rider.

" King Pippin had long been difficult to
manage, and dangerous to go near ; but on the
occasion in question, ho could not be got out
to run at all. Nobody could put the bridle
upon his head. It being Easter Monday, and,
consequently a great holiday, there was a
large concourse of people assembled at the
Curragh, consisting principally of the neigh-
bouring peasantry ; and one countryman, more
fearless than the rest of the lookers-on, forget-
ting, or, perhaps, never dreaming that the
Detter part of courage is discretion, volun-
teered bis services to bridle the horse. No
sooner had he committed himself to this opera-
tion, than King Pippin seized him somewhere
about the shoulders, or chest, and shook him
as a dog would shake a rat. Fortunately for
the poor fellow, his body was very thickly
covered with clothes, for, on such occasions,
an Irishman of this class is fond of displaying
his wardrobe ; and if he has three coats in the
world, he is sure to put them all on.

" This circumstance, in all probability, saved
the individual who had so gallantly volun-
teered the forlorn hope. His person was so
deeply enveloped in extra clothing, that the
horse never got fairly hold of his skin ; and
I understand that he escaped with but little
injury, beside the sadly rent 'and totally ruined
state of his wardrobe.

" The * "Whisperer ' was sent for, who, having
arrived, was shut up with the horse all night,
and, in the morning, he exhibited this hitherto
ferocious animal, following him about the
course like a dog ; lying down at his command ;
suffering his mouth to be opened, and any
person's hand to be introduced into it ; in
short, as quiet as a sheep.

" He came out the same meeting, and won
ft race, and his docility continued satisfactory
for a lo»g time ; but, at the end of about three
2 X

years, hia vice returned, and then ho ia said
to have killed a man, for which iio waa de-
stroyed."

It may bo interesting to give soiiio account
of this extraordinary tamer of equine vice.

The Rev. Mr. Townsend, in hia Statistical
Survey of Corky first introduced the " "Whis-
perer" to the notice of the public generally,
although his tame had, long before, been spread
over that part of Ireland. He ia mentioned
also iu Crokers Fairy Legends and Traditions
of Ireland. Tlic following is an extract from
that work : —

" He was an awkward, ignorant rustic, of
the lowest class, of the name of Sullivan, but
better known by the appellation of the * AVhis-
perer ;' his occupation was horse-breaking.
The nickname he acquired from the vulgar
notion of his being able to communicate to
the animal what he wished by means of a
whisper, and the singularity of his method,
seemed in some degree to justify the attribute.
In his own neighbourhood, the notoriety of
the fact made it seem less remarkable ; but I
doubt if any instance of similar subjugating
talent is to be found on record. As far as the
sphere of his control extended, the boast of
veni, vidi, vici, was more justly claimed by
Sullivan than by Caesar himself.

" How his art was acquired, and in what it
consisted, is likely to be for ever unknown, as
he left the world without divulging it. His
son, who followed the same trade, possessed
but a small portion of the art, having either
never learned the true secret, or having been
incapable of putting it into practice. The
wonder of his skill consisted in the celerity of
the operation, which was performed in privacy,
without any apparent means of coercion.
Every description of horse, or even mule,
whether previously broken, or unhandled,
whatever their peculiar habits or vices might
have been, submitted without show of resis-
tance to the magical influence of his art, and
in the short space of half-an-hour became
gentle and tractable. This effect, though in-
stantaneously produced, was generally durable.
Though more submissive to him than any
others, they seemed to have acquired a docility
unknown before.

*' "When sent for to tame a vicious beast, for
which he was either paid according to the dis-

337

rAMTNG.]

THE HOESE, AND

[TAMIHtJ.

tance, or generally two or three guineas, he
directed -the stable, in which he and the object
of the experiment were, to be shut, with
orders not to open the door until a signal was
given. After a tete-a-Ute of about half-an-
hour, during which little or no bustle was
heard, the signal was made, and, upon opening
the door, the horse appeared lying down, and
the man by his side, playing with him like a
child with a puppy dog. From that time he
was found willing to submit to any discipline,
however repugnant to his nature before."

"I once," continues Mr. Townsend, "saw
hia skill tried on a horse which could never
before be brought to stand to be shod by a
smith. The day after Sullivan's half-hour's
lecture, I went, not without some incredulity,
to the smith's shop, with many other curious
spectators, where we were eye-witnesses of the
complete success of his art. This, too, had
been a troop horse ; and it was supposed, not
without reason, that after regimental disci-
pliue had failed, no other would be found
available. I observed that the animal appeared
terrified whenever Sullivau either spoke or
looked at him. How that extraordinary as-
cendancy could have been obtained, it is diffi-
cult to conjecture.

" In comnlon cases this mysterious prepara-
tion was unnecessary. He seemed to possess
an instinctive power of inspiring awe, the re-
sult, perhaps, of natural intrepidity, in which,
I believe, a great part of his art consisted ;
though the circumstance of the t^te-a-tete
shows that, on particular occasions, something
more must have been added to it. A faculty
like this would, in some hands, have made a
fortune; and I understand that great offers
were made to him for the exercise of his art
abroad. But hunting was the passion of Sul-
livan. He lived at home in the style most
agreeable to his disposition, and nothing could
induce him to quit Duhallow and the fox-
hounds."

Mr. Castley, a writer in the Veterinarian,
witnessed the total failure of the younger
Sullivan. He says—" We liave in the regi-
ment a remarkably nice horse, called Lancer,
that has always been very difficult to shoe ;
but seven or eight years ago, when we first
got him, he was downright vicious in that re-
spect. "When the regiment was stationed at
33S

Cork, the farrier-major sought out the son of
the celebrated ' Whisperer,' and brought him
up to the barracks, in order to try his hand
upon Lancer, and make him more peaceable to
shoe ; but I must say this person did not
appear to possess any particular controljiug
power over the animal, more than any other
man. Lancer seemed to pay no attention
whatever to his charm ; and, at last, fairly
beat him out of the forge. Time, however,
and a long perseverance in kind and gentle
treatment, effected what force could not. The
horse became pretty quiet to shoe."

Did we not know, from the recent per-
formances of Mr, Karey, that such things are
possible, it would seem almost incredible, that
a man being left only one night in King Pip-
pin's stable, should have produced such an
alteration in that animal's ferocity. It is said
some have the power of disarming the rage of
the most savage dogs ; and the " "Whisperer"
appears to have found out the same charm for
the vicious horse.

" Jumper" seems to have had extraordinary
power over other animals besides the horse ;
for he is said to have tamed a buffalo for the
saddle, for Mr. Tempest, and a pair of rein-
deer for Lord Fitzwilliam. The manner of his
treatment seems sufficiently intelligible. His
charm consisted chiefly in fearlessness and
brute force. He would generally try rough
measures first ; and in his perilous encoun-
ters with some of these troublesome animals,
had nearly every bone of his body fractured.
" Jumper," however, seemed to have some sort
of magic about him ; for it is said, when he
had, by dint of punishment, striven in vain to
conquer an unruly horse in the market-place
of Wakefield, he alighted, stood on the near
side of the animal, brought the head almost
back to his ofF-shoulder, by forcibly pulling at
his off-rein, and then sternly gazed at him
over the withers for two or three minutes.
The animal began to tremble, and broke out
in a profuse perspiration. "Jumper" then
loosened his hold of the rein, and patted and
caressed him, and was immediately followed by
him round the market-place, perfectly subdued.

"Jumper" is described as having been em-
ployed in the contested elections for Yorkshire,
covered with orange plush from top to toe,
and scampering in every direction over the

TAMING.]

MODERN VETERINAKY PRACTICE.

[MB. BAaET.

county. Sonu'timos ho would cxchan-^o tliiii
coiitumo for a bear-skin, enveloped in wliich,
and mounted occasionally on a buflali), ho was
indeed a most fonnidahlo looking ohject.

Tho system of Mr. Rarey now demands our
attention.

The tnminjT method pursued by this Ame-
rican gentleman has been considered very

This power of fixinjj tho eyes upon tho face successful ; at least, it has received an exten-
of any animal, seems to have an almost over- sive patronaj^o in this country, lie begins to
■whelming ellect of bringing them into a stato make tho acquaintance of tho colt when at
of subjugation. It was but tho other day that j pasture, and by tho mildest means, and, alinoHt
we read, in an American paper, of a Yankee j without any physical signs, entices tho animal

exhibiting himself as a snake-charmer. The
manner in which ho proceeded was thus detailed
— "A tall, bony, Yankee-looking foreigner,
last from California, made bis appearance in
Virginia, with a box of snakes — rattlesnakes,
moccasins, black snakes, vipers, &c. lie
collected a crowd around him, though at a
respectful distance, and grasping with both
hands a bunch of snakes, coiled them round

to enter a stable, barn, or out-house, in tho
immediate neighbourhood. An old horse is
then let in, and the colt is, without any stir,
surrounded, and left alone with tlie operator.
Nothing of life is then permitted to be in his
presence save tho man who has to tame him,
and who strives to absorb the whole of the
attention of tho animal. Gentleness be-
comes the rule. Everything calculated to

his neck, and thrust them into his bosom, as if excite fear, or raise alarm, is discarded from
they were strands of silk or cotton. Their i the appearance and conduct of the man, wlio
twistings and turnings seemed to give him approaches the animal holding out his hands,
pleasure, while the by-standers were filled | and speaking to him in the softest tones. By-

with very opposite emotions. He professes
to tame his savage friends by moans of mes-
merism, and thus fights the rattlesnake with
his own weapon. Some in the crowd sug-
gested that no should take a wild, untamed
snake, and show his power over it, which he
agreed to do for twenty-five dollars. This
sum was readily subscribed, and a rattlc'snakcj
caught the day oeiore, was soon procured.
The operator examined him with some caution,
but presently turned the box over, and threw
the venomous reptile upon the green sward.
He kicked him about several times, caught
him by the tail, and threw him back and
forth, and finally seized him in the middle,
and held him at arm's length. The snake
turned his head towards him, and their eyes
met ; the latter fixed his gaze steadily upon

aud-by the colt gains confidence, and will ap-
proach him, and smell his hands, when he
must take the opportunity of first stroking
the nose, and then tho face, cheeks, and neck.
"When the colt has yielded itself entirely to
this kind of treatment, a leathern belt is very
quietly passed up and on to his head, which is
the first step towards real subjugation. For
this purpose a rope halter should not bo em-
ployed, being objectionable because of its
coarseness. When this is accomplished, a plain,
smooth snaffle-bridle, with a moderate-sized
snaffle-bit, is passed into the mouth, and fitted
to the head. All this must be done without
hurry, and nothing whatever should be allowed
to move or agitate the feelings of the animal.
When this has been done, the next point is to
landle, with the utmost gentleness, the neck.

the snake, and kept it so for several minutes, , shoulder, and near fore leg. After this, the
when he suddenly coiled it round his neck, shank is taken in the palm of the hand, and
thrust it in his bosom, as he had done the the foot raised from the ground. This move-
others, and the snake seemed entirely docile, i ment is assisted by pressing the back sinew
Two days after he repeated his experiment, i with the finger and thumb, or by turning the
for twenty dollars, on a large rattlesnake j colt's head and neck well to the left. When
which had just been caught, and with similar I tho foot has been once stirred, the operation
results. A crowd of ladies and gentlemen must bo repeated until the animal will permit
witnessed the singular exhibition. It was the foot to be bent near to the elbow-joint,
painful to behold, though the individual seemed and to be kept for a time in that position,
to have the most entire confidence in his , The body is next handled, the hand passing
ability to control the horrid animals." along to the hind quarter and leg. The hind

339

MB. EAEET.]

THE HOESE, AND

[mme. isabelle.

leg must now be raised as high as possible,
and the tail well handled. The same process
is then to be carried out on the left side of
the colt, which concludes the handling. Should
any disposition to restiveness be exhibited on
the part of the colt, both of the fore logs must
be immediately strapped up, and the animal
brought to the ground upon his knees. If
there is not about the depth of a foot of straw
on the ground, knee-caps should be employed
'for protection. Tor the near fore leg, the
strap should be an inch in breadth, and about
three feet in length. When the colt is
strapped well up, he is induced to more about
on three legs, the bridle being used in such a
manner as to effect this. When the animal
becomes reconciled to this condition, the
handling of the body and hind legs is again
proceeded with. When this is borne with suffi-
cient patience, a surcingle or roller should be
fastened round the body. Should there be
any restiveness shown by the animal while
bending up the near fore leg alone, the off
fore leg must at once be proceeded with.

The strap for this purpose must be about
six feet in length, of the thickness of a strong
rein, and about an inch or an inch and a
quarter in width. It has a loop of three
inches, or a metal D at one end. The loop or
D is passed round the pastern of the off fore
leg, the point of the strap taken through it,
and the strap drawn tight to the pastern.
The point of the strap is then carried within
the surcingle or roller, and held tightly in the
right hand. When the operator is desirous
of raising the off fore leg, he inclines the head
of the colt, by the aid of the bridle, to the
right or left hand ; and the instant the foot is
removed, it is drawn up to the surcingle with
force, and retained in that position, if possible.
Generally speaking, a succession of violent
plunges will succeed the fall, during the whole
of which the person must retain his hold upon
the leg ; and, by placing his shoulder to the
near forehand of the horse, with a strong
bearing upon the off-rein to bend the head
and neck outwards, so that the animal cannot
collect with advantage his muscular force,
be is soon compelled to yield up the con-
test.

AVhen the animal has become quiet, the
head, neck, body, limbs, and tail, should be
340

handled in succession, until he is completely
resigned to the process, and several opportuni-
ties should be taken to sit down upon tho
body, the forehand, and the hind quarters.
Whilst this is going on, the saddle, without
girths, or stirrups, may, for a short time, be
placed on the body, or the harness laid upon
the hind quarters. When you have to deal
with a Zebra, or a horse as savage and
wicked as " Cruizer" — a horse that can kick as
fiercely from one leg, as others can from two —
in that case, to subdue and compel him to lie
down, have a leather surcingle, with a ring
fastened to the belly-part ; buckle the hobbles
on the hind legs, and pass the ropes through
the ring. When the horse is thrown down
by strapping up the fore legs, the hind legs
must be drawn close up to the ring in the
surcingle. By-and-by the animal becomes
quite tamed, and is thoroughly subdued.
Gentleness, as far as it can possibly be prac-
tised, is the rule in Mr. Barey's system ; and
in no case is the whip or stick used, if it can
be avoided.

We now come to the system of Madame
Isabelle, who received testimonials from almost
all the continental authorities ; and her success
at the cavalry depot at Maidstone was un-
rivalled and unquestioned. She there broke-
in a horse in six lessons, the property of Lord
Granville ; and the feat was accomplished in
the presence of the Duke of AVellington, Lord
Zetland, General Murray, and others. But
what was more extraordinary, she caused the
horse to be broken-in by the groom of Lord
Granville, whom she instructed at the same
time in equitation. On one occasion she had a
mare, which had the bad habit of taking a
branch of the bit between her teeth, which
were by no means easily re-opened — and run-
ning away with her rider, according to her
own good will and pleasure. She "stood
over" before, and " out" behind ; in conse-
quence of the abuse of the " bridoon," her
houghs were in very bad condition, although
well-shaped. Madame Isabelle undertook,
nevertheless, to bring them round and break
her in, which certainly was not an easy task,
when the temper and physical defects of the
brute were considered. She succeeded, how-
ever, to a most extraordinary degree, and finally
made her " coquette" as elegant an animal

MME. IBABELLE.] M OD EltN VETE Kl X A li Y rUACTlCE. [mmi:. isuielle.

ns coultl bo seen. It was upon this animftl —
wliioh Madame IsabfUo coiisidtTs ri,i,'litly iiamoil,
from tho character abovo given, ami otluT little
incidental pleasantries, such as niakiiiji; the
*' clack ot* her teeth heard," and "exhibiting
her foot in tho air"— that the action of tho
"Surfaix Cavalier" was first tried; and the
Buccess obtained so proved the excellence of tho
system, that the fair " hippodamast" at onco
adopted it. In a work which she has pub-
lished on tho subject, she says—" I subse-
quently applied this action to horses of all ages
and of every description, and discovered its
infallibility, inasmuch as it succeeded without
one single exception ; but as this action was
produced by the hand, it became very fatigue-
ing, and also could not be produced with abso-
lute certainty, because great tact was neces-
sary. I then invented the ' Iron Cavalier.'
I had well calculated all its desired effects, so
as to produce exactly the action of the hand
of an accomplished horseman, but with the
great superiority arising from its fixed posi-
tion, and its direct effects upon tbe salivary
glands, the size of which it diminishes consid-
erably. Thus with me the * Surfaix Cavalier'
solved the problem of brcaking-in."

The following explanation of this lady's
system is slightly altered from a review of it
in The Field:—
\ The " Surfaix Cavalier," the instrument by

which Madame Isabelle produces such an
effect, is the ordinary surcingle, which is put
on over the saddle ; and if the horse is shaped
in the usual way — that is, where the loins are
neither long nor weak, nor the withers very
high — the saddle should be placed four inches
behind the shoulder. There is a steel band
inserted on either side of the girths, which
extends from the near to the off side. The
" Iron Cavalier" is a flat iron rod, nearly six-
teen inches in length, which is fixed upon the
centre of the " surfaix," or surcingle, upright,
with a slight inclination forwards. There are
four cross-bars on either side of the centre
rod, each about four inches long, terminating
in circular holes for the insertion of the reins :
each pair is nearly four inches apart from
the others, the uppermost cross-bars being at
the extremity of the central rod, which, as
stated before, stands up nearly sixteen inches
in height. The cross-bars range across the

body of tho horao ; tho circular holes aro
marked in pairs, 1, 2, !}, 4 ; No. 1 being tho
lower pair, No. 4 tho upper. Thero aro four
reins, each about eight feet long, and at ono
end punched with iioles marked from ono to
twenty-four, which aro about If inches apart,
giving a range for tight or loose reins. Tho
bits are made to bo effective, but not punish-
ing, Tho cavessons aro lighter than usual;
and, during tho operation of breakiiig-in, tho
ordinary bit and snalllo reins are always put
on, in addition to those belonging to tho
" Surfaix Cavalier."

These are the instruments used by IMadamo
Isabelle; tho "Iron Cavalier" being an im-
provement, and a very great one indeed, upon
the old "dumb jockey," the effect of which
was to act like a stiff and rigid band upon the
ribs ; while the action of the " Iron Cavalier"
is only felt on tlie steel bands in the girth
when the horse draws too tightly on the reins;
the movement of these steel bands having the
same effect as the rider's legs should have.
With these remarks, we proceed to the in-
structions laid down by Madame Isabelle for
the breaking a saddle-horse in twelve lessons,
whether mounted or not.

There are twenty-seven lessons laid down as
necessary for a horse to go through before he
can be considered thoroughly broken-in. It
will give a clear idea of the routine, to enume-
rate these in their order, as they are con-
stantly referred to in the practical working out
of the object. The first gives directions " to
saddle and bridle" a horse, and place the
"Surfaix Cavalier." No. 2, "to lift the fore
legs; to free tho action of the legs." This
forms the important lesson of suppleing a horse,
or, as it may be literally termed, it is teach-
ing him the use of his legs. No. 3, " to lead
a horse to the riding-school." No. 4, "Pas
iV <jquilihre decompose, forward and backward."
" This movement has for its object, to accustom
the horse to the man, and to make him quiet
and attentive, two things indispensable to
proper breaking; to habituate him to tho
support of the bit, and the action of his jaws
upon it; to divide his powers equally and
regularly ; to ' lead' with the proper foot in all
his paces ; to prepare him for tho gallop, and
to rein back readily." Nos. 5 and G, "to
bring a horse to the knowledge of the whip

341

MME. ISABELLE.T

THE HOESE, AND

[mme. isabelle.

and the long whip." Nos. 7 and 8, " to bring
a horse to the knowledge of the spur, and
to start by diagonal action." Nos. 9, 10, 11,
and 12, are respectively "the flag, the drum
and pistol shot, the music, and the sabre
lesson." No. 13 is headed "left-about— right-
about." Nos. 14 and 15, "pirouette on the
forehand and on the haunches." Nos. 16, 17,
18, 19 are for " movements of the two pistes
or tracks," which is efi'ected by teaching a
horse to cross the near legs over the off legs,
taking generally an oblique direction, Tliis
movement is commonly called the "passage,"
incorrectly, according to Madame Isabelle. No.
20, " to start at a walk and at a trot " No. 21,
" to produce a noble carriage ;" No, 22, to
"rein back" a horse; No. 23, "to teach the
effects of the reins on starting at a gallop ;"
No. 24, to " rassejnhler" a horse. This exer-
cise, with No. 2, are the two principal ones for
what may be termed putting a horse on his
legs. No. 2 is to make the horse's limbs
Bupple by teaching him to lift his legs properly.
To " r«sse7H5Zer" may be called keeping a horse
together. The horse's croupe is placed against
a wall, so that he cannot go back ; and in
this position, by means of the whip and the
click of the tongue, he is made to move all his
legs readily. Nos. 25 and 26 are jumping and
mounting lessons ; and No. 27 is the climax of
all — the Eiding Lesson.

In reference to these lessons, Madame Isa-
belle quaintly observes — " If it is not possible
to have a riding-school — a courtyard, a corner
of a garden, or even the highway will suffice
for want of a better substitute." And it is
stated as a positive rule, that " all the lessons
ehould be an hour and a-half long during the
whole of the breaking-in." In the first lesson,
after saddling and placing the " Surfaix Cava-
lier" on, the reins must be fixed in the first
holes, and the horse is exercised in No. 5, the
whip lesson ; No. 4, the pas d'equilibre decom-
pose; and in No. 14, the pirouette on the shoul-
ders. In the second lesson, the bit reins are
fixed in the second holes, the snafSe reins in
the fourth holes. In addition to those exer-
cises in the first, the horse is put to No. 16,
the movement of the two pistes, and No. 20,
the starting at a walk or a trot. In Lesson 3,
the four reins are fixed in the seventh
holes,- and No. 17, the movement of the two
342

pistes with the lunge and the whip, and No.
22, the "rein back," are brought into play.
In Lesson 4, the four reins are fixed in the
eighth holes. The horse is taught No, 6, " the
knowledge of the long whip," and No. 18, the
movement of the two pistes with diagonal
action. In Lesson 5, the four reins are fixed
in the tenth holes. The horse is made ac-
quainted with the use of the spur. He is also
made to " ras^emhler" (No. 24), and to go
through No. 13 and No. IS. In the sixth
lesson, the four reins are fixed in tlio- twelfth
holes ; and Lessons Nos. 8, 21, £ ._. 23 are
added to the operations. In the seventh
lesson, the reins are fixed in the fifteenth holes,
and all the preceding operations are repeated.
In Lesson 8, the four reins are fixed in the
sixteenth holes, and the horse is " rassemlled''^
and "reined back," and then is put to No. 19,
the movement of the two pistes, the body
being bent to the side to which the horse
moves ; but for this the reins are changed, the
near bit and snaffle reins are fixed in the
eleventh holes, and the off bit and snaffle reins
in the sixteenth. In the ninth lesson, the
reins are fixed in the eighteenth holes.
The horse goes through all the preceding ex-
ercises, and is now taught to jump. No, 25.
The three last lessons are devoted to repeti-
tions, the only diflerence being in the reining
up ; and the horse is then considered tho-
roughly broken-in and fit for the riding lesson
■ — when, instead of the "Iron Cavalier," a
soldier appears in the saddle, and every direc-
tion is given for teaching him equitation.

We have thus entered somewhat minutely
into the system of Madame Isabelle, in order
to show of what it consists. The directions
are very minute; so much so, indeed, as in
some cases to appear not to be required. But
it has been proved by experience, that this
aggregate of minute points is essential for re-
alising the great object — namely, the speedy
and perfect breaking-in of the horse. Of the
horses in this country, Madame Isabelle ob-
serves, that the English use them, but do not
break them in, and thus it is that so many are
rendered vicious ; and, if the cause is sought,
" it loill he seen that it has arisen, amongst the
greatest number of them, from the injustice and
hrutalilg of which they have been the victims'*
— an additional evidence to the fact, that gen-

GIBOINO.]

^I 0 D E 11 N V K r !•: K 1 N A K Y V R A (J 1' 1 C E.

[UITINQ.

tleues3 or humanity, whether applied to mnn J
or bea.st, ia ii imich better breuker-iu than .
cruelty or barbarity. This new systt-m ollVrs
every advantage that ean be desired ; it breaks-
in the horso quiekly, without fatiguing liim in
the least ; develops his powers, enlarges his j
action, iuereasea his speed ; renders him supple ^
and elegant, gives him a perfect mouth, and ^
makes him also docile and conlident with men. j
There is also another very material point — that
"the breaking-iu of the horse, and the iustruc- ,
tion of the mau are so intimately connected,
that while training the animal, the mau cannot
fail to teach himself."

"U'e will now proceed to remark upo^ some
of the most prominent vices of the horse.

AVhen a horse begins to gib, persuasion
should be first tried ; and, afterwards, reason-
able coercion, but no cruelty ; for the brutality
which is often exercised in attempting to
compel a gibbiug horse to throw himself
habitually in the collar, never yet accom-
plished tlie purpose. Such an animal may be
put in an omuibus as a wheeler, and particu-
larly as the near-wheeler ; or in the middle of
a team at agricultural work ; and iu these situa-
tions he might be serviceable, but nowhere
else. It will be useless for him to attempt to
gib there, for he will be dragged on by his
companions whether he will or not ; and find-
ing the inutility of resistance, he will soon be
induced to work as well as any other in the
team. This reformation will last while he is
thus employed ; but, like restiveuess generally,
it will repossess him when he returns to his
former occupation. Some instances of com-
plete reformation have taken place ; but they
are the exceptions to the rule.

AVheu a horse, not accustomed to gib, be-
trays a reluctance to work, humanity will de-
maud that some examination should take place,
before measures of severity be resorted to.
Sometimes the withers are wrung, and the
shoulders sadly galled; and the pain, which,
even with a fair draught, may be intense on level
ground, becomes iusupportable when going up
a steep acclivity. These things should be ob-
served, and, if possible, rectified; for, under
such circumstances, severe punishment might
produce obstinacy and vice, but not willing
obedience.

A horse, with raw shoulders, or that have

frequently been bo, will not start with a cold
collar. AVhcn the collar has acquired the
warmth of the parts on which it preHses, the
animal will go without reluctance. Sonjo de-
termined gibbers have been reformed by con-
stantly wearing a false collar, or strip of cloth
round the shoulders, so that the coldneay *jf
the collar should never bo felt ; and others
have been cured by keeping on the collar night
and day, although the animal is not able to lie
down so completely at his ease, as without it;
aud this a tired horse ought always to be able
to do. When an animal gibs at his work, it
has sometimes been useful to lino the collar
with cloth instead of leather ; the perspiration
is more readily absorbed ; the substance which
presses on the shoulder is softer, and it is more
readily eased ofi" at a tender place.

Biting may often be the consequence of
natural ferocity; but it is a habit frequently
acquired from the foolish and teasing play of
grooms and stable-boys. "When a horse is
tickled and pinched by thoughtless and mis-
chievous youths, ho will first pretend to bite
his tormentors. By degrees he will proceed
farther, and actually bite them ; and very soon
after that, he will be the first to challenge to
the combat, and, without provocation, seize
some opportunity to gripe the incautious
groom ; and then, as the love of mischief is a
propensity too easily acquired, this war which
commenced half playful and half in earnest,
will becomo habitual to him, and will degene-
rate into absolute viciousuess. Nothing can
here be done in the way of cure. Kindness
would aggravate the evil, and no degree of
severity will correct it. Prevention ia in the
power of every proprietor of horses. TVhilo
he insists on gentle and humane treatment ot
his animals, he should systematically forbid
this horse-play. It is that which can never
be considered as operating as a reward, and
thereby rendering the animal tractable ; nor
does it increase the affection of the beast for
his groom, because he is annoyed and irritated
by being thus incessantly teased.

Kicking, as a vice, is another consequence
of the culpable habit of teasing the horse.
There is no cure for this vice ; and the owner
of kicking horses cannot be justified iu keeping
them. " I have seen," says Professor Stewart,
in his Stable Economy, " biters punished until

3i3

KICKING.]

THE HOESE, AND

[etjnning away.

they trembled in every joint, and were ready
to drop, but have never, in any case, known
them cured by this treatment, if by any other.
The lash is forgotten in an hour, and the horse
is as ready and determined to repeat the offence
as before. He appears unable to resist the
temptation ; and, in its worst form, biting is a
species of insanity." The system of Mr. Earey,
however, might be tried. Some acquire a
habit of kicking at the stall, and particularly
at night, from mere irritability and fidgetiness.
This is productive of considerable inconve-
nience, as disturbing the other animals; and
frequently the kicker does himself some injury,
Mares are more subject to these freaks than
horses. This is a habit very difficult to cor-
rect. "We have seen it attempted by fasten-
ing a thorn-bush, or a piece of furze against
the partition or post. When the horse finds
himself pricked by the bushes, it has a ten-
dency to prevent his kicking, and perhaps, in
the end, may cure him of this very disagree-
able and dangerous habit. Should this method,
however, fail, recourse is had to the log, though
the legs are often not a little bruised by it. A
rather long and heavy piece of wood, attached
to a chain, is buckled above the hock, so as to
reach about half-way down the leg. When
the horse attempts to kick violently, his leg
will receive a severe rap from the log, and the
repetition of the blow may induce him to be
quiet.

Kicking in harness, however, is a much
more serious vice, and those horses that are
so fidgety in the stable are the most apt to
do this. From the least annoyance about the
rump or quarters, some horses will kick most
violently, and destroy everything within their
reach. Cautions may certainly be used. If
the shafts are very strong and without flaw,
or if they are plated with iron underneath, and
a stout kicking-strap used, which will barely
allow the animal the proper use of hia hind limbs
in progression, but not permit him to raise
them sufficiently for the purpose of kicking,
he may be prevented from doing mischief.
Still there may be possibiUty of accident ; the
strap may break, and extreme danger may
ensue. A horse that has once begun to kick,
whatever may have been the original cause of
it, can never be depended on again; and he
will be very unwise who ventures to sit behind
U4i

him. Eor this vice Mr. Earey's system has
proved a thorough remedy.

Restiveness on being Mounted. — ^When the
difficulty of mounting arises not from eager-
ness to start, but from unwillingness to be
ridden, the sooner such a horse is disposed of
the better. He may be conquered by a deter-
mined rider, but a skilful horseman alone will
manage him ; and even he will not succeed
without many and even dangerous contests.
In the frequent strapping up of the near fore
leg, however, a remedy has been found for this
vice. — Mr. Earey's system is here again recom-
mended as a complete specific.

REARING

Sometimes proceeds from mere playfulness,
carried to an unpleasant and dangerous extent ;
but it is oftener a vice, and consists in a
desperate effort to unseat the rider. Some-
times it may be the result of using a deep
curb and sharp bit. Some of the best horses
will contend against this curb ; and if the rear-
ing proceeds from this cause, it may be pre-
vented by using a snaffle bridle. It is other-
wise a vice of such a dangerous description,
that no rational man would think of mounting
a horse addicted to it a second time.

The horse-breaker's remedy of pulling him
backward on a soft piece of ground, is not
only a dangerous, but a brutal one. Many
animals have been injured in the spine, and
others have broken their necks, by being thus
suddenly brought over ; while even the horse-
breaker, who fears no danger, is not always
able to extricate himself from the failing
horse. Some animals, however, will be tho-
roughly tamed by a persevering system of
soothing lessons, in which the voice of the
trainer must be made familiar to him. He
will then desist from his habit, and cease to
rear the moment he is spoken to.

RUNNING AWAY.
Some headstrong horses will occasionally
endeavour to bolt with the best riders.
Others, with their wonted sagacity, will en-
deavour to dislodge the timid or unskilful.
Some are hard to hold, or bolt only during the
excitement of the chase ; others will run
away, prompted by a vicious propensity alone.
There is no cure for this. The method which

TTOIOTJSITEBS.]

MODERN VETEKINAliY TllACTICE.

[CBIB-BlTINGk

afloril3 any probability of aucccsa, is to riJe ]
uith n strong curb ami sharp bit ; to have tlio
horse always firmly in band : and, it bo will
run away, and the place will admit of it, to
give bim (si)ariiig neitbcr curb, whip, nor
epur) a groat doal more running than be hUos.
Tborougbly trained borsc3, bowever, bavo no
habit of this kind.

VICIOUS TO CLEAN.

There are a great many horses quiet to ride
that are very difGcult to clean. The origin of
this is, probably, some maltreatment. la
YOung animals, the skin is very delicate. If
they have been curried with a too sharp comb,
or rubbed too hard with an uneven brush, the
recollection of the torture they may have felt
makes them impatient, and even vicious,
durino- every succeeding operation of the kind.
Many grooms, likewise, seem to delight in
producing these exhibitions of uneasiness and
vice ; although when they are carried a little
too far, and endanger the limbs of the grooms,
the animals that have been almost aggravated
into these exhibitions of irritation are bru-
tally kicked and punished.

This, however, is a vice wliich may be con-
quered. If the animal is dressed with a light
hand, and whisped rather than brushed, and
the places where the skin is most sensitive are
avoided as much as thorough cleanliness will
allow, he will gradually lose the recollection of
former ill-treatment, and may become tract-
able and quiet to be cleaned. Strapping up the
fore leg is a plan now adopted for the cure of
this vice.

VICIOUS TO SHOE.

Nothing can be more annoying to a traveller
than having a horse of this description. Meet-
ing with an accident on the road, which dc-
mands the attention of the smith, this func-
tionary is applied to, and, necessarily, dislikes
the job as much as the traveller would himself.
In nine cases out of ten, this vice has been
caused by want of patience, and by injudicious
management at the commencement of the
shoeing of the horse ; and it is, in reality, a
Very serious vice. It not only exposes the
animal to occasionally severe injury from his
own struggles, but also from the correction of
the irritated smith, whose limbs, and even life
2t

being in jeopardy, is Bomctimos a little too
beavy-handeii in his mode ot correction. Such
a horse is very liable, and without any lault oi
the smith, to bo pricked and lamed in shoeing;
and if the habit should bo confirmed, and it
becomes necessary to cast bim, or put him in
the trevis, the owner may bo assured that no
long time will elapse before some formidable
and even fatal accident will take place. 1;,
therefore, mild treatment will not correct the
vice, the animal cannot be got rid of too soon.
" Horses, however, that have been vicious for
a lifetime, are rendered quiet to shoe in one,
two, or three lessons of taming. Indeed,
upon the first instance of being thrown down,
and thoroughly handled while in the horizontal
position, the smith can shoe them with the
greatest ease."

Horses have many unpleasant habits in the
stable and on the road, which cannot be said
to amount to vice, but which materially lessen
their value.

CRIB-BITING.

The only remedy for this vice is a muzzle,
with bars across the bottom, wide enough to
enable the animal to eat his corn and pull
his hay, but not to grasp the edge of the
manger. If this be worn a very long time,
the horse may, possibly, forget the habit; but,
in the majority of cases, the desire returns
with the power of gratifying it.

Most of the other bad habits and vices
of the horse, have been remarked upon in their
appropriate places in previous portions of this
work.

This is the proper place to notice Dr. Bunt-
ing's patent break for harness horses, whicii is,
perhaps, the most complete invention that has
yet been made public for the purpose of sub-
duing vicious horses, and the training of
colts. " The principle," says the editor of The
Horse, " is the same as that in the old thrash-
ing machine, in which horses are placed be-
tween poles from a centre, and driven round in
a circle. Dr. B. has improved upon the machine
by the addition of a cart, or carriage, which is
fixed to the end of each pole, &c., having
strong bars of wood, of about fourteen feet in
length, placed at their extremities. These bara
are made *to be' movable, to admit the
borso between them; and to these bara the

345

MEDICIJIES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[medicines.

horse is strapped witli strong straps above and
below. The driver sits upon one of the poles,
and, with strong driving reins attached to the
horse, and a good whip, he can break in one
or more horses with the utmost ease. Dr.
Bunting's plan, in combination with that of
Mr. Earey, will meet every case of restiveness
that can enter into the perverse disposition of
any horse, because it combines the several
systems of coursing, driving, and, if necessary,
riding also, at one and the same time, by the
addition of a stable-leg in the saddle, provided
the leg be furnished with post-boy's leather
guards to protect the limbs from being crushed
against the poles, without the possibility of
danger or mischief to the animal through
plunging, rearing, or kicking ; since the weight
of the wheels, and the strength of the appa-

ratus, will immediately exhaust his strength
for evil, and prevent that last resource of vice,
the throwing down of himself. By these
means any description of horse can be broken-
in with the utmost facility, and with much
greater quickness than has ever yet been at-
tained. The slug can be roused, the impetuous
restrained, and the kicker and the biter will
soon be convinced of the uselessness of their
utmost efforts. This apparatus can be made
to hold several 'horses at the same time. A
common capstan-head, to move backwards a3
well as forwards, will answer the purpose.
Dr. Bunting has found that poles, of seven
yards in length, are the most appropriate for
the machine, since longer poles would be too
elastic, and shorter ones would too much cir-
cumscribe the size of the circle."

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MEDICINES, EMPLOYED IN THE TREATMENT OF THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

5

xy

3

VllJ

9

iij

Err.

XX

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
The weights and measures used in the com-
pounding of medicines, are troy weight and
wine measure, which are divided and charac-
terised as shown in the subjoined tables.

Troy Weight.
The Pound (lb.) contains 12 ounces
" Ounce ... 8 drachms
" Drachm ... 3 scruples
" Scruple . . .20 grains

Wine Measure.

The Gallon (longum) contains 8 pints viij

" Pint . . .16 fluid ounces fl % xvj

" Fluid ounce . 8 fluid drachms fl 5 viij

" Fluid drachm . 60 minims . . w\^ Ix

AcACiyE GuMMi — Gum-arabic.

Gum is a thick, transparent, tasteless fluid,
which exudes from certain species of trees, and
is adhesive, and gradually hardens without
losing its transparency. It is chiefly obtained
from different species of the mimosa, particu-
346

larly M. Nilotica, a native of Egypt and Arabia,
whence it takes the name of gum-arabic. Its
specific gravity is about 1-4. It is not changed
by exposure to the air, but is deprived of its
colour by the action of the sun. By heat ifc
becomes soft, and is speedily reduced to the
state of charcoal, which enters largely into its
composition. Its constituent parts are carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, with smaller proportions
of nitrogen and lime. The oxygen is much
less in quantity than the saccharine matter. '

Gum readily dissolves in water ; and the so-
lution, which is thick and adhesive, is known
by the name of mucilage. It is soluble also
iu the vegetable acids. Sulphuric acid decom-
poses it, and converts it into water, acetic acid^
and charcoal. With the assistance of heat,
muriatic acid and nitric acid produce a similar
cflect. It is insoluble iu alcohol and ether.
Such are the chief properties of gum-arabic,
which is gathered in July and August.

Medicinal Uses. — Mucilaginous, chiefly used
to form a vesicle for the exhibition of active

MEDICINES.]

MODERN VETEllINAKT PlJArxiCE.

[medicines.

remedios ; one to two onncoa being dissolved in
about :i pint and a-half of water.

AciDUM AcETicuM— yic<'/i<j Acid—Vinejar.
Vinegar is a liquid of a reddish or yellowish
colour, haviniij a pleasant sour taste, and an
agreeable odour. Its specific gravity varies
from 10135 to 10-251 ; aud it ditlers also in its
other properties, according to tho liquid form
in which it has been procured. It is very sub-
ject to decomposition ; but Scheclo discovered,
that if it is made to boil for a few moments, it
may be kept afterwards for a long time without
alteration. Besides acetic acid and water,
vinegar contains several other ingredients, such
as mucilage, tartar, a colouring matter, and
often also two or more vegetable acids. "When

' commonly called muriatic acid gas, or, in con-
j formity to more modern nomenclature, hy-
I droehloric aciil gas. ^luriatic acid may also
readily bo procured by acting upon common
salt with sulphuric acid ; the evolved gas must
be received over mercury. It was iirnt ob-
tained pure by Dr. Priestley, but its com-
position was discovered by Scheele, and after-
wards most ably investigated by Davy. Mu-
riatic acid gas extinguishes flame ; is readily
absorbed by water, which takes up iSO times its
bulk, and has a specidc gravity increase from
1* to 1'210. Thus dissolved in water, it forms
the liquid muriatic acid or spirits of salts ;
and may easily be procured by distilling a
mixture of dilute sulphuric acid and common
salt, as directed in the London Pharmacopoeia.

distilled at a temperature not exceeding that of I The marine acid in commerce has a straw

colour; but this is owing to accidental im-
purity ; for it does not obtain in the acid
produced by the impregnation of water with
the aeriform acid. The muriatic acid is one of
those longest known, and some of its com-
pounds are among those salts with which we are
most familiar. It should be kept in stoppered
bottles, and the proof of its goodness is in its
weight.

Medicinal Uses. — Caustic applied externally,
and the best -we have in every case where a
caustic is required. It is most commonly used
as a solvent for oxymuriate of mercury, in th*
liquor hydrargijris oxymuriates.

boiling-water, till about two-thirds of it have
passed over, all these impurities are left be-
hind, and the product is pure acid diluted with
vrater.

Medicinal Uses. — Very useful in sprains or
bruises. Equal parts of boiling-water and cold
vinegar form a good fomentation. Extract of
lead or baysalt may be added with advantage.
As an inward remedial agent vinegar is rarely
used, except in large doses, and even then it
Las very little power.

AciDUM Aeseniosum — Arsenic.

As some veterinarians still continue to use
this mineral as a tonic, we introduce it here.
In the metallic state it is of a bluish-white
colour, subject to tarnish, and to become first
yellowish, then black, by exposure to air. It is
brittle, and, when broken, exhibits a laminated
texture. Its specific gravity is 5'7G3. In close
vessels it sublimes entire at 356° Fahr., but
burns with a small flame, if respirable air be
present.

Medicinal Uses. — As a tonic, of from ten to
twenty grains daily ; but it is not a safe medi-
cine. It is used also to cure ulcers. But there
are both better tonics and safer caustics to be
found.

AciDUM MuEiATicuM — Muriatic Acid —
Spirit of Salts.

"When equa. volumes of hydrogen and
chlorine gases are mixed and exposed to light,
they combine and produce a sour compound,

AciDUM NiTnicuM — Nitric Acid — Aqua
Fortis

The two principal constituent parts of our
atmosphere — oxygen and nitrogen gases — when
in certain proportions, are capable, under
particular circumstances, of combining che-
mically into one of the most powerful acids —
the nitric. If these gases be mixed in a proper
proportion in a glass tube about a line in
diameter, over mercury, and a series of electric
shocks be passed through them for some hours,
they will form nitric acid; or, if a solution of
potash be present with them, nitrate of potash
will be obtained. The constitution of this
acid may be further proved, analytically, by
driving it through a red-hot porcelain tube, as
thus it will be decomposed into oxygen and
nitrogen gases. Eor all practical purposes,
however, the nitric acid is obtained from nitrate

3i7

MEDICINES.]

THE HOESE, AJTD

[medicines.

of potash, from which it is expelled by sulphu-
Iric acid.

Take Dried Nitrate of Potash . 2 lbs.
„ Sulphuric Acid (by weight) 2 „
Mix them in a glass retort ; distil the Ditric
acid off by means of a sand bath, till a red
vapour arises ; then having added another
ounce of the dried nitrate of potash, continue
the distillation. When these are heated toge-
ther, a double decomposition takes place. The
dry sulphuric acid unites to the potash, and
forms sulphate of potash of what remains in
the retort; whilst the nitric acid disengaged,
unites with the water, rising in the state of
vapour: these become condensed in the re-
ceiver, and form liquid nitric acid.

Medicinal Uses. — Caustic and stimulant ; as
the former, it is applied alone ; as the latter,
in combination with tar. It destroys all
fungous excrescences by deadening them, and
making them slough off.

AciDUM Htdeocianicum — Priissic Acid.

JPriissic acid, in chemistry and the arts, is
one of the most important of the acids. It
was discovered by accident about the be-
ginning of the last century, by Diesbach, a
chemist of Berlin. This gentleman, wishing
to precipitate a decoction of cochineal with
an alkali, got some potash on which he had
distilled several times his animal oil ; and as
there was some sulphate of iron in the de-
coction, the liquor instantly exhibited a beau-
tiful blue in the place of a red precipitate.
Hence he saw the method of producing the
same substance at pleasure ; and it soon be-
came an object of commerce, and obtained
the name of Prussian blue, from the place
where it was discovered. This substance is
now formed, chiefly, during the decomposi-
tion of animal substances in high tempera-
tures. In a concentrated state it is a deadly
poison, and a few drops of it will kill a large
animal.

Medicinal Uses. — A powerful sedative, and
admirable in ahaying the excitement of the
rervous system, "In doses of six drops,"
says Mr. Touatt, "largely diluted, it abates
both pulmonary and gastric irritation. It
may be worth trying in the form of enema, in
cases of letanus. It may also be given by
the mouth in the same disease. The author of
348

this work was the first who applied the hydro-
cyanic acid, for the purpose of allaying irrita-
tion of the skin in dogs. It seldom fails of
producing the desired effect, and is similarly
effective in subduing itchiness and mange in
the horse."

AciDUM .SiTLPHURicuM — Sulpliuric Acid —
Oil of Vitriol.

Sulphuric acid is generally procured by burn-
ing a mixture of sulphur and nitre in chambers
lined with lead. The sulphur burning in the
atmospheric air of the chamber, forms sulphu-
ric acid gas. The nitre gives rise to the nitric
oxide, which, with the oxygen of the air, pro-
duces nitrous acid gas. These two gases,
from the moisture present, form a white solid,
which is instantly decomposed in the water,
when the nitrous acid reverts to the state of
nitre oxide, having transferi-ed one additional
proportion of oxygen to the sulphureous acid,
forming sulphuric acid, which uniting with the
water, forms liquid sulphuric acid. It is a
liquid somewhat of an oily consistence, trans-
parent and colourless as water, without any
smell, and of a very strong acid taste. AVhen
applied to animal or vegetable substances, it
very soon destroys their texture.

Medicinal Uses. — Caustic and stimulative,
applied externally, but not very often used
alone, entering more into combinations.

Alumina et Potassje Super Sulphas —
Super Sulphate of Alum and Fotash.

This is a salt of alum. Potash and sulphu-
ric acid are found native in some places ; but
the greater quantity of the alum used in com-
merce is prepared from alum ores. By ex-
posing these to atmospheric air, the oxygen
unites to the sulphur of the sulphuret of iron
present, and becomes converted into sulphuric
acid, and then combining with the alumine,
the alum effloresces. This is subsequently
evaporated, and then set aside to crystallise.

Medicinal Uses. — Astringent ; this is only
used for the horse as an external application
in the formula.

AcoNiTi PoLiA — Leaf of Aconite, or Monk''s
Hood.
This is a perennial plant, cultivated in our
gardens, flowering in June, but found native

ITEDICIXES.]

MODER-X VETEHINAIJY PRACTICE.

ME0ICIXE8.

in the inoiintainous parts of Gonnaiiy. It
should bo gathorod when tho llowora ap-
pf a r.

JItJi'cinal Uses.— r\ns, like ftU tho other
nnivotics used by tho luiinan subject, produces
no such elTect in tho horso. In doses of one and
n-half to two drachms, repeatedly given, it will
produce efforts to vomit, accompanied with
much general irritation.

Adei'S — Ilog^s Lard.
Medicinal Uses. — Emollient, and used for
the formation of ointment.

AjjCOUOTr-r-Jiecti/ted Spirits.

This spirit is sometimes given to revive a
horse that is sinking from extraordinary exer-
tion ; but it must, indeed, be an extraordinary
occasion when wo would recommend its use.

Aloes Caballina — Horse Aloes are Cape

Aloes.

Aloe Spicata — Spiked, or Socotrine Aloes.

Aloe Vulgaius Extractum — Common, or

Barhadoes Aloes.

The general nature of these three kinds of
aloes is nearly the same, the difierence being
only in the difterent proportions of the ex-
tracted gummy matter compared with the resin-
ous. The smell and taste reside principally
in the extracted matter as to their virtues, the
resin being nearly inert.

The leaves of the plant are cut off, ex-
pressed, and the juice evaporated in the sun
till of a fit consistence, which is then put into
packages.

True Socotrine aloes are very scarce. They
are brought to this country wrapped in skins,
from the island of Socotra. Such as are now
sold for Socotrine, is the produce of the spiked
aloe of the Cape of Good Hope.

The term Caballina, applied to the Cape
aloes, is for the sake of distinction, although
it is believed that the same plant yields this,
and what is now sold as Socotrine, differing
only in quality. Cape aloes are imported in
chests of two to four hundred pounds' weight
each, enveloped in buffalo hides. The finest
Barbadoes are brought in gourds, or calabashes,
from the island of the same name, and contain
from twenty to fifty-six pounds each. An
inferior quality comes in casks.

J/idiri/ial Vsps. — Purgative and nltcrativo;
tho first in doses of four to eight drachma,
tho latter in doses of ono to three drachms.
Tho efiect of Capo aloes seems equal to any of
the others.

Ammonia Mxinw^— Muriate oj Ammunia,
Sal Ammoniac.

A saline concrete, formed by tho union of
muriatic acid with ammonia. It is obtained
from several sources. First, found native;
second, prepared from camels' dung ; third,
which is the principal, from soot, bones, ani-
mal matter, known to contain the volatile
alkali, as horn, &c. The process is as follows.
The animal matter is placed in an iron cylin-
drical still, to which is attached a leaden re-
ceiver, cooled by a refrigeratory, which is its
cover, and contains about four inches in depth
of water ; heat being a])plied, distillation is al-
lowed to go on. The oil which rises to the
surface of the distilled liquor being removed, to
the residue — which is impure alkaline solution
— is added sulphuric acid, and a sulphate of
ammonia is formed ; to this is added common
salt, when a double decomposition takes place,
muriate of ammonia, and sulphate of soda, be-
ing formed through chemical agency. These
being in solution, the last salt is crystallised,
and the first sublimes into cakes.

Medicinal Uses. — liefrigerant, applied ex-
ternally, dissolved in vinegar, in infiammatory
swellings, when cold is the required object. It
is now used internally, but it hardly merits a
notice here.

[It may not be irrelevant to observe, that a
solution of any neutral salt in water, lowers the
temperature of it by robbing it of a portion of
its caloric, to liquefy the salt ; but the solution
will acquire a mean of temperature equal to
tho surrounding medium in which it is placed,
in the course of time, therefore it should bo
used as soon as made].

A>'tiiem:is — Camomile.

Medicinal Uses. — This is the mildest tonic
in veterinary practice. It is given in doses of
one or two drachms, to ascertain whether tho
febrile stage of the disease has passed away,
and to suggest the administration of gentian,
which is a more powerful tonic, and is fre-
quently given to the horse.

319

■StilpJiate of

3j:edicines.]

AnTIMONII SuLPnUBETUM-

Antimony.

Medicinal Uses. — Alterative and vermifuge ;

but of very little effect. Much used amongst

grooms, combined with sulphur and nitrate of

potash. Dose from half an ounce to one ounce.

AiifTiMONii Taetaeizatum — Tartarised Anti-
onony — Emetic Tartar.

Medicinal Uses. — Febrifuge in doses of half
a drachm to two drachms, generally in combi-
nation with nitre, &e. Large doses will not, in
the horse, produce nausea, even to the quantity
of an ounce.

AKCHUSiE Eadis — Alkanet Root.

The root of a perennial plant, growing in the
south of Europe.

Medicinal Uses. — Merely used for the sake
of its colouring matter, which it readily yields
to oils, fats, spirits, &c. ; but not to water.

Argenti Niteas — Nitrate of Silver — Lunar
Caustic.

Lunar caustic is the old name for nitrate of
silver, melted and cast into cylindrical pieces
about the size of small black-lead pencils, for
the use of surgeons.

Take Silver 1 oz.

„ Nitric Acid . . . . 1 11 „
„ Distilled Water . . . 2 fl „
Mix the nitric acid with the water, and dissolve
the silver with the mixture on a sand-bath ;
then gradually raise the heat until the nitrate
of silver becomes dry ; melt this in a crucible
over a slow fire until ebullition ceases; then
pour into moulds.

Decomposition. — Nitric acid is composed of
oxygen and azote ; and when the silver is dis-
solved, a portion of the acid is decomposed, its
azote escaping into the air with the oxygen,
which forms with it fumes of red nitrous acid
gas. The oxygen of the decomposed acid
unites with the silver to form into an oxide,
whilst the undccomposed acid dissolves, and
converts it into nitrate of silver.

Medicinal Uses. — Caustic. This appears to
have given place to less expensive preparations,
such as the nitric acid, and the sulphate of
copper. It is, liowever, much to be preferred
to the hot iron, or to any acid, for destroying
350

THE HOESE, AND

[ilEDICIJfES.

the part in the horse, bitten by a mad dog.
Next to the butyr of antimony, it is the best
application for the removal of fungus ex-
crescences.

BoLiJS Armenia — Armenian Sole.

In mineralogy, bole is a mineral, found chiefly
in Italy, Silesia, and the isle of Lemnos. It is
generally of a dusky yellow or brown colour,
of an earthy texture, and acquires a polish
by friction. It has a greasy feel, and adheres
strongly to the tongue. On being put into
water it absorbs a little, and breaks into small
fragments with a crackling noise.

Medicinal Uses. — Slightly astringent and
absorbent. It is chiefly used for colouring
ointments and powders, and for lowering the
effect of other active remedies, as sulphate of
copper and alum, when used as astringent
powders, in case of grease, &c., &c.

Camphoeje — Camphor.

This concrete juice is extracted from the
wood of the laurus ca7nphora. Pure camphor
is white and pellucid, unctuous, of a bitterish
aromatic taste, and of a fragrant smell. It is
extremely volatile and combustible.

The roots of zedoary, thyme, rosemary, sage,
the linula Jiellenium, the anemone, the pasque
flower, or pulsa tilla, and other vegetables, give
camphor by distillation. It is observable, that
all these plants afford a much larger quantity
of camphor when the sap has been suffered to
pass to the concrete state by several months'
drying. Thyme and peppermint, slowly dried,
yield much camphor; but the roots and
branches of the camphor tree are its most
natural produce.

Camphor is not soluble in water in any per-*
eeptible degree, though it communicates its
smell to that fluid, and may be burned as it
floats on its surface. Alcohol, ethers, and oils,
dissolve it.

The addition of water to the spirituous or
acid solutions of camphor instantly separates it.

Camplior has long been a valuable article in
the materia medica, being one of the most effi-
cacious diaphoretics, and much esteemed for its
use in malignant fevers and epidemical diseases.
Camphoric acid is the result of the change
effected on camphor by repeatedly distilling
nitric acid from it.

UEDICINES.]

MODEii^' VETElilXAIiV i'liACTlCE.

l,M£0I0IK£8.

It forms a variety of salts called camphor-
atcs.

Medicinal Uses. — Fi'brifiif,'^, internally ;
Btimuhuit, externally ; iu doses of ouo drachm to
two drachms, combined with nitro and tartarised
antimony. As an external aj)i)lication it is used
iu the euinpound soap liniment. Mixed with
opium, it is now used by jMr.W. Spooner iu cases
of locked-jaw. Tho doses are from one to two
drachms. Professor Morton considers it a
narcotic. Combined with oil of turpentine, it
is elfective iu relieving stilf joints after labour.

CAXTHAnis — Blistering Fly.

Cuntliaridcs, or blistering flies, in the Mate-
ria JIt'dica, are insects used to raise blisters,
and dill'er iu their size, shape, aud colour.
The largest are about an inch long. Some are
of a pure azure colour ; others of that of pure
gold ; aud others, again, have a mixture of gold
and azure colours, all brilliant aud extremely
beautiful. They are more common in hot
countries, though they are occasioually to be
met with iu all parts of Europe, at some
seasons of the year ; particularly among wheat
and on meadows, upon the leaves of the ash,
the poplar, the willow, &c. They abound in
Spain, Italy, and France, on several kinds of
trees. Those from Spain are obtained by
shaking the trees on which they are found,
and catching them in a cloth spread under-
neath. The}^ are then killed by the steam of
boiled vinegar, and dried by the sun or stove.
The active principle appears to reside in an
oil Avhich they contain.

Medicinal Uses. — Vesicant, applied in the
formulce tmguentum caniJiaridis infusium, &c.
Eeceutly the application of this liy has come
into more general use. Combined with vege-
table bitters, it is recommended as a stimu-
lating tonic in cases of debility. It has also
been applied to the curing of glanders. The
dose is from five to eight grains, given daily ;
but when diuresis supervenes, it must not be
used for a day or two.

Capsici Bacc-S — Capsicum Berries.

Capsicum, or Guinea pepper, is the fruit of
a berry. There are five species, the principal
ot which are — 1. Capsicum annum, the common
long-podded capsicum, which is cultivated iu
our gardens. Of this there is one variety

with red, and another with yellow fruit.

2. Capsicum baccatum, bird pi-ppur, rising with
a shrubby stalk, four or fivo feet liiyli ; tho
fruit grows at tho division of tho branches,
standing erect ; these are small, oval, and of a
bright red, and form what is called Cayenne
pepper. — 3. Capsicum grossum, the bill pepper.
Tho fruit of this ia red, and is tho only kind
fit for pickling.

Medicinal Uses. — Valuable as stimulants,
and highly to bo recommended iu cases of
cold. The dose is from a scruple to half a
drachm.

Caeui Semina — Caraway Seeds.

These alone, or in a state of combination
with ginger, are tho best stimulants used in
veterinary practice.

Catechu Exteactum — Extract of Catecnu —
Catechu.

Catechu is a brown astringent substance
formerly known by the name of Japan earth.
It is a dry extract, prepared from the wood of
a species of sensitive plant, the mimosa catechu.
It is imported from the East Indies. As a
medicine it has been recommended as a
powerful astringent, and a tincture of it is
used for this purpose; but its aqueous solu-
tion is less irritating. Made into troches,
with gum-arabic and sugar, it is an excellent;
preparation ; and in this way is said much to
assist the clearness of the voice, aud to be
remarkably serviceable in disorders of tho
throat.

Medicinal Uses. — Astringent. Dose from
two drachms to four drachms, in combination
with creta preparata. For wounds it is an
excellent application, and with aloes quickens
their healing wonderfully.

Ceeta Peepaeata — Prepared Chalk.

Chalk is a white, dry, calcareous earth.
Where it is found at all, it is the prepon-
derating substance, and may, therefore, be
considered as characterising a peculiar species
of mineral formation. It occurs in strata for
the most part nearly horizontal, alternating
with thin layers of flint nodules, and with the
same irregularly dispersed through its sub-
stance. It contains iu abundance the relics
of marine organised bodies, such as echiuites,

351

MEDICIITES.]

THE HOESE, AND

[medicines.

glossopetr(B, pectinites, &c., and also, not unfre-
quently, the bard parts of amphibious and land
animals, as the beads and vertebrae of croco-
diles, and the teeth of elephants. Its uses are
very extensive. The more compact kinds are
used as building stone, and are burnt to lime ;
nearly all the buildings in London being
cemented with chalk-mortar. It is also largely
employed in the polishing of metals and glass ;
in constructing moulds to cast metal in ; by
carpenters and others as a material to mark
with ; and by starch-makers and chemists to
dry precipitates on, for which it is peculiarly
qualified on account of the remarkable facility
with which it absorbs water.

Prepared chalk is made by washing common
chalk in water, and allowing the grosser parti-
cles, as sand, &c., to fall to the bottom ; whilst
the firm particles floating on the water, are
poured off with it into another vessel, and then
permitted to subside, and are afterwards made
into nobs, and dried.

Medicinal Uses. — Absorbent, anti-acid. It
is either given alone, or in combination with
kino, catechu, &c., in quantities of from four
ounces to six ounces in diarrhoea. To ulcers
that discharge a thin and ichorous matter it
is successfully applied.

Copaiba — Balsam Capivi.

Copaiha, or balsam of capivi, is a liquid resi-
nous juice which comes from the trunk of the
copaifera halsamum. It is distilled in water,
and yields a quantity of limpid essential oil.

Medicinal Uses. — Diuretic; but, from its
expensivsuess, it is little used, as its proper-
ties are little difierent from those of other
diuretics.

Ceotoni Semina — Croton Seeds.
The Croton-nut has only recently been
introduced into veterinary practice, although,
as a very strong purgative, it has been used in
India from time immemorial. There are
many species of the plant which produce the
seeds, the principal of which are : — I. The tinc-
torium, which grows naturally in the south of
Trance, and from which is made the turnsole
used for colouring wines and jellies. This is
made of the juice lodged between the empale-
ment and the seeds; and if rubbed on cloths,
at tirst appears green, but soon changes to

352

a purple. If these cloths are put into water
they will dye it of a claret colour. The rags
thus dyed are brought to this country, and
sold under the name of turnsole. — 2. The
sevife/'um, or tallow tree, is about the height
of the cherry tree ; the leaves are heart-shaped,
and of a deep red colour. . The fruit is enclosed
in a cover like the chestnut ; and consists of
three white grains, each having a capsule, and
within that a stone. This stone is surrounded
with a white pulp, which is not the tallow ;
for that is expressed from the kernels, and the
Chinese make their candles of it. — 3. The
aromaticum, with heart-shaped serrated leaves,
and an arborescent stem. The bark of this
tree is the same with the cascarilla and eleu-
tlieria. It is a strong bitter, and has been
used in intermittent fevers in preference to
the Peruvian bark. — 4. The cascarilla de-
scribed by Dr. Wright, is the wild rosemary
shrub of Jamaica; but its bark has none of
the qualities with the preceding. — 5. The
Tigleiim ; one drop applied to the tongue acts
as a powerful cathartic. This is the one that
is used in horse-practice.

Medicinal Uses. — Cathartic, in doses, from
ten to thirty grains in a ball. It appears from
experiment from the meal, or rather cake, which
remains in the press after the expression of the
oil from the seeds, that the active principle
does not reside so much in the oil as in a
peculiar resin. Its effects are rather uncer-
tain. On account of the rapidity of its opera-
tive powder, it is given in staggers and locked-
jaw. Prom twenty to forty drops put on the
tongue of a horse produces purging ; but the
membrane of the mouth is often violently in-
flamed by it.

CuPEi SuBACETATis. ^RUGO — Sulacetate of

Copper — Verdigris.

Verdigris is principally made in the south
of Prance, by putting plates of copper among
the residuum of the grape, after the expression
of its juice. By frequently sprinkling them
with water, and allowing the grape-stalks to
ferment, a thick coating of verdigris is formed
on the surface of each plate, and is scraped off'
by means of a knife, then put into bags, and
exposed to the sun and air to dry.

Medicinal Uses. — Detergent and escariotic.
It has been administered internally, but it is

SrEDICINIS.]

MODEKN VETERINAKY PllACTICE.

[medicikei.

a dangiTOus nunlicine. Externally it forms n
mild ciiustio. WIkmi boiled with vinegar and
honey, it makes the Egyptianm of the farriers,
which is good in ulcerated mouth, but not so
good as some other remedies.

Cupui SuLi'iiAs— ^«//>7/rt/e of Copper-
Blue Vitriol.

This is produced by the union of sulphuric
acid and copper. It is also })rocured by wash-
ing copper pyrites, and exposing them to the
action of air and moisture. AVhea required
for these purposes, it may be made in the
same manner as sulphate of zinc, by putting
pieces of copper into diluted sulphuric acid,
contained in a glass vessel, and when the effer-
vescence has ceased, filtering the solution
through paper, and boiling it down till a
pellicle appears ou the surface ; then setting
it aside that crystals may form, which are to
be dried in bibulous paper.

Decomposition. — Concentrated, it does not
act on the metals at the ordinary temperature
of tbe atmosphere. These require to be diluted
when action goes on rapidly ; the water is de-
composed, its oxygen unites to the copper,
and converts it into an oxide, which is dis-
solved by the sulphuric acid, and forms
sulphate of copper, whilst its hydrogen escapes
in the form of gas.

Medicinal Uses. — Tonic, internally ; stimu-
lant and escharotic externally, given in doses
of from one to two drachms, combined with
ginger, as a general tonic, in the form of balls ;
but when given, in cases of glanders and farcy,
in doses of from four to eight drachms, it is
advisable to make it into a draught, by dissolv-
ing it in about two pints of water, and adding
an ounce of linseed meal to the solution. Its
value in these diseases, however, is almost
entirely considered to have ceased. Exter-
nally, it is applied either in solution or in
powder. When applied in solution, it is in
the proportion of two drachms to a pint, when
it acts as a gentle stimulant. An ounce dis-
solved in the same quantity converts it into a
mild caustic. Eor canker in the foot, the blue
vitriol is a good application.

Digitalis Folia — Fox-Glove Leaf, or
Digitalis.

Of the digitalis, or fox-glove, there are
2 z

several species, five of which are herbaceous,
biennial, and perennial plants. Tlio herbaceous
species rise two or three feet high, crowned
with spikes of yellow, iron-coloured, or purplo
(lowers. The canariensis, or shrubby sort,
rises five or six feet high, having spear-shajjcd
rough leaves, the branches being terminated
with flowers growing in loose spikes. All the
species are easily raised by seeds. An oint-
ment made of the llowers of purple fox-glovo
and fresh butter, is commended by some sur-
geons for scrofulous ulcers. Taken inter-
nally, the plant is a purgative and emetic;
and is, therefore, only to be administered to
robust constitutions. An infusion of two
drachms of the leaf in a pint of water, given
in half-ounce doses, every two hours, till it
causes vomiting or purging, is recommended
in dropsy, particularly that of the breast. The
leaves are the part of the plant used medici-
nally, which should be gathered just as the
plant is in flower, and dried quickly in the shade;
or, what is still better, secluded entirely from
light. Let them bo powdered, and kept in
well-stopped bottles for use. .

Medicinal Uses. — Sedative, given in doses of
from half a drachm to two drachms, in the form
of a ball. The effect of digitalis requires watch-
ing; although the over-dose will only lower the
vital energies of the patient in cases of intermit-
tent fever. In the form of tincture it is ex-
cellent for inflammation of the eyes ; and as a
sedative it is nearly equal to opium. An infu-
sion of it has, also, been found serviceable in
mange.

ExTEACTUM Belladonna — Extract of Deadly
Nightshade.

This is prepared by bruising the leaves of
the plant in a stone mortar, sprinkling a little
water on them, and then pressing out the juice
and evaporating. It must stand until it ac-
quires a thick consistency.

Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant. It is only
used as an application to the eye, to cure a
morbid contraction of the iris, or rather its
circular fibres, in quantities of from two to five
grains.

EupnoEBii GuMMi Eesini — Euphorlium.
The name of resin is used to denote solid
inflammable substances, of vegetable origm,

353

MEDICINES.]

THE HORSE, AND

[medicines.

soluble in alcohol, usually affording much soot
by their combustion. They are likewise solu-
ble in oils, but not at all in water, and are
more or less acted on by the alkalies. All the
resins appear to be nothing more than volatile
oils, rendered concrete by their combination
with oxygen. Analysed by MM. Gay Lussac
and Thenard, resin was found to consist of

Carbon, . .75-944

Hydrogen . . 10-719 ) Water, 15-156.

Oxygen . . 13-373 j Hydrogen in excess, 8-9-
The resin of fir is known by the name of
rosin. Its properties are well known. Its
specific gravity is 1072. It melts readily;
burns with a yellow light, throwing ofi:' much
smoke. Eesin is insoluble in water, either hot
or cold, but very soluble in alcohol.

The plant which yields euphorbium is peren-
nial, succulent, and shrubby. It is obtained
by making incisions in the branches, from
which a lartious gum exudes, and concretes
into drops.

Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant. Eubefacient.
It is used externally, entering into the com-
pound unguentum cantharides. Internally it
is given as a diuretic, in doses of from five to
six drachms, made into a ball, with soft soap.
A preference, however, is given to the common
liquid turpentine.

Fekei Sulphas — Sulphate of Iron — Copperas.

Copperas is the green salt sulphate of iron ;
and the blue salt sulphate of copper is also
sometimes called copperas.

Take of Iron (by weight)
„ Sulphuric Acid .
„ "\A'ater .

8 oz.
8 „
4 „

Mix the sulphuric acid with the water, in a
glass retort, and to tliis add the iron in the
form of filings. When bubbles cease to escape,
filter the solution through paper, and evapo-
rate over a slow fire, so that, as it cools, crys-
tals may form. Having poured off" the super-
natant fluid, dry the crystals upon bibulous
paper.

Gentiana — Gentian.
Of this plant there are many species. The
most remarkable are the lutea, or common
gentian, the root of which is an excellent
stomachic bitter ; and the lesser centaury.
354

Decomposition. — Water consists of oxygen
and hydrogen, and a portion of it is decom-
posed by the action of the sulphuric acid and
iron. Its oxygen unites to iron, converting it
into an oxide of iron; before which the sul-
phuric acid will not act upon it, whilst its
hydrogen being set free, escapes in the form
of gas. The oxide of iron is then dissolved
by the sulphuric acid, and sulphate of iron is
formed.

Jiledicinal Uses. — Tonic ; combined with
ginger. — Carbonate of Iron is a mild tonic
given in doses of from two to four drachms. —
As a stomachic, and a tonic, gentian holds
the highest place in veterinary practice.
Four drachms of it, two of camomile, one
of ginger, and one of carbonate of iron,
make an admirable tonic ball. An applica-
tion of an infusion of gentian to putrid ulcers
is one of the best.

Gltcyeehiz^ Eadix — Zigfuoriee Boot.

The glycyrrliiza, or common liquorice sJirub,
has a long, thick, creeping root, striking several
feet deep into the ground. It is an annual, with
an upright, firm, herbaceous stalk, three or four
feet high, garnished with winged leaves, of four
or five pair of oval lobes, terminated by an odd
one ; and from the axillas, erect spikes of pale
blue flowers in July, are succeeded by short,
smooth pods. The root of this plant is the
useful part, being replete with a sweet, bal-
samic, pectoral juice, which is either extracted,
or the wood sold in substance. It is much
used in all compositions for coughs, and disor-
ders of the stomach ; but by far the greatest
quantity is used by brewers. The common
liquorice is cultivated in most countries of
Europe, for the sake of its root ; but in Spain
and Italy, and particularly in Sicily and Cala-
bria, it makes a considerable article of com-
merce with this country. Liquorice also
grows in great abundance in the Levant ; and
vast quantities of it are consumed there, in
making a decoction which is drunk cold in the
summer, in the manner of sherbet.

To prepare liquorice, the roots are boiled a
long time in water, till the fluid acquires a
deep yellow tincture ; and the water at length
evaporated till the remains assume consis-
tencv, when they are formed into sticks, which
are packed up with bay leaves, in the same

MIDICINES.J

MODERN VETEKINAllY PllACTICE.

[medicikes.

orilcr as rccoivod in Eiigliuul. The boiling
requires tlio utmost care and precaution, as
the juico takes an unpleasant smell ami llavour,
if burnt in the least degree. "Wo introduce it
bere, not on account of any value it has in
veterinary practice, but because, when dried
and ground, it is used for adding to bulk,
rather than for any other purpose.
MtJiciiial Uses. — Demulcent.

Hydrakgyki'M — QuicAsihe) — Mercuri/.

Mercury is a metal, which, in our climate,
is always lluid, but in intense cold it becomes
solid, and then resembles silver in appearance,
and is malleable. It is sometimes found na-
tive, but much more frequently combined with
sulphur, when it is denominated cinnabar. It
is separated from the sulphur by distillation
with quicklime, or iron filings. It is obtained
abundantly in the Austrian territories, and in
South America, and has a great affinity for
other metals. One hundred pounds of the ore
give about one hundred and throe pounds of
quicksilver.

Mtdicinal Uses. — Only employed for making
mercurial preparations.

Htdeaegtri Oxtmubiatis — Oxymuriaie of
Mercury — Corrosive Siihlimate.

Take of Purified Mercury (by weight) 2 lb.
„ Sulphuric Acid . . . . 30 oz.
„ Dried Muriate of Soda . . 4 lb.

Boil the mercury with the sulphuric acid in
a glass vessel, until the sulphate of mercury
becomes dry. Hub this, when it is cold, with
the muriate of soda, in an earthen mortar ;
then sublime in a glass, the heat being gra-
dually raised.

Decomposition. — When sulphuric acid and
purified mercury are boiled together, a portion
of the acid is decomposed and separated into
sulphurous acid oxygen; the former being dis-
sipated in the gaseous state, the latter com-
bines with the mercury, and converts it into
peroxide ; and this uniting with the undecom-
posed acid, a super-sulphate of peroxide, or
bifer sulphate of mercury, is formed. To this
the salt is added, when another decomposition
takes place, as follows.

We consider salt as a compound of chlo-
rate and sodium. This, when heated with the
bifer sulphate of mercury, is decomposed by it ;

tho sodium is converted into Boda bv its com-
bination with the oxygen from tho mercury
which is dissolved by tho sulphuric acid, and
forms sulphate of soda; whilst tho chlorino
unites with tho mercury, and forma peroxido
or chloride of mercury.

Medicinal Uses. — Caustic, applied exter-
nally, either mixed with grease or in solution,
as in tho formula, li(]uor hydrargyri oxy-
muriatis.

Iodine.
Iodine has only recently been introduced
into veterinary practice, but it has now ob-
tained a high reputation. In the Manual of
Pharmacy, by Professor Morton, the different
combinations in which iodiue may be used
are described. Under the name of diniodide
of copper, he describes it as an admirable tonic,
if combined with vegteable tonics, and espe-
cially small doses of cantharides. This combi-
nation Professor Spooncr and Mr. Davis have
applied with decided success, to the alleviatioa
of farcy, glanders, and nasal gleet.

Hydeakgyei SuBMuniA — Siihmuriate of
Mercury — Calomel.

Take of Purified Mercury (by weight) 4 lb.

Sulphuric Acid oO oz.

Muriate of Soda 1-Wb.

INIuriate of Ammonia . . . . 8 oz.

Boil 21b. of the mercury with tho sulphurio
acid in a glass vessel, until tho mercury
formed is dry. AYhen this is cold, triturate it
with the other 21b. of mercury in an earthen
mortar ; then add the muriate of soda, and rub
them together, until globules are no longer
visible. Afterwards reduce the sublimed
matter to a very fine powder ; pass it through
a sieve, and mix it very carefully with the
muriate of ammonia, previously dissolved in a
gallon of boiling distilled water; set it by, that
the powder may subside. Pour off the solution,
and wash the powder frequently with boiling
distilled water, until solution of ammonia
drops, and throws down precipitate ; lastly, let
it be reduced to a very fine powder.

Decomposition. — It is the same as the pre-
ceding article, with only this difference ; that
one-half of the chlorine unites with the fresh
portion of mercury added, so that the per or
bi-chloride becomes converted into chloride, or

355

MEDICINES,]

THE HOESE, AND

[medicines.

pro-chloride of mercury. The muriate of am-
monia appears to be added for the purpose of
dissolving any corrosive sublimate which may
be formed with the calomel.

Medicinal Uses. — Anthelmiatic, or vermi-
fuge and alterative ; for these it is given, in
doses of from one to two drachms, in the form
of a ball, at night, and a dose of aloes in the
morning. It is used in cases of surfeit, worms,
or mange ; also, sometimes, for chronic cough,
farcy, and jaundice. Taken alone, it is only
slightly purgative on the horse, and is given
in doses of from a scruple to a drachm. In
Girresting the violence of epidemic catarrh,
calomel has recently gained a high reputation.

Kino — Xi?io.

An extract, prepared from a non- descriptive
African tree.

Medicinal Uses. — Astringent, given in doses
of from two to four drachms, generally in com-
bination with chalk.

Lime.

Lime is one of those earthy substances
which exist in every part of the known world,
and is found purest in limestone, marble, and
chalk. None of these substances are lime, but
are capable of becoming so by being burnt in a
white heat.' — It may be also obtained perfectly
pure by burning calcareous spars, and also by
burning some pure white marbles. It may be
procured also in a state of purity by dissolving
oyster-shells in muriatic acid. It has been
ascertained by Sir H. Davy to consist of oxy-
gen and a metallic basis, which he denominates
calcium.

LiNi Semina — Linseed.

The seed of the common flax, a well-known
annual plant, which flowers in July ; the seed
ripens in September.

Medici^ial Uses. — Demulcent, given in any
quantity. Two ounces of the seed, boiled in two
pints of water for a short time, will form an
excellent jelly-like-fluid, for the administration
of any of the sulpliates. In cases of sore throat
or catarrh, aff"ection3 of the bowels or the
urinary organs, an infusion of it is frequently
given instead of water. Tliin gruel, however,
is to be preferred. As a poultice the meal
answers almost for every purpose.
356

Mteehje — Myrrh.

Myrrh is a gum resin brought from the Le-
vant and East Indies, and used in medicine. It
is hard, dry, glossy, of a reddish-brown colour,
with an admixture of yellow; transparent or
opaque ; of a peculiarly strong smell, and a
bitter, somewhat biting taste. "With water it
forms a yellow opaque solution, and by distilla-
tion yields an essential oil. It is imported
into this country in chests.

Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant, applied exter-
nally, in the form of tincture. United to the
tincture of aloes it may be applied to wounds
as a stimulative and digestive agent. In-
wardly, however, it is of little use, although,
when combined with opium, it is sometimes
administered in cases of chronic cough.

NicoTiANA — Tobacco.

Of this narcotic there are several kinds.
English tobacco seldom grows to more than
three feet in height, having smooth alternate
leaves upon short foot-stalks ; flowers in small
loose bunches on the top of the stalks, of a yellow
colour, appearing in July ; which are succeeded
by roundish capsules, ripening in the autumn.
Sir Walter Ealeigh, on his return from Ame-
rica, is said to have first introduced the smoking
of tobacco into England. In a house in which
he lived, at Islington, his arms are said still
to be seen, with a tobacco plant on the top of
the shield. It is remarkable that tobacco has
prevailed over the original name, petiim, in all
the European languages, with very little vari-
ation, and even in Tartary and Japan. To-
bacco is derived from the island of Tobago.
Petum is the Brazilian name.

Medicinal Uses. — Limited ; but, in the hands
of a good practitioner, may be rendered service-
able in extreme cases of costiveness, or in dan-
gerous colic. Let it never be used internally
for the promotion of a fine coat, or as an exter-
nal application for mange.

Oleum OLiviE — Olive Oil.

The olive tree is a native of the South of
Europe, cultivated in great abundance in
France and Spain. It seldom becomes large;
but two or three stems frequently rise from the
same root, from twenty to thirty feet in height,
putting forth branches almost their whole

MIDICIKES.]

MODERN VETEllIXAliY PUACTICE.

[UKUICIMKa.

length, oovoroil with a. groyish bark. The oil
ia produced from the ripo fruit wliieli is
gathered iu November.aiul iininodiately crushed
in a mill, tho stones of whicli aro kept so wide
as not to bruise the nut. The pulp is sub-
jected to the pressing bags, made of rushes;
and by means of gentle squeezing the best oil
flows first. A second oil is yielded by breaking
the mass, moistening it with warm water, and
turning it to the press. A third, and still in-
ferior sort, is obtained by boiling the residue,
or bv breaking, moistening, and fermenting it
in large cisterns, and again submitting it to
the full force of the press.

Medicinal Uses. — Aperient to an inconsider-
able extent in the horse. Emollient. It may
be given in the quantity of a pint. Over
castor oil it possesses no advantage. It enters
into the composition of liniments, &c.

OLEUii Picis Liquid.^— OiZ of Tar.

Take of Tai- .... 5 lbs.
„ Water 4 pints.

Distil from a retort with great care. "What
remains in the retort is pitch.

Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant and irritant.
This is only used as an external application,
either alone, or combined with olive oil, as in
the Linimentum Ficis Liquidce.

Oletjm SuLPnTJEATUii — Sulpliuratcd Oil.

Take of Washed Sulpliur . . 2 oz.
„ Olive Oil . . . .1 pint.

Heat the oil in a very large iron vessel, and
add the sulphur by degrees to it ; and keep
constantly stirring them with a spatula, till
they are combined. This is merely a solution
of sulphur and oil.

Medicinal Uses. — Used, in the language of
the laboratory, to kill the quicksilver in
making the Unguentum Hydrargyri Fortius.

OiErii TEItIBI^'TUINA — Oil of Turpentine.

Take of Common Turpentine . o lbs.
„ „ AVater . . . 4 oz.

Distil the oil from a copper alembic with
great care. "What remains in the retort is
resin.

Medicinal Uses. — Diuretic; stimulant ; given
in doses of from two drachms to one ounce;
this acts as a diuretic ; but in doses of from

tho intestines in cases of gripes. Applied to
the ttkiii, it is a violent irritant ; but combined
with olive oil, it forms a useful embrocation.

Oi'iL'M — Opium.

The wliito poppy, of which this is the pro-
duce, is a native of Asia; but is sometimes
found growing wild in England. Tho market
is principally supplied with opium from
Turkey, though the poppy is cultivated iu
almost all states in Europe. To obtain opium,
the half-ripe capsules have all, after sunset,
longitudinal excisions made in them. Tho
night dews favour the exudation of tho juice,
which is collected, in the morning, by means of
a small iron scoop. It is then deposited in an
earthen pot, where the whole is worked by
the hand, in the sunshine, until it has acquired
a considerable degree of spissitude. It is
then formed into cakes, which are laid in
basins to be further dried. Then they are
covered with tobacco, or poppy leaves, and
packed in chests, in which state they are im-
ported to this country.

Medicinal Uses. — Producing but little effect
on the horse; none as a narcotic; like the
narcotic used by the human subject, generally
acting as an irritant. It is, however, a power-
ful astringent, sedative, and anti-spasmodic.
In the treatment of tetanus, or locked-jaw, it
is greatly relied on in veterinarian practice. It
should, however, at all times, be administered
with caution. In cases of ophthalmia it is
useful, applied externally. If, in instances
where the cantharides, or blue vitriol, have
been used to too great an extent, there is no
drug equal to opium for quieting the disorder
they may have occasioned. It is adminis-
tered in the form of a ball, in doses of one or
two drachms, according to circumstances;
other medicines arc generally combined with it.

Petroleum — Barhadoes Tar.

This variety of bitumen is collected from
the surface of water, which exudes from the
sides of hills, in which pits are sunk for its
reception, and skimmed every week. It is the
same as naphtha — now a well-known liquid m
this country.

Medicinal Uses.— St'inm\ant. It is applied
externally, but possesses no advantage over

four ounces to eight, it acts as a stimulant to 1 common tar

357

MEDICIXES.]

THE HOESE. AFD

[medici>"es.

Pix NiGEA— JBZ«c/j FitcJi.

This is the residue in the retort after the
distillation of the oil from tar.

Medicinal Uses. — Slightly stimulant, and
adhesive; but seldom used.

Pix Liquida — Tar.

This is obtained by placing billets of the
Scotch fir in large stacks, which are closely
covered with turf, and to whicli fire is then ap-
plied. They are suffered to burn with a slow,
smothered flame ; during which time tar is
formed by the decomposition of the resinous
juice of the wood, which flows to the bottom,
and runs out at a small channel cut for the
purpose.

Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant applied exter-
nally, entering into the composition of Unguen-
tum Ficis Liquida. Melted with an equal
quantity of grease it makes the common stop-
ping of the farrier, and is extremely useful
for dressing bruised or wounded feet. Its
chief value, however, in veterinary practice
does not arise from its keeping out dirt and
water from the wounded part, but from its mol-
lifying influences on the horse itself, making
the part more elastic, yet softer, and less
likely to break away. It is the proper basis
of thrush ointment, and is also used as an
ingredient in the applications for mange. The
spirit of tar, combined with double the quan-
tity of fish oil, is one of the very best appli-
cations that can be made to hard and brittle
feet. Tar is sometimes given in doses of two
or three drachms, in cases of chronic cough.

Plumbi OxTDUii Semivitium — Semivitrijied
Oxide of Lead — Litharge.

Lead is a white metal of a considerably blue
tinge ; very soft and flexible ; not very tenacious.
Its sp. gr. is 11-35. It melts at 612 deg.

This oxide of lead is prepared by the action
of heat and air upon the metal. The lead is
placed upon a warm furnace in a hollow dish
made of ashes, and kept at a red heat with the
blast of a large pair of bellows directed on its
surface. An oxide soon appears, and is suc-
cessively formed by rakiug it, and exposing it
to a new surface.

All the oxides of lead are easily revived
with heat and carbon. Oxygen and lead com-
358

bine together in difierent proportions. If the
nitrate of lead be dissolved in a precipitation
produced by potash, the precipitate, when
dried, will become the yellow protoxide. If it
be somewhat vitrified, it constitutes litharge :
and combined with carbonic acid, it becomes
white lead, or ceruse. Lead, alloyed with an
equal weight of tin, ceases to be acted upon by
vinegar. Acetate and sub-acetate of lead have
a good eftecfc, as external applications, for in-
flamed surfaces, burns, scrofulous sores, and as
eye-washes. Lead, taken internallv. is very
injurious ; hence the diseases to whl,_ painters
are liable. Litharge, dissolved in wines, to
give them a sweet taste, is very mischievous.
Sulphuretted hydrogen will cause it to throw-
down a black precipitate.

Medicinal Uses. — In making the \\c^ov plumhi
suj^eracetatis. Eor the deleterious effects pro-
duced upon animals in the neighbourhood of
lead works, active purgatives, followed by opium,
are the most efi'ective remedies

Plumbi Supeeacetatis — Superacetate of
Lead.

Take of Carbonate of Lead » 1 lb.

„ Acetic Acid . . . 1| gallon.

Boil the carbonate of lead with the acid until it
is saturated, then filter it through paper, and
evaporate it until a pellicle appears. Set it
aside to crystallise from off the super natant
born fluid, and dry the crystals on blotting-
paper.

Medicinal Uses. — Cooling, applied externally
in the form of solution, for inflammation of the
eyes. Goulard's ointiDent, however, is a better
preparation for external and superficial inflam*
mation.

PoTASSiE NiTEAS — Nitrate of Fotasli — Nitre,

Nitre is the common name of the nitrate of
potash. It is known by the name of saltpetre,
and is found ready formed in the East Indies,
in Spain, in the kingdom of Naples, and else-
where, in considerable quantities ; but nitrate
of lime is still more abundant. Far the
greater part of the nitrate made use of, is pro-
duced by a combination of circumstances
which tend to compose and condense nitric
acid. This acid appears to be produced in all
situations where animal matters are completely
decomposed through the action of air upon

SflDICIXES.]

MODEKX VETElilXAKY i'liACTlCE.

[M£DICi>'B8.

substancfs witli which it can rfudlly combine. ]
Grouiuld Iroiiuciitly troddcu by c:iltli', ami
impregnated with their excrement, or the
walls of inhabited places where putrid animal
vapours abound, sucli as slaughter-houses,
drains, or the like, allbrd nitro by long ex-
posure to the air. Artilicial nitre-beds are
made bv au attention to the circumstances in
which this salt is produced by nature. The
crystals of nitre are usually of tlie forms of six-
sided flattened prisms, with dihedral summits.
Its taste is penetrating; but the cold produced
bv placing the salt to dissolve in the mouth, is
such as to predominate over the real taste at
first. Seven parts of water dissolve two of
nitre, at the temperature of sixty degrees ; but
boiling water dissolves its own weight. On
being exposed to a gentle heat, nitre fuses ;
and in this state, being poured into moulds, so
as to form little round cakes or balls, it is
called sal i-)runeUa, or crystal mineral. The
uses of nitre are various. Besides those
already indicated, it enters into the composi-
tion of fluxes, and is extensively employed in
metallurgy. It serves to promote the com-
bustion of sulphur in fabricating its acid ; it is
used in the art of dyeing ; it is added to com-
mon salt for preserving meat, to which it gives
a red hue ; it is an ingredient in some frigo-
rific mixtures, and it is prescribed in medicine
as cooling, febrifuge, and diuretic ; and some
have recommended it mixed with vinegar,
as a very powerful remedy for the sea scurvy.

Medicinal Uses. — Antiseptic, given in doses
of from one to two ounces ; externally in solu-
tion, one ounce in ten ounces of water as a
preventive of gangrene. The spirit of nitrous
ether is valuable in advanced stages of fever,
given in doses of three or four drachms.

Pteboeaepi Lignuai — Red Saunders Wood.

This tree is a native of the mountains of
India and Ceylon, the wood of which is
brought to England in billets, which are very
heavy, and sink in water. It is merely used
for its colouring matter, which it yields readily
to spirits.

QuEECUS CoETEX — OaJc BurJc.

This is prepared from the small branches in
spring, when it contains four times its astrin-
gent principles to what it does in winter.

IvKsiN.v. Fj.ava — Yellow licsiu.

The residue in tho retort, after the distilla-
tion of tho oil from tho common turpentine ;
but should the process, from tho distillation of
the turpentine, be carried oa without water,
what remains in tho retort will be amber-
coloured resin; but this is easily made yellow,
by adding, while it is fluid, a small quantity of
water, shaken together.

Mcdiciudl Uses. — Diuretic, in doses of from
four to eight drachms, combined with soap, in
the form of a ball, making the bolus according
to tlie directions of the college.

Sapo Castil — Castile Soap.

This soap is prepared, in Spain, and takes its
name from a city in that country. It is
formed by the combination of barilla with
olive oil ; to which is added a small quantity
of sulphate of iron, which gives it its marble
appearance.

Medicinal Uses. — Slightly diuretic; rarely
given alone ; chiefly in union with resin.

Sapo Mollis — Sofi Soap.

This is made in the same way as the above,
with the exception, that potash is used instead
of barilla or soda, and the colouring matter
left out.

Medicinal Uses. — As the former ; in case of
gripes caused by the exhibition of sulphate
of copper, from two to four ounces, dissolved
in water, have been given with great suc-
cess.

SoDir CnLOEiDUM— C(9?;2?«o?2 Salt.

The preparation of that kind of salt which
is used for culinary and economical purposes
(muriate of soda), depends upon the well-known
fact, that the salt contained in the sea-water,
or brine springs, being a fixed body, will not
rise with the vapour of the water. All, there-
fore, that is wanted, is to expose any water,
containing salt, to evaporation. Tiie veteri-
narian employs common salt largely ; and when
sprinkled over hay, or in a mash, is liked by
sick horses, to which it sometimes proves emi-
nently beneficial.

3Iedicinal Z7sc5.— Aperient ; a solution of
half a drachm of salt in four ounces of water,
forms an excellent lotion for inflamed eyes.

359

MEDICINES.]

THE HORSE, AND

[medicines.

SiNAPis — Mustard.

A genus of plants belonging to the class of
tetradynamia, and to the order of siliqiiosa ;
and in the natural system it is ranged under
the 39th order, siliquosce.

Medicinal Uses. — This has been applied to
the throat, chest, and bowels, in cases of in-
flammation. It is done by rubbing, which,
exciting an outward irritation, allays the in-
flammation within.

Spieitus Eectificatus — Bedified Spirits of
Wine.

This may be obtained by distillation from
any vegetable substance, in which the vinous
fermentation is not completely over ; the first
result is ardent spirits, as brandy, rum, &c.
It is from redistillation that rectified spirits are
produced, which is very simple, being nothing
more than the repetition of the process of dis-
tillation, with the addition, if necessary, of
some alkali or lime, to destroy the empyrema
tic flavour, and absorb the water. Proof
spirits is made by mixing nearly equal parts of
water and rectified spirits.

Medicinal Uses. — Stimulant ; principally
used as a menstruum.

SuLPHTJE SuBLiMATUM — SulUmed Sulpliiir.

Sulphur is a well-known substance, sold in
the form of a powder, or in solid pieces, when
it is called brimstone. It is found in the
neighbourhood of volcanoes ; in the tract of
land between Naples and the ancient Baise,
called Solfa-terra, the smoking plains, the
remnant of a half-extinguished volcano, it is
found in great abundance. It is brought in
large quantities to this country from Mount
Etna, in Sicily ; but is to be obtained in greater
or smaller quantities near all volcanoes, of which
the number throughout the world is consider-
able. It is also often found in coal mines ; and,
indeed, the common coal in our fires more or less
contains this mineral. It often appears com-
bined with iron, copper, aud other metals,
when it is called pyrites.

Medicinal Uses. — As a drug it forms the
basis of the most effectual application for
mange. AVhen combined witli nitre and an-
timony, it is an excellent alterative in cases of
surfeit, grease, hide-bound, mange, or out of
3G0

condition. In a cough or fever it is likewise a
useful ingredient. As an opening medicine, if;
is not so good as many other aperients.

TEEEBiNTHiNiE YuLQAEig — Co7nmon
Turpentine.

This is procured from Scotch fir, when the
tree is about forty years old, by stripping off
the outer bark to the extent of six inches, so
as to expose the inner smooth bark, near the
foot of the tree, making a wound with an in-
strument three inches square, and one inch,
deep. Erom this incision the resinous juice
soon begins to exude in transparent drops,
which fall into a hole previously dug to receive
them. Eresh incisions are continued to be
made till the month of September. A healthy
tree will yield from eleven to twelve pounds of
turpentine annually, for a century. It is
afterwards purified by filtration, through casks
with holes in the bottom.

Medicinal Uses. — Diuretic; externally diges-
tive ; as a diuretic, given in doses of from one
drachm to eight drachms, in form of a ball; as a
digestive externally, it is used in the form of
imguentum. The oil of turpentine, as an anti-
spasmodic, for the removal of colic, has no
equal. With cantharides, used as a blister, it
is far inferior to the common ointment.

Tekebinthin^ Veneta — Venice Turpentine.

This is the product of the larch fir, obtained
in a similar manner to the foregoing ; but the
largest quantity of the Venice turpentine is
made by melting together the amber-coloured
resin and oil of turpentine.

Medicinal Uses. — Similar to the foregoing,
to which it gives place, possessing no advan-
tage over it.

Yeratei Eadix — White Hellebore Moot.

This plant is a native of the mountainous
parts of Greece, Italy, Switzerland, Russia,.
&c. The root is dug in autumn, and dried.

Cerum — Wax.

The upper surface of the leaves of many
trees is covered with a varnish, which may be
separated and obtained in a state of purity, and
which is found to possess all the properties of
beeswax ; hence it is justly inferred that wax
is a vegetable product, and that the bees ex-

MIDICINE8.]

MODEKN VETEliiNAlii' i'KACTiCE.

[Mi:uiciKKa.

tract it unaltcrod from the k'uvoa of trees, nnd
other vegetable subslaiiees that contain it.
Several plants contain wax, in such abundance,
ns to niako it worth while to extract it from
them.

Mt'iUcinal Uscs.-ln charges, and some
plasters, tho yellow soap is used to make them
less brittle. In small doses (and with great
attention), from one scruplo to ono drachm,
frequently giving it, will produce a sedative
eflect : but if this clVect be not narrowly
watched, or if the dose bo increased from one
drachm, nausea will be produced, and violent
irritation. As it is a powerfuel diuretic cathar-
tic, it must be used with extreme caution.
Externally it is combined with oil. It may,
however, be used with advantage in allections
of the skin, either in the form of decoction
or ointment. We must repeat that, without
the utmost care, it is a dangerous drug.

The Black Ilellehore is used mostly as an
external application, and has a strong, stimu-
lating power. It has been resorted to with
success in fistulous affections of the poll and
withers. Professor Morton observes, " that
an ointment, formed of either the white or
black hellebore, in the proportion of one part
of the powder to eight parts of larch, will be
found exceedingly active for the dressing of
rowels and setons."

Zixci OxTDUii — Oxide of Zinc.

In chemistry and mineralogy, zinc was a
metal unknown to the ancients, though they
were acquainted with calamine, one of its ores,
and the eflect which this had iu converting
copper into brass. It is of a white colour, with
a shade of blue ; in a fresh fracture it is pos-
sessed of considerable lustre. It is hard, and
not easily cut with a knife. The specific
gravity is nearly 7'2. Its ores are calamine
and blende. — Calamine is an oxide, frequently
with a portion of carbonic acid ; blende is a
sulphuret, containing also some iron, and other
extraneous matters.

Zinc is melted by a moderate heat ; and the
fused mass, on cooling, forms regular crys-
tals. Though scarcely altered by exposure to
the air at a low temperature, yet it is rapidly
oxidised by one amounting to ignition. "When
kept in a degree of heat barely sufllcieut for
its fusion, it becomes covered with a grey
3 a

oxide. But when thrown into a crucible, or
deep earthen pot, heated to whitenesH, it Hud-
denly inflames, burns with a beautilul whito
flame, and a whito and light oxido hublimcs,
having a considerable resemblanco to carded
wool.

Medicinal Z'ses. — Tonic ; but in tho impure
state, under the name of Calamine Powder,
used as an ointment, known as "Turner's
Cerate," it is invaluable. Tiiis ointment has
been distinguished as "The llealing Oint-
ment," and is composed of five parts of lard
and one of resin, melted together. AT lieu
these begin to cool, two parts of the cala-
mine, reduced to an impalpable powder, are
stirred in. On cracked heels, and superficial
sores, calamine is sometimes advantageously
sprinkled.

ZiNCi Sulphas -

-Sulphate of Zinc— White
Vitriol.

Take of Zinc, in small pieces . • 4 oz.
,, Sulphuric Acid (byweight) G „
„ Distilled Water ... 4 pints.

Mix them in a glass vessel ; and the eflLcrves-
cence having ceased, filter the solution through
paper, then boil it till a pellicle appears. Set
it by, that crystals may form.

decomposition. — The same process acts here
as in the preparations of the sulphate of iron
and copper. The oxygen of the water unites
to the zinc, converting it into an oxide of zinc,
which is dissolved by the sulphuric acid form-
ing sulphate of zinc ; whilst the hydrogen of
the water assumes the elastic form, and escapes.

Medicinal fTscs.— Tonic internally; stimu-
lant externally. As a tonic, it is given in
doses from one drachm to half-an-ounce ; but
it is now rarely used at the College. It is
used externally to promote healthy granula-
tions ; and may be applied either in the form of
solution or ointment.

ZiNGiBEEis Eadii — Ginger Root.
This plant is a native of the East Indies,
but is now cultivated in the West Indies, to
very great advantage. Our finest quality
comes from Jamaica. The root is dug up after
the herbaceous part of the plant is withered
in January, and dried in the sun. There are
many sorts in the market, but they all possess
similar properties, dift'ering slightly in strength.

361

MEDICINES.!

THE HOESE, AND

[medicines.

Medicinal Uses. — Carminative, in closes from
half-an-ounce to two ounces ; in the form of
ball it is the active ingredient in the formulae,
bolus cai'deavcs. As a stimulant it is good.

Equal parts of ginger and gentian, formed into
a mass, with treacle, constitute the cordial
mass of the best surgeons.

rist of Medicines referred to in the first division of this Work. — In all the following compounds,
No. I. must he regarded as exhibiting the mildest form ; No. II. as the next stronger ; No.
III. as still stronger ; and so on, rising in degrees of strengtJi, according to the numerals
Ig tohich theg are indicated.

TAR LINIMENT.

Barbadoes Tar . . . . 2 oz.
Spirits of Turpentine . . 2 „
Opodeldoc 4 „

They must be well mixed together, and the bottle
kept closely stopped.

LIQUID BLISTER
No. I.
Powdered Cantharides .
Vinegar

4 drachms.
4 oz.

No. II.

Cantharides . , . . 1 oz.

Vinegar 3 „

Spirits of Wine . . . 1 ,,

Tut into a bottle, and keep eight days before using.
Two table-spoonfuls should be rubbed on the
part affected night and morning.

SALINE DRAUGHT.

Glauber Salts . . . . 4 oz.
Linseed Meal . . . . 2 oz.
Hot Water 1 quart.

CORDIAL PECTORAL BALL.

Anise Seeds . . . . 1 oz.
Ginger. . . . 1 „

Liquorice . . . , » 1 „
Caraway Seeds . . 1 „

Mix with treacle, and form into four balls, and give
one, when required, fasting.

IMERCURIAL ALTERATIVE BALL.

IJarbadoes Aloes . » . 4 drachms.
Calomel ..... 1 drachm.
Ginger ...... 1 „

Form a ball with soft soap.

DOSE OF PHYSIC IN EPILEPSY.
No. L
Barbadoes Aloes . . . 1 oz.
Powdered Ginger ... 2 drachms.

3G3

No. II.

Barbadoes Aloes ... 5 drachms.

Cape Aloes 5 „

Ginger 2 „

Mix with soft soap.

STIMULANTS IN SPASM.

Sulphate of Iron . . .12 drachms.

Cape Aloes 12 „

Juniper Berries ^ . . . 6 „
Myrrh ... ^ ... 6 „
Mix with soft soap, and divide into eight ballis,
giving one every morning, fasting.

CORDIAL RESTORATIVE BALLS.
Powdered Gentian ... 6 drachms.
Anise Seeds .... 6 „

Liquorice 6 „

Antimony ..... 6 „

Sulphur 6 ,,

Mix with treacle, and divide into four balls, giving
one each morning.

PURGING BALLS.
No. I.
Barbadoes Aloes ... 4 drachms.
Ginger 1 „

No. n.

Barbadoes Aloes ... 6 drachms.

Ginger 1 »

Form into a ball wiih soft soap.

MERCURIAL PURGING B.\LLS.
No. L
Barbadoes Aloes , , , 1 drachm.
Calomel . . • « * 1 »

Ginger 1 „

Form into a ball with soft soap.

No. II.
To be given the last thing at night.

Calomel li drachm.

Linseed Meal .... 2 „
Form into a ball with honey.

jreDicnfES.]

MODERN \' E T E K 1 X A R V P J ; A C T 1 (" i:.

[mEUIC1N£8.

In the morning give o warm bmn masli, nncl at

I ighl o'clock in tliu evening give

Bnrbadocs Aloes . • ' araclur.s.

Gentian ...-•- »»

Mix with sol't soap.

ALTERATIVE MEDICINES.
No. I.
Antimony, powdered . . ^"^ oz.

Sulphur ^ "

Cream of Tartar . . . 2 „
Divide into six powders, and cast one into the corn,
previously watered.

No. II.
Cape Aloes .... 8 drachms.

Sulphur 12 „

Form into four balls with soft soap, and ;;ive one
every other day

BLISTERS.
No. I.
Cantharidos, powdered , . 2 drachms.
Hog's Lard 2 oz.

No. n.
Cantharides, powdered . . 4 drachms.
Hog's Lard , . . . . 2 oz.

No. IK.
Cantharides, powdered . . 6 drachms.
Mercurial Ointment . . 4 „

Hog's Lard 1 oz.

Lay this lightly on the part affected, after having
removed all the hair.

LAXATIVE CLYSTER.
Thin Gruel .... 3 pints.
Common Salt .... 4 table spoonfuls.
Inject whilst warm.

DOSES OF PHYSIC IN INFLAMMATION OF
THE FEET.

Blue Pill 8 drachms.

Cape Aloes . • . . 8 „
Kesin ...... 8 „

Mix with linseed meal, and form with soft soap into

six balls. Give one every other morning.

No. XL

Calomel 2 drachms.

Barbadoes Aloes ... 6 „

Gentian 3 „

Form into a ball with honey.

DIGESTIVE OINTMENT.
No. L
Common Turpentine . . 2 oz.
Hog's Lard . . . . G „

No. IL
Common Turpentine . . 1 oz.
Hog's Lard . . . . 1- .,

No. III.
Common Turpentine . , 0 oz.
Hog's Lard . . . . 8 „

FOOT OINTMENT.
Tartar Emetic .... I ilrachiu.
Hog's Lard .... 1 oz.

ALTERATIVE POWDERS.

Antimony 1 lb.

Sulphur 1 ■,

Cream of Tartar . . . 4 oz.
Separate into twelve parts, and give one every
night in the feed.

BLISTERING LINIMENT.
No. I.
01. Terebinth . . . . 3 oz.
01. OHvfc 3 „

No. IL

Cantharides
01. Terebinth

1 oz.
4 „

Apply three table-spoonfuls, after shaking up tho
medicine well.

COMMON DIGESTIVE OINTMENT.
Common Turpentine . . 4 oz.
Hog's Lard . . . . 2 „
Melt together over a slow fire.

HEALING OINTMENT.

Common Turpentine . . 2 oz.
Hog's Lard . . . . 2 „ -
Alum, powdered fine . . 3 „
The lard and turpentine must be melted together;

the alum afterwards sprinkled in, and the whole

stirred till the mixture is cold.

H^.ALING LOTION.
Sulphate of Zinc . . . 8 oz.
Boiling Water .... 2 piuts.

DIURETIC BALLS
No. 1.
Powdered Resin . . . 3 oz.
Linseed Meal . . . . 1 „
Divide into six balls, with soft soap/

No. IL
Powdered Resin . • , 8 oz.
Nitre in Powder . . . 4 „
Juniper Bt-rries . . . 4 „
Mix with soft soap, and divide into twelve balls,

363

SEMABKs.] THE nOESE, AND VETEEINAEY PEACTICE. [eemaek3.

In concluding this portion of our subject, we
must observe, that the less a person has to do
with medicine, whether for himself or his horse,
the better; but there are occasions when it
will assist nature, alleviate pain, and clear the
way for a more speedy cure than might be
expected if nature were left entirely to her
awn operations. Physicking horses is very
common when they are taken up from grass,
and its administration is, generally, admitted
to be beneficial when they feed badly, and
appear heavy, and especially if the eyes and
mouth are of a yellowish colour. Proper
attention to the airing of the stable, to its
perfect cleanliness, and to feeding, exercise,
and training, is the great duty to be attended to
by those to whom the management of horses is
assigned. Open air exercise is, above all things,

essential to the well-being of every animal
endued with the powers of locomotion. To
the horse it is especially necessary ; for, if kept
in a stable without it, his degeneration becomes
extremely rapid. This is soon evidenced by
the decline of muscular power, and by the gen-
eration of disease in both the digestive and
respiratory organs ; by the growth of the
hoof; the elongation of the toe; the inflamma-
tion of the frog ; and, in short, by the whole
body becoming diseased. Exercise is, there-
fore, not only essential to his health, but to
his very existence. Let this, then, be regularly
attended to, in conjunction with cleanliness
and a proper regimen ; and it will be found that
medicine will not be required very often by
the noblest conquest which man has made over
the brute creation.

DIVISION II.

THE DOG AND ITS VAEIETIES.

CHAPTER I.

OUIGI.V OF THE DOG.

"With something like a feeling of hesitation we
euter on the history of the clog, respecting
whose origin there are few naturalists agreeing
vrith one another, and most of them suggest-
ing different theories, having their rise in the
reasoning of conjecture or probability, and
little to support them beyond the specula-
tions of ingenuity. To no animal is man-
kind so largely indebted for affection, attach-
ment, and obedience, as to this. Among all the
various orders of the brute creation, none has
hitherto been found to identify itself so closely
with the interests of his master ; none has been
found so admirably subdued to his purposes ;
and none so well adapted to watch or protect
himself or his property in the hour of danger,
darkness, or destruction. In both the old and
the new worlds, there are many countries in
which, if he wore deprived of this faithful com-
panion and ally, he would resist his enemies
without success. His person would be inse-
cure ; his labour would frequently be vain ; and
his property would become a prey to the rav-
ages of other animals stronger and swifter than
himself. Whatever may be the amount of vigi-
lance with which the Supreme Being has gifted
him, there are many situations in which he
could not bo secure from rapacity on the one
hand, or speed on the other ; but in the dog he
possesses the most faithful of friends ; the most
constant, whether in adversity or prosperity,
and the only one that voluntarily lays all his
Citraordiuary qualities at his feet ; resigns

himself up to his direction ; obeys his voice
under all circumstances; conforms himself to
his movements, and identifies his own with the
habits of his master.

" It proclaims
Th' audacious felon ; foot by foot he marks
His winding way — while all the list'ning crowd
Applaud his reasonings — o'er the watery ford,
Dry sandy heaths, and stony barren hills ;
O'er beaten paths, with men and beasts disdain'd,
Unerring he pursues ; till at the cot
Arrived, and seizing by his gxiilty throat
The caitiff vile, redeems the captive prey ;
So exquisitely delicate his sense ! "

In the battle he is fierce ; in the chase he is
persevering; in the house he is watchful ; and
his patience is inexhaustible. In disposition
he is so friendly that he seems only to remem-
ber the benefits he receives. Blows be soon
forgets ; and, generally speaking, in place of
discovering resentment when he receives them,
he licks the hand by which they were adminis-
tered. It is no wonder that such an animal
has, from remotest antiquity, attracted the no-
tice, and received the countenance and favour
of man, whether enrobed in the splendour of
regal purple, or invested in the meanest and
most fragmentary garments imaginable !

It was the opinion of Pallas that the dog is
a factitious anln\al, not descended from any
single original wild stock, but from a mixture of
nearly allied primitive species, whose hybrid
offsprings have possessed prolific powers ; and
he observes, that those domesticated animals,

3G5

THE WOLF.]

THE DOG, AjS"D its VARIETIES;

[the wolf.

which either do not intermix with other spe-
cies, or which produce, with others, an unpro-
lific progeny, are very little changed, however
long and completely they may have been under
the dominion of man. When, indeed, we look
at the great differences in instincts, form, and
size which the domestic dog exhibits, we find
it difficult to believe, however they may inter-
breed, that they are all the lineal descendants
of one common origin. Tet this opinion is the
most generally entertained. Mr. Bell even
goes a step farther, and refers the domestic
dog to the wolf as its primeval parent ; whilst
others have referred it to the jackal

Let us, however, examine what are the pre-
vaihng characteristics of these animals, and see
how far resemblances exist between them and
the dog.

The wolf has a robust but gaunt frame, a
skulking or irresolute gait, ferocity mingled
with cunning and cowardice, and a wild yet
sinister expression of the physiognomy. Spread
throughout Europe and various parts of Asia,
it is more particularly in mountain and forest
districts that he prevails, where the population
is scanty, and collected into small towns or
villages, with a wide country around, destitute
of human dwellings. In the Pyrenees, the
Carpathian mountains, in Poland, Hungary,
some parts of Austria, Prance, Italy, and Spain;
in Xorway, Sweden, and Russia, the wolf is still
common ; as well as in western Asia, and the
border territories included in Europe. Por-
merly this animal was abundant in the British
Islands, and the plague and terror of their in-
habitants. Verstegan, in his Mestitution of
Decayed Intelligence in Antiquities, concerning
tlie Most Nolle and Renotvned English JS'ation,
1G05, observes that January was called Wolf-
monat by the Anglo-Saxons, " because people
were wont, in that month, to be more in danger
to be devoured of wolves than any season els
of the yeare ; for that through the extremity of
cold and snow, those ravenous creatures could
not find other beasts sufficient to feed upon."
The universal fear which the wolf, where nume-
rous, naturally inspired, was formerly height-
ened by superstition; and fiends or malio--
nant spirits were imagined to have power to
assume the form and character of this dreaded
animal. Every child of five years old knows
the nursery story of Little Bed Riding Hood,
366

who was deceived by the ferocious wolf. Ly-
canthropos of the Greeks, the "Were-wolf of the
Anglo-Saxons, and the Loup-garou of the
Prench, had reference to some such preter-
natural monster, whose name was associate!
with all that is horrible and mysterious. Con-
spicuous then, and dreaded for its power and
rapacity, it can scarcely be wondered that tha
wolf should have had its name assumed, or
given to men of distinction, by our barbarous
but warlike forefathers, among whom such ap-
pellations as Ethelwolf, Eadwolf, Berthwolf,
and many more, were common.

Our Saxon ancestors, however, did not suffer
the wolf to ravage the country unmolested.
In the tenth century, under the reign of
Edgar, the work of exterminating this animal
began, and appears to have been carried on
with success down to the thirteenth century ;
when, during the reign of Edward I., all histo-
rical record, by way of royal edict, ceases in refer-
ence to continuing the work of w^olfiue extirpa-
tion. The last record of their existence in any
formidable numbers was in 1281. It is said
by Mr. Topham, in his notes to Somerville'a
Chase, that it was in the wolds of Yorkshire
where a price was last set upon a wolf's head.
In Scothand and Ireland the wolf remained for
a considerable period longer. In 1577, accord-
ing to Hollinshed, wolves were destructive to
the flocks in Scotland ; and in Ireland they were
exterminated only at the beginning of the last
century.

Prom the numerous allusions to the wolf in
the Scriptures, it is evident that it must have
been well-known formerly in Syria — and in-
deed also in Egypt, for we find it figured on
ancient sculptures, together with the hysena
and greyhound. At present, however, this
animal is seldom met with in Syria, although
it still exists in that region, but keeps itself
concealed.

So habitually cautious and suspicious is the
wolf, that it is difficult to take it in traps ; and
for the same reason, anything like the appear-
ance of artifice, deters it from an attack. It
has been supposed that it never carries its
tail raised. This, however, is not altogether
correct. A visit to the Zoological Gardens,
in the Regent's Park, London, will enable the
curious upon this point to satisfy themselves
that wolves do elevate their tails whilst gallop-

THE WOLF. J FOIi MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAmr. [tue wolf.

ing roiiml the area in which thoy arc enclosed.
Dr. Kie-harilson states from observation, wlien
they gambol with each other, they elevate their
tails.

"When pursued, the wolf rushes along, with
his muzzle almost to the ground, his eyes
glowing like tire, the hair of his neck and
shoulders erect, and hia tail lowered and
drawn close; when out of danger, he .slackens
his pace, raises his head, sniffs about, and
whisks his tail around, as if exulting in his
escape ; but if brought to bay by hounds, he
defends himself to the last, and often kills and
maims some of his antagonists before he falls
overpowered by numbers. In hunting him,
the Kirghese Tartars employ a large hawk,
which lastens upon the animal's head, and tears
out its eyes.

The power of the wolf, especially in the
muscles of tho head, neck, and shoulders, is
immense ; and his bite is terribly severe,
generally cutting out the flesh with a snap.
Among themselves they fight often with great
desperation, the combat ending with tho death
of the weaker. It is said that wolves wounded
by the gunshot of hunters or travellers, are
torn in pieces and devoured by their fellows.
This is not characteristic of the dog.

The average height of the animal at the
shoulders is about two feet six inches. The
female rears her young in some cave or gloomy
recess, and produces from five to nine young
at a birth. These are born with the eyes
closed, as in the dog. In the defence of her
offspring the female is furious, and greatly to
be dreaded. The voice of the wolf is a pro-
longed howl, resounding dismally through the
titilly darkness of the night. Not so the dog's.

On the southern side of the Pyrenees there
exists a variety, perhaps, of the wolf, termed,
from its colour, the Black Wolf — the Loup noir
of Bufton. This animal is asserted to be more
ferocious than the ordinary grey wolf; but,
perhaps, without any foundation.

Desmarest says that the wolf is solitary and
nocturnal ; but that in winter it unites in
troops, which attack horses and men. The
sense of smell is very acute ; but its speed is
not A-ery great, and it wearies out its victim by
dint of untiring perseverance. AVhen in full
chase of its prey, it gallops along, pertina-
ciously following the track of the fugitive.

Lord Byron, in iiis poem of Mazrppa, vividly
depicts tho scene of a troop of wolves in pur-
suit of tlieir prey : —

" Wf rustlcil tlirouijli tlie loaves like wind,
Left shrubs, anil trees, and wolves behind ;
15y night I heard them on the traek,
1'iieir troop came hard upon our back,
^\'ith their lon^ gallop, which can tire
The hound's deep hate and hunter's fire ;
Where'er we flew they followed on,
Nor left us with the morning sun.
Behind 1 saw them scarce a rood
At daybreak winding through the wood ;
And through the night had heard their feet
Their stealing rustling step repeat."

In almost every department of France in-
fested by the wolf, there is a society called
Socicte de Louveterie, the object of which is
to keep that animal down ; and premiums,
varying in amount according to the sex and
ago of the animals killed, are likewise paid.
The means hitherto employed, however, have
been inadequate to eft'ect the purpose. Al-
though we can adduce several instances of the
ferocity of certain species of dogs, there is
nothing of which we are aware on record,
which indicates a disposition at all approach-
ing the unrelenting native ferocity of the
wolf.

In the province of Posen, Prussia, in 1S14,
three grown persons and sixteen children were
devoured by wolves in the small circle of
Wongrowiec alone. "When Prussia regained
the province of Posen, in 1S15, no time was
lost by the government in getting rid of so
great a public nuisance ; and in that province,
within five years, from 1815 to 1819 inclusive,
4,618 dollars were paid by the government in
rewards for killing wolves.

In the parish of Briala, district of Eawa,
during the month of August, 1S37, four girls
were torn to pieces not far from their own
houses. This was in summer.

Mr. Lloyd, in his Field Sports in the Korth
of Europe, relates many events respecting these
animals. It would appear that they are less
dangerous to man than might bo expected,
though they sometimes, especially when com-
bined in troops, attack travellers with great
audacity. A gentleman attached to the
embassy of St. Petersburgh, narrated to him
the following circumstance : — " It happened
at no great distance from St. Petersburgh,

367

THE ■WOLr.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[tUE tVOLF.

and only two years previously, that a peasant,
one day in his sledge, was pursued by eleven
of these ferocious animals. At this time
he was only about two miles from home,
towards which he urged his horse at the very
top of his speed. At the entrance of his re-
sidence was a gate, which happened to be
closed at the time ; but the horse dashed this
open, and thus himself and his master found
refuge in the court-yard. They were followed
however, by nine out of the eleven wolves ;
but very fortunately, at the very instant these
had entered the enclosure, the gate swung
back on its hinges, and thus they were caught
as in a trap. From being the most ferocious
animals, the nature of these beasts, now that
they found escape impossible, became com-
pletely changed : so far, indeed, from offering
molestation to any one, they slunk into holes
and corners, and allowed themselves to be
slaughtered almost without making resis-
tance." There is not a single characteristic
of the dog in this anecdote. Supposing that
eleven dogs, hounds, mastiffs, bulls, or terriers,
had pursued a man into his yard, and found
themselves thus suddenly enclosed, would they
have slunk into holes and corners, and ex-
hibited such symptoms of fear and cowardice ?
On the contrary, we think that every one of
them would have been more ardent than
another in seizing their prey, and making a
victim of the man who had given them such a
run. Further on we shall give an instance of
a pack of native wild dogs of India pursuing
Colonel Sykes ; but exhibiting no such traits
of fear, although deterred from an actual
attack by the report of fire-arms. The cowar-
dice of the wolf presents, in our opinion, a
perfect contrast to the courage of the dog.

It is said, that the mere act of striking a
light with flint and steel has often the effect
of intimidating a wolf; and that the rattling
of a chain not unfrequeutly answers the like
purpose. In the event of a person, when un-
armed, being attacked by these bloodthirsty
brutes, these things are worth knowing ; for,
although apparently trifliug in themselves,
they might be the means of saving his life.

In some parts of Scandinavia, when people

are travelling, during the winter-time, over

extended plains, lakes, &c., which are known

to be much frequented by wolves, it is the

368

custom to attach a long rope to the back of
the sledge. The serpentine motion that this
makes when the vehicle is proceeding, has,
it is said, the effect of deterring these animals
from making their attacks.

The common wolf of North America differs
in some respects from its European relative,
and is perhaps a distinct species. It wants
the gaunt appearance, the comparatively long
jaw and tapering nose, the high ears, long legs,
slender loins, and narrow feet of the European
wolf. Its frame also is more compact, the fur
finer and thicker, the muzzle more obtuse, tho
head larger and rounder, and the forehead
broader and more arched. The limbs are
shorter, and the tail more fox-like and bushy.

Dr. Eichardson, in his Fauna Boreali-
Americana, enumerates several varieties of tliis
North American wolf, depending on colour — -
viz., the grey, the white, the pied, the dusky
or clouded, and the black. Black wolves
abound on the Missouri ; and, according to
the Indians, black and grey wolves occur in
the same litter. The dusky, or clouded wolf,
was regarded by Say as a distinct species, and
named by him Canis nuhiliis.

The American wolf agrees in its general
habits with the wolf of the European conti-
nent, though it appears to be less formidable as
far as man is concerned. Indeed, Captain
Lyons, in his observations on the wolves
of Melville Peninsula, states that both Englisli
and Esquimaux were accustomed to pass them
without any weapon, or even a stick ; " the
animals, however, exhibited no sym^ptoms of
fear, but rather a kind of tacit agreement not
to be the beginners of a quarrel, even though
they might have been certain of proving vic-
torious."

These wolves hunt in packs, and when
pressed for food, assume an astonishing de-
gree of boldness. , They will seize the Esqui-
maux dogs before their masters' faces, and
carry them off — although this species of dog
is brave in attacking the bear, but is terrified
at the wolf. They have been known not
only to steal provisions from under a man's
head in the night, but even to enter the
bivouac of a traveller, and carry off some of
his dogs, "During our residence at Cumber-
land House, in 1S20," says Dr, Eichardson,
" a wolf which had been prowling round the

WOLF.]

FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAIi.M.

[tue wolf.

fort, niul was wouiidfcl by a inuakpt-ball and
driven oil", ri-turiuHl aflfi- it bcoaine ihirk, wliilat
the blood was atill llowiiig from its wound, and
carried ofl' a doj; from nniongst lifty others,
that howk>d piteoualy, but liad not courage to
unite in an attack on their enemy."

The American wolf is extremely cunnin-;,
and. in attacking moose, or Wapiti deer, ani-
mals which exceed it in speed, it has recourse
to a 8iii':;ular stratagem. Several combine,
and arranij;e themselves in the form of a semi-
circle, and thus advance upon their prey, so as
either to hem it in or drive it over a precipice.
Captain Franklin often found the remains of
deer which had been thus dashed down steep
cliffs and devoured ; and he states that this is
a frequent expedient when the plains are
bounded by precipitous cliffs. "Whilst the
deer are quietly grazing, the wolves assemble
in great numbers, and, forming a crescent,
creep slowly towards the herd, so as not to
alarm them much at first ; but when they per-
ceive that they have fairly hemmed in the un-
suspecting creatures, and cut oiF their retreat
across the plain, they move more quickly, and
with hideous yells terrify their prey, and urge
them to flight by the only open way, which is
towards the precipice, appearing to know that
when the herd is once at full speed, it is easily
driven over the cliff, the rearmost urging on
those that are before. The wolves then de-
scend at leisure, and feed on the mangled car-
cases."

On one occasion a troop of wolves endea-
voured to put the same stratagem into prac-
tice against Dr. Kichardson. Having the first
watch, he " had gone to the summit of a hill,
and remained seated, contemplating the river
that washed the precipice under his feet, long
after dusk had hid distant objects from his
view. His thoughts were, perhaps, far distant
from the surrounding scenery, when he was
roused by an indistinct noise behind him ; and,
on looking round, perceived that nine white
wolves had ranged themselves in form of a
crescent, and were advancing apparently with
the intention of driving him into the river.
On his rising up they halted ; and when he
advanced, they made way for his passage down
to the tents." This may be taken as an indi-
cation of that kind of instinctive intelligence
which all wild animals, more or less, possess
3b

when actuated to presiivn ihemselvea from
danger, or to liunt for their prey. In the wolf,
it is, perhap.^, somewhat remarkable.

Very dillerent from the above rcapectful
conduct wliich these wolves showed to Dr.
Richardson, was that which a pack of them
ilisplayed to a poor Scandinavian soldier.

Wliilst this unfortunate man was crossing a
largo lake, called Stor-sjon, it then being the
depth of winter, he was attacked by a drove
of wolves. He was armed only with a sword;
but with this weapon he defended himself so
gallantly, that he not only killed or wounded
several of his assailants, but ho succeeded in
driving off the remainder.

Some sliort time afterwards, however, tho
same drove of wolves again beset him. He
was now unable to extricate himself from hfe
perilous situation in the same manner as
before; for, when he laid his hand upon his
sabre, and attempted to draw it, he found it
firmly frozen into the scabbard. This was in
consequence of his having neglected to wipe
the blood from the blade after the desperate
conflict in which he had been engaged. It is
almost needless to add, that as he was then
defenceless, tlio ferocious beasts quickly killed
and devoured him.

In the dreary realms that advance into the
Polar Sea —

" Where the wolf and Arctic fox
Prowl amidst the lonely rocks" —

Captain Franklin and his companions, during
their arduous journeys, were often obliged to
dispute their scanty food with the lean wolves,
that would scarcely retreat. On one occasion,
when they had captured a moose deer, and
had buried a part of the body, the wolves ab-
solutely dug it out from their very feet, and
devoured it while the weary men were sleep-
ing. On another occasion, when the travellers
had killed a deer, they saw, by the flashes of
the Aurora borealis, eight wolves, waiting
round for their share of the prey. Sometimes,
however, the wolves were their caterers, and
helped them to a welcome meal. When a
group of wolves and a flight of crows were
discovered, the travellers knew there was a
carcass to be divided, and they sometimes suc-
ceeded in obtaining a share of the prey, if it
had been recently slaughtered.

Of the American wolves, we may notice tho

3G9

THE WOLF.]

THE DOG-, AND ITS VAEIETIES:

[the wolf.

Prairie wolf, the Canis latrans of Say, which
inhabits the plains of the Missouri and Saskat-
chewan, as well as those of the Columbia. It
is smaller and fleeter than the common wolf;
associates in large troops, and dwells in bur-
rows on the plains, remote from the forests.
In Mexico is found a distinct species of wolf,
the Canis Mexicanus of Desmartes ; and a spe-
cies termed the red wolf, inhabits the Pam-
pas of La Plata. The Antarctic wolf is a
native of the Palkland Isles, and seems to be
an intermediate link between the wolves and
foxes. It feeds principally upon a species of
goose (anser leucopterus) ; goes in packs, which
wander about by day, but more commonly in
the evening, and burrow in holes. This spe-
cies is about fifteen inches in height at the
shoulder; the tail is short, and white at the
tip; the limbs are short, but the contour of
the head is wolf-like. It is termed by Pen-
nant the Antarctic fox.

Colonel Sjkes has described a wolf from
Dukhun, under the title of Canis pallipes,
which he states to be numerous in the open,
stony plains of that region, but not to be met
with in the woods of the Ghauts.

Mr. Hodgson notices the common European
wolf as occurring in the lower region of the
!N"epaul Mountains.

Wolves are said to be particularly partial to
dogs. This is noticed by Mr. Lloyd, in his
Field Sports in ilie North of Europe, where he
says, those animals usually picked up every
one that was at large in this part of the
country. Several were taken from both Ei-
sater and TJddeholm. Caresse was the draw-
ing-room pet at the latter mansion, and was as
fat and as sleek as a mole ; but, happening to
be star-gazing one evening, just outside the
door, a, famished wolf whipped her up in his
horrid jaws, and was instantly across the lake
with her.

The same writer gives us another instance
of the audacity of these animals. "It was
Christmas time, and there were fifteen or six-
teen sledges in company ; most of the horses
were provided with such bells as are used in
Scandinavia. In the middle of the cavalcade
was a sledge occupied by a lady ; at the back
of the vehicle, as is frequently the case, sat
the servant, who was driving ; whilst on a bear-
skin, which covered her feet, a favourite lap-
370

dog was reposing. In passing through a wood,
however, and in spite of the jingling of the
bells, &c., a large wolf suddenly sprang from a
thicket, when, seizing the poor dog, he leaped
over the sledge, and was out of sight in a thick
brake on the opposite side of the wood, in the
course of a few seconds."

Fierce as the wolf is, however, it can be
tamed, and even domesticated ; but it requires
to be taken very young ; and this is, perhaps,
one of the characteristics that brings this
fierce, yet cowardly animal into relationship
with the dog. M. F. Cuvier gives a very in-
teresting account of a tame wolf, which showed
all the affection that the most gentle dog could
evince towards its master. When full-grown^
he was presented by his owner to the mena-
gerie at Paris. Por many weeks he was quite
disconsolate at the separation from his master,
who had been obliged to travel ; he would
scarcely take any food, and was indifferent to
his keepers. At length he became attached
to those about him, and he seemed to have
forgotten his old affections. His master re-
turned after an absence of eighteen months ;
the wolf heard his voice amidst the crowd in
the gardens of the menagei'ie, and, being set
at liberty, displayed the most violent joy.
Again was he separated from his friend ; and
again was his grief as extreme as on the first
occasion. After three years' absence, his mas-
ter once more returned. It was evening, and
the wolf's den was shut up from any external
observation ; yet the instant the man's voice
was heard, the faithful animal set up the most
anxious cries ; and the door of his cage being
open, he rushed towards his friend, leaped upon
his shoulders, licked his face, and threatened
to bite his keepers when they attempted to
separate them. When the man left him, he
fell sick, and refused all food; and from the
time of his recovei'y, which was long very
doubtful, it was always dangerous for a
stranger to approach him. He appeared as if
he scorned any new friendships.

In this anecdote we have certainly evinced
a strong resemblance to a similar sensibility
in the dog; and it forcibly recalls the animal
of Ulysses, so much celebrated in the Odyssey,
for its memory, attachment, and faithfulness.
The passage is well known, having been often
quoted.

THE JACKAL.

FOit MOL'^'TAl.N, FIKLD, AND TAUM. [the jackal.

'* Near tt) the pntes, conferring' iis tlu-y Jn-w,
Arj;u«, the iU»(?, liis iimu-nt ini»>tir knew !
And not umonseious of the voire iind treail,
Lifts to the sound his ears, and renrs his liead.
He k.iew his lord— he knew, and strove to meet ;
He strove in rain to crawl and kiss his feet ;
Yet. all he could, his tail, his ears, his eyes,
Salu x: his master, and confess his joys.

« • * * *

The dop, whom fate thus pranted to behold
His lord, when twenty tedious years had roll'd,
Tiikes a last look, and havinj; seen him, dies —
So dos'd, for ever, fuitltlul Argus' eyes."
Otiier iustances of woll'-domestication are on
record ; and tliey are taught, ia the East, to go
through certain perforinancea in which we
have seen dogs engaged in this country. Tliis
is more partieuhirly the case in Persia, where,
it is said, they are exhibited as spectacles to
the people. There, when young, they are
taught to dance. Biiffon brought up several
wolves. During their first year, he tells us,
they were very docile, and even caressing ;
and, when well fed, would never disturb the
poultry nor the other animals ; but at the age
of eighteen months or two years, their natural
ferocity made its appearance, and they had to
be chained up. One of them, up to its
eighteenth or nineteenth month, lived peace-
ably and amicably with all things ; but when
he arrived at this age he made an attack upon
the fowls, and killed the whole in one niglit,
without eating one of them. This was evi-
dently not the instigation of hunger, but of a
wanton natural ferocity. Another, after break-
ing his chain, and killing a dog with which he
lived in great familiarity, made his escape.

Before entering upon the theories which
assign the wolf as the original of the dog, we
will briefly describe the characteristics of the
jackal, which has, also, had its advocates as
being the original type of the dog. Of the
animals known by this name, one species —
Canis Anthus — is a native of Senegal ; another,
the Cape jackal — Canis mesomelas — is a native
of the Cape of Good Hope ; and a third, the
common jackal — Canis aureus — is spread from
the north of Africa, through Syria, Persia, and
the greater part of India. Colonel Sykes
states it to be numerous in Dukhun, where it
is called Kholah by the Mahrattas. It is
somewhat larger than a fox, but its tail is
shorter in proportion, reaching only to the
hock ; its head is short, with a pointed muzzle ;

the general colour nbovo is grey, abruptly di-
vided from n paler tint Hpread over the under
Hurface, anil the tail ia blightly tipued with
black.

It is supposed to bo the Sliual of the Scrip-
tures ; ia the Chical of the Turks ; and ia tho
Sciagal, Sciugal, Schiachal, or Sliacal of tho
Persians.

Tlie jackal goes in troops, which lie concealed
in holes and burrows during the day, but come
forth at night to hunt for food. They give
chase to sheep or antelopes and other animals ;
like the wolf, stealing, fox-like, into fowl-
roosts, and attacking any living thing they aro
capable of overcoming. They do not, how-
ever, confine themselves to living prey. Car-
rion, and ofl'al, of every descri jtion, is accept-
able to them, and they devour it with the ut-
most greediness. Nor are roots and fruits less
sought after ; in the vineyard they make great
havoc, and their fondness for grapes is noto-
rious. The " shriek" of the jackal is terrific
Those travellers who have heard them, describe
the nocturnal yells of these animals as ex-
tremely piercing and dissonant ; now close,
now at a distance — troop answering troop from
different points — themselves unseen ; while
their fearful chorus breaks the stillness of the
hours of darkness. Their cries thus heard
amidst the ruins of cities of ancient date, might
seem " to listening Fancy's ear" like the wail
of legions of spirits over the departed glories of
other days. Mouldering ruins, fallen temples,
crumbling tombs, and craggy rocks, are the
abodes of the jackal.

Sly and suspicious in its disposition, the
jackal, when taken young, is nevertheless easily
tamed, and loses that unpleasant odour which
renders tb'e wild animal almost intolerable.
There is, we believe, in the Zoological Gardens,
a hybrid, between the jackal and the dog.

Having thus described and illustrated, by
anecdote, the disposition of the wolf, and de-
scribed the characteristics of the jackal, we aro
sufficiently prepared to show the arguments as-
signed bv^ various naturalists for the different
theories they have advanced in reference to the
original type of the dog. JMr. Bell is one of
the most eminent defenders of the wolf theory.

" In order," says he, " to come to any ra-
tional conclusion on this head, it will be ne-
cessary to ascertain to what tvpe the animal

371

■WILD DOGS.j

THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIETIES;

[wild dogs.

approaclies most nearly, after having, for many
successive generations, existed in a wild state,
removed from the influence of domestication
and of association with mankind. Now, we
find that there are several different instances
of dogs in such a state of wildness as to have
lost that common character of domestication,
variety of colour and marking. Of these, two
very remarkable ones are the Dhale of India
and the Dingo of Australia. There is, besides,
a half-reclaimed race amongst the Indians of
North America, and another also partially
tamed in South America, which deserve atten-
tion ; and it is found that these races, in dif-
ferent degrees, and in a greater degree as they
are more wild, exhibit the lank and gaunt form,
the lengthened limbs, the long and slender
muzzle, and the great comparative strength
which characterise the wolf; and that the tail
of the Australian dog, which may be considered
as the most remote from a state of domestici;-
tion, assumes the slightly bushy form of that
animal. We have here, then, a considerable
approximation to a well-known animal of the
same genus, which, though doubtless descended
from domesticated ancestors, have gradually
.•isFumed the wild condition ; and it is worthy
of special remark, that the anatomy of the wolf,
and its osteology in particular, does not differ
from that of the dog in general, more than the
different kinds of dogs do from each other.
The cranium is absolutely similar, and so are
all, or nearly all the other essential parts ; and
to strengthen still further the probability of
their identity, the dog and wolf will readily
breed together, and their progeny is fertile.
The obliquity of the position of the eyes of the
wolf is one of the characters in which it differs
from the dog; and although it is very desir-
able not to rest too much upon the effects of
habit on structure, it is not perhaps straining
the point to attribute the forward direction of
the eyes in the dog, to the constant habit, for
many successive generations, of looking towards
its master, and obeying his voice." Mr. Bell
adds, as another corroborative circumstance,
the fact that the period of gestation in the dog
and the wolf is the same — sixty-three days;
while in the jackal it is fifty-nine days.

The opinion of so eminent and judicious
A naturalist is certainly entitled to great
weight ; but while it is admitted that Mr. Bell
372

has made a strong case, it must be observed
that he is defective in several of his points.
In the first place, it is assumed that all wild
dogs are the descendants of a domestic race ;
but though, respecting some few, this may be
true, yet it by no means follows that the
assertion applies to all. The Buansii, or wild
dog of Nepaul, described by Mr. Hodgson
under the title of Canis primcevus, may be
given as an example. This animal, which is
believed to be the origin of the domestic dog,
and not its descendant, ranges from the Sut-
lege to the Burhampootra; and seems to ex-
tend, with some immaterial differences, into
the Vindyia, the Ghauts, the Nilgiris, the
Casiah Hills, and the chain passing brokenly
from Mirzapore through south Bahar and
Orissa to the Coromandel coast. In the
zoological proceedings, it is stated, that of this
race, although so wild as rarely to be seen,
Mr. Hodgson has succeeded in obtaining many
individuals. He is consequently enabled to
describe not only the form and colours, but the
manners also, which he does in great detail.
Some of those he obtained produced young in
captivity, having been pregnant when taken.
The Buansu, he observes, preys by night as
well as by day, and hunts in packs of from six
to ten individuals, maintaining the chase
rather by its powers of smell than by the eye,
and generally overcoming its quarry by force
and perseverance. In hunting it barks like a
hound ; but its bark is peculiar, and equally
unlike that of the cultivated breeds of dogs,
and the strains of the jackal and the fox.
Adults in captivity made no approach towards
domestication ; but a young one, which Mr.
Hodgson obtained when it was not more than
a month old, became sensible to caresses, dis-
tinguished the dogs of its own kennel from
others, as well as its keepers from strangers ;
and, on the whole, its conduct manifested, to
the full, as much intelligence as any of his
sporting dogs of the same age.

AY. A. "Wooler, Esq., also gives an account
of a wild dog from the Mahablishwar Hills, in
the Presidency of Bombay, and called there
Dhale. The habits of this dog, in a state of
nature, are similar to those of the Buansu of
Nepaul, with which animal it is most probably
identical. Colonel Sykes proves that the wild
dog of the Dukhun, called by the Mahrattas

\VII I) UOGS.J

rOli MOUNTAIN, Fli:i.D, AND i-'AUM.

[wild doos.

Kolsun, is the same aa too Hu'imsu of Nopaul ;
the ekulU and extiTiiui chanu-tiTS oxhibitinj?
precisely the snmo fortnation niul features.
That gentleman further observes, that this doj;
ditfers from every wild species hitlierto de-
scribed. Its head is compressed and elonn;ated ;
its nose not very sharp ; the eyes are oblique,
the pupils rouuii, the irides light brown. Tho
expression of the countenance is that of a
coarse, ill-natured Persian greyhound, without
anv resemblance to the jackal, tlie fox, or the
wolf; and, in consequence, essentially distinct
from the Cants Qtiao, or Sumatrettsis, of Gen-
eral llardwicke. The cars are long, erect, and
somewhat rounded at the top ; the limbs are
remarkably large and strong in relation to the
bulk of the animal, which is intermediate in
size between the wolf and jackal. It hunts in
packs ; and in the stomach of one killed was
found a portion of tlie Nylghau antelope.

Here, then, is a genuine wild dog, called in
the diflerent mountain districts it inhabits,
Budnsu, Dhale, and Kolsun, of a sandy-red,
or rufus colour, and destitute of the last small
molar of the lower jaw. Colonel Baber, in a
note subjoined to Colonel Syke's description
in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society,
states, that it was often seen by him on the
western coast, and in the Balaghat district,
where it is numerous. " As often," he adds,
*' as I have met with them, they have invari-
ably been in packs of from thirty to perhaps
sixty. They must be very formidable, as all
animals are very much afraid of them. Fre-
quently remains of hogs and deer have been
brought to me, which had been taken over-
night by these wild dogs. The natives assert
that they kill tigers and chetahs, and there is
no doubt of the fact. It is quite correct that
they are found in the Nilgiris, though only
in the western parts. I, myself, was followed,
while travelling between the Paitera river and
Naddibatt, a distance of eight or nine miles, by
a pack of them"; and had I not repeatedly
fired off my pistols, they would certainly have
carried away three or four terriers and Spanish
dogs that were following me at the time. Two
or three times I succeeded in getting young
ones ; but I did net keep them longer than
three or four weeks, they were so very wild, as
well as shy. It was only at night they would
eat, and then most voraciously."

The Ciiuis Quao of General llardwicke, id a
red woKijdi.lookiiig dog in the Kaiiighur HilU;
and tho Caiiis Siiinafrcnsis is a wild do" of tho
same general character, found in Sumatra, but
with ears less acutely pointed.

All accounts of wild dogs concur in stating
the fact, that their colour is always sandy-
yellow or red, a colour occasionally seen in
animals of the domestic breeds, such as in one
of the species of the Scotch terrier. That these
wild dogs are genuine, we think there cannot
be the slightest doubt ; and, if so, what be-
comes of the wolf theory of Mr. Bell ? Be-
sides, we cannot see, by what possible power
of inter-breeding, either a setter, or a spaniel,
or a " Maltese lion dog," could be produced
from a wolf. At the " National Dog Show,"
held at Islington, in 1862, every species of
dog was exhibited, the whole comprising up-
wards of eight hundred specimens, and every
one showing some different character, which
made it distinct from another. Here the
huge boar-hound, down to the toy-terrier, of
2|- lbs. weight, was to be seen ; and is it
possible that the original of all these was a
hungry gaunt wolf, with the sanguinary
qualities of the tiger, and the ferocity of the
hya>na ? Tho same, or similar arguments
might possibly apply to the wild dogs of India ;
but inter-breeding from species of tho same
kind, is much more likely to produce variety,
in the lapse of ages, than inter- breeding from
species originally distinct, although bearing a
close resemblance to each other. We do not,
however, when we contend that these wild
dogs are genuine, pretend to assert that any of
them are the originals of any one of our
domestic breeds. All we wish is to prove
that there are genuine wild dogs ; which fact
being established, the necessity of looking to
the wolf as the origin of the dog falls to the
ground, for these wild dogs are not wolves.

In the next place, though the wolf and dog
will breed together, their progeny, if fertile, as
Buffon seems to prove, is sc in a low degree
only, the mixed race gradually failing, and
becoming extinct. It has also yet to be seen,
whether there exist a race of true wolves, the
descendants of dogs, which have returned to
their natural state, and reassumed their
original characters. If the wild dogs, described
above, and regarded as genuine, be really the

373

THEOEIES.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[inEOEIES.

descendants of a domestic stock, even then,
seeing that they have resumed their oriizinal
characters — as evidenced by their uniformity
of size, figure, colour, and instincts — the argu-
ment that the wolf is tlie primeval type of the
dog is at once nullified ; for tliese rufus wild
dogs are distinct fi'om the wolf While thus
venturing to question the theory of Mr. Bell,
and other eminent naturalists, we are not pre-
pared to point out the origin or origins of the
domestic dog ; and we venture to say that the
subject will always remain a Gordian knot,
which science will never unravel. Buffon has
eloquently observed, that "those species
which man has greatly cultivated, whether
belonging to the animal or the vegetable
woiid, are, beyond all, those which are the
most altered ; and as the alteration is some-
times to such a degree, that we cannot recog-
nise in them anything of their primitive form
— such being the case with wheat, which has
no resemblance to the plant from which it is
supposed to have derived its origin — it is not
impossible, that among the numerous varieties
of the dog which we see in the present day,
there is not one which bears a resemblance to
the original type, or rather, to the first animal
of the species."

Mr. Eichardson, in his treatise on The Dog,
also positively denies the assumed identity of
structure between that animal and the wolf, set
forth by Mr. Bell. He says the intestines of the
wolf are considerably shorter than those of the
dog, evidently marking him as an animal ot
more strictly carnivorous habits. The orbits
are placed higher, and more forward in the
skull. The proportion between the bones ot
the hind legs differs ; so does the number of
toes. The structure of the teeth is different ;
these being in the wolf much larger, whilst the
molar teeth of tlie upper and lower jaw are
adapted to each other ; in the wolf, in a peculiar
ficmors-like manner, rendering them infinitely
more serviceable for breaking bpnes — a struc-
ture not found in the do<r.

" The wolf is not ' susceptible of the highest
degree of domestication, and capable of great
aflectioa for mankind, which has been abun-
dantly proved of the wolf.' When has it been
proved? I have seen many so-culled 'tame
wolves,' but never one that might be trusted ;
or that did not, when opportunity oH'ered.
374

return to bis fierce nature and wild habits.
The whelps, too, produced by these partially
domesticated wolves, are not in the smallest
degree influenced by the domestication of
their parents. The Eoyal Zoological Society
of Ireland had, some years ago, in their garden
in the Phoenix Park, a pair of very tame
wolves. These produced young, which became
tame likewise, and, in their turn, produced
cubs. The society very kindly presented me
with one of the last-mentioned cubs, which,
though only five weeks old when I took him
from his dam, was as fierce and violent in his
own little way as the most savage denizen of
the forest. I brought up this animal among
my dogs ; for them he conceived a considerable
degree of affection, or respect, perhaps ; for
suhmission was the most striking feature of
his conduct towards them ; and was, doubtless,
induced by the frequent and substantial casti-
gations he received. He never, it is true,
exactly dared to attack me in front, but he
once showed a disposition to do so when I
pulled him down by the tail as he was endea-
vouring to get over the garden wall. He,
however, on several occasions charged at me
from behind, when he thought my attention
was otherwise engaged. He once only suc-
ceeded in inflicting a severe bite ; and by this
time I had utterly despaired of making any-
thing of him : he was about eighteen months
old ; I sent him about his business. He sub-
sequently fell into the hands of a showman,
and assumed his proper character in the
caravan." These observations, while they mili-
tate against the theory of Mr. Bell, concur
with those of Buffon, in reference to the expe-
rieuce which that great naturalist obtained in
rearing his own wolves. He found them, like
Mr. Eichardson, well enough up to their
eighteenth month, but, after that period, the
innate savageness of their nature began to
discover itself, and there was little or no
safety in their presence.

"As to dogs," continues Mr. Eichardson,
" when accident drives them to subsist on their
own resources, thus rendering them wild, they
assume feral characters ; but as to their thus
acquiring, in the course of a few generations,
the habit and aspect, or the general similitude
of wolves, I conceive it to be an assertion only,
and one that has yet to be proved. Even such

THEORIES.]

FOK MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM.

[rnEonras.

(loi^s as have boon thus ilrivon into tonil and
independeiit litV, will be found evor ready to
acknowledge the control of man, and may,
with comparatively little trouble, bo induced
to return to their allegiance to him. Nor will
the whelps of such re-domcslicatcd dogs bo
horn wild, as is the case with the cubs of the
tamest wolves. In the case of these dogs,
circumstances, and not natural instinct, have
driven them wild ; and these circumstances
ceasing to operate, domestication returns.

" How does it happen that the dog is to be
met with in every quarter of the globe to
which man has penetrated, while the true wolf
aas never yet been met with south of the
equator? Further, are not several distinct
species of wolf admitted to exist ? * Is there
not more than one distinct species of wolf
admitted by naturalists to exist in North
America alone ? It has not even been at-
tempted to be proved that these species are
identical ; their distinctness has been more
than tacitly admitted. Yet they resemble
each other far more closely than any wolf
does the dog. Has the dog, then, been
derived from each and all of these wolves ; or
has the original wolf, origin alike of wolf
and dog, been yet properly indicated ? Should
not this fact be duly ascertained prior to that
in question ?

" The wolf and the dog will not breed toge-
ther in a state of nature. In their native
forests they clearly will not, or the wild dog
would not still remain distinct from the wolf,
whose lair is in the immediate neighbourhood
of his own. Man's effort and skill, combined
with partial domestication, may, indeed, in-
duce a union between them ; but naturally
they shun each other, and mutually exhibit a
strong natural antipathy.f Nor will these
animals — the wolf and the dog — breed together,
unless one of them, at least, be thoroughly
domesticated. How else have all attempts to
produce a breed between the wolf and Austra-
lian dingo so signally failed ? "

The simple breeding together of animals,
and the fertility of their offspring, is not a
sufficient proof of identity of species. Mr.
Hodgson has shown that the cajpra iliaral —

* We have shown this in our previous pages.
t This we have also shown in our illustrative anec-
dotes.

the goat of Nepaul — and the domestic goat
will breed together. The hunchbacked zebu,
of India, will breed with our common cattle,
and the off>*pring is prolific. Pallas has stated
that, in various parts of Russia, the sheep and
the goat have bred together ; whilst Chinese
and European pigs, differing, according to
Mr. Eyton, in important osteological particu-
lars, will do so likewise.

In The Animal Kingdom, arranged after its
Organisation, by Baron Cuvier, the following
opinions, translated by Mr. Blyth, are given
by that distinguished naturalist upon this sub-
ject. Speaking of the dog, and his supposed
subjugation to the power and intelligence of
man, he says, — "Tiie domestic dog is the most
complete, the most singular, and most useful
conquest ever made by man, the whole species
having become his property. Each individual
is devoted to its particular master, assumes his
manners, knows and defends his property, and
remains attached to him until death ; and all
this, neither from constraint nor want, but
solely from gratitude and pure friendship.
The swiftness, strength, and scent of the dog
have rendered him a powerful ally to man
against other animals, and were even, perhaps,
necessary to the establishment of society."

In reference to the origin of the dog, Mr.
Blyth, in a note to his translation of the Baron's
Regne Animal, argues in favour of the wolf
theory. He says — " If the idea, which I con-
ceive there is every reason to entertain,
respecting the origin of the domestic dog be
well founded, it is clear that a recurrence to a
single wild type would be impossible. The
dog is apparently a blended race, derived prin-
cipally from the wolf, and partly from various
other allied species. In the museum of the
Zoological Society of London, there is a spe-
cimen of an Esquimaux dog (C. nulilus), which
resembles the large American wolf so closely,
that there can scarcely be any doubt of the
connection which subsists between them ; and
it is well known, of the American wolves in
particular, that if a young animal bo surprised
by a hunter, and suddenly menaced by his
voice and manner, it will crouch to him, and
implore his mercy in precisely the manner of
a spaniel ; so that only a little encouragement
and kindness is required to gain its permanent
attachment. Indeed many of them are killed

375

THEOEIES.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[theories.

to obtain a proffered reward, by taking this
(assuredly unworthy) advantage of their natu-
ral submissiveness. That the wolf possesses
the mental qualities, and is capable of the same
strong attachment to man as the most faithful
dog, has been abundantly proved by the ob-
servations of M. E. Cuvier and others; and
the unremitting persecution to which it has
been necessarily subjected in Europe, for so
many years, will sufficiently account for the
savage and distrustful character which it ex-
hibits when unreclaimed; though even then
the germs of a better disposition are traceable
in the permanent attachment of the male and
female, and sociality of the young, till urgent
necessity, or the annual period of dominant
sexual excitement, subdues every milder pro-
pensity and acquired sentiment of friendship
jr disinterested affection.

" Instances occasionally happen of the dog
returning by choice to a state of wildness,
and assuming then, of necessity, the character
ascribed to the wolf. I have known this to
occur in a male pointer, and in a female grey-
hound : the latter was so fine a specimen of the
breed, that, on being entrapped, it was thought
desirable to obtain a litter from her, which was
accordingly effected; but, while her puppies
were very young, she managed to escape to
the woods, and never returned : three of her
progeny grew to be excellent hounds ; but two
others proved quite irreclaimable ; and escaping
from servitude, like their dam, were finally shot,
for their destructive poaching propensities."

In the Zoology of Dr. Carpenter, we find it
stated that " the common dog is a species of
the genus canis, belonging to the family canidce,
of the order carnivora, of the class mammalia,
and the division vertehmfa. Erom the informa-
tion conveyed to us by the term vertehrata, we
learn that it has an internal skeleton, with a
jointed back-bone and skull, containing the
spinal marrow and brain, the centres of the
nervous system ; and that it has five senses,
four extremities, and red blood. The know-
ledge that it is among the class mammalia,
implies that it is a warm-blooded animal,
breathing air, possessing a heart with four
cavities, a complete double circulation, pro-
duces its young alive, nourishes them after-
wards by suckling, and has the body, more or
less, covered with hairs. By referring it to
376

the order car)iivora, we know that it is in its
natural state a beast of prey, adapted by the
formation of its teeth, and the digestive appa-
ratus, to feed upon animal flesh ; and by the
structure of the extremities, to pursue and
attack the animals which serve as its prey.
As one of the family canidce, we know that it
resembles, in some respects, the wolves, foxes,
jackals, and hyaenas, as well as the cats, iu
being digitigrade (that is, in walking on the
ends of the toes), and that it differs from the
cat in not being so much adapted to destroy
its living prey, as to feed upon animals ali'eady
killed ; the mouth not being formed so exclu-
sively for cutting and tearing as is the cat's,
and in the claws being neither so long and
sharp, nor capable of being pushed forth or
withdrawn, as in the feline tribes. Again, the
dog differs from the fox and hyaena in certain
peculiarities in the form of the teeth ; but his
relationship to the wolf is so close, that many
naturalists have regarded them as sprung from
the same stock. Then, while the dog belongs
to a genus distinct from the hyaena and fox, it
is identical with the wolf and jackal in generic
character, and it may be that it does not even
constitute a species distinct from the wolf.
But, while some characters are constant in
each race, others may undergo great variation ;
so that, within the limits of one species, we
may have a large number of varieties, or breeds,
marked by difi'erences much greater than those
which, in other cases, are held to distinguish
species. This is especially the case in domestic
animals ; and in none is it shown more strongly
than in the dog. How different, for example,
are the greyhound, the mastiff, and the blood-
hound ! We should scarcely imagine that any
period of time, or external influence, could
ever convert one of them into the other. Yet
the zoologist feels no hesitation in affirming
that they had one common origin; since it is
found that their distinct forms are preserved
only so long as they are matched in breeding
with forms of the same kind. Hence there
is no difficulty in reconciling the diversities
actually existing among the various races of
dogs with the idea of one common origin, of
which they are modifications. When and how
the several breeds arose, is less easily deter-
mined."

Among so many conflicting statements, it is.

TUKUUILS]

rOli MOUxNlAlX, I'"ii:LI), AMJ I'Alt.M

[tiieoriks.

perhaps, utterly impossible to determine the
true orii,Mii of the dog. Mr. JJi-ll, and otliers,
argue for the wolf theoi-)'. ^Mr. Hodgson
and others do the same for the primilivo wild
dog theory ; and Professor Kreisehner does
the same for the jackal theory. Ho says that
there is a kind of jackal in the Prankfort
jMnseum, exemplifying ail the types of the
ancient Egyptian dog. To this tlicory of the
jackal, however, we cannot, for a moment, lend
ourselves. To be sure, it is said that the
manners of this animal bear a very close
resemblance to those of the dog. When taken
young it soon becomes domesticated ; attaches
itself to mankind, wags its tail when pleased,
and distinguishes its master from other persons.
It likes to be fondled and patted with the hand ;
and, when called by name, will answer to it,
and leap on a chair. It drinks as the dog
does, by lapping, and it will eat readily from
the hand : it is even fond of playing with
dogs, and eats bread with eagerness. These
qualities induced Mr. Pennant to think, with
Professor Kreisehner, that the various races of
the dog were indebted to the jackal for their
origin. To this pleasing canine portrait, how-
ever, that of Bufi'on presents a very great con-
trast, lie says that the jackal is stupid and
voracious ; that it is very difficult to be tamed ;
and that he had one which was kept for nearly
a year, when neither food nor caresses could
mollify the fierceness of its disposition. Al-
though it had been taken young, and reared
with the utmost care, it would suffer no one
to touch it, and would bite at any one indis-
criminately. "When occasionally allowed a
little liberty, it amused itself by leaping on the
tables, and devouring everything suitable to its
palate. Its voracity, he says, was enormous.
If it could get notliing better, it would eat
the leatlier for harness, and boots or shoes. It
would eat the most putrid bodies, disinter the
dead, attend caravans, and follow armies, to
feast on the remains of the fallen or the slain.
Sucli a brute does not appear, to our miud, to
exhibit a single trait of the dog, to the extent
that would lead us to coincide with the theory
which would place the jackal as the original of
that generous animal; but, as the opinions of
eminent naturalists are so different from each
other, it is difficult to decide between them.
Another theory advanced is, that the
3c

shepherd's dog is the origuial typo; but it ia
thus combated by Mr. Jtichardsou : —

"Many naturalists, uiid tlieso natives of dif-
ferent countries, have advanced this theory,
and still they have all employed the one desig-
nation in indicating their favourite tyj)e -viz.,
the shepherd's dog. I must here first take the
liberty of inquiring tvhat shepherd's docjf for
shepherds' dogs differ most materially ft-om each
other. Buffon stood up for the originalitv of
the matin, or shepherd's dog of his own
country. Later writers, copying more or lesB
from him, have adhered to the theory of the
sheep-dog origin, while they have forgottou
the diflerence which exists between their own
national sheep-dogs and those indicated by
Buflbn. Truly there exists but little simili-
tude between the tailless, woolly-looking ani-
mal, the sheep-dog of England, the fox-like
colley of Scotland, the gaunt and short-haired
cur of Ireland, the matin of Buffon, the noble,
stately, and powerful sheep-dog of the Pyre-
nees, the guardian of the flocks of the Abruzzi,
the gigantic mastifls, the herd-dogs of the
Himalaya mountains, and, in short, between
various other sorts of sheep-dog, used for tend-
ing flocks in as various portions of the known
world. Shall we assume the original type to
have been the sheep-dog or matin of France,
or the more graceful colley of Scotland } Are
we to believe that a brace of either of these
dogs were the progenitors of tlie entire canine
race ? Did the gigantic boar-dog, the noble
JS'ewfoun aland, the courageous and powerful
mastiff, the slender and rapid greyhound, the
stunted yet formidable bulldog, the diminutive
and sensitive Blenheim spaniel, and the still
more diminutive, and now almost extinct, lion-
dog of Malta — all arise from a brace of curs ?
If they did, to what now are we to attribute
the varieties at present existing ? We are
told to climate and breeding. As to breediufr,
how could it operate when there was but a
single pair to breed from ? How, if the varie-
ties of the dog proceeded but from one original
type, could development thus be produced,
extending beyond the limits of the faculties
and powers proper to that type ? Will change
of climate ever convert a greyhound into a
bulldog? AVill it truncate tiie muzzle, raise
the frontal bones, enlarge the frontal sinuses,
or effect a positive alteration of the posterior

377

THEOEIES.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES;

[anecdote.

branches of the lower maxillary bones ? Or
will change of climate, on the other hand,
operate to convert a bulldog into a greyhound,
produce a high and slender form, diminish
the frontal sinuses, deprive the animal of the
sense of smell, at least comparatively, together
•with courage and other moral qualities depend-
ing on organisation ? I say nothing : I
only ask my intelligent readers — do they be-
lieve this possible ? Thus far, a very eminent
naturalist, Colonel Hamilton Smith, goes with
me, hand in hand ; all that I have adduced he
admits ; but here we unfortunately part com-
pany. Colonel Smith seeks to account for
these difterences by calling in the intervention
of a supposed admixture of wolf, fox, or hyaena,
&c. He admits an originally-formed dog, and
one variety only ; and refers for the alterations
that have taken place in him to crossing with
these wild animals. Now I consider this
theory as even less tenable than that of the
wolfish or vulpine origin of the dog, as the
colonel is obliged to bring several races of
wild dogs to his aid ; and, may I venture to
inquire, where is their origin ? Besides this,
we have to refer to the decided antipathy
subsisting between these animals in a state of
nature, and thus effectually precluding inter-
mixture, unless through human intervention
and agency, which clearly was never exerted
in that condition for this purpose.

" It is," says Mr. Eichardson, '• in far remote
ages of ' Tlie Earth and Animated Nature' that
we have to seek for traces of the origin of this
sagacious and generous animal, which has en-
joyed the especial privilege and well-merited
honour of being, ^;ar excellence, the rniEND op
ilAN." — In this opinion we concur. "We further
believe — for it must resolve itself into a matter
only of belief where all reasoning is contradic-
tory, and therefore in a great measure nuga-
tory— tliat, however close his alUance may be
to the wolf or the jackal, neither of these ani-
mals are his original. He has, in our opinion,
an original of his own; and, however thick
may be the veil which shrouds this in obscurity,
liis intelligence being next to that of man,
stamps him as a creation as distinctly original
as that of the half-reasoning elephant.

So nearly akin is the intelligence of the do"-
to reason, that we are sometimes puzzled to
account for the actions which result from it.
378

" Lo ! the poor Indian, whose untutor'd mind
Sees God in clouds, and hears him in the wind,
******

And thinks, admitted to that equal sky,

His FAITHFUL DOG shall bear him company."

The poets of difterent ages and of various
lands would seem to have delighted in commem-
orating the virtues of this favourite animal.
Of this we have already given an illustration
from the Homeric poems, and we will now give
one from the Virgilian Georgics : —

" Nor last forget thy faithful dogs ; but feed

With fattening whey the mastiff's gen'rous breed,
And Spartan race, who, for the fold's relief,
Will prosecute with cries the nightly thief;
Repulse tlie prowling wolf, and hold at bay
The mountain robbers rushing to the prey.
With cries of hounds thou may'st pursue the fear
Of flying hares, and chase the fallow deer;
Rouse from their desert dens the bristled rage
Of boars, and beamy stags in toils engage."

Walter Scott was also passionately attached
to dogs ; and, in some of the most graphic
and picturesque scenes in his beautiful novels,
several of these find a prominent place. Their
fidelity and sagacity, exemplified on many oc-
casions, were to him a source of great enjoy-
ment. In allusion to these qualities, as exhib-
ited by one^ in the case of a traveller who had
been dashed to pieces by falling from a preci-
pice of Helvellyn, he says —

" Nor yet quite deserted, though lonely extended,
For faithful in death, his meek favourite attended,
The much-loved remains of her master defended,
And chased the hill-fox and the raven away.
How long didst thou think that his silence was slumber ?
When the wind moved his garments, how oft didst
thou start ?
How many long days and long weeks didst thou
number.
Ere he faded before thee, the friend of thy heart ?"

The circumstances which suggested this
poem were detailed to a tourist by one of the
guides who conducts visitors to the summits of
Skiddaw and Helvellyn. The unfortunate man
who perished amidst these solitudes, was a resi-
dent of Manchester, who was periodically in
the habit of visiting the lakes, and who, confid-
ing in his knowledge of the country, had ven-
tured to cross one of the passes of Helvellyn,
late in a summer afternoon, in company only
with his faithful dog. Darkness, it is sup-
posed, came on before his expectation ; he wan-
dered from the track ; and ieli over the rocks

HISTOEY.]

FOB MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM.

[niBTonr.

into one of those deep recesses where huinaii
foot never treads. Tlio dog was found by the
Bide of his master's body, after many weeks'
fruitless searcli. The man who told the story
concluded wilii the pious exclamation of —
" God knows how the poor beast was su[)-
ported so loiii^."

"VV'ordsworlli has also written on this sub-
ject; but his poem is too long for quotation
liere; the following, however, are four of the
Blanzas most appropriate to our subject — •

** A barking fouml the shepherd hears,

A cry as of a dog or fox ;

He halts and siarcbes with liis eyes

Among the scattered rocks:
And now at distance can discern
A stirring in a brake of fern ;
From which immediately leaps out
A dog, and yelping runs about.

" The dog is not of mountain breed ;

Its motions, too, are wild and shy ;
With something, as the shepherd thinks.

Unusual in its cry :
Nor is there any one in sight,
All round, in hollow or in height;
Nor shout nor whistle strikes his ear:
What is the creature doing here ?

" It was a cove, a huge recess,

That keeps till June December's snow»
A lofty precipice in front,
A siieut tarn below.

Far in the bonom of Ilclvellyn,
RiMiiotc from jmhlic roiid or dwelling
Pathway or cultivated laud,
From trace of human foot or hand.

" IJut hear a wonder now, for sake

Of which this mournful talc I tell I

A lasting monument of words
This wonder merits well.

The dog, which still was hovering nigh,

Uepeating the same timid cry,

This dog iuid been, through three months' space,

A dwilk T in that savage place."

As an appropriate close to this chapter, we
will give the epitaphs written by two of our
most celebrated poets, upon their favourite
dogs. " Maida," the first, was the deer-hound of
Sir AValter Scott, presented to him by Mac-
donald of Glengarry, and was a splendid ani-
mal. He lies buried at the gate of Abbota-
ford, of which he was long the guardian: —

" At thy master's gate here, Maida,
Lowly dost thou rest;
Light the low-relievo marble
Lie upon thy breast."

"Boatswain" was the favourite Newfound-
land of Lord Byron : —

" The poor dog ! in life the firmest friend,
The first to welcome, foremost to defend ;
Whose honest heart is still his master's own —
Who labours, fights, lives, breathes for him alone."

CHAPTER IL

HISTORY OF THE DOG.

The Canulce, or Canine family, includes the
Dog, the Wolf, the Jackal, the Fox, and the
Lycaon; in other words, all those animals
which LinujEua assigns to his genus Canis ;
and which, though agreeing in dentition, and
in the digitigrade structure of the feet, may,
nevertheless, with propriety, bo divided into
sub-generic groups. In all, the muzzle is
elongated ; the bony palate terminates in a
line with the hinder margin of the posterior
molars, in this respect differing from that of
other carnivora; and there are two true

molars on each side of the upper and lower
jaws. The genua Megnlotis, in the form of the
lower jaw, in the dentition, and in the pro-
longation of the bony palate, oilers an excep-
tion to the general rule.

6 „ . 1—1.

Dental formula :— Incisors, -^ ; Canines, j^j'

1—1
1-

The true molars below are small, the last being
even minute, as is the first false molar, and
ofteu dropping out early,

379

3—3
'4—4'

Molars, false '^—^, carnassidres ^— -^, true .■^— ^ = 42.

HISTORY.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[flISTOET.

Eore feet, with five toes; hind feet, with
four toes, and sometimes a fifth on the tarsus ;
daws not retractile.

The following is the arrangement of the
groups into which the breeds of the domestic
doo-have been thought to resolve themselves : —

1. Dingo — semi-domestic.''

2. Esquimaux dog?

3. Hare Indian's dog?

which is generally desired, how much light
would be thrown on our modern varieties ! We
know, indeed, that the Greeks and Romans hud
valuable dogs for hunting various wild animals ;
we also know that they paid great attention to
their training ; but, beyond this, we know
little. They had watch-dogs, hounds, a grey-
hound breed, and probably a breed of spaniels,
the Canis Tuscus, also described as Proles de

To what groups these respectively belong is sanguine Ihero, There is a dog represented
not verv clear; probably to the first or second , on a mosaic pavement at Pompeii, fastened by

Ears sharp, erect, or sub
erect; nose pointed
hair lonff.

of the following groups : —

Shepherd's do
Siberian,
i Pomeranian.
I Icelandish, &c.
C Terrier, rough and smooth.
Muzzle less acute; ears <^^^^^^:^^^

sub-erect; hau- shorty Barbary dog.
o^- w"T- I Lurcher, &c.

r Great Danish dog.
Irish wolf-dog.

Ears moderate, narrow,
generally pendulous ;
muzzle produced.

Ears moderately large,
t; muzzh
derate ; hair Ion

Scotch greyhound,

deer-hound.

English ditto.

Italian ditto.

Persian ditto.

Albanian dog, &c.

f Spaniel.

, , Water-spaniel,

pendent; muzzle mo- < ^ , ' j

■\ . , . , Kough water-dog.

L Setter, &c.

Ears moderately large f Italian wolf-dog.

and pendent; muzzle J Newfoundland-dog.

deep and strong ; hair 1 Labrador dog.

long or wiry. L Alpine dog, &c.

Pointer.

Beagle.

Harrier.

■{ Fox-hound.

Old English hound.

Bloodhound.

. African hound, &c.

Cuban mastiff.

Mastiff.

Ears large and pendent;
muzzle long and deep ;
nose large; hair close.

Ears moderate, pen-
dent ; muzzle short ■<
and thick ; hair short.

Ba

Bulldog.

Corsican bulldog, &c.
L Pug-dog?

This, and every other attempt to arrange the
various breeds of dogs under difierent heads,
must necessarily be defective, from that want
of information which we are now doomed to
deplore regarding the races of antiquitj^. Were
we possessed of this knowledge to the extent
380

a chain, with the caution " Cave canem^'' "Be-
ware the dog," written at its feet. A represen-
tation of this is to be seen in some histories of
Eoman antiquities. The small sharp ears and
elongated muzzle give it a wild aspect : it
appears to be a strongly- made, vigorous animal ;
but if it represent the Dogue de forte race of
the Romans, it is not to be wondered at
their sending to Britain for our old indigenous
mastiff".

In the Scriptures there are abundant allu-
sions to the dog. Some of these are to be
found in Exodus xxii. 31 ; 1 Kings xxi. 19 and
23 ; 2 Kings ix. 35, and elsewhere. The pas-
sages of greatest force are : — ■" In the place
where the dogs licked the blood of Naboth,
shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine ;" and,
" The dogs shall cat Jezebel by the wall of
Jezreel." These recall the picture of a scene
painted in modern days by a poet, who had
travelled in Greece and Turkey, and whose
wonderful pen drew, with magical power, the
habits of the niasterless dogs that " wander up
and down for meat, and grudge if they be not
satisfied." The passage is in Byron's Siege of
Corinth : —

" He saw the lean dogs beneath the wall,
Hold o'er the dead their carnival ;
Gorging and growling o'er carcass and limb,
They were too busy to bark at him.
From a Tartar's skull they had stripp'd the flesh,
As ye peel the fig when the fruit is fresh ;
And their white tusks crunch'd o'er tlie whiter skull,
As it slipt through their jaws when their edge grew

dull,
As they lazily mumbled the bones of tlie dead, •

As they scarce could rise from the spot where they fed ;
So well had they broken a lingering fast
With those who had fallen for that night's repast."

In Egypt the dog was a favourite, and care-
fully bred, and, as the paintings of that people
prove, there were several breeds. It would

niSTORY.]

PO-R AmUNTAIN. FIRLD, AND FAinr,

IIISTOTIT.

appear, iiuleod, that soino kiuJs wore rcpardi'd
with reliLjious veiienitioii, mul i'inl)ahiu'(l alti'i'
death. Miuiimica of tliem arc still iound. j
There would seoin to Imvo been in tiiia country |
of natural and artitlcial physical wonders, dilVer- j
ent kinds of doj^s. There nro ropresontations i
of hounds resembling our greyhound; of
pet-domestic dogs, with sharp ears, and curly j
tails ; of short-legged turnspits ; of watch-dogs ; !
of hunting-dogs, and other descriptions of tho
canine race. Indeed, what, physically spealuiig,
were this people without, from the Pyramid of i
Cheops down to the smallest representations |
of humanity, in black marble statuary ? — from
innumerable colossal figures of kings that might
rival the proportions of Jupiter in our limited
conceptions, down to the minutest representa-
tion of the species — scarihaes — that human in-
genuity and tingers could fashion ? They had,
also, of '• live-stock," the crocodile, "the great
dragon of the river," the emblem of the Nile,
and the symbol of Egypt; they had the beau-
tiful ibis and the pelican, emblem of maternal
love ; in short, what had they not ? and, as
they represented these things in sculpture, so
did they represent their dogs, from which re-
presentations we are, at this day, enabled to
decide, in some measure, the nature of the
various breeds of the animals of which they
were possessed. The modern greyhound of
Arabia so closely resembles the delineations of
the ancient greyhound, that we cannot doubt
their affinity. The Egyptians, in the chase^
used the bow and spear, and intercepted the
game as it fled before the hounds, discharging
their arrows whenever it came within range.
"When a fierce antelope, as the Lcucoryx, was
brought to bay, the hunter gallantly used his
spear, as the boar-hunter of the middle ages did
in Europe. On the level plains of Egypt the
chasseur often followed in his chariot, urging
his horses to the full speed, and endeavouring
to meet the game, or place himself in the direc-
tion the dogs were forcing it to take, with his
bow and arrows ready. It was, perhaps, the
partiality evinced by the Egyptians for the
dog, that led the Israelites to regard it with
abhorrence, as an unclean animal; in which
feeling they have been followed by the Mo-
hammedans. Be this as it may, Palestine " is
the country in which this animal has the long-
est been refused that entire domestication with

man which ho has enjoyed in most other land^;
in oilier words, the treatment of tho dog has
almost always, in Palestine, been such as it has
only in other countries been subject to, since
tho propagation of the Moslem faith. And
since the ideas concerning dogs have been much
tho eaino with tho ancient Jews and modern
Moslems, there is no doubt that the existiti";
practices of tho latter, illustrate tho ancient
practices of the former. Atnong both, wo traro
the despised, but not maltreated dog of tho
streets ; and among both wo discover that, with
every predisposition to do without them, cer-
tain breeds of dogs have forced their services
upon man, from the indispensable nature of
their help in hunting and in guarding the
flocks."

The street dogs, called Pariah dogs in
India, have excited the attention of all travel-
lers in that country, as well as in Turkey, and
the whole of the Levant. They roam the
streets of towns, cities, and villages, owned by
no one ; but, for their services in clearing away
carrion and offal, are universally tolerated. Al-
lusions are made to them in the earliest records
of antiquity. Homer describes them in con-
junction with vultures, as feeding upon the
slain : —

" Whose limbs, unburied on the naked shore,
Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore."

These dogs herd together in troops, and
keep to their respective districts ; they display
all the qualities and propensities of their race,
and if they are tierce and ravenous, it is
because they are left to their own resources ;
since, to become at once domestic, they require
only to be owned and noticed. Colonel Sykes,
speaking of the Pariah dog of Dukhun, ob-
serves that it is there very numerous, and not
individual property, but breeds in the towns
and villages unmolested. He remarks that
the Turnspit dog, long-backed, with short
crooked legs, is frequently found among the
Pariahs. Tliere is also a petted minute variety
of the Pariah dog, usually of a white colour,
with long silky hair, corresponding to a com-
mon lap-dog of Europe, which is taught to
carry flambeaux and lanterns The last variety
noticed, is the dog with hair so short as to
appear nuked, like the Barbary or Egyptian
dog. It is known to Europeans by the iiamo
of the Polygar dog. Of the Domesticated

381

niSTOET.][

THE DOG, AND ITS TARTETIES;

[akecdotes.

dogs, Colonel Sykes states, that the first in
size and strength is the Brinjaree dog, which
somewhat resembles the Persian greyhound,
but is much more powerful.

The properties of the dog, however, will be
treated of further on in this work ; meanwhile
we will here instance the general intelligence,
lidelity, and sagacity of this animal, by a few
illustrative anecdotes, which place liira in h:s
relationship with man in a striking point of
view. There are few who, from their own
experience, cannot bear testimony to the good
qualities of the dog ! It has been somewhere
^aid, " that man is the god of the dog," for to
man he looks up with reverence and affection,
and the praise of his master is his richest
reward. Is this instinctive attachment to the
human species acquired, or is it an original
impulse implanted in its nature, by the All-
wise Creator, for man's benefit, so that in the
primitive condition of society he might have a
friend and assistant, all-important in the chase,
and in the extirpation of wild beasts, which,
eve he can settle in a land or found a colony,
he must drive to a distance or destroy ?

In reference to the domesticated races, we
iiave no animal so completely subservient to
all the purposes or the wants of man, in so far
as obedience, attachment, and alliance can be
rendered by an inferior to a superior. The
anecdotes which are recorded as illustrative of
these qualities, would form a canine library of
no mean pretensions. In Mr. Burchell's
Travels in Africa, we have the character of a
pack of dogs thus given: —

" Our pack of dogs consisted of five-and-
twenty of various sorts and sizes. This variety,
though not altogether intentional, as I was
obhged to take any that could be procured,
was of the greatest service in such an expe-
dition, as I observed that some gave notice of
danger in one way, and others in another.
Some were more disposed to watch against
men, and others against wild boasts ; some
discovered an enemy by their quickness of
hearing, others by that of scent; some for
speed in pursuing game ; 5?ome were useful
only ibr their vigilance and barking; and
others for their courage in holding fero-
cious animals at bay. So large a pack was
not, indeed, maintained without adding greatly
to our care and trouble, in supplying them
382

with meat and water, for it was sometimes
difficult to procure for them enough of the
latter ; but their services were invaluable,
often contributing to our safety, and always
to our ease, by their constant vigilance, as we
felt a confidence tliat no danger could approach
us at night without being announced by their
barking. IS'o circumstances could render the
value and fidelity of these animals so con-
spicuous and sensible as a journey through
regions which, abounding in wild beasts of
almost every class, gave continual opportuni-
ties of witnessing the strong contrast in their
habits, between the ferocious beasts of prey,
w^hich fly at the approach of man, and these
kind, but too often injured companions of the
human race. Many times, when we have
been travelling over the plains where those
have fled the moment we appeared in sight,
liave I turned my eyes towards my dogs to
admire their attachment, and have felt a grate-
ful affection towards them for preferring our
society to the liberty of other quadrupeds.
Olten, in the middle of the night, when all my
people have been fast asleep around the fire,
have I stood to contemplate these faithful
animals lying by their side, and have learnt
to esteem them for their social love of man-
kind. When wandering over pathless deserts,
oppressed with vexation and distress at the
conduct of my own men, I have turned to
these as my only friends, and felt how much
inferior to them was man when actuated only
by selfish views.

"The familiarity which subsists between
this animal and our own race, is so common to
almost every country of the globe, that any
remark upon it must seem superfluous ; but I
cannot avoid believing that it is the univer-
sality of the iact which prevents the greater
part of mankind from reflecting duly on the
subject. AVhile almost every other quadruped
fears man as its most formidable enemy, here
is one which regards him as its companion,
and follows him as its friend. We must not
mistake the nature of the case; it is not
because we tiain him to our use; and have
made choice of him in preference to other
animals, but because this particular species
feels a natural desire to be useful to man, and
from spontaneous impulse attaches itself to
him. Were it not so, we should see, in various

ANECDOTES.]

i-oii :mountai:s, tield, Aisi) lAiiM.

ANKCUOTEB.

Cduutrios, an cqiml Iftiiiiliarity with various
oilier quadrupiHls, acconliiig to tlio liabiti?, tlio
taste, or the caprice of dillerent nations, liut
everywhere it is the dog only tliat takes delij,'ht
in associating witli us, in sharing our abode,
and is even jealous that our attention should
bo bestowed ou him alone; it is he who knows
ns personally, watches for us, and warus us of
ihmger. It is impossible for the naturalist,
when taking a survey of the whole auimal
creation, not to feel a conviction that this
friendship between two creatures so dillerent
from each other, must be the result of the laws
of nature; nor can the humane and feeling
mind avoid the belief, that kindness to those
animals, from which he derives coi'tinual and
•issential assistance, is part of his moral
duty."

These sentiments are those of a man who
was everywhere surrounded with danger, and
who was in the very best situation for ap-
preciating the nature and value of the dog.
He saw in him the most constant, vigilant,
and faithful of associates; his humanity ex-
panded as he reflected on his qualities, and he
could not help giving the preference to the
dog over his own species for faithfulness and
friendship. The passage in which this appears
is worth repeating and remembering by those
who mav look upon this generous animal with
an unfavourable or unfriendly eye. " When
■wandering over pathless deserts, oppressed
with vexation and distress at the conduct of

country for restoring animation. The account
given by the peasants was, that one of tlioni,
returning liome from his labour, observed, at a
considerable distance, a largo dog in tlio water,
swiuuning, and dragging, and sometimes push-
ing something which he seemed to havi« great
dilllculty in supporting, but which he, at
length, succeeded in getting into a Btuall
creek on the opposite side to that on which
the men were.

When the animal had pulled what he had
hitherto su[>ported as far out of the water aa
he was able, the peasant discovered that it
was the body of a man. The dog having
shaken himself, began industriously to lick the
hands and face of his master, while the rustic
hastened across ; and, having obtained assis-
tance, the body was conveyed to a neighbour-
ing house, where the usual means of resuscita-
tion soon restored him to sense and recollec-
tion. Two very considerable bruises, with the
marks of teeth, appeared— one on the shoulder,
the other on the nape of the neck — whence it
was presumed that the fiiithful animal lirst
seized his master by the shoulder, and swam
with him in this manner for some time ; but
that his sagacity had prompted him to let go
his hold, and shift his grasp to the neck, by
which he had been enabled to support the
head out of the water. It was in the latter
position that the peasant observed the dog
making his way along the dike, wliicli, it ap-
peared, he had done for a distance of nearly a

my own men, I have turned to these as mrj own quarter of a mile. It is therefore probable

friends, and felt how much inferior to them
was man when actuated only by selfish views."

The Newfoundland dog has long been
famous for his sagacity and the humanity of
his performances.

A native of Germany, fond of travelling,
was pursuing his course through Ilolland, ac-
companied by a very large one of this species.
Walking one evening ou a high bank, which
formed one side of a dike, or canal, so com-
mon in that country, his foot slipped, and he
was precipitated into the water, and, being
unable to swim, he soon became senseless.
When he recovered his recollection, he found
himself in a cottage on the opposite side of
the dike to that from which he had fallen,
surrounded by peasants, who had been using
the means so generally practised in that

that this gentleman owed his life as much to
the sagacity as to the fidelity of his dog.

A large Newfoundland dog, belonging to
Glasgow, offers another instance to the many
on record of the extraordinary sagacity of
do^s. It seems, that being, like human juve-
niles, sometimes rather fond of fuu, he required
to receive occasional discipline, and for that
purpose a whip-shaft was kept bet-ide him,
which was at certain times applied to him.
He evidently did not like this article, and was
found occasionally with it in his teeth, moving
slily to the door with it. Being left at night
on the premises, he found the hated article,
and thrust the small end below the door, but
this he could not do with the thick part. A
few nights afterwards, the whip-shait was left
beside him, and was never seen again. He

3S3

ANECDOTES,]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIE^

[anecdotes.

liad put the small end below the door, and
some one bad pulled it out. Ou the dog
being asked where it was, he looked very
guilty, and slunk away with his tail between
liis legs. This same dog has his provisions
brought to him in a tin can. Taking a walk, he
saw a child carrying a vessel exceedingly like
his; when he quietly seized it by the handle, and
carried it to his quarters, the child holding on,
and screaming all the way. When shown his
own he seemed quite ashamed of his mistake,
and allowed the frightened child to go with the
tin he had mistaken for his own. This animal
is in the habit of begging money from his
biped acquaintance, with which he marches to
a baker's shop and buys bread, which he car-
ries home and eats when hungry.

It was but the other day that we read of an
anecdote strongly indicative of the fidelity of
an Irish dog towards his master, who, in the
city of Dublin, was overcome by the potent
beverage which, as it is a favourite liquor of
other parts of Ireland, so does it hold a high
place in the estimation of at least some of the
inhabitants of that city. A respectable-
looking man, belonging to the middle classes
of life, tottered down Donegal-street, appa-
rently oblivious to everything. A handsome
dog, of the caste known as spaniel, followed
at his heels, whining most mournfully, evidently
wishing him to retrace his steps, and dis-
j)laying a great deal more regard for the man
than he did for liimself. The man at last
tumbled down on the steps opposite the parish
church, his watch being thrown out of his
pocket by the fall. The dog, with an instinct
which, if inferior to the reason exhibited in
a higher order of beings, certainly exhibited
a mui-e exalted notion of affection than is
portrayed in many, lay down on his master's
breast, clutching the watch between his two
fore feet. A crowd gathered round the sense-
less man ; but the dog, considering himself his
protector, would let no one approach him. A
constable came up ; but the dumb animal, re-
cognising no person, would not let the police-
man go near hun, the dog guarding every poke
of the baton with his head. The barking of
the spaniel at last awakened the drunkard, who,
with much difficulty, got tl»e watch into his
pocket, and staggered ou, the faithful animal
barking and wagging his tail with delight.
384

There is, perhaps, a still more extraordinary
instance of sagacity ; and, as it is of a rare
description, it merits a place in these pages.
It is i'rom the Hecollectiojis of a Sjwr/sman, by
Lord W. Lennox. " A short time ago, a dog,
well known to the railway officials, from his
frequent travelling with his master, presented
himself at one of the stations on the Meet-
wood, Preston, and Longridge line. After
looking round for some length of time among
the passengers, and in the carriages, just as
the train was about to start he leaped into one
of the compartments of a carriage, and laid
himself down under the seat. Arriving at
Longridge, he made another survey of the
passengers, and, after waiting until the station
had been cleared, he went into the railway
station hotel, searched all the places on the
ground-floor, then went and made a tour of
inspection over the adjoining grounds ; but,
being apparently unsuccessful, trotted back to
the train, and took his old position just as it
moved off. On reaching the station from
which he had first started, he again looked
round as before, and took his departure. It
seems that he now proceeded to the general
railway station at Preston, and, after repeating
the looking-around performance, placed him-
self under one of the seats in a train which he
had singled out of many that are constantly
passing in and out, and, in due time, arrived
in Liverpool. He now visited a few places
where he had been before with his master, of
whom, as it afterwards appeared, he was in
search. Of his adventures in Liverpool little
is known; but he remained all night, and visited
Preston again early the next morning. Still,
not finding his missing master, he, for the
fourth time, " took the train" — this time, how-
ever, to Lancaster and Carlisle ; at which latter
place the sagacity and faithfulness of the ani-
mal, as well as the perseverance and tact he
displayed in prosecuting his search, were re-
warded by finding his master."

Of the spaniel races there are many recorded
instances of wonderful sagacity ; and to some of
them has been ascribed the possession of even
an organ of music. On a few of this family, fine
music has been known to produce an appa-
rently painful effect, causing them gradually tc
become restless, to moan piteously, and, finally,
to escape from its presence with every sign ot

ANiiCUOTES.]

roil MOUNT A IX, FIELD, AND TAR.M.

[ANKCltOTKS.

BufforinsT and distress. Others have boon seen
to sit and listen to unisic with seeming dcli{»ht,
and oven to go every Sunday to ehurch, wiili
the obvious purpose of enjtiyiiig the sokMun
ami powerful strains of the organ. All these
displays, however, of niusieal tendencies on
the part of the canine race, are as nothing in
comparison with the following, whicli a (aerman
paper gave an account of some time bade.

Frederick S , a inuskMl amateur of Daruj-

stadt, in the grand duchy of llosse, possesses
a female spaniel, which has become a strange
source of terror to all the mediocre musicians
of the place and its vicinity. Having acquired
a competency by commercial industry, Mr.

S retired from business, and devoted liim-

eelf, heart and soul, to the daily and hourly
enjoyment of his favourite science. Every
member of his little household was by degrees
involved, more or less, in the same occupation,
and even the housemaid could, in time, take a
part in a chorus. One individual alone in tlie
family seemed to resist this musical entrance-
ment ; this was a small spaniel, the sole speci-
men of the canine race in the mansion. Mr.

S felt the impossibility of instilling the

theory of sounds into the head of Poodle, but
he firmly resolved to make the animal bear
some part or other in the general domestic
concert; and by perseverance, and the adoption
of ingenious means, he attained his object.
Every time that a false note escaped either
from instrument or voice — as often as any
blunder, of whatever kind, was committed by
the members of the musical family (/ind such
blunders were sometimes committed intention-
ally)— down came its master's cane on the
back of the unfortunate spaniel, till she
howled and growled again. By-aud-b}', simple
menaces with the stick were substituted for
blows ; and, at a still more advanced period of
this extraordinary training, a mere glance of

Mr. S '3 eye was sutUcient to make the

animal howl to admiration. In the end, she
became so thoroughly acquainted with, and
attentive to, false notes, and othrr musical
barbarisms, that the slightest mistake of the
kind was infallibly signalised by a yell from
her, forming the most expressive commentary
upon the misperformance. When extended
Jrials were made of the animal's acquirements,
they were never found to fail, and she became,
3d

what she still is, the most famous, impartial,
and conscientious critic in the duchy of llcsse.
But, as may be imagined, her musical a|)pre-
ciation is entirely negative: if you hing with
expression, and play with ability, she will re-
main cold and impassible. Although notliing
can be said in favour of the dog while in a
state of nature, still, after he has received aa
education from man, the whole world will bear
testimony to his iiiuiiense value. Volumes
would not sullice to contain instances of his
services to the human race. A man and his
dog may almost be considered as component
parts, each working for the other, whether in
heat or in cold, in tempests or in calms. The
blind confide in him ; the lame have his sup-
port ; the rich are proud of him ; and, too often,
the poor man has nothing but his dog to give
him consolation.

These instances of sagacity and intelligence,
as displayed in this animal, are, in numberless
instances, equalled by his courage. Mr. Lloyd,
in his Field Sports, says, that " for bear-shoot-
ing, a first-rate dog is invaluable ; but such are
rarely to be found ; indeed, with the exception
of Paijas, I never met with one at all deserving
of that character. That gallant hound, how-
ever, was, in his better days, everything I
could wish. In one instance I knew him to
worry a large bear for nearly eight successive
hours; and during a considerable part of this
time no person was with him. Sometimes he
was alongside the beast; at others, a little
ahead, and then hanging on his rear; and all
this while making the forest ring again with
his yells. Though he usually conducted his
attacks with caution, in consequence of the
mauling he received from a bear in his younger
days, his courage at times, during the chase I
speak of, got the better of his prudence; for,
on hearing my shots, he seldom resisted the
temptation of having a snap at the haunches
of his rugged antagonist. In this case, the
bear would swing himself round wild wonder-
ful agility, dash at the dog, and strike out with
his paws in much the same manner as a cat ;
but Paijas, being up to these mauoeuvres,
always took care to beat a timely retreat.

" By a dog thus incessantly harassing a
bear, the sportsman is enabled to make many
a short cut; his continual attacks, besides,
often bring the beast to a stand-still ; in which

385

ANECDOTES.l

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES

[anecdotes.

case, one can generally approach within range
of him. On such occasions a good dog is an
immense safeguard to a person ; as, should he
unhappily fall into the jaws of the beast, his
faithful follower might be the means of saving
his life ; for the dog seldom hesitates to fix at
once upon the bear ; and, by so doing, he often
succeeds in drawing the attack from his master
to himself.

" High-couraged dogs are not unfrequeutly
killed by the bear during the chase ; for, if the
beast once gets them withia his grasp, he, in
most cases, quickly annihilates them. Several
iustances of the kind have come to my know-
ledge.

" It is said, that when the bear is pursued
by dogs, he, at times, becomes so much enraged,
that he takes hold of the nearest stick or stone
he can lay his paws upon, and casts it at them.
According to Mr. Nillsson, indeed, when the
bear is attacked by the hunter, and whilst
beating a retreat, he satisfies himself by throw-
ing these missiles at his adversary. It is re-
ported that bruin is a bad marksman; for,
instead of sending his weapon in the direction
of his opponent, he not unfrequeutly whizzes
ifc over his own head. As I never witnessed
an exploit of the kind on the part of a bear, I
am by no means inclined to vouch for the
truth of these stories."

In following the elk, the Northern chasseur
must have his dogs, which he often slips from
the couplings, and which not unfrequeutly
bring the old males to bay. In hunting this
animal, considerable art is necessary ; and the
eagerness and length of time with which they
pursue the game are astonishing. The dog
must always be allowed to start the elk ; for,
should the latter once get sight or scent of
the sportsman, he usually goes off at his best
pace.

The great inconvenience of slipping a dog
on these occasions is, that if he should be good
for anything, and the elk does not stand to
bay, lie will hardly ever desist from pursuing
the animal; and thus the sportsman may be
thrown out altogether.

To guard against a circumstance of this kind
happening, the Northern chasseurs — there
generally being two or more in company on
these occasions — are not unfrequeutly provided
with a second dog, which they retain in his

leash. When, therefore, they can no longer
hear the challenges of the dog that is loosed
in the distance, the other enables them to con-
tinue the pursuit. Sometimes, however, dogs
go off altogether from their masters. "I have
heard of instances of their pursuing the elk
such great distances, that they have been lost
to their owners for days and days together,
and have perhaps cast up at last in an al-
together different part of the country."

Of the determination and spirit of the dog,
even in pursuing and attacking the most fero-
cious animals, there are many examples on
record. Recently, a Erench journal chronicled
the following incidents in a wild boar hunt : —
The pack of hounds of M. Rattier de Verveines,
twenty-five in number, lately hunted a huge
wild boar in the forest near this town — Alengon
— but, after three hours' chase, could not bring
it to bay, though it stopped now and then to
attack the dogs. Twelve fresh hounds having
been set on, it at last stopped, and the dogs
attacked it with great determination. It,
however, ripped up several, and threw others
in the air. One of the keepers having arrived,
fired his carbine, but only broke one of the
fore feet of the animal. The chief keeper then
arrived, and fired two balls at its head, with-
out, however, producing any effect. He, how-
ever, re-loaded, and then lodged one ball in
the boar's muzzle, and the other behind his
ear. The last proved mortal, the animal fall-
ing dead. It was then found that two of the
dogs were dead, ten more mortally wounded,
and that several others were more or less in-
jured. The boar weighed about 3 cwt.

The terrier has long been famous for his
game and hunting propensities. Recently a
stone-cutter, engaged at the Bodelwyddan
church, near St. Asaph, was taking a walk in
some fields, accompanied by a dog, of the cross-
bred terrier breed. The dog was hunting along
a small rivulet, which ran at the bottom of a
field, when a large male otter made his appear-
ance, running along the course of the brook.
The man was frightened, never having seen
such an animal before ; but the dog immedi-
ately attacked him, when a battle ensued, the
otter dragging the dog to a small pool, about
three or four feet deep, evidently with the in-
tention of drowning him. The man prevented
this by laying hold of the dog, and dragged

a:secdotk8.]

Foil MOUNTAIN, FIELU, AND FAUM.

[ankcdotkb.

tlicm both out fastened to2;etlier; when nc:nin,
on terra fuma, thev Ibuijht ili'spi'ratoly for half-
an-hoiir, niutunlly sopiinUing to ilniw brcnth ;
then the otter took advantage of this pause, and
made for the brook a£»ain. The dog, by this
time, was dreaiifully hiccrated — his noao and
lips cut througl), and otherwise bruised. The
man perceiving this, took up a hedge-stake,
and gave the otter a severe blow on tlie head.
Tho dog then went at liim again, the man oc-
casionallv assisting with his stick ; and between
them both the otter waa killed, after an hour'a
hard lighting. It was a formidable-looking
animal, and measured, from tho nose to the tail,
3ft. lOin.

It is to be regretted that an animal possessed
of such generous impulses, however, is some-
times found to act contrary to all expectation.
The following is an instance of this, and places
the mastiff, on this occasion, in a very unfa-
vourable point of view : — A lady, of some pro-
pertv, residing in the Rue des Vignes, at Vau-
girard, was possessed of a huge mastiff, which,
being verv sa>rage, had to be kept constantly
chained up, but which she prized because it;
had belonged to her late husband. One morn-
ing, according to custom, she took the animal
his food, but he seemed more indocile than
usual, and she gave him a beating. "Watching
an opportunity, he suddenly rushed on her,
threw her dowu^ dragged off the greater part
of her clothes, and bit her dreadfully in the
breast, arm, and one of the legs ; in fact, tear-
ing away fragments of the flesh. The lady's
cries attracted some of the neighbours to the
spot, and they rescued her. Although suffer-
ing dreadfully, and faint from loss of blood, she
requested tliem to strangle the animal. They
accordingly passed a cord round the dog's
neck, and removing his coUar, prepared to
effect the operation ; but he tugged so vio-
lently at the cord that he broke it, and rushed
towards the room into whicli the lady had been
conveyed. Tiie door was closed on him, and
he tried to force it open, but failed. On this,
barking furiously, he rushed towards the people,
"who remained in the court-yard; but they were
able to escape by the door, and to close it.
The commissary of police, who had been sent
for, now arrived, accompanied by some gen-
darmes,nw(\ he made them kill tlie animal. Med-
ical assistance having been obtained tor the

unfortunate lady, it was found that nho wos in
a fearful stato. Tho dog was, after »leuth, ex-
amined by a veterinary Hur;,'eoii, and he de-
clared that he wa.s neitlier mud iior labouring
under any maliuly. 11 (i lui'tiier declared that,
in his belief, the animal must havo had a sort
of instinctive hatred of his mistress, and must
have been driven to fury by her beating him.

jVIr. llichardson gives the following interest-
ing account of a Newfoundland dog, which be-
longed to a gentleman in Fifeshire, and which
was alike remarkable for its tractability and its
trustworthiness. At two other points, distant
about a mile from each other, and at the same
distance from this gentleman's mansion, there
were two other dogs, of great power, but of
less tractable breeds thau the Newt'ouiidland.
One of these was a large mastiff, kept as a
watch-dog, by a farmer; and the other a staunch
bulldog, that kept guard over the parish mill.
As each of these three was lord-ascendant of
all animals at his master's residence, they all
had a good deal of aristocratic pride and pug-
nacity ; so that two of them seldom met with-
out attempting to settle their respective digni-
ties by a wager of battle.

The Newfoundland was of some service in
other domestic arrangements, besides his guar-
dianship of the house; for every forenoon he
was sent to the baker's shop in the village,
about half a mile distant, with a towel contain-
ing money in the corner, and he returned with
the value of the money in bread. There were
many useless and not over-civil curs in the
village ; but, on ordinary occasions, the haughty
Newroundland treated this ignoble race in that
contemptuous style in which great dogs are
wont to treat little ones. When the dog re-
turned from the baker's shop he used to be
regularlv served with his dinner, and he went
peaceably on house-duty for the rest of the
day.

One dav, however, he returned with his coat
dirtied, and his ears scratched; havnig been
subjected to a combined attack of the curs,
whi e he had charge of his towel and bread,
and could not defend himself. Instead of wait-
ing for his dinner as usual, he laid down his
charge somewhat sulkily, and marched off; and,
upon looking after him, it was observed that
he was crossing the intervening huliow in a
strai-'ht line for the house of the farmer, or

387

ANECDOTES.!

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[anecdotes.

rather on an embassy to the farmer's mastiff.
The farmer's people observed this unusual
visit ; and they were induced to notice it from
its being a meeting of peace between those
who had habitually been belligerents. After
some intercourse, of which no interpretation
could be given, the two set off together in the
direction of the mill ; and, having arrived there,
they, in brief space, engaged the miller's bull-
dog as an ally.

The straight road to the village where the
indignity had been offered to the Newfound-
land dog, passed immediately in front of that
dog's master's house; but there was a more
private and circuitous road by the back of the
mill. The three took this road, reached the
village, scoured it in great wrath, putting to
the tooth every cur they could get sight of;
and having taken their revenge, and washed
themselves in a ditch, they returned, each dog
to the abode of his master ; and when any two
of them happened to meet afterwards, they dis-
played the same pugnacity as they had done
previous to this joint expedition.

It would seem that in this case there was a
mere momentary concert for the accomplish-
ment of one object among three dogs differing
considerably in their habits ; and that when this
momentary purpose was accomplished, the
wonted animosity of the three returned, and
they fought as readily with each other as ever.
But it does not appear that all casual, or appa-
rently casual, interferences of dogs, for the
benefit of each other, pass off in this momen-
tary way ; for there is another well-authenti-
cated anecdote of two dogs, at Donagbadee, in
which the instinctive daring of the one on be-
half of the other, caused a friendship, and, as
it would seem, a kind of mourning for the
dead, after one of them had paid the debt of
nature. This happened while the government
harbour, or pier, for the packets at Donagba-
dee was in the course of building, and it oc-
curred in the sight of several witnesses. Tlie
one dog in this case also was a Newfoundland,
and the other was a mastiff. They were both
powerful dogs ; and, though each was good-
natured, when alone, they were very much in
the habit of lighting when they met. One
day they had a fierce and prolonged battle on
the pier, from the point of which they both fell
into the sea ; and, as the pier was long and
388

steep, they had no means of escape but by
swimming a considerable distance. Throwing
water upon fighting-dogs is an approved means
of putting an end to their hostilities ; and it is
natural to suppose that the same effect would
take place from two combatants of the same
species tumbling themselves into the sea. Ac-
cordingly, each began to make for the land aa
he best could. The Newfoundland, being an
excellent swimmer, very speedily gained the
pier, on which he stood shaking himself; but,
at the same time, watching the motions of his
former antagonist, which, being no swimmer,
was struggling exhausted in the water, and just
about to sink. In dashed the Newfoundland
dog, took the other gently by the collar, kept
his head above water, and brought him safely
on shore. There was a peculiar kind of recog-
nition between the two animals after this.
They never fought again ; they were always
together; and when the Newfoundland dog
was accidentally killed by the passage of a stone
waggon over him, the other languished, and
evidently lamented for a long time.

The care of the dog in directing the steps of
the blind, is highly deserving of notice. There
are few persons who have not seen some of
these unfortunate objects thus guided along
through the winding streets of a town or city,
to the spot where they are to supplicate charity
of passengers. In the evening the dog safely
conducts his master back, and receives, as the
reward of its services, that scanty pittance
which wretchedness can bestow. Mr. Eay, in
his Synopsis of Quadrupeds, informs us of a
blind beggar who was thus led through th6
streets of Eome by a middle-sized dog, which,
besides leading his master in such a manner
as to protect him from all danger, learned to
distinguish both the streets and houses where
he was accustomed to receive alms twice or
thrice a week. Whenever the animal came to
any one of these streets, with which he was
well acquainted, he would not leave it till a
call had been made at every house where his
master was usually successful in his petitions.
When the beggar began to ask alms, the dog
lay down to rest ; but the man was no sooner
served or refused, than the dog rose spon-
taneously, and without either order or sign,
proceeded to the other houses where the beg-
gar generally received some gratuity. "I

AKECDOTES.J

FOR MOU^'TAIN, 1<1ELD, A.NU i'AUM.

[^ANECUOTES.

obsorvcd," says ho, " not wilhout pleaauro and |
surprisi«, that wlioii a lialtpt'iiny waa thrown
from a wiiulow, such were the sagacity and
the attention of this dog, that ho wont about
in quest of it, took it from the grouml with his
mouth, and put it into the blind n\an's hat.
Even when bread was thrown down, tlio ani-
mal would not taste it unless he received it
from the hand of his master." ,

Dogs can be taught io go to market with
money, to repair to a known shop, and carry
borne provisions in eafety. Daniel speaks of
a person who lived at a turnpike-house about
a mile from Stratford-ou-Avou, who had a dog
trained to go to a neighbouring town for any ^
articles of grocery that he wanted. A note
mentioning these was tied round his neck,
and in the same manner the articles were fas-
tened. In these errands the commodities were
always brought safe to his master.

Smellie, whom Lord Brougham compliments
in his admirable work on Instinct and Science,
tells us, in his Fliilosopliy of Natural History,
that a grocer in Edinburgh had a dog, wliich,
for some time, amused and astonished the
people in the neighbourhood. A man who
went through the streets ringing a bell and
selling penny pies, happened one day to treat
this dog with a pie. The next time he heard
the pieman's bell he ran to him with impetu-
osity, seized him by the coat, and would not
suffer him to pass. The pieman, who under-
stood what the animal wanted, showed him a
penny, and pointed to his master, who stood
at the street-door, and saw what was going on.
The dog immediately supplicated his master
by many humble gestures and looks. The
master put a penny into the dog's mouth,
which he instantly delivered to the pieman,
and received his pie. This traffic between the
pieman and the grocer's dog continued to be
daily practised for many mouths.

On the authority of Dibdin, we quote the fol-
lowing from his Observations in a Tour through
England. At a convent in France, twenty
paupers were served with a dinner at a certain
hour every day. A dog belonging to the con-
vent did not fail to be present at this regale,
to receive the odds and ends which were now
and then thrown down to him. Tlie guests,
however, were poor and hungry, and, of course,
not very wasteful : so that tlieir pensioner did

little more than scent the feast of which ho
would faiu have partaken. The portions wore
served by a person, at the ringing of a bell,
and delivered out by means of what, in reli-
gious houses, is called a tuur ; which is a ma-
chine like the section of a ea^k, tliat, by turn-
ing round upon a pivot, exhibits whatever is
placed on the concave side, without ditJcovering
the person who moves it. One day this dog,
who had only received a few scraps, waited till
the paupers were all gone, took the rope in his
moutli, and rang tlie bell. His stratagem suc-
ceeded. He repeated it the next day with the
same good fortune. At length the cook, find-
ing that twenty-one portions were given out
instead of twenty, was determined to discover
the trick : in doing whicli he had no great
difficulty ; for, lying perdu, and noticing the
paupers as they came in great regularity for
their different portions, and that there was no
intruder except the dog, he began to suspect
the real truth ; whicli he was confirmed, in
when he saw him wait with great deliberation
till the visitors were all gone, and then pull
the bell. The matter was related to the com-
munity ; and, to reward him for his ingenuity,
he was permitted to ring the bell every day for
his dinner, when a mess of broken victuals
was purposely served out to him.

In Vol. III. of the Annical Hegister, we
find it stated, that " while a man of the
name of Eichardson, a waterman, near Ham-
mersmitl), was sleeping in his vessel, she
broke from her moorings, and was carried by
the tide under a west-country barge. Fortu-
nately for the man, his dog happened to be
with him ; and the sagacious animal awakened
him by pawing his face, and pulling the collar
of his coat, at the instant the boat was filling
with water. He seized the opportunity, and
thus saved himself from otherwise inevitable
death."

About the end of the last century, a person
went to a bouse in Deptford, to take lodgings,
under pretence that he had just arrived from
the "West Indies. After having agreed on the
terms. he was to pay, he said he should send
his trunk that night, and come himself the
next day. About nine o'clock in the evening,
the trunk was brouglit by two porters, and
was carried into his bed-room. Just as the
family were going to bed, their little house-

3b9

A"NECDOTES.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[buffon.

dog, deserting his usual station in tbe shop,
placed himself close to the chamber-door where
the chest was deposited, and kept up an inces-
sant barking. The moment the chamber-door
was opened, the dog flew to the chest, against
which it scratched and barked with redoubled
fury. They attempted to get the animal out
of the room, but in vain. Galling in some
neighbours, and making them eye-witnesses of
the circumstance, they began to move the
trunk about ; when they immediately dis-
covered that it contained something that was
alive. Suspicion becoming very strong, they
were induced to force it open ; when, to their
utter astonishment, they found in it their new
lodger, who had had himself thus conveyed
into the house with the intention of robbing it.

In the Life of James Sackington^ it is stated
that Mr. C. Hughes, a son of Thespis, had a wig
which generally hung on a peg in one of his
rooms. He one day lent the wig to a brother
player, and, some time after, called on him. Mr.
Hughes had his dog with him, and the man
happened to have the borrowed wig on his
head. Mr. Hughes stayed a little while with
his friend ; but, when he left him, the dog re-
mained behind ; for some time he stood, look-
ing full in the man's face ; then making a sud.
den spring, leaped on his shoulders, seized the
wig, and ran off with it as fast as he could ;
and, when he reached home, he endeavoured,
by jumping, to hang it up in its usual place.
The same dog was one afternoon passing
through a field in the environs of Dartmouth,
where a washerwoman had hung out her linen
to dry. He stopped, and surveyed one par-
ticular shirt with attention ; then seizing it, he
dragged it away through the dirt to his master,
whose shirt it proved to be.

Some nations are partial to the dog as food.
In some of the South Sea islands dogs are
fattened with vegetables, which the natives
Bavagely cram down their throats when they
will voluntarily eat no more. They become
exceedingly fat ; and are allowed, by Europeans
who have overcome their prejudices, to be very
palatable. They are killed by strangling ;
and the extravasated blood is preserved in
cocoa-nut shells, and baked for the table. The
negroes of the coast of Guinea are so partial
to these animals as food, that they frequently
give considerable prices for them : a larf'e
390

sheep for a dog was, at one time, a common
article of exchange. Even the ancients esteemed
a young and fat dog to be excellent eating.
Hippocrates ranks it with mutton or pork.
The Komans admired sucking whelps, esteem-
ing them a supper in which even the gods de-
lighted.

When Lieutenant Fremont was at Eorb
Lamarie, on the Platte — a station of the
American Eur Company — the Indians in the
neighbourhood gave him an invitation to a
feast of honour — a dog feast. " The women
and children," says the lieutenant, "were
sitting outside the lodge, and we took our seats
on buflalo robes spread around. The dog was
in a large pot over the fire, in the middle of
the lodge, and, immediately on our arrival, was
dished up in large wooden bowls, one of which
was handed to each. The flesh appeared very
glutinous, with something of tlie flavour and
appearance of mutton. Feeling something
move behind me, I looked round, and found
that I had taken my seat among a litter of fat
young puppies. Had I been nice in such
matters, the prejudices of civilisation might
have interfered with my tranquillity ; but, for-
tunately, I am not of delicate nerves, and con-
tinued quietly to empty my platter."

Bufibn has bequeathed us an excellent de-
scription of the dog, the substance of which is
here given.

" The dog," he says, "independently of the
beauty of his form, his vivacity, force, and
swiftness, is possessed of all those internal
qualifications that can conciliate the aflections
of man, and make the tyrant a protector. A
natural share of courage, an angry and fero-
cious disposition, renders the dog, in its savage
state, a formidable enemy to all other animals :
but these readily give way to very different
qualities in the domestic dog, whose only am-
bition seems to please : he is seen to como
crouching along, to lay his force, his courage,
and all his useful talents at the feet of his
master ; he waits his orders, to which he pays
implicit obedience; he consults his looks, and
a single glance is sufficient to put him in
motion ; he is more faithful even than the
most boasted among men ; he is constant in
his affections, friendly without interest, and
grateful for the slightest favours ; much more
mindful pf benefits received than injuries

BVrFOX.]

rOlt :\I0UNTA1X, F1ELJ>. AM) takm.

[llUfFOy.

offered, ho 13 not driven off by unkindncss ; he
still continues humble, submi.^sive, nnd im-
ploring; liis only hope to bo siTviceabli', liia
only torror to displease; he licks the liaiul that
has been just lilted to strike him, and at last
disarms resentment by submissive perse-
verance.

" JMore docile than man, more obedient than
any other animal, he is not only instructed in
a short time, but he also conforms to the dis-
positions and the manners of those who com-
inand him. lie takes his tone from the house
he inhabits ; like the rest of the domestics, he
is disdainful among the proud, and churlish
among clowns. Always assiduous in serving
his master, and only a friend to his friends, he
is indifferent to all the rest, and declares him-
self openly against such as seem dependent
like himself. He knows a beggar by his
clothes, by his voice, or his gestures, and
forbids his approach. When at nii:;ht the
guard of the bouse is committed to his care,
he seems proud of the charge ; he continues a
watchful sentinel ; be goes his rounds, scents
strangers at a distance, and gives them warn-
ing of his being on duty. If they attempt to
break in upon his territories, he becomes more
fierce, flies at them, threatens, fights, and either
conquers alone, or alarms those who have most
interest in coming to his assistance. However, ,
when he has conquered, he quickly reposes
upon the spoil, and abstains from what be has j
deterred others from abusing ; giving thus !
at once a lesson of courage, temperance, and
fidelity.

" From hence we see of what importance
this animal is to us in a state of nature. Sup-
posing, for a moment, that this species had
not existed, how could man, without the assis-
tance of the dog, have been able to conquer,
tame, and reduce to servitude every other
animal ? How could he discover, trace, and
destroy those that were noxious to him ? In
order to be secure, and become master of all
animated nature, it was necessary for him to
begin by making a friend of part of them ;
to attach such of them to himself, by kindness
and caresses, as seemed fittest lor obedience

' and active pursuit. Thus the first art employed
by man was in conciliating the favour of tho
dog ; and the fruits of this art was tho con-
quest and peaceable possession of tho earth.

"Tiio generality of animals have greater
agility, greater swiftness, and more formidablo
arms, from nature, than man ; their HciiHes,
antl particularly that of stnellmg, are far nioro
perfect : and having gained, therefore, a new
assistant, particularly one whose scent is ao
exquisite as that of the dog, was the gaining a
new sense, a new faculty, which before was
wanting. The machines and instruments
which we have imagined for perfecting the
rest of the senses, do not approach to that
already prepared by nature, by which we are
enabled to find out every animal though un-
seen, and thus destroy the noxious, and use
the serviceable.

" The dog, thus useful in itself, taken into a
participation of empire, exerts a degree of
superiority over all animals that require human
protection. The flock and the herd obey his
voice more readily even than that of the
shepherd or the herdsman ; he conducts them,
guards them, keeps them from capriciously
seeking danger ; and their enemies he considers
as his own. Nor is he less useful in the pur-
suit ; when the sound of the horn, or the voice
of the huntsman, calls him to the field, he
testifies his pleasure by every little art, and
pursues with perseverance those animals which,
when taken, be must not expect to divide.
The desire of hunting is, indeed, natural to
him, as well as to his master, since war and
the chase are the only employ of savages. All
animals that live upon flesh hunt by nature.
The lion and the tiger, whose force is so great
that they are sure to conquer, hunt alone, and
without art. The wolf, the fox, and the wild
dog, hunt in packs, assist each other, and
divide the spoil. But, when education has
perfected this talent in the domestic dog —
when he has been taught by man to repress
his ardour, to measure his motions, and not to
exhaust his force by too sudden an exertion of
it, he then hunts with method, and always with
success."

391

THE DIJTGO.]

THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIETIES;

[the dingo.

CHAPTER ni.

VAKIETIES OF THE DOG — WILD AND HALF-WILD.

If we pass from dogs confessedly wild to
those which are half-wild, only semi-domesti-
cated, the Dingo, or Australian dog, is one of
the most remarkable and best known. Of the
orio-in of this dog, and of the circumstances
connected with its introduction into Austraha,
we are totally ignorant. "We know that wild
packs exist in the remoter districts, and are
the scourge of the country, preying on the
native kangaroo, and making havoc among the
flocks and herds of the European settlers. So
wolf-like are these dogs in general form —
though they are specifically distinct from the
wolf — that the first navigators who touched at
New Holland scarcely recognised them as
dogs. Dampier, in the account of his voyage
performed in 1699, states that his men saw
two or three beasts like hungry wolves ; and
the similarity is, to a certain degree, very
striking. The domestic breed — if domestic it
can be called — in all respects resembles those
which are completely emancipated.

THE DINGO.

The Dingo, called "Warragal by the natives,
is about as large as a harrier ; its body is firmly
built, its limbs muscular; its head is broad
between the ears, and its muzzle is acute ; the
neck is thick and powerful ; the ears are short,
pointed, and erect ; its tail, which is rather
long, is somewhat bushy and pendulous, or, at
most, raised only horizontally. The general
colour is sandy red ; the eyes are rather small
and oblique, which is one of the diagnostics of
a low degree of cultivation, and is never seen
in what are termed high-bred animals.

The agility and muscular powers of the
Dingo are extraordinary ; and its cunning and
ferocity are as much so. It never barksj but
howls loudly ; and is said never to discover a
feeling of pleasure by wagging the tail. The
natural habits of one which was brought to this
country in about the sixth week of its age, was
closely watched. On its being put into a room,
it immediately skulked into the darkest corner,
392

and there crouching, eyed those in its presence

with looks of great distrust and aversion : as
soon as left to itself, it commenced the most
melancholy howling, which ceased on any per-
son's entrance. This, for some days, was its
constant practice ; and, when placed in a ken-
nel, the greater part of the day was thus
passed. It grew up strong and healthy, and
gradually became reconciled to those from whom
it was accustomed to receive food, but was shy
towards others, retreating into its kennel at
their approach. It never barked, nor, like other
dogs, gave notice of the approach of strangers,
and therefore, as a guard, was perfectly use-
less. A great part of the day was spent in
howling, and that so loudly as to be heard at
the distance of more than half a mile. When
the moon rose brightly, it would sit and utter,
for hours, its wild lamentations, not a little to
the annoyance of the neighbourhood. With
all its shyness, it was, at the same time, savage,
but would never make an open attack. Several
times it snapped at persons who happened to
be walking within its reach, but only when
their backs were turned, and it immediately
retreated again into its kennel. So great was
its strength, that though encumbered by a
heavy chain, it leaped a wall of considerable
height, and was not secured without difficulty.

This animal is a great pest to the Australian
settler, and is remarkably tenacious of life. It
is also a very obstinate fighter. Instances are
related of its sustaining a combat with four or
five stout hounds, and ultimately getting away
from them. Very few dogs can kill a Dingo
single-handed. Like the wolf, it fights in
silence, and utters no cry of pain ; but, like
that grim felon, dies as hard as it has lived.
The following instances of its tenacity of life
are given by Mr. George Bennet, in his Wan-
derings in New South Wales : —

" One had been beaten so severely that it
was supposed all its bones were broken, and it
was left for dead. After the person had walked
some distance, upon accidentally looking back,

THE DUOLB.]

FOK r^lOUNTATX, FIELD, AND FARM, [amebican doqs.

his surprise waa much rxcitoil by sci-iiii; tho
Dingo rise, shake himself, anil niareli into tlie
bush, evading all pursuit. One, supposed dead,
was brought into a hut, for tho purpose of un-
dergoing deoortieation : at the eomnienoement
of tho skinning process upon tlie face, the only
perceptible movement was a slight quivering of
the lips, whieh was regarded at the time as
merely muscular irritability. The man, after
skinuing a very small portion, left tho hut to
sharpen his knife, and, on returning, found the
animal sitting up, with the flayed integument
hanging over on one side of the face."

In New Zealand there has been found an
apparently feral dog, called by tho natives
" Kaearahe." Eegarding this animal there
is a tradition, which says, that he was given to
them some centuries ago by certain divinities
who visited their shores. In appearance, this
dog closely resembles the " Dingo," but he
seems to have been partially domesticated.

There is a small dog domesticated on the
banks of the Niger, very nearly resembling the
Dingo in form, but on a much more diminutive
and lighter scale, and with a longer muzzle in
proportion. Its general colour is reddish.

THE DHOLE.— CANIS PRIM^EVUS.

The Dhole is a native of India, over which
peninsula it extends in great numbers, and
bears different names in different parts. It
was originally described by Mr. Hodgson as
the Buausu. and by him given the title of
Canis primcevus — original, or primeval dog —
as, in his opinion, it was the origin of the
domestic dog. The locality of the dog to
which we have already alluded, was Nepaul,
the eastern and western limits of its range
being the Sutlej and the Burhampootra.

In 1831, Colonel Sykes described a wild
do^ from the Mahrattas, which he calls the
wild dog of the Deccan ; to which we have also
already alluded, and which would seem to be
identical with Mr. Hodgson's dog.

The Dhule, Buansii, or Kolsun — for these
names are synonymous — is about the size of a
small wolf, but is much more powerfully built;
its limbs, in particular, being remarkably large-
boned and muscular, in proportion to its size.
Its ears are large, and rounded at the tips ;
the muzzle moderately pointed ; the tail very
bushy ; and its colour a sandy red, or bull".

3£

" In linbits, thcao dogs present ail tho
characteristics of ferocious beasts of prey.
They prowl by night and by day indiscrimi-
nately, and hunt in packs of from ten to sLxty.
While in pursuit they utter a peculiar yelp ;
and it is on scent, and not on sight, that they
mainly depend for success. Their speed, how-
ever, is considerable, and their savage courage
and endurance render them a terror to tho
most formidable rangers of the wilds. Bishop
lleber says of this dog — ' They are larger and
stronger than the fox, which in form and fur
they resemble. They hunt in packs, give
tongue like dogs, and possess an exquisite
scent. They make, of course, tremendous
havoc among the game in these raids; but the
mischief is said to be repaired by destroying
wild beasts.' The panther, the wild bull, the
tiger, the elephant, fall an easy prey before a
pack of dholes. On they sweep, coming upon
their game with the force of an avalanche,
and overwhelming their victim in a living
torrent. The hunted animal may, indeed, kill
many of his enemies, but he has little timo
afforded him for exertion or display of prowess ;
for the dead or wounded are hardly missed ere
others have rushed into their places. — Tho
wild dog of China has a great resemblance to
the Dhole ; but is usually less in size, and its
ears are smaller and more pointed ; its colour
ia that of a lively bay."

THE DEEB OF EGYPT.
The Deeb of Egypt chiefly inhabits
Abyssinia and Nubia, and is a very ancient
dog. Some naturalists have considered it as
the original type; but this of course is a
point which it is impossible to settle. It has
erect ears; semi-pendulous lips; muzzle
rather blunt at the point ; tail hairy and
short ; and its colour is that of a dirty white,
intermixed with black and buff; its height is
about eighteen inches.

SOUTH AMERIC.\N RACES.
Among the wild races of dogs, or rather of
doffs become wild, to which Buflbu alludes, are
those of South America and the West Indian
Islands, confessedly sprung from a European
stock, left or lost by tho early settlers in the
vast plains. These have given origin to an un-
reclaimed race. Azara states that these dogs aro

393

AMEEiOAN DOGS.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[apeican dogs.

called Tagoua in Paraguay, where they are very
common, and dwell in caves. They formerly
abounded in Hajti, Cuba, and all the Carib-
bean islands ; but are now extirpated there.
Mr. Darwin alludes to wild dogs in Banda
Oriental as attacking sheep. According to
Oexmelin these dogs resemble the greyhound ;
but others more accurately describe them as
having the head flat and elongated, the muzzle
sharp, the body slender, and the general aspect
wild and savage. They are strong and active,
and hunt tlieir prey in packs.

It would appear, however, that the Euro-
peans, on their arrival, found native dogs both
in the Caribbean Islands and in Peru. " Those
belonging to the savages of the Antilles," says
Euffon, " had the head and ears very long, and
resembled a fox in appearance." He also
adds that the Indians of Peru had a large and
a smaller kind of dog, which they named Alco,
and that those of the Isthmus were ugly, with
rough, long hair, and erect ears.

"With respect to the Alco of Peru and
Mexico, nothing more is known about it than
what Dampier and Fernandez mention. The
latter describes two breeds — viz., the fat Alco,
or Michuacaneus, called by the natives
Ytzcuinte porzotli, and the broad-footed Alco,
or Techichi. Both were small, some of the
latter race not much exceeding a guinea-pig
in size. The head was small, the back arched,
the body thick, the ears peiiduloua, and the
tail short. An individual, probably of this race,
was bz'ought to this country from the neigh-
bourhood of Mexico, by Mr. Bullock ; it was
white, variegated with black and reddish-
yellow. This specimen was procured in the
mountains of Durango, where it bore the
name of Acolotte It died in a few days, and
its stufted skin formed part of a collection ex-
hibited in Piccadilly, being placed under a
glass with a huge bull-frog, which equalled it
in size. Dogs resembling the Alco were seen
as early as 1492, in several of the West
Indian Islands, by Columbus ; and were also
found in Martinique and Guadaloupe, in 1635,
by Erench navigators, who describe them as
resembling the little Turkish, or Barbary doo^s,
without hair; adding, that they were eaten by
the inhabitants. All trace of them is now lost.

The probability is that these Alco do"-s were
not indigenes to the soil, either in tho islands
804

or on the continent of Peru ; but were brought
by some of the tribes by whom South America
was populated. The breed might have been
introduced by that strange people (of Malay
descent ?) who founded the Peruvian and
Mexican empires. In the South Sea Islands,
dogs of a similar race exist, which are fed on
vegetable food, and eaten, as were the Alco
dogs in South America.

AFRICAN DOGS.

"Wild dogs exist in Congo, Guinea, and
other parts of Africa, hunting in packs, and
dwelling in caves or burrows. Clapperton met
with them in the country beyond Timbuctoo.
In the island of TenerifFe, a large wolfish
breed of dogs is domesticated, and valued for
the chase.

Major Denham used African hounds in
Africa for hunting the gazelle ; in the chase of
which, their exquisite scent and extraordinary
speed were displayed to great advantage. They
would frequently quit the line of scent for the
purpose of taking a direct, instead of a circui-
tous course — sportsmen call this cutting off a
double — and recover the scent again with
wonderful facility. These beautiful hounds
were brought to England, and consigned to
the Tower menagerie ; where, shut up in a
close den, they were doubtless miserable. In-
stead of exerting their energies in pursuit of
the antelope on the plains of Africa, here they
were prisoners, with no means of escape, and
with no room or opportunity for the exercise
of their powers and instincts. They were not,
however, of a wild breed; in symmetry and
action they were perfect models ; and in
temper were gentle, excepting that confine-
ment rendered the female irritable.

The Cape hunting-dog is a daring and fero-
cious animal ; and as the Dingo is in Australia, so
it is one of the pests of Southern Africa. It is a
complete dog, or canis, in the form of the skull
and the characters of the teeth ; it has, however,
as in the hyaenas, only four toes on the
anterior feet, and the same on the feet behind.
In figure it is tall, lightly built, but muscular
and well proportioned ; the limbs are long,
the ears large and erect, tlie jaws powerful,
and the teeth strong. Its aspect is wild and
fierce, and its disposition treacherous. The fur
»s close and of a sandy yellow, irregularly

ESQUIMAUX D0Q3.] FOR MOUNTAIN. FIELD. AND FA RM. [EaQiriscA.rx doos.

clouded and blotched with black nnd a little ' nhould conunit an irrppnr.iblf injurv upon theae
white. The tail is somewhat bushy, and of poor people by destroying their lailhlul and
iiioderato length. Tlie colour is subji'ct to
variation.

Wild, fleet and savage, this species hunts in

powerful allies.

In botii tho Esquimaux dog and grey wolf,
the liir is deep and tiiick ; both have the sanio
packs mostly diMii!.iJ: the niglit, but I'requeutly ' erect ears, the same bn-adth of skull between

in the day; and so ileet is it that few animals
can out-distance its speed. It often commits
extensive ravages on the Hocks and herds of
the farmer, though it seldom attacks horned
cattle openly, but steals on them while asleep,
and bites oft' their tails, even at the root, with
one snap — a feat which the wide gape and vast
power of its jaws enables it to do with ease.
Mr. Burchell, on his return from Africa,
brought a living individual to England, which
retained during life all its native ferocity.

It is the general opinion of naturalists, that
this species is an intermediate link in the
chain of the carnivora, uniting the canine
group to the hyjenas. Indeed, in some points
of general aspect, and in the number of the
toes, the ai)proiimation of this dog to the
latter animals is so marked, that Mr. Burchell
regarded it as a hyaena ; and, as such, Temminck
described it, under the title of Tiyatna picta,
though he afterwards assigned it to the genus
canis. The name of hyajua-dog has also been
conferred upon it.

In size, the Cape bunting-dog (JVilde Son-
den of the Dutch colonists) is as large as a
pointer or hound, but higher on the limbs in
proportion to the bulk of the body. AVe
are not aware that any serious attempts have
been made to domesticate it.

ESQUIMAUX DOGS.

Dogs whicli. in their aspect and physiognomy,
retain a marked air of wildness, as indicated
by the sharpness of the muzzle, the erect or
semi-erect position of tlie ears, and the oblique
direction of the eye — giving an air of cunning
and distrust to the countenance — are found
in the Esquimaux race. In general aspect,
this dog — Canis fumiliaris, var. boreal is — so
closely resembles the wolf of its native regions,
that, when seen at a little distance, it is no!
easy to distinguish between them ; so much so,
indeed, is this the case, that Sir Edward Pai-ry's
party, during their second voyage, forbore to
fire upon a pack of thirteen wolves, which had
closely followed some Esquimaux, lest they

them, and the same, or nearly the same, sharp-
ness of muzzle. In addition, we may state
that, in its native wilds at least, tlie voice of this
dog is not a b;uk, but a long melancholy howl.
In the dog, however, the tail is more bushy
than in the wolf, and is carried in a graceful
curve over the back ; while in the wolf it hangs
down between tlie legs. It is further to be
remarked, that the antipathy of the Esquimaux
dog to the wolf is inveterate. He not only
regards the wolf as an enemy, but fears it; and
though he will attack the bear with undaunted
energy, he never, unless impelled by necessity,
ventures to assault the wolf. Often, indeed,
he falls a sacrifice to this beast of prey, and is
carried off even in sight of his owners.

To the Esquimaux their dogs are of the
greatest importance. It is to them that they
look for assistance in the chase of the seal, the
bear, and the reindeer; for carrying burdens,
and for drawing them on sledges over the
trackless snow of their dreary plains. In
summer, a single dog carries a weight of thirty
pounds in attending his master in the pursuit
of game ; and in winter, six or seven dogs, yoked
to a heavy sledge, with five or six persons, or
a load of eight or ten hundredweight, will per-
form a journey of forty or fifty miles a day.
On good roads they will travel this distance at
the rate of eight miles an iiour for several
hours together; but on untrodden snow,
twenty-five or thirty miles would be a fair
day's journey. The same number of dogs, well
fed, with a weight of only five or six hundred
pounds, that of the sledge included, are almost
uninanagable, and, on a smooth road, will go at
the rate of ten miles an hour. While thus
travelling, should they scent; a reindeer, even
a quarter of a mile distant, they gallop off"
furiously in the direction of the scent, and soon
bring the game within reach of the arrow of
the hunter. So acate, indeed, is their sense ot
smell, that they will discover a seal-hole by it
entirely, at a very great distance.

The average height of the Esquimaux dog is
one foot ten inches ; generally the colour is

395

MACEENZiE DOG.] THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; [pomeeanian dog.

white, with something of a yellow tinge ; but
some are brindled, some black and white, and
some black.

THE MACKENZIE RIVER DOG.

If the Esquimaux dog resembles the grey
wolf of North America, equally does the Hare
Indian's or Mackenzie Eiver dog resemble the
fox. This dog {Canis familiaris, var. Ingopus)
is characterised by a narrow, elongated, and
pointed muzzle; by erect, sharp ears, and by
a bushy tail, not carried erect, but only
slightly curved upwards, and by the general
slenderness of the form. The hair is fine and
silky, thickening in winter, when it becomes
white, or nearly so; but in summer it is
marked by patches of greyish black or slate-
grev, intermingled with shades of brown. So
nearly does this dog resemble the arctic fox
of the regions where it is found, that they
have been considered merely as varieties of each
other, one being of the wild, the other of the
domesticated race. The Hare Indian's dog
is never known to bark in its native country ;
and the beautiful pair brought to England by
Sir John Erankliu and Dr. Eichardsou, never
acquired this canine language. One born in
the Zoological Gardens, however (the pair
in question having been presented to the
Society), readily learned it, and made his voice
sound as loudly as any European dog of his
size and age.

This variety is of great value to the natives
of the bleak and dreary realms where the
moose and the reindeer are objects of the chase.
Though it has not strength fitting it for pulling
down such game, yet its broad feet and light
make, enable it to run over the snow without
sinking, if the slightest crust be formed on it,
and thus easily to overtake the moose and the
reindeer, and keep them at bay until the hunters
come up. In the fox the pupil of the eye is ob-
long ; in the dog, circular ; but, independently of
this, it is, to say the least, highly improbable
that this intelligent dog is specifically identical
with the arctic fox. If, for the sake of argu-
ment, however, we grant that it is, as some
contend, and also that the Esquimaux dog is
identical with the wolf, other dogs also being
reclaimed wolves, we are involved in a dilemma ;
for we must then admit that thy wolf and fox

will breed together, and produce a fertile ofi"-
spring, which those who contend for the wolfish
origin of the dog by no means will allow to be
possible.

THE POMERANIAN, OR WOLF-DOG.

The Pomeranian, or wolf-dog {chien-loup),
and the Siberian dog, the Lapland dog, and
the Iceland dog, of Buffou, appear to be
closely related to the E.squimaux dog. BuiFon
regards them as varieties of the shepherd's
dog, which he considers to be that which, of
all, is nearest the primitive type, since, as he
observes, in all inhabited countries, whether
men be partially savage or civilised, dogs re-
sembling this more than any other are spread ;
and he attributes its preservation to its utility,
and its being abandoned to the peasantry
charged with the care of flocks. If, however,
great cerebral development and intelligence
are to be received as tests of cultivation, we
should be inclined to regard the shepherd's dog
as one of the most remote from the original
wild type, sharp and pointed as are its nose
and ears. The forehead of the Pomeranian
dog rises ; the top of the head is arched and
broad between the ears, and the hair is long,
and sometimes matted. This dog is of middle
size, but light, active, and strong.

Mr. Touatt, in his treatise on The Dog, says,
the Pomeranian, or " wolf-dog, is no longer a
native of Britain, because his services are not
required there ; but he is useful, in various
parts of the continent, in the protection of the
sheep from the attacks of the wolf. A pair of
these dogs was brought to the Zoological
Society of London, in 1S33, and there long
remained an ornament to the gardens. They
appeared to possess a considerable degree of
strength, but to be too gentle to contend with
so powerful and ferocious an animal as the
wolf They were mostly covered with white
or grey, or, occasionally, black hair, short on
the head, ears, and feet, but long and silky on
the body and tail. The forehead is elevated,
and the muzzle lengthened, and clothed with
short hair. The attachment of this dog to his
master and the flock is very great ; and he has
not lost a particle of his sagacity; but, where
wolves are common, is still used as a sheep-
do-."

306

DOMESTIC Doo.] T 0 li MOUNTAIN, FIELJ), AND FARM, [bo^tch collet.

CHAPTER IV.

THE DOMESTIC DOO. — PASTORAL UOGS AND TERRIERS.

"Domestication," says Mr, Blaiuc, "proves
a powerful agent in promoting various changes
from the original form, characters, and liabits
of quadrupeds. By its agency they are en-
larged to monstrosities, or diminished to pig-
mies ; it even operates ia the increase or
decrease of the organs themselves. A breed
of tailless cats and curtailed dogs has been
perpetuated. The horns of cattle, essential as
they are to the animals in their wild state, are
dispensed with when the animals themselves
are taken under the protection of man ; and
polled breeds of oxen and sheep are now com-
mon among us. We have an instance of the
former in the Galloway bull. Neither need
we wonder at these changes, great as they are,
when we consider how numerous and how^
potent are the agents which the artiiice and
experience of man enable him to employ. In-
deed, man himself, thougli apparently a free
agent, is no longer the same being that he was
when he lived in a pure state of nature. His
external characters are much changed; while
internally he is subjected to morbid alterations
unknown to savages. Neither is it to be won-
dered at that the controlling power of man
should be so influential, extending as it does '
over every important circumstance connected
with the beasts around him. Man regulates j
at his pleasure the quantity and quality of their
food ; he also governs all their motions, and
restrains their exercise to close confinement,
or increases it to great and continued exertions.
Even the temperature they reside in is raised
or lowered at the will of the owner ; and still
jurther and more important restraint is put
on them by regulating their sexual intercourse,
wiiich insures the perpetuation of almost any
desired form, by allowing the propagation
only between such individuals as approach the
nearest tliereto. In other instances, an acci-
dental variation which may have occurred, or
i singular deformity, has been seized on and
propagated by future similar selections, until
it became permanent, and tlieu it constitutes

a breed. To something of this kind wo owe
the wry-logged terriers ; and it is probable,
also, tliat a crooked mastilf ofl'ered the founda-
tion for the bulldog."

THE SCOTCH COLLEY.

One of the theories to which we have alluded
is that of ascribing the original dog to the
pastoral or shepherd's breed, known in Scot-
land, and the north of England, as the Colley.
However this may be, this species is certainly
one of the most sagacious of all descriptions of
dogs. Anecdotes, well authenticated, of his
performances, would of themselves make a
bulky volume. In the structure of the feet of
this species of dog, there is a peculiarity which
has attracted the observation of the naturalist.
Mr. llichardson describes it as consisting of a
greater or smaller number of supplemental
toes or appendages, called " dew-claws," and
situated at the hinder part of the foot. Tlie
pointer, the spaniel, and all dogs which prey
upon ground game, without running it down
in the chase, are possessed of these appendages,
which evince, in a striking manner, the ad-
mirable care which Nature takes to adapt
every animal to the duties which it has to
perform. " They are soft and pendent," says
i Mr. Eichardson, "but do not act by means of
muscles, like the toes properly so called, but
are a sort of fringe to the back part of the-
foot. In walking on hard surfaces they are of
no use ; and as they are liable to be torn and
lacerated in beating among bushes, and thus
to cripple the animals — for wounds in the feet
of dogs are more injurious to them than in any
other part of their Vodies — they are cut oft' in
sporting dogs wheii very young; but in shep-
herds' dogs, and in pastoral dogs generally,
they are allowed to remain; and in the hill
pastures especially, which are interspersed with
bogs, and places between the hummocks of
yrasd which consist of soft and sludgy peat,
these dew-claws, by spreading out to their whole
length by a little pressure, greatly extend the

397

BEW-CIiAWS.]

THE DOG, AN"© ITS VARIETIES;

[the oollet.

surface of the foot, and thus enable it to bear
up the animal in situations where it otherwise
would sink, iu the same manner as people fur-
nished with snow shoes can walk over snowy
surfaces, iu which, if they had not these means
of protection, they would sink kuee-deep. This
peculiarity is found wanting in all the coursing
dogs, and in all those which, in a state of
nature, find their prey upon the firm ground."
When we think of the sportsman walking
over, and the dew-clawed dog running over,
such bogs as are above alluded to, what reflec-
tions does the mind conjure up ! Who can
guess the secrets of the peat bog ? Who can
divine all that is buried beneath that sable
and partially heath-covered surface ? Far, far
down in its depths, and even beneath the thin
soil of the moor, lies hidden many a secret of
bygone days. Below the grim, ghastly surface,
the waters, and the black remnants of count-
less plants, lie the sad memorials of ages
unknown to tlie history of man. Huge trees
stand uprigiit, and their gigantic roots rest
upon the crowns of still older forest giants !
In the inverted oaks of Murten Moor, in Swit-
zerland, many see the famous oak woods that
Charlemagne caused to be cut down, now more
than a thousand years ago. Tor centuries the
moors have concealed, in their silent bosoms,
the gigantic works of ancient Rome. Ear in
the deep, lie buried in stone, hatchets and flint
arrow-heads of Frisians and Cheruski, by the
side of the copper kettle and the iron helmet
of the Soman soldier. The skeletons of ante-
diluvian animals rest there peaceably by the
corpses of ancient races with sandals on their
feet, and skins of animals around their naked
bodies. Hundreds of brave English horsemen,
■who sought an honourable death in the battle
of Sol way, were swallowed up, horse and man,
by the insatiable moor. In years bygone, a
Danish King Harold, called the Blue Tooth,
allured with foul treachery a fair princess of
Norway, Gunhildo, to Jutland. She came,
and she vanished from the memory of man.
History had forgotten her, tradition had even
began to fade; but the peat bog opened its
long-closed lips, and accused, late, but loud, the
bloody king, of this wicked deed. The poor
princess was found far below the peat, stran"-led
and tied to a post, where her merciless foe had
buried her, as he thought, for ever, in the abyss,
398

THE COLLEY, OR SHEPHERD'S DOG.

Of the sagacity and faithfulness of the shep-
herd's dog many interesting narratives are
current. It knows its master's flocks ; it will
single out a sheep under his direction, keep it
separate, or disengage it again from the rest of
the flock, should it regain or mingle with thera ;
it will keep two flocks apart, and, should they
become mixed, it will re-divide them. It will
watch and defend them from strange dogs or
foxes, and will drive them to any place required.
It is, in fact, the shepherd's friend and assistant;
it watches every look and every sign, is quick
in apprehension, prompt in obedience, and
pleased with its master's praise : and well does
he who tends his flocks on the wide pasture-
lands or mountain districts of our island,
appreciate the services and fidelity of his at-
tached ally.

Mr. Hogg, known by his poetical soubriquet
of the "Ettrick Shepherd," has given us many
anecdotes of the sagacity of this dog ; and we
ourselves, in the hill districts of Scotland, have
seen many of them exhibit a degree of intelli-
gence almost human.

He stands about twenty-one inches in height
at the shoulder; is very gracefully shaped;
ears half erect; muzzle pointed; coat long, but
fine and silky; tail and hams fringed with
hair; colour usually black and tan, or sandy
yellow ; but there are many black and white.

In England the species is larger^ but, we
think, scarcely so active, and certainly by no
means so graceful, being destitute of tail.
This apparent defect in the structure of the
animal is not natural ; but is the effect of what
is termed "stringing," an operation performed
when the animal is young, and which consists
of pulling out the bone of the tail with the
teeth. This causes the fleshy portion of the
appendage to contract, until it becomes appa-
rently nothing more than a mere tuft of hair.
It is said that dogs thus denuded endure more
fatigue than wheu in possession of their tails.

Both in Scotland and England the breed of
the sheep-dogs is preserved with the greatest at-
tention to purity. The Arab has scarcely greater
afiection for iiis horse than the Scottish shep-
herd has for his dog. As the one is the con-
stant companion of the wanderer in the desert,
so is the other the constant companion of the

T£U&I£B9.]

FOR I\r O U N r A I N, F 1 E L 1 ), A .\ I) F A K M.

[lEUUIXttS.

flock- watcher of the mountains. In the points
of size and strength, however, the Scotch and
English breeds are much inferior to those of
Bonie other countries. In the Alps and tiie
Pyrenees, for example, the breeds are much
larger and stronger; whilst, in the neigliboiir-
hood of the Caucasian range, there is an equally
large and powerful variety.

Tiio " Colley" of France boars a strong
resemblance to the English breed in form and
size. His disposition is, also, similar ; and he
possesses all the attributes of the other, lie
likewise, in his puppyism, is denuded of that
graceful appendage — the tail — a practice which
we cannot help stigmatising as inhuman, and
by no means counterbalanced by the additional
benefits supposed to be derived from it by
their masters.

Nearly allied to the " Colley" is the dog of
the drover, somewhat larger, but equally saga-
cious. He would seem to be the produce of a
cross with the lurcher. Ho has great courage
and strength, and will attack the fiercest bul-
lock, and hold him, if commanded so to do by
his master.

The cur is a mongrel sprung from the Colley.
He is a tantalising, barking, apparently spi-
rited, but cowardly animal. He is the biter of
the horses' heels, but the vigilant watch-dog
of the humble dwelling of the cottager. His
voice is always heard the moment an invader
of the precincts of that tenement appears.
The tail of the cur is mostly cut short ; but
Bewick says that many are whelped with short
tails, which seem as if they had been cut, and
these are called, in the North, "self-tailed dogs."
Though this writer thinks the cur-dog to be a
true or permanent breed, it seems to us that
it is a cross between the shepherd's dog and
Bome other race, perhaps the terrier.

TERRIERS.

Supposing the shepherd's dog to be the repre-
sentative of a small section of the domestic
canine race, the next to which we may turn is
that of the terriers. These are a very hardy
race, full of courage and spirit, and Avill face
anything, without the slightest indication of
fear. They are a small breed of dogs, but have
an amazing degree of strength, a sharp bite,
and have, to a great extent, the power of
"holding on" to whatever they get within the

grasp of their teeth. The property for which
they are nio»t diatingui«hed is for hunting uu
such animals as burrow undi-r ground, presaiu"
them from their earths, and then attacking
them with the utmost fierceness and determi-
nation. Wo have seen some Scotch terriers
fight untd they were lacerated in the most
dreadful mannor; and even then they would
not give up the contest, however unequal,
and had to bo lifted and taken away. They
will even face a badger with the most reso-
lute spirit. All wild animals they will attack
indiscriminately, although, properly speaking.
they are what are called vermin dogs, llats,
mice, weasels, polecats, and badgers, they will
fall upon on the instant ; hence their value in
the country, where the stock of the farmer is
so frequently a prey to some of these maraud-
ing animals. To the rat they are a most deter-
mined foe ; and well that it is so, for the great
fecundity of these noxious animals is one of
the circumstances which renders them so for-
midable in their destructive propensities. "Go,"
says a writer, " into a barn or granary, where
hundreds are living, and you shall not see one ;
go to a rick that may be one living mass within,
and there shall not be one visible ; or dive into
a cellar that may be perfectly infested with
them, rats you shall not see ; no, not so much
as a tip of a tail, unless it be that of a stray
one ' popping across for a more safe retreat.'
As men seldom see them, they seldom think of
them. But this I say," continues the writer,
" that if rats could, by any means, bo made to
live on the surface of the earth, instead of in
holes and corners, and feed and run about the
streets and fields in open day, like dogs and
sheep, the whole nation would bo horror-
stricken ; and ultimately there would not be a
man, woman, or child able to brandish a stick,
but would have a dog, stick, or gun for their
destruction, wherever they met with them.
These midnight marauders and common ene-
mies of mankind, devour the food, to the star-
vation of our fellow-creatures," The writer
does not altogether ignore the argument of the
friends of the rat — that these vermin destroy
in the sewers much matter that would other-
wise give out poisonous gases. Sewer rats, ho
admits, are not the very worst of the race ; but
even they should be slain wherever they may
be caught. But the rats of the cellar, the

390

SCOTCH TEEEiEB.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [skye teeetee.

warehouse, the barn, the rick-yard, the granary,
and the corn-field, are the grand destroyers
against which war by the terrier, the trap, and
the ferret should be proclaimed.

Whilst the terrier is one of the best of rat-
killers, he is also a good house-dog, sufficiently
vigilant, and at all times ready to attack any
one who, at an improper season, dares to dis-
turb the quiet of the household. Mr. Eichard-
son tells us that he knows a gentleman who
had a very fine Scotch terrier, which not only
cleared a large farm, and also the farm-yard, of
all vermin, but acted as cattle-dog or sheep-
dog, as occasion required. He used success-
fully to repel the inroads of a very powerful
and fierce boar, which was wont to come in a
furious and formidable manner ; so much so,
indeed, that he often threw the labourers in the
field into the greatest alarm ; but if Trap hap-
pened to get notice of the invasion, the boar,
though very large (much in the shape of a wild
boar, and of that brindled colour which indi-
cates the nearest approach to that formidable
animal), paid severely for his temerity. The
dog, which had been trained to keep animals
in their right places, but to kill nothing ex-
cept game and vermin, made no direct attack
on the life of the boar. He laid hold of him
by the ear ; and that hold he kept till the boar,
though much stronger and far heavier than
the dog, was so completely subdued, that Trap
could lead him by the ear to his own place of
abode. The dog had seldom occasion to take
him half-way ; but he used to watch his mo-
tions ; and if the boar oftered to return, the
dog instantly went to meet him, and so pun-
ished his other ear, that there was no need
for a second warning, at least during the next
week.

One of the principal uses of the terrier, as
a hunting dog, is to accompany the foxhounds ;
and, in cases where all the earths are not care-
fully stopped he is indispensable, because his
assistance is necessary in unearthing Eeyuard.

THE SCOTCH TERRIER.
Of this, breed there are three varieties ; one
of a sandy-red colour, standing about eighteen
inches high, very strong, with short stout legs ;
he has a large head in proportion to his body ;
a somewhat pointed muzzle, and an acute
Bcent; his ears are small, and his bite very
400

sharp. This variety is very common, and may
frequently be seen quietly sitting at the door-
steps of many of the houses in the more quiet
and respectable localities of London. They
abound in Scotland, and are generally known
as the " Highland Terrier." The hair is hard
and wiry, frequently closely or thickly matted ;
and when intermixed, or marked with white
or any other colour, it is a certain sign of im-
purity. The best are such as are of a rufus,
sandy, or black colour. They are extremely
attached to their masters, and we think are
very tenacious in memory. AVe, many years
ago, possessed an impure specimen, which
nevertheless was an excellent little dog; he
either wandered or was stolen from us, in a
place near Doune, in Stirlingshire ; and several
months afterwards we were told that such a
dog was at a miller's, about twenty miles from
where we were at that time. Neither the dis-
tance nor the uncertainty of its being our dog
deterred us from setting out on foot (there
were no conveyances in those days up to the
hills) to ascertain the fact. Accordingly, we
arrived at the miller's, and elevating our voice,
heard " Piucher" reply from a small sort of
granary, where he had been carefully detained.
We soon had him at liberty ; and we shall
never forget the joy which he exhibited at our
meeting. We walked immediately back ; and,
at the end of our journey, did not feel in the
least tii'ed, so happy were we at the recovery
of our faithful and attached little dog.

The other two varieties are those of the
Pepper and Mustard kind, celebrated by Sir
Walter Scott in Guy JSLannering , and the
variety which prevails in the Western Islands
of Scotland. The first is low, long-backed, and
short-legged ; with wiry and curly hair, and
a pretty long muzzle. The second is about
the same size as the sandy-red coloured one,
but with the hair much longer, and having
a more flowing appearance.
Besides these there is the

SKYE TERRIER.

This valuable little dog takes its name from
one of the Hebrides, or western islands, where
it is found in the greatest perfection. It is
longer in the body and lower in the legs than
the Highland dog ; covered with long, silky, and
silvery-looking hair, and has its breasts and

TERlUEltS ]

rOK 3U)UNTA1X, 111: LI), AM) KAK.M.

[iJiUUlEliS.

legs of a light or palish tan colour. It is con-
sidered the second variety of the Scotch terrier,
and is famous for the destruction of vermin,
lu Blackwood's Afa>/n:ine, a real Skye terrier
is thus described : — " A mouth, the roof whereof
is dark as midnight ; his glittering eyes are
black as jot ; his ears sliort ; his legs none of
the longest ; but his body is. His tail is a
triumph, wlien fairly spread out ; and as for
the strength with whicli it is attached to Ins
body, you may hold him up by the aforesaid
tail as long as you can — with ono hand. Then
his hair is pepper-and-salt in hue, long and
curly, and — if I may so speak (though no one
but myself and the family will know exactly
what I mean by it) — with a kind of silken
wiriness."

THE ENGLISH TERRIER.

This dog is commonly of a black and tan
colour ; and tliose of this tint are the best ; but
they are sometimes white. If black and tan,
they should not present a speck of white ; and
if white, they should be entirely of that colour.

In conflict, the English terrier is as resolute
as the Scotch ; but he is less capable of support-
ing cold, and is not so fond of the water.
AVhat was the primitive stock of this breed we
cannot say; but we should be inclined to con-
cur in the opinion of Mr. Eichardson, that his
original is to be found in the rough, or Scotch
breed. AYe are the more inclined to this opin-
ion, as we have seen a pair of beautiful Skye
terriers, with careful feeding and nursing,
gradually become smoother and shorter in the
hair, until they seemed likely to lose their ori-
ginal character altogether. Mr. Richardson
says, that a small, well-marked English terrier,
under seven pounds' weight, will, if as good as
be looks, fetch from five to ten guineas. The
celebrated dog " Billy," who killed the hundred
rats in less than five minutes, was a white Eng-
lish terrier, with a dark patch on the side of his
head.

We have already alluded to the wonderful
fecundity of rats, of which, according to the
writer already quoted, Mr. Shaw's little dog,
"Tiny," under six pounds' weight, destroyed
Uco thousand Jive hundred and twenty-Jlve pairs ;
which, had they been permitted to live, would,
he says, within a given time, have produced
one thousand six hundred and thirty-three mil-'
3f

lions, one hundred and ninefy thousand two hun-
dred living rata ! Hats destroyed by Messrs.
Shaw and Sabin in two years, amounting to
scvcnlffn thousand pairs, would, had they beea
ponnitted to live, have produced, at the caji-
culation of this writer, and in the same time,
no less than ten thousand nine hundred and
ninely-five millions, seven hundred and thirty-
six thousand! "Now," contiuues the writer,
" let us calculate the amount of human food
that they would destroy. lu the first place,
my informants tell me that six rats will con-
sume, day by day, as much food as a man ;
secondly, that the thing has been tested, and
that the estimate given was, that eight rata
would consume more than an ordinary man.
Now I — to place the thing beyond the small-
est shadow of a doubt — will set down ten rats
to eat as much as a man, not a child; nor will
I say anything about what rats waste. And
what shall we find to be the alarming result ?
Why, that the first pair of rats, with their
three years' progeny, would consume, in the
night, more food than sixty-four thousand six
hundred and eighty men the year round, leaving
eight rats to spare ! And the rats destroyed
by the little wonder, ' Tiny,' had they been
permitted to live, would, at the same calcula-
tion, with their three years' progeny, have con-
sumed as much food as one hundred and sixty-
three millions, three hundred and nineteen thou-
sand and twenty men : above two-thirds of the
population of Europe !"

Verily, if this be the case, it is a happy ar-
rangement in the great scheme of Providence,
that some animals that have a more than usual
fecundity, have been created to destroy each
other when they become too numerous, and
that terriers have been so constituted to assist
in the destruction of rats !

THE TURNSPIT TERRIER.

This dog is a small, long-backed, cross-made
thing, with the fore legs bent, first inwards
and then outwards, presenting several wind-
ings, but rather of the crooked than the flow-
ing kind, which Hogarth characterised as the
line of beauty. He is a mongrel, and his
name sufliciently denotes the meanness of the
occupation in which he was formerly engaged.
This was to turn a wheel, on which depended
the spit which roasted the meat ia tiie kitchen.

401

TEEEIEBS.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[tereiebs.

In this occupation, however servile, he had
certainly a chance of coming in for a share of
the " good things" of this world ; and if his
master were not of the barbarous school, the
turnspit of old may have passed his time toler-
ably comfortable. The appliances of modern
art have long ago abolished his employment.
His occupation, like that of Othello's, has
vanished, and he himself is fast passing from
the face of the earth, and will, no doubt,
ere long become extinct.

THE HARLEQUIN TERRIER.

This beautiful little article is, in form, the
perfect model of the English terrier. He is of
a slate colour, like the Skye, with a little tan
about the legs and muzzle. This, though not
always, is frequently the case, and he possesses
all the higher attributes of his species in the
most marked degree. Why he has been called
after that extremely active gentleman, who, in
a parti-coloured dress of very tight fit and
variety of hue, figures on the stage in a Christ-
mas pantomime, we are not quite certain.
Perhaps it has arisen from the various patches
with which he himself is sometimes marked,
and which, in the opinion of many, greatly
add to his beauty. The origin of this little
dog has not been satisfactorily traced, but he
is now a recognised variety.

"In former times," says Mr. Eichardson, to
whom we have already been so much indebted,
" a brace of terriers used to accompany every
pack of foxhounds, for the sake of unkennel-
ling reynard, in the event of his taking to
earth. This attendance has long been discon-
tinued, as being no longer necessary, the fox
being now run into too rapidly to admit of his
giving the gallant terriers this trouble. Some
recent writers do not appear aware of this cir-
cumstance, but gravely furnish us with long
extracts from Daniel, &c., relative to this now
obsolete practice."

THE RUSSIAN TERRIER.
This is a fine large specimen of his kind,
and is in great demand in Scotland, on account
of the valuable qualities of which he is found
to be possessed, lie will take the water like
a spaniel, will tackle a wolf, and has all the
vigilance of the most active and most keen
of the Scotch breed. He stands high, beinc'
402 ""

upwards of two feet at the shoulder; and,
although he might, by some, be supposed to be
a mastiff from his form, he does not belong to
that breed, although he bears, in some points,
a striking resemblance to it. He stands
straight and well up ; looks formidable, and
presents a front of great courage.

The colour is usually black and tan ; but
many are of a sort of rufus, or reddish-brown.
About twenty years ago two of these dogs were
to be seen in the Scottish metropolis, equal in
size to many a mastifi". In Germany they are
known by the name of " bear-searchers."

THE SOUTH AMERICAN TERRIER
Bears a strong resemblance to the Russian,
and is remarkable for its power of destroying
reptiles — escaping the bite of the serpent with
a certainty which surprises, when we consider
the power of that reptile tc? twist, turn, or coil
itself in almost every direction, and round
anything of ordinary dimensions. Its spring
is so rapid and sure, that it will seize the ser-
pent by the back in an instant, and imme-
diately crush its vertebrae to fragments. It is
rarely to be seen in this country ; but we
have noticed it as belonging to the terrier
species.

THE MEXICAN PRAIRIE DOG
Is amongst the most diminutive of the canine
family. It is said to burrow in its native
prairies in the manner that rabbits do in this
country. Of this, however, we are not aware
of any well-authenticated fact, although we
remember having read, in the book of some ob-
scure Mexican traveller, that such was the case.
As he is not likely ever to become acclimatised
in this, or be of much use in his own country,
it is of little consequence to the general world
what may be the nature of his habits ; although,
to the professed naturalist, as well as to those
who are curious in matters of natural history,
no doubt, a complete knowledge of these would
be highly interesting.

THE MALTESE TERRIER.

The Maltese islands lie about forty-five miles
from tlie southern shore of Sicily, and 150 to
the east of the African coast, in the neiglibour-
hood of Cape Bonn. They are nearly due north
from Tripoli, on the coast of Africa, and are

BTJLL-TEHRiKR.] F 0 li MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM. [the LrncnEQ.

composed of a "[roup of three — INfrtltn, Gozo,
and Coiiiino — of whieli tlio lirst is by far tlio
largest. From the ru\st of these ishmda the
Maltese terrier takes its name; and although
it has, by some uaturalists, been classetl with
the spaniels, its habit of vermin-killing has in-
duced others to class it with the terriers. It
is very diminutive, and is usually black, though
sometimes white ; but, in whatever colour ho
appears, he should be of but one "all over."

This little animal was well known to the
ancients, as he figures upon many lloman re-
mains. He is now, however, nearly extinct ;
and the celebrated animal-painter, Landseer,
has immortalised him in one of his paintings,
as " The Last of his Eace."

THE BULL-TERRIER
Is a cross between terrier and bulldog, vary-
ing in aspect according to the sort of terrier

to which lio owes descent. As his name im-
j)lies, ho is a mongrel, but is, nevertholeas, a
lively courageous dog, well adapted for all
kinds of mischievous sport, and ailbrding fewer
unpleasant associations than the bulldog,
while ho is hardier than the terrier.

THE LURCHER.
The lurcher appears to be a mixed breed
between the rough terrier or shepherd's dog
and the greyhound, and is therefore a mongrel
dog. Bewick informs us that it is shorter
than the latter, with stronger limbs, and is
covered with a rough coat of hair, commonly
of a pale yellow colour. The scent of this dog
being remarkably fine, he is often employed in
killing hares and rabbits in the night. He
steals silently and cautiously upon them while
they are feeding, and then suddenly darts for-
ward and seizes them.

CHAPTER V.

HOUNDS.

To introduce to and acclimatise various birds,
animals, and lislies in Australia and New
Zealand from this country, has, for some years,
been the object of several colonists, ambitious
of having the forests, fields, and rivers of their
adopted homes, stored with such living re-
membrancers of the land they have left, as
may preserve it for ever in their recollections.
To a large extent, we believe, success has at-
tended tlieir eftbrts ; and, we think, that some-
thing in the same way might be attempted for
this country, seeing that there is much living
beauty scattered over the globe that might,
with little expense and trouble, be here natu-
ralised. . Certainly nature has distributed
over the surface of the earth the races
best fitted for each climate. And nowhere
can a race arrive at such perfection and beauty
as in its first home. Nevertheless, there are
numerous races for which other climates be-
sides their own are adapted. And in nothing

have the ingenuity and energy of man been so
magnificently displayed as in the introduction
of new races. The art of acclimatisation is
unquestionably capable of immense develop-
ment. An association has been instituted in
London, expressly for the purpose of improving
the art to its utmost possibilities. In refer-
ence to man, the most extraordinary example
of acclimatisation which modern times has
produced, is the growth, by millions, of negroes
in America and the West Indies. America
and the West Indies are not well adapted to
the European constitution ; but the large, and
always enlarging infusion of the negro blood
will, doubtless, ultimately (if it has not already)
produce the exact race the best suited for the
climate. In America the results would be
helped by saving from extinction the native
American race. So far, however, as America
is concerned, a new element is destined to
come into play. The intercourse between

403

ACCLIMATISATION.] THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; [acclimatisation.

America and the eastern coast of Asia is
rapidly extending. Already an emigration
from China to America has begun. Through
Enssian and English influences the centre of
Asia is moved, and the current will flow to
the very heart of America. The central and
Eastern Asiatic races are by no means comely ;
but they are strong — as strong in their way as
the English race. In Australia, however,
there is likely to be a still greater mingling of
races than in America. Australia will receive
hosts from Europe, hosts from Eastern and
Central Asia, and hosts also from Southern
Asia and Southern Africa.

Wherever the English race has penetrated,
it has not failed to be the prevailing one ; but it
ought not anywhere to be the exclusive race.
In India a large leaven of English blood is
demanded. On the southern slopes of the
Himalayas, and in other mountain ranges of
India, colonies of Scottish Highlanders might
be planted with immense advantage. But,
besides, all English soldiers going to India
should, when their term of service expires,
settle there. This would have a manifold
benefit. It would lessen the military expendi-
ture ; it would strengthen the English empire
in India ; and it would rapidly propagate the
English language, and diffuse English civilisa-
tion. There is already no race equal to the
English ; but might it not dt home be nobly
transfigured, and tiius be further moulded for
ita mighty achievements abroad ? The
English, properly so called, have sinew, solid-
ity, indomitable endurance; but they are
deficient in rapidity of movement, and in ima-
gination. Blend with them the finest Asiatic
races, and the defect is overcome. This we
have already physically shown in our treatment
of the English race-horse.

A beautiful experiment in acclimatisation
would be to send to New Zealand the Cir-
cassians, who, by successive defeats, have been
driven from their homes. The Circassians are
universally admitted to be a singularly gifted,
comely, and heroic race. In New Zealand
they would find mountains as grand as those
of the Caucasus, and no ferocious Eussians to
hunt them down.

But, wliilst men can, almost anywhere be
acelimatisfd, we are not so certain that this
cou.id be tlie case with such birds or beasts as
404

miist always be more or less under the power
of climatic influence. It is not our purpose
here to consider this question at large ; but, in
reference to the dog, we believe that even he,
universal as is his distribution over the face of
the earth, and hardy as is his nature, could
not have his race perpetuated, if shifted from
one climate to another. The dog of the
tropics would not continue his race long in
the higher latitudes of the temperate zone ;
nor would even the English dog long survive
the rigours of an arctic region. Of this we
have an example : — Mr. Lloyd, in his Swedish
travels, was going to hunt the boar on the 16th
of January, when the quicksilver was twenty-
five degrees below zero ; and though he was
habited in his usual clothes, with the exception
of an additional waistcoat, he experienced
little inconvenience, as he kept himself warm
with walking. Erom not sufficiently covering
his ears, however, he got them slightly frost-
bitten. AVhat, however, was the case with
Paijas, his only dog ? He was an extreme
suflerer. "This," he says, " was partly owing to
his hair having become thin and ragged, iu
consequence of his advanced age. None of
the native dogs, indeed, even in their full
vigour, are altogether proof against the
vreather, if it be unusually severe. Their feet
seem to be the most affected ; for I have many
a time seen them hold up their legs from the
snow, and cry out most piteously. This being
the case with animals whom Nature has pro-
vided with extremely warm jackets, it may be
imagined how little able some of our thin-
coated English dogs would be to face the
rigours of a Northern winter.

" I saw this exemplified in two instances : —
One was an English bloodhound, which Mr.
Otway Cave, then member for Leicester, was
so kind as to present to me ; the other was a
bulldog that I procured from home. Both of
these dogs would, doubtless, have answered
my purpose exceedingly well ; but they could
not exist in the forest, if the quicksilver
happened to be a few degrees below zero. On
one occasion, indeed, the bulldog became so
benumbed with the cold, that his limbs abso-
lutely stiffened ; when, to save his life, I was
obliged to cause one of my people, after putting
him into a bag, to carry him a distance of some
ten miles, to a habitable part of the country.

WOLF-l^OO.]

F 0 u -M o u N r A I X, F 1 1: r, d, and i • \ i ; m .

WOI.F-DOa.

" As it was not full daylight when we reached

the vicitiity of tlu' ring, wo lialted, ami got up
a good tire. This the poor dog sooiiuhI most
thorouglily to enjoy ; to ourselves, likewise, it
was far from uiicomfortahlo. Here we took some
rorroslimeat, w hii-h we neodi'd, as we had break-
lasted very slenderly prior to leaving Xas."

Other instances of the impossibility of
acclimatising animals in such temperatures as
are widi'ly dilleront from those to which their
nature is congenial, might be adduced ; but it
is unnecessary here.

Till': IKISII WOM'-DOG.
As in several other sciences, tliose who pur-
sue the study of natural history, do not, in all
points, agree in their opinions. Whilst the
classification of the difterent varieties of species
was founded by the great Cuvier upon tlieir
osteological structure, and crancological de-
velopment ; other naturalists, either from a
natural desire of novelty, or from the equally
natural wish to be original, and to show to the
world that they have opinions of their own,
have adopted other indications to decide what
ought to be the standard of, or guide to
canine classification. Colonel Smith seems to
tliink that colour is the most proper guide to
be adopted ; whilst Mr. Martin thinks the
ear, considered in relation to its size and form,
is the best mark by which the variety may be
determined. For us to enter upon the con-
sideration of a subject of this kind, would only
be to perplex what has already been said upon
it, with, perhaps, novel ideas ; but with such
an amount of success as would give to our-
selves little satisfaction, and, perhaps, less to
our readers. All that we will say is, that we
think Colonel Smith's theory is not likely to
be adopted by the scientific naturalist; and
that ]Mr. Martin's is somethin": like iudjiiiiof of
the character of a man's mind by the form
and dimensions of his auricular organ. Cu-
vier's system is the least likely to lead to error,
and, therefore, the more likely to be the most
uuivcrsally adopted. In reference to this sys-
tem, in so far as the dog is concerned — and it is
to no further extent that we refer— Mr. Rich-
ardson has given his assent, considering that
the arrangement of the Frenchman has made
all the varieties of the domestic dog easily to
be divided into three classes.

In tr.itii- .if tho Irish wolf-dog, Mr.
Richardson has separated it from botii tho
Iligliland deer-hound ami tho Scottish grey-
hound ; but this he has done from no convic-
tion of its being right, but simply in deference
to general opinion, which, ho considers, in-
correct, as " these three dogs, tliough originally
identical, are now, unquestionably, distinct in
many particulars." We sliall treat them indis-
criminately, as the distinctions between them,
originally, would seem to have been very little.

"Silius describes a large and powerful grey-
hound as having been imported into Ireland
by the Belgae; thus identifying tho Irish wolf-
dog with the celebrated Belgic dog of anti-
quity, which we read of in so many places, as
having been brought to Rome for the combats
of the amphitheatre."

Hollinshed says of the Irish—" They are not
without wolves, and greyhounds to hunt them,
bigger of bone and limb than a colt." Cam-
pion also speaks of him as a "greyhound of
great bone and limb." Evelyn, describing the
savage sports of the bear-garden, says — " The
bulldogs did exceedingly well ; but the Irish
toolf-dog exceeded, which was a tall greyliound,
a stately creature, and did beat a cruel mas-
tiftV Here we have au actual comparison of
powers, which marks the dog to have been a
greyhound, and quite distinct from a mastiff.

In the second edition of Smith's History of
Waterford, the Irish wolf-dog is described as
much taller than a mastiff, and as being of the
greyliound form, unequalled in size and
strength. Mr. Smith writes — " Roderick,
King of Connaught, was obliged to furnish
hawks and greyhounds to Henry II."

In the Antiquities of Ireland, by Sir James
"Ware, the wolf-dog is prominently spoken of : —
" I must here take notice," he says, " of those
hounds, which, from their hunting of wolves,
are commonly called wolf-dogs, being creatures
of great strength and size, and of a fine shape,,
I cannot but think that these are tho dogs
which Symraachus mentions in au epistle to
his brother Flavianus. 'I thank you,' says
he, 'for tho present you made me of somo
Canes Scotici, which were shown at tho Circen-
siau games, to the great astonishment of the
people, who could not judge it possible to
bring them to Rome otherwise than in iron
cages.' I am sensible Mr. Burton (Itinerary

■1U.5

WOLF-DOG. 1

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES:

of Anton., 220), treadinf^ the footsteps of
Justus Lipsius {JEpist. adHchj. Cent., i., p. 44),
makes no scruple to say, that the dogs in-
tended by Symmachus were British mastiffs.
But, with submission to great names, how
could the British mastiff get the appellation
of Scoticiis in the time of Symmachus ? For
he was consul of Eome in the latter end
of the 4th century; at which time, and for
some time before, and for many centuries after,
Ireland was well known by the name of Scotia,
as I have shown before (Chap. I.) Besides,
the English mastiff was no way comparable to
the Irish wolf-dog in size or elegant shape ;
nor would it make an astonish'mg figure in the
spectacles exhibited in the circus. On the
other hand, the Irish wolf-dog has been
thought a valuable present to the greatest
monarch, and is sought after, and is sent
abroad to all quarters of the world ; and this
has been one cause why that noble creature
has grown so scarce among us, as another is
the neglect of the species since the extinction
of wolves in Ireland ; and even of what re-
main, the size seems to have dwindled from its
ancient stateliness.

" When Sir Thomas Eowe was ambassador
at the court of the Great Mogul, in the year
1615, that emperor desired him to send for
some Irish greyhounds, as the most welcome
present he could make him ; which being done,
the Mogul showed the greatest respect to Sir
Thomas, and presented him with his picture,
and several things of value.

" We see, in the public records, an earlier
instance of the desire foreigners have had for
hawks and wolf-dogs of Irish growth. In a
privy seal from King Henry VIII. to the lord
deputy and council of Ireland, wherein his
majesty takes notice, ' that at the instant suit
of the Duke of Alberkyrke of Spain (of the
privy council to He^y VIII.), on the behalf
of the Marquis of Desarrya and his son, that
it might please his majesty to grant to the
said marquis and his son, and the lont^er liver
of them, yearly out of Ireland, two goshawks
and four greyhound. ; and forasmuch as the
said duke hath done the king acceptable ser-
vice in his wars, and that the king is informed
that the said marquis beareth to him especial
good- will, he therefore grants the said suit
and commands that the deputy for the time
40G

[WOLF-Doa.

being shall take order for the delivery of the
said liawks and greyhounds, unto the order of
the said marquis and his son, and the lono-er
liver of them yearly ; and that the treasurer
shall take the charges of buying the said hawks
and hounds.'

" It is true that British hounds and leagles
were in reputation among the Eomans, for
their speed and quick scent. Thus Nemesiau,
in his Gunegetics : —

** ' Divisa Britannia mittit

Veloces, nostrique orbis veintibus aptos.'
" ' Great Britain sends swift hounds,
Fittest to hunt upon our grounds.'

And Appian calls the British hound crKvkul
lyj'tvT-qloQ, a dog that scents the track of the
game. But this character does not hit the
Irish wolf-dog, which is not remarkable for
any great sagacity in hunting by the nose.

" Ulysses Aldrovandus, and Gesner, have
given descriptions of the Canis Scoticus, and
two prints of them very little different from
the common hunting-hound. ' They are,'
says Gesner, ' something larger than the
common hunting-hound, of a brown or sandy
spotted colour, quick of smelling, and are
employed on the borders between England
and Scotland to follow thieves. They are
called sleut-hounds.' In the Regiam Ilajesta-
tem of Scotland, is this passage : — ' NuUus per-
turbet aut impediat Canem trassantem aut,
homines trassautes cum ipso ad sequendum
latrones, aut ad capiendum latrones :' — (No-
body shall give any disturbance or hindrance to
tracing-dogs, or men employed with them to
trace or apprehend thieves or malefactors).
This character no way agrees with the Irish
wolf-dog ; and the reader must observe, that
when Gesner and Aldrovandus wrote, in the
IGth century, modern Scotland was well known
by the name of Scotia, which it was not in the
4th century, when Symmachus wrote the
aforesaid epistle ; and therefore the Canis
Scoticus, described by Aldrovandus and Gesnei',
were dogs of different species."

Buffon regards the Erench Matin and the
great Danish dog as the main stocks of the
greyhound race ; but this is not clear. In
Scotland and Ireland, there existed, in very
ancient times, a noble breed of greyhounds
used for the chase of the wolf and the deer,
and which appears to be the pure source of

iroLF-DOO.] rOB MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAE.AI. [wolf-doo.

our present breed. It 13 quite aa probable
that the niAtiu is a moilillcatioa of the ancient
;;revhound of Europe, represented by the Irish
£;reyhouiul or woU'-doij, as that it is tlio source
of tliat Hiio brood. Few, we believe, of the old
Irish greyhound exist. lu Scotland the old
deer-hound may still bo met with ; and though
it exceeds the common greyhound in size and
strength, it is said to be below its ancient
standard. With the extirpation of the wolf,
the necessity of keeping up the race to the
highest perfection ceased. Tho hair is wiry,
the chest is remarkable for volume, and the
limbs are long and muscular. A similar breed
existed, and still continues to exist, in Albania,
and was celebrated by the ancients for its
prowess. In England, the greyhound was
larger and stronger formerly than at present,
and employed in chasing the stag. Queen
Elizabeth was gratified one day, after dinner,
by seeing from a turret, sixteen deer pulled
down by greyhounds upon the lawn at Cow-
di'ey Park, in Sussex.

In Arabia, Persia, and other parts of the
East, a breed of greyhounds has existed from
time immemorial. These dogs strongly re-
semble light coursing dogs, represented in
Egyptian paintings, and are probably de-
scended from them. Of the same type are the
semi-wild, unowned street-dogs of Egypt, Syria,
and South-western Asia. From the antiquity
of the greyhound breed, we might be induced
to suppose, that in it is to be seen the nearest
approach to the primitive source, or one of the
primitive sources of the reclaimed race ; and,
perhaps, the Arabian greyhound, or the lurcher-
like street-dogs of Egypt, retain some charac-
ters in common with the primitive stock.
Care and attention have elevated the British
greyhound far above the ancient Egyptian
coursing dog, or that of Arabia, of which the
form of the head is wolfish, the tail frinced
with long hair, and the ears, as seen in the
paintings of the ancient Egyptians, erect and
very acute. The Turkman watch- dog, for
guarding sheep, is described as a large, rugged,
tierce animal, equalling the wolf in stature,
shaped like the Irish greyhound, and with
equally powerful jaws. The ears are erect;
the tail rather hairy ; the general colour deep
yellowish red. This race is of great antiquity,
and doubtless still retains much of its pristine

aspect, which is so wolf-like, that, according to
Colonel Hamilton Smith, *' a friend being pre-
sent in Asia ]\linor at a wolf-hunt, allowed
one (a wolf) to pass out of a brake, bocauuo
he mistook him for ono of the Turkman dogs."

In the Highland, or Celtic poems of Osbiau,
professedly translated by INIacpherson, wo find
tho ancient Irish wolf-dog, or tho Scottish
deer-hound, tlie subject of several traditions.
"Bran" was tho favourite dog of Fingal, tho
famous hero. _ In Mr. Scrope's volume on
" Deer-stalking," we find the following : —

" Fingal agreed to hunt in tho forest of
Sledale, in company with t!io Sutherland chief
his contemporary, for the purpose of trying
the comparative merits of their dogs. Fingal
brought his celebrated dog Bran to Suther-
land, in order to compete with an equally
famous dog belonging to the Sutherland chief,
and tho only one in the country supposed to
be any match for him. The approaching con-
test between these fine animals created great
interest. White-breasted Bran was superior
to the whole of Fingal's other dogs, even to
the ' surly strength of Luath ;' but the Suther-
land dog, known by the full-sounding name of
Phorp, was incomparably the best and most
powerful dog that ever eyed a deer in his
master's forests.

" When Fingal arrived in the forest with
his retinue and dogs, he was saluted with a
welcome that may be translated thus : —

" ' With your nine great dogs,

With your nine smaller game-starting dogs,

With your nine spears,

Unwieldy v.eapons !

And with your nine grey, sharp-edged swords,

Famous were you iii the foremost fight.'

" The Sutherland chief also made a con-
spicuous figure, with his followers, and his
dogs, and weapons for the chase. Of the two
rival dogs. Bran and Phorp, the following de-
scriptions have still survived amongst some of
tiie oldest people in Sutherland. Bran is
thus represented : —

" ' The hind leg like a hook or hent bow ;

Tiie breast like that of a garron ;

The ear like a leaf.'

" Such would Fingal, the chief of heroes,
select from amongst the youth of his hunting-
dogs. Phorp was black iu colour, and bis
points are thus described : —

407

■WOLF-DOG.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [st. bernaed do&.

«• ' Two yellow feet, such as Bran had ;
Tjco black eyes,
And a white breast ;
A back nariow and fair,
As required for hunting ;
And two erect ears of a daik-brown red.'
"Towards the close of the day, after some
severe runs, which, however, still left the com-
parative merits of the two dogs a subject of
hot dispute, Bran and Phorp were brought
front to front, to prove their courage; and
they were no sooner untied than they sprang
at each other, and fought desperately. Phorp
Beemed about to overcome Bran, when his
master, the Sutherland chief, unwilling that
either of them should be killed, called out,
' Let each of us take away his dog.' Fingal
objected to this; whereupon the Sutherland
chief said, with a taunt, that ' it was now evi-
dent that the Inngalians did not possess a dog
that could match with Phorp.'

"Angered and mortified, Fingal immedi-
ately extended his ' venomous paw,' as it is
called (for the tradition represents him as pos-
sessing supernatural power), and with one
liand he seized Phorp by the neck, and with
the other, which was a charmed and destruc-
tive one, he tore out the brave animal's heart.
This adventure occurred at a place near the
March, between the parishes of Clyne and
Kildonan, still called 'Leek na Con' (the
Stone of the Dog^) ; there having been placed
a large stone on the spot where they fought.
The ground over which Fingal and the Suther-
land chief hunted that day is called 'Dirri-
leck-Con.' Bran suffered so severely in the
fight, that he died in Glen Loth before leaving
the forest, and was buried there. A huge cairn
was heaped over him, which still remains, and
is known by the name of ' Cairn Bran.' "

Thus, whilst the ancient Highland chiefs
piled a cairn, or heap of small stones, on the
graves of their favourite dogs, modern ad-
mirers erect to them monuments, and engrave
upon them epitaphs, which celebrate their
virtues.

The original greyhound was a long-haired
dog ; and the modern smooth-coated and thin
animal, now known by that name, is compara-
tively of recent date. Of this we have suffi-
cient evidence in the ancient monuments of
Egypt, where, as well as in Persia and India,
rough greyhounds of great size and power still
408

exist. A dog of the same kind has been de-
scribed by H. Smith, as well known in Arabia ;
and a gigantic rough greyhound was found by
Dr. Clarke, on the confines of Circassia, and
by him described as identical with our old Irish
greyhound.

THE NEWFOUNDLAND, LABRADOR, AND ST.
BERNARD DOGS.

'We are inclined to consider the Italian wolf-
dog, used in the Abruzzi by the shepherds to
defend their flocks, the Newfoundland and
Labrador dog, and the Alpine dog, as the re-
presentatives of a distinct group ; the latter
dog, indeed, approximates to the mastiff. We
have seen several noble specimens of the Al-
pine, or St. Bernard breed : their size is equal
to that of the largest mastiff; the muzzle is
deep ; the ears are pendulous ; the fur is rather
long and wiry ; the eye is full and very expres-
sive ; and the form of the body and limbs indi-
cates great strength. Their sense of smell is
very acute, and aids them in the work of
mercy to which the worthy monks of the con-
vent of the Great St. Bernard have applied
them. To the honour of those excellent men
be it spoken, that while others have trained
the dog to the combat, to the chase of the run-
away slave, and to the pursuit of game, they
have availed themselves of the power, intelli-
gence, and courage of the animal, to rescue
the unhappy traveller from the horrors of
death amidst the snows of the mountains.

One of these noble dogs was decorated with
a medal, in commemoration of his having
saved the lives of twenty-two persons, who,
but for his sagacity, must have perished. He
was lost in 1816, in an attempt to convey a
poor traveller to his anxious family. The man
was a Piedmontese courier, who arrived at St.
Bernard in a very stormy season, labouring to
make his way to the little village of St. Pierre,
in the valley beneath the mountain, where his
wife and children dwelt. It was in vain that
the monks attempted to check his resolution
to reach his family. They at last gave him
two guides, each of whom was accompanied by
a dog, of which one was the remarkable crea-
ture whose services had been so valuable to
mankind. Descending from the convent, they
were in an instant overwhelmed by two ava-
lanches; and the same common destruction

Avoi.F-ii r.NTiNo.J !• 0 R 31 O U N P A 1 X, l" I H 1. 1), A N D J- A K 31'.

LWdl.r-llL'NTINO.

nwaiti'd tlio rainily of the poor courici-, who
were toiliriLj up tlio iiiouutaiii to obtain some
iiewsof tlieir expecteil tVieiul : tlieyall perished.
A story is told of one of tliese dogs, wlio having
found ft child unhurt, whose mother had been
destroyed by an avalanche, induced tlio boy to
mount upon his bade, and thus carried him to
the gate of tlie convent, Tiio incident forms
the subject of a French print.

The wolf-dog of the Abrnzzi is pure white,
somewhat more lightly formed than tlie New-
foundland dog, but strong and muscuhir, and
the hair is long and flowing.

What our ancestors sullered from tlie ravages
of wolves, may readily be inferred from the va-
rious plans which are, at the present day,
adopted in other countries infested by them for
their rapid destruction.

Mr. Greiff, one of the oldest and best sports-
men in Sweden, dwelt in Stockholm, and took
a very prominent part on the occasion of the
p-olitical convulsions which agitated that coun-
try between 1S20 — '30. It was he who seized
the person of the king Gustavus, in which act
the monarch slightly wounded him with a sword
which he tlieu held in his hand. Mr. Greiff,
however, being a man of herculean strength,
wrested this weapon from tlie hand of his sov-
ereign, and took him up in liis arms, as he
would have done a child, and conveyed him to
a place of security. By thus periling his life,
Mr. Greiff was, perhaps, a principal means of
bringing about a bloodless revolution. This
gentleman gives us a somewhat minute account
of the plans adopted by his countrymen for
the destruction of vi-olves in the neighbour-
hood of the Swedish capital. "We take the
account from jNIr. Lloyd, whose bear and wolf-
hunting exploits furnished him with the
materials for a very interestijig couple of
volumes : — ■

A spot covered with a tolerably thick wood
of large trees, especially spruce, where the
ground is undulating, and which contains fens
and mosses, and of such great extent, that
the pathway does not pass over fields or plains
which prevent the tracing of the animals, after
a fall of snow or sleet, is the suitable place for
entrapping wolves. Tlie wood must be left
quiet from passengers, or woodsmen, during
tiie time of hunting — or, in other words, the
tiinter season; and should be situated near
3 G

the centre of tlie parish whoso peasants are to
for.-n tlie skall, or trap. A cottage aliould be
near the phice, that the under-huntsmen may
find quarters, and have opportunity to call up
' in haste the men employed to fasten on tho
I Jngttyg, or hunting-cloth, by which tlie daily
watch of a whole division of tho country, for
this purpose, will be avoided.
I The hewing down of trees, for the purpose
of forming the skall-plat, or [ilaco of lure,
should take place in tiie montli of August or
September, when the assistance of the autho-
rities must be required. If the wood is not of
the thickest and heaviest kind, the skall-plats
should be ready in two to three days, with
thirty to forty labourers per day.

When the skall-plat is ready, it must be
kept undisturbed by the woodsmen, and from
all noise.

In the month of October, when the peasants
begin to kill their worn-out horses, the head-
ranger gives them intimation that they shall,
in conformity with orders from authority,
transport them to the hunting or lure-place,
and give the necessary commands for their
skinning ; and also that a huntsman is to be at
hand to direct that the carrion should be laid
in tho proper place.

As soon as the ground is frozen, the hunting-
cloth is brought out, which must be smoothed
well down, and beaten with fir branches, so
that all shall be prepared against the first
falling snow ; for the hunts which can be formed
by the traces on the first snow, or before
Christmas, are the surest.

Two huntsmen are then ordered to keep
watcli at the skall-plat, the day on which tho
snow has fallen ; and they should go round it
three times a day, morning and evening, and
once during the night with a lantern of tin, so
constructed, that it only throws light from the
bottom ; the marks of the animals going in
and out are carefully noted each time, and
written down in a journal, and whether thej
follow each other in numbers, or go singly.

An experienced huntsman will soon discover
at what time the animals visit the carrion ; the
8th, 11th, and 14th days are usually the period?,
after they have once eaten of it. It happens
that wolves, early in winter, get into the skall-
plat, and lie there several days, without their
traces being discovered ; and, on such occasions,

400

woLF-nuNTiKG.] THE DOGT, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [deee-houni>.

it is necessary to drive them gently out again,
in order to ascertain their number.

Each time of going round the area, every
track is to be swept out with a long broom ;
and if the huntsman at any time have occasion
to step out of the pathway, the marks should
be immediately obliterated. Birds of prey,
such as ravens and crows, must not be fright-
ened away, because they entice the wild
beasts by their cries, and give them confi-
dence.

The huntsmen then examine each his side
of the skall-plat : should it be found, when
they meet, that traces of such animals as have
entered are sufficiently numerous to fasten up
the hunting-cloths, the men, for that purpose,
are called out immediately; and the fasten-
ing should be executed with all possible ex-
pedition, and the whole finished within two
fiours.

The fastening ought to commence either at
the top or at the bottom of the skall- plats,
where two rolls of cloth should be lying ready.
One man unloosens the roll — the other carries
the pole on which it is wound. They advance
along the line, unwinding as they go. The
roll should be wound round the pole, so that
it unwinds correctly and easily. A third man
fastens the cloth round the end of each stake.
"When the hunting-cloth is fastened up, the men
who have ,been so employed return each along
his allotted distance, and rectifies what he finds
amiss. The pieces of cloth ought to hang
three feet from the ground. The huntsmen
then reconnoitre the skall-plat, to ascertain
whether the animals have escaped during the
fastening. If that be the case, the hunting-
cloths are immediately takeu down, wound up,
and laid in their places.

When it is found that the animals are en-
closed, messengers are immediately dispatched,
to apprise the people of the time of assembling
for the hunt, and of the number required,
according to the size of the- skall-plat, reckon-
ing eight, and, at the utmost, ten, huntiug-
paces between each person.

I'rom the moment it is ascertained that the
animals are enclosed, and until the hunt takes
place, the utmost silence is to be observed at
and about the skall-plat.

When the people are assembled, and the
numbers communicated to the head-ranger,
410

they advance silently to the skall-plat, and are
formed in two divisions, either at the top or at
the bottom. A huntsman goes before each
division, and a huntsman after. They place
each peasant in his proper situation, and in-
form him what he is to attend to ; namely — to
stand on the outside of the hunting-cloths ; to
remain silent, and not to go from his post ; but,
if the animals show themselves, he is to shake
and strike against the cloths with his hunt-
iug-staflf or spear.

The Skalfogdar, or subordinate officers of
the hunt, are chosen from trusty people, who
are acquainted with the locality ; soldiers are
preferable. These, together wnth the super-
fluous huntsmen, are distributed among the
body which is to advance, and should, for the
preservation of better order, be distinguished
by some badge.

Should there be any of the royal family
present, the head-ranger himself advances in
the centre ; otherwise, a trusty huntsman, who
should preserve a steady pace in his advance.

The driving division ought to advance slowly,
because too much haste brings the people sooner
into disorder. The movement ought to be
efi'ected without shots or cries ; only they are
to strike the trees with their huuting-poles,
and examine carefully if any animal has hidden
himself, or lies dead.

When the people have advanced to the
farthest point, the wild animals which have
been shot are conveyed to the king's skreen.

No other than good marksmen are allowed
to carry a gun.

Such is the importance of the arrange-
ments made, even at this day, in Scandinavia,
for the slaying of the wolf.

THE HIGHLAND DEER-HOUND.

The Higldand deer-hound has the general
appearance of a high-bred greyhound, espe-
cially in all the points on which speed and
power depend ; but he is built more coarsely,
and altogether on a larger and grander scale.
The shoulder is also more elevated ; the neck
thicker ; the head and muzzle coarser ; and the
bone more massive. He stands from tvventy-
eiglit to thirty inches in height at the shoulder ;
his coat is rough, and the liair strong; colour
usually sandy yellow, iron grey, or white. All
colours should have the muzzle and tips of the

»rKK-H0UND.] FOR MOUNTAIN, PIELD, AND FAEM. [ueeii-houxd.

cars black. A tuft, or pencil of dark hair on
till' tip of" tho oar, ia a proof of lii^li blood.

This is a very powerfu! dog, equally staunch
and laitlifiil ; and when the Scottish nioun-
tnina swarineil with stag3 and roes, it was held
in high estiinati.>n, as being capable of follow-
ing the deer over surfaces too rough and
latiguing for tho ordinary hounds of the low
I'ouutry. " The general aspect of the Highland
luiuud," says Mr. Eichardson, " is command-
ing and ilerce. His head is long, and muzzle
rather sharp ; his ears pendulous, but not
long ; his eyes large, keen, and penetrating,
half-concealed among the long, stiff, and
bristly hair with which his face is covered ;
his body is very strong and muscular, deep-
chested, tapering towards the loins ; and his
back slightly arched. His hind quarters are
furnished with large prominent muscles ; and
his legs are long, strong-boned, and straight —
a combination of qualities which gives him
that speed and long duration in the chase
for which he is so eminently distinguished.
His hair is wiry and shaggy, of a reddish sand
colour, mixed with white ; his tail is rough,
which he carries somewhat in the manner of a
stag hound, but not quite so erect. This is
tiie dog formerly used by the Highland chief-
tains of Scotland in their grand hunting par-
ties ; and is, in all probability, the same noble
dog used in the time of Ossian. The Scottish
Highland greyhound will either hunt in packs
or singly."

The following description of deer-coursing,
written by Mr. Scrope, presents us with a
faithful picture of the mode of using the
hounds adapted for that purpose in the High-
lands : —

" No time was to De lost ; the whole party
immediately moved forward in silent and
breathless expectation, with the dogs in front,
straining in the slips; and on our reaching the
top of the hillock, we got a full view of the
noble stag, which, having heard our footsteps,
had sprung to his legs, and was staring us full
in the face, at the distance of about sixty
yards. I

" The dogs were slipped ; a general halloo
burst from the whole party, and the stag, |
wheeling round, set off" at full speed, with
'Buskar' and 'Bran' straining after him.

" The brown ligure of the deer, with his

noblo antlers laid back, contrasted with tho
liglit colour of tho dogs, stretching ahjiig tho
dark heath, presented ono of tho moat exciting
scenes that it is possible to imagine.

"Tho deer's first attempt was to gain some
rising ground to tho left of tho spot wliere wo
stood, ami rather behind us; but, bt.'ing closely
pursued by tho dogs, ho soon found that his
only safety was in speed ; and as a deer does
not run well up hill, nor like u roe, straight
down hill, on the dogs approaching him, ho
turned, and almost retraced his steps, taking,
however, a steeper line of descent than tho
I one by which he ascended. Here the chase
became more interesting ; the dogs pressed
him hard, and the deer, getting confused,
found himself suddenly on the brink of a
small precipice, of about fourteen feet in
height, from the bottom of which there sloped
a rugged mass of stones. He paused for a
moment, as if afraid to take the leap ; but the
dogs were so close that he had no alternative.

" At this time the party were not above 150
yards distant, and most anxiously awaited the
result, fearing, from the ruggedness of the
ground below, that the deer would not sur-
vive the leap. They were, however, soon re-
lieved from their anxiety ; for though he took
the leap, he did so more cunningly than gal-
lantly, dropping himself in the most singular
manner, so that his hind legs first reached the
broken rocks below ; nor were the dogs long
in following him. ' Buskar' sprang first, and,
extraordinary to relate, did not lose his legs;
' Bran' followed, and, on reaching the ground,
performed a complete summersault ; he soon,
however, recovered his legs, and the chase was
continued in an oblique direction down the side
of a most rugged and rocky brae, the deer ap-
parently more fresh and nimble than ever,
jumping through the rocks like a goat, and tho
dogs well up, though occasionally receiving the
most fearful falls.

" Prom the high position in which we were
placed, the chase was visible for nearly half a
mile; but some rising ground intercepting
our view, we made with all speed for a higher
point. On reaching it we could perceive that;
the dogs, having got upon smooth ground,
had gained on the deer, which was still going
at speed, and were now close up with him.
' Bran' was then leading, and in a i'evr secouda

411

DEER-nOUKD.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES;

[deee-hound.

wa3 at his heels, and immediately seized his
hock with such violence of grasp, as seemed, in
a great measure, to paralyse the limb, for the
deer's speed was immediately checked.

" ' Buskar' was not far behind ; for soon after-
wards passing ' Bran,' he seized the deer by the
neck. Notwithstanding the weight of the two
dogs, which were hanging to him, having the
assistance of the slope of the ground, he con-
tinued dragging them along at a most extraor-
dinary rate, in defiance of their utmost exer-
tions to detain him, and succeeded more than
once in kicking ' Bran' off. But he became
at length exhausted; the dogs succeeded in
pulling him down, and, though he made seve-
ral attempts to rise, he never completely re-
gained his legs. On coming up we found him
perfectly dead."

The Highland chiefs of former days were
wont to hunt the stag with all the pomp and
magnificence of Eastern sovereigns. Under the
plea of a deer-hunt, they would sometimes as-
semble four or five thousand of their clan, os-
tensibly for the purpose of driving the deer
into their toils, but, in reality, for very diff'erent
purposes. Walter Scott, if our memory serves
us, alludes to this circumstance in his Waverley.
When the government found out the secret of
these " gatherings," they were suppressed by
an act oi" parliament.

The elegant appearance of the stag has al-
ways procured for it great admiration ; and
although he is a native of many parts of Europe,
he is supposed to have been originally intro-
duced to this country from Erance.

By way of contrast to the animated prose
description of Mr. Scrope, we present our
readers with another, equally animated, al-
though in the " poetical vein."

The stag, too, singled from the herd, where long
He rang'd, the branching monarch of the shades,
Before the tempest drives. At first, in speed
lie, sprightly, puts his faith ; and, rous'd by fear,
Gives all his swift aerial soul to flight.
Against the breeze he darts, that way the more
To leave the lessening murderous cry beliind.
Deception short ! though fleeter than the winds
Blown o'er the keen-air'd mountains by the north,
He bursts the thickets, glances through the glades,
And plunges deep into the wildest wood.
If slow, yet sure adhesive to the track.
Hot streaming, up beliind him come again
Th' inhuman route, and from tlie shady depth
Expel him, circling through his ev'ry shift.
412

He sweeps the forest oft ; and sobbing sees

The glades, mild opening to the golden day ;

Where, in kind contest, with his butting friends

He wont to struggle, or his loves enjoy.

Oft in the full-descending flood he tries

To lose the scent, and lave his burning sides ;

Oft seeks the herd : the watchful herd, alarm'd,

With selfish care avoid a brother's woe.

What shall he do ? His once so vivid nerves,

So full of buoyant spirit, now no more

Inspire the course ; but fainting, breathless toil,

Sick, seizes on his heart ; he stands at bay ;

And puts his last weak refuge in despair.

The big round tears run down his dappled face ;

He groans in anguish ; while the growling pack,

Blood-happy, liang at his fair-jutting chest,

And mark his beauteous chequer'd sides with gore

It must be acknowledged that there is some-
thing exceedingly exciting in the hunting of
the larger kinds of animals, whether on horse-
back or foot, with dog or gun. Princes of
every age and country have been remarkable
for their love of the chase ; and one who,
within these few years, has obtained no little
celebrity in the eyes of the political world of
Europe, is a devoted lover of the chase. Victor
Emmanuel, of Italy, is one of the most enthu-
siastic hunters of the day. He has hunting
quarters in the vicinity of the Alps — those
stupendous mountain ranges which realise to
the imagination all that Byron has written of
"mountain majesty." When he sets out for
these quarters, as a body-guard round the
royal cavalcade, there walk about forty or fifty
of the hardiest mountaineers of these districts,
armed with rusty fowling-pieces, and destined
to beat the bush, and drive the game to the
sportsmen. The king is habited in a broad-
brimmed wideawake, and a grey hunting-suit
of coarse woollen cloth, all of one colour,
agreeably to fashion. He looks a kind of
bluft' Henry VIII. of England, equally stout,
darkly sunburnt, with a deep, almost livid, red,
round and behind the ears, bristling with
moustaches, stretching from the lips all across
the face — not a man to be loved or valued by
those who do not look below the surface. The
tents destined for himself and his party he has
pitched about an hour's walk up a valley, deep
in a glen shut in by bare rocks — a whole craggy
wilderness, the refuge of chamois and bouque-
tins. With the exception of the character of
the game, tliis is thoroughly Scotch.

Eor a long time this heroic sovereign seemed

BOAE-nuNTiNO.] FOE MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM, [iioauuuminu.

to tliiuk that tlie only occupation fit for ft kiiifj I niomitaiii goat; ho had pressed closer and
was war and the chaso ; thougli ho never was closer ; ho had driven liigher and higher up;
unmindful of the uohlo saying of one of his he had knocked it up, blown all the wind out
ancestors, that "ft sovereign's greatest prerog- j of its panting body, and had, at last, brought it
ativo was to give and to forgive." During back triumphant, tlio prize of tliat untamed
his father's lifetime, in pt>aceful days, the then strength which has scarcely ft match anvwherc.
Duke of Savoy was only a forester. Men saw ' Feats like tiieso wo might expect to see in
but little of him, unless they chose to meet ' this island, performed by some daring Highland
him in the woods of Pollenzo or llacconigi, chief, in the days of George 11.; but, alas!
with a double-barrelled gun on his shoulders, money-hunting and mongrelism have made us
and so plainly attired, that a good peasant of I degenerate.

the neighbourhood once mistook him for a I Turning from the hunting of the " buck and
gamekeeper, and ollered him a three-franc the roe," the chamois and the boiique/ins, to
bribe to shoot him a fox which laid waste his I that of the wild boar, a yet wilder enthusiasm
poultry-yard ; when the king humoured the is displayed.

goodmau,aud,ef:ectingtheobject,acceptedand I Among the exercises that contribute most
pocketed the money. After Charles Albert's ' towards forming good military riders, arc the
death, when Victor had to play king in the j hunts organised in Nortiicra Africa, by tho
camp, in the council-chamber, and parliament, ! French Algerian authorities, for the destruction

his favourite field amusements were greatly
curtailed. But the gun and the rifle were
never set aside ; and in the hot summer he had
his holiday, when ho would pitch his tent near
*■ Our Lady of the Snow," on the top of Val
d'Orco; or in some even more inaccessible
savage spot in Val d'Aosta, and thence run
and race, and climb and creep on all-fours, on
the brink of precipices, staking his royal life
against the carcass of a stambccco. Stara-
becco-stalking on the Alps lasts naturally but

of dangerous animals. AVherever French
troops are, they require to be actively em-
ployed. Accordingly, they are sent to Algeria,
as to a school of adversity, to become inured
to toil and hardships ; and when not employed
in suppressing any disturbances that may arise
among the Arab tribes, or in opening up new
routes, or in constructing forts and earth-
works, the chase afl'ords an opportunity for tho
exertion and excitement so necessary for the
due maintenance of tho soldier's health and

a short season ; yet business shortened it more j vigour. During a spring excursion, made hv
and more with the subsequent aggrandisement | the 1st regiment of the Chasseurs d'AJriquc,

of the state, and the deepening of political
complications. His hunting habits are very
austere. He robs himself of sleep, rises regu-
larly at midnight, calls up the whole house-
hold, visits the stables, sees to horses, hounds,
and guns; and, after assuring himself that all
is right, and all in readiness, he snatches a few
hours more rest ; then up he is again at earliest
daybreak; the horn is wound, the hunt is up,
and away he rides as fast as the nimblest
mountain nag can carry him, and then takes
to his legs, and the I'ace is between him and
the swiftest quadrupeds, over crags and along
gullies common men shudder only to look at.
Once upon a time, it is related that he came
back to Turin in great glee, telling his friends
he had given chase to a houquetin for two
whole days ; had parted con)pany with his
aides-de-camp, his guides, his huntsmen, every
man in his suite. He had followed the coy

a wild boar-hunt was got up at almost everv
halt. A. scene from a hunt which took place
at Bordj-Bou'ira, exhibits, in a forcible manner,
the excitement which animates all parties en-
gaged in it.

On arriving at the bivouac of Bordj-Bou'ira,
the neighbouring ravines were pointed out to
the colonel of the regiment, who commanded
the column, as the resort of boars and other
wild beasts. By his orders, a gi'ande chasse
was immediately organised, and promised more
than the ordinary amount of excitement, as
the natives had announced the news of a lion
having been recently seen in the neighbour-
hood. The hunting-ground comprised a
number of parallel ravines, somewhat deep,
descending from the spur of the Jurjura, the
ridges of the different passes inclining gradu-
ally towards the plain of the Hamza. All tlie
country about here is either wooded or covered

413

HOAE-HU^'TIjS'G.]

THE DOG, AiS-D ITS VAEIETIES;

[fox-hukting.

with formidable thickets. There are but very
few regular paths, and those only practicable
for the surefooted Arab horses.

At the appointed hour, the native chiefs
brought to the " meet" at least three hundred
scouts, a certain number of whom were on
horseback, and provided with firearms; the
remainder on foot, and merely armed with
motrags, or thick sticks, xlll these Arabs were
placed upon the same line, in the plain oppo-
site the mountain, the shooters being dis-
tributed along the ridges, and wherever there
was a chance of seeing a wild boar pass. This
picturesque arrangement greatly assists the
imagination in drawing for itself a beautiful
scene. On a preconcerted signal being given,
the scouts advanced, beating up the thickets
of juniper and jujube trees, and uttering loud
and almost deafening cries, so as to drive out
the animals from their cover in the ravines.
A troop of wild boars soon took flight in the
direction of the mountain. Some of these
were promptly killed by the armed scouts at
their different posts — but immediately after-
wards the scene changed. The Arab mounted
scouts, as well as the Erench troopers, ani-
mated by the sight of the monstrous animals,
and by the sounds of the firearms, hastened to
the pursuit of the boars that had succeeded in
forcing the lines of the tireurs ; and then began
one of those headlong races, of which it is
difficult to say whether we most admire the
skill and boldness of the riders, or the energy,
grace, and suppleness of their Arab horses,
which, going at the top of their speed, clear
every obstacle with a surety of foot that is
never deceived, even on the steepest and most
rugged paths.

The remainder of the fugitive herd was
speedily encompassed by all the huntsmen,
both Erench and Arab being carried away and
electrified, as it were, by mutual excitement.
Gun-shots and pistol-shots were fired off on
every side, so that there was a certain amount
of danger in being present at such a m^lee ;
for whenever an Arab smells powder he be-
comes intoxicated, and fires away indiscrimi-
nately, to the right or to the left, not at all
heeding who may bo near— a characteristic, we
may observe, that gives us no very higli idea of
their sporting qualifications.

The band having been thus destroyed with-
414

out accident to the " assistants," the trumpets
sounded the recall. The number of victims
was fourteen full-grown boars, and six young
ones. They were all brought to the place of
rendezvous, and put upon mules, to be taken in
triumph into the camp. The cliasseurs, with
their colonel at the head of the column, formed
the escort ; the march was enlivened by re-
peated flourishes of trumpets ; and, at the en-
trance of the bivouacking-ground, a feu-de-joie
was discharged in the air in front ot those who
had remained behind, but who had come out to
meet '• the return from the hunt." Not the
least brilliant part of the scenes composing the
general action here, must liave been the great
variety of the costumes, and the gaiety of the
Arabian horsemen, wheeling about on their
splendid steeds, under the rays of an African
sun. The wild boars were afterwards arranged
in order on the ground, and each sportsman
sought to recognise the animal which he sup-
posed had fallen from the effect of his weapon.

In the evening, the bivouac of the 1st regi-
ment of clmsseurs was particularly gay. The
men, arranged as in small tribes, took their
seats around the large kettles that gave forth
an appetite-creating odour ; and, as they par-
took of the savoury slices of boar-flesh, they
related to each other tlie " moving events" of
the day. Some openly expressed regret at not
having encountered the lion; but it may
readily be supposed that the majority inwardly
rejoiced at having avoided him.

Changing the scene, and returning to our
own island, we pause for a moment to dwell
upon the principal hunting national sport of
England — fox-hunting. This sport presents
us with very different features from such as
we have just related; but it is, nevertheless,
equally exciting. There are, perhaps, now
more hunting, more " meets," and more nu-
merous fields here than there were at any
former period. Ladies, too, enliven the sport
by their presence ; and here we may observe,
that the riding-habit of these "fair creatures"
was first introduced in the reign of Charles II. ;
but, even in the days of Queen Anne, was
viewed with some degree of animadversion.
This is proved by the following satirical re-
marks of Addison :—" Among the several
female extravagancies I have already taken
notice of, there is one which still keeps its

K

Fox.uuNTiNQ.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, ANT) FAEM. [Fox-uuatnra.

ground — I moan that of ladies who dress
themselves in a hat and feather, n riding-coat,
and a periwit,', or at least tio up tlieir hair in a
bag or ribbon, in imitation of the smart part
of the opposite sex." And he thus more par-
ticularly favours us with a description of one
of these anomalous personages : — " His hair,
well curled and powdered, hung to a con-
siderable length on his shoulders, and was tied,
as if bv the hand of his mistress, with a scarlet
ribbon, which played like a streamer behind
liim ; he had a coat and waistcoat of blue
candet, trimmed and embroidered with silver ;
a cravat of the finest lace ; and wore, in a smart
cock, a little beaver hat, edged with silver, and
made more sprightly by a feather. * * *
As I was pitying the luxury of this young
person, who appeared to me to have been only
educated as an object of sight, I perceived, on
my nearer approach, and as I turned my eye
downward, a part of the equipage I had not
observed before, which was a petticoat of the
same as the coat and waistcoat."

The modern huutswoman is not quite so gaily
attired; but if she were, she, no doubt, would
be in the fashion. Be this as it may, however,
the sport of fox-hunting is not now, as it was
in former times, restricted to any particular
class of men. Although the old Epping Hunt,
of venerable antiquity, in virtue of the right
of free warren, confirmed to the citizens of
Loudon by Henry III., in 1226, has lost its
former 'prestige, the lord mayor, aldermen, and
corporation no longer proceeding to the hunt
in "solemn guise," many wealthy citizens, by
the aid of the railways, take their turn with
the hounds at the various "meets," within a
ie^ hours' distance from town, perhaps once
or twice a week, and return to look in at their
ofRcea and counting-houses just before the
close of business.

Of course there i:^ now, as, indeed, there
always was, a great disparity in the character
of the fields, and the ceremonial observed in
them. At " provincial" meets the costume is
very ad libitum — the farmer, the horsedealer,
the barrister, the little country attorney, often
turniug out in mufti; whilst the M.P., the
city merchant, and the leading men of the
county, appear in the legitimate scarlet. Lei-
cestershire is the hunting county ;?ar excellence;
and Melton Mowbray, the bead-quarters.

This was, till lately, a prettily situated, inaigni-
(icant town; but it is now quickly becoming a
sort of metropolis for our fox-hunting aristoc-
racy. "The uninitiated readiT," says Nimrod,
" would, perhaps, be surpriat-d by an enumera-
tion of the persons of rank, wealtli, and
fashion, who, during several months of every
year, resign the comforts and elegancies of
their family mansion, for a small house in soma
town or village of Leicestershire — to any, but
the eye of a sportsman, nearly the ugliest
county in England." The same authority gives
us tlie following coup-iVceil of the legitimate
Meltonian, which contrasts widely with the
miscellaneous lot in a " provincial" hunt ; and
as strangely with the bunting gentry of the
time of George II., as wo have seen repre-
sented in a picture of Mr. Taylor, the artist.
" The style of your Meltonian fox-hunter has
long distinguished him above his brethren of
what he calls the 2^>'ovincial chase. AV^hen
turned out of the hands of his valet, he pre-
sents the very beau-ideal of his caste. Tbo
exact fit of his coat, the superlatively well-
cleaned leather breeches, and the generally
apparent high breeding of the man, can seldom
be matched elsewhere ; and the most cautious
sceptic would generally satisfy himself on this
fact at a single inspection."

One more passage from this entertaining
writer and thoroughgoing sportsman, drawing
the line between the fox- hunter of the eigh-
teenth and the nineteenth centuries respec-
tively : — " Compared with the luxurious ease
with which the modern sportsman is conveyed
to the field — either lolling in his chaise and
four, or galloping along at the rate of twenty
miles an hour on a hundred-guinea hack — the
situation of his predecessor was all but dis-
tressing. In proportion to the distance be
had to ride by starlight, were his hours of rest
broken in upon ; and, exclusive of the time
which that operation might consume, another
serious matter was to be provided for. This
was the filling bis hair with powder and
pomatum until it could hold no more, and
forming it into a well-turned knot, or club, as
it was called by bis valet, which was commonly
a good hour's work. The protecting mud-
boot, the cantering hack, the second horn in
the field, were luxuries unknown to him ; and
his well-soiled buskins and brown-topped

415

rOX-HUNTINa.]

THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIETIES;

[rox-Hu:^TixG.

boots would have cut an indifferent figure in
the presence of a modern connoisseur bj a
Leicestershire cover-side. Notwithstanding
all this, however, we are inclined strongly to
suspect, that out of a given number of gentle-
men taking the field with hounds, the propor-
tion of really scientific sportsmen may have
been in favour of the olden times."

Another still more important change
efiected in modern hunting, however, is in the
character of the horses. They are now higher
bred than before, and much faster ; but on
this subject we have sufiiciently spoken in
the first division of this work.

Eegarding the costume of the sportsmen in
the days of George II., it may be observed
that the gentlemen wore the heavy, square-cut,
buckram-supported coat, which was generally
common in society ; the triangular hat ; the
powdered and pomatumed head, and the pig-
tail appendage. The large three-cornered
cocked hat, called a kevenhuller, was imported
from Germany, and is a speciality of the times
of the first two Georges. It is thus described
by a writer of the time : — " It is shaped like
an equilateral triangle, placed with the most
mathematical precision on the head, somewhat
elevated behind, and sloping in an unvarying
angle downwards to the eyes, surrounded by a
long, stiff", formal feather, rising from a large
.'osette of black ribbon on the dexter side."

The sight of such an apparition in a Leices-
tershire " meet" now-a-days, might be expected
not only to astonish the riders, but even frighten
the horses from their propriety.

To most English sportsmen Wales is quite
unknown as a fox-hunting country ; yet there
are several packs kept in Pembrokeshire and
the two adjoining counties. Eirst, let us re-
mark as to the country, that the enclosures
are usually small, the fences consisting of
turf walls, from six to eight feet in height;
but, though rather formidable in appearance,
they are a very safe kind of fence, and a horse
accustomed to them jumps on and off" with
great ease. There are also a good many loose
stone walls, and occasionally timber.

A writer in The Fidel, who has evidently
been present at some of the " meets" in Wales,

begs us to accompany him on a fine morniuo-

say February, as there is always better sport

in Wales after Christmas than before to the

41G

" Twmstron Catty Arms," a favourite meet of
the hounds, where we shall probably find half-
a-dozen pinks, one or two black coats, and a
rough-looking farmer, mounted on a rougher
pony, without any saddle, waiting for the
hounds. Until their arrival he requests us to
take a look at the horses and their riders ; and
we see in the former, well bred, short-lego-ed
ones, fit to go in most countries ; and, in the
latter, true-bred English sportsmen. The
hounds now come up ; they bear the unmis-
takable look of fox-hounds, but are somewhat
shorter on the leg, and a little more harrier-
like about their muzzles and sterns than the
generality of English packs. After the usual
greetings, the master moves off" towards " Pen-
bryn Gorse ;" and, on our arriving at the
cover-side, instead of a flat furze brake, we
find a deep dingle, with a natural growth of
furze on either side, with little crags of rock
jutting out here and there. The knowing
ones quietly cross over to the side on which
the fox is likely to break, and the master
waves the hounds into the cover, which sud-
denly becomes quite alive. Presently a
whimper is heard, and then a hound opens.
" Have at him Goblin !" cries the master, and
a burst of merry music answers the cheer.
Pug just shows his nose outside the cover, but
is headed back ; then dismal fears of a " chop"
begin to prevail ; they are, however, soon dis-
pelled ; as, after running round the cover, he
breaks away at the upper end : the master
sounds a few notes on his horn, and the
hounds settle down on the line. " He is
away for the rocks," observes a quiet-looking
man in black, at the same time charging a big
bank ; and away we go merrily for nearly four
miles, when we find ourselves on the edge of a
steep dingle, across which the hounds are
streaming. " The Field" here divides ; the
wiser half follow a gentleman on a bay, who
seems to be riding straight away from the
hounds. However, he makes a sudden turn,
scrambles down the side of the dingle by a
narrow path, and reaches the summit on the
other side, just as the hounds, which have
come to a slight check, hit off" the scent again.
We then go on for about another mile, jump
a big bank, with stiffish wattling at the top,
and are then upon the open mountain. But
our dangers are not yet over, as we suddenly

yox-uLNTiNo.] rOK MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AInD FAEM. [iox-uunmng.

see the foremost horso disappear up to his narrow place was Orat tried, and all four lioraeB
i,MrtIis in II treacheroua poat-boi^. On wo go, 'pot over, but not without a Hcrainblo on laud-
loaviiiii; our unfortunato Iriond to extricate ing. Tho umpire decided that (jribs(ju liad
himself as ho best can, and pick our way | won with all four, bein;,' £oO eacli iiursc. The
carelully among the boulders, which become j wide place (Mr. Campbell's "yawner") was
rather too plentiful to allow easy galloping, then attempted with a grey horse — as noble u
We now see "The Kocks"— a huge volcanic looking animal as ever gazed through bridle,
pile, heaped into fantastic shapes — looming in
the distance, and Keynard is perceived a little
way ahead, gallantly struggling to reach his
city of refuge.

The chase now becomes vcrv exciting ; the

With a mass of people facing him on the other
side of tho river, ho gallantly charged it, but
fell on the edge of tho water, thereby losing
the first £50. Had the hounds been iu full
cry, and notiiing to face him, periiajis he would

hounds are coursing the fox; but he is within have accom[)lislied tho feat. It was, however,
two hundred yards of the rocks ; and, if he |a great task to undertake, oq the part of the

can but struggle on for a few seconds more,
will be safe. However, he is doomed;
'• Crafty" rolls him over ; the rest of the pack
rush in ; and so dies the poor fox. Only three
horsemen are in at the death ; but, by the
time the animal is broken up, the friends wc
left iu the dingle arrive ; and, after a little
chaffing, we turu our horses' heads homewards,
and agree that forty-five minutes in AVales is
uot bad sport after all.

In i'ox-hunting there are frequently taken,
by man and horse, leaps which, in moments of
less excitement, would literally appal them.
On one occasion, Mr. Alex. Campbell, of Mon-
zies, when hunting with Mr. Baker's hounds,
cleared, on one of his favourite horses ("De-
ceiver"), the river Leam, being nine yards and
six inches across. Not one of the " field" at-
tempted this daring "fly;" but Mr. Haigh tried
it in a much narrower place, and succeeded in

nags, in cold blood. The two next horses were
not put to it. The fourth, however, was sent
at it in gallant style, but unfortunately jumped
into the middle of tho water. They were all
ridden by one man, who appeared to weigh
about 9st. ; and, considering that he received a
ducking on each occasion, he rode with great
spirit and determination. He did not, however,
appear to handle his horses as a first-rate artist
— he seemed " at sea" on one or two occasions
with his hands ; but a finer seat on horseback
could hardly be seen. The match, therefore,
ended thus : — Mr. Gibson's horses won over the
narrow place, and lost over the wide part:
and Mr. Campbell's feat still remains unsur-
passed.

The patronage which the chase receives ia
England is universal. The peer and the
plough-boy alike participate in its exhilarating
scenes ; and even the senator, who sways the

landing himself and horse on the right side, destinies of the kingdom, may occasionally be
Mr. Cambbell's remarkable leap caused not a found in the field. The late Lord Palmerston
little commotion in the hunting world ; and a was a great friend to the sport, and not un-

gentleman, named Gibson, backed five of his
horses for £50 each to clear both places of
the Leam — viz., at the spot whicli was taken by
Mr. Campbell, and that taken by Mr. Haigh.
These horses, however, were then announced
for sale at Tattersali's ; and the match had
to be made conditionally, that if *.hey were
not sold above the reserve price, the match
should stand good ; and if sold, to be no match.
As only one of them was sold, the event stood
good with four of the horses ; and, after a con-
siderable amount of " beating about the bush,'

frequently, even when premier, might be I'ound
joining one of the "meets" in Hampshire,
although he had passed the threescore and
ten assigned as the period of man's allotted
existence in this sublunary world. It is uot
many years ago, since, at Farley church, he
met the Hursley houndt which were thrown
into Parnell AVood. In l^ts than five miuutes
a hound challenged (which summons the
huntsman said could not bo a mistake). Im-
mediately a view-halloo was given ; one ring
round the cover, and away they went at a

it came ofi'near Granborough— Mr. Martin, of slapping pace over the open, through Mitchel-

llugby, being the acceptor of the challenge, marsh, nearly down to the "Dog and Crook."

Captain Heury Lowndes was umpire. The There he turned to the left, the (joiny hounds
3h 417

rOX-nUNTING.J

THE DOa, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[fox-hunting.

forcing him back over Eldon farm, and then
over the open to Compton House, where the
fox ran to ground in view, after a good hour
and ten minutes — ^in fact very few were up, the
pace being so good, and the country very
heavy. A great many of the field here left,
being quite satisfied with the above runs ; but
not so with all ; for a fox liad stole sway, but
Mitchelmarsh Summers got on his line, and
was up to him at Parnell, where the first fox
was found. He immediately broke by Ashley
Hangers, through Ashley Wood, and then took
the open over "Westley farm, leaving Sparsholt
on the right, to Norwood, and then again over
the open nearly to "Winchester. He then
went over the railroad to Abbots Worthy, and
took the side of the rail to Hook -pit farm ;
then again over the railroad, and recrossed it
about a mile up, making his point for Pile's
farm ; then through the Baeley covers to Stech-
ing Wood, and from there into Lord Ashbur-
ton's large covers at the Grrange. It was now
half-past four o'clock, and the horses belonging
to the huntsman and whipper-in dead-beaten —
as was every horse that lived with the hounds —
so it was thought prudent to whip ofi". This
concluded a capital day's sport : the last run,
from point to point, could not be less than
iburteen miles, and the ground run over from
twenty to twenty-five miles ; time, two hours
thirty-five minutes. This is supposed to have
been one of the best runs seen in Hampshire ;
.vnd the first man in England, while we write,
commenced the day with the hounds ; but
whether he was as staunch to the end of
the chase as he is to the end of a debate
in the House, the Sporting Chronicle does
not say.

Whilst this indomitable spirit of fox-hunt-
ing pervades, more especially, the aristocratic
and provincial population of England, it is not
less prevalent amongst certain classes of the
Scotch. The Linlithgo and Stirlingshire fox-
hounds have long enjoyed a high celebrity.
One of the most brilliant runs which ever took
place in that country occurred when the pack
was under the management of the Honourable
James Sandilands. The "meet" was an-
nounced for Stonebyres. This place, well
known to the admirers of natural scenery for
its romantic waterfall, and to sportsmen as a
sure find for the " gallant varmint," attracted
418

on that day a goodly number, not only of the
regular attendants on the hounds, but also of
the well-mounted members of a neighbouring
hunt.

The morning rose bright, sunny, and dry,
no rain having fallen for some time — so much
so, that some of those learned in the art " of
venerie" even doubted the possibility of sport;
but here was a fresh instance that Dame
Nature cannot be reduced to scientific rules,
for this conjecture was happily frustrated.
The hounds having been thrown into the
cover, whimpers were heard ; but practised
hunters doubted their correctness, roe-deer
being on foot in the cover, and being subse-
quently viewed, and many passed round to
the south-east part of the Stonebyres' planta-
tion. A farmer suggested a trial of a fine
piece of gorse, lying on the side of the hill.
The hounds no sooner entered this, than the
well-known challenge resounded, and reynard
was viewed leaving the gorse at a thundering
pace. Onward he went across the Blackhill,
making his point in a westerly direction, over
a strongly fenced country. The start had
been so sudden and unexpected, that many of
the field did not get well away with him ; the
first fence, a good rattling stone wall, on boggy
ground on both sides, making several reputed
good horses bolt and refuse. Now came the
tug of war — now came the chapter of acci-
dents. Some of the "good men and true,"
going at racing pace, down hill, over ploughed
ground, were thrown, horse and man, head over
heels. But the pace was too good to inquire
after their fate. Horses were seen flying
without riders, and with difiiculty caught, the
gallant huntsman himself not escaping the
chapter of accidents. ^ The scent was burning ;
an almost impracticable fence was ridden at by
him ; both horse and rider kissed their mother
earth : but up and away — the huntsman is of
too good stuff" to be beaten, though his pluck
was severely tried this memorable day, having
had three falls. The splendid fox now changed
his point, and, crossing the banks of the
romantic Nethau water, took a southerly line,
and skirting the grounds of Auchtifardlo,
towards Mansfield and Netherhouse, on towards
Lc^mahago. He then tried back down to the
water ; but finding that dangerous, back he
went towards the south. He now crossed the

rox-iir>-TiNo.] rOit MO U:s TAi.N, TiLLD, A^D TAii-M. [iox-uumu.so.

ro:ul, and was Ihon viewodbyaman doad bont, cieiitly pricked by tliorns, briars, and Rorse,
and just iiKma"t'd to roacli his pi)iiit — a drain | cret-p out for a lew Bcconds buforu him, than —
at the foot of the Held, close to tho viUai^o of 'Angola and niinislera of graco defend u« I' —
Le8tnaha"o. Up caiuo tho huntsman, who , tho young horso pricks up his t-ars, Blares
rode biilliantlv i» sp'te of tho chapter of acoi- , intently at him, hulils liia brealli, and, with a
dents- and afterwards up came some of the; heart beating so hard that it may be not only
"good men and true," their nags looking j heard but felt by tliy rider, ho breaks out into

awfully beaten and pumped out. Tho scent
had been burning ; the pace had been killing ;
and tho time was half-au-hour of as brilliant a
thing as had ever been seen in tho Carnwath
countrv. It would bo invidious to particu-
larise who most distinguished himself iu this
remarkably fast and brilliant run. Let
his laurels rest with him; but gallantry de-
mands that a tribute be paid to tho bold
riding of a lady well known with these hounds.
AVhile the lucky sportsmen, who had managed
to come up in the meantime, were taking ad-
vantage of the close vicinity of Lesmahago, to
procure refreshment for exhausted nature, the
gallant pack were endeavouring to dislodge
revnard from his temporary retreat in the
drain, which having succeeded iu doing, he
bolted, and, after holding out for ten minutes,
he was run into and killed in the streets of
Lesmahago, among some children at play ; thus
aflbrding the most satisfactory of all ends, iu a
sportsman's eyes, to a fine run. The distance
traversed during the run was not less than
between eight and nine miles, which, con-
sidering the time taken, was about the fastest
feat that can be done with hounds.

In this exciting sport it is truly beautiful to
see the spirit and eagerness manifested by the

a perspiration, which, on the a[)])earanco of a
i'ew more hounds, turns into a foam as white
as soapsuds. On an old hound — by a single
deep tone, instantaneously certified by a sharp,
shrill, resolute voice of the huntsman — an-
nouncing to creation that the one little animal,
which so many bigger ones have been so good
as to visit, is ' at home,' the young horse paws
the ground; if restrained, evinces a sliglit dis-
position to rear; until, by the time the whole
pack — encouraged by the cheery cry, ' Have at
him' — in full chorus have struck up their band
of music, he appears to have become almost
ungovernable, and is evidently outrageously
anxious to do — he knows not what ; and, ac-
cordingly, when a sudden shriek, scream, or,
as the Irish term it, ' screech,' rather than a
holloa, from the opposite side of the covert
briefly announces, as by a telegram, the
joyous little word ' away,' suiting his action to
it, ' away' the young horse often bolts with his
rider, just as likely 'away' from the houuds as
with them. If he follows them, infuriated by
ardour, which neither he nor his rider has
power to control, he looks at nothing, thinks
of nothing, until, at full speed, coming to, say,
a stifl:" fence, he disdains to rise at, a lesson is
oltered to him which, however, he is a great

young horse when he first feels, as it were by , deal too much excited to learn by heart ; and
instinct, the nature of the duty he is about to I so, before his rider has had time enough to

be engaged in. In The Horse and his Eider,
by Sir Francis Head, Bart., wo have this
subject graphically narrated. " AV'hen a young
horse," he says, "that has never seen a hound.

uncoil himself Irom his roll, the 'young 'un,'
without a thought or disposition to wait for
the old gentleman, leaves him on tho ground
to think about the hounds ; while, with dangling

is ridden up, for the first time in his life, not stirrups, reins hanging loose on his neck, and

to a meet, at which the whole pack are to be
seen, but merely to the side of a covert, which,
hidden from view, they are drawing, it might
reasonably be conceived that, under such cir-
cumstances, he could not have an idea of the
past, present, or future proceedings — we mean
where they had come from, what they were
doing, or what tliey were going to do. How-
ever, no sooner does a hound, from laziness, or
possibly from feeling that he has been suffi-

outstretehed neck and tail, he is once again
' up and at 'em.' "

The animal which excites this interest, and
calls forth all the energies of both the English
sportsman and his horse, is the common fox, the
representative of the sub-genus Vulpes, charac-
terised by a linear pupil, and along bushy tail,
and too well known to need a minute descrip-
tion. This w ily animal is common in our island,
and iu most parts of Europe, extending into

410

FOX-HUNTING.

THE DOG, AND ITS A^AEIETIES;

[fox-hunting.

Northern Asia, and is everywhere celebrated
for its cunning and rapacity. As liis linear
pupil intimates, the fox is crepuscular, or noc-
turnal in his habits, but is occasionally seen
abroad during the day. In general, however,
it is as the dusk of the evening advances that
he steals from his burrow, with noiseless steps,
to prowl about for prey. His senses of smell
and hearing are extremely acute, and he listens,
and snuffs the breeze, attentive to every sound,
appreciatiog every odour. His eyes gleam as
he creeps along in a crouching attitude, intent
upon theft. His movements are all stealthy.
He surprises the rabbit gambolling near its
burrow ; the hare in her form ; the poultry on
the perch. He slaughters all he can, reserving
the overplus for a future exigency, and for that
purpose buries it in the earth. In times of
scarcity, field-mice, frogs, weasels, and even
insects, are devoured. On the continent the
fox visits the vineyards, being as partial to the
ripe grapes as the jackal is.

He is solitary in his habits, and dwells
alone in a burrow, which he has either made
or usurped, and which is generally in some
secluded situation, not readily to be discovered,
and in the neighbourhood of a rabbit-warren,
preserves of game, or farms. The female
breeds in April, and on her, alone, devolves the
entire care of the cubs. She produces three
or four at a birth, in a deep burrow, where she
has prepai"ed a bed of dried leaves, grass, and
moss. The young are very playful, and remain
about four months with their parent, who is
watchful and resolute to the extreme in their
defence. Even when taken at an early age,
the fox is not easily tamed, never loses his
innate suspiciousness, and never becomes truly
domestic. Adults are ferocious when placed
in confinement, and soon die. Though slightly
made, the fox is very vigorous, and bites with
great severity. His powers of endurance and
speed have, in this country, recommended him
to all lovers of the chase, for whose gratification
the breed is preserved, where possible. He
has been known to run before the hounds fifty
miles at a stretch. AVheu hard pressed, he
neither loses his courage nor self-possession,
and puts in practice every expedient which
cunning -dictates to bafile the hounds, or con-
ceal him from their search ; and, if all fail he
dies, defending himself to the last, without
420

uttering a cry. His voice is a sort of yelp,
which, however, is only occasionally exerted,
and never when in quest of prey. It is said by
Bewick, and we have often heard it affirmed,
that the fox breeds with the dog. "We have
also seen sharp-nosed dogs, called fox-dogs,
and were at the same time assured that they
were a cross between the two animals ; but it
has always so happened that the assertion
could not be substantiated.

He who has no larger acquaintance with
the oft-decried fox than from having seen him
steal away from the covert side, amidst the
"whoop" of the huntsman, and the bustle of
the "break," or, panting for breath, and be-
smeared with mud, has beheld him running for
life, can have little idea of the beauty of his
person in his natural haunts. There, sleek as
a kitten, and almost as playful, he really looks
a very handsome animal ; and, on a still sum-
mer's night, when the moon shines brightlr,
it is delightful to witness his graceful form
and nimble motions. He will enter a field,
perhaps — but very cautiously — occasionally
stopping to see if anything is at hand ; and, if
not fully satisfied that all is safe, he rears him-
self upon his hind legs (like a dog in the act
of begging), and, erecting his ears, waits for a
few seconds, mute as a mouse, eager to catch
the echo of the slightest sound. Assured that
all is safe, his operations commence. Back-
wards and forwards over the field he paces ;
beats over the surface as carefully as a pointer
his shooting-ground, and occasionally captures
a mouse, or a beetle, to reward him for his
patient search. Wherever low willows, oziers,
gorse, and thick-bottomed furze abound, the
fox is almost sure to be met with. It is gene-
rally supposed, and we think upon good
grounds, that there are in this country three
kinds, which, for the sake of distinction, may be
called the Greyhound Vox, the Common Eox,
and the Little Eed Eox. Most persons who
have hunted with fox-hounds cannot have failed
to notice the great difference which exists be-
tween diftereut individuals, as regards their
form, colour, speed, and manners ; and there
are very few who would not, at a first glance,
pronounce them distinct species. Naturalists,
however, who have examined them scientifi-
cally, regard them as mere varieties ; but those
varieties are so well marked that they appear

rox-uD»TiKO.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM. [rox-uusTiso.

worth doscribini;. Tho tliroo luiuls wliieh
exist in Dorb} sliiro are : —

Tho Common Fox, nlreiuly described.

Tho Greyhound Fox, tho form of
resembles that of a greyliound dog.
is larger in size, longer on tlio leg^^, more
slender in shape, and of swifter speed than the

whieh
He

seereto themselves in tho holes and crevices. AVo
reniiMubt'r a braeo once climbing a tree nearly
twenty feet high, whic!i grew in a slanting
direction, and hiding themst'lves amongst the
branches whilst the hounds were beating the
brushwood beneath. Tho bitch dis{)lay8 cot)-
siderable allVetion for her young, and, even if

common fox, generally giving faster and more ' hard pressed by hounds, reluctantly leaves tho
endurin-'' chases. One of these animals has cover where they are situated. In 1842, tho
been known to run for four hours before the Marquis of Hastings' hounds were drawing
hounds; and he usually leaves tho cover in Staunton Springs, near Calke, Derbyshire, and
dashin'» stvle. In colour he resembles the found a fox, which, for more than an hour,
common fox, but has almost invariably some defied all effort to make her break. Several
frisly or silverv hairs in his coat. His head is covers having been drawn blank, the huntsman
lar^o and sharp-looking, rather broad across! was anxious to get her away, but failed; so,

supposing she was a bitch that had cubs, the
hounds were whipped oft'. This proved to be

length. These foxes are occasionally met with
on Charnwood Forest.

Tiie Little Eed Fox is the third, and is an
animal of much smaller size than the common
fox. His form is short, compact, and thick,
and the colour of his coat red — hence the name.
He seems to prefer the oldest covers and woods,
and is supposed by many people to be indige-
nous to Britain, or the one from which the
other kinds are descended. When leaving
cover he does cot gallop off boldly before the
lioundsjbut endeavours to steal away cautiously,
and frequently affords the best sport, and
most protracted runs. For so small an animal
his endurance is very considerable, frequently
knocking up the best-bred hounds and horses.
A Berkshire friend observes : — " I was once
with the Craven hounds, and viewed a small
red fox away from a piece of gorse, which gave
us a run of sixteen miles from point to point,
without a check, threading woods of five hun-
dred acres, when, at last, she was run into by

the cheeks ; ears broad and large ; nose thin and

pointed ; and the jet black hairs growing from

the upper lip are some of them three inches in correct; for some pedestrians, who had been

following the hounds, stumbled upon the lair
by accident, and brought the cubs to show tho
hunters. They were afterwards taken back,
and reared in the wood. Her breeding-
place was at the bottom of a thick honey-
suckle bush, through which luxuriant herbage
had crept, and afforded excellent conceal-
ment. A hole, about three feet in circum-
ference, and three inches in depth, was scooped
out of the ground ; and round the edges of
it, dead oak and beech-leaves were ranged.
The young were seven in number, shaggy and
grotesque-looking objects, four of which had
their brushes tipped witli white hair.

In the summer of 1812, a bitch fox reared a
litter of cubs in the middle of a wheat field, in
the parish of Melbourne, Derbyshire. The
crop was in full ear when they were discovered,
and, being thick and higli, aflorded them ex-
cellent shelter. The spot occupied by the
family was on the top of a piece of dry land,
and the stems of corn were trodden down and

being caught in a wire. There were only six • padded close to the earth for many yards. The
up at the death, out of sixty or seventy at the parents provided a most bountiful table ; for,

meet: aud when the second whip went into the
wood for the fox, I remarked to Mr. Villebois
* that the fcx we found was a remarkably small
one, and red ;' and, on being brought out, she
proved to be the same." This animal is found
in some parts of Nottinghamshire, Derbysliire,
Leicestershire, and Berkshire.

;cattered around them, lay no less than two
leverets, a young bantam cock, a partridge, the
wings of a pheasant, besides the remains of
fowls, and a vast profusion of feathers and
bones. The novelty of the scene tempted the
curious to visit the spot ; and the dam led her
family away, not quitting the field, however,

"When the covers in the vicinity of parks but concealing them amongst the thickest parts
have been drawn several times, foxes betake of the crop; and, although eventually reared,
themselves to hollow trees, and endeavour to ; they were rarely seen afterwards.

421

rOX-HUNTIKG.]

THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIETIES;

[the TALBOT.

"When a bitch has small cubs, aud she be-
comes aware that her nest is discovered, she
takes them up one by one in her mouth, as a
cat does her kittens, and removes them to a
more secure place. The bark of the fox is
most frequently heard in January and Feb-
ruary ; some individuals bark precisely like a
terrier giving mouth at game. The food of
this animal consists principally of beetles, rep-
tiles, small birds, and rabbits ; he will also take
partridges, pheasants, fowls, ducks, geese, and
even swans. A person who had spent much
time in the woods, once told us that, perceiving
a fox near a covert side, he stole very cautiously
up to him, and found that he was playing with
a field-mouse which he had just caught. The
same person, once hearing a very unusual noise
in the woods, went to ascertain the cause, when
he found it to proceed from two foxes, who
were quarrelling over a pheasant. One of the
animals had captured a prize, of which it was
evident the other intended to rob him.

"We could fill a large amount of space with
anecdotes of the ditferent traits of character
exhibited by the fox ; but a few must suffice.

A Berkshire gentleman had winged a phea-
sant, of which his spaniels went in pursuit:
he saw it running on the ground ; but the
pheasant had not gone far before a fine fox
caught and ran off with it in his mouth across
the open field, and, although the sportsman
rated him hard, aud the spaniels followed in
pursuit, the thief got clear ofi" with his prize.
A similar event again occurred in the same
copse, and the fox mentioned was undoubtedly
the same animal whose audacity was exhibited
on the previous occasion. It was evident that
the animal was quickly on the alert whenever
he heard the report of a gun in the covert, which
he frequented, for a long time, unmolested.

In 1849, the Hull Packet contained an
account of a singular occurrence which took
place at Owthorne, near Patrington, in Holder-
ness. "A fine male fox made his appearance
amongst a ilock of lambs belonging to a
widow of that place, and became so much
attached to one of the lambs that he could not
be driven away. The most extraordinary part
of the aflair was, that the lamb also declined to
^e parted from its strange companion, and the
pair were seen daily, seldom very far from each
Other."

422

Mr. Charles S. Oraves relates the following
anecdote : — " A curious circumstance occurred
at Ingleby many years ago. The hounds were
beating the wood opposite the house, when
ray grandmother heard a great sioem'tng
amongst her cats in the entrance-hall, and,
on ffoius: to see what was the matter, found a
fox seated in the hall ; on seeing her he ran
along the hall, and down the steps into the
cellar, and took his place behind the beer-barrel,
where he was secured. No hounds had been
anywhere near the house, nor had he been run
at all." Foxes are particularly fond of cheese ;
and fish have been found near their "earths."

Having ventured to digress thus far from
our subject, we will return to another descrip-
tion of our hounds.

Formerly two noble varieties of the hound
were common in England, which are now
seldom seen. "We allude to the old English
hound and the bloodhound.

Of the old English hound, which is described
by Whittaker, iu his History of Manchester,
as the original breed of our island, some years
since, there was to be seen a fiae specimen in
Lancashire. It was tall and robust, with a
chest of extraordinary depth and breadth, with
pendulous lips, and deeply set eyes ; the ears
were large and long, and hung very low ; tlie
nose was broad, and the nostrils large and
moist. The voice was deep, full, aud sonorous.
The general colour was black, passing into tan,
or sandy red, about the muzzle and along the
inside of the limbs. Shakespeare's description
of the hounds of Theseus, in the Midsummer
NigMs Dream, is true to the letter as referring
to this breed, with which he was, no doubt,
well acquainted : —

" My hounds are bred out of the Spartan kind,
So flew'd, so sanded ; and their heads are hung
With ears that sweep away the morning dew ;
Crook-knee'd and dew-lapped like Thessalian bulls ;
Slow in pursuit, but match'd in mouth like bells,
Each under each."

THE TALBOT.

Besides the old English, or Southern hound,
was the old English stag-hound, or Talbot,
a powerful dog, but of lighter form, and more
fleet than the former. From this breed has
descended the still lighter and swifter fox-
hound of the present day. The Talbot was

BLOODHOUND.] VOV. MOUXTAIX, FT-RLD, AND FAlOr. [bloodhound.

formerly known as St. Hubert's breod, and
was, perliaps tlio oldest of our slow hounds.

THE HLOODllOUND.
Atnon^ the hounds of the " olden time"
was the Bloodhound, so celebrated for its ex-
quisite scent, and unwearied jiorseveranco ;
qualities which were taken advantui^e of, by j
training it, not only to tho chase of cranio, but
to tho pursuit of man. A true bloodhound
(and tlie pure blood is rare) stands about
ei£»ht-and-twenty inches in height, and is mus-
cular, compact, and strong. The forehead is
broad, and the face narrow towards tiie imizzlo ;
the nostrils are wide, and well developed ; the
ears are large, pendulous, and broad at the
base ; the aspect is serene and sagacious ; the
tail is long, with an upward curve when in
pursuit, at which time the hound opens with a
voice deep and sonorous, that may be heard
down the wind for a very long distance.

The colour of the true breed is stated to be
almost invariably a reddish tan, darkening
gradually towards the upper parts, till it be-
comes mixed with the black on the back ; the
lower parts, limbs, and tail being of a lighter
shade, and the muzzle tawny. Pennant adds,
" a black spot over each eye ;" but some blood-
hounds, which were said to have been of
the original blood, had not these marks. Some
— but such instances were not common — had
a little white about them, such as a star in the
face, &c. The better opinion is, that the origi-
nal stock was a mixture of the deep-mouthed
Southern hound, and the powerful old English
stag-hound.

Our ancestors soon discovered the infallibility
of the bloodhound in tracing any animal, living
or dead, to its resting-place. To train it, the
young dog, accompanied by a staunch old
hound, was led to the spot whence a deer, or
other animal, had been taken on for a mile or
two. The hounds were then laid on and en-
couraged, and, after hunting this " drag" suc-
cessfully, were rewarded with a portion of the
venison which composed it. The next step
was to take the young dog, with his seasoned
tutor, to a spot whence a man, whose shoes had
been rubbed with the blood of a deer, bad
started on a circuit of two or three miles.
During his progress, the man was instructed
to renew the blood from time to time, to keep

tho Hcont well alive. His circuit was gradually
enlarged at each succeeding lesson ; and the
young hound, thus entered and trained, became,
at last, fully eiiuul to hunt by itself, either Jbr
tho jjurpose of woodcraft, war, or " following
gear," as tho pursuit after the property plun-
dered in a border foray was termed. .

Laid on the track of a marauder, it kept up
a steady, jjersevering chase, and was not baflled
without dilliculty. Sir Walter Scott, in his
graphic description of the " stark moss-
trooper," Sir AVilliara of Deloraine, "good at
need," gives, as a proof of his merit, that he
" By wily turns and desperate bounds
Had baflled Percy's best bloodhounds."

And the same accomplished knight, his stern
nature touched by sorrow at the sight of Sir
E-ichard Musgrave slain, thus eulogises his
dead enemy : —

" Yet rest thee God ! for well I know
I ne'er shall find a nobler foe.
In all the northern countries here,
Whose word is snaffle, spur, and spear,
Thou wert the best to follow gear.
'Twas pleasure, as we look'd behind,
To see how thou the chase couldst wind,
Cheer the dark bloodhound on his way,
And with the bugle rouse the fray,
I'd give the lands of Deloraine,
Dark Musgrave were alive again."

Sir Walter Scott states that the breed of
bloodhounds was kept up by the Buccicuch
family on their border estates till within the
eighteenth century. In former ages, these
dogs, or, as the Scotch called them, " Sleuth-
hounds," were kept in great numbers on the
borders ; and fugitive kings, as well as moss-
troopers, were obliged to study how to evade
them. Eobert Bruce was repeatedly tracked
by them, and, on one occasion, only escaped by
wading for a considerable distance up a broolc,
and climbing a tree which overhung the water.
" Rycht to the burn thai passyt ware.

But the sleuth-hound made slanting there,

And wavcryt lang time ta and fra,

That he na certain gait couth ga ;

Till at the last John of Lorn,

Perscuvit the Hund the sleuth had borne."
T/ie Bruce, Book VIII.
"A sure way of stopping the dog," says Sir
Walter Scott, in a note to the Lay of the
Last Minstrel, " was to spill blood upon the
track, which destroyed the discriminating fine-
ness of the scent. A captive was sometimes

423

BLOODHOUND.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES;

[beagle.

Racrificed on such occasions. Henry the
Minstrel tells a romantic story of AVallace,
founded on this circumstance. The hero's
little band had been joined by an Irishman,
named Eawdou, or Eadzean, a dark, savage,
and suspicious character. After a sharp skir-
mish at Black- Erne Side, Wallace was forced
to retreat, with only sixteen followers. The
English pursued with a border bloodhound.
In the retreat, Fawdon, tired, or affecting to
be so, would go no farther. Wallace, having
in vain argued with him, in hasty anger
struck off his head, and continued the retreat.
When the English came up, their hound stayed
upon the dead body."

Mr. Boyle, in his Treatise on Air, informs
us, that a person of quality, in order to ascertain
whether a young bloodhound had been well
trained, caused one of his servants to walk to
a town four miles off, and then to a market-
town three miles from thence. The dog, with-
out seeing the man he was to pursue, followed
him by the scent to the above-mentioned places,
notwithstanding the multitude of market peo-
ple that went along the same road, and of
travellers that had occasion to cross it; and
when he came to the chief market-town, he
passed through the streets without taking any
notice of the people there. He ceased not
till he had gone to the house where the man
he sought rested himself, and where he found
him, iu an upper room, to the wonder of those
who had accompanied him in his pursuit.

In 1803, the " Thrapstone Association" — a
society formed in Northamptonshire for the
suppression of felony — procured and trained a
bloodhound, for the detection of sheep-stealers.
In order to prove the utility of the dog, a man
was dispatched from a spot where a great con-
course of people were assembled, about ten
o'clock, A.M., and an hour afterwards the
hound was laid on the scent. After a chase
of an hour and a-half, the hound found the
man secreted in a tree, many miles from the
place of starting.

The Cuban bloodhound, as it is termed, is a
dog of Spanish descent, sagacious and savage,
and which was employed by the Spaniards with
atrocious barbarity in their conquest of Ame-
rica; and, more recently (1795), in Jamaica,
agaiust the Maroons, who luid revolted, and
were waging a bloody and successful war
424

against the government forces, but which the
very terror these dogs inspired, at once hap-
pily brought to a close.

The dogs used in Cuba in the pursuit of
murderers and felons, have a fine scent and great
power. Their colour is tan, with black about
the muzzle; the ears are comparatively small;
the muzzle is shorter and more pointed than
in the ordinary hound, and they are shorter on
the limbs. In some prints they resemble the
mastiff or ban-dog, especially in the form of
the head, which approaches that of the bull-
dog : indeed, by many, and with reason, they
are regarded more as a variety of the mastiff
than the hound ; and, for ourselves, we hesitate
not to regard them as such. They make ex-
cellent watch- dogs, and attack both the bull
and the bear with determined resolution.
Their height at the shoulder ia about two feet.

BEAGLE, HARRIER, AND FOX-HOUND.

Several varieties of hounds now exist in our
island ; and of these, the Beagle, the Harrier,
and the Eox-hound are fiimiliar to all our
readers. No country equals England in the
swiftness, spirit, and endurance of its hounds ;
and in no country is so much attention paid
to the difierent breeds, especially the harrier
and fox-hound. The beagle was formerly a
trreat favourite, but is now little used. It is
of small stature, but of exquisite scent, and its
tones, when heard in full cry, are musical. It
has not, however, the strength or fleetness of
the harrier, and still less of the fox-hound,
and hence it does not engage the attention of
the sportsmen of the modern school, who, un-
like Sir Eoger de Coverley, are impetuous in
the field, preferring a hard run to a tame and
quiet pursuit. The beagle was only employed
in hunting the hare, as is the harrier; but the
fox-liound is trained both for the deer and the
fox. The strength and powers of scent of the
fox-hound are very great, and many astonishing
instances of the energy and endurance of these
animals are on record.

The cost of keeping a pack of harriers, or
beagles, varies according to modes and means ;
also according to the nature of the country in
which they are maintained. In Irehmd, for
example, all things being equal, a pack would
be kept at a cheaper rate than a similar pack
might be expected to be in England. This,

H\KKIK£S.]

POR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAKiL

[nAuuiEns.

however, is not always the caao ; and a groat | course, nuicli of tlioso would depend on tho
disparity appears in tho dillerent sums ex-
pended by ditlerent individuals in tlio keeping
of thfir harriers or beagles. For example, wo
have heard of tiio owner of twelve couples of
good working harriers, keeping them at a com-
paratively inconsiderable outlay His plan was ,
this :— lie laboured to encourage a hunting spi-
rit in his ueiglibourliood, and to get his hounds
kept at tho dillerent villages or farm-houses.
lie employed a good pedestrian huntsman at 2s.
a. dav, for two days in the week, to collect and
hunt ihe hounds, and divided the hares killed
between themselves and tlie different farmers
whose grounds he hunted over; and then, at
the close of the season, gave to themselves and
the watchers and gamekeepers a good jollifica-
tion, in the shape of a hunt-supper ; and, occa-
sionally, after a good run, quenched the thirst
of the parishioners by a gallon or two of ale.
This plan he found to cement their good feel-
ing towards the hunt, and to have a great ten-
deucv to preserve the hares, wliilst the hounds
were always kept strong in scent, wind, and
limb ; and, as he kept a horse and strong pony,
he made those useful, both for hunting, hack-
ing, and harness, and could, even then, pop in
an occasional day, by having an extra gallop
with an adjoining pack of fox-hounds ; and if
he found that he was putting too hard upon
horse-flesh, he could then spare them, and go
after his harriers an occasional day on foot.
If a man can do without the parade of hunts-
men, whips, and all the concomitant ei ceteras,
he would not only find it a very great saving
of expense, but add materially to his sport,
the annual expenditure of which would not
cost him more than £50. In carrying out
tliis plan of economy, hounds should not exceed
eighteen inches ; and they should be encou-
raged in a morning scent, and to do their own.
work without being interfered witli. By this
means hounds are encouraged to self-perseve-
rance, and to stick close to each other. A
small kennel, to rear puppies, should be got,
till they are fit to be billeted abroad ; and tliey
should be bred from faultless hounds, with
good-toned voices

The econon^y of this mode of keeping a pack
of harriers is certainly very great, and, we
have no doubt, both much sport and much
eatisfaction could be derived from it; but, of

3i

stale of the purse, and tho pliysical constitutioa
and mental organism of liim wliu would follow
it. In Ireland, a [)ack of harriers may bo kept
at much less expense than in England, even
though there is in that country an additional
degree of parade exhibited in accompanying tho
pack. A gentleman sportsman, in replying to a
query on this subject, thus describes his modo
of maintaining his [)ack : —

"Tiio query is, the probable expense of
keeping from twelve to fourteen couple of har-
riers, to hunt two or three days a week.
In endeavouring to answer this question, I
must assume that tiie querist is living in Ire-
land, as I know nothing of the prices of the
vai'ious necessaries in either England or Scot-
land. To come at facts, however, fourteen
couple of hunting-hounds will consume very
nearly half a ton of oatmeal in a month, which,
at the average of prices in this country (15*.
per cwt.), would amount to £90 per annum
for meal ; then comes carrion, from 2*. GJ. to
5s. a carcass, for a year's consumption, of
which it would be impossible for rae to state
any fixed sum, the supply being so precarious ;
but, for my own part, I always take as many
as I can get, feeling, as I do, how much it
lightens the meal bill, and adds to the con-
dition of the pack. Straw is the next item,
and from £10 to £15 might safely be put
down as not too much for this. Now for ser-
vants' wages. I pay my whipper 7*. a week,
with board, lodging, and clothes, for which
consideration he grooms one of his own horses
entirely, and keeps an eye to the other ; feeds
and exercises the hounds, and is responsible ia
the same way as a kennel huntsman for the
general management of the hounds: indoors,
under him, there is a boiler (as we call him),
at 5*. per week, who, as his name implies,
bolls the mess, cleans the kennel, &c., etc. ; he,
again, has the assistance of another boy every
morning, to wash out the kennels — which, if
well done, is rather a troublesome business.
I do not consider a kennel could be kept
decently with less help ; and, of course, if tho
proprietor does not act as huntsman himself,
he must expect his wages bill to be higher;
and I doubt not some English readers will
smile at what we consider very fair wages, and
lor which we get our work right well done. I

•125

HAEEIEBS.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[hareiers.

have now, I believe, only omraitted one item,
and one in which the less is spent the better
— viz., drugs. Sulphur is always requisite,
and the supply should never be allowed to run
short ; and in the summer season, the ingre-
dients requisite for dressing the pack must, of
course, be procured — along with any other re-
quisites, which the sum of £10 ought amply to
provide. Puel— as the price and convenience
of obtaining this differ so materially, that in
some places it forms an expensive item, while
in others it is always ready to hand — I must
leave your inquirer to judge for himself what
addition it would form to his expenditure,
merely informing him that there is no getting
on without it. In my own case, using, as I
do, logs of wood which I have not to buy, I
consider from £8 to £10 covers the cutting
and carriage. Now for the summary of the
expense: meal, £90; carrion, £5 (I state a
low sum for this, as I consider if a full supply
of it is obtained the meal bill will be propor-
tionately reduced^ ; straw, £15 ; physic or
drugs, £10; fuel, £10; wages of whip and
boiler, £31 4*. ; a man for one quarter of a
day throughout the year, £4 lis. dd., at the
rate of Is. per diem. To this should be added
the board, lodging, and clothing of the whip,
with the lodging of the boiler.

" By this it will be seen that the keep of four-
teen couple of harriers stands me in the sum
of £165 155. 3f/. in the year. I may, perhaps,
be a little high in putting down half a cwt.
per month of meal ; but, if I am, it will be
found that there are many little sundries that
will fully balance my tax. In conclusion, I
must add that, save in the meal bill, little
difference would be felt between the keep of
fourteen couple and twenty couple; whereas I
firmly believe no fourteen couple of hounds (I
speak of this country) could hunt three days
a week through a season. I now come to a
very important part of the question, viz., the
expense of getting up a pack of hounds — a
subject upon which I can speak from experi-
ence, as I smarted pretty considerably during
my apprenticeship. I will merely state the
filets as they appear in the kennel-ledger, as
follows:— £3, £30, £18, £5, £11, £60 105.,
in all a sum of £127 10s., for which considera-
tion I got 34J- couple of hounds ; to which sum
I should make a very large addition for car-
426

riage, as I got them from all parts of England ;
11|- couple I was made a present of; making,
in all, 46 couple. Since what I call the pur-
chasing era has passed, I have reared 32 couple
of puppies ; and now I can take into the field
as fair and evenly-matched a pack as ever
frightened the life out of the boldest reynard
that ever skirred a country."

So much for Ireland ; and with one more
example of, and a few comments on harrier-
keeping in England, we will close this part of
our subject. A practical sporting gentleman,
writing on the same theme, gives, from his own
personal experience, the expense necessary to
carry on a hunting establishment of from
twelve to fourteen couples, to go out two or
three times a week, and also the expense of
building kennels, &e. "Having kept a pack
of hounds, consisting of twelve or fourteen
couples," he says, "and having built kennels
for them, I know pretty well the £ s. d. items
connected with such an establishment. In the
first place, hounds cannot work more than
three times a week. Hounds require bunting
twice a week to keep them steady and in good
condition ; but more than this it is unreason-
able to expect from them. To hunt twice a
week will entail the expense of four horses —
two for the huntsman, and two for his whip.
These, with good management and ordinary
luck, will see him through a season ; but, in
case of accident, I should recommend him to
commence the season with five horses, which
will render him completely master of his work.
Nothing, in my opinion, is so great a drawback
to sport as to be under-horsed ; and it must
ever be borne in mind that hunting harriers is
far more trying to horses than hunting fox-
hounds ; and no man can make the best of his
day's sport who does not ride close with his
pack in all their turnings. The expense of
horse-keeping will amount to something like
£45 a horse per annum. This item will, con-
sequently, be £225. The keeping of thirteen
couple of harriers will cost, in oatmeal and
flesh, something like £100 per annum ; a boy,
to boil flesh and attend to the pack, at 7s. per
week, £18 per annum ; taxes for horses and
hounds, something like £27; and sundrieSj
which are at all times heavy when horses and
hounds are kept, £25 — thus making the yearly
expense something like £395. Your kennel,

HAnRTEBS.]

FOR MOUNTAIX, FIELD, AND FARM.

[11AERIBB8.

witlj a sniiiU boilinR-houso attacliod, may be
built, with nocvsjiary coiiveiiitMict', for about
£70. And lioro I woulil nialco 11 roinark. Lot
the keinicl ami vanl bo plaeoil on \vi;li-clnilneil
p«ound, and the lloor laid ou at least twelve
iuches of chalk, or stono of sonio sort, as
uothini» brings about kennel lameness so
much as damp lloors ; and, if once amoiic: your
bounds, the trouble is incalculable, as it hangs
about like a plai,Mie. In conclusion, I strongly
recommend the purchasing of a pack that have
been accustomed to work together, oven if the
Grst outlav seem large. I recommend this, as
I am fullv convinced that no plan is so unsatis-
factory, and, in the long run, so expensive, as
getting draughts from different lots. It en-
tails on you the faults of every pack you pro-
cure them from ; and you will bo years before
vou have anything like a useful lot."

These estimates, especially the last, are, in
the opinions of some, too high, for it is said
dogs do not require palaces. Perfectly dry
and well-aired barns, byres, or outhouses, and
plenty of sweet straw, are all the requisites for
amateur packs. Twenty couple of small bea-
gles, to a man who has the ordinary number
of servants about him, will cost but a trifle,
if he can aflbrd at all to have the luxury
of a small sporting establishment. Extrava-
gance, display, and want of care and know-
ledge to be economical, and overdoing things,
are the great causes of things remaining un-
done, and why we have not half the sport
which, with economy, we might have. Like
the frog in the table, we swell ourselves out
till we burst; hence most of our failures, and
the constant annual abandonment of mansions
and manors, horses and hounds, dogs, guns,
and field sports, and, often, of our country and
home. ^No one would find fault with well-
spent liberality ; but it is the tomfooleries and
need-nots that are at the root of the mischief,
and not liberality and just expenses. Besides,
how true it is that extreme selfishness and
extreme prodigality often meet in the same
person. Where money ought to be judiciously
and liberally expended, how irequeuUy is it
withheld. Underpaid keepers ; no food allowed
for pheasants in the winter ; no proper quantity
of traps ; no watchers in the egg and breeding
season, and at other important times; no proper
allowances or food for dogs, or of powder, siiot.

Sic. ; shepherds and farm-lnbourer« looked upon
as rascals — ungenerous and »uspicioua eHpio-
nago exercised over them ; no litllo douceurs
of money, tea, or clothing to thoin and their
wives and families; in fact, we miglit enume-
rate a whole catalogue of petty omissions which
are made by men who pretend to havo money
and to sport, and of wliich they oiiglit to bo
ashamed. Whore is the tenant-farmer's remu-
neration and compliments of the season?
Too often in the river Lethe. You may havo
palaces for stables and kennols, expensive shoot-
ing-boxes, a useless staff of idle and ineflicient
servants, and great general personal expendi-
ture, and the sport — the hobby — which should
be the first consideration, becomes the last.

But back to the beagles, which we will assume
you have, and tiiat you have already dry hous-
ing convenience for them, and an active and in-
telligent man (partially employed on other
things, because the beagles will not fill up his
time), who can ride or run well, and has a good
notion of hunting — you need not go to any
expense on those heads, except a gratuity at
Christmas of £5 in addition to his wages ;
and your dog-keep will cost you fourpence a
week each. Then there will be straw, travel-
ling expenses if you leave home, gratuities, dog-
tax, &c., in addition ; but we feel satisfied
that we could, if close at home, keep and hunt
a pack of small beagles for a mere trifle. By
the way, larch and red-deal sawdust, well dried,
and used as beds for dogs, is an efluctual remedy
against fleas and ticks.

Perhaps one of the most extraordinary
instances of cheap dog-keeping is furnished in
the case of a Mr. Osbaldeston ; and although
it was not harriers he kept, but fox-hounds, it
may be that some humble, but enthusiastic
lover of sport may take a hint from it, and
become a keeper of dogs, even in the centre of
the great metropolis. " With half-a-dozen of
children," says the Sporting Anecdotes, "as
many couples of hounds, and two hunters, this
]\[r. Osbaldeston, clerk to an attorney, kept
himself, family, and these dogs and horses, upon
a salary of £00 per annum. Tiiis, also, was
efl'ected in London, without running into debt,
and with always a good coat on his back. To
explain this seeming impossibility, it should
be observed that, after the expiration of the
ofiice hours, ]\Ir. Osbaldeston acted as an

427

HAEEIEES.]

THE DOG-, A]S"D ITS VAEIETIES;

[haeriees.

accountant for the butchers at Clare Market,
who paid him in ofFal, the choicest morsels of
which he selected for himself and family, and
with the rest he fed his hounds, which were
kept in the garret. His horses were lodged
iu the cellar, and fed on grains from a neigh-
bouring brewhouse, and on damaged corn,
with which he was supplied by a corn-chandler,
whose books he kept iu order once or twice a
week. In the season he hunted, and, by giviug
a hare, now and then, to the farmers over
whose grounds he sported, he secured their
good -will and permission; and several gentle-
men, struck with the extraordinary economical
mode of his hunting arrangements, which were
generally known, likewise winked at his going
over their manors. This Nimrodian was the
younger son of a gentleman of good family,
but small fortune, in the north of England,
and having, imprudently, married one of his
father's servants, was turned out of doors, with
no other fortune than a southern hound, big
with pup, whose offspring, from that time,
became a source of amusement to himself."

The animal mostly hunted by harriers is
the common hare, which is found throughout
Europe, and, indeed, in most of the northern
parts of the world. Being destitute of weapons
of defence, it is endowed by Providence in a
high degree with the sentiment of fear. Its
timidity is known to every one : it is attentive
to every alarm, and is, therefore, furnished
with ears very long and tubular, which catch
the remotest sounds. The eyes are so pro-
minent as to enable the animal to see both
before and behind.

The hare feeds in the evenings, and sleeps
ia its form during the day ; and, as it gene-
rally lies on the ground, its feet are protected,
both above and below, with a thick covering of
fur. In a moonliglit evening many of the spe-
cies may frequently be seen sporting together,
leaping about and pursuing each other; but
the least noise alarms them, and they then
scamper ofi", each in a different direction. Their
pace is a kind of gallop, or quick succession of
leaps ; and they are extremely swift, particu-
larly in ascending high grounds, to which,
when pursued, they generally have recourse :
here their large and strong hind legs are of
singular use to them. In northern regions,
where, on the descent of the winter's snows,
428

they would (were their summer fur to remain)
be rendered particularly conspicuous to animals
of prey, they change their yellow-grey dress in
the autumn, for one perfectly white ; and are
thus enabled, in a great measure, to elude
their enemies.

In more temperate regions, they choose, in
winter, a form exposed to the south, to obtain
all the possible warmth of that season ; and in
summer, when they are desirous of shunning
the hot rays of the sun, they change this for
one with a northernly aspect: but in both
cases they have the instinct of generally fixing
upon a place where the immediately sur-
rounding objects are nearly the colour of their
own bodies.

In one hare that a gentleman watched, as
soon as the dogs were heard, though at the
distance of nearly a mile, she rose from her
form, swam across a rivulet, then lay down
among the bushes on the other side, and by
this means evaded the scent of the hounds.
When a hare has been chased for a considerable
length of time, she will sometimes push another
from its seat, and lie down there herself.
AVhen hard pressed, she will mingle with a
flock of sheep, run up an old wall, and conceal
herself among the grass on the top of it, or
cross a river several times at small distances.
She never runs in a line directly forward ; but
constantly doubles about, which frequently
throws the dogs out of the scent : and she
generally goes against the wind. It is ex-
tremely remarkable that hares, however fre-
quently pursued by the dogs, seldom leave the
place where they were brought forth, or that
in which they usually sit ; and it is a very
common thing to find them, after a long and
severe chase, in the same place the day fol-
lowing.

The females have less strength and agility
than the males : they are, consequently, more
timid ; and never suffer the dogs to approach
them so near, before they rise, as the males.
They are likewise said to practise more arts,
and to double more frequently.

This animal is gentle, and susceptible even
of education. He does not often, however,
though he exhibits some degree of attachment
to his master, become altogether domestic:
for, even when taken very young, brought up
in the house, and accustomed to kindness and

HABE-HUNTiNO.] FOK MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAlOr. [uabe-iiuntiko.

attention, no sooner has ho arrived at a certain
aijo, than \\o generally seizes tlie first opportu-
nity of ri'ooverini^ his liberty, and Hying to the
fields.

AVhile Dr. Town.^on was at Goltiiigen, lie

the Druids, and by the Britons of the early
centuries. It is now, tliough very black, dry,
and devoid of fat, much esteiMned bv the
Europeans, on account of its peculiar flavour.
iMr. Greill", in his work on Sweden, makes

hail a young hare brought to him, which ho , some pertinent remarks relative to the chase,
took so ujuch pains with as to render it more and the natural history of the hare in ihat

familiar than tliese animals commonly are. In
the evenings, it soon became so frolicsome, as

country : —

" The hare hunt, with the harriers so called,

to run and jump about his sofa and bed : soii-.e- ' or the common hounds," he says, " is one of
times in its play it would leap upon him, and tiie pleasantest sports; but, if you do not wish
pat him with its lore feet; or, while he was to be deprived of this sport in course of time,

reading, even knock the book out of his hand
But whenever a stranger entered the room,
the little creature always exhibited considerable
alarm.

Mr. Borlase saw a hare that was so familiar
as to feed from the hand, lie under a chair in
a common sitting-room, and appear in every
other respect as easy and comfortable in its

you ought not to prosecute it at all seasons ot
the year. It is true that the female brings
forth young three times, from March to June
inclusive, and has seven to eight young each
time ; but the mother's indifference for her
young, and the many kind of persecutions
they are subject to, are the cause lliat few
grow up, Tlie female never places the younf»

situation as a lap-dog. It now and then went ones in one place, but one here, another tliere,
out into the garden ; but, after regaling itself, and perhaps visits them only two or three
always returned to the house as its proper i times, and perhaps never. I have, however,

habitation. Its usual companions were a grey
hound and a spaniel ; both so fond of hare-
huutiug, that they often went out togethei",
without any person accompanying them. With
these two dogs this tame hare spent its even-
ings : they always slept on the same hearth,
and, very frequently, it would rest itself upon
them.

Hares are very much infested with fleas.
Linnaeus tells us, that cloth made of their fur
will attract these insects, and preserve the
wearer himself from their troublesome attacks.
It is much hunted in almost every country.

" Poor is the triumph o'er the timid hare !
Yet vain her best jjrecaution : though she sits
Conceal'd with folded ears ; unsleeping eyes.
By nature rais'd to take th' horizon in ;
And head conceal'd betwixt her hairy feet,
In act to spring away. The scented dew
Betrays her early labyrinth ; and deep
In scatter'd, sullen openings, far behind,
With ev'ry breeze, she hears the coming storm:
But nearer, and more frequent, as it loads
The sighing gale, she springs amaz'd, and all
The savage soul of game is up at once."

In India the hare is hunted for sport; not
only with dogs, but with hawks, and some
species of the cat tribe. The flesh was re-
garded by Moses as unclean ; and, though in
esteem among the 3iomans, was forbidden by

found three under the same bush ; but, as it
was during a hunt, it is possible that the par-
turition was hastened by the chase. Besides
man, who shoots and catches, the hare's ene-
mies are the wolf, fox, dog, cat, eagle, eagle-
owl, hare-owl, and hawks of difl'erent sorts.
In wet and rainy weather, midges and insects
fasten themselves about the eyes of the younf
hare, and inflame them so, tliat worms are
bred, and entirely consume them. In the bare
winter, or, in other words, if the ground be
not covered with snow, his white skin betrays
him. From March to August the hunting of
the hare should be continued with moderation ;
it is likewise necessary, for the breaking-iu of
the hounds, to let them hunt by the scent. A
prudent and old sportsman never shoots the
female at that period ; and if a fevr males are
shot, it does no harm. The female is generallv
larger, carries herself high when she runs, and
makes small bounds; the male is little, runs
low, and makes wide bounds.

" It is asserted that old male hares kill the
young ones; but, I believe, the case is the
same with this as with other animals -that
when any of them get a good station, the
strongest drive the weakest from it. lu the
spring, it is easiest for the dogs to get them
up ; and, as the males ramble both night and

429

HAEE-HUNTiNG.] THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; [haee-htinting.

day, one can often find four or five with one
female. The old hares are called ramblers, in
the spring, when they stroll about to greut
distances to seek for the females. If the dogs
run after one to a great distance, and the place
of finding is left quiet, it is certain that the
others will return to the same place. About
Midsummer is the most difficult time to get
them up, when the juniper-bush is in bloom,
and all flowers throw out such a strong scent :
the hare, also, does not require to go far for
food. I have often seen, by the dew in the
fields, and in the wood, that he has not moved
ten steps round about ; when he has hit upon
buckbean (wattwappling), or any other pala-
table food. In autumn and winter, the hare sits
close ; but in October and November the dogs
can easily enough get him up. It helps, as
they say, to get the hare on foot, by shouts,
shots, and rattles. One may very well use
five or six, or even a greater number of dogs.

" "When they can be tracked on the snow,
only one dog should be used, as several de-
stroy, for each other, the track of the hare
when she springs off"; they are also an im-
pediment to the sportsman while he is rint^ino-,
by frightening the hare from her seat. In
autumn, the hare frequents the open country,
and grounds covered with small juniper
bushes ; and when the snow falls, it sits some-
times in the snow-drifts, and in the furrows of
corn-fields. When it is hard weather, it will
sit two or three nights without going from its
seat. During a thaw, it sits often on stones,
and in open places ; but in severe cold, in
thickets and bushes. If the country for
tracking will permit, that is to say, if it
be sufficiently open, it is more convenient,
to ride about and search for its track along
the fence of corn-fields, as it goes in and
out; for, to follow all the windings and
turnings which it makes in the course of the
night, is both fatiguing and consumes time.
As long as you find the track of the hare to
be so that the back feet immediately follow
each other, it is a proof that it has no in-
clination to rest; but wlien it begins to go
backwards and forwards in the same track,
and makes one or two leaps, and sets all
its four feet together almost in one point,
it is certain that you liave it very near, and
the time has arrived not to follow the track
430

more, but to ring it immediately. If it has
gone farther than the first ring, you must
make a new one. Whilst performing this ope-
ration, the sportsman should not halt, as then
the hare rises easily from its seat. When it
is ascertained that it has sprung up, the doo-
is immediately to be let loose. The hare is
caught with snares in fences, or, with the
usual gins, in woods and hedges. Eoasted, it
— especially a young hare — makes a good dish
at table."

In speaking of the hare, in another part of
his work, Mr. GreifF says — " At a hunt, when
a female hare was shot, seven young ones, all
alive, were cast to tlie dogs ; a bitch which
had lately pupped, took one of the young ones,
laid it in a bush, and licked and dried it ;
and we sportsmen had a difficulty to get it from
her, as she constantly licked and caressed it,
as if she wanted to give it suck. It was
carried liorae, and fed with milk. Eight days
afterwards it was killed, by an unlucky acci-
dent, to the great mortification of all the hunt-
ing party."

In the chronological history of Great Bri-
tain, hare-hunting takes precedence of fox-
hunting. " Hare- hunting," says a writer in
the Encyclo. Brit., " claims precedence of fox-
hunting in the sporting chronology of Great
Britain, and, we believe, of all other countries,
inasmuch as a hare has always been esteemed
excellent eating ; and a fox the rankest of car-
rion. We gather from Xenophon that it was
practised before his day, and he wrote fully
upon it above three centuries before Christ ;
both hounds and nets being then used in the
pursuit. Neither can we marvel at hare-hunt-
ing being the favourite diversion in all nations
given to sporting, where the use of the horse
in the field had not become common. But
we will go a point fiirther than this, and assert,
that how inferior soever may be the estima-
tion in which hunting the hare is held in
comparison with hunting the fox, no animal of
the chase affords so much hunting as she
does." In this we concur; and Mr. Beckford
agrees with us, for he says, that "the hare,
when properly hunted in a good country, will
show more hunting, to those fond of seeing
hounds hunt, than any other animal." In an
Essay on Hunting, by the County Squire, he
says — " The chase after the fox or stag is

HABH-uiTNTrwo.] FOB MOlTlfTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM, [haue-humtimo.

violent, and little more than ritliuj?, or ruiuiin<» ;
but tho haro displays tho very art of Imntiri-^
- -she atlorda a ploaHuro worthy of a philosopher

a curiosity that may justly raise the ailiuira-

tion of tl»e wisest statesman, physician, or
divine. I, therefore, hope for pardon from my
more sprii^-htly hrethren, if I give my vote for
the innoeent liare above all other game."

The haro is a very prolific animal, and, wero
it otherwise, the race would soon become ex-
tinct, from the numerous enemies by which it
is sought and assailed. The average duration
of the hare's life is about seven years. It is
pursued by dogs and foxes with mortal and
unrelenting autipatliy. Weasels, wild cats,
and wolves, seize and devour it whenever it is
within their reach; and eagles, hawks, and
other birds of prey are also destructive enemies;
but the most formidable of all is man. If
taken young, it may be tamed and domesti-
cated. It has occasionally been suckled and
nursed by a cat.

Mr. Beckford, an excellent sportsman,
makes many valuable remarks upon the
harrier and the hare, and thinks that it is a
fault in the former to run too fast. Scope
should be given for all the little tricks of the
hare, nor should she be killed foully. She
will make a good defence when fiercely hunted ;
and, as far as her own safety is concerned,
the hare has more cunning tiian tho fox, and
makes use of shifts to save her life far beyond
all the artifices of the other. The County
Squire, another good authority upon this sub-
ject, says, in reference to hare-hunting : — " I
would advise a young huntsman, when the
scent is well, always to keep himself far be-
hind. At such a time, especially, if it be
against the wind, it is impossible for the hare
to hold forward, nor has she any mode of
escaping, but to stop short, and, when all are
past, to steal immediately back. This is often
the occasion of an irrecoverable fault in the
midst of the warmest sport ; and is tlie best
trick the hare has for her life in scenting
weather. If the huntsman, therefore, is not
too forward, he will have the advantage of
seeing her manceuvre, and of assisting his
hounds at this critical moment. Upon sight
of the hare, avoid, above all things, the vile
practice of hallooing hounds off a scent to lay
them on after a view. It not ocly spoils the

dogs, by accustoming them at every fault to
listen fur and expect the halloo, but it iu foul
sporting ; equally unfair, and to be condemned,
to HullVr the pricks of tho hare's footing to be
souglit for when she runs the foil ; for, alLhuugli
it is admitted that, by such pricking and dis-
covering her steps, no haro can escape, yet ib
is an unfnanly mode of assisting hounds, which
no huntsman, wlio is a sporlBman, will bo
guilty of hinjself, or condescend to make use of
when done by others. The huntsman should
never be noisy when a hare is first started ;
let him ' not only chock his own forwardness,
but that, likewise, of tho inexperienced sports-
man. Hounds are apt enough, in the first heat
of their mettle, to overshoot their game, and
hours of sad sport have happened from driving
them too fast. Too many people think a chief
part of hunting consists in hallooing loud and
riding hard ; but they are mistaken, and must
not be offended should the huntsman swear
at such practices. No tongue can be allowed
but his, nor, at this particular time, ought any
one to be more forward. The chief considera-
tions for the huntsman, when the hounds are at
fault, are, how long the hare has been on foot,
and how far the hounds make it good ; if she
has not been long, and hard pressed, he must
expeditiously try a wide circle, and so persist
in contracting his circles, until he returns to
the place where the dogs threw up. Should
the hare have been driven hard, or be nearly
dead run, the huntsman need only try a small
compass, and that slowdy and cautiously, for she
will only leap oflf a few rods and squat, until one
or other of the dogs jumps upon her. A hunts-
man should be careful of talking too loud to
hounds, and in a key which, instead of cheer-
ing, confounds them."

In reference to the huntsman, tho same
authority says — " Give me a fellow of ever-
lasting patience and good temper, who does not
consider hunting merely as his business, but
who naturally loves it ; one with a clear mode-
rate voice, that speaks to an old hound when at
fault, frequently and with quickness, and
entices him in a tone that enforces courage,
and induces him to stoop perpetually to re-
cover the scent. It is by no means the hunts-
man's business, by pricking the hare, to hit her
ofi"; in the first place, it is unfair ; and, secondly,
while he is poring with his eyes upon the

4.3.1

HABE-HUNTiNG.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [english pointee.

ground, not one in twenty of the hounds will
have his nose to it. If there is a long default,
the huntsman should attend to the tender-
nosed dog, which, perhaps, he disregarded in
the morning as a babbler, and whom he pro-
nounced worthy of a halter for opening at
nothing ; his superior excellence of scenting
may now show itself to have merited a different
judgment, and may encourage some stancher
hound to stoop, which he would not other-
wise do."

Mr. Beckford, in a great measure, coincides
with these remarks, and jocularly observes —
" Were it customary to attend to the breed of
huntsmen, as well as to that of hounds, the
family of the silent gentleman, mentioned by
the Spectator, would furnish an excellent cross ;
and that a female of his lineage, married to a
knowing huntsman, would probably produce a
perfect hare hunter."

It is said, that a hare generally describes a
circle in her flight, either larger or smaller, in
accordance with her strength; and that the
female does not make so large a detour as the
male hare. Either sex, however, when, having
been hunted, and yet escaped, whether by
having made large or small circles, will follow
nearly the same track again when pursued ;
much, however, will depend on her general
habits, and whether the country be open or
enclosed. In inclosures, and where there is
much cover, the dodges of the hare form a
complete puzzle to the hounds. Besides run-
ning the foil, she frequently makes doubles,
which is going forward to tread the same steps
back again, purposely to confuse her pursuers ;
and the same style in which the first double is
made, she generally continues to follow, whether
long or short.

We will not prolong this part of our sub-
ject, but conclude it by giving Mr. Beckford's
opinion on the harrier pack individually and
collectively. "The number of hounds," he
says, " should not exceed twenty couple in the
field, from the difficulty ol getting a greater
number to run well together ; and a pack of
harriers (as well as fox-hounds) are incom-
plete if they do not. A hound that runs too
fast for the rest ought not to be kept. Some
huntsmen load them with heavy collars, or tie
a long strap round their necks ; a better way
would be to part with them ; whether they "o
432

too slow or too fast, they ought equally to be
drafted. The hounds most likely to show
sport, are between the large ' slow-hunting
harrier and the little fox- beagle; the former
are dull, heavy, and too slow ; the latter are
lively, light, and too fleet ; the first sort have
the best noses, and will kill their game at last,
if the day be long enough ; the other, on the
contrary, dash and are all alive, but every cold
blast affects them ; and in a deep and wet
country, it is not impossible that some of them
may be drowned." He further observes^ — -
" that with great trouble, and by breeding, for
many years, a vast number of hounds, he has
succeeded in his endeavour of getting a cross
of both kinds, with great bone and strength,
into as small a compass as possible ; that they
were handsome, ran well together, had all the
spirit that could be wished, and would hunt
the coldest scent. In conclusion, harriers to
be good, must be kept to their proper game."

THE ENGLISH POINTER.

This dog is produced by a cross between the
fox-hound and the Spanish pointer, a large,
big-boned hound, high in his legs, with a deep
jowl, and very heavy ears. This dog is now
seldom seen ; like the Talbot, the source, as we
presume, of the light, active, but vigorous fox-
hound, the old Spanish pointer has merged
into the intelligent, vigorous dog, so much
prized by the sportsman for its excellent quali-
fications. In some breeds of pointers there
is, we believe, a cross of the fox-houud, which
improves their strength and energy.

The intelligence of the pointer, and the
occupation in which he is so much engaged,
has rendered him capable of judging between
the qualities of a good and a bad shot. Capt.
Brown relates the following anecdote on this
subject : — " A gentleman having requested the
loan of a pointer dog from a friend, was in-
formed by him that the dog would behave very
well so long as he could kill his bii'ds ; but if
he fi'equently missed them, the dog would run
home and leave him. The pointer was ac-
cordingly sent, and the following day was
fixed for trial ; but, unfortunately, his new
master happened to be a remarkably bad shot.
Bird after bird rose and was fired at, but still
pursued its flight untouched, till, at last, the
dog became careless, and often missed his

iNOLisn POINTER.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM, [enolish pointer.

game. Aa if seoiuingly willinj:;, however, to
give one chauco more, ho inatle ii dead stop at
ft teru bush, with his nose pointed downward,
his fore foot bent, and the tail strait^ht and
steady. In this position he remained lirm till
the sportsujan was close to him, with both
barrels cocked ; then, moving steadily forward
for a few paces, ho at last stood still near a
bunch of heather, the tail expressing tlie
anxiety ho felt, by moving regularly backwards
and forwards. At last, out sprung a fine old
blackcock. Bang, bang, went both barrels —
but the bird escaped unhurt. The patience of
the dog was now quite exhausted, and, instead
of dropping to the charge, he turned boldly
round, placed his tail between his legs, gave
one howl, long and loud, and set off as fust as
be could to his own home."

These dogs have been known to go out
hunting by themselves, and if they found, to
return for their master, and, by gestures, in-
duce him to take bis gun, and follow them to
the spot. This peculiarity, however, is not
confined to them.

As Eeynard kills his own mutton, as the
phrase is, and supplies his own larder with
rabbits, seldom destroying game, or visiting
distant hen-roosts when there is an abundant
number of bunnies close at hand, and followins:
his own impulses without let or hindrance ; it
may possibly be excused if a pack of hounds,
carrying out the idiosyncrasy principle, should
get up a run to themselves, without either the
voice of the huntsman to cheer them onwards,
or the thoug of the whips to keep tliem well
together. A case of this description took
place with the Essex Union hounds. Tired of
the inaction of the kennel at Danbury, and
anxious for the exercise of their good qualities
as a famous pack, they managed to burst from
their bounds, and commenced a chase upon their
own account. They collected in a compact
body, and, under the guidance of the leader of
the pack, they drew the cover in the immediate
neighbourhood of tbe common ; and, having
speedily found a fox, they went off in full cry,
and proved that they were adepts at their
work. An alarm was given ; and it was not
till the huntsman and wliips had had a chase
of three-quarters of an hour, that the truant
pack were drawn off the scent, and brought
safely back to the captivity of the kennel.
3 K

All those animals are very superior in the
scent : but, according to tho lines of Tickell,
they must yield in this particular to the
Talbot, or bloodhound.

" O'er all till' blooilhound boa.sts superior skill
To scent, to view, to turn, and boldly kill ;
His fullows' vain alarms n-jecta with scorn.
True to the master's voice, and learned horn.
Ilis nostrils oft, if ancient fame sing true,
Trace the sly felon through the tainted dew;
Once snuffd, he follows with unalter'd aim,
Nor odours lure him from the chosen game ;
Deep-mouth'd he thunders, and influmed he views,
Springs on relentless, and to death pursues."

Before tho beginning of the present century
pointers were known in Great Britain, and are
now abundantly spread over these islands.
They have also been transported to our colo-
nial possessions, where it is to be hoped tho
breed may be perpetuated, although wo fear
that the want of hunting opportunity will
cause them to degenerate. AV"e have records
of some of the species having exhibited traits
of excellence of tho very highest order. " The
celebrated pointer dog Dash," says Mr. Blaine,
"so admirably portrayed by Gilpin, was the
produce of a Spanish pointer and a fox-hound;
and the blending of the high scenting powers
of the Spanish pointer, and the dash, speed,
and courage of the fox-hound, produced one of
tho best pointers that ever crossed a field, or
ranged a moor, either as regarded speed, en-
durance, and such scenting powers as carried
him, at once, up to the birds, with little quar-
tering of the ground. He was equally good at
backing, which he did in a style that gained
him great admiration. It is recorded that he
was sold by his master. Colonel Thornton, to
Sir Richard Symons, for IGO pounds' worth of
Champagne and Burgundy, a hogshead of
claret, a valuable gun, and a pointer. The bar-
gain was also made with a stipulation, that if
any accident happened to him, he was to be
returned to Colonel Thornton for fifty guineas.
It appears that Dash did break his leg, which
unfitted him for any purpose but that of
breeding from, and likewise that the sporting
colonel gladly received \xm\ back again for the
stipulated sum."

It is impossible for any one to estimate the
qualities of dogs who has not witnessed their
development, correctly, or even sufliciently.
Dr. Shaw tells us that the French academi-

433

ENGLISH POiNTEE.] THE DOG, A]S"D ITS VAEIETIES; [english pointee.

cians speak of a dog of Germany, which, in
a manner, is perfectly intelligible, and would
call for tea, coffee, chocolate, &c. The person
who evidenced the qualities of this dog, and
who communicated an account of them to
the Eoyal Academy of France, was no less
than the distinguished Leibnitz — one not
likely to form a hasty opinion, or coolly report
an untruth. The dog, however, had been
educated to his mode of speech. A little boy,
the s'on of a peasant, imagined that he per-
ceived in the voice of the dog the rudimental
resemblance to certain words, and, therefore,
took it into his head to teach him to speak.
With this object in view he set to work, and
spared neither time, labour, nor patience upon
his canine scholar, who was about three years
old when his education in the German lan-
guage commenced ; and he soon made such
progress, that he could articulate, with some
degree of distinctness, no fewer than thirty
words. It appears, however, that he was
somewhat of a truant, and was negligent in
the exertion of his extraordinary talents — a
circumstance very common, even in men of
conscious ability. He was averse to his being
pressed into the service of literature ; so that
it was necessary that the word should be first
pronounced to him each time, which he, as it
•were, echoed from his preceptor. Leibnitz,
however, attests that he himself heard him
speak ; and the French academicians add, that
unless they had received the testimony of so
great a man as Leibnitz, they should scarcely
have dared to report the circumstance. This
extraordinary dog was a native of Zeitz, in
Misnia, in Saxony. Had this dog been a
native of Japan instead of Germany, to what
a degree of consideration would he not have
risen ! The islands of that empire form the
earthly paradise of dogs. There they have
every encouragement to live happily, and enjoy
a perfect immunity from many of the punish-
ments to which they are doomed by the less
Jiumane, yet more civilised Europeans. The
reason for this exemption arose out of a sin-
gular superstition. A.n emperor, who reigned
at the close of the last century, chanced to be
born under the sign of the Dog, one of the
twelve celestial signs of Japan ; and on this
account the emperor decreed that all dogs
should be deemed sacred. They, accordingly,
434

have no masters, but lie and prowl about the
streets as they list, to the extreme annoyance
of many of the passers-by, and especially to
those who are not possessed of very strong,
affectionate, canine tendencies. If a pack of
these dogs take it into their sagacious heads
to attack a person, he must, on no account,
beat or kill them, but suffer himself to be
bitten, or, perhaps, like Actaeon, devoured.
To kill one of them is death by the law, no
matter what may have been the ferocity of the
brute. In every town there are guardians of
these dogs, and they alone are empowered to
punish their charges. Every street must
maintain a certain number of these animals,
or, at least, provide them with victuals. Huts,
or dog hospitals, are erected in different parts
of the towns ; and to these, in cases of sickness,
the patients must be carefully conveyed by
the inhabitants. The dogs that die must be
carried up to the tops of the hills and the
mountains, the usual places of burial for the
human species, and there be respectfully in-
terred. Had the speaking dog of Germany
chanced to have been born in such a comuiu-
nity, it is impossible to say what honours
might have been conferred upon him. An
emperor raised his horse to the dignity of the
Eoman magistracy; the Emperor of Japan
might, at least, have made the dog a professor
of languages.

The dog is not the only animal that can be
trained to point. "We have heard of other
species matchless even in this particular. jMr.
Daniel, in his Bural Sports, records the case
of a female pig, the property of jNIr. Toomer,
gamekeeper to Sir Henry Mildmay, that was
as perfect a pointer as ever took the field. Mr.
Blaine substantiates the account of Mr. Daniel,
by the evidence of an eye-witness of the facts
recorded. "It was certainly," he says, "a
mere matter of accident that occasioned the
development of the peculiar scenting powers
of this extraordinary animal. The aptitude of
swine, generally, in finding certain palatable
roots under ground was well known to Toomer ;
nor was it unlikely, by what followed, that he
might have entertained an opinion, that almost
any keen-scenting animal could be taught both
to wind game, and to stand on the point to-
wards it; and that he was, therefore, led to
allow a female pig to accompany his young

EN'OLisu pointee] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM.

[POINTSKS.

pointers, in thoir break iiiLj lessons, to the Held.
Bo that as it may, it turned out, to the sur-
prise and stratification of the intelligent keeper,
that within a fortnight from her first entrt^e,
she would hunt and point partridges or rab-
bits; and her training being much forwarded
bv the abundance of both, which were near
the keeper's lodge, she daily improved, and, in
a few weeks, would retrieve birds that had run
as well as the best pointer ; nay, her nose was
superior to any pointer they ever possessed,
and no two men in England had better. They
bunted her principally on the moors and heaths.
Slut has stood partridges, black-game, phea-
sants, snipes, and rabbits in the same way, but
was never known to point a hare. She was
seldom taken by choice more than a mile or
two from the lodge, but as frequently joined
them when out with their pointers, and con-
tinued with them several hours. She has
sometimes stood a jack-snipe, when all the
pointers have passed by it. She would back
the dogs wlien they pointed, but the dogs re-
fused to back her until spoken to — Toomer's
dogs being all trained to make a general halt
when the word was given, whetlier any dog
pointed or not ; so that she has been frequently
standing in the midst of a field of pointers.
In consequence of the dogs being not much
inclined to hunt when she was with them — for
they dropped their sterns and showed symp-
toms of jealousy — she did not very often ac-
company them, except for the novelty; or
when she accidentally joined them in the
forest. Her pace was mostly a trot ; she was
seldom known to gallop, except when called to
go out shooting ; she would then come home
off the forest at full stretch — for she was never
shut up, except to prevent her being out of
the sound of the call or whistle when a party
of gentlemen had appointed to see her out the
next day, and which call she obeyed as readily
as a dog — and be as much elated as a dog upon
being shown the gun. She always expressed
great pleasure when game, either dead or alive,
was placed before her. She has frequently
stood a single partridge at forty yards' distance
— her nose in a direct line to the bird. After
standing some considerable time, she would
drop like a setter, still keeping her nose in
an exact line, and would continue in that posi-
tion until the game moved ; if it took winf^,

she would come up to the place, and put l»cr
nose down two or threo times; but if a bird
ran off, she would get up and go to the place,
and draw slowly after it ; and whoa the bird
stopped she would stand it as before : nor was
her love of hunting ennlined to partridges
only ; but she has stood black-game, pheasants,
snipes, ami rabbits, and has been seen to do it
to all these varieties in one day."

This, in some respects, may beat the powers
even of the educated dog ; but it is a rare, and,
it must be acknowledged, an extraordinary in-
stance of development in the porcine race.

THE SPANISH POINTER.

This dog is apparently one of very ancient
extraction ; but Mr. Richardson thinks he is
not of Spanish origin — at least not remotely
so ; for the primitive breed is traceable to the
East. The old Spanish pointer is, when per-
fectly thorough-bred, remarkable from having
a cleft nose, similar to the Russian variety. The
animal is altogether too heavy for the ardour
of British sportsmen ; and, with the old Talbot,
or Manchester hound, has gradually passed
out of notice. He has been displaced from
the estimation in which he was held, by a
lighter, more active, and energetic dog, more
suitable to the tastes of the British sportsman ;
viz., the English pointer.

THE RUSSIAN POINTER.
This dog is covered with coarse, wiry hair,
like the Russian terrier. He is somewhat less
in stature than the ordinary pointer, and is
lower in the shoulder. His nose cleft — hence
he is frequently called the " double-nosed
pointer." He is very staunch, and is held in
deservedly high estimation. Jlis temper,
however, is said to be unbending, and he,
therefore, requires the most careful training.
AVhen thoroughly broken in, and rendered
perfectly subservient to the will of his master,
ho is esteemed a valuable dog, and brings a
high price.

THE PORTUGUESE POINTER.

This animal is not so heavy as the Spanish
pointer ; and is not to be depended on, from
his irritable disposition. He is very unsteady,
and is favoured with a spreading tail. "We
introduce him here simply on account of hia

435

POINTERS.

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[SPAKIELS.

bad qualities, that no person may have any-
thing to do with him.

THE FREiN'CH POINTER
"Wants the staunchness of our Englisli dog.
He is less objectionable than the variety just
described, but still not the thing. .

This dog has more to commend him than
the Italian" but he has not the steadiness of
the English breed. We do not kuow why this
should be ; but it strikes us that these canine
creatures of the Portuguese and Erench peo-
ple participate in some degree of the idiosyn-
crasies of the natures to which they themselves
belong.

THE ITALIAN POINTER.
This is a perfect miniature variety of a very
highly-bred English pointer, seldom exceeding
one foot in height. Mr. Eichardson says, he
saw one, about twelve years ago, in possession
of Stewart Monteith, Esq., of Closeburn,
Dumfriesshire ; and another, about the same
time, in possession of Mr. Mather, an artist,
resident in Edinburgh. These little dogs had
exquisite noses, and would set game as
staunchly as any other pointer, but were, of
course, too small for field use

THE DALMATIAN, OR CARRIAGE DOG.

This animal greatly resembles the pointer ;
but is not remarkable for either its sagacity or
power of scent, Notwithstanding these de-
fects, he has been broken to the gun, and
proved himself quite capable of holding his
ground witb other pointers. As he is not
regularly trained to the field, whatever draw-
backs he may have in hunting, may have
sprung from that circumstance.

The sagacity of dogs of every variety of
breed is universally acknowledged, and there
are, every day, instances of its exemplification
being witnessed throughout the civilised world.
One of the most extraordinary displays of the
possession of this quality transpired not long

ago. Messrs. , tobacconists, closed their

shop one evening, leaving their favourite New-
foundland inside. On opening the store on
the following morning, tho floor in the back
room was found to be on fire, and the dog was
labouring with his fore feet and mouth, tryiu"
to subdue it. A pail of water, which stood in
436

the room, had been poured down the hole.
The faithful animal had so successfully com-
bated the fire as to prevent its spreading be-
yond a spot two or three feet square. How
long the noble fellow had stood sentinel and
fought down the advancing flames can only be
conjectured ; it must have been several hours.
His feet, legs, and mouth were badly burned,
and he was seriously injured internally by in-
haling the hot air. He refused his food, and
was apparently in much pain. He is worth his
weight in gold, and may safely be pronounced
the noblest of his race.

SPANIELS.
The Spaniel is a very ancient dog, the breed
of which has, in various countries, received
the utmost attention. In the Levant there
seems to be several breeds ; and even history
has given the spaniel celebrity for its fidelity,
and the aflectionate disposition of which it is
possessed. The chief order of Denmark, now
called the Order of the Elephant, was insti-
tuted to commemorate the faithfulness of a
spaniel, which adhered to the sovereign when
his subjects deserted him. The motto to this
order still exists, and it is simple, brief, and
expressive — " "Wildbrat was faithful." Mr.
Daniel, in his Sural S/Jorts, speaks of the
amiability of a spaniel that belonged to the
gamekeeper of the Rev. Mr. Corsellis. " The
gamekeeper of Mr. Corsellis," he says, " had
reared a spaniel, which was bis constant
attendant, both by day and night ; wherever
old Daniel, the keeper, appeared, Dasb was
close beside him ; and the dog was of infinite
use in his nocturnal excursions. The game,
at that season, he never regarded, although,
in the day-time, no spaniel would find it
in better style, or in greater quantity ;
but at night, if a strange loot had en-
tered any of the coverts, Dash, by a signifi-
cant whine, informed his /master that the
enemy was abroad ; and many poachers have
been detected and caught from this singular
intelligence. After many years' friendly con-
nection, old Daniel was seized with a disease
which terminated in consumption and his
death. "Whilst the slow, but fatal progress of
his disorder allowed him to crawl about. Dash,
as usual, followed his footsteps ; and when
nature was still further exhausted, and he

8PANIBLS ]

FOR MOUNTAlxX, FIELD, AND FAKM.

[the SETTEa.

took to his bed, at tlie loot of it uiiwcuiily
atteuilecl the laiiliful animal; and when ho
died, the dog would not quit the body, but
lay upon the bed by its side. It was with
diflifu'ty he was tempted to cat any food ;
and although, after the burial, he was taken
to the hall, aud caressed with all the temler-
ness which so fond an attachment naturally
called forth, he took every opportunity to
steal back to the room in the cottajxe where
his old master breathed his last. Here ho
would remain for hours ; from thence ho daily
visited his grave ; and, at the end of fourteen
davs, notwithstanding every kindness and
attention shown him, he died literally broken-
hearted." To this anecdote we may append
the Danish motto, only altering the name, and
sav, "Dash was faithful."

" As the shepherd's dog," says ^Mr. Elchard-
son, " is the taithful friend of those in the
humbler walks of life, so are the spaniels to
'chiefs and ladies bright' — to the gentler
sex, par excellence, and to those high in
' honour and in place.' Examples of the good
qualities of these dogs are everywhere noto-
rious. As the shepherd's dog represents the
utile, so may these represent the dulce. The
former, the rough aud honest comrade of the
rough and honest peasant — the latter, the
associate of luxurious courtiers and of power-
ful princes ; but still, though moving amidst
tinsel and falsehood, n'^ver losing the primi-
tive honesty and purity of intention which
characterise his disposition."

The following we take from a communica-
tion made to a respectable paper; — "I had a
spaniel dog that was particularly attached to
me. She seemed quite conscious when I was
about to leave home for a lengthened absence,
and would whine and look exceedingly miser-
able on such occasions ; though she would
suffer me to depart without any exhibition of
especial regret when I was only going to the
neighbouring towns for a day or two. I was
informed, on credible authority, that when I
was in London, or any other distant place,
and wrote home, this dog would select my
letter from a number of others, and, if
she could possibly obtain it, would run
away with it in her mouth to some secure
hiding-place, and cry over it ; and, perhaps,
if she had found words, would have exclaimed,

like Hero, wlieu perusing an ej)istle from
Leander : —

** ' With wlint delight I rend your letter o'er;

Your iircsence only could have pivin me more.' **

How far credulity may be given to thi«
instance of s.'igacity, we must leave it to the
reader's own judgment to decide.

THE SETTER, OR LAND SP.VNIEL.

This spaniel was first broken ia to set
partridges and other feathered game, as an
assistant to the net, by Dudley, Duke of
Northumberland, in 1335 ; and Mr. Daniel, in
his jRural Sports, gives a copy of a document,
dated 1(JS5, in which a yeoman binds himself,
for ten shillings, to teach a spaniel to set
partridges and pheasants. That the setter
and the old original land spaniel are identical,
there can be no doubt.

" There are several varieties of setter. Tho
ordinary old English setter, with rather a
square head and heavy chops, looking as if he
had a dash of Spanish pointer in him : colour
usually liver-and-white. The Irish setter,
narrower in the head, finer in the muzzle ;
usually of a yellowish-red colour, perhaps the
fastest of all setters. This is a dog in very
high esteem ; no trace of the pointer is seen
in him. These are the genuine, unmixed de-
scendants of the original land spaniel ; and so
highly valued are they, that a hundred guineas
is by no means an unusual price for a single
dog. There was a celebrated breed of these
dogs — now, I believe, extinct — kept by that
ancient and noble Irish family, the O'Connors
of Offaly : those belonging to the late Maurice
O'Connor were highly renowned, and the
breed is described by his grandson as yet
remaining."

Of the sagacity of every variety of spaniel,
we have almost innumerable instances, which,
to those who are unacquainted with the mental
manifestations of dogs, sometimes appear so
extraordinary, that it makes credulity pause
before it can admit them into the repository
of its facts. On one occasion, some gentle-
men were shooting in the woods belonging to
Mrs. Stackpoole and Miss "W'asey, of Prior's
Court, when one of the party (Mr. J. "W'eru-
ham Pocock, of Chievely) discovered that he
had lost his watch and chain. He recollected
having them safely in his pocket about an

437

THE SETTEE.]

THE DOG-, AXD ITS ^AEIETIES;

[the setter.

hour before, but bad since been through a
considerable portion of high cover. Fortu-
nately, however, Mr. Pocock had a retriever
dog with him, which he sent into the wood to
find the missing valuables ; hardly, however,
supposing that he would really do so ; but,
upon following the animal some distance into
the high wood, the dog was found to have
taken his station at the stem of a small tree,
into which he was anxiously looking up, and
endeavouring to jump. Mr. Pocock's gratifi-
cation and surprise may be imagined, when he
saw his watch and chain suspended in the
tree by the bough which had drawn them from
his pocket.

The nature of the setter was generally well
understood two centuries and a-half ago.
Gervase Markham, in his work On the Art of
Fowling, says — " I know that in divers places
in this kingdom the setting dogs are to be
taught (so that men of ability may have them
at their pleasure) ; yet, likewise, I know they
are sold at such great rates and prices, that no
industrious man whatsoever (which either loves
the sport, or would be partaker of the benefit)
but will be glad to learn how to make a dog
himself, and so both save his purse and make
his pleasure and profit both more sure and
more delicate ; for this I must assure all men
that buy their dogs from mercenary teachers,
that evermore those salesmen do reserve in
their own bosoms some one secret or another,
for the want of knowledge whereof the pur-
chaser quickly finds his dog imperfect, and so
is forced upon every disorder or alteration of
keeping to send the dog back to his first master
anew to be reformed, which, drawing on you a
new price, makes the dog's certain price with-
out end, and without valuation. This fault to
redress, and to make every man the true master
of his own work, I will show you here, in a
brief and compendious manner, all the mys-
teries and secrets which lie hid in this laborious
business. The first thing, therefore, you must
learn in this art, is to make a true selection of
your dog which you intend to apply to this
purpose of setting ; and, in this selection, you
shall observe, that although any dog which is
perfect, and of good scent, and naturally ad-
dicted to the hunting of feathers — as whether
it be the land spaniel, water spaniel, or else
the mongrels between either or both of these
433

kinds, or the mongrels of either of these
kinds, either with the shallow-flewed hound,
the tumbler, the lurcher, or indeed the small
bastard mastiff — may be brought to this per-
fection in setting (as I have seen by daily
experience, both in this and in other nations) ;
yet is there none so excellent, indeed, as the
true-bred land spaniel, being of a nimble and
good size, ratlier small than gross, and of
courageous and fiery metal, evermore loving
and desiring toil, when toil seems most irk-
some and weary, which, although you cannot
know in a whelp so young, as it is intended he
must be when you first begin to train him to
this purpose, yet you may have a strong spe-
culation therein if you choose him from a right
litter or breed, wherein, by succession, you
have known that the whole generation have
been endowed with all these qualities, as,
namely, that he is a strong, lusty, and nimble
ranger, both of active foot, wanton tail, and
busy nostril ; that his toil is without weariness,
his search without changeableness, and yet that
no delight nor desire transport him beyond
fear or obedience ; for it is the perfectest cha-
racter of the most perfect spaniel ever to be
fearful and loving to him that is his master
and keeper. I confess I have seen excellent
rare setting dogs made in the Low Countries,
which have been of a bastard tumbler's kind ;
and, indeed, I have found in them (if I may so
term it) a greater wisdom (which, indeed, is
but a greater fear) than in our land spaniels ;
but, comparing the whole work together, that
is, the labour of ranging, the scent in finding,
and the act of setting, they have been much
inferior to our dogs, and not able to make
their ways in the sharp thickets and trouble-
some covers, nor stand up with them in the
large and spacious campaigns. To speak then,
in a word, touching the best choice of this
setting dog, let him be as near as you can the
best bred spaniel that you can procure; and
though some have been curious in observing
their colours, as giving pre-eminence to the
motley, the liver-head, or the white or black
spotted; yet, questionless, it is but a vain
curiosity, for no colour is amiss for this pur-
pose, provided the natural qualities be perfect,
and answerable for the work to which end you
intend them."

IS'otwithstanding all the precautions taken

tHESETTEn.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, A\D FARM. [tue setter.

in trainings the setter, tliore are some of tlioni,
when taken into the fii-ld, alVeoteil witli what is
called "gun-shy." A gentleman, whilst shoot-
ing with ft iriend, on the Cluno Moors, in
I^Ioravshire, observed that one very handsome
setter was invariably left behind ; and, upon
askin'' the reason, was informed that ho was
" f^un-shv," and " ran home ;" but that " icifhouf
lilt' gun, no dog could boat him on the hills."
lie was too good-looking to be tlirown away,
though bis owner had but slight hope, after
running home, that any good could bo done.
However, he tried, and the plan adopted was the
following : — He coupled him to a retriever (:i
stronger dog than the setter), and took them
on the hill; at first, the "gun-shy" setter
wanted to bolt, but the retriever was too fond
of the sport to allow it, when a sort of " pull
devil, pull tailor" performance commenced,
always ending in favour of the retriever.
This went on for three successive days, each
day the gun-shyness wearing off; and, on the
fourth morning, no symptoms of it were
risible. This dog was shot over for several
months, and came at last to be pronounced
by far the best dog in his kennel, which is
by no means the worst in the North. Let a
dog see what you are firing at, and not blaze
over him in a kennel or yard.

Another sportsman, who had much experi-
ence of gun-shy in setters, found the only suc-
cessful means of curing them was, by taking
them out with some hunting terrier or dog,
where game was abundant (whether winged
game, or quadrupeds, was immaterial), and
allowing them to run riot as they pleased for
several days ; then, while at a distance, and
the dogs alone, to fire an occasional shot,
never allowing them to see a whip, or even
speak angrily to them, until their ardour be-
came excessive. Then, for a dog, he would
shoot a hare or rabbit, and give him the en-
trails ; and should this have proved unsuccess-
ful in removing his terror, he would break him
off the way, by tying up one of his fore legs
with a pair of couples, close under his neck,
and then take up amongst the guns, and check
him with a check-line (a long line annexed to
a collar put round his neck, by which he may
be held to a set), at which time the gun would
be continually used, and no harsh severity
whatever.

A spurtsmaii, writing to The Field, Havs —
" I have now a setter bitch— the best, I may
any, 1 ever saw out — which was, at one time,
under the inlluenco of this fever (gun-shy).
I had almost despaired of removing liiis alarm,
when it occurred to me, as I wished to propa-
gate the stock of an old dog setter, I would
try what 'warding' would do. The effect
was wonderful. On the 1st of .September, I
think it was, my keeper took her out after her
lovo affair, and shot two-and-a-half brace of
birds over her ; she never bolted, nor has she
evinced any feeling or symptom of fear at a
gun, or the report of one ; and is now, and lias
been since that time, one of the best dogs I
ever shot to. I should recommend this plan
of putting the dog to a bitch. If this does not
succeed, he cannot do better than follow a
work on dogs, written by Colonel Hutchinson,
which work, I observe, other correspondents
have recommended. Patience and kindness
must cure the evil ; squibbing off, occasionally,
(leaving the dog) may accustom him to the
report of a gun — increasing the load by de-
grees, and patting the dog, and giving him a
piece of biscuit, cake, &c., after each discharge.
Taking him out, also, with an old dog may do
wonders, as a dog will more readily learn oi
his own species than from any other means.
I have known the above remedy of ' warding'
succeed in many instances."

Setters have been known to be affected with
gun-shy up to eighteen months old, and after
that turned out very well. These have not
been actually gun-shy, but would not work off.
If the dog runs away when the gun is fired off,
some think they never get over it.

Mr. Richardson says — " The setter is by
some sportsmen preferred to the pointer ; and
where water is to be got at occasionally, during
a day's shooting, there can be no doubt of h.is
superiority. He cannot, however, work with-
out a drink as long as the pointer can, although,
if he can obtain a sufiicient supply, he can
work still longer than that dog. In disposi-
tion, the setter is more affectionate, and more
attached to his master individually, than the
pointer is. He requires more training than
the latter dog ; but that training must be of a
very mild and gentle description, lest the dog
be hJinJced, or spirit-broken. The setter will
always work best in cold and wet weather.

439

THE SETTEE.]

THE DOG-, AND ITS VARIETIES;

[the settee.

The pointer cannot, from his short hair, which
makes liim very susceptible of cold ; but will
stand out a day's shooting much better than
the setter in very warm weather. However,
the setter is decidedly the best dog for general
use."

The black setter is a rare specimen, and is
both staunch to his work, and beautiful. The
Scotch setter stands high on his legs, but is
difficult to break, from the quarrelsomeness of
bis disposition. He is usually of a black and
tan colour.

Of the affectionate disposition of the setter,
we have numerous illustrative anecdotes. Mr.
Sherras Bell, F.E.S., F.L.S., in his History of
British Quadrupeds, thus discourses upon the
qualities of one of this kind of dog : — " By far
the most interesting and, if I may so employ
the term, amicable animal I have ever known,
was a bitch of this kind, formerly belonging to
my father, which he had from a puppy, and
which, although never regularly broke, was
the best dog in the field he ever possessed.
The very expression of poor Juno's counte-
nance was full of sensibility and affection.
She appeared to be always on the watch to
evince her love and gratitude to those who
were kind to her ; and the instinct of attach-
ment was, in her, so powerful, that it showed
itself in her conduct to other animals, as well
as to her human friends. A kitten, which
had lately been taken from its mother, was
sent to us, and, on Juno's approach, showed
the usual horror of the cat towards dogs. But
Juno seemed determined to conquer- the an-
tipathy ; and, by the most winning and perse-
vering kindness and forbearance — advancing
or receding, as she found the waywardness of
her new friend's temper required — she com-
pletely attached the kitten to her ; and, as she
had lately lost her puppies, and still had some
milk left, I have often seen them lying together
before the fire, the kitten sucking her kind
fostermother, who was licking and caressing
her as her offspring. She would also play
with great gentleness with some rabbits of
mine, and would entice them to familiarity by
the kindness of her manner ; and so fond was
she of caressing the young of the dog species,
that when a spaniel bitch of my father had
puppies, of which all, excepting one, were
destroyed, Juno would take every opportunitv
*440

to steal the remaining one from its mother's
nest, and carry it to her home, where she
would lick and fondle it with the greatest ten-
derness. Poor Pussy, the mother, also a good-
tempered creature, as soon as she had dis-
covered the theft, hastened, of course, to briuo-
back her little one, which was again to be
stolen on the first favourable opportunity ;
until, at length, the two bitches killed the
poor puppy between them, as they were en-
deavouring each to pull it from the other ; all
this with the most perfect mutual good under-
standing. Juno lived to a good old age, an
unspoiled pet, after her master had shot to her
fourteen seasons."

A curious question arising out of the game
laws — Can a farmer be unlawfully on his own
farm ? — was argued some time ago in the
Higli Court of Justiciary in Edinburgh. It
was an advocation and suspension of a judg-
ment of the sheriff-substitute of Dumfries,
whereby Mr. Smith, tenant of the farm of
Broadleydyke, Lochmaben, was sentenced to
a month's imprisonment with hard labour, for
being guilty of night poaching on his own
farm, under 9 G-eo. IV. c. 69. By this statute
it is enacted, that if any person shall, by night,
unlawfully take or destroy any game or rabbits
in any land, whether open or enclosed, or
shall, by night, unlawfully enter or be on any
land, open or enclosed, with a gun, net, engine,
or other instrument, for the purpose of taking
or destroying game, such oftender may be ap-
prehended, &c. Oa the 12th of December,
the com plainer was served with a criminal
libel, cliarging him with having been on his
farm by night for the purpose of taking or
destroying game, and guilty therefore of the
above statutory oftence. The case was tried
before Sheriff' Trotter, on the 20th of Decem-
ber ; and his lordship having found him guilty
of being upon the lands for the purpose of
taking or destroying game, pronounced the
sentence of which the present was a suspen-
sion. The grounds on which the conviction
was sought to be quashed were — First, that
the complaint was irrelevant, and ought to
have been dismissed ; because, while the
statute drew a distinction between destroying
game or rabbits, and being unlawfully on the
lands by night for the purpose, the major of
the libel embraced them both as one offence —

WATEU SPANIEL.] FOR MOUNTATX, FTTlLr*. AND FARM, [wateb spaniel.

a circumstance which was fatal to tho iiuiict-
ineut in the ease of Mr. Cornet (1S25) ; fur- ,
ther, the species facti did not amount to either
of tlie crimes specified in the statute. In tlie
second place, tlie act did not apply at all to the
coinplainer's case, because it was his own farm,
and he could never be unlawfully there under
anv circumstances. In the third place, it was
maintained tliat the terms of the conviction
were bad, and inapplicable to the statute, inas-
much as the qualiiications, "with any gun,
net, or other instrument," were omitted. The
judges were unanimous in holding that, from the
terms of the conviction, it must be set aside;
but thev were divided in opinion as to whether
« farmer could be unlawfully on his own farm
in the sense of the act. Lords Deas and
Cowan were of opinion that he could not.
Lords Handyside and Ardmillan that he could.
The Lord Justice Clerk gave his casting vote
in favour of the latter view, and the sentence
was suspended with expenses.

Tims it would seem doubtful whether a man
has a right to be on his ov:n farm with a gun
in his hand.

THE WATER SPANIEL.

This is a sturdy dog, with crisped hair, and

of variable stature, according to the sporting

duties he has to be engaged in. Those of this

species that have to be employed on the banks

of rivers, moors, or lakes, should be small, but

strong and spirited. Old Gervase Markham

says — " The water-dog is a creature of such

general use, and so frequently in use here in

England, that it is needless to make any large

description of him ; the rather, since not any

amongst us is so simple that be cannot say

where he sees him. This is a water-dog, or a

dog bred for the water ; yet, because in this (as

in other creatures) there are other characters

and forms which pretend more excellency, and

figure a greater height of virtue than others

do, I will here describe, as near as I can, the

best proportions of a perfect water-dog. First,

for the colour of the best water-dog, albeit

some (which are curious in all things) will

ascribe more excellence to one colour than to

another, as the black to be the best and hardiest,

the liver-hued swiftest in swimming, and the

pied or spotted dog, quickest at scent ; yet, in

truth, it is not so, for all colours are alike, and

3 L

so dti:;s of any of the former colours may be
excellent good dogs, and may be excellent good
curs, according to their llrst hardening and
training; for instruction is the licjuor where-
with they are seasoned, and if they be well
handled at llrst they will never smell of that
discretion ; and if they be ill handled they will
ever stink of that folly ; for nature is a true
mistress, and bestows her gifts freely, and it is
only nature which abuseth them." lie next
proceeds to the clipping or shearing of this
animal. "Now, for the cutting or shearing
him," ho continues, "from the navel down-
ward or backward ; it is two ways well to be
allowed of, that is, for summer hunting, or for
wager ; because these water-dogs naturally are
ever most laden with hair on the hinder parts,
nature, as it were, labouring to defend that
part most which is continually to be employed
in the most extremity ; and because the hinder
parts are ever deeper in the water than the
fore parts, therefore nature hath given them
armour of hair to defend the wet and coldness ;
yet this defence in the summer time, by the
violence of the heat of the sun, and the great-
ness of the dog's labour, is very noisome and
troublesome, and not only maketh him sooner
to faint and give over his sport, but also makes
him, by his overheating, more subject to take
the mange. And so, likewise, in matter of
wager, it is a very heavy burthen to the dog,
and makes him to swim less nimbly and slow,
besides the former offences before rectified;
but for the cutting or shaving of a dog, all
quite over even from the foot to the nostril,
that I utterly dislike; for it not only takes
from him the general benefits which nature
hath lent him, but also brings such a tender-
ness and chilliness over all his body, that the
water in the end will grow irksome under him."

AVe have modernised the spelling of the
above, in order that the quaintness of Markham
may the more generally be appreciated, and
his sense the more easily comprehended.

Markham's instructions, relative to training
the water-dog, are excellent, and more or less
applicable to all dogs.

" Now for the manner of training or bringing
up of his water-dog: it is to be understood
that you cannot begin too early with him ; that
is to say, even when you first wean him, and
teach him to lap, for even then you shall begin

441

WATEE SPANIEL.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [watee spaxiel.

to teach him to couch and lie close, not daring
to stir or move from that posture in which
you put him without your especial license,
cherishing him ever when he doth your will, and
correcting him when he doth the contrary;
and always observing this maxim in the first
teaching of him, that you never let your dog
eat or taste any meat, but when he doth some-
thing to deserve it, that custom may make it,
Unown food is a thing which cometh not by
chance, or the bounty of your hand, but for
reward or merit when he doth your command-
ments ; and this will not only make him willing
to learn, but kept to remember and retain
what he learueth, and diligently to perform
your pleasure without stick or amazement ; the
characters of your commands being so deeply
imprinted in his knowledge ; and to this end,
you must have no more teachers, no more
feeders, cherishers, or correctors, but one — for
multiplicity breeds confusion — and to teach
divers ways is to teach no way well; also
you must be very constant to the words or
directions by which you teach, choosing such
as are the most significant for your purpose,
and fittest for the action you would have the
dog do, and by no means alter the word which
you first use. When, therefore, you have
made your whelp understand these several
aounds or words, and that he will couch and lie
down at your feet, how you please, when you
please, and as long as you please, and that
with a single word or a look only ; you shall
then proceed and teach him to lead in a line
and collar, following you at your heels in
decent and comely order, neither treading
upon vour heels, nor going before or side by
you, which shows too much haste ; nor hanging
back, or straining your line, by the means of
too much sloth, but following in decent and
orderly manner, without offence either to the
dog or his leader ; and this kind of leading is
to make the whelp familiar with you that he
may love and acknowledge you, and no man
else. AVheu this general obedience is taught
(which is done b}" observation of his going, and
moving him by sights or sports, which may
tempt him to stray beyond his bounds, and
then to correct his oflenees, and to cherish and
reward his obedience), you shall then teach
him to fetch and carry anything you shall throw
forth of your baud."
U2

The water spaniel is greatly improved in
point of beauty by intermixture with the laud
spaniel. The small-sized water spaniel is, by
some, considered the best to hunt with, as they
make excellent retrievers, and are exceedingly
active and expert at their work. Some, how-
ever, prefer middle-sized dogs, perhaps from
the conception that they are a little stronger ;
but what they have in strength, the probability
is that they lose in activity. It is from this
supposition that some have even gone so far as
to cross the spaniel with the Newfoundland;
but, we believe, the preference, by many
eminent sportsmen, is generally given to the
smaller-sized animal. The water spaniel is
the most faithful and affectionate of all dogs.
In these qualities he may be said even to sur-
pass, certainly to rival, Arrian'a description of
the hound, Horme, which was "most gentle, and
kindly affectionate." " Never before," says
Arrian, " had any dog such regard for myself
and friend, and fellow sportsman, Megillus ;
for, when not actually engaged in coursing, he
is never away from one or the other of us ;
but while I am at home, he remains within by
my side, accompanies me on going abroad,
follows me to the gymnasium, and, while I am
taking exercise, sits down by me. On my re-
turn, he runs before me, often looking back to
see whether I had turned anywhere out of the
road ; and, as soon as he catches sight of me,
showing symptoms of joy, and again trotting
on before me. If I am going out on any
government business, he remains with my
friend, and does exactly the same towards
him ; he is the constant companion of which-
ever may be sick ; and if he has not seen
either of us for only a short time, he jumps
up repeatedly by way of salutation, and barks,
with joy, as a greeting to us. At meals, he
pats us first with one foot, and then with the
other, to put us in mind that he is to have his
share of food. He has, also, many tones of
speech, more than I ever knew in any other
dog ; pointing out, in his own language, what-
ever he wants. Having been beaten, when a
puppy, with a whip, if any one, even to this
dav, does but mention a whip, he will come up
to the speaker, cowering and begging, applying
his mouth to the man's, as if to kiss him, and,
jumping up, will hang on his neck, and not let
him go until he has appeased his angry threats.

WATER SPANIEL 1 FOPv MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAR^L [retiiieveb.

Now, really, I tlo not think that I should bo
nshnnied to write even the naino of this dog, that
it may bo left to posterity that Xonophon,
the Athenian, had a greyliound, enlli'd llonni'',
of the greatest speed and intelligence, and
altogether supremely excellent."

Flattering as this description is, wo cannot
thinlc it over-drawn, for we, ourselves, have
beeu possessed of dogs of dill'erent breeds,
which have testiiied the utmost allection, not
only to ourselves personally, but to all th-
meuibers of the household, except the servants,
whom some of them have marked out for a
smaller proportion of their favour. AV'e have
already alluded to the motto, " Wildbrat was i
faithful," as belonging to the principal order '
iu Denmark; and there is another instance ofi
faithfulness in tlie spaniel, also connected with
history, and which places the sagacity of this !
beautiful species of dog in a most favourable ,
point of view. The circumstance is noticed |
by Mr. Blaine, in whose language we will
here give it ; but the aucedote is given by Mr.
Daniel : —

" Lodebrook, of the blood-royal of Denmark,
and father to Humber and Ilubba, being iu a
boat with his ox and his dog, was, by an un-
expected storm, driven on the coast of Nor-
folk ; where, being discovered, and suspected
as a spy, he was brought to Edmund, at that
time king of the East Angles. Making him-
self known, he was treated with great hospi-
tality by the monarch, and particularly so on
account of his dexterous skill in hawking and
hunting. The king's falconer grew jealous of
this attention, and, lest it should lessen his
merit ia his royal master's opinion, and so
deprive him of his place, had the treachery to
waylay Lodebrook, and murder him, and con-
ceal the body amongst some bushes. He was
presently missed at court, and the king mani-
fested great impatience to know what was be-
come of him, when his dog, who had staid in
the woods by the corpse of his master, till
famine forced him thence, came and fawned on
the king, and enticed him to follow him. The
body was found, and, by a chain of evidence,
the murderer was discovered : as a just punish-
ment, he was placed alone in Lodebrook's
boat, and committed to the mercy of the sea,
which bore him to the very sliore the prince
had quitted. The boat was recognised ; and \

tho assassin, to avoid tho torture, falsely con-
fessed that Lodebrook had bei-ii put to death
by the order of Edmund, which account so ej-
asperated the Danes, that, to revenge his mur-
der, they invaded Euglaud."

Tlio water spaniel is of considerable anti-
quity. He is sculptured on many Roman n--
mains; and Colonel Smith thinks him idiiiti-
cal with the Cunis Tuscus lauded by Ne-
mesian.

THE RETRIEVER.

This is a useful dog, but of uncertain paren-
tage. He has been called an indefinite dog.
He is required to act many parts — to make u
tolerable pointer, a better setter, and a handy
hunter, in thick covers after wounded garni*.
To bo perfect in his calling, be sl'.ould, on the
very glance of your eye, spring among tangled
woods and bi'iars, or rush into the water, pick
up, and bring out a dead or wounded bird.
He is necessarily an animal of great canine
attainments, full of intelligence of the highes*''-
order ; remarkably quick in bis appreheusioi ,
adventurous, and swift of foot. This kind of
dog is a necessary appendage to a regular
shooting establishment. It is astouisliinfr how
sagacious ho becomes by proper training, and
how much his labours facilitate the acquisition
of a good day's sport. The great error to
guard against, is the haste and impatienco
which are embodied in his nature.

Speaking of the desire which every thorough
sportsman has to have every species of dog
adapted to the peculiar kind of game to bo
hunted, Mr. Blaiue says that he knew such a
one, who, when ranging his pointers in advance,
was always followed by a retriever of very rare
qualities. His pointers, also, did their duty
to admiration ; and when they cauie to a steady
point, bang from each barrel followed, and two
birds usually fell ; the pointers remained on
the spot, motionless witnesses. A move of the
sportsman's hand, and the "awav" to the re-
triever, sent him off like lightning, and he
returned with both birds. The ability of this
dog was such, that when two birds fell, he
would hold one by tlie neck, and the other by
the wing, near to the body ; by which device
neither bird would be injured, nor himself en-
cumbered. In pheasant-shooting, likewise, the
excellent discipline of this dog, and his extra-

EETEIETEB.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES;

[eetrietee.

ordinary tact, were the delight of all who saw
his performances. Training is everything. It
operates on the canine as it does on the human
species. Ifc gives them knowledge, under-
standing, and intelligence. In these expres-
sions we hope to be considered as not exalt-
ing the dog to an equality with the man.
We employ them because we know of none
better to convey our meaning. To a certain
extent, the dog is possessed of all the qualities
they express. Who will gainsay that he has
not knowledge, understanding, and intelli-
gence ?

"To see," says Mr. Apperley, speaking of
the feeding of a kennel of hounds — " to see
sixty couple of hounds, all as hungry as tigers,
standing aloof in the yard (as is the practice
in some kennels), and without even hearing,
much less feeling the whip, not daring to move
until the order is given them to do so ! And
what is the order given ? AVhy, at the words,
' Come over, bitclies,' or, * Come over, dogs,'
every hound of each individual sex comes for-
ward, as the S^x it belongs to may be called
for, leaving those of the other sex in their
places. Then the act of drawing them to the
feeding-troughs is an exceedingly interesting
sight. Often, with the door wide open, and
the savoury meat in their view, the huntsman
has no use for his whip, having nothing to do
but to call each hound by his name, vrhich, of
course, he readily answers to. The expression
of countenance, too, at this time, is well worthy
of notice; and that of earnest solicitation, of
entreaty, we might almost say of importunity,
cannot be more forcibly displayed than in the
face of a hungry hound awaiting his turn to
be drawn. He appears absolutely to watch
the lips of the huntsman, anticipating his own
name." Here the qualities to which we have
alluded are exemplified in a marked degree.

The retriever is sometimes a cross between
a Newfoundland and a pointer ; and, indeed,
Newfoundland dogs, themselves, act as re-
trievers. The general tractability and docility
of these dogs render them easily to be taught
to do almost anything but speak. Some have
shot woodcocks to them. In reference to
retrievers being trained by children, opinions
differ. " Six years since a gentleman bought
a retriever, that liad been trained by children
to fetch or bring stones from the bottom
444

of a river, until his teeth had been broken
with the practice, and he proved altogether
worthless as a sporting dog. It is now up-
wards of six times six years since I com-
mitted the very same blunder, and my dog
seems to have been even worse than his, for I
never could get hinv to take the slightest
notice either of gun or game ; and so lively a
recollection have I entertained of the circum-
stance ever since, that I never dreamed after-
wards of buying a dog until I had tried him at
the actual work for which I wanted him. His
dog was trained by children ; so was mine ;
and with my dog, at least, the children had
done their part to admiration. The dog knew
his lesson perfectly : the spike-collar could not
have done it better, if it had been applied at
twelve months old, to make him dive for
stones, and fetch them up from the bottom of
a river. The mistake, in both cases, was in
keeping the dogs at child's play too long and
too exclusively to admit of their being turned
into sporting dogs afterwards; or, rather, I
should not have bought a dog for a retriever
that had done nothing but fetch stones for
children until his teetli were broken.

" I have now in my house a little animal, a
cross between a Blenheim spaniel and a foreign
nondescript. He belongs to my children, and
they have taught him tricks enough to qualify
him for an exhibition ; his teeth are all gone
with gnawing sticks and fetching stones, and
he is as fond of these things now as he waa
six years ago as a puppy ; but, notwithstand-
ing all this, a better little dog never hunted a
rabbit out of a furze-brake, or a water-hen
out of a bed of rushes ; and, whether he is
standing in a corner, or performing any
other of his numerous antics, the click of my
gun-lock will send him screaming to the house-
door."

Training is everything, we repeat ; although a
spaniel or retriever should range close on flat
ground, he ought always to enter and remain
in cover, however far from it a shooter may
think proper to station himself. Nothing can
be more annoying than an animal scampering
on dry leaves in and out of a wood, effectually
preventing our hearing a cock rise, and all kinds
of game from approaching us. Neither should
he be allowed to quit a wood to hunt the banks
of a brook for water-hens. A pointer that has

nETIJlETEu]

POR MOU^'TAIN, FIELD, AND FARSI.

[B£Tni£y£It,

been used as a snipo douj tlio nrt'oeilii)j» winter,
w ill bring a man iluwn from iho top of a grouse-
bill, in August, to the well-known bog, for a
worthless suipe ; and a spaniel will n\ako for
anything iu the shape of water, to potter on
the stale scent ol' water-hens, and soon acijuire
the vile habit of hunting btraightforward,
without tack or traverse.

"AVhlle making my annual collection of
brown feathers, during the late frost," says a
follower of the angle, " I was reminded, more
than once, of the device which has often enabled
lue, vrheu fonder of wild-fowl than at present,
to recover a mallard lying on the edge of
dangerous ice, without risking the loss of a
valuable retriever. Teu-to-one other men
have had recourse to the same Jlcelle ; but, as
it may be new to some, I will mention it.
Having nearly lost a valuable retriever, and
risking my own life to save his, I bethought
myself of an old salmon-rod, to which I at-
tached a suflG.ciency of whipcord, with four large
hooks tied, back to back, at the end of it. Tlie j
rod was an old stiff travelling jack-of-all- |
trades, in five pieces, portable, and fit for ser-
vice at once. My attendant carried this, of
course, and, when required, mounted it while
I was loading. Very little practice enabled
me to hook a duck within five-and-twenty
yards. "When feathers were scarce, and I was
particularly anxious to secure a drake, if be-
yond the reach of my line, I attached a cord to
the retriever's collar before sending hira into
dangerous ice.

" AVhen ascending a river I kept about half
a gun-shot from the bank, my nian following
rather more than a gun-shot iu the rear, and
close to the river. When ducks had been
marked down, I approached at right angles to
the direction of the stream, making allow-
ances for the birds swimming up, which they
generally do after alighting.

"I think I have observed, that when a duck
rises wild, and, after making several circles in
the air, settles near the place from which he
rose, there is reason to expect others near
bim — very often a single bird of the other sex.
In this case, both birds will occasionally be
very close, if no noise be made when the
single bird rose. At all events, a duck that '
drops in a hedge, or other thick cover, at
Borne distance from a pond or river, will gene-

rally lot you get near enough to be picked up,
or recovered by the retriever."

The value of a retriever is Bometiinea
very considerable. " At the Kingston assizes,
an action (Clegg v. llobbler) was tried
to recover tlio value of a dog shot by de-
fendant. Tho dog was a retriever i)up[)y,
three months old, and very well bred, [it-
stayed away from home, and nothing was
heard of him for several days, when be was
brought homo dead. The dog had gone into
a field belonging to tho defendant, where
there were some sheep ; and, while he was
chasiug them about, defendant came with a
gun, and at once shot him dead.— Baron
Aldersou inquired of the plaintiff what kind of
retriever the dog was.— The plaintiff replied,
that he really was unable to tell how he was
bred. All he knew was, that he was a re-
triever, and that his father was a very valuable
animal. — Baron Alderson said, that all sorts
of dogs might be trained as retrievers; and
he had even heard of a pig being a retriever.
— Mr. James : Yes, my lord, for truffles ! —
The learned judge said he should like to
hear something more respecting the breed
of the dog. — Mr. James : My lord, the father
of the dog is here, and he shall be pro-
duced presently, — Witnesses were examined
to prove that the dog was shot by the de-
fendant, and the deceased's father was then
placed on the counsel's table. lie was a fine
handsome animal, and it was stated that his
sporting qualities were first-rate. He ap-
peared very much dissatisfied with his novel
position among so many wigs. — Mr. Brooks,
on behalf of the defendant, said, that at tho
time in question, the sheep that were in the
field were fat, and ready for the butcher.
They had been worried by a dog two or three
nights before ; and, on this night, he supposed
it was the same dog ; and, on his going into
the field, he found him chasing the sheep
about, and shot him. — Baron Alderson said,
that lie had acted iUegallij. Even if ilie dog had
icorned (he sheej), a person teas not justified in
destroying him until he had tried to get him
away by fair means. Ultimately, on the
learned judge's suggestion, it was decided
that defendant should pay all plaintiff"s costs
out of pocket, and a certain sum as the
nominal value of the dog."

445

REMARKS.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[remarks.

Thug, it is illegal to slioot a dog upon your
O'.vn property, even although he is in the act
of chasing and frightening your sheep, until
you have tried to make him desist, or to drive
him from the field by fair means.

GENERAL REMARKS ON SHOOTING DOGS,

After the sportsman has secured his sport-
ing quarters, the next consideration is his
dogs. AVhat kind shall he take ? If he has
them, good and well ; if not, the sooner he
procures them, and gets to know them, the
better. Dogs are not put into condition for
work in a week, nor yet in a month ; and a
man really fond of sport, will, himself, take
the greatest interest in the exercising of his
dogs, so as to prepare them both in wind and
in foot for this, the hardest of all work for
tliem ; and if men would themselves take their
dogs out for their daily walks along the road,
they would feel the benefit of it in August, by
their own feet being in better order for walk-
ing, and by their dogs knowing them well, and
beating for their master, instead of ibr the
keeper. Colonel Hawker tells us to use " well-
tried and staunch dogs;" and others say, that
" dogs for grouse-shooting ought to be first-rate
in every respect — the highest bred, and best
disciplined;" though the colonel prefers set-
ters, and advises, when practicable, a mixture of
pointers and setters. lu Daniel's Rural Sports,
in Lascelles' Familiar Letters on Sporting — in
fact, in every book on the subject, but in none
more succinctly and better treated than in
Blaine, we find the same thing — "To have
good sport, you must have good dogs." What
can be more disappointing, or annoying, than
to find, on arriving at the moor, that when you
want to be killing game, you have to be dog-
breaking ? — that the dogs either won't range
at all, or else run up more birds than they
point — and that when you do get a shot, you
have to shout until you are hoarse to make
them " down charge," putting up two or three
birds under your feet ; and, having loaded, put
yourself into a fever of perspiration with
thrashing them for "running in," and snap-
ping the bird you have killed, spoiling your
grouse, your temper, and your shooting for the
rest of the day. This may seem an unusual
case ; but any one who shoots chiefly on sub-
scription moors, will bear us out, that more
41G

than half the men one meets witli, are provided
with a team of dogs not one iota better than
we have described. Where, then, is a man to
procure good dogs? is the natural question.
Let him go to a really respectable breaker, or
keeper; have a good trial, and give a good
price. Some parts of the year are certainly
not favourable to see dogs well tried, especially
vfhen birds are sitting, and have very little
scent; and if it is necessary to see whether a
dog is " free from hare," it is difficult to find
one without going into corn cr mowing grass.
The dog's general style, working to hand and
obedience, howevei-, can be judged of, as also
his condition, and the hardness of his feet ;
and if he has been shot over for one or more
seasons, so much the better. But, to any one
who wishes to shoot in comfort, we would say,
avoid what is called " a promising young dog,
just out of the breaker's hands, and ready for
work," unless you can have a really good trial,
and see powder burnt over him. No one
ought to take less than two brace of dogs to
the moors, so as to be able to change them at
noon, and keeping the best for the afternoon
shooting. It is true good setters will go all
day, and some every day in the week ; and
though we believe some pointers are capable
of almost the same exertion, we have never
met with them ; still, it is hard upon the
animal, however courageous, to tax his strength
beyond certain limits, and is, besides, a com-
fort to oneself to let out a fresh brace after
luncheon. By the way, some men have their
spare dogs led along with them, which is a
great mistake, as, with the excitement of
watching their master shoot, and the pulling
against the man who leads them, they are
never resting. We knew one wlio liked his
dogs to begin the season, though not over fat,
with plenty of flesh on their ribs. He thought
they worked better for it, and very soon got
to their hard-condition trim, and doing their
work better than dogs that are kept thin
by poor diet; for if dogs nre properly fed
before going to the moors, no one can have
them in spare working condition with common
road exercise, unless he give them fifteen or
twenty miles a day after a horse, like grey-
hounds. He fed his dogs pretty much the
same all the year round, with the exception
of substituting "greaves" for flesh in hot

BEMAIIES.]

I'Oli MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAllM.

[UBEEDIKO.

weat!it»r; good boiled ontiiK'al, flesh (or
greaves), with potatoes boiled iti the soup,
and occasiouallj cabbage sliced into it, and
plenty of salt, which he thoiiglit tho best food
for dogs at all times. A\'lu'ii at tho moors,
and ono has not tho same convenienco for
cooking, ho usetl barley-Hour instead of oat-
meal (as it only requires scalding), with
«« nrreavos" and salt, and milk, if ho could
get it.

The miserable accommodation for dogs that
cue generally meets with on subscription
luoors is well known, and mostly consists of
some wretched baru or outhouse, with the
roof half off, no door, and the door as wet as
a snipe-ground. In this case, the comfort of
having your own servant will, in itself, repay
the expense of taking him down with you,
instead of trusting to some man whom you
may hire as bag-carrier, &c., at four or five
shillings a day, and who, having no interest in
your dogs, neither feeds nor takes care of
them as he ought. Tour own man will, with
a few boards, &c., make the best of the place
in which they have to live. He will also pre-
pare their food properly before you go out in
the morning, so that they may be fed imme-
diately on your return, instead of being left
for an hour or so, during which they have
curled themselves up to sleep, and are too stiff
and tired to leave their benches to eat. He
will also let them out for a i'ow minutes the
first thing in the morning, whilst he is clean-
mg out their kennel; putting in a little fresh
etraw, if required, and filling their troughs
witii fresh water, &c. All dogs' feet should
be dipped in strong salt and water imme-
diately on coming off tiie moors ; and a couple
of minutes with the "dandy-brush" will, if
tiiey come in wet, cause them to dry in half
the time that they otherwise would. Do"s, iu
hunting, are sometimes bitten by vipers.
Tiiese reptiles, the only venomous of the three
British varieties of the snake, abound on some
moors ; and, unless the bite is promptly
treated, a valuable dog's lite may be lost.
Sweet oil, the fat of vipers, train oil and tar,
and numerous other remedies, are advised ;
but the common " burdock" is an excellent j
Kpeoific. This was told us by an old poacher ; '
and, thougli we constantly used to lose dogs,
sheep, and even cows, notwithstanding all our

care, before wu know of this reinodv, wo never
lost another anitnal afterwards. Tlio mode of
using it is to slico or scrape a largo handful of
tho root, and pour upon it about two quarts of
boiling water ; when this infusion is cooi,
foment the bitten part with it many times
a day, and pour about half a wine-glass of it
down the dog's throat three or four times a
day. We never knew this to fail, and tho dog
is fit for work in a couple of days. This sub-
ject, however, will bo treated more at largo
when we come to speak of the diseases and
accidents to which dogs aro subject.

BREEDING, BREAKIiNG, AND TRAINING
SPANIELS, SETTERS, AND POINTERS.

There has been much written on this subject ;
and dog-breaking, at the present day, is pretty
much the same as it was in the time of Ger-
vase IMarkhara. The art of breeding, however,
has occupied the attention of many able sports-
men. In a state of nature, the sexual appe-
tency of a bitch occurs only once a year; but,
in a state of domestication, it occurs oftener,
within six, eight, or nine months. This arises
from the difference of food upon which the ani-
mal is fed, and the consequently changed con-
dition of its habits and constitution. In breed-
ing dogs, the in-and-in system has had both its
advocates and its opponents. One interested
in this subject says, that there have been va-
rious animals of the finest qualities bred from
parents very nearly related to each other ; and
this is perfectly true : if we have a male and
female full brother and sister, and both of very
fine quality, the chances are that we shall have
a fine progeny. " I had a very fine greyhound
from this method; at the same time, one of
the whelps was quite an idiot, and I was forced
to destroy it when about two months old.
My personal experience, with regard to the
lower animals, is not very extensive; but,
being naturally fond of the study of natural
history, I have taken every opportunity of
gaining information ; and I find among fanners
a constant habit of introducing a male from
some other family. Gamekeepers pursue the
same plan with regard to dogs ; they call it
introducing fresh blood : they generally adhere
to the same kind, but not always: tho best
greyhounds have a cross with the bulldog;
aud, I believe, though I speak with diffidence,

4i7

eei:eding.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES;

[beeeding.

that the best race-horses are all cross-bred—
that is to say, they are the cross produce of
various kinds, such as the Barb, the Arab, the
English and Spanish horses,* the latter an un-
doubted cross-breed in itself, from horses in-
troduced into Spain by the Moors ; and, how-
ever good many of the pure or thorough-bred
}iorses— such as Barbs and Arabs— may be,
yet they are no match, as regards speed, with
the cross-breeds of our own country. They
may have more endurance in the country
where they are bred, because, being bred there,
they are more suited to the climate and nature
of the ground; and this is the case with every
thorough-bred animal whatsoever ; if you alter
the circumstances, you alter the animal to suit
them. The Skye terrier in England, after two
or three generations, is not the Skye terrier of
the Isle of Skye; its habits and form alter
greatly. I used often to speculate and wonder
why it should have such short and powerful
legs and long body ; but one day, while watch-
ing some puppies of pure breed at play, I saw
the mystery explained. There was a mound
of earth, standing at an angle of about 70°
the surface of which being loosened by frost,
rolled down at the slightest touch ; the puppies,
with their short strong legs and elongated
bodies, climbed up this with little difficulty,
and, having got to the top, turned round, and,
thrusting their fore feet forward, slipped down
on their bellies, kicking themselves along with
their hind feet. This operation, which they
repeated over and over again, seemed to afibrd
them infinite gratification, and the surface of
the hillock became grooved by their breasts
beiug ploughed repeatedly down it. Here was
a wonderful instance of the form of the animal
beiug adapted to the locality. The Isle of
Skye has a singularly rocky and uneven sur-
fiice, and these short-legged and long-backed
animals are admirably suited to it. These dogs
have a very thick skin, clothed with a large
quantity of long hair, both calculated to pro-
tect them against falls.

" It should be observed, that the system of
breeding-in, in both wild and domestic animals,
is not by any means a haphazard affair, as it
certainly is with the human race. "With do-
mestic animals we always select the finest ;

* This we have already shown in our division on the
horse.

448

and animals in a state of nature, make that
selection for themselves, by the constant war
carried on by the strong against the weak.
In spite of all the care that can be taken,
however, farmers find it absolutely necessary
to introduce males from other families among
their flocks and herds. This is a fact which
I think cannot be disputed ; it is one which
is acknowledged and acted upon by every
breeder of stock. Good horses, good cattle,
sheep, and dogs, have undoubtedly been pro-
duced by close breeding ; but it does not seem
to last many generations."

Another says — " I think most breeders,
either of cattle, horses, or dogs, will agree as
regards the expediency of introducing fresh
blood into their stock. I believe the produce
of animals closely related is finer ; but I pre-
sume that is from deterioration in strength
and bodily power. AVhen I write 'finer,' I
mean smaller bone, and altogether more deli-
cate. It is the custom amongst many cattle-
breeders to change the stock bull every three
years at least ; and this plan is highly satis-
factory. Perhaps it has already been remarked
that, a mare having had a mule foal, and then
afterwards a foal bred from a horse, there is a
wonderful similarity in some point to the mule
— that is, of a ' mulish' character, often in the
head. I was much struck with an instance of
this some time ago. Sows and bitches strain
back in the same way."

Upon this subject Mr. Blaine has his opinion,
which he has mixed up with the opinions of
other breeders, in a passage somewhat lengthy,
but, nevertheless, so valuable, that we cannot
resist the temptation of extracting it. " Mr.
Bakewell professed always to breed animals in
general from near relationship, and how suc-
cessful he was in his system is well known.
Mr. Meynell also bred most of his celebrated
hounds in-and-in., _ But on this matter Sir
John Sebright, in liis pamphlet on the Art oj
Improving the Breeds of Domestic Animals,
observes—' On speaking to Mr. Bakewell on
that subject, I found that he did not attach
the same meaning that I do to the term in-
and-in. He said that he frequently bred from
the father and daughter, and the mother and
son. This is not what I consider as breeding
in-and-in ; for the daughter is only half of the
same blood as the father, and will probably

BREEPnfO.]

POPv :\rorxTATX, field, and fakm.

[nilKEDIN'O.

partake, in a great dec^roe, of the prD^i rlu's of
the mother.' 'I liavo tried,' says the sport-
in'^ baronet, ' many experiments by breeding
in-and-in npon dogs, fowls, and pigeons ; tlio
do"3 beeame, from strong spaniels, weak and
diminutive lap-dogs ; the fowls became long in
the legs, small in the body, and bad breeders.'
Sir William Clayton, in bis Treatise on Grey-
hounds, is also, in some degree, nnfavouniblo
to breeding akin. lie says — ' If continued
for some litters, a manifest inferiority of size,
and a deficiency of bone will soon be visible,
as well as a want of courage and bottom,
tliough the beauty of the form, with the excep-
tion of the size, may not be diminished.'
Mr. Beckford is also averse to consanguineous
breeding among dogs. ' A very famous sports-
man,' he says, 'has told me, that ho fre-
quently breeds from brothers and sisters. As I
should be very unwilling to urge anything in
opposition to such authority, you bad better
trv it ; if it succeeds in hounds, it is more, I
believe, than it usually does in other animals.'
It is remarkable that the ancients, although
they advocated the system of in-and-in breed-
ing among all other domestic animals, yet
were averse to it in the dog. In the Geopo-
nier, 1, xii. c. i., we are cautioned against
breeding between individuals of the same
litter. Conrad Gesner, on this subject, ob-
serves, * that the very best dogs are bred each
in their own line, or from parents of a similar
kind ; but an extreme care in huntsmen for
improvement, has led them so to mingle dif-
ferent breeds as to make the varieties almost
innumerable.' "

" Like begets like," is a truism ; and in no
instance is it more just, nor in any more im-
portant than in dog-breeding; consequently,
it is not easy to be too careful that the quali-
ties and form of both parents be as perfect as
possible. As no bitch is without some defect,
so it should be remembered, in selecting a
mate for her, that the dog should not only be
entirely without that particular defect, but
even superabundantly furnished contrariwise.
If the strain borders on the light and leggy,
do not perpetuate the defect, but choose a dog
not coarse, but strong and well trussed. If
the bitch incline to be Jlcto (tender), lix on a
dog for her that is singularly hardy. The
qualities also must be attended to in breeding,
3 M

for they run as imicli in the blood aa the form
does. If the bitch, though excpiisite in figure,
be yet wanting in metal, give her u mate with as
much dash and determination of the right kind
as j)083ible. If, on the contrary, though wolU
noseii, she is given to skirting, to run riot, to
babble, or to any other hurtful propensities,
cross it with super-excellence, in the opposite
quality in the dog selected for her. Skirting
particularly by removing the breed, by letting
the skirter be mated with a thorough line hunt-
ing hound. It is by judicious crossing that tho
pack is rendered complete. Let masters of
hounds be very careful, likewise, in entrusting
their favourite bitches to the care of the atten-
dants of other kennels. There is infinite risk
and chance of deception in this, because,
where the stallion, be it foi-hound, grey-
hound, or pointer, is of great celebrity, tho
probability is, that such dog is already fully
engaged, in wbich case another dog may bo
fraudulently substituted, and the bitch served
by one that, instead of mending the breed,
may increase its defects. On this subject
Colonel Cook well observes — " It is the custom
to send bitcbes to the fashionable stallions of
the day ; for instance, as formerly, to the late
Mr. Meynell's ' Gusman ;' Lord Fitzwilliam's
'Hardwick;' Lord Yarborough's 'Kanter;'
Mr. Ward's ' Charon ;' the Duke of Eutland's
' Topper ;' the Duke of Beaufort's ' Justice ;'
the Duke of Grafton's 'Eegeut;' Lord Lons-
dale's 'Euler;' Mr. Smith's 'Champion;'
Mr. Munster's * Collier ;' Lord Myddleton's
'Vaulter;' &c. : but, as it generally happens
that your brood bitches go to heat much about
the same time, it is therefore not very probable
that one stallion hound can ward many bitches,
besides those of the owner ; nor is it reason-
able to expect, in the height of the season,
that the dog-hounds can be left at home to
ward bitches from other kennels. I would
suggest, in order to be more certain of your
breed, that you send your bitch to a well-bred
dog, brother, if possible, to the stallion hound ;
and, to prevent any mistake, order your ser-
vants to see the bitch warded."

We have remarked, in reference to the
horse, that, as a general rule, " like produces
like ;" and we think the same will be found to
hold good in reference to the dog. Mr. Beck-
ford advises us to consider the size, shape,

449

bkeasing.j

THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES;

^BEEAKINa.

colour, constitution, and natural disposition of
the dog intended to be bred from, as well as
the fineness of his nose, his stoutness, and
mode of hunting. *' On no account," he says,
*' breed fiom one that is not stout, that is not
tender-nosed, or that is a skirter." Similar
instructions to tliese are set forth by Somer-
ville, in the following lines : —

" Observe with care his shape, sort, colour, size ;
Nor will sagacious huntsmen less regard
His inward habits ; the vain babbler shun,
Ever loquacious, ever in the wrong ;
His foolish offspring shall offend thy ears
With false alarms, and loud impertinence.
Nor less the shifting cur avoid, that breaks
Illusive from the pack ; to the next hedge
Devious he strays ; there every means he tries ;
If haply then he cross the steaming scent,
Away he flies vain-glorious, and exults
As if the pack supreme, and in his speed
And strength unrivall'd, Lo ! cast far behind,
His vex'd associates pant, and lab'ring strain
To climb the steep ascent. Soon as they reach
Th' insulting boaster, his false courage fails ;
Behind he lags, doom'd to the fatal noose,
His master's hate, and scorn of all the field ;
What can from such be hop'd but a base brood
Of coward curs, a frantic, vagrant race."

In breaking dogs to make retrievers, systems
differ in different countries. Following one
who has had much experience of various sys-
tems, we find that the one practised by the
Freucb differs from that practised in England,
equally in its process and results — it is that of
force, the spiked collar being universally used ;
and, although this expedient is certainly a
severe one, yet it is affirmed that it produces
a result which the suaviter in onodo fails to
effect, except to a certain extent, in the case of
the Newfoundland and water spaniel. As the
fortiter in re, or compulsory system of the
spiked collar, is barsh, and the punisbment
inflicted severe, it must be remarked, that the
experienced breakers of Erance find it inexpe-
dient to commence with any young dog till he
is ten or twelve months old, the severity of
the training having the effect of cowing and
intimidating dogs of a younger age. The
breakers would, also, seem to be averse to any
previous instruction being imparted to puppies,
cither by children or other means, as that
always renders their operations with the spiked
collar more diflicult. It was on one occasion
mentioned to a dog-breaker of note, that a dog
was about to be sent to him to be taught, and
450

that it had already received some instructions
by gentle means, and that he would fetch and
carry tolerably. His reply was — " Tant pis.
J" aural plus de peine avec ce chien la; il sera
plus entdte, et plus difficile H dresser." This
circumstance is alluded to, because an opinion
is by no means uncommon, that dogs should
be taught to fetch and carry as soon as tliey
are able to run about ; and some have even
recommended children as their best instructors ;
and, judging from the successful results in
one or two cases, have expressed themselves
strongly in favour of this method, intimating
it to be the right one, and that universally
practised in Erance. "With every deference to
such sportsmen, it may safely be thought that
they are making a rule of the exception, and,
at the same time, confounding two things
which are totally dissimilar, as the compulsory
system differs " tutto cielo" from the mild and
gentle one, both in its process and in its
results. It is readily admitted that you cannot
begin too early to teach dogs to be docile and
obedient, and to impart preliminary instruction
to them, when it is intended to teach them
to fetch their game by gentle means; but it
cannot be conceded that children are the best
instructors, because experience has frequently
shown that they are the very worst if a dog is
expected to carry anything beyond a ball, a
stick, or a stone, and to be used for sporting
purposes — simply because dogs, taught by
children, are generally in the habit of playing
with whatever they fetch and carry, and rarely
or ever pick it up at once, or immediately
return with it when they have picked it up.
On the contrary, they mostly drop it several
times, and, after finally securing it, commence
a series of gambols before they return, infinitely
to the delight and satisfaction of themselves
and the children with whom they are playing.
The consequence of this is, when a dog so
taught is taken into the field, be is almost
certain to mouth his game, drop it, and pick it
up again several times, leaving the ground
covered with feathers ; and, perhaps, when he
finally seizes the bird, he will stand wagging
his tail, looking his master in the face with
infinite satisfaction to himself, as be bas been
in the habit of doing with bis instructor,?,
which, doubtless, pleases the children, and
excites their benevolent attachmeut ; but it is,

MM©E^E5?© HIOlUMBil

TigiTf, MrjSLgS TEIBL-S'.

BREAKIKQ J

VOK :\IOUXTATX, FIELD, AXD FAinr.

[UUEAKINO,

nevertheless, very vexatious and annoying* to

the sportsman. ]\rany iloi^n of this iloscription
have been taken to the fu'ltl ; aiul, in a pre-
ceding pajje, we have adduced an instance in
the field ; but they never can be depended on,
except, poriinps, Nowroundhmdors, or water
spaniels, as these two races of dogs are easily
broken to bring tlieir game either on hind or
from the water, their instinct inducing them
strongly in that direction, althougii it may bo
doubted whether they are ever so perfectly
taught by gentle, as by compulsory means.
Dogs taught to fetch their game by gentle
means have been pronounced uncertain in their
obedience ; on some days taking the water
unhesitatingly, and bringing perfectly ; and, on
others, no earthly power being able to induce
them either to take water or to fetch their
game. This generally occurs whenever any-
thing has arisen to ruffle their tempers. In-
deed, we have heard of a Xewfoundland, a
first-rate retriever, who had been taught by
gentle means, and who, when sulky from being
scolded or thrashed, would not stir one inch ;
whereas we have never known a dog refuse to
go and fetch his game either on land or from
the water, whatever his breed might be, who
had been thoroughly taught with the spiked
cellar by a competent instructor.

Although this " uncertainty" and " sulki-
nesa" may have, in some instances, exhibited
themselves, we are far from believing such
exhibition to be either general or conclusive
that severe measures are the best for breaking
or training a dog. "We have seen the effects
of gentleness upon the horse ; and we have no
doubt that gentleness used towards the dog is
by far the most potent and effective educator.
In proof of this, the following account of a
canine performance, which took place in
London some years ago, will be found exceed-
ingly interesting. It was published in the
Lancet.

" Two fine dogs, of the Spanish breed, were
introduced by M. Leonard, with the customary
French lyoJitesse — the largest, by the name of
M. Philax ; the other, as M. Brae (or Spot).
The former had been in training three, the
latter, two years. They were in vigorous
health; and, having bowed very gracefully,
seated themselves on the hearth-rug, side by
side. M. Leonard then gave a lively descrip-

tion of tho means ho had employed to develop
the ceri'bral system in these animalrt; how, from
having been fond of tho chase, and ninbitious
of possessing tho best-trained dogH, ho had
employed tho usual course of training— how
tho conviction had been impressed on his
mind, that by gentle usage, and struJi/ per-
severance in inducing tho animal to repeat,
again and again, what was required, not only
would tho dog be capal)lo of perrorniing that
specific act, but that part of tho brain, which
was brought into activity by tlio mental effort,
would become more largely developed ; and
hence a permanent increase of mental power
bo obtained. Tliis reasoning is in accordance
with the known laws of the physiology of the
nervous system, and is fraught with the most
important results. Wo may refer the reader,
interested in the subject, to the masterly little
work of Doctor Verity, Change Produced in tlie
JVervous System hy Civilisation. After this
introduction, M. Leonard spoke to his dogs in
Frencli, in his usual tone, and ordered one of
them to walk, the other to lie down, to run, to
gallop, halt, crouch, &c., which they performed
as promptly and correctly as the most docile
children. Then he directed them to go
through the usual exercise of the manege,
which they accomplished as well as the best
trained ponies at Astley's. He next placed
six cards of different colours on the floor, and,
sitting with his back to the dogs, directed one
to pick up the blue card, and the other the
white, &c., varying his orders rapidly, and
speaking in such a manner, that it was im-
possible tho dogs could have executed his com-
mands if they had not a perfect knowledge of
the words. For instance, M. Leonard said,
' Philax, take the red card and give it to Brae ;
and Brae, take the white card, and give it to
Philax.' The dogs instantly did this, and
exchanged cards with each other. He then
said, ' Philax, put your card on the green, and
Brae, put yours on the blue ;' and this was
instantly performed Pieces of bread and
meat were placed on the floor, with figured
cards, and a variety of directions were given to
the dogs, 80 as to put their intelligence and
obedience to a severe test. They brought tho
meat, bread, or cards, as commanded ; but did
not attempt to eat or touch unless ordered.
Philax was then ordered to bring a piece of

451

BEEAKING.]

THE DOG, AA'D ITS VAEIETIES;

[beeaking.

meat, and give it to Brae ; and then Brae was
told to give it back to Philax, who was to
return it to its place, PLiilax was next told
he miglit bring a piece of bread, and eat it;
but, beforo he had time to swallow it, his
master forbade him, and directed him to show
that he had not disobeyed, and the dog in-
stantly protruded the crust between his lips.

" While many of these feats were being per-
formed, M, Leonard snapped a whip violently,
to prove that the animals were so completely
under discipline that they would not heed any
interruption.

" After many other performances, M. Leo-
nard invited a gentleman to play a game of
dominos with one of them. The younger and
slighter dog then seated himself on a chair at
the table, and the writer and M. Leonard
seated themselves opposite. Six dominos were
placed on their edges, in the usual manner,
before the dog, and a like number before the
writer. The dog having a double number,
took one up in his mouth, and put it in the
middle of the table ; the writer played a cor-
responding piece on o^e side ; the dog imme-
diately placed another correctly, and so on,
until all the pieces were engaged. Other six
dominos were then given, to each, and the
writer intentionally played a wrong number.
The dog looked surprised, stared very earnestly
at the writer, growled, and finally barked
angrily. Einding that no notice was taken of
bis remonstrances, he pushed away the wrong
domino with his nose, and took up a suitable
one from his own pieces, and played it in its
stead. The writer then played correctly ; the
dog followed, and won the game. Not the
slightest intimation could have been given by
M. Leonard to the dog; this mode of play
must have been entirely the result of his own
observation and j udgment. It should be added
that the performances were strictly private.
The owner of the dogs was a gentleman of
independent fortune, and the instruction of
bis dogs had been taken up merely as a curious
and amusing investigation."

Mr. Richardson adduces the following:—
" Some years ago, a Spaniard, named Germondi,
exhibited a company of performing dogs in the
different towns of Great Britain and Ireland.
In Dublin, where he made some stay, he occu-
pied, with his company, the large buildino- at
452 '^

the corner of D'Olier Street, which is now the
handsome shop of Messrs. Kinahan. The
performanies of these dogs were extremely
curious. They danced, waltzed, and pirouetted.
One, in the costume and character of a lady,
sat down to a spinning-wheel, which he kept
in motion for a considerable time.

" The company was divided into two groups ;
one half appearing iu dresses of a red colour,
and the other being attired iu blue. The
blues occupied the model of a fortress, which
the red troop attacked, drawing up their
artillery in front, and opening a heavy fire
upon the enemy, which the blues returned
with their cannon from the fortress. The
reds were, however, at length, victorious ; the
fortress tottered, and the reds dashed across
the defences. Suddenly the works blew up
with a tremendous crash, and several dogs, on
both sides, lay motionless as they fell, ap-
parently severely maimed, if not entirely dead.
"When the eifects of the explosion had died
away, the proprietor advanced, and pulled
the performers about as dead dogs, to the no
small horror and amazement of the spectators ;
but immediately, on the dropping of the curtain,
the apparently wounded, or dead dogs sprang
to their feet, and resumed their proper places.

" The next scene introduced one of the dogs
as a captive between two of his comrades, all
attired in military costume. The captive, being
condemned as a deserter, was sentenced to be
shot, and the sentence was carried forthwith
into execution by his canine comrades. On
being fired at he fell, struggled convulsively for
a few seconds, then apparently died ; in this
state he was dragged about the stage; his
comrades then placed him in a barrow, and
wheeled him away. He subsequently appeared
placed in a bier drawn by dogs, with likewise
a canine driver, who flourished a whip over his
companions, and, with a procession of the whole
company, attired as soldiers, moved slowly to
the solemn dead march, deposited their com-
rade in the grave, and thus concluded their
performance. , These dogs were of various
descriptions — pugs, poodles, mongrels.

" There was an interlude of young puppies,
who tumbled head-over-heels in various divert-
ing attitudes ; after which he introduced a fine
specimen of bulldog, which the exhibitor
called his fire king. This dog was trained to

IinEAKIXO.]

roK :\U)UM'AK\, I'll". LI), AND FARM.

[tuainino.

exhibit in tho midst of a brilliant display of
lireworks, and nothing could exceed the cou-
rn'^e ho preserved when wholly surrounded by
flumes, or the resolution ho manifested not to
quit his position until tho iire was entirely
extinguished. All this was tho result of
gentleness.

"' Many a s^ooA
And useful (luality, nnil virtue too;
Fiilelity that neither bribe nor throat
Can move nor warp; and i^ratitude for small
And trivial favours, lasting as the life,
And glistening even iu the dying eye.' "
"We must now, however, return to the spiked
collar. Tho impression produced by tliis in-
strument is never eflaced ; so much so, that a
Biuooth-haired, high-bred pointer will not re-
fuse to go into a river in the coldest and
severest weather iu winter, although he will,
perhaps, shiver on the bank at the very sight
of it, before plunging in. AVe have beard of
dogs of this description, which had been
thoroughly broken by compulsory means, and
they never refused to go into the water,
although they might sometimes hesitato in
frosty weather; but the instant the magic
words ''Collier deforce'" were uttered, tlicy
plunged in with all the alacrity imaginable.
Such dogs, however, ought not, as a rule, to be
taken out on such occasions. ^ It may be
further questionable whether pointers ought
to be taught to retrieve ; and as a rule it is
perhaps wrong ; but, in a country where snipes
are abundant, and are the principal objects of
the sportsman's pursuit, it is, we think, advis-
able that all his dogs should be taught to fetch
and carry, in case of accident to the regular
retriever ; because it will occur every day that
some few snipes will fall in places not easily,
and sometimes not safely, accessible to the
sportsman ; and all sportsmen know how vex-
atious it is to lose a bird after he has been
kiUed, and how tantalising it is to see him lying
almost within reach, and yet be obliged to
leave him. This will occur even in grousing,
in the case of a towering bird falling into a
fresh-water loch ; and where there is no re-
triever the bird must be left and lost. This,
however, is a rare occurrence ; but in snipe-
shooting, in most marshes, it will happen often
to the sportsman, if he has not a retriever with
him : in fact, no sportsman of any experience
will either go out snipe or duck-shooting with-

out being accompanied by a first-rato retriever ;
and even then ho must make u|) hi>i mind to
lose Bomo few birds, if ho is shooting in tho
immediate vicinity of tho sea, as both widgeons
and ducks will occasionally fly aoino diMlanco
when they are wounded, and drop dead ; and,
if they happen to fall in a strong outwanl
current, they aro soon carried beyond tho
power of any retriever. Indeed, sometimes
blackcocks, which have towered after being
shot, and lallen out a good distance at sea, liavo
been lost ; and woodcocks also (as these birds
tower sometimes) arc apt to be lost in tlie ab-
sence of retrievers.

Leaving this incidental digression, we
now return to tho system of training.
The two great advantages arising from tho
compulsory system, when it has been carried
thoroughly into ellect by a first-rate hand,
consists, in the first place, in the complete
obedience and thorough docility exhibited
on all occasions on tho part of the dog, as he
never refuses to search for and bring his game
when ordered to do so, either on land or from
the water, irrespectively of the weather ; and,
in the next place, which is an important feature
characterising this system, he invariably picks
up his game at once, without mouthing it, and
returns to his master immediately. The re-
verse of this, it is said, is the case with dogs
taught by gentle means — even with the spaniel
and ^Newfoundland ; and some very good ones,
excellent in every respect, with the one excep-
tion of not returning directly and promptly
with the game they had in their mouths to
their master, have been known.

AVith regard to dogs instructed by children
to fetch and carry, a writer says, he had the
ill-luck to be the purchaser of one through
the instrumentality of a friend ; and the result
is so much to the purpose, that he relates some
of the circumstances connected with the pur-
chase, possession, and trial of the said dog.
Having taken up quarters for a little snipe
and duck-shooting, in a favourite locality, he
found himself much in want of a good re-
triever, and applied to u friend resident in
London, giving him carte blanche as to price.
The friend shortly replied, stating that he had
purchased a first-rate retriever for £10— a
beautiful Newfoundland, warranted to retrieve
perfectly on land and from the water. He

4.3:5

TEAIKING,

THE DOG, AND ITS TAEIETIES;

t^TEAINING,

observed that, althoagli the dog's teeth were
somewhat damaged, he was perfectly young
and fresh, the teeth having been injured in
consequence of his recent instructors — the
children of the family from whom he was pro-
cured— having given him considerable practice
in fetching up stones from the bottom of a
river which passed through their garden,
Broken teeth in a retriever were, of course,
not objectionable. When the dog arrived,
the purchaser was certainly very much pleased
with his appearance, as he was as handsome a
jS"ewfoundland as he had ever seen, and fancied
he would answer the purpose exactly ; which
favourable opinion of him was confirmed after
the two or three first days' duck-shooting, as
he brought all his birds perfectly; but it so
happened, that every duck killed fell on the
near side of the river; and on going out on
the fourth day, some ducks were killed, which
fell on the opposite side, nearer to the farther
bank, when, greatly to the sportsman's as-
tonishment and annoyance, the retriever, after
taking the water in his usual gallant style,
and possessing himself of his bird, swam out
on the other side of the river, where, after
depositing his bird, he commenced rolling
himself on the grass, and, after having well
shaken himself and performed a variety of
gambols, returned very quietly, leaving his
bird behind him, as doubtless he had been in
the habit of doing with the stones thrown
into the river by the children, whenever
accident or caprice induced him to go out on
the reverse side. He tried his utmost to
persuade him to go back and fetch his bird,
but without success, the bad habit acquired
from the children being inveterate ; as, on
every occasion of a bird falling near the oppo-
site bank, he acted in a similar manner. As a
temporary remedy, during the short time he
retained possession of this dog, he made his
game-carrier take a long cord with him, which
he fastened to the dog's collar whenever any
bird fell into the river at a distance, so that
his attempt to go out on the further side
was not only checked, but he was conveyed
safely to the proper shore. This plan was
pursued for some time, thinking it might,
perhaps, break him of his bad habit ; but this
was not the case, as, on relinquishing the
cord by way of experiment, he immediately
45i

committed his first oifence; and, finding him
incorrigible, he was presented to a family,
where he afforded the greatest sutirifaction,
being a safe playfellow for the children by day,
and a faithful and vigilant guardian by night.

Dogs taught by children generally acquire a
variety of bad habits, which totally unfit them
for sporting purposes. "We have no doubt,
however, that there are exceptions, and that
some few sportsmen may possess dogs so in-
structed, which are perfect ; but these neither
establish a rule, nor militate against the one
on which we insist. Dogs generally are so
docile, that we are predisposed to believe any-
thing which may be related of any one par-
ticular dog ; but still, when animals are to be
trained for specific purposes, it appears to us
to be judicious to adopt that system which has
been pursued with unqualified success by those
who have devoted all their time and attention
to it, purely as a matter of business ; as it
must be recollected that dogs, like human
beings, vary much in temper and disposition. It
is, therefore, presumable that those who break
the largest number of them are more likely to
discover the best mode of proceeding with, and
treating them, than those whose practice and
experience have been confined to a few, and
those, perhaps, of one particular breed. A
French dog-breaker will undertake to break,
and will succeed thoroughly with, any breed
or race of dog, provided he be about twelve
months old. It therefore appears to us that it
must be conceded to them that their system is
a good one. " We speak advisedly on this
point," says a writer, " as we have seen
various cross-breeds of dogs, which had been
taught by French breakers, bringing their
game perfectly ; and, on one occasion, on our
questioning one of these heroes of the collier
de force on this particular point, his reply
was — ' NHmporte quelle race; aussit6t que
je mets man collier il faut cela marclie,
sacr-r-r-r-r-r^ nam de chien.^ ' AYe have shot
to several pointers and setters broken by the
same man, all of which brought their game
perfectly, never disturbing a single feather,
and always returning the instant they picked
up their birds. This latter result is produced
by giving the spiked collar a sharp jerk in the
first instance, the moment the dog under
instruction picks up whatever is thrown out

TRAixixa.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAinf. [

THAlNlNa.

for him to fetch, in tho event of liis not
returning with it ininu'iliately, oiiiilting thia
iutliction when ho returns j)roiiH)tly, so that tho
fear of receiving this punishment produces an
alacrity which is never ubaudoued, and which
is 80 agrecablo to tho sportsman. AVhen
setters have undergono tho ordeal of tho
collier deforce, they give tho sportsman com-
paratively littlo trouble when ho wishes to
instruct them to back and stand. Having
been mado docile and obedient, more than
half tho difficulty is overcome."

As some of our readers may not bo awaro
as to what sort of an instrument the collier de
force is, we may explain that, in France, it may
generally bo obtained at the shops of tho gun-
luakers and saddlers. It is composed of thick
but pliable leather, stout nails of about three
quarters of an inch in length, and two semir
circular pieces of iron. " The collar may be
two inches in breadth ; length, about three
inches shorter than the circumference of the
dog's neck, for whose use it is intended ; hav-
ing at each end the semi-circular piece of
iron firmly secured by the broad end of it ;
its strength being that of an ordinary buckle
of a dog's collar, and being an inch and a-
half in length ; so that the eitreme ends, when
drawn tightly by one of the cords, will meet.
As there must be two cords, one to lead the
^^o ^J> t^^Q other to inflict punishment — the
former will be fastened to both rings ; the
latter only to one, but passing through the
other ; so that, when it is pulled, the collar
is of necessity contracted, and the nails forced
into the dog's neck. The two pieces of leather
of which the collar is formed, are of similar
Bize and shape, the under one being rather
tiie thinner of the two. It is through this
that tho nails are introduced, the flat heads
lying compactly between the two, and kept
steadily and firmly in their position by strong
sewing. The cord used is generally from
twenty to thirty yards in length."

"U'ith the above implement, the dog under
instruction is forced gradually to do whatever
his instructor requires of him. Several objects
are thrown out to be fetched and carried —
sometimes, a piece of wood, of about nine
inches in length, in the shape of a rollinf^
pin, with two small pegs passed through at
each end, so as to facilitate the dog's picking it

up ; at other times, either a stufled bird or aa
olcl haro skin, tied up in a buiullo; but tho
piece of wood is generally mado use of in the
lirst instance. The first dilUculty is to make
tho dog pick up whatever is thrown down ;
when this, as it were, premier pas, is accom-
plished, tho Bubseijuent instruction is easily,
although only gradually imparted, as con-
tinuous daily lessons must bo persevered in
for tho space of a month, before the dog will
bo thoroughly taught to fetch and carry on
land, without tho risk of disappointment ; and
after this is accomplished, as we have already
intimated, the second course of education,
which consists in forcing him to take water
without flinching, and bringing his game in-
stantly from it, will occasion quite as much
trouble as has been previously incurred, and
occupy about the aamo length of time; a
shallow piece of water being selected for the
necessary manoeuvres, and during the summer
months — this season being most suitable, as
the obstinacy and resistance of the pupil will
frequently necessitate the entrance of the
instructor into the water. " As we have ire-
quently witnessed dogs under this species of
instruction," says the anonymous writer to
whom we are indebted for the information
contained in this part of our subject, " we are
well aware of all the difHculty and trouble
involved in it ; but when it is once thoroughly
carried out, the sportsman W'^l have the satis-
faction of possessing a dog on whom he can
invariably depend, without the slightest fear
of disappointment ; and we do not believe
that this can often be said of dogs that have
been taught by gentle means."

We will now direct our remarks to tho
various methods of breaking and trainins
pointers and setters to stand, back, down
charge, and conduct themselves properly in
the field and on the hill ; aiid if we have
spoken highly of tho French system of break-
ing retrievers, wo cannot say much in behalf
of their method of training pointers and set-
ters, as it is radically bad — repudiating the
very first principle of tho strict adherence to
which the success of all subsequent sound in-
struction :wust depend ; namely, that of down
charge and dropping to hand ; as these are not
only not taught in France, but universally dis-
couraged, inasmuch as every dog is expected

TEAINING.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES;

[teaining-.

to run in immediately after a shot is fired, pick
up and bring whatever game is killed ; and in
the case of a hare being shot at and wounded,
to chase and do his best to catch the hare;
and, if he is absent half an hour, provided he
returns with the hare, his master is highly
delighted, and considers him a first-rate dog.
We have seea. some hundred pointers and
setters — at least what are called so — and never
saw one that either went down to charge, or
that did not invariably chase. As all dogs are
naturally disposed to chase, the highest bred
ones as well as mongrels, it is not to be won-
dered at that when they meet with constant
encouragement they should accomplish this
feat to perfection.

There are various methods of breaking
pointers and setters, recommended by different
sportsmen and gamekeepers ; and although
there is some difierence of opinion as to which
are most advisable to be employed, there is
none as to what the results ought to be. A
good dog is expected to go down to charge,
drop to hand, stand, back, carry his head high,
range well, and quarter his ground in the most
advantageous manner.

The natural requisites in pointers and setters
are good breeding, perfect symmetry, and fine
nose. The two latter qualities are generally
consequent on the first, as it is rare to find a
well-bred dog that is not well made and has a
good nose. Admitting this position to be
correct, attention to breeding becomes im-
portant ; and, supposing a sportsman to have a
first-rate female, either setter or pointer, we
should recommend him to spare no trouble or
expense in procuring or sending to the best
dog he can find ; and if he selects a dog that is
unexceptionable in every respect, there will be
little liability to disappointment. Differing
from opinions given by some excellent sports-
men, we should say that it is best not to breed
constantly in-and-in with dogs used in the sense
of breeding from dogs nearly related one to
another, as we have good reason to believe that
the produce of such connections would be
physically degenerate, and most probably defi-
cient in sagacity. We cannot explain the
physiological reasons for this result, as these,
like many other operations of nature, we fancy
are beyond our intellectual range; but we
think we may safely affirm that the law of
456

nature is universal in this respect, and there-
fore should not be disregarded. Herdsmen,
farmers, shepherds, gardeners, and breeders of
horses and cattle, are all well alive to the fact
that breeding in-and-in produces degeneracy :
it is discernible in plants and seeds as well as
in animals — in potatoes and wheat as well as
in sheep. No good farmer will sow two years
consecutively wheat in the same soil that pro-
duced it; and intelligent gardeners seek for
change of seed. Shepherds, also, who have the
care of large flocks of sheep, make changes
every two years, too obvious to be more than
hinted at, and find these necessary to avoid
degeneracy. We refrain from going further
into the particulars of this law of change, com-
pliance with which is majiifestly universally
required by nature for the maintenance and
advancement of our general interests, inas-
much as the subject, in all its various bearings,
however interesting and important, is not likely
to be settled by us. In support of these views,
some very valuable information has been ad-
vanced on the subject of breeding fowls, not
for the purpose of exhibition, but for the more
important object of utility, where it is stated
that, by following the law of change (i. e.
crossing), heavier, finer, and more marketable
fowls are produced ; and it should be remem-
bered " that the exhibition of birds is only a
secondary consideration when compared with
their commercial utility."

In proceeding with the method of training
and breaking pointers, and setters, we will
assume, for argument's sake, that a young dog
is well bred, of good shape and make, and
about twelve months old, and just brought
home from his walk to be taught everything
which a pointer and setter ought to learn.
The first thing to be done is to make him
thoroughly docile and obedient, to know his
name, to come immediately when called, to
drop to hand, and not to move till he is allowed
to do so. To produce these results, some use
a collar with a cord ; some the spiked collar
with the cord also; and others exert moral
influence aided by the whip. The merit and
success of each plan will depend much upon a
dog's temper, as there is much difference in
this respect ; so that what would produce suc-
cess with one dog would entirely fail with
another. The breaker must, therefore, be

TRAINING BETTER3] FOK MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAllM. [and pointerb.

cuiilod, in a cjrcat inoasuro, by circumstancoa.
If a dog be ofmiKl temper ami naturally docile,
neither collar nor cord will bo required, and
be may bo made to go down without bavin<::
recourse to severe means ; in which caso it will
be merely necessary to place him at a particular
spot, and keep him down with the hand, pro-
nouncing audibly at the same time the words
*' Down, down !" giving a stroke or two with
the whip, in the event of his evincing a dis-
position to move; and, when ho ia thus far
obedient, his instructor must retire from him,
like a courtier after kissing hands, keepmg his
evo upon him till he reaches a distance of forty
or fifty yards, holding one hand up, and not
permitting him to move till bo either calls,
whistles, or makes a movement with his arm.
In the event of his moving before he is ordered,
he must bo taken back to the precise spot
where he was first placed, and made to lie
down ; and this lesson must be repeated till it
fullv succeeds — by which we mean, until the
dog goes down at all times the instant the
words "Down, down!" are pronounced, the
baud being invariably simultaneously held up.
The object of this is, that the dog may ulti-
mately go down and back at all times on his
seeing the hand raised, without its being
necessary to call to him, as speaking would be
disadvantageous when birds are wild ; it being
expedient, when having a brace of dogs at
-^ork, to make one dog stop instantly by a
silent signal when his companion may have
suddenly made a point unperceived.

"When the above means are found insufficient,
the collar with a cord may be used ; and some
think the spiked collar will prove more efiectual
than the plain one, with a cord of about five
yards in length, the end of which can either
be held by a boy, or fastened to a stake. When
this first lesson is imparted, the efficacy of this
plan will soon be perceived, if the dog is at all
unruly or obstinate, by his gradual and pro-
gressive obedience. In the first instance he
may resist; but when he discovers that he
can neither escape nor avoid punishment if he
disobeys, he will yield to his instructor, and
go down when required. The greater the
difficulty, the more certain and implicit will
be the obedience, when the former is once
thoroughly vanquished. Should the dog rise
without permission, or move, he must be forced
3n

back to the precise wpot, and umdo to go down,
receiving at the same time several slmrp jorka
with the cord, and the eamo method of inatruc-
tion adopted as wo have just suggcated. This
mode of infiicting punishment ia preferable to
the use of the whip, as following immediately
any act of disobedience ; it ia more intelligible
to the dog, and makes a more lasting impres-
sion, consequently is more effective.

AV'hen this lesson has been thoroughly and
completely inculcated, so that the dog ia under
perfect command, and will go down instantly
ho is called to, or on the hand being raised,
then he ought to be taken out and taught to
range his ground. The day should bo fine
and suitable ; a slight breeze would be all in
the dog's favour; more than that would bo
prejudicial. In the first instance, it will be
better to go whore game is thin ; and, when ho
is somewhat fatigued, to where it is more
abundant, especially if he has evinced symptoms
of progress. It must be expected that he will
chase in the first instance; but if the collar
and cord be on him, as they should be, these
will check him considerably ; but, oa each
occasion of his committing any ofi'ence, by
either running in or chasing, he must ha
caught and spoken to sharply, and receive a
few smart jerks with the cord — "Down,
down !" being several times simultaneously
repeated.' A steady old dog, taken out with
the young one, will afford considerable facility
in imparting instruction, particularly if thej
are acquainted with each other, as the young
dog will naturally look to the old one, watch
his movements, and go to him when he makes
a point. On these occasions, the breaker must
get up as promptly as he can, in order that ho
may exercise all his influence in encouraging
his pupil if he is doing right, and in re-
straining and punishing him if be is disobe-
dient. The chances are in favour of a dog's
runnino' in the two or three first times,
although he should make a short temporary
point, in which case he must, on each occa-
sion, bo caught, spoken to sharply, and receive
punishment ; and, should he continue to run
in without showing any visible signs of
amendment, then it will be advisable to take a
boy out to hold the cord, so that he may
receive prompt and immediate punishment, if
1 he attempts to dash forward, either on his

457

TEAiNx^G sEiTEKs] THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES; [and pointees.

seeing the old dog point, or on bis perceiving
birds rise, or on their falling if a gun be used.
Three days' perseverance in this system have
been known to succeed in making a dog
perfectly staunch in backing, as well as point-
ing. It is advisable, especially if dogs are
very high couraged, to let them have a little
liberty, and not to be too severe for one or
two days, and to allow the wire edge to be
somewhat taken off, before stringent measures
are had recourse to ; the highest couraged
dogs are generally the wildest at starting,
but, when once broken, prove the best and
staunchest. After one good point has been
made, and a disposition evinced to yield to
sound discipline, the progress is rapid; then
no single fault must be overlooked, however
trifling, and every care and attention is de-
manded of the breaker.

An indispensable requisite to all good dog-
training is, to begin early. There is likewise
another valuable ingredient in the art, namely,
that the words of encouragement or reproof
be always uniformly adhered to. The follow-
ing is a kind of catalogue of phrases, or dic-
tionary words usually connected with the
subject. The word Steady ! ought to be used
when all dogs enter a field, especially young
ones. TaTce heed! implies the same thing.
"When a dog is seen very busy and active with
his nose and tail, feathering as he hunts, then
the word To-ho ! in a mild, but sufficiently
marked and loud tone for the animal's hearing
should be used, to cheer as well as to inspire
caution. Down! or Doion Charge! is a com-
mand to the dogs to crouch, or drop the birds.
Bach ! brings the dogs back again to your
feet. 8eeh out! sends them off again in
quest of game ; but a wave of the hand is
considered much better where it is expected
birds are near. Hie on •' gives a spur to the
timid dog to leave your feet; audi Seek out!
orders him to hunt. Go seek! should be im-
pressed on a dog's memoiy as a command to
look out for something considered as lost, or
wanting ; and the term is distinguished from
geek out, by dogs that are properly trained.
Hold lip ! is used to prevent the dropping of
the nose to the earth to catch the scent,
which, although the odorous particles may not
tave disappeared from the spot the birds stood
on, are chiefly floating in the air ; conse-
458

quently, by holding up his head down wind,
he comes in contact with the scent of the
birds almost immediately. The puzzle peg is
used as a last resource when Hold up ! is not
attended to.

Ware •' is a word of caution ; and Ware
Hare ! is to check the animal from running
after the hare, when partridges, grouse, or
pheasants are at hand. It is a good device to
accustom a dog to atttend to signs as well as
words ; for a wave of the hand will often do
more execution than loud shouting.

The pairing season is a good time to break
young dogs, as birds lie well ; and this is an
important point, and not to be disregarded.
It would not only be detrimental to make the
attempt with wild birds, but, in all probability,
end in complete failure, and give the breaker
considerable additional trouble on a future
occasion. If a dog is not intended for the
moors, and only for the marsh and field, then
snipes are excellent birds to introduce to his
notice, especially the Jack snipe, as he lies
remarkably close, and a few of these shot on
the ground, before the dog's nose, make him
remarkably staunch.

"When dogs are commenced to be taught to
range, give them the wind as much as possible,
but never persevere long in one direction ;
but, on the contrary, change your course con-
stantly, alternately right and left, so as to in-
duce your dog to watch your movements,
without its being necessary to speak to him,
by which means, if you are successful, he will
subsequently beat his ground exactly as you
desire, being influenced by your movements,
whicli is a great advantage.

AYhen a dog is beginning to learn his busi-
ness and becoming steady, it is not a bad
plan to go at right angles to the wind, as, in
the event of his picking up a bird or two, and
being merely scolded and made ashamed, he
will be more careful and carry his head better
when he goes partially down wind ; and, more-
over, when he points, will give you an oppor-
tunity of heading him, whereby you can put
his patience and staunchness to the test, and
will, at the same time, cure him of "blinking,"
if he has ever shown any disposition to do so,
which means leaving a point after it has been
made, and coming back to the gun — not a com-
mon fault, but one which sometimes occurs.

oBEAKiyo D009.] FOR MOUNTAIX, FIELD, AND FAUM.

[Si'ANIKLS.

The very best of dogs will sometimes put
up a bird ; therefore n doi^ must not be con-
demned on Ills first trial if he eouunit a fault,
but be rather judged by liia general conduct.
In grouse-shooting sportsmen like to givo
their dosjs the wind as much as possible ; but
when birds are wild there is sometimes an
advantage in going down wind witli one old
steady cunning dog, who will " sink" the wind,
and get beyond running birds and head them,
in whicli ease even wild old euuning cocks, on
liuding themselves between two enemies, will
allow the sportsman to get within shot. We
are aware that this is not the regular mode of
proceeding ; but it is one of the many expe-
dients which may be resorted to when birds
are wild at the end of the season.

Setters and pointers may be either broken
in the shooting season, or out of it, with, or
without the gun ; if without the gun in the
pairing season, the breaker must take with him
a horse-pistol, which lie can discharge on the
rising of birds, in order to accustom the young
dog to the sound of the report, and also to
make him down charge. The shooting season
we think is the best time to complete the
education of a dog, provided the sportsman is
disposed to take the trouble on himself, and
has patience to pay the requisite attention ; a
few shots may be lost at starting, but the pro-
gress of the dog is rapid, if he is well tired
down each day, and plenty of game found and
killed to him. At the commencement much
work and little game is best for a young dog ;
but when he begins to behave well, he requires
the encouragement of more game, but without
diminution of work. There is little difficulty,
■we apprehend, in breaking a well-bred dog,
provided the proper preliminary measures
which we have suggested be strictly attended
to. "Well-bred pointer, and setter puppies,
have frequently been seen to back and stand
instinctively ; and most sportsmen who have
resided much in the country, we have no
doubt, have constantly witnessed young dogs
in a farmyard pointing all sorts of poultry.

Belore concluding these remarks, we must
notice one fault occasionally to be found in
puppies, which must be counteracted — it is
that of carrying their heads low, and endea-
vouring to make out scent as a spaniel would
do. The remedy for this is an implement

called a puzzle, made of iron, fastened in such
a manner that the dog is obliged to carry his
head higii. Tiie above fault is rarelv found in
high-bred dogs ; they almost invariably carry
their heads well — an advantage which the ex-
perienced sportsnum ap[)reciate8 ; Iiis logs are
saved, and he procures good sport, where
second-rate dogs would have completely failed.
Tho other dogs, more especially of tho
spaniel kind, are the Cocker, the Springer,
the JJlenheim Spaniel, and tlie King Charles'
Spaniel. They are all, more or less, adapted
for the field.

TIIE COCKER.
This dog is like a small land-spaniel, but
with a shorter muzzle, a more rounded head,
and longer ears. He is a lively little animal,
and is used to spring woodcocks and pheasants
in copses and thickets, where larger dogs can-
not enter. He is very hardy, and never seems
to tire at his work. He may, therefore, bo
hunted for days together; but he is difficult
to keep under command, and he gives tongue
loudly.

THE SPRTNGER
Is only a larger-sized cocker, heavier in make,
and neither so active, nor so lively as the
other.

THE BLENHEIM SPANIEL.
"Blenheim Palace, near AVoodstock, Ox-
fordshire," Bays Mr. Kichardson, " was for-
merly the estate of King Ethelred, and since
that of Henry II., as also the birthplace of
several princes of the royal line of England ;
subsequently the prison of Queen Elizabeth,
during a portion of Queen Mary's reign ; and
afterwards granted by Queen Anne to John
Duke of Marlborough, with the present
palace, for his great victory over the French
and Bavarians, at the village of Blenheim, in
Suabia, a.d. 1704. In this superb mansion
has been preserved, for the last century and a
half, the small red-and-white spaniel, or com-
forter, the "Pyrame" of Buffou — the Blen-
heim spaniel of the present day. Except for
their beauty and attachment, they are of but
little use, although some of the breeds bring
a long price. From their restlessness, and
proneness to give tongue on the least alarm,

459

SPANIELS.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[BLENHEIM SPANIELS.

tliey make excellent watch-doga inside a
house."

THE KING CHARLES SPANIEL.

This breed is distinguished by the shortness
of the muzzle — the round and bullet-like shape
of the head — the prominence of his eye — the
length of his ears — and his colour, which must
be black and tan. The Suffolk Sportsman
says — "the cocking or gun-spaniel of true
perfect breed is of one general or whole colour ;
either black, or black and tan, commonly called
King Charles's breed, or red in different
shades, paler and deeper;" and concluding
with "legs short and breeches behind." This
diminutive animal was the favourite of King
Charles II., who had some of this kind con-
stantly with him in his walks, and who was
more partial to his dogs than to his duties as
the sovereign of a great people. The breed is
preserved in the family of the Duke of Norfolk,
at Arundel Castle, where they are fondled and
petted, we believe, in such a manner, as to lift
them to the dignified position of being re-
garded as members of the family. James II.,
of unfortunate memory, was, also, extremely
partial to these dogs, hence they have received
the title of " the royal race," and are now
generally regarded as such.

In Loudon, where these dogs are bred with
great care, and to the highest degree of per-
fection, the Blenheim is frequently crossed
with the Charles, so that the variety of colour
on which the difference of nomenclature
depends often appears in the same litter ; the
black and tan being denominated " King
Charles," and the red and white " Blenheim."

Several "spaniel clubs" have been formed,
with a view to promote the careful breeding of
these dogs ; and of some of these His late
Eoyal Highness the Prince Consort was patron,
both her majesty and the prince beiug enthu-
siastic admirers of them. His Eoyal Highness
had, at no sparing outlay, erected a superb
kennel for them at Windsor.

The members of the spaniel clubs subscribe
a small sum each, and, with the amount con-
tributed, a handsome collar of silver,^ with gold
entablature, is purchased ; a particular day is
then named, and judges are appointed, when
each member brings to the club-room a dog of
bis own rearing, and that dog adjudged to
460

possess the greatest number of good points
attains the collar as a prize.

King Charles and Blenheim spaniels have
been known, in London, to fetch the price of
from 150 to 200 guineas!

The affection of these dogs for their owners
is extreme ; and their general intelligence is
such, that they would seem almost to partici-
pate in the pleasures of a quiet drawing-room
conversation, when carried on by those who
are attached to them. They are capable of
serving in the field, but their continual yafiing
is very apt to mar the sport. They, however,
like other dogs of the species, could undergo
the process of training, and be made of con-
siderable use in some kinds of hunting. In
England, however, they live for other pur-
poses— for admiration and a couch in the lap
of a lady, where we will leave them to make
the following extract from Mr. Blaine : —

" The old Marquis of Granby was the owner
of a very celebrated breed (of Spaniels) ; and,
in later times, the Duke of Marlborough, and
his descendants, have been famed for what was
known as the Blenheim breed ; and the late
Lady Charles Spencer, with whom we were on
terms of intimacy, kept numbers of them, and
was so devoted to their welfare, that, we
believe, she never wore a pin in any part of
her dress, fearing that it might be accidentally
the means of wounding one of these favourites.
They were, one and all, red and white, zealous
hunters in the field, but required much trouble
to break. A still more notorious variety, waa
the black and tan spaniel of King Charles,
which continued to be cultivated with such
jealous care, by the late Duke of Norfolk, that
no interest could obtain one without a strict
injunction from the owner, and almost a
solemn promise from the receiver, that he or
she would not breed from it in the direct line.
The late Duchess of York, who honoured us
with much condescending notice, by sending
for us frequently to Oatlands, either to consult
us on the ailments of the poor around her, or
on her brute favourites, of which, it is well
known, she had a varied assemblage, aflbrded
us a striking proof of what we have stated.
On one occasion, when we were accompanying
her royal highness to her menagerie, with
almost a kennel of canine favourites behind
her, after drawing our attention to a jet black

NEWFOUNDLANDS.] F OK 31 O U N T A 1 X, riELi), AM) FAUM. [.NtWlOCNDLJLSDS.

pui; pup she h:ul just receivi'd from Germany,
alio rcmarkfil, thai .s'.iu was j^oin;; to sliow ino
what she consideivil a present of nmcli f^poater
rarity, which was a truo spaniel of king
Charles's breed, sent to lier by tho Duko of
Norfolk. *lJut,' she observed, 'would you
believe he could be so ungallant as to write
word, that be must have a positive promise,
not from mvself, but from the Duke of York,
that I should not breed from it in a direct
line?' It would almost seem that the word of
ladies of high rank was not in equal estima-
tion with that of the gentlemen of the same
rank, at least that Norfolk's duke did not
think it so; for it happened, a very little time
after, when professionally waiting on the
Princess Sophia of Gloucester, her royal high-
ness, also, showed us a very fine young spaniel
of the Norfolk breed, which she, likewise, ob-
served was only presented by tho duke on an
understanding guaranteed, not by herself, but
by her brother, the Duke of Gloucester, that
it should not be bred from in the Charles's
line. "Whatever view v.e take of these restric-
tive attempts," adds Mr. Blaine, " we may,
however, be assured that Nature will frustrate
them ; for not only is the Norfolk breed, but
the Blenheim also, sufficiently common at the
present time ; and they ought to be, for both
are great ornaments to the race, and make
very many springers. "VVe think it our duty,
likewise, to observe, that however some ladies
might not think themselves strictly bound by
an agreement on such a subject, we feel as-
sured that neither of those we have noticed on
this occasion would have done other than
strictly abide by the compact ; and we are
confident that those who were much better
acquainted with them than we could possibly
be, would bear us out in our assertion."

THE NEWFOUNDLAND.
The Labrador and Newfoundland dogs are
often confounded together. The Labrador doer
exceeds the Newfoundland animal in point of
size, and is often of extraordinary dimensions. I
A fine specimen, measured some time since,
gave the following particulars : — Total length,
including the tail, six feet three inches ;
height at shoulder, two feet six inches ; length
of head from occiput to point of nose, eleven
inches ; circumference of chest, three feet one ,

I inch. In Labrador, theao powerful and in-
telligent dogs aro used for drawing sledges,
and aro of great service to tho settlers.

Nowfouudhmd dogs aro of less stature, but
more compactly built, and aro muscular and
sagacious. Tiieso animals aro also used for
drawing sledges, and littlo carriages laden
with wood, fish, and other commodities, and
aro very valuable in their native country.
Both the Labrador and Newfoundland breeds
aro admirable water-dogs, and make excellent
retrievers. Their fidelity and attachment to
their masters are well known, and all aro
fimiiliar with instances in which human beings,
about to perish in the water, have owed their
life to the courage and exertions of these de-
voted creatures. Mr. Blaine classes tho New-
foundland dog with the spaniels — a classifica-
tion from which Mr. Eichardson dissents, lie
makes a distinct group of tho Newfoundlands,
which he denominates a wolf-group.

"I am compelled," he says, "thus arbitrarily
to give, perhaps, an undeserved name to tho
present group ; but it is the only one by
means of which I can accurately indicate the
family of dogs to which I refer. The indi-
viduals of which this group is composed, all
bear a greater or less resemblance to the wolf,
in erect, or semi-erect ears, in long and shaggy
coats, and bushy tails. Tho Newfoundland
dog is fully entitled to be placed at the head
of the group ; from his being better known
than the others, from his greater beauty, his
sagacity, his nobility of nature and disposi-
tion, his utility to mankind, and the high
degree of estimation in which he is held in
every part of the world where ho is known.
Those who have grouped these dogs with the
spaniels, are in error, for they possess none of
the characteristics of that group.

"The true breed of Newfoundland," he
continues, "is a dog of moderate stature,
seldom exceeding twenty-six or twenty-seven
inches in height; long-bodied, broad-chested,
a shaggy coat, a poiuted wolfish muzzle, ears
small, and inclined to the semi-erect ; colour
usually black, with a shade of brown through
it, and occasionally some white. There is
another breed of dog peculiar to Newfound-
land ; short-coated, and sharp-nosed — an ex-
cellent water-dog, by some mistak"'i for the
true Newfoundland breed.

4G1

NEWFOTJNDLAKDS.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[origin.

" The large dogs usually known as Newfound-
lands in this country, are evidently the result
of a cross with the mastiff. They are a fine,
showy animal ; but less sagacious, less active,
and more apt to display irregularity of temper
than the original breed ; they often attain the
height of thirty inches. These large dogs are
rapidly becoming the peculiar breed of New-
foundland; and dogs of this sort are gladly
imported there, whereas our Newfoundland
friends have now little or nothing but curs to

offer in return.

* # » *

" The origin of this dog is questionable ;
but I am disposed to trace him to a large
European variety, still in use among the Nor-
wegians, for the chase of the bear and wolf.
It is now well known that the original dis-
covery of Newfoundland is to be attributed to
the Norwegians, who, before the year 1,000,
sailed from Greenland on a voyage of dis-
covery, and that the same people discovered
North America some time between the tenth
and eleventh centuries."

Mr. Blaine says, "that although this dog
was, without doubt, first introduced to general
notice from Newfoundland, there is reason to
suppose that it was originally derived from
the large dogs of Spain, introduced by the
early discoverers of the American continent,
which, intermixing with the native breeds,
produced an increase of size and power in the
future races. These would be encouraged by
the natives, because the use they made of
them as beasts of draught were thereby better
fulfilled. Such, we have reason to believe, was
the first improvement made in the native dogs
of those countries, which, as far as a factitious
breed can continue its like, seemed, but in
limited numbers, to have remained a standard
among them until E .glish importations had
drained almost all of them. Another variety
forms the smaller, smooth aquatic dog of New-
foundland. When the English settled there,
they, without doubt, carried some of the
largest and most powerful of the water spaniel
breed, to assist them in the hunting and the
shooting of wild fowl; and there is little
reason to doubt, that an intermixture with
these also assisted in perfecting a breed,
whence our admired specimens of the large
Newfoundland dog arose; the breeding of
4G2

which, however, was never carried to any great
extent in that country. The rigours of tha
climate, and the difficulty of procuring food
for it during some seasons of the year, were
unfavourable to both the production of num-
bers, and the full development of the frame.
The splendid animal we now see has been
greatly increased in size, since its residence
among us. We have cultivated it so as to
make it now an Euglish breed ; while in New-
foundland it is at present so nearly extinct,
that a writer, in a new series of the Sporting
Magazine, states that he could not find a
single dog of the kind at St. John's. If this
be so, it is a mistake when naturalists assert
that the dog we possess is the same with that
which is employed ' in their native districts in
place of the horse.' "

Of all the species of the canine race there
is none exhibits so much dignity, such a
nobility of nature as the Newfoundland. He
is majesty itself, and seems to be conscious of
the power and appearance of which he is
possessed; whilst he rarely descends to the
level of other dogs in combating in the streets.
This does not arise from cowardice, but from
the excellence of his disposition, and the high
intelligence with which he is endowed. As an
aquatic dog, he is second only to the water-
spaniel ; his feet being webbed, and that
element seeming to him as natural as the
terra Jlrma upon which he walks. Some time
ago, ten of these animals were imported into
Paris, for the purpose of watching the banks ot
the Seine. They were overlooked by regular
trainers, whose duty it was to teach them to
draw from the river figures stuffed, so as to
have a close resemblance to those of children
and full grown persons. Commodious kennels
were erected for them on the bridges, and they
were not long before they became adepts at
plunging into the water, and rescuing from
the grave many unfortunate drowning indi-
viduals.

The sagacity of the Newfoundland is almost
human ; and the variety of his accomplish-
ments are such as to place him at the very
head of all the canine races. In the various
capacities of watch-dog, companion, water-dog,
pointer, and retriever, he has been successful ;
whilst the pliability of his temper, and the
docility of his nature, renders him capable of

NEWF0USDLAMJ3.] iUli -MULMTAl^', FIELD, ASD i'AltM. [n£wfoundlaj.'db.

being tauc;ht anything almost, but to read and
speak. J I is courago is groat; and, as tho
sate-guard of a iiousehold, tliero is much more
dependence to bo phiced upon him than upon
the niastifl'. Ou tho authority of tho Boston
Traveller, we give tlie following example of the
sagacity of this kind of dog, in performing
some of tho duties of civilised life : —

Our neighbour of the Evening Gazette has re-
cently referred to a sagacious dog of the New-
foundland brood, owned by ^Ir. JJawes, of this
city, who comes regularly to the Traveller
counting room, every afternoon, and putting
his paws upon the counter, receives his mas-
ter's paper, and is oli' to his store. This same
dog has other ways of his own, which are often
amusing, though occasionally a little trouble-
some. Like his biped associates in this world
of bustle and hurry, he requires to be waited
on with the least possible delay ; and if he is
not attended to, he is quite likely to help him-
self, often making reprisals on us for our inat-
tention, by taken from the pile of papers a
mouthful, perhaps half a dozen. He seems
to have very imperfect ideas of the distinction
between ineum and tuu7n — as much so as any
person on 'Change. If, therefore, on coming
to our counter, he finds it bare of papers, he
casts an imploring look around the room, and
if a luckless boy loiters with a paper in his
hand, to watch the movements of the sagacious
animal, the dog will seize the coveted paper,
and be ofi' before the astonished boy has time
to rescue his stolen property. "We are often
reminded by the movements of this intelligent
quadruped of the favourite saying of a certain
queer old fellow : — " There is a great deal of
human nature in beasts."

There are innumerable anecdotes illustra-
tive of the intelligence of the Newfoundland,
which, when full grown, and of pure breed,
should measure upwards of six feet from the
point of the nose to the tip of the tail. This
may seem an extraordinary length ; but the
beautiful proportions of this animal, with the
general upward curve, or bend of the tail, has
an apparent effect in lessening this measure.
Over the shoulders, from one fore foot to the
other, the measurement is upwards of five feet
and a half; round the head, and across the
ears, about two feet ; the length of the head,
about fourteen inches ; and the upper part of

tho leg, about ten inches. This is tho mea-
sure of an animal whon full grown and in his
prime. Jlis body is covered witli long curly
hair ; his legs are also well-clutlied ; and hig
tail, likewise, is abundantly covered.

According to Mr. Kichardson, tho New-
foundland is of com[)aratively recent introduc-
tion to this country. " From tho great share
of emulation which nature has given him,"
says that gentleman, " to bo surpassed, or
overcome, would occasion groat pain. On
every emergency ho is active, the friend of all,
and is naturally without the least disposition
to quarrel with other animals. He seldom, or
ever oilers offence , but will not receive an in-
sult or injury with impunity. Such is tho
capacity of his understanding, that he can bo
taught almost anything that man can incul-
cate, of which his own strength and frame are
capable. His sagacity can only be exceeded
by his energies, and ho perseveres with un-
abated ardour in whatever manner he is em-
ployed. "While he has a hope of success, he
will never slacken in his efforts to attain it.
The amazing pliability of his temper peculiarly
fits him for man's use ; and he never shrinks
from any service which may be required of
him, but undertakes it with an ardour propor-
tional to the difficulty of its execution. He
takes a singular pride in being employed, and
will carry a bundle, stick, or basket, in his
mouth, for miles, and to deprive him of either
of these is more than a stranger could, with
safety, accomplish. Sagacity, and a peculiarly
faithful attachment to the human species,
are characteristics inseparable from this dog,
and hence he is ever on the alert to ward off"
impending danger from his master, and to
free him from every peril to which he may be
exposed. From the astonishing degree of
courage with which he is endowed, he is ever
ready to resent an insult, or to defend his
friend, even at the hazard of his own life. In-
clined habitually to industrious employment,
such dogs are as useful to the settlers of the
coast, from which they are brought, as our
galloways and ponies are to us. It is easy to
accustom them to daily labour. From three
to five of them are harnessed to a sledge, or
otlier vehicle, containing a load of wood, or
lumber, amounting to twenty or thirty stones,
which they will draw very steadily for miles,

4G3

XABEADOE DOG.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES; [i-abeadoe spakiel.

with ease, and will do this without the aid of
a driver, when acquainted with the road ; and
having delivered their burden, they return
home to their masters, and receive, as a re-
ward for their labour, their accustomed food,
which generally consists of dried fish, of which
they are said to be extremely fond."

THE LABRADOR DOG.

This is an animal considerably larger than
the Newfoundland, with a shorter muzzle, a
more pendulous upper lip, a coarser coat, and
altogether exhibiting marks of greater athletic
power than are presented in the form of the
Newfoundland. He stands from twenty-eight
to thirty inches high.

The following are the measurements of a
dog of this breed, given in KnigMs Weehli;
Volume : — " Total length, including the tail,
six feet three inches ; height at the shoulder,
two feet six inches ; length of head, from
occiput to point of nose, eleven inches ; cir-
cumference of chest, three feet one inch. In
Labrador, these large dogs are used in draw-
ing sledges, loaded with wood, and are of great
service to the settlers."

A fine specimen of this dog belonged to
Lady Bellew, of Barmeath. It stood about
twenty-nine inches high at the shoulder.
This animal, although used for purposes of
draught in his native country, might be applied
to hunting purposes, as his scent is very keen.

THE LABRADOR SPANIEL.

In point of size, this dog stands between
the Newfoundland and the land-spaniel. It
is remarkable for its aquatic predilections, and,
as a diver, is unrivalled. In reference to this
animal, Mr. Eichardson gives the following
anecdote, on the authority of Saunders's News-
Letter, a Dublin newspaper, where it appeared
on the 1st of September, 1846. If true, it
places the sagacity and disposition of this kind
of dog, in a very favourable light : — ■

" JBeeler, the Dog of the Police. — During a
recent investigation relative to the manner in
which the policeman came by his death at
Kingstown, a little active and inquisitive dog,
of the Labrador breed, was seen, from time to
time, during each day, running in and out of
the room, as if he took a personal interest in
the inquiry. The dog was admired, and a
464i

gentleman in the police establishment was
asked to whom it belonged. ' Oh,' said he,
' don't you know him ? we thought every one
knew Peeler, the dog of the police.' The
gentleman then proceeded to give the inter-
rogator the history of this singular dog. It
appeared from the story, that, a few years ago,
poor little Peeler tempted the canine appetite
of a Mount St. Bernard, or Newfoundland
dog, and was in peril of being swallowed up
by him for a luncheon, when a policeman
interposed, and, with a blow of his baton,
levelled the assailant, and rescued the assailed.
Prom that time Peeler has united his fortunes
with those of the police ; wherever they go, he
follows ; whether pacing with measured tread
the tedious ' beat,' or engaged in the energetic
duty of arresting a disturber of the public
peace. He is a self-constituted general super-
intendent of the police, visiting station after
station, and, after he has made his observation
in one district, wending his way to the next.
He is frequently seen to enter a third-class
carriage at the Kingstown Eailway, get out at
Black Eock, visit the police station there, con-
tinue his tour of inspection to Booterstown,
reach there in time for the train as before,
and go on to Dublin to take a peep at the
' metropolitans ;' and having satisfied himself
that ' all is right,' return by an early evening
train to Kingstown. He sometimes takes a
dislike to an individual, and shuns him as
anxiously as he wags his tail at the approach,
and frisks about the feet of another, for whom
he has a regard. There is one man in the
force for whom he has this antipathy ; and, a
day or two ago, seeing him in ' the train,' he
left the carriage, and waited for the next, pre-
ferring a delay of half an hour to such com-
pany ; and when the bell rang, with the eager-
ness with which protracted joy is sought, he
ran to his accustomed seat in ' the third class.'
His partiality for the police is extraordinary ;
wherever he sees a man in the garb of a con-
stable, he expresses his pleasure by walking
near him, rubbing against, and dancing about
him. Nor does he forget him in death ; for
he was at his post at the funeral of Daly, the
policeman who was killed in Kingstown. He
is able to recognise a few in plain clothes ;
but they must have been old friends of his.
Wherever he goes, he gets a crust, a piece oi

roMERASiANDOoOrOR MOUNTAIN, rii:!.l), ANT) I' A IIM. rnsQviMAUX »oo.

meat, a pat on tlio iieatl, or n rub down upon
Ilia glossy back by the liaiid of :i polioeujan ;
and ho is as well Unowu amongst tia' body as
any ono in it. Wo liavo hoard of tho dog of
Montargis, the soldier's dog, tho blind bcg-
Ljar's dog, and tho dog of tiio moidts of St.
Bernard, and been delighti-d by stories of
their iidellty and sagacity ; but uono aro more
interesting tliau * Peeler, tho dog of tho
police,' ' whose heart, enlarged with gratitude
to one, grows bountiful to all.' "

THE CALABRIAN OR PYRENEAN WOLF-DOG.

This is the shepherd's dog of tlio Abruzzo,
standing about twenty-nine or thirty inches
high at tho shoulder. He is usually of a white
colour, with one or two patches of bulf or tan
on the head or sides; the ears are not hairy,
and are half erect ; the tail is bushy, and is
carried, in a curl, close over the back ; the nose
is pointed, and the general aspect of the head
wolfish. They fijl the position of tho Scotch
colley, or that of the English sheep-dog, to the
Spanish and Italian shepherds, but are rather
jiuardians than herders of the flocks. Their
great value is to protect the sheep from tho
attacks of wolves and other ferocious animals.

THE POMERANIAN DOG.

This is a small dog, and usually of a white
colour. It is not twenty inches high at the
shoulder; its ears are perfectly erect, like
those of a fox, with an unfringcd tail, bushed
all round like tliat of the fox. It is often
called the "Ibx-dog," from its resemblance to
that animal.

There is a small Chinese variety of dog, so
closely resembling the Pomeranian (except in
colour, being usually yellow or black), that they
cannot be distinguished from one another.

"These are the dogs used as food by the
natives. There are regular dog-butchers in
most of the Chinese towns ; and dog's flesh,
especially roasted, is held in high esteem. It
is not long since, that not only was ' roasted
dog' regarded as the very quintessence of good
living, but that, like ' living turtle' among us,
its promised appearance at the board was
regularly announced as an attraction to the
invited guests."

3o

Tin: IIMIK-I.SDIAN DOG.
This dog was lirst described by Dr. Hiehard-
son, anil found by hint on tho Mackenzie
river. It is of small size, and slenderly made,
with broad, erect ears, sharp at tho tips; tho
tail is pendent, with a slight curve upwards,
near tho tip. Ono which Dr. Kiclmrdsen had
was killeil and eaten by ono of his Indian
guides, who stated that he mistook it for a fox.
Tiio feet of this animal are large, spread, and
abundantly covered with fur, in cousequenco
of which ho can run upon tho snow with
rapidity and ease, without sinking. In their
native country, these dogs never bark ; in con-
fiuemeut they do.

THE ESQUIMAUX DOG.
This dog is as large as the Xewfoundlancl,
with long, coarse hair, and his tail curling
over the back. Its ears are pointed and erect,
and, in his general appearance, bears a strong
resemblance to the wolf. He has a consider-
able share of intelligence and good temper.
In his native country he is harnessed to tho
sledge, and generally performs the work of a
draught animal. He is capable of undergoing
great iatigue, and is both active and swift.

Besides this last dog of the north, there is
the Siberian dog, a powerful animal; the
Kamtschatka dog ; the Iceland dog; the Green-
land dog ; and the Lapland dog ; of which last,
Mr. Clarke, in his work on Scandinavia, has
given a description. He says — " "We had a
j valuable companion in a dog, belonging to one
of the boatmen. It was of the true Lapland
breed, and in all respects similar to a wolf,
I excepting the tail, which was bushy and curled,
' like those of the Pomeranian race. This dog,
' swimming after the boat, if his master merely
waved his hand, would cross the lake as often
as he pleased, carrying half his body and the
whole of his head and tail out of the water.
I "Wherever he landed he scoured all the long
I grass by the side of the lake, in search of wild
' fowl, and came back to us, bringing wild ducks
' in his mouth to tho boat; and then, having
delivered his prey to his master, he would
instantly set off again in search of more."

These animals are also employed in a simib.-
capacity to that in which our Drover's dog ia
employed. They herd the reindeer. A gentle-

465

ESQuiMArx Doa.] THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[wATER-DOa,

man who yisited a Lap encampment, thus
writes : —

" While I sojourned on the Island of Tromso,
learning that on the neighbouring mainland
some Laplanders were encamped, I resolved
to pay them a visit. Procuring a boat, I rowed
over to the opposite shore, where I met with a
Nordlander, who informed rae that the Lap
encampment might be found somewhere toward
the extremity of Tromsdal — a magnificent
ravine commencing at no great distance from
the shore, and running directly inland. He
stated that the Laps had a noble herd of reiyis
(the name universally given to reindeer), about
eight hundred in number, and that, when the
wind blew from a certain quarter, the whole
herd would occasionally wander close to his
house, but a rein-Jiund (reindeer-dog) was kept
by him to drive them back. * * * # *
" Onward we went, driving the herd, in which
I gleefully helped, the three little dogs at times
barking and fetching up stragglers. The Laps
occasionally gave a short cry or urging shout
to the reins, and I burst forth with my full-
lunged English hallo, to the evident amuse-
ment of my companions. The scene was most
exciting. The brilliant sunlight, the green
grass, the spai-kling, murmuring Elv, the pic-
turesque glen, the figures of the Laps, the
moving herd of reins — the novelty of the whole
was indescribably delightful. I found the reins
did not make such a ' clicking' noise as most
travellers have asserted. Here were hundreds
of reins striking their hoofs together,- and yet
the noise was certainly anything but loud from
their cloven feet and horny fetlocks, and would
hardly have been noticeable had I not par-
ticularly listened for it. But another thing, of
which I had never read any notice, struck rae
much — the loud, snorting noise emitted by the
deer at every step. Uupoetical as my fancy
may seem, it reminded me most strongly of the
grunting of swine, but was certainly not so
coarse a noise, and, at the same time, partook
much of the nature of a snort. The cause of
the noise is this : when the deer are heated,
they do not throw off their heat in sweat—
their skin is too thick for thatj but, like the
dog, they emit the heat through the mouth.
The size of some of the reins astonished me.
In many instances they were as large as Shet-
land ponies, and some had most magnificent

branching antlers of a very remarkable size.
This is the only animal of the deer genus
which invariably has a horizontal branch from
the main antlers, projecting in a line over each
eye. These antlers are covered with a short
grey hair. Some of the herd in question had
broken pieces off their antlers, which hung
down, bleeding, by the skin. The does also
have antlers, but very small, and generally
straight, which, when skinned and dried, can
be distinguished from those of the male by
their whiteness. All the herd were casting
their winter hair, and consequently their coats
looked rather ragged and parti-coloured — the
new colour being generally a dark, and the old
a light grey. In some cases, however, the deer
are white ; and, in winter, all are more or less
of a light colour. There were many pretty
young does running among the herd."

THE GREAT ROUGH WATER-DOG.

This dog has a long and curled coat ; a large
and round head ; well covered ears ; somewhat
short legs ; and is generally of a black, black-
and-white, . or brown colour. His sagacity is
considerable, and he has sufiicient courage to
attempt anything when backed by his master.
The water is his element. Here he delights
to move in ; and when swimming, he seems
rather to float, and make his way without
either motion or exertion of the limbs. He is
capable of being made a good retriever, but his
training would require to be conducted with
great care, as he is apt to mangle his bird,
from the severity with which he uses his teeth.

The water-dog is a very difierent animal
from either the Grermau or French poodle, and
has an originality of his own. Eegardiug this
dog, Mr. Eichardson gives the following anec-
dote : — " I recollect a singularly large dog of
this breed, about ten years ago, in possession
of Mr. Grierson, of North Hanover-street,
Edinburgh, near the foot of the Mound,
which was possessed of unusual intelligence.
Amongst other eccentricities, this dog followed
the profession of mendicancy, and regularly
solicited the charity of the passers-by. On
receiving a halfpenny, his habit was, if hungry,
to proceed at once to the shop of Mr. Nelson,
at the corner of Eose-street, and purchase a
biscuit; but it sometimes happened that he
put by his halfpence until the calls of appetite

TiiK I'oor. i.i:.]

FOll MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM.

[MASTirra.

rr>tiirnecl ; 2iiul lie would <:jo to his repository,
lake the luont'v to the baltor's, and make hia
purchase. A servant of Mr. Griorson's acci-
diMit.iliy caiiio upon this sai^acious and pro-
vidi'ut animal's hoardini^-plac-o on one occasion,
where were Ibuiul about iivepence-hairpenny
in halfpence. The do<>f chanced to enter at the
moment of the discovery, and with a «»rowl of
displeasure ho rushed to the spot, and snatchinfr
up his wealth, proceeded at lull speed to the
shop, and dashed the money on the counter,
barking vehemently at the same time, probably
deeming it safer to turn it into broad at once
than risk being robbed by keeping it."

THE POODLE

Has a coat of wool rather than of hair, and
bears a strong resemblance to the great water-
dog, of the habits of which he partakes, in
reference to his partiality for the element from
which the other derives his distinction. This
animal is as remarkable for his sagacity as
many more of the race to which he belongs.
He is extremely useful to persons engaged in
the pursuit of water-fowl. He swims well, is
very hardy, and is an excellent retriever. The
French poodle may be referred to the spaniels.
He appears to be very nearly allied to tlie rough
water-dog figured by Bewick ; the " grand
barbet" of Buffon, of which there is a smaller
variety, termed " le petit larbet."

In a paper, entitled " Sketches of Burschen

Life," published in The Dublin Univej'sify

JIaf/azine, appears the following ludicrous

aiecdote of a poodle and a short-sighted pro-

ossor: —

" There was a story, when we were in Heidel-
berg, going about, of a certain student who had

a remarkably fine white poodle ; the intelligence
and sagacity of the animal were uncommon;
and, aa he used daily to accompany his masiter
to the lecture-room of a professor, who was not
very remarkable for the distiactness of his
vision, he would regularly take his seat upon
the bench beside his master, and peer into his
book, as if he understood every word of it.

*' One wet morning, the lecture-room, never
at any time remarkable ibr its fulness, was
deserted, save by the student who owned the
poodle. The dog, however, had somehow hap-
pened to remain at home.

"'Gentlemen,' said the short-sighted pro-
fessor, as he commenced his lecture, 'I am
sorry to notice that the very attentive student
in the white coat, whose industrv I have not
failed to observe, is, contrary to his usual
custom, absent to-day !' "

THE LITTLE BARBET.
This is nothing more than a smaller variety
of the poodle, the head being covered with
straight and silky hair — the rest of the body
having a curly and woolly coat.

THE SILKY BOG— CHIEN DB SOIE.

Like a very small poodle, but covered with
a long and silky coat. It is a great favoiirile
with the French females.

THE LION DOG
Has a mane like a lion, the rest of the body
being covered with short hair. It is supposed
to have sprung from a cross between the small
barbet and naked Turk. It is of no use as a
dog, but interesting as a variety of the species
to which he belou<r3.

CHAPTER VIL

AL\STIFF3

"We now enter upon a group of dogs dis-
tinguished by the shortness of the muzzle and
the breadth of the head ; this latter character

resulting, not from a corresponding develop-
ment of the brain, but from the magnitude of
the temporal muscles, which are attached to a

467

BEiTisH MASTiFj?.] THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIBTIES; [cubak mastii-f.

bony ridge passing down the median line of the
skull. The expression of the eves is lowering
and ferocious ; the jaws are very strong ; the
lips pendulous ; the general form is thick-set
and robust ; and the limbs are muscular.

This group comprehends the mastiff, the
bulldog, and their allies. In sagacity and in-
telligence these dogs are not to be compared
to the Newfoundland, the spaniel, or the
shepherd's dog. They surpass all, however, in
determined courage and prowess in combat,

THE BRITISH MASTIFF.

This is the dogue of Bufibu, who considers it
an offset from the bulldog ; but this opinion, in
the judgment of Mr. Blaine, is erroneous. In
early times the English mastiff was celebrated
for his strength and resolution, characteristics
which did not fail to attract the attention of
the Romans when this island formed a part of
their widely- s[read empire. To a people in
whom a partiality for scenes of bloodshed and
slaughter, and in whom the sanguinary games
of the amphitheatre was a ruling passion, dogs
so fitted to gratify their taste were peculiarly
acceptable ; ai:d accordingly we find that they
were bred and reared by officers specially ap-
pointed, who selected such as were distin-
guished for combative qualities, and sent them
to Eome for the service of the amphitheatres,
where they were matched in fight with various
beasts of prey. Dr. Caius, a naturalist of the
time of Elizabeth, states that three were
reckoned a match for a bca-, and four for a
lion.

Though the mastiff has by no means the
keen sense of smell which the hound possesses,
he seems to be either an offset from that branch,
or a cognate branch from the same root. Tlie
mastifi", however, has a finer scent than persons
are generally aware of, and his hearing is very
acute. A dog of tliis breed, chained to his
kennel, and never suffered to wander about the
pi'cmises, nor treated as a friend and companion,
aflbrds but a poor example of what the animal
really is. Confinement spoils his temper, and
cramps the development of his better qualities.

The mastiff has a very wide geographical
distribution ; and wherever he is found he pre-
sents nearly a similarity of outline in his
make, and evinces the same qualities whether
in Sweden, the Alps, Poland, Spain, Italy,
468

or the Levant. As he approaches warmer
climates, however, his strength degenerates.
He becomes more slender, and rather resembles
the old Spanish pointer than the fall-bodied
European animal. This dog is considered by
Grotius as one of the indirjenal of Britain ; but
in this he has not been satisfactorily corrobo-
rated.

Mr. Eichardson attributes his origin to a
mixture of the bulldog of ancient Britain with
the old Talbot hound, and gives us the following
characteristic anecdotes: —

" The disposition of the mastiff is character-
ised by courage, generosity, and forbearance:
even the midnight marauder will be held by
him uninjured until human aid arrives, provided
he refrain from struggle or resistance. The
attacks of puny antagonists are despised ; but
if they become intolerable, the noble mastiff" is
satisfied with showing his contempt, or inflict-
ing chastisement of rather a humiliating than
a painful nature. The story of the mastiff
which, when greatly annoyed by the incessant
barking of a little cur, took him by the back
of the neck, and dropped him over a quay wall
into the river, is well known ; but I recollect
an instance of this nature, when the mastiff,
standing for a moment contemplating the
straggles of his late tormentor, and perceiving
that the current was likely to carry him away,
actually sprang into the water, and rescued
him from his dangerous position."

Henry VII. ordered a mastiff to be hanged^
because he had siii(/Ii/ coped lo'ith and overcome
a lion ! And in the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
when Lord Buckhurst was ambassador at the
court of Charles IX., a mastiff" is said,
alone and unassisted, to have successively en-
gaged a bear, a leopard, and a lion, and pulled
them all down. Stow relates an engagement
which took place, in the reign of James I., be-
tween three mastiffs and a lion. One of the
dogs being put into the den, was soon disabled
by the lion, which took him by the head and
neck, and dragged him about. Another dog
was next let loose, which shared tiie same fat :
but the third, on being put in, immediate y
seized the lion, and subdued him.

THE CUBAN MASTIFF.
AVe have said that the mastiff is allied to
the hound: the Cuban mastiff, is, indeed, often

CUBAN Mvsxn-p.] FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAXl^i. [tjuet doo.

termed a blooilhouiul. TIio pcMitliilous car, not
8(1 l:irf;e in tlio ninstilV as in tho liound ; tlio
thick haiiLjiii!^ lipn, tlio broad moist iioso,
brinillo niarkinj^a, atid tlio j^'cnoral lii^'uiv, atlost
the allinity. Tlic niastill" is hirj;i'r and Htronj^cr
than the hound, and useless for llio chase ; this
latter cireuinstance, however, is no proof of
diversity of origin. It must bo reuieinbered
tliat partieular instincts and qualities aro ac-
quireii, and that tho excellences of tho hound
are the result of long-continued and judicious
culture. We do not say that tho niaslilf can
be converted into tho hound, but merely that
two branches from the same root may bo so
cultured as to assume, to a given point, diverse
characteristics. This auima4 is by no means
to be confounded with the Cuban bloodhound.
lie is quite a different dog. 2s'or is the Cuban
bloodhound and the British bloodhound the
same, although Sommerville seems to have
thought them identical.
•' Soon the sagacious brute, his curling tail
Flourish'd in air, low-bending, plies around
His busy uose, the steaming vapour snuffs
Inquisitive, nor leaves one turf untried
Till conscious of the recent stains, his heart
Beats quick ; his snuffing nose, his active tail,
Attests his joy ; then, with deep-opening uioutb.
That makes the welkin tremble, he proclaims
Th' audacious felon ; foot by foot he marks
His winding ways, while all the listening crowd
Applaud his reas'nings. O'er the wat'ry {ord^
Dry, sandy heaths, and stony barren hills ;
O'er beaten paths, with men and beasts disdained,
Unerring he pursues, till at the cot
Arriv'd, and seizing by his guilty throat
The cailift'vile, redeems the captive prey."

"The Spanish or Cuban mastiff," Mr. Eich-
ardson says, " is a very powerfully-built dog,
and is supposed to be a breed between
the masliti and the pointer, lie stands from
twenty-six to twenty-eight inches high, with
extraordinary development of bone and muscle.
His head is of prodigious size, even apparently
too large in proportion to his body : hig
eyes are placed very I'ar apart ; his upper lip
pendulous, but not so much so as iu the
British mastitY; the ear is small, and not per-
fectly pendulous, being erect ac the root, but
the tip falling over; colour usually tawny or
light rufus ; the under jaw is also undershot :
and I do not think I can give my readers a
better idea of the dog, than by describing hiin
a.s a gigantic bulldog, occupying precisely tho

Hame position with regard to tho prodigious
mastiff of the Alps, which our own British
bulldog does iu reference to tho English
mastiir." Tliis animal is a dog of great
courage; in Spain he is used in tho combats
of tho amphitheatre, and is commonly known
on tho continent as tho " Spanisii bulldog."
Colonel 11. Smith conceives this race to have
been identical with tho broad-mouthed dogs
for which Biitaiu was celebrated during the
llomau era.

THE DOG OF TIBET,

The huge Tibet watch -dog belongs to the
present group. This dog {Canis fainiliaris,
var. Mulosus Thibetanus) is kept by the na-
tives of the Tibet range of hills as a guardian
of their flocks and their villages. It is very
fierce, and its bark is loud and terriOc. The
colour is generally black.

Ilis head is largo and broad. Jlis iips arc
very full and pendulous ; and the skin, from the
eyebrows, forms a fold towards the outer edge
of the eyes, ending in the jowl ; the neck is
remarkably full, and the chest is furnished with
a dcidap. This species was originally noticed
by Marco Polo, who described them as being
" as large as asses," a description contradicted
by some subsequent travellers, but since amply
confirmed.

The probable cause of these varying accounts
is, that the Tibet mastiff rapidly degenerates
if removed to a milder climate; and several
inferior, thougb similar breeds, exist in dif-
ferent portions of the liinialayau chain of
mountains. Colonel Smith refers to this dog as
the typical mastiff — tho Canis Urcanus de-
scribed by Oppian.

THE DOG OF ST. BERXAUD, OR ALPINE
MASTIFF.

This dog is placed under the spaniel group
by Mr. Biaine, and Mr. Ivichardaon classes it
with the mastiffs. AVe have adhered to the
arrangement of the latter.

Colonel Smith classes it with the wolf-dog
group. He, however, says that more than ono
description of dog is trained by the monks of
the Great St. Bernard, with the view of rescuing
the unfortunate from the horrors of death
amid the dreary depths of Alpine snows. One
Bort he describes as having a long coat, with

409

ALPINE MASTirP.] THE B O Gr, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

[BULLDOa.

the appearence of the ]S"ewfoundland ; and the
other as having a short one, and bearing a re-
semblance to the great Dane, both iu the cha-
racter of its hair and the colour.

E-eferring to the origin of the pious act ^f the
monks of St. Bernard, in having dogs trained
to the humane purpose of saving human life,
Mr. Eichardson says, that " the dog originally
trained to this service was a large and powerlul
mastiff, short-coated, deep-jowled, of a yellovr
colour, with a long, fine tail. L'Ami, who was
brought, in 1829, from the convent on the
Great St. Bernard, was of this description.
He was exhibited in both London and Liver-
pool to many thousands of people, at the charge
of one shilling admission. I was favoured by
Mr Clark, of Holborn, with a full account of
the true doga of St. Bernard, obtained by him
from the very best authorities. A good many
years ago, a pestilence made its appearance
amongst the dogs of the convent, and all were
destroyed save o]ie single specimen. Under
these circumstances, the monks had no alter-
native but to cross the breed, which they did ,
with the Spanish or Pyrenean wolf-dog — the |
most likely cross to which they could have re-
sorted ; hence arose the race of dogs ordinarily :
known as St. Bernards. Some of the true j
race have now been restored ; but they are
very scarce, and are not to be possessed under
enormous prices ; in fact, not to be had from
the convent at all ; Mr. Clark being acquainted
with a nobleman who offered one hundred
guineas for a brace of puppies, without suc-
cess. Hence the mistakes arising from spurious
dogs, supposed to be original, merely because
they came from the mountain.
*' * * *

In Dublin these dogs used to be common.
They were introduced by a Preuchman, named
Casserane, in Ormond Market. He had a male
and female, and their whelps were eagerly
purchased at five guineas each, as soon as
weaned. "W. Plood, Esq., of Stillorgan, pos-
sessed a noble specimen ; and there was, also,
a beautiful specimen, named ' Donna,' in the
possession of John Eichardson, Esq., of New-
ineton Terrace, Eathmiues. Donna was
celebrated as a water-dog. She was gentle,
but very wild and playful, and her tremendous
size rendered her romping caresses anything
but ao-reeable. Mr. Eichardson went, on one
° 470

occasion, to bathe, accompanied by Donna,
who watched the progress of unrobing with
much apparent curiosity. No sooner had her
master plunged into the water, however, than
she sprang after him, and, doubtless uneasy
for his safety, seized him by the shoulder, and
dragged him, in spite of all his resistance —
and he is both a powerful man and a capital

swimmer — with more zeal than gentleness, to
land ; nor could he ever enter the water in
Donna's presence."

THE BRITISH BULLDOG.
Of all the dogs of this group, none sur-
pass in obstinacy or ferocity the bulldog.
This animal is smaller than the mastiff, but
more cdmpactly formed ; the chest is broad
and deep ; the loins narrow ; the tail slender
and arched up ; the limbs short and robust ;
the head is broad and thick ; the muzzle short
and deep ; the jaws strong, the lower jaw often
advancing, so that the inferior incisor teeth
overshoot the upper ; the ears are short and
semi-erect ; the nostrils distended ; the eyes
scowling ; and the whole expression calculated
to inspire terror. This dog is distinguished
by tenacity of tooth, and indomitable resolu-
' tion. In all his habits and propensities he is
essentially gladiatorial : he is a fighting dog,
i and nothing else. His intelligence is very
I limited ; and though dogs of this breed are at-
tached to their masters, they exhibit iu the
■ demonstration of their feelings, unless when
incited to combat, a perfect contrast to the
Newfoundland dog or spaniel. These latter
delight to accompany their master in his
walks, and scour the fields and lanes in the
exuberance of delight ; the bulldog skulks at
his master's heels, and regards, with a sus-
picious glance, everything and everybody that
passes by ; nor, indeed, is it safe to approach
the animal, for he often attacks without the
slightest provocation. A cross between the
bulldog and the terrier is celebrated for spirit
and determination.

" The British bulldog," says Mr. Eichard-
son, " is, when a good dog, perhaps one of the
most courageous animals in existence. I am
obliged to qualify my meed of praise, however,
as I have myself seen bulldogs, not merely of
very doubtful courage, but absolutely cowards.
I attribute this moral degeneracy to the prac-

BULLDOG. \

FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAH^I.

[dan.soo.

tice of too close, or in-tnid-in brL't'diuj; — a
praelifo certain to prtjiulict' llic iniMital quali-
ticuiions, eveu though external or physical
eonlbrniation reniaiu apparently the saino."

The buIldo<» needs littli> description : he
usually stands twenty inches in lieiLjIit — if
smaller, ho is so much tho nioro highly
esteemed — his head is largo and round ; his
eves small, and far apart ; ears small, and
partly erect ; muzzle short, truncated, and
turned upwards ; under j:i\v projecting beyond
the upper, displaying tho lower incisor teeth ;
colour usually brindled, but white is the fancy
C'I'Hir; party colours, as black-and-white, &c.,
are to be coudenmcd ; his tail must bo tine as
a rush.

The bulldog is not wholly destitute of good
qualities, as some writers have represented
hnn to be. Besides his courage, he possesses
strong attachment to his master. Mr. Jesse
relates an anecdote of a bulldog which, hav-
ing been accustomed to be his master's travel-
ling companion in bis carriage for several
years, on his place being allotted to a new
favourite, refused to eat, sickened, pined, and
died.

THE PUG-DOG.

It has been usual to consider the pug-dog
as a degenerate variety of the bulldog, but
the correctness of this theory has been doubted.
It has, indeed, somewhat the aspect of the
bulldog, on a miniature scale ; but the simi-
larity is more superficial than real. The pug
is a little round-headed, short-nosed dog, with
a preternatural abbreviation of the muzzle,
and with a tightly-twisted tail. Like the
Gillaroo trout, it is a specimen of hereditary
malformation. ISot so the bulldog, in which
the bones of the skull and the temporal mus-
cles are finely developed, and in which the
muzzle and head are in perfect harmony.

The pug-dog is snarling and ill-tempered,
but cowardly, and by no means remarkable for
intelligence. Formerly it was in great esteem
as a pet, but is now little valued, and not
ofcen kept.

THE BAN-DOG.

The Ban-dog is a term applied to any of
the fierce animals of which we have just been
treating, and which are, in ordinary cases, kept

chained or Hecured in kennels. B.'wick, how-
ever, applies it to a dog, of which ho gives aa
excellent figure, and which, ho states, ditlera
from tho mastiff in being lii^htcr, moro active
and vigilant, but not so powerful or so largo;
his muzzle, besides, is not so heavy, and ho
possesses, in aonio degree, the scent of the
hound. His hair is described as being rather
rough, and generally of a yellowish grey,
streaked with shades of black or brown. lie is
ferocious and full of energy. Bewick says
that this dog is seldom to be seen at the
present day. Varieties, however, of the mastift'
have been noticed, agreeing so closely with
Bewick's figure and description, as to convince
some that both of them were taken from
nature.

In taking a review of tho various breeds of
the domestic dog, it must bo observed, that
they are endowed respectively with qualifica-
tions or habits certainly not innate, but the
result of education, at least originally ; which
education, continued through a series of gene-
rations, has produced permanent effects. For
example, no dog in a state of nature would
point with his nose at a partridge, and then
stand like a statue, motionless ; for he would
gain nothing by such a proceeding. Man,
however, has availed himself of the docility
and delicacy of scent peculiar to a certain,
breed, and has taught the dog his lesson ; and
the lesson thus learned has become second
nature. A young pointer takes to its work
as if by intuition, and scarcely requires disci-
pline. Hence, therefore, must we conclude
that education not only produces impressions
on the sensorium, but transmissible impres-
sions, whence arise the predispositions of
certain races. Education, in fact, modifies
organisation : not that it makes a dog other-
wise than a dog, but it supersedes, to a certain
point, instinct, or makes acquired propensities
instinctive, hereditary, and, therefore, charac-
teristics of the race. The effect of this change
of nature is not to render the dog more inde-
pendent, nor to give it any advantage over its
fellows, but to rivet more firmly the links of
its subjection to man.

It is not to the pointer alone that these
observations apply. All our domestic dogs
have their own acquired propeusities, which,
becoming second nature, make them, iu one

471

DISEASES.J

THE DOa, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

^DISEASES.

way or another, valuable servants. No one,
we presume, will suppose that the instiuctive
propensities implanted by nature in the shep-
herd's Colley, could make it, not a destroyer,
but a preserver of sheep. On the contrary, this
dog, like every other, is carnivorous, and nature
intends it to destroy and devour. But educa-
tion has supplanted instinct, to a certain point,
and implanted a disposition which has become
an hereditary characteristic, and hence a
Colley of the true breed takes to its duties

naturally. But a shepherd's dog could not,
delicate as its sense of smell is, be brought to
take the place of the pointer in the field, even
though it were subjected to training from the
earliest age ; nor, on the other hand, could a
pointer be substituted with equal advantage
for a shepherd's dog, ds the assistant of the
drover. Each is civilised, but in a difterent
style ; and education has impressed upon each
a different bent of mind, and a different class
of propensities.

CHAPTER VIII.

DISEASES OF THE DOG.

The diseases to which dogs are subject are
numerous, and their treatment various. In
the highly artificial state in wliich they are
forced to exist, in order to serve the purposes
of man, they require the utmost attention,
especially such as are kept to assist in the
sports of the field and the forest. These, like
the race-horse and the hunter, require what is
technically called " conditioning" before they
are fit for use. Colonel Cook observes, that
he lost three of his best dogs, wholly by
inattention to their state in this particular,
which caused him afterwards to pay double
attention to that most material point — condi-
tion. " A dog, to be in condition, should be
neither too fat nor too thin. His ribs should be
visible, and the flanks moderately hollow;
but the loins must be well filled up in
a dog in perfect condition. AVhen dogs
exhibit general fulness and too much flesh,"
observes Colonel Cook, " commence by physic
and a regular course of exercise, which should
be mild at first, but increased until it is
severe. Avoid too great a privation of food,
otherwise the conditioning process will be
retarded." As a general rule, hounds, grey-
hounds, pointers, setters, spaniels, and all
sporting dogs, require to be put into a proper
state for their work. They must be co}i-
dilioned, by either lightening their bodies of
472

flesh, or hardening that flesh to such a degree
as to give firmness to its whole texture.

The physic necessary for this purpose is
variously formed. " Julap," says Mr. Blaine,
" is a favourite purge with some sportsmen ;
but it is uncertain in its action. Gamboge is
very drastic. The submuriate of mercury
(calomel) is likewise very irregular in its
action on dogs. "We have known eight grains
fail to open the bowels of even a small one ;
while, on the contrary, we have, ourselves, seen
a pointer totally poisoned by ten grains. It
forms, however, a useful auxiliary to purga-
tives in doses of three or four grains ; and, as
it not unfrequently acts upon the stomach, so
it may be used with advantage as an emetic in
some cases, particularly in conjunction with
tartarised antimony (tartar emetic). When,
therefore, a purgative is brought up again in
which calomel was a component part, it may
be suspected to arise from this source ; and if
it be necessary to repeat the purge, the mer-
cury should be omitted. Epsom salts are
used in some kennels; but they are bulky;
and if attempted to be given in the food, are
often refused. Syrup of buckthorn has long
been a favourite purge with dog-fanciers.
Mr. Beckford recommends it, but mixes with
it sulphur and antimony, in the proportions of
two pounds of sulphur, one pound of crude

DISEASES.]

VOR I\lOUNTAixN, riELD, AND rAll-M.

[UAOIES.

antimony, and a pint and a-lialf of syrup of
hiiclvtlioru, wliicli aiiswois lor thirty couple of
hounds. Aloes, in our opinion, form the best
Ljoueral purge for doys ; and hueh arc tho
jieeuliarities of their bowels, thut while a niau

ledge of this fact may bo tlio means of Baving
the life of many a poor animal.

" One of the earliest hymploms of rabies iu
a dog," says !Mr. liiehardaou, " is restlessness.
He is constantly turning round and round

can take, with impunity, us nujch ealomel as, before ho will lie down; his countcnanco
would kill two large dogs, a moderate-sized] becomes anxious; his eyes bloodshot; ho

dog will take a quantity of aloes sullieient to
destroy two stout men. Tho smallest dog can

fancies that ho sees objects around hint which
havo no real existence, and he snaps at tho

take fifteen or twenty grains; half a drachm I empty air; his fondness for his master in-
is seldom too much; but tho smaller dose had creases, and with it his propen.siLy to lick tho

better be tried first. ^Medium-sized dogs
usually require a dracbm ; and some large
do'^3 have taken more than two drachms. We
have ourselves given three to a strong New-
foundland dog without extreme catharsis ; but,
as before observed, dogs differ much iu their
difl'erent habits, and it is, therefore, the most
prudent plan to begin with a dose too small,
than too large. Hundreds of dogs are,
every year, destroyed by temerity in this
particular."

The alterative medicines for dogs are butter-
milk and whey, which are good for cutaneous
aflectious. The nitrate of potash (nitre), iu
aoses of from four to ten grains, for heat of
the blood or redness of the skin. Cream of
tartar may also be given in large doses in the
same cases. As dogs are easily salivated, all

hands and face — a filthy practice at any time,
and ono most dangerous ; for the virus gene-
rated under the influence of rabies is deposited
on the surface, and acts as if tho person had
been inoculated by it. Children should never
be sufiered to indulge dogs in this filthy habit.
In a state of confirmed rabies, the appetite
becomes depraved; his natural food is ne-
glected, and, at the same time, every sort of
filthy trash is greedily devoured. Eating his
own excrement is an early symptom, and so
sure a one, that the moment a dog is seen
doing so, he should be destroyed, or, at all
events, carefully confined.

" Eubbiug the paws against the sides of the
mouth. If this be done to remove a hone,
the mouth will remain open; but when it
takes place as the precursor of rabies, the jaws

the preparations of mercury should be very | close after the rubbiug ceases,
cautiously given. Sulphur affects dogs but " Soon follows an insatiable iliirst ; so insati-
slightly. ' Where, however, there aa-e diseases able that the poor animal often plunges his
of the skin, it may be given in combination whole muzzle into the water ; and here you

with a moderate quantity of cream of tartar.

Emetics have been questioned as good reme-
dies in dog diseases. The best, in cases of dis-

may observe spume left upon the surface.
Soon the dog falls, or staggers, and sometimes,
but not invariably, becomes delirious. Death

temper, is tartarised antimony, which may be speedily ensues uuder these symptoms,
given in milk or soup, or as a ball, rolled The origin of this terrific disease is, by the
up in a piece of meat or butter. The quan- most experienced veterinarians, assigned to
tity must be proportioned to the size and | inoculation ; but the first animal that indi-
strength of the dog; from one grain, as the cated its symptoms must have generated it
smallest, to five as the largest dose. As a' spontaneously. It was long supposed that
cleansing emetic, calomel, of from four to six heat w as a prolific cause ; but this has been

or eight graius, is good.

RABIES, OR CANINE MADNESS.

proved not to bo the case. The disease ia
hardly kuowu on the continent of South Ame-
rica: it is entirely unknown iu Egypt ; and
Hydrophobia — a term expressing fear of Syria has never been visited by it. Neither is

xcaier — is, when used to mark this malady iu
the dog, quite incorrect ; for a dog labour-
ing under rabies will drink water, not only
willingly, but greedily, to the very last. "Where
rabies exists, dogs never have ft Is. A kuow-
3p

extreme cold fiivourable to its generation, for it
has never made its appearance in Greenland.
M. Audry, a French writer on this subject,
says, that January, the coldest, and August, the
hottest mouth, furnish the fewest instances

473

BABIES.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAEIETIES;

"[babies.

of rabies. The quality and quantity of food
has been assigned as a cause ; but in dogs
which, by chance, have been placed in situa-
tions where it was impossible for them to ob-
tain food, though on the precincts of actual
starvation, the disease has never yet been dis-
covered. Experiments innumerable have been
made to discover the real origin of this disease,
which, in various years, has proved itself to
be nothing less than a scourge in diiferent
European countries. Spain, Grermany, France,
and England have all been visited by its
ravages; and there is, perhaps, no pain, no
disaster, no disease, so terrifying to the human
mind, as that which is supposed to succeed the
bite of a rabid dog. Amongst other experi-
ments, made with the view of tracing the
origin of canine madness, one performed at
the veterinary school of Alport is, perhaps,
the most striking : — Three dogs were chained
and placed in such a situation that the heat of
the sun might fall, with all its power, upon
them. To one nothing was given but water;
to another nothing but salted meat ; and to
another neither food nor drink was allowed.
The whole three died ; but not one of them ex-
hibited the slightest symptoms of rabies ;
which we take to be a strong argument in
favour of its being generated only by inocula-
tion. Eepletion has never caused it ; feeding
on putrid meat does not cause it ; nor does
the want of water. Its real origin, therefore,
must be supposed a kind of puzzle, which all
experience has yet been unable to solve to
the entire satisfaction of those who have
been the most active in experimenting upon it.
Considering the fearful consequences which
frequently result to those who have had the
misfortune to be bitten by rabid dogs, the
symptoms of the disease cannot be too clearly
explained, or too widely disseminated. Both
Mr. Youatt and Mr. Blaine have given much
attention to chis subject ; and both had much
experience in its treatment, in the canine as well
as in the human species. It is a common belief
that dogs have a horror of water when aftected
by the disease ; but this is by no means the
case. "A mad dog," says John Hunter, " can
swallow solids and liquids through the whole
disease." "A rabid dog," says Dr. Hamilton,
" never avoids water, and laps whatever liquid
food is set before him, long after the poison
47(t

can be communicated by his bite ;" and Mr.
Meynell says, " that mad dogs will even lap it
the day before they die from the effects of the
disease." The most eminent veterinarians
concur in these opinions — a circumstance which
we hope will have the effect of completely
eradicating from the minds of all those who
peruse this book, the baleful prejudice that
dogs, when labouring under an affection of
rabies, will not drink water. Of the danger of
entertaining a prejudice of this kind, Mr. Blaine
produces a striking example. An eminent phy-
sician having been consulted on the propriety of
employing some prophylactic means, in conse-
quence of three persons of the family of a
well-known horse-dealer having been bitten
by a dog under disease, satisfied himself with
inquiring whether the animal could drink while
under the complaint ? Being informed that
he did so, freely, throughout the whole of its
duration, he unhesitatingly declared that no
precautionary means whatever were necessary,
and that he would, therefore, suggest none.
Fortunately, the bitten parts of each of these
persons were, notwithstanding, excised at the
suggestion of Mr. Blaine, and the result proved
the correctness of his judgment in the per-
forming of such an operation ; as a horse and
dog, both known to have been bitten by the dog
alluded to, died rabid in three weeks afterwards.
We have given the symptoms of rabies, as
described by Mr. Eichardson ; and we will now
give those, as described by Mr. Blaine, whose
extensive practice and experience of this dis-
ease, place him in the very "highest position as
a safe guide and autliority . Before closing this
subject, we would entreat all our readers who
keep a dog or dogs, whether as domestic pets,
watchers, coursers, hunters, or for any other
purpose not implied by these terms, to have,
at all times, a vigilant eye upon the condition
of their animals. "The symptoms of madness
are very variable ; but, as the early ones are
not very active, they are apt to be overlooked
in sporting dogs ; and it is only in such as are
kept immediately about our persons, and within
doors, that they show themselves. In these
cases of close domestication, the approach may
be observed by some slight alteration of manner
and habit. In some its approaches are marked
by unusual dullness; in others by increased
vivacity, accompanied with restlessness or

RABIES.]

FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND ITAHH.

[babies.

oarncst nttontion to slifjlit noises and ininuto
(i!)jocts. In 0!ie iustatieo wo foretold the ap-
proach of tho disease by the uncommon attach-
ment of a puppy to a kitten, vhiel\ ho was
I'ontinually liduiip^, as well na the cold nose of
mother pug that was witii him. Deane, Earl
Fitzwilliam's huntsman, has observed that,
among hounds, he regarded the smelling and
lidiiiig of the penis and fundament of another
dog, as ft most suspicious sym])tom. It is a
curious circumstance that sexual excitement is
fre(]uently an early symptom in all the subjects
of rabies ; in dogs it is common ; it has been
remarked in the human species also. Sheep
and pigs becoming rabid, are usually observed
to show the disease first by riding their fellows.
Lapping their own urine is a very common pre-
cursor to more active symptoms in the rabid dog.
The eyes, eveu in the early stage of the dis-
ease, are often singularly bright, sparkling, and
red ; occasionally a slight tendency to distorted
vision, or squinting, is apparent ; and such
alterations in the usual appearance of the
eyes, are generally followed by mischievous
propensities iu the animal. Nevertheless, in
some less frequent cases, the eyes are even
less bright than natural, and a slight; discharge
of mucus, and sometimes of real pus or matter,
escapes from their inner corners, and now and
then flows fi-om the nose also, which has fre-
quently occasioned madness to be mistaken for
distemper. But we would impress on the reader,
that a moderate attention only to the manner
of the dog and to the morbid symptoms here
liid down, will enable any one readily to dis-
tinguish between these diseases, provided the
observer does not allow himself to be swayed
by prejudice or foolish counsel. In some in-
stances, an early rabid symptom is a continual
licking, scratching, and sometimes even biting
of some part of the dog's own body ; and this
very part is often proved to be that by which
the infection was received ; and we believe, if
a true history of every attack could be ob-
tained, this would turn out to be the case in
nine out of ten cases. Costiveness is very
common; and vomiting also, although much
less so, does occasionally occur ; but ineffec-
tual efforts to vomit are by no means unusual.
The appetite is not always affected, in either
early or continued rabies ; on the contrary,
food ia not only eaten, but digested also,

during the first Ktagts; atid Momo will eat
almost to the last ; but with such Bubjecta tlie
food is seldom digested. That no disinclina-
tion to liquid exists, will bo readily acknow-
ledged by all who observe tlin dineaso with
common attention ; from the first to the last,
no aversion to water is observed. Wo state
this as a general fact ; ono or two insLauces in
as many thousands may occur of constitu-
tional idiosyncrasy, where liquids are refused;
and of the many hundred rabid dogs we have
seen, not one has shown any disliko to water.
Li the early stages, liquids of all kinds arc
taken as usual, and some conlinuo to take
them throughout the complaint; nor can
we press too strongly on tho recollections of
persons engaged about dogs, that no manifest
dread of water is either a pathognomonic, or
at all a usual symptom iu mad dogs. Neither
does an active spasm attend the efforts to
swallow water ; and however the paralysis of
the parts may render the attempt ineffectual,
tlie sight and contact occasion no pain what-
ever ; but, on the contrary, the desire for
drink is urgent, and unceasing attempts to
take it, mark a majority of rabid cases ; it is
true that paralysis of the parts prevents deg-
lutition in some, while others drink freely
throughout the disease ; but certainly there is
not one iu a thousaud that does not seek
water."

As this is a most important subject, we
think it cannot be too fully treated ; accord-
ingly we have collected as many opinions as
we have been able u])on its different modes of
treatment, as well as the different character-
istics of the disease. — When a dog is affected
with rabies, the symptoms are, in the first
place, restlessness, turning rouud before ho
will lie down, blood-shot eyes, an anxious
countenance, and a continual snapping at
fancied objects. All these, in most cases, ex-
hibit themselves some days before he gets very
bad. A dog in a tit is generally taken sud-
denly, and merely knocks about and froths at
the mouth. It is the opinion of most country
people, that a dog affected with rabies is afraid
of water; and if they see a dog drink, or go
near water, they conclude he is not mad, no
matter what they may have seen before ; but
we have seen a mad dog that followed a man
through a stream, and when he got into it he

475

BABIES. 1

THE DOG, AXD ITS VARIETIES;

[rabies.

stopped to drink, and tried to find the inaii
acrain when he irot over. As a matter of
course, it will be asked, how do we know the
dog was really mad. And it would have been
well if it had never been proved, as it cost the
life of one fellow-creature, besides a great
number of sheep, dogs, and some beasts.
That the dog was mad, therefore, there could
not be the smallest doubt, and yet he had no
dread of water whatever.

The symptoms of rabies, however, deviate
greatly in accordance with the different tem-
peraments of dogs. Such as are subject to
fits will be at one moment scouring the fields
in apparently excellent condition, but all at
once will make a dead stop, gaze intently and
wildly at some fancied object, then suddenly
fall into convulsions, from which (if a little
water is dashed in the face) they will soon
recover, and be as well next day as if nothing
had happened.

With a rabid dog, however, it is quite differ-
ent. There are always premonitory symptoms,
the most prominent of which are a depraved
appetite, the animal ravenously devouring
its own, as well as human excrement, sticks,
cinders, mud, and all kinds of filth, which, in
a healthy state, it would avoid. In some
breeds of spaniels, however, there have been
exhibited exceptions to this rule.

The next important symptom, and one
which may, perhaps, be considered as the
most demonstrative, is an insatiable thirst, and
an eager craving after its own and other dogs'
urine, searching in every corner, and, wherever
one dog has wetted, greedily licking it up.
This disgusting act is never found in the
healthy animal.

We think this symptom so decided a proof
of rabies, that we should at once have the
animal destroyed, however valuable it might be.

For a disease so terrible, no efforts should
be spared to find out the means of either pre-
venting or counteracting its effects. In ac-
complisliing tliis, even the labours of science
have, in a great measure, been unavailing ; for
a curative agent has, we believe, not yet been
discovered.

The following singular account of the dis-
covery of a supposed antidote, however, ap-
peared some years ago in several continental
newspapers, as an extract from the Berlin
476

State Gazette. We give it as it appears in
the small work of Mr. Eichardson : —

In the year 1813, when Maraschetti, an
operator in the Moscow hospital, was visit-
ing the Ukraine, fifteen persons applied to
him for relief on the •same day, all having
been bitten by a rabid dog. Whilst the
surgeon was preparing such remedies as sug-
gested themselves, a deputation of several old
men waited upon him, with the request that
he would permit a peasant, who had for some
time enjoyed considerable reputation for his
success in treating cases of hydrophobia, to
take these patients under his care. The fame
of this peasant, and his skill, were known to
M. Maraschetti, and he acceded to the request
of the deputation on certain conditions: in
the first place, that he himself should be pre-
sent, and made cognizant of the mode of treat-
ment employed ; secondly, that proof should
be given him of the dog that had injured the
sufferers being really rabid — and then that he,
the surgeon, should select one of the patients
to be treated by himself according to the ordi-
nary course adopted by the medical profession.
This might, at a hasty view, be deemed an
improper tampering with human life on the
part of the Eussian surgeon ; but, when the
admitted hopelessness of all remedies is recol-
lected, the reader will refrain from animadver-
sion. M. Maraschetti selected, as his own
patient, a little girl of six years old ; the other
condition was duly complied with: no doubt
could exist of the genuine rabies of the dog,
which perished shortly afterwards in extreme
agony.

The peasant gave to his fourteen patients a
decoction of the tops and blossoms of the
broom plant {Flor. Genistce lutece tinctoricc),
in the quantities of about a pound and a-half
daily ; and twice a day he examined beneath
their tongues, where, he stated, small knots,
containing the virus, would form. Several of
these knots did eventually appear, and, as
soon as they did so, they were carefully opened
and cauterised witli a red-hot wire ; after which
the patients were made to rinse their mouths,
and gargle with the decoction. The result
was, that all the patients— two of whom only,
and these the last bitten, did not show the
knots — were dismissed, cured, at the expiration
of six weeks, during which time they had con-

KABIES.]

FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAKri.

UADIES.

tiiuicd to drink tlio decoction. Tho poor little
;;irl, who had been treated nccordiiii^ to tho
.isual medical forimila, was attacked with
hvdrophobic symptoius on tho seventh day,
and died within eii;lit houra altiT tho accession
. f the first paroxysm. 31. Maraschotti saw,
three years afterwards, tho other fourteen
persons all living, and iu good health.

In ISIS, five years aller tho above occur-
rences, !^^. !Maraschetti had another oppor-
tunity aflbrded him, in Podolia, of testing tho
value of this important remedy, in the treat-
ment of tweuty-six persons, all of whom had
been bitten by rabid dogs. Of these persons,
nine were men, f^leveu were women, and six
were children. He used tlic decoction of
broom, as before ; and a carel'nl examination of
their tongues gave the following results : —
Vive men, all the women, and three of the
children, exhibited the Jcnois — those most
severely bitten on the third day, others on the
Ifih, seventh, and ninth ; and one woman,
A ho had been bitten only superficially on the
leg, not until the twenty-first day. The re-
maining seven showed no Icnots, but all con-
tinued to drink tho decoction ; and in six
weeks all the patients hud recovered.

From these cases, M. Maraschetti was led
to the opinion, that the rabid virus, after re-
maining a short time in the wound, becomes
absorbed, and, for a certain time, resides be-
..eath the tongue, at the orifices of the sub-
..laxillary glands, where it develops itself in
he small knots observed by him. The aver-
age time for the appearance of these knots
would appear to be from the third to the ninth
■'ay after the bite — 'uat if not opened within
I wcnty-four hours after the first formation, the
virus is reabsorbed into the system, and the
patient is lost beyond all hope of cure. On
these accounts, Maraschetti recommended that
the patient should be at once examined be-
neath the tongue, which examination should
be continued for six weeks, during which
period they should take one pound and a-half
of the decoction of broom daily, or a drachm
of the powder four times a day. If, during
this time, no Icnots appear, there is nothing to
be apprehended ; but if they do appear, they
should be freely opened and cauterised, using
the gargle afterwards, as already described.
Since the above statement appeared in the

Berlin State Gazette, an oinciul report was
niado to tho Prussian govcrniiK'nt, and j)ub-
lished in a subsecpient nuiuhcr of that paper,
representing that knots, similar to those de-
scribed by M. Maraschetti, had been formed
beneath tho tongue of a rabid do<j, iix West-
phalia. It is possible that tho above account
may be i'amiliar to most, if not all, medical
readers, and that many of them may regard it
as* resulting from either imposture or error;
but, as one and all of them admit that they
cannot cure this dreadful disease, surely any
suggestion is worth acting u[)on, if a melan-
choly opportunity should occur.

Instances of rabid dogs are numerous. One
much attached to its owners, on one occasion
returned home, covered with dirt, and hid
itself in a blanket, and would not obey the
commands of those it had hitherto been ready
to serve by all the means in its power. Mr.
Touatt, the veterinary surgeon, was sent for,
and when he arrived he found the animal lying
in the lap of its mistress, no doubt receiving
all those endearments which such animals are
so apt to draw from all those who are attached
to them ; but it kept continually changing its
position, and starting at the least noise. Mr.
Youatt pronounced it rabid. The dog had
been licking the hands of its owner, and jMr.
Touatt urged a surgeon to be immediately sent
for. This was done, and the proprietors of
the animal were saved.

The habit of allowing favourite dogs to
lick not only the hands, but the face, as some
do, is not only abominable in itself, but in
the last degree dangerous, for there are com-
paratively few out of the multitudes who keep
dogs, that have the slightest idea of the
symptoms of rabies, even when they have
made their appearance. A lady's spaniel was
rarely out of her sight, and yet it became
rabid. She did not know of its having been
bitten by any other animal, and her servant
denied all knowledge of its having been so ;
but tho dog died ; and, iu a few weeks after-
wards, the man was taken ill. He now made
a confession that the spaniel bad, on one
occasion, been attacked and rolled in the mud
by another dog, and that be had put it
through a process of ablution before he per-
mitted it to be seen by its mistress. The
dog which bad behaved so unceremoniouslv to

477

BABIES.]

THE DOG-, AND ITS VARIETIES;

[rabies.

this pet spaniel, was mad, and some of the
saliva which had fallen from its mouth, had
remained on the coat of the spaniel, and by
which the man had been inoculated.

Eabies, or hydrophobia, a few years ago
exhibited itself to such a serious extent in
Stainborough Park, near Barnsley, as to excite
the alarm of the inhabitants of that locality,
and to attract the attention of medical men.
The disease first began to show itself on a
small scale, immediately after a mad dog was
said to have been roaming about the locality.
Nearly one hundred deer in a short time
fell victims to its effects. While in a state
of disease, these otherwise innocent and play-
ful animals foamed at the mouth, worried each
other like dogs, and tore off each other's hair
and flesh ; and when placed in a state of con-
finement, bit at whatever came within their
reach. Attention was drawn to the matter
through a child belonging to one of the work-
men on the estate having been bitten. This
caused an alarm, which led to a medical gen-
tleman (Mr. M. T. Sadler, of Barnsley) being
called in. He issued a timely caution to the
inhabitants, calling upon all to be on their
guard, to protect themselves and their families
from the infliction of so terrible a malady.

As canine madness suddenly changes the
dog into an object of terror and a scourge, of
course everything that may be esteemed a
remedy for it should be tried. Among others
already suggested, the "Berlin Drink" holds a
prominent place. It was, and we believe still
is, in the possession of a woman residing near
Tunbridge. The recipe of it, it is said, is a
secret, which has been handed down in the
family from generation to generation ; and its
efficacy, in the counties around, is so well
known and esteemed, that it has, at all times,
proved a lucrative legacy to the family.

Among the numerous instances in which it
is said to have been successful, we will adduce
one which may excite some surprise.

The proprietor of a large puck of beagles
had his kennel broken into by a rabid dog,
and twenty of tlie pack bitten. He luid known
many cases successiuUy treated by the *' Berlin
Drink," and he determined to try its eftect
upon every one of his dogs that had been
bitten. His brother, who had been brought
up to the medical profession, laughed at the
478

idea, maintained that nothing could save them
if once the virus had entered the system, and
proposed the total destruction of the whole
pack. The other, however, opposed his ex-
perience to all the arguments of science. They
therefore came to an arrangement which satis-
fied both parties. It was agreed that sixteen
of the infected hounds should have a dose of
the "Berlin Drink," and that the other four
should take their chance.

The consequence was that, in less than six
weeks, every one of the four died raging mad,
and not one of the sixteen ever showed a
symptom of the disease. As this fact has
been pretty well authenticated, a more con-
vincing proof of its power as an antidote to
the virus could hardly be given. In colour
and consistence the " Berlin Drink" resembles
milk ; and if administered to an animal not
inoculated with the poison of rabies, it has no
more effect than a cup of milk would have.
If, on the contrary, the poison has entered
the blood, the eflect of the antidote is very
different: it seems to course through every
vein like fire, to rack every nerve, and to
convulse the system from head to foot. Human
patients affirm the agony to be intense ; and it
is painful to witness its effect upon a dog.
But the struggle is very short; and though,
of course, the shock and excitement leave the
patient a little weak and depressed, we are
told that its administration has never been
followed by any fatal result.

Besides the "Berlin Drink," there is another,
called the "Hertfordshire Drink," or Webb's
remedy. To this Mr. Blaine alludes in his
Bural Sports. " The tree bo^," he says, " is
one of the oldest reputed preventives made use
of. Mention appears to be made of it in the
writings of Hippocrates ; Galen and Celsus
likewise speak of it. It has continued to bo
used from their time to the present, and it
forms the active principle in the remedy com-
mon in several counties, but in none more
than in Hertfordshire, where it is known, as
we stated, under the name of ' Webb's drink,'
r-am the family name of the persons who
prepare it. The rue which enters into it, in
equal proportions, we have little dependence
on. The buxus, or box, has long been known
in India also ; it is still used there as a pre-
ventive of rabies; but it is, we believe, the

BABIES.]

rOB MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAR^ [uumu madmebs.

dwarf box that is tlioro uspcl, and is usimlly
unitt'il with a tlt'cootion of thu hora of tho
rhinoceroa. As from our own oxperiLMice, and
tl>e testimony of others, wo are inclined to placo
Boine di'pendeneo on tlio prevent ivo properties
of tl>e tree box, we shall iiitroduco the original
formula of ' Webb's Drink,' as gained by
ourselves from one of the family di8[)enser8 of
it, whose oath was taken as to its being tho
<»enuino recipe : — ' Take of the fresli leaves of
the tree box, two ounces ; of tho fresh leaves
of rue, two ounces ; of sage, lialf an ounce ;
chop these finely, and after boiling them in a
pint of water to half a pint, strain and press
out the liquor ; beat them in a mortar, or
otherwise bruise them thoroughly, and boil
them again in a pint of new milk, until the
quantity decreases to half a pint, which press
out as before. After this, mix both tho boiled
liquors, which will make three doses for a
human subject. Double this quantity will
form three doses for a horse or cow; two-
thirds of it is sufficient for a large dog, calf,
sheep, or hog ; half the quantity is required
for a middle-sized dog; and one-third for a
smaller one. These three doses are said to be
sufficient, and one of them is directed to be
given every morning fasting. Both human
and brute subjects are treated in the same
manner, according to the proportions speci-
fied.' "

Upon this specific IMr. Blaine places a con-
siderable, but not a full reliance. lie says,
however, that whenever a very useful or a
favourite dog was in question, he should make
a trial of it ; at the same time he would watch
the animal with the utmost attention.

The opinions of experienced sportsmen upon
rabies and its modes of treatment by practised
veterinarians, are well worthy of an extensive
diflusion amongst the people. Mr. Youatt, who
had even more experience in the treatment of
this disease than Mr, Blaiue, remarks — " The
veterinary surgeon, when operating on tho
horse, cattle, or the dog, frequently has re-
course to the actual cautery. I could, per-
haps, excuse this practice, although I would
not adopt it in superficial wounds ; but I do
not know the instrument that could be safely
used iu deeper ones. If it were sufiicieutly
small to adapt itself to the tortuous course of
email wounds, it would be cooled and inert

before it could have destroyed tho deepest
portions of tbo wound." He statca a cuso in
which several horses had been bitten, and, on
lunar caustic being applied to one, it waa
saved ; the hot iron to tho others, which wore
lost: Jiientioniug other eases in which caustic
was ellioacious, and tho cautery perfectly use-
less. Liquid and otiier applications of a soft
or semi-fiuid mass, have a tendency to aggra-
vate tho disease, by re-inoculating the injured
parts ; while, by the eilects of lunar caustic, it
being dry, hard, and insoluble, this danger ia
avoided.

M. Guerin-Mcnevillc, some time ago,brought
before the French Academy of Sciences a
means of curing hydrophobia, which, he stated,
is practised iu liussia with success. A little
insect, the golden cetonides, found in con-
siderable quantities on rose-trees, is proved,
when pounded to a powder, and administered
internally, to produce a profound sleep, which
sometimes lasts for thirty-six hours, and which
has the efiect, in many cases, of completely
nullifying the hydrophobic affection. A dis-
tinguished entomologist of Eussia, M. Mots-
chouski, has tried several experiments with
this insect, and in most cases with success.

Whatever virtue there may be in these
specifics, we fear it will be a long time before
they receive a very extensive application;
therefore it is to the cautery or to the knife
that recourse must be had to prevent danger,
or, perhaps, death, resulting from the bite of a
rabid animal. Mr. Blaine says, that three
times his life had been endangered by the
bites of mad dogs, and three times he had to
sufier cauterisation, excision, and some mental
agitation, as, doubtless, every one must suffisr
who has had the misfortune to be subjected to
such an evil. What his experience sug-
gested him to do to himself, we would recom-
mend to be done to others, in the absence
of other curative means, which may be leas
severe, and, we may add, probably less eflfective.

AVe have hitherto treated of this malady in
its most acute form. We will now briefly
consider its other state, which appears in what
is called

DUMB MADNESS.

This kind of rabies is so called from the
animal affected by it exhibiting an absolute

479

DUMB MADNESS.]

THE DOG-, AXD ITS VAEIETIES;

[CANKEK.

duinbness, wbicli arises from the swelling in
the pharynx being so great as to deny to the
dog the power of barking. The symptoms of
this complaint are, a dull, stupid look, accom-
panied with wstiveness, and a constant rub-
bing of the jaws with the paws, as if he would
dislodge a bone that had stuck in his throat.
The disease causes death between the third
and seventh days ; generally on the fourth or
fifth. A common symptom, and not alto-
gether confined to this species of madness, but
also to be found in the acute disease, is an
inclination to pick up straw, hay, litter, and
other materials, to make a bed with it, but
more frequently to tear it to pieces. " It is
likewise very common to observe dogs scratch
the litter under them with their fore feet, not
as when making their beds, but evidently to
press the straw or litter to the belly."
There is also exhibited a disposition to pick
up substances which, when the dog is in
health, are wholly averse to his nature. He
gnaws the boards upon which he may be
lying ; is irritable, mischievous, and treacherous.
This is, however, mostly before the disease has
attained to that strength of character by
which it is sometimes marked. When it has
arrived at its height, neither irritation nor
delirium are very apparent ; on the contrary,
there is displayed a peacefulness of disposition,
which does not arise from the inability to bite,
but from the really disinclination to do so.
The jaws begin to lessen ; increased paralysis
takes place ; and, like a drunken man, without
consciousness, the animal begins to stagger
about, until he tumbles, only to struggle to
his legs again. He now seats himself on
his rump, looks melancholy in the extreme,
and in this position expires without an appa-
rent pang.

There are other diseases to which the dog is
subject, and which are not unfrequeutly con-
founded with madness. These it is important
to know. " Thousands of valuable dogs," says
Mr. Blaine, "have been destroyed as mad,
which have laboured under other affections,
as distemper, colic, epilepsy, &c. And also
thousands of owners of dogs and others have
been needlessly rendered miserable by having
been bitten by dogs innocent of any rabid
affection. On the other hand, it is even more
important that the real criterion of rabies be
480

set forth, that due precaution may be taken
when necessary. Epileptic fits, whether occa-
sional, or the consequence of distemper, are
often mistaken for rabies ; but it should be
remembered, that there is no rabid symptom,
whatever that at all resembles a fit, whether
in the irritable or in the dumb variety; we
use these terms as being significant, although
by no means scientific. An epileptic fit is
sudden ; it completely bewilders the dog, and,
after a determinate period, leaves him per-
fectly sensible, and not at all irritable, but
exactly as he was before : in rabies there is no
sudden fit, no loss of recollection, no tumbling
about wildly in convulsions ; neither is there
any marked bark in the natural irritability
attendant on madness. If a dog in an epilep-
tic fit should be so convulsed as to attempt to
bite, it is evidently done without design ; its
attack is spasmodic, and pain may make him
seize anything, and it is quite as likely to be
himself as any person or thing besides. The
irritability and mischievous attempts of the
rabid dog have always method with them, and
they evidently result from the mental purpose
to do evil ; he usually manifests a disposition
to rove ; the distempered dog never does so.
A puppy in distemper, particularly if he have
worms, may pick up stones, or eat coals ; or
he may, in a trifling degree, pick up other
unusual matters as food; yet no dog but a
rabid one will take in hay, or wood, coals, or
rags, or will distend his stomach almost to
bursting. Lastly, the mistakes likely to occur
between rabies and other diseases, are, in some
degree, attributable to erroneous pictures
drawn by authors of such diseases. Thus, Dr.
Jeuuer's account of the distemper, instead of
deserving the praise his great name has
drawn down upon it, is entirely calculated to
mislead ; indeed, it might be supposed, by his
readers, that he was purposely describing
rabies, and not distemper. AVe could produce
many similar instances in other authors, as
Dr. Tarry, &c."

CANKER IN THE EAR.
This is a disease very common in all water-
dogs, such as poodles, spaniels, and Newfound-
lands, arising from the quantity of hair they
usually have about their ears, retaining the
moisture within their cavities, and causing aQ

CA>'5^n.] rOK MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FAini. [

WODMS.

atllux of huraoura towards tbetn. The earliest
Bvmptoms show* tlieinsolvos by tlio animal
shaking its head, holding it to one sidi', and
violently scratching the ear. Immediately on
these signs being perceived, a curative process
should be entered upon ; and what this is to be,
and how proceeded with, must greatly depend
upon the habit of the dog. If the animal is
fat, bis system must be reduced by purgatives
and abstinence ; bo must have plenty of air,
and plenty of exercise, that the fluids of the
body may be diverted into another channel.
If his skin is infected with mangy irruptions,
causing him to itch, be must bave a vegetable
diet, accompanied with cleansing, alterative,
aud purging medicines. IMr. Eicbardson re-
commends the ears to be well washed with
warm water and soap, and then syringed out
with a solution of sugar of lead, in the pro-
portion of about a teaspoonful of the lead to
one pint of distilled water. If distilled water
cannot be procured, use rain water. Besides
this, the washing should bo repeated twice or
thrice daily, aud the bowels of the dog kept
open by a daily laxative ; if these remedies
fail, a setou must be run through the back of
the neck, and strong doses of aloes given every
second day.

Mixing of burnt alum with a little sweet
oil, would, perhaps, be better than with water,
in a case of canker, on account of the wax
and the greasy nature of the inside of the
ear, which throws of? water. Cancer in the
human frame has hitherto been found incura-
ble when it cannot be got at ; and when it can,
cure has been considered very doubtful. Un-
less the roots are destroyed, the cancer will
grow again, as is most frequently the case
after cutting. I

AVe have understood that canker in the ear
has frequently been cured in little spaniels by '
the application of a solution of alum and
water. It should be just warmed, so as to
t;ike off the chill ; and a few drops poured into !
the ear, and worked about in it for a few
minutes. The complaint generally shows itself
by a white discharge of matter, which can be '
seen on examination far down in the ear. j

AVe have also heard of a dog of six years old

being cured by having put into his ear a piece

of mercurial ointment, about the size of a

horse-bean. Should the cure not be effected

3q

in tbo first instance, another Lean ebould
follow it shortly.

Mr. Blaine recommends, for external applica-
tione, first, the use of a wash, composed of
half a drachm of sugar of lead, dissolved in four
ounces of rose or rainwater. "AHiuall tea-
spoonful may be introduced, previous! v warmed
to a blood-heat, to prevent surprise, night and
morning, rubbing the root of the ear at the
same time, to promote the entrance of the
wash into the cavities. In more obstinate
eases, it is prudent to add fifteen or twenty
grains of vitriolised zinc (white vitriol) to the
wash ; or rather make two distinct articles, and
alternate the use of each, which will prevent
the chemical decomposition of these medicinal
agents, as the suspending menstruum ; and,
likewise, instead of water, use a decoction of
oak bark, which will greatly promote the end
desired. Now and then acetate of copper (ver-
digris), mixed with oil, has proved beneficial,
when introduced in the same manner. In
others, calomel and oil have produced amend-
ment, when applied in the same way. We
have, also, seen a weak injection of corrosive
sublimate succeed, when every other applica-
tion has failed. A very mild injection of
nitrate of silver, as one grain to two
ounces of water, has benefited others ; for in
this, as in mange, aud indeed in all skin affec-
tions, no one remedy is a universal panacea ;
happily, however, there are few cases but will
submit to a patient trial of various means."

Canker on the outside of the flap of the ear,
and abscess of the inner surface of the ear-flap,
frequently afflict the smooth-eared dogs. For
the former, an ointment, composed of equal
parts of nitrate of quicksilver and calomine
ceruse, is recommended. It should be applied
once a day, and care taken, by making use of
a sort of head-dress, not to have the ear in-
jured by the dog shaking his head. If the
canker prove obstinate, however, excision must
be resorted to. For the latter, the tumour
ought to be opened its whole length, and a
pledget of lint introduced, to present too hastv
a reunion of the edges of the ear; or a setou
should be inserted, and allowed to remain in it
for eight or len days.

WORMS.

To the accumulation of worms in the intes-

481

WORMS.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VAlilETIES;

[the TELLOWa.

tines dogs are very subject. They are of three
kinds : — Ascarides, or small thread-like worms,
not more than half an inch, in length. The
seat of these is principally in the rectum ; and
hence the common symptoms of their presence
is the doGf drajrgino: his fundament along the
ground. Puppies are frequently afflicted with
them. The teres, but of a white colour, and
having the form and appearance of an earth-
worm. The tcenia, or tape-worm, several
inches in length, and flat for nearly its whole
extent.

Another description of worm, peculiar to very
young puppies, and generated in their intes-
tines in great quantities, is known to dog
breeders. It is described as being from two
to four inches in length, of a dirty-white
colour, round, and pointed at both extremities.
Sometimes this kind of vermes collect in balls
or masses, to the number of a dozen or more
in each mass. "When puppies have them they
usually fall away in flesh, until they actually
reach the extreme of emaciation ; when fits
supervene, and death soon carries them off.
The deaths are attributed to distemper; but
worms are the true cause, and these of the
description here described.

Erom the circumstance of bounds some-
times vomiting worms similar to earth-worms,
it has been supposed that these have their seat
in the windpipe. If this be the case, it has
been recommended that they should have
thirty drops of spirits of turpentine, suspended
in a little castor-oil, every other day, for about
a week ; or they might be allowed to inhale
chlorine gas for about half-an-hour, but not to
have more gas in the kennel than a man can,
without much annoyance, bear himself.

About a teaspoonful of ground glass mixed
in lard has also been recommended for fox-
hound puppies afflicted with this malady.
They take it without trouble when fasting;
and in about twelve hours, some Glauber's
salts, in milk, after being dissolved in hot
water, should be given to them. This they
will lap up readily.

Mr. Eichardson found the following mode
of treatment efficacious, and, as he had great
experience in rearing puppies, his advice is
exceedingly valuable : — " Give, say on Monday,
A small pill formed of Venice turpentine and
flour, from the size of a very minute pea to
482

that of a small marble, according to the size
and age of the pup. The former will suffice
for Blenheim or Iving Charles' pups, Italian
greyhounds, &c. ; the latter for bloodhounds,
Newfoundlands, mastiffs, &c. On Tuesday,
give a small dose of castor-oil ; a teaspoonful
to the smaller, a tablespoonful to the larger
breeds: in neither case, however, quite full.
On Wednesday, give notliing ; on Thursday,
give the turpentine as before ; on Friday, the
oil ; on Saturday, nothing ; and so on.

" Keep your puppies' beds dry, clean, and
sweet. Do not feed them too often, or on food
of too nutritious a quality. Puppies should
not be fed oftener than three times a day.
The morning and evening meals may be given
at 9 A.M. and 7 p.m., and should consist
of vegetables — potatoes, oatmeal, &c. — well
boiled, and given with milk. At two, you
may give meat with the mess, but not too
abundantly. Between the meals give a drink
of buttermilk, or milk and water."

The general symptoms of the presence of
all or any of these worms are : — Ecetid breath,
staring coat, voracity, or total loss of appetite ;
violent purging, or obstinate constipation, witli
great emaciation, sometimes fits. Venice tur-
pentine is a good remedy, and is effective in
slight cases. Aloes are useful for dislodging
worms from the rectum, as they pass down
the intestines, almost unchanged; but pow-
dered glass is the safest and most efficacious.
Give it in pills formed with butter and ginger,
and covered with soft paper.

THE YELLOWS,

This is the disease which Mr, Eichardson
treats under the head of Jaundice, and to
which young dogs are very subject. It is
often the precursor of distemper, and arises
from an alFectiou of the liver. Its symptoms
are a general dullness, a disinclination for
food, a yellowness in the whites of the eyes, as
also over the surface of the skin ; a dry and
parched mouth ; a general emaciation aud
debility, accompanied with vomiting greenish
matter ; loss of consciousness, often succeeded
by death.

If taken in time it may be cured ; but it
makes its approaches so imperceptibly, tliat it
has frequently fastened in the animal several
weeks before it has been observed ; and, in

DISTEMPER.]

FOR MOUNTAIN, FIKLl), A XI) FA KM,

[distempee.

Buch cases, death is the inevitable result.
"When perceived iu tinu', Epsom salts, with
uuioilago of gum-arabic, or very wi-ll boiled
"i-ucl, aro recommended. Should the disease
have only just appeared, common salt will
answer the purpoiJO in the absence of the
other articles. Calomel and colocynth, in the
form of a pill, and iu small doses, administered
at night, and succeeded in the morning by
some opening medicine, will usually effect a
cure ; but, if there bo much fever, bleeding
must be resorted to. AVhen the appetite re-
turns, only small quantities of light food should
be allowed.

As a tonic alterative, jNIr. Blaine recom-
mends the following: — Mercurial pill, one
drachm ; aloes, two drachms ; gum myrrh,
gum benjamin, balsam of Peru, of each one
drachm and a-half; make into a mass, and
divide into ten, fifteen, or twenty balls, accord-
ing to size, age, strength, &c., of the dog:
give one every evening, and, in a bad case,
every morning also. Avoid bringing on
active salivation, and active purging likewise,
after the first purging dose recommended.

DISTEMPER.

This is the most fatal disorder, after rabies,
to which the canine race is liable ,• and, we be-
lieve, it originated in France, where it is
known by the name of La ChaJadie. It is
little more than a century since it was known
in this country, and since that time it has
played havoc among some of our best breeds
of dogs. Some French authorities ascribe its
origin to England ; but others, better informed,
and more candid in their sentiments, acknow-
ledge that it originated in France. It is,
however, of little consequence to us now where
it was first known ; of far more value would be
the knowledge how to prevent it from affect-
ing our dogs, how to check it, and how to cure
it. Almost every dog, at some period of bis
life, is affected by it ; and when it appears in
an old one, there is little chance or hope of
his recovery. The more excellent the breed,
it would appear, the more susceptible is it of
the disease. Animals of the inferior order
have it often very slight, and the Colley of
Scotland gets over it without any medicines
whatever in a few days. Dr. Darwin describes
it as a debilitating catarrh ; but, as he mis-

took the character of the disease, or rather

! limited the seat of its operations, the rationale
of his prescriptions was wholly unequal t<»
compete with it. Dr. Jenner's description
was worse. ITo was a great man, or rather,
perhaps, a man with a great name; but ho
erred cgrcgiout^ly in reference to the dog-dis-
temper. Mr. Youatt says, that his description
of it was no more like the true disease than
himself was like unto Hercules. " I have,"
jMr. Vouatt continues, "again and again, put
the power of his boasted preventive (vaccina-
tion, as in small-pox) to the test, and I can
sa}', without the slightest hesitation, that it is
altogether without effect. I know many
gentlemen who have placed implicit faith in
the power of vaccination, and their whole
kennels have been submitted to the operation ;
the season has been favourable, and the disease
either has not appeared, or has assumed the
mildest type, and I have got into sad disgrace ;
but many years have not passed, before the
distemper has broken out, and carried off tho
majority of those who were supposed to bo
exempted from its attack."

The symptoms of distemper are usually loss
of appetite, fever, weakness of the eyes, dul-
ness, a discharge from the nose, discharge
from both the eyes and the nose, a short husky
cough, emaciation, a foetid smell; sometimes
fits. Dogs iu a fit are sometimes mistaken
for mad ; but it should be remembered that
fits are oiever an accompaniment of rabies.

The distemper is a disease of tho mucous
surfaces, and usually has its commencement in
nasal catarrh. If it is detected iu the first
stage, bleeding copiously will do good. Give
an emetic, and follow it up by a gentle purga-
tive ; if — as is generally tho case when the
above treatment does not eftect a cure — inflam-
mation of the lungs supervenes, more blood
must bo taken, and more aperient medicine,
with occasional emetics, given. If the animal
become weak, and is apparently sinking, mild
tonics, as gentian or quinine, must be admin-
istered ; and if he will not eat, some strong
beef jelly should be forced down his throat.
A seton in the back of the neck is often useful,
but should not be used indiscriminately. To
save all this trouble, however, the best thing
to do is to place the dog iu the hands of a
veterinary surgeon.

4S3

■DISTEMPJCB.]

THE DOG, AND ITS YAEIETIES;

[disxe^jpee.

The causes of distemper are, generally, cold ;
suddenly throwing a domesticated dog into the
water, or not properly drying his coat after
being washed. They are, however, various, and,
to a considerable extent, inscrutable ; for any de-
rangement of the system may bring it on. It is
remarked in the Encyclopcedia ofBural Sports,
that the eifects of distemper in different breeds
of dogs used in rural pursuits, or those which
live mostly in the open air, are comparatively
slight ; but, wherever man has interfered, and
forced an artificial breed by educating them to
artificial purposes, or closely confining them,
in such, the disease acts with great severity.
Hence it is so fatal to high-bred hounds,
pointers, setters, and spaniels ; and to terriers
and greyhounds, as breeds even more artificial
than the others, it is usually more so. Mr.
Youatt observes, that few dogs imported into
this country, as exotics, do well in it. In proof
of this, it is known that the larger number of
the northern dogs, brought here by Captain
Parry, were swept away by it within twelve
months. Some breeds have an hereditary pre-
disposition to be afiaicted in a far greater de-
gree than others of the same kind. Litter
after litter of some sporting strains, will hardly
yield more than one or two survivors ; and, in
such cases, we would advise the breeder to cross
the race. In crowded cities the disease is both
severe and fatal. In London, those that are
attacked by it have little chance of recovery
compared to those that are attacked in the
country, where the air is so much more pure,
and where the lungs are less likely to suffer
by it.

As in all diseases in which there is difficulty,
in treating for distemper, various modes have
been adopted. Some think it best, on its first
appearance, to give their dogs emetics and
purgatives. They begin by keeping the dogs
warm, and then administering James's powders
and hot baths, if necessary.

It docs not do to place a dog in an out-
liouse, and to content yourself with looking at
him, with your hands behind you, and saying
"poor fellow" to him two or three times a day.

A gentleman of the old school, gave to his
puppies, Scotch pills and James's powders.
The animals were then kept in an out-house,
made as warm and comfortable as a lady's
parlour; and success generally resulted from
48i

this treatment. A great matter in this disease
is promptitude of action. This same gentleinaa
lost a most promising greyhound puppy, entirely
through dilatoriness. The dog was out iu the
yard; and although the owner was told of his con-
dition by one experienced in canine diseases, he
did not take proper measures to check it. He
was going out for a walk with his wife, in-
tending "to see him when he came back ;" and
a few days afterwards the dog was dead.
Knowing how soon some people tire of animals
when any sickness or trouble comes, this does
not surprise us ; and the conduct of this gentle-
man is by no means exceptional, for there are
hundreds like him. To such, however, the life
of no valuable dog should be intrusted.

Eor the cure of distemper, one table-spoon-
ful of castor-oil and a piece of garlic bruised,
and given every day, has been found extremely
effective. It has been repeatedly tried, at the
same time keeping up the dog, or not allowing
him to get low. "We have known a dog per-
fectly paralysed from the distemper; but by
giving the above for ten days or a fortnight
together, and then, when it seemed, in some
degree, to have lost its effect, Benbow's Altera-
tive Mixture, for a few days, afterwards return-
ing to the castor-oil and garlic, completely re-
stored him.

Every sportsman has his own specific for
this disease ; and the following will be found,
we think, as excellent as any : — 12 grains of
tartar emetic ; 6 do. of opium ; 4 do. Peruvian
bark; 2 do. nitre; 2 do. camphor. To be
mixed up into nine balls, and two to be given
every other day to a full-grown dog ; one to a
puppy.

Tonic on heginning to Hecover. — 24i grains
of quinine ; i ounce of gentian powder; | do.
of bark in powder; 1\ do. of lemon-juice, or 8
drops of sulphuric acid. To be made into eight
bails, and one to be given every other day.

Valuable as these opinions and recipes may
be, however, we must make room for some apt
remarks by another, in reference to the " infal-
lible remedies" which have been supposed to
have been discovered for this disease, as well
as for a portion of the rationale of his own treat-
ment of it.

"The treatment of distemper,'* says this
experienced veterinarian, "must necessarily
vary considerably, according to the nature of

distempeh.]

FOR MOUNTAIN, FIELD, AND FARM. [distempee.

the attack, as well as tuo ago, constitution,
aud locality of tho object of it. It is soine-
what singular, tliat while tho very best practi-
tioners so often fail in their treatment of tho
complaint, wo seldom have met with a sports-
man, or breeder of dogs, who, according to his
own account, could not readily euro it, ' being
in possession <3f what he ilattered himself
was an intalliblo remedy.' AV'o once thought
a remedy of our own discovery almost so ;
but though it remains a valuable one, it is
far from iufalllblo ; aud wo suspect most of
these are much further from deserving such
a character than that wo allude to. It
happens, however, with these fancied infallible
remedies for distemper among gentlemen, that
under the exhibition of some supposed cura-
tive, they have met with two or three successful
cases, which would, perhaps, have done well
without anything ; such medicament has been
afterwards considered as the grand specific.
But continued experience leads us to a con-
clusion that, although many different remedies
are useful, according as one or other form of
the disease prevails, yet tliat there is not, and
we believe cannot be, a universal specific for
this Protean disorder. As most cases of dis-
temper commence by cough, or slight running
from the nose and eyes, with loss of flesh,
appetite, and spirits, an emetic is the first
remedy, as it clears the stomach aud bowels,
and sympathetically lessens the inflammatory
action going on. Should the pulse, the state
of breathing, or a harassing cough, indicate
any great determination to the lungs, take
from three to five or six ounces of blood
away, according to the size, age, &c. ; par-
ticularly if the dog be fat and moderately
strong. If bleeding is omitted, substitute
a mild purge, if the bowels are not already
relaxed. Emetics are useful as prepara-
tory medicines in distemper ; indeed very
useful. Strong dogs may take from two to four
grains of tartar emetic ; or otherwise from four
to six or seven grains of calomel. Sometimes
one, and sometimes the other of these reme-
dies is to be preferred. When there is any
disposition to purging, already observed, give
the tartar emetic only, from one graiu to four,
as a maximum ; or the vomit may be made of
equal parts of calomel and tartarised antimony,
from one grain to three grains of each ; or even

four grains of each may not bo too much for a
full-grown dog of tho largest breeds ; and far-
ther, this latter vomit has tho advantage of
proving a laxative also. Tho purging aud
emetic articles used on theso occasions by
sportsmen, as Turpith mineral and crude anti-
mony, are, from their drastic qualities, objec-
tionable ; and they can only be admissible for
very strong dogs, not yet at all debilitated by
tho complaint ; indeed, it is only in such cases
tliat theso violent remedies may bo risked. Of
this kind are large doses of salt, which occa-
sionally do good when no looseness of bowels
has already como on. The early insertion of
a seton should depend on circumstances : if an
impatience of light present itself, aud the pupils
look red within, the cough being hard, dry, and
frequent, insert one; but if, on the contrary,
the discharge from the eyes and nose is become
purulent aud profuse, and particularly if tho
dog be losing flesh daily, by no means do so.
While the dog is fat, should his inflammatory
symptoms run high, two or three moderata
purges are proper ; but when distemper is at
its height, always avoid them. Costiveness,
however, must bo combated; but do it by
laxatives only in these cases : as already ob-
served in other cases, a brisk purgative is
admissible and liighly proper; for unloading
the bowels, like unloading the stomach, will
tend greatly to lessen irritation, and reduce
tbe inflammatory action of the heart and ar-
teries ; but, at the same time that, under these
views, they are valuable agents, we must not
lose sight of the diarrhoea, which is so fatal a
symptom of the disease, and which too free a
use of them might tend to bring on. Theso
primary depleting means having been carried
into effect, proceed with the following febri-
fuge : — Antimonial powder, two, three, or four
grains ; nitrate of potash (nitre), five, ten, or fif-
teen grains ; powdered ipecacuanha, two, three,
or four grains ; powdered myrrli, four, six, or
eight grains. Make into a ball with a minor,
medium, or major quantities, according to the
size and age of the dog, and give two or threo
times a day, as the symptoms are more or less
urgent, diminishing the quantities if tbey
occasion sickness. When the cough is very
distressing, by which pneumonic symptoms
may bo apprehended, add to each dose of
these from half a grain to a grain of digitalis

485

DISTEMPEE.J

THE DOG, AXD ITS VAEIETIES

[distemper.

(fox-glore). Should nothing new in the
symptoms occur, and j^our patient remain
strong, every third or fourth day repeat the
emetic, and keep the bowels open ; but now,
more than ever, avoid active purgation."

The natural medicine of the dog is an
emetic, he being easily excited to vomit.
Whenever anything ails him, he himself runs
to the dog-grass, eats it, vomits, unloads his
stomach, and is at once well. In distemper,
therefore, a vomit is the first thing to be
given, no matter what form the disease may
have assumed. If nothing else is at hand,
Mr. Touatt concurs with Mr. Blaine in re-
commending common salt ; but the best form
of an emetic consists of a combination of equal
parts of tartar emetic and calomel. From
half a grain to a grain and a-half of each will
constitute tbe dose. "When calomel is given
m too strong doses, it acts with great severity
on the dog. The following is a case reported
in the second volume of the Veterinarian,
vFhen that medicine has been too freely ad-
ministered : —

" August SOth, 1828. — A spaniel, six months
old, has been ailing a fortnight, and three
doses of calomel have been given by the
owner. He has violent purging, witb tenes-
mus and blood. Half an ounce of castor- oil
administered.

" August olsf. — Astringents morning, noon,
and night.

" September Qth. — The astringents have little
efl'ect, or if the purging is restrained one day,
it returns with increased violence on the fol-
lowing day. Getting rapidly thin. Begins to
husk. Astringents continued.

" September lOi!/?.— The purging is, at length,
overcome ; but the huskiness has rapidly in-
creased, accompanied by laborious and hurried
respirations. Bleed to the extent of three
ounces.

" September lltTi. — The breathing relieved ;
but he obstinately refuses to eat, and is forced
several times in the day with arrow-root or
strong soup.

" September \%th. — He had become much
thinner and weaker, and died in the evening.
No appearance of inflammation on the thoracic
viscera, nor in any part of the alimentary
canal. The intestines contracted through
their whole extent."
48(>

For this scourge of dogs there is unhappily
no specific that can act remedially in all cases.
It assumes such a variety of forms, that it
bafiles the skill of the most eminent veterinary
practitioners. " A disease attacking so many
organs," says Mr. Touatt, "and presenting
so many and such difierent symptoms, must
require a mode of treatment varying with the
organ attacked, and the symptom prevailing.
The faith in these boasted specifics is princi-
pally founded on two circumstances — atmos-
pheric influence, and peculiarity of breed.
There are some seasons when we can scarcely
serve a dog ; there are others when we must
almost wilfully destroy him to put him out of
sight. There are some breeds in which, gene-
ration after generation, five out of six die of
distemper ; while there are others in which
not one out of a dozen dies. "When the season
is favourable, and the animal, by hereditary
influence, is not supposed to assume the viru-
lent type of the disease, these two important
agents are overlooked, and the immunity from
any fatal result is attributed to medicine.
The circumstances most conducive to success,
will be the recollection that it is a disease of
the mucous surfaces, and that we must not
carry the depressing and lowering system too
far. Keeping this in view, we must accom-
modate ourselves to the symptoms as they
arise."

Palsy, more or less complete, is occasionally
the termination of the distemper in dogs ; and
when accompanied by chorea, the case is gene-
rally beyond the reach of curative means.

In the Transactions of the Medico-Chirurgi-
cal Society, we are informed that this disease
is not communicable to man. Neither the
efiluvia arising from the diseased dog, nor his
bite, have proved in any instance infectious ;
but as the disease has often been confounded
with canine madness, it is to be wished that
it was more generally understood; for those
who are bitten by a distempered dog, are
sometimes thrown into a state of such terror,
that actual symptoms of hydrophobia have
arisen from the mere workings of the imagina-
tion. An instance of this occurred in a gen-
tleman who received a severe bite from a dog,
and who afterwards fancied the animal was
' mad. He felt a horror at the sight of liquids,
and, on attempting to swallow them, was

MA>'GE.]

FOK .MOL'XIAIN, l-IELK, \ M) FAKM.

MANliE.

actually convulsed. So uncontrollable were his ' days, during which time ho must be kopt dry
prepossessions, that the celi'bratfd John llun- and warm, and tod sparingly; let it bo washed
tor, to whom wo arc indebted for tlio fact, oil" ou tho fourth day with soft-soap and warm
conceived he would have died, had not tho dog water, in which soino common washing sodo
which inilicted tho wound been foinid, atid has been dissolved; give clean straw, plenty

broui^ht into his room in perfect health. Tlii;*
Boon restored his mind to a state of tranquil-
litv. Tho sight of water no longer afUicted
biui, and ho quickly recovered.

MANGE

Is of three kinds— common mange, the red
mauge, and the scabby mange.

So early as the twelfth century, insects were
found to burrow under the skin of tho human
being ; and in the seventeenth century engrav-
ings of them were executed and produced. Simi-
rar insects infest the lower animals. Placed on
the skin of a healthy individual, they give rise
>) a disease having all the characteristics of
scabies. If taken from mangy dogs, horses, or

of exorcise, and cooling diet, and tho dog will
speedily get well.

" "When a dog is very bad, tho s-kin or soles
of the feet, and sometimes tlie claws, will como
off, in which cases I would recommend steeping
them in a decoction of strong oak bark and
alum. It can bo best done by tying the feet
up in thick cloths, kept wet with the above
mixture.

" Puppies arc very liable to display a mangy-
looking coat, at tho ago of from two to four
months. The hair falls off iu spots, and the skin
becomes itchy, dry, and scaly. This is not
genuine mange ; but, if neglected, is apt to run
into it. At this early stage it is easily cured by
washing with soft-soap and water, and change
of bedding; giving also a little sulphur in the

sheep, and placed on healthy individuals of

the same species, these will at once receive the food daily, and in very minute quantities. This

affection. It has been, in many cases, proved appears to me to be only an effort of nature to

that scabies in man has been produced by
contact with the lower animals. The disease
of mange, Mr. Youatt considers, to some ex-
tent, to be hereditary : a mangy dog is likely
to produce mangy puppies ; and the offspring
of a mangy bitch will sooner or later show the
disease.

Common mange is well known, and will, with
attention to cleanliness, accompanied with slight
daily alterative doses of sulphur and nitre,
soon be cured; but if neglected it is apt to
run into scabby mange, when the skin becomes
blotched, the dog emaciated, the belly swollen,
and death frequently terminates the sufferings
of the miserable animal. In cases of this kind
Mr. Eichardson recommends an aperient for
a day or two ; then, for a week, the alteratives
named above ; next, well washing with soft-soap
and water; and then rubbing him over with
tho following prescription : —

Train Oil . « . . 1 pint.
TurpentinG , .^ , . 1 ounce.
Naphtha . . , . . 1 „
Oil of Tar ....!„

Soot 1 »

And — Sulphm", in powder, sufficient to make the
stuff of a proper consistence.

"This is to remain on the dog for three

throw off the old or puppy coat of hair, and
assume the new one.

" Change of feeding is serviceable in the
treatment of mange; but it is a mistake to
suppose that the change must be to a reduced
regimen. In many cases, mange is only the
offspring of filth and hunger; and in these
cases the change must be to clean bedding and
generous diet. The change of food, however,
should not be sudden; otherwise, not only
may the existing disorder be aggravated, but
other and less manageable affections may bo
superinduced."

"When all things else fail, Mr. Youatt recom-
mends a slight infusion of tobacco, cautiously
used. If mercury is applied externally, care
must be taken to prevent the dog from licking
it, as diarrha^a, produced by mercury, often
proves fatal. !JIuch patience is necessary in
curing this disease. Mr. Blaine had u fa-
vourite setter which was affected with a violent
mauge for five years. "What misery must
this poor animal have suffered during a period
probably extending to nearly half of his life.
He was ordered to bo dressed every day, or
every second day, before the disease was com-
pletely conquered. By this treatment, how-
ever, he finally recovered.

4S7

COSTIVEXESS.]

THE DOG, AND ITS VARIETIES;

[medicines.

For the treatment of mauge, Mr. Blaiue
reeomnieuds tlie ioliovi'mg Jvrmulce.

No. I.
Powdered Sulphur, yeUow or bhick
Muriate of Ammonia, powdered .
Aloes powdered . , , .
Venice Turpentine . ^ . .
Lard, cl ther fattv matter .
Mix.

No. II.
Sulphate of Zinc (white vitriol) .
Tobacco in powder ....
Sulphur in powder , . . .
Aloes in powder ....
Soft soap

4 ounces.

1.

1 drachm.
i ounce.

1 drachm.
h ounce.

2 drachms.
6 ounces.

No. III.

Lime-water ...... 4: ounces.

Decoction of Stavesacre . , . . 2 „

Decoction of White Hellebore . . 2 „
Oxymuriate of Quicksilver (corrosive

sublimate) 5 grains.

Dissolve the corrosive sublimate iu the
decoctions, which should be of a moderate
strength ; when dissolved, add two drachms of
powdered aloes, to render the mixture nauseous,
and prevent its being licked off by tlie dog —
a circumstance which ought to be very care-
fully guarded against.

COSTIVENESS.

Change the diet; give gruel and slops;
and let the dog have full liberty ; boiled liver
will be found useful. If these measures
fail, give small doses of castor-oil. No dog
should be allowed to be costive longer than
two days, as it ma}^ arrive at indigestion,
generate worms, impart a foetid smell to the
breath, and blacken the teeth. The best
means of preventing this disease is giving a
sufficiency of exercise. This, perhaps, cannot
he done with watch-dogs, which have to be kept
almost continually ou the chain in yards and
public works ; but, where it can be done, it
should never be neglected. In cases where it
is requisite to administer medicine, an aloetic
ball may be given, or Epsom salts. Should
these fail in producing the desired effect upon
the animal, the castor-oil mixture, with spirit
of buckthorn, and white poppies, should be
administered ; and recourse may be had to the
clyster-pipe. Exercise, however, is the grand
preventative.
48S

DIARRH(E.\

This disease is frequently met with in dogs
that are habitually petted ; and it is very often
the consequence of improper food, or over-
feeding. When it shows itself, wait for a day
or two, till you see if the discharge will cease,
and a cure take place, without the necessity of
giving medicine. Should this not happen, give
castor-oil, with a few drops of laudanum.

There are many other diseases to which the
dog is subject ; but as these have been already
treated in scientific veterinary works especially
devoted to them, we refrain from introducing
them here, but refer the reader to Mr.
Blaine's Canine Fathologij, and the treatise of
Mr. Touatt, on The Dog. In these works,
every disease, so far as great experience has
been able to determine its character, has been
treated with judgment and skill ; whilst ability,
coupled with a desire to state nothing but
what will bear the test of a trial, appears in
every page.

MEDICINES USED IN THE TREATMENT OF
DISEASE IN DOGS.

Dogs affected by disease should be handled
with great gentleness ; kept perfectly clean,
and furnished with a warm bed. The medi-
cines used in their cases are very numerous,
and, as a general rule, should only be adminis-
tered under the direction of a surgeon. They
are given in the form of a pill, or bolus, or in
a liquid state, most easily, by two persons-
one sitting, and holding the dog between his
knees, while the other forces the mouth open
by pressure on the lips of the upper jaw, and
administers the medicine.

Alcohol. — Used in tinctures, but never administered
iu a pure state.

Alum. — A powerful astringent : ten to fifteen grains
may be given in obstinate cases of diarrhoea. It is some-
times used in the form of a clyster.

Antimony in the form of James's powders, used to
produce gentle perspiration.

Alteratives are intended to produce a slow change
in the system without interfering with other arrange-
ments. Five parts sublimate of sulphur, one of nitre,
one of linseed meal, and two of palm oil is a useful alte-
rative.

BAKBAnoES Aloes.— An excellent aperient, consists
of eight parts of powdered aloes, one part antimonial

MEDICINES.]

von MOINTAIN, 11 KM), AM) P A lOf.

[mkdicines.

()owdcr, one part ginger, four parts palm oil — well beat np
togetlur, and uiadu into bulls of about half a dnichm.
Mr. Uluine says the 8mnllc.>it dog in.iy take from tiftecn
to twenty ^^rains, aduiiuistcrt'd in hiilf-diachm bulls every
four or live hours.

Ulisters. — .\n infusion of two oum'cs of cantharides
in a pint of oil of turpentine, kept on for several days,
is a gentle blister, maintaining suiliLifnt irritation and
intlumnuition, without blistering the skin, to remuve
ct rt.iin eauses of lameness.

Calomel. — A dangerous medicine, but useful in small
doses in eases of liver eompiaint, and, combined with
aloes, in doses never exceeding three grains, in cases of
virulent mange.

Castor Oil {oleum ricini) possesses the best pro-
perties of the fixed vegetable oils. Three parts of the
oil, two of syrup of buckthorn, and one of syrup of
poppies, form a useful medicine where a narcotic stimu-
lant is requisite.

Catechu. — Extract of the acacia tree (acacia cate-
chu), and possesses a powerful astringent property.
^lixed with opium, chalk, and powdered gum, it stops
diarrhoea. As a tincture, it assists the healing principle
in hounds.

Chalk {creia prcparata) is useful in combination
with ginger. Catechu and opium in all cases of purging,
particularly in the purging of distemper.

Chloride of Lime should be sprinkled, from time to
time, in the kennel or dog-house, for purposes of cleanli-
ness. It is useful for washing ill-conditioned wounds.

Clysters. — Applied when the nature and progress of
disease renders necessary a quick evacuation of the con-
tents of the bowels. It usually consists of warm water,
rendered more stimulating, when necessary, by adding
salts, oil, or aloes ; for killing worms in the rectum, or
larger intestines, using oils ; for diarrhoea, using astrin-
gents ; for nourishment, using gruel.

Digitalis. — Dried leaves of the fox-glove, which yield
their virtues both to water and to alcohol. It is a power-
ful sedative narcotic, and is useful in all inflammatory
and febrile complaints.

Ei'SOM Salts. — A mild and effective aperient for most

animals ; but, for the dog, the castor. oil mixture is pre.
fcruble.

Ge.stian. — The root of rjentiana lutea in valuable oa
a tonic, febrifuge, and stomachic. It has little or no
smell, but is bitter to the taste.

GiNGKR is considered an aromatic, nnd is Ipss heating
to the system than might be expected from its pungent
taste. It is antisj)asm()dic and carminative, li is also
useful for dogs as a cordial and tonic.

Hog's Lard. — The basis of ull ointments used in dog
medicines, being free from every stimulating property.

Iodine. — A new medicine, found, however, to be very
universally dilFuscd throughout the vegetable and mineral
kingdoms : it is rapidly suaerseding the cantharides and
turpentine blister.

Lu.var Caustic (nitrate of silver). — Recommended
by Mr. Youatt as superseding all other caustics, and pre-
ferable, in cases of rabies, to the knife. It is also recom-
mended, by the same authority, in cases of opuleseme of
the cornea, and where there is fungoid matter tiirown out
on the cornea.

Nitrate of Potash. — A mild and cooling diuretic,
given in doses of eight to ten grains.

Nitrate of Silver is applied for the same purpose.

Nitric Acid destroys warts and excrescences, by
being dropped on the part, and bandaged. Nitrate of
silver, however, is a surer application.

Palm Oil. — An excellent emollient when unadul-
terated, being milder than common lard.

Peruvian Bark is an excellent tonic in distemper,
combined with iodide of iron.

Prussic Acid allays the irritation of the skin in dogs ;
it requires care, and may be fatal when the tkin is
abrascd.

Sulphur. — An excellent alterative, and, combined
with antimony and nitre, particularly useful in mange,
surfeit, grease, and for dogs out of condition.

Turpentine. — An excellent diuretic and antispas-
modic. It is also a most efl'ective sweating blister, and
highly recommended in strains.

Vinegar. — Useful for sprains, bruises, and fcr.ic:
tatious.

3r

480

DIVISION III.

SHOOTING, BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER

CHAPTER I.

rEELIMINARY REMARKS : THE GUN.

To be " a good shot" is an enviable distinction
in the eyes of many; and, perhaps, at no period
of England's history was the art of handling
the gun so much practised, so popularly es-
teemed as a kind of essentiality to the accom-
plishments of a country gentleman, as at the
present time. Even the busy merchant in
the city occasionally forgets the cares of his
ledger, to have a day's shooting; whilst
our tens of thousands of riflemen are daily
practicing an art which, whilst it has for its
grand object the defence of our shores from
foreign invasion, is, at the same time^ incul-
cating a desire for field sports, far beyond
what might be imagined by those who see
nothing more in a rifleman but a civilian
dressed in strangely coloured regimentals, and
trained only to shoot at a target.

As one of the most captivating of British
field sports, shooting has long held a promi-
nent place ; and we, ourselves, almost as far
back as we can remember, have a lively remi-
niscence of a bachelor uncle of ours, who had
long been in the West Indies, and who had
passed the threescore-and-ten as the allotted
period of man's life — taking us to the fields witli
him to practise partridge shooting, when it
was with the greatest difiiculty that he, himself,
could see a covey twelve yards before him.
We know of no sport that has so much to
recommend it. Every one, however, has his
hobby. Some delight in the quiet and solitary
pleasures of the angle ; some in hawking, which,
by the way, is a noble kind of exercise ; and
some in the more violent sport of horse-racing.
There is noLie of these, however, equal to the
sport of the " dog and gun." Each, no doubt,
has its individual charms to those who are so
constituted as to make it an enjoyment : but
the universality of " shooting" — of its practice
in every country and clime — from the estima-
400

tion in which it is held, and which, no doubt,
in a great measure, arises from the open-air
exercise which it causes, amid scenes exempted
from the restrictions incident to artificial
life, and redolent of all the charms of nature,
whether belonging to the field or the forest, the
moor or the mountain, has rendered this sport
more general than any other. It is not all,
however, that are allowed to enjoy even this
sport as regards game. The law has stepped in
to prevent this ; and Byron has sarcastically
noticed the fact in some of his lines.

" The corn is cut, the manor full of game,

The pointer ranges, and the sportsman beats,

In russet jacket — lynx-like is his aim,

Full-grown his bag, and wonderful his feats.

Ah ! nut-brown partridges ! ah i brilliant pheasants !

And ah ! ye poachers ! — 'tis no sport for peasants !"

The lines alluded to certainly indicate the
cause which has produced a direful chapter in
the annals of British crime. But if game were
not in some way protected, nobody but the
farmer and the peasant would have anything
living to shoot at. Some of these are con-
stantly located where game is; consequently
they would have all the sport to themselves ;
and the gentleman returning to his own es-
tates in the country, after a residence in the
city, or tour on the continent, would have
nothing left for his own sport. The tables
of his labourers and tenantry would be covered
with game, whilst he would have none, except
what he was forced to purchase with the hard
cash from his own treasury. '

THE GUN AND THE FOWLING-PIECE.

The origin of the word " gun" has not been
determined with accuracy. In the Encyelo-
pceclia Britannica, we find it observed that
some derive it from the French word onangon,

.1.' ■'Ssl'iSJ'..* '= ■'*

!- -^^-ci^frtf::^

>K

vn

tg--_'"*«ii:

"*K. ^^7"s*^-

• ' -A

iife^_.i3iiliiiliiiiarf)iiaiSii«:JiB^

THE 11 UN. J

SIIOOTIXCJ, V.Y FIELD, WOOD, AND W.\T1:K. [the gux.

which wns a warliico instrument used before

the invention of the gun now made use of, and
(.uiploved in dis'-har^ing arrows, and other
inissileg, before the manufacture of gunpowder,
C)ther3 derive it from yy/*. an engine employed
lor similar purpoi;ed. JSclilon says, the word
^un was in use in England, for an engine to
oast a thing from a man, long before there was
any gunpowder found out.

The hii.td-gun, or goune, as formerly spelt,
seems to have been the rudimental shape of
our present fowling and military pieces. It is
said to have been invented by one Billius, a
nobleman of Milan, and was nothing more
than an iron tube affixed to a club, or stick,
with a hollow, without a cover near the breech,
or base, to receive the priming powder. In
the reign of Henry VI., a small priming pan
was invented and attached ; but still the
weapon was of the rudest description, and
scarcely worth the name of being an instru-
ment well suited for either attack or defence.
The stocTccd-gun was the next step in its
improvement. The barrel was placed in a
wooden stock, or frame, which was at first
straight, but which was subsequently altered
to a curve, for the purpose of enabling the
marksmen to take better aim, and to obviate,
to some extent, the severity of the recoil,
which was an inherent defect in the straight
stock. The match-loch and tcheel-lock guns
followed in the order of change. The first
was used with a lighted match, brought into
contact with the priming by means of a spring-
trigger. The second was made in the days of
Elizabeth ; but, though introduced into the
arena of war, it was still a very defective
weapon, and was not at all well adapted for \
heightening the pleasures of the sports of the
field. This gun was fired by means of fric-
tion, through the means of a wheel, which
passed rapidly over the edge of a piece of
flint. It was but a heavy, clumsy, and un-
handy affair. It was succeeded by the flint-
lock, which was long retained in use, and under-
went various modifications down to modern
times. The more recent improvement is the
pcrcussion-loch, which is now in high favour.

There are few practical arts which have
advanced so rapidly as the one which is marked
by the making, or the manufacturing of guns.
"Judging of the perfecting of the art by the

expense of the article," Bays the Eneyclopadin
of littral Sports, " wo might be led to concludo
that gun-nmking had reached the acme of per.
fection. It has been no uncommon thing to
pay fifty, sixty, or seventy guineas for a best
London-mado gun. The continent has even
gone beyond us in this respect ; for we are told,
that when Napoleon I. was in the plenitudo
of his grandeur, ho established a gun manu-
factory at Versailles ; and, wo are informed,
that pistols were there made at 10,000 livres, or
£100 sterling, each; and guns at 50,000 livres,
or £2,000 sterling. Of these, the first consul
often made presents to foreign princes, to
general officers, and other favourites. The
Marquis of Ivockingham is also said to have
given to Colonel Thomson a fowling-pieco
which cost £400; and that Messrs. lloberC
and John "Wheeler, gun-makers, of Birming-
luim, presented George IV. with a gun of the
most exquisite workmanship, which cost three
hundred guineas.

The barrel of a gun is of the first considera-
tion, both as regards its construction and the
manner in which it is kept in order. Iron is
the principal component part in its manufac-
ture, and the kind of iron is of the last moment.
The best description of this metal is that which
possesses the highest degree of tenacity and
ductility. Swedish iron is allowed to possess
these qualifications or properties in an eminent
degree, and is, therefore, almost universally
employed in the manufacture of gun-barrels of
any considerable value. It must be observed,
however, that this article, like many others, is
ofteu made for sale, and not for safety ; and
that spurious and cheap pieces are made from
kinds of iron that render them dangerous and
worthless. When iron is mixed with certain
mineral substances, it becomes unfit for safe
gun-barrel making; but as every sportsman is
not possessed of the scientific attainments of
an expert chemist, nor has the pretensions to
understand the art of gun-making, people are
necessarily left, in a great measure, to chance,
for the sort of instrument so necessary ibr
their sport, as well as for their personal safety.
The most prudent plan to adopt is, to deal
with gunsmiths of acknowledged skill and
reputation, and who make a point of issuing
from their shops only such instruments as will
prove both safe and effective.

491

THE GUN.]

SHOOTING,

[the gun.

"Without aiming, however, at a scientific
knowledge of iron or of gun-making, a sports-
man should, nevertheless, be acquainted with a
few plain principles respecting the quality of the
materials of which his instrument is made, as
well as of its adaptability to the purposes for
which it is designed. Spanish gun-barrels
have long been highly prized, and generally
very justly. They are made of a species of
iron remarkably well hammered, and which
has received the technical name of scraps,
being chiefly composed of the old nails taken
from the shoes of horses, mules, and asses,
used as beasts of burden in Spain. The Da-
mascus barrels were once more highly esteemed
than they are now. They were made of highly-
tempered iron and steel, hammered with
extraordinary labour, and polished to the
highest perfection. There are several kinds of
iron which are now generally used for fowling-
pieces ; such as loire-tivist iron, Wisivould' s
iron, charcoal iron, stuh-twist iron, twopenny,
and threepenny sJcelp iron, and sham-dam sJcelp.
Among all these varieties, the stub-twist is con-
sidered the best ; but it is high-priced, and,
like most other things of value, liable to con-
siderable adulteration. When it can be ob-
tained pure, most gun-makers are inclined to
give it a decided prefereuca, both for shooting
purposes and safety.

A military treatise, written upwards of 240
years ago, gives us what may be considered, even
in these advanced times, good advice as to the
choice of a gun. We will modernise the
spelling for the benefit of all our readers.

"He that loveth the safety of his own per-
son, and delighteth in the goodness and beauty
of a piece, let him always make choice of one
that is double-breeched; and, if it be possible,
a Milan piece, for they be of tough and perfect
temper, light, square, and big of breech, and
very strong where the powder doth lie, and
where the violent force of the fire doth con-
sist, and, notwithstanding, thin at the end.
Our English pieces approach very nigh unto
them in goodness and beauty (their heaviness
only excepted), so that they be made on pur-
pose, and not one of those common sale pieces
with round barrels, whereunto a beaten soldier
will have great respect, and rather choose to
pay double money for a good piece, than to
spare his purse and endanger himself."
4D2

The following is the test of Mr. Greener for
discovering difierent gun-metal from the real
stub-twist iron : — " Eequire the gun-maker to
stain the barrel under examination with the
smoTce-hrown (a staining composition, of which
he gives an account in his book), and he will
not be able to accomplish it if the barrel be
not genuine; whereas nothing is easier, if it
be really made of stubs twisted. The matter
may be thus explained-, hydrogen gas acts
only on iron ; steel resists its action ; so that,
when a barrel is properly finished, the steel
remains quite bright, while the iron has become
a beautiful jet-black, which will be easily recog-
nised by attention to the appearance."

Testing gun-barrels is such an important
matter to all who have to use them, either for
amusement or war, that the legislature has
been obliged to step in, for the purpose of
endeavouring to save individuals from serious
injuries, and often from death itself. It is not
always from a defect of the metal of which a
fowling-piece is made, that danger arises, but
often from some defect in the workmanship,
whence danger, and often serious consequences
result. For a long time this country sufi'ered
severely from the want of proper attention to
this subject; but the gun-makers themselves
took the matter up, and established a proof-
house, by which barrels could be tested. In
1813, this trade was incorporated by act of
parliament ; and by the powers granted to it,
it was made penal to sell any gun without its
being first proved at one of the proof-houses,
established by the company in London and
Birmingham. These enactments, however, were
evaded ; and such numbers of spurious instru-
ments were thrown into the market, that the
legislature had again to come to the rescue,
and pass, in 1815, another more stringent
enactment. "It was enacted that no barrel
should be received by any person to rib, stock,
or finish, that had not been duly proved, under
a penalty of £20.'' It was also enacted that
all barrels should be immediately dispatched,
by the maker, to the proof-house beiore the
same shall be sold, or transmitted for sale to
any person whatever. A penalty of d620 ia
attached to the breach of this clause ; and it
further visits, with the like penalty, any one
receiving such barrel to make up. The act
also imposed the same penalty upon the forger

THE

OUN.l

BY FIELD, WOOD, .VXD W'ATKK.

[the ouk.

of iIh< prool-iiiark of tlio Loadou company, or
that of the Birmiii^liain company.

Tlio inoilo of uiakiiip: gun-barrt'ls is thus
described in the article ou " sliooting," iu tho
Encyclopctdia Britannica ; and although it may
appear somewhat foreign to our subject, still, wo
think there are many who would wish to know
something of this operation. " Having lixcd,
in the first place, on the size of the gun, and
ascertained, as near as may bo, tho width of
the bore, and the length and tliickness of the
barrel, the next thing the forger does is to '
take a portion of the metal of which he is to
make the barrel, and to form it into the shape \
of a thin, flexible bar, something like a cooper's !
hoop ; this bar or hoop must not be all of [
the same thickness ; but that part of it which 1
is to be towards, and is to form the muzzle of j
the piece, must be thinner than that which is
intended to form the breech. An instrument,
called a mandril, is then chosen, according to
the size of the intended bore of the gun. Tho
flexible bar or hoop is then heated, so as to
make it ply easily, and is turned round the
mandril, much in the same way as a riband of
leather is turned round the handle of a whip.
The edges of the hoop of iron, however, are
made to overlap one another a little, so that,
\rhen welded, all their joinings may be com-
pact and solid, and no slackness appear where
the lips of the bar or hoop toucla one another.
"When the metal has acquired its proper heat
and the weldings are properly executed, tho
places where the bars overlapped each other are
quite imperceptible ; and the barrel appears as
though it had been made out of one piece, and
finished at one beat." The mode of making
the twisted barrel does not materially differ
from this description.

The use of the double-barrelled gun, in sport-
ing, has greatly increased within the present
century ; and the instrument itself has under- I
gone numerous important alterations and im- i
provements. AVhen first brought out, one barrel j
lay over the other, each having a separate pan, |
hammer, and hammer-spring. The barrels were I
consequently made to turn round at the part j
where their breeches were fixed to the stock ; '
and it was so contrived that, when one barrel
was fired off", the other was brought into its
place by the simple pressure of a* spring by
the right hand, while, with the left, the barrels j

were turned on their common centre. Thi*
kind of gun was always esteemed an ex-
tremely clumsy and heavy inBtrumeut ; and
the locks were commonly so exceedingly
complex, that it soon suggested further im-
provements in tho make of this sort of gun.
Accordingly, tho next step in advance was an
instrument that did not allow tho barrels to
turn round upon an axis; but, on tho con-
trary, they were fixed one over tho other,
and each had a separate lock and trigger,
which, for the under barrel, was, consequently,
placed lower than tho other. Still, although
pieces of this construction possessed a great
advantage over those made on tho revolving
principle, in the quickness of their firing, yet
they were subject to one inconvenience, from
which the others were exempt, and which
arose from the situation of the under barrel ;
for that being fired under the same line of
aim with the upper one, did necessarily shoot
low.

The more modern plan, of placing the
barrels in juxtaposition, or side by side with
each other, is a great improvement ; but
there are still many things connected with
guns of this description, which require con-
sideration, with a view to readiness of use,
and facility of movement. It has often been
a matter of serious complaint, that each
barrel is liable to be filed away too much at
the breech, and likewise at the muzzle, in
order to bring these two parts of the barrels
as near together as possible. This renders
the instrument unsafe. There are, also, im-
portant questions connected with the use ot
the double-barrelled gun, as to the way in
which a true aim is to be obtained by it.
These questions have, at various times, given
rise to long discussions, both in sporting
journals and sporting books, and very con-
trary opinions and suggestions have been
arrived at. Still, there has been much light
thrown on the general question, and decided
improvements made within the last few years.
In a past volume of the Sporting Magazine, it
is asked — " What is the best method of
making double-barrelled guns, so that a cor-
rect aim may be taken from the centre of the
barrels?" To which the following reply is
given : — " If the barrels were placed parallel to
each other, it would be but a small objection

493

ELEVATIOjS'.J

SHOOTING,

Feletated eib.

liaving the sight between them ; but as guns
are commonly made, the thickness between
the bores of each, at the breech, is three-six-
teenths of an inch, and at the muzzle one-
sixteenth. Therefore, if the length of a
pair of barrels was two feet six inches,
which is the ordinary length, and the sight
taken from the centre, and a ball was
projected from one of them, it would make
one-eighth of an inch declination from its true
course in every two feet six inches it had to
travel, which would make, in forty yards, a
declination of six incites. From this cause,
the right-hand barrel always shoots to the left,
and vice versa. Now, to remedy this, suppose
the thickness between the two barrels to be
at the breech three-sixteenths of an inch, then
let the space at the muzzle be the same ; and
where the barrels are thus laid together, and
the sight placed between them, the ball would
only make a declination of half an inch (the
bore being five-eighths of an inch), being the
distance between the centre of the barrel-bore
and the exterior of the barrel's surface." The
method by which this error is attempted to be
rectified, by filing away so much of the breech-
surface as shall bring the calibers of the barrels
into a more rectilinear direction, is considered
nothing more than remedying one defect by
creating another. The great object should be
to efi'ect the junction of the gun-barrels, in
such a manner as to bring the centres of the
calibres of the muzzles, and the centres of the
calibres of the breeches, if not exactly equidis-
tant, at least much more so than is commonly
effected ; the approximation being in general
in the direct ratio to the length of the barrels.
The late Colonel Hawker treats this subject
with some degree of indifference ; and Mr.
BL-vine dissents from the line of argument
pursued by Mr. Greener regarding it. " Much
as we admire Mr. Greener's usual line of
argument," says Mr. Blaine, " we regret that
on this subject we disagree with him, also,
when he says—' To make them (the barrels)
uniform (i. e., lessen the convergence we com-
plain of), it requires that they be reduced, or
flattened, to allow the thick or heavy end to join
closer.' If this be not incurring a risk, we do
not know what is ; and we do hope that no re-
spectable gun-maker will rectify his con vergeucy
in the barrels towards each other by any other
494

means than firmly setting the centres of the
muzzles rectilinearly with those of the breeches,
by the agency of an intervening substance, as
hard soldering in the centre, mettle-ribbing it
above and below ; and then, and then only,
the silver sight will not be a guide to error."

ELEVATION AND ELEVATED RIB.

What should be the elevation and the ele-
vated rih of a gun, involve nice and abstruse
questions as to the precise movements of bodies
thrown out of projectiles generally. The line
which a charge of shot takes when fired from a
double gun, is called, in gunnery, the line of im-
pulse. "Whether it be rectilinear or curvilinear
is still a point of dispute. But one thing is
certain, that the shot is under the influence of
the ordinary and the universal law of gravita-
tion, which acts upon it so as to bring it
within the universal law of having a tendency
to fall to the ground. The distance to which
its flight may be prolonged, depends on the
excellence and make of the gun, the materials
with which it may be loaded, and the various
minute matters which constitute the tact, aim,
&c., of the person using the instrument. A
curvilinear direction of the shot is assumed, as
a fact, by gun-makers ; and their grand object
is, to bring the shot to the mark aimed at by
the use of mechanical means— such as straight
stock, or an artificial elevation of the muzzle of
the piece, in proportion to the length of the
barrel. All these points certainly appertain
more to the express business of the gunsmith ;
yet the sportsman should know something of
them, as they bear directly upon practical re-
sults necessary to his own safety.

On the Elevated Bib, Colonel Hawker and
Mr. Greener have written at some length.
Their opinions are entitled to great weight,
and they maintain that different lengths of
barrel require a corresponding height of the
rib ; and that a greater height is required by a
person accustomed to use a crooked stock, and
vice versa. Both writers, likewise, maintain
that the elevation of the rib commonly met
with is not sufficient. The usual elevations
do not deliver the shot, even at forty yards,
with a usual charge of powder ; and where the
shot is of more than average size, there must
be a great defalcation in the result. Mr.
Greener says, that the experiment he has

CAiinnE.]

V.Y I'll: 1. 1). AVOOD. AND W'ATKK.

Fda-uiiels.

made, shows that, in heavy charges of shot, t ho

droop is fully ttrclvr inches in forty yards ; but
that with loss charges of shot, tho line of llii^lit
will be more dircvt.

The great advautago of tho double-barrelled
CUM over the single one is now generally ad-
mitted bv all PoortsmiMi ; but there are still
8ome shooters to be found who prefer tho latter.
This preference, however, depends, in almost
all cases, upon some accidental circumstance,
or individual fancy. The quantity of game to
be obtained, especially in the earlier parts of
the shooting season, is much more with a
double than with a single gun. The weight is
generally greater in the former than in the
latter; buc habit and custom soon bring the
matter to an equality on this point.

On the calibre, or bore, the length and
weight of barrels, their killing range, their
recoil, the regularity of their eflect, their force,
their liability to burst, much might be written ;
for on all these several subjects there have
been, and still are, considerable differences of
opinion. It is unnecessary for us here to
cuter into full details regarding them. They
are of more interest to the scientific maker
than to the sportsman, whose experience soon
teaches him as to what sort of weapon he finds
to be the best to enhance his pleasure or
amusement.

CALIBRE. OR BORE.
It is recommended by a high authority that
fint-fjuns should not be bored cyliudrically
through, but that a little contraction, just
where the shot first moves, should be pre-
served. This suggestion has, for many years,
been pretty generally attended to by gun-
smiths. It is of importance that every pur-
ciiaser of a fowling-piece should ascertain, by
the gauge, the exact diameter of each portion
of the bore of the piece, that he may adapt
his wadding accordingly. The proper wadding
for such kind of relieved barrels is that which
has some considerable degree of firmness, with
a certain portion of elasticity. Beckworth's
wadding is of this kind. There are, however,
many barrels now made which are bored
cyliudrically throughout ; and it is nftirmed, by
competent authorities, that such pieces shoot
remarkablv well.

TERCUSSION HARRELS.
These are commonly mado heavier and
stronger than tho barrels of tho fliut-gun. It
is now the practice to bore such barrels with a
littlo relief forward, which, Colonel Ilawker
maintains, " has tho cftect of making tlio gun
tthoot as close as it can do, compatible with
tho quickness and strength required." Tho
increased weight of the percussion-barrel ha.s,
however, been objected to by others, whoso
opinion upon this subject is entitled to much
weight.

LENGTH AND ^VEIGIIT OF BARRELS.

There has been a great innovation upon tho
length of gun-barrels. It was long considered
to be an indisputable maxim, that the longer
tho barrel, and the smaller the bore, the farther
a gun would kill. Now, however, the barrel is
considerably shortened, and with good results.
Here again, however, some sportsmen think an
error has been made in running into the oppo-
site extreme, and making them too short. Mr.
Eobius, who seems to have paid great attention
to this matter, says, " that the sportsmen may
please themselves whether the length of their
barrels be from ticenty-cigltt to forty inches ;
but that if they either go above or below these
dimensions, they will find that the range of tlic
shot will begin to fail them." We would
say, that at present, the general opinion is in
favour of moderate length of barrel. Such
fowling-pieces are decidedly better adapted fur
general purposes, more portable, and are freer
from many inconveniences attendant upon very
long guns. The OaJcleigli Shooting Code gives
the following judgment on the matter : — " The
fowliug-picce to be recommended for general
use is a double-barrelled detonator, weighing
about eight pounds; the barrels thirty or
thirty-two inches in length, sixteen gauge, and
made of twisted stubs. It is not sportsmanlike
to use double barrels of a greater calibre ; nor
are longer barrels convenient, on account ot
their weight, although additional length, not
carried to an extreme, or a larger calibre, may
l)robably render them more eftective, in so far
as they will sustain a heavier charge. Single
barrels, for general use, may be thirty-four
inches long and fourteen gauge." The same
authority says, that "the barrels of tho

495

EANUE.

SHOOTING,

[gtjn-bareels.

grousing gun should be thirty-two inches long,
and sixteen gauge ; a single barrel for grouse-
shooting should be thirty-six inches long, and
fourteen or fifteen gauge. If selected for
partridge-shooting only, the barrels should be
thirty inches long, and sixteen gauge; or a
single barrel thirty-four inches, and fourteen
or fifteen gauge. If selected for cover-shooting
only, the barrels should be only twenty-eight
inches, by sixteen gauge; or single barrels
thirty-two inches, and fifteen gauge."

EXTENT OF RANGE.
On this subject there is much variety of
opinion ; and that, too, amongst sportsmen of
great experience, and thoroughly practical in
the knowledge they possess. It is, therefore,
impossible for us to decide a problem so much
involved in difficulty. Two points should be
obtained by all guns — ^to keep the shot from
being scattered, and to give them the greatest
amount of force or 'pTO]iuhion. These are the
ends desired; but the means best calculated
to obtain these, have given rise to numerous
and conflicting theories and expedients. Some
think that the muzzle of the gun should be a
little widened ; some advise the mixing of oil
and water with the shot ; and some place all
their faith in well-regulated charges of powder.
There are advantages attending all these
anethods, but not to the extent which their
respective advocates maintain. The distance
of range that most fowling-pieces will carry,
on ordinary occasions, is forty yards. This
is considered a fair average shot. Some,
of course, will kill considerably further, and
some not so far. Mr. Daniel, in his Rural
Sports, observes, that " there are few things in
which persons have more faith than in the ex-
cellence of their own gun; the distance at
which it kills, and the closeness with which
it throws the shot, are inconceivable. Striking
a card, with ten or twenty grains of sliot, at
sixty yards, is nothing uncommon ; and the
merits of the shooter and his gun bid defiance
to rivalship. It is no easy matter to change
the opinions of such persons respecting their
guns ; but when a gun is said to be sure at
threescore or fourscore yards, the measure may
be safely asserted to be of the proprietor's own
making. The circumstance of knocking down
a partridge at eighty yards may happen ; but
49G

very few barrels of those that are generally
used for the shooting of birds on wino', will
throw shot compact enough to be certain of
killing at fifty yards; one or two grains of
shot are not sufiicient so to strike a bird as to
bring it to the ground ; for when stript of its
feathers, a partridge is a much smaller object
than it appears to be, and possesses many parts
not vital. Those who expect light barrels, of
three feet or three feet six inches, to throw
shot close enough to insure a small object at
fifty or sixty yards, will be exceedingly mis-
taken."

From general observation, it will be found
that from twenty-five to thirty yards is about
the average distance at which nine out of ten
of all birds are killed. Many are wounded
nay, even killed dead, at forty, fifty, and even
sixty ; but it is clear that these are but soli-
tary cases, and are chiefly the efiects of mere
chance, or random shots.

THE RECOIL OF A GUN.

All guns have a greater or less recoil, pro-
ceeding from the mechanical principle, that all
force begets force. Inequalities of their bore,
contractions at their breeches, the too great
quantities of powder or shot used, dampness
and confined air, &c., &c., are the commonly
prevailing causes of guns recoiling unplea-
santly. Even the material and peculiar con™
struction of the weapon lend their aid to pro-
duce the same efiect.

BURSTING OF GUN-BARRELS.
"We sometimes hear of the bursting of bar-
rels which have been made by the first manu-
facturers in the kingdom. These accidents
often depend upon causes hidden from obser-
vation, and, consequentlj'", little known. They
are, however, sometimes lamentable in their
consequences, and demand the constant atten-
tion of the sportsman to be upon his guard
ajrainst the occurrence. The selfsame causes
which produce great recoils in a gun, may
make it burst. The recoil and the bursting
differ only in degree and intensity, Ovex-load-
ing a piece ; immersing its muzzle uuder water,
and firing it off"; leaving a ramrod in the barrel,
and firing it oft' with it, and many other acts
may produce this effect. There is no recipe to
be given that will supersede attention and care

Bu^ECU-LOADEHS.] BY TIKLD, WOOD, AND WATKIt. [the neeulk-oun.

to the various matters which are fully stated
to the spDrtsiuaa iu moat works Bpocially do-
voted to the guu.

THE LOCK.

The manufiioturo of this part of tho fowling-
piece has boL'ii carried to great perfection iu
England, especially wiUiin tho last thirty
years; notwithstanding that tho first spring-
locks were made at Nuremburg, in Germany,
about the middle of the sixteenth century.
The inventor, and general manufacturer of
them, is said to have realised an independent
fortune from tho success with which his inven-
tion was received. By degrees, he succeeded
in making many alterations and improvements
on his first model; and his son, who carried on
the business for nearly half a century after
his death, introduced still more decided im-
provements in its construction.

The Flint-lock must now be spoken of as
an instrument of the past, as, except in the
most primitive districts of countries, it is
scarcely to be found. The invention of the
Fercussion-lock has completely supplanted its
use. It is, perhaps, a somewhat curious fact
in the history of a sporting and a military
weapon, that this one was the invention of a
reverend gentleman, of the name of Forsyth.
His patent expired in 1821, since which it has
been very much improved.

BREECH-LOADERS.

Until recently most guns were loaded
from the muzzle, whereas now they are loaded
at the breech. Of the different applications
of scientific skill to the manufacture of this
weapon, the following may be viewed as the
principal.

1. Those in which a cartridge, with the
powder and ball enclosed in some thin envelope,
is pushed into the chamber of the barrel from
behind, which is then closed, and the powder
is exploded by a stream of gas from a cap per-
forating the walls of its case. 2. Those in
which a thicker case of paper and metal, or
metal alone, containing within it some sub-
stance explosive on percussion or friction, is
filled with powder and ball, and pushed into
ihe chamber from behind. This is then closed,
and the explosion eff'ected by a needle or pin
being driven into the case, which is then
3 a

withdrawn, leaving tho chamber clear of ull
wads and other reuiuants of tho discharge,
except tho fouling of the barrel caused by the
residuum from tho explosion of tho powder.
3. Those in which tin; b.-irrcl is divided in
front of tho charge, which is placed in the
hindmost portion of it, in tho saino order as if
tho loading was from tho muzzle; after which
tho chamber is replaced. Here, if powder and
ball arc carefully inserted, good shtjoting cau
bo effected ; but then the loading is quite as
slow as in the muzzle-loader ; while, if a car-
tridge is used, some parts of the envelope aro
left behind, and miss-fires, accidental explo-
sions in loading, and bad shooting, are the
frequent result.

Perfect, however, as these instruments may
bo considered in a scientific point of view,
recent events in the war between Austria on
the one side, and Prussia and Italy on the
other, have effectually proved that, on the con-
tinent at least, there is another, possessed of
certain properties, which, when used with
skill, may be said to have already overturned
all previous theories respecting the arbitra-
ment of arms in the battle-field. "\Ve allude
to the Prussian Needle-gun. The effect of
this weapon, in deciding the late conflict
between those powers, might, when judged by
statistics, be considered as almost miraculous.
In the summer of 18G6, Prussia, long in a
state of high military preparation, waged war
with Austria, and, in a very brief period of
time, succeeded in establishing her supremacy
in Germany. In tho conflict Austria is esti-
mated to have lost 120,0U0 men in prisoners,
wounded, and killed— 90,000 against Prussia,
and 30,000 against Italy. The Prussian loss,
during the war of 1S6G, was officially reported
at 19,875 men, exclusive of those who died of
their wounds and from disease ; tlie number
killed iu battle being under 4,000. Tho mili-
tary and newspaper correspondents who
visited the fatal field of Sadowa, were unani-
mous in declaring the vast excess of killed
and wounded on the side of Austria. At the
final exchange of prisoners, in August, there
were released, by Prussia, 523 Austrian ofilcers,
and 35,03U rank and file, exclusive of about
13,000 Austrian prisoners in the hospitals,
and not fit for removal. Austria gave up to
Prussia seven Prussian ofiicers, and 450 non-
497

THE GUN-STOCK.]

SHOOTING,

[parts of a gun.

commissioned oflBcers and men ; about 120
prisoners, from their wounds, unfit to be re-
moved, remained in Austria. These returns,
which are, no doubt, approximately correct,
speak volumes as to the science and art of
war. They have been everywhere understood ;
and the military monarchies throughout
Europe are reorganising their armies, and
arming them with the needle-gun, or some
equally or more effective weapon. Prussia, as
the leader of 40,000,000 of Germans, having a
seaboard on. the Baltic, is a very different
power from the Prussia of even ten years
back. "What the probable effect may be in
Europe it is not necessary now to consider.
Still, there can be no doubt that it will be
(if it is not now the time) very necessary for
every European state to adopt the best
means which may be in its power to place
itself in an attitude of defence. The rapidity
with which scientific skill, in the art of war,
is daily developing itself, proves this advice
not to be mistimed ; we therefore offer it
from a consideration of its usefulness, as
well as from the hope that it may rather
prevent than promote the destruction of our
species.

THE GUN-STOCK.

This is an important part of the fowling-
piece. In fixing upon the length, bend,
and cutting of the stock, there has been
much nicety laid down for the guidance os
gun-makers. Colonel Hawker maintains, that
the framing of a stock of a gun should vary
with the precise make of the man who has to
use it. It should be fitted to the shooter,
who should have his measure for its several
parts as formally entered into the gunsmith's
books as a man has in a tailor's for a suit of
clothes. Some manufacturers have a machine,
or stoclc gauge, by which they measure the out-
lines of their customers as regards their length
of arm, neck, &c., so as to furnish each man
with a gun-stock that will agree with his pecu-
liar bodily conformation. This has something
like common sense to recommend it. It has
been justly observed, that there is full as much
gkill required to fit a man with a gun-stock, in
agrcem.eut with his make, as there is to fit a
dandy with a complete suit of clothes.

Besides the parts which we have described^
498

there are others belonging to a gun, of which
it is necessary for the sportsman to have some
knowledge. It is not essential, however, to
describe them with the same degree of ful-
ness which we have given to the preceding
portions.

OTHER PARTS OF A GUN.

Bolts. — Irons which enter the loops or eyes of
the barrel to fasten it to the stock.

Bridle. — A polished piece of steel -which caps the
tumbler, and is secured by two screws. It likewise
receives the scear-screw.

Butt of Stock. — The shouldered extremity of the
stock.

Cap. — It covers the ramrod screw-cap, and is also
used for the tip of the stock.

Casting off. — The outward inclination given to
the butt-end of the gun being intended to incline
the line of aim inwards.

Chain or Sivivel. — A small catch suspended from
the neck of the tumbler, to receive the extremity
of the mainspring.

Chamber. — The central cavity within the breech,
to receive the powder. The ante-chamher is the
small one which connects these with the touch-
hole.

Coch. — In the flint-gun it holds in its jaws the
flint ; in the percussion-gun it is equally a cock,
but there it is more frequently called the striker.

Cock-screw. — The screw that brings the jaws of
the cock together.

Cup. — The cavity seen at the top of many of the
improved breechings.

Escutcheons. — Ornamental pieces of silver to
prevent the bolts from defacing the stock when the
turnscrew and pincers are applied. Escutcheons
are likewise used on other parts to receive initials,
crests, shields, &c.

False Breech. — This receives the hutt or nose of
the breech when the barrel is fastened into the
stock.

Elevated Breech or Bib. — This is a top piece much
elevated, first used by Mr. Joseph Manton.

Fence. — The part between the cock and the pan
which receives the solid stock.

Guard. — The bow which defends the trigger.

Hammer-spring. — That on which the hammer
moves.

Hammer-hridle. — The part in which the tail of
the hammer works.

Heel-plate. — The plate with which the heel of the
stock is tipped.

Jaws. — The lips of the cock which holds the flint.

Lock-plate. — This supports the piincipal works of
the lock.

Main-spring. — The spring by which the tumbler
is worked with the cock.

Nipple or Pivot. — The small iron pillar that
receives the copper cap of tlie detonator.

Pipes. — Tubes to receive the ramrod.

Bib.— A central piece of iron wiiich unites the
barrels and receives the ramrod.

Scroll-guard.— An extension of the guard which
receives the right-hand in fi.\ing the gun.

CLEAN8IN0.]

BY FIELD, WOOD AND WATEK.

[CLEAJJSINO.

Scear. — That wliicli catches the tunihlcr for half
or whoU'-cock, ami bt-ini; pushed up by the Irijj^'er.

Sceai-:<prini/.- — Tlic spriiij; wliicli hi»Uls tlie (.ctar
in the notclies of the tuiuhler at either half or
w hole-cock.

iSidf-iutil. — A screw whicli fastens on the lock.

Si(/ht. — A jjutch of metal, usually of silver,
placed near the gun-barrel, to direct the aim.

Sprini/.crcnnp. — A useful instrument, to assist
botli in taking to pieces and putting together the
parts of the lock.

Titil. — The neck, shoulder, or arch of the hammer.

Ti)p-])ii'ce. — Tliis opjioses the rib which unites
the lower arches of the barrel. When it is very
prominent behind, it is called the elevated rib.

IViijijer-pUite. — The trigger works in it.

IViijl/er-spriiu/s. — Are small springs found in
some "highly-finished locks, and are intended to
keep the triggers close to the screw.

Tumbler. — Tiie movable centre-piece of a lock
which falls with, and is subservient to, the cock.

Tumbler-screw. — This fastens on the cock.

F(?H^/jo/e.— Sometimes there are two or three
vent-holes, which are intended to let out the gas in
a detonator, and thus to lessen the recoil.

Worm. — The screw at the end of the ramrod.

Every sportsman should look to his own gun,
as it is he who is to use it, and as it is to him
that an accident is most likely to happen,
should it not be in proper order for shooting.
There are few who have had an extensive
acquaintance with guns, -who are not aware of
the carelessness and negligence of many ser-
vants in getting a gun into proper order, even
for their master's use.

All fowling-guns require to be taken com-
pletely to pieces at stated times, to be tho-
roughly examined, and every part of them put
into such a state as to render them fit for use
.it any moment. Twice a year is considered
not too often to look into their every crevice,
taking most especial care to overlook nothing
— not even the smallest screw or spring. To
do tliis work well, the sportsman should
supply himself with a bench, vice, turnscrews
of various dimensions, from an eighth to half
an inch ; the latter size being required for the
cork-screw, breech-screws, and for raising the
bolts which bind the barrel to the stock. The
spriug-cramp is a necessary article in this
matter of overhauling the entire fabric of a
fowling-piece. When a sportsman does not
reside in the immediate vicinity of an expe-
rienced gunsmith, he ought to have by him
duplicates of all the necessary parts of his
instrument, that he may be able to supply him-
self, on all contingencies, with what may be
requisite to keep it in working order.

CLIiANSl.NG OF GUNS.

The following instructionH, altered from tlio

Encycloptcdia of liural Sports, arc well worth

remembering: —

In taking off the main-sprimj, let the lock he
placed on full.cock ; then cramp the main-spring;
when this is efftcted, let down the cock, and the
main-spring will fall oil'. When the lock has again
to be litted in, let the cock be left down ; then
hook the end of the main-spring on the swivel or
chain ; move it up, and place it intu a position on
the lock-plate. Wtien this is done, unscrew the
cramp, and the lock is once more fit for use.
When tlie hammer has to be taken off, first shut it
down carefully; cramp the spring until, by sh iking
the lock, tlic iiammer is heard to rattle. Stop|)irig
here, take out the screw behind, and the hammer
will fall off. The replacing of it only requires
the putting it in its former situation, turning
the screw, and setting the spring at liberty. If it
be requisite to take the hammer-spring out, tho
hammer must first be released, and the main-
spring likewise, in order to get at the screw be-
hind. The hammer-spring must then be cramped,
till it is taken out and put on again to receive the
hammer.

To take to pieces all the small springs of the
lock, requires considerable care. The several
screws must be kept distinct; and any little mis-
take in this matter may produce serious results.
When the main-spring is taken off, unscrew and
take out the scear, by half cocking the lock.
Clasp the fore part of the lock firmly ; at the same
time press the thumb against the back part of the
cock, directing it forward; while the scear, and
scear-spring, being now pressed together by the
fore-finger and thumb, will readily enable the
operator to take out the scear-screw. When this
is done, undo the two screws, take off the bridle,
and then unscrew and take out the scear-spring.
The cock must next be unscrewed, which will
readily separate from the tumbler, if it be gently
shaken or tapped. Take out the tumbler, and tho
lock is separated into its component ])arts.

When it has to be reconstructed, ])ut the tumbler
in its place, and screw on the cock ; do the same
thing with the scear-spring, and set on the bridle
with the two upper screws. Put in the scear; but
in order to open a clear passage for the screw of
the scear, see that you again, as before, press the
fore-finger and thumb on the scear and scear-spring,
and likewise that you again push tlie cock forward
as when in the act of taking off the scear. Unless
there be a pressure of this kind, it is not easy to
])lace the hole of the scear opposite the hole of the
bridle ; and without this is effected the scear-screw
will not enter. Great trouble often ensues from
want of attention to this and other trilling points.
After this, the cock must be let down to admit of
])uttiiig on the main-spring; and then the process
is finished.

In a detonating gun there is not near the same
amount of troul)le in dismembering the fowlini;-
piece. The pivot, or nipple, should be now and
then removed, and carefully examined, that the

499

CLEAKSIN&.]

SHOOTING,

[POWDEE.

first approaches of corrosion may be taken off before
any injury is inflicted. When a gun is purchased,
it ought to be provided with spare pivots, all
mathematically adjusted to the barrel. It is like-
•wise a good practice to put a little olive-oil, with a
camel's-hair pencil, on the pivot nail, or centre of
the tumbler, on which almost all the works of both
flint and percussion-guns move. The same may be
applied, with advantage, to the lock-plate under
the works. In flint-guns, a little oil under the
hammer is likewise useful, Mr. Lankester, in his
printed directions given to gentlemen who buy
percussion guns, off'ers the following directions : —
" Always clean those parts of the barrels and locks
that the detonating powder acts upon, Avith a wet
rag ; then rub them dry, and leave them in oil to
prevent rust. The pegs should not be taken out too
often. Before you take out the barrels, bring the
locks to half-cock. The locks do not require to be
taken off" every time the gun is used ; once a fort-
night is quite sufficient. Put a little fine oil to the
parts where there is friction ; but if the gun has
been used on a wet day, the locks should be taken
off" to be cleaned, and oiled immediately." When,
by accident or neglect, a lock becomes completely
rusty, both within and without, it ought to be
plunged into warm water, and well scrubbed with
a hard brush, fine sand, emery powder, or levigated
glass. The rust will, by this means, be efi'ectually
removed, and will not injure the gun, providing it
is but a recent accumulation of rust ; but if it is of
long standing, it may have eaten into the core of
the metal, and produced vital injury.

Most men have peculiar methods of their own
for keeping their fowling-pieces clean ; and though
all employ the leading, or primary elements of
cleanliness, yet they differ as to their precise appli-
cation. On a point so apparently simple, it is
astonishing to find so many opposite plans, and
many of them enforced with a dogmatism and
obstinacy far beyond what one would imagine the
importance of the subject warrants. The following,
among many other methods, is chosen, because it
has been found always to answer the desired end : —
Provide some boiling water and an empty pail ;
detach the barrel from the stock, and with a clear-
ing-rod furnished with tow, begin to pour the hot
water down each barrel. Scour it well with the
clearing-rod, and discharge the barrel of the foul
water. Pour hot water into it a second time, and
wipe out the barrels with fresh tow, until they are
completely dry, both without and within. Should
there be any moisture lurking within the screw-
joints of the breech and touch-hole, it is a good
plan to let down an iron plug, of red-heat, which,
being moved up and down the barrel or barrels for
half a minute, will effectually absorb every particle
of moisture or damp. All this should be done with
the sportman's own hand; and not, if it can be
avoided, left to another person to do. There is an
old maxim which applies to gun-preserving very
forcibly : — " What a man wishes to have well done,
he should do himself."

Mr. Lankester's directions run thus : —

Place the breech ends of the barrels in a bucket
in which there is cold water, about three inches
500

deep ; then, after wetting the sponge, cloth, or tow,
introduce the rod into the barrels, and work it
well ; next apply the wire-brush attached to th«;
clearing-rod with some clean hot water, which will
take out all the lead in the operation. 'Ji'his should
be invariably attended to, as it is well known that
washing only will not remove the lead. Wipe the
rod and the outside of the barrels dry, and set the
latter upright, muzzle downwards, for two minutes,
to drain, after which rub them out perfectly dry.
Wipe the barrels out clean, then pass an oiled rag
down the inside, and rub over the outside; leave
them a little oily, which will prevent rust. The
use of cloth is preferred, as not subjecting gentle-
men to the serious accidents that have happened
from leaving tow in the chamber. But, brass being
in its nature softer than iron, allows of the brush
being used without the possibility of injury to the
barrels.

How often a gun should be cleaned must depend
upon many circumstances, as there is a wonderful
difference of guns in accumulating dirt. This arises,
perhaps, from their different degrees of internal
finish. Then, again, some kinds are foul with
powder more than others ; and small shot fouls them
more readily than large. Waddings, too, have an
effect; some kinds keeping the gun comparatively
clean much longer than other kinds. It is com-
monly maintained by practical shooters, that a
barrel should be cleaned after the firing of twenty
shots. But there can be no invariable rule laid
down for this. A man who is careful, who under-
stands what a gun is, and who knows the pecu-
liarities of the one he is in the habit of daily using,
cannot err very far from the right path in this
matter. It is always safe to be over-anxious
rather than otherwise on a point of such great im-
jjortance.

To remove rust from the inside of the barrel,
some sportsmen recommend an ashen rod, turned a
few inches longer than the barrel, and so nearly of
the size of the bore, as to allow of the following
process : — Let one end of the rod be cut lengthwise,
so as to make a slit of six inches long, into which
slit enter as much of fine emery paper as will com-
pletely fill up the bore of the barrel, taking care, ii?
folding the paper tightly round the wood, that the
emery surface is outward. Force it into the barrel
by screwing it downwards from the top to the
bottom ; and repeat the process until the barrel is
as clean and as polished as when ifc left the maker's
hands. No sand or coarse stuff of any kind should
be used.

It is of great moment that every sportsman,
when he comes home, or goes into any house what,
ever, should keep a watchful eye on his fowling-
piece. He ought always to displace the cap, and
throw out the priming. But even this does not
always secure an immunity from fatal accidents. _ A
few stray grains of powder may still be productive
of an explosion. It is therefore a wise plan, when
a shooter arrives at a door, to remove the cap, if a
percussion-gun ; or if flint, throw out the priming,
let down the spring of the lock, draw the ramrod,
and dropping down the barrel, put the gun away
into a closet, or otherwise suspend it out of ordi-
nary reach. Too much care cannot be exercised in
a matter of this kind. How often have we heard

rOWDEIt."!

BY FIl'LD, WOOD, AND WATER.

[I'OWDEB.

of familien having been thrown into tho utmost
BtBto of uricf by a son or n diuiijliler bcinp unin-
tentionally shot in a nionu-nt of j)hiyfulness, by
«ome other minor niemlu'r of the family. How
often have we read of accidents of this kind, and
gynipathised with the livinjj as they minirned over
tlie sudden deprivation wiiiih hud fallen upon them.
"NViien we rellect on these sad calamities, it makes
us entreat of every sportsman or shooter, never to
carry a loaded ^'un into the house, but to fire it off
in the air, even before he has arrived at the close
neighbourhood of liis own dwellini,'. Mr. Hlaine
objects to this, partly on the score of economy —
an objection which appears to us alike mean and
frivolous.

POWDER AND SHOT.

There is no discovery wbicli efioctcd a
greater revolution in the art of war than that
of gunpowder ; for when taken in connection
with the weapon by wliicli it is used, it may be
considered as the most effective decider of con-
flicts that possibly could bo invented. Both
on the battle plain, and in the sporting field, it
has taken the place of the more simple con-
struction of the bow and arrow, which, how-
ever annoying to an enemy in the hands of
a practised archer, or however deadly in those
of an Indian sportsman, bears no comparison,
in the certainty of its effects, to the modern
gun, loaded with powder and ball, or shot.
The origin of this explosive substance has
given rise to long discussions, and great diver-
sity of opinion, among philosophers and anti-
quaries. Some have given it a very ancient
date, while others carry its discovery down to
comparatively recent times. Grose quotes a
passage from Grey's Gunnery, published in
1731 ; in which it is said that, " In the life of
ApoUonius Tyantcus, written by Philostratus,
about 1,500 years ago, there is the following
passage concerning tho people of India, called
Oxydraca): 'These wise men dwelt between
the rivers Ilyphasis and Ganges. Their
country Alexander the Great never entered;
deterred, not by fear of the inhabitants, but,
as I suppose, by religious considerations ; for,
had he passed the Hyphasis, he might doubt-
less have made himself master of tho country
all around them ; but their cities he could
never have taken, though he had led a thousand
men as brave as Achilles, or three thousand
such as Ajax, to the assault ; for they came
not into the field to fight those who attack
them; but these holy men, beloved by the

gods, overthrow thoir enomies with tempests
and thunderboltH, hurled ujion thom from
above.' " In Norton's dinner (KiOt), it it)
said — "That tho invention and use, as well of
ordnance as gunpowder, was, in tho ei(jhty-
fiftli year of our Lord, made known and prac-
tised in the great and ingenious kingdmn of
China; and that in tho niaritimo proviiici;s
thereof there yet remain certain pieces of
ordnance, both of iron and brass, with tho
memory of their years of founding engraved
upon them, and the arms of King Vitney,
who, ho saith, was the inventor." In tho
works of lloger Bacon, written at Oxford, iu
1270, the ingredients which constitute gun-
powder are expressly named, with the clia-
racteristics which mark it when it is ex-
ploded.

On the other side of the question it is main-
tained, that the merit of the invention belongs
to Barthold Schwartz, a German monk. It
is aflfirmed, that he mixed together nitre,
sulphur, and charcoal, for some medicinal
purpose, and a spark falling accidentally upon
the mixture, it exploded. The reader will find
the subject discussed at considerable length in
the works of Friar Bacon, Polydore Virgil,
Baptista Porta, Spondanus, Bishop AVatson,
and others.

It is well Known that gunpowder consists of
a mixture of saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal,
in such proportions as to render it capable of
explosion on the slightest application of fire.
It has, however, a great tendency to absorb
moisture ; and should the nitre bo adulterated
with salt, as it sometimes is, this tendency is
immensely increased. An experiment made
before the Eoyal Society proved this. A
quantity of gunpowder was taken out of a
barrel, and dried with a heat equal to that in
which water boils. A piece of ordnance was
charged with a certain weight of this dried
powder, and the distance to which it threw
a ball was marked. Tho same piece was
charged with an equal weight of the same
kind of powder, taken out of the same barrel,
but not dried, and it threw an equal ball only
to one half the distance. This effect of mois-
ture is so sensible, that some officers have
affirmed, that they have seen masses of gun-
powder, which were good in the morning, but
which became (as supposed by attracting the

501

POWDER.]

SHOOTING,

LPOWDEE.

humidity of the atmosphere) good for nothing
in the evening. This recalls to mind the
remark of Cromwell, when about to engage
with the cavaliers — "Praise the Lord, but
keep your powder dry." He seems to have
been aware of the absorption of moisture
inherent in the material he was about to use
with considerable effect against his enemies.

The chemical properties of gunpowder are
thus decribed by the celebrat'^d Dr. Ure : —
" This explosive substance consists of an inti-
mate mixture, in determined proportions, of
saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur ; and is better
in proportion (everything else being equal) to
the quality of these ingredients. The nitre, in
particular, should be perfectly refined by suc-
cessive crystallisations, and finally freed from
adhered water, by proper drying, or by fusion
in iron pots at a regulated heat. Nothing can
surpass, in these respects, the nitre prepared
in the government powder-mills at Waltham
Abbey. It is tested by adding to its solution,
in distilled water, nitrate of silver, with which
it occasions no perceptible opalescence. The
sulphur ought, also, to be of the finest quality,
and purified by skimming, or even sublimation,
if at all necessary. The charcoal should be
newly made ; it should burn without leaving
any sensible residuum ; be dry, sonorous, light,
and easily pulverised. The charcoal for gun-
powder is made either of alder, willow, or dog-
wood, the latter being preferred, which is cut
into lengths, and ignited in iron cylinders, the
wood before charring being carefully stripped
of its bark. The three ingredients being thus
prepared, are ready for manufacturing into
gunpowder. They are first separately ground
to a fine powder, which is passed through
proper sieves or bolting machines; secondly,
they are mixed together in certain proportions,
but which do not seem to be definitely deter-
mined, for they differ in different establish-
ments of great respectability, as is shown in the
following table : —

Nitre. Charcoal. Sulphur.

Royal Mills at Waltham Abbey 75 15 10

French for War .... 75 125 12-5

Do. for Sportsmen . . . 78 12 10

Do. for Mining ... 65 15 20

Chaptal's Proportions . - 77 14 9

Chinese do. . . • 75-4 14-4 9-9

Mr. Napier's .... 80 15 5

Thirdly, the composition is then sent to the
502

gunpowder-mill, which consists of two edge-
stones of a calcareous nature, turning by mean's
of a shaft on a bedstone of the same nature,
which gives no sparks, as sandstones would ba
apt to do. On this bedstone the composition
is spread, and moistened with as small a quantity
of water as will, in conjunction with the weight
of the revolving stones, bring it into a proper
body of calce, but not of paste. AVheu the
cake has been thoroughly incorporated, it is
sent to the corning-house, where a separate
mill is employed to form the cake into grains
of corn. Fourthly : here it is first pressed into
a hard firm mass, then broken into small lumps ;
after which the graining is executed by placing
these lumps in sieves, on each of which is laid,
a disc of lignum vitce. The sieves are made of
parchment skins perforated with numerou&-
round holes. Several such sieves are fixed in a.
frame, which, by proper machinery, has such a.
motion given to it as to make the lignum vitce
runner in each sieve move round with consider-
able velocity, so as to break the lumps of the
cake, and force the substance through the
sieves, forming grains of several sizes. The
granular particles are afterwards separated
from the finer dust by proper sieves and reels.
Fifthly : the corned powder is next hardened,
and the rougher edges taken off by being re-
volved in a close reel or cask, turning rapidly
on its axis. This vessel somewhat resembles
a barrel churn ; it should be only half full at
each operation, and has frequently square bars
inside, parallel to its axis, to aid the polish by
the attrition. Sixthly : the gunpowder is now
dried, which is done generally by a steam heat,
or by transmitting a body of air, slightly heated
in another chamber over canvas shelves,
covered with the damp gunpowder."

AVe have taken this extract from the Chemical
Dictionary, where, in an article on gunpowder,
the reader will find much interesting informa-
tion on the rationale of the action of gun-
powder, in regard to both its detonating and
combustible powers.

As to the relative size of the grains of powder
to be used in sporting amusements, there is a
considerable diversity of opinion ; some affirm-
ing one size to be the best, and some another.
This question cannot be definitely settled
without taking into account the nature of our
guns, the purposes for which they are made,

row DEB.]

BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WAIKK.

[powder.

t!io kind of game to bo shot, and many other
circumstances, all, nioro or less, calculated to
luodilV the jud!»ment, and to causo it to pre-
ponderato fither to the ouo side or tho other.
I^lr. Greener inaiiitaius that, if wo obtain
powder of lino grain, and powder composed of
tlie same ingredients, large-grained, tho latter
will be stronger than the former. He tells us
he has made many exi^eriments both by ride
and musket, and the coarser grain always pre-
dominated over the smaller. These results
have been denied by other respectable sporting
authorities. Colonel Hawker says, the best
powder for copper-cap guns is iho fine cylinder
of Curtis and Hervey, the large-grained powder
being liable to miss fire. But the same au-
thority qualifies his opinion by afterwards
stating — " I have invariably observed that small-
grained powder fails to answer in large guns ;
particularly on salt water, and in damp weather.
It always shoots weak beyond fifty or sixty
yards, and is very liable to hang fire. If a
punt-gun is loaded with fine powder, and
brought in at night, the chances are that it
•would hang fire in the morning. But with
coarse cannon powder, I have known a gun
that has been loaded for a f -tnight go oft" as
well as possible, by merely being probed, and
fresh primed."

How far the grazing of powder is advanta-
geous, is likewise a disputed question. Many
sportsmen aflirm, that they fail to detect any
tiifierence between the glazed and the un-
glazed kinds. Colonel Hawker prefers the
UDglazed; but he assigns no reason for this
preference: the whole question probably re-
solves itself into a mere matter of fancy or
taste.

On the ratio of force with which difierent
kinds of powder act on resisting bodies, much
curious and valuable information has been
communicated to the world of late years.
The substance of such information we shall
attempt to condense into as brief a space as is
compatible with clearness.

As Mr. Babbage, in his Economij of Maclii-
nerg, favours us with remarks pertinent to this
subject, we are glad to give tho reader the
benefit of them, as his work is not likely
to be widely difi'used amongst those who follow
the gun as an amusement.

A gun loaded with ball, docs not kick so

severely aa one loaded with shot ; and among
tho dillV-rent aorta of shot, that which ia the
smallest, causes tho groateat recoil against
tho shoulder. A gun loaded with u tpiautity
of sand, etpial in weight to a charge ol Knij)e-
shot, is said to kick still more. If, in loading,
a space be left between the wadding and the
charge, tho gun either recoils violently or
bursts. If tho muzzle of a gun has acci-
dentally been stuck into tho ground, ho as to
bo stopped up wiLli clay, or even with snow,
or if it be fired with its muzzle plunged into
water, it will, in all probability, burst. The
cause of these apparently contradictory results
is, that every force requires time to produce
its efiects ; and if the time requisite for tho
elastic vapour within to force out the sides
of tho barrel, is less than that in which tho
condensation of the air, near the wadding, is
conveyed in sufficient force to drive the im-
pediment from tho muzzle, then the barrel
must burst. It occasionally happens that
these two forces are so equally balanced, that
tho barrel only swells, the obstacle giving
way before the piece actually bursLs. This
explanation will appear more obvious if we
trace, step by step, the circumbtunces which
arise on discharging a gun loaded with pow-
der, confined by a cylindrical piece of wadding,
and having its muzzle filled with clay, or
some other substance, ofiering a moderate
degree of resistance. In such a case, the first
efiect of the explosion is to produce an enor-
mous pressure on everything confining it, and
to advance the wadding through a very small
space. Here let us consider it as at rest
for a moment, and examine its condition.
The portion of air in immediate contact with
the wadding is condensed ; and if the wadding
were to remain at rest, the air, throughout
the tube, would soon acquire a uniform density.
But this would require a small interval of
time, for the condensation next the wadding
would travel with the velocity of sound to the
other end, from whence, being reflected back, a
series of waves would be generated, which, aided
by the friction of the tube, would ultimately
destroy the motion. But, until the first wave
reaches the impediment at the muzzle, the air
can exert no pressure against it. Now, if the
velocity communicated to the wadding is very
much greater than that of sound, the conden-

503

POWDEB.]

SHOOTING,

[pOWDEB.

sation of the air, immediately in advance of it,
may be very great before the resistance trans-
mitted to the muzzle is at all considerable ; in
which case the mutual repulsion of the particles
of the air so compressed will offer an absolute
barrier to the advance of the wadding. If this
explanation be correct, additional recoil, when
a gun is loaded with small shot or sand, may
arise, in some measure, from the condensation
of the air contained between their particles,
but chiefly from the velocity communicated
by the explosion to those particles of the sub-
stances in immediate contact with the powder,
being greater than that with which a wave can
be transmitted through them. It otherwise
affords a reason for the success usually attend-
ing the blasting of rocks. That the destruction
of the gun-barrel does not arise from the
property possessed by fluids, and in some
measure also by sand and small shot, of press-
ing equally in all directions, and thus exciting
a force against a large portion of the interior
surface, seems to be proved by a circumstance
mentioned by La Vaillant and other travellers
— that for the purpose of takiug birds without
injuring their plumage, they filled the barrel
of their fowling-pieces with water, instead of
loading them with a charge of shot. The same
reasoning explains a curious phenomenon which
occurs in firing a still more powerfully explosive
substance. If we put a small quantity of ful-
minating silver upon the face of an anvil, and
strike it slightly with a hammer, it explodes ;
but, instead of breaking either the hammer or
the anvil, it is found that that part of the face
of each in contact with the fulminating silver
is damaged. In this case, the velocity com-
municated by the elastic matter disengaged
may be greater than the velocity of a wave
traversing steel; so that the particles at the
surface are driven, by the explosion, so near to
those next adjacent, that when the compelled
force is removed, the repulsion of the particles
within the mass, drives back those nearer the
surface with such force, that they pass beyond
the limits of attraction, and are separated
in the shape of powder. The success of the
experiment of firing a tallow candle through a
deal board would bo explained in the same
manner, by supposing the velocity of a wave
propagated through deal, to be greater than
that of a wave passing through tallow.
504i

Experiments to try the strength of their
powder have often been made by sportsmen ;
but the excellence of powder is generally de-
termined by the quality of the nitre of which
it is partly composed. This ingredient, as
already observed, having a strong tendency
to absorb moisture, requires that it should be
kept in its purest state for the manufacture
of powder. When mixed with salt its quality
is greatly deteriorated ; and, in all good pow-
der, it is well known that its expansive force
is in proportion to the velocity with which the
communication flies through the whole mass.
It is this principle which renders it so well
adapted to sporting purposes. No bird or
quadruped can fly or run with such rapidity as
to get beyond the quickness of its action, pro-
vided either be within range. It is this quick-
ness of ignition which gives, in the field, such
an advantage to powder over every other sub-
stance.

The method of testing the quality of pow-
der, instituted and pursued by the Board of
Ordnance, is as follows : — The triers first take
out of the several barrels of gunpowder a
measure-full, of about the size of a thimble,
which is spread upon a sheet of fine writing-
paper, and then fired. If the inflammation be
very rapid, the smoke rises perpendicularly; and
if the paper be neither burned nor spotted, it
is then judged to be good powder. Then two
drachms of the same powder are exactly
weighed and put into an epreuvette, which, if
it raise a weight of twenty-four pounds to the
height of three inches and a-half, is received
into the government magazine as proved.

This powder-trier just mentioned, called an
epreuvette, may be seen in many gunsmiths*
shops. It does not, however, test the power
of the explosive substance with very great
nicety, but it is, nevertheless, a useful instru-
ment ; and it furnishes the sportsman with a
general idea on the subject, which enables him,
in many cases, to detect a bad and impure com-
modity.

Percussion gunpowders have effected great
changes in sporting art, and the science of
projectiles generally. Detonating substances
are but of modern date.

The discovery oi fulminating mercury, which
forms the percussion powder now in use, is
attributed to Mr. Howard ; the full particulars

SIZES OF BIIOT.'j

T^> V F I i: L 1). W O O I), AND AV A T !•: K.

[sizes of snoT.

of which are detailed in the Philosopliical
Transactions. It is thus manufactured, as
pivoii by Dr. Uro :— A hundred grains of
luorcurv arc to bo dissolved by heat in an
ounce and a-half, by measure, of nitric acid.
This solution being poured cold into two
ounces, by measure, of alcohol in a glass
vessel, heat is to be applied till ellervescence
is excited. A white vapour undulates on the
eurface, and a powder is gradually precipitated,
which is to be immediately collected on a
filter, well washed, and cautiously dried with
a very moderate heat. The powder detonates
loudly by gentle heat, or slight friction. The
fulminating mercury should be moistened with
about thirty per cent, of water, then tritu-
rated iu a mortar, and afterwards mixed with
the sixth part of its weight of gunpowder,
^Matches, caps, &c., made in this manner, resist
damp, and do not corrode the instrument
which contains the powder. It has been often
ascertained, by experiment, that they have
frequently ignited after having been immersed
in water several hours. This is the method
which is adopted in the manufacture of per-
cussion-caps. The recipe for making them, in
Paris, is thus given by the BuUetin dcs Sciences
Militaires : — " Having triturated ten parts of
fulminating mercury on a marble slab with
water, by means of a wooden muller, add six
parts of gunpowder, and grind the two to-
gether." Dr. Ure observes, that some of the
best match-powders made in Prance do not,
altogether, weigh more than two-thirds of a
grain.

THE DIFFERENT KINDS AND SIZES OF
SHOT.

In reference to this part of our subject,
there is some degree of confusion, on account
of the sizes and numbers not coinciding in all
the manufactories where shot is made. Tiiis
circumstance tends to mislead sportsmen, and
very often to give rise to false theories upon
the force and resistance of projectile instru-
ments generally. An ounce of No. 7 shot
taken from the manufactory of Messrs. AValker
and Parker, contains 341 pellets ; and the
same weight from Mr. Eeaumont's, 398. Add
to tliis, that in some places the usual numbers
are reversed. The following is a list of the
«hot in Messrs. Walker's firm, with letterings,
3t

number marks, and the number of pellets in

an ounce : —

A.V

. . . 40

4 . „

. 177

A

. bi)

•> .

. 21S

m\

. OS

f. . .

. 2H0

n

. 70

7 . .

. 341

1

. . . 82

8 . .

. COO

2

. . . 112

9 . .

. 9St

3

. . . 135

10 . .

. 1,720

Mould, drop, or awan-shot, are of large size,
and commonly used for wild-fowl shooting.
They are lettered, and the pellets numbered
as follows : —

Number of relicts to 1 ob.

Lr, . .

. . . . 5i

MG . .

(hardly) 9

SG . .

. . . . 11

SSG . .

. . . . 15

SSSG . .

. . . . 17

As to what is the best kind of shot to be
used for sporting purposes there are different
opinions. Colonel Hawker maintains that,
for ordinary purposes of game shooting, No. 7
is the best kind that can be used. It lies
closer and more compact to the barrel, he says
with reason, than any other. Other sportsmen,
again, think the Nos. 3 and 4 are to be pre-
ferred to any other sizes for common every-day
work in the prime of the shooting season.
Captain Williamson pleads for No. 9, and
General Hanger for No. 2. Another great
authority informs us, that in the first montli
of partridge shooting, shot No. 5 should be
used, because, at this time, the birds spring at
hand, and we seldom fire at more than the
distance of forty yards. If a shooter takes a
fair aim, he can scarcely fail to do some mis-
chief by such a circle or disc of shots. Hare^.
likewise, at this period, sit closer, and beiuj,
but thinly covered with fur, may easily be
killed with this size at thirty or thirty-five
paces. In snipe and quail shooting this shot
is most to be preferred. When October ad-
vances, the birds are stronger on the wing, and
then No. 3 will be found more suitable. This
shot, it is maintained, possesses a proper me-
dium between that which is too large and that
which is too small, and will kill a partridge at
fifty yards with certainty. It is adapted for
all kinds of game. It is contended that distant
Abjecta may be killed with large shot; but this
consideration cannot bear upon the question

505

CAPS.]

SHOOTING,

[WADDING.

which involves the destructiou of a number of
birds within a comparatively short range, and
where the shots are numerous. Having given
these statements, we shall leave it to the reader's
own experience to decide which is best. To
go on alluding to the various and conflicting
opinions on the subject, would only perplex
instead of enlighten his judgment on the point
of dispute.

Mixed SJiof is used by some who have spoken
highly of it. But here we have controversion
again. Some sportsmen have even ridiculed
the idea of such a thing in no measured lan-
guage; but Mr. Daniel informs us that his
uncle, " who was allowed to be one of the best
marksmen of his time, after minute trials and
mature experience, preferred it to every other
kind." "Gamekeepers," he continues, "fre-
quently use it ; and many persons in this class
are in the habit of trying and knowing what
shot will do most execution ; and are men who
generally draw their reflections and remarks
from actual and successful experiment. It is
true they do not write a treatise upon the sub-
ject ; yet, from killing game and animals at all
times, are, at least, as likely to form a just de-
cision as gentlemen who, for the most part,
only use their guns three months at the com-
mencement of the season. The numbers of
shot proper to mix together, for general use,
are 4, 5, 6, and 7." There is also a difference
of opinion regarding the patent sJiot cartridges
of Ely ; and as it is impossible to reconcile
opinions so at variance with each other, we
will let the subject rest.

CAPS AND CAP-CHARGERS.

Copper Caps and Cap-Chargers are now
almost in universal use. In the purchase of
copper caps it is prudent to make a trial of one
or two taken promiscuously from the mass, to
prevent disappointment. All foreign caps
should be purchased with care; some are
excellent; others wretchedly bad, and even
dangerous. All should be cupped to the exact
gauge of the diameter of the nipple. If they
are too small they will not explode ; and, if too
large, the cap of the second nipple will be apt
to fly off" when the other is fired.

Mr. Greener treats of iron percussion-caps,
in the Neio Sportinfj Magaziiie (No. G5). He
recommends them on the ground of the ten-
500

dency of the copper to become injured, when
exposed to damp, to such a degree as to be
converted into a paste incapable of ignition.
He maintains that when powder is flashed,
or exploded around the nipple of a gun,
the residue left, attracts moisture instanta-
neously. To remedy this, the use of iron
caps is enforced. " They are much easier to
explode ; they detach no broken particles to
wound the shooter, nor even expand so much
as to stick in the head of the striker. They
do not stain the hands, and they might be
made cheaper."

Cap-chargers are of French invention. There
are several varieties of them ; some long, and
some round ; but, we believe, the latter stand
highest in public estimation.

WADDING.

Gun-waddings have a considerable influence
on the sports of the shooter. However good
a gun may be, and however excellent all its
principal appendages — powder, shot, &c. — still
they may all be rendered nugatory if the pro-
per wadding be not used. But we find in all
questions relative to shooting, that in propor-
tion to their real intrinsic importance, so like-
wise is there doubt and uncertainty in settling
them. Some recommend card wadding, some
liat wadding, and some pasteboard. But, what-
ever material is chosen for this purpose, it
should be strictly regulated according to the
bore of the barrel. "Wadding punches are
often made for distinct barrels, when more
guns than one are used. The range and de-
livery of the shot are greatly influenced by
the wadding. The common opinions on the
matter are, that all waddings should be quite
close to the barrel, but not rammed too hard.
The material should be rather soft than other-
wise, and yielding to a certain extent, but still
of sufficient consistency to carry the shot in
a body to a certain distance from the muzzle
of the piece. Eor if the wadding is rammed
too close, or is of a hard and rigid nature,
such as stiff" brown paper, the piece will recoil,
and the shot will spread ; if, on the contrary,
the wadding is not sufliciently close, and is
composed of a slight and too pliant material,
such as wool or cotton, it will not have
enough of consistency to carry shot, and the
discharge will lose its proper force. Besides,

TIIL- UlfLE.]

BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATKK.

[the BIl'LE.

a certain portion of tlio shot, which ia more ]
immediately in contact with the wadding, will
bo incited by the explosion of the powder. Mr.
Greener savs, "that a substantial waddin?,
between the powder and the shot, ia equal
to a considerable artificial friction in improving
tiie strength with which the powder expels the
shot. It answers the purpose of completely
preventing the explosive matter becoming
mixed with the shot ; and the powder is con-
iiiied the same as it would be were there a ball
in the barrel that fitted tight. Thus the
whole force is properly exerted."

WaUiers metaUic gun-icaddings have a con-
:iiderable reputation, partly from the fact of
tlieir metallic edges preventing the surface of
the barrel from becoming leaded. Other
waddings are likewise recommended, as Joyce's,
Wilkinson's, and Beckwith's. The principal
object is to keep the whole charge in the gun
as compact as possible, that it may act least
offensively on the gun, and most effectively
on the object aimed at.

THE RIFLE.

Up to this point we have said nothing
about the Bijle-gun, which is used in deer-
stalking, and rook-shootiug. The barrels in
all rifles are much stronger and heavier than
those of the ordinary fowling-pieces. The
bore has long been manufactured with in-
dentations within, which form spiral grooves
throughout the entire extent. The principle
on which all rifles are made, and the object
thev aim at accomplishing, is to impart to the
ball a rotary or spinning motion round its axis,
as it passes out through the barrel. The old
mode of manufacturing pieces of this kind
failed to accomplish this purpose to any great
extent ; but modern art has eflected a con-
siderable change for the better. The barrel of
a rifle is now cut with only two opposite
grooves ; and the ball being framed with a
projected belt or zone round its equator, of the
same form as the grooves, it enters so readily
into these hollows, that little or no force is
required to press it down upon the powder.
The general result has been, tliat guns of this
character carry either ball or large shot much
further, and with a vastly increased impetus,
than can be done by the common flint or
percussion fowliug-projectiles. The locks for

rifles have, likewise, undergone a great change,
and many iin[)ortant alterations and improve-
ments have been cfiected in their Btructuro
and mechanism. By reversing the position cf
the main-spring, the general conipactneHS and
strenirth of the works have been increased,
and rendered more powerful, durable, and
easy of repair. The ignition of the powder is
so certain, that a misfire is rare in good rifles.
Tiiey are getting daily into more general use
in sporting circles, not only in this country,
but on the continent, and in the United States
of America.

In bringing our observations and descriptions
of the gun to a close, we may observe, that every
reader of sporting works on this instrument,
must have remarked the very conflicting
opinions respecting its uses, and the nature
and character of its prominent attributes.
These opinions are so contradictory, and are
frequently set forth with so much confidence
and dogmatism, that the impression is forced
upon us, that the true theory of projectiles is
not yet perfectly understood. Much, how-
ever, is now being done to master the subject;
and we have no doubt, that opinions more
generally correct, and easier to be reconciled
with each other, will, at no distant day, per-
vade the minds of all intelligent sportsmen
throughout the country.

"We find in almost all the more elaborate
treatises on the gun, a loose and inconsequen-
tial mode of reasoning adopted. Facts are
mingled with theories, and theories with facts ;
and there is no regularly concatenated chain
of reasoning on the subject. The systematic
writers on the fowling-piece seem, in many
cases, to have set out in their inquiries with
some preconceived theory, to support which
they either mould facts already ascertained, or
mould the theory to the party, and thus en-
deavour to establish much that is not tenable,
or worthy to be established. The mere mer-
cantile enterprises connected with sporting,
I have tended, in many cases, to prevent too fiae
current of inquiry into the ofiices of the gun.
A gun-maker invents something which he con-
ceives of importance, and takes out a patent
at a considerable expense. He is naturally
desirous of having his invention made known,
and he accordingly does all he can to have it
puffed,or recommended throughout the coua*:ry-

507

THE MOOKS.J

SHOOTING,

[the mooes.

Sportsmen are generally greedy listeners to
all novelties. The invention is found, when
tested by a pretty general use, not to realise
all the advantages anticipated from it. It is
then taken out to nurse, and to be bolstered
up with a mass of theoretical speculation,
which appears on the surface very profound,
but which is, in fact, nothing but a series of
ill-digested notions, and gratuitous assump-
tions. Readers are bandied about from one
theory to another, till they are lost in obscu-
rity and chaos.

As every gun is an instrument 'per se, and
has a character of its own, the person that
may be accustomed to it feels quite strange
when a new piece is placed in his hands. "VVe
have read somewhere of a sportsman being
often amused with the conversation of game-
keepers, and others, about their respective
fowling-pieces. They talk of them as if they

had life and volition. They say, "I know
that gun well ; she'll do very well in one way,
but she's obstinate in another. Slie's a curi-
ous-tempered piece. I have known her on a
particular day take the sulks, and no good
could be done with her; at other times she
killed all before her." The fact is, that the
gun is an embodiment of very important and
hidden principles of mechanics and chemistry.
"We see the effect of it ; but the causes are
often, and, indeed, in nine cases out of ten,
wrapped in impenetrable mystery. Daily ex-
perience is the only means of obtaining a
perfect knowledge of the capabilities of this
instrument, because its powers are so easily
modilied by causes which escape ordinary ob-
servation. This is the reason why practical
men gain such a stock of useful information
on the use of fowling-pieces, though they are
seldom able to impart that knowledge to others.

CHAPTER IL

MOCKS AND OTHER SHOOTINGS; NECESSARY COURTESIES; SELF-HUNTING DOGS; A SUMMARY; ENGLISH

MANORS ; HINTS TO YOUNG SPORTSMEN.

As many desire information on the subject
of hiring moors and other shootings, and, at
the same time, seek for a knowledge of the
best method of getting up a head of game,
and of preserving and protecting the same,
this seems to be the most suitable place to
supply these, from such sources as we have
been able to bring within our reach. We
believe it is admitted, by all practical sports-
men, that the months of March and April are
the best for the purpose of ascertaining the
stock of game on all grounds, and especially
on tlid moors ; and offering, at the same time,
the most favourable opportunity for trapping
and destroying vermin of all sorts, and of
extending other necessary protection to game,
without which the best prospects of sport may
be neutralised. In the first place, we will
confine our remarks to the Scottish moors, re-
serving the subject of manors, and the pre-
508

servation of game in England, for after con-
sideration.

Why, it may be asked, are the months just
alluded to the most favourable for securing
shootings in Scotland? The question is
readily answered. It is because an accurate
estimate may be obtained of the stock of
grouse equally on the Highland and on the
Lowland moors — the packs (or, more correctly
speaking, the surviving portions of them)
which had migrated during the severe weather
of winter, from the high ground to the distant
lowland moors, having returned to their native
hills to breed ; and the low grounds retaining
only those birds which actually belong to
them, and which alone can be relied on to
remain and breed on such ground. This must
always be borne in mind relatively to lowland
moors ; for, if an estimate were sometimes
formed of them from the amount of grouse

THE MOOUS.]

BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATKJi.

[THE MOOUS.

fouiul iu the months of November, December,
and January, great disappointment would be
the result in the month of August. AVe are
aware that there are lowland moors which are
ahnost without grouse in tlie months of
August and September, but are abundantly
supplied from distant high ground as soon as
the severe weather sets in in NovenibLM-, and
sometimes as early as the end of October ;
but, should the winter be mild and free from
storms, the migration is very limited. "We
mention this fact by way of caution to those
who, in any subsequent years, may be about
to rent a lowland inoor, not to go over the
same till the severe and winterly weather be
passed, as grouse which have migrated from
the high ground rarely return till the end of
February. In some excepted seasons, when
the severity of winter is protracted, they have
been known to remain till JMarch, simul-
taneously moving oif on the first change of
weather.

In March or April, no grouse will be found on
either high or low ground, but such as belong
to each respectively, and these may be relied on
as the stock of the ground ; and, as they will
be in pairs, an additional reason for delay, till
this season, is suggested in the facility which
is aftbrded by this circumstance, of arriving at
a tolerably fair estimate of the amount of
birds on the ground, and of the prospects of
sport for the ensuing season, through the
medium of an intelligent keeper and a good
brace of dogs.

The best moors are unquestionably those of
Perthshire, Aberdeenshire, and Inverness-shire ;
and if the sportsman will take a lease of five or
seven years, which he will find most conducive
to bis interests, be will adopt the surest means
of having six years of first-rate sport; even
admitting, for argument's sake, that the stock
of grouse has been so reduced by previous
bard shooting or other adverse circumstances,
as to make the entire or partial sacrifice of the
first year expedient as a foundation for future
eport. This necessity may sometimes arise,
and should not be disregarded, as a neglect
of it might be attended with subsequent
disappointment. The sportsman will, there-
fore, do well, if he will permit us to off"er
a suggestion, to be influenced by the report
of a competent keeper as to the state of

the ground, and be guided by his advice

thereon.

In the counties just named, the moors are
so good and so favourable to grouse, that one
year's forbearance, with judicious management,
admitting the stock to have been reduced bv
too hard shooting or disease, suQlces to restore
them to first-rate condition ; for, in addition
to the increase of the stock on the ground,
many packs driven from adjoining moors, find-
ing that they are not molested, will remain, and
reinforce the native stock : in fact, the efiect
of one year's jubilee on a really good moor,
surrounded by equally good ground, is wonder-
ful; the efiect, to be believed, must be wit-
nessed. But these favourable results depend
upon one important condition; which is, that
the head-keeper is a first-rate man in his par-
ticular department, and is allowed a competent
stafi" of subordinates, and all other requisite
accessories. If there are a number of old
cock grouse, these should be killed ofi", as they
do infinite mischief in the breeding season ;
but an experienced keeper will be alive to this
necessity, and will act accordingly.

As a proof of the excellency of some of the
moors in the shires alluded to, we may
instance the sport obtained by three gen-
tlemen in one season, on the Carr-bridge
shootings, which comprise thirty thousand
acres. They are in Inverness-shire, and were
vieited a few years ago by Sir H. "Wilmott,
Mr. Bass, and Mr. S. AV. Hurtell. They
killed, during the season, 6,700 grouse, 211
black game, 400 hares, 136 partridges, 5 roe,
52 snipe, 26 teal, 12 woodcocks, and 12
plover : total, 7,554 head.

On another estate, in the valley of Find-
horn, in the same shire, two guns, with a brace
of dogs each, killed, from the 13th of August
to the 10th of September, shooting on alter-
nate days, or sixteen days in all, 1,035
grouse, 144 hares, 2 black game, 10 par-
tridges, 1 wild duck, 1 woodcock, and 1 rabbit;
total, 1,194. This estate comprises only 4,000
acres.

There may bo moors as good in other coun-
ties as those which are found in Perthshire,
Aberdeenshire, and Inverness-shire ; but, as a
rule, the sportsman will not incur any liability
of disappointment if he hires a moor in any
one of the three named counties, provided he

509

COTJKTESIES.]

SHOOTING,

[self-hunting dogs.

has a good lease ; and tliis cannot be said
of every other county in Scotland, as the
complaints of sportsmen but too frequently
testify.

NECESSARY COURTESIES.
Presuming that most sportsmen tuill make
a partial sacrifice of their first year's sport,
should the necessity arise, the next considera-
tion will be — what is the best policy to be
pursued in commencing and carrying on the
management of the moor ? Are there any
parties whose good offices will he of service,
and whom it will be advisable to conciliate }
Unquestionably. The tenants and shepherds,
as they can be either the best of friends, or
the worst of enemies (game generally being
more or less in the power of the former, and
all nests at the mercy of the latter), must be
conciliated and made friends of; and a head-
keeper, who understands his business, will im-
mediately endeavour to cultivate an amicable
alliance with both parties, but especially with
the latter; and this he will easily accomplish
with a little tact, and through the persuasive
medium of a little tea and tobacco, judiciously
moistened, at opportune intervals, with some
whisky — tea for the wives, and tobacco for the
husbands. The head-keeper, being generally
a diplomatist in Jiis way, will, of course, com-
mence with the wives ; tea, in this instance,
being wonderfully efiective. ' Its operation is
similar to that of a well-set bracelet in the
higher departments of life, opportunely intro-
duced and judiciously applied, extending its
influence, through the same medium, to the
person whose services are required. A few
pounds placed at the disposal of the keeper,
will enable him to carry this policy completely
into effect, and are well applied; and when
the shooting party are on the ground, no
favourable opportunity should be lost of culti-
vating the friendship of the shepherds and
tenants by a kind word, e7i passant, accompa-
nied by a glass of whisky. Those who neglect
little opportunities of cultivating the good-
will of i'armers and tenants, neglect their own
interest as sportsmen, and are but poor diplo-
matists in dealing with northern Highlanders,
who are extremely sensible of any little act of
kindness, and are not unmindful of what they
consider as a slight, or discourtesy, and are
510

true to their motto. Let those who visit the
Highlands remember this. "We would not,
however, prescribe the use of whisky to the
sportsmen themselves. They carry a dangerous
weapon, and have to use it with steadiness
and effect. We recommend it, however, as a
powerful instrument for securing the good
offices of others, as every man who calls on
you, whether he be farmer, shepherd, or herds-
man, expects a "glass ;" and if he does not get
his " glass," he is disappointed, and he men-
tions the circumstance. In fact, the payment
of this little tribute is universally expected —
it is the custom of the country. No marked
event, or ceremony, ever takes place without
the introduction of whisky ; whether it be
either a marriage, birth, a christening, or a
funeral, it is the Alpha and the Omega, the
beginning and the end. It is administered
before and after a funeral ; and so general is
its use, that we have never seen any Scotchman
refuse it, whatever his position in life may be.
All Highlanders contend that it is wholesome
and necessary, although some few exclaim
against the abuse of it ; but as it is the only
stimulant, with the exception of tobacco,
which is in use, it is not surprising that re-
course should be had to it in a land oi such
frequent mist and rain.

SELF-HUNTING DOGS.

Moors, which have been somewhat neglected,
are sometimes overrun with self-hunting dogs.
These marauders, coming from a distance,
equally in search of game and dead sheep,
should be unceremoniously dispatched by trap-
ping and with the gun, as they do infinite
damage in the breeding season ; but this busi-
ness a Scotch head-keeper thoroughly under-
stands. Parms and cottages are sometimes
overstocked with dogs given to self-hunting.
These should also be disposed of; but this re-
quires tact, and must be done quietly and
judiciously. The shepherds' dogs must never
be molested; moreovei", *ihere will rarely be
any necessity to interfere with them when the
shepherds are the allies of the keepers, as, in
that case, they will always be kept in at heel,
except when they are performing their neces-
sary duties in keeping the sheep within
particular limits, or driving them to fresh
ground.

JUMMAUV."!

BV I'll: 1. 1), wool), AM) WAT Kit.

[bummabt.

If shophcrds are negatively of importance in
abataiuiiii,' from cither poaching or destroying
game, they can also bo actively serviceable in
givitig iut'ormation as to tho incursion of any
enemy, cither in tho ehapo of vermin or
poacher. From being constantly on the
pnund, no moving objects can loi.g eacape
their observation.

A SUMM.\RY.

A summary of tho preceding suggestions, as
to hiring and protecting moors, addressed to
the sportsman, may be the means of fixing
them more firmly iu tho minds of our
readers : —

1. If you are desirous of having grouse
shooting in perfection, take your moor in
Perthshire, Inverness-shire, Aberdeenshire, or
Caithness.

2. Should your object be mixed sport, com-
bining with variety of game, winter shooting
and fishing, the parts of these counties which
adjoin the sea-coast will answer your purpose
best, as these districts, besides grouse, black
game, and partridge, frequently aflbrd good
wild-fowl and cock shooting, together with
trout and salmon fishing, and, very frequently,
first-rate aea-loch fishing.

3. Although Perthshire, Aberdeensliire, and
Inverness-shire, throughout the greater part of
their extent, furnish as much variety of first-
rate sport, of every kind, as any counties in
Scotland, in addition to the very best grouse
shooting ; still there are some few of the very
best inland moors on which there is no winter
shooting — in fact, little game beyond grouse,
there being no covers ; and, on some few
moors, little or no fishing. This fact is men-
tioned for tho guidance of the sportsman
who may require additional sport to grouse
eihooting.

4. Secure your shootings by a lease for five
or seven years.

5. Before signing your lease, if you do not
know the moor, and are not satisfied as to its
immediate condition, send a competent person
over it with a brace of good dogs ; you will
then ascertain what stock of grouse is on the
ground, and make your terms accordingly
relative to the first year ; as, iu the event of
total forbearance being necessary, or the
number to be killed being limited, in con-

sequence of the reduced stock on tho ground,
some allowance nuiat bu made in consideration
of that circumstance.

G. Immediately on obtaining poaaesBioii of
your moor, locate a first-rato hoad-lu-cpcr
thereon, with authority to provide himself
with a competent staff, tho strength of which
will depend upon the extent of the ground.

7. Engage your moor, if possible, early in
.^[arch, and not later than about tiie middle of
April ; because the trapping of vermin ought
to bo commenced, at latest, in March (as it
cannot be delayed without damage to the
stock of game on tho ground) ; and, grouse
being iu pairs, a tolerably accurate estimate
may be formed of the quantity likely to breed
on the ground, and of your prospects of sport
for the ensuing season.

8. If the moor you have in view be a Low-
land one, do not examine or engage it before
March, because a quantity of grouse might be
found thereon prior to that period, not be-
longing to the ground, only waiting for a
change of weather to return to the high
ground from which they had migrated in tlie
early part of the winter, and thus deceive
your calculations, and disappoint your expecta-
tions of sport for August, should they be based
on the number of grouse found in January or
February.

9. The head-keeper should be a Scotchman,
an Englishman being comparatively useless,
Gallic being the language generally spoken in
the Highlands ; and, moreover, an English
keeper has little influence with tenants, shep-
herds, and under-keepers. The head-keeper
should thoroughly understand his business in
all its branches; and, with intelligence, ac-
tivity, and zeal, should combine honesty,
sobriety, and courage. All these qualities are
required for a thorough discharge of tho duties
incident to his position.

10. His duty, in the first instance, will bo
to go over every part of his ground, and
make himself thoroughly acquainted with tlie
marches — i.e., boundaries ; and, if possible, ob-
tain information respecting the adjoining moors
and the tenants thereon, in order to regulate tho
beating of the ground when the season com-
mences ; as, of course, every precaution would
be taken not to drive the birds oiT your own
"round on to a moor where " hard shooting"

511

THE MANOKS.]

SHOOTING,

[the manors.

has been constantly pursued ; being less par-
ticular as to a deer forest.

11. His next duty will be to ascertain, to
the best of his ability, the number of grouse
on his ground, the probable prospects of sport,
and the number of brace which ought to be
killed.

12. To cultivate a friendly alliance with the
tenants and shepherds, and obtain from them
all useful and local information.

13. To commence trapping and destroying
all ground and flying vermin.

14. To counteract and prevent poaching.

15. To give thorough and complete instruc-
tions to the under-keepers, assigning to each
of them his particular beat and separate
duties, which he will personally ascertain that
they attend to, by being up and on his ground
frequently before daylight, so as to anticipate
and watch their movements. If a head-keeper
has not zeal and activity, as well as consider-
able intelligence, he is altogether unfit to take
the charge of a large moor ; but Scotch head-
keepers are generally superior men, and
thoroughly competent, in every respect, to
fulfil the numerous duties which devolve upon
them.

16. In the month of March, previous to the
burning of the heather, the head-keeper will go
over the ground with the diflerent shepherds,
and arrange with them as to the portions of
heather which ought to be burned. If the
shepherds are friendly, they will not exceed
the limits agreed on ; but, as it frequently
happens, on a large moor there are small
tenant-farmers, who look after their sheep and
cattle themselves. These individuals must be
attended to, as they are i-ather diflicult to con-
trol, and will always burn to excess if not pre-
vented. The keeper and his staff", on these
particular occasions, must exert more than
usual vigilance. No heather can be legally
burned after the 10th ot April, the penalty for
each offence being £5.

THE MANORS.
Quitting Scotland, we now come to Eng-
land, wliere it is much more expensive,
and more difficult to preserve game. This
•prises from there being a far greater num-
ber of poachers ; and from pheasants being
generally the principal feature in a large
512

preserve, in which feeding and watching are
requisite at almost all seasons of the year.
Hares and rabbits, also, occasion an expense,
inasmuch as they do considerable damage ; con-
sequently compensation is frequently required
by the farmer ; and they also require protec-
tion from the poacher. "We are not aware
that partridges do any damage. The advan-
tages of grouse are, that they require no
food beyond that which the mountain pro-
duces ; and, moreover, three or four men will,
in Scotland, take care of thirty thousand acres
of land; whereas in Englanr^ some half-dozen
keepers will not, at all times, suffice to protect
five thousand acres of land.

Partridges, pheasants, and hares, being the
principal object of a sportsman's solicitude on
a manor in England, let us inquire what means
can be most effectually adopted for their pro-
tection. Partridges are easily protected, it
being only necessary, immediately after the
harvest, to have all the fields, in which they
are likely to jug, staked with strong black-
thorn, driven well and firmly into the ground,
sufficiently close to prevent the use or a
net; as it is by dragging a net over the
surface of the land that whole coveys of
partridges are taken when they are jugging ;
so that a country is soon cleared if this
wholesale description of poaching is not coun-
teracted.

In Suff'olk and Norfolk, some manors of four
or five thousand acres will permit of two thou-
sand brace of partridges being killed in a
season ; in fact, on some of the most favourite
soils for them, the only difficulty is to shoot
them sufficiently close to ensure a favourable
breeding season, so numerous are they, and so
difficult to be reduced by fair shooting. As a
rule, where abundance of grain is grown there
will be plenty of partridges. There are, how-
ever, exceptions ; as there are large districts
in which the finest crops of wheat are pro-
duced, where partridges are not numerous.
The reason is obvious ; the soil which produces
wheat only not being so favourable to par-
tridges as that which produces rye and barley.
In fact, such a soil as that which pervades the
greater parts of Suftblk, Norfolk, Cambridge-
shire, and Huntingdonshire, is best for par-
tridges ; and, we believe, there are more of
these birds, as well as of other game, in thesa

TllK M.VNOliS.J

ii Y F i E L 1), W O U 1), A N 1 ) W A T E li.

[the MANOUa.

jiivourite districts than in nny counties of
England. On theso soils the wnter never
lod'^es; and in dry, hot woiither, thcro are
never any crarks or opening--^, wliich are fre-
quently seen in stiff soils in hot weather, into
which both young partridges and plieasanta
fall, without being able to extricate themselves,
and are, consequently, victimised ; and wet
weather is equally prejudicial to young birds
on the Btift' clay soils. On a really good and
favourable soil, any amount of partridges may
be fot up, which the land will bear, in one or
two seasons, by a little forbearance, if the
stock be reduced ; but any deficiency is rarely
the case in cither Suffolk or Norfolk, if the
land is fully cultivated. In the case of partial
uep'lect in this respect, or in the event of a
farm being accidentally left fallow one season,
the same amount of birds cannot be expected,
as partridges will always go where they can
find most food ; and, although they can live on
grass, they will always leave pasture lands if
arable land be contiguous.

It is conjectured by some, that partridges
which are found in grouse districts eat heather.
This, on the other hand, is supposed to be a
mistake, as birds have frequently been killed,
during the winter months, on the mountain-
tops, and, on opening their crops, nothing
found in them but grass, and that, on several
occasions, of a very coarse description, having
the appearance of water-grass. These birds,
however, arc of very fine flavour.

It is a good plan, and one which is
frequently adopted in Suffolk and Norfolk
with success, to introduce drills of buck-wheat
here and there between the turnips, where the
fields of these are large. This is advantageous
to both partridges and pheasants, as these
birds are particularly fond of this grain — it
attracts and keeps them together.

In v'^'-y open countries, where there are
neither covers nor plantations, small patches
of furze and broom should be sown, here and
there, on all odd corners of land. These will
be found wonderfully protective of partridges
in the cold stormy weather of winter, and,
moreover, will bo secure breeding-places.
Partridges generally breed by the hedge-side,
or on grassy banks, and not unfrequently by
the road-side. AV^here there are walls, if there
13 a little rough grass and brambles at the
3 u

bottom of them, these are also very favourite
spots, although close by a footpath. Where
the country is very open, and there is :i
scarcity of sheller, they make their ncats ia
grass and clover ; and here they are in great
danger, as both grasses and clover are gene-
rally cut before the hatching ia over. Conse-
quently many nests are destroyed, notwith-
standing the uttnost carefulness of the mowers,
as partridges sit so closely immediately before
hatching, that thero have been instances of
tlieir heads having been cut off by the scythe.
AVhen the nest is discovered in time, a small
quantity of clover left round it will suffice to
prevent its desertion. These birds sit twenty-
one or twenty-two days.

In the spring of the year, when partridges
first begin to lay their eggs, the utmost vigi-
lance is demanded on the part of the keepers,
owing to the practice of stealing eggs, en-
couraged by poulterers, who carry on a largo
trade by the sale of them, partridges' and
pheasants' eggs always being obtainable at the
London markets, and from most London poul-
terers; and as long as gentlemen will con-
tinue to countenance this traffic, by buying
eggs for the purpose of stocking their grounds,
they must expect to be mutually pillaged.
We could here introduce many letters upon
this subject, but it would be unnecessarily
filling our pages. Partridges will always make
a second nest when the first is destroyed ; but
the number of eggs will be considerably re-
duced, and the coveys so late, that the young
birds will not be ready for the sportsman by
the 1st of September. Whenever a small
covey of backward birds is found, it may bo
inferred, to a certainty, that the first nest was
either robbed or destroyed ; six or eight birds
is generally the amount of a second covey. In
an early covey, as many as twenty young birds
have been found ; but this is unusual; and,
although as many as sixteen and eighteen
eggs in the nest is a common circumstance,
still fourteen young birds, on the Ist of Sep-
tember, may reasonably be considered a good
covey. We cannot advise any sportsman to
buy partridge-eggs for the purpose of stocking
his ground, because we consider the practice
wrong in principle, and one which is sure to
meet with retributive punishment ; and, more-
over, on good soils, where partridges can bo

513

THE MANORS.]

SHOOTING,

[the manoes.

got up, the object is easily accomplished by a
little forbearance combined with protection,
•without this extraneous aid. In the case of
nests being found in dangerous positions, it
is a very good plan to take the eggs and
place them under a hen ; and it might, perhaps,
answer to take the eggs from iome of the
nests on the distant part of the ground, pro-
vided this be done at the early part of the
season, as, in this case, there would be a second
nest. It must be recollected, however, that
these home-bred birds, even if success attended
tlieir rearing, are indiflferent breeders for the
rfist year. The experiment has been tried,
and many of their nests found, but they
seldom, if ever, contain more than fourteen
eggs, twelve being the average. There is,
however, one great advantage, that they will
all breed near home; and, after the first season,
the young birds will, in all probability, stock
the more distant ground. When partridges
are plentiful, it will always be advisable, at the
end of the season, to have the extra old cock
birds killed off, as there are always many more
cocks than hens ; and if the former supernume-
raries be left, they will do infinite damage, by
destroying many nests, and disturbing the hen
birds whilst they are sitting. A good shot
will easily pick the cock birds out on the
rising of a covey, as the horse-shoe mark on
the breast is very visible. This should be
done in February and March.

In reference to the subject of stocking
manors, some recommend the turning out of
red-legged partridges, whilst others recom-
mend their destruction ; and, considering
the many disadvantages attending the pre-
sence of these birds, it is a matter of sur-
prise that they should have met with any
encouragement from practical sportsmen, as
we are not aware that they possess any one
single redeemiug feature to counterbalance
their numerous bad qualities, with the excep-
tion of their appearance, which is decidedly in
their favour, as they are, unquestionably, a
handsome bird. They are constantly to be
met with in both Suifolk and Norfolk,
where, by many, they are considered as a
great nuisance. But it may be as well to
enumerate the objections which are made to
them.

In the first place they are very pugnacious,
514

and, from being a larger and more powerful
bird than the grey partridge, they easily drive
these off their beat ; consequently, if they
were encouraged to any extent, a considerable
diminution in the stock of the ordinary par-
tridge would be the result. In the next place,
they invariably spoil sport, as they are ever on
the move, either flying or running, conse-
quently disturbing the other birds when dis-
posed to lie and give sport ; and, moreover, do
not compensate by giving you a shot at
themselves, as it is very rare that you can get
a chance at them, except in the case of a sur-
prise in the corner of a plantation, or cover,
or thick piece of turnips, at the end of which
a strong fence may prevent them from running
further, as they never cease running when
once in motion, except their course is ob-
structed by some impassable obstacle. Wo
have frequently marked them down in turnips
and furze, and been disappointed in getting a
shot, finding, by the time we had reached the
spot where we had seen them drop, they had
already emerged, and were running as fast as
their legs could carry them, at the distance of
some hundred yards or more. In fact, it is an
endless and hopeless aflfair to follow red-legged
partridges in an open country, however well
it may be supplied with turnips. We have
frequently made the experiment, and can, there-
fore, speak with some degree of certainty on
this point ; and, moreover, in the pursuit of
these birds, you not only fruitlessly exhaust
your patience, but spoil your dogs, as they will
sometimes run a mile before them, at least, if
the dog's patience will last so long; but it some-
times ends in his having a run too. In fact,
these birds will ruin the best dogs, and are
only fit to be Hunted by spaniels. The bird is
certainly a fine bird on the wing, and affords
a good shot when you can get it; but the
last, and by no means the least, consideration
is, that when you have shot him he is not
worth eating— at least we think so ; but far be
it from us to dictate, or prescribe, in matters
of taste. However, we have never met with
any Englishman who diff'ered with us on this
point. Their flavour is flat and insipid— in
fact, disagreeable. We are aware that this
bird is highly esteemed in France ; but as he
is rarely eaten au naturel, but generally ac-
commodated with a copious supply of truflles,

TUK MANOH8.]

in I'l i:i-l), WOOD, A.N 1) WA IKK.

[tiii: ma no II 8.

onhanced by some sauce piquanie, hia natural
insipidity is dissjuised ; ami tht-n, as INIonsieur
e'lievct obsiTvcs, of sonio of his fuvouriti'
comestibles, il se loissc manner. We have
seen him brought to table on many occasions
dressed au naturel, and witlidrawn without
di>cussioii. 11 o may, perhaps, liavo been
lasted, but no further honour was paid him.

Kej^ardiiip: the pheasant, we must remark
that lie is well worthy of all the care and pro-
tection whieli can possibly be extended to him.
He is unlike the partridge in one respect, not
being attached to any particular spot of ground,
although he will remain in any suitable cover
when he can find sufficient food, and is free
from molestation ; but if he cannot find food,
and the soil does not produce it, and it is not
.supplied to him, he will take to his legs, and
search for it for miles till he finds it, and re-
main in his new quarters so long as he is un-
disturbed. AVhero partridges have once bred
they will breed for years, and very near the
same spot ; hence the policy of never killing
any covey entirely down. This is not the case
with pheasants, as the hens will remain to breed
in any cover to which they may have been
driven at the end of the season, provided it bo
a suitable one, and there be food ; hence the
necessity of always providing sufficient food as
an inducement to them to remain. But even
this will be ineffectual unless the covers be
kept perfectly quiet, as pheasants will not re-
main where they are constantly disturbed. Tlie
slightest movement in a cover sets them in
motion, running at their best pace, and not
stopping until they reach some thick place,
where they can conceal themselves. If the
cover is large, it may be occasionally disturbed
without much risk ; but if it is small, and thin
at bottom, they will run clean through it, and,
perhaps, continue their course for miles. The
best cover to keep pheasants in, is one of furze
and broom, as they can conceal themselves in
it ; and, if it be spacious, even a dog has some
difficulty in dislodging them. In an open
country where there are no natural covers,
this artificial cover of furze and broom will bo
found to be of the greatest advantage. It can
easily be got up in a few years ; and a few
rabbits turned into it, will be useful in making
runs through all the thick parts of it. It is
also undeniable for hares ; and, moreover,

game of all sorts is easily protecteil in it, as a
poacher can only operate in and about such a
cover by daylight ; and therefore must bo seen
approacliing, if a good look-out bo kept. A
suwdl cover of this description, of about six
acres, adjoining a keeper's cottage, has been
known to hold several hundred pheasants. It
was surrounded by corn and turnip fields, and
some few jjlantations running up to it, into
which the pheasants strayed by day, returning
always at feeding-time, or in the event of their
being disturbed.

If there be water handy, it will bo a groat
advantage, as pheasants cannot do well with-
out it. It must, therefore, in the event of
there being neither spring nor pond near, bo
supplied by artificial means — tanks, sunk in dif-
ferent places, which the keeper will take care to
fill regularly, will answer the purpose. Pheasants
require, more or less, feeding nearly all the
year round ; less in summer than in winter, and
but very slightly after the harvest. A little
food, however, occasionally at all seasons, keeps
them together, and prevents them from prowl-
ra.". Barley, oats, white peas, buckwheat, and
boiled potatoes, comprise what they are most
partial to. Of buckwheat they are especially
fond, a few acres of which will attract them,
and partridges also, from very long distances ;
consequently, this being known, its use in both
Suffolk and Norfolk is almost universal, not
only on the general principle of preserving, but
on that also of self-defence.

The advantages of the furze and broom
covers, consists in their affording protection to
the pheasant by night as well as by day, as,
pheasants frequently jug in them, so that they
are out of the poacher's reach. But as, in this
case, they will be accessible to ground vermin,
the keeper must be very particular and vigi-
lant in this department of his business : the
weasel, stoat, polecat, and common cat, would
do infinite mischief in a preserve of this de-
scription. As the presence of these depredators,
however, is easily ascertained, and as they are
trapped without difficulty, the keeper must
have neglected his duty if more than an occa-
sional visitor is ever seen ; but he must always
be expected, as vermin are sure to be plentiiul
where game abounds. In all preserves it is a
good plan to have a few rabbits, as they ire-
quently save the lives of pheasants when any

r 1 .-:

DKESS.

SHOOTING,

[deess.

hingling is attempted, by either being caught
instead of the pheasants, or by knocking the
wires, or springes down, as both are used.
When pheasants are merely wanted for the
market, in the game season, wires are used, as
they are more easily set, and more efficient
than springes ; but in the spring of the year,
when it is wished to take pheasants alive, to
be sold to those sportsmen who wish to stock
their preserves, springes are used with a knot
in them, so that the noose cannot be drawn
tightly when the pheasant runs his head and
neck into them, by which means they are
caught alive. This species of poaching, like
the egg-stealing, would, in all probability,
cease to exist, if sportsmen would refrain
from purchasing live pheasants. Advertisers
of live pheasants for sale, sometimes put forth,
in their advertisements, that the pheasants
which they offer have been reared by them-
selves, from eggs laid by birds in their own
possession ; but if there be one instance of
this sort, it is an exception, even if the birds
which laid the eggs were not originally
poached; and, moreover, this may only be a
blind to more extensive transactions of an
illegitimate character ; but, as we have before
intimated, its discontinuance rests with the
sportsman. A combined resolution amongst
sportsmen, not only to discourage the traffic
in pheasants' and partridges' eggs, and in
live pheasants, but also a determination to
prosecute all offenders in this respect, would
be productive of immense advantage, not only
to sportsmen but to the community at large, as
the stock of game is seriously injured by this
yearly illegitimate practice. That the trade
to which we allude is carried on, and pretty
extensively, may be ascertained by any one
who will give himself the trouble to make
inquiry. The vendors are, of course, aware of
their liability, and may not, perhaps, give infor-
mation to every one requiring it, as we believe
some caution is exercised in these transactions.
Having thus discussed the manner of pro-
ceeding in reference to the Moors and the
Manors, we will now give a few

HINTS TO YOUNG SPORTSMEN.

There are numbers of shooting t>portsmeu
who, from want of observation, or a " Mentor,"
to guide or direct them, plod on in their own
516

invariable way, and suffer no end of incon-
veniences, when a few hints would entirely
change the nature of things to their advanta^-c^
To such, and especially to the younger and
less experienced, we crave permission to address
ourselves. Our hints will be only to "little
things;" but in little things lies the secret of
enjoying greater. First, as to dress.

The Cap. — "We will begin with the head,
and end with the feet. The cap ought to be
as small as possible, for reasons we shall shortly
explain. The kind, of all others, to be preferred,
is exactly the size and make of a heavy dragoon
officer's forage cap, but with the peak a trifle
longer, and not lying quite so flat on the fore-
head. Wide-awakes are all very well, but you
must, in the least wind, be always either
snatching at them with your hand, or be keep-
ing your head bent down on your chest, with
the muscles of the forehead so contracted as
to induce headache with many people. The
cap should be small for another reason, and
that is the liberty, especially in a wild country,
of having to exert your energies in creeping
after wild birds, such as carrion crows, hawks,
&c., which may be detected in situations
where they may be got at, and when a small
cap may be carried in one of the pockets.

The Coat and Tbousees. — Grouse-shoot-
ing is the only game-shooting in the three
kingdoms that really requires attention to the
colour of your dress. We should recommend,
therefore, a good "heath mixture" coat and
waiscoat, and the cap of the same colour. The
trousers should be of stout material, of much
the same colour as the other parts of the dress,
and, for real service and comfort, be made
as follows : — Procure, at a respectable currier's,
two seal skins, and have the trouser legs
covered with them in the form of a Napoleon
boot — viz., coming well up in front of the thigh,
and being hollowed out down the thigh behind,
till you get two inches above the calf of the
leg. With these trousers you can go through
any cover, such as gorse, &c., with impunity;
and, in case of having to drop on a knee in
damp ground, no water will penetrate. An
old pair of trousers will do to be covered with
the skins, so that they nre stout and not
decayed ; and, when worn out, the skins (which
will last six or seven years) can be sewn on to
another old pair. The seal skins cost about

PRESS.]

BY riKLD, WOOD, AND WATER.

[hU0T-1!A<J.

(V«. GJ. a-pioco, and tho softest and thinnest
^;lOuld bo chosen. Tho trousers must be cut
(.fV about tlu-ee inches beK)\v the kiieo before
the skins nro sewn on. After coming in from
a dav's shootinsr, ii» ^vet turnips or lieavy
ground, a i'ew scrubs with a stable besom and
water, just as you eland, sets them all right
;igain, without tho trouble of dryiiij; and
brushiui; that shooting trousers usually re-
tiiiire. The comparative invisibility of the
.shooting-dress named above has been proved,
from having grouse come Hying right on to
the sportsmen, when sitting at lunch in the
heath, and more especially on hilly moors.

Boots a>'d Stockinqs. — Tho only sort of
boots worth having are good strong country-
made lace-up ones, with sis holes laced, then six
hooks, and after that two more holes. Have
good nails in them, and let the toes be tipped
with steel plates on the sole, and project at
least three-quarters of an inch in a slanting
direction downwards. This will defend the
upper leathers at the toe from being cut by
the strong shanks of the heath. In regard to
snipe boots, the following plan has been found
by far the best to be pursued : — Have the lace
boots made sufficiently large to wear with a
pair of Macintosh's waterproof fishing stock-
ings, over common woollen socks. Walk to
the snipe ground, carrying tlie waterproof stock-
ings (which fold up into about the size of your
hand) in your pocket. Then take off the lace
boots, and put the waterproofs on, and the boots
over them. The stockings reach right up the
leg. "When tired of shooting, rinse both boots
and stockings in the nearest water-hole, and
dry out the boots with a handkerchief, which
is done in a minute ; and then turn the stock-
ings inside out, and carry them home in your
pocket, and tiius save the trouble of wearing
them. You will not perceive the damp of your
boots through your woollen socks. Tou will
find the inside of the fishing stockings get
quite cold and damp after they have been oft'
some time ; but that is not a sign that they let
water in, but merely that the perspiration
generated by walking has condensed. Let the
stockings be well dried a good way off the fire,
and they will last a long while — about six
years. The original price of them is IGs., and
tJie cost of new footing, 8^.

The Cloak. — The next thing to recom-

mend is a sniall waterproof cloak, and tho
solid comfort of this must bo felt to bo appro-
ciated. Although naming a cloak, then* in n«
need for considering us as composed of ifithiT
sugar or salt. In every situation of life corn-
fort is everything. AVo therefore recommend
a cloak, one of the beautiful light ones, made
of black waterproof, that you can buy for about
twenty shillings, and which will go into a Hmall
case. This case, if made with a couplo of
buckles, is fastened into the gun-sling, and is
quite out of tho way. The gun-sling we mean
is the sort previously sold by Dean and .A.dams,
and may be truly called a real blessing to
sportsmen. It is no cockney or foreign ap-
paratus, but a first-rate invention ; and, fur
riding or walking home a long way, is in-
valuable. The gun sticks close to you, and
you hardly know you carry one, and it will not
move a hair's breadth if you run, stoop down,
&c. "We name a cloak, for a coat is detesta-
ble, and wets both yourself and your gun, in-
stead of keeping you dry. "With a cloak, you
only need to turn it " rear rank in front " if the
rain comes in your face, and you may laugh at
a storm, for the trousers we before named will
keep you dry above tho knee.

The SnoT-BA& and Powdee-flask. —
For the convenience of carrying the shot-
bag and powder-flask, we offer the following
suggestions : — Have a thin leather strap sewn
tight round the shot-bag, where the charge
screws in. Another strap should be sewn to
the one named, and continued endways round
the bag through the D at the end of it, till it
joins the other side of the strap round tho
collar, where it must again be sewn to tliat
strap, and be continued loose for two inches ;
and at the loose end there must be a D.
"When held by the last-named D, the shot-bag
will hang charger uppermost. Then have a
strap to go round the waist, with a short bit
of leather, three inches long, sewn on at right
angles. This bit of leather should come on
the right hip-bone when tho strap is buckled
round the waist. "Wo can only say, that any
one who will try this plan of carrying a shot-
bag, will never return to tho old plan of carry-
ing it round the shoulder. The short hanging
strap must have a steel swivel to it, to hook
into the D of the shot-bag.

The powder-flask should bo carried in the

.317

TELESCOPES.]

SHOOTING,

[SHOOTT>G SYSTEMS.

right-hand large pocket below the waist, and
the wadding also ; because you save one move-
ment in loading, by taking a wadding out when
you put your band into that pocket to return
the powder-flasks. Speaking of powder-flasks,
we have seen a very simple contrivance for a
drinking-cup, by having it made of German
silver, or plated, and fitting on to the lower
part of the flask. This is the invention, we
believe, of a well-known and very excellent
sportsman, living in Derbyshire.

Telescopes. — There is another article form-
ing the outfit of a shooter ; and though the last,
it is not the least important part of a field
equipment. This is a pocket telescope. Two
are sometimes carried, of the following descrip-
tions:— One about fifteen inches long when
drawn out, and three-and-a-half when closed ;
and with it you may, on a tolerably clear day,
tell the hour by any church clock at three
miles' distance; audit will, consequently, enable
you to identify the person of any one you may
see poaching at a distance ; and it is, of course,
equally available on the thousand-and-one occa-
sions when its use may be required in an open

country. The price of these glasses, in leather
case complete, is about 11. 16s. The othei*
glass is about three inches when drawn out,
and two inches closed. It has only one slide.
The power of tliis small telescope is extraor-
dinary, and would not be conceived by most
persons till tried. The handiest way to have
it is to draw it out, in the first instance, to the
right focus, ranging to about a mile, and tlien
cut a piece of card that fits round the moving
slide, keeping it from pushing in, and have the
card stitched with thread so as not to come off.
Tou can carry it thus in a clean pocket on the
right-hand side of your shooting-waistcoat, and
you are ready to mark birds when they get up,
without the loss of a second of time. The re-
lative uses of the two glasses will be obvious
to any man who has shot much in an open
country. The price of the small one is
12s. 6^.

Having thus equipped the young sports-
man, and treated of the Moors and the Manors,
we will, in our next chapter, treat of Shootiag,
in connection with the modes of handling the
Gun and the Dog.

CHAPTER III.

SHOOTING.— the ONE-EYED AND THE TWO-EYED SYSTEMS ; USING THE GUN ; LOADING ; PRECAUTIONS.

The theory of shooting involves a complete
knowledge of the most advantageous manner of
directing the gun when placed to the shoulder,
relatively to the game intended to be killed ;
and as birds present themselves in various
ways — flying away from us in a straight
undeviating line at one time ; at another
time descending ; sometimes crossing before us
either to the right or to the left, or coming
directly over our heads — there must be fixed
rules for the management of the gun, the accu-
rate knowledge of which may be considered as
part of the theory of shooting. These rules
must be adhered to or deviated from according
to circumstances, as the judgment of the sports-
man, matured by experience, may suggest at the
moment. Por instance, firing at a bird pro-
518

ceeding in a direct straight line, neither rising
nor descending, provided the distance do not
exceed thirty-five or forty yards, it will sufiice
to cover it ; that is to say, to have the elevated
rib of the barrel in a straight line with the bird,
so that no daylight be visible to the eye between
the siglit of the gun and the lower part of the
bird, in which case the bird will be hit by the
centre of the charge. If the bird, however, be
ascending, the gun should be directed slightly
above it, and, if descending, below it ; and in
all cross-shots, and those coming over the head,
the gun ought to be directed one or two feet,
and sometimes even more, before the bird — the
degrees of distance being regulated by the sup-
posed pace of the flight of the bird at the time.
But why shoot so far before a bird with a quick-

BHOOTING SYSTKMB.] ''V FIELD, WOOD, AND UAIHIi. [SUOOTINO BYSTEMB.

Bbooting detonator? Because it is found by
cxpcricuco tliat, notwithstanding tho force and
quickness with which tlio shot is propelled by
the best of guna, if tho gun be directed at right
nns^lcd at a crossing bird which is at the ilia-
tauco of thirty-tive yards, tho charge will arrive
too late. The bird has, during tho transit of
the charge, advanced about two feet through
tho atmosphere, although, doubtless, a minute
portion of time is lost between tho pulling of
tho trigger and the discharge, as well as be-
tween tho deterniiuation to pull and the actual
pulling. At all events, from these combined
causes of delay, the bird obtains an advance of
from one to three feet, the judicious anticipa-
tion of which by the sportsman is requisite to
•access.

A further consideration presents itself as
involved in the theory of shooting; and this is
in the gravitation of the charge towards the
earth. As this tendency, however, is remedied
in all good guns by the proper setting of the
barrels, the sportsman is under no necessity of
making any calculations in regard to it, at least
within the distance of forty yards, as all guns,
turned out by first-rate makers, are so well put
together, that what is termed a point-blank
aim may be taken at that distance. This
point-blank aim means, that the, centre of the
charge will hit the object to which the gun is
directed, if a correct aim be taken, the rib
being elevated iu proportion to the length of
the barrels and the strength of their shooting,
so that the direction of the l./cter, in point of
fact, at a distance of forty yards, is from eight
to twelve inches above the line of sight, whereby
the gravitation of the charge is remedied.

As the rib is not parallel with the calibre,
and as the breech end of the barrels must bo
sunk into tlie stock, more or less, according to
the thickness or elevation of the rib, it is evi-
dent that the elevation of the barrels will be
increased in proportion to the elevation of the
rib; but it is hardly necessary to enlarge upon
60 clear and obvious a mathematical truth — as
the French say, " cela saute aux yeux." "We
will, therefore, only make the following short
remark, whicli will obviate all misapprehension :
A one straight line be drawn from the rib, and
another from the centre of the calibre, to the
distance of forty yards, they will be found to be
from about eight to twelve inches apart, pro-

vided the elevation of tho rib and tho Bettinjj

of tho barrels bo cornet.

If all guuB wero of similar strength in their
shooting, tho preciso degree of elevation might
bo ascertained to a mathematical nicety, and
tho gun- maker would have a fixed rule for
his guide, irrespective of trials; but this not
being tho case, proofs must be resorted to, and
the rib elevated accordingly. Not that this
is always tho case, as guns badly set are not
unfrequently to be met with, and to which
tho elevation is insufficient, consequently occa-
sioning much disappointment at all long dis-
tances, by wounding and breaking the legs of
birds, instead of killing thcni ; and although tho
sportsman is oftcner in fault than the gun, yet,
we believe that there are some instances in which
the fault is in the gun. In addition to the pro-
per setting of the barrels, and the correct eleva-
tion of the rib, the balance of the gun and tho
peculiar make of the stock, from the locks to
the point or tip, merit the attention of the
sportsman, especially in a heavy gun. Heavy
guns, with the point of the stock bent too
much downwards, are apt to deceive the best
of shots in quick shooting, and, with moderate
shots, create frequent disappointment, espe-
cially at the end of a long day's shooting, after
much hard fagging. We think the gnu ought
to balance evenly, when placed on the palm of
the hand, immediately past the end of the
locks.

Much has been said on the superior advan-
tages of the use of two eyes over one : in fact,
some of the advocates of the two-eyed system
have spoken very disparagingly, and, as we
cannot help thinking, with unbecoming
severity, of those who support the one-eyed
plan— tho latter being represented as slow-
coaches, their practice behind the times, obso-
lete, &c. But is this tho fact ?— is it tim ?
We think not ; and, if we may be permitted lo
judge from observation and experience, we
should say tho one-eyed men, ccvteris parihi(s,
are quite as competcut to " fill the bag" as
their opponents, eimply because we believe
each system to have its relative advantages and
disadvantages, presuming each party to have
guns of similar make and construction, of like
setting as to the barrels, and of equal elevation
of the rib. But, if guns are badly set, and
with insufficient elevation, then it must bo

519

SHOOTING SYSTEMS.]

SHOOTING,

[SHOOTINa SYSTEMS.

readily admitted that tbe two-eyed man will
have a most decided advantage in helping
himself to that which the gun-maker has
denied him. But, with guns constructed and
put together on modern improved principles —
with proper setting, sufficient elevation, and
peculiar fitness for the use of one eye — it
strikes us that the two-eyed man has not all
that superiority over his opponent of which he
boasts ; for, if the one-eyed man occasionally
shoots under a rising bird, the two-eyed man
must sometimes shoot clean over a bird which
is rapidly descending, if he shoots in a wild,
hilly, and mountainous country. In a flat
level country, we are sensible that this latter
Qase would rarely occur; consequently, there
the two-eyed man would have the advantage.
Havirc: shot many years over an uneven and
mountainous country, where there were as
many shots one way as the other, and being in
the habit of using sometimes one-eye and
sometimes both, we must admit having occa-
sionally shot over birds quickly descending
when using both eyes, and sometimes having
shot under rising birds when only availing our-
selves of one eye. Here we allude to snap-
shots presenting themselves unexpectedly, in
the taking of which the most experienced may
occasionally be surprised, and reverse the prin-
ciples on which they generally act. If, there-
fore, we may be allowed to judge equally from
ex}) "lence and from observation, we should
conclude that neither system is perfect, each
being liable to occasional failure ; and, if both
parties will dismiss amour propre, and be can-
did, we think they will arrive at the same con-
clusion. The use of both eyes, unquestionably,
gives extra elevation — in fact, almost indefi-
nitely so, according to the judgment of the
sportsman. But is this necessary, and is it
always an advantage ? "We think not ; for, if
a gun be properly put together, we cannot see
that this extra elevation is required, except
for a small proportion of rising shots at long
distances ; and we believe that the difficulty
presented even by these, will be readily over-
come by the one-eyed man of experience, who
possesses nerve and presence of mind. If the
two-eyed system be as superior to the one-eyed
one as its advocates insist that it is, whv re-
quire any assistance from the gun-maker in the
setting of the barrels — why have any elevated
520

rib ? — as it is evident all this is superfluous
and unnecessary for the carrying out of the
two-eyed principle. •■ For, if we judge rightly
of it from the statements of its most strenuous
advocates, they despise the steady old plan of
looking along, or in the direction of the ele-
vated rib, in line with the sight, holding their
heads above the barrels, and taking their own
elevation and line of sight — exercising their
own judgment on the spur of the occasion ; so
that in this speculative system, much practice
and experience are requisite, in order to ac>
quire the habit of accuracy and precision.
From this, we think, it may be fairly inferred,
without illiberality towards the two-eyed men,
that their system is not infallible ; that they
sometimes err, and, consequently, that their
practice has not that decided superiority over
the one-eyed system which it is presumed to
have ; as the latter, as far as it goes, is not
liable to mistalce, and is easily carried out — ■
the precise extent of elevation being already
determined and arranged by the gun-maker
on unerring principles. The hand will, to a
very great extent, iollow and obey the eye.
We are therefore convinced, that in snap-shots,
even at such large birds as blackcocks, when
they slip off the high top of a mountain, in-
stantly gliding down below, the two-eyed man
would, if he were inexperienced in that sort of
shooting, shoot over many more birds than he
would ever Jiit. This result, we think, must
strike every one, even if experience were not
referred to for its confirmation : but let any
one, who doubts it, test the point by experi-
ment— bring up his gun quickly to the shoulder,
with both eyes directed to a particular object,
and he will find, on immediately closing one
eye, that the point of the gun is above the object
aimed at ; and if that object be a blackcock
slipping from a high mountain-top, and rapidly
descending, he will not only miss his mark, but
the charge will be at least three feet over the
bird. The one-eyed man would, in tliis par-
ticular shot, have the advantage ; because, if a
similar experiment be tried with one eye — to
that which we have just suggested as a partial
test to the two-eyed system — and the gun be
brou'^ht up quickly to the shoulder, it will be
found that the point of the gun will be under
the object aimed at, and never over it, which,
in snap-shots at rapidly descending birds, will

MAKl.Nli TUIAI,]

r. V ruiLD. WDiH), AN 1) w \ti:k.

[jtAKIMi TniA.L.

be an advantage which tl>o ono-oycd man will
unquestionably have over his opponent. This
occasion will frequently arise in shooting in
the Highlautl.-^, at all sorts of game, but par-
tioularlv at black game, whose flight is peculiar.
These birds rarely ascend, even when found on
the open heather, or in corn-tields ; and not one
in twenty rises vertically, but emerges from the
heather, corn, or bushes obliquely, and immedi-
ately takes a horizontal direction, except when
it leaves a high mountain-top — in which case,
in the first instance, it descends, subsequently
preserving its horizontal course ; and when
disturbed in cover, always escaping through
the first openings which present themselves,
emerging horizontally, and never rising verti-
cally, except its horizontal flight be ob-
structed. Having shot hundreds of these
birds, and seen thousands of them ou wing at
diflerent times, we can speak with some de-
gree of certainty on this point ; and if we
allude to the peculiarity of their flight, it is
merely as illustrative of the position which we
have assumed, that all the advantages are not
ou the side of the two-eyed men. Black game
are remarkably easy birds to shoot, when a fair
chance can be got at them ; but they con-
stantly rise near, without aflbrding the op-
portunity cf a good shot, especially in cover;
and this is very intelligible, when their pecu-
liar mode of flight, we have just explained, is
considered.

THE GUN AND THE TARGET.
OThe examination or trial of a foivJing -piece
is one of those duties so essential, even to the
safety of the sportsman, that he must by no
means neglect it. Nor must he neglect to
make a thorough trial of the instrument which
be intends to use, under every change of wea-
ther, before he ventures upon the moor or the
manor to seek for his sport. In the manufac-
ture of guns there is as much deception as
there is in the manufacture of any other ar-
ticles of commerce; therefore, it behoves the
gun-purchaser to bring all his skill and judg-
ment to bear upon the general make of the
instrument he desires to purchase, before he
has taken it into the field with him. " It is
/lot altogether true," says the Oakleigh Shoot-
ing Code, " that the best guns are made by the
most celebrated makers ; but the reason why
3x

a gun made by ono of these makera is to bo
preferred by a person not thoroughly conver-
sant with the arcana of the trade, is the prob-
able certainty of his obtaining a good one ;
for a first-rate maker will not hazard his repu-
tation by turning out an inditlV-rcnt one. Tho
unwillingness, however, to give a first-rater's
price, induces the shooter to look out for a
second-hand piece; and the eagerness with
which second-hand pieces are sought for, has
led to a species of deception to entrap tho un-
wary. Tho following remarks on second-hand
fowling-pieces, are by a gun-maker — ' Eight
out of ten of the guns sold as second-hand aro
new guns, made up purj)0sely to suit the public
taste, or predilection for second-hand guns by
a good maker.' And really one might suppose
that none but mere novices could be imposed on
by them, for they generally bear the names of
makers, many of whom were dead before tho
invention of the copper cap ; such as Henry
North, "W. Mortimer, Feuton, Hewson, &c. ;
but all these are warranted genuine.

"In making trial of the gun, care should bo
taken that it is what we will venture to call a
thoroughly agreeable piece ; that it is easy and
pleasant to handle ; that it fits the shoulder
well ; and that it is altogether an instrument
that pleases the eye. There is more in this hist
observation than many would think; for, if the
eye is not pleased with the appearance of the
piece, good shooting is apt to be marred by it.
After the examination, let the breeching be
taken out ; and remember that the screw,
both male and female, be examined carefully ;
that the male ribs and tho female indentations
fit so closely together as to harbour no wet ;
but that, when screwed up, they make a solid
mass. This is often little attended to ; but, if
the amateur will take out the breeches of some
of the cheap guns, he will be convinced, by the
ill-fitting of these important parts together,
of the liability of such guns to corrode, and
eventually to burst. AVe therefore say, buy no
gun that shows any marks of disunion between
the breech-screw and the barrel ; also, look
down it agaiust the glare of a large candle,
and if any flaw appears, let it be care-
fully examined with callipers. The breech or
breeches being replaced, proceed to an equally
close examination of every other part ot tuo
barrel. Next examine the stock and its mouut-

521

THE TAEGET.l

SHOOTING,

[tue target.

ings ; and, being satisfied of their soundness,
strengtli of parts, and general unity of action
tliroughout, the next step is to try the shooting
of the gun yourself. Gun-makers will them-
sches try a gun before you, and many of them
will do it fairly ; but others have various modes
of giving unfair advantages to the gun, and
taking them also tliemselves. In the range,
for instance, there are methods of slightly
balling the shot, so as to make them exhibit a
most tempting garnish. If you are on the prem-
ises of the gun-maker, unless he can show a
space of fifty yards in length, how can you
form an opinion of what may be the killing
extent of the range of this, or indeed of any
gun you may try there ? And even if you are
satisfied the piece will carry its shot so far with
a fair elevation only, do not fail to mark the
depth of indentation the shot make on the wall
or target. AVithout this proof of the strength
of the delivery of its charge, the shot may ball
among the feathers of the game when you
come to use it, but not enter the vitals or break
a wing. Let a good-sized trimmer be set afloat,
and blaze away at that, having some observant
person with you to mark the effects of the shot.
Suow on the ground afibrds a good indication
of the range and garnish of a gun, as well as
of its elevation, if you actually measure the
distance."

The Taeget. — An iron target will be found
sufficiently efficient for trying tlie range, gar-
nish, and force of the shot upon. Chalk it
well over, and renew the chalking after each
firing. A large linen sheet, or several large
sheets of white paper pasted together, should
be placed under the target to catch the shot ;
the figure of which, by being more or less
indented, will show the greater or less force
with which they were propelled against the
• iron. The surface of the paper laid down should
be considerable, or the rebound of the shot
will carry them beyond its limits. The trials
should also be varied by using different pro-
portions of powder and shot, not only as
regards their own relative proportion towards
each other, but likewise as they relate to the
qun. Daily trials should also be made under
every variety of circumstance; as the modes
of loading the gun, of holding it, its state of
being clean or foul ; and under every atmo-
spheric condition.
522

Por the target, milled-board will form au
excellent substitute, where iron cannot be
had ; and each sheet should be suspended by
tenter-liooks against a wall ; or, what is still
better, to a square or boarding raised on a
pole. " The dimensions of the square (or it
may be a circle if the trier pleases) will rest
with the sportsman ; we should recommend
one about a foot and a-half, marked off iu
squares, and the same crosswise, if a circle be
employed. The paper, when it is used, should
also, like a draft-board, be squared around
by chalked lines, drawn an inch and a-half or
two inches apart. At proper distances, on the
outer circumferences of the target or wall to
be shot against, tenter-hooks should be placed
to secure the brown paper. Measure off the
ground to certain distances, commencing at
fifteen yards, and increase each trial by five,
until it arrives to fifty yards, with as many
more as tlie trier pleases. As soon as a shot
has been made, note the range, the charge
used, the number of shot which have entered
each sq^imre, and the depth to which they have
penetrated. Chalk over each indentation, and
repeat the experiment at another distance."

The Encyclojpcedia of Hural Sports recom-
mends the squares or circles within the circles
of the target to be marked in such a manner
as to represent the dimensions of the various
kinds of game usually shot at. Thus, the first
square may be two inches, which will take iu
the snipe ; as that of two-and-a-half may be
considered appropriate to the dimensions of
the quail ; of tliree-aud-a-half to the woodcock
and young partridges. Older birds would
spread their limits to four inches; the grouse to
four-and-a-half; and the pheasant, if a hen, to
five ; and a full-grown cock would hardly escape
any shot that struck within the limits of the
square of five-and-a-half. Of course, the tips
of the wings of the birds here mentioned
might meet with a shot that extended beyond
the limits appropriated to it. We only give
some clue to a knowledge of what may bo
expected from the garnish of a gun as dis-
played on the trial. AVe have not yet ob-
served, that when much accuracy is required
in the trials, particularly if made by an un-
steady hand, a " rest" will be a great assis-
tance in gaining a just indication of the shoot-
ing of the piece. It is not unlikely that scmA

lOADINO.

BV J'lELl), WOOD, AND WATER.

[loauiso.

may call tliia wire-drawing ; wo arc, however,

certain tlu'y will not belong to the body of
retloctiiig or cxporienced sportsmen ; tlioy will
know bettor how to appreciate rule, method,
and illustration.

LoADixo. — Success in shooting greatly de-
pends upon the art of loading properly. Tiio
lirst thing to be done is to squib up the gun
several times in order to dry it, and give a
httlo warmth to the barrel, before putting in
the load with which you are to begin your
dsy's sport. Tour gnu is here supposed to be
of the percussion make. Having squibbed
suflieiently, drawn up the cock, and removed
the broken cap, hold the gun in an upright
position, and pour in the charge, striking the
butt-cud of the piece against the ground, to
carry down such grains of powder as may be
lodged agaiast the sides of the barrel, and also
to settle it completely in its place. Now pass
down the powder-wadding until it reaches the
powder, on which it ought to be very lightly
pressed, not rammed. Next pour in the shot,
and give a shake or two to settle them evenly
and solidly in their bed. Place over them a
wadding of sufficient substance and elasticity
to preserve the shot in their posiiion ; for
which purpose give a pressure to the wad,
taking care, however, not to ram it hard. It
is usual, however, to give the first charge a
little more pressure than the charges that are
to succeed it. When the powder is wadded,
it will be well to observe whether it makes its
way into the nipple by the pressure of the
confined air, made in passing down the wad.
It does not always follow, that if the powder
is not seen in the pivot, it will not explode ; it
is, nevertheless, more satisfactory to see it
there; and when this is not tlie case, we
should give the breech a slight tap or two, to
introduce it further up the touch-hole. The
circumstance of the powder not being seen at
the touch-hole, is more likely to happen with
the perforated, or serrated waddings, made to
let out the confined air, than with those that are
entire. The last act of gun-loading is that of
putting on a fresh cap, and letting the cock
down very gently to fasten it on the nipple.

In charging the fiint-gun, it is also prudent
to fc^quib it first, and then to introduce the
powder and shot into the barrel. Sufficient
priming should be put into the pan, but not in

such quantity as to allow tho pnn-cowr to
crush it. If a double gun bo employed, it wilj
bo optional with tho sportHumn to load but'w
barrels alike, or to give, aa many do, a bchuo-
what heavier charge to tho second barrel, be it
right or left, that ho usually fires on tho
longest shots. If tho quantities of powder
used are the same in both barrehs, the size of
the shot may, for the second barrel, be a littlo
larger. i\Iany shooters increase tho quantity
of shot for tho charge of tho second barrel ;
but this can only be expedient when tho
weight of tho powder is somewhat increased
also ; and even then, by many, its propriety
has frequently been questioned. It is always
more or less dangerous to alter those exact
proportions between tho powder and shot
which experience has pointed out as buing
precisely suitable to the piece. When a guu
has been discharged, the barrel should bo
loaded while it is still warm ; for, when allowed
to cool, the moisture begins to settle on its
inner surface, and this catches some of the
finer particles of the powder-charge, and
either decomposes them there, or prevents
their falling to the oortora. In either case tho
detention diminishes the projectile force which
is to act on the shot.

What are found to be the just proportions
of powder and shot most suitable to his piece,
the sportsman should make it his anxious
study to discover. A considerable amount of
practice will be necessary for this; but it must
be done, if he wish to attain to the character
of being " a good shot." In experimenting for
this, he must make use of difterent kinds of
powder and shot — in short, adopt every
method and material that may suggest them-
selves to accomplish the end he has in view.
To achieve all this, requires not only nice ob-
servation, but a just mode of reasoning, and
the establishment of general rules, and tho
marking of their occasional exceptions ; all of
which mental habits are by no means very
common amor.g the ordinary run of sportsmen.
Hence it is that we find the actual practice of
shooting so loose and unscientific; and when
a man does succeed in practically acquiring
the art in the highest degree, he seldom has
the power of correctly communicating his
knowledge to others, or of marking, with suffi-
cient clearness, the various steps by wiiich he

523

LOADING,]

SHOOTING,

[loading.

has attained a mastery amongst his craft.
Between just theories, and accurate practice,
there is always a wide gap ; and it happens,
now and then, that the one is made to throw
light on the other.

Many trials must be made with every fowl-
ing-piece before it can be fully ascertained
■what are the proportions of powder and shot
that will suit it best, and produce the most
pleasant and most effective method of using
it. AVhen, however, something like a general
idea on the point is obtained, a series of what
may be called small experiments should be
made, in the way of variations in the quantity
of loading, that the truth of the general
opinions formed may be tested. A detonating
piece requires a little less powder than a flint-
gun; but the exact diflerence of proportion
between them is not a matter that can be
subjected to any general rule ; from a fourth
to a fifth less is often adopted. Colonel
Hawker says — " To load a single gun of six, or
double gun of seven, eight, or nine pounds'
weight, take a steel charger, which holds pre-
cisely an ounce and a-half of shot; fill it
brimful of powder, from which first prime, and
then put the remainder into the barrel ; to
this add the same measure bumperful of shot,
and then regulate the tops of your flasks and
belts accordingly." This, however, is the pre-
scription for a flint-gun, of which the colonel is
the segis. The same authority says, that for a
gun of twelve pounds these proportions may
be doubled ; for one of eighteen, trebled ; and
for one of twenty-four, quadrupled. Although
these proportions for powder be correct, yet
the experience of shooters shows that a certain
diminution of the quantity of shot should be
made for each kind of gun now mentioned.
The commonly received regulations are the
following : — The sixth part of an ounce of
powder for a single percussion-gun, and the
seventh for a double. The weight of shot for
an ordinary piece of this kind may be one ounce
and three-quarters ; a much heavier gun will
bear one ounce and seven-eighths. For a
double gun an ounce and three-eighths may be
used for the left barrel, and for the other an
ounce and five-eighths. Many sportsmen load
the left barrel with less shot than the right,
which has to be fired at a greater distance than
the first. A young sportsman, commencing to
524

make experiments on the gun he is about to
use in the field, should begin with small quan-
tities of powder and shot, notice the effect*
produced by an increase, and endeavour to
ascertain, with the most scrupulous care and
nicety, the exact proportions which are best
calculated for the make and calibre of his
piece. All written rules only serve as general
landmarks or finger-posts to direct the way to
set out on the journey, but cannot supply the
place of well-regulated experiments and accu-
rate observations. It may be remarked, as a
leading maxim in game-shooting, that heavy
loading does not facilitate the sportsman's
success. If too much shot be put into a gun,
the expansive force by which the charge is
thrown out will be disregarded, and, in conse-
quence, both its range and propulsive power
will be diminished ; if, on the other hand, too
much powder be used, it may be ejected, or at
least disturbed, before it acts on the mass of
shot. Such are the results of experience.

In loading a double-barrelled gun, the ram-
rod should not be put down one barrel whilst
the other is being loaded ; because, if a stray
grain of shot gets down, it may be so fixed by
the ramrod in the barrel, as not to be got out
without difficulty ; and it may even injure the
internal coating of the barrel. After the fired
barrel has been re-charged, the piece should be
slightly shaken, so that it may be ascertained
whether the shot in the right-hand barrel has-
been removed. If there is heard any vibra-
tion of the shot against the sides of the barrel,
then the charge must be more firmly rammed
down. The slightest vibration will detect the
loosened shot.

Mr. Greener, a gentleman of great expe-
rience of the gun, says, in reference to the
proper charge — " Suppose you begin with two
drachms, and vary the charge one-eighth of a
drachm each shot up to three-and-a-half
drachms, or, as may be required, according to
the length and bore of the gun, and, for pre-
cision, taking three sliots for each charge, at a
sufficient number of sheets of paper; which-
ever you find strongest, with the least quan-
tity of powder, that is the best charge, as very
likely the two additions of powder will shoot
equally strong, and yet not stronger, because
more of it remains uuburnt. Therefore the-
least quantity that shoots equally strong is tho-

1,0 A

PINO.]

B i' 1" 1 1 : L 1), \v o u D, A .\ 1) w A r !•: r.

[I'K.Vt TISINQ.

proper chuiji^e, which having once ascertained,
uever chant^o tor any other person's phin. lu
respect to tlio proportion of shot, all guns,
according to tlicir boro and length, will shoot
a certain weight and a certain size of »liot
best. A great deal of shot in a small bore, lies
too far up tlio barrel, and creates an unneces-
Biirv friction ; and tho shot, by the coinpres-
biou at tho nionu'nt of expulsion, becomes
all shapes — a circumstance which considerably
aflccts and modifies its flight. If too great a
weight, the powder has not power to drive it
with the speed and force required to be efllca-
cious, because the weight is too great iu pro-
portion. Those who reason from mathemati-
cal calculation will object to this doctrine.
They say, the greater the weight the greater
the effect, ^o doubt it is so, if thrown with
a proportionate force ; but that cannot be ob-
tained with a small gun. "We must adapt the
weight of projectile force to the power we are
in possession of; and from experiments, accu-
rately made and recorded, we find that a four-
teen gauge, two-feet-eight barrel, should never
be loaded with above an ounce and a-half of
ehot (No. G will suit best), and tho utmost
powder she will burn. A fifteen gauge will
not require more than one ounce and a quar-
ter ; and no doubt No. 7 would be thrown by
her quite as stro ug as No. 6 by the fourteen-
gauge gun, and do as much execution at forty
yards with less recoil ; and, setting aside all
other reasons, we should prefer a fifteen-gauge
gun, if both be of a length, as we should find
as much execution at the same distance as
with the other."

As we have already observed, however, ex-
perience is the best teacher. That, and that
alone, is the only true and safe director in the
use of the gun.

To shoot a bird when on the wing is a feat
requiring great practice, and one which it is
sometimes very difficult to accomplish. Some-
times men are, themselves, not always in proper
trim for shooting. "We remember being out
on one occasion, on the borders of Perthshire,
for a whole day, with a good shot, and, although
birds were not plenty, they were not scarce ;
yet we only killed a couple of brace. On other
occasions the same shot was often most deadly.
But there are all manner of grades of ex-
cellence in shooting ; some will feel a degree

of self-complacency if thoy hit ouo bird in ten ;
while others will only miss ono out of aa
equal number. A good deal of tho proficiency
in shooting birds on tho wing may bo referred
to bodily temperament ; some persons aro so
nervously constituted, and so hurried in their
movements, that they never attain to tho de-
gree of coolness and self-possession requisite
for a good and steady marksman. A nervous
anxiety shakes their system too violently, and
they fire without obtaining any decided aim
whatever. Tho real foundation of the art of
shooting flying will be found to be in the sym-
pathy which exists between the eye and t!ie
hand, the sight and the touch, and the power
of so combining, as it were, the sections of the
two senses, that, in their united action, they
seem to be the efi'ect of one. The art of mea-
suring distances, and directing objects to a
definite mark, are learned by degrees ; and so
readily is this effected, that very often the best
shots are totally unconscious of the internal
process which is continually going on in their
understandings, when in pursuit of their game.
Some sportsmen shoot with one eye shut,
others with both open. There is no rule on
this matter; it is entirely resolvable into early
training and habit iu shooting flying. The
great desideratum iu all failures is a want of
coolness ; still, many writers say that coolness
may exist in excess, and that many birds are
lost from the fingers being too slow in their
movements after the game is on the wing.

It is good to go through the entire manual
training of shooting. To obtain a mastery iu
this fine art, it is best to begin at the
beginning. When we commence to be taught
the art of writing, we begin with strokes, and
go on progressing, until we have, with practice,
completely mastered the art of the caligraphist.
So, with learning to shoot, we should com-
mence in such a manner as will gradually lead
us to the attainment of the end in the highest
possible degree. With this point in view, tho
following plan has been recommended : — Let
the handling and the shouldering of the gun
be expertly acquired, in its unloaded state,
taking care to look at the heiglit, length of
arm, and the inclination of the shoulder of the
pupil. This handling of the fowling-piece
should be practised for an hour or two for some
days, until complete familiarity with all the

525

PEACTISING.j

SHOOTING,

[fiuixg.

required movements is obtained. Expertuess
in rising or depressing the gun to every kind
of level, and taking aim at various objects,
should be acquired. Holding the gun firm to
the shoulder is a great essential ; for anything
like looseness and unsteadiness in this par-
ticular is entirely incompatible witli the art of
shootinjr flvins:. The left hand should also be
placed close, or nearly close, to the trigger —
an act which, in a great measure, secures any
injury from the bursting of the piece. This
precautionary rule is, however, neglected by a
vast number of able and expert shooters, who
h;ive perfect confidence in their guns ; and
who maintain, that by placing the hand a little
forward, it prevents the piece from being point-
heavy, which is apt to cause an unpleasant
feeling.

After this initiation has been fairly passed
tlirough, the fields should be entered for the
purpose of practising at living objects, lairing at
martens aiid swallows has been recommended;
but others do not think this to be the best
means of acquiring the power of good fly-
ing shooting. The movements of these birds
are altogether difl^erent from those which dis-
tinguish game of all kinds. Sparrows having
been entrapped, and pieces of paper put round
their neck, and then let oft", make very good
marks. Learu the art of keeping both eyes
open. This is, with some, an extremely diffi-
cult matter to attain, as young lads are often
from infancy accustomed to take aim only with
one eye — the right one. These early habits
are sometimes so powerful, that it is almost
liopeless to expect their relinquishment in after
life. " If the young shooter begins to shoot
with both eyes open," says Colonel Hawker,
" he will save himself the trouble of learning
to shoot so afterwards. An aim thus from
the right shoulder, comes to the same point as
one taken with the left eye shut, and it is the
most ready method of shooting quicJcy Celerity
of motion should be learned ; but the happy
medium between snap-shot and dead-shot
should be considered the principal point, and
sedulously studied.

A steady and decisive jQode of walking and
standing is another point requiring great at-
tention in the shooter. An indecisive gait, and
ever\ thing indicating the slightest degree of
hurry or trepidation, are inimical to successful
526

sport. It is said that a firm placing of the
limbs greatly assists the arms in readily and
gracefully elevating and presenting the fowl-
ing-piece. In the regular ranks of the
soldiery, we never witness anything like trepi-
dation. There, every movement is performed
with the utmost coolness and precision ; and
the same should be observed by the sportsman
in the field. The gun should be carried with
the barrel upwards, and sloped towards the
left arm, the lock being clasped by the hand
of that side, the fingers embracing tlie stock,
which allows the arm, tliough supporting the
gun, to do it with readiness and ease, and to
be placed with facility within the grasp of the
hand previous to the designed elevation. The
points are, " to carry the gun with the cock
inwards, and down, and the side of the stock
imbedded against the inside of your left arm,
taking an easy position, considerably below the
chest."

" In the acts of cocking," says the clever
author of the Kunoposdia, " let your fore-finger
quit the front of the trigger, and, extending
itself sloping forward through the guard, only
feel the side of it with a gentle pressure.
Your body, by this action of throwing out the
butt, combined with the step-out of the left
leg in taking form, will be brought with its
weight principally upon that limb ; a position
assumed as more immediately called for, when
the flight is nearly in a line from you, or to
the left, which will comprise four out of five
of all your shots." Again, when the word
Present ■' is used audibly or mentally, let tho
barrel, at the moment, inclined over the left
shoulder, be swept in a circle forwards with a
smart motion, the fore-finger of the right hand
(sloping, as we have before placed it through
the guard, and clear of the front of the trigger)
being, as it were, the centre of motion upon
which the gun turns during the sweep ; by
which action the butt should be raised nearly
to its full height, and then brought back with
something of a thump into its place within the
slioulder, whilst, at the same time, an increas-
ing grasp with the left hand, which till now
has kept its hold rather loosely, combines with
that of tlie right hand upon the gripe of the
stock, to keep it firmly there. The direction
of the barrel to the mark, or what may be
termed the line of level, to be taken, in the first

n

itijrcj.]

IJV FIHLI), WOOD, AM) W A T H R.

[riiu.va

instance, a little below that which, ns already
dniwn by tlie eye to the object, wo may dis-
tin"uisli by tho imino of the linfi of s'njht.
The latter should bo lirir rfiul immovable ; to
which a preciao udjusLii'vnt of the line of level
must tiiially bo made by an easy llexure of tho
upper part of tho body altogether, but without
any looscniiig or twisting of tho butt from its
firm hold within tho shoulder ; ami on tho in-
staut that you get these two lines in contact,
or, in other words, at the moment that you
bring the muzzle of your gun from your lirst
level below, bear direct upon tho object.

In all these directions, examples, or illustra-
tions of them, should be given by the expe-
rienced shooter, when the eye of tho pupil
would far more readily embrace their scope,
and the understanding comprehend their appli-
cation much easier than by any other mode of
tuition. Hence, if the tyro can be taken to the
field in company with a tried hand, or, in other
words, a practical sportsman, he will much
sooner attain a mastery over his gun, than he
will be able to do if he pursues his sport
entirely alone, and depending for success only
on the necessarily tardy progress of his own
experience.. However acute may be his un-
assisted perceptions, his progress will still be
comparatively slow ; therefore, he sliould en-
deavour to court the experience of another,
who is an adept in his art, and who, generally
speaking, will afford him all the assistance
that lies in his power. There is this charac-
teristic of sportsmen — that they are rarely
niggardly in giving instruction in tlie use of
the arm in which they take such delight them-
selves. Their opinions, too, no matter how
widely they may differ, are always more or
less valuable. They are so much added to the
general stock of experience, and afford to the
tyro the greater variety to choose from. His
own practice must confirm him in the use of
the one or the other ; and, no doubt, he will
act upon the one which, in his judgment,
appears the best. In giving his directions to
the tyro, Colonel Hawker thus writes, in
reference to the movements of the gun : —

" Before an object crossing — full high for a
oird rising up, or flying away very low, and
between the ears of liares and rabbits running
straight away ; all this, of course, in propor-
tion to the distance ; and if we consider the

velocity with which a bird flies, we shall rarely
err by firing at tho crosHing bird, when
at furty yards, at least five or six inches
before it. A a tho barrels of double guns
usually shoot a little inwards at long dis-
tances, there is, so far, a preference in fav.mr
of tho right barrel for an object crossing to tho
left, and vice versa,; so that, if we were beating
along tho sides of a hedge, it would bo beat to
keep the barrel next to it in a state of pre-
paration. Till the pupil is fully master of all
this, he will find great assistance from the
sight, which he should have precisely on tlie
intended point when he fires ; he will thus, by
degrees, attain the art of killing game in good
stylo, which is done by fixing his eyes on tho
object, and firing tho moment he has brought up
the gun. He may then, ultimately, acquire the
knack of killing snap-shots, and bring down a
November bird the moment he tops the
stubble, or a rabbit popping in a furze-brake,
with more certainty than he once used to shoot
a young grouse in August^ or a partridge in
September."

To young sportsmen, the Ecv. B. Sy-
monds says — " When a bird gets up he is
certain he cannot kill it (we must premise
that his gun is uncharged), therefore he can
wait until lie gets the bird at the end of
his gun. He must never draw unless posi-
tive of seeing the bird in that very point of
situation. Let it go ; every fresh spring of
the bird will make the sportsman more com-
posed ; and, as tho tremor wears off, he will
grow more uniform in his manner of getting
to it, till, at last, he will cover it almost to a
certainty, or very near the same distance.
Let him accustom himself not to take his gun
from his arm till the bird is on the wing, and
never to vary his eye from tho very one he
first fixed upon. Three words should be men-
tally used, with a pause between, before he
puts his piece to his shoulder; this will keep
him, as it were, in awe of himself; and as
there is no charm in any particular combina-
tion of letters at this time. Hold! Hall!
Kow ! may serve as well as any. A day thus
spent, he may put some powder in the pan,
and flash away in that manner ; the next, pur-
suing the former direction, till he can stare
with steadiness, and pull with a wink. Tho
day following, load with powder only ; and he

027

FIEINQ.]

SHOOTING,

[precat:tions.

should continue this lesson two or three days,
more or less, till he is as calm as if the leather
was still in the chaps. Now the grand and last
trial— complete loading. If he feels any
flutter or anxiety on his advance to the point,
let him draw his shot at once ; nay, powder
also, before he goes up to his dog, and repeat
this, toties quoties, till he has whipped himself
into good temper, and disappointed himself
into the accomplishment of his wishes. In
cross-shooting, if a bird goes to the left, step
forward with the right foot ; and the contrary,
if to the right hand. This removes at once
the complaint often made, of not killing one
way so well as the other. Shoot at the head
iu every direction, if possible ; and there can-
'jiot be any necessity for greater allowance.
In elevation, let the front of the guard be a
stop for the gripe of the left hand ; in which
situation, if the barrel should burst, it will not
be so liable to be injured ; and the thumb
being erect, an avenue is artificially made by
means of its corresponding with the cock nail,
tliat gives great direction to the eye. The
moment that the eye, in conjunction with the
muzzle of the gun, bears upon the object
aimed at, fire ; for when the eye bears too
long on the object, the sight becomes weak-
ened, whilst the object itself is extending the
distance between itself and the shooter."

One of the standing topics of discussion
among sportsmen, is the average distance of a
fair shot. Much has been said and written
upon this question ; and, like all questions
upon which much is both said and Wiritten, it
has become as hazy in some minds as a Scotch
atmosphere in the month of November. Forty
yards is, however, pretty generally allowed to
be a fair average shot; but there are m.any
who kill at almost double that distance. The
subject, however, is not susceptible of any de-
termined solution. Most sportsmen know,
with tolerable accuracy, what can, and what
cannot be done by their fowling-pieces.

A code of laws for the government of par-
ties shooting in company, has been framed, in
order to determine what is right and what is
wrong practice in the field. In this code, all
birds that cross, are to be considered as be-
/Ongiug to the gunner to whose side their
heads are pomted, unless a previous under-
standing was come to, that either party may
528

take an after-shot at a tailing bird. When
single birds rise and go away fair for either
party, it may be proper to have it previously
understood that such should be taken alter-
nately by each shooter.

Precautionary oiservations are commonly
appended to all formal treatises on the gun.
These are frequently of great value; yet they are
often disregarded ; and to the volume of acci-
dents which have already talcen place, through
carelessness, an additional sheet is every season
appended. Even this, however, is far from
being a complete record of all that happens,
whilst some of them are of the most painful
description. The habit should be formed to
attend to certain minute matters ; when this
is acquired, it becomes second nature, and
affords a firm confidence in the mind of the
sportsman himself, as well as in that of his
friend.

In reference to the mode of carrying a gun,
Mr. Daniel is especially particular. He says,
" Always hold the gun with the left hand,
close to the guard, and not forward upon the
barrel, but strongly grasp it near the entrance
of the ramrod, which has been very frequently
strenuously recommended. All the requisite
steadiness in taking aim, and even of motion,
in traversing the flight of a bird, can be ob-
tained by thus holding the heaviest pieces;
and, in case of a barrel's bursting, the cer-
tainty of having a hand or arm shattered, by
grasping the barrel, is reduced to a certainty
of escaping some of the eff'ects of such an
accident, by placing the hand close to the
guard beneath it. "With double guns a danger
arises, from the shooter, after fii-ing but one
barrel, often setting the butt of the gun upou
the ground. A sense of self-preservation will
soon render it habitual not to do this ; and a
man who is so absent, or eager, as to disregard
this precaution, had better confine himself to
carrying a cane, instead of a gun."

The following remarks are worthy of the
sportsman's attention: —

1st. If you or your dog should at any time get a
severe blow, instantly foment the wounded part for
at least half-an-hour with warm water, as hot as can
be borne, and you will thereby greatly reduce your
sufferings, and also the time you will be kept from
your sport. . ,

2nd. If you burn yourself m shootmg, wrap the
part affected immediately in cotton, the application

yaEOAUTioxs.]

BY IIKLI), WOOD, AM) WATHR.

[l'UECAUTI05S.

of which, like magic, in ameliorating the effects of a

burn.

3ril. K you sliouUl take colil, antl tho infl:imma-
torv process becomes rapii'., batlio your feel in wnnn
water, as hot ns you can bear it; if a little suit or
bran, or both, be atUleil. so much the better. Get
into a warm bed. and take some whey, or whatever
can be j:ot to promole perspiration.

4th. Never fast too lonj;. and avoid anything ap-
proAchini: to excessive fiiti<,'ue.

5th. Ntvcr },'o out with a stomacli quite empty, to
wail for },Mtne of any kind, particularly in the morn-
ing. Should you wish to rise early, before any of
ihe household are up, you can have a little crust of
bread or a biscuit, w ith a glass of milk, left for you
the night before. This may be taken with a little
sugar, nutmeg, ginger, and the yolk of an e^g.
Tnese items are superior to what is called tiie
"Doctor" (rum and milk), because you then dis-
•)ense with taking sjiirit in the morning— a habit
that should always be avoided, except you are sport-
ing in a country where ague is prevalent. In this
case a little spirit is advantageous.

6th. Never sit down with wet feet, nor with wet
clothes on any part of your body. If a change
cannot be procured, keep walking about; or, what
is better, go to bed, till some dry clothes can be
procured ; or. if you want to start again, after tak-
ing refreshment, 'first wet your feet with spirit or
essence of mustard, and then be as quick as possible
in taking your refreshments. Many take the spirit
internally,' instead of applying it to the feet; but this
is invariably bad. Nothing produces chilly and damp
kind of feelings readier than spirit taken internally
under such circumstances. To keep the frame warm,
dry, and comfortable, is the surest plan of increas-
ing your sporting pleasures, and of rendering them
really conducive to health.

If all sportsmen were aware of the care which
some artists take of not introducing a false hue
or shade into their drawings and paintings;
or if they saw the care with which good authors
criticise their writings, and substitute one word
for another, they would surely be much more
careful in a matter of infinitely more conse-
quence to themselves. In other words, they
would be extremely anxious in looking after all
that relates to the use of the gun. "When a
keeper of the Earl of Chesterfield was prepar-
ing for the field, in January, 1TS9, and stoop-
ing to buckle on his spur, as be sat with his
gun resting on his knee, and the muzzle close
to his cheek, it seemed improbable that a part
of the lock should break at that particular point
of time; but his instantaneous death was the
terrible efi;ectof liis not having guarded against
what was possible. The muzzle of the gun
pointing obliquely upwards, and between the
left elbow and left cheek, if the piece fires ever
3t

80 often by accident, can never do harm ; and,
from this position, it njay bu pre.sentod witli
more ease, expedition, and correctnoaa, thau
from any other. Beware of the niuzzlo of tho
gun being kept hanging downwards: wlien so
carried, tho shot is apt to force its way from tho
powder, especially in clean barrels. If it hap-
pens that a space of sixteen or eighteen inches
is thus obtained, and tho gun fired with its
point at all inclined downwards, it is ten to ono
but tiie barrel bursts. There are other peri-
lous consequences besides tho disruption of
the barrel ; for men, horses, and dogs, are in
perpetual danger of being shot wlien a gun is
carried in the before-mentioned pendent man-
ner. In sliooting with a stranger, who, per-
haps, keeps his gun cocked, and the muzzle
usually pointed to the left, plead for the riglit-
hand station, and urge that you cannot hit a
bird flying to the left. "With a game-keeper,
take the right hand without ceremony. In
getting over a fence, endeavour to go last, not-
withstanding tho usual assurance of, " My dear
sir, I am always remarkably careful ;" and, if
a person beats bushes with a cocked gun, get
out of liis company as a shooter, with all pos-
sible expedition. Eecollect, both in the house
and in the field, always to consider a gun as
loaded, and never suffer it to be pointed, for a
moment, towards any human being.

Before entering upon tho amusement of
shooting, we will explain some of the terms
used by sportsmen, and with which fowlers
only are supposed to be acquainted. The fol-
lowing are the principal plirases : — A sege of
herons and bitterns; a herd of swans, of
cranes, and of curlews; a depping of shel-
drakes ; a covert of coots ; a spring of teals ; a
gagqle of geese ; a sord, or side, of mallards ;
a iadelynge of ducks ; a levy of quails ; ti
muster of peacocks ; a nije, or nide of pheasants;
a covey of partridges ; a tvnlk of snipes ; a con-
gregation of plovers ; a luilding of rooks ; a/«//
of woodcocks ; a Irood of hens ; a murmuration
of starlings , a JUght of swallows ; a host of
sparrows ; a charm of goldfinches ; and a watch
of nightingales.

Having now initiated tho young sportsman
into all that is necessary for the successful
pursuit of his art, we will, in our next chapter,
enter into the mysteries of Grouse Shooting.

529

WHAT QEOITSE AEE.]

SHOOTING,

[■WOOD GE0U3B.

CHAPTER IV.

GEOTJSE SHOOTING. — WHAT GROUSE AEE ; WOOD GKOrSE, OR CAPERCALLIE ; BLACK GROUSE; RED
GROUSE; PTARMIGAN; LOCALITIES OF GROUSE.

Having now treated of all that we deem the
most essential matters to be attended to as
the preliminaries to the actual sport of shoot-
ing, and having given such instructions as
cannot fail to be serviceable to those who are
desirous of entering the field as sportsmen,
and of becoming what are usually called
**good shots," we will now enter upon the
actual practice of shooting itself ; introducing
the reader to the different sorts of game which
have the magnetic power of attracting the
lover of the gun from the mansion to the
moor, where, under the influence of fair or
foul weather, he is still an enthusiast in the
pursuit of his sport. In the sense in which
we have just used the word game, of course the
reader will understand that we mean it to be
applied only to such animals as are usually con-
sidered so in this country ; or, in other words,
to such birds and beasts as come under the
protection of the game-laws. Such animals as
lions, tigers, and elephants, may be accounted
game in the eyes of the Indian sportsmen ;
but as these monsters of the woods and wilds
of the tropics have neither home nor habita-
tion in the moors and manors of Scotland and
England, we shall have no occasion to make
any observations on the best manner of shoot-
ing them. Our province lies within tlie boun-
daries of our own island; and it is to its
feathered and furred wild inhabitants that our
remarks will be confined.

WHAT GROUSE ARE.
Sir William Jardine informs us, in his
Naturalises Library, vol. iv., that, "by the
word Grouse, we, in general language, are apt
to associate our ideas with the common moor-
fowl. But, in the technical terms of ornitholoerv
the generic name, Grouse and Tetrao, is re-
stricted to those bearing the form of the Euro-
pean wood grouse, dusky grouse of America,
&c. They are the largest birds of the family ;
of a very round and powerful form, and fre-
530

quent healthy forests in preference to the
wild and open moor; perch and often roost
upon trees, where young shoots and tender
bark supply them with food ; and although the
legs are plumed with short feathers, the toes
are naked. The tail is composed of broad
feathers, and is proportionably long and
rounded. They are mostly polygamous, and
the females and young differ considerably from
the males ; the plumage of the former being
shades of brown and tawny, with black bars
and markings ; the colours of the latter dis-
tributed in broad masses of black, glossy
green, or steel-blue, and deep brown. They
inhabit North America and Europe; those of
the latter country extending into Northern
Asia."

THE WOOD GROUSE, OR CAPERCALLIE.

The looocl grouse (Capercallie, cock-of-the-
wood, or giant grouse) is polygamous, and, when
incubation begins, the male selects a situation
remarkable for its couspicuousness ; and here
he commences his call which attracts the
females, and which he accompanies by throw-
ing himself into various attitudes. This call
is described as resembling the word jjeller,
peller, peller, which is answered by the females
croaking somewhat like ravens, and rapidly
assembling from all parts of the surrounding
woods. When this gathering has become
sufficiently numerous, the male descends from
his eminence, introduces himself, and joins
the company. His gallantry, however, soon
ceases, and his loves do not seem to partake
of that romantic or inextinguishable nature
which we have known to be exhibited in the
history of higher races. When his females
commence incubation, be abandons them,
and skulks among the brushwood, where he
renews his plumage, and leaves his wives to
hatch, and rear their progeny as tliey best can.
He stands at the head of feathered game in
these islands, but he is very seldom to be

WOOD oaorsE.]

HV FIKLI), WOOD, A.N D WATKK.

[ULACK UUOL'8£.

met with. From authentic accounts, it ap-
pears ho onco abounilt'il in the foroats of both
Sootland and Ireland. Bewick describes him
thus : — " 1I»3 is as Iar;:;o as a turkey, and is
about two feet nine inciies in Icnj^tli, and
wei^'hs from twelve to fifteen pounds. Tho
bill is very strong, convex, and of a horny
colour; over each eye there is a naked skin of
a bri|»ht red colour; the eyes are hazel, the
nostrils are small, aiul almost hid under a
covering of short featliers, which extend under
the throat, and are there much longer than tho
rest, and of a black colour; the head and neck
are elegantly marked with small transverse
lines of black and grey, as are also the back
and wings, but more irregularly ; the breast is
black, richly glossed with green on the upper
part, and mixed with a few white feathers on
the belly and thighs ; the sides are marked
like the neck ; the tail consists of eighteen
feathers, which are black ; those on the sides
are marked with a few white spots ; the legs are
very stout, and covered with brown feathers ;
the toes are furnished on each side with a
strong pectinated membrane. The female is
considerably less than the male, and differs
greatly in her colours : the throat is red ; the
transverse bars on tlie head, neck, and back,
are red and black ; the breast is of a pale
orange colour; belly barred with orange and
black ; the top of each feather is white ; the
back and wings are mottled with reddish
brown and black ; the scapulars tipped witli
white ; the tail is of a deep rust colour, barred
with black, and tipped with white."

The pairing season of these birds commences
about the spring, the sexes having assembled
together in packs, during the winter, of fifty or
a hundred in number. When the pairing has
been effected, the female makes a rude kind of
nest ; she lays from eight to sixteen eggs. The
young, like farm-yard fowls, are active, and can
run along as soon as they leave the shell ; and
it is even said that they have frequently been
seen looking afler their living, with part of that
appendage hanging to them.

These birds are now rare in this country ;
but, in some parts of the continent, particularly
in Sweden, they form an important item in
the game-list. They are commonly, in this
country, flushed from the ground in autumn,
when they are feeding on a species of berry,

I of which they are pnssionatoly fond. Their
(ligiits are but very short; and if there are any
trees in tho way they usually alight upon tho
branches. In tho forest, capereuliies do nut
always present an easy mark; for, di|»piiig dowu
from the pines nearly to the ground, uu fre-
quently is tho case, they are often almost out of
distance before an aim can be properly taken.
No. 1 or 2 shot may answer wry well, at
short range, to kill the hens; but, for tho
cocks, the sportsman should bo provided with
iimeh larger. Towards the commencement,
and during the continuance of the winter, tho
capercallies aro generally in packs; these,
which arc usually composed wholly of cocks
(the hens keeping apart), do not separate until
the approach of spring. These packs, which
are said to comprise fifty or a hundred birds,
usually keep to the sides of the numerous
lakes and morasses, with which the northern
forests abound ; and to stalk the same in the
winter-time with a good rifle, is no ignoble
amusement.

There have been various attempts made to
re-introduce these birds into Great Britain.
The late Mr. Fowell Buxton, and the Earl of
Breadalbaue, spared neither money nor care
to have them reared in this country. But the
success attendant on their anxiety has not
been great.

THE BLACK GROUSE.

The Block Grouse (Tefrao Tetrix, Linn.) is
a noble-looking bird, and is commonly desig-
nated the Blackcock, and the female the Grey-
licn. According to Mr. Daniel, the male bird
is from one foot ten inches to two feet in
length ; but some specimens have exceeded
this by three inches. Tiie breadth is about
two feet nine inches. The ordinary weight is
nearly four pounds ; but some stray birds in
the moors of Cumberland, have gone beyond
this by half a pound and more. The bill is of a
dusky blaek ; the eyes dark blue, below each of
which there is a spot of a dingy white colour,
and, above the larger, one of a bright scarlet.
The plumage of the whole bird is very im-
posing. It is of a shining bluish black, and
very glossy over the neck and rump. The
coverts of the wings are of a sort of dull
brown ; the greater are white, which runs along
to the ridge of the wings, forming a spot of

531

BLACK GROUSE. J

SHOOTING,

[black GmOTJSE.

that colour upon the shoulder when the wing
is closed. The quills are brown ; the lower
parts and tips of the secondary ones are white,
and make a bar of white across the wing.
There is likewise a spot of white upon the
bastard wing. The legs and thighs are tole-
rably thickly covered with dark brown feathers,
mottled with white. The toes are toothed on
the edges, like those of the capercallie. The
tail is much forked, and consists of sixteen
black feathers ; the end of the outer feather,
which curves outwardly, seems as if separated
or cut off. The feathers under the tail, and
the inner covers of the wings, are of a pure
white. The female bird is considerably less
than the male ; having a length only of one
foot six inches, and a breadth of two feet six
inches. Its weight averages about two pounds.
Like the male bird it has a dusk}^ mark beneath
the eye. The head and neck are marked alter-
nately with bars or stripes of dull red and
black ; and the breast has a dusky white and
black appearance. The coverts of the wings,
the back, and the tail, are of the same colour
as the neck, with the exception of the red
being of a deeper hue. The inner webs of the'
quill feathers are spotted with black and white.
The inner coverts of the wings are white, and
there is a white spot on the shoulder of both
the male and female birds. In the latter, the
tail is slightly forked, and it consists of
eighteen feathers richly variegated with red
and black. Under the tail the feathers are
white, marked with a few bars of black and
orange. The nest on the ground is of the
most simple and artless kind. The female
lays from six to eight eggs, which are of a dull
yellowish-white colour, marked with a number
of very small ferruginous specks, and, towards
the smaller end, with some blotches of the
same hue. They are hatched late in the
summer. The young males quit their mother
in the beginning of the winter, and keep in
flocks of seven or eight until spring. During
that period they frequent the woods. In their
first feather they resemble their mother, and
do not acquire their full plumage till near the
end of autumn, when it gradually changes,
and assumes that bluish-black colour which it
afterwards retains.

The black grouse, like other members of the
family, are polygamous ; and in January,
532

Febrixary, and March, the plumage of the male
bird assumes a rich glossy steel blue, which,
with his majestic form, imparts to him a very
imposing appearance. At the beginning of
spring, when the severity of winter has passed,
the males, after feeding, may be seen congre-
gated together on some turf-furze, sheep-fold,
or rude paling, pluming their wings, and prac-
tising various devices to attract the notice of
the female. "Here," says Sir William Jar-
dine, " after, perhaps, many battles have been
fouglit, and rivals vanquished, the noble, full-
dressed blackcock takes his stand, commenc-
ing at first dawn ; and where the game is
abundant, the hills, on every side, repeat the
murmuring call, almost before the utterers can
be distinguished. The cocks strut around the
spot selected, trailing their wings, inflating
the throat and neck, raising and expanding
their tails, and pufiing up the plumage of
those parts, and the now brilliant wattle above
the eyes, displaying the beautifully contrast-
ing white under-covers, and imitating, as it
were, the attitudes of the little turkey-cock.
He is soon heard by the females, who crowd
round their lord and master." After incuba-
tion is fairly commenced, this fighting among
the males is at an end. When the young are
hatched, the mother guides them to some high
situation where there is plenty of shelter from,
long grass and luxuriant herbage, and where
an abundance of food can readily be obtained.
This consists, in summer, of the seeds of the
cranberry, crowberry, and blackberry, &c.; and
in the winter, of fir shoots, and the catkins of
hazel and birch, which impart to their flesh a
peculiar flavour, well known to epicures.

The black grouse are to be found in many
districts of England — on Leith Hill, Ashdowu
in St. Leonard's, and in the New and the
Bere forests. They likewise abound on the
estates of the Marquis of Auglesea, at Beau
Dessert, Staffordshire, Barnstable, Devonshire ;
and in many of the moor districts of Northum-
berland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland,
and Yorkshire.

The shooting of the black grouse does not
commence till the Ist of September ; and they
are esteemed as royal game. They are generally
considered as shy birds ; but those who are
acquainted with their haunts, find no great
difficulty in reaching them. They are partial

nED OROrSE.]

r>Y yiELH, WOOD, AND WATKK.

[red grouse.

to long ling and roughish cop30-wood. Under
the bank of a deep ravine, particularly in mid-
day, and if tliero bo a cold wind blowing, they
w ill bo readily found. The young aro compara-
tivelv tamo till they have moulted; and the
eporUnian has often almost to hick them out
from among low thick brushwood. After they
have donned their new coat of feathers, they
seem to increase in wisdom and cunning ; and
frequently bid delianco to the art of the shooter.

Black grouse require full-sized shot; and a
single is often preferred to a double-barrelled
gun. According to the strict laws of sporting,
it is not held good to kill the hen bird.

In Kussia these birds are numerous, and
they are captured by the use of decoys. Huts,
full of loopholes, like little forts, are built pur-
posely in the woods. Decoy birds are placed
at a short distance from these spots. These
are mere artificial imitations, made of black
cloth. As the grouse assemble, the shooters
fire through the openings ; and if they succeed
in keeping themselves out of sight, the birds
are not frightened by the mere report of the
gun. In this way large numbers are killed.
During the winter season, in Siberia, the in-
habitauts capture them in the following man-
ner:— A certain number of poles are laid hori-
zoutally on forked sticks, in the open forests
of birch ; small branches of corn are fixed to
them by way of a lure ; and, at a short dis-
tance, certain tall baskets, of a conical shape,
are placed with the broadest part uppermost :
just within the mouth of the basket a small
wheel is put, through which passes an axis so
nicely fixed as to admit it to play very readily,
and, on the least touch, either on one side or
the other, to drop down and again recover its
position. The birds are soon attracted by the
corn on the horizontal poles ; and, after alight-
ing upon thera, and feeding, they ily to the
baskets, and attempt to settle on their tops,
when the wheel drops sideways, and they fall
headlong into the snare.

THE RED GROUSE,
The lied Grouse {Tctras Scoiicus, Linn.)
has the same noble bearing characteristic of his
other congeners, and is, in the northern parts
of Great Britain, the bird that gives the most
shooting of the Grouse family. Its length is
about fifteen inches, and it weighs about nine-

teen ounces. The bill is black, the eyes hazel,

and the nostrils shaded with small red ami
black feathers. At tho base of the lower bill
there is a white spot on each side. The throat
is red, and each eyo is arched witii a largo
naked spot. Tho body is beautifully mottled
with red and black feathers, and has a tortoise-
shell appearance. Tlie breast and belly aro of
a purple hue, and crossed with small dusky
lines. Tho tail consists of sixteen feathers, of
equal lengths ; and tho four middlemost aro
barred with red, and tho others are black. Tho
quills aro of a dusky colour, and the legs aro
clothed with soft white feathers down to the
very claws, which aro of a strong texture, and
of a light-brown colour. Tho female is a little
less than the male. The naked skin abovo
each eye is not so conspicuous, and the colours
of its plumage, in general, are much lighter
than those of the male.

This species of grouse pair in the spring,
and lay from five to ten eggs, and occasionally,
but not often, twelve. Sometimes these aro
found on the bare ground, and sometimes on a
rude kind of nest, composed of a little heather
and moss. This is generally placed iu a some-
what sheltered and secluded situation. Both
male and female birds attend to the young,
and guard them with all the vigilance of which
they are possessed, against their numerous
enemies, in the shape of vermin, and birds of
prey. The young, or poulis, follow the mother
the entire summer, in tho same manner as
partridges do ; nor is the male bird neglectful iu
watching over the welfare of the brood, although
he generally keeps alone, and remains somo
distance from them. The practice of burning
the ling is often very destructive to eggs of
the grouse ; and thousands are annually de-
stroyed in this way.

The habits of red grouse are not of so wild
a nature as are those of others of the same
family. Birds of this kind have occasionally
been entirely tamed. A gentleman in Ireland
had, for several seasons, two brace of birds, so
domesticated, that he used to take them into
his parlour, where they played with his setter
dogs. They are often found descending from
the moors, and locating in the vicinity of corn-
fields, and sheltering themselves among the
stubble, both of barley and oats. In severe
winters, when pressed for food, they will leave

533

EED GEOUSE.]

SHOOTING,

[bed GEOUSE.

the hills and visit the cultivated grounds, and
•will even, sometimes, be found perched on the
tops of the labourers' dwellings.

A bird of this kind ought to be a favourite
with maulvind — a favourite, we mean, apart
from any gastronomical pleasures its flesh may
afibrd. In hunting him, " the light air of the
early morning," says Sir William Jardine,
" and the free, open, almost unbounded pros-
pect, exhilarate the spirits ; while the boldness
of the game upon discovery, erectly uttering
his cry of warning to his brood — his vigorous,
lengthened flight, so as to create doubts of his
being again seen — carry with them a continua-
tion of excitement long after it ia satiated
with following the skulking black game, or
the more rural one of waking-up partridges.
But, independent of this claim upon the
sportsman, it has another. The red grouse is
exclusively confined to the British Islands, and
has never been found in any part of the
continent; and it would be much regretted,
if unlimited persecution, or want of preserva-
tion, should, in after years, exterminate the
bird so exclusively natural."

The shooting of red grouse has been largely
handled by different writers ; and many minute
particulars, as well as contrary opinions, have
been laid before the public on the subject.

Mr. Daniel informs us, that in shooting red
grouse, the old English spaniel or setter is
better adapted to follow the gun than the
smooth pointer. The former has a better
nose, and bis feet are defended by long hair
from the chafing efiects of the ling, which, in
dry weather, cuts like wire. Setters, also,
have the advantage of being generally of
higher metal than pointers, and exhibit more
zeal, and more untiring courage. They re-
quire, however, a plentiful supply of water;
and this is sometimes a great drawback to
their use during the very hot months of August
and September. Some gentlemen well skilled
in grouse-shooting, take the pointer in pref-
erence to any other kind of dog; so that,
perhaps, upon the whole, there may be a fair
balance of advantages accorded to each kind.

Red grouse difter in numbers and in size,
according to the season. Wet, cold, un-
genial weather, not only retards the pairing of
the birds, but is likewise extremely prejudicial
to the hatching of the broods, which, in fine
531

sunny days, take great delight in revelling
in the luxury of a pure atmosphere. When
they emerge from the shell, they assume,
among sportsmen, the name of cheepers ; and
when they advance to a more stately size,
they are called poults. They are to be found
on their feeding-grounds, both morning and
evening ; but when disturbed, seek out some
favourite spot of shelter, chiefly in those sec-
tions of the moors which abound with long
ling and roughish brushwood.

The time of the year has considerable in-
fluence on the habits and movements of the
grouse. Frosty weather is favourable for their
capture, as they then seem very torpid and
lifeless. Wet and windy weather is not
favourable to the shooter. At such times the
birds leave the high grounds, and seek out
sheltered spots in some comparatively dry aud
secluded localities. Eed grouse generally be-
come very wild in the months of November
and December ; althougli, when the season is
favoui'able, some good days' sport may still be
obtained. The lower and sheltered grounds
are then the best places to find them ; for the
advancing season daily cuts off their resources
in food, and they are driven to seek provender
in lower and more cultivated grounds.

In rising, grouse almost take a perpen-
dicular direction, and then fly in a straight
line, at an elevation of ten or twelve yards.
The exact moment to fire, is when they are just
about to change from the perpendicular to
the rectilinear direction. There is a sort of
pause in their flight, which is favourable to
the sportsman, when he can avail himself of
this movement. But this requii'es a quick
eye, and a good deal of practice. When red
grouse begin to associate in large num-
bers, as they invariably do about the end of
October, or the first or second week in
November, they are approached with consider-
able difiiculty ; for they post sentinel birds
to keep a look out, and it is a mere chance
if you can get within a hundred and fifty
yards of them. When the weather, however,
becomes, and continues long cold, this wild-
ness is considerably abated, aud they often
show themselves as tame as barn-door fowls.

Colonel Hawker directs that, " for shooting
grouse, select a fine sunshiny day, from about
eight till five in August and September, aud

BED onorsE.]

B i F 1 !•: LI). WOO I), A X 1) W A T M Iv'.

ITAItMliiAN.

from eleven to three nt the later periods of
the season, as they are thou oxtrcmely wild,
and will only lie toU-rably during the lew
hours which are favoured by a warm sun.
I'nloss the weather is very line, you will see
t.iom runniii;;, and f^ftting up live hundred
v:\rda before you. In this case, let one person
take an immense circle, so as to head them;
while the other remains behind to press them
forward wlion he is ready; and, above all
things, you should, for killing tliem at this
time° use either No. 1, 2, or 3 shot, in the
largest single gun you can possibly manage ;
or, what is better, a good stout double gun,
with Ely's cartridges. Grouse take a harder
blow than partridges, and do not lly quite so
regular and steady."

Should a sportsman be solitarily engaged in
shooting red grouse, ho ought not to travel
far, but hunt the ground well. This not only
saves much fatigue, but often leads to success.
Birds do not generally take very extended
flights ; and if the ground should be irregular
or undulatory, they will commonly be found
on the sides of some bill, or knoll, or where
the liug is long and strong. They are always
variable, even when there is no apparent cause
to the sportsman's comprehension for their
being so. Their movements depend upon
circumstances which are hidden from our
scrutiny, and which we have not generally the
power to discover. There is always a chance
of meeting with birds where the berries of the
ling are plentiful, particularly if these locali-
ties be visited at a proper time of the day.
Noontide is not a very favourable period ; but
when the mists bang long on the mountain's
brow, it is the only time a shooter has to practise
his art. Then he should be up and doing. He
should range the country in the spirit of one
who is not only bent on making his sport a
pleasure, but a source of health, heightened by
the enjoyment of the beautiful and the grand
in Nature, wherever she unfolds those attri-
butes before him. It should always bo re-
membered that the mere amusement of shoot-
ing is by no means all that is to be obtained
Irora a judicious handling of the dog and gun.
Tiie field and the forest, the mountain and
tl;e glen, have each its appropriate points of
attraction. One has its beautiful kine to gaze
on ; another its melodious birds to delight the

ear; another its majestic form towering up to
the sky ; whilst another allords u channel to a
stream of " sweet waters," that ia rolling itself
to some distant loch. These are somo of the
objects to bo enjoyed whilst engaged in Hhoot-
ing, with which they should be connected in
the mind of every sportsman.

Till': rTARMIG.VN.
The Flarmigan, or WItitc Grouse (Tetrao
Lagopus, Linn.), is found in almost every part
of Europe, the northern portions of Asia and
America, and, some writers say, even in Africa.
According to Sir William Jardine, it ia spread
over most of the Alpine districts of Europe;
and is sought for with great perseverance, as,
to the inhabitants of these inhospitable re-
gions, it is an actual necessary of life. This
bird is nearly of the same size as the red
grouse. Its bill is black, and its summer
plumage is a pale brown, or ash colour, and
the upper parts of the body are mottled with
a number of small dusky spots and bars. On
the head and neck these bars are broader, and
more intermingled with white ; as are, like-
wise, the wings, with the exception of the
shafts of the quills, which are black. In the
winter season this plumage is changed into
pure white, except that, in the male, there is a
black line between the bill and the eye. The
tail consists of sixteen feathers, the two middle
ones being ash-coloured in summer, and white
in winter ; the two next, slightly marked with
white near the ends, and the rest are wholly
black. The upper tail coverts are tolerably
IcKig, and almost cover the tail entire. Its
habitat is found to be on high and lofty
grounds, and it can bear the most intense
cold. It even lives and thrives amid the
snows of Greenland. In Britain it is chiefly
found in the Highlands of Scotland, in the
Hebrides and Orkney islands, and, occasionally,
in the more elevated localities of Cumberland
and "Wales. Bufl'on tells us, that it sedu-
lously avoids heat, and loves the biting frosts
on the tops of the highest mountains; and
when the snow melts on the sides of the hills,
it constantly ascends to loftier regions, till it
gains the summits on which it forms holes,
and burrows in the snow. These birds pair at
the same period as the ordinary grouse. The
female lays eight or ten eggs, which are white,

535

PTAEMIOAK.]

SHOOTING,

[gkouse localities.

spotted with brown. There is no form of nest
prepared; they are laid on the bare ground.
In winter the birds congregate in flocks ; and
they are so little accustomed to the devices of
the fowler, that they suffer themselves to be
easily taken either with the snare or the gun.
They feed on the wild and rough produce of
the hills, which imparts a bitter taste to their
flesh, though it is not by any means unpalata-
ble. It is of a dark colour, and, in taste, re-
sembles that of the hare.

This kind of grouse has attracted the atten-
tion of sporting writers, on account of the
singularity of its character and habits ; and
many valuable reflections on the general har-
monies of nature have been made on the sub-
ject. It is contended that its plumage is ad-
mirably and singularly adapted to the general
appearance of the grounds it frequents. The
brown patches of heath, on the rocky declivities
of the mountains, are so assimilated to the
broken and blended tints of the summer plu-
mage of the bird, that it is very favourable for
the purpose of concealment. When the whole
country is covered with snow, and presents one
extended mass of dazzling white, the dress of
the bird is again suited to this change of
nature, and greatly assists in its preservation.
The plumage is now not only white, but very
thick and downy; and even the legs are thickly
clothed with feathers resembling hairs, which
secure the limbs to the very toes.

As we have already intimated, the ptarmigan
family are to be met with in all the elevated
and Alpine regions of Europe, and in North
America.

" The }ialac8s of Nature, whose vast walls
Have pinnacled in clouds their snowy scalps,
And tluoned Eternity in icy halls
Of cold sublimity, where forms and falls
The avalanche — the thunderbolt of snow !
All that expands the spirit, yet appals,
Gather round these summits, as to show
How earth may pierce to heaven, yet leave vain man
below."

In Greenland they are taken by nooses,
hung to a long line drawn by two men, who
drop them over their necks. They eat them
with train oil, or lard ; and tlicir skins are
"■onverted into shirts to wear next the skin.
The Laplanders take them by forming a hed^e
with the boughs of birch trees, leaving small
53G

openings at certain intervals, and hanging on
each a snare. The birds being tempted to
come and feed on the buds of catkins of the
birch tree, pass through the openings and are
caught. In North America, in the territories
of the Hudson's Bay Company, and in the
neighbouring countries, there are immense
numbers of ptarmigan taken every season.
And here it is curious and instructive to notice,
that as the frost becomes intense, the feathers
of the bird, with the exception of those of the
wings and tail, become double — a downy one
shoots out from the base of each, which pro-
vision seems admirably fitted to protect the
bird from the piercing effects of the long-con-
tinued cold. In the months of October and
November, flocks of two and three hundred
assemble, and take up their residence among
the willows, the tops of which they greedily
devour. Hence they are often called the
loillow partridge. We are told by travellers,
tliat their flesh is much esteemed at Hudson's
Bay, and in many provinces of North America.
Nets, twenty feet square, and supported on
poles, are used for their capture ; and they are
so numerous, that ten tliousand have been
taken from November to April. In the locality
of Hudson's Bay, they must, at one period,
have been extremely abundant. Sir Thomas
Button relates, that in the winter of 1612, he
took eighteen hundred dozen of these and
other fowl. This capture may surprise us ;
but the success and appetite of M. Jerome,
and his companions, surprise us still more,
when it is known that there were taken and
eaten, in one winter, between himself and
seventy-nine others, 90,000 grouse, and 25,000
rabbits, being about 1,125 grouse, and 312 rab-
bits per man.

GROUSE LOCALITIES.
Even from the general conversation of sports-
men in London, it may be known that grouse-
shooting, of which they are so passionately
fond, has its locality principally in the north.
Being off to the moors, is synonymous to being
off to Scotland; for it is there, among the
hills, that the grouse is to be found ; and, after
the 12th of August, the gun may be heard
reporting its presence with a rapidity that
proves the fatal work in which it is engaged.
In former days, there used to be found con-

GKOi-sE LOCALITIES.] BV TIKLU, WOOD, AM) WATEII. [fiiiousE locvutieb.

fiiderable quantities of black grouse in tbo New
Foreat of irampshiro, in 80ino pnrts of Devon-
shire, Stallordshiro, and Uerbyshiro ; but it is
uow quostionablo if there bo any, cither of
this spooiod of tho grouso family, or of tho rod
grouse, in these parts of England. Tho nioora
of Yorkshire are, to tho London sportsman,
the nearest spots whcro any portion of grouso
can readily be obtained; and even there, for,
several years, there has been a diminution of
their numbers progressively going on. The
increase of manufacturing and mining opera-
tions in this section of tho kingdom, has been
the principal cause of this ; and, as these are
further extended, tho birds will retreat still
further northward, until they finally locate
themselves amid the solitary wildernesses of
Scotland.

Tho cheap and rapid mode of travelling by
railway has, however, thrown open to the Eng-
lish shooter, considerable tracts of moorland that
were scarcely accessible before ; he can traverse
the country from London to the distant High-
lands of Scotland in a day, and can find moors
and game to his heart's content. There are,
however, wide ranges of grousing country nearer
home. The moors of Westmoreland, Cumber-
land, and Northumberland, are very extensive ;
and there are great numbers of grouse upon
them, of all kinds. There are, in Westmore-
land, shooting districts of immense extent; but
the country is so wild, bleak, and mountainous,
that a guide is necessary for strangers, and a
pocket compass is indispensable. The Cum-
berland moors are likewise extensive, and pretty
well supplied with grouse; but here, too, the
country is exceedingly wild and rugged. In
tho neighbourhood of Hexham, in Northum-
berland, and in the moors belonging to the
Duke of Nortlmmberland, at Keilder Castle,
grouse were wont to be plentiful, and the
range of country is a very interesting one in
point of scenery. England, Ireland, and
Wales, however, must yield to Scotland as
grousing countries.

This comparatively Alpine land can now, by
railway and steamboat, be threaded in all its
localities, at a very small cost of time and
money. The sportsman can transport himself,
m a few hours, from one spot to another, a
couple of hundred miles apart; and this gives
him a great command of the whole country.
3 z

If one spot docs not como up to his oxpccta-

tioiis, he can removt* luinsclf and I'stablinhinent
to another, an advaiitago wliieh tho gruusO"
shooters of former times did not pottaoss.
Then, a removal to any great distuueo on-
grossed nearly half of tho shooting season, and
was attended witli great expense.

To expatiate upon tho noblw scenery which
a Highland shooting excursion presents, is
superlluous, as tho localities most remarkable
for this have often been described by tourists,
anglers, <fec. ; but still, to an intelligent and
imaginative grouse-shooter, these mountaia
peaks and passes must be ever new and full of
interest. In many places, the sportsman will
find guides indispensable, especially if he
wander among the more northern heights,
such as those of Bcii-na-huird, Cairngorum^
and Ben-macdui, which lift their snowy sum-
mits to an elevation of nearly four thousand
feet above the level of tho ocean. An expe-
dition with the gun to any of these parts is
quite an adventure, and must be performed on
foot; and as there are few cottages to be
found amongst them, the sportsman must not
forget to supply himself amply with provisions,
as the sharpness of the air whets the appetite,
and hunger is a bad companion upon the soli-
tary sides of a measureless mountain. Every-
thing here is upon a scale of singularly wild
and rugged magnificence. The mountain tor-
i^-eiitg — some of which are almost one continued
waterfall— foam and dash over ledges of rock,
and peculiarly afi"ect the mind of the spectator
by their grandeur and turbulence. The higher
glens are likewise surrounded and hemmed in
by rocks and precipices, clothed with tho
birch aud heather, and so far removed from
human ken, and human sympathy, that they
are seldom visited, save by the red deer and
the eagle. Here shooting is both a fiitiguing
and dangerous amusement ; for if the sports-
man be a complete novice to such scenes, the
chances are that he will tumble over some
pointed and half-hidden elevation, and, may-
hap, break both his head and his fowling-
piece. AV'heu less elevated localities are fre-
quented, the shooter will find a small Highland
pony of some service. Though attended with
care and trouble, it will transport him more
easily over a larger tract of country ; but
where a man is in robust health, and has youth

537

GEOTTSE LOCALITIES.]

SHOOTING,

[BEEAKIXa DOGS =

on his side, there is nothing like footing it, as
it keeps him independent in his movements
and rambles, improves his health, and exalts
his spirits, and enables him to enjoy his sport
with an intensity unknown to the pampered
body of the luxurious lounger.

"We have already observed, that England,
Ireland, and Wales must yield the palm to
Scotland as a grousing country ; but there are
in "Wales considerable ranges of grousing
grounds ; and the Black mountains, which divide
the counties of Hereford and Brecknock, have
some good sporting localities. The country is
like the Highlands, wild and rugged, and the
sportsman will find some of the higher eleva-
tions laborious to reach. The only method, in
many cases, is to follow the rough paths of the
mountain torrents, which, being dry, afibrd a
kind of winding way to the highest grounds.
The picturesque beauty of the country is
beyond all description and praise, and must be
seen to be duly appreciated.

In Ireland there are some tolerable hills,
but they are far behind Scotland, and even
some parts of Wales. In the counties of
Cork, Limerick, and Tipperary, in the vicinity
of the Galty mountains, there are both black
and red grouse, with a fair sprinkling of other
kinds of game. There is likewise a fair por-
tion of grouse in the Kerry, Wicklow, Clog-
heen, and Negagh mountains. The moor bird
shooting is not quite so fatiguing in the Eme-
rald Isle as it is in Scotland ; but the general
accommodation is superior in the latter coun-
try to that of the former. Ireland is, by some,
highly extolled for grouse shooting ; while
others speak very indifferently of its supplies
of this kind of game : but the truth will be
found to be, that in some well-preserved locali-
ties there is an abundance ; while in others,
which are equally prolific, there is a remarkable
Bcarcity, arising chiefly from poaching, and
indirect means taken to destroy them. In
travelling through this country, it has been
remarked that, wherever there is a numerous
and poor peasantry, game of all kinds is
scarce. It can easily be imagined how pre-
cious to a half-starved Irishman will a well-
stocked preserve of grouse be ; and how diffi-
cult it must prove for him to keep his hands
olf them, as a nice relish to his meal of
potatoes.
538

The following remarks of Mr. Laseelles, on
the subject of breaking dogs to the moors,
and other points, are really so practically valu-
able, that, notwithstanding their length, we
cannot resist the temptation to quote them:

" An English atmosphere," he observes, " is
generally much more favourable to this diver-
sion than a Highland one, as, from the innu-
merable lochs, and the immediate vicinity of the
ocean, the mountains are so concealed in the
vapours arising from them, as, at all times, to
render a day's sport extremely precarious. A
very little will soon cause a grouse to be-
come wild and uuassailable ; and the chance of
pursuing him to any advantage is very uncer-
tain, until, perhaps, in the middle of the day,
when the sun may establish a temporary influ-
ence. His habits are exceedingly regular, al-
ways taking his food and water at particular
times ; the latter at noon : he will then retire
to the sunny side of some bank, and, beneath
the cover of high heath, bask in all the de-
light of imagined security. If a good shot
suddenly come upon a brood in this situation,
he may, very frequently, annihilate the whole ;
for they will immediately separate in difterent
directions, and each bird will get up singly, so
that he has nothing to do but restrain the ar-
dour of his dogs, and in some measure, also,
that of himself. The impetuosity with which
many sportsmen, and young ones in particular,
travel over their ground, is one great reason
why they meet with so little game. They no
sooner find a brood, and gain one shot, than
they give up any idea of further pursuit,
without even marking the progress of their
flight, or that of an individual, which may, per-
haps, be induced to shorten or vary his, from
the infliction of a wound. Erom the circum-
stance of heath presenting so continued and
smooth a surface, and the little variation in
every object upon it, it is more difficult to
mark down a grouse with certainty than a par-
tridge; but, by following the course of hiiu
carefully with your eye, and afterwards trying
in that direction, you will seldom fail of gain-
ing his retreat. It should be a maxim with
all sportsmen, never to leave a yard of ground
untried which is likely to harbour a bird ; by this
means you will sooner learn the nature of game
of all descriptions, teacli your dogs a better
system of duty, and give yourself a very

BHEAKiNO DOGS.] BY' F 1 K L D, WOOD, AM) WATKK. [hueakino uoos.

decided advnntftgo indeed, over every other per-
son who pursues a diflVrent method. Aeeordiiiij;
also to the number of dogs you hunt, at tlio sanio
time will bo your clianeo of sport ; where you
possess sueh a latitudeof range, a greater scope
is open to your exertions; and, as tho fatigue
of moor-shooting is much more severe than
that of any other anuisement, you should en-
deavour, by every means, to reduce its eirects.
Two brace of got)d steady dogs arc, iu my
opinion, the number best calculated for this
purpose ; and they will work as long as any
gentleman ought to continue out. The plan
whicli many sportsmen adopt, is to shoot with
one brace of pointers till tho time of dinner,
and then take a brace of fresh ones for a couple
of hours in the afternoon, working the four al-
ternately, morning and evening. The method
suits very well with such a system ; but there
are few men who feel inclined to renew their
endeavours after a cool and comfortable repast ;
and a good fire then becomes a luxury, which
we are seldom willing to make so immediate
and voluntary a resignation of. Provided every
dog be tolerably steady, you can scarcely, in
reason, trust too many together ; but, where
there is a want of discipline, or where it is
totally disregarded, it would be absolute folly
to use more thav one. The opinion which is
held by many, of tho advantage attending a
dog's running up to his game, appears to
me a strange subversion of every principle of
profit or satisfaction ; it totally ruins that cool
and even conduct which should characterise a
good shot, and excites a contention generally
terminating in mutual discontent. The danger,
also, is, in many respects, not the least objec-
tionable feature ; for, in the anxiety of the
moment, you may forget to mark the second
barrel ; and, should you stumble, whicli is by
no means an improbability, its contents may
be lodged in the first object that unfortunately
intervenes. I have known an instance, also,
where, in the struggle for possession, the
thumb of the sportsman had nearly been sacri-
ficed to the consequence of disappointment in
bis dog.

" There is yet another objection to this mode
of breaking, which is, perhaps, still more serious;
and that is, tho alarm that is given not only to
a single bird, but frequently to a whole brood
or covey, which instantly take wing, and de-

prive you of tho chanco of rotardinfj tlieir
ilight. I had a dog oneu Hunt mu which had
been broken acconling to this system ; and as
there is eomethiiig ratlier e.\trnordinary in the
nmdo T pursued to teach him better maniiers, [
will relate it: — lie Imd been shot oviT two
seasons ; was handsome and well-bred, with one
of the finest nosi-s I ever knew, aiul as fleet a«
a fox-hound. Tho morning when I first had
him, which was in Septetiiber, I took him out
alone, and had the good fortune (for it was a very
scarce county for game) to find a covey almost
immediately ; ho pointed a moment, and then
ran in ; but the birds separated ; and the first I
afterwards shot at fell within thirty yards ou
the opposite side of a wall. I was, perhaps,
long iu getting over ; and when I did, Beau
had not only swallowed the bird, but the
feathers also. To begin a new system of dis-
cipline would, I thought, then be premature,
as we were scarcely acquainted, and I had the
rest of the birds all marked down. I got five
more single shots, and killed four, luckily in
ground where we were upon more equal terms ;
the fifth, which went away wounded, he followed
with all the impetuosity of unrestricted desire,
and actually took a gate flying, and gave tongue
like a spaniel ; iu truth,! never in my life saw
more determined lewdness. At that moment
I was very much in want of a pointer, or I
should not, most likely, have taken the pains
with him I did. For the remainder of the
month, and the whole of October, I took him
out, at least, five days in every week, with one
single steady old bitch that would do anything
I bade her ; he never was, in the least degree
tired or distressed ; no country was too dry
for hira, nor any covert too strong; and he
gave such decided proofs of natural excellence,
that I used every endeavour to restore its
lustre. I began with severe measures, for he
was grown too old iu iniquity to hope any
success from mild treatment. I tried excessive
flogging for a fortnight, but that had no effect
whatever ; in addition to this, I made use of a
long trash, which a boy laid hold of whenever
I fired, and who not only checked his im-
petuosity, but corrected him well at the same
time, for displaying it. So long as he was
under this immediate restraint he was more
cautious of olTending; but from the instant
it ceased, he resumed his former habits. I

539

BREAKING DOGS.]

SHOOTING,

[packing- GAjIE.

next tried a very sharp spiked collar with cord
attached to it ; and to have him at all times
within reach, I loaded him with shot, by hang-
ing about two pounds round his neck, so that
he might be said to be in a constant state of
exertion. Finding, however, that all this was
mere trifling, and that after reducing the
length of the cord to about two yards, and
fastening the end to the middle of a good
strong hazel — which had the effect, at any ex-
traordinary or improper exertion, of pulling
him completely over — I had not the most
distant prospects of remuneration, I was at
the point of yielding to necessity, when a
circumstance happened, which gave me an op-
portunity, once more, of trying how far this in-
subordinate spirit might be reduced. The old
bitch began to show symptoms of approaching
desire ; and, during the period of their amour, I
allowed him a perpetual and unlimited inter-
course with her, keeping him, at the same time,
low in flesh, and taking them both out together
as usual. In the course of a couple of days, I
found so decided a change for the better, that
I persevered more diligently in the plan of re-
striction ; "which, at the end of a fortnight,
so completely succeeded, as to leave me in
possession of an animal which, of his kind,
was the very best I ever saw. The produce,
also, of that litter was invaluable, and required
less breaking than any dogs I ever was master
of."

As sportsmen often make presents of game,
540

it is very necessary to know how they should
be preserved and packed, so as to keep them
agreeable and sweet until they arrive at theii
destination. Mr. Thornhill says — " If you wish
to send your game to any distance, never draw
it, particularly a grouse ; that is, do not follow
the usual directions of taking out the entrails.
The best mode is, not to pack them until they
are perfectly dry First of all, procure blad-
ders, and put a brace or more in one, if the
bladder will contain them ; tie the bladder
tight round the neck, and seal it with sealing-
wax, to prevent the air from getting in ; and,
in that state, if they are put into boxes, they
will keep for three weeks, if required." The
compiler tried this experiment last year, and
found that it answered better than any mode
he had ever before made use of. He sent a
gentleman some game from Cumberland to
London, packed as described ; and the gentle-
man not being at home, it lay in the box till
his return, which was fifteen days after its
arrival ; and this gentleman assured him that
he was surprised to find, on eating it, that it
was as good as if killed only the day before,
and was perfectly sweet, although the dis-
tance it went was nearly three hundred miles.
Colonel Hawker says—" To send grouse any
distance, put pepper to the parts where
tliey have been shot, as well as into their
mouths ; then pack them, carefully separated
from each other, and kept as air-tight as pos-
^ sible in boxes of hops."

THK i'ahtridqe.] by riELD, WOOD, AND WATER. [the i-artiudoe.

('iia]'ti:k v.

Tin: I'.VKTllIDGK.

TiiK pnrtridgo of Crltnin (Tttrao I'crdix,
Limi.) is of two kinds; the one is the grey, or
common partridge ; and the other is sometimes
termed the French partridge. Bewick tlius
describes the common partridge : — " It is
about thirteen inches in length. Bill liglit-
browu, eyes hazel ; the general colour of its
plumage is brown and ash, beautifully mixed
with black. Each feather is streaked down
the middle with bufl', and the sides of the head
are tawny. Under each ej'e is a small saffron-
coloured spot, which has a granulated appear-
ance ; and between the eye and the ear there is
a naked portion of skin, of a bright scarlet, which
is not very conspicuous except in old birds.
There is a crescent on the breast, of a deep
chestnut ; and the tail is short and drooping ;
the legs are a greenish white, and furnished
with a small knob behind. The female has no
crescent on her breast, and her plumage, in
general, is not so distinctive and bright as that
of the male. The moult takes place once
a year." It was long a received opinion among
sportsmen as well as naturalists, that the
female partridge has none of the bay feathers
on the breast, like the male. This, however,
on dissection, was proved to be a mistake ; for
Mr. i\Iontague, happening to kill nine birds in
one day, with a very slight variation as to
the bay mark on the breast, was led to open
them all, and found that live of them were
females. On carefully examining the plumage,
he found that the males could only be known
by the superior brightness of colour about the
head ; which alone, after the first or second
year, seems to be the mark of didLinction.
Partridges are chiefly found in temperate
climates, the extremes of heat and cold beins:
equally unfavourable to them. The female
lays from fourteen to eighteen or twenty eggs,
making her nest of dry leaves and grass, upon
the ground. The young birds run as soon as
hatched, frequently encumbered with a part of
the shell attached to them. The affection of

the partridgo for her young is peculiarly
strong and lively ; slie is also greatly assisted
in the care of rearing them by her mate ; they
lead them in common; call them togetlier;
gather for them their suitable food, and as-
sist in i)rocuring it by scratching the ground.
I They frequently sit close to each other,
, covering their offspring like the common hen.
In this situation they are not easily flushed :
j the sportsman who is attentive to the preserva-
I tion of his game, will carefully avoid giving any
j disturbance to a scene so truly interesting;
but should the pointer come too near, or run
in upon them, there are few who are ignorant
of the confusion tliat follows. The male first
gives the signal of alarm by a peculiar cry of
distress, throwing himself, at the same time,
more immediately in the way of danger,
in order to mislead the enemy : he flies, or
rather runs along the ground, hanging his
wings, and exhibiting every symptom of de-
bility, in order to decoy the dog, in the too
eager expectation of an easy prey, to a dis-
tance from the covey. The female flies off in
a contrary direction, and to a greater distance ;
but returns soon after by secret paths ; and she
then commonly finds her scattered brood
closely squatted among the grass, when she
collects them with haste, and leads them from
the danger, before the dog has had time to re-
turn from the pursuit.

The partridge subsists chiefly upon grain,
along with small seeds from other plants.
Her nest is made on the ground in grass fields,
among standing corn, in clover, in furze, and
sometimes even at the top of a ditch. The
eggs are generally laid in the month of May;
and, from this time to the latter end of June,
the process of nidification takes place. In all
the stages of this natural process, the male
bird takes a certain share. AVheu the brood
is hatched, he manifests the greatest solici-
tude, and leads them abroad in search of ants'
eggs, and larvaj among insects, llis call is iu

541

PABTEIDGES.]

SHOOTING,

[PAETEIDttE SHOOTING.

a sharper key than that of the female. Natu-
ralists have noticed that the two birds have
various notes or cries, as if to distinguish their
several states or conditions, as to safety, food,
or danger. When they settle down in the
evening, their juclcing is well known. Mr.
Lascelles tells us that he has often watched
their movements, and listened to their cries
for hours ; and always observed the male bird
even more solicitous, in appearance at least,
than the female, for the provision and protec-
tion of the brood. This care, however, is left
to the female as soon as the birds are able to
fly. Even then her watchfulness continues,
and, indeed, seems increased. She is never
far from them, but searches for food for them,
and takes them abroad to their scratching-
ground ; and when they seem tired, she gathers
them all around her with great care. When
they are about their full size, or within a third
of her own bulk, they are left, in a great mea-
sure, to shift for themselves.

PARTRIDGE SHOOTING.

There is no sport in which the gun is em-
ployed as the instrument of amusement, so
fully and so universally practised as the shoot-
ing of partridges. It is more homely and
domestic than moor shooting; and can be
enjoyed by those whose strength and age
render them less capable of pursuing sports
requiring greater physical exertion. The suc-
cessful prosecution of it must, necessarily, vary
with the numerous circumstances under which
it is enjoyed. If a sportsman has a limited
estate with which he is well acquainted ; if he
has himself taken great care of his coveys of
birds ; knows their haunts, their times of feed-
ing, and resting ; if his enclosures are small,
and well fitted for the birds taking short
flights ; if these, and many more minute and
favourable matters fall to his lot, his sport may,
ceteris paribus, be reasonably expected to be
much superior to what a mere stranger to the
locality would find. There are scarcely any
two shooting grounds, or any two sportsmen,
that can fairly be put on a par with each
other, in all their diversified characters ; there-
fore it is that so many varied accounts are
found of the sport, and so many different ad-
ventures encountered in its prosecution. Every
shooter has a history or tale of his own to tell ;
5i2

he has joys and sorrows with which strangers
do not interfere ; and he lives and moves in a
little world of his own creating.

Distinguished sportsmen inform us, that the
footing of partridges, though a very requisite
qualification in pointers, is one of the last
things that should be expected from them, as
they are not to be relied on until they fully
comprehend from the sportsman that they are
not to catch the bird ; and that they are only
required to point out where it is. It is well
known that partridges will generally lie closer
and better to dogs that toind them, than to
such as track them. The reason assigned for
this is, that when they are winded, the dogs
do not go straightforward towards them, but
follow the scent left by their devious course.
AVhen birds see dogs tracking their footsteps
down the wind, they will fly ofi", for their scent
cannot be caught by the dog till he is near
them. Another matter is of some importance
in commencing partridge shooting in Septem-
ber; and that is, that dogs brought imme-
diately from the moors, and put upon the
hunting of the partridge, are in many instances,
for some days, unfit for their duty, till they are
again hroken-in to their new task. The hunt-
ino- of grouse in the moors is altogether a
difterent operation from the work to be done
in the fields in September. A dog that is
really well trained will soon find himself at
home in both occupations ; but when this is not
the case, there will always be more or less of dis-
appointment experienced from the sudden tran-
sition from two such opposite conditions of life.
It has been recommended, that to be early
in the field is necessary for any one who desires
to secure a good day's sport at partridge
shooting; but here Colonel Hawker steps in
and says, " that he never saw much execution
done before breakfast." To this it has been
replied — " True ; but without putting ourselves
to the expense of sending two or three sturdy
fellows to warn ofi" intruders, if the birds have
escaped being killed by that time, they are
certainly dispersed abroad ; and the advantage
of our knowing their feeding and basking
grounds is nullified." However this may be,
we believe it is a general opinion amongst the
experienced that the colonel is correct. If it
were possible to take anything like an accurate
census of the success of sportsmen in partridge

PAUTniDQEs.] BY FIELD, AVOOD, AND WATER, [paetuidoe bhootino

Bbooting during the niontha of September and
October, we think it would ^onernlly be found
that the most productive iiours range from
eleven till three in the afternoon. Of course
general rules of this kind cannot be laid down
but with many reservations : wo believe, how-
ever, the result of a test of this kind would estab-
lish the truth of the point without any doubt.
There are other advantages, however, to be
realised by the early-rising sportsman, uncon-
nected with the capture of game. The habit
induces good health, and tends very much to
strengthen and preserve it. It has an excellent
and sustaining effect on the animal spirits ; and
these are by uo means of slight consideration.
After the month of October, and from this to
the end of the partridge season, we should not
insist on being earlier iu the field than about
mid-dav ; as, after this period, the weather be-
comes lowering in the fore part of the day.

Both the weather and the season liave a
great influence over the birds, as well as the
state they themselves have been in, relative to
quietness, from previous fowling excursions.
The flights they take vary with the nature of
the country in which they are bred. "Where
the enclosures are small, and the general aspect
of the country undulating, short flights are
taken ; but, where the fields are large, and the
landscape open and level, the birds will often
take a mile or two at one flight.

As a general rule, it might be asserted
that a prudent sportsman will not injure his
diversion by following tbe birds every day in
the same track. Relative to the shooting of
partridges in windy weather, too, there is great
difference of opinion. The weight of argu-
ment, however, seems in favour of those
who maintain that this kind of weather is not,
upon the whole, favourable to sport. Indeed,
when it is boisterous, it can only be favourable
under one view, and that is on account of birds
not so readily hearing the approach of tlie
sportsman. It may likewise be observed, that
in a high wind they seem bewildered, and will
often lie so close as to afford good sport ; but
then it is again found by experience, that for
one windy day, when they will lie like stones,
they will, other ten days, be as wild as hawks,
particularly if there be showers of rain with the
wind. In the latter case they generally betake
themselves to the woods and to furze ; aud cole-

seed is said then to entice them. In Ireland,
partridges, in a high wind, uniforudy make for
the potato fieldH, In weather of this kind, the
uportsmau sliould always take tlie windward
side of his beat, otherwise ho will run a chanco
of driving them ofl' his ground, and into tho
hands of other parties who may be abroad on
tho same mission as himself.

In tho practice of mid-day shooting, it may
be laid down as a common rule, that, in ordi-
narily fine weather, tho birds leave their feed-
ing localities about ten o'clock in the month of
September, and eleven in October ; but after
this period, their movements become less regu-
lar, BO that no calculation relative to their
movement can be depended on. This has been
attributed to tho variable weather to which a
Scotch climate is subject, and to which all things
living in wood or wilderness must be subser-
vient. When there is a rapid succession of
rain, sleet, snow, wind, aud sunshine, wo
have a variety of disturbing causes operating
on both the sportsman and the birds ; there-
fore any universal rules must, in such cases,
prove almost entirely useless. The stubbles
may be tried in mid-day, sometimes with ad-
vantage, for the birds do not always leave them
for basking grounds. These stubbles are tho
principal feeding localities ; and as the day ad-
vances, birds are almost sure to be found at one
time or another. When birds of prey appear,
coveys will often disperse, which is favourable
to the sportsman. One bird will perhaps take
shelter near a clod of earth ; another will run
behind a tuft of grass or a low piece of copse ;
and a furze-bush may shelte.- another. Some-
times, in the latter end of the season, the par-
tridge will be in foul lands— such as are left in a
rough state before the agricultural operations
of spring commence.

Among partridges, there are always moro
cocks than hens ; and this often tends to check
tho breed considerably. The hens are so tor-
mented by the numbers of males, that they
drop one egg in one place, and another in a
different spot. It is said, the best mode to
destroy the superabundance of males is, during
the first three weeks of the season, to net the
covey, and destroy all the old cocks, leaving
as many young hens, and even one less ; for
it is certainly better that the old hen should
1 look for the cock, than a number of cocks run

5 13

PARTRIDGES.]

SHOOTING,

[partridge SlIOOTI^'Q.

after one hen. It should be recollected, that
where old birds are left, they will, at the pair-
ing season, drive off the young ones, and pre-
vent their breeding; for, let any sportsman
declare if ever one find a brace of partridges
in the shooting season that have not bred
(and are termed by sportsmen a gelt pair),
whether he has not found a covey near the
same place — a circumstance which can only
be accounted for by the old birds driving the
young ones from the ground, and preventing
their breeding there. It is, therefore, a wrong
notion that some birds should not be killed
every year ; and those gentlemen who have
manors, will find, that by not allowing some to
\)Q killed, in a short time their grounds will
oe entirely destitute of game. The late Earl
of Kingston had a great quantity of grouse on
his mountains in Ireland before they were
preserved ; but he thought that, by leaving
them quiet for a couple of seasons, he should
have had a much greater abundance ; he
therefore did not allow a shot to be fired
on those mountains for two seasons ; and, it is
well known, they were carefully preserved dur-
ing the whole time. On collecting, however,
a large party the third season, and going out
to grouse, many of the gentlemen who had
been in the habit of shooting there prior to its
being preserved, were surprised to find so great
a scarcity. The reason of this was, that the
older birds had driven the young ones off, and
all the mountains adjoining his lordship's pre-
serves, were swarming with game, although
they had not been preserved.

Tlie principle of domesticity is not very
strong in the partridge. Those birds which
have been reared under a common hen, soon
manifest their disUke to restraint; gradually
become wild, and eventually fly off altogether
to enjoy their native freedom. We have heard
of one being reared by a clergyman, which be-
came so tame that it would come to the parlour
window to receive its breakfiist, and would, also,
occasionally enter the house. It was not,
however, completely domesticated.

It is generally said, that hrohen coveys yield
the lest sport ; and that, while the young birds
have the old ones with them, they are " up to
every move on the board;" but when deprived
of tlieir natural leaders and protectors, they
seem lost, and have no settled idea of safety.
544.

This is the fortunate time for sportsmen to
make play upon them, and press the dogs to
their duty in tracing them from one spot to
another.

As the season advances, the size of the shot
to be used for partridge shooting should be
enlarged. For the first fortnight, Nos. 5 and
6 are recommended ; after this, Nos. -1 and 5.
In October, No. 3 will be found the most
eligible.

RED-LEGGED OR GUERNSEY PARTRIDGE.
This is the Tetrao Bufus of Linnaeus, and
is often called the French partridge. It is
larger than the grey, and the bill and irides
are red. The forehead is grey brown ; the
hind head is rufous brown ; the chin and throat
white, encircled with black ; and there is
likewise a band of white over each eye to the
hind head. The fore part of the neck and
sides of it are cinereous, with two spots of
black on each feather, and the hind part of
the neck is rufous brown. The back, winsfs,
and rump are of a greyish brown; the breast,
pale ash colour. The belly, sides, and thighs,
are rufous ; the sides marked with lunular
streaks of white, black, and orange. The
quills are grey brown, witli the outer edges
yellowish. The tail is composed of sixteen
feathers ; the four middle ones are rufous on
both sides. The legs are red, and the male
only, has the blunt knob or spur behind. Mr.
Daniel says, that it is a common pastime in.
the Isle of Cyprus to use these birds as we
do game-cocks, for the amusement of the
people. This partridge is abundant in most
parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa; in many
parts of Italy and France; and also in the
islands of Madeira, Jersey, and Guernsey.

Surprising stories are told of their numbers
in some countries. In the Isle of Nauaio, they
are so common as to amount to a positive
nuisance. The inhabitants make a rule to
collect as many eggs as possible every year, in
order to lessen the breed, which, in some
seasons, have been so numerous as to have
eaten up the entire produce of the harvest
crops. These eggs, which are taken by thou-
sands, are prepared with different sauces, and
supply the people for a considerable time.
Tournefort says that partridges are so tame in
the Isle of Scio, that they are driven to seek

PAnxuiDOKs.] BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. [i-autuidoe snooriNo.

their food iti the iields, liko 80 niaoy sheep,
uud tliat oaoli family entrusts its partridi,'03 to
Jho common koopi'r, who brings tliem back in
the evening ; and he calls them together with
a whistle, even in the daytime. Another
account states that, in tlio country around
Trebizond, a man was seen leading above four
thousand partridges; lie marched on the ground,
while the birds followed him in the air, until
bo reached a certain camp, three days' journey
from Trebizond ; when he slept, the birds
alighted to repose around him, and ho could
take as many of their number as ho pleased.
AVe are told that, in Proveu9e, iu Erance,
persons have acquired the art of assembling
numerous flocks of partridges, which obey the
voices of their conductors with wonderful do-
cility. "Willoughby mentions, that a mau in
Sussex had, by great skill and attention, made
a covey of partridges so tame, that, for a
wager, he drove them before him, from that

agreeable for thu table aa our owu native

partridge; nor do they afford sport eijual to
that aflbrilcd by the other.

" September comes to chcir tlie fowler's licart,
And riiise liis anxious liojjes ; duy after day
He marks tlie fruitful country cliange around,
With eager eye. First, from the f.rtile meads,
Divested of tluir widely waving load,
The pregnant liay-riek rises. Gentle swains,
If chance should lead you to the chosen spot,
Where the shy jnirtridge forms her simple nest.
The embryo ollsjiring spare ; and wlien your scythe
Levels the grassy valleys, should your foot
Approach the helpless brood, step back with eare,
Nor our fond Lopes destroy."

We will close this chapter with an extraordi-
nary account of the enemies of game, captured a
few years ago on estates of tho Marquis of
Ailsa. It is taken from the columns of the
Inverness Courier : —

Tho Marquis of xVilsa has, for some years,
encouraged ins gamekeepers iu the destruction

county to London, although they were free, of vermin, by paying so much per head for

those brought iu. Every keeper and assistant-
keeper has a record of all the vermin killed
by him ; and receives payment every three
mouths accordingly, besides the regular and
liberal wages to which they are entitled for
their services. All kinds of vermin were thus
brought low — even to the jackdaw and common
rat, which, we are informed, caused great de-
struction to the eggs of pheasants and par-
tridges. The rat has become very common
there, and is found to burrow in rabbits' holes
to such an extent, that, in ferreting rabbits, it
sometimes happens that a rat and a rabbit are
shot right and left. Whole broods of young
plieasants and partridges have been found dead,
and partly eaten, near rats' holes, and some-
times even young hares and rabbits. The owl,
generally supposed to be harmless, has been shot
with young game in its talons ; and hedgehogs
have been found with large accumulations of
egg-shells in their burrows, or in the long
grass where they coil themselves up, and have
always been taken in traps baited with rabbits,
hares, or wood-pigeons. Adders are included
among the vermin to be destroyed on tho
marquis's property, but we believe they do not
injure game. In four years and a-half, tho
sum paid on the estate of Culzean and Craig-
lure moors, in Ayrshire, for vermin destroyed
by the keepers, amounted to £231 15,y. lOd.

545

had their wings fully grown, and in right
feather.

The red partridge takes up its habitat in
mount:iii;ou3 regions, well covered with wood.
Its flesh is tender and white, and, by many gas-
tronomes, is considered of a richer flavour than
the flesh of the grey partridge. The Erencli
make it into pies, which are highly esteemed.
From the common partridge it difl'ers in its
habits, from being found in flocks ; while the
other species are only known in coveys ; and
the red bird perches likewise on trees, which
the ordinary bird never does.

" So far back as the time of Charles II.," says
ilr. Blaine, " several pairs of these red-legged
partridges were turned out about AVindsor, to
obtain a stock ; but they are supposed to have
mostly perished, although some of them, or
their descendants, were seen for a few years
afterwards. The late Duke of Northumber-
land preserved many, in the hope of their
increasing upon his manors ; but tlie late Earl
of Eochfort, and the Marquis of Hertford, were
at the most expense and trouble to establish
them in this country. Both of these noblemen
had not only numbers of the birds sent over
from France, but, also, at a proper age : by this
means there are now plenty of the red birds
upon tlie latter nobleman's eatate, near Orford
in Suff'olk." These birds, however, are not so
4 A

THE PUEASANT.]

SHOOTINO.

[the PH1;AS\^"T.

CHAPTER Vl.

THE PHEASANT.

Theee are two sporting varieties of the pbea- I
sant — the pJiasimms colchicus, Linn.; and
the pJiasianus torquatics, of Temmiuck. They
interbreed, however ; and from this circumstance
it has been supposed, by naturalists, that the
difference between them arises more from acci-
dental causes than from any law determined by
the will of nature.

Bewick describes the common pheasant as
being two feet eleven inches in length. The
bill is of a pale horn colour, and the nostrils
are hidden under an arched covering. The
eyes are yellow, and surrounded by a space, in
appearance like scarlet cloth, finely spotted
with black. Under each eye there is a small
])atch of short feathers, of a dark glossy purple ;
the upper sections of the head and neck are of
a deep purple, inclining to glossy green and
blue. The lower parts of the neck and breast
are of a reddish chestnut, with black indented
edges ; and the sides and lower portion of the
breast are of the same hue, with rather large
tips of black on each feather, which, in various
lights, vary to a glossy purple. The belly and
vent are dusky ; the back and scapulars beauti-
fully variegated with black and white, or cream
colour speckled with black, and mixed with
deep orange on all the feathers, edged with
black. On the lower parts of the back is a
mixture of green ; the quills are dusky, freckled
with white. The wing-coverts are brown,
glossed with green, and edged with white ;
the rump is a pale reddish brown, and the two
middle feathers of the tail are about twenty
inches long; the shortest on each side less
than five, and are of a reddish brown, marked
with tranverse bars of black. The legs are
dusky, with a short blunt spur on each ; but in
some old birds, the spurs are sharp as needles,
and between the toes there is a strong mem-
brane. The female is a good deal less, and is
not gifted with that variety and brilliancy of
plumage which characterises the male. Her
general colours are light and dark brown, mixed
\yith blaclv ; the breaat and belly are beauti-
546

fully freckled with small black spots on a light
ground ; the tail is short, and barred, some-
what resembling that of the male, but not so
strikingly interesting ; the space around and
about the eye is covered with feathers. The
common pheasant is generally found in low
and woody localities, on the borders of plains,
on which they delight to gambol and sport ;
during the night they roost on the branches
of trees. They are distinguished by a great
shyness, and do not associate much together,
except during the months of March and April,
when the male is in quest of the female ; they
are then easily known by the noise which they
make in crowing and clapping their wings, and
which may be heard at a considerable distance.
The hens make their nests on the ground, like
the partridge, and lay from twelve to fifteen
olive-coloured eggs, which are smaller than
those of the domestic hen. The young run
after the mother as soon as freed from the
shell. During the breeding season, it has
been often ascertained that the cock pheasant
will intermix with the common hen, and pro-
duce a hybrid breed.

Sir William Jardine, in his Naturalisfs Li-
hrarif, tells us, that it is now generally admitted
that the pheasant was originally introduced
into Europe from the banks of the Phasis (now
the Eioni), a river in Colchis, in Asia Minor.
The Greeks, in the ascent of the stream, were
attracted by their beauty; and the bird being
so easily domesticated, a valuable addition to
the luxury of themselves and Romans was soon
secured, and rapidly extended itself over the
southern countries of Europe, They appeared
at the expensive and superabundant repasts of
the ancients ; and, for a time, bore the palm
for novelty ; and lieliogabalus, in his ostenta-
tious displays, is said to have fed the lions of
his menagerie with them. The pheasant may
be said to have been originally restricted to
the Asiatic continent, extending over the
greater part of it, and reaching to China, and
the confines of Tartary.

TiiK iHKASAjfT.'J BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. [the pueasaot.

In Siberia, the pheasant is alaoabundaiit; and,
though not originally bcloiigini; to the Anu'ri-
can continent, has been iiitroiluoed to it. Tliey
are, however, not very well adajjted for moving
from place to place, on account of the short-
ness of their wings. From this cause, wo
are informed tliat they are kept in complete im-
prisonment in the Isolo ]\radre, in the L:igo
Maggiore, at Turin, as they are not able to
make their ilight over the lake. When they
make the attempt they generally perish. It is
stated by Sonnini, and other travellers, that
the pheasants of some of the northern islands
of the Archipelago, and which come thither
from the woods of Thessalia, are larger and
handsomer than those of other countries ; and
that it is a great source of amusement among
the Turks, to let birds of prey, which they
carry in their hands, fly at them. When the
pheasant takes its flight, the bird of prey,
which they let loose, hovers above it, and com-
pels it to perch on some tree. The former then
places itself on another branch, over the head of
the pheasant, and keeps it in such terror, that it
sufi'ers itself to be approached, and taken alive.
This fact, it is remarked by Sonnini, sufficiently
develops the mystery of fascination.

As a bird for the table, the pheasant is ex-
tremely salutary. When ancient physicians
made comparisons as to the wholesomcuess of
any viands, the pheasant was always chosen as
the standard of excellence. The hens are the
most juicy, and, in every way, preferable to the
cocks ; still the true sportsman will never kill a
hen if he can help it. They are sweetest roasted ;
and the best mode of dressing a cock is to stuff"
him with the lean of the inside of a loin of beef
cut into pieces, the size of dice, and well sea-
soned. The gravy issuing from the beef grad-
ually diffuses itself over the flesh, and renders
it less dry and hard than it is when destitute
of this supply.

Exclusive of the common pheasant, there are
six other varieties ; namely, the gold, the silver,
the ring-necks, the white, the pied, and the
Bohemian.

That the ring-necked pheasant and the com-
mon pheasant interbreed has been denied, or at
least doubted, by several naturalists of note.
The ring pheasant, it is said, is a native of
China, where the common species are very
abundant ; but there is nothing to establish

the fact that it interbreeds with the common
pheasant. The eggs of tho ringed bird are of
a pale-bluish colour, and marked with smaV
spots of a deeper tint ; whih^ those of the com-
mon pheasant are of an olivo white, and aro
destitute of any spots. In a wild state tho
ringed species aro uniforndy less in size than
tho common bird, both in length of body and
in tail. Tho head of the former is of a w hitiaU
fawn colour, tinted with bluish green; and
above each eye there aro two wiiite lines, which
constitute a sort of eyebrow. Tho marking in
the back of the ringed kind is different and
smaller; and the rump feathers display tho
same peculiar tints which the mixture of fawn
and greenish blue exhibits. But the most
distinctive mark of difference is, that tho white
ring is broadest upon the sides of tho neck — a
circumstance which cannot be overlooked in
considering this question of identity. The
female of the ringed pheasant is likewise less
than the female of the common kind, both in
size and in length of tail. The entire question,
however, of distinction, is not by any means
satisfactorily settled. Sir William Jardiue
5ay3— "The pheasant sometimes also crosses
w ith the domestic fowl. M. Temminck mentions
this as requiring great attention to accomplish ;
but, where poultry are kept upon the borders
of a wood abounding with pheasant:?, it occa-
sionally happens, and would do so more fre-
quently if favourable opportunities occurred.
A specimen in my own possession, exhibiting
all the mixed characters, was procured in a
wild state. M. Temminck also records a soli-
tary instance of a mule between the female
pheasant and male golden bird, which exhibited
a curious but splendid mixture; all his endea-
vours, however, to procure a second specimen
were ineffectual. The common pheasant also
breeds freely with the ringed bird, and the
offspring is productive. This has been con-
sidered by many as a proof that these two
birds were identical ; but, in the whole of this
order, and its corresponding one among quad-
rupeds, this law has a much more extended
modification, and can scarcely be taken as a
criterion, except in very opposite instances."

The rearing and preserving of pheasants
forms an interesting branch of sporting science.
The bird being naturally strongly averse to
domestication, it is subjected to many casual-

n \7

T5E PHEASANT.]

SHOOTING-,

[the pheasant.

ties whicli lessen its numbers, and which
greatly prevent its numerical increase. Could
they be housed, and headed, and secured at
night like our common farm poultry, they
would *' multiply and replenish the earth ;"
but it has been found, over and over again, that
the young birds which may have been hatched
under a hen, although they apparently might
assume many of the habits of tameness and
domesticity which are characteristic of com-
mon poultry, yet, if any one approach them
unawares, they fly off to the nearest cover in
a sbate of complete wiklness. Mr. Watertou,
of "Walton Hall, whose studies, in the various
species of animal nature, have been extensive,
says, " that, notwithstanding the proximity of
the pheasant to the nature of the barn-door
fowl, still it has that within it which bafile.-i
every attempt, on our part, to render its do-
mestication complete. What I allude to is, a
most singular innate timidity, which never
fails to show itself on the sudden and abrupt
appearance of an object. I spent some months
in trying to overcome this timorous propen-
sity in the pheasant ; but I failed completely
in the attempt. The young birds, which had
been hatched under a domestic hen, soon be-
came very tamo, and would even receive food
from the hand when it was cautiously offered
to them. They would fly up to the window,
and would feed in company with the common
poultry; but, if anybody approached them
unawares, off they went to the nearest cover
with surprising velocity. They remained in it
till all was quiet, and then returned with their
usual confidence. Two of them lost their
lives in the water by the unexpected appear-
ance of a pointer, while the barn-door fowls
seemed scarcely to notice the appearance.
The rest took finally to the woods at the com-
mencement of the breeding season." For
more extended information on this subject,
consult Loudon's Magazine of Natural History ;
Mowbray's Treatise on Breeding and Rearing
Domestic Poitltrg ; and the Rural Sj^orts of
Mr. Daniel.

Pheasants have, in many instances, been
collected in considerable numbers; and
under the name of hatteaux, have served
for gala days of sport to the nobility and
gentry. These exhibitions were painful, and
totally opposed in principle to the real spirit
548

of English sports. We never could comprehend
a man's feelings in making a great slaughter of
game under such circumstances. Sport it cer-
tainly is not. To enjoy and obtain this, there
must be a given portion of uncertainty and
trouble connected with its prosecution. If a
man could kill all the game of an extensive
and well-stocked preserve in an hour, there
would be no sport in the case, in the true sense
of the word. It would be one of the dullest
and most uninteresting acts of his life ; but
where he has to seek, and to find, and to ramble
for miles through a thickly- wooded or moorish
country, there is pleasurable excitement pro-
duced ; and this is the sustaining principle of
pure sport, and the true source of all the
enjoyments which the pursuit of wild animals
can confer on man. It is to wander about ;
a constant prey to the alternations of hope and
fear ; the disappointments met with on the
eve of realised advantages, that constitute the
current of exhilarating feeling and lively senti-
ment, which we connect with the healthy and
natural indulgence in field sports generally.
It is a bad spirit for a real sportsman to cherish,
to be always craving for great success, and to
be perpetually out of humour both with himself
and every one about him, if he does not get
his bag sooner and better filled than his neigh-
bours and competitoi's. There is an exclusive
and selfish bitterness lying at the root of all
such trains of thought, and the habits they
engender ; and the best receipt for eradicating
this pernicious principle is, to look lightly and
carelessly on the sport, and to make it a means,
and not an end.

Indeed, we know from experience, as well as
from what is daily passing around us, that it is
impossible to keep large collections of phea-
sants from depredations. The slightest noise
disturbs them in the night-time, and induces
them to crow ; and this discovers the places in
which they are congregated, when they become
the easy prey of the poacher. " When once
they are frightened from their roost," ob-
serves Mr. Waterton, " they never perch again
during the remainder of the night, but take
refuge among the grass, and underneath the
hedges, where they fall an easy prey to the
fox, the cat, and the stoat. A poacher armed
with a gun, finds a cloudy night fully as good
for slaughter as one on which the moon shines ;

PHEASANTS.]

BY FIKLD, A\'C)OD, AND WATER, [piieabant buootiko.

and if larch trees grow in the wood, to theso
he resorts, knowing?, by oxporionce, tlint tho
plicasant j^rofers tliia kiiul of trco to any
otlior." Aiulthon^

— " What avails his plossy, varying dyes,
His jnirplM crest, ami scarlet circlM eyes,
The vivid i;reen his shiiiiiiij jilumes unfolil,
His paiiUeJ wings, and breast that tlamcs with gold !"

Phcnsanta are eubjoct to considerablo
cliani^cs ; one of which is, tliat in certain case?,
and in certain years, tho female bird assumes
the appearance of the male. This curious fact
iiuluccd Dr. John Hunter to niako a scries
of experiments, with a view of ascertaining
whether there was in reality any transfer of
(render accompanied by this change of plumage
and outward appearance. But ho found no
organic change whatever in the generative
organs. The diseases to which the pheasant is
subject are but little understood. It is said
that they die oft" suddenly about the time they arc
being denuded of their crest and tail feathers,
without any apparent illnecs, having an abun-
dance of food, of which ants and their eggs
form a part. Good air, exercise, and even
choice grass plots, will not arrest the ravages
of the complaint. It has been recommended,
bv way of cure, tliat, as in Asiatic countries, of
which the bird is a native, it lives very much
on aromatic plants, all remedial measures
should take this circumstance into considera-
tion. Spices and stimulants are recommended,
with nutritious diet, chopped eggs, and shred
beef. Pepper pods, and other aromatics, are
likewise used, in small quantities. In spite,
h.owever, of all care, great mortality sometimes
prevails among tho pheasants of particular
localities.

PHEASANT SHOOTING.

On the 1st of October — which is an inter-
esting day to aristocratic sportsmen, with their
well-trained dogs — pheasant shooting begins ;
and there are a variety of opinions among
sportsmen as to the ease with which this spe-
cies of bird may be shot ; some averring that it
is difficult to bring it down ; whilst others
hold that there is no difficulty whatever.
Much, however, depends upon the tempera-
ment or nervous system of the shooter, his
experience, and his practice.

The noise which a pheasant makes when it

takes wing — tho whirr with whirli it rushes
through tho leaves, sends a inuuieiitury thrill
through tho framo of soino moii, (juito huIIi-
cient to shako tiicir Hteadinesa of aim, and
send their shot nowhere, after it has been
ejected from tlio muzzlo of tho gun. Steadi-
ness is tho great matter in exploits of this
kind ; it determines tho relative portion of
skill which a man throws into such pursuits.

Tho spaniel is much recommended for phea-
sant shooting; and Mr. Daniel considered any
otlier kind of dog out of place when this
sort of gamo was tho object of pursuit.
"Spaniels," says this authority, "for phea-
sant or cock shooting cannot be too strong,
too short upon tho legs, or have too much
courage; the thickness of tho coverts will
oppose, and, sometimes, almost overpower
even this combination of form and spirit.
* * * Should the woods be very extensive
when spaniels are steady from hares, they
cannot well bo too numerous ; but if given to
hunt hares, they disturb the pheasants. Upon
no account accept or keep a spaniel — it is
needless to tell a sportsman not to Ireed from
such— which has any taint of tho hound in his
pedigree, although for generations back ; they
will be sure to hunt bare in preference to
winged game ; and the stock may be crossed
everlastingly, may attain beauty, strength,
symmetry, yet this latent spark of the harrier
will never be extinguished." Some shooters
use beagles in pheasant shooting with good
effect ; and even terriers arc employed in sorao
districts. But much depends on locality. In
thick hedge-rows, young woods, furze planta-
tions, and entangled underwood of any kind.
such dogs as the beaglo and terrier may bo
better suited for pheasant sporting than tho
spaniel; but where the grounds are com-
paratively open, the latter are to be pre-
ferred.

For pheasant shooting tho sportsman should
be early in the field, and he should scour tho
stubbles of wheat, barley, and bean fields well.
In very bright days, the woods should be care-
fully explored, for the birds often betake them-
selves to them in such weather. Cover beat-
ing is very essential, and the grounds should
bo thoroughly tried both with the dogs and
the beaters. A nye of pheasants are often
found huddled together within a very small

549

PHEASANTS.]

SHOOTING,

[pheasant shooting.

compass. Every section and crevice of a cover
should be run over, as birds are frequently
found when the sportsman is not expecting
them. AVe have already remarked, that no
sportsman -will kill a hen pheasant if he can
help it. As she is the rearer of the stock, she
ought to be most carefully preserved.

" But when the hen, to thy discerning view,
Her sable pinions spreads, of duskier hue,
The attendant keeper's prudent warning hear,
And spare the offspring of the future year ;
Else should the fine, which custom laid of old,
Avenge her slaughter by the forfeit, gold."

The veteran Daniel is very particular in
reference to the proper training of the dogs to
pheasant shooting, as they are very apt to dis-
turb the game, if not completely reduced and
brought to a knowledge of their duties. " They
disturb the pheasants," he says, " who first fly
up, and perch upon the lower boughs ; and the
ground of the covert is in vain traversed, and
beat for birds that are already some yards above
it ; in short, a spaniel that follows a hare fur-
ther than whilst in view, is never worth keep-
ing. Other circumstances to be minded are,
that when a spaniel is once put into covert, he
is never to quit it to range in the fields, which
some slippery ones will do, whilst their owners
are beating within it. "When a spaniel owns a
haunt, and quests freely, there should be no dis-
appointment ; whenever the notes are doubled,
their master should be certain there is game,
and accordingly press forward. Much depends
upon the practice which spaniels have ; the
constant use, and the killing of game to them,
are as essential to the steadiness of a high-
mettled spaniel as to a high-bred fox-hound :
neither can be worked too hard, if kept well in
blood." The writer then goes on to state, that
one of the chief conditions of obtaining this
desirable end is, that the dogs be of pure
breed. There must be no crossing, no con-
tamination of the hound in their blood, as we
have already observed, or they will be ill-
adapted for the duties they are expected to
perform. As an instance of an evil of this kind,
he gives the following: — "A stronger in-
stance," says he, " could not well be exhibited
than in the spaniels whichbelonged to Lord Wal-
tham and Mr. Iloare. A road only parted the
seats of these two gentlemen, and their game-
keepers frequently shot in the woods together ;
550

their dogs were equally handsome ; but those of
the former would drive hares the whole day
through, and consequently sprung everything
that accidentally lay in their course ; whilst
those of the latter no more ran hares than they
did sheep ; they would indeed find hares, but
follow no further than they saw them. They
were always in their places, twisting round
every stub with that agility, and possessed of
such fineness of nose, that neither woodcock
nor pheasant could escape their search. Lord
Waltham's spaniel bitches had originally a
cross of the beagle ; and although this was
tried to be remedied by resorting to the best
dogs, the tendency to liare could never be sub-
dued."

A similar case occurred in the north of Eng-
land, among the dogs of the late Ealph Lamb-
ton, Esq. He had some favourite spaniel
bitches that had originally a cross with a blood-
hound; and this corruption was continually
manifesting itself in the conduct of his shoot-
ing dogs, whenever sheep or domestic animals
of any kind thwarted their movements. That
old and excellent sportsman used jocularly to
observe, that they would retain their taint, as
mankind are doomed to bear the weight of
their original transgression, till the end of their
existence.

Whether it be the particular nature of the
ground on which pheasants locate themselves,
or whether there be anything peculiar in their
scent, we cannot determine ; but, even the
best dogs are often in fault whilst engaged in
pheasant shooting. Without attempting any-
thing like a solution of this singularity, we
give the fact for the benefit of the reader.

The season of the year has a great influence
upon the success of pheasant shooting, and
there is a considerable difierence between the
character of October and January birds. At
the fall of the leaf the birds are scarcer, and a
vast deal more cunning, taking the alarm at
the slightest noise made, by the approach of
the sportsman. In the opinion of many ex-
perienced pheasant shooters, December ought
to close the season ; for it is contended that,
if prolonged later, the birds will fly ofl' and
mate with other birds, and will not be likely to
remain, if the noise made by the reports of the
gun be long continued in every direction
around them.

BATTEAUX.l

liV i'lKLl), WUOJ), AM) WATKi:,

[INDIAN IJAXl ui:.

We have already alluded to battue sJiooting,
Tfhicli was formorly common in all parts of
Europe, as well as in Great Ikitaiii ; and
must again eliaracteriso it as a murderous pro-
ceedin<;, which lills us with horror, ratlier
than admiration, on account of the indiscrim-
inate slaughter perpetrated upon tlu! game
races on sucli occasions. In most books on
shooting, relative to the most distinguished of
these gatherings among the nobility and gentry,
they are minutely detailed; but they are of
little or no interest now to the real sportsman.

In Sweden there is somctliiiig of the battue
shooting prevalent ; but it dillors, in some
essential particulars, from what was, and,
in some instances, still is, followed in
franco and Germany. Indeed, all over the
continent there are innumerable traces of
this kind of sporting with the gun; but not
of the kind which can add much to a
true sportsman's knowledge, or his love for
his favourite amusement. In every kind of
sports, there should, at least, be some portion of
reason and sentiment thrown into them, or
they will soon excite disgust, rather than plea-
sure, in the breasts of all who have any pre-
tensions to humanity, or are even a little re-
moved above the brutal biped, who is guided
in his pleasures neither by the laws of reason
nor the sentiments of humanity.

In India, even, they have their hatteaux ; and
as long as these are confined to the destruction
of Buch animals as are destructive to man,
they are excusable, and may, by many, be con-
sidered even laudable. Mr. Johnson, in his
Indian Field Sports, gives us a description of
the manner in which one of these celebrations
is conducted. " The day before the hunt, or
driving commenced, several hundred people
were sent to the farthest extremity of the
reserved cover, where they fixed on a proper

place, and set the nets, which extended al^out
a mile, not in continuation, but at intervulti.
They required four or five elephants, and
twenty or thirty bullocks to carry tht-n:.
E;ich net was about forty feet long, and seven
feet high ; the cords being of the size of a
man's little finger, lightly twisted, with meshes
about eight inches square, made without any
knot whatever, simply by twisting the cords into
one another, by which they were rendered
more elastic, less visible to the animal, and not
so cumbersome and heav}' as if made with
knots. Sometimes three or four knots were
placed in succession, touching, or overlapping
one another ; but more frequently they were
intercepted by jungle, which was made almost
impenetrable, by stakes driven down in the
midst of it, and thorns twisted between them."
Such are the preparations for an Indian
hattue, which is attended by men, women,
and children, all armed with some kind of in-
strument, either of offence or terror. The
children and the women, no doubt, carry the
instruments of terror, which are such as will
make the loudest noise, in order to frighten
the horned beasts from the jungle into the
nets laid to entrap them. The slaughter, on
these occasions, is sometimes immense ; but,
as it is generally perpetrated upon the most
ferocious and dangerous animals, it excites
emotions of a very different kind from those
that arise in witnessing the ignoble slaughter
of beautiful and unoffending birds. In the
destruction of the former, the inhabitants of a
village or town, secure with greater certainty
the safety of themselves and their property.
In the destruction of the latter, it deprives
the forest of one of the most beautiful of the
ornithological species, and retrenches the
pleasures of the naturalist, as well as those of
the true and considerate sportsman.

551

TILE QUAIL. j

SHOOTING,

[the quail.

CHAPTER VIL

THE QUAIL.

The Quail (Tefrao Coturnix, Linn.) is de-
scribed as being fully seven inches long. The
bill is dusky; the irides hazel, and, in old
males, yellow; the crown of the head is black,
transversely marked with rufous brown ; and
down the middle is a yellowish-white line.
Above the eye, in a backward direction, is
another line of the same colour ; and on the
chin and throat is a black mark, which has a
turn upwards towards the ears. The remaining
parts are white, and the hind portion ot the
neck is black. The scapulars and tail-coverts
are of a rufous-brown tint, and the middle of
each feather is streaked with yellowish white,
surrounded more or less with black. The
sides are of the same colour, but not having
quite so much of the white streaks. The breast
is light ferruginous brown ; shafts white ; belly
paler. The wing-coverts are pale rufous brown,
streaked like the back, but more minutely dis-
tributed. The quills are dusky ; the outer webs
more or less mottled with yellowish white.
The tail is dusky, tipped with white, and con-
sists of twelve short feathers hidden by the
coverts. The hen bird is distinguished by
having little or no black on the chin or throat,
and by a dusky mark passing from the ears
downwards. Some black spots are likewise
seen on the chest, and the coverts of the wings
are barred with yellowish-white streaks.

The quail is very widely distributed, being
known almost throughout the world, with the
exception, it is said, of America, where it has
not hitherto been discovered. In the countries
of the European continent it is very numer-
ous ; much more so than in England, Wales,
and Scotland. It is often met with in Ireland
in large numbers.

This bird has been called the dwarf partridge,
from its great resemblance in figure, colour,
and habits, to the true bird of that name.
•'Those birds," says Mr. Daniel, "resemble
i!ach other by being both pulverulent, having
short wings and tail, and running very swiftly ;
they feed, copulate, build their nests, and raise
552

their young nearly in the same way. Both are
salacious, inordinately lustful, and the males
quarrelsome ; but numerous as are the Doiut's
of resemblance, they are more than balanced
by a number of disparities, which render quails
a distinct species ; for, omitting the peculiar
incident of their migration, quails are uni-
versally smaller ; they have not the bare space
between the eyes, nor the figure of the horse-
shoe impressed on the breast of the males, as
in the partridge ; the quail's eggs are smaller,
and of an entirely different colour; their notes
are unlike : the flesh of the quail is also ot a
different flavour, and more loaded with fat ;
the period of their life is shorter, for the quail
does not live more than five years. They are
less cunning than the partridge, and much
more easily ensnared, especially when young;
their dispositions are not so gentle, and it is
extremely rare to see them tamed. Quails
seldom form themselves into coveys, except
when their wants unite the feeble family to
their mother, or some powerful cause urges,
at once, the whole species to assemble and
traverse together the extent of the ocean,
holding their course to the same distant land :
but this forced association does not subsist
after they have alighted, and find in their
adopted country that they can live at will.
The appetite of love is the only tie, and even
this is momentary : so soon as passion has spent
its force, the male abandons his mate to the
labour of raising the family. The young quails
are hardly full-grown when they separate ; or,
if kept together, they fight obstinately; and
their quarrels are terminated only by their
mutual destruction."

The quail is migratory in its habits ; and
though many attempts have been made to
naturalise it in this country, the instinctive
desire to migrate, has hitherto frustrated all
such attempts. This bird has engaged the
attention of the naturalist and the sportsman
from the earliest times. Pliny says — " Quails
alight in such numbers on ships (and which is

THE QUAir..]

LY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER.

[tue quail.

always in the night), by their sottlinij on the I
niasts, sails, &c., as to bear down barks and i
yinall vessels, and finally sink them; and, on
that account, tho sailors have a great dread of
thetn, when they approach near to land." In
the autumn, large flocks of them cross tho
Mediterranean from Italy to Africa, taking in
their route, both in departing and returning,
the various islands of tho Archipelago as their
resting-places. They are often in such pro-
digious numbers as absolutely to cover the
entire face of the country. In Alexandria
they are so common, that they can be readily
bought for a farthing each Many of the
crews of merchant vessels have been so much
•onfiued to feeding on its flesh, that it
has been the cause of certain diseases break-
ing out among them, and complaints have
formerly been made on the subject to
the British consul at Alexandria. These
birds assemble in autumn on the northern
shores, to emigrate southward ; and it has
often been remarked, that they delay their
departure until the north wind rises, when,
towards sunset, the entire body take wing, and
display such swiftness as to traverse one hun-
dred and fifty miles by break of day. In Italy,
Sicily, and most of the Greek islands, tliey
arrive at a stated season in immense numbers,
and with singular punctuality, not diflfering, in
the average of years, above a day or two at
the utmost. One hundred thousand have been
known to be taken m a day. They are run
after during the night, and great numbers
perish in the chase In Sicily, there is quite a
sensation produced when they arrive. Ci'owds,
of all ages and ranks of life, are assembled to
witness the sight. The number of boats is
likewise astonishing ; and their passengers all
carry guns and pistols, to have a shot at the
feathered strangers. Ortygia was named from
them ; and so abundant were they on the island
of Capri, at the entrance of the Gulf of jS'aplcs,
that they constituted the chief source of reve-
nue of the bishops of the place. There were
a hundred and sixty thousand captured in
one season. In China, and in many of the
'slands in the Eastern Archipelago, they are
also extremely plentiful.

"With respect to these birds having an in-
stmctive knowledge of the precise time for
emigration, we have a very singular fact in
4 V.

sorao young quails, which, having been bred ia
cages from the earliest period of their lives,
had never enjoyed, and, therefore, could not
feel, tho loss of liberty. For four successivo
years they were observed to be restless, and to
flutter with unusual agitations regularly iu
September and April; and this uneasiness
lasted thirty days at each time. It constantly
began about an hour before sunset. Tho
birds passed the whole night iu these fruitless
struggles, and always, on the following day,
appeared dejected and stupid.

It is observed in tho Rural Sports, that they
are birds of passage, some entirely quitting
our island ; others shifting their quarters, as it
is said, from tho neighbouring inland counties,
into the hundreds of Essex, in October, where
they continue all the winter. If frost or snow
drive them out of the stubble-fields and
marshes, they retreat to the sea-side, shelter
themselves among the weeds, and live upon
what they can pick up from the algce, &c.,
between high and low water-mark. Their
appearance in Essex coincides with that of
their leaving the inland counties ; and this
same observation has been made in Hamp-
shire. The quail, like the partridge, makes no
nest, except a few dry leaves or stalks scraped
together may be so called ; and sometimes a
mere hollow in the bare ground suffices: in
this the female lays six or seven eggs, of a
whitish colour, marked with irregular rust-
coloured spots. Mr. Holland, of Conway,
once found a nest with twelve eggs, eleven of
which were hatched ; and Mr. Daniel saw a
bevy of nine young ones.

In combative qualities the quail holds dis-
tinguished eminence. He fights long, and dies
hard. The Greeks and Eomans cultivated the
pugnacity of this bird to a great extent ; and
the conqueror in a regular pitched battle was
highly prized. Indeed, in such estimation was
he held, that Augustus put a prefect of Egypt
to death for having brougiit a conqueror to the
table to be eaten — a singular act of imperial
justice, that estimated the life of a man as of
no more value than that of a bird. During
the middle ages, quail-fighting was common;
and Henry III., kitig of Castile, devoted much
of his time to tiie catching of quails for tho
purpose of matching them in fights. His
subjects usually hunted them morning and

553

THE QUAIL.]

SHOOTING,

[quail SHOOTINa.

evening, and had regular combats with them at
places adapted for the purpose. Scaliger in-
forms us, that the Italians have costly gardens
purposely laid out to hunt them, by means of
quail-pipes, with which they pursue the birds
as a great amusement.

In some countries the quail is said to be
more prolific than in others. In Italy and
Prance, from fifteen to twenty is a common
produce ; but, in hotter climates, twenty-five
and thirty are sometimes found in one nest.
This large number of eggs accounts, in some
degree, for the numbers of the birds. Some
sportsmen maintain that they hatch twice a
year ; but this does not appear to be satisfac-
torily proved. This subject is touched upon in
a communication inserted in the Neio Sporting
Magazine, vol. v. ; wherein it is said — " This
place (the Isle of Thanet) was formerly so
famous for them (quails), either from its
vicinity to the Erench shore, or the quantity
of grain which is cultivated, that people come
from great distances for the express purpose of
quail shooting ; of late years, however, their
numbers have considerably decreased ; but still
the sportsmen, in the beginning of September,
may commonly kill from two to three brace a
day. Along the banks of the Thames, below
Purfleet, several farmers and sportsmen have
assured us, that, about the beginning of No-
vember, a time at which the departure of the
main body has taken place, a small number of
quails make their appearance, and continue
during the wintei*, always at a short distance
from the river's edge ; these are evidently
the young birds of the second bevy, who, for
some reason, seek that particular situation
after the migration of the rest of their species."

Pespecting the abundance of these birds in
the East, we find it related in a work, entitled
Letters from, the Campagne Felice, that, during
the time when the Capitani Bey blockaded
the harbour of Alexandria, one of his Greek
seamen caught two or three that had perched
on the rigging of the ship. They were pre-
sented to the capitani ; and he was so pleased
with them, that he oftered a piastre for every
one that should be brought him. The price
"vas a great temptation; and, in a few days,

the sailors found means to cover the rigging
with flocks of quails. Every one caught, was,
as a matter of course, brought to the capitani,
who, to escape impending ruin, was forced to
stand out to sea, or break the promise he had
made to the captors of the birds. He pre-
ferred the former alternative.

Quail shooting is, in this country, principally
confined to the counties of Essex, K.eut, Cam-
bridge, Sufi"olk, and Norfolk ; and the bevies
seldom exceed ten in number, and are gene-
rally under that figure. They are to be found
in the evenings, feeding in corn-fields ; and
sometimes they lie remarkably still, and may be
readily approached. At other times, however,
they are as wild as possible. A steady dog is
indispensable ; but it must be remarked, by
way of caution, that most dogs are apt to be
spoiled for some time after they have been em-
ployed in tracing these birds. Common par-
tridge shot is recommended; but some quail
shooters prefer No. 7.

These birds usually sleep during the day,
concealed in the tallest grass, lying on their
sides, with their legs extended, in the same
spot, even for hours together. So very indo-
lent are they, that a dog will sometimes abso-
lutely run upon them before they are flushed ;
and when they are forced to take wing, they
seldom fly far. They are easily drawn within
reach of a net, by a call imitating their cry,
which is not unlike the words loliit, ivliif, loliit :
this is done with an instrument called a quail-
pipe.

Great numbers of these birds are imported
from Prance, for the table ; all oi which are
males. They are conveyed in large square
boxes, divided into five or six compartments,
one above another, just high enough to admit
of their standing upright. Each of these boxes
contains about a hundred. "Were the birds
allowed a greater height, they would soon kill
themselves ; and, even with this precaution,
the feathers on the top af the head are gen-
erally beaten ofl. These boxes have wire on the
fore part, and each partition is furnished with
a small trough for food. Quails may be for-
warded in this manner, without difliculty, to
great distances.

654

THE wooficocK.] BY FIELD. WOOD, AND WATKR. [tmk woodcock.

CIIAriKIi VllI
Tirr, WOODCOCK,

"W^'oODCOCK shooting liasi been callod tlio
" Fox-hunting of shooting" — a phrase at once
doscrii)tivo of its character and dignity.

Tlio Woodcock (Scolopax liiis/icoJa, Linn.)
is placed by naturalists at the head of the
snipe genus. It is thus described by Bewick
and others : — " Its length is about fourteen
inches ; twenty-six in breadth ; and its weight
about twelve ounces, though sometimes it is
found to the extent of fourteen. The shape of
the head is considered somewhat curious,
being more obtusely triangular than round ;
and the eyes are placed very forward, near the
top of the ears, and nearly in a line with the
corners of the mouth. The upper mandible,
which measures about three inches, is furrowed
nearly its entire length ; and at the tip it pro-
jects beyond, and hangs over the under one,
ending in a kind of knob, which, resembling
those of others of the same genus, is suscep-
tible of the finest feeling, and calculated by that
means for aiding, perhaps, by an acute sense
of smell, to find the small worms in the soft
and moist grounds, from whence it extracts
them with its sharp-pointed tongue. By
means of its bill, it likewise turns over and
tosses about the fallen leaves, in search of in-
sects which take shelter underneath. By the
entire conformation of the bird, and particu-
larly for the structure of its head, we have an
opportunity of displaying some of the wonder-
ful contrivances which Nature has instituted
for the sustenance and preservation of her
various orders of animated beings. From the
extreme sensibility of the mouth of the wood-
cock, some structural peculiarities are required
to gain a given end or object — the capture of
insects deeply embedded in either mud, earth,
or decayed wood."

The woodcock, it has been said, is naturally
of a shy and retiring disposition, rarely taking
vring by day, unless disturbed ; but just as twi-
light begins, it quits the woods, and, nearly at
the same instant, wanders over the meadows in
search of wet and splashy places, and moist

grounds, in quest of food. As the day dawna
it retires to its hiding-place. Thus, when most
other birds are recruiting exhausted naturo
by sleep, the woodcock is roaming through tlie
dark, directed by an exquisite sense of feeling,
which it experiences by means of its long
and singularly-constructed bill. The eye is
not called into use ; and, like the mole, it
may be said to feed beneath the surface ; and
by the sensibility of the instrument, which is
thrust into the soft earth, not a worm, however
small, can escape that is within its reach.

The eyes of the woodcock are of largo
dimensions in proportion to its general bulk of
body ; and, like those of some other nocturnal
birds, have the capacity of collecting the faint
rays of light, in the darkened vales and seques-
tered woodlands, during its nocturnal excur-
sions. Thus, likewise, it is enabled to avoid
coming in contact with trees and other ob-
stacles, which are continually offering im-
pediment to its flight. The nerves on the bills,
like those of the duck tribe, are very numer-
ous, and have a highly sensible power in dis-
criminating between objects by the sense of
touch. A woodcock, in a menagerie, has dis-
covered and drawn forth every worm iu the
ground, which was dug up to enable it to
bore with its bill ; and worms put into a large
garden-pot, covered with earth, live or sL
inches deep, wholly disappear before the fero-
city of the woodcock by the next morning.
The enormous quantity of worms which wood-
cocks devour is scarcely credible ; indeed, it
would be the constant labour of one person to
collect such food in suflicient quantity for two
or three of these birds. The dilBculty of col-
lecting a sufficiency of such precarious aliments,
has led the interested to try if bread and milk
would not be a good substitute ; and it has
been found that, by placing clean-washed
worms into the mess, the bird soon acquires
the taste for its new food, and would even-
tually eat a basin of bread and milk in twenty-
four hours, besides the worms it could obtain.

5uD

THE WOODCOCK.]

SHOOTING,

[the "WOODCOCK.

The digestive powers of the woodcock are re-
markably vigorous, and work with great rapid-
ity. On anatomical examination there is very
little found in its stomach and intestines, save
a few fibres of a vegetable texture, mixed with
some sand, small stones, and gravel.

Of the British species of woodcock there are
three varieties. "In the first," says Dr. La-
tham, " the head is of a pale red, body white,
and the wings brown ; the second is of a dun,
or rather cream colour; and the third of a pure
white. Dr. Hesham, in his Catalogue of Cum-
lerland A7iimals, mentions having met with
one, the general colour of which was a fine
pale ash, with frequent bars of a very delicate
rufous ; tail brown, tipped with white ; and
the bill and legs a flesh colour." In addition
to these, some other varieties are taken no-
tice of by Marmaduke Tuustall, Esq., of "Wy-
clifF, in his interleaved books of Ornithology.
Mr. Daniel seems likewise to be aware of such
a difference; for he observes that there are
different sizes of woodcocks. Those found in
the first part of the season are of the largest
size, fly heavily, and their heads appear to be
muffled, especially the under parts, with short
feathers. The most numerous tribe, which ar-
rive in November and December, are rather
smaller, their heads less, the feathers smoother.
and the bills shorter. Woodcocks that arrive
in this country about Candlemas, are likewise
small, and diff'er in their manner of flying ; are
quicker of wing, take pretty long flights, and
are well known to be very difficult to shoot, on
account of their not rising above the spray,
like the larger muffled woodcocks, but make
their way for some distance, as it were, among
the boughs. Mr. Baillon also notices two
kinds of woodcocks. " The largest arrive first,
and may be distinguished from the others by
the colour of their legs, which are of a greyish
tint, inclining to rose colour. The smaller
kind have a coating similar to that of the com-
mon woodcock, but their legs are blue. Varie-
gated plumage, and other anomalies, now and
then occur among these birds: thus, a pure
white one has been seen ; and we can only
wonder that still greater variations do not
frequently take place ; for although most sport-
ing works, in their account of the woodcock,
usually confine his foreign residence to the north
of Europe, yet it should be known that he is
556

likewise found in all the climates, both hot and
cold, in the old continent, as well as in North
and South America. It is, however, a curious
fact, that he is everywhere an emigrating bird.
His migrations in some countries appear, how-
ever, to be confined to a journey from the
plains to the mountains, and vice versd. In
Europe he is located during the summer on the
Alps, Pyrenees, and other lofty mountains,
from whence he migrates to the regions below,
and probably some reach us. His universality
thus established, we need not be surprised that
he sliould thus spoi^t into varieties, seeing that
every locality, according to its proximity or re-
moteness from what may be considered as his
attracting spot for domestication for the time,
has its influence over the size, colour, and even
the aptitudes of the bird."

The sex of the woodcock has been considered
as entirely unmarked by any external signs ;
but internally it can be readily detected. Mr.
Pennant thinks, from the examination of the
bird's feathers, which in the Jien present a
narrow stripe of white along the lower part of
the exterior veil of the feather, would be suffi-
cient to do away with all doubt upon the ques-
tion as to which is the cock and which is the
hen. In the male bird, the same feather, at
the same part, is beautifully and regularly
spotted with black and reddish white. Many
sportsmen maintain that there is another cri-
terion— namely, the greater size of the female
bird; but this is not invariably to be de-
pended on.

The female woodcock makes a very careless
nest, consisting of some dried leaves and
fibres, on the bare ground, and very often
chooses the root or stump of a decayed tree
for the locality. She commonly lays four or
five eggs, a shade larger than those of pigeons,
and of a rusty green colour, blotched and
marked with dusky ill-defined spots. The
young quit the nest as soon as they are freed
from the shell ; but the parent bird continues
to attend them until they can provide for
themselves. Buffon informs us that the
mother will sometimes take a weak bird under
its throat, and carry it more than a thousand
paces.

The flesh of this bird is, by gastronomes,
held in high estimation ; and it is eagerly
sought after by many sportsmen. In cooking

Til K WOODCOCK.] LY FIELD, WOOD, AiSlJ WATER. [xiii: woodcock.

it, the entrails nre not drawn, but roasted
within the bird, wlicnt'o they drop out with
the gravy, upon slices of toasted bread, ami
are relished as a delicious kind of sauce. The
Italians and Trench have caeh particular
modes of preparing this bird for tlio table,
which they do in such excellent stylo as to
leave an impression ou the palate of the eater
for some time after.

The woodcock is migratory in its habits, and
"cnerally arrives in the south of England
during the month of October. It does not
come in large flocks, but in ones or twos, till
about the month of December. They are, very
probably, much influenced in their movements
by the wind, which, if it blow from a conti-
nental quarter, is more likely to aid their flight
than when it comes from the opposite direc-
tion. The birds have a singular instinct of
landing only in the night, or in dark misty
weather ; for they are never seen to arrive by
dav, but are frequently found next morning in
anv ditch which could afford them shelter,
particularly after the great fatigue they must
have undergone in bufleting the adverse winds
which they must frequently have to encounter
in their aerial voyages. They do not remain
on the shores to take their rest longer than a
day, but proceed inland to the very same haunts
which they occupied during the preceding
season. In stormy weather they retire to the
moors and mountains ; but as soon as the frost
sets in, and the snow begins to fall, they re-
turn to lower and more congenial situations,
where they meet with boggy grounds and
springs, and little oozing moss-fringed rills
which are rarely frozen, and seek the shelter
of the close bushes of holly, furze, and brakes
in the glens, or dells which are covered with
underwood. There they remain concealed
during the day, and remove to difl'erent haunts,
and feed only in the night. Prom the begin-
ning to the end of March, or sometimes to the
middle of April, they gradually approach the
coasts, and avail themselves of the first fair
wind to return to their native woods. Should
the weather be unfavourable to their migrating,
they will delay their departure, when their
numbers increase by degrees, and when tliey
are more easily found and destroyed by their
numerous enemies.

Other accounts sav that thev leave the north

with tlio first frost, and travel slowly Bouth-
warils till they come to their accustomed winter
quarters. They do not usually make a quick
voyage, but fly from wood to wood, reposing
and feeding on their journey ; selecting such
woody haunts as are in the vicinity of moist
and marshy springs. They conceal themselves
under thick bushes by day, and fly abroad to
feed in the dusk of the evening. A laurel or
holly-bush forms a favourite place for their
repose. The thick and glossy leaves of thc-'O
trees prevent the radiation of heat from tho
soil, and they are less afiected by the refrige-
rating influence of a clear sky, so that they
aflbrd a warm and comfortable retreat for tho
woodcock. These birds usually take to tho
north on the first approach of spring, and their
flights are generally longer, and their rests
fewer at this season than in autumn. In tho
latter they are driven from tho north to t!ie
south by the want of food, and they stop
wherever they can find it. In the spring there
is the influence of another powerful instinct
added to this — tho sexual feeling. They
migrate in pairs, and pass as speedily as pos-
sible to the place where they are likely to find
food, and where they can rear their young with
the i)robability of being unmolested, of which
the old birds have already had the experience of
former years. Scarcely any woodcocks winter
in any part of Germany. In France there aro
a few found, particularly in the southern de-
partments; and in Kormandy and Brittany.
The woods of England, especially of the west
and south, contain always a certain number of
these birds ; but there are far more in the moist
soil and warmer climate of Ireland. lu the
woods of southern Italy and Greece, near
marshes, they are still more abundant; and
they are generally difl'used over the Greek
islands, Asia Minor, and Northern Africa.

"Woodcocks have been known to settle upon
a vessel at sea. Mr. Travers, of Cornwall,
records an instance of this, when at such a dis-
tance from land as to make it rare for birds to
be seen. AVhen first discerned, it was high
in the air, hovering above the ship, but grad-
ually descended; and, after making several
circuits round the vessel, at length alighted ou
the deck. Its exhaustion was so great, that
it allowed itself to be takeu up by the hand.

In their flight, woodcocks, like other birds,

1)3/

THE "WOODCOCK.!

SHOOTING,

[the woodcock.

are attracted by a glare of light ; and many-
instances have occurred, at the Cromer and
Eddjstone lighthouses, of their falling victims
when dashing against the windows of these
structures. At the lighthouse upon the Hill
of Howth, the man who attended it on one
occasion, was surprised by a violent stroke
against the windows, which broke a pane of
plate-glass, more than three-eighths of an
inch thick. On examining the balcony which
surrounds the light, he found a woodcock,
which had flown against the window with such
violence as to break his bill, head, breast-bone,
and both wings. The man had often found
birds which had killed themselves by flying
against the glass, but had never before known
of a pane to be injured.

"Woodcocks have been seen at their first
arrival, in considerable numbers, on the coast
of Sussex, in the church-yard, and even in the
streets of Kye ; but during the night, the
usual time of their flying, they have betaken
themselves to less dangerous and more natural
quarters. At their first visit for the season to
the coast, they are commonly poor in con-
dition, weakened and wasted through great ex-
ertion, and, likewise, sometimes scurfy, though
not so much so as before their return in the
spring. The taste of the flesh has also become
quite metamorphosed. On their arrival, this
is usually marked by insipidity of flavour ;
but when they have been a short time feeding
in the country, it greatly improves, both in
point of richness and delicacy. If a woodcock
is shot just before its departure, it bleeds
plentifully ; whereas, at the beginning of winter,
it yields hardly any blood at all. From this
circumstance it would seem, that in those
countries where they have their summer resi-
dence, they live on a difierent kind of food to
what they find here. Probably the luxuriant
and succulent aliment which they meet with
among ua, prepares them for breeding in those
countries to which they retire with the com-
panions of their choice.

The time when the woodcock appears and
disappears in Sweden, agrees exactly with the
periods of their arrival in, and departure from,
our own island. Their autumnal and vernal
appearance on the coast of Suffolk have been
accurately noticed. They come over sparingly
in the first week of October, the greater num-
558

bers not arriving till November and December,
and always after sunset. It is the wind, and
not the moon, which determines the time of
their arrival ; and it is probable that this should
be the case, as they come hither in quest of
food, which fails them in the places they leave.
If the wind has been favourable for their flight,
and if they remain at all on the coast where
they alight, it is but for a very short time ; but
if they have been forced to struggle with an
adverse gale, they rest a day or two to recover
their strength. In such cases they have been
known to be so much exhausted, that they have
been taken up in South wold streets, nearly dead.
They do not come in flocks, but separately, and
disperse like so many feathered skirmishers
making their way through the fields of air.

Prance, Germany, and Italy are treated
in the same manner as we are, w^heu the
proper season arrives. They visit Burgundy in
the latter end of October, but continue there
only four or five weeks ; it being a dry country,
obey are forced from it, for want of sustenance,
by the first frost. In the winter they are
found in great abundance as far south as
Smyrna and Aleppo. During the same season
they appear in vast quantities in Barbary,
where the Africans call them the " ass of the
partridge." It has been asserted that some
have been seen as far south as Egypt, which is
the remotest migration to which they can be
traced on that part of the African coast of the
Mediterranean ; on the other side of Asia they
are common in Japan. The woodcocks that re-
sort to the countries of the Levant, probably
come from the deserts of Siberia, or Tartary,
or the old mountains of Armenia. In the
neighbourhood of Athens, woodcocks abound,
descending, after snow on the mountains, into
the plains, and suddenly retiring if the
weather continues severe. They enter the
gardens of the town in great distress, rather
than cross the sea, and are sometimes caught
with the hand.

It is now fully ascertained that they occa-
sionally breed in this country, and even as far
north as the Orkney Islands ; but it is main-
tained that these birds are not nearly so plen-
tiful as they were half a century ago, amongst
us. Perhaps this may really be the case;
but the fact has been doubted. It is the com-
mon failing of some minds to exaggerate the

TJIK WOUUCOClC.j

BV FIELD, WOOD AND WATEll.

[tIIK 'WOODCOCK.

It

past at tlie expense of the present. It is
tluToforo safe to be somewhat iiiorecluloua in
ttiia matter, in order not to attacli 80 mucli
credit to these statements as some writers do.
There is a greater number of sportsmen now
than formerly, at least in the shootinc; art ;
and this may aecount for fewer woodcoeks
being killed by any single person. The
pport, wo believe, is more generally diffused,
but not seriously, if at all, diminished from for-
mer times.

In regard to the kind of dogs which should
bo used by tho woodcock shooter, spaniels are
the best. Pointers and setters are taken by
some ; but they are considered inferior to the
spaniel where the woods are extensive and
chickly set uith underwood, brambles, and
thorns. The spaniel should, however, be well
trained, and should be taught both to hunt
close or wide, as circumstances require. Both
beaters and markers are requisite in extensive
woods. The employment of beating and mark-
ing necessitates a regularly digested plan of
operations, and a minute regard to instructions
previously agreed upon among the parties.
Those engaged in it must take their stations
at a given spot, and pay attention to each
other's signs and movements, otherwise they
will be working at cross purposes, and prove
worse than useless. Many beaters take sticks
to beat the bushes and underwood ; while the
markers take up their position on some ele-
vated piece of ground, or even some tree, that
they may the better see the birds, and mark ac-
curately where they drop, in order to be able to
give correct instructions to the sportsman.

Larore numbers of woodcocks are taken by
means of nets and traps, and find their way to
the London markets, where they generally
bring tolerably high prices. It is said that, in
the neighbourhood of Torrington, in Devon-
shire, these birds are so numerous throughout
the season, that they have been killed to the
value of nearly two thousand pounds in one
year. Catching them by nets and springes is
common in the hilly counties of Cumberland,
Westmoreland, and Durham. The same prac-
tices are in operation in "Wales to a great ex-
tent. Mr. Dobson, in his Kunopcedia, says —
*' The poacher's dog in Wales is an ugly, raw-
boned, cross-made derivation from tho light
setter, degraded through half-a-dozen genera-

tions of bastardy, with a view of biiiig made
into pointers. Than this, it is not po-^siblo to
conceive more unpromising material.^; and if
such bo tho effects produclblo upon this
stock, it is fair to conclude what u similar
disciplino is capable of doing with superior
natures. i3y hunger and hard work, of both of
which they have plenty, they aro brought down
to obedience; and their draw upon a cock iti
a wood, under tho dread of their master's arm,
with the power of which they soon become ac-
quainted, is wrought into a full stop."

Formerly there was a regular system of
shooting and entrapping woodcocks pursued in
Scotland, for the Edinburgh and Glasgow mar-
kets. In some localities of that country the
birds are very common, and there is a varied
abundance of food for their support, particu-
larly on the western side of the island, where
tho winter season is comparatively mild and
open, and tho springs and boggy grounds are
not so liable to be frozen. In a letter written
by Sir AValter Scott, to a friend, he says—" I
have been out for two or three days endeav-
ouring to obtain a shot or two at a woodcock,
but I have not been successful ; the fact is,
these birds are now taken off wholesale by a
band of men who do nothing else for the season
but kill them, and they find a ready and proii-
table market for them in all our large and
populous Scottish cities and towns. I was
lately informed, by one poulterer of Edinburgh,
that he had paid one man nearly a hundred
pounds last season for woodcocks, which ho
had chiefly shot in the western parts of Argyl-
shire and Inverness-shire. This seems prodigi-
ous." It is likewise stated, in the work from
which this letter is taken {Annals of Sporting,
Edinburgh), that formal applications had been
made to the magistracy of several districts
in Scotland, to endeavour to put a stop to this
wholesale destruction and tralllc.
t Ireland is highly praised for its woodcock
sportiug. Colonel liawker says, " that a real
good sportsman feels more gratified by flush-
ing and killing a woodcock, or even a few snipes,
than bags-full of game that have been reared
on his own or his neighbour's estate. Lo-
calities of cock shooting aro widely distributed
over the British dominions. Ireland, through-
out, is unquestionably the very best spot for a
zealot in cock and snipe shooting ; the nature

559

THE SNIPE.]

SHOOTING,

[the snipe.

of the ground, inclined as it is to bog and
marsh, suits the one and the other of these
birds." On the same subject, the Colonel
remarks — "If a sportsman is fond of cock
shooting, it will repay him well for his trouble
to take a trip to Ireland ; it is not material
what part to recommend, as it is impossible
almost to go to a bad place for sport. As to
asking leave, it is needless ; as the only cause
of jealousy that can subsist between the visitor

and the owner of the ground, will be, for not
acquainting him of his coming, in order that he
might have had it in his power to receive him
in the usual hospitable manner, by providing'
beaters to show him sport, giving him the best
of fare, a good bottle of claret, a sincere and
hearty welcome ; assuring his guest, the longer
he stays and honours him with his company,
the more welcome he is, and the happier he will
make him."

CHAPTER IX.

THE SNIPE.

Snipe shooting can be enjoyed in almost all
parts of the kingdom ; but we do not think
that it is a sport calculated to be so attractive
to the generality of shooters as the pursuit of
the game of the mountains and the moors.
To many, however, it affords a sufficiency of
excitement ; whilst it always secures them as
much exercise as will add to their health, and
helps to render them cheerful companions
whilst sitting at the fireside of their homes.

There are three different kinds of snipes
known to the British sportsman.

The Great Snipe {Scohpax Major, Linn.) is
a comparatively rare bird; the upper portion
of its plumage nearly resembling that of the
common snipe. The breast, sides, belly, and
vent, are white, spotted, barred, and undu-
lated with black. Its weight is about eight
ounces ; and length sixteen inches. The bill
is like the shape of the woodcock's, and about
four inches long. The crown of the head is
black, and divided down the centre by a pale
stripe ; and over and beneath each eye there is
another of tlie same colour. The upper parts of
the body resemble those of the common snipe;
the feathers on the neck, breast, and sides, are
edged with a dusky white, and those of the
belly spotted with the colour. The middle,
however, is quite plain. The quills are dusky,
and the tail reddish ; the two middle feathers
of which are plain, and tha others barred with
560

black. The legs are black. This bird is not
common in England ; but is sometimes found
in the counties of Lancaster and Kent. Some
designate them the solitarij snipe, from always
being found alone. In Germany and Siberia
it appears ; and Latham tells us that he saw
one among a quantity of birds sent from
Cayenne. Snipes are seen throughout the
Old Continent, from the Arctic regions to the
Cape of Good Hope, wliere they are common.
They are also found in the islands of Ceylon
and Japan. In America they are almost
universally distributed.

The Common Snipe (^Scolojpax Gallinago,
Linn.), or the Heather Snipe, is described as
about four ounces in weight, and nearly twelve
inches in length. The bill is three inches
long, and of a dusky colour; and, in some
individual cases, the base is light, flattish, and
rough at the ends ; the irides dusky. The
crown of the head is black, with a longi-
tudinal light rufous line down the middle ; and
another line passes from the base of the upper
mandible, of the same colour, on each side
over the eyes. Between the bill and the eye
there is a dusky line. The throat is white ;
and the cheeks, neck, and upper breast are
mottled with black and light-coloured patches.
The back and scapulars are black, barred with
brown, and striped with yellowish buff-
coloured longitudinal lines. The quills are

TUE SNIPE.]

BY FIELD, AVOOD, AND WvVTEK.

[the 85IPE.

black; the first edged with white, and the
soc'ondaries arc tip{>*'il with tho baiue. Thoso
iH'xt to tlio body aiv, with tlieir covorta,
striatt'd and barred with an iron-grey colonr.
Tho K)\vor breast and bt-Uy are whito ; uppor
tail-foverts brown, barred with bhick. Tlio
tail consists of fourteen black feathers, barred
and spotted with dull orange red towards the
i-nil, and with a narrow bar of black near the
tip, where it is of a pale rufous colour. The
legs vary ; in some they are dusky, or lead-
coloured, and in others black.

The Jack Snipe (Scolopax GalUnula, Linn.)
This species is described, in the Ornithological
Dictionary, as nearly half the size of the com-
mon snipe, and weighs about two ounces. Its
length is about two inches and a-half. The
bill is nearly two inches long, of a lead colour,
black at the point, and the upper mandible of
a light colour, and the irides black. The
crown of the head is black, and slightly edged
with rusty brown, bordered on each side with
a yellowish streak, beneath which is a dusky
one ; and close above the eye is another streak
of a light colour. From the bill to tho eye is
a dusky stroke. The black is varied with
ferruginous brown, and dusky. The back,
rump, and scapulars are of a fine, glossy,
changeable green and purple ; the exterior
webs of the latter, deep buff colour, forming
the two conspicuous lines from the shoulder
to the tail. The quills are dusky, and so like-
wise are the wing-coverts, bordered with
brown. The lower breast, and all beneath, is
white. The tail is cuneiform, consisting of
twelve pointed dusky feathers, dashed more or
less with an iron-grey. The legs are of a
greenish hue. The jack snipe comes later in
the season than the common snipe; and no
instances are known of its ever having re-
mained in this country during the breeding
reason. It is very common in most countries
of Europe, as well as in the various states of
!North America.

"We have already said that snipes are found
in tolerable abundance in all the old countries
of Europe, in Africa, Asia, and the islands of
the Eastern Archipelago. In the American
continent they are very numerous, especially in
the states of North and South Carolina. In
Egypt, they frequent the rice-fields or planta-
tiona in such swarms, that it is no uncommon
4 c

circumstanco for a man to shoot a baskotful in
11 day. It is said, however, that tho sport
hero is fatiguing, from thu light earth of the
rico-grounda being so deeply mixed with water,
that tho shooter sinks, at every step ho takes,
often above tho knees. Snipes arrive in Lower
ICgypt at tho beginning of November, and
pass tho entire winter there.

" The snipe is hardly ever found

In woods ; he's fond of open ground.

The ru.shy pond, tlie (|uict brook,

l?ut cliiefly to the marshes look ;

Tlie ])lashy heath and boggy moor

Yield freciueiitly an ample store;

Stick to them well when this the case is,

They very quickly change their places ;

To-day the sportsman can pursue

The numerous game //// all is blue.

To-morrow he goes out again,

But mayn't a single shot obtain ;

Affected by the wind and weather,

They often flock away together ;

Sometimes they to the hills repair,

Rising in wliisps all wildly there ;

Vain the pursuit, but if a gale

Should quickly from the east prevail,

Or even from the boisterous north,

Again you ought to sally forth."

These lines, though scarcely poetical, are
valuable, on account of the truthfulness of
their directions. They are taken from Re-
marks on Shooting, by Mr. Watt.

The snipe begins to pipe in the first week
of April. Many breed in this country. Their
nests are composed of dried grass and plants,
now and then intermixed with feathers. They
lay four or five eggs — sometimes six are found
— of a dirty olive-colour, marked irregularly
with dusky spots. The young have an in-
formed, shapeless appearance. It has been
well ascertained that the mother never deserts
them until their bills have become long, and
of sufiicient firmness to enable them to seek
and procure food for themselves. When dis-
turbed much in the breeding season, tho
parents soar very high, and the male bird will
keep on the wing for an hour together, mount-
ing like a lark, and uttering a shrill and
piping noise. It then descends with great
velocity, and makes a bleating sound, resem-
bling that of a goat, which is repeated alter-
nately round the spot which the female occu-
pies, especially if she is then hatching her
eggs. This sound, in the days of superstition,
was called the cainpana ccclestis.

5GI

SMPE SnOOTING.]

SHOOTING,

[snipe shooting.

Snipes of all kinds feed mostly on worms
and insects, which abound in moist grounds
and marshy localities. Snails have occasion-
ally been found whole or undigested in their
stomachs. Their flesh is fat and savoury;
and they are cooked in the same manner as
■woodcocks, without extracting the entrails.

From observations made by a gentleman in
Norfolk, and furnished by Mr. Daniel, it ap-
pears that the common snipe arrives in the
vicinity of Norwich in the early part of Sep-
tember, and stops for a day or two, or perhaps
only for a few hours. They often come in
large flocks, and lie very light on the ground.
At the end of October the greatest numbers
make their appearance; but as soon as the
cold weather commences, they almost entirely
disappear, and return no more until March,
previous to their final departure. During the
frost, the spring ditches are, when free from
ice, carefully examined ; but, excepting on two
or three early days of frost, very few birds
are found. The forwardness or backward-
ness of spring seems invariably to regulate
their movements, which induced this gentle-
man to remark the coincidence of the time
of the flowering of wild plants, and that of
the reappearance of the snipes. In Feb-
ruary, a few punctually arrived; but on
frost setting in, they departed again. The
marshes were searched, but not a snipe could
be seen. In March they again visited the
moist grounds and springs, in considerable
numbers, in company with a large flock of
lapwings ; but in a few days they left for other
countries. The next spring being a very early
one, many made their appearance in the first
week of March. They came in flocks, but in
a fortnight they had all gone away. It would
appear from this, that the weather has a great
deal of influence in determining the movements
of the snipe which has a very powerful and
an unerring instinct.

SNIPE SHOOTING.
Snipe sliootinf) is considered by Mr. Thorn-
liill to be no bad test of a man's love of gen-
uine sport, if he feel a strong partiality for
this kind of shooting. He observes — " Snipe
shooting is a sport the best calculated (grous-
ing excepted) to try the keenness of the
sportsman, to ascertain hia bottom, and if he
562

can stand labour, water, mire, swamps, and
bogs. He should be possessed of a strong
constitution, not liable to take cold, and have
all the fortitude, as well as exertion, of a water-
spaniel ; he should be habitually inured to
wet, dirt, and difficulty, and not be deterred
by cold or severe weather." Mr. Daniel
says — " Snipe shooting, when the birds are
plentiful, is an excellent diversion: they are
said to puzzle the marksman by the irregular
twistings of their flight when first sprung; but
this difliculty is soon surmounted if the birds
are suffered to reach to a certain distance,
when their flight becomes steady, and easy to
traverse with the gun. There is no reason to
be apprehensive of their getting out of the
range of the shot, as they will fall to the
ground if struck but slightly with the smallest
grain. Snipes, like woodcocks, and many other
wild birds, always fly against the wind ; there-
fore, by keeping the wind at his back, the
sportsman has this advantage of the bird when
it rises — that it presents a fairer mark. These
birds are scarcely good till November, when
they get very fat. In hard, frosty, and more
particularly in snowy weather, snipes resort in
numbers to warm springs, where the rills con-
tinue open, and run with a gentle stream ;
these, on account of their long bills, are then
the only places where they can hunt for food.
Snipes will generally lie well to a pointer ; and
some dogs have a singular knack of finding
and standing to them."

Regarding the difliculty of shooting snipes,
some alfirm that it is very great, whilst others
affirm quite the contrary. To be cool and col-
lected is a great point gained ; for where there is
hurry and trepidation, the chances are greatly
against the shooter. The motion of the bird
is irregular, and is supposed to arise from the
nature of its visual organs, being so con-
structed as to see things in daylight very in-
distinctly and obscurely ; and this is supposed
to be the cause of that unsteadiness of flight
so embarrassing to the sportsman. It must
be remembered, that in snipe, as well as in
woodcock shooting, there is what is called a
Jcnach to be obtained; a rapidity of action,
and promptness of aim, which practice, joined
to a particular temperament of body and mind,
alone secure. It is remarked by Mr. Blaine,
that it has been said, " in some writings,

SNTPE snooTiNo.] BV FIHLI), WOOD, AND WATER. [snipe snooTnro.

that tlio snipo ia tlio hardest to hit of nil birds;

wlioroas, in others, it is siiid to bo aiiythinp;
but diUloult to bring down a snipi*. Jn our
opinion, however, there are tsvo methods of
hitting him with moderate eertainty: the
ono ia by snap-sliooling, wliich i3 a habit
gained bv some, but not to bo critieally de-
scribed by any, except we regard it as a con-
sentaneous action of eye and hand at the samo
moment. The other certain mode of snipo
shooting is to put the gun into the hand of the
cool and deliberate marksman, wlio, nothing
ilurried, waits his opportunity, and the moment
the bird settles into its course, arrests that
course by a shot." Tiie OnMcigh Code aflirms,
that " the shooter will bring down a snipe
with much less difficulty at fi'om fifteen to
twenty paces, than at any other distance.
The aim is thus taken just before the bird
begins to malie its cross-ili^hts, but before it
has attained its full speed. The irregularity
of its flight is of little consequence during the
first and second twisting, before the bird is
safely on tlic wing, since its flight is then com-
paratively tardy. But let the snipe fly ten
yards from whence it sprang — let it be, for
instance, twenty-five paces distant from the
gun — it is then at the top of its speed, and in
the very midst of its sidelong, elliptical gyra-
tions, and more than a match for the majority
of shooters."

"Whether dogs should be employed in snipe
shooting is another point of dispute; but
where there are many men there must be
many minds ; and if these were to agree in all
things, they would soon become rusty and
useless. Accordingly, some maintain that dogs
are useless in snipe shooting ; whilst others
consider them as highly necessary. " AVho
shall decide vphen doctors disagree ?" Mr.
Blaine tells us, that he shot snipes in England,
Ireland, and Scotland, and never did so with-
out a dog, if he could get one. In Ireland,
snipe shooters not only have dogs, but beaters
and markers in addition.

We believe that snipes were, in this country,
much more abundant than they now are.
Mr. Daniel tells us, that snipes, in the Cam-
bridgeshire fens, were, at one period, most abun-
dant ; those brought to Cuiubridge market,
which at that time were all shot birds, sold at
threepence to fivepence each. One season

ho killed, ill three moniingfl, thirty-threo

eouplo of snipes; and from having known hia
father's men catch tliein by drawing with a
net in the night-time, ho mentioned to a
person near Milton Wm, hia surprise tliat this
mode of taking tiiein had not been resorted to.
Tlio fenman incpiiri'd what sort of net was to
bo used, and was told a lark-net would answer
the purpose of a trial. This the fenman soon
borrowed, and, the first night of his making
tho experiment, caught as many snipes as a
small iiamper could contain. Tho practice
soon became general ; and tho netted were so
much better than tho shot birds, that tho
latter could scarcely find a purcliaser in tho
market. The price at Cambridge afterwards
increased to a shilling, and sometimes to
eighteen-pence a-picce. The Duke of Marl-
borough's gamekeeper, on ono occasion, killed
twenty-two snipes at one shot.

A French sporting writer says, that, in the
year 1793, there were such immense flocks of
snipes settled along the south-eastern coast of
France, that they were taken in cart-loads.
They were so weak and feeble, tiiat the pea-
sants used to knock them down with their
hands or their hats. As this occurred when
the revolutionary frenzy was at its height, the
country people thougiit the presence of these
birds, in such multitudes, was a miracle ; and
very few, in consequence of this notion, were
eaten.

The localities for good snipe shooting are, in
England, Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, and
Northamptonshire; and the Essex marshes
have been long known and celebrated for this
sport. The birds are likewise to be found in
Yorkshire, Durham, Cumberland, and West-
moreland. In Scotland they are, on the whole,
more numerous than in England. In the
former country whisps of thirty and forty are
not uncommon in the boggy and marshy lands,
near the lochs and rivers which there abound.
Ireland, however, carries ofi"the pahn in point of
abundance. There it is no uncommon achieve-
ment to kill forty or fifty brace of these birds
in a few hours. They are to be met with in
every section of the country. In North and
South AVales there is likewise good sport.
Twenty brace have been killed among tho
mountain bogs there in four hours ; and this,
too, in comparatively unfavourable weather.

nn3

THE BUSTAED.]

SHOOTING,

[the bustabd.

We can scarcely move in any direction in
South "Wales, without meeting with vast num-
bers of these birds ; but they must be sought
after and followed in very odd places ; and we
must never scruple to plunge up to the middle
to gain our object. This sport is undoubtedly
a very exciting one, but it must be purchased
at a certain cost of bodily labour, privation,
and discomfort; and only those individuals
possessing sound and vigorous constitutions,
should follow it.

The time of the arrival and departure of
migrating birds, has been thus noted by Mr.

Markwright, whose observations extended over
a period of twenty-six years: —

First seen. Last seen.

Woodcock October 26 April 1

Snipe November 20 ^larch 20

Jack-snipe December 26 March 16

Landrail September 1 October 20

Quail August 20 — —

Red-wing November 20 INIarch 18

Field-fare November 21 April 19

Roy ston crow ... December 22 March 16

Swallow April 18 October 31

Swift May 9 September 3

Cuckoo May 7 July 10

Wheat-ear May 4 September 26

CHAPTER X.

THE BUSTARD.

The greater bustard (the Otis Tarda of Lin-
ngBus) is one of the largest of British game-
birds ; but it is now rarely met with. It is
about four feet long, and from twenty-five to
thirty pounds weight; its bill is strong, and
rather convex ; its eyes are red, and its head
and neck are ash-coloured. On each side of
the lower bill is a tuft of feathers, from five to
nine inches long, the back of which is barred
transversely with black and rust colour; the
large quill feathers are brown, and the belly
white. There are twenty feathers in the tail,
those of the middle being of a rust colour,
barred with deep black, and those on each side
white. The legs are long and naked beyond
the knees, and are of a dusky colour. The bird
has no hind toe ; its nails are short, strong, and
of considerable convexity, both above and be-
low, and the bottom of the foot is furnished
with a callous prominence, which serves the
purpose of a heel. The female bird is smaller
in size than the male. The crown of the head
of the former is of a deep orange, crossed with
transverse black lines ; the rest of the head is
brown. The lower part of the fore-side of the
neck is ash-coloured, and she is destitute of
the tuft on each side of the head ; in other re-
spects her plumage resembles that of the male,
with the exception that the colours of the back
561

and wings are less vivid and glossy. The male
is furnished with a kind of pouch, capable of
containing nearly seven pints of water, the en-
trance to which is immediately under the
tongue. It is supposed that the bird fills this
to supply its wants in those dry and thirsty
plains which it inhabits. Some naturalists
say that the male supplies the female with a
portion of the liquid when she is sitting on her
Qil"^. In Morocco, where the hawk is em-
ployed to capture the bustard, he makes use of
his pouclful of water as a means of defence ;
for, whenever the hawk is coming upon him, he
spirts it out upon his foe, and thus endeavours
to escape the consequences of his capture. The
female bustard makes no kind of nest, but sim-
ply scratches a hole in some dry field, and drops
two eggs upon the ground, as large as those of
a goose, and of a pale olive brown, dotted irre-
gularly with a number of small dark spots, re-
sembling the brown colour of the plumage.
She sits thirty days, and watches them with
great jealousy ; and it is said, if any one han-
dles them in her absence, she immediately
abandons them.

Bustards feed on corn and vegetables of
various kinds; they likewise devour great
quantities of earthworms. Like the ostrich,
they even swallow small pebbles, and bits of

rsy-BiEDs.]

BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER.

[fen-bibds.

metal. BuiVoa relates a sonunvliat straii^o
storv of one that waa opened before the lioval
Acaileniicians of Frauce; in the stomach of
which there wero ninefi/ douhloons, all worn
and polished by the attrition of the coats of the
stomach.

Shooting the bustard was once a very fa-
vourite sport with the gentlemen of England.
Then, however, they were more plentiful. In
autumn they appeared in tho largest num-
bers. Sometimes as many as fifty or more
would be seen together near the Downs in
Wiltshire. In Scotland the bird is supposed to
be quite extinct. In former days, all sorts of con-
trivances were invented to gain upon the wary
bird ; carts and coaches, in which gunners were
concealed, was a favourite plan ; and Mark-
ham tells us, that in his time (nearly two cen-
turies and a-half ago), the stalking-horse was
the surest mode of capture. It was a great
achievement to get a shot at the bird, and
a still greater to kill him. It was not an un-
common thing for even greyhounds to course
the bustard — as it displays always a great re-
luctance to take wing, and is often success-
fully overtaken by the dogs, and secured.

About thirty years ago, two fine male birds
were shot in Northumberland, which weighed
nearly twenty-five pounds each. Salisbury
Plain has long been noted for them ; but we
believe, at the present hour, they are but
seldom seen, even in this favoured locality.
There have been a few stray birds taken in
the high grounds in Wales, within the last
ten years. They are very common in Eussia,
Germany, and Tartary.

The Little Bustard (^Otis Tetrax, Linnaeus).

This is a smaller species of tho bird, being
sixteen inches in length, and thirty-five in
breadth, with outstretched wings. Its weight
is about twenty-five ounces. Bewick says —
" It is very uncommon in this country ; wo
have only seen two, both of them females. ]t
is, however, common in France, wiicro it is
taken in nets, like the ])artridge ; but it is not
an easy prey, being a very shy and cunning
bird ; if disturbed, it Hies two or three hundred
paces, not far from tho ground, and then runs
away much faster than any one can follow on
foot. The female lays in June, to the number
of three or four eggs, of a glossy green ; and,
as soon as the young are hatched, she leads
them about as the hen does her chickens, and
they are able to fly about the middle of
August."

In India the bustard is a favourite table
bird; but even thousands of gastronomes in
this country, if it were brought to table, would
be at a loss to know what it was. Colonel
Montague tells us that, in ISOi, one was shot
and taken to Plymouth market, where a pub-
lican purchased it for one shilling — what would
have fetched two or three guineas where its
value was known. This rare wanderer was,
however, so entirely unknown, that it was re-
jected at the second table as improper food, in
consequence of the pectoral muscle difiering in
colour from the other parts of the breast — a
circumstance not unusual in birds of the grouse
kind. Some country gentlemen supping at the
inn the following evening, and hearing of the
circumstance, desired that they might be in-
troduced to the princely bird, and, at their
repast, partook of it cold.

CHAPTER XI.

FEN-BIRD3.

The term "fen-birds" embraces a numerous
class, all breeding in the fens — which, by the
way, are fast disappearing before the march of

progress — but roving into different localities,
especially during the first part of tho year.
They consist of wild ducks, geese, gargerries,

565

TUE bittee:?^.]

SHOOTING,

[THE BITTEEN.

or summer teal, pochards, shovellers, teals,
pewits, gulls, terns, herons, bitterns, coots,
water-hens, water- rails, ruffs and reeves, knobs,
redshanks, lapwings, and many others. This
enumeration is sufficiently full to indicate the
varied character of the feathered population of
the fena.

THE BITTERN.

This bird is the Ardea Stellaris of Linnseus,
and bears a strong resemblance to the heron
family, only it is smaller, and has a different
plumage. The feathers on the top of its head
are black ; and those on the hind part of the
head, neck, and breast, are long and loose.
The general colour of the bird is a dull, pale
yellow, but variegated with spots and bars of
black. The greater covert and quill feathers
are ferruginous, and regularly barred with
black. The tail is short, and the legs of a pale-
green hue ; the toes and claws are very long and
slender, and the middle claw is serrated on
the inner edge. The female is somewhat less
than the male, with a plumage less bright, the
feathers on the neck not being so long and
flowing. Its bill is considerably shorter than
the bill of the heron, and likewise weaker.
She makes her nest in April, among rushes
and sedges, and is, in all respects, a regular
visitor of the fen districts. She lays from
four to ^vs. eggs, which are of a pale greenish
ash colour, and sits twenty-five days. AVhen
they are hatched, the young have the appear-
ance of being all legs and neck, and never ven-
ture from the neat until about twenty days
after they are hatched, during which time they
are carefully watched and fed by the old birds.
Their common food are slugs, small fish, and
frogs. In February and March, the male bit-
terns make a deep hollow noise, morning and
evening, which ceases after the breeding season
commences. This is called the booming of the
bittern, and has been often noticed both by
poets and naturalists. It is observed, in the
Ornitliological Dictionary, that " those who
have walked, on a summer's evening, by the
sedgy sides of unfrequented rivers, must re-
member a variety of notes from different water-
fowl, the loud scream of the wild goose, the
croaking of the mallard, the whining of the
lapwing, and the tremulous neighings of the
jack-snipe. But of all these sounds there is
566

none so dismally hollow as the looming of the
bittern. It is impossible for words to give
those who have not heard this eveniuo- call,
an adequate idea of its solemnity. It is like
the interrupted bellowing of a bull, but hol-
lower and louder, and is heard at the distance
of a mile, as if issuing from some formidable be-
ing that resided at the bottom of the waters.
This is the bittern, whose windpipe is fitted
to produce the sound for which it is remark-
able— the lower part of it, dividing into the
lungs, being supplied with a thin loose mem-
brane, that can be filled with a large body
of air, and exploded at pleasure. These bel-
lowing explosions are chiefly heard from the
beginning of the spring to the end of autumn^
and are the usual calls during the pairing sea-
son. From the loudness and solemnity of the
note, many have been led to suppose that the
bird made use of some external instrument to
produce it, and that so small a body could
never eject such a volume of tone. The com-
mon people are of opinion that it thrusts its
bill into a reed, which serves as a pipe for
swelling the note above its natural pitch ; while
others imagine that the bittern puts its head
under water, and then, by blowing violently,
produces its boomings. The fact is, that the
bird is sufficiently provided by nature for this
call, and it is often heard where there are
neither reeds nor water to assist its sonorous
invitations. It hides in the sedges by day,
and begins its call in the evening, booming six
or eight times; and then, discontinuing for
eisht or ten minutes, it renews the same sound.
In Scotland, the sound of the bittern is so very
common, that every child is familiar with it,
though the birds, from being shy, are not often
seen. The poet Thomson seems to have had a
very erroneous opinion of the manner in which
the bird produces this noise, when he says —

" So that scarce
The bittern knows his time, with bill engulfed,
To shake the sounding marsh.'

On the contrary, we have repeatedly remarked
that the bittern usually booms while flying
high in the air. Its lofty spiral flight is, indeed,
a matter of common remark —

" Swift as the bittern soars on spiral wing.'

A line which, we may remark, is not very orni-
thological, inasmuch as neither the bittern nor

THE HEEOK.]

BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER.

[tub heeon.

any other kind of bird has Bpiral winj^s.
Southey, however, seems to have been well
acquainted with the boom of the bittern —

-" At evening, o'er the swampy plain,

The bittern's boom came far."
The shooting of the bittern scarcely merits
the uameof sport, as their numbers are limited,
and thev are seldom sought for as especial ob-
jects of game. They arc easily brought to the
<^rouud. They rise heavily on the wing, and
move forward with a slow and deliberate mo-
tion, and are, therefore, a good mark for the
fowler. Sometimes, however, they will rise
rapidly, with a spiral motion ; and when this
is the case they are not so readily shot. A
double gun is of advantage in seeking for this
shv bird. When -wounded it fights hard ; and
when driven to extremity, will attack a man
with vigour, striking his legs with its bill, and
even in some cases aiming a blow at his head.
This bird was once held in high esteem at the
tables of the great, and is still highly prized by
the real sportsman.

THE HERON.
This noble-looking bird is the Ardea Major
of Liuujeus ; and has been described by Buffon
as " a picture of wretchedness, anxiety, and
indigence, condemned to struggle perpetually
•with misery and want, and sickened by the
restless cravings of a famished appetite."
How suck a description could have fallen from
the pen of the great French naturalist we are
at a loss to divine ; as, throughout the whole
scheme of creation, there is no animal, in a
natural state, doomed to a life of perpetual
wretchedness. The bird is just as happy as
any other bird ; and it follows its instinctive
habits with the same unerring regularity as do
the members of every other tribe of the
feathered creation. It is seen to stand for
hours fixed like a stake to a given spot — no
evidence of life in it — waiting patiently for
the moment to arrive when the trout or the
minnow shall come within the range of its long
cranked neck. Its movements are among the
wonders of this class of fen-birds ; and if
patience is a virtue, then the heron is abun-
dantly endowed with it.

The beron has a wonderful capacity of
stomach. It may be said literally to swallow
no end of fish. Some young birds have been

known to consume fifty small roach in a day.
These birds make their iicmIs of pieces of stick,
lined with wool and feathers ; and the female
lays five or six eggs, of a pale green colour.
During incubation, the male bird passes much
of his time perched by the side of tlio female.
They abandon their nests during the winter
season, except in the month of February,
when they return to them, and put them into
a state of repair.

In the sport of hawking, the heron, in
ancient times, was a frequent victim ; but it
had a means of defending itself which may not
be known to the generality of our readers. A
note in the Booke of St. Allan's, says — " The
heron, or heronsew, is a fowl that liveth about
waters, and yet she doth so abhorre raine and
tempests, that she seekcth to avoid them by
flying on high. She hath her neste in very
loftie trees, and showeth, as it were, a natural
hatred against the goss-hawk, and other kinds
of hawks ; and so, likewise, doth the hawk seek
her destruction continually. When they fight
above in the aire, they labour both especially
for this one thing, that the one might ascend
and be above the other. Now, if the hawk
getteth the upper place, he overthrowetb and
vanquisheth the heron with a marvellous
earnest fliglit ; but if the heron get above the
hawk, then with his dung he defileth the
hawk, and so destroyeth him, for bis dung is a
poison to the hawk, rotting and putrefying bis
feathers."

The heron seldom weighs more than three
or four pounds, notwithstanding it measures
about three feet in length ; and the breadth of
its wings, from tip to tip, is above five feet. The
bill is full six inches long, straight, pointed,
strong, and serrated ; and the upper mandible
is of a yellowish horn colour, dark towards the
ridge, whilst the under one is yellow. A bare
skin is extended from the beak towards the
eye, the irides of which are yellow, which im-
parts to them a fierce and penetrating look.
The brow and crown of the head are white ;
the eyes bordered by black lines, which stretch
to the nape of the neck, where they join a
long, flowing, pendent crest of the same
colour. The upper part of the neck, in some
birds, is white ; in others pale ash colour ;
and the fore part, lower down, is spotted with
a double row of black feathers ; those falling

-507

THE HEEON.]

SHOOTING,

[the HEEOir.

over the breast beiug long, loose, and un-
■webbed. The shoulder and scapular feathers
are likewise of the same kind of texture, of a
grey colour, generally streaked with white,
and spread over its down-clothed back. The
ridge of the wing is white, the coverts and
secondaries lead-coloured, and the bastard
wings and quills are of a bluish black, as are
also the long soft feathers which take their
rise on the sides under the wings. These fall
down, meet their tips, and hide all the under
parts ; the latter, next the skin, being covered
with a thick, matted, dirty-white down, except
about the belly and vent, which are almost
bare. The tail is short, and consists of twelve
feathers of a brownish-red colour. The legs
are a dirty green, long, bare above the knees,
and the middle claw is jagged on the inner
edge.

The female differs from the male in not
possessing the long flowing crest, or the long
feathers which adorn the breast of the male.
The entire plumage of the female is com-
paratively subdued and uninteresting.

Shooting the heron may generally be re-
ferred more to chance than any settled plan of
sporting with the gun. The extreme shyness
of the bird renders it difi&cult to be got at ;
and it is commonly only by accident that the
sportsman falls upon it and secures it. "When
not fatally wounded at first, it will turn upon
both the shooter and his dog, if he has one ;
and, with its hard-pointed bill, it can inflict a
sharp wound, , One that was shot in the
north of England, dropped a trout of ten
inches out of its mouth. On the dog ap-
proaching it, he was struck upon the forehead
by the bird's bill, and a wound more than half
an inch deep was inflicted. Such occurrences
are far from being rare in the shooting annals
of this curious specimen of the fen-birds.

In England, herons were, for centuries, con-
sidered royal game, and protected as such by
the law. Whoever destroyed their eggs was
liable to a penalty of twenty shillings for each
ofience. AVhen heron-hawking was a favourite
diversion among the nobility and gentry, the
bird was considered a rich dainty at their
tables. The heron has been partially tamed.
Sir John Sebright knew of a full-grown one
taken in a decoy, and brought to J. D.
Downes, Esq., at Old Guntou Hall. At first,
56S

it was crammed with food, and at length be-
came so tame as to follow him on the wino- to
the distance of some miles, to come into the
house when called, and to take food from the
hand.

THE GREAT WHITE HERON.

The Ardea Alba of Linnaeus is seldom found
in Great Britain. It is about the same size as
the common heron, but stands higher, being
longer in the legs. It is devoid of crest, and its
plumage is entirely white; its bill is yellow,
and its legs black. It is found in considerable
numbers in the Russian dominions, and in most
of the countries contiguous to the Caspian and
Black Seas, and the lakes of Tartary. It is
met with in the United States of America from
June to October, and is often shot in these
parts.

THE NIGHT HERON

Is only about twenty inches in length. The
bill is nearly four inches long, slightly arched,
strong, black, and inclining to yellow at its
base. The skin from the beak round the eye
is bare, of a greenish hue, and its irides are
yellow. A white line is extended from the
beak, and over each eye a black patch, glossed
with green, covers the crown of the head and
nape of the neck, from which three long and
narrow white feathers, tipped with brown, hang
loose and waving. The hinder part of the
neck, coverts of the wings, sides, and tail, are
ash-coloured, and the throat is white. The
fore part of the neck, breast, and belly, are of
a yellowish white, approaching to buff; the
back is black, and the legs a greenish yellow.
The female bird is nearly of the same dimen-
sions; but she differs considerably in her
plumage from the male. The former is less
bright, distinct, and vividly portrayed ; neither
has she the delicate plumes which flow from
the head of the male. It is unnecessary here
to describe the " Stork" and the " Crane ;" for,
although they are birds similar to the heron,
they are now rarely met with in this country.
This bird frequents the sea-shores, rivers,
and inland lakes and marshes, and lives upon
crickets, slugs, frogs, reptiles, and fish. During
the day it lies concealed, and does not roam
abroad until the approach of nightfall. It is
known by its rough, harsh, discordant cry,

BUFF AND UEKVK.J

BY FIKLP, WOOD, AND AVATKK. [uufk and kekve.

which is by some compared to tlio noiso made
bv rt person trying to vomit. Tho fomalo
builds her nest on rocky clifls, and lays three
or lour white eL;gs. Both inalo ami female are
vorv dillicult to shoot, on account of their
Oitreme wariness.

THE RUFF AND KEEVE.
Tho Hit f 13 the Tringa PwyMaw of Linnrous,
and is the name given to the male ; whilst the
lieeve designates the female of this species of
fen-bird. The length of the rufF is about
twelve inches, and its weight ranges between
six and eight ounces. The bill is about an
iuch long, and is tipped with blaclc, but reddish
at the base. The distinctive mark which sepa-
rates the male from the female is a singularly
wide-spreading, variegated tuft of feathers,
which, in the breeding season, grows out of
his neck. This tuft, a portion of which stands
up like ears behind each eye, is in some
black, in others black and yellow, and, in rare
cases, white, russet, or barred with glossy
violet, black and white. The entire face of
the bird is covered with reddish tubercles, or
pimples; the wing-coverts are brownish ash-
colour; the upper parts and the breast are
generally marked with transverse bars, and the
scapulars with roundish shaped, glossy black
spots, on a rusty-coloured ground. The quills
are dusky ; the belly, vent, and tail-coverts are
white. The tail is brown, and the four middle
feathers in it barred with black. The legs are
of a yellowish hue. The male does not acquire
the ornament of his neck till the second season,
and, before that time, is not easily distinguished
from the female, except by being larger. After
moulting, at the end of June, he loses his ruff
and the red tubercles on the face ; and, from
that time, until the spring of the year, his
plumage again resembles that of his mate.
This singular tuft in the male bird, it has been
remarked, is not a warlike ornament, but only
a kind of defensive armour, fitted, by the
length, stiffness, and closeness of the feathers,
to palliate the blows of an assailant.

The reeve is smaller than tho ruff, and has
no collar round the neck. She is brown in the
upper parts, and the middle of each feather is
dusky, and the larger quills are of tho same
hue. The secondaries are of rufous brown, and
the legs are yellowish. She lays four eggs in

4 D

the grasa, the ground-colour of which is white,
with iron-coloured spots. Aiuoiig sport.sinen
it is a rule, understood, not to t:iko tho reeves,
but to spare them for breeding purposes.
When the reeves arrive, tho ruff takes to what
is called hiUing ; which is selecting a suitable
place for pursuing his loves, and which is gene-
rally some elevated locality. Each ruff is said
to take possession of some small mound, or part
of a hill, which he wears (juite bare by hilling^
or breeding upon it.

An erroneous opinion prevails very gen-
erally, that ruffs, when in confinement, must
be fed in tho dark, lest the admission of light
should set them to fighting. Tho fact is, that
every bird, even when kept in a room, takes
its stand, as it would in the open air ; and if
another invades its circle, a battle ensues. A
whole room full of them may be set into fierce
contest by compelling them to shift their sta-
tions: but, after the disturber has quitted the
place, they have been observed to resume their
circles, and become again pacific. In confine-
ment, their quarrels originate in the circum-
stance of the pan containing their food not
being sufficiently large to admit the whole
party to feed without touching each other.
AVhen tho food has been divided into SETcral
pans, the birds have remained perfectly quiet.

These birds migrate in the winter, and are
then supposed to associate with others of the
fen-bird species, among which they are no
longer recognised as the ruff" and the reeve.
In the spring, when they return, they take up
their residence in tho fenny districts, where
they were bred, when they, as a matter of
course, become the objects of the fowler's
sport.

About Michaelmas is the time for taking
these birds ; but as few old males are caught,
an opinion has been formed that they migrate
before tho females and young. Is it not,
however, more probable that the few which are
left after the spring fowling, like other polyg-
amous birds, keep separate from the female
and her brood till the return of spring ? That
some old ruffs are occasionally taken in the
autumnal fowling is, perhaps, true ; but others
declare that none are taken at this season.
It must, however, bo recollected, that, in the
autumn, the characteristic long feathers have
been discharged, and, consequently, young and

5G0

THE KNOT.]

SHOOTING,

[the bed shank.

old males have equally their plain dress ; and
this circumstance may tend to give rise to the
contrary judgments on the matter. It does
not appear to be the opinion of fowlers that
the males take longer than one season to
arrive at maturity ; because the ruffs taken in
the spring, being without the long feathers,
which constitute the principal distinction
between them and the reeves, are compara-
tively few to those possessing the ruff; the
opinion, therefore, that these ruffless males are
birds of a very late brood of the preceding
season, is sufficiently reasonable. ,

The shooting of the ruff and reeve is prin-
cipally restricted to the fens of Lincolnsl)ire
and Cambridgeshire, and to the Isle of Ely,
and the East Eiding of Yorkshire. There are
likewise a few to be found in the fenny dis-
tricts in the neighbourhood of Bridgewater, in
Somersetshire; but these having been con-
siderably drained of late years, the birds are
now scarcer. In the marshy lands between
Boston and Spilsby, they may yet be met with
di considerable numbers.

THE KNOT.

This is the Tringa Canutus of Linnseus, and
has a claim upon our notice independent of its
being a fen-bird. This claim arises from the
derivation of its name. It seems that the
Danish king, Canute, was very partial to the
flesh of this bird — a circumstance that caused
it very often to be served up to him. It
therefore came to be known as the bird of
Canute, which was pronounced by his subjects
Tcnute, which, in the course of time, for brevity,
and greater facility in the pronunciation, was
corrupted to knot. It measures about nine
inches, and has a tail of a dusky brown colour,
of rather more than an inch long. The extent
of its wings is about fifteen inches ; and its
weight is about two ounces eight drachms.
The bill is one inch and three-eighths long,
black at the tip and dusky, fading into orange
towards the base. The tongue is nearly of
the same length, and is sharp and horny at
the point. The sides of the head, neck, and
breast are cinereous, edged with ash-coloured
grey : and the chin is white, with a stroke of
the same colour passing over each eye. All
the upper parts of the plumage are darkish
brown, but deeper and glossier on the ci'own
570

of the head, back, and scapulars; and each
feather is edged with ash or grey. The under
parts are a cream-coloured white, streaked or
spotted with brown on the sides and vent.
The great coverts of the wings are tipped with
white, which form a bar across them when
extended. The legs are of a yellowish hue,
and do not measure more than two inches and
an eighth, from the middle of the toe to the
knee. The thighs are feathered nearly to the
knee ; and the toes are divided without any
connecting membrane.

When the sportsman follows these birds
with the gun, they generally run very fast;
and it always requires considerable labour and
time before he can make them rise within a
fair range. Their flight is quick and unsteady.
When severe frost sets in, they betake them-
selves to the sea-shore, where they are more
readily brought down than upon the fenny
marshes. In Lincolnshire, they are, in large
numbers, decoyed into nets, by carved wooden
ligures painted to represent themselves, and
placed within the nets, much in the same man-
ner as the ruff is taken. The knot is likewise
fattened for sale, and esteemed by many equal to
the ruff in delicacy of flavour. The best season
for its capture is from August to November.

THE RED SHANK.

This bird is also called the Pool Snipe, and
is the Scolopax Calidris of Linnasus. It is a
favourite with many sportsmen, as it affords
them a good deal of amusement at certain
periods of the year. Its length is twelve
inches, its breadth twenty-one, and its weight
about five ounces and a-half. The bill, from
the tip to the corners of the mouth, is nearly
two inches long, blackish at the point, and red
towards the base. The feathers on the top of
the head are dark brown, edged with a pale
rufous hue. Over each eye there is a whitish
line, from the corners of which, dark brown
spots extend to the beak. The irides are hazel.
The back part of the neck is obscurely spotted
with dark brown, on a rusty ash-coloured
ground. The throat and fore part are more
distinctly marked, or streaked with spots of the
same colour. The breast and belly are white,
tinged with an ash colour ; the spots are thinly
distributed, and are shaped something like
the heads of arrows or darts. The general

THE GODAVIt]

Bv I'M'ij), WOOD, A\i) \\'.\'ri:ij.

[the oodwit.

appearance of the upper parts of the plumn«»e is
glossy olive-brown ; ami tlioso on tlii' HliouMorH,
Bcapular:^, aiul tertiaU are transveryt-ly marked
with the same coloured waved bars, on a pale
rusty ground. Tlio bastard wing and principal
quills are dark brown ; and tlie inner webs of
the latter are deeply edged with white, treekled
with brown; and some of tlioso quills next the
secondaries are beautifully marked, near their
tips, with narrow browu lines, exactly pointed,
and shaped to the form of each featlier. Sev-
eral of the secondaries are barred in the same
manner, and some are white. The back is
white; the tail-feathers and coverts are ele-
gantly marked with alternate bars of dusky
grey and white. The middle ones are slightly
tinged with russet. The legs are red, and mea-
sure, from the end of the toes to the upper
bare part of the thigh, four inches and a-half.
This bird is solitary in its habits, being
usually found alone, or in pairs only. Its
habitation is among the fens, or in wet or
marshy lands, where it rears its young. It
lays ibur eggs, of a whitish hue, tinged with
olive, and fi'ccklcd with irregular spots of black,
chiefly on the broad end of the egg. When
disturbed, it wheels round its nest in the air,
and utters a cry similar to the lapwing. It is
not very easily shot, on account of the spiral
motion it makes, and the rapidity of its flight;
but it gives excellent sport to a joung shooter.

THE GODWIT.

This is the Scolopax ^noce])ala of Lin-
nreus, of which there are several varieties : its
difierence of plumage is to be regarded as
a mark sufficiently strong to determine
this. Its length, from the extreme end of
the bill to the tip of the tail, is twelve
inches, and to the end of the toes, nearly
fifteen. Its breadth is twenty-one inches and a
quarter, and its weiglit is five ounces and two
draclims. The bill is slenderly formed, mea-
suring two inches and a-half from the corners
of the mouth to the tip, and is, for half its
length nearest to the base, of a reddish hue,
and the other part black. The irides are
hazel. Tlie head, breast, neck, and belly, have
spotted streaks, mottled and barred with dingv
ash-brown and dull white, whicii become darker
towards the hinder part of the neck. The
tliroat is white ; and lines of the same colour

pass from the upper sides of the beak over each
eye, from tlio cornerH of which two brown ones
extend to the nostrils. The shoulderH, scapu-
lars, lesser coverts, and tail, are of a glossy
olive-brown. The feathers on all these parts
are indenti-d on the edges, in a greater or less
degree, with triangular-shaped white spots.
The back is white, and the rump barred witli
waved lines of ash-coloured brown and dingv
white. The feathers about the vent are marked
in a similar manner, but they have a larger
proportion of white. The tail and coverts are
likewise barred with narrow waved lines, of .
dull ash-colour; and, in some epecimeug, arc
nearly black and white. Five of the principal
quills are dark brown, tinged with olive; the
shaft of the first quill is white ; the next six
are, in tho male, rather deeply tinged with
white, and slightly spotted, barred with brown.
The secondaries, as far as uncovered, when tho
wings are extended, are of the samo snowy
whiteness as the back. The feathers which
cover the upper part of the thighs, and those
near then], are bluisli, with a reddish or vi-
nous hue. Tho legs are of a deep orange red,
and measure, from the end of the middle toe-
nail to the upper part of the thigh, five inches
and a-half. Colonel Montague says there i:^
a larger kind of godwit than this, weighing
twelve ounces, and measuring about eighteen
inches in length.

This bird was known formerly ns a perma-
nent resident amongst us, resorting to tho
fens from the moors, where they were taken
by means of a stale or stufled bird, after tlio
manner of the ruff and reeve. Towards the
winter the godwit may be seen at the mouths
of many of our large rivers, and it is then a
very popular object of pursuit to water-fowl
shooters. At Hudson's Bay, it packs in such
numbers, that there have been fifty and sixty
of them killed at one shot.

There is another variety of the above. This
has the greater covert of its wings so deeply
margined with light grey-brown as to appear
almost all white at a distance, and the sides of
the body have a few long streaks of brown.
The bird is met with in various parts of Eu-
rope, Asia, and America ; and in Great Britain,
in the spring and summer, it takes up its resi-
dence in the fenny districts and marshy grounds,
where it feeds upon small worms and insects.

571

THE LANDRAIL.]

SHOOTING,

[the landrail.

During these seasons it only removes from one
boggy locality to another ; but when severer
frosts set in, it betakes itself to the salt-marshes
and sea-shores. The flesh of the godwit is
highly esteemed by epicures, and sells at a high
price.

THE WHEAT-EAR.

This small bird is known in the Linnoean
System as the Motacilla (Enanthe, and is
often shot on Brighton Downs : it is taken
in some neighbouring localities in great num-
bers. This is accomplished by means of two
turfs placed on edge, at each end of which
a small horse-hair noose is fixed to a stick,
which the bird, either in search of food
or to evade a storm of rain, attempts to get
under, and is caught. Colonel Montague
gays — " In confinement they are almost con-
tinually in song, and sing by night as well as
day ; they have a very pleasant, variable, and
agreeable song, difi'erent from all other birds :
sometimes it is very loud ; and they continue
it a great length of time, not continually break-
ing off like a robin-redbreast and some other
birds ; but their winter song is best and most
varied." In allusion to the migratory habits of
this bird, Miss Charlotte Smith has written
Bome beautiful lines ; but we have room only
for one stanza, which is sufficient to indicate
the happy spirit in which they were com-
posed:—

" From that deep-sheltered solitude
Where, in some quarry, wild and rude,
Your feathered mother reared her brood,

Why, pilgrim, did you brave
The upland winds, so bleak and keen,
To seek these hills, whose slopes between,
Wide stretched in grey expanse, is seen

The ocean's toiling wave?"

THE LANDRAIL.

The landrail is also called the corncrake,
and is the Ealhis Crex of Linnseus. Bewick
describes it as rather more than nine inches
long, and its general bulk of body as consider-
ably compressed. The bill is light-brown, and
the eyes hazel. Most of the feathers on the
upper part of tlie plumage are of a dark-brown
hue, edged with pale rust ; both winged
coverts and quills are of a deep chestnut
colour. Tho fore part of the neck and breast
are pale and ash, and a streak of the same
572

colour extends over each eye, from the bill to
the side of the neck. The belly is a yellowish
white, and the thighs, sides, and vent, are
marked with faint rusty-coloured bars. The
legs are a pale flesh-red.

The landrail is migratory in its habits, and
makes its appearance in this island about
April. Corncrakes, says Mr. Daniel, " are
plentiful in these realms, and in Ireland par-
ticularly so, where it is probable they pass the
winter. They are in the greatest plenty in
the Isle of Anglesea, where they appear about
the third week in April, supposed to come
there from Ireland. At their first arrival it
is common to shoot seven or eight in a morn-
ing. They abound in the county of Caith-
ness, in Scotland, and are found in most of
the Hebrides and the Orkneys. Few places
in England are destitute of them in summer ;
but they are nowhere what may be called
common. It is observed, that wherever quails
are in plenty the crake abounds. On their
first appearance in England, they are so lean
as to weigh less than six ounces ; but, before
their departure, have been known to exceed
eight, and are very fat. Their flesh is con-
sidered excellent."

The cry of the landrail is well known, aud
when once heard, cannot be readily forgotten.
It shelters among the long grass, and is rarely
seen, for it invariably hides among the thickest
parts of the herbage, aud runs so quickly, that
it is, in nine cases out of ten, impossible to
overtake it. "When hard pressed by a dog, it
will sometimes instantaneously stop aud squat
down, by which device the dog runs past, and
loses the trace of it. It seldom springs but
when driven to extremity, and generally flies
with its legs hanging down, but never to any
great distance. When it alights, it begins to
run with surprising speed; aud before the
fowler gains the spot, is far out of his reach.

The nest of the bird is formed of dry grass,
a few soft leaves, and a little moss mixed up
with the whole. It is commonly imbedded in
some hollow part of the surface of the ground,
but occasionally is met with on high and even
places. The female lays ten or twelve eggs, of
a dull white colour ; and the young, as soon as
they escape from the shell, are capable of run-
ning with wonderful swiftness.

The landrail departs from England before

THE PLOVEK.]

BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER.

[the LAPWnTG.

the winter, and repairs to other countries in
search of its food, which principally consists
of slugs, of which it destroys a prodigious
quantity. It likewise devours worms and
insects, as well as seeds of various kinds. IMr.
Pennant thinks that most of the birds which
leave us in spring, to spend the summer else-
where, have been traced to Lapland — a country
of lakes, rivers, swamps, and alps, covered with
thick and gloomy forests, that aflbrd shelter
during summer to the fowls which, in winter,
disperse over the greater part of Europe. In
these arctic regions, in consequence of the
thickness of the woods, the ground remains
soft and penetrable to the woodcocks, and
other slender-billed fowl. Some, on the other
hand, think that they take the opposite direc-
tion, and in place of flying to Lapland, make
icing to Africa. The cause of the migration
of birds is ascribed, by Pennant, to the de-
ficiency of food at certain seasons, or the want
of a secure asylum from the persecutions of
man during the time of courtship, incubation,
and nutrition.

It is difficult sometimes to get a shot at
this bird, from the peculiarity of its habits.

PLOVERS,

The Great Plover is the CJiaradrius (Edic-
nemiis of Linnaeus ; bat by some writers it is
called the stone curlew, and Norfolk plover,
and considered a diminutive type of the bus-
tard. It is about sixteen inches long, with a
bill of moderate length ; eyes and eyelids of a
pale yellow hue, with a pale streak above and
below, which forms a very characteristic mark.
The upper parts of the body are tawny brown,
and, on each feather, there is a dark streak
down the centre. The fore part of the neck
and breast are nearly of the same colour, but
much paler. The belly, thighs, and vent are
of a pale yellowish white, and the quills are
black. The tail is short and rounded, and a
dark band crosses the middle of each feather.
The tips are black, and the rest white : the
legs are yellow, and naked above the knees,
which are very thick, as if swollen ; and its
claws are black.

This bird is very frequently found in Nor-
folk; and Mr. AVhite observes, that the dis-
trict of Selborne, in Hampshire, is one of its
favourite spots. In the north of England it

is little known. It frequents dry and stony
places, by the sides of sloping banks, and
makes no nest. The female lays two or three
eggs on the bare ground, sheltered by a stono,
or in some small hole formed in the sand.
These are of a dirty-white colour, marked with
deep-rod spots, mixed with slight strc'aks.
Although this bird has great power of wing,
and ilics with great strength, it is seldom seen
during the day, unless surprised, when it
springs to some distance, and commonly makes
its escape before the sportsman gets within
gun-shot. It runs along the ground nearly as
swiftly as a dog. After running some time, it
suddenly stops, holding its head and body still,
and, on hearing the least noise, squats close to
the ground. In the evening it comes out in
quest of food, and may then be heard at a great
distance. Its cry is singularly hoarse, and has
been compared to the turning of a rusty handle.
Its food consists chiefly of worms. It is said
to bo tender and savoury eating when young ;
but, when aged, to be hard, dry, and black.
In White's History of Selborne, it is stated
that the young run immediately from the nest
almost as soon as they escape from the shell,
and that the female leads them to some stony
field, where they bask among the stones, to
which they bear so close a resemblance, in
point of colour, as not easily to be discovered.

The Great Plover is migratory in its habits,
and arrives in this country in April. It
remains with us all the spring and summer,
and, at the commencement of autumn, prepares
to take leave by getting together in flocks. It
is supposed that these plovers retire to Spain,
and frequent the sheep-walks with which that
country abounds.

Like the Landrail, it is difficult to obtain a
shot at it, from the celerity with which it runs
over the ground.

THE LAPWING, OR PEWIT.

This is the Fringilla Venellus of Linnmus,
and is a common bird among sportsmen. It
falls in his way in every direction, where there
is poor, barren, and moist land. Its weight
is about eight ounces. The plumage, taken
altogether, is beautiful, and the male and
female greatly resemble each other ; the latter,
however, being rather the smaller of the two.
It is a well-known bird, chiefly by its singular

573

THE lAPWISG.J

SHOOTING,

[golden ploveb.

cries when flying, and its motions are full of
variety. The female lays four eggs, of a dirty-
olive colour, spotted with black, which she
deposits in some small indentation in the
ground, having previously made a rude nest of
a little dry grass and heather. The young
brood, as soon as they leave the shell, are
capable of using their lim-bs, and the parent
bird displays a great deal of tenderness and
solicitude over them.

The Lapwing is found in most parts of
Europe, as far northward as Iceland ; and, in
the winter, it is met with in Persia and Egypt.
Its chief food is worms ; and sometimes flocks
of this bird may be seen covering low marshy
grounds in search of these, which they draw
with great dexterity from their holes. When
the bird meets with one of those little clusters
of pellets, or rolls of earth, that are thrown
out by the perforations of worms, it first gently
removes the mould from the mouth of the hole,
then strikes the ground at tlie side with its
foot, and steadily and attentively waits the
issue : the reptile, alarmed by the shock,
emerges from its retreat, and is instantly
seized. In the evening the birds pursue a
different plan. They run along the grass, and
feel under their feet the worms, which now
come forth, invited by the coolness of the air.
Thus they obtain a plentiful meal ; and after-
wards wash their bill and feet in the small
pools or rivulets.

"I have seen this bird," says Dr. Latham,
"approach a worm-cast, turn it aside, and,
after making two or three turns about, by way
of giving motion to the ground, the worm came
out, and the watchful bird, seizing hold of it,
drew it forth."

The Lapwing remains in England the whole
year. The parent exhibits the greatest attach-
ment to her young; and the arts she employs
to allure boys and dogs from the place where
these are running, are extremely amusing.
She does not wait the arrival of her enemies
at the nest, but boldly pushes out to meet
them ; when, as near as she dare venture, she
rises from the ground with a loud screaming
voice, as if just flushed from hatching, though
probably, at the same time, not within a hun-
dred yards of her nest. She now flies, and
makes a great clamour, and appears extremely
disturbed ; whining and screaming round the
574!

invaders, striking at them with her wings, and
sometimes fluttering as if she was wounded.
To complete the deception, she becomes still
more clamorous as she retires from the nest.
If very near, she appears altogether uncon-
cerned ; and her cries cease in proportion as
her fears are augmented. When approached
by dogs, she flies heavily, at a little distance
before them, as if maimed ; still vociferous, and
still bold, but never oflering to move towards
the quarter where her young are stationed.
The dogs pursue, in expectation, every moment,
of seizing the parent, and,' by this means,
actually lose the young ; for the cunning bird,
having, by her stratagems, drawn them oft' to
a proper distance, exerts her powers, and leaves
her astonished pursuers to gaze at the rapidity
of her flight.

There are few readers acquainted in any
degree with the country, who will not recollect
how justly the following lines describe the
manners of this bird : —

" Hence, around the head

Of wand'ring swains, the white-wing'd plover wheels
Her sounding flight ; and then directly on,
In long excursion, skims the level lawn.
To tempt him from her nest."

At certain seasons these birds search the
dry heather of the downs for insects and grubs ;
and, not long after, they are found feeding on
shell-fish in the moist and swampy ditches.
They are fine eating, and their eggs bear a
high price in the market.

To shoot them with certainty requires con-
siderable practice ; but, on the whole, when on
the wing, their mode of flight is forourable to
the shot telling upon them in vital quarters.
No. 4 shot is generally recommended for this
bird.

THE GOLDEN PLOVER.

This is the Charadrius Fluvialis of Linnasus,
and is described as being about seven or eight
ounces in weight, and its length about ten
inches and a- half. The bill is a httle more
than one inch in length, dusky in its hue.
The irides are hazel. The general plumage
above is dusky, spotted with greenish yellow,
brighter on the back and scapulars, and palest
on the wing-coverts. The sides, head, and
neck of the body are lighter-coloured ; and the
middle of the belly and vent are white. The

THE ouRY PLOVER.] J5 T I-IKLD, WOOD, Ay^U W'ATEIl.

[the Moon-nBK.

.juills are dusky, slightly margined at the tip
with groy. The tail is alsu tliisky, spotted with
vellow, and of a white hue. The legs are blaek.

The golden plover is very common in this
country, and is pretty generally distributed
over Europe. In America it is very numerous,
Vom Hudson's Eay as far as Carolina, migrating
from one locality to another, in accordance
with the seasons that produce its food. The
male and female are very nearly alike in size
and plumage. In young birds the yellow spots
are not very strongly marked, as the plumage,
during the time of their growth, inclines more
to a grey hue.

These plovers were formerly taken in great
numbers by means of a stalking-horse. AV'hen
fired at, they fly over yon, darting down for
the moment, and separating in every direc-
tion ; so that by taking a random shot with
the first barrel, you may often bring them
down to get a fair shot with the second.

THE GREY PLOVER.
This is the Tringa Squatarola of LinnsDUS,
lud is about eleven or twelve inches long, and
varying from twenty-four to twenty-five broad.
Its general weight is about seven ounces. The
bill is black : the head, back, and wing-coverts
are of a dull dusky brown, edged with greenish
nsh-colour, and some with white. The cheeks
aid throat are white, and marked with oblong
aisky spots. The belly, sides, and rump arc
white, the sides being marked with a few scat-
tered dusky spots. The outer web of the
quills is black ; and the lower parts of the
inner webs of the first four are white. The
feathers of the tail are marked with alternate
bars of black and white. The legs are of a dull
green hue, and the hind toe is small.

This bird is not very common in Great Bri-
tain, but is occasionally met with in large
flocks on the sea-coast. Its flesh is esteemed
a great delicacy. In cold and frosty weather,
grey plovers seek their food on lands near
the sea-shore ; and when the sky is clear they
frequent ploughed fields, especially if sown with
grain. After feeding they make for some water,
in which they wasb their beaks and feet, and
seem to take great delight in so doing. In the
night they run up and down, feeding on worms,
which they devour in large numbers. The
bird is very common in Ireland, where it is

found in immense numbers. Being a shy bird,

it is difllcult to got near enough to shoot it.

THE WATKll-llAlI..

Thia is the Jiiillus Aquaticus of LinnaeuB,
and ia a curious specimen of tho fen-bird.
It resembles the landrail in general appear.inco
and iiguro, but is quite distinct in habits and
instincts. Tho water-rail ia one day couched
in the long grass of a iiigh district, and in tho
next is squatted on, or flying about, tlic marshy
and boggy grounds. When hunted closely it
may bo readily 8])rung, and makes a passable
shot. Colonel Montague thus writes of it : —
" It seldom takes wing, but dives on the
least alarm, and will remain under water,
amongst the reeds or other aquatic plants,
with only its bill above, for respiration. Ita
nest is formed, like tho rest of tho grebes,
of a prodigious quantity of flags, or other
water-plants, but is generally fastened to the
reeds, or flags, in order to prevent its being
carried away by tho current. Temminck
gives a similar statement. The eggs are
five or six in number, of a dirty -white ;
the shape oblong, and less than those of the
pigeon. These are generally covered with
weeds, so that when the bird quits her nest
suddenly, they are not exposed to view. In
large rivers, these birds are frequently de-
voured by pike and trout while they are diving
in pursuit of small fish. We once took from
the stomach of the last, a water-rail weighing
fifteen ounces, the trout only weighing four
pounds. After the breeding season, the bird
is frequently found in some of our inlets of the
sea, where it is said to feed on shrimps."

THE GALLINULE, OR MOOR-HEN.

This is the Forlica Cliloropics of Linnaeup,
and in many of its habits, it is very like the
water-rail. It is not met with in any great
numbers ; but its species are scattered, here
and there, over almost every country. AVe be-
lieve it is not positively ascertained whether
they are migratory ; but it is well known that
they change their place according to the seasons
of the year; frequenting elevated tracts in
summer, and more sheltered parts in winter.
It is very common in Britain ; and sportsmen
fall in with it mostly on the borders of rivers
and ponds, where willows and sedges grow.

THE COOT.]

SHOOTING,

[geeateb coot.

Mr. Daniel says — " It is like the water-rail ; it
conceals itself during the day ; and in the
evening it runs and skulks by the margin of the
waters, among the roots of the bushes, oziers,
and long loose herbage which overhang the
banks, in quest of its food, which consists of
insects, worms, aquatic plants, and seeds. It will
likewise pick up corn from the neighbouring
stubbles, and is at all times very good eating ;
but from September to December the flesh is
extremely delicious."

The nest of the female moor-hen is composed
of reeds and rushes woven closely together,
and is placed in some corner or chink by the
side of water, or upon the stump of an old
root. She lays seven eggs, which are about
two inches in length, of a yellowish-white hue,
marked with a goodly number of irregular
spots, of a reddish colour. Some writers
afiirm, that during incubation, she never leaves
the nest without covering the eggs with
leaves. She has two, and sometimes three,
hatchings during the summer ; and the young
take to the water very soon after they leave
the shell.

The length of the bird is about fourteen
inches ; the breadth twenty-two ; and the
weight from twelve to fifteen ounces. The
bill is red, with a greenish-yellow tip, and
about an inch long. The head is small and
black, with the exception of there being a
white spot under each eye. The irides are
red. The colour of the plumage is sooty
black, tinged with shining olive-green. The
outer edge of the wing, outside feathers of the
tail, and under-tail coverts, are of a dull or
dingy white. The colour of the legs is of a
pale yellow, often shading off to a dark green.
The toes are very long ; sides broad ; and these
are furnished with membranous edgings,
which enable the moor-hen to swim, and run
rapidly over the surface of slimy mud. Its
feathers are thickly set, and bedded in down.

This bird is difficult to shoot in the water,
as it dives the moment it sees the flash of the
gun. The best method of killicg it is to aim
a little below it in the water. This plan is
often successful.

THE COOT.

This is the Fulica Atra of Linnseus, and is
well known throughout England, as it per-
57G

manently resides here. Its usual weight is
about twenty-eight ounces; and it is fifteen
inches in length. The bill is of a greenish-
white hue, and about an inch and a quarter
long. The irides are red. The upper portion
of the plumage is black, except the outer
edges of the wings, and a spot under each eye,
which are white. The under parts of the
body are of a hoary dark ash or lead colour ;
and the skin is protected with a coat of thick
down, coated with feathers closely bedded
together. The thighs are placed far behind,
and are strong, fleshy, and yellow above the
knees.

The common coot has, in many of its cha-
racteristics, so striking a resemblance to the
water-rail and moor-hen, that many writers
have considered them as belonging to the
same species. Others, however, think it a
distinct genus, chiefly on account of its being
fin-footed, and from its great attachment to
water, whith it seldom leaves. AVith this bird
naturalists commence to arrange the general
tribe of swimmers, and place it among those
that mostly depend on the watery element for
their subsistence. It swims and dives with as
much ease as almost any other of the aquatic
tribes ; and, like those which seldom venture
on land, it is a bad traveller, and may be said
not to walk, but to splash and waddle be-
tween one water and another, with a laboured,
ill-balanced, and awkward gait.

THE GREATER COOT.

This bird is of a larger size than the last,
and differing little in colour or plumage, ex-
cept in being a shade darker. It is found in
Lancashire and in Scotland. In many sections
of the European continent it is abundant.
There is a curious anecdote told of a bald coot,
that built her nest in Sir William Middleton's
lake, at Belsay Castle, in the county of Nor-
thumberland. The rushes amongst which its
fragile home was constructed, having been
loosened by a high wind, the nest was forced
from its moorijigs, but floated upon the sur-
face of the water, in every direction. Not-
withstanding this unexpected event, the female
continued to sit, and brought forth her young
upon her movable habitation.

For the sake of the culinary department of
the household, we give the following recipe for

THE CL'UI.EW.l

r.V Fll-LU, WOOD, AND WATER.

[the cdelew.

cookinjif theso birds, na it is from ii liigb
authoritv. At'tor pickiiiLj tlu'in, take olF tlio
black down, by uieaiis of powcK rod black rosin
and boiling water, and tlion let tlieiu soak all
iiiijlit in cold spring-water. Tliia process
makes them look as delicate as a chicken, and
becoino tolerably tender and juicy. Unless
this he done, the skin, in roasting, will be oily,
and have a strong fishy taste and sincU ; and
when taken oft' it will become dry, and good
for nothing. But, perhaps, the best method is
to skin them at once ; and after soaking them
twenty-four hours in cold si)ring-water, re-
peatedly changed, they can be made into a
pudding or pie, or into soup. By these means,
the skin is got rid of, without losing the juice
of the flesh ; and their lishy taste is, in a great
degree, drawn ofl" by the steam.

The coot is difficult to be flushed, conse-
quently a fair flying shot at it is not always
to be obtained. Its suspicious habitc keep it
from frequently showing itself, and dogs are
seldom able to make much impression upon it
in rousing it from its lurking-places. They are
sometimes pursued in Prance by two shooters —
one on each side of a narrow and sedgy stream —
when, with the addition of a couple of indus-
trious dogs, execution is occasionally done,
and a i'evr brace bagged in the course of a day.
It is, however, only in some favourite locality
that success can be realised even in that
country, where the birds are more numerous
than they are with us. It is not often that
these birds are regularly sought after by
sportsmen in England ; the shooting of them
being rather a chance aff"air than a purposely
80ught-for sport.

In many of the sedgy and sluggish rivers
that lie along the south-eastern portion of the
coast of France, coots are very numerous ; but
the inhabitants in rural districts consider them
as birds of evil omen ; and whenever they see
one fly out from its hiding-place, they cross
themselves, and consider the circumstance as
portentous of some unhappy event. This may,
perhaps, be susceptible of some degree of ex-
planation, when tlie shy and retiring habits of
the bird are taken into account.

THE CURLEW.

The ScoJopax Aquata, of LinnsDUS, is a sliy
bird, and requires some manoeuvring to get
4 £

within range of him. iU' measurea about two
feet in length, and, from the tip of u«ch wing,
averages about three feet. The bill is full
seven inches long, and curved, with a houjo-
what tender and bliitit point. The upper
mandible is of a blackish hue, gradually
shaded oft' to a brown towards the base ;
and the under one is flesh-coloured. Tho
head, neck, and upper part of the back, and
wing-covcrts, are of a pale brown ; and tho
middle of each feather is black, fringed and
deeply indented with pale rust, or light grey.
Tiie breast, belly, and lower portion of tlio
beak, are of a dull white, sparsely spotted
with black ; and tho two former with oblong
strokes of tho same colour, mathematically
set. The quills are black, and the inner webs
are crossed, or spotted with white. The tail
is barred with black, on a white ground tinged
with red. The legs are bare a little above the
knee, and of a bluish hue ; whilst the toes arc
thick and strong, and flat on the under side.

These birds vary considerably, not only in
point of size, but in regard to the colours of
their plumage. Their weight ranges from
twenty-four to upwards of thirty ounces. In
some, the white portions of the plumage are
much more distinct and clearly defined than in
others, which are more uniformly grey, and
tinged with palo brown. The female has a
great resemblance to the male, and makes her
nest upon the ground, in a dry tuft of rushes
or grass, or of such withered materials as are
found near the spot. She lays four eggs, of a
greenish hue, with brown spots irregularly
distributed over them.

The food of these birds consists of worms,
insects, and flies, which they pick out of tho
soft mossy ground, by the pools or water in
such parts of the country as they frequent.
In winter they seek the sea-shores, where they
appear in great numbers, picking up worms,
marine insects, and other fishy materials, on
the beach, and among the loose rocks and
pools left by the retiring tide. The flesh of
the curlew has been characterised by some as
very good, and of a fine flavour ; while others
have unceremoniously condemned it. Tiio
truth is, when it lives in the moors, and feeds
on insects, and such faro as it can gather in
the boggy ground, it is excellent eating ;
but after it has been a short time by the

577

SEA-FOWL.]

SPIGOTING,

[sEA-rOWL.

sea-coast, and obliged to put up 'with such
diet as it can find there, its flesh becomes
strong and unsavoury. In former times, the
curlew enjoyed a high reputation, as the old
proverb tells us : —

" A curlew, be she white, or be she black,
She carries twelvepence on her back."

"We have already observed that this bird is
shy and suspicious, and very difficult to be
approached with the gun and dog. The only
chance is to steal a march upon it, by getting
round some hill, or elevated piece of ground.
To bring it down requires rather heavy shot ;
such as No. 3 and No. 2.

In some districts of Ireland, and in the
boggy moor-grounds in all the counties of
Yorkshire, Durham, Cumberland, Westmore-
land, and Northumberland, the curlew is found
in considerable numbers ; but as it tries to de-
ceive the sportsman as the plover does, the
unwary are often cheated out of their antici-
pated sport by it. The only way of getting
near it, as we have said, is to take the ad-
vantage of some cover — a hill, a wall, a bush,
or something of the kind : but even with all
or any of these screens or aids, it is often sur-
prising to witness with what keenness of sight
it will espy an enemy, and how rapidly it
will wheel round and get out of the reach of
his weapon. What we now state has reference
to the birds in the moors and spongy grounds,
where, during the summer months, they have

taken up their habitat for greater safety during
the process of incubation. They are more
easily approached when they frequent the sea-
shore in winter. When they are pursued in
the moors, dogs are useless ; nay, worse than
useless, as they disturb the birds long before
the sportsman himself makes any impression
upon them. In curlew shooting by the sea-
side, dogs are entirely unnecessary.

Punt-shooting for this bird by the sea-vside
is sometimes followed, and has its share of ex-
citement. It is pursued in autumn, when
the birds assemble in large numbers, and
roost in some favourite localities, not far dis-
tant from each other. These spots require to
be well known by the shooters previous to
their operations. When they are approached
by means of a punt or boat, it should be done
in fine frosty weather, and just after or before
daybreak. The party should conceal them-
selves by stooping or lying down in the punt,
and then, when within range, a raking fire
from each gunner should be made. Some-
times a good bag of birds is obtained in this
way.

Besides the curlew proper, there is a species
called the little czcrlew, which afibrds some
sport. It is found in considerable numbers on
the Essex coast, and in some parts of South
Wales. Colonel Hawker says, Langston
Harbour, in the Poole district, and Eomney
Marsh, yield them in abundance ; and, there-
fore, afford good sport.

CHAPTER XII.

SEA-FOWL SHOOTING.

Sea-fowl shooting is attended with little
profit to the sportsman beyond what it adds
to his health, in the air and exercise which it
calls him forth to enjoy. As there are many,
however, who take great delight in its pursuit,
who love to hear the report of their ibwling-
pieces awakening the echoes of the crags and
cliffs that rear their rugged forms as guardians
«^78

of the land, against the inroads of the waters
of the great deep, we have deemed it worthy
of introduction into these pages. It has not
much to recommend it in the way of supply-
ing the table with something ^oof/; but it has
associated with it much that is grand and sub-
lime. There is the sea, upon which time, that
touches everything else, makes no impression,

THE 8T0UMY I'ETUEL.] BY FllCI-D, \\'()()1), AND WATlili. [tIII; UULL FAMILY.

nml which has been aptly considered as an
emblem of ot(M"nity. Tlioro are, also, the
golilen yands of the pearly beach, which flitter
in the rays of the sun, or glance in the beams
of the moon, as the ocean rolls its melodies
over their surface; and there are the giant
rocks, wliich, for thousands of years, have
frowned defiance to the sea, and wliich, may-
hap, for thousands more, will present their grim
fronts to the tempest, whilst sheltering the gull
and the guillemot. These are all impressive ob-
jects ; and, in sea-fowl shooting, are to be taken
into the account, when estimating the amount
of pleasure which this pursuit may afford.

THE STORMY PETREL.

The ProceUaria Pellagica of Linnreus, is
about the size of the common swallow, and
the smallest web-footed bird known. AVhen
crossing tlie Atlantic, we ourselves can well
remember the ominous prognostications which
a flock of these birds would often draw from
the mariners, when the clouds were gathering
in darkening masses over us, and portending
storms collectiug their strength, as it were,
with no other object than to doom our ship,
and ours alone, to destruction. They are
heard generally at night, and are recognised by
their shrill and piercing cry. The following
description is taken from Loudon's Magazine
of Natural History : — " As the stormy petrel
is scarcely ever seen near the land, except in
verv boisterous weather, one of the natives of
tiie island of St. Hilda, for a trifling remunera-
tion, agreed to traverse the face of a huge
rock, and fetch me some petrels out of its
fissures. Accordingly, accoutred with a rope
of hemp and hog's bristles coiled over his
shoulders, he proceeded to the cliff. Having
made one end fast by means of a stake, he
threw the coil over the face of the rock, and
gradually lowered himself down, but with the
utmost caution and circumspection, carefully
pressing his foot hard upon the narrow ridges
before he at all loosened his firm grasp of the
ropo, which he never altogether abandoned.
I had previously thrown myself upon my
chest, to enable me to have a better view of
him by looking over the cliff; and certaiulv,
to see the dexterity and bravery with which
he threw himself from one aperture to another,
was truly grand. The trembling surface of the

Atlantic was foaming many hundreds of feet
beneath, and dashing its curling, cream-like
surge against the dark baao of the clilf, in
sheets of the moat beautiful white; while the
heron and black-backed gulls, alternately
sweeping past him, so as to be almost within
reach of his arm, throw a wildness into the
scene by the discordant scream of the former,
and the laughing, oft-repeated bark of tho
latter. This, however, he ap[)eared entirely
to disregard ; and, continuing his search, re-
turned, in about half-an-hour, with seven or
eight of the stormy petrels, tied up in an old
stocking, and a pair of tho Manx pufBns,
together with their eggs. The birds, he told
me, he had no difficulty in capturing. The
eggs of the stormy petrel are surprisingly
large, considering the diminutive size of tho
bird — being as large as those of the thrush.
Tlie female lays two eggs, of a dirty or dingv
white, encircled at the larger end by a ring of
fine rust-coloured freckles. The birds merely
collect a few pieces of dried grass, with a
feather or two, barely sufficient to prevent the
eggs from rolling or moving on the rock."
The rope alluded to in this passage is of great
value to the St. Kildan. Indeed, he could
not pursue his vocation ■without it ; con-
sequently, it often makes the first article in
the testament of a father. Of the manner in
which it is used, Mr. Macauley gives the fol-
lowing instance, of which he was an eye-
witness:— "One of them fixed himself to a
craggy shelf; his companion descended about
sixty feet below, and having directed himself
away from the face of a most frightful rock
hanging over the sea, began to play his gam-
bols, lie swung merrily, and laughed very
heartily ; and, after some time, having afforded
all the entertainment he could, he returned in
triumph, full of his own merit, with a largo
string of birds about his neck, and a number
of eggs in his bosom. AVhen a fowler is
under the necessity of descending the rocks,
without any assistance from his fellows, he
drives a post sloping into the earth, and, bv
fastening the rope to it, lets himself down
thereby, without the help of any person what-
ever."

TIIE GULL FAMILY.
It is maintained by some sportsmen that
there are eleven species belonging to this

579

THE GULL.j

SHOOTING,

[SWAK FAMILY.

family ; but Colonel Hawker extends them to
thirteen. They have all a striking resemblance
to each other; and their principal characteris-
tics are a compressed bill, elongated and
pointed, with the upper mandible turned to-
wards the end, and the lower, underneath, form-
ing a salient angle. Their nostrils, placed to-
wards the middle of the bill, are long, narrow,
and bored through. Their tail is full ; the legs
rather long, and the thumb short. All the gull
tribes are more or less objects of the gunner's
sport, and the shooting of them is often at-
tended with considerable excitement and plea-
sure. These birds generally congregate in vast
flocks in those parts of the coast that are high,
abrupt, and little frequented by either boats or
land travellers ; where, in fact, the rugged na-
ture of the cliffs, and the air of solitude and
desolation around, seem to secure to them
comparative safety and retirement. To a man
susceptible of the wild and grand in scenery,
and with a fowling-piece in his hand, we
know of no more attractive pursuit than a
ramble along the headlands of the coast, in
quest |of these birds. Everything around is
vast and imposing. The ocean casts a solemn
shade over the most volatile mind, and lifts
the thoughts to objects of contemplation, that
strikingly impress it with the majesty of the
Supreme Power. In such sporting rambles
amono' the feathered tribes in this section of
Nature's vast domains, the sportsman scans
the singular economy that prevails in the con-
gregated families that are here bred and nou-
rished by her paternal hand. He scrambles
from one cliff to another, sometimes with
fear and trepidation ; while he often recog-
nises birds of which he knew little or nothing
before ; and, perchance casts his eye on the
nest of the eagle, whose marauding flights
are marked in every direction with blood and
rapine.

" High from the summit of a craggy clifF,

Hung o'er the deep, such as, amazing, frowns
On utmost Kilda's shore, whose lonely race
Resign the setting sun to Indian worlds,
The royal eagle draws his vigorous young.
Strong pounced, and ardent with paternal fire,
Now fit to raise a kingdom of their own,
He drives them from the fort, the towering seat,
For ages, of his empire ; which in peace
"Unstained he holds, while many a league to sea
He wings his course, and preys in distant isles."

580

These birds abound in far greater numbers
in the northern parts of Britain than in the
southern. In the Fern Islands, off" the coast of
Northumberland, and all around the northern
and western parts of Scotland, they are to be
found extremely numerous, especially in rocky
localities. In the Orkney and Hebrides Islands,
they afford plenty of good sport ; for we con-
ceive that most sportsmen, who have had op-
portunities of enjoying this species of shooting,
must have remarked, that the farther north
they went, and the more unfrequented the
parts into which they travelled, the less shy
the birds became, and the richer the harvest
that awaited them.

The weather has a great influence over this
sport. All the different kinds of sea-fowl are
more approachable in stormy than in calm
weather ; only the former is not so pleasant to
the sportsman himself. But there is no get-
ting all matters to square evenly in sporting
practices. The fair must be blended with the
foul, even to impart a relish to sport.

THE SWAN FAMILY.

The A7ias of Liuna3US have long held a dis-
tinguished place in the eyes of sportsmen.
The ancients consecrated them to Apollo and
the Muses. Callimachus, in his hymn upon
the island of Delos, celebrates them : —

"When from Pactolus' golden banks,
Apollo's tuneful songsters, snowy swans.
Steering their flight seven times their circling course,
M'heel round the island, carolling meantime
Soft melody, the favourites of the nine.
Thus ushering to birth with dulcet sounds
The god of harmony, and hence seven strings
Hereafter to his golden lyre he gave ;
For ere the eighth soft concert was begun
He sprung to birth."

These birds are considered at the head of the
web-footed tribes ; and to shoot them is, amoug
sportsmen, esteemed a great achievement.
The Iwofers, or wild swans, are very easily
killed, if the fire be directed towards the head,
or under the wing ; but they are almost shot-
proof in other parts of their body. The flight
of the swan is very rapid. Hearne says—" Not-
withstanding their size, these birds are so ex-
tremely swift on the wing when in full featlier,
as to make them more difficult to shoot than
almost any others, it being frequently neces-
sary to take sight, say twelve feet before their

THE swAV FAMILY.] BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER. [the swan family.

bills. This, however, is only when they are
(Ivin-; before the wiiul ia a brisk f^alo, at
which time they seUloin Ily nt a loss rato than
a huiuired miles an hour: but when flyinj:;
nci-Kss the wind, or against it, they aro not
able to make any great progress."

The swan is live feet long, above seven broad,
and weii^lis from thirteen to sixteen pounds.
The bill lias a length of threo inches, and is of
a yellowish hue from the base to tho middle,
ami thence to tho tip, black. The bare space
from the bill over tho eyo and eyelids is
yellow; and the entire plumage, in adult birds,
is of a pure white. They are clothed, next to
tho skin, with a thick fine down. Tho legs
are black.

This species usually congregate together —
keening in groups or families, except at the
pairing season, and when the severe frosts set
in. In winter they assemble in prodigious
numbers, near great rivers and lakes, situated
in thinly inhabited countries in the northern
parts of Europe, Asia, and America. AVhen
the weather becomes very severe, they take
their flight very high in the air, and divide
their number in quest of a more genial tem-
perature. In such hard winters they are some-
times met with in various sections of Great
Britain, and in other more southern countries
of Europe. The rule as to their migrations
has been observed in America. They do not,
however, remain longer than towards the ap-
proach of spring, when they retire northward
to the arctic regions, to breed. In these move-
ments to and fro, a few straggling birds stop
short, and perform the offices of incubation by
the way ; for it has been ascertained that they
breed in the Hebrides, the Orkney, Slietland,
and other solitary isles. The great body of
them, however, go far north, and arc to be
met with in the large rivers and lakes near
Hudson's Bay, and those of Kamtschatka,
Lapland, and Iceland. They arc said to return
to the latter place, in flocks of about a hundred
at a time, in the spring, and also to pour in
upon that island from the north, in nearly the
same manner, on their way southward in the
autumn.

Martin says, that in the month of October,
swans arrive in great numbers at Lingey, one
of the AVesteru Isles, and continue tiiere till
March, when they return northward to breed.

A few continue in ^Mainland, one of the Ork-
neys, anil breed in tho little ishmda of the
fresh-water lochs; but tho principal part of
them retire on tho ap[)roach of spring. They
aro called tho Countryman's Almanack; for
their quitting tho isle is said to presage good
weather; and their arrival, tho reverse.

In Iceland, these birds are an object of
chase. In the month of August, they lose
their feathers to such a degree as not to be
able to fly. Tho natives, at that season, resort,
in great numbers, to the places whero they
most abound ; and arc accompanied with dogs,
and active and strong horses, trained to tho
sport, and capable of passing nimbly over tho
boggy soil and marches. The swans will run
as fast ao a tolerably fleet horse. The greater
number aro taken by the dogs, which are taught
to seize them by the neck — a mode of attack
that causes tho birds to lose the'r balance,
and become an easy prey.

This species has several distinctions from that
called by us the Tame Swan: but the most
remarkable one is tho strange form of tho
windpipe, which falls into the chest, then turns
back like a trumpet, and afterwards makes a
second bend to join the lungs. By this curious
construction, the bird is enabled to utter a
loud and shrill note. The other swan, on tho
contrary, is the most silent of all the feathered
tribes. It can do nothing more than hiss,
which it does on receiving any provocation.
The vocal swan emits its loud notes only
when flying, or calling: its sound is, tvhoogh,
lolioogli, very loud and slirill, but not dis-
agreeable when heard high in the air, and
modulated by the winds. The Icelanders
compare it to the notes of the violin. As they
hear it at the end of their long and gloomy
winter, when the return of the swans announces
also the return of summer, every note must
be melodious which presages a speedy thaw,
and a release from their tedious confinement.

It was from this species alone that tlio
ancients derived their fable of the swan's
being endowed with the powers of melody.
Embracing the Pythagorean doctrine, they
made the body of this bird the mansion of tho
souls of departed poets ; and then attributed
to the birds the same faculty of harmony which
they had thus possessed in a pre-existent
state. The common people, not distinguishing

5SL

THE MUTE SWAN.]

SHOOTING,

[the mute swan.

between sweetness of numbers and melody of
voice, imagined that to be real which was only
intended figuratively. Our own Shakspeare is
called the" Swan of Avon." The Mute or Tame
Swan never frequents the Padus ; " and I am
almost equally certain" says Mr. Pennant, "that
it never was seen on the Cayster, in Lydia ; each
of these streams being celebrated by the poets
for the great resort of swans. The Padus was
styled Oloriferus, from the numbers of these
birds which frequented its waters ; and there
are few of the poets, either Greek or Latin,
who do not make them its inhabitants."

THE SWAN GOOSE.

This is the Anas Cynoides of Linnaeus, and
la another interesting species of the web-
footed family. In point of size, it stands
between that of the common duck and the
swan ; whilst its length is fully a yard. It is
known from the goose by its stately carriage,
and by its having a large knob at the root of
the upper mandible, and a skin almost bare of
feathers, hanging down under the throat. A
white line extends from the corners of the
mouth over the front of the brow. The hue of j
the bill is orange, and the irides of a reddish
brown. A dark brown or black stripe runs
down the hinder part of the neck, from the
head to the back. The fore part of the neck
and the breast are yellowish brown ; and the
back, and all the upper parts, brownish grey,
fringed with a light colour. The legs are
orange.

Some writers maintain that these birds were
originally natives of Guinea, in Africa. They
are now, however, very common everywhere,
being widely and numerously dispersed, both
in a wild and domestic state. They are found
in great numbers about Baikal, an eastern
section of Siberia, and likewise in Kamtschatka;
and are kept in a state of domestication in
most of the Euasian provinces.

THE MUTE SWAN.
The plumage of the Anas Cygnus Mansuetus
of Linn^us, is of a snowy whiteness, and the
bird itself is much larger than the wild swan ;
often weighing twenty-five pounds, and mea-
suring three feet and a-half in length. The
female makes her nest among the rouo-h her-
bage, near the water's edge, and lays from six
582

to eight large white eggs. She sits for the
space of six weeks — some say eight — before
they are hatched. Tlie young do not acquire
their full plumage till the second year.

Swans, from the earliest period of our
history, have been protected on the river
Thames as roj^al property ; and it continues, at
this day, to be accounted felony to steal their
eggs. By this means their increase is secured ;
whilst they prove highly ornamental to the
river scenery. In the reign of Edward IV.,
the estimation in which they were held was
such, that no one who possessed a freehold of
less than the clear yearly value of five marks,
was permitted even to keep them. In those
times hardly a piece of water was left unoccu-
pied by these birds, as well on account of the
pleasure they gave to the eye of their lordly
owners, as that which they afforded when they
graced the sumptuous boards at the splendid
feasts of that period. The manners of those
days, however, have passed away, and swans
are not now so common as they were formerly^
being by most people considered a coarse kind
of food, and consequently held in little estima-
tion ; but cygnets (young swans) are still fat-
tened for the table, and are sold for a guinea
each, and even more. Hence we may infer
that they are better food than is generally
imagined.

This swan is a bird beautifully formed. lu
it we see no broken or harsh lines, no con-
strained or abrupt motions, but the roundest
contour and the easiest transitions imaginable.
The eye wauders over every part with pleasure,
and each portion takes new grace with new
postures.

" The swan, with arched neck
Between her white wings manthng, proudly rows
Her state with oary feet."

It exhibits, however, but an inelegant appear-
ance on land.

The swan will swim faster tlian a man can.
walk. It is very strong, and at times ex-
tremely fierce ; it has not unfrequently been
known to throw down and trample upon
youths of fifteen or sixteen years of age ; and
an old swan, we are told, is able to break the
leg of a man with a single stroke of its wing.
A female, while in the act of sitting, observed
a fox swimming towards her from the opposite
shore: she instantly darted into the water;

WILD OKESIE.]

BY FIELD, WOOD, AND AVATEK. [the Siberian oooii.

nnd, Iiavinc: Iv(*pt liim at bay for a considoraMo
time with lior \viii>j;H, at last suctvodi'd in
drowninp: liim ; after which, in the sipjht of
several persona, slio returned in triumph.
This circumatanco took phico at IVnay, in
'Ruekin;j;haniahire.

Swans are very lonc;-lived, soniotimcs arriv-
inc; at the age of one hundred years.

WILD GKKSE,
Six different species of wild geeso aro said
to visit the British shores iu winter. The
grey-lag is one, and is the original of our com-
mon domestic goose. Its flocks aro well-known
to all country people, I'rom tho circumstance
of their always flying in a particular figure —
that of a w edge. They are diflicult to approach
in regular hunting form, being shy and wary
to a proverb. When they arrive in winter,
they frequent the sea-coast, and little rivulets
and creeks, feeding on marine and other
grasses, and display a great partiality to green
wheat. Tlie only mode of getting within range
of them is by ambush, or advancing upon
them under cover of some kind. Colonel
Hawker recommends, that we "ascertain,
in the watery meads, what part they have used
(which we shall be able to see by their dung
and feathers) ; and then we should wait for
them, at dusk, in some ambush that commands
the fresh places adjoining. Contrive, if possi-
ble, to get the line of a dyke or drain, so as to
take their company in the flank." Mr. Daniel
likewise says — " Their flight is always (except
in thick fogs) very elevated ; their motion is
smooth, accompanied with little rustling, and
the play of the wings seems never to exceed
two or three inches ; the regularity with which
they are marshalled, implies a sort of intelli-
gence superior to that of other birds, which
migrate in disorderly bodies. The arrange-
ment observed by the geese, is at once calcu-
lated to preserve tho ranks entire, to break the
resistance of the air, and to lessen the exertion
of the squadron. They form two oblique lines,
like the letter V; or, if their number be small,
only one line. Generally they amount to forty
or fifty, and each keeps its rank with admirable
exactness. The chief, which occupies the point
ot the angle, and first cleaves the air, retires,
when fatigued, to the rear, and the rest by
turns assume the station of the van. Pliny

describes tho wonderful harmony that prevails
in these iliL,'litH, and remarks that, unlike tho
cranes and tho storks, which journey in tlio
obscurity of the night, the geeso aro seen
pursuing their route in broad day."

The wild gooso generally weiglia about ton
pouiuis ; and is two feet nine inclies long, and
iivo broad. The bill is thick at the base, tapers
towards tho tip, and is of a dullish-red hue,
with tho nail white. The head and neck are
brown, tinged with dull yellow, and, from tho
separation of tho feathers, the latter appears
striped downwards. The upper part of tho
plumage is of a deep brown, mixed with ash-
grey. Each feather is lighter on tho edges,
and the lesser coverts are tipped with white.
Tho shafts of the leading quills aro white;
the webs grey, and the tips black. TIio secon-
daries are black, tinged with white. Tho
breast and belly are crossed and clouded with
dusky and ash colours on a whitish ground ;
the tail and vent are of a snowy whiteness.
The middle feathers of the tail are dusky,
tipped with white ; those adjoining, more deeply
tipped ; and the exterior ones are nearly all
white. The legs are pale red.

During any succession of frosty days, espe-
cially if accompanied with a snow-storm, there
are few places, on the British coast, which will
not aflbrd more or less wild goose shooting. If
going on the water, or into the marshes, after
these birds, does not suit the convenience or
choice of the sportsman, by visiting the brooks
and small rivers that are only partially frozen,
and following their course, be may be almost
certain of meeting with some of these birds.
There are many localities in the moor districts
of the north of England where they are found
in winter, even when it has not been either
very cold or stormy.

THE SIBERIAN GOOSE.

The Anser EuJicoUis of Linnccus, also called
the Laughing Gooso, is white fronted. It
is seldom seen in Britain. Colonel Hawker
tells us, that it was unknown hero till the frost
of 1S30, when there were eighty of them
alighted in a field near the village of Wilford,
where, he says, they were beset by a swarm of
gunners, and attacked, but only with very
moderate success. The colonel himself suc-
ceeded, however, on the following day, in

583

THE COEMORAKT.l

SHOOTING,

[the cormorant.

bringing down twenty. They are described as
very hard to kill.

THE CORMORANT.

The three varieties of the PeJicamis Corho,
known to sportsmen, are the crested, the black,
and the cole-goose. The common cormorant
weighs from four to seven pounds ; and the size
varies from about three feet to four feet six
inches in breadth. The bill, to the corners of the
mouth, measures four inches, and its ridge two-
and-three-quarters. It is of a dark horny
consistency, and the tip, or nail, of the upper
bill is considerably hooked and sharpened.
From the base of this it is furrowed on each
side, nearly to the top, without any visible ap-
pearance of nostrils. The lower bill is com-
pressed, and covered, about the gape of the
mouth, with a naked yellowish skin, extending
under the chin and throat, where it hangs
loose, and forms a kind of pouch, which, to-
gether with the springing blade on each side
forming its rim. is capable of great expansion,
and by it the bird is enabled to swallow prey
apparently too large to be admitted into its
throat. The skiu about the eye is naked, and
of the same colour as the pouch. The eyes,
which have a remarkably wild stare, are placed
near the bill. The crown of the head and neck
are black ; and on the hinder part of the former
the feathers appear elongated, and form a sort
of loose crest. In some species the throat is
white, with a kind of stripe passing from it,
upwards, behind each eye. In others the
cheeks and throat are mixed with brown and
white ; while, in other species, the head and
neck are streaked with scratches of the latter
colour. The middle of the belly is white, with
a patch of the same colour over each thigh. All
the under parts, however, together with the
back and rump, are commonly of a glossy blue-
black, with green shades. The shoulders, scapu-
lars, and wing-coverts, are of a bronze-brown
bue, tinged and glossed with green ; and each
feather ia bordered with shiuiug bluish-black.
The secondary quills are nearly of the same
colour. The coverts and primaries are dusky.
The tail consists of fourteen stiff feathers, which
look as if they were discoloured by being dipped
in mud or dirty water. The legs are thick,
and black, aud about two inches and a-half
long.

584

The cormorant is a native of almost every
climate. It abounds in large numbers in
Greenland and Nova Zambia, and parts adja-
cent ; and the natives have a curious method
of taking them, by means of lures or decoys.
They make use of the jugular pouch of the bird
for a bladder to float their fishiug-darts, after
they are thrown ; whilst their skins, which are
tough and leathery, are used for garments, and
their flesh for food. It is said, however, that
the eggs of the bird arc too foetid even to be
eaten by Greenlanders.

These birds usually assemble in flocks, on
the summits and inaccessible parts of the
rocks which overhang or are surrounded by
the sea, upon which the female makes her nest
of the withered sea-tang, weeds, sticks, and
grasses, which are cast on shore by the waves.
She lays four or five greenish-white eggs, of
the size of those of a goose, but of a longer
shape. Many writers and naturalists assert
that, in some parts of the world, these birds
build their nests on trees, like the rook
aud the heron; others, again, forming their
opinions from the singular conformation of
the feet and the serrated claws, ascribe pro-
perties to them which they do not possess,
and maintain that they bold their prey in one
foot, w^hile, with the other, they push forward
to the shore, or carry it thither in the same
manner on the wing. This is, however, fancy,
unsupported by any evidence of fact. The
truth is, the feet of these birds are not adapted
for any such purposes. They are, like those
of all the expert diving tribes, placed far be-
hind; and while, by their position and the
powerful stroke from their broad webs, the
birds are able to pursue aud overtake their
prey, the hooked sharp-edged beak is the only
instrument they have fitted both to catch and
secure it, and there is no need to use the
awkward expedient of removing it afterwards
to the foot.

At sea, or in the inland lakes, cormorants
prove themselves great gluttons. From the
loftiest heights they drop down upon the
object of pursuit, dive after it with the rapidity
of a dart, and, with an almost unerring cer-
tainty, seize it. They then emerge with the
fish across the bill, and, with a twirl, throw it
up into the air, and dexterously catch it as it
descends head foremost, and swallow it whole.

THE

conMonANT.I BY rii:Ll), WOOD, AND WATER. [tui. wild duck.

"While at rest on shore, these birds sit, more
or less, in an erect posture, and are propped
up by the still' leathers of the tail, hi places
where thoy have not been diaturbeil by fire-
arms, thev have been known, however wary at
other times, to sit and receive repeated shots,
without olVeriug to move out of tho daiij:;er.
At other times and places, while thoy sit in a
dosing and stupefied state, from the eflects of
one of their customary surfeits, tliey may
easilv be taken, by throwing nets over them,
or by putting ft noose round their necks,
which they endeavour to avoid no further than
bv slipping the head from side to side as long
as they can.

Whatever may be tho wild disposition of
these birds, we have authentic accounts that
certain species of tiiem were formerly tamed,
and rendered subservient to the purposes of
man, both in this and other countries. Among
the Chinese, they have frequently been trained
to fish, and fishermen have kept many of them
for that purpose, and by their skill have
gained a good livelihood. A ring placed
round the neck prevents the bird from swal-
lowing what it catches; whilst its natural
appetite, joined to the will of its master, in-
duces it instantly to dive at the word of
command ; but, unable to gorge the fish it
has taken, it returns to the keeper, who
secures it himself. Sometimes, if the fish be
large, and dllEcult to manage, two will act in
concert — one bird taking it by the head, and
the other by the tail. "Willoughby informs
us, that in England, when these birds are
brought to the rivers, their hoods are taken
ofi", and then a leather thong is tied round
the lower part of their necks, that they may
not swallow the fish they take. The birds
are then thrown into the water, when they
immediately dive ; and, for a time, with re-
markable swiftness, pursue the fish with great
ardour. When they have caught any, they
rise to the surface, and pressing them lightly
with their bills, swallow them, each to the
extent of five or six ; then the keepers call
them to the fist, to which they readily fly, and
little by little, one after the other, vomit up
all their finny captures, which appear some-
times a little bruised with the nip the bird
has given them with its hooked bill. When
the fishermen have done, they set the birds on
4 F

some higli place, and then loose the string
from their necki*, which leavea tho passage
free of air to tho stomach ; and, by way of
encouragement, part of the prey ia given back
again to eacii bird. Whitlock tolls us, like-
wise, that ho had several cormorants manned
like hawks, wliich would como to hand. ILo
took great pleasure in them ; and relates,
tliat the best he had was one presented to him
by Mr. AVood, master of tho cormorants to
Charles I.

Dr. lleysham relates, that, on a certain oc-
casion, one of these birds perched upon tho
castle at Carlisle, and soon afterwards re-
moved to the cathedral, where it was shot at
upwards of twenty times, without eflect. At
length, a person got upon the cathedral, fired
at, and killed it. In another instance, a flock
of fifteen or twenty perched, at the dusk of
evening, on a tree, on the banks of the river
Esk, near Netherby, the seat of the late Sir
James Graham. A person who saw them settle,
fired at random at them, in the dark, six or
seven times, without either killing or even
frightening any of them away. Surprised at
this, he came again at daylight, and succeeded
in killing one, when the rest took to flight.

Colonel Hawker says, that cormorants may
be seen in the evening, pursuing a regular
course towards the clift", on the sea-coast, where
they roost, and that, in their flight, they are
often mistaken for Brent geese, and shot at by
the inexperienced. They are likewise sought
after by adventurous persons, who are able to
reach the middle of the rocky heights. In at-
tempting to .'shoot them in such positions,
much caution is requisite in secreting the
sportsman from observation. So keen-sighted
are these birds, and so jealous of any object
that bears even the semblance of a weapon,
that they immediately take the alarm at the
slightest appearance of an enemy, and thus
elude the devices of the best sportsman.
Shooting them is considered an excellent ex-
ercise for young gunners.

THE WILD DUCK.

Tlie Anas Bochas of Linnasus is the parent
of our domestic duck, and, in point of size, is
a little less. The wild mallard, or drake bird,
has a length of about twenty-three inches, and
a breadth of about thirty-five. It usually

5S5

THE "WILD DUCK.]

SHOOTING,

[the wild duck.

weighs from thirty-six to forty ounces. The
bill is of a yellowish hue ; not very flat ; about
an inch broad, and two-and-a-half long, from
the corners of the mouth to the tip of the nail.
The head and upper half of the neck are of a
glossy, deep, variable green, terminated in the
middle of the neck by a white collar, with
which it is nearly encircled. The lower por-
tions of the neck, breast, and shoulders, are of
a deep vinous chestnut, and the covering scap-
ular feathers are of a kind of silvery white,
while those underneath are rufous. Both are
prettily crossed with waved threads of brown.
The wing-coverts are ash ; the quills brown ;
and between these intervenes what is called
the heauty-spot in the duck tribe, which crosses
the closed wiug in a transverse, oblique direc-
tion ; it is of a rich glossy purple, with violet
or green reflections, and. fringed by a double
>treak of white and black. The belly is of a
pale grey, delicately pencilled, and crossed with
numberless narrow- waved dusky lines, which,
on the sides and long feathers that reach over
the thighs, are more distinctly marked. The
upper and under tail-coverts, the lower part of
the back, and the rump, are black ; the latter
are glossed with green. The four middle tail-
feathers are likewise black, with purple reflec-
tions, and, like those of the domestic drake, are
stifily curled upwards ; the rest are sharp-
pointed, and shaded off to the exterior sides,
from a brown to a dull white. The legs, toes,
and webs are red.

The plumage of the female, which is called a
flapper, possesses few or none of the beauties of
the male, except the spot on his wings. All
the other parts are plain brown, marked with
black. She makes her nest, lays from ten to
sixteen greenish-white eggs, and rears her
young generally in the most sequestered mosses
or bogs, away from the haunts of man, and
hidden from his sight among the reeds and
rushes. To her unfledged family (and they
are nearly three months old before they can
fly) she acts the part of a fond and dutiful
parent, carrying or leading them from one pool
to another, as her fears and inclinations direct
lier ; and she is known, in this country, to use
the same wily stratagems to mislead the sports-
man and his dog, as those already noticed re-
specting the partridge.

Like most of the duck tribes, the mallards,
586

in vast numbers, leave the north at the end of
autumn, and, flying southward, arrive in Great
Britain in the beginning of winter, and spread
themselves over all the lakes and marshy
wastes. They pair in the spring, when the
greater part of them again return to the north,
to breed during the summer months of com-
paratively warm weather and long days. A
few straggling birds remain every season with
us, and breed.

It is not at all times that wild duck shoot-
ing can be pursued with success. These birds
being very shy, considerable art must be
employed in endeavouring to bring the
shot within range of them. They have fixed
times of feeding and visiting certain localities ;
and the only way for the sportsman to make
sure of them, is to watch their movements,
and conceal himself from observation. He
may thus often intercept their flight when
congregated in considerable numbers, and
bring down several at a shot. They are some-
times very easily killed, and sometimes not.
All depends upon the part of the body which
the pellets have struck. Regular wild duck
shooters are often very successful in moonlight
nights. The birds are then less shy and
suspicious.

Wild ducks frequent the marshy places of
many parts of this kingdom ; but nowhere in
greater plenty than in Lincolnshire, where
prodigious numbers were wont annually to be
taken in the decoys. In only ten decoys in
the neighbourhood of Wainfleet, as many as
thirty-one thousand two hundred have been
caught in one season.

To those who may not know what a decoy
is, we may say that it is a pond generally situ-
ated in a marsh, so as to be surrounded with
wood or reeds, and, if possible, with both, to
prevent the birds which frequent it from being
disturbed. In this pond the birds sleep dur-
ing the day ; and as soon as the evening sets
in, the decoy rises (as it is termed), and the
wild fowl feed during the night. If the even-
ing is still, the noise of their wings during
flight is heard at a great distance, and is a
pleasing though somewhat melancholy sound.
The decoy-ducks (which are either bred in
the pond-yard, or in the marshes adjacent,
and which, although they fly abroad, regularly
return for food to the pond, and mix with the

THE WILD DUCK.] ?> V FIELD, WOOD, AND W'ATl'K. [tiik wild dlck.

tame ones tliat never quit tljo pond) are fed
with hemp-seed, o:\ta, and bufk-wheat. In
catching the wild birds, hemp-seed ia thrown
over tl»e isoreena to allure them forward into
the pipes, of which there are several, leading
up a narrow ditch, that closes at last with a
funnel-ntt. Over these pipes, which grow
narrower from the first entrance, there is a
coutiuued nrch of netting, suspended oa hoops.
It isnecossary to liavo a. pipe for almost every
wind that can blow, as ou that circumstance
it depends which pipe the fowl will take to.
The decoy-man likewise always keeps to the
leeward of the wild fowl ; and burns, in his
mouth or hand, a piece of Butch turf, that his
own smell, if he have any, may not reach them ;
for, if they once discover by their scent that
a man is near, tliey all instantly take flight.
Along each pipe are placed reed screens, at cer-
tain intervals, to prevent him from being seen
till he thinks proper to show himself, or the
birds have passed up the pipe, to which they are
led by the trained ducks, which know the de-
coy-man's whistle, or are enticed by the hemp-
seed. A dog, which is taught to play backwards
and forwards between the screens, at the direc-
tion of his master, is sometimes used. The
fowl, roused by this new object, advance to-
wards it, while the dog is playing still nearer
to the entrance oi ihe pipes. At last the de-
coy-man appears from behind the screens, and
the wild fowl, not daring to pass by him, and
unable to fly off" on account of the net covering
the hoops, press forward to the end of the
funnel-net, which terminates upon the land,
where a person is stationed ready to take
them. The trained birds return past the
decoy-man into the pond again, till a repeti-
tion of their services is required. Tlie general
season for catching is from the latter end of
October till February.

It was formerh' customary to have, in the
fens, an annual driving of the young ducks,
before they took wing. Numbers of people
assembled, who beat a vast tract, and Ibrced
the birds into a net placed at the spot where
the sport was to terminate. By this practice
— which, however, has been abolished — as
many as a hundred and seventy-four dozen
have been known to be taken in one day.

"Wild ducks do not always build their nests
close to the water, but often at considerable dis-

tance from it ; in which case the female will
take the young in her beak, or betweou the
legs, to the water. They havo been knowa
sometimes to lay their eggs iu a high tree, ia
a deserted maLi;pie's or crow's nest ; and an iu-
stanco has likewise been recorded of one being
found at Etchinghani, in Sussex, sitting upoa
nine eggs, in an oak, at the height of twenty-
five feet from the ground. The eggs were
supported by some small twigs laid crossways.

We are informed, that at Bold, in Lanca-
shire, there were formerly great numbers of
wild ducks, during the summer-time, ia the
ponds and moat near the hall. These, it is
said, used regularly to be fed. A man beat
with a stone on a hollow wooden vessel, and
immediately the ducks would come round him.
He scattered corn among them, which they
gathered with as mucli quietness aud fami-
liarity as might bo expected from tame ducks.
As soon as they had finished their repast, they
returned to their accustomed haunts.

Prodigious numbers of these birds arc taken
by decoys, ia Picardy, iu Frauce. It is cus-
tomary there, to wait for the flock's passing
over certain kaown places ; when the sports-
man, having a wicker cage, containing a quan-
tity of tame birds, lets cut one at a time, which
enticing the passengers within gun- shot, five
or six are often killed at once by an expert
marksman. They are also, now and then, taken
by hooks baited with raw meat, which the
birds swallow while swimming on the water.

Other methods of catching ducks and geese
are peculiar to certain nations. One of these,
from its singularity, seems worth mentioning.
A person wades into the water up to the chin;
and, having his head covered with an empty
calabash, or gourd, approaclies the place where
are the ducks ; which, not regarding an objecc
of this kind, suffer him freely to mix with
them. He then has only to pull them by
the legs under the water, one after another,
and fix them to his belt, till he is satisfied ;
returning as unsuspected by the remainder as
when he first went among them. This curious
method is frequently practised on the river
Ganges, the earthen vessels of the Hindoos
being used instead of calabashes. These
vessels are what the Hindoos boil their rice ia.
After having been once used, these vessels
are looked upon as defiled, aad are thrown

587

THE WILD DUCK.]

SHOOTING,

[the pochaed.

into tbe river as useless. The duek-takers
find them convenient for their purpose, as the
ducks, from seeing them constantly floating
down the stream, esteem them as objects not
to be regarded.

The Chinese make great use of ducks, but pre-
fer tame to wild ones. It is said that the greater
number of the ducks in China are hatched
by artificial means. The eggs, being laid in
boxes of sand, are placed on a brick hearth, to
which is given a proper heat during the time
required for hatching. The ducklings are fed
with craw-fish and crabs, boiled and cut small,
and afterwards mixed with boiled rice ; and, in
about a fortnight, they are able to shift for
themselves. The Chinese then provide them
an old step-mother, who leads them where they
are to find provender ; being first put on board
a sa7npane* or boat, which is destined for their
habitation; and from which the whole flock,
often to the amount of three or four hundred,
go out to feed, and return at command. This
method is used nine months out of the twelve ;
for in the colder months it does not succeed,
and is so far from a novelty, that it may be
everywhere seen; but more especially about
the time of cutting the rice, and gleaning tlie
crop, when the masters of the duck-sampanes
row up and down the river, according to the
opportunity of procuring food, which is found
in plenty, at the tide of ebb, on the rice plan-
tations, as they are overflowed at high water.
It is curious to observe how the ducks obey
their masters ; for some thousands, belonging
to difierent boats, will feed at large on the
same spot, and, on a signal given, will follow
their leader to their respective sampanes,
without a single stranger being found among
them. This is still more extraordinary, if we
consider the number of inhabited sampanes
on the Tigris, which have been supposed to be
not less than 40,000, moored in rows, close to
each other, with, here and there, a narrow pas-
sage left for boats to sail up and down the
river. The Tigris, at Canton, is somewhat
wider than the Thames at London ; and the
whole river is there covered in this manner
for upwards of a mile.

* Sampanes is a common name for boats: the in-
habited ones contain each a separate family, of which
they are the only dwelling ; and many of the Chinese
pass almost their whole lives in this manner on the water.
588

In Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, Martin
Mere ; in Lancashire, in North and South
Wales, in Scotland, in the Fern Islands, off
Bambro' Castle, and in Northumberland, there
are countless thousands of these birds to be met
with in the winter season. By a recent act of
parliament, no wild fowl, either young or old,
can be legally killed from the last day of
March to the 1st of October.

THE POCHARD, OR DUN-BIRD.
Of the Anas Ferina of Linnjeus, Mr. Daniel
gives us the best account : — " It is about the
size of a widgeon, and weighs one pound twelve
ounces. Its length is nineteen inches ; breadth
two feet and a-half ; the bill is broader than
the widgeon's, of a deep lead colour, with a
black tip ; irides orange ; the head and neck
orange chestnut, with a small triangular spot
of white under the centre of the lower man-
dible ; the lower parts of the neck and breast,
and upper part of the back, dusky black;
scapulars and wing-coverts, nearest the body,
of a grey white, elegantly marked with narrow
lines of black ; the exterior wing-coverts and
quills dusky brown; secondary quill-feathers
regularly edged with a stripe of white; the
belly ash-coloured and brown ; vent-feathers
and coverts of tail black ; the tail consists of
twelve short feathers, of a deep grey ; the legs
lead-coloured. The female has the head of a
pale reddish brown; the breast is rather of
a deeper colour; wing-coverts and belly
cinereous ; and the back marked like that o£
the male. These birds are eagerly bought by
the London poulterers under the name of dun-
birds, as they are deemed excellent eating.
The greater part of what appear in the markets
are caught in decoys; but the construction
and mode of working are perfectly distinct
from that wherein the other wild fowl are
taken. A decoy for dun-birds is called a flight-
pond, and has nets fastened to tall stout poles,
twenty-eight or thirty feet long ; at the bottom
of each pole is fixed a box, filled with heavy
stones, sufiicient to elevate the poles and nets
the instant an iron pin is withdrawn, which
retains the nets and poles flat upon the reeds,
small willow boughs, or furze. In the inside of
the nets are small pens, made of reeds, about
three feet high, for the reception of the birds
that strike against the nets and fall down ; and

THE pocn.vnD.J

BY FIELD, AVOOD, AND AVATEK.

[the widgeox.

such is tho form and shortness of the wing of
pochards, that they cannot ascend again from
tlieso littlo inclosurc3 if tlicy would ; besides,
tho numbers wliich aro usually knocked into
those pens, preclude all chance of escajio from
tliom by the wing. A decoy-man will some-
times allow the haunt of dun-birds to be so
freat, that the whole surface of tho pond will
be covered with them previous to his attempting
to take one. Upon such occasions he bespeaks
nil the assistance he can get, to complete the
slaughter by breaking their necks. AVhen all
is ready, the dun-birds aro roused from the
pond ; and as all wild fowl rise against the
wind, the poles in that quarter are unpinned,
and fly up with the nets at the instant the dun-
birds begin to leave the surface of the water,
so as to meet them in their first ascent ; and
they are thus beat down by hundreds. At
the pond of Mr. Baxton, at Goldhanger in
Essex, as many pochards have been taken at
one drop as filled a waggon, so full as to require
four stout horses to carry them away ; and the
lower birds in the pens have been known to be
killed and pressed entirely flat, from tho num-
bers of their companions heaped up above them
by the fatal stoppage of the poles and nets.
The few attempts made to domesticate the
pochard have been hitherto unsuccessful. They
do tolerably well where there is plenty of water,
but cannot bear walking about on bard, pebbly
grounds."

The pochard leaves the northern regions at
the commencement of winter, and directs its
course southward. It is said that it frequents
Egypt, also the entire section of the Holy
Land ; and is very numerous in some of the
lakes and marshy districts in America, espe-
cially in Carolina and Louisiana. In France
it makes its appearance about the month of
October, in large flocks ; and about the same
period it may be found in all the low and fenny
districts of Grreat Britain.

In shooting this bird, especially in a severe
snow-storm, accompanied with a hard frost, it is
found not to be so difficult to bring to the ground
with tolerably sized shot as some other wild
fowl ; it is, however, always a matter of difficulty
to get within range of it, for it is very shy, and
remarkably quick in recognising an enemy,
when it immediately takes wing to some safe
retreat.

THE WIDGEON.

This well-known bird is the Anas Fenelope
of Liimajus, and has a length of about twenty
inches, a breadth of from two to three feet,
and a weight of about twenty-two ounces.
The bill is an incli and a-half long, and narrow,
with its outer edges serrated. The upper
mandible is of a dark leaden hue, tipped with
black. The crown of the head is very high and
narrow, and is of a cream colour, with a small
spot of yellowish white under each eye. The
rest of the head, tho neck, and the breast, aro
of a bright rufous chestnut, faintly freckled on
the head with black spots, and darkest on the
chin and throat, and tinged with a vinous
colour. A baud, composed of beautifully waved
or indented narrow ash-brown and white lines,
separates the breast and neck. Tho scapulars
and back are marked with similar feathers,
as are also the sides of the body under the
wings, even as low as the tliighs. These, how-
ever, are paler. The belly, to the vent, is white,
and the ridge of the wing and adjoining coverts
arc of a dusky ash-colour, approaching to
brown. The great coverts are brown, fringed
with white, and tipped with black, which forms
a border to the changeable green beauty-spots
of the wings, which are likewise bordered on
the under side by the deep velvet black tips of
the secondary quills. The exterior webs of
the adjoining quills are white ; and those next
the back, which are very long, are of a deep
brown, fringed with yellowish white. Tho
greater quills are brown ; the vent and upper
tail-coverts are black.

During the night, whilst widgeons are
taking their course through the air, they may
be distinguished from other wild fowl by the
peculiar whistling note they use. They have
been domesticated, and are generally much
admired on account of their liveliness and
beauty.

On the approach of frosty weather, they
leave the desolate regions of tho north, and
direct their course to the south, breaking into
detached and diverging lines, and spreading
themselves along the shores, and over the
morasses and lakes of different countries.
Large numbers of them are found in the East,
particularly in Egypt, and in the islauds of
the Mediterranean. They remain in these

589

THE WIDGEON.]

SHOOTING,

[the teal.

parts during the winter, at the end of wliich
the old birds pair ; and the whole flock, in full
plumage, take their departure northward
about the end of March. AVhile the widgeon
remains in Britain, it frequents the same
places, and feeds in the same mode as the
mallard, and is often taken in the decoys,
along with different species of the duck tribe.

There are a great number of birds called
divers; and among the number are the scoter,
scaup, golden-eye, and morillon. Colonel
Hawker says there are seven kinds of these
divers to be found in Great Britain, exclusively
of other sis, which are separately classed as
the genus Mergus. Mr. Daniel observes, that
" they vary much both in plumage and size ;
some weighing two pounds and a-half, and
others a pound less, and are caught in the de-
coys with the ducks. In hard weather, they
frequent the shores and tide rivers in great
plenty, and are almost always, at that season,
fat and in good condition. They do not fly in
such large flocks as many of the duck species,
but usually close to the surface of the water,
and bear very hard blows from the shot with-
out dropping, unless struck upon the head or
wing. The scoter is seen in prodigious num-
bers, from November to March, on the French
coasts, especially if the wind be to the nortli, or
north-west. The day seems to be spent by these
birds between diving and flying to small dis-
tances over the water, which they do so low as
often to dip their legs in it. They swallow
their food whole, and soon digest the shells,
which are found crumbled to powder among
their excrements. They have been kept tame
for some time, and will feed on soaked bread.
The flesh tastes fishy in the extreme ; and,
from this cause, is allowed by the Eoman
Catholics to be eaten on fast days and in
Lent ; and, indeed, to say the truth, must be a
sufficient mortification."

However amusing the shooting of these
birds may be, it is not attended with much
profit, as they are very difficult to hit. They
are wonderfully quick in diving; for the
moment the gun is pointed, down they go.
In stormy weather— that is, with the wind
from the north-east, cold and frosty — a sports-
man on the east coast of Britain, may now and
then waylay these birds on their flights, and
succeed in bagging a few brace ; but even to do
590

this, great exertion, patience, and the concur-
rence of favourable circumstances, are required.

THE TEAL.

The Anas Crecea of Linnaeus is a great fa-
vourite with many sportsmen, and is consid-
ered both a beautiful and handsome bird. It
is about twelve ounces in weight, fifteen inches
in length, and twenty-four in breadth. The
bill is dark, tipped with white. The irides ai*e
pale ; and a glossy bottle-green patch, fringed
on the upper side with pale brown, and be-
neath with cream-coloured white, covers each
eye, and extends to the nape of the neck. The
rest of the head, and the upper part of the
neck, are of a deep reddish chestnut, darkest
on the forehead, and freckled on the chin and
about the eyes with cream-coloured spots.
The hinder part of the neck, the shoulders,
part of the scapulars, sides under the wings,
and lower belly towards the vent, are pen-
cilled with black, ash-brown, and white trav-
ersed waved lines. The breast is of a pale brown
or reddish yellow, and each feather is tipped
with a roundish heart-shaped black spot, having
a resemblance to the markings of the Indian
shell. The belly is a cream-coloured white.
The quills, lesser and greater coverts, are
brown, and the last are deeply tipped with
white, which form a bar across the wings. The
first six of the secondary quills are of a fine
velvet black ; while those next to them, towards
the scapulars, are resplendent glossy green ; and
both are tipped with white, forming the divided
black and green bar, or heauty-spot of the wings.

The tail consists of fourteen feathers, of a
whitish brown colour, with pale edges ; and the
legs and feet are of a dingy lead. The female,
which is less than the male, has its head and
neck prettily freckled with brown and white.
She has not the green patch between the eyes,
but a brown streak supplies its place, and ex-
tends to the nape of the neck. The crown of
the head is dark brown. The upper mandible
yellow on the edges, olive green on the sides,
and olive brown on the ridge. The nail is
black, and the under bill yellow. The breast
and belly are of a glossy yellowish white, irreg-
ularly spotted with brown. The upper plu-
mage is dark brown, each feather being bor-
dered with rusty brown, and fringed with grey.
The wings are like those of the male bird.

THE TEAL.]

BY FIELD, WOOD, AND WATER.

[the TIAL.

In most parts of Great Britain, during
winter, teal are coniniou ; but it is not very well
ascertained whether they remain throughout
the year to breed, as they do in France. The
female makes a large nest, composed of soft
dried grasses, lined with feathers, concealed in
a hole among the roots of weeds and bulrushes,
near the edge of the water ; and some natural-
ists have asserted, that the nests, in several
instances, have been found entirely to lloat on
the surface of the water, so as to rise and fall
with it. The eggs are of the size of those of a
piceon, and amount to six or seven in number.
Thev are of a dull white colour, freckled with
small brownish spots. Their numbers vary.
Some have been known to lay twelve eggs.
Buffon says, that numbers of young teal are
seen in pools, feeding on cresses, wild chervil,
&c.; and, unquestionably, as they grow up, they
feed, like other ducks, on the various seeds,
grasses, and water-plants, as well as on the
smaller living things with which all stagnant
waters are so abundantly stored. The bird
is highly extolled for the excellence of its
flavour.

Teal are seldom found in large numbers;
scarcely ever more than ten or twenty are
seen together, and this only in stormy weather,
and in certain favourite localities near the
coast, or by the edges of a sheet of water,
where they are fringed with long grass, or
brushwood. They are comparatively solitary
birds, confining themselves chiefly to families ;
and it is only in this way that they are inter-
esting to the sportsman. A man may range a
considerable section of marshy country, and
not see more than a pair or two at a time. In
all the moor and boggy districts, in the north
of England, they are to be met with ; but never
in great numbers-
There is a large portion of wild- fowl shooting
pursued as a matter of business and traflTic, and,
consequently, with a view to filling the cofier
rather than furnishing sport. This is chiefly
confined to the low districts of the coast, where
birds of the duck kind, especially, congregate in
immense flocks at certain seasons of the year.
Many persons gain a good livelihood by this
kind of shooting as it is followed on the Hamp-
shire coast, and the Isle of "Wight. The coast
between these localities consists, at ebb tide,
of vast muddy flats, covered with green sea- j hail

w eed ; and affords the fowler an opportunity of
practising arts perhaps not elsewhere resorted
to. Fowling and fisliiiig are, indeed, on thia
coast, commonly the employments of the same
person. Ho who in summer, with hia lino or
net, plies tlie shores wlien they are overflowed
by the tide, in winter witli his gun, as evening
draws on, runs up in his boat among the littlo
creeks, which the tide leaves in tho midlands,
and lies in patient expectation of his prey.
Sea-fowl usually feed by night, when, in all
their multitudes, they come down to graze on
the savannahs of the shore. As the sonorous
cloud advances (for their noise resembles a
pack of hounds in the air in full cry), the
attentive fowler listens which way they bend
their course : perhaps he has the mortification
to hear them alight at too great a distance for
his gun (though of the longest barrel) to
reach them; and if he cannot edge his boat
round some creek, which it is not always in
his power to do, he despairs of success that
night ; perhaps, however, he is more fortunate,
and has the satisfaction to hear the airy noiso
approach nearer, till at length the host settle
on some plain upon the edge of wliich hia
boat is moored. He now, as silently as pos-
sible, primes both his pieces anew (for he is
generally doubly armed), and listens with all
his attention. It is so dark, he can take no
aim ; for, if he could discern the birds, they
would also seo him, and, being extremely
timorous, would seek some other pasture.
Though they march with noiso, they feed in
silence; some indistinct noises, however, if the
night be still, issue from so vast a concourse.
He directs his piece, therefore, towards the
sound, fires at a venture, and instantly catch-
ing up his other gun, discharges it where he
supposes the flock to rise on the wing. His
gains, for the night, are now decided, and he
has only to gather his harvest. He imme-
diately puts on his mud-pattens (flat, square
pieces of board, which the fowler ties to his
feet that ho may not sink in the ooze), ignorant
yet of his success, and goes groping about in
the dark in quest of his booty, picking up
sometimes many, and perhaps not one; so
hardly does the poor fowler earn five shillings,
exposed in an open boat, during a solitary
winter night, to the weather as it comes — rain,
hail, or snow, on a bleak coast — a league

591

LAKE SHOOTINa.]

SHOOTING,

[lake SHOOTINa.

•probably from the beacb, and often liable, with-
out great care, to be fixed in the mud, where he
would become an inevitable prey to the return-
ing tide. We have heard of a poor fellow who
never took a dog with him in these expeditions,
because no dog could bear the cold which he
was obliged to suffer. The tide often throws,
next day, on different parts of the shore, many
of the birds which he had killed on the pre-
vious night, but could not find them.

This is the account given by Mr. Gepin, of
this kind of sport ; but, since his time, the
mode of pursuit has been greatly improved.

The danger, Mr. Daniel tells us, of fowlers
attacking the wild fowl in small boats, arises
from the circumstance, that when there hap-
pens to be ice in the river, they get encircled
by it, and can only hope to extricate them-
selves by following the current, wherever it
may take them. It not unfrequently happens
that the men are detained two or three tides,
before they can work their way out of the icy
entanglement. They also suffer much, in such
cases, from cold and privation.

On and in the vicinity of the Fern Islands?
near to Berwick-upon-Tweed, wild fowl con-
gregate, and breed in surprising numbers. It
is impossible, in walking on the ground, to
step upon a single square foot of space with-
out crushing eggs beneath your feet. In the
winter season, when there is a storm from the
east or north-east, with a heavy sea breaking
on the shore, the wild fowl may be shot, even
on the mainland, in considerable quantities,
by artfully concealing oneself along the beach.
Storms have sometimes so bewildering an effect,
even on these hardy birds, that they seem
quite stupid, and will sometimes come within
twenty yards of the gun, in daylight.

LAKE AND POND SHOOTING.

This sport can only be followed in certain
parts of the kingdom, as, where there are neither
lakes nor ponds, it cannot be pursued. In
the fenny districts of Lincolnshire and Cam-
bridgeshire, however, where the various kind
of wild ducks breed among the reeds and long
grass in the boggy grounds, this sport is to be
obtained. Here the young are hatched, and,
in the month of August, receive the name of
flappers ; and the shooting of them then com-
mences, and is found to be excellent sport.
592

This kind of shooting is altogether difierent
from that which is practised on the coast,
where the birds only come to feed at particular
seasons, and where they never breed. These
fens, meres, or broads, are sometimes amazingly
stocked with birds of all kinds ; and great
numbers are shot, or taken in traps and nets
for the London market.

For Hampshire coast-punt shooting, a gun
of Jifty ijounds' weight is that which is found
to be the most suitable. The old heavy pieces
of seventy and eighty pounds, rendered the
punt immovable when fouled on grass and
winkles, which are shells strewed over the
oozes in countless myriads. The sportsman,
in such a puut, rows with his back to the gun,
until he sees the fowl, when he turns on his
face, and works himself along with a kind of
prong, weighted to catch the ground. When
the water is too deep for the pushing-pole
readily to reach the ground, two paddles are
made use of to help the fowler forward.
Having given these general instructions, the
reader is referred to the work of Colonel
Hawker for further information. There he
will find all that relates to mud-pattens, mud-
boards, and to several modifications of the
launching-punt, the launching-sledge, the
Sussex mud-boat, and the Poole canoe — all de-
vices and instruments made to facilitate the
capture of the wild fowl in the creeks and
oozes of this part of the British coast.

There are other matters connected with this
sport sufficiently important to demand a shght
notice, amongst which is the dress of the wild-
fowl sportsman. Respecting this, Mr. Daniel
says — " To be properly equipped for this sport
in severe weather, it is essentially requisite to
be well clothed. Flannel shirt, drawers, and
additional exterior and warm garments, will
not be found unpleasant to those who face the
cold winds upon the marshes, or sit fixed in a
punt alongside the oozes; thick yarn stock-
ings, and, over them, what are termed wads by
the fisherman (knit woollen stockings that
come up to the middle ; and, however inele-
gant in their appearance, prove very solid com-
forts to the wearer) ; and over these double
defenders of the legs, a pair of waterproof boots
will also be found indispensable. A cap must
be worn, made of skin, instead of a hat ; as the
wild fowl will not approach near the latter."

wiLU-rowL suooTiNO.] BY I-'IKLD, WOOD, ASD WATER. [rLiuux-BUuofixo.

"Wild-fowl shooting being a severe and much-
exposed ainusoment, ought not to bo engaged
in by young men of a consumptive habit. In-
deed, we have heard of many u man possessed of
V hat is called an iron constitution, sinking under
long-continued exposure to night air, want of
Bleep, with, perhaps, a ti)o great indulgence in
tippling, to ktiep the cold out. The best means
for this is to go out to the sca-shoro in a frosty
night, pretty well soaked with warm tea ; it will
enable the sportsman to stand longer unin-
jured by cold and dam[> tlian anything he can
take. AVe have found this to bo true from
personal experience, as well as from the testi-
mony of others.

"Wild-fowl shooting can be obtained in al-
most every section of the coast of Great Bri-
tain and Ireland, and in most of the moun-
tainous and moorish districts of both islands.
North and South "U^ales present some fine
lakes for this kind of shooting; and so like-
n-ise do all the lligliland localities of Scotland.
The whole coast of this part of Britain ofiers
a large field for this sport ; and to one who
wishes to enter zealously into it, we would re-
commend him to take a tour round the western
isles, by the north cape, returning by the east-
ern side of the island. In such an excursion
he will find sport enough to satisfy the most
ravenous appetite.

In India, wild-fowl shooting is zealously fol-
lowed, both by British residents and natives.
" The English," says Mr. Pennant, " send out
their servants as well as Indians to shoot these
wild fowl on their passage. It is in vain to
follow them ; they therefore form a row of huts
made of boughs, at musket-shot distance from
each other, and place them in a line across the
parts of the west marshes of the country where
the fowl are expected to pass. Each stand is I
occupied by a single person ; these, on the j
approach of the birds, mimic their cacJcle so
well, that they will answer, wheel, and come
near the hovel. The sportsman keeps mo-
tionless, and on his knees, with his gun cocked,
and never fires till he has seen the eyes of the
wild fowl. He fires as they are going from
him ; then picks up another gun that lies by
bim, and discharges that. The fowl killed he
sets up on sticks, as if alive, to decoy others ;
he also makes artificial birds for the same pur-
pose. In a good day (tor they fly in very un-
4 a

certain and unequal numbers), a single Indiaa
will kill two hundred. Notwithstanding every
kind of wild fowl has a dilfcront call, ytt the
Indians arc admirablo in thuir imitation of
every one."

There ia a kind of shooting called jH^ht-
shooting, which ia thus spoken of by i\Ir. lilaino.
— " The uninitiated in this sport," he says,
" without other company than one friend or
his servant, may commeuco with this shooting
by following these instructions : — By either a
punt or canoe, provided you can pitch on a
retired spot, not followed up either by tho
fishermen or the rabble of tho neighbourhood.
In a canoe, either by rowing or pushing your-
selves along between tho banks of a creek,
being well screened from observation, your
chance of success is in tho proportion of your
prudence in keeping yourselves completely
concealed, and in the dexterity of your manip-
ulations, when the fowl begin to arrive in
small tribes towards nightfall. Being provided
each with a handy duck gun, wait their arrival
patiently. Now, as Colonel llawker most de-
scriptively expresses it, you will probably soon
hear tho whistle of the approaching widgeon,
the stormy rush of the dun-birds, tho plaintive
notes of the plover, and the shrill sound of tho
approach of the wild ducks. It will ofier you
more chance of success should the weather bo
somewhat boisterous, and still more, if the
birds are forced to fly against the wind, which
not only makes them fly low, but pretty closely
together also. Be particularly careful that
nothing you have on can make a glare ; be as
still as death, yet watchful as life can mako
you; and as the birds, in the flight up tho
creek, lower themselves, shoot well forwards —
say one or two feet, before their heads, accord-
ing to the rate at which they fly. If you can
find or even make any screen, one may leave
the boat, and wait the flight of a tribe coming
on the marsh to feed ; the other may wait his
own chance with patience in the boat. This
shooting may also bo attempted, and often
successfully, when alone, and likewise without
a boat, provided you have tho means of con-
cealing yourself, whicli will, in all probability,
happen, by taking advantage of some of tho
deep indentations made by storms, currents,
or under the banks of a brook. "Wait patiently
in such a situation, and you will be almost

593

BOOK SHOOTING.]

SHOOTING,

[book shooting.

certain of success, particularly about the dusk
of the evening ; and, if you are as great a
zealot as we have been at the sport, try the

grey of the morning, which we have commonly
found the best time, because the best employed
for this purpose."

CHAPTER XIII,

TiOOK SHOOTING.

EoOK shooting is excellent sport, and is followed
Jn the month of May. The rook is about the
size of the carrion crow, and is very like it,
except in its glossy plumage. The base of the
bill and nostrils, as far as the eyes, is covered
with a white skin, which constitutes one of the
points of difference between it and the common
carrion crow. It is gregarious, and collects in
vast multitudes at morning and evening, to
repair and return to its feeding and resting-
place. During the breeding-time rooks live
together in large societies, and build their nests
on trees close to each other, and, not unfre-
quently, even in the heart of populous cities,
says Mr. Hone, in his Every-Day Booh.

Besides insects, rooks feed on different kinds
of grain, and cause some inconvenience to the
farmer ; but to whatever extent this may be, it
seems greatly repaid by the good they do to
him, in extirpating the maggots of some of the
most destructive of the beetle tribe. In
Suffolk, and in some parts of Norfolk, the
farmers find it beneficial to encourage the
breed of rooks, as the only means of freeing
their ground from the grub which produces
the cock-chafer, which, in this state, destroys
the roots of corn and grass to such a degree,
that there are some pieces of pasture-land
where you might turn up the turf with your
foot.

These birds are sometimes seen in flocks so
great as to darken the air in their flight.
They build their nests on high trees, close to
each other ; generally selecting a large clump
of the tallest for this purpose. When once
settled, they, every year, frequent the same
2jlace. They are, however, bad neighbours to
each other ; for they are continually fighting
59i

and pulling to pieces each other's nests.
These proceedings seem unfavourable to their
living in such close community : and yet, if a
pair offer to build on a separate tree, the
nest is plundered and demolished at once.
Some unhappy couples are not permitted to
finish their nests until the rest have all com-
pleted their buildings ; for, as soon as they get
a few sticks together, a party comes and de-
molishes the whole. It generally happens
that one of the pair is stationed to keep guard,
while the other goes abroad for materials.
From their conduct in these particulars, our
cant-word rooJcing, for cheating, originated.

As soon as the rooks have finished their
nests, and before they lay, the cocks begin to
feed the hens, who receive their bounty with a
fondling tremulous voice, fluttering wings, and
all the little blandishments that are expressed
by the young while in a helpless state. This
gallant deportment of the males is continued
throughout the whole season of incubation.

There seems to exist a wonderful antipathy
between these birds and the raven. It is said,
that as soon as a raven builds her nest in a
tree adjoining a rookery, all the rooks immedi-
ately forsake the spot. At a rookery at
Broomham, near Hastings, upon a raven
building her nest in one of the trees, all the
rooks forsook tlie spot; they, however, returned
to their haunts in the autumn, and built their
nests there the succeeding year. It is not
di£B.cult to account for this antipathy. The
raven will scarcely suffer any bird whatever to
come within a quarter of a mile of its own
nest, being very fierce in defending it. Be-
sides, it seizes the young rooks from their
nests, to feed its own young.

THE PIOEOX.]

EV: FIELD, WOOD, AND WATEK.

[the pigeon.

Rooks begin to build in INIarch ; and, nfter
the breeding season is over, lorsako tlieir nest-
ing trees, and, lor some time, roost elaewliero ;
but thev liavo always been observed to return
in August. In October, they repair their
nests. When the first brood of rooks are sulli-
ciently fledged, they all leave their nest-trees
ill the day-time, and resort to some distant
place in search of food : but return regularly
every evening, in vast flights, to their domi-
ciles ; where, after flying round several times
with much noise and clamour, till they are all
assembled together, they take up their abode
for the night.

In parts of Hampshire, adjacent to the New
Forest, after the rook has reared its progeny,
and has carried off such of them as have
escaped the arts of men and boys, it retires
every evening, at a late hour, during the
autumn and winter months, to the closest
coverts of the forest, having spent the day in
the open fields and enclosures in quest of food.
Its late retreat to the forest is characteristic
of the near approach of night.

" Retiring from the downs, where all day long
They pick their scanty fare, a black'ning train
Of loitering rooks thick urge their weary flight,
And seek the shelter of the grove."

But although the forest may be called its

winter habitation, it generally, every day, viaits
its nursery ; preserving the idea of a family,
which it begins to raako provision for very
early in the spring.

Dr. Darwin has remarkeii, that a conscious-
ness of danger from umnluud is much moro
apparent in rooks than in most other birds.
Any one who has in the least attended to
them, will see that they evidently distinguish
that the danger is greater when a man is armed
with a gun, than when he has no weapon in
his hands. In the spring of the year, if a
person happen to walk under a rookery with
a gun in his hand, these inhabitants of tho
trees rise on their wings, and call to tho
unfledged young to shrink into their nests
from tho sight of the enemy. Tho country-
people, observing this circumstance so uni-
formly to occur, assort that rooks can smell
gunpowder.

In England these birds remain during the
whole year; but both in France and Silesia
they migrate. It is said that there are no
rooks in the island of Jersey, although they
frequently fly over from Britain into France.
The young birds, when skinned and made
into pies, are much esteemed by some persons ;
they are, however, very coarse meat, and far
from being universally relished.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE PIGEON.

Pigeons form a tribe which are considered
to be the connecting link between the passe-
rine birds and the poultry. They are much
dispersed over the world, some of the species
being found even in the arctic regions. Their
principal food is grain : they drink much — not,
however, at intervals, like other birds, but by a
continued draught, like quadrupeds. During
the breeding-time they associate in pairs, and
pay court to each other with their bills. The
female lays two eggs, and the young which are
produced, arc, for the most part, a male and a

female. They usually breed more than once
in the year ; and the parent birds divide tho
labour of incubation by sitting alternately oa
the eggs.

Both tho male and female assist in feeding
their young. This, in most of the species with
which we are acquainted, is done by means of
a substance in appearance not unlike curd, and
analogous to milk in quadrupeds, that is se-
creted in their crop. During incubation, tho
coats of the crop are gradually enlarged and
thickened, like what happous to the udders of

595

THE STOCK-DO YE.]

SHOOTINa,

[the stock-doyb.

female quadrupeds during the time of uterine
gestation. On comparing the state of the crop
when the bird is not sitting, with its appear-
ance on these occasions, the diiference is found
to be very remarkable. In tlie first case it is
thin and membranous; but when the young
are about to be hatched, it becomes thicker,
and takes a glandular appearance, having its
internal surface very irregular. Whatever may
be the consistence of this substance wlien just
secreted, it probably very soon coagulates into
a granulated white curd ; and in this form it
is always found in the crop. If an old pigeon
be killed just when the young ones are hatch-
ing, the crop will be found as above described,
having in its cavity pieces of white curd mixed
with the common food of the bird, such as
barley, peas, &c. The young pigeons are fed
for a little while with this substance only;
about the third day some of the common food
is to be found along with it. As the pigeon
grows older, the proportion of common food is
increased; so that by the time it is seven,
eight, or nine days old, the secretion of the
curd ceases in the old ones, and of course no
more is found in the crop of the young. It is
a curious fact, that the parent pigeon has, at
first, power to throw up this curd without auy
mixture of common food ; although afterwards
both are thrown up in the proportion required
fox the young.*

THE STOCK-DOVE.

This is the Columla ^nas of Linnaeus ; and,
from being the parent stock whence all the
varieties of the domestic pigeon are derived, is
often called the stock- dove. It is still found in
many parts of our island in a wild state ; form-
ing its nest in holes of rocks, and old towers,
and in the hollows of trees; but never, like
the ring-dove, on the boughs.

There is considerable uncertainty about the
identity of this bird. Bewick calls it the wild
pigeon; and Colonel Montague the rock-dove,
or rockier; and he says that ornithologists
seem to differ concerniug the rock and the
stock-pigeon, though it appears almost impos-
sible to conceive them a distinct species.
Bewick says, that the stock-dove, rock-pigeon,

* What is here termed curd, is not literally such, but
is so called from its much resembling that substance in
appearance.

596

and wood-pigeon, with some small differences^
may be included under the same denomina-
tion. The wood-pigeon ought to be taken
entirely out of this class, because it is well
known never to produce any sexual inter-
course with the domestic pigeon, though every
effort has been tried w-hich ingenuity could
suggest. The stock-dove is very generally dif-
fused throughout all the countries in Europe.
It is said to be migratory ; but this is not well
ascertained. The nest of the female is very
loosely and rudely put together ; so much so,
that the eggs can be distinctly seen from the
under part of the nest. She lays two white
eggs. These birds live on wild fruits, herbs,
and on all kinds of grain. They are very
partial to peas, and are themselves delicate
eating, except when they have been for some
time feeding on turnips ; they then acquire a
strong and rancid flavour. In habit they are
shy, but are somewhat more easily killed with
shot than the common wood-pigeon. "When
they assemble in large flocks, they set scouts
to watch ; but, by a little care, and keeping
perfectly still, if possible, the sportsman may
succeed in getting at them. Some writers say
they are more common in the southern coun-
ties of England than in the northern. They
are likewise numerous in some districts of
"Wales. In some of the continental states,
particularly in Hungary, Bohemia, and Servia,
they appear in great flocks, at certain seasons
of the year, and are shot in large numbers by
the sportsmen and peasants of these countries.
Multitudes of wild pigeons visit us in the
winter, from their more northerly summer
retreats; appearing about November, and
again retiring (except a few that breed with
us) in the spring. AVhile the beech woods
were suffered to cover large tracts of ground,
these birds used to haunt them in myriadfi,
frequently extending above a mile in length, as
they went out in the morning to feed. lu a
state of domestication, these pigeons are ren-
dered of very material service. They fre-
quently breed eight or nine times in a year ;
and though only two eggs are laid at a time,
their increase is so rapid and prodigious, that,
at the expiration of four years, the produce
and descendants of a single pair may amount
to the immense number of nearly fifteen
, thousand.

TIIK UINQ-DOVE.]

r>v fii:m). wood and water.

[the UlXa-DOVB.

The usual way of enticing pij^eona to remain
at a required spot, is to iihice what is culled a
salt-cat near them. This is composed of loam,
old rubbish, and salt, and will so elVoctually
answer the purpose as to decoy even those bo-
lou'^ing to other places ; it is on tliis account
held illegal. There are a great many varieties
of the domestic pigeon ; and of these the
carriers are the most justly celebrated. They
obtain their name from the circumstance of
their conveying letters and small packets from
one place to another. It is through attach-
ment to their native place, and particularly to
the spot where they have brought up their
young, that they are thus rendered useful to
mankind. The bird is conveyed from its home
to the place whence the information is intended
to be sent, and the letter is tied under its wing,
when it is let loose. From the instant of its libe-
ration, its flight is directed through the clouds,
at an amazing height, to its home. By an in-
stinct altogether inconceivable, it darts onward
in a straight line to the very spot whence
it was taken ; but how it can direct its flight
so exactly, will probably for ever remain un-
known to us. The carrier-pigeon is easily
distinguished from the other varieties, by a
broad circle of naked white skin round the
eyes, and by its dark-blue or blackish colour.

THE RING-DOVE.

This is the largest of all the British pigeons,
generally weigliing about twenty ounces ; and
may at once be distinguished by its size from
all the rest. It builds on the branches of
trees, generally preferring those of the pine ;
the nest is large and open, formed principally
of dried sticks ; and the eggs, which may be
frequently seen through the bottom of the
nest, are larger than those of the domestic
pigeon. Attempts have frequently been made
to domesticate this bird, by hatching its eggs
in dove-houses under the common pigeon ; but
as soon as the young ones were able to fly,
they always escaped to their' proper haunts.

Some writers think the wood-pigeon (for it
often goes by this name) has considerably de-
creased within late years ; but this is, at least,
doubtful. When Mr. White, of Selborne,
wrote his admirable History, we believe the
birds were pretty numerous ; and our belief is
that they are as numerous now (if not more so)

ns at any previous period. It is injpossiblo
to travel in any direction in Great Britain
and not seo vast flocks of them, at least on
those tracts of country which abound with
a fair portion of wood, and am in a state of
tolerable cultivation. Mr. White Hays, on
this point, that " ho had often killed near
twenty in a day ; and that on some occasions,
with a long fowling-piece, he has even shot
seven or eight at a time ou the wing, as they
camo wheeling over his head ; and that there
were often, among them, little parties of small
blue doves, which are called rockiers."

In shooting the wild pigeon, it requires
rather a heavy blow to knock it down. Its
feathers are close, and resist shot like those of
water-fowl. AVhen these birds collect in con-
siderable numbers about turnip-fields in winter,
they invariably set pickets to watch over a
surprise. These sit on two or three of the
highest trees in the neighbourhood ; and when
they give the alarm, the entire body imme-
diately take flight. AVe have been often
struck, and sometimes a little mortified into
the bargain, to see how adroitly and cleverly
these sentinels perform their duty. Tet in
spite of their instinctive and systematic vigi-
lance, the sportsman may often succeed in
getting within range of the flock, and do con-
siderable execution, by having a reliable gun,
and using rather large-sized shot. In the
months of July and August, this bird visits
old pasture-fields, and feeds rather keenly
on the seeds of a species of grass which is
then abundant. AVe give this hint to the
sportsman that he may profit by it, if it suit
his inclination.

About the beginning of winter, ring-dovo3
assemble in great flocks, and leave oft' cooing.
The multitude thus collected during that
season, is so disproportioned to those which
continue here the whole year, as to render it
certain that by far the greater part of them
quit the country in the spring. It is most
probable that these pass into Sweden and the
adjoining countries, to breed ; and return thus
far southwards in autumn, from being unable
to sustain the rigours of that climate in the
wniter months. They again begin to coo in
March ; soon after whicli, those that are lefc
among us, commence their preparations lor
breeding.

597

TTJKTLB-DOTE.]

SHOOTING,

[tuetle-dove.

THE PASSENGER PIGEON
Is about the size of the common pigeon, and
its bill is black. Eound the eyes there is a
crimson miirk ; and the head, throat, and upper
part of the body are ash- coloured. The sides
of the neck are of a glossy, variable purple.
The fore part of the neck and breast are
finaceous ; and the under parts are the same,
but paler. The tail is tolerably long. The
legs are red, and the claws black. The passen-
ger pigeons visit the different parts of North
America, in enormous flocks. We ourselves
have seen them there in countless thousands.
In the southern proviuees their numbers depend
greatly on tlie mildness or severity of the
season ; for, in very mild vreather, few or none
of them are to be seen. Actuated by necessity,
they change their situations in search of acorns,
mast, and berries, which the warmer provinces
yield in vast abundance. When they alight,
the ground is quickly cleared of all esculent
fruits, to the great injury of the hog, and
other mast-eating animals. After having de-
voured everything that has fallen on the sur-
face, they form themselves into a great per-
pendicular column, and fly round the boughs
of trees, from top to bottom, beating down the
acorns with their wings ; and then they alight,
in succession, on the earth, and again begin
to eat.

THE TURTLE-DOVE.

This is the Columia Tutur of Linngeus, and
is famed, from the earliest times, for its plain-
tive and tender note. The length of this bird
is nearly twelve inches. The bill is brown ;
the eyes yellow, and surrounded with a crim-
son circle ; whilst the top of the head is ash
colour, mixed with olive. On each side of the
neck there is a spot of black feathers, tipped
with white. The back is an ash colour, with
each feather fringed with a reddish brown ; and
the wing- coverts and scapulars are likewise of
a reddish hue, slightly spotted with black. The
quill-feathers are dusky, with pale edges. The
fore part of the neck and breast is of a liglit-
purplish red ; and the belly, thighs, and vent
are white. The two middle feathers of the tail
are brown ; the others dusky, and tipped with
white. The two outermost are also edged with
the same, and the legs are of a reddish hue.
59S

In addressing his note, the male turtle-dove
makes use of a variety of winning attitudes,
cooing at the same time in the most gentle and
soothing strains. This has given rise to his
emblematical representation of connubial at-
tachment and happiness. These birds arrive
in this country late in the spring, and depart
about the latter end of August. They fre-
quent the thickest and best-sheltered localities
of woods dnd plantations, where they build
their nests on the highest parts of the loftiest
trees. The female lays two eggs, and, in our
island, has only one brood ; but in warmer cli-
mates she is supposed to breed several times
in the course of the year. Turtle-doves are
pretty common in Kent, where they are some-
times seen in flocks of from twenty to thirty,
frequenting the pea-fields, where, it is said, they
do great damage. Their stay seldom exceeds
four or five months, during which time they
pair, build their nests, and rear their young,
until they are strong enough to follow them in
their retreat.

A variety of the common turtle has been de-
scribed by the name of the " spotted-necked
turtle-dove." The difference consists in the
whole side of the neck being black ; and instead
of those feathers being tipped with white, there
is a round spot of white on each, very near the
end. Dr. Latham says this bird was shot in
Buckinghamshire, and that he observed one of
these amongst some birds that came from the
last expedition to the South Seas ; but as it
was in a parcel wherein were some which be-
longed to the Cape of Good Hope, it is possible
that this single bird might come from that
place. The bastard produce of the common
turtle with the turtle of the aviary, has been
proved by frequent experiments to be barren,
although the two species whence it origi-
nates appear to be closely allied, and a mixed
breed is easily produced.

Pigeon-shooting is, in this country, both a
sporting and a gambling amusement. We
have already observed that the varieties of the
pigeon family are very numerous, and natural-
ists and ornithological writers have differed
considerably on the subject of their classifica-
tion. Linuteus places them among sparrows,
upon the ground that both species pair in tho
season of love ; both work jointly in forming
the nest, and take their turns in sitting on

riGEON-snooTiN'o.] r>V IMHLD, WOOD, AND WATER. [i'iui:oN-BttEEDiNo.

the eggs. La Vaillant clasBilies thorn under
tliree aections : Ist, colombes, ramiers, and
tourterelles ; 2ml, cohimbars ; 3rd, colombi-gal-

lines.

IMGKON-MATCll SHOOTING.

"When pigeon-match shooting iirat com-
menced in England, it is diflGcult to say. It
is noticed at length, and as an established
sport, in the Sporii/iff Maf/,i:i>u; before the close
of the last century. The account given of it
there, shows tliat the sport, as it was then fol-
lowed, was pretty much the same as it is at
the present day. Pigeons require to bo bred
for shooting- matches ; and, for this purpose, a
commodious place to rear and protect them is
necessary. This, of course, will be varied ac-
cording to the circumstances and position of
the pigeon-breeder. But whatever be the size
or shape of the dove-cote, it must have two
holes or rooms for the birds to nest in. With-
out this arrangement there will bo constant
confusion, and the eggs will get broken con-
tinually. A dove-cote, entirely isolated, will
prove more secure than any other, as vermin
will then find it difficult, and in some cases
impossible, to shelter themselves in it. When
pigeons are kept in a room, and have to lay
their eggs on the floor, they are liable to be
destroyed by rats.

Every dove-cote should, if possible, have a
south-west aspect; and if a room be fixed
upon for that purpose, a hole may be made in
the roof of the building for the passage of the
burds, and a platform constructed at the en-
trance for the pigeons to alight upon, and with
some defence against cats, which will often
destroy a whole dove-cote in a single night.
If cats can be reared to be familiar with
pigeons, then they may become guardians
instead of destroyers of them, and prevent
the cote from being invaded by rats or mice.
This platform should be painted white, which
is a favourite colour with the birds, and it
is likewise conspicuous as a mark to enable
them to find their way home. The boxes
irhould also be coloured, and renewed when-
ever necessary ; for which purpose lime and
water will be sufficient.

Cleanliness is of great importance in a dove-
cote, to prevent the birds from becoming in-
tested with vermin, and also to keep them
otherwise healthy. All dove-cotes should.

therefore, be cleaned at leaot once a week,
and the pigeons ought to bo kept well supplied
with water to drink. When coniined in a
room, thoy should bo allowed a wido pan of
water; and this should often be renewed, as a
bath, which cools, refreshes, and assists them
to keep their bodies clear of vermin. In at-
tending to pigeons, care should be taken that
they do not light, as, when this occurs, both
tho eggs and young aro endangered.

The common barrel dove-cote is very com-
mon, and, no doubt, found very suitable for a
pigeon-house. It is to be seen in almost every
situation where pigeons are kept.

PIGEON-BREEDING.

In pairing pigeons for breeding, a con-
siderable degree of caro is necessary. It may
be done according to the fancy of the keepers,
for the purpose of varying the colours, or with
any other view. Old pigeons are difiicult to
retain securely, as they are apt to fly away on
every opportunity of gaining their freedom.
It is better to have what are called squakers, or
such as have not yet flown : these, being con-
fined, well fed, and gradually accustomed to
the surrounding scenery before they have ac-
quired suflicient strength of wing to fly from
their cotes, will, in a short time, become per-
fectly domesticated.

In a room or loft appropriated to the rear-
ing of pigeons, the shelves should be placed
sufliciently high to secure them against the at-
tacks of vermin. It is recommended that the
usual breadth of the shelves should be about
twenty inches, with the allowance of eighteen
between shelf and shelf, which will be quite
enough not to incommode the tallest birds.
Partitions between the shelves should be fixed
at the distance of about three feet, making a
blind, by a board nailed against the front of
each partition, where there will be two nests
in the space of every three feet ; so that the
pigeons will sit in privacy, and not be liable
to be disturbed. Or, a partition may be fised
between each nest ; which will prevent the
young from running to the hen, sitting over
fresh eggs, and perhaps occasion her to cool
and addle them ; for, when the young are about
a fortnight or three weeks old, a good hen will
leave them to the care of the cock, and lay
again.

599

SMALL BIEDS.]

SHOOTING,

[small BIEDS.

The food and water given to pigeons should
be so disposed as not to allow them to soil
themselves in any way. Earthen pans may
be used for this ; but there are neat meat-
boxes and water-bottles made for the pur-
pose ; which are excellent things, and preserve
great cleanliness in feeding. The meat-box is
formed in the shape of a hopper, covered at the
top to preserve the grain from dirt, which de-
scends into a square hollow box. Some fence
this off with rails or holes on each side, to keep
the grain from being scattered over ; others
again leave it quite open, that the young birds
may the more readily get at their food. The
water-bottle is made of glass, with a long
neck, holding from one to five gallons ; it is
shaped like an egg, so that the pigeons may
not alight upon aud soil it. It is placed upon

a stand, or three-footed stool, made hollow above
to receive the belly of the bottle, and let the
mouth into a small pan beneath. The water
gradually descends out of the mouth of the
bottle as the pigeons drink, and is thus kept
sweet and clean. It always stops when the
surface reaches the mouth of the bottle.

Pigeon-match shooting is still practised in
many parts of England, and in the metropolis
and suburban localities. The terms of these
matches vary. Sometimes they are arranged
for single, sometimes for double guns ; occa-
sionally for one weight of shot, and sometimes
for another. "Within the last few years, how-
ever, these matches have been on the decline,
and are not now considered so fashionable as
they were some years ago ; more especially in
the vicinity of the metropolis.

CHAPTER XV.

SMALL BIRDS.

Of late years there has, both in England and
Erance, been considerable speculation among
naturalists and farmers, in reference to the
wanton destruction of small birds, which, by
some, are supposed to do great damage to the
crops of the agriculturist, robbing him of much
of his grain, and thereby greatly reducing the
value of his crops. On the other hand, it is
argued that these birds are rather the guardians
than the thieves of granivorous property; that,
if they do take a little grain, it is as nothing,
■when compared with the quantity that they
save by devouring innumerable insects, which,
without their activity and voracity, would
soon overspread the land AVhichever of these
opinions may be right, we will not stay to
inquire; but, if admiration, as well as incli-
nation, bo permitted to have any weight in
the matter, we should cry, " Spare the little
birds !" There is, however, much wantonness
and thoughtlessness exhibited, now-a-days, in
the destruction of many of the "beauties of
Nature," whether belonging to active or still-
600

life. "We would not in any degree discourage
any fair use of God's creatures, either in the
way of investigation or even sport ; but a habit
greatly prevails of useless destruction, whenever
either rare beast, bird, or plant is met with in
our rambles. "Who that has wandered over
the wilds of Snowdonia, has not mourned over
the disappearance of many a rare plant, which
might well have rewarded the toils of climbing,
had it been left for the examination of him who
loves to see Nature's rarest productions flou-
rishing in their native wildness ! Tet, the
hand of the spoiler must root it up, and selfishly
appropriate, perhaps, the last specimen. If
a rare bird appears in any locality, number-
less guns are at once levelled at it; when
surely a moment's reflection would check such
selfishness, and induce us to think that the
more rare the bird or plant, the more we should
be careful not to destroy it. Had a different
and more rational spirit prevailed, we might
still have had a sight of the bustard on Salisbury
Plain, and the bittern in the marshes of Wales j

8MA1L BIRDS.]

BY I'll: LI), WOOD, AM) WATKK.

[Xlli: BTADLiyO.

but these noblo and beautiful works of Nature
are now sought for in vain. Next to this
ignorant nnschiof is tho wanton destruction of
bannlesa and useful birds. The wretcheil and
wicked habit of almost all cliildreu scekinj,'
after and taking birds'-neats, with no other
object than mere wilful destruction, is, we
believe, condueivo to many a wicked pro-
pensity in after-life. It is in itself not only a
cruel, but a purloining act, and tends as much
to blunt the natural sensibilities as it does
to degrade the moral sentiments. Not to
follow up this moral strain too deeply, wo
would notice one or two birds which, wo think,
are often destroyed more in a spirit of wanton-
ness than of sport. Those arc the lapwing,
peewit, or common plover, which is, perhaps,
one of the most elegant inhabitants of the air .
the white owl, and the starling. The first, in
its elegant llight, with plaintive pipe, gamboling,
and wheeling, and dipping over and around its
mate, must have delighted every real lover
of rural rambling. One would have supposed
that the thousands of slugs that it lives upon,
would have made it a peculiar pet of the
farmer ; and its vigilance of giving the alarm,
if either weasel, crow, magpie, dog, or poacher
cross its resting-place, ought to make it sacred
to the gamekeeper; and yet how constantly
is it destroyed through sheer thoughtlessness!
So, likewise, the beautiful white owl, that
best of mousers, how rare has it become ! Its
usefulness is without a drawback, and yet
how wilfully is it persecuted ! We know of
hardly any sight so beautiful as to see this
spirit of the early night, silently glide along
the dim hedge-row, and then, light as the foam
of the wave, perch upon the picturesque stump
of some old tree. And so the starling, that
endless mocker and imitator, that croaks and
whistles, and screams and warbles in mockery
of all its feathered songsters. Whether we
see this bird among the countless myriads of
his winter companions, winging his wonderful
flight, without confusion, in that cloud of birds
which darkens the wintry sky, or, at other times,
when faithful to his native roof, separating
himself and mate from that companionship, to
chatter and flutter on the old-accustomed
chimney or parapet ; if we consider the count-
less worms and insects, their only food, which
these never-tiring searchers must consume, no
4 H

reflective mind would over think of raising a
gun against them. This samo strain of senti-
ment might, wo think, most uscftliy be carried
out in reference to all the tribes of harmless
birds. Let each man have his pet, and do hij
best to encourage its preservation.

If there ia to be an exterminating war car-
ried on against these little creatures, what is
to become of the " music of our groves," and
the multitude of poetical associations witli
which our small birds are linked in every mind ?
Our ornithological works will bo read, by future
generations, with the samo sort of interest that
wc read of animals that lived before the flood ;
that had an existence, but that, long ago, be-
came extinct, and aro now only to be met witli
in a fossil state, imbedded in strata, or buried
in long-concealed caverns.

THE COMMON STARLING.

Handsome in appearance, social in disposi-
tion, lively in manners, and harmless in its
habits, the Sturniis vulgaris, or starling, is ono
of the best known and least molested birds
which inhabit our green fields, lawns, parks,
and pleasure grounds. It loves society, and,
consequently, at almost all periods of the year,
considerable flocks are met with, which range,
feed, and roost together.

Starlings commence nest-building early in
the year, occasionally during the third week in
February, but more usually in March or April.
They select a hole for a nest in an old weather-
worn tree, a church-steeple, or tho roof of a
house ; and having fixed upon one, they main-
tain possession of it with remarkable persever-
ance. A pair once fixing upon a hole beneath
the rafter of a cottage, were found very trouble-
some, and the cock-bird was shot : tho hen
found another mate. Next time the hen was
shot : the cock-bird paired again. Afterwards
both were shot; another pair came and built.
The hole was then plugged up with straw :
they pulled it out piecemeal : it was next plas-
tered over with mortar; they made a hole
through it. They were afterwards allowed to
tenant tho spot, because it was so difficult to
efl'ect their ejection.

Starlings are particularly fond of parks which
abound with ancient and venerable trees. Aa
the nesting season comes in, these old domains
present a busy and bustling aspect; for tho

GOl

THE STABLING.]

SHOOTING,

[the bedwing.

birds have nests in the cavities of the oaks, and
are continually winging their way to and from
them. The nest consists of a mass of stick,
bents, shreds of cotton and feathers, and con-
tains eggs about the end of April. It is occa-
sionally composed of clean white straw ; and,
when this is the case, the eggs, which are of a
delicate transparent blue, contrast very pleas-
ingly with the light colour of the straw. Some
eggs are dotted over with a few well-defined
black spots, like those of the song-thrush. The
young are hatched about the third week
in May, and are principally fed with worms,
both male and female assisting in the opera-
tion.

About September, the birds whicli have been
reared in a particular district, collect in flocks,
which, being augmented in number from other
districts, grow gradually larger, until they con-
sist sometimes of thousands ; and when the
whole body settles in a pasture, the ground
(owing to the sable plumage of the birds) seems
overspread with a wide, spacious pall. When
adrighted, they all generally rise in a body, and,
after wheeling through the air for some time,
alight upon the top of a broad oak or elm tree,
which seems nearly bowed down with the weight
of its burden : when in such a situation, it is
anything but pleasant to listen to their chatter-
ing voices. If attacked by hawks or other
predatory birds, the flock rises on the wing,
closes in, very compactly together, and presents
a mass which, being constantly in motion, is
not easily to be broken by their swift-winged
enemies.

A naturalist writes — " On the 2nd of Octo-
ber, 1844, I noticed the most amazing flock of
birds which it was ever my lot to witness — they
were starlings. At a distance they resembled
some gigantic mass of cloud slowly traversing
the heavens, occasionally changing its form, and
breaking into smaller masses. It was evening,
and the birds had probably collected to roost
for the night in a large wood, over the top of
which they were enjoying the few moments
before retiring to rest. The ease and elegance
of their flight, as they wheeled to and fro— the
firm and compact manner with which they kept
together when moving in a mass — the peculiar
facility with which the main army was broken
into numberless smaller ones, and yet instan-
taneously united again, was perfectly astonish-
602

ing, and excelled anything which I ever wit-
nessed amongst the feathered tribes."

At particular seasons of the year, starlings
frequently visit dove-cotes ; and many people
imagine that they do so to take the eggs and
young pigeons. This idea, however, is errone-
ous. At Walton Hall, in Yorkshire, these
birds were allowed to haunt the pigeon-cote
for years, yet they were never seen to molest
either the eggs or the young. The seasons
in which they frequent dove-cotes, are spring
and winter. At the former, their object, in re-
pairing thither, is to build their nests in the
pigeon-holes ; at the latter, it is to roost, more
especially in the cold nights. In districts
where woods and trees are scarce, this is a fre-
quent occurrence. Near East Ilsley, in Berk-
shire, as many as twelve dozen have been
caught in a single evening, whilst roosting in a
dove-cote.

THE REDWING.

The Turdus Iliacus of Linugeus is about
five ounces in weight, and eight inches in
length, with a dark-brown bill, deep hazel
eyes, and the plumage, in general, similar to
tliat of the thrush. A white streak runs over
the eye, which distinguishes it from that bird.
The belly is not quite so much spotted ; and
the sides of the body, and the general mass of
feathers under the wings, are tinged with a
lively red, which constitutes its peculiar cha-
racteristic, and which confers upon it its name.
These birds arrive in this country a little
earlier than the fieldfares, with which they
fraternise, frequent the same localities, live
upon the same kind of food, and to which
they are very similar in their leading features.
The redwing leaves in the spring, therefore its
song is not known to us; but travellers tell
us it is very harmonious and sweet. The
female builds her nest in low bushes or hedges,
and lays six eggs of a greenish-blue colour,
dotted with small black spots.

The Eomans held the flesh of the redwing
in the highest estimation ; and they kept thou-
sands of them together in aviaries, and fed
tliem with a species of paste, chiefly composed
of bruised figs and flour, and on various other
kmds of food. These receptacles were so con-
structed as to admit very little light; and
every object which could remind the birds of

TIIK FIELDFAHE.]

HV F I KLl), WOOD AM) W \T1' li.

[the Tnuusn.

tbeir former liberty, was sedulously kept out of
Bi'»ht, such as fields, woods, birds, or wli:it-
ever niitjht disturb or break in upon their
meinorie:*, or impair thi'ir improvement. Under
this troatiiuMit, tlio riMlwini^ fattiMied to a j^rcut
extent, sold tor a good price, and held a higii
place at the tables of this luxurious people.

Bewick tells us tliat a redwing was taken
up, November 7th, 1785, at six o'clock in the
morning, whieii, on its approach to land, had
flown ai'ainst the lighthouse at Tynemouth,
and was so stunned, that it fell to the ground,
and died soon after. The light, it is conjec-
tured, had attracted its attention. Tho same
writer observes, that when redwings appear on
the eastern coast, they as commonly announce
the approach of the woodcock, as does the
arrival of the wryneck that of the cuckoo in
the south. The best time for shooting this
bird is in hard frosty weather ; it is then more
bold in keeping to its feeding-grounds, and is
in greater numbers. Tho sportsman should,
however, conceal himself as much as possible,
as these birds set scouts to watch the approach
of danger; and, on this account, it requires
considerable art to get within range of them.

THE FIELDFARE.

This 13 the Turdus Filarus of LinnsBUS, and
is a very pretty bird. It is about ten inches
long. The bill is yellow, and each corner of
the mouth is furnished with a few black and
bristly hairs. The eye is light brown, and the
head and back part of the neck are of a light
ashen hue ; the former spotted with black.
The coverts of the wings are of a deep hoary
brown, the rump ash-coloured, and the throat
and breast yellow, with regular spots of black.
Tlie belly and thighs are of a yellowish brown,
and, in the young birds, more decidedly yellow.

There are some varieties of fieldfares which
display a somewhat different plumage ; but the
differences are not very important. They are
mostly confined to the comparative faintness of
the black spots on the breast, or the greater
predominance of white in various sections of
the body.

This bird is migratory, and arrives in this
country commonly in the first week in October;
subject, however, to some variation on account
of the weatlier. The character of the coming
winter is supposed to be prognosticated by

their appearance. If thoy nrrivo early, it is
said that wo shall have a hard season ; if late,
a mild one. They generally arrive in larj^o
flocks, and disappear about tho latter end of
February, or tho beginning of March, and re-
tire to Russia, Sweden, Norway, and as far as
Siberia and Kamtschatka. Bufl'on tells us,
they do not arrive in Franco till December,
when they assemble in flocks of two and threo
thousand. Their food ia haws and other ber-
ries, with worms, snails, and slugs.

Tho fieldfare being a shy bird, is difficult of
approach with a gun. When they are in any
considerable numbers, they appoint regular
scouts to give the alarm of danger. They can,
therefore, seldom bo shot, except by stratagem ;
but they are easily killed, their feathers being
loose, and their frames delicate.

Bewick says that fieldfares seem of a more
social disposition than the throstle or the mis-
sels. They are sometimes seen singly; but, in
general, form very numerous flocks, and fly in
a body ; and though thoy often spread them-
selves over the fields in search of food, they
seldom lose sight of each other, but, when
alarmed, fly off, and collect together upon the
same tree.

THE THRUSH, OR THROSTLE.

This bird is often, in country districts, an
object of the sportsman's attention, more espe-
cially ff he be a young one. It is the Turdus
Mucins of Linnscus, and is larger than the red-
wing, but less than the missel-thrush, to which,
in other respects, it bears a great resemblance,
both in form and colour. A small notch is
found at its bill, which is characteristic of all
the thrush species. The throat is white, and
the spots on the breast are very regularly
formed, and of a conical shape. The inside
of the wings and the mouth are yellow ; so like-
wise are the legs. The claws are strong and
black.

The throstle is distinguished by its clear and
harmonious notes, and is one of the principal
songsters of the groves, taking the lead among
the feathered tribes ; which ought to preserve
it from wanton destruction.

It is not properly migratory; but, in this
country, is more numerous iu particular places
at some part of the year than at others ; and
this circumstance has given rise to the idea

GO.J

THE LAEE.]

SHOOTIXG,,

[the lark.

that it goes, to a certain extent, from one
country to another. The female builds her
nest generally in bushes — the hazel, the thorn,
and sometimes on the branches of trees. It
is composed of dried grass, cemented together
by clayey matter. Buffon maintains that these
birds are migratory in France, and appear, in
the southern section of the kingdom, about the
end of September, and before either the red-
wing or fieldfare are seen. The female has
not such a brilliant plumage as the male — the
colours and spots being more blended and
faint in the former than in the latter.

THE MISSEL THRUSH.

This bird is about eleven inches long, and
is the Turdiis Viscivorus of Linnseus. The
bill is of a dusky hue, and the base of it yellow.
The eyes are hazel. The head, back, and lesser
coverts of the wings are of a deep olive colour,
and the latter tipped with white, which, in
some instances, is much more brilliant than in
others. The lower portion of the back or rump
is tinged with yellow ; and the cheeks are of a
yellowish white, spotted with brown; and so
likewise are the belly and breast. The quills
are brown, fringed with pale edges, and the
tail-feathers are the same, the three outermost
being tipped with white. The legs are yellow,
and the claws are black.

The female builds her nest in bushes or low
trees, and lays four or five eggs, of a greenish
colour, irregularly marked with red spots.
The nest is made of moss, leaves, and small
fibres of twigs, and lined with dry grass. The
bird commences early in the year to sing, even
when the weather is stormy and ungeuial ; and
this circumstance has induced country people,
in many districts in England, to call it the
storm-cocJc. It feeds on various kinds of berries,
particularly those of the misletoe. It like-
wise feeds on caterpillars, and different kinds of
insects, on which it chiefly rears its young.
It is a native of almost every country in
Europe, and, in some sections of the continent,
is said to be migratory. It remains in England
the entire year, and has frequently two broods
in the season.

THE LARK.

Tills is the Alauda Arvenis of Linnoeus, and
is so common in this country, that it hardly
requires a description hero.
604

" The daisied lea he loves, where turfs of grass
Luxuriant crown the ridge ; there, with his mate,
He founds his lowly house of withered herbs
And coarsest spcar-grass ; next, the inner work
With finer and still finer fibres lays,
Rounding it curious with his speckled breast."

This "herald of the morn," often made an
object of sport by the thoughtless tyro, builds
its nest upon the ground, where it is ex-
posed to the depredations of many of the
smaller animals of prey, as the weasel and the
stoat. Mr. Mudie says — "The lark selects
her ground with care, avoiding clayey places,
unless she can find two clods so placed as that
no part of a nest between them would be
below the surface. In more friable soils she
scrapes till she has not only formed a little
cavity, but loosened the bottom of it to some
depth. Over this the first layers are placed
very loosely, so that if any rain should get in
at the top, it may sink to the bottom, and
there be absorbed by the soil. The edges of
the nest are also raised a little above the
surface ; have a slope outwards, and are, as it
were, thatched. The position in which the
bird sits is a further security ; and as the head
is always turned to the weather, the feathers
of the breast and throat completely prevent
the rain from entering the nest at the side ;
while the wings and tail act as pent-houses in
the other parts ; and, if the weather be violent,
and the rain fall at a small angle with the
horizon, the fore part of the bird, upon which the
plumage is thickest, receives the whole of it."

"What is called the twirling for larks, is fol-
lowed as an amusement in France, and is thus
described: — These birds are attracted to a
given spot, in considerable numbers, by a sin-
gular contrivance called a mirror. This is a
small mahogany machine, shaped like a chapeau-
hras, and highly polished ; or else it is made
up of common wood, inlaid with small bits of
looking-glass, so as to reflect, upw^ards, the rays
of the sun. It is fixed on the top of a thin
iron rod, on an upright spindle, dropped
through an iron hoop or ring, attached to a
piece of wood to drive into the ground. By
pulling a string fastened to the spindle, the
mirror twirls round, and the reflected light
unaccountably attracts the larks, which hover
over it, and become a mark for the sportsman.
There is often what the French call capital

THE LABK.]

BY FIHL1\ WOOn. AM) WATEK.

[tuk L.VUK.

BDort in this way. Sometimes six dozen of
tlu'so birds are sliot beforo bivakl'ast : Homo-
timcs the sportsman sits on tlio ground, and
pulls the twirler himself, and sometimes a boy
or servant is employed to do it. Ladies often
participate in tlie amusement on a cold, dry
morning, not by shooting, but by watching tlie
sport. Occasionally there are ten or a dozen
parties out together, firing at a distance
of five or six hundred yards ; and by this device
the larks arc kept constantly ou tho wing.
The most favourable mornings are, wlieu there
is a gentle light frost, with little or no wind,
and the sky clear. When cloudy the birds
will not appear. To a bystander it would
almost suggest the thought, that the larks
themselves enjoyed their own destruction ; for
the fascination of the twirler is so strong, as
to rob them of tho usual fruits of experience.
After being fired at several times, they return
to the twirler, and form again into groups
above it — some of them even flying down, and
sitting upon the ground, within a yard or two
of the astonishing instrument, looking at it
this way and that way, and all ways together,
as if nothing had happened. In some parts of
Germany, larks are taken in great quantities;
and we are informed by Dr. Latham, that tlie
duty paid at Leipsic for these birds, amounts
to twelve thousand crowns ^er annum, at two-
pence-halfpenny for every sixty larks.

In this country, some lark shooters, in winter
— when there is a certain portion of snow on
the ground, with hard frost — sweep a part of
the snow from the surface, and strew it with
a little chaffer grain. This area need not be
more than twenty yards square. The birds
will eagerly frequent it ; and, by means of a
natural hedge embankment, or an artificial
screen, numbers of them are taken.

Speaking for ourselves, however, in this
matter, we regret the destruction of every bird
of song. Amongst all the enjoyments of this
world, not the least is the music of birds,
which, when combined with the elegance of

their forms, tho loveliness of their plumage,
and tho liveliness of their actions, are cajjablo
of affording pK'aauro to every ear or eye. As
a study in natural history, that of birds is by
far tho most beautiful and interesting; yet
how comparatively few are those who are
acquainted with the h.abitudes of even those
that are most common amongst us! It would
really appear that many think that birds wero
created only to be shot, and for no other pur-
pose whatever. "In natural history," says
-Mudio, "and more especially in tlie natural
liistory of birds, which, from the fieetness of
their aerial motions, carry the mind more
readily and directly over the general map of
the earth than any other class of the earth's
productions, this inversion of tho order of
nature — this substitution of tho end for the
beginning — is peculiarly hurtful, and must be
the cause why people, even well informed,
otherwise, know so very little about the nature
and habits of those species which are before
their eyes every day, and which appear to come
for the express purpose of being observed and
studied. Take, as a familiar instance, the
common redbreast, and ask your next neigh-
bour when and where it builds its nest ? — what
are the number and colour of its eggs ? — how
long the incubation lasts ? — how the young are
fed, and on what ? — and the chances are many
to one that you do not get direct answers;
and, if you do, they are the second-hand
answers of someone who has written a descrip-
tion of the bird, which, if original at all, has
most probably been obtained from observa-
tions made in a climate differing from yours,
and, therefore, is not quite so accurate as the
description of your redbreast. Carry your
interrogations a little further. Ask what is
the geographical distribution of the bird? —
what are its uses in the general economy of
nature ? — and you will find the answers still
more diflicult to be obtained, and more unsatis-
factory where you can obtain them." This is
at least the case with those who dwell in cities.

eo5

EAEHIT3.]

SHOOTING,

[babbits.

CHAPTER XVI.

BABBITS.

Theee are four kinds of rabbits known among
dealers and fanciers. They are called loar-
■reners, parkers, hedfjeliogs, an d sioeethearts. The
warreners are widely distributed, and are to be
found in almost every section of the British
coast, where there are sand-banks, or mounds
of any kind. Though all of one species, they
vary considerably in size ; those in the English
warrens being greatly superior to those found
in Scotland, both in bulk and flavour. The
warren rabbits of the Irish coast are very much
like those of Scotland ; though, on the whole,
a shade larger in bulk. The richest and finest
are located in the warrens along the eastern
coast of England, extending from Lincolnshire
to Berwick-upon-Tweed. It is a curious fact,
but, nevertheless, one well ascertained, that all
the rabbits on the warrens in the west side of
the island, are of a comparatively diminutive
size, and, in many places, have a strong fishy
taste.

Those who rent warrens with a view to com-
mercial objects, seldom or ever allow shooting
upon them. The reason is, that when a rabbit
is wounded it will make for some hole or bur-
row ; and it is known to regular shooters of
them in such places, that so strong and power-
ful is this desire to get back to their holes,
that, in the very struggles of death, rabbits will
often succeed in getting into a sand-burrow.
l^ow, we are informed by warreners, that if a
wounded or dying rabbit get into a burrow,
none of the living ones will ever pass it. They
will die in their holes first ; so that a single
wounded or dead animal will cause the death
of perhaps a score of its own kind in tlie
same locality. This, as a matter of course,
becomes a serious loss to the proprietor of a
warren. As much as a couple of guineas have
been offered for two or three shots in a warren,
and refused, solely upon this ground.

The obstinacy of the rabbit is curious ; and

it is equally, if not more singular, in reference

to the ferret. This little animal is often used

by sportsmen to make the rabbits spring out

606

of their holes ; they are also very extensively
used by warreners to make them spring, and
fall into small poke-nets, as they are called,
placed at the mouths of the holes. These fer-
rets are sometimes long in coming forth from
the warren-holes ; when the warreners have to
dig for them, and will perhaps find them lying,
though muzzled, beside a dead rabbit, whose
very brains have been scratched out, or its
back-bone laid bare, rather than budge an inch
for the ferret. This is a circumstance of daily
occurrence in all the great rabbit warrens that
lie on the eastern side of the island in the north
of England. Nothing injures the productive
remuneration of a regular warren so much as
shooting over it, even though it be but for a
week or two in a season.

The parJcer and the fieigeliog rabbits are
very much alike. They both frequent planta-
tions, and high inland rocky ground, and are
nearly of the same length and weight as the
general run of Scotch and Irish rabbits. In
many parts of England, and even in Scotland,
it has, of late years, been a custom among gen-
tlemen of landed estates, who are much at-
tached to fox-hunting, to introduce these
parker and hedgehog rabbits into certain
localities of their grounds, with a view of sup-
porting the foxes. But we believe that, in
numerous cases, the rabbits are found to
breed in such prodigious numbers, that they
become a regular nuisance, and very difficult
indeed to root out again. Besides, the practice
has given rise to serious disputes and bick-
erings among farmers and their landlords,
about the destruction of the crops of grain by
the rabbits in such places. A person of con-
siderable experience, writing on the wild
rabbit, says — " It would be no easy matter to
say what weight a wild rabbit would attain if
taken and fed like any of those prize animals,
such as sheep, cattle, &c. ; for in the case of
sheep, the difference of feeding, against the
natural food which the animal seeks for itself,
is almost incredible, at least to tliose who have

DEEE-STALKINO.l 15 V 1' \\]\A), AV O ( ) I), A N 1) WAT Eli.

[DE£U-BTJLLKliSG.

not seen the ellects, or paid auy attoution to
the matter. But 1 am atVaiJ 1 aiu getting out
of my way. 1 had a good opportunity, ouo
season, of seeing the eizo, and trying the
weiglit of rabhits, as I havo becu iu at tho
di'ath of veiy tew short of 500; and I must
say, I never have killed any above 5 lbs., most
of them being from 3i Iba. to 4 lbs. ; iu fact, I
uo not remember of more than ouo being above
•i] lbs., and very few of the latter weight ; but 1
did not weigh them all — only the very largo
ones attracted my curiosity ; aud it is rather
singular that the largest rabbits were always
killed by means of the ferret, aud, iu many
cases, lay in tlic hole till killed by this blood-
thirsty enemy. Jiut I once witnessed a rabbit
that was shot on a neighbouring estate,
which weighed over G lbs. This was assuredly
the common grey rabbit, in all but the cars
and head, which were somewhat larger than
the common, being nearly as large as those
of a hare; but, at the same time, the head
seemed to be quite in proportion to the
body. The ears, however, were something
the shape of the long-eared, domestic rabbit,
but differed from it in being erect, in place
of hanging down. The flesh of it was dressed,
aud was found to be that of the rabbit, thereby
settling the notion that it was a cross with
tlie hare. It has been stuffed as a curiosity ;
was shot in a high country ; was quite wild ;
and is the greatest weight I have known a
wild rabbit to attain."

"With respect to the shooting of these animals
in such localities, every degree of caution is
requisite. It is indispensable that they should
be approached in a straight line, even to obtain
a glance at them ; and this must be done by
stealth. If you have a dog, he must be kept

close to your heels. Stoop down, and prevent
the animal from seeing you, if you cau. Tliis,
and such like stratagems, are tiio only nioaua
to get u shot at this kind of rabbit.

" IVIoro (lifTicult than hares to liit,
They fri(|uently appear to flit
Like thudows |)ust one — good, indieJ,
Is then tiic aim that bids them bleed.
If you would see them nicely stoppid
In the thick wood, you must adojit
Snap-shooting, for you'll seldom there
Have time to take them full and fair ;
E'en lost to view, advance your gun
Quickly to where you t/unk they run :
Regard not grass, nor bru.sh, nor briar;
Through each and all that instant fire.
Bang ! it's well — you saw him not.
And yet you've killed him on the spot."

In taking our leave of tho rabbit, we may
briefly allude to Iiare shooting, though this
animal is more an object of the chase than oi
the gun. Yet, tliroughout the shooting season,
there are a vast number of hares shot. Few
sportsmen allow her to make her escape, when
a chance offers. Some fowlers are remarkably
clever at finding- and shooting hares ; and, with
some, it becomes quite a passion, to the entire
exclusion of every other kind of sporting. We
have often seen au individual in a stubble-field,
on a fine evening, crawling upon his knees, and
sometimes on bis side or his belly ; and, with-
out any dog, gaining upon poor puss so slowly
but surely, that her death became certain
This shooter would never, however, fire at a
hare in her seat in a hedge, or cover of any
kind. She is not difficult to kill, and her mode
of running is more favourable to the sportsman
than the bouncing and stottiug movements o;
the rabbit, which are apt to mar the youa?
sportsman's aim.

CPIAFTER XVIL

DEEn-STALKING.

DeePl-stalkikg 13 comparatively a modern
sport, and is confined principally to the higher
classes of English sportsmen. The deer, it is J human family

well known, has been an interesting object o(
the chase from the earliest records of the
Stag-hunting is treated of by
G07

DEEE-STALKING.]

SHOOTING,

[dEEE- STALKING.

Xenophon ; and it forms a conspicuous item
in Anglo-Saxon history. During the middle
ages, we find that it was pursued in most of
the countries of Europe. As practised in
those parts of the Highlands of Scotland, and
in other mountainous countries, deer-stalking
is by no means a drawing-room amusement.
It keeps the powers of both mind and body
upon the full stretch, and takes us into scenes of
the most magnificent and sublime description.
In the Fennyless Filgrim, of Taylor, the
water-poet, who flourished about a couple of
centuries ago, we find the following description
of deer-stalking as it was pursued at that time :
— " I thank my good Lord Erskine ; be com-
manded that I should always be lodged in his
lodging, the kitchen being always on the side
of a bank, many kettles and pots boiling, and
many spits turning and winding, with great
variety of cheer, as pigeons, bens, capons,
chickens, partridge, moorcocks, heathcocks,
capercallies, and ptarmigans; good ale, sack,
white and claret, and most potent ag^iia viice.
All these birds, &c., and more, we had con-
tinually in superfluous abundance, caught by
our falconers, fowlers, fishers, and brought by
my Lord Marr's tenants and purveyors to
victual our camp, which consisted of fourteen
or fifteen hundred men and horses. The
manner of hunting is this : five or six hundred
men do rise early in the morning, and they do
disperse themselves divers ways, and seven,
eight, or ten miles' compasa, they do bring or
chase in the deer in many herds (two, three,
or four hundred in a herd), to such or such a
place, as the noblemen shall appoint them ;
then, when the day is come, the lords and
gentlemen of their companies do ride and go
to the said places, sometimes wading up to
the middle through burns and rivers ; and then
they, being come to the place, do lie down on
the ground till their foresaid scouts, which are
called the tinckell, do bring down the deer;
but as the proverb says of a bad cook, so these
tinckell men do lick their own fingers; for
besides their bows and arrows, which they
carry with them, we can hear now and then
an arquebuss or musket-shot go off", which
they do seldom discharge in vain ; then, after
we had stayed three hours, or thereabouts, we
might perceive the deer appear on the hills
round about ; which, being followed close, are
COS

chased down into the valley where we lay ;
then, all the valley on each side being waylaid
with a hundred couple of strong Irish grey-
hounds, they are let loose, as occasion serves,
upon the herd of deer, that with dogs, guns
arrows, darts, in the space of two hours, four-
score fat deer were slain."

At the great hunting gatherings which took
place in Scotland, under the auspices of the chief
nobility, during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, fire-arms were occasionally used to
kill the red deer. These hunting forai/s were
conducted upon a most gigantic scale of mag-
nificence, and were attended by many thousands
of the clansmen, who encompassed extensive
tracts of country, and drove the game to where
their respective chiefs were located. In an en-
tertainment of this kind given by the Earl of
Athol to James V., the queen, his mother, the
pope's ambassador, and many hundreds of the
most distinguished ladies and gentlemen of the
court, there was a kind of palace constructed, of
green timber, interwoven with boughs, provided
with turrets, and moated completely round.
The hunting continued three days ; and we are
told that many of the animals were shot with
the gun, through the apertures of the rough
building ; and that even some of the ladies were
bold enough to fire ofi'some of those field-pieces,
which were then of considerable size.

The natural shyness or wariness of the deer,
suggests many devices to overreach them.
Almost every sportsman has some general
method of his own to get fairly within range of
them, some of which have been immortalised by
Sir E. Landseer upon the canvas. The sports-
man must always approach them up-wind, to
prevent his being scented, for they possess the
faculty of smell in high perfection. Sometimes
a circuit of several miles has to be taken before
they can be approached so as to give a fair
chance of sport. Weather, as in every other
sport, has much to do with success in deer-
stalking. When this is of such a kind as to
oblige the deer to frequent the well-heads, or
pools of water, and more especially if these be
in a locality where there is any portion of
brushwood or shelter for the gunner, then his
chances of success are considerably increased.
If otherwise, the labour, of course, is con-
siderably more severe, and the chances of good
sport less likely to be so plentiful.

liEKn-STALKIKO]

]{V Kli:i-1), WOOD, AND WAl'I'K.

[uKEK-SrALKlKO.

In order the more certainly to brinj^ down
tlie deer, the eportsiimn always, if poaaible,
tnkes Ilia iiiin behind tlie shoulder of the
;it\imal ; and if ellVetive in this direction, death
fullowa instantly. When, however, the deer
is only wounded, it is then left to itself by the
lierd, when the deer-hounds are set to work
to follow and capture it. These animals dis-
pl:iv singular sagacity and earnestness in
hunting the stricUen captive: they will con-
line their hunting solely to the wounded deer;
and w'ncn they have overtaken him, cither
seize, or hold him at bay till the sportsmen
arrive, when another shot, in some vital
quarter, puts an end to the scene. The dogs
are rewarded by the blood of the noble
quarry.

Shooting the roebuck iu tlie Highlands of
Scotland, is held to be a most animating sport.
This animal is considerably smaller than the
red-deer; and dogs of the barrier breed arc
used to drive it into certain favourable locali-
ties, where the deadly rifle does great execution.
Shooting it, and all the sporting incidents and
circumstances attending this, are much of the
same description as those mentioned in ref-
erence to the red-dccr: but it is impossible to
describe the irresistible pleasure which the
pursuit of such a noble quarry gives to the
tliorough-bred highlander. Day after day be
will range the bare hills, and traverse the
haunts of these animals, or sit, with Job-like
patience, enveloped in his plaid, behind a grey
rock, which, whilst it conceals him, enables
him to command an extensive view of the
country spread out before bira. Should he
then be fortunate enough to get a sight of a
stag, he will think nothing of creeping for
miles, like a worm, on his belly, in order to get
within shot of him without being discovered.
Time and the weather are to the highlander of
no consequence. Wet, cold, and hunger he
will willingly bear to circumvent his prey ; and
if he is successful in this, how does he rejoice !
but if not, he will renew his ellbrts until his
perseverance and toil are rewarded with suc-
cess. "When a deer is killed, an operation
called "breaking" takes place, and which con-
sists of cutting the throat and disembowelling
it. "Whilst this is going on, the highlander
frequently apostrophises the dead animal in
Gaelic. He calls him every evil name he can
4i

think of at first, for perhaps having frequently
escaped his deadly aim, and for having often
led him many a weary juurney over hill and
dale before he liad at last succumbed. After
this, ho may chango his note, and pronounce
him the " bonniest," or most beautiful bi-a.st
that it was ever his lot to behold. Whilst
upon this strain, the very perfection of gratili-
cation and delight irradiates every feature ot
his usually hard and rugged countenance.

hi bidding adieu to this portion of our
work, we must be permitted to 8.iy a few
words upon natural history, and the greai
additional enjoyment its study must give to
the sportsman who associates it with his
pursuits. In itself it is delightful ; and animals
are so diversified in form, so curious in struc-
ture, and 80 interesting in their habits and
manners, that they furnish a wide range for
observation to every inquiring mind. They
are, moreover, so liberally distributed over tho ^
earth's surface, that, let the naturalist wander
where be will, he is almost sure to meet with
one species or other of the object of his pur-
suit. The daisied meadow has its lark ; the
wood its nightingale; the heath-clad hill its
red-deer or its roebuck ; the stream its gray-
ling or its trout; the rocky dell its ouzel,
flitting from bush to busl), or crag to crag.
Nay, even the ocean-wave has its inhabitants
its alg£B, or its birds, as tho snow-capped
mountain has its ptarmigan. "What life,
what interest, what spirit do these various
beings infuse into the elements which they
people! The field may look beautiful, clad iu
its spring-tide robe, with tho sun glancing
brightly upon its thousand flowers; but if the
thrush plays its flute from a neighbouring
tree, or the lark rains dow;n music from a
summer cloud, how greatly are its charms
enhanced by their dulcet notes! Enchanting
may seem the river, as it winds gracefully
through some pastoral vale, an evening sun
perchance turning to gold the liquid silver
of its currents ; but, should the osprey pounce
down upon its waves, or the otter move
stealthily along its margin in search of prey,
what interest, what animation do they give to
the lovely scene !

One is almost led to believe that the love of
nature is inherent iu the heart of man. It is
visible in earliest life, when children evince a

. GO'.)

■DEEK- STALKING.]

SHOOTING.

[deee-stalkiko.

desire to ramble amidst pleasant fields, to
gambol on banks of daisies, to cull buttercups,
or to weave, for their hair, coronets of green
rushes. In the breasts of many, this love
"grows with the growth, and strengthens with
the strength ;" in some, it is well nigh ex-
tinguished ; in others, it peeps out in a
diminished form. In difierent ranks, it is
exhibited under different aspects. What in-
duced the elder "Wortleys "to build a lone
lodge on "Wharncliffe ?" "Was it their love of
solitude or retirement? Not exactly. We
are told, " that they might resort unto it to
hear the wild bucks bell." And what induces
the magnates of modern times to pitch their
tents periodically in the Highlands ? Osten-
sibly to shoot the grouse, leister the salmon,
or stalk the red-deer. la this their only
motive ? Do they not exhibit a partiality
for field sport because it brings them more
immediately into contact with nature ? They
derive pleasure from hearing the whirr and
cry of moorland fowls, from noting the habits
of animals, or from observing the heath-covered
hills under their ever-varying character of
light and shade. And what pleasure do sports-
men take in detailing their experiences of these
things, or describing the instinct and sagacity
which their dogs have exhibited under various
circumstances! Certainly such men are
naturalists. The love of nature discloses itself
610

perhaps more modestly in other ranks of life.
Is it not manifested at the village parsonage,
with its embowering creepers mantling the
walls, and the carefully trained shrubs which
decorate the garden ? Does the six days'
pent-up mechanic take up his Sunday stroll
merely to inhale the fresh air, or to exercise
his limbs ? The songs of skyward birds, and
the incense of delicate flowers, must, we think,
give a zest to his walk. The same principle is
visible in the tradesman, who loves his villa,
with its grassy slopes and beds of flowers ; in
the husbandman, who has a longing to till
fields and tend cattle, or to employ himself in
those never-ending processes of agriculture,
which are the natural employment of man.
Nay, the love of nature exists even in the
hearts of crowded cities. The intercourse of
man with man, the strife of trade with trade,
may have subdued, but not destroyed it. The
rose, the lily, the mignonette, exhibited in the
windows of the rich, and the half-starved,
smoke-dried wretch of a geranium in the
windows of the poor, alike attest that, although
their possessors are cut off by barricades of
brick and stone, from intercourse with nature
in her woods and fields, their love for her is
not entirely extinguished. May it increase,
and with it all those enjoyments which gene-
rally follow in the train of innocent and
edifying pursuits !

DIVISION IV

CATTLE.

CHAPTER I.

WILD AND TAME CATTLE OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.

THE URUS AND THE AUROCHS OF THE

ANCIENTS.

It requires no great amount of discernment to
perceive how much man is indebted to the
Iierds of the field, for 6uppl3'iu£r him with
those necessaries of life by which his comfort
is increased, and his happiness enlarged. The
01, in many parts of the globe, takes the place
of the horse, in assisting hiui to cultivate the
6oil ; and the cow supplies him with the most
nutritious of all beverages. Milk, cream,
cheese, and butter, enter largely into his
dietary, and form a species of food and drink
at once nourishing and agreeable. _ ilven after
death these useful animals are made subser-
vient to his wants. Portions of their cooked
carcasses become converted into the "roast
beef of old England;" and their hides furnish
the material for shoes ; their horns are made
into combs, and other articles of ornamenta-
tion ; while their hoofs supply him with glue,
and various gelatinous substances ; their bones
are fashioned into knife- handles, and applied
to numerous other purposes; whilst their
refuse, in the shape of dust, is restored to the
earth whence they came, to help to multiply
its productive power, and increase its vegeta-
tion, by which other animals may be raised,
and their species perpetuated. Such is the
important part which these patient animals
perform in the grand scheme of creation !
How much, then, does man owe to them for
the many comforts, and even luxuries, they
are the means of bringing within his reach !
In natural history, these animals are desig-
nated as the genus Bos (oxen), and their clia-
racters are defined, as both sexes haviug horns ;
but they have neither suborbital sinus, inter-
digital foasoo, nor inguinal pores. The teats

in the females are four. The animals of this
genus are, with some few exceptions, the
largest and most massive of the hollow-horned
Euminanta. Their limbs are low and strong ;
their bodies heavy, with wide haunches, and
thick, and often elevated shoulders ; their heads
are large ; and tho progressive increase of their
horns is marked by annuli at tho base. They
sheathe a hollow or cancellous bony core,
continued from the sides of a bold frontal
ridge. Tlie forehead, or chaffron, is expanded ;
the muzzle, except in the sub-genus OviLos, is
broad, naked, and moist; tho neck is thick,
deep, compressed laterally, carried horizontally,
and furnished with a pendent dewlap. The
spinous processes of the anterior dorsal ver-
tebrae, at the withers, are very long and stout.
All the Ox group are gregarious in their
habits ; and no quarter of the globe is destitute
of its indigenous species, existing in a state of
freedom, tenanting the deep glades of the
forest, or roaming over hills or plains. The
genus may be subdivided into the following
minor groups, or sub-genera: — Bos, Auoa,
Bubalus, Bison, and Ovibos; descriptions of
which we will give in their proper places, as
they rise before us, in this division.

Tlie Ox (Bos Taurus) is now only known
as a domesticated animal, widely diti'used over
almost every region of the globe, and every-
where contributing, by its services and pro-
ducts, to the well-being of man. Although
referred to as a domestic animal in the earliest
ages, by the author of the Mosaic record, im-
penetrable darkness hangs over its primeval
history ; nor is its wild origin known, or
wliether that origin is in existence. Tempera-
ture, soil, food, a thousand circumstances, ope-
rating through the revolutions of years, have

611

WILD OXEN.]

CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES.

[wild oxen.

combined to effect a series of modifications in
the ox. Every country possesses its peculiar
races ; and these races, by their intermixture,
are perpetually producing others ; so that it is
impossible to say to what extent these changes
may be carried, and bow far the original type
may have already become modified. Certain
it is, that we are acquainted witli no animal
in a state of original independence, to wliich
the primitive type of the ox can be referred.
It is true, however, that within the period of
authentic history, certain wild oxen existed in
Europe ; but it is not to Europe that we
must look as the cradle of the domestic ox ;
nor, indeed, are the accounts left us of tliese
oxen reconcilable with any of them having been
specifically identical with our domestic race,
which, when we look at the Zebu breed, seems
to claim more than one source. One of these
wild animals was termed by the ancients TJrus
(laiis cornihus), and another. Bison (jubatus, or
villosusj. We Lave also an animal described
under the name of Bonasus — the BuvacaoQ,
or BovaaoQ, of Aristotle.

The Urus, which existed in the Hercynian
forest, is thus described by Csesar: — "These
uri are little inferior to elephants in size, but
are bulls in their nature, colour, and figure.
Great is their strength, and great their swift-
ness ; nor do they spare man or beast when
they have caught sight of either. These, when
trapped in pitfalls, the hunters unsparingly
kill. The youths, exercising themselves by
this sort of bunting, are hardened by the toil ;
and those among them who have killed most,
bringing with them the horns as testimonials,
acquire great praise. But these uri cannot be
habituated to man, or made tractable, not even
when young. The great size of the horns, as
well as the form and quality of them, differs
much from the horns of our oxen. These,
when carefully selected, the people ring round
the edge with silver, and use to drink with at
their ample feasts." Perhaps the wild bulls,
witli horns of extraordinary size, which He-
rodotus assures us inhabited Macedonia,
were uri.

The Bison (jubatus of Pliny). — This species,
regarded by Cuvier and most naturalists as
identical with the Bonasus of Aristotle, is con-
sidered, and perhaps with reason, as referable
to the Aurochs or Zubr (JBos urus of modern
612

naturalists, not Urus of Cajsar), still existing
in the wild forests of Lithuania. In Europe
and Siberia, the fossil crania of aurochs are
not uncommon ; and these skulls, though they
scarcely differ in anything from the Lithuanian
animal, Cuvier inclines to think may be of a
different, though closely-allied species. He
gives the figures of a skull in the Paris museum,
so like, as he observes, to the living aurochs,
that the most practised eye can scarcely dis-
tinguish it; and also so fresh, that he is in
doubt whether it be really a fossil relic, or, on
the contrary, recent, owing its fossil appear-
ance to having been much weathered. Mr.
Lyell states, that the bones of the aurocli or
bison have been found in the ISTorth Cliff, in
the county of York, in a lacustrine formation,
in which all the laud and fresh-water shells,
thirteen in number, can be identified with
species and varieties now existing in that
county. The Urus of Csesar and the ancients
was characterised by the immensity of its
horns, and its vast stature; in the former of
which it differs materially from the ancient
full-maned bison, or Lithuanian auroch. This
urus no longer, as it would appear, exists ; but
fossil skulls, of a species far exceeding the
largest domestic ox in magnitude, with the
core of massive horns, are abundant in the
superficial strata of Europe. This species is
termed, by Cuvier, Bos primigenius ; and he
carefully distinguishes the skull from that of
the fossil auroch. In a specimen found at
Melksham, and described by Mr. "Woods, the
cores of the horns measured, at their widest
expansion, upwards of four feet. AYe may
easily conceive what must have been the ex-
pansion of the horns themselves: the skull,
destitute of the lower jaw, and not perfect
otherwise, weighed sixty-three pounds. Larger
specimens, however, have been discovered.

This extinct species Cuvier regards as the
type of the domestic ox ; in which opinion Mr.
Bell and most naturalists coincide, at the same
time that they consider the " celebrated white,
wild oxen of Craven, of Chillingham Park, and
Scotland, as specifically the same with the
common ox. Contrary to this, however, Colonel
Hamilton Smith and Mr. Swaiuson regard the
white ox of Chillingham Park (Bos Scoticus
of some authors) as distinct from the common
ox. The former regards the Chillingham ox

THE ruus.]

C ATT r. K A X 1) Til !•: I K V A I^ I K TIES. [i-atuiauciial acjks.

aB a white variety of the fossil Bpecies Bos
primifffiiius ; whilo Mr. Swaiiison bclievos it to
be the descemlaiit of u smiiller spi'cies belonp;-
ing to the same genus as the Bos primigmius,
or anoioiit urus, of wliit-h "the skiilKs exhibit
the type of a form essentially dillereut from
that of tho domestic ox."

" All these skulls," he eontinucs, " are nearly
one-third larger than those of the Bos Taurus ;
they are square from the orbits to the oceipital
crest, and somewhat hollow at tho forehead.
Tire horus, placed at the side of tho above
crest, show a peeuliar rise from their roots up-
wards ; then bending outwards, and then for-
wards and inwards. No domestic races show
this turn; but numerous specimens of inferior
edzes, found fossil in the Cornish mines, have
this shape; and the wild bull of Scotland, the
ouly example of this type now known to exist,
retains it. Tho domestic oxen, on the con-
trary, of whatsoever country or breed they may
be, have the square concave forehead, with the
horns rising: from the ends of the frontal ridije
* * * * It appears, then, that the ancient
urus, or wild bull, was a perfectly wild, savage,
and uutameable animal : not only does every
account handed down from remote antiquity
assure us of this, but it is even verified by the
only living example of this form we possess —
the Bos Scoticiis, still preserved in one or two
of the northern parks. Although domesti-
cated so far as to live within such precincts
without absolute unprovoked violence to its
keepers, it retains essentially all the savage
characters ascribed to the more powerful spe-
cies mentioned by the ancients." As to the
specific identity of the white oxen of Chilling-
ham with our ordinary breed, some have no
doubt on the subject. In size, form, and aspect
they resemble the finer breeds of black cattle ;
and the query is, not — Are they distinct ? but —
Are they the descendants of a wild breed, or, on
the contrary, the descendants of domesticated
individuals, which have .-esumed their wild
character, " from having ceased to feel, through
many generations, the efiects of human domi-
nation ?" The latter is suspected. "With
regard to Cuvier's Bos primigenius, granting
it to be the urus of Caesar, it is not so easy to
determine whether it was the wild type of the
domestic ox. Its vast size, and the extra-
ordinary magnitude of the horns, to say nothing

of its ferocity, and tho probability that it ia to
Central Asia, rather than to tho wild forests of
Central Eurojje, that we ou;,'ht to look for tho
type of tho domestic raeo (or race.s ?), uro BufH-
cient to beget a doubt.

The term urus is evidently identical with the
terms aurr, ur, aueroeh.s, ure-ox, tho root also
of the word taurus ; and we agree witli Mr.
Woods, in the belief that the aurochs, or urc-
ox, of the ancient Germans, was the urus of
Ciesar ; but that the word, on tho extinction of
that animal, became transferred to the bison of
the ancients, now known as the aurochs ; and
also under names derived from a different root,
as zubr (Lithuanian), zimbr (Moldavian), bison,
vison, wisont, and wisant; whence bonasus,
monasus, &c.

Besides the Bos primigenius, the following
fossil species of ox have been named : — Bos
trechocerus (Hermann von Neyer), subapen-
uine^beds; Bos (Bison) priscus (Bonjanus),
BuJJIe fossile de Sibcrie (Cuv.), Bos latifrons
(Marian), Broadheaded fossil Bison and Bison
fossilis, " diluvium" of Europe and I^orth Ame-
rica, bone-caves and bone breccias ; Bos (Bi-
sou) ? lomlifrons (Harlan), Big-bone-lick,
North America ; Bos Fallasii (Dekay), Bos
moscluitus fossilis? Bos canalicuhilus (Fischer)?
Siberia and North America , Bos vclaunus
(Robert), Cussac, Haute Loire.

Abundant remains of tho ox were found by
Captain Cautley in the Sewalik Mountains, at
the southern foot of the Himalayas, between
the Sutlej and the Ganges, partly lying on the
slopes among the ruins of fallen cliffs, and
partly in situ in tho sandstone, in company
with the bones of the mastodon, elephant, rliino-
ceros, hippopotamus, hog, horse (comparatively
scarce), elk, deer, several varieties ; carnivora,
canine and feline (comparatively scarce) ; cro-
codile, gavial, emys, trionyx, and fishes. There
were also portions of undescribed mammalia.

CATTLE IN THE PATRIARCHAL AGES.
To Asia and its border-lands let us turn our
attention — regions in which the ox, from tho
earliest epoch, has been in a state of domesti-
cation, and where this animal, with sheep and
goats, constituted the riches of patriarchs, and
chiefs, or princes, who. deemed it not beneath
them to take an active interest in the manage-
ment of their flocks and herds. In that age of

613

PATEiAEOHAL AGES.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [patriarchal ages.

patriarchal simplicity, such scenes as we have
seen delineated by the pencil of Berghem were
not imaginary; and the pastoral poetry of
classical antiquity has not only rendered them
familiar, but thrown an air of grace, and even
dignity over them.

In the fourth chapter of the Book of Genesis
(ver. 20) we read of Jabal, that " he was the
father of such as dwelt in tents, aud of such
as have cattle." In the thirteenth chapter of
the same book, cattle are enumerated as form-
ing part of the riches of Abraham, and also of
Lot ; and in the previous chapter we read, that
oxen were presented hy the Pharaoh of Egypt,
together with sheep, asses, and camels, to
Abram, during his sojourn in that land. In
the eighteenth chapter, veal, or the flesh of the
calf, and butter and milk, are mentioned as
articles of food. Subsequently, abundant men-
tion is made of all these domestic animals ;
while, at the same time, we glean that a wild
race of oxen long continued to exist in Syria
and the adjacent regions. Eor instance, in the
Mosaic injunctions regarding animals to be
used as food (Deut. xiv. 5), the wild ox is ex-
pressly noticed ; and Isaiah alludes also to the
wild bull, " as a wild bull in a net." Hence it
would appear, that though a domestic breed,
established at a period antecedent to historical
record, tlie Scripture outline excepted, formed
part of the wealth of man m the primeval ages
of his history, that a wild race still tenanted
their aboriginal pasture-lands. Wild oxen are
exhibited in the Egyptian sculptures, and they
are frequently represented as objects of the chase.
They were sometimes hunted with dogs, the
huntsmen bearing bows and arrows; and some-
times they were caught with the noose or lasso.

The utility of the ox was highly appreciated
in remote ages, insomuch, that it became an
emblematic object of worship among most
of the nations of antiquity. The traditions
of every Celtic nation place the cow on the list
of the earliest of animals, and represent it as
a kind of divinity. Among the Egyptians, the
god Apis was worshipped in the form of a bull ;
and Herodotus describes the ceremonies per-
formed at the choosing of this bovine deity, to
whose honour other bulls, chosen by the priests,
were sacrificed. The goddess Isis was repre-
sented, by the same people, by the figure of a
woman with the horns of a cow, as the Grecians
614

represented lo ; and the sacrificial offering was
a bullock. The cow was never sacrificed, being
sacred to Isis. The veneration of the cow was
equally prevalent in Lybia. The people of that
country, says Herodotus, from Egypt to the
Lake Tritonis, are breeders of cattle, eat flesh,
and drink milk, but abstain from the flesh of
cows, as do also the Egyptians ; and they will not
keep swine. Nay, among the" women of Syrene,
to strike a cow is accounted a crime, because
they celebrate the feasts and festivals of the
Egyptian Isis. Neither will the Barcsean
women taste the flesh of a hog or of a cow.

In India, where, in many points, the practice
and worship of the ancient nations were the
same as those of the Egyptians, the ox was
held sacred, and still is so by the Brahmins.
One of the causes of the Sepoy rebellion of
1857, is ascribed to some imaginary greased
cartridges having been served out to the native
soldiery. The religious writings of India say
that the cow was the first animal created by
the three gods, who were directed by the
supreme lord to furnish the earth with animated
beings. In the sculptures of the cave-temples
of Ellora, the sacred bull is represented with
great truth and spirit. In the Transactions of
the Moyal Asiatic Society, vol. ii., page 560,
Colonel Tod says — " In Hindu mythology, the
bull Nanda is at once the guardian of one of
the two gates of heaven, of Iswaro or Bal-Siva,
and his steed. The astronomic allusion thus
blended with mythology is evident — viz., the
entrance of the sun into the sign Taurus, the
equinoctial festival of remote antiquity, and
regarded as a jubilee by the Indo-Scythic
nations hemming the shores of the Mediter-
ranean to the Indian Ocean." "We need not
say how the idolatry of the Egyptians aflfected
the Israelites, and mingled itself with the re-
ligious ceremonies of other nations, whose
worship required the ox as a sacrifice to
imaginary deities.

The estimation in which the ox was held,
and which led to its consecration, did not
arise from the circumstance alone of the cow
yielding milk, or from the value of the flesh
of the animal as food, but from its services in
agricultural labour. It was employed as a
beast of burden, for the cart, for the plough,
and for treading out the grain from the ear.
The Mosaic ritual lays down several rules

PATHiARCHAL Aozs."] CATTLE, AND TFTEIK VARIETIES. [tuk zkhl- huked.

respecting the treatment of the ox : one forbids

the yokini^ together of tho aas ami tho ox in
the snmo plougli, perhaps from the inetiuality
of their size and strength, which would render
the draught irregular, and oppress both animals.
Another injunction is, " Tiiou slialt not muz-
zle the ox when he treadoth out tho corn."
The iirst idea suggested by this passage is,
that the operation of threshing was ellected
siniplv by tiie feet of the cattle passing over
the sheaves ; and such, indeed, was tho case in
the times of patriarchal simplicity. Afterwards,
as other passages show, rollers and wheels of
wood, and threshing instruments with teeth,
were used. These were drawn over the
sheaves by oxen, and greatly facilitated the
process. With respect to the primitive mode
of threshing by means of the feet of oxen,
there is express allusion made to it by
Homer, leading us to the belief that the
practice was common in his country at the
period in which he flourished : —

" As with autumnal harvests covered o'er,
And thick bestrewn, lies Ceres' sacred floor,
Where round and round, with never- wearied pain,
The trampling steers breakout tL' unnumber'd grain."

The ancient Arabs, Egyptians, and Romans,
as well as the ancient Greeks, threshed their
corn in this manner. Virgil, in the first
book of bis G-eorgics, describes the manner in
which the threshing-floor is to be laid down,
showing that nothing like our modern mode of
threshing could have been practised. In Syria,
Egypt, and !N'ubia, at the present day, the
grain is, as formerly, either trodden out by
the feet of oxen or mules, or partly trodden
out, and partly crushed out, by means of a
roller, or other machine, which the oxen drag
after them, and which, more or less, destroys
the straw, and even injures the grain. There
were two modes of threshing; viz., by the drag,
and by the sledge upon rollers, which are still
practised in Egypt, Syria, and "Western Asia.

In these remote ages, and in these countries^
oxen were used for drawing the plough, as
they are in Egypt at the present day. This
implement, however, was of very simple con-
struction, as it still continues to be in the
East, and is rather formed for superficially
turning up a light soil, than for maluug deep
furrows in heavy land. It appears that the
ploughjuan, to work it efl'ectively, was under

the neceasity of guiding it with great caro,
betiding over it, and lo.-iding it, as much an pos-
sible, with his own weight, otherwise tho share
would only glide tho surface, without making a
furrow ; and tho slightest inattention, or cessa-
lion of his labour, would be followed bv tho
dragging out of the share from tho earth, or by
irregularity in the depth and direction of the
furrow ; hence tho expression of Pliny, " arafor,
nisi incurvus prtevaricatur.'*

TUB ZEBU RREED.

Tho Zebu breed of oxen claims a few ob-
servations. V^hether this breed be derived,
as some contend, from a distinct origin from
that of tho ordinary ox, it is not easy to
determine; let it suffice that it presents
marked peculiarities which clearly characterise
it. Narrow, high withers, surmounted by a
large fatty hump ; an arched back rising at the
haunches, and suddenly falling to the tail ;
slender limbs ; a large pendulous dewlap falling
in folds ; long pendent ears, and a peculiarly
mild expression of the eye, are the characters
which define the zebu race — a race varying in
size from that of our largest cattle to that of
a young calf. This breed is spread over India,
China, and the Indian Islands. It is also
found in Madagascar, and on tho eastern
coast of Africa, in the interior regions, and
parts of the western coast, and is used for the
ordinary purposes of draught and burden.
India appears to be its parent country ; and
we may readily believe that, in remote ages,
when an extensive commerce existed between
that country and Egypt, it was introduced
into the land of the Pharaohs. In Upper
Egypt, Abyssinia, and Ethiopia, it is now
almost exclusively prevalent; but in Lower
Egypt, as wo learn from Burckhardt, the zebu,
or humped race, is unknown. In the ancient
Egyptian representations of animals, both the
humped race, and the ordinary ox, with long
horns, are clearly depicted. It is the zebu ox
which is sculptured in the cave-temples of
EUora, and the seven pagodas, as they are
commonly called, at Mahdinaiaipur, on the
Coromandel coast. These are proofs of the
extreme antiquity of this breed, and of its
distinctness, at a remote era, from the ordinary
ox.

Bufibn observes, that the ox without a dorsal

G15

ZEBU BEEED.]

CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES.

[zebu breed.

hump, which he erroneously terms the Auroch
race, occupies the cold and temperate zones,
and is thinly distributed towards the regions
of the south. The contrary, however, is the
fact. The ox with the hump, which he terras
also erroneously the Bison race, exclusively
occupies all the southern regions — namely,
the entire continent of the Indian empire, the
islands of the Eastern and Southern seas, and
the whole of Africa, from Mount Atlas to the
Cape of Good Hope, includiug Madagascar,
and the island of St. Juan, on the channel of
Mosambique. "With respect to the Cape of
Good Hope, it is certain that the zebu race
does not prevail there, at least in the present
day ; but F. Leguat, in the narration of his Voi/-
ages, says, that " the oxen are of three sorts at
the Cape of Good Hope, all of a large size, and
very active. Some have a hump on the back ;
others have the horns long and pendent ; w'hile
others have them turned up, and well shaped,
as in English cattle."

With respect to the ox represented on the
Greek and Eoman sculptures — which is not of
the true zebu race — it must be confessed that,
in many points, and more particularly in the
pendulous, folded dewlap, it resembled the
zebu, and may probably have been the ulti-
mate product of a mixture of the zebu race,
introduced at an early date from India, with
the ordinary cattle of Greece and Italy. Tbis,
however, is a mere supposition. In the Greek
sculptures the ox is represented without
any hump, but the withers are high, and the
crupper rounded. "To the classical anti-
quary," says a talented writer, "we beg to
suggest that the dewlap of the Brahmin bull
offers an object of much attention and interest,
by reason of its sharp and decided outline, and
perpendicular creases or folds, wonderfully
verifying the correctness of those Greek sculp-
tures on bronze and marble, in medals and
statuary, in which we see representations of
Victory sacrificing a bull, of the oxen of Ceres,
&c. These representations will no longer be
considered out of drawing by those who may
have an opportunity of examining the sacred
bull of India, nor exaggerated in their fore
quarters ; although critics of the last century,
less fortunate iu tbis respect than the visitors
of the Zoological Society's gardens, have deter-
mined them, without hesitation,to be altogether
G16

incorrect." Several beautiful specimens of the
zebu ox, both of the large-sized variety, and
also of the dwarf caste, are iu the Zoological
Gardens. They are remarkable for their
docility and quiet temj^r.

Mr. Touatt informs us, that a beautiful zebu
bull and cow, of the Nagore breed, were, on
one occasion, exhibited at the Christmas Cattle-
show ; and adds, that they were bred by Lieu-
teuant- colonel Skinner, on his farm at Dauah,
near Pokah, on the borders of the Bichaneer
desert, a hundred miles to the westward of
Delhi. Tliey were of the finest breed of Indian
cattle, used by the higher orders to draw their
state carriages, and much valued for size,
speed, and endurance. The specimens in ques-
tion " arrived at Calcutta, a distance of 1,400
miles, when under six months old. They were
sent as a present to Mr, AVood, who was then
residing at Calcutta, and by whom they were
forwarded to Mr. Perkins. Colonel Skinner
had a large stock of them ; and six or seven
beasts were always kept saddled, to carry the
military despatches. They remained saddled
three or four hours ; and, if not wanted in that
time, fresh ones were brought out to relieve
their companions. They would travel, with a
soldier on their back, fifteen or sixteen hours
in the day, at the rate of six miles an hour.
The action of the Nagore cattle is particularly
fine — nothing like the English cattle, with the
sideway circular action of their hind legs. They
bring their hind legs under them in as straight
a line as the horse. They are very active, and
can clear a five-barred gate with the greatest
ease. Mr. Perkins had a calf which leaped
over an iron fence higher than any five-barred
gate, and the bull frequently jumped over the
same fence in order to get at the water ; and
when he had drunk his fill, leaped back again.
* * * Mr. Perkins observes, that the chief
advantage of these Brahmin bulls would pro-
bably consist in their speed and strength, in
both of which they surpass any of our breeds."

Of the extensive use and consequent value
of the Brahmin or large zebu breed, in their
native climate, we can scarcely form an ade-
quate idea. In some parts of India the dwarf
races are unknown, and the large is bred ex-
clusively. According to an observation of
Colonel Sykes, in the Froceedings of the
Zoological Society, the Brinjarees, a singularly

Tin: ZKUU UKKKP.] (' A T'l' I. K. A N 1 ) I' 1 1 H 1 K V A 1{ 1 111' 1 i:S. [tui: zr.nu bbeed.

t'lTatic people, possess vast herds, iind breed the
JJrahmin cattle on an extensive scale ; " and an
army rarel}' moves in the iiolci without 15,000
or 20,000 bullocks to carry its grain. Dwarf
cattle are not met in Dukhiin." The bufValo,
however, divides the palm of usefulness witli
the zebu in the agricultural labours of Imlia,
and is preferred for many purposes, on account
of his more robust con^itntion. In the Ma-
wals, or hilly tracts among the Ghauts, this
animal supersedes the zebu. " In those tracts,"
says Colonel Sykes, " much rice is planted ; and
the male buftalo, from his superior hardihood,
is much better suited to resist the ellects of
the heavy rains, and the splashy cultivation of
rice, than the bullock. The female is also in-
finitely more valuable than the cow, from the
verj- much greater quantity of milk she yields."
In point of beauty and docility, there is no
comparison between the heavy savage buffalo
and the " Sacred bull of Bramah." Nor is the
former ever devoted to Bal-Siva as a meri-
torious offering. On tlie contrary, it is common
to meet with Brahmin bulls thus devoted,
which wander at their pleasure, exempt from
the servitude of the yoke, and which are re-
garded as endowed with a sacred character.
The beautiful form and sleek appearance of
these fortunate creatures, particularly engaged
the notice of Bishop Heber. The first which
the bishop met, in his journey, was grazing in a
green paddy-field, and was branded on the
haunches with the emblem of Siva. He crossed
their path, and found them both tame and fear-
less ; and seeing some grass in one of the
European's hands, they coolly walked up and
smelt it. These privileged bulls are turned
out, when calves, on certain solemn occasions,
by wealthy Hindoos, as acceptable offerings to
the divinity Siva. To strike, or in any way to
injure or molest one of thcin, is held as a mortal
sin. " They feed," he observes, " where they
choose, and devout persons take great delight
in pampering them. They are exceeding pests
in the villages near Calcutta; breaking into
gardens, thrusting their noses into the stalls
of fruiterers' and pastry-cooks' shops, and
helping themselves without ceremony. Like
other petted animals, they are sometimes mis-
chievous ; and are said to resent, with a push
of their horns, any delay in gratifying their
appetites or wishes."

4 K

Between tliis absurd reverence for conse-
crated bulls, and the ordinary tn-ntmont of the
working ox, tiii-re is a vast distinction ; tho
hitter is iiarslily, and often severt'ly treated.
The cow, however, has more forbearance exer-
cised towards her than, from the treatment of
tho ox, might be expected. Bishop Jlcber,
speaking of the mode of treading out the corn
still practised in India, relates the following: —
" One of the Hindu farmers was threshing
out a small kind of millet by driving oxen over
it, round and round in a circle. They were
just leaving off work as I came up ; and a hind
we^ bringing a largo bundle of green Indian
corn, weeded from tho thick crop, for their
provender. I observed, however, that tlie ani-
mals, during their previous employment, were
not muzzled, according to the Scriptural rule;
at the same time, they were kept so constantly
moving, that a few mouthfuls were all they
could get. While I was examining this heap
of grain, and asking the old man some ques-
tions, his cows came for the evening ; and I
pleased him exceedingly, when tho cowman
ran forward to beat them from my path, by
forbidding him to strike thera. * Good ! good 1'
he said, with an air of much satisfaction ; ' one
must not beat cows.' It seems to me that the
tender mercies of tho Hindus towards animals,
are exhausted on cows and Brahmin bulls only ;
for oxen they have no pity — they are treated
with much severity." That the ox should be
severely treated or employed in hard work by
the Brahmins, seems a sort of contradiction to
the principles by which these people profess to
be guided; but such inconsistencies are too
common to be surprising. Thevenot, who de-
scribes the zebu oxen of India as excellent
both for the saddle and draft, adds, that some
gallop as fast as a good horse ; and goes on to
state that they are equally used for the plough,
and for coaches and chariots. Tiiey are har-
nessed by means of a long yoke at the end of
the pole, which is placed on the neck of the two
oxen, and the driver holds in his hand the cord
which is attached to a small double cord passed
through the gristle of the nose, instead of a bife
in the mouth, as in the case of the horse.

It would appear that white oxen are highly
esteemed in India, as they have also been in
other parts of the world. Olearius notices the
procession of an Indian prince, who was drawn

C17

PEESiAN OXEN.] CATTLE, AND THETE YAEIETIES.

[the gatal.

in a carriage by two white oxen, whicli had the
neck short, and a hurnp between the shoulders,
but which were as lively and active as horses.
Bishop Heber observes, that the Thakoors, the
nobility of the Eajpoots, generally travel in
covered waggons drawn by white oxen, the
horns of which they gild. Tavernier observes —
*' The two oxen which were harnessed to my
carriage cost me nearly sis hundred rupees.
The reader need not be astonished at this
price ; for these are oxen of great strength, and
can travel journeys of twelve to fifteen leagues
1, day for sixty days, and always on the trot.
When they have done half their day's work,
they have two or three balls, the size of a
penny loaf, of wheaten flour kneaded with
butter and coarse sugar ; and, in the evening,
their ordinary fare consists of chick-peas bruised
and steeped half-an-hour in water." Of the
docility, activity, and services of the zebu ox
jn India, much more need not be said. Nume-
rous travellers, both in the past and present
century, have borne the same testimony, and
record observations bearing upon the same

point.

PERSIAN OXEN.

Eeceding westward from India to Persia, we
gradually lose the zebu race, or at least find it
intermingled with thatof another type. Cbardin
observes, that the oxen of Persia are like ours,
excepting towards the frontiers of India, where
they have the hunch on the back. Throughout
the whole country, the ox is seldom eaten as
food ; it is only reared as a beast of burden or
for tillage. Such as are used for burdens are
shod with iron, in consequence of the stony
mountains over which they have to travel.
The shoeing of oxen, where the country is
rugged and the roads hard or stony, is also
practised in India, as Thevenot relates, but is
nofe a general custom. The shoes are light,
and two are placed on each foot, as the cloven
character of the hoof necessarily requires, so
that the natural freedom of each part is not
impeded. In Persia, the bull is often made to
fight with the lion, and sometimes comes off
victorious, though dreadfully lacerated.

Thus much respecting the distinction between
the zebu race of cattle and the ordinary breeds
of Europe, and their apparently natural dis-
tribution. Whichever race or breed we contem-
plate, we shall find it adapted to the service and
618

necessities of man, its value being in proportion.
It will readily be admitted, however, that the
interest which attaches to the ox does not
arise from its intelligence, but from its absolute
utility. The pleasure which the mind ex-
periences when we gaze on peaceful herds,
feeding in tranquil security, is of a complex
origin — the result of an association of ideas,
more or less remotely connected with the
presence of these creatures ; which, from time
immemorial, have formed the wealth of man,
and which have, therefore, engaged alike the
attention of the statesman, the poet, and the
philosopher.

THE GAYAL.

(Bos GaviBus). Gavaya, Sansc. ; Gavai, or
Gayal, Hind. ; Gobaygoru, Beng. ; Gaujangali,
Pers. ; Methana, Mountaineers (Cucis, &c.),
east of Silhet; Shial, Mountaineers (Cucis),
east of Chatgaon ; J'hongnua, Mugs ; Niinee,
Burmas ; Gauvera, Ceylon.

India presents ns with several species of
wild oxen, independent of such as belong to
the buffalo tribe, some of which are domestica-
ted in certain districts, beyond which they are
not dispersed; and such is the Gayal. Ac-
cording to Mr. Macrae, the gayal is found
wild in the range of mountains which form
the eastern boundary of the provinces of Arra-
can, Chittagong (Chatgaon), Tipura, and
Silhet. The Cucis, or Lunetas, a people in-
habiting the hills immediately to the eastward
of Chatgaon, have herds of them in a domesti-
cated state. The animal is called Gabay in
the Hindu Sastra ; but, as it would appear, is
little known beyond the limits of its native
mountains, except to the inhabitants of the
provinces above mentioned. We learn from
the same author, that the gayal is of a dull
heavy appearance, but that its form, like that
of the wild buffalo, indicates great strength
and activity. Its disposition is gentle; and,
in a wild state, on its native hills, it is not
considered dangerous, never waiting the ap-
proach of man, much less standing and sus-
taining his attack. The Cucis hunt the wild
animals for the sake of their flesh. The gajal
is a tenant of the forest, and prefers the
tender shoots and leaves of shrubs to grass.
It never wallows in the mud like the buffalo.
In a state of domestication among the Ciicis,
it does not undergo any labour ; nor is the

THE UVALL.]

C A 1^ T r. E, A N D 'J' 1 1 1 : IK \ .\ \l\ KT I E S.

[tIIK UVAl-L.

milk of the fenialo (wliich, though small in
quantity, is extremely rieli) lield in any recjuest;
the animals are bred and reared solely lor tiio
sake of their ilesh and hides, of which latter
the CiK'is miike stroni; shields. Tlieso domes-
ticated herds roam, at large, in their forests
during the day, and return home to their
villages in the evening, being taught to do
this very early, by being fed, when young,
every night with salt, which, to these animals,
is extremely palatable. Though the Ci'iois
slaughter the domestic gayal, the Hindus, in
the province of Chatgaon, will not kill this
animal (tlieir gabay), which they hold in equal
veneration witii the cow; but they hunt and
kill another gayi'd (as I'gayal, or Seloi), as they
do the wild buflalo. The cry of the gayal is a
kind of lowing; shriller, but not so loud as that
of the European ox, without any resemblance
to the grunt of the buifalo. In size and shape
it resembles the English bull ; has short horns,
which are distant at their bases, and rise in a
gentle curve upwards and outwards, their trans-
verse section near the base being ovate. The
forehead is broad, and crowned with a tutt
of lighter-coloured, long-curled hair; the dew-
lap is deep and peuucut ; there is no mane
or hump as in the zebu, but the withers rise
to a considerable elevation. The tail is short ;
the body covered with a tolerable coat of
straight dark-brown hair; on the belly it is
lighter coloured ; and the legs and face are
sometimes white. Erom various experiments,
it is proved that the domestic gayal will breed
with the ordinary zebu cattle of India; but
whether the otlVpriug will interbreed with each
other is yet to be ascertained.

THE GYALL.
(^Bos frontalis, Lambert). In the seventh
volume of the Linnceaii Transactions, will be
found the figure and description of a Gyall,
which died in London, in 1842, by A. B.
Lambert, Esq., who quotes the following
letter from George Harris, Esq., who was well
acquainted with the domestic gyall in its native
country. Keferring to a communication from
Mr. Lambert, be writes — "I have before me
your note, with the drawing, which appears to
me to be the figure of the animal I mentioned
to have in my possession. Some parts of the
drawing seem to be rather too much enlarged,

as the base of the horns and the rising between
tlie fore shoulders. The animal I described to
you, and which 1 have kept and reared these
last seven years, and know by the name of tho
gyall, is a native of tho hills to tho uorlh-eaat
and east of tho Conipany's province of Chitta-
gong, in Bengal, inhabiting that range of hills
which se|)arates it from the country of Arracan.
Tho male gyall is like our bull in sliapo and
appearance, but I conceive wot tpiito so tall,
and of a blackisli-brown colour; the horns
short, but thick and strong towards the base,
round which, and across tho frons (ciiailVon),
tho hair is bushy, and of a dirty-white colour.
The chest and forehead are broad and thick.
He is naturally very bold, and will defend
himself agains'j any of the beasts of prey. The
female dilfers little in ajipearance : her horns
are not quite so large, and her make is some-
what more slender; she is very quiet, and used
for all the purposes of the dairy, as also (I
have been informed by the natives) for tilling
the ground, and is more tractable than the
builalo. Tho milk which these cows give has
a peculiar richness in it, arising, I should con-
ceive, from their mode of feeding, which is
always on the young shoots and branches of
trees, in preference to grass. I constantly
made it a practice to allow them to range
abroad amongst the hills and jungles at Chitta-
gong during the day to browse, a keeper
attending to prevent their straying so far as
to endanger losing them. They do not thrive
in any part of Bengal so well as in the afore-
mentioned province, and in the adjoining one,
Tipper;ih, where, I believe, the animal is also
to be found. I have heard of one instance of
a female gyall breeding with a common bull."

Lesson, and the author of the article Ox,
in the Fenny Cijdupccdia, seem to regiird the
gayal and the gyall as distinct : from the de-
scriptions, however, which are given, it is quite
evident that they relate to one and the same
species, as Eischer, in his Synopsis Mamma-
Hum, considers them to be. Tiie Uiie fron-
talis, therefore, must be retained by right of
priority over yavccus.

Duvaucel, who hunted this animal at the
foot of tbe Silliet Mountains, describes it as
very wild, but easily domesticated. He says,
that until he had opportunities of seeing it in a
natural state, he entertained the opinion that

GJL9

THE GOUE."!

CATTLE, AND THEIE VAKIETIES.

[the gotjb.

it did not differ essentially from our domestic
ox, liis impression having been received from
an inspection of specimens living tame in the
menagerie at Barrackpore. Subsequently, he
regarded it as distinct.

THE GOUR.
According to Captain Eogers, the Bos gour
is found in several of the mountaiu districts of
Central India, but chiefly in Myu Pat, or Mine
Paut, a high insulated mountain, with a tabular
summit, in the province of Sergojah, in South
Bahar. " This table-laud is about thirty-sis
miles in length, by twenty-four or twenty-five
miles in breadth, and rises above the neigh-
bouring plains, probably, two thousand feet.
The sides of the mountain slope with consid-
erable steepness, and are furrowed by streams
that water narrow valleys, the verdant banks
of which are the favourite haunts of gours. On
being disturbed, they retreat into the thick
jungles of saul-trees, which cover the sides of
the whole range. The south-east side of the
mountain presents an extensive mural preci-
pice, from twenty to forty feet high. The
rugged slopes, at its foot, are covered by im-
penetrable green jungle, and abound with
dens formed of fallen blocks of rocks, the suit-
able retreat of tigers, bears, and hysenas. The
western slopes are less rugged, but the soil is
parched, and the forest seems withered by ex-
cess of heat. The summit of the mountaiu
presents a mixture of opens, lawns, and woods.
There were once twenty-five villages ou Myn
Pat, but these have been long deserted on
account of the number and ferocity of the
beasts of prey. On this mountain, however,
the gour maintains bis seat. The Indians
assert that even the tiger has no chance in
combat with a full-grown gour, though he may
occasionally succeed in carrying off an unpro-
tected calf. The wild buffalo abounds in the
plains below tlie mountains; bub ho so much
dreads the gour, according to the natives, that
he rarely attempts to invade his haunts, and
the hunting-party only met three or four urnas
(arnees) ou the mountain. The forests which
shield the gour, abound, however, with hog-
deer (Sambur-dcer), saumers, and porcupines."
In these wild and romantic retreats, Capt.
Eogers and his party hunted the gour, which,
when wounded, turns round upon its adversary,
620

ready to do battle. A short bellow, imitated
by the syllables ugli-ugli, was the only cry
which the animal was heard to utter, and that
not until it had been struck by the bullet.
The gour is gregarious, herding together in
parties varying from ten to twenty ; browsing
on the leaves and shoots of tender trees and
shrubs, and also grazing on the banks of the
streams. In cold weather the saul-forests are
their places of concealment, and the heats
bring them out to feed on the green lawns and
valleys. They do not, it seems, wallow iu
swamp and mire like the buffalo. If the natives
are to be credited, this animal will not brook
captivity; and, even when captured at an early
age, the mountain-calf droops and dies. The
period of gestation is stated to be twelve
months; the females produce their young in
August. The native name of the bull-calf, for
the first year, is Pnrorah; of the cow-calf,
Pareeah. The full-grown CQW is termed
Gourin.

The gour attains to a very large size. Dr.
Traill gives the dimensions of one not fully
grown, which measured, from the nose to the
end of the tail, nearly twelve feet, and stood
nearly six feet high at the withers. The limbs
are vigorous, clean-made, and more deer-like
than bovine. The back is strongly arched ; and,
when the animal stands still, the line from the
nose to the base of the tail, along the spine,
presents a nearly uniform curve. This appear-
ance is partly owing to the curved form of the
chaffron, and, still more, to a remarkable ridge
of no great thickness, which rises six or seven
inches above the general line of the back, from
the last of the cervical to the middle of the
dorsal vertebra?, where it graduUy declines and
becomes lost. This elevation is very con-
spicuous in gours of all ages, although they
may be loaded with fat, and has no resemblance
to the hunch found on the withers of the zebu
breed. There is not a trace of the dewlap,
which is well marked in the gayal. The hair
of the skin generally is short and sleek, having
somewhat the oily appearance of a fresh seal-
skin. The colour is deep brownish black,
almost approaching to bluish black. Between
the horns is a tuft of curling, dirty-white hair;
and over each hoof is a ring of the same
colour. The animal, altogether, has a striking
appearance.

TllJu YAK.]

CATTLi:, AND Till: IK VARIETIES.

iTilE TAK.

THE YAK OF TART.VRY.

We may here brieily notieo n species of the
bovine nice, the Yale ot'Tartary {JJos grunnies),
too reinarlvable to bo altogether oiuitleil in our
sketch of the ox tribe. Whether the yak
belongs to the restricted genus Bos is very
iloiibtful. In some points ib certainly is re-
lati'J to tlie musk ox {Ovibos), at least if wo
are to judge from the skins, more or less im-
perfect, which wo have had opportunities of
examining. The following is the description
of a skin wanting the liorns and limbs, iu the
Zoological Museum : — The nostrils are narrow,
converging below, with a small uudc space be-
tween them, and a thia naked border round
them, so that there is no true broad naked muz-
zle, as in the common ox. The ears are small and
pointed, and the forehead is covered with black,
curling locks ; but its degree of convexity can-
not be accurately determined, owing to the
absence of the skull. The back is clothed with
smooth hair, of a deep chocolate brown, a white
stripe occupying the ridge of the withers, and
another the centre of the croup. iTrom the
shoulders, sides, and under surface of the body,
and also from the inside of the thighs, hangs a
pendent mane of long hair, falling in huge
masses, so as to cover the limbs, and almost
touch the ground. This mane is grizzled
black, except a central line along the belly, of
pure white. The tail is tufted with a huge
mass of glossy white and rather coarse hairs, ,
from eighteen to twenty inches in length. In
size, the animal could not have exceeded the
small Scotch breed of cattle. On the authority
of Gmeliu and Turner, the horns are round, i
small, pointed, and bent in a semicircle for-
wards. The withers are elevated, and the !
colour is said to vary. We have known an
instance in which the tail was black.

The yak is a native of the mountains ofi
Tibet, and, when wild, is said to be savage and
dangerous. It is, however, reclaimed, and a
domestic breed is kept by the natives of the
range tenanted by the animal in its wild con-
dition. It is, perhaps, the Pocphagus described
by ^Elian. From an early period, its tail was
used as a standard by the Mongols and Tartars,
being one of the distinguished insignia of
superior officers. In India these tails are
mounted on ivory or silver handles, and, under

the name of chowries, ore used to brush oway
tho Hies. Eli'phanls of state are taught to
carry a splendidly mounted chuwrie in their
' proboscis, and wave it backwards and forwards.
Of the habits of the yak, in a slate of free-
dom, little or nothing is known. Aa regards
the domestic yak. Turner, in iiis Account of
an Einhassy to C/a';m, alter giving a description
of it, observes, that " tlieso cattle, thougli not
large-boned, seem, from tho profuse quantity
of hair with which they are provided, to be of
great bulk. They have a downcast, heavy look,
and ap[)ear, what indeed they are, sullen and
suspicious, discovering much impatience at tho
near approach of strangers. They do not low
loud, like the cattle of England, any more than
those of Hindostau, but make a low grunting
noise, scarcely audible ; and this but seldom,
when under some impression of uneasiness.
These cattle are pastured in the coldest parts
of Tibet, upon the short herbage peculiar to
the mountains and bleak plains. The chain of
mountains, situated between the latitudes 27^
and 2b°, which divides Tibet from Bootan, and
the summits of which are mostly clothed with
snow, is their favourite haunt. In this vicinity
the southern glens ailbrd them food and shelter
during the severity of the winter. Iu milder
seasons the northern aspect is more congenial
to their nature, and admits a wider range.
They are a very valuable property to the tribes
of itinerant Tartars called Duckba, who live in
tents, and tend them from place to place, and to
whom they afford an easy mode of conveyance,
a good covering, and wholesome subsistence.
They are never employed iu agriculture, but
are extremely useful as animals of burden, for
they are strong, sure-footed, and carry a
great weight. Tents and ropes are manu-
factured of their hair; and, amongst tho
humbler class of herdsmen, I have seen caps
and jackets made of their skins. The best
requital with vihich the care of their keepers
is at length rewarded, for scl'cting them ^ood
pastures, is iu the abundant quantity of rich
milk which they yield, and in the butter pro-
duced from it, w^hich is most excellent. It is
the custom of tho Tartars to preserve this iu
skins or bladders, and, the air being thus
excluded from it, it will keep iu this cold
climate throughout the year; so that, after
some time tending their herds, when a suflicieafc

021

THE AKOA.]

CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [the buffalo.

store is accumulated, it remains only to load
their cattle, aud drive them to a proper market
with their own produce, which constitutes, to
the utmost verge of Tartary, a most material
article of commerce."

THE ANOA.
Genus Anoa.—TM^ rare animal has been
considered by some naturalists as belonging to
the antelopes ; and, by others, to the Ox tribe.
The uncertainty here arises from the circum-
stance, that though the animal has been noticed
for many years, only a few fragments of
skulls and horns have hitherto been brought
to Europe. The horns are erect, perfectly
straight, and in the plane of the forehead.
They are about the same length as the head
that is, about nine or ten inches ; strongly de-
pressed or flattened in front; of nearly the
same breadth till within three inches of the
extremities, whence they are rather attenuated
to the tips, which are bluntly pointed, and irre-
gularly wrinkled, or rather crumbled, through
out the greater part of their length. The
bead is long and narrow, terminating in a
broad muzzle.

Mr. Pennant is the first naturalist who has
mentioned the anoa, but he has given no
account of its characters, and merely relates,
that it is about the size of a m-iddling sheep ,
is wild and fierce, and resides in large herds
among the rocky mountains of the islaud of
Celebes. He considers it as a small species
of wild buffalo, and adds, that it is captured
only with great difficulty ; and is so fierce in
confinement, that some of them, belonging to
Governor Loten, in one night, ripped up the
bellies of fourteen stags which were kept
in the same paddock with them. The next
author who mentions the anoa, from original
documents or personal observation, is Colonel
Hamilton Smith, who, in the fourth volume of
Griffith's translation of the Regne Animal,
describes the head and horns, and considers
the animal as a species of antelope. Colonel
Smith's fragment was brought from Celebes
by the late Dr. Clarke Abel, who obtained it
on his return from China, in the suite of Lord
Amherst ; but, since that period, various other
heads have been brought to Europe, some of
which are deposited in the British Museum,
and in the rooms of the Zoological Society.
622

THE ARNEE, OR URNA.

Genus huhalus. — This is the Bos ami of
Shaw and other naturalists ; and is, by some,
regarded as nothing more than the wild ordi-
nary buffalo. It may, however, be found to
be a distinct species, if a judgment were to be
formed by the characters of the horns, which
are not uncommon in museums, though no
specimen of the animal itself exists in Europe.
It tenants the high lands of Hiudostan ; and is
known in Bengal, and the neighbouring pro-
vinces, by the name of Arna. It is described
as a large and formidable beast, conspicuous
for strength, courage, and ferocity. The horns
are remarkable for their enormous size, often
measuring from four to six feet in length.
They rise upwards, first inclining outwards
aud backwards, and then, arching gradually
towards each other, as they proceed to the
points, form together a bold crescent. They
are compressed on their anterior and posterior
surfaces, and rough, with numerous tranverse
furrows and ridges. The chaffron is narrow
and convex.

THE COMMON BUFFALO.

The Bos huhalus (Buffalo) has long been
domesticated in India, where its services, as
a beast of draught and burden, render it ex-
tremely valuable. From India it has spread
into Egypt, Greece, Italy, and Spain. In its
form and general aspect, it differs materially
from the ox, being a heavier and more clumsy,
as well as a more powerful animal. Though
lower in stature than the bull, it is more mas-
sive in the body, which is supported on short,
thick, solid limbs. The hide is coarse aud
dense, covered rather sparingly with black
wiry hair. The head is large, and carried with
the muzzle projecting. The forehead is convex,
aud the muzzle wide. The horng are com-
pressed, and lie back, turning up laterally, aud
often attaining to a great size ; but the direc-
tion seldom allows the points to be used for
"oring. The ears are large and pendulous,
and the dewlap is small. The eyes are wild,
savage, and malicious in expression ; whilst the
tail is long and slender.

In its native regions, the buffalo is a for-
midable animal, and capable of contending with
the tiger, which is often foiled in the deadly

coMiioK BUFFALO.] CATTLH, AND TIIHIK VAKIETIES. [common BUFPiLLO.

strife. "When excited, it rushes desperntely
on its foe, strikea liim down with tho horns
or forohfud, kneola upon him, cru3hu»«:;-in his
ohfst, and thon trampk's on tho lifeless body,

s if to satiate its viiulietivo fury. Its natural
leinper, indeed, renders it dilUcult to tame,
and dillicult to manage; while its prodigious
strength and adaptation for ecrtaiu localities,
render it a valuable acquisition. The hot
uiorass, teeming with pestilence, is tho genial
abode of this animal; and its delight is to
wallow in the stagnant water, where it will
luxuriate for hours during the heat of the day,
with its black muzzle just elevated above the
surface. Its flesh is hard and unsavoury ; but
the milk of tlie buftalo-cow is of peculiar rich-
ness ; and, in the East, a considerable quantity
of butter is procured from it. The hide is
greatly esteemed for its solidity and toughness.
Colonel Sykes states that the long-horned
variety of the buffalo is bred in great numbers
in the Mawals, or hilly tracts along the Ghauts.
In those tracts much rice is planted ; and the
male buffalo, from his superior hardihood, is
much better suited to resist the effects of the
heavy rains, and the splashy cultivation of the
crops, than the bullock. The female is also
infinitely more valuable than the common cow,
from the very much greater quantity of milk
she yields.

Dillon states that the buffalo at MaLibar is
larger than the ox, with white eyes, fiat horns,
often two feet long, and thick and short legs.
" It is an ugly animal, almost destitute of hair ;
goes slowly, but carries very heavy burdens.
Herds may be seen, as of common cows ; and
they afford milk, which serves to make butter
and cheese; their flesh is good, though less
delicate than that of the ox : the animal swims
perfectly well, and traverses the broadest
rivers. Besides the tame ones, there are
wild buffiiloes, which are extremely dangerous,
tearing men to pieces, or crushing tliem with
a single blow of the head. They are less to be
dreaded in the woods than elsewhere, because
their horns often catch in the branches, and
give time to the persons pursued to escape by
flight. The skin of these animals serves for
an infinity of purposes; and even cruses are
made of them for holding water or liquors : the
animals on the coast of Malabar are almost all

wild, and strangers are not prevented from

hunting thoin for thoir flesh." In Coylon, an
in IVralabar, tho buffalo exists both in a wild
and domesticated state ; and tho tamo herds
are not unfrecpiently joined by wild iiulividualH,
which the inliabilants sometimes entrap, and
at other times shoot. It would apjjcar that
the animal is more common in Bombay than
in Bengal. At Boitpoor, Bishop lluber was
shown a white buffalo, probably an albino,
whicli was pointed out by the Indians as a rare
curiosity. From India tho buffalo is diHtrib-
utcd throughout Siam, Cochin-Chiua, Malacca,
and the adjacent islands, as Sumatra, Java,
Borneo, &c., together with the Philippines.
It is also common in China, where it is used in
the various labours of agriculture. In Africa
it 13 abundant along the Nile, and in other
districts, existing in a wild or emancipated
state, as well as in a state of domestication.
In Abyssinia, more particularly in tho forests
of Eas cl Fil, the buflalo is very common. Its
skin is chiefly employed in that country for
the making of shields, in which considerable
art is displayed. In the middle ages the
bufi;\lo was introduced into Spain and Italy,
where, in course of time, tho animal became
naturalised; and, in some districts, may be
regarded as in a state of nature.

In the worst parts of the pestilential tract,
known as the Maremma in Italy, the savage
bufililo may be seen, roaming at will, under the
care of wild keepers (buflalari), whose lives
are passed in this dangerous employment.
Wherever large herds of buffaloes occur, it may
be taken as the sure index of malaria. In the
wild provinces of the Calabrias, where most of
the plains and valleys are always partially
swamped by the Laino, the Chratis, the Amato,
and numerous other rivers and torrents, they
are ver}' common. They range, almost the
only occupants, over the plains of Pajstum,
and the still wilder and more extensive flats of
Apulia. The Pontiue Marshes offer them a
favourite retreat ; and in the pestilential Ma-
remma, both of Komo and Tuscany, scarcely
any other animals, except wild boars, are ever
seen. In Northern Italy, where there is infi-
nitely less malaria than in the south, they occur
in greater numbers, as there the causes of that
pest exist, and there its effects are often felt,
in the inundated rice-grounds of Lombardy,
in the marshes formed by the overflowing

02;J

COMMON BUFFALO.] CATTLE, ATs'D THEIE VARIETIES.

[cape buffalo.

of the Po, the Tanaro, the Ticino, or of
some other rivers or lakes. In every part of
Italy, but especially in the south, buffaloes are
used as beasts of burden, and their strength
and perseverance render them available in
many emergencies when oxen or horses would
fail. In some of the marshy plains of Calabria,
communication would be almost impracticable
were it not for the buffalo. There are not
only morasses, swamps, and bogs in every
direction, but rivers, suddenly swollen to tor-
rents in rainy weather, and unprovided with
bridges of any sort, frequently occur. Here
horses, mules, or oxen are useless ; but a pair
of good buffaloes, working chest-deep in the
mud, will, slowly indeed, but surely, drag a large
carro, with its goods or passengers, through
them. Yoked to a high cart, with wheels of
prodigious diameter, they will fearlessly take
to the swollen torrent, and, provided the water
does not entirely cover them, drag it safely to
the opposite bank. On the great plain of
Apulia the buffalo is the ordinary beast of
draught ; and, at the annual fair, held at Foggia
at the end of May, immense droves of almost
wild buffaloes are brought to the town for sale.
Fearful accidents occasionally happen, enraged
animals breaking from the dense mass in spite
of all the exertions of the buffalari, and rushing
upon some object of their vengeance, whom
they strike down and trample to death. It is
dangerous to over-work or irritate the buffalo ;
and instances are known in which, when re-
leased by the brutal driver from the cart, they
have turned iustanLly upon him, and killed him
before any assistance could be rendered.

The buffalo, as well as the bull, is baited
in the amphitheatres of Italy. One kind of
sport with the buffalo is called La Botta. A
large tube, made of wicker-work or other
flexible materials, well wadded without and
within, and open at both ends — looking, in
short, like a cask or butt (whence its name)
— with the ends stove in, is rolled across the
arena. Presently a man creeps into this botta,
and then, lifting it up on end, rises on his feet
and begins to move, with his head peeping
above the cask towards the buffiilo ; which, at
first, stares, bewildered at the sight, and then
runs and upsets the novel object. In this
game the man must be careful, when the charge
is made, to draw in his head and legs, and keep
G21.

himself entirely covered, like a tortoise in its
shell. The buffalo, seeing that the botta no
longer moves, kicks it, butts at it for a while,
causing it to roll along, aiid then leaves it; but
presently the cask is again raised on end, and
moved by the man towards the beast. This
trick could not be played with the Toro Vac-
cine, the sharp and strong horns of which, be-
ing better placed for attack than the buffalo's,
would pierce the cask through and through.
The attack of the buffalo in the arena is more
dangerous than that of the bull ; and, in his
rage, when he has missed his tormentor, he
often strikes the wall furiously with his head
and horns, making fragments of stone fly in all
directions, apparently without suffering any
injury from the violence of the shock.

THE CAPE BUFFALO.

This ferocious animal {Bos Caffer) is a native
of Southern Africa, associating generally in
troops, and frequenting the watered glens and
ravines among the hills. Like the common buf-
falo, it delights to wallow in pools or swamps,
where it sometimes passes the greater part of
the day. Its temper is depicted in its lower-
ing eye, and the malevolent expression of the
countenance, to which the position of the horns
overshadowing its fiery optics, not a little con-
tributes. These weapons form at their base a
solid rugged mass, covering the forehead, from
which they bend downwards, and somewhat
outwards, gradually diminishing to the points,
which suddenly take an upward curve. The
distance between the points of the horns is
frequently five feet ; but the rugose,' massive
base of each is in contact, forming an impene-
trable helmet. Their colour is black. The ears
are a foot in length, pendent, and, in a great
measure, defended by the horns ; yet it is ob-
served that they are always torn and jagged,
either from the wounds received in their com-
bats with each other, or from the laceration of
thorns and spines, the animals continually
forcing their way through the dense thickets.
Though not taller than an ordinary ox, the
Cape buftalo is a far stouter, heavier, and more
powerful beast. Its limbs are short and thick ;
its body bulky, and its head ponderous. The
hide is thick and tough, and sparingly covered
with harsh blackish hairs ; those on the under
lip, and about the corners of the mouth, being

AUitocns.]

CATTLi:, AM) TUKlii VAiaETlI-S.

[auhociis.

elongated, so as to form n scanty beard. Con-
sideriii":: the massive proportious of iIiIh fieico
tenant of the wilua of Soutliern Africa, it pos-
sesses no inconsiderable share of Heetness ; and
when pursued by the hunter, it tears through
the thicket and up the niountain-siJo witli
surprising impetuosity. 2\ot unfre(juently,
however, it returns to the attack ; so tliat it is
not to bo encountered without the utmost
caution, and the means of escape at hand.
Many are the fatal accidents, and tlio narrow
escapes from death, recorded by the various
travellers who have penetrated the country of
the Cape bulValo. The bellowing of the aui-
nial, when wounded — his fury, as he tears up
the earth with his horns, and his efforts to re-
venge himself upon his foes, before he sinks
expiring, are described as terrific.

It is the general opinion of the natives of
South Africa, that though the lion frequently
attacks the buffalo, bo cannot overcome it by
dint of strength, but has recourse to stratagem,
lying in ambush near some stream where the
beast comes to drink. They say that the lion
springs upon its back, drives his tremendous
claws into the nape of the neck, and the sides
of his victim, tearing and mangling the buffalo
till it falls and dies. At other times, they
affirm that the iiou darts suddenly upon the
buffalo, fastens on its chest and neck, lacerating
and squeezing the mouth and nose with his
fore paws, till, half suffocated, and exhausted
by vain efforts and loss of blood from deep
wounds, it expires. The lion, however, does
not always make these attacks with impunity,
for his carcass is sometimes found gored and
trampled, evidently by buffaloes, the herd
having come to the rescue of their companion.
An allied species, the Jjos Ferjasus of H. Smith,
is found iu Western Africa.

THE AUROCHS, OR ZUBR.
The genus Bison, Bison JEuropaus (Bos
urus of Gmelin), is a noble species, existing
in the great forest of Bialowicza (pronounced
Bealawezha in Poland), in Lithuania, where
it is protected by stringent laws. In propor-
tions, the auroch is robust, and its withers
are massive and elevated. The largest males
stand about six feet high at the shoulders.
The hair is of two sorts : one is solt, woolly,
and short, covering the whole trunk and limbs ;
4 L

i thei other is long and rough, covering the
upper part and sides of tiie head, the neeic,
I and shoulder.-*, where it forms a inane ; under
I the lower jaw, and along the throat lu tlio
' chest, it is lengthened into a sort of beard, lu
I old bulls tlio mano is often a foot in length,
and is tiuckest in November. Tiie eyes aro
I small, but fierce and sparkling when the aniiiml
I is irritated. The tongue, lips, and palate aro
: blue. The tail, which is short, is furni.shed
I with a tuft of stiff hairs at its extremity. Aa
j odour, described as between that of musk and
violets, is exhaled from the skin ; especiallv
from that part of the skin covering the con-
vexity of the forehead. It is stronger in tlio
male than the leinale, and may be perceived at
the distance of a hundred yards from the herd.
The flesh of this animal is highly esteemed ; but,
when roasted, is said to have a bluish tinge.
Its voice is a deep, short grunt, which can bo
heard at a considerable distance.

Thickets, near the swampy banks of rivers,
are the favourite resorts of the aurochs ; but
in summer, and during the warmer portion of
autumn, according to Dr. Weissenborn, the
herds select sandy spots. In winter, they
keep quiet by day iu the thickest part of the
fir-wood, only browsing by night, and finding
sustenance iu the bark of young trees. la
spring, they visit spots where the herbaceous
plants they relish begin to sprout. They are
fond of tree licheus. "The strength," says
Dr. Weissenborn, " of the zubr is enormous,
and trees of live or six inches in diameter
cannot withstand the thrusts of old bulls. It
is neither afraid of the wolf nor bear, and
assails its enemies both with its horns and
hoofs. Au old zubr is a match for four wolves.
Packs of the latter animal, however, some-
times hunt down even old bulls when alone ;
but a herd of zubrs has nothing to fear from
any rapacious animal. Notwithstanding the
great bulk of its body, it can ruu very swiftly.
In galloping, its hoofs are raised above its
head, which it carries very low. It has, how-
ever, but little bottom, and seldom runs larther
than one or two English miles. It swims
with great agility, and is very fond of bathing.
In its habits it is exceedingly shy, and avoid^^
the sight of man. It can only be approached
from the leeward, as its sense of smell is ex-
tremely acute. But when accidentally and

(;i2.3

THE BISON.]

CATTLE, AND THEIE VARIETIES.

lMusk ox.

suddenly fallen in witb, it will passionately
assail the intruder. In such fits of passion, the
animal thrusts out its tongue repeatedly; lashes
its sides with its tail ; and its reddened and
sparkling eyes project from their sockets, and
roll furiously. Such is its innate wildness, that
none of the species has ever been completely
tamed. When taken young, it becomes, it is
true, accustomed to its keepers ; but the ap-
proach of other persons renders it furious ;
and even its keepers must be careful always to
wear the same sort of dress, when going near
it. Its great antipathy to the Bos Taurus,
which it either avoids or kills, would render
its domestication, if it were practicable, but
little desirable. The experiments made with a
view of obtaining a mixed breed from the
zubr and JBos Taiirus, have all failed, and are
now strictly prohibitedo"

THE AMERICAN BISON.

The Bison Americainis, or American Bison,
was formerly more extensively diflused than at
present; still it exists in vast numbers in
Louisiana, roaming over the prairies, which
are watered by the Arkansas, Platte, Missouri,
and upper branches of the Saskatchewan and
Peace rivers. Like its congener, the auroch,
the American bison is of powerful frame, and
exceeds, in bulk, the ordinary race of cattle ;
its height at the fore quarters being upwards
of six feet, and its weight froui twelve to fifteen
hundredweight, and sometimes much more.
The head is huge, ponderous, and carried low ;
the withers are massive and elevated ; the eyes
are small, and their expression is ferocious;
and the horns are small and black. The neck,
withers, and chest are covered with a profusion
of long shaggy hair, contributing to render the
appearance of the animal wild and terrific.
The hind quarters are clothed with shorter
wool. The general colour is umber brown,
acquiring a rusty tint in winter. Endowed
with the sense of smell in great perfection,
wary, and fierce, the bison associates in large
herds, conducted by one or two old bulls,
whose motions the rest appear to follow ; but
herds of bulls also live separately. Their food
consists of grass and rrnk herbage ; to obtain
which, in winter, they scrape away the snow
•with their feet. On the approach of an enemy,
the herd immediately takes to flight; but if
026

one be wounded, the life of the hunter is placed
in great jeopardy ; for, turning in a moment,
it rushes on its assailant with headlono- im-
petuosity, and with determined resolution.
Several fatal instances might be cited in which
the hunter has perished from want of caution
in attacking this formidable beast, and many
hairbreadth escapes are on record. In de-
fending itself from a dog, the bison strikes vio-
lently with its fore feet, and easily keeps its
annoying foe at bay. Its flesh is accounted
excellent ; the tongue and hump, or flesh on
the top of the withers, being especial delica-
cies. The chase of the bison is, therefore, as-
siduously pursued, both by natives and Euro-
peans. It swims well ; and during the heats
of summer, vast herds make their way to shady
rivulets, streams, and pools, in which they de-
light to plunge and bathe. Herds of twenty
thousand, crossing rivers upwards of a mile in
breadth, have been seen, as Lewis and Clarke
inform us ; or darkening the plains on their
passage to fresh feeding-grounds.

Salt-springs, or saline morasses, or salt-lakes,
are great attractions to this animal, and, at all
seasons, are visited by numerous herds. These,
however, are incessantly thinned by the hun-
ters ; and the time is probably not far distant,
when the American bison will be as rare and
as limited in its extent of range as the aurochs
of Lithuania. At certain seasons of the year,
the bulls engage in terrible conflicts, and rush
furiously upon man, or any other animal which
ventures near them. With the exception of
man, the most formidable enemy against which
the bison has to contend, is tlie huge grisly
bear; and before this dreaded monster the
strongest bull goes down. The bison will
breed with the ordinary race of domestic cattle,
against which the auroch displays the greatest
antipathy; though, in one respect, the latter
approaches nearer to the common ox than does
the bison. We allude to the number of ribs,
which are thirteen in the ox on each side, four-
teen in the aurochs, and fifteen in the bison.

THE MUSK OX.
Genus Ovibus — the Ovihos Iloscliatus. The
characters of the genus Ovibos, as exhibited
by the only known species, are defined by the
horns being expanded at their base, forming a
helmet-like mass, covering the forehead, where

MUSK OX.]

CATTLF, AND Tin- Hi VATIIETIES. [DniTisii am no cattle.

their edges are in contact with each other.
From this mass thoy enuTgo, rouiul aiul tapi>r-
ing, first biMiding down bctwooii the eye and
ear, and then sweeping suddenly upwards.
Tlie ears and tail are sliort ; the eyes mode-
rate; the nostrils oblong, and inclined to each
other from above downwards. There is no
true naked muzzle ; but a very narrow nude
line surrounds each nostril, the rest being
coveri'il wilh hair. There is no furrow in the
upper lip.

The musk ox is a native of the high lati-
tudes of North America, ranging from the
sixty-first to the seveuty-fitlh degree of lati-
tude. In size it scarcely equals the smallest
of the Highland breed of cattle; but appears
larger than it really is, from the profusion of
long, matted, woolly hair with which it is
covered, and which hangs on each side almost
to the ground, nearly concealing the limbs to
the pasterns. The tail is entirely hidden.
Beneath the lower jaw, throat, and chest, the
hair flows full, long, and raane-like. The gene-
ral colour is dull, grizzled umber brown, darker
on the sides and under surface. On the centre
of the back is a brownish-white mark or saddle.
The districts inhabited by the musk ox, says
Dr. Eichardson, are the proper lands of the
Esquimaux; and their name for it is Oomiug-
mak. It frequents wild and rocky situations,
mostly destitute of wood : feeding on grass
during one season of the year, and on licliens
during the other. AVhen fat, its flesh is
tolerable ; but, at certain times, both that of
the bulls and cows smell strongly of musk.
Though the limbs of the musk ox are short,
they are very vigorous, and the animal is fleet
and active. Dr. Eichardson mentions one pur-
sued on the banks of the Coppermine, which
scaled a lofty sand-clifF, so steep, that the
party were obliged to descend to their hands
and knees, in order to crawl up the acclivity.

In September, these animals assemble in
herds, and are then much harassed by the
hunters. The sport, however, is not free from
danger, for the bulls are very irascible, and,
when wounded, will dart furiously upon tiie
hunter, who requires both practice and pre-
sence of mind in order to esca[)e. If, how-
ever, the hunters remain concealed when
they fire upon a herd of musk oxen, the pour
animals mistake the noise for thunder, and

I forming themselves into a Rroup, crowd nearer

and nearer together as tlu-ir companions full
around them ; but should they di!*cover their
j enemies by sight, or by their senso of smell,
which is very acute, the whole lu-rd ni'ek for
safety by instant flit;ht. Their wool in very
fine ; and some stockings which were mado
^ from it in France, are said to have been equal
[ to those mado from silk. If it could be ob-
tained in sufllcient quantity, it might donhtlesj
be employed advantageously aa an aniclu for
manufacture.

BRITISH WILD CATTLE

The wild cattle of this country are kept in
their native purity in the park of Lord Tanker-
ville, at Chillingham, in Northumberland. A
few are also kept in Scotland, in a park of
the Duke of Hamilton's, at Chatelherault, ia
Lanarkshire ; but the latter have a less certain
pedigree. The former nobleman, in a commu-
nication to the Society of Arts, gives a very
interesting account of their characteristics and
habits, and assigns them the palm of being the
aboriginal cattle of the island. That the
original breed in this country, or at least sorao
early breed of cattle, have been very largo in
size, is evident from the fossil bones found ia
bogs ; yet a smaller kind has been discovered
in Cornwall, with a species of horn more re-
sembling the cattle of the Duke of Hamilton.
Fitzstepheu, who flourished in the twelfth cen-
tury, alludes to the wild bull of the woods aa
having its haunts in the large forests near
London. Guy, Earl of "\Yarwick, whose con-
test with the Wild Dun Cow is commemorated
by the animal's skull being still preserved ia
Warwick Castle, doubtless had an encounter
with a monstrous animal of the wild breed.
lloUiushed also speaks of Bruce being, in tho
fourteenth century, nearly killed by a bull ia
the forest of Caledon ; and from his attendant
having rescued him, the well-known name
of " Tunibull " originated. So recently as tho
sixteenth century, it seems, these wild cattle
were common in the Callender or Calder
woods. Conrad Gesner describes them, ia
the quaint legend-language of tlie day, as
"white oxen, maned abi)ut the neck like a
lion. * * * * This beast is so hateful and
feartul of m:inkiud, tliat it will not feed of that
grasse, or those hearbes whereof he suvoureth

G27

iTALiATf CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [ it alt a-t cattle.

a man hatli touched — no, not for many days
together ; and if, by art or policy, they happen
to be taken alive, they will die witli very sudden
grief. If they meet a man, presently they
make force at him, fearing neither dogs, spears,
nor other weapons."

CATTLE OF THE MAREMMA.

We have already alluded to the Marerama
of Italy ; to viliich we must return, to notice
an uncouth, savage, wild breed of cattle, which
inhabit its marshes. This piece of country
consists of a flat strip, except in a few places
where hills intervene, extending from the
mountains of Grenoa to the extremity of Cala-
bri:i, a length of about seven hundred miles.
Its breadth is from the base of the lower range
of the Apennine chain to the shore of the
Mediterranean. This sweep of country is pes-
tilential in the extreme iti summer ; and though
it yields the most luxuriant harvests, is only
partially cultivated, the greater portion being
left for pasture. Here, besides the cattle used
as beasts of burden, or draught, and employed
in the work of the farms, large herds roam
unmolested under the care of keepers, which,
together with the buffalo-keepers, before al-
luded to, and forest- rangers, are the only sta-
tionary population in the wild Maremma. The
former, as wild and savage as the animals un-
der their charge, are always mounted on fleet
Lorses, and armed with a long lance, which
they use in driving the cattle, and in defending
themselves against the fierce bulls, which, as
well as the buffjiloes, are extremely dangerous.
These men are often criminals, who have fled
from justice into the Marem ma, where they are
obliged to sojourn, and where they are often
employed by the proprietors of the farms and
cattle, as rangers or drivers. Those who are
not fugitives adopt their occupation from
choice, which, dangerous and laborious as it is,
is one of independence and freedom. They are
tlie analogues of the Arab of the desert, or the
Gauchos of the Pampas. Besides being paid
for their services, they rear cattle of their own.
In the summer months they retire to the shady
forests along the sea-shore, where the air is
not so unwholesome as in the open plains.
The cattle are collected at various times, and
driven by these men, called Vaccari, to the
fairs hold in the towns, for sale.
628

Both the bull and the buffalo are baited in
Italy by men and dogs, for the entertainment
of the Roman people, who seem to be as fond
of such scenes as were their great predecessors.
The scene of the sport, which is called La
Giostra, is, like many other buildings in Eome,
a curious compound of tlie modern and the
ancient. The Amfiteatro Correa, as the place
is designated, is situated in a massive cluster
of buildings raised upon the site, and partly
with the materials, of the mausoleum of the
Emperor Augustus, in the Campus Martins.
Tlae walls of this amphitheatre, and the seats,
are all of modern structure. Tlie arena occu-
]-)ies the platform of the ancient mausoleum,
which, in otiier times, was cultivated with
flowers and rare shrubs ; while the pyramid,
that bore the statue of Octavius, rose in the
midst. The vaults beneath, which once held
the ashes of the Cte^ars, are now iu part used
as dens for the wild cattle that are brought
in from the Campagna, and other places, to be
baited. Twice every week, during the summer,
do these exhibitions take place ; commencing
at five in the evening, and lastiug till dusk.
The men who are to encounter the bulls and
buffaloes are called Giostratori. They are
dressed in white, with a red sash round the
waist. Each bears a short staff, with a red
pennon at the end of it ; and they muster in the
arena, make their bows to the assembled spec-
tators, and wait the onset of the might}- ani-
mal. Among them are generally two or tlu-ee
of great reputation for skill ; these are usually
vaccari (herdsmen), or bufialeri (bufi^alo-keep-
ers) — men brought up from their childhood
among the cattle they respectively manage,
and familiarised with their habits. The Gios-
tratori, from Viterbo, have the reputation of
excelling all others; and hence the term It
Viterlese (the Viterbonian) is used metony-
mically to designate any celebrated bull-fighter.
In the centre of the arena is a strong post
firmly fixed, by dodging round which a man
may, for a considerable time, evade the assaults
of a bull or buffalo. At a given sigiuvl, the
door of a den is opened, and the bull rushes
forth, wildly gazing around him, till, observing
the Giostratori, with their scarlet sashes and
pennons, he singles out one, and roariug and
lashing his tail, drives furiously towards him.
The man nimbly avoids the charge; others

SPAN IS 11 CATTLE.] C A T T L K, AND TIIEIli VAiMETIES. [spanisii catile.

come to the rescue, tlra\vinj» off the bull's at-
tt'iitiun from liiin, and invitiii<^ its attack ; till
the cnragod animal, distractod by the number,
quicIuiosH, and inanu'uvros of his antagonists,
and wearied with vain ell'orts, ceases the pur-
suit. Tlie den is tlicu thrown open, and ho
generally retires of his own accord, as if glad

brutes, and the danger to man and horse.
Such sport frequently takes place in the great
forest of Alemtejo, whero an eye-wiltiess of
one thus describes it:— "I iiad received," he
s.'iys, " intimation that the village of Alcoxete,
on the Tagus, was to be the scene of a bull-
light, and that tlio villagers, for many miles,

to escape. When the bull, as is sometimes | were invited to join in tiie hunt, whielj was to
the ease, perseveringly follows a man, and lake place the following day. I acconlingly
jiresses him hard, he catches hold of one of i crossed the river in the company of about
the iron rings, placed at certain distances twenty persons, each being provided with t.

round the wall enclosing the arena ; and, by a
rapid movement, springs to the top, which,
like a terrace, runs round the foot of the
lower scats of the amphitheatre. The height
of this parapet is six or seven feet ; and it
requires great agility, strength, and presence
of mind, as well as precision, to avoid being
junncd to the wall in the act of taking the
leap. Such accidents sometimes happen ; but
when the Giostratori see one of their number
thus endangered, they use every means to
divert the bull's attention. The bull (and
al.-5o the buffalo) is, on some occasions, baited
with fierce dogs of the Corsican breed, re-
sembling our bull-dog, and distinguished by
the same " tenacity of tooth" and indomitable
courage. These dogs usually pin the bull by
the nose or lip ; but are very frequently tossed
in the air, or ripped up by the sharp horns of
the maddened animal. At these exhibitions,
strange to say, females are among the specta-
tors, and not less interested than the rougher
sex. Some of the bulls procured in the Cam-
])agna of Eome are very noble and spirited
animals, of fine figure and great strength.

CATTLE OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

In Spain and Portugal, where extensive wilds
and forest lands afford ample pasturage, large
herds of oxen, born in freedom, wander un-
controlled and untroubled, excepting by man,
from -whom they flee with precipitation, till
roused to fury by his assaults, when they at-
tack in turn, and bear upon him with resistless
impetuosity. It is from these herds that the
Spaniards and Portuguese select the fiercest
and boldest for the revolting contests of the
arena; while others are tamed, and brokeu-in
for the ordinary purposes of husbandry. It is
easy to imagine the excitement produced by
the chase and capture of a herd of these fierce

long pole, having a small spike fixed in one
end, and mounted as inclination or abditv
suited. AVhon we arrived at t!ie opposite
bank, a little before daybreak, we found about
250 or 300 persons assembled, some mounted
on different sorts of quadrupeds— from the
noble Andalusiau horse to the humble donkey ;
and many were on foot. All were armed in a
similar manner to ourselves. Wc divided into
two parties — one stretching in a long Hue to
the right, the other to the left. AVe had not
advanced far, in this manner, when wo fell-ia
with a herd of cattle, having twelve bulls with
it; which no sooner descried us, than they
bounded off with the speed of lightning. Tiie
sport had now begun. We put our horses to
the utmost speed, threading our way among
the tall pine-trees as well as we could, and
endeavouring by wild cries to drive the bulls
towards the other party. At length, after about
an hour's chase, some half-dozen of us, who
were better mounted than the rest, came up
with them, and commenced the attack with
our long poles. The manner was this :— One
person, riding at full speed, gave the bull nearest
him a sharp prick with the goad, which it no
sooner felt, than it turned upon its assailant
and gave chase ; another horseman then coming
up, attacked it on tlie other side, when, leaving
the first assailant, it turned upon the second;
he, in like maimer, was rescued by a third,
and so on. The atteutiou of the infuriated
animal was thus so distracted as to prevent his
escape, and give time for the other hunters to
come up. The bulls were thus at length sepa-
rated from the herd; and a sufficient number
of persons having arrived to form a circle
round them, we commenced operations for the
purpose of driving them towards the town.
All the skill of the riders was now necessary,
and all the activity possessed by both man and

629

SPANISH CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [eussiax cattle.

horse, to keep clear from the pointed horns
vfhich -were presented against bira, as well as
to prevent the herd from breaking through the
livino- net with which it was surrounded. This
was, perhaps, the most difficult part, and was
attained by keeping each bull separately en-
gaged, and thus preventing united action; for
what line was sufficient to resist the simul-
taneous rush of these powerful animals ? The
continued exertion had knocked up many of
the horses which had started in the morning,
and the circle became smaller and smaller as
the day advanced ; several persons, indeed,
had been carried ofl', severely wounded by the
horns and feet of the bulls. Eedoubling our
efforts, however, we at length, about four
o'clock in the afternoon, succeeded in driving
them into an inclosure, where a number of
oxen (all at one time wild) were quietly graz-
ing. Here they were kept till required for the
next day's sport." These bulls were baited in
the square of Alcoxete, converted into a tem-
porary arena; and afterwards reduced to a
complete state of servitude. Tiie picadores,
or men who encountered them, were on foot,
and only armed with short darts, and displayed
the most surprising courage and address; and
when at last they were to be thrown, a man,
leaping between the horns, there supported
himself till the cords were lashed round the
animal's limbs.

Tlie bull-fights, as conducted in the amphi-
theatres of Spain and Portugal — the lingering
relics of those contests in which Home so
much delighted, and which prevailed more or
less throughout the Soman empire — have been
often described. These sanguinary spectacles
are the delight of the Spanish people, and are
not only tolerated, but encouraged by the
higher classes of both sexes, who find a morbid
gratification in the toruients which the bull
endures from the lance of the cavalier, or the
horse from the horns of the bull. The most
graphic and spirited description of this " un-
gentle sport," is that by Lord Byron, in Ghilde
HarolcVs Pilgrimage, canto i. ; attached to
which there is a note by Sir J. C. liobhouse,
which further describes the scene : — " The
magistrate presides ; and after the horsemen
and picadores have fought the bull, the mata-
dore steps forward and bovv3 to him for per-
mission to kill the animal. If the bull has
GoO

done his duty by killing two or three hor&es,
or a man (which last is rare), the people inter-
fere with shouts, the ladies wave their hand-
kerchiefs, and the animal is saved. The
wounds and death of the horses are accom-
panied with the loudest acclamations, and
many gestures of delight, especially from the
female portion of the audience, including those
of the gentlest blood." Of the effects of such
exhibitions on the character of the people,
nothing need be said ; whatever atrocities may
be committed by men, "nurtured in blood
betimes," canuot surprise us.

CATTLE OF RUSSIA.
Within the Arctic Circle the ox gives place
to the reindeer; but in Iceland, cattle are
reared in great numbers, and are valuable.
In size and appearance, excepting that they
are seldom horned, they resemble the breeds
of the Scottish islands. It would appear that
the Icelandish farm^ers conduct the breeding
of their stock on no principles ; consequently,
there is great room for improvement: never-
theless, tlie cattle, on the whole, are handsome,
and the cows yield a considerable quantity of
milk. In Norway and Sweden, cattle are
numerous, and also in llussia. Erom this
last country, the main exports to England
consist of tallow and hides. In that extensive
empire vast numbers are reared, principally in
the southern provinces ; and the markets of
St. Petersburg, and other towns, are supplied
with cattle sent from distant parts of the
country. The herdsmen live in a state of
barbaric simplicity, and are nomadic in their
habits. They travel with their herds to Moscow,
St. Petersburg, and other places, which depend
more upon them for a supply than upon the
farmers of the adjacent districts. The follow-
ing passage, iu Johnston's llussia, conveys a
just idea of the Eussian cattle-keeper and
his herd:— "Along the road," he says, "we
passed one or two large droves of horned
cattle proceeding to St. Petersburg. We
learned that they were brought from the prov-
inces south of Moscow. These cattle are all
of a whitish colour, well made, and of about
seven hundredweight. Their journey to St.
Petersburg occupies three months ; they travel
from eight to sixteen miles through the night,
and are allowed to pasture and rest, during the

MOLUAViAX C.VTTI.K.1 CATTLE, AND TIIElll VAPvTETIES. [swiss cattle.

rain, or suow mako the miittor worse, so that
a jwasago can only bo achieved by preafc
patience, labour, and resolution. A bullock-
caravan of Moldavia, wending its weary way
over tlio vast pliiins of tliat province, while
lighter vehicles, drawn by awift horsca, aro Boea
in the distance, i'urnishesan interesting picture
for tho artist of rural life. It ia by these
caravans that the trade and commcrco of Mol-
davia aro carried on, and tho town supplied
with <?i";iin-

day, on the sides of the road. The herds are
attended by one or two men, who convey their
cooking utensils, baggage, etc., in a waggon
drawn by two oxen ; and while their numerous
herds re[)O80 undisturbed under tho shade of
the delicate birch, they stretch themselves on
the ground, and pass their time in a true
Scythian state. Hero aro also seen a few
sheep, but of an inferior breed, covered with
hair somewhat like that of a goat. This
country is not favourable for the pasture of
sb-jep, owing to tho coarseness of tho grass,
and the abundance of wood. Littlo or no
attention seems to be paid to tho rearing of
any other animal besides tho horse. To him
alone the lluss devotes his whole attention,
and from him he derives his livelihood."

CATTLE OF :\IOLDAYIA AND WALLACHIA.
In Moldavia and Wallachia cattle are abun-
dant ; in the former district, indeed, the people
continue, in a great measure, their ancient
nomadic habits, making use of the services of
the ox as a beast of draught or burden. United
in immense caravans, they roam over a vast
extent of territory, transporting, in tall vehi-
cles of singular construction, various articles
of produce, provisions, and other things, to the
towns scattered at long distances about the
wide plains of Moldavia. Day by day they
move cheerfully on, to the slow and measured
sound of the footsteps of their oxen, and are
often an entire month without seeing a single
human habitation. At the approach of even-
ing the caravan halts : the numerous waggons
are disposed in the form of a square, and the
oxen are turned out to graze at large, under
the watchful care of intrepid dogs which ac-
company the caravan. In the middle of the
square a fire is now lighted, at which the con-
ductor prepares his simple repast, and after-
wards disposes himself to sleep, sheltered by a
warm and heavy coverlid, which completely en-
wraps him. These indefatigable walkers are
no less excellent riders. They possess a fine
race of horses, which are employed for drawing
lighter vehicles ; while the heavier waggons are
drawn by the slow oxen. There are no high
roads in Moldavia ; the plain is open, and each
traveller chooses his own track ; and it is often
mth difficulty that the oxen can drag their
way through heavy ground. Storms of wind.

CATTLE OF SWITZERLAND.
In Switzerland there is an exeelleut breed
of cattle ; and in no country arc those animals
more carefully attended to, or held in greater
esteem for their utility, as far as the dairy is
concerned. Travellers have frequently noticed
their docility and intelligence, which they
have, at the same time, not a little exaggerated.
It is customary to hang bells round tho necks
of the cattle, sheep, and goats, in order that,
if they stray among the hills and mountains,
the herdsmen may be directed by the sound in
his pursuit of them, the slightest tinkle being
heard at a great distance in those lofty and
quiet regions. The cows selected to bear tho
bell become accustomed to it from habit, and
often, we doubt not, betray signs of uneasiness
when deprived of it ; but the account given by
some writers, respecting their feelings, borders
on the ludicrous. " The cow, whose superior
beauty, sagacity, or good conduct seems to
entitle her to be the leader of the herd, is
always, on gala days, distinguished by the
largest and finest-toned bell, and the bravest
ornamental collar, and so down through all
the gradations of good, to the small appendage
that marks the indifferently good or clever
animal, and the total absence of ornament and
distinction which points out the self-willed or
vicious. If any cow has been guilty of stray-
in", of unseemly behaviour, breach of dis-
cipline, or any vicious trick, the displeasure of
the Vacher is not testified by blows, but by
the temporary deprivation of her bell ; and this
seldom fails to reduce her to order, and pre-
vent a repetition of the ofience. It is only
necessary to see the cow on a gala day, with
her badge of distinction strapped round her
neck, and then to see her deprived of it for
some reason or other, to be convinced that

AS itiCAir CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [afrtcan cattle.

this is true. She is now gay, good-humoured
and frolicsome; then sulky and gloomy."

The pastoral economy of Switzerland, which
is common to Savoy and other Alpine countries,
and the annual progress of the shepherds and
cowherds, with their flocks and cattle to and
from the mouutains, are interesting. The
richer proprietors and breeders in the Alps,
possess tracks of pasturages, and sometimes
houses, at different heights. In winter they
live at the foot of the mountain, in some
sheltered valley; but this they quit in tlie
spring, and ascend gradually, as the heat
brings out vegetation on the higher lands.
In autumn they descend, by the same grada-
tions, to the valley. Those who are less rich
have a resource in certain common pastures, to
which they send a number of cows propor-
tionate to tht-ir means of keeping them during
the winter. Eight days after the cows have
been driven up to these common pastures, all
their owners assemble, and the quantity of
milk each cow produces, is accurately weighed.
This operation of weighing is repeated one
day in the middle of summer, and again at
the end of the season. The milk of all the
cows has, in the meanwhile, been put together,
and made into butter and cheese ; and this
common product is divided into shares, ac-
cording to the quantity of milk each owner's
cows yielded on the days of trial. In some
parts, and more particularly in the retired
parts of the forest cantons, the peasants make
use of the Alp-horn for the purpose of col-
lecting their herds. This primitive instrument
is a tube of wood about five feet in length,
of very simple construction. It produces a
deep, mellow, and prolonged note, resounding
to a great distance, floating over the upland
pastures, and echoing from crag to crag, and
from rock to rock. On hearing the well-known
summons, which is regularly given at sunset,
the cattle bestir themselves, and wend their
way to the chalet, where the peasants are
waiting their arrival. The deep note of the
Alp-hurn, heard among the mountains, and
multiplied by echoes till the last tone dies
away, produces a pleasing impression on the
traveller, which he long remembers.

CATTLE OF SOUTH AFRICA.
The ox, in South Alrica, is used as a beast
U;J2

of burthen and draught ; and his services are
of the utmost importance. Waggons drawn
by oxen, often cruelly overtasked, are the
ordinary travelling vehicles of this part of
Africa, and are admirably adapted for the
country, which is rugged and mountainous,
and generally destitute of any other roads
than the rude tracks originally struck across
the wilderness by the first European adven-
turers. Each waggon, provided with a canvas
tilt, to protect the traveller from sun and rain,
is drawn by a team of six, eight, or even twelve
oxen, fastened with wooden frames to a strong
central trace, or trek-tow, formed of twisted
thongs of bullock's hide. The driver, who
sits in front, has a whip of enormous length,
which he often uses with unsparing severity.
Formerly, if the account given by Barrow is
to be credited, the treatment exercised by the
Dutch- African boors to their oxen was brutal
in the extreme. The Dutch boors, moreover,
made use of very large and clumsy waggons,
and delighted in transporting tremendous loads
at a time. It was a common sight to see six,
eight, ten, or even a dozen pair of oxen yoked
to an enormous vehicle; but even this number
was inadequate to such burthens as they liad
to draw, and the resistance of such roads.
The most disgraceful cruelties were used to
force these poor creatures on their way. Their
drivers cut them with knives ; and when, worn
out, they laid themselves down, and refused to
rise, it was a common practice to light fires
under their sides, and so force them to go.
One of these brutal boors, whose knife had
been often employed on the flesh of his cattle,
boasted that he could start his team at full
gallop by merely whetting that knife on the
side of his waggon. Once, as he was exhibiting
this experiment, the waggon was overturned,
and one of the company — " unfortunately not
the proprietor," says Mr. Barrow — "had his
leg broken."

AVhen the Dutch took possession of the
Cape of Good Hope, they found the Hottentots
a pastoral people, possessed of flocks and herds.
The oxen were of large size, with horns that
swept forwards and upwards to a great length ;
and they were not only trained for riding, but
even as guardians of the flocks and cattle, and
as instruments of destruction in battle. The
Hottentots, says Kolben — who visited them

AiurcAX OATTi.K.l CAITLE. AND THEIR VARIETIES. [african cattle.

wliili- tlii>y yet ri-lained liu-ir iiaiiie and iiule-
pi'iidonco as a nation — " have oxen wldeh they
use with success in battle. Tht-y call them
JVike-leys. Every army is provided with a
]ar>;e troop of these war oxen, which permit
themselves to bo governed without trouble,
and which their leader lets looso at the ap-
pointed moment. The instant they aro set
free, thev throw themselves with impetuosity
on the opposing arniy ; strike with their horns,
kick with their heels, overthrow, rip up, and
trample beneath their feet, with fri^h.tful
feroL'ity, all that opposes thera. They plunge
with fury into the midst of the rauks, and
tluis prepare for their masters an easy victory.
The manner iu which these oxen are trained
and disciplined, certainly does great honour to
the talent of these people."

Le Vaillant, when iu South Africa, says that
he saw some of these oxen, which were then
only used by certain tribes of Hottentots; but
he gives the same account of their mode of
fighting as Kolben, who, also, describes the
bake-leys as guardians of their flocks. " When
out in the pasture-grounds, at the least sign
of their conductors, they will hasten to bring
back the cattle which are straying at a dis-
tance, and keep them herded together. They
rush on strangers with fury, whence they are
of great service against the Boschmen, or
robbers, who may attempt to plunder tlie
flocks. Each kraal has, at least, half-a-dozen
of these bake-leys, which are chosen from
among the most spirited oxen. Ou the death
of one, or when one, in consequence of old age,
becomes unserviceable — in which case its owner
kills it — another ox is selected from the herd
to succeed it. The choice is referred to one
of the old men of the kraal, who is thought to
be most capable of discerning that which will
most easily receive instruction. Thev asso-
ciate this noviciate ox with one of long expe-
rience, and he is taught to follow his com-
panion, either by beating or some other method.
During the night they are tied together by the
horns ; and they are, also, thus kept tied
during the greater part of the day, until the
learner has become a good guardian of the
flock. These guardians know all the inhabi-
tants of the kraal — men, women, and children ;
and testify the same respect towards them that
a dog displays towards all those that live iu
4m

the hou.se of hin master. Thero is, therefore,
no inhabitant of tho kraal who may not with
safety a|)i)roach the flocks. The buke-leya ne\ er
do them the least injury ; but if a stranger, and
particularly a European, should ofler to take
the same liberty, without being accompanied
by some Hottentot, ho would bo in great
danger from these guardians of the flock, which
usually feed round it, and which would como
upon him full gallop. Then, unless ho be
within hearing of the shepherds, or have fire-
arms or good legs, or uidess a tree be near in
which to climb, he is sure to be killed. lb
would be useless for him to have recourse to
sticks or stones ; a bake-ley has no fear of such
feeble weapons." Sparrman was one of the
last South African travellers who found the
Hottentots in their original state of pastoral
freedom. He mentions a woman, who was
possessed of sixty milch-cows; and, on the
cattle of the kraal being brought home from
pasture, the evening w"as enlivened by singing
and dancing.

The CafTres, Corannas, and other tribes, have
oxen in abundance, which are employed as
beasts of burden. The Corannas are a nomade
race, frequently removing with their flocks and
herds to fresh pasture-land, and transporting
their mats, tents, and utensils strapped on the
back of oxen, which also carry themselves and
their wives and children : —

" Fast by his wild resounding river
Tlie Jistless Coian lingers ever j
Still drives his heifers forth to feed,
Sooth'd by the gorrah's humming reed;
A rover still, unchcck'd, will range,
As humour calls or seasons change ;
His tent of mats and leathern gear
All packed upon the patient steer."

Eurcbell, another South African traveller, de-
scribes the saddle-oxen as generally broken for
riding w hen not more than a year old. The first
ceremony is that of piercing the nose to receive
the bridle ; for which purpose they are thrown
on their back, and a slit is made through the
septum, or cartilage between the nostrils, large
enough to admit a finger. In this hole is
thrust a strong stick stripped of its bark, and
having, at one end, a forked branch to prevent
its passing through. To each end of it is
fastened a thong of hide, of a length sufficient
to reach round tiie neck, a:id form the reins;

033

AFRICAN CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND TIIEIE VAEIETIES. Tameiiican cattle.

and a sheep-skin, with the wool on, placed
across the back, together with another, folded
up, and bound on with a rein long enough to
pass several times round the body, constitutes
the saddle. To this is sometimes added a
pair of stirrups, consisting only of a thong,
with a loop at each end, slung across the saddle.
Prequently the loops are distended by a piece
of wood, to form an easier rest for the foot.
While the animal's nose is still sore, it is
mounted and put in training, and, in a week or
two, is generally rendered sufficiently obedient
to its rider. The facility and adroitness with
which the Hottentots manage the ox, have
often excited admiration. It is made to walk,
trot, or gallop at the will of its master ; and,
being longer-legged, and rather more lightly
made than the ox in England, travels with
greater ease and expedition, walking three or
four miles in an hour, trotting five, and gallop-
ing, on an emergency, seven or eight.

In some parts of Central Africa the ox is
employed in like manner. Major Denham
gives an account of its use in the central
countries which he visited: — "The beasts of
burden," he observes, " are the bullock and the
ass. A very fine breed of the latter are found
in the Maudara valleys. Strangers, and chiefs
in the service of the sheikh, or sultan, alone
possess camels. The bullock is the bearer of
all the grain and other articles to and from
the markets. A small saddle, of plaited rushes,
is laid on him, when sacks, made of goat-skins,
and filled with corn, are lashed on bis broad
and able back. A leathern thong is passed
through the cartilage of his nose, and serves as
a bridle; while, on the top of the load, is
mounted the owner, his wife, or his slave.
Sometimes the daugliter or wife of a rich
Shouaa will be mounted on her particular bul-
lock, and precede the loaded animals, ex-
travagantly adorned with amber, silver rings,
coral, and all sorts of finery ; her hair stream-
ing with fat ; a black rim of kohal, at least an
inch wide, round each of her eyes ; and, I may
say, arrayed for conquest at the crowded
market. Carpet and robes are then spread on
her clumsy palfrey ; she siUjamhe de ca,jamle
de la, and guides her animal by the nose. Not-
>7rithstanding the peaceableness of his nature,
her vanity still enables her to torture him into
something like caperiugs and curvetings."
634

CATTLE OF SOUTH AMERICA.
The ox was one of the first of the domestic
animals carried over to America by the early
Spanish settlers; and there it has multiplied
and spread, and indeed, in some degree, recov-
ered its original independence. Herds of wild
oxen roam the Pampas, where they are hunted
and slain for their hides, which form an impor-
tant article of commerce. These wild herds
are, in some districts, exceedingly numerous,
difiering in no respect from their domestic
relatives, and rendered tame without much
difficulty. According to Azara, " Captain John
de Salazar, born in the city of Pomar in Aragon,
transported, from Andalusia, seven cows and a
bull to the coast of Brazil ; thence he conducted
them overland to the river Parana, at the place
opposite to where it receives the river Mondai.
He there constructed a raft; placed the cattle
on it, and gave them in charge to a certain
Gaete, whilst he, himself, went by land to
Paraguay. Gaete descended the Parana, to its
union with the river of Paraguay, and, steering
up this, he safely arrived at the city of As-
sumption in 154!G. He spent many months in
this voyage; and as he had only one cow given
him for payment, the saying has hence arisen,
in allusion to the great value of anything — ' It
is dearer than Gaete's cow.' The second
founders of Buenos Ayres took, in 1580, some
cows from Paraguay, which multiplied in the
neighbourhood ; and, from want of due care,
many of them became wild, and bent their
course towards K.io Negro. The Indians of
the Cordillera of Chili became acquainted with
these animals, which had already attained
their boundaries ; and they commenced to carry
from them herds of tamed cattle to Chili, where
the presidents of this settlement purchased
them from these Indians. Those Indians, who
could not live in their country without some
resource, established themselves in the plains
wliich were occupied by these cattle, and some
even mixed with the Pampas' Indians. In the
meantime, the Indians, who were unsubdued,
destroyed the cattle to the south of Buenos
Ayres' The Spaniards of those parts, however,
did not neglect to take a portion, which they
conducted to Cordova and Mendoza ; whilst the
Spaniards of Buenos Ayres made up entire
cargoes of the hides of bulls and cows ; for, at

AMERICAN CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND TITETR VARIETIES. [island cvttle.

that tiiiu>, tl»e animal itself was not considered
of value, its skiti boiii<» all that was souijht
after. Tiie result of all tl»ia was, that, towards
tiio niidille of the century, wild caLLlo no lonjjer
existed iu the Pampas; ntid the unsubdued
Indians saw themselves under the necessity ol
stealiiii; the domestic animals, or of makiii'^'
incursions into the estancias of tho Pauipas.
This was the commencement and cause of the
bloody war which tho Spaniards had with the
Indians. The herds of these revolted or wild
cattle, which are also called oreillards in the
plains of jNIonte Video, do not pass to the north
of the southern establishments of the Guaranis'
Missions. The following is the account which
I have collected of their origin : — Tho city
authorities of Buenos Ayres, iu tho name ot'
certain of its inhabitants, as is proved by its
archives, made, at the commencement of the
century, contracts, on the one part, with the
English, for the acquisitiun of Negroes ; and, on
the other part, with certain Spaniards, who
were thus authorised to procure the hides of
the animals on the plains situate to the north
of the Kio de la Plata, on payment to the city
of a certain tax, of which the sum total was
shared between these Spanish inhabitants, who,
from this circumstance,were called Actionnaires.
The primitive source of this right, or this pro-
ceeding, is not known ; but certain it is that all
the inhabitants did not participate iu it, and
that its produce was the exclusive share of
these Actionnaires, who were the descendants
of the earliest of the original settlers. Such is
the origin of the horned cattle of these coun-
tries, where they prodigiously multiplied.
About eight hundred thousand ox- hides are
annually exported from Buenos Ayres and
Monte Video to Europe." Mr. Darwin states,
" that, from the latter place, the annual expor-
tation is three hundred thousand ; and the home
consumption, from waste, very considerable. In
order to obtain these hides, some horsemen
join together, and arrange themselves in two
ranks which form an angle. They then press
on the two sides a small number of cattle ; and
one of the horsemen, who goes last in the angle,
hamstrings the animals with a knife, in the
shape of a crescent or half-moon, fastened at
the end of a staff. While this goes on, the
horsemen continue to ride forwards ; and when
they have thus secured, a sullicieut number of

animals, they retrace their steps; and tho
person who hamstrung thoin gives each beast
thus maimed a liuishing stroke with a sharp
spear, and the horsemen dismount to strip the
carcass, sometimes of tho fat and suet, bufc
always of tho skin : this they do with such
dexterity, that some men, without assi-stance,
will strip twenty-six cattle at a day's work.
When a single head of cattle is to bo killed for
the sake of its flesh, a horseman throws a lasso
over its horns or neck, and another does tho
same over one of its feet; then straining in
opposite directions, they prevent it from
struggling free, and so strangle it. Admirable
is the dexterity with which, when tho animals
pass as they rush forwards, the lasso is thrown,
so that, directed backwards under its feet, tho
animal, at the pleasure of the horseman, is en-
tangled either by one foot or by two together."
It is a singular feature in the history of tho
New "World, that so many of our domestic
animals there imported, should have returned
to their primitive independence : the ox, the
horse, the hog, the ass, the rabbit, the cat, and
the dog, have thus estranged themselves from
the control of man. Iudividualshave,at different
times, escaped from confinement, or been ne-
glected : a vast region lay before them, present-
ing abundance of food ; they multiplied, and
their ofispring in turn ; and tlius, within a brief
period, have the plains of the 'New World been
peopled by alien races of animals, which claim
Asia or Europe as their starting-point.

CATTLE IN THE ISLANDS OF THE SOUTH
PACIFIC OCEAN

America is not the only portion of tho
globe to which, by the agency of man, in
modern times, the ox has been introduced.
We allude to Australia, New Zealand, and
the groups of islands which sprinkle tho
Pacific Ocean. " AVith the appearance of Van-
couver," says Otho von Ivotzebue, speaking
of the Sandwich Islands, "arose the fortunate
star of these islands. Among the innumerable
benefits he conferred upon them, they are in-
debted to him for the possession of sheep and
cattle. Tameamea (the native king) declared
these animals under a tabu for ten years,
which allowed time for so large an increase,
that they now run wild in the forests." Of
the benefits resulting from the introduction of

(Jo 5

■WHITE CATTLE,]

CATTLE, AND THEIE VARIETIES.

[wniTE CATTLE.

the ox into a country naturally destitute of it,
nothing need be said; but the gift of cattle
to a people who, though yet uncivilised, are
still capable of appreciating their value, is to
commence a revolution in their state and con-
dition, immeasurably for the better: for the
possession of property is one of the bonds of
society ; and the desire of acquiring it, the
great stimulus to industry. With the intro-
duction of the ox, the condition of the people

of these islands has necessarily been improved.
Not only has cattle been reared for home con-
sumption, but for supplying the ships that
navigate these seas (whalers, &c.), other valua-
bles being given in exchange. Hence has the
rearing of cattle been generally undertaken.
This, of course, involves care and attention,
and a state of peace : but agriculture and com-
merce follow, and prepare the way for the arts
of civilised life.

CHArTER II.

ErJTISn BREEDS OF CATTLE.

THE WILD WHITE CATTLE OF CHILLING-
HAM PARK.

(Bos Taurus, var. Scoticus). Having merely
alluded to this beautiful breed of cattle, we will
here resume the subject, and lay before the
reader a few interesting details respecting its
history.

Mr. Touatt, in his admirable work on cattle,
in the Libra?'!/ of Use/id Knoioledge, clearly
expresses his belief in the identity of this wild
breed with our domestic races : and adds, that
the slightest observation will convince us, that
the cattle in Devon, Sussex, Wales, and Scot-
land, are essentially the same breed changed
by soil and climate, yet little changed by the
intermeddling of man. " Every one who has
had opportunities of comparing the Devon
cattle with the wild breed of Chatelherault
Park, or Chillingham Castle, has been struck
with the great resemblance in many points,
notwithstanding the difference in colour." In
anotlier place, the same writer says — " To the
Principality we naturally look for some trace
of the native breed of cattle, for the Welsh
were never entirely subdued by any of the
early invaders. The Eomans possessed merely
a portion of the country ; the Saxons scarcely
penetrated into AVales, or not beyond the
county of Monmouth. The Welsh lono- re-
sisted the superior power of the English under
the Norman king; and it was not till late in
G3t>

the thirteenth century that the Principality
was annexed to the crown of England. We
therefore expect to find more decided speci-
mens of the native productions of our own
islands ; nor are we altogether disappointed.
Howell Dha, or Howell the Good, describes
some of the cattle in the tenth century as
being white, with red ears, resembling the
wild cattle of Chillingham Castle. An early
record speaks of a hundred white cows, with
red ears, being demanded as a compensation for
certain oftences against the princes both of
North and South Wales. If the cattle were
of a dark or black colour, a hundred and fifty
were to be presented. When the Cambrian
princes did homage to the king of England,
tlie same number of cattle, and of the same
description, were rendered in acknowledgment
of sovereignty. Speed tells us, that Maud de
Breos, in order to appease King John, whom
her husband had offended, sent to his queen a
present, from Brecknockshire, of four hundred
cows and a bull, all white, with red ears.
Whether this was the usual colour of the
ancient breed of Welsh and British cattle, or
a rare variety esteemed on account of its
beauty, and chiefly preserved in the parks of
the nobles, we are unable to determine. The
latter is the most probable supposition; and
the same records that describe the white cattle
with red ears, speak also of the dark or black

WHITE WILD CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND Til HI If VAKIETIES. [white wild cattle.

coloured breed which now exists, and whicli is
general throughout tho Principality." As a
further point, in favour of the probability of
the white wild cattle being specilically the
same as our domestic races, wo select tlio
following quotation from the work before re-
ferred to: — "Tho colours of tho improved
short-horns are red or white, or a niixturo of
the two, combining in endless variety, and pro-
ducing, very frequently, a most brilliant ellect.
Tho white, it is very probable, they obtained I
from an early cross with the wild breed ; and
whenever this colour shows itself, it is ac-
companied, more or less, with a red tinge on
the extremit}' of the car — a distinctive charac-
ter also of the wild cattle."

Are, then, tlie wild cattle of Chatclhcranlt
Park, Lanarkshire, or Chilliugham Park, Lime-
hall, Clieshire, and other places, the de-
scendants, as Mr. Touatfc seems to infer, of
tliese white cattle of ancient race, so valued in
early times? or are they descendants of the
wild breed which, at an early period, tenanted
the great forests of our island ; and which, as
the forests became cleared, and the land culti-
vated, were gradually thinned, till, at length,
their remnant found, in the chase or park of
the nobleman, that safety which, as old deni-
zens of the soil, they might well claim ; and
but for which, the breed would long since have
been utterly extirpated ? Again, was the
wild breed which roamed the Caledonian forest,
and the gveat forest north of London, so late
as the latter part of the twelfth century, and
mentioned by Pitzstephen, identical with the
white Cambrian breed ? These arc questions
more easily abked than solved. One thing is
certain — the wild cattle of Chillingham will
breed with the domestic race ; but the progeny
has never been preserved, the calves having
been always killed at an early age, from a
pardonable desire to keep this ancient race iu
all its purity. We firmly believe, however,
that the cross breed would be as fertile as any
of our domestic varieties.

The author of the article "Bos," in the BrUish
CyclopceJia, is of opinion that the white cattle
in question are domesticated oxen which have
run wild ; and, moreover, that they are not
descended from an aboriginal stock, but that
the race was originally imported by the eccle-
siastics from Italy, where herds of wild cattle,

much res(>mbling them, still exist. In Ihip, aa
in all other theories, autheiiticated facts, as our
basis, are wanting. Tho Chillingham wild
cattle are invariably of a creamy-whito colour,
with a black muzzle; tho whole of the in.sido
of tho ears, and the tip externally, are red ;
the horns aro white, with black tips; very Hue,
and bent upwards. Some of tho bulla havo
a thin upright mane, an inch and a-half, or
two inches long. Tho weight of tho oxl-u h
from thirty-five to forty-fivo stone the four
quarters (fourteen pounds to the stone) ; that
of the cows, from twenty-five to thirty- five
stone. Tho beef is finely marbled, and of
excellent llavour. These cattle are fleet and
active. " At the first appearance of any per-
son they set off at full gallop ; and, at the
distance of about two hundred yards, make a
wheel round, and come boldly up again, tossing
their heads in a menacing manner ; on a sud-
den they make a full stop, at the distance of
forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the
object of their surprise ; but, upon the least
motion being made, they all again turn round
and fly off with equal speed, but not to the
same distance, forming a shorter circle ; and,
again returning with a bolder and more threat-
ening aspect than before, they approach much
nearer — probably within thirty yards — when
they again make another stand, and then fly
off. This they do several times, shortening
their distance, and advancing nearer and nearer,
till they come within such a short distance,
that most people think it proper to leave
them, not choosing to provoke them furllier."
The females hide their calves for a week or
ten days, after birth, in some sequestered situa-
tion, and visit them two or three times a day.
If any person approach the calves, they crouch
close, like a hare iu form, and endeavour to
hide themselves; but, when roused, exhibit
great fury, pawing, bellowing, and butting at
the intruder. The females arc resolute in the
defence of their young, and attack persons
discovered near their lair with impetuous
ferocity. I^ormerly the bunting of these ani-
mals was conducted with great parade, many
scores assembling on horseback, and hundreds
on foot, to witness tho sport ; but, from the
number of accidents that happened, and,
perhaps, from the disturbance created among
the game, this practice has been long discon-

g;37

ENGLISH CATTLE.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VAEIETIES. [leicestee beeed.

tinued. The keeper now uses a rifle, and
steals upon the animal selected, until withia
range, and drops it at a single shot.

ENGLISH DOMESTIC CATTLE.
{Bos Taurus). To describe the form, con-
tour, and colour of the domestic ox is super-
fluous ; and it is generally known that, within
the precincts of our fertile island, aflbrding
unequalled pasturage, the animal has ramified
into many breeds, which it has been the care
of the farmer to improve and modify to his
own advantage. Excepting in a i'ew districts,
the ox is not employed in our country as a
beast of draught, or for the labour of the
plough, as it was, in ancient times, on the con-
tinent, and still is in many countries. On the
contrary, it is for its flesh on the one hand,
and for the milk of the cow on the other,
that this animal is so valuable. Indeed, every-
where the true importance of the ox is in
itself, and not its labour; though, in many
parts of the world, it is used both as a beast
of burden and draught. Eestricting our pre-
sent observations to British cattle, we may
observe, that there are two parties immediately,
and, we may say, professionally, interested in
the culture of cattle— the grazier and the dairy
farmer; and both require difi'erent, and, to a
certain degree, incompatible excellences. "With
the grazier, roundness of form, a moderate
smallness of bone, depth of chest, and an
aptitude to acquire external fat upon a small
consumption of food, are among the points of
excellence aimed at and expected. On the
contrary, the supply of a large quantity of rich
milk, is the desideratum of the dairy farmer;
and it very seldom happens that the qualities
prized by the one party, are combined with those
required by the other. Both, therefore, attend
io their exclusive interests, agreeing only in
the care bestowed upon the animal subservient
to their respective purposes. To note every
variety, and enter into minutiae — the part
rather of the farmer than the naturalist — is far
from being our object; a sketch, however,
of some of the principal breeds will not be
uninteresting, and must necessarily find a con-
siderable space in a work of this kind.

OLD BREEDS.
Among the older breeds was a long-horned
638

race, now greatly modified, of which Lan-
cashire and the "West Eiding of Yorkshire
might be considered as the central district;
whence it extended — not to the exclusion of
other races — through the midland counties,
and even into Ireland. This breed was termed
the Craven, from a district of that name in
Yorkshire, bordering upon Lancashire, where
it is said to have originally appeared. It wag
large, coarse-boned, and apt to be long in the
body, which, besides, was destitute of round-
ness. The milk, if not abundant in quantity,
was extremely rich, and suited the purpose of
the dairy farmer. The horns were of enormous
length ; sometimes they projected horizontally
on each side of the head ; generally, however,
they swept downwards, with an inward flexure,
often reaching below the level of the muzzle,
or even meeting before it, so as to interfere
with the facility of grazing. Indeed, the points
often press against the sides of the muzzle,
rendering it necessary to shorten tliem. In
the beginning of the eighteenth century, various
agriculturists commenced a series of attempts
towards the improvement of this old breed,
which resulted in the establishment of the
Dishley, or new Leicester long-horn. To the
grazier the improvem.ent was most immediately
beneficial, but the dairyman preferred the old
stock. In process of time, however, the new
breed extended, improving the cattle of the
middle and northern counties, and especially
of Ireland. In its turn, however, this breed
has almost everywhere yielded to a middle or
short-horned race ; and even in Leicestershire,
the stronghold of the Dishley breed, few are
now to be seen. In Cheshire also — which, till
recently, retained a long-horned breed, derived
chiefly from the old Lancashire and new
Dishley stocks — the Durham or short. horned
race has made decided inroads, but with doubt-
ful advantage as respects the quality of the
cheese for which that county is celebrated.

THE LEICESTERSHIRE BREED.
The old long-horned breed of this county
was endeavoured to be improved by Mr. Bake-
well, who here prosecuted his experin^ents ;
and, although he was successful in removing
the coarseness which characterised these ani-
mals, and increased their fattening capabilities,
he failed in either improving or establishing

KKUKV UUKEU.]

CATTLE, AND THE Hi VA K I I'/ri i:s. [doubet diikrd.

their dairy qualities. The breed, therefore,
upon which ho extM-clHod his tiileiit, in held in
little estimation by those whoso object id to
obtiiin large quantities of milk, and who prefer
the bigger and coarser animals, the milk-pro-
duce of which is both large and good, leaving
the others as best adapted for the purposes of
the grazier, in Leicestershire, cheese is the
grand object of the dairyman. Consequently,
abundant milk-yielding cows are the most
prolitablo for him ; and some of these will give
about 400 pouuds of cheese, and as many
gallons of milk in the year, after allowing the
seven weeks, during which the cow is supposed
to be dry. In some of the districtsof this county,
cows are kept for six, seven, or even eight
years, if they continue to produce largely.
Cheese being the grand stoclv-in-trado of the
Leicestershire farmer, it is much more profitable
to him to maintain a plentifully-producing cow,
than to get a few poimds, more or less, by her
when she is disposed of. The grass of Leices-
tershire being extremely rich, the farmer, on a
large scale, is enabled to fatten his cattle when
be pleases, and to sell such as he might dispose
of for the dairy. As old cows, therefore, are
not expected to be very good grazers, be does
Eot look for wonders from them ; and, should
be succeed in putting a moderate degree of fat
upon their bones, be is contented with a lower
price per stone for their beef than would be
takeu for better animals. The cows will only
make what is called cow-beef — suitable only
for the coarse palates of a ship's crew, or for
"provisioning the navy."

THE KERRY BREED.

This is a hardy breed, and celebrated in
Ireland as the cottier's dairy cow. Her cha-
racters are — fine head and legs, flat shoulders,
breast and quarters, small tail, and skinny
udder. She is a famous milker, and has a
timid, gentle look, indicative of great patience,
which is further shown by the meekness of her
deportment. Like the poorer classes of the
countrymen to whom she belongs, she is ex-
tremely hardy, and will live where other kinds
of cattle would starve. Her yield of milk is not
only abundant, but rich, and it is produced from
the hardest and coarsest sorts of cattle- food.
On account of the excellent quality of both her
milk and butter, she is an invaluable possession.

THE ciii:siiiRi: uueed.

This breed is becoming rapidly extinct. The
old breed of Cherthire was a long-horned
variety ; but the dairy system, introduced into
tiio vicinity of largo towns by the growth of
their populations, has brought the short-horn
cow of Yorkshire into competition with uJbae
native breeds. The qiiantily, rather than tho
quality, of tho milk tliey jjroduee, has been with
them the great object of consideration ; conse-
quently, tho character of tho Cheshire cheese
has been deteriorated in the markets. Another
reason why the short- horned cattle have risen
higher in estimation in this county tlian in
others, is the care which is taken to prevent
their exposure to atmospheric changes, and also
to the enriching of exhausted grass-lands by
manuring them with bone-dust. This sort of
manure so improves these lands as to give
great advantage to an animal requiring a good
quality, as well as a fair quantity, of provender,
both of which are requisite for the short-horns.
Mr. Palin, in his Prize Essay on tJic Farming
of Chesliire, observes — "Doubts, I believe,
exist in the minds of some intelligent farmers,
whether any improvement has been efiecfced in
the milking properties of dairy cows, as regards
quality, by the introduction of tho improved
short-borns amongst them. That the latter
breed is much disposed to fatten, is admitted;
but this class of cattle docs not stand very high
in public estimation as milkers. It may, there-
fore, be reasonably supposed that there are
good grounds for thinking that it is very pos-
sible to introduce too much of the improved
short-horn blood into the dairy stocks, and
that great caution should be taken in crossing.
However this may be, I am of opinion that an
improvement may be effected by the introduc-
tion of the blood to a certain extent; care
being always taken to select male animals
intended to be reared from the best milkers."

THE DORSETSHIRE BREED.
It is to be expected that, in most dairy dis-
tricts, a large milk-producing animal will take
precedence of one which may have a more
beautiful form, or be a better taker-on of fat.
This is the case in Dorsetshire ; and hence, an
ill-formed, and somewhat coarse breed of cattle
prevails throughout the county. They belong

G3'J

DEVON BUEED.]

CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES.

[deyott breed.

to the long-horned breed ; are chiefly of a rufous
colour; large size, with flat cliests and buttocks.
Crosses with the Hereford, Devon, and Ayr-
shire breeds, have been endeavoured to be
obtained from them, but without success. One
Alderney, however, has been introduced to a
dairy, for every ten or twelve of the native
breed ; and this has been found greatly to
increase the quantity of cream, as well as to
improve the quality of the butter.

Crosses, or breeds more or less distinct,
prevail in every dairy district of this county ;
but it is unnecessary to specify them here, as
it would only be merely a repetition of the same
tiling over and over again. There are other
breeds, however, of a more specific character
which merit our attention.

THE SHROPSHIRE BREED.

Among the long-horned race must be
reckoned the old Shropshire breed — a large-
boned and hardy race, well fitted to serve the
dairy. Ifc would appear that this breed is
seldom to be seen pure, having been crossed
with advantage by the short-horned Holder-
ness. In Staffordshire, the old long-horned
breed has been, in most parts, superseded by
short-horned cattle. It still, however, main-
tains its ground in the north of that county,
more particularly along the banks of the Trent
and the Dove, close to the borders of Derby-
shire. Between the long-horned and the
short-horned races of our cattle, intervenes a
race termed " middle-horns," represented by
the North Devonshire, Somersetshire, Here-
fordshire, Gloucestershire; and Sussex cattle.

THE DEVONSHIRE BREED.
This breed is of great antiquity, and has
been long celebrated for beauty. Like most
of our other breeds, it has become improved
during the last fifty or sixty years, and has,
perhaps, now attained to its perfection. The
head of the Devon ox is small, but broad across
the forehead, and narrow at the muzzle; the
horns curve gracefully upwards; the chest is
deep, and the back straight. The cow is small,
compared with tho bull. Thus, then, physio-
logically speaking, the breed is well formed,
and it is of very long standing. In disposition
the whole race is docile and tractable, gentle
and patient ; whUst they are very hardy, con-
640

sidering the mild and humid nature of tlie
climate in which they subsist. They are not,
however, very famous for their milk-producing
qualities ; nor, if early fat is the grazier's object,
are they very extraordinary feeders. Still
they will feed, and attain to a considerable
size. At some periods of their growth they
produce a class of beef of ftiir quality. Eed,
and nothing but red, is a sine qua non in a
Devonshire ox. He has a moderately straight
top, and a somewhat thin skin, covered with
curly hair. The rump is narrower than that
of the short-horns, and the crop lighter and
flatter; but the brisket is large and full, the
legs fine, the shoulder slanting, and the neck
long and thin. He is what would be denomi-
nated, in the short-horn districts, a " shelly"
animal, and cannot be pronounced a good
grazer. As a draught animal, however, he
stands very high. The cow is not a good
milker. A short-horn breeder speaks veiy
prejudicially of this breed. He thus describes
the cattle at a fair in Devonshire : — " "With the
exception of one animal, I did not see a level
carcass ; but a want of beef in the roasting
parts ; low and poor loins, coa.'se shoulders,
bad twist (thighs), and a general want of indi-
cations of inside proof." Of the beef, when
killed, he says — "The meatwas actuallyrunning
about the stall, being nothing more than a
mixture of flabby masses, deficient of fineness
of texture and quality." Mr. Parkinson, in
his invaluable and practical Treatise on Live
Stock, mentions that a thin hide in the Devous
is not quite a recommendation. He gives the
weight of some specimens of six-year-old
cattle, which weighed some fifty-seven stone,
two pounds ; but the cows much less. He
says of them — " On the whole, they must be
allowed to be good cattle for their soils, and
particularly where oxen are worked at the
plough. When slaughtered, they are a sort
of beef that suits the consumption of many
customers." Some have supposed that the
Devonshire was the original breed of this island
— a supposition which others have pronounced
simply absurd.

The system of ploughing with oxen is ver}
generally practised in Devonshire ; and, where
the land is not too heav}--, no teams of oxen
are superior, if equal, to them in this kind of
work. It is, however, to the grazier, that

UEHEFOuo BRF.F.D.] CATTLE, AND TIlEIll VAUIETIES. [qloucesteii ukeed.

this breed is more otipeoially valimble, for they
will fatten, as wo havo said, and supply an
excellent quality of flesh. Some fanners havo
found the North Devons to yield even a lar^o
produce of inillc, so that, in this particular,
much may depend on choice of pastura>^e.
In Somcrsetshiro the Devon breed prevails;
or at least the original breed has been greatly
crossed by the Devon, of which it presents
most of the excellences. The Somersetshire
cattle are alike valuable for "the pail, the
plough, and grazing." The tract of country
between Bridgewater and Cross, produces
cheese of well-known excellence ; the best
Cheddar cheese is made either in that tract
or the marshes round Glastonbury.

THE HEREFORD BREED.

Tlie Hereford improved breed, with white
faces, is valuable as fattening rapidly, and that
on ini'erior food. The flesh is fine-grained,
and highly prized iu the market; but the
cows yield a very scanty portion of milk. In
Gloucestershire the Herefords are preferred
for the teams, and by graziers for fattening ;
but the old Gloucester breed for milk. This
old breed is of mixed origin, consisting of a
race of Welsh descent, supposed to have been
crossed by various other breeds ; and among
them the Alderney. The rich Vale of Berkeley
produces the finest Gloucester cheese. The
present breed is a middle-horned race, to the
improvement of which much attention has
been devoted. The success of short-horned
breeders bas caused a healthy emulation; and
the difterence between the Hereford cattle
now exhibited, and those shown several years
back, not only indicates judgment and skill in
the breeds, but leads to the conclusion that
the breed, in itself, has considerable fattening
capabilities. The old Hereford was a deep-
brown animal, sometimes with a yellow cast,
free from white. An improved breed, how-
ever, now occupies the county, iu which the
prevailing colour is a dark red, with a white
face, white belly, and not unfrequently a white
back. The skin is less mellow and thicker
than that of the short-horn ; whilst the hair
has neither the mossy softness, nor the grace-
ful curl of the latter. The eye is full and
lively ; the chest deep and broad ; the loins
also broad ; and the hips well expanded ; a

4 2f

level, broad rump, a round barrel, and full
crop; full and deep flank, well ribbed home;
small bones, with clean and perpendicular
thighs. Tho belly is almont parallel with tao
back, and tho head is small. Colour and
symmetry are perhaps the predominant qualui-
catior.s which secure tho high favour of tho
breeder of this race.

Whilst possessing all these excellences, how-
ever, tho Hereford breed is destitute of thoso
qualities which tend to produce early maturity
and speedy fattening. It takes on flesh of a
soft and mottled description on the best parts;
gets full in tho sirloin, rump, and crop; but
it shows its beef all outside; and requires
much more time to develop its proportions thr.u
the short-horned race. In milking qualities
the cow is even behind the short-horn ; and
she must, in general, be threc-and-a-hulf to
four years old before she can be fattened wiili
anything like decided success. Tho breed re-
quires a rich pastui'e ; and its average weight,
when fiit, does not exceed fifty-five to sixty-
five stones. Herefordshire being more abroed-
ing than a feeding county, the cattle are reared
there, and sold off at three years old, and
transported to the fatter lauds of Leicoster-
shire for the purpose of being grazed. I\Iany
of them are also sent into xsorthamptonshire,
and other rich grass districts. But, with all
their good qualities, it must be admitted that
they require from ten to twelve months more
to feed than the more favoured short-horn.

Much controversy has been carried on as xo
the merits of tlie two breeds — the short-horu
and the Hereford. It must be admitted, how-
ever, that, while the short-horn has penetrated
into the heart of Scotland and the south of
England, and into the counties of Gloucester
and Norfolk, the Hereford keeps its ground.
A valuable breed of middle-horned cattle ex-
tends through South Wales ; and of this the
Glamorganshire variety is highly celebrated.
The oxen are readily fattened, and the cows
yield a fair quantity of milk.

THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE BREED.
This is more a mixture of the long-horn and
middle-horn than any distinctive race — the old
Gloucester cow being nearly extinct. The
various crosses to which dairy cattle have been
subjected, have obliterated all traces of the

Gil

DURHAM BREED.] CATTLE, AXD THEIE VAEIETIES. [DriinA:,r brekb.

original race ; but early crosses with the long-
horned breed have, to a considerable extent,
prevailed. The Devons have also been used as
a cross to render them more easy to fatten ; and
the Durham short-horns have also occasionally
been tried ; but the poverty of keep, allowed by
the Gloucestershire dairymen to their cattle,
has greatly tended to deteriorate the breed.
The same fate has, in general, attended at-
tempts to cross vfith the Herefords. Of the
successful crosses adopted in this country, there
'.\ras one made with an ordinary Gloucester
bull and an Alderney cow. This obtained
richneas in the milk ; when a Durham bull was
selectei to increase the tendency to flesh and
;to size, and to improve the form generally.
This gives a stock one-half Durham, while the
other half is constituted of one part Gloucester
and one-half Alderney. The average yield of
an ordinary Gloucester cow may be reckoned
at five hundred gallons of milk, yielding about
twenty-four stones of single Gloucester cheese ;
the remainder of the milk being used in the
family, and for fattening calves, or pig-feeding,
vyhicli ia largely practised in all dairy districts.

THE SUSSEX BREED.

The breed of cattle in Sussex closely resem-
bles that of Devonshire. According to judges,
it is intermediate between the Devon and
Hereford ; " having the activity of the first, the
strength of the second, and the propensity to
fatten, a}id the beautiful fine-grained flesh of
both." Its colour is deep chestnut-red, or
blood-bay ; and a deviation from these colours
indicates a cross. In the "Weald of Sussex,
oxen of this valuable stock are generally used
for team-work; and so great is their strength
and quickness, that many teams have been
known to travel, with heavy loads, fifteen miles
a day, for several successive weeks, without
distress. The Sussex cow, like the Devon and
the Hereford, is very inferior in size to the
bull ; and though the milk yielded is good, it
is of indifierent quantity.

THE DURHAM, OR SHORT-HORN BREED.
The most extensively diffused breed of cattle
in our island, and by far the most valuable, is
that termed, by way of distinction, the Short-
Lorned. Of this breed England may justly be
proud, as it unites, as far as possible, every
642

good quality. The form is admirable; iho
oxen fiitten quickly, and often attain to an
enormous weight, and the cows are excellent
as milkers. It would appear that Durham,
and some parts of Yorkshire, had long pos-
sessed a breed of short-horned cattle of large
size, and celebrated for the quantity of milk
yielded by the cows ; but this breed, not only
in figure, but in aptitude to fatten, and in the
quality of the flesh, required great improve-
ment— other races far excelling it in these
points, so important to the grazier This
stock still lingers, and is certainly valuable to
the dairy farmer, who might, however, substi-
tute the improved breed for it with advantage.
It is about ninety years since the improved
stock of this old, but really fine, breed began
to be established on the banks of the Tees,
owing to the judgment and care of the intelli-
gent breeders of that district. It difiers from
the old short-horns in possessing a well-de-
veloped figure, and a more than ordinary
aptitude to acquire fat. The first step of im-
provement, resulting from the practical know-
ledge of Mr. MlUbank, and other coadjutors,
opened the way for the successful exertions
of subsequent spirited breeders, who, by pur-
suing a judicious plan in crossing, have brought
the breed to the highest pitch of perfection.
Among these crosses, it is supposed that tlie
white wild breed has contributed a share ; aud
to this circumstance is attributed the preva-
lence of white as a characteristic of the stock.
In speaking of this breed, Mr. Milburn says,
that these animals are supposed by some to be
traced to Holderness ; and, according to others,
to have been imported from Holstein. From
continental Europe they certainly appear to
have sprung ; and, being successively improved
by a variety of breeders, they have ended in
that distinct race of animals, extraordinary,
beyond all others, for their astonishing pro-
pensities to feed. Others, again, refer their
origin to a native race of cattle called the
Teeswater, because they have, from time im-
memorial, inhabited the valley which the Tees
has formed by its washings-down of the moun-
tain limestone rocks in which it has its origin.
These, it is said, being crossed by the Holder-
ness importations, gradually became a now race.
The late Mr. Bates traces the short-horns to a
breed in the possession of the Aslabys, of

DiKiTAM BEEED.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [duhiiam bukeu.

fcJtudley ; and the Rov. H. Berry, to an improve-
lueni in the East RiJinjj; of Yorkshire, by the
iniportatiou of a breeil Iroiu llolhind by Sir
"W. St. Qaiiitiu, of Sciiinpstoii. Of these
orij^inula of the sliort-horns, liowevor, it is
hardly necessary to say more than this — that
a breed, from distant as^es, inliabiled the vaUey
of the Tees, wliich, trained and educated to
feed, for a vast succession of generations, on
its fertile deposits, acquired the habit of speedy
fat-fornuiig. In tliese valleys, where hay alone
will feed the largest ox, the production of fat
would be so I'ar au object, that breeders would
always seleei; the best and easiest feeding-
animals ; and thus the character of the district,
through a number of centuries, might easily
lay the groundwork of that improvement which
the JMillbanks, the Greys, the Booths, the
Coates, and, above all, the CoUings, effected.
The description of the qualities of the modern
short-horn is thus given by jMr. Dickson, an
established authority. After referring to the
general symmetry of the frame, and its delicate
colour, either deep-red, cream-coloured, white,
or delicate roan — the latter, by-the-by, the
jBOst fashionable, and, indeed, prevailing colour
— be speaks of it as possessing "the mellowest
touch, supported on small clean limbs, show-
ing, like those of the greyhound and the race-
horse, the union of strength with fineness,
and ornamented with a small, lengthy, tapering
head, neatly set on a broad, firm, deep neck ;
furnished with a small muzzle, wide nostrils,
prominent, mildly beaming eyes; thin, large,
veiny ears, set near the crown of the head,
and protected in front with semicircularly-bent,
white, or brownisii-coloured, short, smooth,
pointed horns. All these several parts combine
to form a symmetrical harmony, which has
never been surpassed, in beauty and sweetness,
by any other species of the domesticated ox."
Keeping in mind what has been stated to be
the perfection of a fat animal, the same autho-
rity, speaking of the short-horn, says — " We
have a straight level back from behind the
horns to the top of the tail, full buttocks, and
a projecting brisket; we have, in short, the
rectangular form : we have also tiie level line
across the hook-bones (hip), and the level top
ot t!ie shoulder across the ox, and perpendicular
lines down the hind and fore leirs on both sides;
■^hese constituting the square form when the ox

ia viewed before and behind ; and we have
straight parallel lines from tlio sides of the
aluiulders, along the outmost parts of the ribs,
and the sides of the hind quarters; and we
have also these lines, connected at their ends bv
others of shorter and equal length, across tli<!
end of the rump and the top of the shoulder;
thus constituting the rectangular form of the
ox when viewed from above down the back."
The weight which many of these animals attain
is surprising; whilst the prices which some of
them have fetched, and still fetch, is equallv
astonishiug. The Durham ox, a son of Charles
Ceiling's Eavourite, weighed 187 stones 21bs.
The Yorkshire ox, bred by Mr, Dunhill, of
Newton, near Doucaster, weighed, when killed,
261- stones ISlbs. These are weights of 14.1bs.
to the stone, and include the wonderful capa-
bilities to make iiit and flesh possessed by this
extraordinary race of animals. Though there
is not, perhaps, another instance on record of
any bull selling for so much money as Charles
Ceiling's Comet, which sold for 1,000 guineas
(which must be acknowledged to bo a great
price), yet £500, £G00, and as much as
£S0O, are still given for a first-rate short-horn
bull. It is not, hov.ever, in rapid fattening-
qualities alone that this species excels; for it
is unquosiiouably the most remarkable fo:-
attaining to an early maturity. The short-
horns begin to develop their fat-forming power3
even when calves. These powers seem to grov7
with their growth; and when only a 3-ear old,
they have all the appearance of full-grown cows.
This makes them early ready for the market ;
consequently their feeders, instead of keeping
them to three, four, or five years of age, fatten
and sell them off at from two to two-and-a-half
years. They can thus turn off one-half more,
at least, of beef from their farms or their stalls
than could possibly be produced with any other
breed. Thus they have quick returns, and large
amounts of beef for the food-consumer. To
accomplish this, however, care and good shelter
are requisite. Tiie cow needs nursing, and
nourishing diet when young: but she repays
all ; for she is a cow when another is a calf.
The ox is fat when the other is growing. She
will purchase a horse before a Devon will buy
a saddle. Hence, the short-horn stands the
very first on the list of fat-producing breeds.
Among the most successful of improvers of

013

DUEHAvJ BEEED.I CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [TOBKsniEE cow.

this breed was Mr. C. CoUiug, just spoken of;
who bred the celebrated Durham ox, the pro-
duce of one of the ordinary short-horned cows,
and a bull termed Eavourite, of noble figure.
At five years old, says the excellent author of
the work on cattle, " the Durham ox was sold
to Mr. Eulmer, of Harmley, near Bedale, for
public exhibition, at the price of £140, He
was at that time computed to weigh 168 stones
of l-ilbs. ; his live weight being 216 stones :
this extraordinary weight did not arise from
bis superior size, but from the excessive ripe-
ness of all his points." The Durham ox, in a
short time, passed into the possession of Mi'.
J, Day, who travelled with him through the
principal parts of England and Scotland, till at
Oxford he discolated bis hip-bone, when he
was obliged to be slaughtered ; and, notwith-
standing he must have lost considerably during
eight weeks of illness, bis carcass weighed — the
four quarters, 165 stones 12lbd. ; tallow, 11
stones 2lbs. ; and hide, 10 stones 21bs. Among
the most remarkable of Mr. Colliug's experi-
ments in breeding, was that of a cross between
the improved short-horns and a polled Galloway
cow, which, being interbred with tbe pure
short-horned stock, gave origin to a breed
called the Alloy— o. term, at first, given by way
of disparagement, but continued afterwards
when the excellences of tbe breed were acknow-
ledged. Some idea of its value may be formed
from the fact, that at a sale of Mr. Coliing's
cattle, forty-eight animals (cows, bulls, year-
old bull-calves, and heifer-calves) realised
£7,115 175. Of tlie Alloy breed, was the stock,
or part of the stock, of the late Eev. H. Berry.
The figure of the cows was excellent in every
respect, and their milking quality is stated to
have been by no meaus of inferior degree.

AmoDgr the most celebrated of the short-
horned stocks of the present day, that in the
possession of the late Lord Althorp, was one
of the most distinguished. It was originally
derived from the stock of Mr. Iv. Colling, and
no pains were spared in bringing it to the
highest excellence. X. celebrated bull, be-
longing to this nobleman, and which is known
under the cognomen of Eirby, was regarded as
a model of the breed. Ic is a peculiarity in
this short-horned race, that the cows are ex-
cellent as milkers ; and, moreover, that when
dried, they fatten rapidly. The oxen, as it is
644

acknowledged, are fit for the butcher at the
age of two years ; but this tendency to acquire
fat renders them indolent workers, and more
unfitted for the team than other breeds — a
circumstance of little consequence, as cattle
which are profitable to the breeder at two
years old, and are as ready for the butcher at
this age as those of any other breed at three,
or even four, ought never to be submitted to
the yoke. The bulls, indeed, being extremely
docile, may be employed with advantage in
many operations going on in every farm — a
plan the more advisable as they are apt to
acquire too much fat, which moderate labour
would tend to diminish.

It must not be supposed that every breed
of short-horned cattle is endowed with the
qualities characteristic of the improved stock,
which render it so valuable. There is, for
example, a breed of short-horned cattle in
Lincolnshire, with which the Smithfield market
was wont to be abundantly supplied ; but the
cattle of this stock are by no means first-rate
animals. The head is not finely modelled ;
the bone is comparatively large; the limbs
high, and the hips wide. In many instances,
the stock has been improved by admixture
with more highly bred animals, and rendered
valuable ; but the flesh is not fine-grained. On
tlie whole, these cattle are better adapted for
the dairy farmer than the grazier, as the cows
yield a fair quantity of milk.

THE YORKSHIRE CO^Y.

This is a short-horned milk-producing breed,
of great size, yielding milk in large quantities,
and having a considerable aptitude to fatten.
On this account it is cbosen by the dairymen
of populous towns and cities, especially those
of Loudon, for the supply of milk for a given
period. Eattened on the refuse of the distillers,
and such waste materials as large towns usually
furnish, it doubly remunerates whatever care
and attention the dairyman may bestow upon
it. When fiit, the Yorkshire cow will weigh
from sixty to eighty stones. Her characters
are thus given by Mr. Milburn :— " Her head
is fine, and somewhat small ; there is a serene
placidity of eye, which shows a mild and gentle
disposition, tending alike to produce fat and
milk. The horns are small and white ; the
muzzle without black spots ; the breast deep

TORKsiuuE cow.] CATTLE, AND TIIEIK VAlilETIES. [alukunev diiked.

and prominent, but that and the shoulders thin ;
the neck somewhat narrow, but full below the
shoulders, and without any loose skin; the
barrel soniewliat round; the belly capacious ;
milk-vein larj^e ; back perfectly straight ; rump
wide, and llat as a table ; tail small, and m'^
on so that there is almost a straight lino from
the tail to the head. The prevallinrj colour is
roan, or red and white; and sometimes white,
with the tips of the ears red. The thighs are
thin; but the legs are straight and rather
short. The udder is very large and muscular,
projecting forwards, well fdlcd-up behind, and
so broad as to give the cow the appearance of
a waddle in her walking." Indeed, her qualities
are not inappropriately described in some
doggerel lines often quoted ; and two of the
verses we shall venture to give, as most aptly
descriptive of the Yorkshire cow : —

" She's broad in her ribs, and long in her rump,
A straight and flat back without ever a hump
She's wide in her hips, and calm in her eyes ;
She's fine in her shoulders, and thin in her thighs.

" She's light in her neck, and small in her tail;
She's wide in her breast, and good at the pail ;
She's fine in her bone, and silky of skin ;
She's a grazier's without, and a b\itcher's within."

Tiie quantity of milk given by these cows by
far exceeds that of any others, though less,
perhaps, than that of some others i?i j^i'oportion
to size. Mr. Milburn says that he has had
instances where as much as thirty quarts per
day, in summer, have been given. The dis-
tended udder has so swollen before calving —
"wedged" is the local and technical term —
that one was obliged to be milked several days
before she calved; and, after calving, had to be
milked three times a day, for fear of the conse-
quences of an over-distended udder. Moreover,
she gave a large quantity of butter as well as
milk ; and soon after calving she has given
fifteen pounds per week. When the Yorkshire
cow is purchased for the London dairies, it is
generally after she has had her third calf, wlien
the milk changes its character, and becomes
less infused with butyraceous qualities. This
arises from her no longer having tlie run of her
rich native pastures to graze upon. The object
of the London dairyman, and those of other
large towns, is not to improve the quality, but
to increase the quantity, of the milk ; and
hence the animals are fed with brewers' grains,

boiled linseed, &c., &c. ; and the out-door exer-
cise is restricted, so that their powers of secre*
tion all converge to the production of milk
alone. Considering all these thin;:;w, and taking
into account the carcass value? of tlie cow after
slie has yielded her copious supplies of milk, it
is not too much to aOlrm that there is no breed
of the vaccine race so nrofitable as the York-
shire cow.

THE ALDERNEY BREED.

Among the short-horned race must be enu-
merated that singular breed of catllo called
Alderneys, which has gained, and deserves, a
degree of celebrity from the peculiar richness
of the milk afforded by the cows. These cattle
were originally from Normandy and the islands
on the French coast, from one of which
(Alderney) they take their name. They are
small in size, awkwardly shaped, with a peculiar
bend in the back, and, in every point, more or
less defective. The milk yielded is not great
in quantity, but abounds with butter ; and it is
from its richness that these animals are fa-
vourites. Improbable as it might seem, from
the appearance of the Alderney, its aptitude to
fatten is remarkable. Even the cows, when
dried, soon gain flesh, and will attain to con-
siderable weight. It is chiefly in pleasure-
grounds, and the paddocks attached to the
houses of persons not engaged in forming for
profit, that cows of this breed are to be scqu.
In Hampshire alone the Alderney breed is
general, constituting the stock of the farmer.
It would appear that it is more suited to tho
pasturage of that county than other vaccina
animals which require richer grazing grounds,
consume a large quantity of food, and return a
disproportionate supply of milk.

The qualities of the Alderney breed being
exclusively milk-producing, it cannot be ex-
pected that they will be remarkable for any
great beauty of form. Indeed, until within
the last thirty years, a more ill-formed animal
could hardly bo conceived. Its characters
were large cheeks, thin, hollow neck, flat sides,
hollow back, thin hams, long between hip and
ribs, drooping rump, high shoulders, crooked
legs, and tapering chest. Such were its
characters ; but, as amongst mankind, there is
many a good head under an old hat, and many
a white skin under a poor garb ; so in the

G45

ALDERNET BREED.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES.

[ktloe breed.

ungainly form of the Alderney, there lurked
qualities of excellence of the highest degree.

" The produce of these small animals, botli
in milk and butter," says Mr. Milburn, "is
very great, and may be taken, in fair speci-
mens, at twenty quarts of milk daily, and ten
pounds of butter in the week, during the
months of April, Maj^, June, July, and Au-
gust. Instances are recorded of cows giving
twenty-six quarts of milk in the twenty-four
hours, and yielding as much as fourteen pounds
of butter per week ! Erom this it is clear
that the cream is of a very rich quality ; the
milk itself being superior to much of the
town-made cream, and the cream almost re-
sembling cream-cheese. It is considered too
rich by many persons for making cheese; but
instances are recorded of successful cheese-
making from this milk. M. Le Eeuvre, of La
Hogue, succeeded in making cheese of a very
superior quality from this fine milk; equal,
indeed, to double Gloucester. Fourteen quarts
of milk being capable of producing a pound of
butter, the same quantity would give a pound
and a-half of cheese ; and the whey, or drain-
ings, of twenty pounds of this cheese, would
produce four pounds of butter, somewhat in-
ferior for toast, but quite adequate for the
making of pastry. Compared with the milk
of any other cows celebrated for dairy pur-
poses, that of the Alderney is very superior.
An experiment was made, iu the months of
May, June, July, and August, between eight
Alderney and eight Kerry cows. In the first
month, the Alderneys gave 25 per cent, of
cream, against 10 per cent, of Kerrys; in
June, 20 per cent, against 10 ; in July, 23 per
cent, against 10 ; and in August, 16 per cent,
against 13 ; giving an average of about 100
per cent, more cream than the Kerrys — a race
of cows rather celebrated for dairy qualities.
But this was not all. Three pints of cream
from the Alderneys produced lib. 8|oz. of
butter; from the Kerrys, lib. 4|-oz. This,
too, was taken in the month of August, when
it will be seen the milk of tlie Alderneys was
falling oft'. The experiment was made by Mr.
'White, on the farm of the Hon. K. Clive,
of Oakley Park, and deserves every credit, as
it seems to have been carefully made." These
facts sufficiently establish the great value of
fcho Alderneys.
61.G

SCOTTISH KYLOE BREED.

With respect to other breeds of wliich we
have as yet said nothing, we may observe, that
in the Highlands of Scotland, a race of small
black cattle prevails, of which large herds are
driven southwards, and depastured iu the
grazing-lands of England. Of these, numbers
are brought to the London market. Many
varieties of the race exist. Among them we
may particularise the Kyloes of the Western
Islands and the Hebrides — -small, but hardy
and well-formed cattle, thriving on coarse fare,
and producing fine-grained and high-flavoured
meat. The different islands of the Hebrides
contain, says Mr. Touatt, "about one hundred
and fifty thousand of these cattle, of which it
is calculated that one-fifth are annually sent
to the mainland, principally through Jura, or
across the ferry of the Isle of Skye. If these
average about £5 per head, the amount will
be £150,000, or more than the rental of the
whole island, which Mr. Macdonald calculated
at £106,720, but which now produces a greater
sum. Cattle, therefore, constitute the staple
commodity of the Hebrides. Some thousands
are annually exported from the island of Islay
alone."

The cattle of this breed are so called from
the f\ict of their having crossed the Kyles, or
ferries, with which the Highlands of Scotland
abound. They formed the models which Bake-
well had in view when endeavouring to im-
prove the Leicestershire breed; and had he
been better acquainted with them in the early
stages, they might have taken their part in
the crossings which were made with the view
of improving the Dishley herd. They may be
esteemed the finest breed of the largest middle-
horned race, being possessed of long rumps,
loins, and crops, with but a moderate amount
of offal. As length in these parts is generally
connected or associated with thinness of chest,
buttocks, and neck, it is not unlikely that
improvements in this direction would enable
the dairyman to obtain a rich milk-secreting
animal, with considerable aptitude to fatten
and form flesh on the most valuable parts,
when she passed from his hands into those of
the grazier.

The Kyloe cow is of a wild disposition,
which is, in a great degree, counterbalanced bj

nioTTLAXD SCOT.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [iiuini-AND bcot.

her hardihood, as sho can resist an atmosphere
beneath tlio storms of which a delicate low-
hiiul animal would siioi'uinb. Her liviiicf, too,
is extremely hard. It consists of the patches
of short grass which she gathers amoii'j; the
heath, moss, and even sometimes sea-weed. In
winter, when even this sort of provender is
scarce, Kyloes are sometimes assisted with a
few oatmeal balls, which, if they have any reflec-
tive instincts, they must consider as a sort of
providential dispensation. From such kind of
feeding much produce is not to be expected;
consequently, the supplies of both butter and
cheese are miserably small — thirty-two pounds
of the former, per annum, is tho produce of
one llebridean cow. Of the latter, from
ninety to one hundred pounds is the average
yield, and this is finely flavoured with aromatic
herbs, peculiarly agreeable to the palates of
many individuals.

ARGYLESIIIRE CATTLE.

In the north of Argyleshire, tho cattle are
larger than those of the Hebrides, and are
bred to the full size which tho pasturage will
admit, and the good qualities of the animal
bear, without deterioration. It is in this dis-
trict that the most perfect Highland cattle
are to be frequently seen. The animals are
compactly built, short, and rather strong in
the shank ; straight in the back ; with a fine
muzzle ; and small sharp horns. As they
wander over a wild country, they are them-
selves wild, and often fierce, and their eye
expresses energy and spirit. It is solely for
their flesh that herds of them are reared.
"Every effort," says Mr. Touatt, "to qualify
them for the dairy, will not only lessen their
hardiness of constitution and propensity to
fatten, but will fail in rendering them valuable
for the purpose at which the farmer foolishlv
aims."

THE HIGHLAND SCOT.

'Ihe Highland Scot belongs to a long-horned
breed, and stands next to the Hereford as a
fattening animal ; and where both the Hereford
and the short-horned races would die from
absolute starvation, it will clothe its loins with
flesh, and look as comfortable as if it were the
finest-fed quadruped in the land. Like all
mountain races, the Highland Scot delights in
Ircedom. To browse on tho side or the summit

of tho hill is, to him, like "a joy for ever;"
whilst his eminently -gregarious hnhits force him
into tho bovine sociuty of his neighbourj ; so
that, if ho has any cares, he lightens their
weight by tho pleasuresof association. Although
ho is extremely hardy, his size is rather small
than largo; and his usual colour is a light dun
or a jet-black, rarely with white on any part of
the body. His horns aro long, and have aa
upward and outward turn. Ilis skin is covered
with a sort of fleece rather than hair, being
long and soft, with a strong inclination to curl.
lie takes on his beef principally on the back,
which is therefore straight, while his body has
a considerable degree of rotundity. It is not
the least of his peculiarities that ho obtains,
from tho surface of tho sterile mountain, as
much grass as ho can fatten upon; or, at all
events, preserves himself in good living con-
dition. If he is indulged and tended with some
little care, he increases in fat very rapidly, and
repays his breeder by the excellence of his beef.
Under such circumstances, the Highland Scot
will weigh from forty-eight to fifty stones, and
some have even attained to the weight of
seventy. There are special exceptions, how-
ever, to this rule. The Duke of Northumber-
land had a very promising Argyleshire " stoc,"
or bullock, which he kept as long as he could,
to see what he would weigh. He was five and
a-half years old, and weighed, exclusive of
v)fral, 100 stones 4 lbs. Though, perhaps, one
of the heaviest of the breed ever slaughtered,
he was neither the fattest nor the most inac-
tive, but seemed in that state to display all the
activity possessed by his race whilst wandering
over their native hills.

The rearing of this animal was by no moans
remarkable for its extravagance. In the first
winter he was turned out to a poor pasture,
and had a little bad hay, till summer returned,
when ho had again poor land pasture. Tiie
next winter he was turned again to the same
kind of pasture, which was, however, varied
with a few turnips. During the following
summer he had average pasture, and the same
pasture in winter, with ainore liberal allowance
of turnips. The third summer he was tolerably
well grazed; and in the fourth winter ho had
as many turnips as he could eat in the sheltered
straw fold. In the summer in which he was
fatted, he had all the indulgence of a feeding

G17

GALLOWAYS.]

CATTLE, AA^D THEIR VAEIETIES.

[ayrshiees.

animal' — viz., cut clover, mangel-wurzel, hay,
bean-meal, turnips, and a little oil-cake, for
vphicli he had no relish whatever. Mr. Quarl
says of this animal, that his " fat was distributed
in an uncommonly equable manner, of a colour
resembling the finest grass butter, and as firm
as wax; the Iyer (muscle) was in ample pro-
portion, bright in colour, of fine texture, and
beautifully marbled by admixture of his excel-
lent fat."

THE ABERDEENSHIRE BREED.

The Aberdeenshire" Doddies," as this breed
are called, are a polled, or hornless I'ace ; and
being bad, or, at least, very indifferent milkers,
they are usually passed over to the grazier, and
highly fattened in their native county. They
are also purchased by the Norfolk and Lei-
cestershire grazier for the purpose of high
feeding, and attain the weight of eighty, and
even one hundred stones, when five or six
years old. Like all the hardy Scotch cattle,
they form their flesh on the back. Their
colour is generally black, bat sometimes red
the head is fine ; the eye full and clear ; the
breast deep ; and the back not quite straight,
being somewhat depressed at the loin, and
inclining to be narrow.

THE GALLOWAY BREED.

In the stewartry of Kirkcudbright, together
with part of Ayrshire and Dumfries, forming
tlie old province of Gralloway, a beautiful polled
or hornless breed of cattle exists, highly
esteemed for many excellences. In figure they
are admirable, excepting that the neck of the
bull is almost too thick ; but the chest is deep,
tlie limbs clean and short, the back straight,
and the body round. Black is the prevailing
colour. These cattle exceed the Argyle breed
in size. Tiiey fatten well and quickly, and
their flesh is excellent. "Eevv cattle sell so
high in the London market ; and it is no
uncommon thing to see one of these little
bullocks outsell a coarse Lincolnshire bullock,
although the latter is heavier by several
stones." The Galloway cattle are remarkable
for gentleness; and robust and milscular as
the bulls are, one of mischievous habits and
bad temper is seldom met with. la the Cij-
clopcEcUa of Ac/riculture, edited by IMr. Morton,
we fiud it stated that the Galloway is some-
648

times called a Kyloe without horns, from the
great resemblance which these animals bear
to each other. The Galloways, however, have
already had to yield to the short-horns in
those parts of their native district where
the turnip husbandry can bo prosecuted to
advantage; while the Ayrshires have justly
supplanted them for the dairy ; but, in those
parts where the rearing of grazing-cattle is
found the more suitable practice, they still
reign unrivalled, and should be carefully pre-
served as a distinct breed.

THE AYRSHIRE BREED.

This valuable breed of middle-horned cattle
exceeds, perhaps, any breed of dairy-fed cows
in the kingdom ; but they are small in size,
and unsymmetrical in their forms. Their
milk is extremely rich, though somewhat oily
in its nature. They fatten more rapidly than
many other races of cattle ; for, when the buty-
raceous deposit is stopped by drying, the system
soon accustoms itself to secrete fat, which they
acquire on a pasture inferior to that required
by more tender animals. They are, however,
in small estimation with the grazier, although,
when the cow is coupled with a short-horn
bull, a valuable grazing animal is produced.
Many farmers in the west of Scotland practise
this successfully on a large scale.

There is no description of the race equal
to that given by Mr. Alton, whose work on
Dairy Husbandry so far exceeds any other,
that it is generally quoted, even at the present
day : — " Head small, but rather long and narrow
at the muzzle ; the eye small, but smart and
lively ; the horns small, clear, crooked, and, at
their roots, placed at a considerable distance
from each other ; neck long and slender, taper-
ing towards the head, with no loose skin below ;
shoulders thin ; fore quarters light ; hind quar-
ters large; back straight, broad behind; the
joints rather loose and open; carcass deep,
and pelvis capacious, and wide over the hips,
with round fleshy buttocks; tail long and
small ; legs small and short, with firm joints ;
udder capacious, broad, and square, stretching
forward, and neither fleshy, low hung, nor
loose; the milk-veins large and prominent;
teats short, all pointing outwards, and at a
considerable distance from each other; skin
thin and soft; hair soft and woolly. Tlie

ATUSUIUES.]

C A TT L E, AM) T 1 1 i: I n V A Til ETI E3.

[ayrsiiibes.

hefttl, bones, boms, and all parts of least value,
small; and the <::^eneral li-^uro compact and
well proportioned." Sueli is Mr. Aiton's
description ; but, with the exception of thick-
ness of buttock, it will bo ina[)prc)priate to the
present Ayrshire cow. There are two otlier
characteristics which seem so thorous^hly be-
longing to this breed, that they ought not to
be passed over. The one is the black muzzle,
and the other tlio yellow red, which seems
to bo the natural colour of the race— arraiii^ed,
not in considerable quantities, but in blots or
patches. Tims the animals generally present
a sort of checked aspect of golden yellow, red,
and white.

The milk and butter yielded by the Ayrshire
cow are very considerable. Indeed, to develop
her milking qualities the greatest pains have
been taken in her native county. An Ayrshire
cow will give from GOO to SOO gallons of milk
in the course of the year ; and live gallons per
dav is by no means uncommon for three months
after calving. This, however, falls short of
Colonel Fullarton's estimate, in his AijricuUiire
of Ayrshire, where, it is affirmed that, though
the Ayrshire cow will not, when fat, weigh more
than twenty to forty English stones, " it is not
uncommon for these small cows to give from
twenty-four to thirty-four English quarts of
milk daily during the summer months, while
some of them will give as much as forty quarts."
It is found that three gallons and a-half of
such milk will yield a pound and a-half of
butter ; so that as much as 260 pounds of
butter will be produced by an Ayrshire cow ;
and it is no uncommon thing to have eight or
nine pounds given by one of these cows for
some weeks after calving. About twenty-six
gallons of milk will aflbrd fourteen pounds of
cheese ; or a good cow will vield thirty-five
stones of cheese per annum.

A question has been raised, as to whether
the rich districts of Ayrshire ought to be
occupied by this breed of cattle, as they are
supposed to be better adapted to the means of
the cotter than those of the grazier. To this
it has been replied, "that while the cold rains,
so prevalent in that county, would render it
problematical whether the short-horns would
be sufficiently hardy, it is also certain that the
second-rate pasturage of much of the grains
land is more suitable for the dairy cow, possess-
•1 o

ing tho hardit\C89 of the Ayrshire breed, thaa
calculated for fattening tho Ichs enduring
«hort-horii." Wlmlover attempted improve-
ments which have been mado in tho Ayrahiro
breed, they have not succeeded in cuhanciiiq;
their milking qualities. To breed what would
sell in England, and what would feed as steers,
has been an object pretty generally pursued ;
and, as the larger breed of Ayrshire cattle are
more profitable for the market than the smaller,
which are more suitable for tho dairy, the
former have been more encouraged.

The dilllculties which present themselves, in
endeavouring to settle the origin of the dif-
ferent species of our domestic animals, are very
great. It is hardly possible to believe that
the long-horned Craven cow and the polled
Angus, the gentle, quiet short-horn, and the
wild and ferocious breed of Chilliughaui, can
be of the same origin. The question is, how-
ever, one of great latitude, and takes by far
too wide a range to be here discussed ; but
there does not seem any reasonable doubt for
the fact, that, within certain limits, circum-
stances alone will have a great tendency to
chaup'o the conformations and characteristics

O

of a species. Thus, in cold countries, white
predominates over other colours ; and wool or
fur is the species of covering with which na-
ture clothes the animals. In hotter climates,
brown is most prevalent, and hair takes the
place of the wool and the fur. In tropical
' countries, the dun hue obtains, and down
spreads itself over tlie bodies of the brute
creation. " So easy is the adaptation of or-
ganised beings to the state in which they
are placed," observes a writer on this subject,
" and so vast is the expansibility of nature, that
she can extend, or shorten, or increase, or
diminish conformation, so as to render it
suitable to the wants, the happiness, and the
existence of the animal. Thus, though the
hones of the bison and the Galloway may pre-
sent but small distinction, yet the diflorence
of skin, of mane, and of muscle, would make
an oi'dinary observer startle at the idea of
their having a common origin. The skull of a
wolf and that of a wild dog of New Holland,
are all but identical ; and it is possible that
the influence of pasture may lengthen or
shorten the horns — that by breeding froai
lonji or short-horned, or from hornless animals,

GIO

ATESHIEES-j

CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [fbeiich breeds.

the variety may be perpetuated, till they lose,
in the course of ages, many of their original
characteristics. It is impossible, for instance,
in Essex, to grow the ox to the same size,
other things being equal, as in the county of
Durham; nor on the Ayrshire hills can he be
produced in the same form or stature as in the
Devonshire valleys. The Highland Scot is
suited to the cold climate of the exposed and
stormy nortli, and the short-horn to the sunny
lowland pastures ; and who shall say that the
God of nature has not impressed on these
treated beings the capability of adapting them-
selves to his plastic handiwork, of developing
their tendency to follow the peculiarities of
the situation in which they are placed?
An elephant can never degenerate into a
mouse — a cat never improve into a tiger — but
a wild dun cow of "Warwick may be the pro-
genitor alike of the thin, spare, feeble-looking
Alderney, and the flesh-mountain ox of
Durham."

On the same subject, Dr. Prichard re-
marks:— "In all our stocks of domesticated
animals, we see profuse and infinite variety ;
and, in the races of wild animals, from which
they originally descended, we find a uniform
colour and figure, for the most part, to prevail.
Domestication is to animals what cultivation
is to vegetables ; and the former probably difiers
from the natural state of the one class of
beings, in the same circumstances which dis-
tinguish the latter from the natural condition
of the other class. The uTv^t apparent of these
is the abundant supply ol the peculiar stimuli
of each kind. Animals in a wild state procure
a simple and unvaried food in precarious and
deficient quantities, and are exposed to the
inclemencies of the seasons. Their young are
produced in similar circumstances to the state
of seedliugg, which spring uncultivated in a
poor soil; but, in the improved state, all the
stimuli of varied food, of warmth, &c., are
aflforded in abundance; and the consequence
QoO

is, a luxuriant growth and evolution of varieties,
and the exliibition of all the perfections to
which each species is capable of being brought
in a domesticated state."

We will close this chapter with a few brief
remarks on some of the original breeds of
France.

FRENCH BREEDS.

N'ormanclij. — The colour of these animals is
various. They are rather coarse in bone, but
nevertheless are good-looking beasts, and have
the reputation of giving an abundance of milk
of excellent quality. They early arrive at
maturity, and are, on the whole, the most
useful and improvable animal of pure breed
which the French possess. They are not unlike
our Buckinghamshire breed in appearance, but
smaller and finer. The Memish. — In colour a
rich brown, mostly with white faces, veiy good
and clean-looking; but flat-sided, and stand
rather too high on the leg. The Charolaise. —
This is one of the breeds most prized in France
for meat. They are very neat white beasts,
kind and cheerful-looking, and good handlers.
They are not unlike the Devons in everything
but colour. The Gascony is an animal of good
size, but coarse, and of either a black or grey
colour. The Garonnaise or Aguenaise. — Good
in size, and in excellent condition ; but heavy
and coarse about the head, hollow in the back,
and wifh very drooping hind quarters. The
colour IS a light fawn. The Bazaidaise are
very good-looking, but also fail in the hind
quarters. Mouse-coloured. The Limoit sine. —
Not unlike the Garonnaise breed both in colour
and appearance, but smaller. The Salers,
d'Aubrac, Ai[»e7'gne, and Jilezenc, are not worth
much notice : the Salers are the best. Nor are
the Fctrtlieraise, another fawn-coloured beast,
much better. The Brittany is small, but very
neat, hardy, and useful. The colour is black
and white. — Such are considered some of the
most prominent of the pure French breeds.

AOKICULTUUE.]

CATTLi:, AND TJIEIR VA!:i!:riES. [AGnicrLxruB.

CHAPTER III.

AGRICULTUKAI, ASSOCIATIONS; TIIK riUNCIPI.i:>5 OF CATTLE-HUEEDING ; FAT-ACCmU'LATINO BnP.EDS;

MII.K-YII-I.DING liUKEDS.

AGRICULTURAL ASSOCLVTlONb.
Ojte of the best moilos of advnncin;* the in-
terests of the fanner, is by that kind of ngri-
cultural association which has sprung up
amongst us, and which has already been the
means of efl'ecting great iinprovements in those
countries where it has been spiritedly adopted.
lu England, almost every county has uow its
agricultural society, consisting mostly of prac-
tical men, who meet for the purpose of dis-
cussing those points that are more immediately
interesting to tliemselves ; and, indeed, no
branch of occupation requires so much of this
combination, or is literally more dependent
on it for its advancement. Taking into con-
sideration the ordinary operations by which
farming is conducted — its rotations and shifts —
how few are the opportunities which present
themselves for any one, in the course of bis
life, to avail himself even of his own experience.
Experiments generally are costly, and the
results often too uncertain to be pursued by
one who has to live by the produce of his
acres. Hence it becomes of vital imiiortance
that he should derive knowledge for his own
working, as it may be presented to him, tlirough
the experience of others. In this country,
seed-time and harvest occur but once in the
annual revolution of tlie earth in its orbit;
and, should the husbandman fail in an ex-
periment (unlike the manufacturer, who can
immediately and incessantly repeat his trials
until success rewards his exertions), he cannot
retrace his steps, or begin again, as the re-
volving year requires a different crop. The
exigencies of a general system of rotation
demand another course. The soil will not
yield its increa:se without alternation ; and he
is, therefore, compelled to wait an appointed
time before he can take advantage of the ex-
perience which ban enabled him to ascertain
the cause of his previous failure. Science, it
is true, has largely I'evealed tlie vast resources
of the soil, and has modified the general laws
of cropping; but the theory of to-day must be

established by the practice of anounr liay;
and the success or failure requires the whole-
some filtration of discussion, before any fact
can be satisfactorily established.

"We owe it to the enlightened agriculturists
of Scotland, that such associations now exist.
During the last century, a small body of
Scotch landowners formed themselves into a
" Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of
Agriculture ;" and to this humble beginning'
may be traced all the associations that havo
since sprung up, not only in Great Britain,
but throughout the countries of Europe, and
! on the continent of America, until, at length,
I the importance of the subject has compelled
' a recognition on the part of various govern-
ments. In France and Belgium there aro
separate ministerial departments, under whoso
care and surveillance progress is made in all
that belongs to agriculture ; and the inter-
national exhibition which took place at
Paris, has been productive of very important
results, in radiating, throughout the empirea
and kingdoms of the European continent, the
experience that was collected at that Agricul-
tural Congress. Our own cxhihitious have also
done much; and if we cast a glance across
the Atlantic, we find that in Canada there
are provincial associations, botli in the Upper
and tlie Lower province. At Toronto, in Up-
per Canada, a central agricultural and horti-
cultural society was organised some years ago.
There are also a hiircau and boards of agricul-
ture; and a provision was made for imparting
"a knowledge of the science and art of agri-
culture" in the various schools, and even in tho
colleges and universities. Tnese have already
been, no doubt, instrumental in placing this
great colony foremost among the ranks of agri-
cultural countries. Both in Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick there are associations ; and,
in one of the reports of the latter, we find it
f<tated, that "our fanners are now convinced,
by experience, that they (the West Highland
cattle) are the best adapted to our climata

051

AGEICULTUKE.]

CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [cattle-beeeding.

and pasture, crossing advantageously with our
best niilchers, producing profitable dairy cows,
and superior working oxen, that are unequalled
for wading through deep snow^ In the United
States such associations are also numerous.

The annual Sraithfield Show in the me-
tropolis is interesting, not only to those imme-
diately engaged in agricultural pursuits, but to
every one who reflects upon the importance of
the ox in a commercial sense, independently of
every other consideration. Here are to be seen
the results of exertions, principally carried on
during the last ninety years, to unite and
bring to perfection the most desirable points in
the various breeds of domestic animals which
were once peculiar to different parts of Great
Eritain, but are now spread, in their improved
form, over every part of the country. In con-
nection with them are to be seen agricultural
implements and machinery of the latest and
most improved construction ; roots and plants
adapted to our climate, but which are as yet
comparatively unknown ; specimens of artificial
manures, and of the soils of districts diflering
from each other in their geological formation.
In spite of all the advances which agriculture
has made during the present century, how
slowly do improvements extend beyond the
intelligent circle in which they are first adopted:
but it is one of the great advantages of cattle
exhibitions to spread them more rapidly and
widely, by drawing the agriculturist from the
secluded scenes in which he carries on his
occupations, and bringing them before him in
the manner best calculated to demonstrate their
utility. A prize ox or sheep is fatter than the
ordinary market requires ; and hence it is often
supposed that the stimulus of prizes for briiiging
nn animal into a state of unnecessary fatness
is altogether a work of supererogation. But
the power of reaching an excessive size is
E-imply a test. A piece of artillery is tried by
a charge greater than is ever required in ordi-
nary practice ; and an ox is fattened for
exhibition beyond a useful marketable condi-
tion, simply to show the capacity of the breed
for acquiring, at the least expense of food, and
at the earliest age, such a condition as the
public demaud really renders necessary.

If we look at the farmer of a former period,
located generally in some isolated spot — his
very vocation keeping him, as it were, apart
652

and separate irom others — his only opportu-
nity of meeting with his fellow-agriculturists
being, probably, confined to the weekly market
at the county town — the means of travelling
being limited, and communication, even by
letter, restricted by the expensiveuess of trans-
mission— there was nothing left for him but to
continue in the practices handed down to him.
The very situation made him cling to old recol-
lections ; and hence, no doubt, has, in part,
arisen the character imputed to him, of a dis-
like to innovation, and an obstinate adherence
to the routine of a bygone age, even possibly
when his judgment had been awakened by the
progress he saw around him. But what a
change is now presented ! His means of com-
munication have been expanded ; the power of
steam has opened up a speedier as well as a
cheaper mode of transit ; the researches of the
chemist have brought about a change in agri-
cultural operations ; and, to keep up with the
spirit of the age, he is, in a manner, compelled
to unite with his fellows, in order that he may
learn, and not be left behind in the race.
Earmers' clubs are, in the most obscure dis-
tricts, springing up. The principle of associa-
tion has been established ; and it is the farmer's
own fault if he does not take advantage of
what our French neighbours call "the situa-
tion." Every subject connected with agricul-
ture is brought under discussion. The tiller
of the soil begins to find that he holds an im-
portant position in the country : and he now
opens his eyes to the fact, that his occupation
is a science, and that he must, of necessity,
raise himself to the height of his calling.

THE PRINCIPLES OF CATTLE-BREEDING.

'• One of the most wonderful instances of
man's supremacy over creation," observes Mr.
Miiburn, "is the influence he is able to exer-
cise in directing vital processes. Here his
power is perfectly talismanic. Within certain
limits, he has the power of asserting his
dominion so far as to make stern nature obey,
and do his bidding. If he wants size or hardi-
hood, activity or gentleness, milk or fat — nay,
even wool, or mutton, or beef — he can so
arrange the elements with which Divine Provi-
dence hath blessed him, as to bend, and mould,
and adapt them to his will, until he has pro-
duced the kind and class of animal he requires.

CATTLE-BIlEEDIKO.l CATrLl', AND TllKlli V A IvI i: 11 i:.S. [CATTLE-DnEEDINQ.

This power arises more from individual skill
than from science. Whatever i)hy8ioK),i,Me:il
principles arc involved, they are beat discovered
by the facts known to the breeder, and teach
liini little in the niaiiac^einent of his business.
The perseverance and skill, tiie powers of ob-
servation and discrimination possessed by some
breeders, have doubtless been the cause of their
success, and led to England's becoming pro-
eminent for food-producing animals ; for in no
otiier part of the known world can it be said
that there is anything like such specimens to
be found, either for producing flesh, milk,
butter, or cheese. To watch pliysiological ten-
dencies, and avail themselves of all discoveries,
was the practice of breeders long anterior to
scientific research. Emulating the skill of the
wily progenitor of the Jewish race, and intelli-
gentlv perceiving what was required. Colling
and Bakewell attempted, and attained, the art
of producing cattle and sheep ' riug-straked,
spotted, and speckled,' at pleasure. Seeing,
also, the necessity of economising food, they set
about cultivating those animals which came to
maturity early, and thus produced a much
larger quantity of animal food from the same
amount of vegetation. Knowing that fat was
an element favoured in a northern clime, they
endeavoured to obtain animals with a tendency
to secrete it in large quantities. In order to
do this, they observed the qualities indicative
of these tendencies ; and, knowing that it is
true in physiology, as in mathematics, that like
produces like, they selected and bred from
animals possessing them, until they stamped
their qualities permanently and invariably on
their produce. With these they managed to
combine their usual concomitants, symmetry
and beauty. Hence the origin of our flocks of
Leicester sheep, and our herds of short-horn
cattle, so intimately interwoven, even in their
mortality, with the proud national boast of the
' Eoast Beef of Old England.' "

In all animals there are certain distinctions
or differences, which, in some individuals, are so
strikingly marked as to lift them far above
their congeners in particular excellences. Sup-
posing, therefore, that two of these, a male and
female, were chosen for breeding jiurposes ; it is
very likely that the breeder would expect their
ofispriug to inherit the greater number, if not
all, of those remarkable qualities for which

their progenitors were dintinguished. This,
however, would j)robal)iy not bo the caso, and
the breeder would sulfcr great disappoint-
ment. It is from a knowledge of tluH fact,
that many a breeder has resigned the hope of
obtaining a good breed, and has ceased to per-
severe in his object. But he ought to remem-
ber that the principles of bn-eding are now
pretty well ascertained, and require only
patience and perseverance to carry them out
to a success. Although tlie animals ho had
selected might have apparently been perfect in
themselves, yet one of them, the cow, no
doubt was an accidental product of excellence,
and not the offspring of a reputable ancestry.
Iler progen}', therefore, exhibited the charac-
ters of her parents rather than those of her-
self. This is the reason why she did not pro-
duce her own form and likeness ; but tha
bi'eeder should have continued to select the
best that he was able to nrocure ; he should
have persevered in his path, and, sooner or
later, he would have had his pains rewarded by
obtaining a breed which would have fulfilled
the expectations with which be set out on his
breeding experiments. It ought always to be
borne in mind, that the obtaiument of a breed
of stock is not the labour of a month or a
year, but of a lifetime. If it be the object of
a breeder to produce a herd of cattle or a
flock of sheep with some peculiar tendency, he,
himself, may never so far accomplish it as to
reap any real advantage from it, but his sons
may, provided he has pursued his plans judi-
ciously. Even in two or three generations,
there is no certainty that the tendency which,
he wished to impart would be established.
" There are not only limits, therefore, to the
mathematical axiom that like produces like,
modified by vital powers with which the
breeder has to deal, but we think there is a
principle deeper still — one little noticed by
writers on breeding stock, yet one which all
our great breeders knew and practised — viz.,
that some one animal has much more power of
transmitting his qualities tiian others." The
remarkable results of the Ceilings in caLtle-
breeding, were really due either to the skill
they had in seeking their transmissive power,
or to the accident of obtaining, by chance, an
animal (their bull Ilubback) who possessed it
in a remarkable degree. Tnu?, in brjcding

G53

CATTLE-BEEEDiNG.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VARIETIES, [cattle-bkeedino.

animals wiiich have a great resemblance to
each other, though the first geueratiou may
not satisfy the expectations of the experimen-
talist, yet a tendency will be given to the
breed to progress in the proper direction; and
by pursuing a careful system of selection, lead-
ing to the desired tendency, favourable results
may be expected within the compass of a few-
generations.

The existing breeds of Great Britain present
us with sufficient variety to enable us to pro-
duce any qualities required; whilst there are,
comparatively speaking, very few obstacles in
the way of making a selection. Skill, how-
ever, is necessary to preserve one variety of
animals at the top of the tree, especially when
the many excellent sorts to breed from are
now so numerous. The original improvers
had, perhaps, less difficulty than those of a more
recent day in maintaining their position. It
is true they had to work without rules or ex-
perience; but, like Adam and Eve, when they
were driven from Paradise, they had the world
before them, and they had fewer competitors.
The race they improved was such, that every
step they took was palpable and definite.
There were fewer combinations of blood neces-
sary, and, consequently, less risk of failure.
The chief eff'ort now, however, is directed to
overcome a defect; and this is to be done by
selecting a bull that is perfect in that part
that is imperfect in the cow. On the first oft-
spring of these there may be little or no visible
improvement made; but if the same plan be
continued, an impression will, by-and-by, be
made, and the herd gradually assume a higher
state of perfection. There will, however, still
be variations. All the herd will not be alike;
nor can this be expected ; for even the fancy,
or imagination — if we may be allowed the ex-
pression— of cows has an effect upon the colour
and conformation of the calves they produce.
One trial after another, however, must be
made; and, although the process may be long,
still, by paying great attention to the animals
selected to breed from — by tveeding them, as it
is called — ultimate success may be expected as
a certain retiult. Here, however, a question,
■which has frcqiiently been agitated, forces
itself upon the mind ; and which is — " IIovv tar
is this objfct to be accomplished by adopting
a male, or making a change ic this feumle
654

animals?" Mr. IMilburn says, the "universal
consent of all classes of breeders is given
to the value of the male: in selecting a stal-
lion, the greatest care is tal^en ; whilst there
is little or no attention paid to the qualities of
the mare that is sent to him. The flock-
master will give from twenty to fifty pounds
for the use of a ram, who would grudge to
give five for a ewe : but it is, it must be con-
fessed, somewhat difterent in cattle. The
dairyman is very careful in selecting his cows.
They are watched, as heifers, for the develop-
ment of their good qualities, and are preserved,
either for their succession to a maternal race of
milkers, or because they are promising in them-
selves : but the bull to which they are sent is
too. often a matter of convenience rather than
selection. They know he is a bull ; and that
is enough. The too-usual mode is, to try the
heifer by her first calf. If she promises well
as a milker, she is kept for a cow ; if not, she
is consigned as a 'drape' to the grazier, for
the butcher. Seasoning from analogy, the
mother would be naturally considered as more
influencing the animal than the sire. The
influence of the mother is long and continuous.
Her blood flows through its veins ; it partakes
of her habits and sympathies; but still the
vital force of the male animal is pre-eminent.
Much as the mother may influence the consti-
tution, the sire possesses a far greater sway
over the conformation, the qualities, and the
appearance. If, therefore, the object of the
breeder is to perpetuate and impress the good
qualities, and to remove the defects of his
breed, he will be careful in the selection of
both the sire and the dam of his breeding
animals. A single failure — a single year's
neglect — may stamp qualities on his race which
it may take years to eradicate ; for even to
keep a breeding-stock in a high state of excel-
lence, is by no means so easy a task as may be
ima"-ined.'' In connection with this part of
our subject, the question of breeding in-and-in
has also been much agitated, some taking one
side, and some taking anotiier. The celebrated
Bakewell bred entirely from his own stock;
but it is affirmed, by those who opposed his
system, that his stock became comparatively
diminutive and feeble, and that his plan was a
failure. He, however, only put in practice
one of the first axioms of breeding — namely,

CATTLE-BRKEDrN'o.] CATTLE, AND THE IK A'AKIETIES. [cattle-bheedino.

to select ihe best you can Jiud. He was nc-
quziinted with no stock so exi-elleut, in liis esti-
nialion, as his own. ConseiiutMitly, ho bred
from them because they were unequalled any-
wliere else. Jle brotitjlit his animals to r;reat
perfection ; imparted delicacy, uniformity, and
permanency to his flock and to his herd ;
reared finer animals ; and, if they woro not so
large as some others, they were less coarse,
and produced much more palatable meat. All
this ho did ; but, like many other experimen-
talists, he may have pursued his system to a
point of refiaemcut too far for the pains to bo
rewarded by an adequate degree of profit.

Breeding in-and-in, in the human subject, is
said to produce various physical and mental
disorders, and in every way to have a deterio-
rating eflect upon the genus homo. To an
exemplification of this, we ourselves have been
a witness. At the foot of a mountain, near to
the banks of the Gaerlock, running in from the
river Clyde, in Scotland, there lived, in a few
scattered huts, about from one hundred and
fifty to two hundred Highlanders, who had
bred in-and-in, it was supjiosed, for nearly a
couple of centuries, and many of them were
sdly, and some of them quite idiotic. They
liad been ordered again and again off" the estate,
which had fallen into the hands of a new pro-
prietor, but would take no notice ; and had, at
last, we believe, to be burned out. They then
took their departure to a solitary glen among
the mountains, where they pitched their camp,
raised their bothies, and settled down to con-
tinue to perpetuate the idiotcy which their
habit of intcr-breeding had introduced amongst
them. If a family afllicted with mania, scrofula, i
or consumption, intermarries with another
family similarly afllicted, it is to be expected
that the virulence of either of these will be
increased, and that an early extinction of the
race may be anticipated, provided the ofiVpring
do not ally themselves with a better, or a
stronger and more healthy breed. The reason
of this is, that the parents took the very plan
to perpetuate, or render permanent, the evils
with which they themselves were afflicted.
Mr. Bates' raaxim was, "Breed in-and-in from
a bad stock, and you commit ruin and devas-
tation."

In considering this part of our subject, the
arguments of Mr. Milburn go to favour the

system of breeding in-and-in. " The objectors
to consanguineous breeding," ho Bayn, "and its
deteriorating and enfeebling charactcjr, seem to
forget that, in the case of the wild cattlo at
Chillingham Park [to which wo have alreiuly
ailuded], no cross has been inaiie fcjr an im-
memorial number of centuries; and thus,
unchanged and unchangeable, they remain,
without deterioration, without feebleness — a
standing objection to the indiscriminate con-
demnation of the system of breeding from tho
same stock. Tho answer, that these animals
do not show any improved points, is an argu-
ment in favour of this system of breeding. The
fact that they never liad them, and possibly
never will have the chance, so long as the breed
is kept pure and unalloyed, is quite decisive in
its iavour. Like all other wild animals, a
natural law prevents the feeble male I'rom
exercising any unfavourable tendency. . The
herd have a king, and, during the rutting season,
fierce and almost deadly battles take place
amongst the bulls for the favour of the females.
The hardiest, strongest, and most enduring
male is the victor, and he becomes the parent
of the future herd. This may, and is likely to
continue for some years ; because, when once
admitted a victor, a great change must take
place before the contest will be renewed. No
sooner, however, does the male animal become
feeble, than another season renews the strife.
The once proud patriarch is vanquished, and
the youthful victor, full of vigour and virility,
is, in turn, the paramour of the herd. Now, if
we admit the influence of the male animal to
be the greatest, we have here the most perfect
adaptation for the weeding of the herd, and the
best constitutioned bull is tho parent of the
whole race for two or three years of production.
It is not wonderful, then, that they have no
points, no superiority, no distinctiveness of
breeding. There is no selection of adaptation,
of symmetry — even of semblance ; but there is
strength of constitution in the male — tlie
quality, above all others, best calculated for
securing strength of constitution, hardness, and
size in the oftspring. Assuming that this
tyrant strength in the patriarch of the herd
will continue for three successive years — a feat
extremely probable — there is a degree of con-
sanguinity which few breeders will attempt. It
may be said of Mr. Bates' herd, now that he is

Gc55

CATTLE-BBEEDING.] CxiTTLE, AND THEIK YAEIETIES. [cattle-breeding.

dead, that their quality was unsurpassed, and
that the heifers were frequently bulled by their
own grandfather, or the cow by her grandson ;
and this was no more irregular than the wild
habits of the whole herd at Chillingham, where
the daughter, if not the grand- daughter, must
breed with the grandsire or the sire." Mr.
Colling, already alluded to, bred his animals in
very close affinity. Mr. Mason, of Chilton,
second only to Mr. Colling, was an in-and-in
breeder ; and every agriculturist is now aware
of the success which crowned the persevering
efforts of these gentlemen. The system of
crossing is that which is quite opposite to con-
sanguineous breeding ; and when two animals
entu-ely distinct, breed with each other, an
independent variety is the result, and this is
called either a mule or a hybrid, "Where the
zoological distinction between animals takes
place beyond a given range, Nature steps in,
and suffers no farther admixture of the species.
The mule is almost invariably non-producing ;
and although the union of a mule and female,
of different qualities, will occasionally produce
an excellent combination of the qualities of
both, with, perhaps, a fair proportion of uni-
formity, still the union of these again amongst
themselves will not be so happy. Indeed, they
are likely to throw only mongrels, differing
even widely from each other, and no more like
their parents, than an ordinary piece of frail
humanity might be considered to be to Her-
cules. Eor example, a cross was tried between
the hard-working Devon and the fat-accumu-
lating Hereford; but it was a failure. The
strength and activity of the former were no-
ivJiere; whilst the fattening qualities of the
latter were not obtained. A similar cross with
the Albany was also a failure ; as was another
cross between the Hereford and the Kyloe. A
cross between the short-horn bull and the
Ayrshire cow, only takes the latter from the
dairy, and gives her to the butcher.

The most successful cross ever made, was
between the Galloway cattle and the improved
short-horn, efi'eetcd by Mr. Colling. He put
one of his short-horn bulls to a well-selected
Galloway cow; and the produce was a bull.
He proceeded no further with this cross, but
carried the blood to his short-horn herd. To
Ih'is bull he put a short-horn heifer, with a
large accession of Hubback blood. The pro-
656

duce of this union was another bull, the sire
of his cow Lady, which, at his sale, sold for
206 guineas. Erom this cross, the probability
is, that the straight back, the round form, and
the wide hips were, in some degree, due to this
Galloway cross, as well as that shortness of
leg, which is the most striking defect of the
Teeswater cattle, and which the CoUings were
so anxious to improve. . This cross, notwith-
standing its encroachments upon the purity of
the blood, is certainly a most successful and
most judicious instance; for where a large and
strong-framed animal is covex'ed with a short-
horn bull, not only quality, but readiness to
fatten is imparted. To proceed further is,
perhaps, not wise. Attempting a system of
crossing with milk-produciug cows, is con-
sidered both unnatural and absurd ; but thei-e
is no sort of large-framed animal intended for
the grazier, which might not be improved by a
cross, for one generation, with the short-horn.
"With the smaller West Highland cattle, even
for grazing, reasonable doubts may be enter-
tained. They live in a bleak and comparatively
sterile district, to which a dash of short-horn
blood, however small, could hardly ever accom-
modate itself; but, to the larger Scotch breeds,
the same sentiment does not apply, as a single
crossing would be invaluable. This is instanced
in the case of a cross between a short-horn
bull and a large Aberdeenshire cow, to which
was awarded a prize by the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland. The live
weight of this cow was 224 stone, of 14> lbs.
to the stone ; and she weighed when killed,
173 stone 3 lbs.

In considering this subject of crossing, some
very singular facts have been discovered.
These have been arranged and classified ; they
exhibit a kind of phenomenon so extraordinary,
that they cannot fail forcibly to strike the
mind of every person who has given the
slightest attention to this matter. It would
seem that, when a pure-bred animal has been
once impregnated by one of another breed,
the one impregnated is thereby, for ever after-
wards, a cross, and may be expected, for the
future, to produce cross-bred, and no more
pure-bred young. But the idea is capable of
still further extension ; for a female animal will
always produce young that will have a strong
resemblance, in character, to tlie animal by

CATTLE-nuEEDixo.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [cviTLE-uuKKiiiNO.

which she was first impregnated, whether of a
cross breeil, or of tlio samo breed as herself.
iShi»uld it, tlioreforo, bo the c.iso tliat a simple
cross will stump its character for ever upon
the animal which is tho subject of it, there is
the greatest necessity for tho utmost vigilance
and caution to be used in selecting a male
animal, especially in the first impregnation of
the female. Dr. ITarvey, of Aberdeen, and
Professor jNPGillivray, hypothetically consider
that the intimate connection in bovine animals,
between the footus and its mother — consisting
of an absolute circulation of the blood of the
fa^tus through tho veins of tho mother, and
vice versd — so impregnates her with the vital
functions of the sire, as to render her, for ever
afterwards, incapable of transmitting her own
qualities unimpaired to her offspring. This,
therefore, forces upon her breeding qualities
the same characters as those which marked
lier first young, entirely independent of either
the defects or the beauties of the sire. Several
well-authenticated facts will effectually estab-
lish this view. One of the Earls of Morton had
a chesnut mare, which was put to a quagger, or
wild ass. The offspring gave the most unmis-
takable signs of the quagga in its head, its ears,
its stripes on its shoulders, &c. Afterwards, in
three successive seasons, the mare was put to
a black Arabian horse, and in as many years
the foal strictly resembled the quagga. In
the Transactions of the Royal Society, it is
stated that Sir Gore Ousely had a thorough-
bred mare covered by a zebra. The produce
was a striped animal, resembling its sire. The
mare was afterwards covered bv a thorough-
bred horse ; but a striped animal was the
result : the year afterwards she was put to
another horse, with the same result. Again,
six black-faced, horned Scottish ewes were
selected by Mr. II. Shaw, of Leochel, and were
served, some with a Southdown, and others
with a Leicester ram, the one white-faced, the
other dun-faced, but both hornless. The lambs,
as a matter of course, were crosses ; and, in
their second year, they were put to a horned
ram of their own black-faced breed ; but all
the lambs were hornless, and their faces of a
brownish colour. Again, they were put to a
very superior ram of their own breed : on
this occasion the crosses of some were less
distinct ; but two of the lambs were polled or
4 p

liornlcsa ; one was dun-faced, witli very Bmall
horns, and tho i.ther three wore white-faced,
with very small round horns only. Tho ewes
were considered bo impure as to bo thrown
out from tho flock ; and another lamb wai
never obtained from them by tho breeder.

A favourite setter bitch, belonging to Dr.
Hugh Smith, followed him one day in the
season, and sho was warded by an ugly cur,
which was shot, and Dido, the setter, lost her
noso in tho partridge season. Sho was put to
a superior setter; but her produce were the
colour and picture of tho cur; and, in her
many subsequent litters, no other kind of animal
could be obtained from her but a cur-looking
puppy. Even among the porcine species
there are singular instances of this kind. A
person had a black-and-white sow, which be-
came pregnant by a wild boar, of a dun colour.
Of course the breed was mixed, or crossed,
exhibiting symptoms of the qualities of both
its parents. But the same sow was afterwards
put to two different boars, and, in both in-
stances, the dun colour pervaded the breed,
though perfectly unusual before. The late
Prot'essor M'Gillivray tells us of an Aberdeen-
shire hornless heifer being put to a short-hom
bull, and had her first cross calf to that animal.
She was afterwards put to a pure-bred bull of
her own kind ; but she again had a cross calf,
a horned animal, though both its parents were
polled animals. The same authority mentions
another instance of a different Aberdeenshire
cow which had been served by a first cross
between the Aberdeenshire and short-horn,
and to this animal she had a cross-bred calf.
In order to have a pure-bred calf from her,
she was put to a pure Aberdeenshire bull ;
but the produce was a cross calf, both in
colour and appearance. The evidence of such
facts as these it is difficult to resist ; but facts
even stronger than these can be adduced toshow
the influence which the first impregnating
animal has upon the female for ever afterwards.

In the case of Dr. Smith's Dido, it does not
appear that her intercourse with the cur, if
any, had been fruitful ; but the following facts
will show the impossibility of any connection
whatever. INIr. Blaine had a pug bitch which
made a companion of a small white spaniel.
From this dog she was separated on account
of her heat, and was warded by another of hor

G57

CATTLE-BREEDING.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [CATTLE-BREEDI^ra.

own breed. She threw puppies, one of which
was slender and spaniel-like, and perfectly
white; and, in two subsequent litters, she
always produced one white puppy, though it
might be less slender than the first. It is
possible, however, that she might, at some
period, have had unobserved intercourse with
the spaniel ; and if so, as a matter of course,
the principle would be precisely similar to
that which is involved in the preceding in-
stances; but we have a case ia which this
was utterly impossible. A mare and a gelding
had long been companions in the team, in the
pasture, and in the stable. He was black,
with white legs and face, and possessed of a
singular rectangular form of hind legs. After
an association of about two years, the mare
was covered by a bay stallion, with black legs,
which was the colour of her own. The foal
exactly resembled the gelding, both in colour
and shape, especially in the hind legs. Here
connection was impossible. — We have already
alluded to the effect of the imagination of the
mother greatly influencing the colour and
form of her offspring; and the following fact
would seem to prove it. Mr. Boswell tells us
of a hornless cow coming in season, when one
of his neighbour's horned black-and-white
oxen broke over the fence, and accompanied
her home to the bull. Both the sire and the
dam were black and hornless, nor had the
farmer any horned or spotted beast on his
farm. The produce of the cow was black and
white; and, in due time, its horns grew, re-
sembling those of the ox. These facts may
not, in themselves, prove much ; but they raise
a doubt as to whether the imagination of the
mother may not, in some indescribable way or
other, operate upon the offspring.

Another point in connection with this sub-
ject is, the respective influence of the parents
in determining the sex of the offspring. This
part of our subject is necessarily involved in
no small degree of mystery. Nature seems to
have decided that the sexes should be pretty
evenly balanced ; but the causes which lead to
this decision she has refused to develop .to
mankind. There is a great difference of
opinion among physiologists as to whether the
male or the female, the sire or the mother, has
the greater influence in determining the sex.
Sir Everard Home thought that the ovum or !
6-38

germ, previous to impregnation, is of no sex,
but is so formed as to be equally fitted to
become male or female; and that it is the
process of impregnation which marks the sex,
and forms either male or female generative
organs ; that, previous to the fourth mouth,
the sex cannot be said to be confirmed, but
that the parts, before that period, are so
blended, that either the one or the other may
be formed therefrom, as the tendency towards
the paternal or maternal type may preponde-
rate. This would account for the disposition
which some animals have to beget a greater
number of one sex or the other. Mr. Knight,
a distinguished naturalist, inclined to the
opinion that the female is principally con-
cerned in the development of the sex. " In
several species of domesticated animals," he
says, " particular females are found to pro-
duce a majority of offspring of the same sex ;
and I have proved repeatedly, that by dividing
a herd of thirty cows into three equal parts,
I could calculate on a large majority of
females from one part, males from another,
and females from the remainder. I frequently
endeavoured to change the habits by changing
the male, but without success." In the Fhilo-
sopJiical Transactions, mention is made of a
gentleman who was the youngest of forty sons,
all produced in succession, from three different
wives, by one father, in Ireland. One in-
stance is also recorded of seven successive
daughters being born to a man by his first
wife, and of seven sons by his second wife.
As, in this matter, both statements and
opinions contradict each other, the only con-
clusion to be drawn is, that both the male and
the female possess a certain degree of in-
fluence in determining the sex — sometimes
the one operating one way, and sometimes
the other. Some degree of weiglit, however,
is to be attached to the opinion, that where
the male is older than the female, the majority
of the offspring is likely to be males.

The rapidly-growing population of this
country has long demanded a correspondingly
extended supply of animal food, which has
been furnished, not by the greater productive-
ness of the grazing districts, but by the growth
of roots on arable farms ; so that, in fact, a
f-reatcr annual weight of meat is produced by
the latter than the former. AVhilat a larger

CATTLE-BREEDixo.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [cATTLE-nnEEnixo.

quantity of land has thus been devoted to tlie
production of animal food, it liaa by no means
dimiiiislied the supjdy of grain ; but, on the
coiitrarv, has increased it by the enlarged
quaiititv of manure which, in cojisequenoe, is
Bup[)licd to the land — n fact so well established,
that it has already become an ndago, " No
cattle, no dung; no dung, no corn." The
objictions that aro sometimes raised against
over-fed cattle, and the attempts made to
disparage tho " mountains of fat," as they
aro sometimes called, may bo both sound and
reasonable : there is no doubt of tho practical
fact, that the best butcher cannot sell anything
but tho best fatted beef. " Of whatever ag*\
size, or shape a half-fatted ox may be, he is
never selected by judges as fit for human food.
Hence, a well-fatted animal always commands
a better price per pound than one imperfectly
fed ; and the parts selected as the primest beef,
are precisely those where there is the largest
deposits of fat. The rump, the crop, and the
sirloin (the very favourite cuts, which always
command from twenty to twenty -five per cent.
more than any other part of the ox), are pre-
cisely those parts on which the largest quan-
tities of fat are found. Thus, instead of the
taste and fashion of the age being against the
excessive fattening of animals, it is, practically,
exactly the reverse. Where there is the most
fat there is the best lean ; where there is the
greatest amount of muscle, without its share
of fat, that part is accounted inferior, and used
for a difierent purpose. In fact, so far from
fat being a disease, it is a condition of muscle
necessary to its utility as food — a source of
luxury to the rich, and of comfort to the poor."
The fattening capabilities possessed by various
animals, are the effect of a secretive power,
which enables them to reserve a store of their
superfluous food for seasons of cold or of
scarcity. The fat masses itself round the an-
gular bones of the animal, and gives it that com-
ibrtable appearance of rotundity upon which
the eye feels pleased to rest. Hence the ten-
dency to secrete fat is indicated by a roundness
of form, as opposed to the Jlaincss characteristic
of the milk-yielding animal. The fat lubricates
the joints, gives elasticity to the skiu and
muscles, and obviates the effects of pressure ;
but, above all, it is a store of heat- producing
aliment, set aside for seasons of scarcity.

TIjo larger portion of the diet of aniinuls
may be Haid to eoiiwiHt of a saccharine, aa
oleaginous, and an alhuininoiiH principle. To
the first belong all the pacehariiio, starchy, and
gummy parts of the plant.s, which, in tho diges-
tive organs, pass tiiroiigh changes similar to
fermentation, before they can be assimilated ;
throuf»h them, also, is animal heat austainod.
In sluggish animals, tho oily portions of plants
aro deposited and converted into fat; and,
when strength fails, it is taken up to supply
the place of tho consumed saccharine matter.
Tho albuminous or gelatinous priuciple of
plants is chiefly required to force the accumu-
lation of muscle ; while the ashes of plants, their
unconsumable portions, are designed for the
purpose of supplying bone, hair, and born, as
well as muscle and blood : they also replace
the waste which is continually going on.
Such are the several qualities which are essen-
tially characteristic of a dispo;?ition to fatten.
These marks are so definite and well under-
stood, that they are comprehended and acted
upon by every grazier. There is some diffi-
culty, however, in endeavouring to describe,
upon paper, all the indications of barrenness
or fertility which a practised eye alone could
detect. It is by experience and skill that
the grazier acquires his knowledge, and not
by theoretical rules. Observation, judgment,
powerful perceptive faculties, and minute dis-
crimination, are essential to his success.

One of his great reliances is on the ioiccJt,
which may be esteemed the criterion of quality
in every vaccine animal, whether to be boiighfc
tor milking or grazing. The skin is a great
indicator, and should neither be thick nor
hard, nor should it adhere firmly to the mus-
cles. If it does so, it may be concluded that
the beast is a hard grazer, as well as a poor
feeder; and as no man skilled in his calling
will purchase her, she must be palmed off" upon
some novice, and even to him at such a price
as can make her a sort of temptation to be got
into his possession. On the other hand, the
skin must neither bang loosely, nor exhibit
that kind of flabbiuess which is frequently seen
upon indifferent cattle, and which discloses a
delicate temperament, and a nature incapable
of the retention of fat. Human physiologists
give great attention to the subject of tempera-
ment ; and tiiough we do not make similar nice

659

CATTLE-BEEEDiNG.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [cattle-beeedincj.

distinctions in reference to brutes, yet is it of
extreme importance to keep in mind those
general and distinctive varieties of temperament
wliicli have a powerful operation upon the
characters of various animals. Assigning, tlien,
a broad division to the temperaments of ani-
mals, we might define them as consisting of
three kinds — the nervous, the thoracic, and
the abdominal. In proportion as the nervous
system, the chest, or the abdomen, is strongly
developed, an animal may be considered to
belong to the one class or the other. In the
breeding of oxen for the purposes of the
butcher, the grand object has been to establish
the supremacy of the belly, and to dethrone
the empire of the cranium and the chest ; or,
in other words, to preserve and perpetuate that
form of abdomen most favourable to the due
performance of the digestive processes, affording
the capability of extracting the utmost quantity
of nourishment from the food, and, at the same
time, diminishing as much as possible the
development of the nervous system (which
would induce too much irritability, and destroy
that indolence and quietness so essential for
the fattening process), as well as that of the
organs of respiration, which give, at once, the
capability and the disposition for muscular
exertion.

In reference to the formation of the beast,
in so far as it is susceptible of taking on fat,
size must enter largely into the consideration
where heavy weights are required. Christmas
beef is not only expected to be large, but like-
wise to be fat. *' The symbol of festivity,"
says Mr. Milburn, " should be capacious as well
as prime ;" and we agree with him. A spare
scrag at Christmas would certainly be enough
to " chill the genial current of the soul" of any
Englishman who has heard of the bountiful fare
upon which his ancestors of old regaled at this
season of the year ; but in reference to the
grazier, who is buying in order to sell, profit
alone must be his guide. It may be observed,
however, that in accordance with the excellence
of the grazing-ground, so will be the largeness
of the animal fed upon it. Small animals cer-
tainly arc much more ciasily fed ; but then they
are usually the result of a poor soil. Besides
size, there must be breadth of carcass, which is
indicative of fattening, perhaps, above all other
qualifications. If rumps are favourite joints,
6G0

and produce tlie best price, it is best to have tlie
animal which will grow the longest, the broadest,
and the best rump. The same may be said of
crop, and of sirloin ; but breadth is essential to
the consumption of that quantity of food which
is necessary to the development of a large
amount of fat. Thus a deep wide chest, favour-
able for the respiratory and circulating func-
tions, enables the animal to consume a large
amount of food to burn up the sugary and
deposit the fatty matter, as then useless, but
afterwards to be prized. A full round crop
will be of the same physiological utility ; while
a broad and open framework at the hips will
afford scope for the action of the liver and kid-
neys. The head must be small and fine. JS'ot,
perhaps, that ib is of any special use in the fat-
tening of the animal to be so constructed, but
it is indicative of the bones being small, and the
legs short. Eor constitutional powers, the
beast should have his ribs extended well
towards the thigh-bones or hips, so as to leave
as little unprotected space as possible. There
must be no angular or abrupt points ; all must
be round, bi'oad, and parallel. Any depres-
sion in the lean animal will show a deficient
deposit of flesh and fiit, when sold to the
butcher, and thus deteriorate its value ; and
hence the animal must be round and full. But
either fancj^, or accident, or skill (we will not
pretend to say which), has associated symmetry
with quality and conformation, as a point of
great importance in animals calculated for fat-
tening ; and there is no doubt that, to a certain
extent, this is so. The beast must be a system
of mathematical lines. To the advocate of
symmetry, the setting-on of a tail will be a
condemning fault. The ridge of the back like
a straight line, with the outline of the belly
exactly parallel, when viewed from the side,
and a depth and squareness when viewed from
behind, like a geometrical cube, may be said to
be the indications of excellence in a fat ox. As
a partial resume of what we have said, we add,
that the qualities desirable to be obtained for
fattening, are pretty much the same in the
greater number of domestic animals — that is,
in those designed for animal food. They are —
the capability of converting a given quantity of
food into the utmost amount of flesh and fat,
and the development of this meat on those
parts of the body most esteemed for food. Thus

MII-K BIIEEDS.]

C ATT L E, A N I) T 1 1 i: I K V Alii !• T I ES

[milk llUl^KUB.

BiTiftll heads, small lo<;!<, and small bones, alto-
gether, are essential nualifioations, and early
maturity is equally desirable. Connected with
theso points are invariably found a peculiarly
quiet and indolent disposition — what physiolo-
gists would term a lymphatic tempi-ramtMit —
which is denoted by a iineness of the skin — a
certain resistance to the touch, so to spi'ak,
caused by the development of those membranes
immediately under the skin, which serve for
the deposition of fat in common with other
objects. In cows kept for the purposes of the
dairv, where butter and cheese are the sources
of profit, the considerations just mentioned,
though not altogether to be lost sight of, are
yet secondary to others — such as the uevelop-
uieut of the lactic system, &c.

MILK-YIELDING BREEDS.

The pasture of this country having great
variety, means are thereby all'orded for rearing
cattle of every description ; consequently, the
iat-accumulating, as well as the milk-yielding
breeds, have each that kind of pasture beat
adapted to accomplish the end which their
owners have in view. Tiie scheme of creation
is so admirably adjusted to the wants of those
living beings which inhabit it, that every race is
apparently provided for. The grauivorous and
the carnivorous animal has each its destined
food. The elephant, that roams the region of
Central Africa, has its boundless forest, its
thick and long grass, with innumerable herba-
ceous plants, provided to satisfy its appetite,
and increase and sustain the enormous bulk
to wliicli it attains. The lion, in the same
region, has countless herds of the eland and
the gazelle to prey upon ; whilst the birds of
the air are equally cared for. Animals, how-
ever, reduced to a state of domestication, have
not the same resources placed within their
reach. They depend upon man for what they
want ; and as the exigencies of a highly culti-
vated civilisation press upon him the neces-
sity of making provision ibr it, he becomes a
rearer of cattle and a producer of milk, that he
himself may be enabled to live by the profit-
able returns which such labours afford him.
Flesh and milk being, to a large extent,
essential to human existence, these are sought
to be obtained in the greatest abundance, and
in the highest state of perfection. For this

reason, those animals that yield thorn to the
largest extent aro mo.st eagerly desired ; and,
as nature has decreed that dillereiit races, and
different individuals of theso races, aro better
adapted than others to the secretion of the one
or the other of theso essential products, lio
selects such as he deems the most suitable for
the object ho has in view. There is no breed
of which we are awaro that is equally calcu-
lated to produce both to a [)rolilablo extent —
the objects of the two secretions being quite
different, and the tendencies and qualities es-
sential for the production of both being spar-
ingly conferred upon the same animal. As tho
production of milk is, more or less, charac-
teristic of all kinds of animals, it must ne-
cessarily have its degrees of proportion, as well
as quality, in accordance with the size, num-
ber, and nature of tlie progeny which is to bo
nurtured by it. Some will give large quanti-
ties, but thin and poor in quality ; some smaller
quantities, and rich in oily matter; while
others will afford a small portion, but abundant
in solid matter. For profitable or commercial
purposes, the first will be selected by the milk-
man near the populous city ; the second by
the dairyman, whose product is intended to
be butter ; and the third by tho maker of
cheese.

The diffusion of the milk-yielding breeds is
more extensive than any other, because they
are capable of being advantageously maintained
on that description of herbage which is not
sufficiently nutritive to sustain the fat-secret-
ing breeds. The bulk of tho grass-lauds on
the clay soils of this country, on the sides of
the uplands, and even on the poorer sands, is
sufficient to supply the means of making butter
or cheese; but it will not remunerate the at-
tempt to feed cattle on herbage so inferior.
The rich alluvial feeding-pastures, which gene-
rally skirt our rivers, are far more profitably
employed in raising summer beef, than in the
production of milk or butter.

llow far is it possible to detect, by external
conformation, the capabilities of the individual
animal for the secretion of milk? — is a question
well worthy the cousideratiou of all those who
are cTigaged in dairy husbandry. There are in-
stances in every breed, where nature has more
bountifully, or more sparingly, bestowed the
qualities calculated to produce the secretion

GGl

MILK BREEDS.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES.

[milk beeeds.

for -wliich the race mav be celebrated ; and
there are, doubtless, well-knoAn marks, which,
to the dairyman, rarely fail to indicate the
status of the animal in the range of qualities
peculiar to his race. On the European con-
tinent, this knowledge has been professed to be
carried to a very minute extent. Eran9()is
Guenon, a Erenchmun, is said to have found
a mode of deciding authoritatively, not only
the' quantity and quality of milk which would
be yielded by any particular cow, but also the
period for which she would retain her milk
after calving. This he professed to determine
by external appearances alone ; and these of a
somewhat arbitrary kind. The possession of
such an invaluable species of knowledge to the
farmer was not readily to be lost sight of. Ac-
cordingly, the Agricultural Society of Bordeaux
appointed a committee, to test Guenou's capa-
bilities ; and they reported that, although the
process by which he arrived at tliese conclu-
sions was a secret, he had succeeded in satis-
fying them of the truth of his system. It was
deemed, however, that it would be more satis-
factory, if Guenon would submit it to a practi-
cal experimental test ; and this was done in the
following way: — Separate cows were brought
from strange dairies, and he wrote down the
characteristics and qualities of each. These
were compared with the separate statements
given by the owners of the animals ; and, in
cases of more than sixty head, he succeeded in
stating all their peculiarities exactly, with the
exception of a very slight difference in apprais-
ing the quantity of milk — a difference the com-
mittee attributed solely to the quality of food
given to the animal.

At Cantul, the Central Societj of Agri-
culture also reported upon his system with
equal favour. Their description of the process
of investigation pursued, is thus given: — " He
accompanied the members of your committee
to the farm of Veyrac, belonging to the presi-
dent of the society, lie examined, with scru-
pulous attention, the fine dairy cows of this
domain, which is composed of one hundred
milch cows of the best kind in the country.
* * * * M, Guenon gave, upon each of
them separately, precise indications as to tlie
quantity of milk each of them give per diem,
and the length of time they would hold their
milk after being again in calf. AVe must avow
GG2

to you, gentlemen, that they have, almost in
every instance, agreed with the declarations of
the owners of the cows." The mode he adopted
has been made known in this country ; and it
has for its foundation the classification of all
kinds of cattle into eight families. Each of
these he divides into three sections, according
to size only ; and each section, again, he sub-
divides into eight orders. The distintruishinfr
marks by which this division is made, are — 1,
the Gravure, which are those parts which com-
mence at the udder, and extend at the bearing- :
2, the E]yis — a soft brush of hair on the udder
of the animal ; and, 3, Contrepoil, or hair
growing the contrary way. These peculiarities
form the distinction between the families and
orders. Thus, if the gravure be large, the
reservoir of milk will also be large, and the
produce abundant. If it be formed of fine
hair, and if the skin be of a yellowish hue, and
a sort of bran-coloured powder fall from the
skin, they are to be taken as the signs of a good
milker. The rationale of the whole is, that the
gravure is but a continuation of, and corres-
ponds with, the lactiferous vessels under the
belly of the animal. These " epis," he states,
correspond with the reservoir of milk, and
are tuits of hair growing the wrong way on
the right or left of the bearing. The largest
indicates the most rapid loss of milk. The con-
trepoil, or hair growing the wrong way on the
gravure, amidst that which grows upwards,
indicates a deficiency in the production of milk,
even if the gravure be large. — Such is a general
description of a system invested with minutiae
of no ordinary kind ; and so precise and prolix,
that it would even require numerous engravings
to show the variations of family, class, and
order. In speaking of this system, it has been
remarked, that the observations of Guenon
have been carried far beyond their legitimate
objects, and are of a character rather indicative
of quality ; for while a wide capacity of upper
udder, a fine hair, a yellow scurf, are some-
what too indefinite to classify very precisely,
they are just the points which may indicate a
fineness of quality, and a large lactiferous ca-
pacitv, that may add to the physiological signs
by which a milking-cow is judged by the prac-
tical grazier,

III a good dairy cow, a beautiful form is aa
unimportant point in the eye of the dairyman;

CATTLE-FEEDiNa.] CATTLE, AND TIIEJK VAIMETIE.S. [cattlk-feedino.

.symmetry of proportion being no criterion ofi being thin; tail small ; utldor large and round,
uiilliing qualities. The i^rtw-ii/tvj/ of a fiittened , with lour teats, well-formed, tapering to tho

ox in section is a parallelogram, and a cvlinder
is tliat of his superficies ; thus exhibitiug tho
essence of roundness : whereas, tlie very con-
verse is the perfection 0/ tho milker — that is,
fla/nrss. The following are tho best-settled
:nark3 or characteristics of a milking cow : —
l[ead small and fine; eyo bright and full, but
with a quiet and placid expression ; neck deep
and thin, which gives it an appearance of hol-
lowuess ; shoulder and breast narrow, but pro-
jecting; ribs flat; rump broad, and tapering
down to the knee joint, owing to the thighs

end, and at a moderate distance from each
other; skin thin, and witli plenty above; foro
teats round and full, and with a largo subcu-
taneous or milk-vein, as it is commonlv, but
erroneously called. There must, above all, bo
kindliness of touch, indicative at once of good
breeding and of quiet disposition. These,
united to a quiet and gentle temperament, aro
indications of milk producing animals, which,
when accompanied with health, aro almost
infallible criterioua in the cow suitable for tho
dairyman.

CHAPTER IV.

FEEDING OF CATTLE.

Ix the pastoral districts of the United
Kingdom, it might be imagined, that where
fat is no longer regarded as a luxury at the
tables of the rich, every mode which promotes
its accumulation on cattle would be so gene-
rally known, that the most unsophisticated
vould be initiated into its mysteries. This,
i.owever, notwithstanding all that has been
■one, is not the case. " Everybody knows that
ich alluvial pasturage, that linseed-cake and
iSwede turnips, that combinations of hay and
bean-meal and ground corn, with a dozen
kinds of roots, will feed cattle sooner or later.
But the question now is simply one of economy
— How can tlie greatest numher of pounds of
leef he produced at ilie least iwssihle cost .«'"
This is the point to be ascertained ; and to do
this, the grazier must make his selection of
tuch beasts as will take on fat the most
rapidly. By a physiological law, there are
some which will sooner attain maturity than
others, and so be earlier fit for feeding. As it
requires no great amount of skill in a good
grazier to select an animal that is likely
to thrive under his management, he will
make a choice of a drove, of five, or ten, or
twenty animals; and nineteen of the last

number will be the best grazers for his par-
ticular farm. In doing this, his eye, as well
as the signs described in the chapter on the
breeds of cattle, guide him ; but, more than
all, he is directed by the touch. After select-
ing the animals, the mode of feeding them is,
to turn them out into a grass field, if possible,
skirted by a river, where the alluvium of ages
has been washed into the soil so deep, that
the roots of the herbage cannot find its bot-
tom, and so firmly comminuted as to admit of
the smallest filaments of the radicles of the
plants easily to peneti*ate it. It should like-
wise be so porous as to allow the air to enter,
and the water to filter gently through it. All
its elements should be kept in a state of
solution, so delicate, that they may be always
ready to nourish and strengthen the plants
which consume them. It should, also, have
all the elements of vegetation plentifully mixed
up with it. On such a soil, a lean bullock will,
in a few months, become fat, because he is
nourished upon all the elements congenial to
his nature. A little attention, to see that he
is iccll, is all that is required from the time of
his being placed in the pasture to his being
taken to the butcher. There is neitlier labour

C63

CATTLE-i-EEDi^-G.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VARIETIES. [cattle-feeding.

nor expense incurred. He is worth several
pounds more ■nhen he is taken out of tlie
pasture, than when he was put into it ; and
this is the grand point in the mind of the
grazier. The requisites here laid down for
feeding, are strictly conformable to experience.
There is abundance of fresh and highly nu-
tritive food; there is little or no labour in
searching for and obtaining it; with water,
and shelter, and warmth, and also plenty of
air, and freedom from constraint. In feeding
cattle in winter these should be the objects to
be kept in view. They cannot feed in the
open air ; the cold and wet starve off the flesh
as fast as the food lays it on ; therefore, shelter
must be provided for them.

In reference to the temperature at which
the atmosphere should be kept for the feeding
of animals, various opinions have been held.
At the Leeds meeting of the Yorkshire Agri-
cultural Society, this subject was partially dis-
cussed. The question was — Are we to run the
risk of a wasteful expenditure of food by per-
spiration under excessive heat? or are wo to
induce them to burn it up, to keep up animal
beat, by exposure to too much cold ? Nay
will not different classes of feeding animals be
subject to different consequences, from the
same degree of heat ? In the same cow-house
there may be some too hot, and others too
cold, from their different constitutions. Oxen
generally sweat at a temperature in which
heifers thrive admirably. This happens, at any
rate, till Christmas ; after which they seem to
be able to bear the same degree of heat as
female animals. A gentleman tied up two
sets of feeding bullocks —eight in a warmer
shed than the rest, where they were allowed
the same quantity and kind of food; but those
in the warmer shed made more beef than those
in the colder; thus showing that warm air, as
■well as warm food, is higlily favourable to the
fattening of short-horns. The temperature
arrived at was about 55° to G0° of Fahrenheit.
A temperature beyond this caused them to
leave their food, and lose their tone and ap-
petite.

Perfect quiet, and proper shelter, are very
necessary to insure successful feeding. This
fact is well known. An animal that has to
search for its food will not readily fatten,
because it gives ofl", in waste, the very prin-
GOl

ciple that is necessary to enable it to accumu-
late fat. Hence the turnips for cattle should
always be brought to them, instead of their
being driven to the turnips. Whether animals
feed fastest in the darlc, or not, is another ques-
tioned point. " There can be no doubt what- L
ever," says Mr. Milburn, " that anything which f
distracts their attention, which excites action,
or which produces nervous irritation, is op-
posed to fattening ; and as darkness will induce
sleep, and promote quietness, it is so far favour-
able ; but it is not so easy to have darkness
and sufficiency of fresh air at the same time ;
and therefore, the best possible state, perhaps,
is to have the feeding-houses rather in a state
of shady gloom than in absolute darkness. A
certain amount of nervous energy is necessary
to give tone to the vital powers. Beyond this,
repose and quietness are easily attained by a
simple gloom ; while shelter from flies and heat
in summer, and from blasts, wet, and extreme
cold in winter, should be carefully provided."
The same gentleman adds, that abundance of
good food, and regularity of feeding, are essen-
tials in all kinds of fattening; and that it is
not desirable to allow tlie animals to have food
standing before them when they are filled ; nor
should they, on the other hand, ever experience
a single feeling of want. The usual hours of
feeding should be strictly adhered to, for the
twofold purpose of inducing regular periods
of sleep, and for supplying the system with
food at the first call of appetite. Variety in
the vegetables given them, too, is another most
essential element of rapid fattening; and it
may not be far from the truth to say, that all
kinds of food are eqiialhj fattening, if they are
given in sufficient variety. If roots, grain,
and bay be changed every few days, the appe-
tite is never cloyed ; and the whole are de-
voured with a relish which develops fat in the
most rapid manner.

In this country, food, to be esteemed palata-
ble—indeed, to be consumable — must be fat.
Unless it has this recommendation it is abso-
lutely unsaleable. The tastes of the higher,
and the necessities of the lower classes, de-
mand well-fattened beef, mutton, and pork;
and any meat brought to market in a lean or
scraggy condition, is denounced as a sort of
carrion. The younger members of the opera-
tive's lamily have to content themselves with

OATTLE-FEEDiNo.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [cattle-feedinq.

tlie veget:ible3 and f^ravy ; while tho lu-ad of
tho family consumes the tlosli, to enable him
to perform his labour; ami thus, when tho fat
is not available, one important soureo of tho
fooil of liis household ia dried up. For this
reasi)n tho jjrazicr must supply tho whole of
his animals iti a fat state to tho consumer.
Be it observeil. that it is not tho number of
animals, nor their weijj;ht in pounds and
stones that he has to consider, but he has to
provide for them the means of fattening before
they can be brought to tho consumer.

The j^reparalion of food for the animal, or a
system of cooking it, is a very important
question; and, we believe, that all that a
feeder can wish, is attained by the cooking of
linseed. Steaming hay, potatoes, and turnips,
was tried very carefully in Scotland, and failed.
For cattle, at least, it was found useless, how-
ever valuable it might be for pigs. The fat
of animals being analogous to vegetable oil,
its elements are much of the same character
as sugar, starch, and gum ; and no doubt is

other feeding nuilter, the efTeet was purgative ;
and but \'(iw breedi-r.s persevere in tho use of
tho seed alone. The demand for tho oil, how-
ever, induced the crushing of tho seeds to
obtain it, and tho refuse was converted into a
valuable food for animals ; while tho portability
of oil-cake, its cleanliness, and capability of
being long kept, made it a general and de-
sirable food, both for growing and feeding
stock. The oil abstracted, tho cake contains —

Water i 10 0,3

Mucilage WWW

Albumen and gluten . . . 'Jlil 1

Oil u-'x',

Husks o-.j.j

Saline matter and sand . . . 7-2j

Good English-made cako has now been
thoroughly established as one of the very best
fattening products; and the extensive farmers
of Lincolnshire, and other places, expend upon
a single farm, in one year, as much as from
£100 to £500 for this article alone. It is
the opinion of some of the most intelligent

change. The elements of those compounds,
severally, are: —

Sugar.

Starcli

. Gum.

^^-'l»S- ^mmalfat

Carbon . .12

12

12

24 71

Hydrogen . 11

10

10

19 G9

0.\ygen. . 11

10

10

19 7

The oil containe

d in

many

seeds has been

found to be, in —

Oil per cent.

Linseed ,

11 to 22 say 17

Hempseed ,

14 „ 25 „ 19

Rapeseed

40 „ 70 „ 55

White mustard

oG „ 08 „ 37

Sweet almond

40 „ 54 „ 47

Bitter „

28 „ 4G „ 37

entertained, by physiologists and chemists, farmers, that when cake can be purchased at
that the fatty matter (vegetable oil) in plants, j tho same price per ton, in pounds, that beef
is assimilated into animal fat, with very little ! and mutton can bo sold at per stone in

shillings, it will be paid for in the cattle and
animals fed, without reference to the manure.
The price of cake, however, depends on no such
element of calculation. The demand for it has
become far greater than that of the oil ; and,
in some seasons, it has been so great, that the
former became an object of commerce rather
than the latter, and realised as much as twelve
guineas per ton. To render the uncrushed
seed available by a cooking process, attempts
have occasionally been made ; but it has gene-
rally been found better adapted for calves
than for store-stock or for fattening. "Wliero
used at all for the latter purpose, it has only
been to supply a deficiency in turnips, when
the crops of these have failed, and when tho
other has had to be substituted for them.

Tho most decisive step ever taken in the
use of cooked linseed, was by Mr. "Warnes, of
Trimmingham, near North A\''alsham, in Nor-
folk. He commenced by inquiring into t!io
nature of cake, which he found to be nothing
more than the refuse of linseed; and imme-
diately commenced a series of experiments
with linseed, crushed, steeped, boiled, and
cooked in various ways. lie also tried the

665

This analysis would lead to the conclusion,
that any of these seeds are, so far as they are
agreeable eating, useful; and when linseed
contains as much as seven per cent, of mucilage,
ten per cent, of sugar, and fifteen of soluble
albumen, its great value for feeding and nutri-
tive purposes is at once evident. Tliero was
some diillculty in grinding it by ordinary
mills, as it clogged up the teeth ; and when
givoi to animals, either alone or combined
with considerable quantities of corn, meal, or
4 q,

CATXLE-rEEDiKO.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VAEIETIES. [cATTLE-rEEDiNG.

effect of boiled barley, and other food ou
various animals. These ultimately led him to
adopt a mode of feeding on what be termed
linseed compound. This was carried out in
connection with his experiments in growing,
dressing, and preparing the flax, the feeding of
bis cattle with the prepared seed, which be
put into boxes as being opposite to tying up,
and to the summer grazing by soiling.

These processes excited much attention, not
only in England, but also in Scotland and
Ireland, and were the cause of many visits
being paid to Trimmingham, that agriculturists
might see for themselves. On such occasions,
Mr. AYarnes was by no means niggardly, either
in his hospitality, or in laying the whole secret
of his experience before his visitors. Among
these was Mr. Milburn, who describes the
cooking apparatus as so simple, "that it is
managed by a blind man, whose bappy coun-
tenance bespeaks neither over-weening anxiety
nor unremunerated toil. The apparatus con-
sists of two cast-metal boilers, fixed in brick,
witli a fire-place beneatli them. The water is
made to boil before the linseed is put iu. The
seed is crushed by a very powerful implement,
made by Messrs. Harwood, of Ipswich, con-
sisting of two cylinders, one of them of large
diameter. They are made to press upon each
other in their revolutions by two lunar springs ;
and two men will thoroughly grind two bushels
in ten minutes. At this rate the men are able
to work the whole day. The mill is, however,
capable of being reduced to the capacity of one
man. The crushed linseed is sprinkled upon
the boiling water at the rate of one gallon of
seed to eight gallons of water. Great stress is
laid on sprinkling the linseed very gradually ;
otherwise, it is apt to adhere in lumps, and
cleave to the sides or bottom of the boiler.
With tins precaution, however, Mr. Warnes
assui'es us that he has had no instance for
several years of this occurrence. This mixture
is boiled six miiuites, and for that period is
slightly stirred. At the end of that time it is
found to be a thick gelatinous mass. In about
one minute the mass appeared more mucilagi-
nous, and we think was impi-uved. Nine
bushels of cut pea-straw were then placed very
gradually, and by one bushel at a time, in a tub
twenty-eight inches higli. The liquid jelly was
now taken out in the scoop, and poured upon
G66

it. As each addition was made, the whole was
rammed down by a kind of beater, more for the
purpose of mixing the mass, and confining the
heat, than for any other object. The present
cost of the 'animals in linseed, is 35. per head
per week. In addition to this, they have about
one bushel of cut Swedes per day. The animals
to which Mr. Warues at present gives the
compound, are seven cattle, nine horses, and
forty sheep. Occasionally he mixes his com-
pound with corn, or rather with meal. This,
when used, is also sprinkled over the boiling
mucilage ; but when we saw the process, corn
was not used. So soon as the first boiling was
nearly emptied from the boiler, it was again
filled with water, and was ready for another
boil when required."

As a test of the value of his system, Mr.
"Warnes furnished the following remarks and
experiments, as illustrative of the general
effects : — " Linseed," he says, "has five essential
properties — viz., mucilage, oil, albumen, gluten,
and sugar. The shell, or external crust, is the
hardest of all seeds, and the most difficult to
break in pieces ; but not too hard for the
miller, who has every particle gi'ound almost to
powder, in order that all the oil may be ex-
pressed, which it could not be if coarsely
crushed. This is demonstrated by the cake, in
which the presence of linseed is scarcely
apparent. To a similar state, linseed for the
cattle compounds ought to be reduced ; other-
wise some, at least, of the properties above
described, will pass off without benefit to the
fattening animals. This the scientific grazier
will discover by the excrements, in which he
will find sufficient cause not only for grinding
linseed, but also for grinding all grain or pulse,
if possible, into flour. From researches like
these, the profitable returns for grazing upon
my premises may be dated — returns such as
are represented by the following figures : —

7 Diirliam bul-

looks cost . .

10 Scotch ditto .

I Cow ....

10 Miscellanoous

small cattle .

Balance down .

}

59

10

c.

( Sold within sis
• ( months for .

100

0

0.

. Ditto ditto .

5

5

0.

. Ditto ditto .

40

5

0.

( Sold witiiin nine
• ( mouths for .

297

10

0

£502 10 0

£

s.

d.

136

10

0

215
15

0
0

0
0

13C

0

0

£.302

10

0

£297

10

0

£39

0

0

Deduct for 14 qrs. of linspod, mostly grown upon the
farm, £35 ; and £i for barley meal

lleturn for 19 acres of turnips, several acres of pea
straw, and about 3 months' autumnal grass for the
10 miscellaneous cattle .... £258 10 0

TEEDINO.]

CATTLE, AND TIIEIR VA11IETIE3.

[KEEDraO.

" TIio linscod, with the pon-straw nml tiirnip-
tops, NYcro fonued into coinponml, tlio turnips
given raw, atid tlio b;»rh'v-ii»o:»l as circiiin-
Btaiices roiiuiriHl. Under tlio old system, the
turnip-tops would have been mainly destroyed,
and the pea-straw used for litter. But these
liavinsr bien employed as above described, will
account for the small consumption of turnip-^,
and show the immcnso importance of sueh
auxiliaries." The expense of this copper, with

bushel, tho cost for each animal, per week,
will stand thus: —

12 Ib-i. Ooz. of liiisci'd ptT week »
32 lbs. of corn, ut Hi-/, per stono
I.iihour divided per lu-ud

Coals

Interest of cost of apparutus

$.

t/.

1

2

0
0

0

n

4 2^
•i

Another p;enlleinan who carried out tho

the whole working apparatus for ei^^hty or a ' scheme very fully, gave the following experi-

hundred head of stock, was not more than ' meiit with tho linseed compound, as compand

£4. Every farmer will, we think, see, from
this small outlay, the great advantage which

with oil-cake. In this tho turnips were chargiij,
as well as tho compound, to make the terms

the possession of such an apparatus gives ' equal. Sixteen j)olled beasts (cows) wcro
overalmost that of every other kind ; whilst the ! taken up. They were divided into two lots,
labour necessary to work it in an efficient man- ' and each lot consisted of eight beasts, as nearly
ner, is, comparatively speaking, easy and light, equal, in weiglit and condition, to the other as
and, at the same time, requires very little skill, possible. One lot, costing iis. IQd. per head

Feeding in boxes, the growth of linseed, the j was fed as follows : —
manufacture of the fibre into flax, and the
soiling of cattle with green food and com- I
pound in the summer, all entered into the
system of Mr. Warnes, whose experiments
induced trials with all kinds of modifications of
linseed-cooking ; but the one which obtained
the greatest amount of favour, was that adopted
by Mr. ]Marshall, late of Holme Lodge, near
Thirsk. The difl:erence between Mr. Marshall's
plan and that of INIr. Warnes was, thai: the
material cooked had not the heat applied to it
directly, but to the outside of the boiler in
which it was to be cooked, so that no direct

s. d.

Linseed cakf, 3 stones, at 13^(/. per stone 3 4^

Turnips, 980 lbs 3 o"*

Labour 0 5^

Per week for each head

G 10

The other lot was fed upon prepared food : —
Linseed and ground corn . . .4-1

Turnips, 490 lbs 10

Labour, 8zc. . , . . . 0 o.\
Coals . 0 ')

Per week for each head

6 9.V

The two lots were sold on two different days ;
application of the fire took place to burn the ! four being taken from one set of beasts, and

mucilaginous matter. Mr. Marshall insisted
that, to cook the material properly, it must be
boiled at least two hours. His mode was
this : — One pound of linseed was boiled for
two or three hours in about one gallon and
a-half of water. Five pounds of straw were
chopped to about the length of an inch, and
very intimately mixed with two pounds and
a-half of ground oat or barley-meal, which were
then placed on a floor of flags or bricks, and

four from the other set, at each sale. Tiie
cattle fed upon prepared food realised £2 6*. <jd.
more than the others, and the time occupied
in feeding tliem was eight weeks.

A Yorkshire agriculturist, of great skill, made
some very important experiments on the rela-
tive value of 7io/ and cold preparation o( VmseL^d.
He took two animals, and, after ascertaining
their exact weight, fed the one on hot and the
other on cold food. At the expiration of six

the boiled linseed poured upon the mass and I weeks they were weighed again. Tho auiitrd
turned. It was, after this, allowed to cool for fed on cold food weighed, when put up, lU7
one or two hours, when it was ready to be \ stones II lbs. ; that fed on hot, 108 stones
given to the cattle. The subjoined calcula- ' 7 pounds. At the end of the six weeks, the
tious are given for one animal; thougii the I first had gained 2 stones 12 lbs. ; while the

food for a larger number may be cooked at
the same time, and in the same proportions.
Supposing the linseed to be six shillings per

other fed on hot food, had gained 5 stones
1 pound. To guard against the one having
any special aptitude to fatten more readily

G07

WEIGHT.]

CATTLE, AND TIIEIE VAEIETIES.

[weight.

than the other, he reversed the order; and it
turned out that the animal now fed on cold
food, and before on hot, gained 3 stones 1 lb. ;
while the other, now fed on hot food, and
before on cold, gained 5 stones 11 lbs. ! But
this was not all. While the one fed on hot
food had only 5 stones 10 lbs. of Swedish turnips
per day, the one fed on cold food was not
satisfied till his feed was increased to 7 stones
of turnips in the same time, thus showing a
greater consumption of other food to make up
for the want of heat !

WEIGHT AND MEASUREMENT OF CATTLE.

To estimate the weight and measurement of
cattle by the seuses of feeling and sight, is not
so easy an operation as some might suppose.
Indeed, it is so difficult a matter, that many
farmers, even of large experience, are unable to
perform the task with anything like accuracy.
A somewhat distant approximation is all they
can accomplish. Whilst this is the case with
the farmer who may not be moving quite in
the capacity of grazier, this latter has a still
more difficult duty to perform. He has to
purchase lean animals at a market or fair, and
to estimate their feeding qualities. He has
besides to calculate the stones they will weigh
when fat. It is all a money-calculating pro-
cess. On an average the farmer requires to
ihake £5 for grazing an ordinary sized animal
during the summer. Good grass will feed one
beast on an acre, and thus remunerate the
farmer. When beef is 5s. per stone, the
grazier must increase the weight by twenty
stones, in order to make his animals remunera-
tive. Hence, if he sees a beast which, in his
estimation, has frame and capabilities to weigh
fifty istones, he ought not to give more for it
than £7 5s. But this price will not compensate
the breeder ; therefore he and the grazier must
both suffer when the price is only 5s. per stone.

The various elements which enter into the
calculation of the weight of animals, are breed,
quality, age, degree of fatness, quality of food,
duration of feeding, &c. Of some of these the
buyer may be able to judge, but of others he
can form no idea. lie may conceive the breed
to be good, the age to be proper, and the
quality sucli as he wants ; he may even find
the animal well fed up, both as to quality and
food; but ho may still be deficient in the re-
6G8

quisite knowledge. The qfah of cattle have
also a material influence in regulating the
price. There was a time when the hide and
tallow would be an ample profit to the butcher ;
but that is past, and he must now sell the best
cuts of meat at more per pound than he gives
for the wliole, or he will be a loser of his fair
share of profits.

The oftal of ordinary beasts may be esti-
mated as follows : — ■

stones.

Hide, tail, and horns

Tallow ....

Head, &c.

Heart, and eatable portions . . .11

Lights, liver, &c.

Blood 4

Bag and entrails, with contents . . 14

Mr. Ewart, of Newcastle, who paid very
great attention to this subject, and whose
slide-rule and cattle-gauge obtained for him
a degree of merit for skill which his labours
well merited, drew up a scale of per-centages,
which may be considered as a sort of standard.
He classes animals as to their peculiar proper-
ties ; and, in his first class, included the
following: —

EiKST Class. — Short-horns, Herefords, Suf-
folks, and Devons. Their per-centage of fat
to live weight, he thus estimated : —

Beef. Live Weight. .

Half fat . . . . 55 to 59

Moderately fat . . . 60 „ G2

Prime, to very fat . . 63 „ 66

Extraordinarily fat . . 67 „ 70

Second Class. — Craven, Lancashire and
Irish short-horns, Lincolnshire, Galloway,
Angus, Aberdeenshire, Eifeshire, Norfolk, and
better sorts of Welsh : —

Half fat

Moderately fat .
Prime to very fat
Extraordinarily fat .

Third Class. — Argyleshire, Highland, and
mountain breeds: —

Beef. Live Weight.
Half fat . . . -
Moderately fat .
Prime, to very fat
Extraordinarily fat

These estimates may help the buyer who
has not had experience sufficient to enable

Beef.

Liv

e Weight

50

to

55

56

))

60

61

))

63

64

J)

66

48

to

50

51

)>

55

57

)>

60

61

,,

66

WEIOnT.]

CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [hairy feebino.

him to jud<;e 'A' the oarcass-woiglit of tlip
animal bo wisUes to make his own. Let' him
liavo it Wfighed, anil make a (loiluctiou acoord-
iug to the foregoing data ; and if it does nothing,
more, it will at least serve as some guide in tlie
forming of his judgment. The author of T/ia
Boole of the Farm, gives two rules for ascertain-
ing the weight of ealtle by aJiiieasurcmciit. Hi-
confesses, however, that they aro not foundeil
on any certain principle — a circumstance which
must be remembered in using them.

1st. ]Multiply the sc]u:ire of the girth in
inches, by tlie length in inches, and divide tlie
product by 73^1; and the quotient will be
the weight iu imperial stones. 2nd. iSquare
the girth iu feet, and multiply it by the length
iu feet ; multiply again by the decimal -238, and
the sum is the weight in imperial stones. By
the length, in all admeasurement, is intended
a line from the top of the shoulder to the
6etting-ou of the tail ; and the circumference
round the body, just behiud tlie shoulders, is
the girth. The same author remarks, that for
beasts between forty and seventy stones, the
rules of admeasurement apply pretty nearly ;
but below or above these weights, they cannot
at all be depended upon.

The following approved rule is given in the
little work of Mr. Milburn : — " Measure the
girth close behind the shoulder, and the length
from the fore part of the shoulder-blade, along
the back, to the bone at the tail, which is in a
vertical line with the buttock, both in feet.
Multiply the square of the girth, expressed in
feet, by five times the length, and divide the
product by 21: the quotient is the weight
nearly of the four quarters, in imperial stones,
of Mlbs. avoirdupois. For example, if the
girth be Gi feet, and the length 5]- feet, we
shall have G.V multiplied by Gi-, making 42^;
and 5^ multiplied by 5, making 2G]-; then
42} multiplied by 2Gi, making 1,109G; and
this, divided by 21, gives 52 84 stones, nearly,
or 52 stones lllb. It is to be observed, how-
ever, that in very fat cattle, the four quarters
will be about one-twentieth more ; while iu
tliose in a verj' lean state, they will be about
one-twentieth less than the weight obtained
by this rule. The four quarters are little more
than half the weight of the living animal; the
skin weighing about the eighteenth part, and
the tallow about the twelfth part of the whole."

ri:i:uiNG roii tmi-: dairy.

Ti) tho practical man, the inlluenco wliich
food exercises on the production of milk is
well known. Not only is tho daily quantity
of milk produced by a cow dependent on the
nature of the aliment consumed, but, also, tho
(juality of the milk is greatly alTt'ctcd by its
character. Butter and cheese may bo re-
garded as two very important articles of dairy
husbandry, and they are both tho products of
milk. According to the purpose for which
this wholesome beverage is intended to be em-
ployed— whether for the manufacture of butter
or the making of cheese — tho cow should be
dillerently fed. Chemistry has given us a
knowledge of tho fact, that butter contains
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but no nitro-
gen ; whilst, with this last element, cheese is
abundantly supplied. Food which contains a
large quantity of fatty matter, or such sub-
stances as are, in the animal system, readily
converted into fat, will tend to the increase of
the proportion of cream in milk. On tho
other hand, the proportion of caseine, or cheese
matter in milk, is increased by the use ot highl}'-
nitrogenised food. Those, therefore, who desire
much cream, or who produce milk for the man-
ufacture of butter, direct their attention to
the selection of food likely to increase the pro-
portion of butter in the milk. In cheese
countries, on the contrary, the principal object
of the farmer is the production of milk rich in
curd. Vetches, clover, peas, and bean-meal,
abound in legumen — a nitrogenised organic
compound, almost identical in composition
and properties with caseine, or the substance
which forms tho curd in milk. The dairy
farmer, consequently, feeds his cows with ad-
vanta'^e with such and similar food as tends to

O

add to the richness of the milk in curd or
cheese. The quaiit\', as well as the quantity,
of the butter in tho milk, depends on the kind
of food consumed, and on the general state of
health of the cow. House-fed animals, particu-
larly if turnips is their principal food, always
yield inferior butter to cows living upon tho
fresh and aromatic grasses of pasture-land.
Succulent aliment, in which there is an abun-
dance of water, such as the green grass of
irrigated meadows, green clover, brewers'
refuse, distillery refuse, «fcc., increase the quan-

6G9

DAiET FEEDING.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [dairy feediko.

titv rather than the quality of the milk. The
town dairyman who sells his new milk to daily
customers, increases the bulk of his milk by
such succulent food, and thus renders it thin,
without afterwards diluting it with water.

In the Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, an account
is given of the cost of producing a gallon ot
milk, according to different modes ; and, though
it may be a somewhat vague instance, it so
nearly approximates to the spirit of truth,
that we deem it worthy of being laid before
the reader.

The Gloucestershire system, where the cows
are fed on grass and hay, and sold lean wheji
unfit for dairy purposes, involves a cost, per
gallon of milk, of Q^d. The Ciieshire system,
in which a few turnips are added in the winter
keep, costs Qld. The Fifeshire system, of grass
pasture in summer, and nine tons and a-half
of turnips in the winter, with oat-straw,
amounts to Sfo'. ; and Mr. Young's plan, in
the same county, with a more liberal allow-
ance of extra food, as bean-meal, linseed, &c.,
costs 5f(^. Now, though w-e might have ex-
pected a greater difference in the last two
cases, and in favour of the very last in pref-
erence to the former, we still see that it is the
dearest way of all to starve the cows ; and that
a moderate degree of attention and care is
necessary to the most economical produce of
the milk-cow, whether it be in milk or butter.
When the pastures begin to fail, it is usual to
turn the cow upon the fog or aftermath — say
in the month of October — for nearly all cow-
keepers have, of necessity, a quantity of grass-
land producing hay; and the aftei'-eatage of
this land affords the best possible food for the
milk-cow, whether butter or cheese be the
object sought by the dairyman. When this
runs short, a little " hand-meat" — a few turnip-
tops, or rape, or even a little bran-mash — will
be well bestowed ; for if the milk does go down
at this period, it is never regained in winter
by any care which can be exercised. If town
milk is the object, a few brewers' grains would
be the most advisable addition to the eatage
which could be made. If the weather should
still be open and favourable, the pasture, freed
in October, will have grown up ;i ilLile, and
will afford a very useful turn-out for the cow ;
for she must, usually, be housed at night, when
the fog is finished. In the house, she should
G70

either have hay and mangel-wurzel or turnips ;
or, if she have straw, she sbould have cooked
linseed, or oat or bean-meal mash. The chaff'
of the barn, after winnowing, may be collected,
as free from dust as possible ; or, if mixed
therewith, it may be sifted and laid by. A
bushel of linseed may be added to two bushels
of barley or oats, or even wheat, or any other
grain, grown in the ordinary way. This mnj
be boiled in a common boiler, taking care to
keep it well stirred, to prevent its "setting
on" at the bottom of the boiler. After boiling
a quarter of an hour, if this be poured upon
the chaff in the proportion of one-and-a-half to
two pounds of the meal, and a gallon of water
to one bushel of chaff, one of the most useful,
and certainly the cheapest adjuncts to milk-
cow and store-stock feeding which can be con-
ceived, will be adopted. The great objectiou
to turnips, at least iu large quantities, is the
flavour they impart to the milk and the butter.
This is a difficulty which can only be partially
removed. It is surprising, however, how few
turnips or roots will be required if a compound
system be adopted; and this quantity being
so small, it is easy to vary them, by giving
potatoes, carrots, mangel-wurzel, &c., in an
ever-changing round. It is a question whether
hay need ever be given, if this system be
adopted. If it be not, the cows must have a
libei'al allowance of hay. In Norfolk, oats,
barley, or bean-meal, is mixed with chopped
hay. It is questionable, however, whether the
cow has not more gratification, and hence more
advantage, from selectiug and masticating the
hay alone, than can be derived from the cutting
and mixture, which at least is a costly and
laborious process. A small quantity and a
great variety of food will, on the whole,
produce the most favourable effect on milk-
cows. In a Prize Essay of the Yorkshire
Agricultural Society, the Eev, Eobert PuUeine,
of Kirby Wiske, thus describes his very
successful method of keeping dairy-cows in
winter: — "In the management of dairy-cows,
during the winter season, it is of the greatest
importance to have a dry, well-ventilated cow-
house. The side walls should not be less
than seven feet in height; and, in the two
courses immediately below the top course,
every alternate brick should be left out to
itisure a sufficient ventilation. A rough board,

rviuYrKEDiKO.] CATTLE, AND TIIEIK VAliiETlES. [daiiiy fkeuino.

, 1 H couple of hinges, may bo fitted to close
•openings, in ease of very severe weather;
lut I have never required it. Tlio iloor on
which tlio cows slanil slioulil bo uiado of
well-beaten soil, and behind them a kerb-
s'..me, about three inches thick and twelve
•hes wide, to raise them above the channel,
M uieh should have a slight fall, to carry oil" the
\v:;ter at once. jNly cows arc tied up in pairs;
h pair having a space of eight feet by six
.c six inches, which is suflicieut room ibr
y beasts under sixty stones' weight. They
have a crib before them, nine inches deep by
twenty inches wide, raised upon twelve inches
of brickwork. Tiie advantage of the crib being
raised is, that the cows are less liable to get
turnips into their throats than when they have
to put their heads down to the ground for their
food. A rack I consider of little moment, as
0 hay is all given as chop. It is a good plan
It) take up cows as soon as the nights become
cold — say the middle of October — as the white
frosts, which occur about that time, cause them
to run oil' their milk. They are turned out
during the day until the middle of November,
if the weather keep fine. Erom that period,
until May-day, they are kept entirely in the
house, except being turned out a few minutes
every afternoon to water. They are milked at
half-past five o'clock, morning and evening.
As soon as the man who feeds them comes in
the morning, the dung is all removed, and each
w has a feed of 28 lbs. of roots : —

"At 7 o'clock . 7 lbs. chopped hay.
„ 9 „ . . A pail of water, with i lb. of
bean-meal stirred into it.
„ 10 ,, . . 2 lbs. of linseed cake.
„ 1 „ (r.:.l.) 7 lbs. chopped hay.
„ 2 „ „ Turned out to water, and then

2 lbs. of linseed cake.
„ 5 „ „ 28 lbs. roots.
„ 8 „ „ 7 lbs. chopped hay."

One of the first requisites, in a successful
dairy cow-house, is cleanliness. AVithout this,
a dairy is anything but what it should be.
It must be kept free from smells of" all descrip-
tions ; frequently washed and whitewashed ;
and the animals diligently rubbed, and even
curried. A thriving cow, out of doors, is known
by her having the marks of her tongue upon
her skin. It' she is not at liberty to lick her
own skin, she should, at least, have it done for

her. Her litter should bo removed the first
thing in the morning, and ro|)lacud by fresh
clean straw. Above all, HJie cannot have too
njuch air, if tho cold blast bo jin^t ahiflded off.
Bad as exposure is, tho crowding of co.vs in
close places is considerably wor.-i*. Tliero
should bo ventilators at tho top of the cow-
house, in tlie Louvro stylo; 0[)L'n fronts to
tho south, capable of shutting up in snow or
southern rain ; and capacious ventilators at tho
bottom, by grates or ventilating bricks, are
indispensable to the health of the animals. If
these be neglected there can bo no hope of
health or success in tho dairy.

llesj)ccting the iniluenco of the food on the
character and quantity of the milk, to which, in
the opening paragraph of this chapter, we
have alluded, several experiments have been
made. Among tiiese, a scientific agriculturist
furnished Mr. Milburn with one, which showed
that the increase of milk, within certain limits,
was almost in the power of the farmer, by an
addition of bean-meal to the ordinary root
food and hay. Although, as a general rule,
milk may be produced by these costly and
stimulative kinds of food at too great au ex-
pense, yet it is of great importance, in a par-
ticular season, or under special circumstances,
to know the means of increasing the supply
beyond the ordinary quantity. Two Ayrshire
cows were selected by Professor Thomson,
and fed with malt in various combinations,
when it was found that 100 lbs. of barley, hay,
and grass, produced 8*17 lbs. of milk; and
that the same quantity of malt and hay, pro-
duced 795 lbs. of milk; the former yielding
1-95 lbs. of butter, and the latter 1-92. Al-
though this was not at all satisfactory as to
the value, or otherwise, of malt for milk cows,
still, it shows how food may influence the
quantity and quality of the milk. Messrs.
Dumas and Boussingault also experimented
upon this subject. They made a number of
very careful and interesting investigations re-
garding the quantity of milk and its products
which would be given by cows fed on different
kinds of food. They tried nearly all the com«-
binations usually given, except, perhaps, bean-
meal ; and the result was, that, in every case,
the greatest quantity was produced when the
cow had green clover ; thus proving that, in
each instance, this yielded the greatest quantity

G71

DAiET TEEDiKG.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [calf-eeaeixg.

Milk.

E utter.

Cheese

9-3

4-8

3-3

8-9

4-5

4-0

9-8

2-2

4-0

7-8

3-5

3-7

5-0

4-0

3-4

6 0

4-2

3-0

5-G

4 0

3-4

of butter ; and, with one exception, the greatest
produce also of cheese; and that exception
was when the cow was but one day after
calving, which accounted for the abundance of
cheesy matter iu the milk. The table is full
of instruction, and justifies the quotation of
some of its items.

_ , Davs after

Foo'l- culvinj.

Potatoes and hay . . 176

Hay and green clover 182

Green clover . . . 193

Clover in flower . . 204

Potatoes .... 229

Turnips .... 207

lied beet .... 215

It is found that mangel-wurzel, bean-meal,
and grains, largely contribute to the increase
of milk ; that good hay and oat mash augment
tlie quantity of butter; and that turnips,
tl'ough they sometimes impart a disagreeable
llavour, materially add to the increase of both.

The result of Mr. Pulleiue's system of
management, in the production of milk, is as
follows; the cows being five in number, viz. —

1. Yorkshire, 9 years old; had her last calf

March, 1850.

2. Alderney, 2ji years old; calved July, 1850.

3. Yorkshire, 2| years old; calved Nov., 1850.

4. Yorkshire, 5 years old ; calved Jan., 1851.

5. Ayrshire, 6 years old; calved March, 1851.

He says — " It will be observed that Nos. 1
and 2 can hardly be called in full milk, and
No. 3 is only a quey. They produced, in the
seven weeks, from the 25th of March to the
10th of May, 191 rolls of butter, 24 oz. to the
roll, equal to about 251 lbs., IGoz. to the
pouTid. To this must be added 154 quarts of
new milk, and 42 quarts of cream, consumed
in the house. The milk was not regularly
measured, but averaged about sixty quarts
per day."

It is sonaetimes an object to keep the cow
as long as possible in milk. Some cows get
dry early; whilst others may be milked through,
though always with disadvantage to both her
and her calf — both being feeble and impaired,
if it be persisted in. In summer weather,
however, when cows are in high condition, and
good milkers, it is not only sometimes ad-
visable, but absolutely necessary. A cow not
put to the bull will hold her milk much longer
than one which is regularly breeding.
672

The spaying of milk cows is adopted by the
veterinary schools of France ; and much has
been said in its favour by various continental
authorities. A report on this subject was
furnished to the Academy of Erheims, by M. P.
Charlier, which spoke almost exclusively in
its favour. The practice is an old one in both
Germany and England. The object is sup-
posed to be to increase the i'eeding propensities
of the animals, but by no means for the pur-
pose to which we refer, and which mainly
occupies the attention of the Erench veteri-
nary school — viz., the prolonging of the period
of lactation. The report, which is very volu-
minous, furnishes a variety of experiments made
on cows, old and young — some as far advanced
in age as eighteen years ; but, in order to
realise all the promised advantages, the cow
is said to be best when from four to eight
years old. The operation is performed on the
right side, and does not, altogether, occupy
more than from four to ten minutes. It is
seldom fatal, unless the cow is in calf. In
some instances, the cows are said to go and
feed as usual, even after the operation.

"The conclusions from the above report,
endorsed by the reward of the society's medal,
were — that spaying increases the supply of
milk from the animal after a ^ev^ days ; that
there is a steady return of milk of the best
quality, less liability to fiill off milk, and no
troublesome tendency to desire the bull ; that
in eighteen months the milk does not diminish ;
that the feeding tendencies of the cow are
much increased, and the quality of the beef
improved. Nay, it is further said, that in one
diiiry (the number of the cows not being'given),
a difference between spayed and unspayed
cows, in milk, was 850 pints per annum ; no
great quantity, however, if it were a con-
siderable dairy, and where, possibly, the best
cows were spayed. There is, we must confess,
a barbarity about this practice — needless, we
believe — which makes our kinder feelings revolt
at an operation performed for so little ad-
vantage, over the gentle, patient, harmless

milk cow."

REARING CALVES.

The rearing of calves is more or less pursued
on every dairy farm ; and, although every cow
does not annually produce young, still heifers
are usually put to the bull at two years old,

CALF-REARiKo.] C A T 1' L K, AM) Til HI i: VAlilETIKS. [calf-kevuino.

and the period of gestation varies from 1275 to
'2{)0 iluva. Therefore, the old-fushionod mode,
of ri'dvouiiiE: three months buck in the ulmanae,
i3 not a dilllcult way of knowini; the date at
whicii a cow, put to the bull, may be expected
to ealve. She is nearly three years old when
she produces her first calf, which is very often
the produce of a very iuditierent sire. In
about six weeks after calving, the cow will be
ready to take the bull again, although she may
not hold ; and if the mouth of June be suftered
to expire before she is covered, she will be
likely to calve at a time when it will bo un-
proliiable to the breeder. Sometimes only the
tenth of the cows of the dairyman are in calf,
when he loses both milk and produce; but
whether the cows are in calf, or only in an ex-
cited state, every twenty-one days it has a
very unfavourable eflect on the milk. To
arrest this evil, numerous remedies have been
suggested ; among which are confinement,
bleeding, abstinence at the time of bulling, or
ot permitting to have the bull for one return
<jf the season. Some drench the cows with a
pailful of cold water after the cow has been
^jrved, and some change the bull. Thus,
(.■very one has his own peculiar mode of acting,
and, no doubt, every one thinks his own
remedy the best. Where the loins are to be
served, however, it is desirable to have this
done in the morning, previous to milking.
Bat sometimes the cow will not get into
season ; and here also the skill and ingenuity
of mankind have been sorely tried in order to
force her into an excited condition. Some
try one thing, and some another ; but, perhaps,
the best plan to adopt is, to give the animal a
quart of the milk of a cow that is in season ;
after this, it is said that, in three weeks, she
will be ready for the bull, and a second return
■will be productive.

After the calf is produced, as a matter of
course, it requires to be fed with such aliment
as nature, at the commencement of life, has
provided for it. Xo food, therefore, is better
for the sucking animal than milk. In this it
finds proteiue compounds, or, in other words,
flesh-forming substances, to supply materials
for the development of muscle ; lime and
phosphoric acid, from which the inorganic part
of the bones is formed ; alkaline salts, which
enter so largely into the composition of blood
4 B

Hnd (i:lier animal juices; sugar and fatty
matters to supply the wasto of cnrbun, wliicli
is thrown oif during respiration, in the form of
carbonic acid. Milk thus contains, within
itself, all the elements necessary to the support
of life, and, from this circumstance, is justly
considered a modt nutritious, as it is an uni-
versal food. The sucking animal is, by nature,
created to suck this beverage, and is 8up[)orled
by it for a length of time, which varies in the
young of different animals. There can be no
doubt, that if the animal is too early deprived
of the milk of its mother, it will sulfer in its
growth. On the other hand, the addition of
milk to other food, properly proportioned to
the necessities of the growing animal, promotes
its growth, and assists in strengthening its
constitution in a more than ordinary degree.
Beyond a certain period, however, milk diet
alone cannot be continued with profit; for it
must be remembered that herbivorous animals
naturally require a bulky food to preserve
them in good condition. Young animals must
gradually be reared on a more solid food than
milk, as it is essential to stimulate all the
different parts of the alimentary canal to a
healthy activity. To bring up a calf for the
butcher, is by no means a diflicult process.
It is only necessary to allow it to suck its
mother for the requisite number of weeks,
until it has attained to the size and fatness
suitable to the judgment of the buyer and the
taste of the consumer.

"The materials usually employed for solid
food," says the autlior of The Cow, '' are, new
milk, skimmed milk, meal-porridge, linseed-
tea, and hay, grass, turnips, meal, potatoes,
mangel-wurzel, &c. Some breeders — whoso
object is the calf, and the calf alone — sacrifice
every other consideration to this. The breeders
of short-horns, whose early maturity require
a corresponding early supply of nutritious
food, generally apply nature's own provision,
and allow the calves to suck either their
mother, or some other dam, or in some cases
more than one cow, in order that they may
develop their precocious and distinctive quali-
ties. This practice they often continue lor
six or twelve months. It is, however, an
expensive mode of feeding for those who rear
only ordinary cattle for the market. More-
over, some aro so 'stingy,' that as soon as tho

G73

CALr-rvEAuiKG.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES. [calf-eeautng.

cow ceases to give ' beesting,' they begin to
give the calves skimmed milk. A process of
this kind does irreparable. injury to the young
animal.

" The best mode, with ordinary calves, is to
give new milk for at least fourteen days after
the calving. There are two modes of doing
this : either to allow them to suck the dam,
or to remove them as soon as calved, but
train them to drink in the first instance. Eor
ourselves, we think that taking away the calf
is both cruel and unnatural. The healthiness
of the mother, we consider, depends upon it.
AVe invariably allow the presence of the calf
for at least a fortnight. We suffer the mother
to lick over the whole of her offspring, because
we think that a privation of this medicine of
nature, is a cause of many a valuable animal
being lost. After the first fourteen days, we
mix one-half new, and one-half skimmed milk,
for fourteen days more ; this skimmed milk is
scalded nearly to the boiling point, set aside
to cool, and given to the animal. One great
secret in the successful rearing of calves, is to
vive them frequently small quantities of food
at a time. For the first fortnight the calf
ought to be fed, at least, four times per day.
About a quart at a time will be necessary ;
which quantity may be increased afterwards,
as the animal's wants may require it. Soon
after this the skim-milk time commences, when
the animal, if properly trained, will begin to
eat the solid food." In young and growing
stock, the process of renewing, or building up
the system, proceeds much more rapidly than
it does in the full-grown animal. Science,
therefore, has demonstrated that the food
should contain a large supply of flesh-forming
principles, and of phosphates, from which the
bones are formed. These are plentifully sup-
plied to the animal by the grain of barley,
oats, and wheat, which also contain large pro-
portions of gluten, albumen, and other nitro-
genised organic compounds, which supply the
young animal with the materials of which the
muscles consist. In peas and beans there are
still larger proportions of muscle-making ma-
terials. The addition of these in a state re-
duced to meal, to the food of growing stock,
if not otherwise detrimental to the general
health, will have great influence in accelerating
the growth of the fleshy parts. On the whole,
674

then, it may be concluded that the young
and growing stock require a more concen-
trated food than is required by animals which
have arrived at maturity. The plan of Mr.
Huxtable has been very freely discussed, as it
proposed to accomplish the feeding of calves
at a much cheaper rate than was usually done
by other breeders. "We subjoin his mode, with
that of Mr. Nicholson, a Scotch breeder.

The Plan of Mr. Huxtable.
First month : —

Two quarts of new milk daUy,

at l^. per quart, for each £ s. d.
week 0 19

Six quarts of skim-milk daily 0 1 3J-

-0 12 2

Second month : —

One quart of new milk daily
Five quarts of skim-milk .
Half a pound of oii-cake .

0 101
0 8

0 2

4

-0 10

Subsequent cost, viz. : —

From third to twelfth month, 150 lbs. of

cake, at £7 per ton 2 15 0

During last six months of second year,

2 lbs. of bean-meal daily .... 1 2 0

Attendance for two years 1 14 10

Calf born on farm ; price if then sold .090

Total

£7 3 7

The Scottish Plan of Mr. Niciiolsox,

£ s. d.
Forty-five days' milk, foiu- quarts, at l^f/. 12 6
Mixed gruel — wheat and linseed, four

quarts, at O^d. 0 7 6

Forty- five days of the same mixture in

double quantity 0 15 0

Hay, cake, and turniiis, at Id. . . .0 3 9
Grass from June 1st to October 15th, at

IQd. per week 0 15 10

Second summer's fjrass 2 0 0

Kinety days' oil-cake, 3 lbs. daily, at £7

per ton 0 1^' ^'

Price of calf, if bought 1 10 0

Loss from death, at 10 per cent., on

£6 13.. Id 0 13 0

Attendance for two years .....100

Total cost ... £9 4 3
In drawing this chapter to a close, we must

THE DAIKT.]

r\TTLF>. AND THEIR VATvTETTl-lS. [nuTTER and cnEESE.

recommend thnt especial attention to clennli-
noss in tlie keepini; of all aiiinmlt*, whether old
or vouii;;, should form an essential portion of
the duty of their luH-pers. lu the cnilier stapes
of the life of the calf, it is extremely bad policy
to stint it in its food, "That calf," says tho j
author of The Cow, "may be said to bo always
fal which never loses its first layer; and, as
tlif dillVrence is often a question in after-fat-
tenini::, of some six months of keep, there can '
be no question that it is of tho greatest im- !
portauce to keep it well at iirsfc. Giving tho i

calf that food which is easy of digestion, and
suited to its feeble stomach, in early life, allow-
ing it especially its mother's milk, the beest-
ings and tho soothing inlluonco of its motlier's
tongue— weaning it from new milk grailually
and cautiously, with a plentiful allowance of
good sweet hay, are the real elements of suc-
cess in calf- breeding. This course, with a
proper attention to air, warmth, exercise, and
cleanliness, is all that is required in the proper
management of young calves ; and will gene-
rally be found suliicieut for their health."

CHAPTER V.

MAXAGEMIiNT OF THE DAIRY. — GKXFTvAL OBSKRYATIONS ; BUTTER AND CHEESE; THE ART OF MILEING;

PRKSERVATIOX OF MILK; TUE DAIRY.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

Amo>'Gst the almost endless varieties of form
in whicli food is used for the sustenance of
animal lite, there is none in which it appears
to be po universal as in that of milk. In this
form this liquid assumes the utmost importance.
It is the first aliment with which the young of
the whole class of the mammalia of natural
history is nourished. The lactiferous teats
are. to these, the earliest objects of their search ;
anil the instinctive power with which nature
has supplied them to seek, find, and use them,
so soon after their birth, is one of the very-
remarkable phenomena which have excited the
wonder of mankind. As tiie food of the rustic,
as v.ell as the citizen, it also takes a prominent
place. To tlie young especially it is exceed-
in^dy grateful ; wliilst, in the shape of cream, it
flavours the coffVe and the tea of the peer, as
well as the plough-boy. Its butter is spread
over their bread, and softens and enriches
their pa^^try. In the form of cheese it becomes
the diet of the pooi', and, in the same form,
frequently finishes the repast of the wealthy.
A beverage, therefore, so agreeable in itself, and
80 universally valuable in its products, has
necessarily, in all ages, received a high share
of cousideratiou iu the siurht of mankind. In

the females of the class mammalia, it is white
and opaque, having a sweetish taste, and a
specific gravity somewhat greater than that of
water. When it is allowed to remain at rest,
it separates into a thick white fluid, called
cream, which collects on the surface, and the
fluid beneath which is more watery. The
quantity of cream obtained from miik, and the
time it requires to separate, vary according to
the nature of the milk, and the temperature of
the atmosphere. AV^hen the milk is allowed
to stand after the spontaneous separation of
the cream, it first becomes acescent, and then
coagulates. When the coagulum is pressed
gentl}', a serous fluid is forced out, and the
remuiudcr is tho caseous part, or pure cheese.

BUTTER AND CHEESE.

Butter and cheese are obtained artificially :
tho former by the operation of churning; and
the milk which remains after the butter has
been separated, or, as it is called, the butter-
milk, has all the properties of milk from which
the cream has been separated. Cheese is ob-
tained by the addition of rennet to the milk,
which is prepared by digesting the inner coat
of the stomach of young sucking animals,
especially that of the calf. The quality of the

075

BUTTEE AND CHEESE.] CATTLE, AND THEIE YAEIETIES.

[milk.

cheese depends upon the quantity of cream
remaining in the milk. The best cheese is
obtained bj coagulating the milk at the
temperature of 100°, and expressing the whey
slowly and gradually, without breaking down
the curd. "Whey expressed from coagulated
milk, if boiled, and the whole curd precipi-
tated, becomes transparent and colourless. By
slow evaporation it deposits crystals of sugar,
with some muriate of potash, muriate of soda,
and phosphate of lime. The liquid which re-
mains, after the separation of the salts, is con-
verted, by cooling, into a gelatinous substance.
If whey be kept, it becomes sour by the
formation of the lactic acid ; and it is to this
that the spontaneous coagulation of milk is
owing. Milk may, after it is sour, be fer-
mented, and it will yield a vinous intoxicating
liquor ; it is likewise susceptible of the acetous
fermentation. In the former state it is used
by some of the inhabitants of the north-east
of Asia, for intoxicating purposes. The con-
stituent parts which enter into the composition
of milk, are water, oil, curd, gelatine, sugar oi'
milk, muriate of soda, muriate of potash, phos-
phate of lime, and sulphur.

The milk of various animals is composed of
nearly the same substances ; but the pro-
portions vary so much as to give them very
different properties. Every kind of milk pro-
duces cream. In that of the cow it is copious,
thick, and yellow. Goat's milk produces
abundance, and it is thicker and whiter than
that of the cow. Ewe's milk produces as
much as that of the cow, and of nearly the
same colour. The cream from asses' milk is
white and liquid. In mare's milk it is very
fluid, and similar in colour and consistence to
good cow's milk before the cream appears on
the surface. Butter obtained from the milk
of the cow differs in colour, but has always
much consistency. The butter of asses' milk
is white and soft, and disposed to be rancid.
That from goat's milk is abundant, white, and
soft. That from ewe's milk is yellow and
soft ; that from mare's milk has little consis-
tence, and is readily decomposed. The caseous
part of milk varies in different animals. That
from the milk of the cow is bulky, and retains
much serum. Tiic curd of asses' milk has but a
small portion of whey ; it is not unctuous. Curd
from the milk of the goat is abundant, of a
676

firmer consistence than that of the cow, and
retains less whey. Curd from ewe's milk is
fat and viscid ; that from mare's milk is very
similar to what is obtained from the milk of
the ass. The serum, or whey, constitutes a
great proportion of the milk. That from the
milk of the cow has a greenish cast, and a
sweet taste ; containing sugar of milk and
neutral salts. The whey of asses* milk is
colourless, and contains less salts and more
sugar than that of the cow. TVhey of the
goat is yellowish, and contains very little
sugar and saline matter. The latter is muriate
of lime. The whey of ewe's milk is always
colourless, and contains the smallest quantity
of sugar, and but a small portion of muriate
and phosphate of lime. That of mare's milk
has litle colour, and contains a large proportion
of sacclmrine matter, and of saline substances.
"When milk is analysed, it is found to con-
tain 87 parts of water, rather more than 4^
parts of sugar, and a little more than 3 parts
of butter, something beyond one-half of saline
matter, and 4^ parts of cheesy matter (curd
or caseine). Its weight, whilst holding them in
a state of suspension and solution, is about 3
per cent, greater than that of water. The
milk of different animals, however, as we have
already hinted, contains different proportions ;
and this differs again according to the breed,
treatment, and food of the animals. The follow-
ing represents a few of these differences : — '

Cow. "Woman. Ass. Ewe. Mare.

Cascinc (curd) 4-5 1-5 I'S 4-5 I'G

Butter . . 3-1 3-6 O'l 4-2 trace.

Su^'ar . . 4-8 6-5 6-1 5-0 8-7

Saks ... 0-6 O-o 0-3 0-7 )

^Vater . .87-0 87-9 91-7 85-6)'^^''

100- 100- 100- 100- 100-

The object of the dairyman is sometimes to
assist, and sometimes to retard, the natural
stao-es of decomposition into which milk will
run when left to itself; and as it is sometimes
necessary to defer, as it is equally necessary
to hasten these degrees, all the appliances of
modern art requisite to perform them are nov.'
at his disposal. Heat is necessary to all
stages of this action. Hence, in winter, he
can easily arrest, and, by artificial means, as
easily advance the manipulations of his craft ;
but, in summer, it is not so easy to effect his

MILK.]

C A TT r. K, A \ I > T 1 1 i: I li VMM V.T I KS.

[milk.

purpose. Thus, he has often to be in his
dairy iluriiiij suiiiiiior, to eeo that the rays of
tlio sun are not exercising an umluo iiilluenco
upon his milk ; wliilst, by other means, ho en-
deavours to preserve it at a temperature that
will keep it from receiviiic; such injury as 1
an improper amount of heat may cause to it. I
The process throui^h whicli milk nuist be made
to pass, when intended to produce butter,
is not the least dillieult portion of the business
of the dairyman. Commencing with new milk,
it is by no means necessary that the cream
should be separated from it. For the pro-
duction of this article, Mr. Milburn observes,
that there are two different modes of breaking
the globules of cuseine. " One is by the
application of a gradually-increasing, gentle
heat to the new milk, until the buttery matter
floats at the top, which is then taken almost
in a boiling state, and churned to butter in a
very few minutes. Tlie otlier is, by at once
applying the beaters of the churn to the whole
mass of the milk ; but, as the bulk of liquid is
so much greater in the latter case than the
former, and skim-milk is of greater value than
butter-milk, this is much less frequently re-
sorted to. Generally the cream is allowed time
to ferment. This process aids in breaking down
the structure of the enveloping skin, in pre-
cipitating the caseine of the mass, and thus
assisting the maturation and development of
the butter. In churning, the heat of the
mass rises from 5*^ to 10*^ ; and, in very
cold weather, it is sometimes necessary to
pour in boiling-water, in order to attain the
necessary heat. This heat is also indispensable
in separating tlie cream. At a temperature
nearly freezing, it will rise with difficulty.
Perhaps the most regular and healthy tem-
perature is 55° ; but, so rapidly does it rise at
76° or 77°, as to require great skill and atten-
tion to prevent the whole mass becoming sour.
At the first-named temperature it will be
perfectly raised in twenty-four hours ; but in
the latter state of the temperature it will be
complete in ten or twelve hours. As tlie
globules have to rise by specific gravity chiefly,
it is desirable that the milk should be dis-
posed in shallow dishes. Glass is clean and
beautiful, and porcelain is fashionable ; but
lead is the old-fashioned and useful medium ;
it retains the heat of the hot water from the

scalding process in winter, and slowly conducts
the heat after the cooling from evaporatitin in
sumnuT. The desirable temperature in churn-
ing cream ia 54° to 55° — a degree of heat
preservablo only in summer by early churning,
and in winter by raising tiie temperature
with boiling-water, and healing the cream at
tho fire before placing it in the cluirn, or by
adding boiling-water to tho ma.ss in tho
churn."

Having noticed several of the different kinds
of matter which milk contains, we must not
overlook the smell or aroma which it some-
times emits, in accordance with the kind of
food consumed by the cow. It is generally
supposed that this animal feeds on buttercups,
and that these must necessarily taint the
butter with some degree of their natuni.'
bitterness. The cow, however, in every possi-
ble way, does its best to avoid the buttercup,
which is a nauseous, bitter herb ; and, in walk-
ing through pastures as bare as possible, it is
left in all its luxuriance. "We have frequently
watched cows tearing away the grass round a
buttercup plant {lianunculus hulhosus), and
leaving it untouched, with every particle of
grass cropped close round it. Indeed, pastures
may be seen apparently most luxuriant, but,
on a nicer inspection, there is nothing but
buttercups left. Farmers like to see butter-
cups, because they prefer good, sound, dry, old
pastures, and the remainder of the herbage is
generally good. But cows avoid them as
much as possible. Along the valley of the
Trent this plant remains untouched by cattle;
and, during the mouth of May, field after field
may be seen sheeted with its living gold.
AV^e do not think cattle reject it on account of
its bitter character. Cows eat many bitter
and disagreeable plants with avidity. There
is a plant, called the bog-bane or buck-bean,
which grows in marshy places, having a taste
intensely bitter. In spring we have frequently
not'ced that the cattle tear up every particle
as fast as it springs ; indeed, it is eaten so
fast that they never allow it to flower. There
is another plant which is eaten with avidity
by cattle, the flavour of which is very dis-
agreeable— the broad-leaved garlic {A. itrsi-
num). In some parts of the valley of the Trent
this plant grows profusely, and flowers about
the end of May, or beginning of June. At

677

CHUENIKG.]

CATTLE, AXD THEIE YAEIETIES.

[cnUKKIXG.

this period it causes great annoyance to the
dairy farmer, for tlie cows then eat it, and a
very unpleasant flavour is imparted to the
nulk and butter. AVe have heard of a person
who kept a cow in a meadow where it grew
abundantly, and who was obliged, during the
flowering season, to take her out and depasture
her on the higher ground, as no sale could be
met with for the butter on account of its dis-
agreeable flavour. The milk was not dis-
coloured, and the flavour was brought out
more strongly by the process of churning.

In the case of turnips, the smell of the
milk is very disagreeable; and the butter pro-
duced from the milk of a cow fed on these,
will even impart a portion of its flavour to
any pastry that may be. made with it. In
order to give butter a pleasing colour, some
colouring matter is usually mixed with it.
For this purpose, in most cases, annotta is
used ; but the best colouring is the juice of
carrots, which has the advantage of beinf
entirely free from injurious tendencies.

After a cow has calved, her milk is thick,
and deeply tinged with a yellow hue, when
it is termed the "beestings," or " beastings."
It is then more abundantly supplied with
caseine, or curd, which is sold for the purpose
of making cheese-cakes. Tlie strippings, or
afterings, is the last milk which is taken from
the udder of the cow, and is by far the most
plentifully endued with the cheese and butter
elements. Erom a knowledge of this fact,
many dairymen make it a practice always to
strip their cows themselves, notwithstanding
that the principal part of the milking may
have been performed by their servants.

The operation of churning is, when most
quickly performed, generally most successful ;
but, should the cows have been long calved,
and the weather cold and stormy, the process
becomes considerably protracted, and instead of
twenty minutes— the time allowed for a brisk
turning in favourable weather— it may extend
to ten, twelve, or even fourteen hours. When
butter first makes its appearance, it is said to
be in "skill," a technicality expressive of the
caseous matter being separated from the
butyraceous. When an adherence of the small
pjirticles of butter with each other commences
to show itself, the rapidity of the motion must
be lessened, and the butter-milk, to some
678

extent, let ofl", when the gathering process
will begin, and, in about ten minutes, be
completed. About 55° is the best heat
to churn with ; but it sometimes requires
more. Eespecting the form of the churn,
opinions differ ; but the grand object in the
constructing of this machine, ought to be to
secure the greatest facility of operation, com-
bined with a quick, steady, though accompanied
with a trembling or quivering pressure of the
contents.. In churns generally, this is accom-
plished by various mechanical contrivances,
every one of which has its merits. The most
common, however, is the form of churn which
has a cylinder studded w-ith plates, pierced
with holes, attached to its inner surface, re-
volving round a couple of axles, and admitting
of one or two handles, in accordance with the
weight or quantity of the cream. Another
kind of churn is made with a flapper, which is,
with great rapidity, driven through the cream
by means of a piston, with a perforated base,
and by up and down, or perpendicular motion,
either in a cylinder, or vessel similarly formed.
Plans have been conceived by which the labour
of churning might be lightened ; but we are
not aware that they have been attended with
much success. The American, and the table
clmrns, available for the immediate manufac-
tui-e of butter every morning for the breakfast
of the rich, are so far a step in advance, and a
luxury, but for the large operation of the
dairy farmer, a better application than the
churn of his forefathers, we believe, has yet to
be discovered.

The true method of butter-making, is to
have the churn, and the temperature of the
dairy, arranged so as to preserve,. as nearly as
poswiblo, tile degree of heat necessary to the
perfect separation of the cream. It should
not be so high as to impart a too great degree
of sourness to the contents ; but, if it be too
cold, the butter will not separate eflectually;
whilst the operation of churning will be ex-
tremely tedious, render the butter full of
breaks, make it brittle in texture, and give it
a pale colour. These will be the results of a
too cold temperature; whilst a too hot tem-
perature will make it both light and oily.
Another essential point towards the production
of good butter is, that the cows, from whose
milk it is to be made, should not have calved

BUTTRB.]

CATTLE, AND THEIlt VARIIuTIES.

rUUTTEIl.

too loiifj. Should this linvo been the case, the
butter will liave a bitter tHste, and he desti-
tute of that agreeable llavour which (»ui,'ht to
form an important element in every kind of
dairy [iroduce. Tho best butter is supposed,
by some, to be made from one-half of Houred
cream, and the remainder from fresh. The
reason assigned for this is, that tliere is a
suUiciency of the lactic acid in this portion to
facilitate the operation of churning; whilst,
in tho remainder, there will be enough of the
caseous matter to prevent insipitlity in the
butyraceous mass. Let it always bo re-
membered, that if a rancid or disagreeable
taste be imparted to butter, it is no longer fit
for the table ; it cannot be used for the pur-
poses for which it is essentially made ; although
it may be so far restored, or improved from its
disagreeable state, as to become suitable for
pastry purposes. As the unpleasant acids
with which it may be suflused are all, to a
certain extent, soluble in water, the butter
should be immersed in clear, fresh spring
water, then placed over a slow fire, and kept
there until the liquid boils. It should then
be skimmed, and the butter put into fresh
cold water, again to undergo tlie boiling pro-
cess. After this it should be thoroughly
washed, when it will be freed from many of
its impurities, and may be very well adapted
for pastry, although it will be too insipid for the
table. "When butter has to be preserved, or
packed for transportation, the author of TJie
Cow directs that it should be salted. " If it is
to be moved far, it may be necessary to pack
it well, and exclude the air. Hence, when it
is made on a large scale, it is put in firkins, or
casks, holding from three to five stones, which
are carefully fastened up by the cooper, so as
to exclude the air. Salt is well known to
have the power of preventing animal matter
from falling into the putrefactive state, by
means of its peculiar antiseptic power, which
prevents the caseous matter of the butter
from becoming putrid, and running into decay.
But such is the afiinity of salt for the moisture
of the atmosphere, that the outer portions of
the butter soon become subject to the changes
which contact with the atmosphere produces,
la order, therefore, to keep it for any length
of time, it must eitiier be covered with a
saturated solution of salt, or with a syrup of

sugar, which has tho same efl'ect. Otherwise
it must be placed in casks wiiicli are air-lij^dit,
or nearly so, with the toj) and bottom dndged
with salt. In fact, the more tho moisture is
protected from the attnosphcMv, the Uiore closely
will tho wood of the cask adhere, and vice
versd. A very important meaiiH of preserva-
tion is thus allbrdcd to the dairyman, and to
the inhabitants of our large towns; for without
this, even with all our facilities of railway
transit, it is difficult to conceive liow a constant
supply could be maintained. Tho lirkins mado
in summer are opened in winter; and, thougli
not so rich in tiieir contents as tho fi-esh
products from the dairy, they form a second-
rate class of butter by no means disagreeable,
called kennel butter. When these are opened
for use, a very free washing should be given
them, to wash out the soluble lactic acid ; and
the butter should afterwards be well washed,
and kneaded in new milk. This gives it much
freshness and flavour, which improves and
renders it, if well made and packed, much
more pleasant than some of the turnip-flavoured
fresh butter made in winter."

In France, Bretagne butter has obtained
great celebrity, for which it is almost entirely
indebted to the mode of its manufacture. The
immense sale which it has, necessitates it to
bo made in large quantities, and this circum-
stance greatly ijnproves its qualities. The
manner in which it is produced for the market
is by no means complicated. After being
churned and washed, it is steeped, or sprinkled
abundantly with new milk. It is then kneaded
into cakes of a cyliudrical form, and placed,
for a few minutes, in a kind of cylindrical
frying-pan, with heated coke both below and
above. After this, it is taken out in a con-
dition ready for immediate use. Although
the flavour of this butter is peculiar, it is es-
pecially rich.

Butter does not seem to have met with the
same favour among the ancients that it has
generally among the moderns. It was lato
before the Greeks appear to have had any
notion of butter ; their poets make no mention
of it, and yet are frequently speaking of milk
and cheese. The Romans used butter no
otherwise than as a medicine, never as a food.
The ancient Christians of Egypt burnt butter
in their lamps instead of oil ; and in the

G79

CHEESE.]

CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES.

[cheese.

Roman cnurclies it was anciently allowed,
during Christmas time, to burn butter instead
of oil, on account of the great consumption of
it other ways.

The principles of CJieeje-onaJcing, in many
respects, are those applied to the manufacture
of butter ; but the objects being, to a certain
extent, different, they are applied in a way
quite distinctive from the otlier. They all,
however, centre in the artificial development
of the caseiue of the milk, whether that be
new or skimmed. If left to itself, the lactic
acid (into which the sugar of milk is changed),
it has been observed, soon begins to form,
when the air and temperature have arrived at
that condition which is favourable to its de-
velopment. If to this mixture heat be applied,
to such an extent as to cause the caseous
matter to expand, genuine curd, fit for the
manufacture of cheese, would be the result ;
but the cheese would be unpalatable, hard,
and brittle, and the process too slow for the
purposes of commerce. Hence it is necessary
to introduce some kind of substance to facili-
tate the change. Lactic acid, added natu-
rally or artificially, combines with the soda
which holds the caseine in solution, and will
form lactate of soda. Here the acid will, with
the addition of a little heat, be developed ; and,
in order to accomplish this, various means
have been adopted. The usual addition which
is made for the effecting of this object, is that
of the stomach of the calf, or some ruminating
animal. In its natural state, the stomach of
the calf causes the milk to curdle, and
frequently this curdled milk forms the con-
tents of the calf's stomach. The animal
having first had a full meal of milk given to it,
is withdrawn, and made use of to turn the
3ilk into that state which is necessary for the
ultimate production of cheese. This, however, is
not necessary, for the stomach itself will effect
the desired change. Let this be well washed
and chopped up into pieces. Let these steep
in water, say for ten or twelve months, until it
is reduced either to a liquid or a powder, and
this will turn the milk. Even the skin itself
will cause tlie milk to coagulate. An idea
prevailed, and to some extent, no doubt, does
still prevail, that it is the gastric juice of the
stomach which produces the change in the
milk; but although that liquid would produce

it, it has now been satisfactorily proved that
the change is effected by some acid in the
structure of the rennet itself, especially in
such a case as that to which we have referred
— namely, when the stomach is used after
having been steeped for twelve months in
water. The coagulating process, however,
may be effected by other means than by the
rennet. Vinegar, tartaric acid, alum, and even
milk itself, have all been used with success,
under circumstances favourable to the opera-
tion. In reference to new- milk-cheese, the
whole of the milk, immediately it has been
obtained from the cow, and passed through a
sieve, is subjected to the action of the rennet.
" In cases," says the author of The Cow, " when
a full meal of milk will not produce a cheese,
the !^milk of the evening is reserved till the
morning, both added together, and the rennet
poured upon the mass. As something like
95° is the heat at which coagulation and con-
traction of the curd is performed with the
greatest rapidity, the milk should be raised to
about that degree. If more heat than that is
given, the cheese will be tough and waxy ; if less,
there is some difficulty, owing to its softness,
in separating the cheesy from the watery
matter. In cold weather, a small quantity of
hot water has to be added to the new milk
with the rennet ; but if much water is added,
or the temperature interfered with more than
necessary, it injures the quality of the cheese."
When this part has been satisfactorily effected,
the cutting-up of the curd is the next step to
be taken in the manufacturing of cheese.
This is to separate it from the whey — an
operation in which a considerable degree of
care is required to be properly done. If
effected rapidly, or in a slovenly manner, the
mass will burst, and the butyraceous particles
be pressed out. This duty must not be post-
poned after the curd is formed, or the whey
will have more butter than ought properly to
belong to it. To drain away ijhe whey held
loose in attraction by the curd, this must be
cut in pieces, and laid in a strainer ; then, by
light and equable pressure, the remaining
portion of the whey must be taken off. In
effecting this, the pressure, at first, should be
slight, but afterwards it may be increased, as
the curd, with the evacuation of the whey,
gains greater power to retain the fatty matter.

CHKESE.]

CAITLI!, AND TIlIMli VAKliyriKS. Taiit of MiLKiJ?a.

At the coinmeiicement of tlie process, betweou
forty aud fifty pouiuls is as great a weif^Iit as
it may bo jiulioious to give tlie mass. Nearly
the whole secret of clieese-makiiiu:, says Mr.
Milburu, " depends upon thoroui;hly draining
oft' the whey. This carries olf the sugary
matter of the milk, the lactic acid, and, perhaps,
also the rennet. These substances are so liable
to undergo changes, that chcese-niaking al-
together depends upon this process being
properly attended to. In some places even
the curd is washed; for little injury, bc-
vond the danger of washing out some of the
butvraceous matter, would be sustained, com-
pared to the loss incurred, if the cheese were
suffered to retain any considerable portion of
the whey. Besides, as butter is sometimes
churned from this whey, tlie loss is made up
to the dairyman, if not to the consumer, in
another way. So powerful is the tendency of
the albuminous matter of the caseine to putrefy,
that even cheese itself will not keep unless the
salting process, ia one shape or another, is
adopted. This is performed in the manner most
favourable to the production of the peculiar
kind of cheese for which a district may be
famous, and is either added to the curd, or
rubbed in after the cheese is made aud strained.
Such is the affinity of salt for moisture, that
it will soon permeate the whole mass of the
cheese, and preserve the caseine from putrefac-
tion by its peculiar antiseptic qualities."

In making cheese, the most scrupulous
cleanliness should be observed, as the ilavour
of that article is often much more easily
injured even than that of butter. The in-
oculaiion of clieese is one of the refinements of
modern taste aud luxury. A blue mould is,
by some, cousidei-ed the sine qud non of a
tasty cheese ; while others prefer the decay to
be grey, aud the cheese to be in a state of
putrefaction, so absolute as to be soft and wet
— a nidus for mites and the jumpers. If it
be desired to give to a cheese, especially a
Stilton, the flavour peculiar to one of its kind,
it may easily be accomplished. A. dozen holes
may be made in the specimen to be operated
upon, with the common cheese-trier, and the
pieces taken away. The same trier may cut
as many pieces out of the favourite cheese,
and insert them in the places from which the
others were removed. This, covered up in a
4 s

close place i\>v u immlli, will, if free from
mould before, turn out ab.solutely ripe, and bo
of tho same Ihivour as the cheese from which
it was inoculated.

Tin: ART OF .MILKING.

The art of milking well is not taught in a
hurry. It requires long practice to milk prop-
erly ; and therefore all tho young people on a
farm ought to be shown how the labour should
bo done. It is quite important that this
branch of the dairy should bo particularly
attended to, for a good milker obtains at least
a quart more from tho same cow than a poor
milker. The first lesson to be taught to young
people is gentleness and kindness to the
cows. These never need be treated harshlv, if
the business is properly commenced. Cows
that have been caressed, and uniformly well
treated, are fond of having the milk drawn from
the udder at the regular time of milking, for it
gives them relief from the distension of tho
milk ducts. Let young people be put to milk-
ing the farrow cows first, or such as are to bo
soon dried, and then the loss from bad milking
will be less injurious ; the hands should extend
to the extremity of the teats, for the milk is
then drawn easier. They should be taught to
milk as fast as possible. Moie milk is always
obtained by a rapid milker than by a slow one.
They should therefore be taught to think of
nothing else while milking, and no conversa-
tion must be permitted in the milk-yard.
They should sit up close to the cow, and rest
the left arm gently against her shank. Then,
if she raises her foot on account of pain occa-
sioned by soreness of the teats, the nearer tho
milker sits to her, and the harder be presses
his left arm against her leg, the less risk wiil
he run of being injured. Cows may be taught
to give down their milk at once; and they
may be taught to hold it a long while, and to
be stripped indefinitely. The best way is to
milk quick, and not use the cow to a long
stripping, or an after-stripping.

"The most important part, in the operation
of milking," remarks the author of T/ie Coio,
" is perhaps to milk clean — to take out the
whole of the milk from the udder. Not only
is the last portion the richest in cream aud iu
butter, but there is not a more certain way of
di-viug a cow than allowing a part of her milk

GSl

MILKIKG.]

CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES.

[milking.

to remain in the udder. It is a good plan, but
too generally neglected, to wash the udder
with warm water before milking. Nor is it of
less consequence to have a good-tempered and
expert milker. A savage, ill-tempered milker
will often spoil a cow ; and, if she once holds
up her milk, it is a proof that the milker is
defective or disagreeable to the animal, either
from her disposition and temper, or in the
manipulation of the udder. Pleasant milking
is that which sensibly relieves the cow's udder.
A free, decided, but gentle grasp of the teats,
and a full and vigorous stream of milk, are the
marks of a successful milker. It is desirable
to rub and stroke the udder when the stream
ceases, to encourage the delivery of the slightest
remains ; nor is it a bad plan for the milker,
or, in large dairies, for. the foreman, or even
master, to take a small measure, and follow the
milker to 'strip' all the cows. There are
some masters who make a point of always
attending to this at the milking, and they thus
see the character and capabilities of the milker.
Women are by far the most capable of milking ;
their hands are more gentle and delicate, and
the cows seem generally to prefer them."

As a sort of climax to these remarks, we
would suggest a few rules, which might be
advantageously acted upon. If you would have
a gentle cow, be gentle yourself. If a cow
kicks much, have a switch under the left arm,
the pail in the left hand; and if, while milking,
she kicks, let this act be invariably followed by a
single blow. Never strike but once at a time,
even if she kicks so hard as to break your leg ;
and never omit it if she hits only the air. By
never striking but once she has no time to " get
mad," when she is all the more terrific ; for who
cares for a blow while stimulated by fury? A.
t jiall mess of pleasant food, at the time, will
servo to do away with any disagreeable impres-
t'.on in connection with milking. To be a good
milker, you must pare your nails short ; sit on
a stool ; milk fast ; never scold a cow ; never get
out of patience ; tie her tail to her leg in fly
time, and never toet the teats loith the first
stream of milk. Milk, applied to the teats to
soften them, dries and forms a glossy varnish,
which tends to cause cracking or chapping of
these parts. Cold, or a little warm water is
much better, becoming quite dry by the ti:ne
tbe milking is finished.
GS2

Milking should always be performed the
very first thing in the morning; never later
than five o'clock in summer, and six in
winter. In the evening it may be done at
fivei and regularity, in this respect, should
punctually be observed. If distant, cows should
not be driven home, but the milk should be
carried from the field; for a great waste of
milk will take place, if they are driven about.
If under cover, their feed should be given them
whilst being milked. It assists to quiet them,
and makes them part with the liquid the
more freely ; and as most milk-cows, in winter
and spring at least, have mash, it is desirable
to give them this during the milking, the first
thing in the morning.

Several attempts have been made to accom-
plish the milking by other means than the
hand. Syphons have been invented, which
were alleged to have the peculiarity of empty-
ing the udder without the use of the hand.
But they have not been found so successful as
to obtain any extensive encouragement. In-
deed, we question if they have ever been heard
of by many large agriculturists. The syphon
was constructed on an erroneous principle, by
distending the mouth of the inner duct of the
iiiilk in the teats. This subjects the cow to a
flaccid state of teat, and is very likely to cause
her to commit the fault of milking herself.

There is a plan, in use in the United States,
which proceeds on the principles of compres-
sion and suction, and which are the only modes
of overcoming the tension of the udder. Tlie
American instrument consists of four india-
rubber bags, which are drawn over the teats,
and set so as to be air-tight. " At the lower
end of these, metallic tubes, with taps, are
inserted. When the adjustment is perfect
the taps are turned, and the whole of the milk
in the udder is said to be thoroughly exhausted,
and in half the time required for hand-milking.
It is said that a man can milk ten cows
thoroughly in fiteen minutes."

A novel, and somewhat extraordinary ex-
periment on milk-cows, was not long ago
made by M. Delamarre, at Paris. After the
fifth or sixth gestation, and five or six weeks
after calving, the cow underwent an operation,
by which she was deprived of her ovaries, in
order to render her unfit for subsequent re-
production. This operation, though known to

PHKBEnvATiox OF MILK.] CATTLE, AND THEIR VARIETIES. [rui: daiuy.

the nncienta, in modem times has only been
practised partially for soiuo years. Jt can
uow bo pertcirmi'd without exlenial incision,

will {jreiitly improv«» its Icecpinj» qualities. It
phoulii aJHO, after this, bo kept as cool as possi-
blo. M. Adepert's metliod id to subject the

and with little dan<;or. By this means the , milk to a heat so gentle, that the great bulk
nature of tlio nniinal is chantred, and the i of the purely watery parts will be evaporated ;
pucoeysions of rut, gestation, and parturition then to bo closely corked up. This has a far
disappear. In this new state, tho milk be- greater tendency to resist dceomposition than
conies regular, and is yielded in full abundance . if the whole of tho watery particles were still
for a whole year, and in smaller quantit}', but , retained as an element iu the beverage. If,
improved qi:alitv, for two, or even three years, ; while hot, it were boiled in tho bottles in
provided the animal is not too old. AV'lien the | which it was to be finally corked uj), as in tho
lactation ceases, this animal, which, during a { instance above, with a snuiU addition of soda,
calm and tranquil life, has gained the de- j it might keep in a palatable condition for a
velopment and fatness necessary for the mar- considerable period — not indeed to compete
ket. can be delivered to the butcher in perfect | with newly-produced milk, but to be a luxury

condition, its flesh much superior to that of
ordinary cattle. Thus, not only is better
milk given, but better beef is produced. This
milk is more abundant in cream than usual,
and it is equally rich in "caseum," which
forms the nourishing principle in milk. The
butter extracted from it is exquisite in taste,
testifying the abundance and richness of the
caseiue. This milk is found, moreover, ex-
cellent for nourishing infants, who instinctively
prefer it to any other.

PRESERVATION OF MILK.
For this purpose, various plans have been

on board a ship far out at sea, without any
fresh supply of that nutritious article. Duchoft',
a Russian chemist, goes beyond Adepert, and
professes to furnish a supply of milk for any
length of time, to be used at pleasure. It is
by forming essentially a milk powder. He
proposes to evaporate irom the milk, by a
slow fire, the whole of the watery matter, and
thus have a solid and pulverulent mass, which
may be kept iu a small compass in a bottle,
and, when required, be dissolved in a proper
quantity of water ; and, as milk contains water
in the ratio of nearly nine-tenths of its sub-
stance, it may, possibly, be much reduced in

adopted, notwithstanding that the ingredients compass, and made capable of being produced
of which milk is composed are so various and extemporaneously at pleasure. This would

changeable in their nature, that it is more
difficult than might at first be supposed, to
preserve it with success. The Dutch mix
their milk with carbonate of magnesia, which
thickens it, and prevents it from souring.

supply a great desideratum.

THE DAIRY.
The dairy should be kept apart from the
house, from open grates and from dung-heaps,

This, or some other alkaline mixture, has the and should, as far as possible, be so regulated
efiect of preserving it for a short time, es- I as to preserve an equable temperature,
pecially in winter, by forming a salt with the "What its construction ougiit to be is thus
lactic acid, and by keeping the caseine in a described : — "As, however, it is much easier

state of solution. Carbonate of soda will pro-
duce a similar action ; and it is believed by
some to improve the tendency of the cream to
separate from the milk. Another plan is to
bottle the new milk, and immerse them in a
pan of cold water, placing this on the fire
until the water boils. The air in the bottles

to keep a cold building warm, than to cool a
hot one, it is desirable that it should be, as
much as possible, shielded from the sun's rays.
It should have its side to the north, its end to
the east, and, if possible, be let into the earth
a few feet, but not so deep as to interfere
with the drainage. If covered by a large tree,

thus becomes rarefied; and, if corked up hot, it would be all the better. Around it should
the milk can be kept for a considerable time ; be either a hollow wall, or peat earth should
in a state of comparative freshness, to be used be walled round its exterior ; or, as another
immediately the bottles arc opened. The ad- alternative, and possibly the best, but most
dition of a few grains of carbonate of soda expensive, it should be surrounded by a

GS3

DISEASES.]

CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES.

[diseases.

verandali. It should also have a double roof,
and abundant top and side ventilation — either
of which should admit of being closed. It is
niecessary to have in it a pump, and the floor
sloping. On the highest part, a perforated pipe
should be connected with the pump, to allow
of the cleansing of the floor, when necessary,
with cold spring water. Tho bowls should
either be earthenware or glass dishes, placed
upon wooden tables — fir, maple, or sycamore
being the best— or leaden bowls may be used.

placed on frames, and surrounding the dairy.
Slates are the best for the floors ; and a lining
for the walls, of white pottery, is not only
elegant, but useful. A pipe, connected with
the boiler attached to the kitchen fire, with a
stop-cock, so as to regulate the heat of the
room in winter, is a great advantage. The
scalding and churning-rooms should be dis-
tinct from the milk-house, and the latter should
be kept as free as possible from all kinds of
foreign matter."

CHAPTER VI.

DISEASES OF CATTLE, AND THEIR REMEDIES.

Theee is no part of our subject capable of
giving less satisfaction than that which treats
of the diseases of cattle, inasmuch as it is very
difiicult to know what is the precise nature of
the complaint with which any dumb animal
may be afflicted, and therefore it is surrounded
with a darkness which cannot be dissipated
without both an enlarged and an enlightened
experience. The extremes of temperature, or
the sudden transitions from heat to cold, are
frequently the causes of disease in young cattle.
It is, in many parts, a common practice to tie
up animals, of different ages, in the winter,
with the view of depasturing them in the fol-
lowing spring. Generally speaking, cattle
buildings are quite inadequate for such a pur-
pose. They are frequently in a wretched con-
dition ; there is seldom drainage for the liquid
matters below, or free ventilation for the exit
of foul aerial matters above. Such a condition
of things may do for fattening beasts, because
in such a warm, close atmosphere, the respira-
tion is but little exercised, and, the blood being
but imperfectly decarbonised, fat will more
readily accumulate. Under such conditions
the vital processes naturally become weakened,
without, perhaps, disturbing any particular
organ ; and, on the cattle being turned from
their warm quarters in the spring into the
open fields — oftentimes, too, with very little
G84

hair on their backs — for, from the hot-house
system of management which they have under-
gone, they are prematurely preparing to put
on their summer coats — disease is induced in
various ways. The sudden transition from
heat to cold produces internal congestion, of
the liver in particular, which has been stimu-
lated throughout the winter with highly car-
bonised blood ; and, hence, diarrhoea and dysen-
tery are a common occurrence. Catarrh is
also produced from the same influence, and
sometimes bronchitis, which is a highly dan-
gerous disease, and requires prompt attention,
and all the aid that veterinary skill can afford.
AVhen the disease reaches the bronchi, the
cough has a frequently painful husky sound,
and is easily recognised by the anxious, haggard
look, and rapid laborious breathing which the
poor animal exhibits. In favourable contrast
to this mode of wintering store-cattle, is
that of keeping them in small yards, having
comfortable roomy sheds attached, where they
are sorted, according to age, and supplied
with a fair allowance of roots, hay, cake, or
corn. — In cases of consumption and chronic
diarrhoea, there is generally an hereditary
taint; and breeders should beware of breed-
ing from stock having such predispositions.
It is also a very i-eprehensible practice to
rear calves on skimmed milk, or to supply

DISEASES.]

CATTLE, AND TllHlli V.\K1I:TIES.

[CALVIXO.

them with insufTiciont or unwholesome food.
Many discuses snriiii; from this. By dt'privini;
the milk of its croam, the greater portion of tlio
muscle and fat-formin!» principles is removed,
whilst the phosphates arc rather in excess;
and hence the oriu;i?i of sueli a number of
sharp-backed, ilat-ribbed, coarse beasts, which
devour more food than stock of a better de-
scription, and, when fattened, present nothing
but coarse beef, having scarcely a joint fit for
the shop of a respectable butcher. Breeders
of calves would fuid it advantageous to accustom
them to consume small quantities of linseed cake
when about six weeks old, and this increased
in proportion as the milk is witlidrawn. AVhen
the weaning takes place, the allowance of cake
should be still further increased, which will
prevent the check so commonly produced in
their growth at this period, as shown by their
large bellies, and dry and thrifty appearance.
Tlie cake should be continued until the calves
are so accustomed to the grass as to be able to
dispense with it. It may be imagined that this
system of feeding may increase the liability to
inflammatory fever, or felon, to which stock at
this age, as well as yearlings, are exceedingly
disposed ; but, to prevent this, farmers should
increase the strength and constitutions of
their young stock — a condition not obtained
by excess of food at any one time, but by
regular feeding and proper management.

An imperfect system of drainage of soil is
another fruitful source of disease in calves and
yearlings. During periods of moist, warm
weather, on undrained soils, a disease called
"boose" frequently prevails. The windpipe
and bronchi become filled with masses of worms
{Strongyhis fiharia) and mucus, occasioning
violent inflammation of the membranes of the
air-passages. As these remarks apply only to
the more prominent of diseases in cattle, we
may observe that inattention to first symptoms
often terminates in fatal afiections. The ma-
jority of such cases which occur on a farm, pro-
ceed from not attending to the premonitory
signs of disease. These, in cattle, are usually re-
cognised by the animal showing a loathing for
food ; suspended rumination, or lazily per-
formed ; the muzzle dry, instead of being be-
dewed ; respiration increased ; hair pitched, and
not licked. AVhen these symptoms, or any of
them, make their appearance, it may be taken

as n certain sign tliat dinea8o is approaching;
and it becomes a duty to act without delay, as,
by doing so, the disease nuiy bo mitigated or
arrested. Very little attention to the causes
of disease must show that tli(;y are commonly
the result of mismanagement, ratlier than of
accident or of circumstances which cannot bo
controlled ; even tho agencies inducing epi-
zootic and contagious diseases may bo guarded
against, or considerably modified, by proper
and regular feeding, good drainage, and suit-
able yards, sheds, and farm-buildings. Tho
great secret of keeping all animals, however, is
to tend them carefully and keep them well.
Let the land, which is thought to be subject
to disease, be thoroughly drained as well as
farmed ; let the bad herbage and cold beds of
the cattle be improved, and they will bo
healthier, and thrive better. It is safer alway.}
to pay the cake-crusher or the miller, than to
pay the veterinary surgeon, however skij'ol he
may be.

Blown, Uoven, or Over-Full — Sometimes
a change of food, or a feed of wet clover,
or potatoes greedily eaten, will induce fer-
mentation in the stomach, instead of di-
gestion. The sides will be blown up, until
the stomach presses on tho skin with a force
which renders it hard to the finjrers. — In
treating for this disease, by far the best
method is to use the probang. It should be
introduced to the stomach by the throat, and
then the foul air will generally immediately
escape. AVhen this instrument is not at
hand, the beast may lie down, and the disease
may continue till the walls of the stomach
are ruptured. In these cases an ounce of
ammonia will often give relief. A pint of
vinegar has been known to effect it; but tho
safest remedy is a pint of linseed oil. Use
gentle exercise ; but all kinds of violence, aud>
above all, such doses as tar and salt, given
with the idea of making them eject their saliva,
can only do harm. — AVhen it is necessary to
cut into the stomach, employ a veterinary
surgeon.

Calviiig. — Strictly speaking, this cannot bo
called a disease ; but it ought not to be entirely
overlooked in a work of this kind ; for, in some
cases, more especially in the" first or second
instances of parturition, there is great danger
of the birth not being effected without

ABOETION.]

CATTLE, AND THETE TAETETTES. [calf diseases.

mechanical assistance. After this, however, the |
danger is not so probable, provided the proper
presentation takes pUice. It has been said,
that such animals as bring forth their young
\rithout any attention whatever, do the best r
and we have no doubt that much could be
said in favour of this observation ; but whether
it be true or not, there is no question that
premature interference is more likely to be
attended with unsatisfactory results, than if
the animal were left entirely in the hands of
nature. The first decided symptoms of coming
labour, exhibit themselves in what is called
"the waters;" after which the cow will ap-
parently feel perfectly at ease for an hour or
so, and sometimes eat a little food. The
second bezng thicker and larger, envelops
the feet of the calf. When both symptoms I
appear, a little mechanical assistance may, |
with safety, be given, should the head be
found above and between them. Above all
things, time should be given for nature to
work out her own operation, and the calf will
appear in due time. In cases of false presen-
tation— such as the appearance of the head, a
single foot, or the hind legs— it is, at all times,
the best plan to call in the aid of a veterinary
practitioner. " Some persons," says the author
of The Cow, "have the practice of giving every
cow a calving drink. We uniformly prefer, as
we said, nature's medicine — the licking of the
calf— to any and ali others which can be given.
If it has been a long and protracted labour,
a drink of a quart of home-brewed ale, or a
pound of treacle, will be found useful. If the
cow refuses to lick the calf — which heifers of
their first calves will sometimes do- — it is
seldom necessary to do more than run the
hand over the newly-dropped calf, and then
pass it across the mouth and lips of the mother.
Abortion. — Thi^ is frequent in some indivi-
dual cows, and is often caused by the disagree-
able effluvia arising from the decaying matter
which is sufi"ered to pollute both the cow-houses
and the yards. Imagmatiou has also a great deal
to do with this. Indeed, to such an extent is
this the case, that an instance of abortion in one
cow, has caused an epidemic of the same kind
to afiect all the rest in the yard. The cow
that has success^fu ly calved, should, therefore,
be immediately removed from the others, and
placed in a situation of quietness and solitude.
686

Chloride of lime ought to be abundantly strewn
near and about the stall where she was ;
and the noses of the whole of the others
should be rubbed over with tar. Hetention of
the placenta, or failing to cleanse, sometimes
occurs, and is indicative of weakness, and a
want of tone in the uterus. Where this ia
the case, a mild stimulant may be given ; and
nothing ia better than an infusion of camomile
flowers — say two handfuls in a quart of water
— added to a quart of good boiled ale ; and, if
necessary, apply an injection of soapsuds, to
keep open the bowels, and prevent inflam-
matory action. Should these fail, call in the
veterinary practitioner.

Cholcmg. — Where this has taken place, from
the eftects of some large root having " stuck in
the throat," an eftorc must immediately be
made to relieve the animal. The mouth should
therefore be first examined, in order to dis-
cover whether the object cannot be extracted
with the hand, which is by far the best instru-
ment to use, if it can conveniently be done.
Should this not be the case, however, the
assistance of the probang, invented by Dr.
Munro, must be called in. Before using this
instrument, a little sweet oil should be first
given ; after whicli it should be carefully passed
into the mouth, with the cup end downwards,
and gradually moved towards the impediment
which has caused the choking. Should this
be a turnip, which is not unfrequently the case,
and should it ofier much resistance, the in-
strument must be withdrawn, and its position
changed. Generally, however, this will not be
necessary, as the root will pass down without
much effort. Sometimes it may even be gob
out, by pressing the thumbs up each side ot
the neck, accompanied with a pressure of the
hand.

Costiveness. — In calves this disease is some-
times found ; and unless it has assumed a very
severe form, it is not necessary to have re-
course to medicine. An ounce of fat bacon,
boiled with a handful of onions, will, in all
probability, act as a suitable relief; whilst its
nourishing properties cannot injure, but may
improve the health of the animal.

DISEASES IN CA.LVES.
Young calves are not subject to many
diseases, and luediciue is very seldom necessary

rHLOX.]

CATTLE, AND Til KIR VARIETIES.

[yOUL FEKT.

to restore their health, provided they hare
been well-inanai»ed, not neglected and half-
starved. Diarrluoa, or the scour, is usually
the most fatal disease with which they are
attacked; and, as this is usually the result
of some acrid or foreign matter in the bowels,
it is generailv mitigated or reuioved in a short
time, hv giving them a table-spoonful of
sulphur in their milk. Should the attack con-
tiuue after this, administer a table-spoonful of
tincture of rhubarb with a teaspoonful of
laudanum. Mr. IMilburn tells us that he once
had a calf nearly dead of diarrhoea, which was
so violent as to defy all the eftbrts of medicine.
It waa all but dead, when he gave it a bottle
of port wine, expecting its deatli next day.
In the morning, however, it was well, and
crying out for its breakfast. Mr. Milburn adds,
that a pint of good old port will often work
wonders, when all other remedies have failed,
both in man and beast.

The J^piJemic. — The symptoms of this dis-
ease are characterised by their affecting the
mouth witli blisters, and the feet with inflam-
mation and pain, and is very troublesome. — In
treating for it, give, in the first stage, a dose
of Epsom, or Glauber salts, accompanied with
bran-mashes and shelter. This will generally
prevent dangerous results ; but, should the
foot break out, or an eruption occur, treat as
in the case of foul in the foot — which see.

Felon. — Mr. Karkeek considers the outset
of this diseaue to be a febrile condition, in-
duced from sudden excess of food at a period
when the tote of the vital principle is unequal
to the work. The capillary arteries are more
numerous and active in the early period of life
than at any other, while they are carrying on
and completing the organisation of the frame.
They are, in fact, the masons and architects of
the system ; but, if a larger supply of building
materials is forced into these vessels than can
be efficiently used up in reparation and growth,
active congestion takes place almost every-
where; the vital principle is suddenly re-
duced; the body becomes amenable to the
ordinary chemical affinities; destruction of
the living parts ensues by decomposition, even
whilst the animal is alive, shown by the ex-
traction of gas from the cellular membrane, and
by the extensive sloughing process in the skin.
The great point, then, in the rearing of calves,

is to take care that the vital powers ore pnv
dominant, which condition is only obtained by
a proper supply of food, jjroper temperature,
and proper exercise. The complaint, however,
is common in all kinds of cattle, especially in
the tender breeds, and proceeds from cold and
exposure. It is accompanied with low fever
and loss of appetite. The coat stares, the
eve is heavy, the nose dry, and the back sore.
The animal will flinch from the touch, and
the teeth will be felt as if they were loose.
The remedy, therefore, is in the use of stimu-
lating cordials.

In treating for it, first house and give the
animal a drink ; then administer 1 oz. of tur-
meric, 1 oz. fenugreek, 1 oz. liquorice, 1 oz.
aniseed powder, in a quart of ale. This will
generally prove cflectivo; but, if not, repeat
the dose. A very common and very safe pro-
cess is to separate the nerve of the under side
of the tail, which relieves the back, and fastens
the teeth. To perform this operation, feel for
a soft place on the under side of the tail.
The knobs are the joints ; the soft place is the
bone. Cut the skin across at the soft part,
and it will bleed for eight or ten minutes,
when the tail should be tied up with a piece
of linen cloth. Great relief will be afforded
by this.

Foul in the Foot. — To this disease large
heavy milk-cows are specially subject. It is
to the cow what foot-rot is to the sheep.
There is inflammatory action between the
parts of the hoof; it begins to discharge fetid
matter ; and is a source of pain and irritation,
which often dries up the milk, and becomes
very difficult to cure.

In treating for it, let the foot be first well
cleaned and fomented with warm water, and
all loose flesh cut or clipped ofl". The foot
may then be poulticed for one night with
linseed-meal, and again fomented and anointed
with tar. If it should smell very offensively,
a little charcoal, or a few drops of chloride of
lime, may be added to the water. Next day
the inflammation will be lessened, and its
discharge rendered more free by the tar. Tho
foot may then be dressed with butyr of anti-
mony (chloride of antimony) night and morn-
ing, and the tar applied afterwards. Tho toot
should be confined in a boot or stocking, and
kept free from dirt. A little linseed oil or

C87

MILK I-EVEE.]

CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES.

[bed "WATER.

salts should be given, in order to keep up a
gentle state of activity in the bowels.

Gripes. — Toung calves are frequently at-
tacked by this disease after having sour milk
given to them. It is attended with acute
pain, as may be inferred from their pawing
the ground, and kicking the belly with their
hind legs.

In treating for it, give — a cupful of pepper-
mint-water, and a teaspoonful of laudanum.

Inflammation. — This disease indicates itself
by a coldness in the horns and extremities, and
by the animal exhibiting symptoms of enduring
both acute and continuous pains. Attempts
to cure it should never be made but by such as
have a thorough knowledge of nature. It is,
therefore, indispensable to call in a veterinary
practitioner ; and the same should be done in
all cases of acute disorders, such as stranguary,
staggers, &c.

Jaundice, or the Yellows. — This is one of
those forms of felon to which cattle are very
liable. It is found more particularly to attack
white cattle, and is easily recognised. Its
signs are marked by a yellowness of the eyes,
and also under the anus; when costiveuess
takes place, the appetite becomes dull, and
rapid debility ensues.

In treating for it, give — 1 dr. ginger, i oz.
Barbadoes aloes, 4 oz. common salt, 1 quart
home-brewed ale, made into gruel.

Loss of Cud. — This disease sometimes affects
ruminating animals, and is indicated by the
incapacity of the stomach to throw back
into the mouth the half-masticated food which
has been swallowed, to be again chewed.

In treating for it, give — 6 dr. Barbadoes
aloes, 1 oz. allspice, 3 dr. ginger, 6 oz. common
salt, in a quart of gruel.

Milk Fever. — Cows, which are deep milkers,
are, especially in summer, very liable to tliis
disease; to prevent which the utmost care
should be taken. AVhen it has occurred, it is
always best to call in the assistance of the
veterinary practitioner, rather than for those
■who, not having m uch experien try to deal
with it themselves. The recommendations
given by the author of The Coio, are— to milk
the cow, before calving, regularly three times
a day, provided the udder be much distended.
To keep her as cool and as quiet as possible,
and to give her mashes of bran only, for a few
688

days after calving. This is cooling, and some-
what laxative. If the udder should be hard —
which it should not be after this treatment —
it may be rubbed with marsh-mallow ointment.
A gentle dose of purgative medicine can be
given if the cow is in very high condition ; and
she should be driven a few miles every day
before calving.

Pleuro-Pneumonia. — Tliere is no specific
remedy, with which we are acquainted, for this
disease. A gill of spirits of turpentine, and a
gill of spirits of sweet nitre, has been success-
fully tried ; but it is a desperate resource ; and
should the animal be fat, it is wiser to dispose
of it at once, before the flesh gets tainted with
the disease, and partially corrupt.

Quarter Felon. — This is one of the most
stubborn of all the diseases to which cattle
are subject. It is called Inflammatory Eever, or
Quarter 111 ; and, although there are instances
of its having been cured, they are rare, except
in cases where the disease has been early
arrested in its progress. It makes its appear-
ance usually before the calves are a year old —
seldom after; and, from its being extremely
contagious, it has been known to pass through
an entire herd before they had reached that
period of life. Its first evidences make them-
selves known by the calf beginning to loathe
its food, and becoming stiff" or lame in one of
its feet; and, although the foot may be
examined, and no cause of lamene visible,
yet the disease will very soon become general.
Air-bubbles form between the skin and muscles ;
and there is a crackling sensation to the hand,
on passing it over the skin, especially in the
legs. Inflammatory fever is disorganising the
body. Either for prevention, or as a remedy,
no specific for it has yet been discovered. The
following has been recommended.

Preventives — as the seton in the dewlap,
bleeding in autumn, doses of dyers' madder,
&c., are favourite remedies. The seton can
do no harm, but it may be tried.

Bed Water. — In some kinds of pasture,
cows are, in summer, frequently attacked with
this disease. In treating for it, give — a dose
of 8 oz. of Epsom salts, dissolved in a pmt
of water. This, if taken in an early stage, will
almost invariably set the beast right. If not
at band, 1 lb. of common salt may be given, and
the dose repeated in case of need.

THi: KiuNDERPEST.] CATTLE, AN D TIIKI K \ A IM F/IM KS. ^iiii; ini inukbpest.

THE CATTLE PLAGUE.
In the July of 1SG5, the popuhitioii of
liOiulon were ponorally startled by tlio ap-
nt<araiioe of n disease whieh was deeiiiiatiii};
the eattle of the country, and of which tens of
thousands of tlieni had uover either heard or
dreamt of. In the previous month a note of
warning had been given, that sonio certain
cahaniity was about to deprive thcin, to a
large extent, of " the roast beef of England ;"
but as the aggregate nervous system of this
(^reat and active city is not easily disturbrdby
things at a distance, its inhabitants still con-
tinued to eat their beef, without troubling
themselves, in any visible way, about what was
to befall them by being dopx-ivcd of it. In a
short time, however, they heard that a species of
murrain, or plague, had been imported, it was
supposed, from Russia, and soon assumed the
most alarming charactoristics. This disease
was subsequently called the rhinderpest ; but
it soon became generally known throughout
the country as the " Cattle Plague."

As the origin of all diseases is attributed
to predisposing or exciting causes, a majority
of evils require several agencies acting in
combination to produce them. There are
some, however, which can only be developed
by one invariable and specific means ; and this
has received the name of contagion. For
example, a sheep can only become scabby by
the influence of the scab-insect crawling, and
multiplying, over its body ; as a dog can
only become mad by the virus or rabid poison
of some other mad animal, inflicting a wound
on, or by some other means, entering its body.
From a knowledge of these well-established
facts, men of science have come to the con-
clusion that cattle can only be attacked with
the rhinderpest "as the result of direct, or
indirect, communication of the rhinderpest
poison to a healthy from an unhealthy animal."
General anxiety, from the dreadful strides
with which this malady advanced, gradually
rose higher and higher ; when the govern-
ment, also, excited by its manifest progress,
issued, in the latter end of September, a
commission from the crown, authorising certain
persons therein named to investigate the origin
and nature of the disease ; and to report upon
the mode of treatment best adapted for the
4t

cure of the infected animals, and the regula-
tions proper for preventing the Kpn-ad of the
plague, or its future recurrence. Tlio com-
missioners, urged by the evident necessity of
tho case, lost no tinio in prosfculing their
inquiries ; anil having taken evidence from
tho most competent persons, upon whoso in-
formation they could rely, made their report
within about tho compass of a month irom tho
date of tho commission. This important
document contains tho best authenticated
information relative to the origin, progress,
and treatment of tho disease ; and is replete
with tho most important facts respecting it.

According to tho commissioner.^, the
" plague" was first observed in this country
towards the close of the month of June, 1SG5.
About that period a couple of English cows
had been purchased (the actual date was Juno
19th) in the Metropolitan Cattle Market, by
a cow-keeper residing in Islington, in whose
sheds they were when the symptoms of tho
disease first attracted (on tho 27th) the
notice of the veterinary surgeon in charge of
the general stock. The same surgeon ob-
served similar symptoms of the disease on the
2Sth, in a cow which belonged to a dairyman
in Hackney ; and which had been purchased
in the same place, and on the same day. Two
Dutch cows, in a Lambeth shed, likewise
purchased in the Metropolitan Market on
the 19th, were attacked on the 21th, and
immediately afterwards the plague spread
through many of the London dairies. As an
appalling evidence of the remarkable virulence
of the distemper, wo may observe, that the
Islington cowkeeper lost her whole herd,
amounting to ninety-three; she also bought
more — lost them also ; making 107 in all.
An inspector, who had charge of a great
part of the north-east of the metropolis, stated
that, in his own district, more than four-
fifths had either died or been slaughtered;
and the general average, within the precincts
of the metropolis, was, in all probability, at
least as high. Very early in July it appeared
in Norfolk, and likewise in Suflolk and Shrop-
shire; then in one county after another;
when it was found, that the rapidity with
which it had diflfused its desolating breath over
the country, had enabled it to enter Scotland.
By the 11th of October it had extended to

Gb9

THE EHiNDEEPEST.] CATTLE, AND THEIE VAEIETIES. [the ehindeepest.

twenty-nine English counties ; two in "Wales,
and sixteen in Scotland ; and was still ad-
vancing. From the Metropolitan Market it
crossed the sea into Holland, with some Dutch
oxen which had been shipped from Eotterdain
to London, and had been exposed during
three successive market-days, when, not being
sold, they had been re-shipped from London
to whence they came. It is unnecessary here
to follow its further progress ; but we may
state that, at the Smithfield Club dinner, at
which Earl Spencer presided, Mr. Clayden,
chairman of the "Agricultural Company,"
&c., after speaking of the advantages which
had resulted to the farmers of England gene-
rally by the operations of the club, said that
the noble president had drawn a melancholy
picture of the state of the agricultural interest
from the effects of the cattle plague. He
observed, that " 30,000 animals had perished
from the efiects of that incurable disease ;
whilst whatever efforts had been made to dis-
cover an effectual remedial agent, had, in so
far as the best-informed and most scientific
agriculturists in the world yet knew, signally
failed."

It is reasonably to be expected that such an
alarming condition of things would originate,
among the veterinary faculty, many theories
for its prevention, as well as its cure ; but the
hopelessness of all these, as well as of every
kind of medical treatment, was thus set forth
in a letter to one of the newspapers, by Dr.
"Watson, a gentleman who ranks amongst the
most eminent of his profession in London.
He says — " The disease is a very fatal one.
Its death-rate is appalling — 90 in 100, they
say ; and it is ahsolutely incurable. "Witli or
without what is called treatment, a small num-
ber of recoveries happen ; but there are no
ciwes. Probably (but this is mere opinion),
of the sick animals subjected to treatment, a
larger proportion perish than those which are
left to themselves. I do not mean tliat medi-
cal care is useless or inexpedient. There are
measures relating to food, temperature, clean-
liness, support, even medicine (measures that
are defensive against all weakening influences),
which, sometimes, may turn the hesitating
scale, and give the victory to the restorative
force of nature. But there is no specific plan
or antidote that caa stop or chase away the
690

] disease, any more than there is for the cure
or the cutting short of small-pox ; this is alike
true of all the specific fevers. They run a
definite course."
I The conclusion to which this gentleman
came was thus given, and largely adopted — ■
" If all this be so, surely it is time to turn our
thoughts from the sick and the dying to the
animals that are yet left among us alive, in
health, and uninfected ; to abandon the vain
search after impossible specific remedies, and
to adopt the true and sole nostrum — which is,
prevention. This is still within the scope
of our power, and it is daily becoming more
diffused."

To give entire force to the meaning of
the v^ord prevention in this passage, it may be
added that it is designed to express complete
isolation ; the entire and perfect separation
of the healthy from the unhealthy animal ;
the diseased from the undiseased ; the clean
from the unclean. This was conceived to be
the most effectual, as it has proved the only
real, remedy for staying and finally eradicating
an evil so desolating to our herds. The con-
sequence has, for some time, been an entire
riddance of the " Cattle Plague," which is
always spoken of as a thing of the past, there
not having been, for a considerable time, a
single known instance of its existence in this
kingdom. The alarm which it created, how-
ever, necessitated the most decisive measures
to be adopted for its extinguishment.

The death of 30,000 animals, within the
comparatively limited period of two years, was
a cause sufficient to raise anxiety amongst
even a larger population than that of Great
Britain and Ireland ; yet, in the latter coun-
try, the flocks continued to increase rather
than diminish or remain stationary. This,
however, did not lessen the dread of the ex-
tension of the " 'Cattle Plague" in England,
nor hinder the adoption of those strong
measures of isolation or prevention to which
we have alluded, and which, in the absence of
all certain medicinal remedies, proved effec-
tual in eradicating it from the country. Super-
added to prevention, constant attention should
be paid to cleanliness, and keeping the sheds
well aired ; whilst lime-washing should not
be spared. "Where cure is doubtful, preven-
tion should be vigorously resorted to.

1 1 I \' 1 S I () N \'

SHEEP.

CUAPTER I.

FOKF.IOK BRKKPS OF SIIKKT ; THE RASS ; TIIK Sir.KUIAK ARCALl ; THE KAMTSCHATKAN AR'IAI.I;
THE AUMEXIAN AKGALI ; THE NAHOOll, OR SHA ; THE SUA; THE CURSICA.V MOfKLON; THE
WALLACm.VN SUEEP ; AFRICAN SUEEP ; TUE TARTARIAN SHEEP; TUB PERSIAN SHEEP; ICELAND
AND FAROE ISLAND SHEEP; TUE ALPACA AND LA>LV ; THE SPANISH MEBINO SUEEP ; THE SAXON
MERINO.

FOREIGN BREEDS OF SHEEP,
Of all our domestic animals, the sheep is
that of which we have the earliest notice; as
we are told that " Ahel was a keeper of sheep."
It was reclaimed in the primordial era of man's
existence on the globe, and we must look to
Western Asia as its original habitat. From
this centre it has, more or less, gradually spread
by the agency of man ; and, under the inQu-
ences of climate, food, and treatment, has
ramified into numerous varieties.

In the Zoological Proceedings, there is a
paper by Mr. Blyth, entitled " An amended list
of the genus Ovis;" in which he tells us, that
in the narrative of the celebrated Venetian
traveller, Marco Polo, upon the elevated plain
of Pamir, eastward of Bokhara, and 16,000
i'eet above the sea-level, wild animals are met
with in great numbers, particularly sheep of a
large size, having horns three, four, and even
six palms in length. More recently, an
animal called the Eass has been indicated,
from a report in Sir A. Burncs' Travels in
Bokhara, and its horns have been transmitted
to the lioyal Asiatic Society. He confirms the
narrative of Marco Polo ; says the flesh is
much prized ; and that the people shoot the
animal with arrows. "The Eass is said to
delight in the coldest districts ; a common-
sized individual will require two horses to bear
its flesh from the field." The horns, following
their curvature, are nearly five feet in length.

THE SIBERIAN ARGALI.

This noble sheep is described by Pallas, and
has a much wider range of habitat than the
Musimon; whilst its general characteristics bear

a striking resemblance to those of the sheep.
Its natural abode is on the tops of mountains
in cold latitudes, and it is common in Siberia.

THE KAMTSCHATKAN ARG.VLI.
M. Eschscholtz, who describes this species,
states it to be very numerous on the moun-
tains of Kamtschatka. In summer it resides
upon the snow-clad heights ; but, in winter, it
descends to the lower regions ; and, according
to Kotzebue, is remarkable for its agility. In
America there are two species very closely
allied to the Siberian Argali — the Eocky
Mountain Argali (Ovis Montana), and the
Californian Argali (0. Californiana, Douglas) ;
besides wliich there is the Caucasian Argali
fOvis Cylindricornis, Blyth), hitherto con-
founded with the Siberian Argali.

THE ARMENIAN ARGALI.
This is the Ovis Gmelin of Blyth, of which
specimens were sent from Erzeroum to the
Zoological Gardens in London. According
to Grmelin, this species is found only in the
highest mountains in Persia. Tlie males, ho
informs us, are very quarrelsome amongst each
other, insomuch that he had been at one place
where the ground was strewn with horns
that had been knocked off in their contests.
It is allied to the Corsican INIouflon. Sir John
McNeill informed Mr, Blyth that it appears
to be the common species of the mountains of
Armenia ; occurring likewise on the north-west
of Persia : but the wild sheep of the central
parts of Persia is evidently distinct, having
horns much more resembling those of the
domestic ram, being spiral, and completing
more than one spiral circle,

G91

THE MOUrLON.]

SHEEP,

[the MOUFLOU".

THE NAHOOR, OR SHA,
The Nalioor, or Sha, of Tibet (Oi-is Nalioor,
Hodgson), is a native of the Kacliar region of
Nepal, and the glaciers of the Himalaya. Of
this sheep there is very little to be said ; but
it has a near alliance to the Burrhel — Ovis
Burrhel of Blytli — which inhabits the loftiest
crests of the Hitnalayan chain. Here it is
said to bound "lightly over the encrusted
snows, at an altitude where its human pur-
suers find it difficult to breathe. It has the
bleat of the domestic species, as indeed they
all have, and is very shy and difficult of ap-
proach. Flocks of ten or twenty, conducted
by an old male, have been observed to make
for the snowy peaks upon alarm, while their
leader scrambled up some crag to reconnoitre,
and, if shot at, would bound off a few paces, and
again stop to gaze. They pasture in deep and
hollow grassy glens." A former specimen, in
the Museum of the Zoological Society, was
shot near the Boorendo Pass, at an altitude of
about 17,000 feet.

THE SHA.
This is the Ovis Yignei of Blyth, a Mouflon
inhabiting the mountains of Little Tibet and
the Sulimani range, between India and Kho-
rassan. Vast numbers of this species are
driven down by the snow in winter, to the
branches of the Indus, where the river breaks
through the chain of the Himalayas. The wild
sheep of the Hindoo Koosli mountains, de-
scribed in the Journal of the Asiatic Society/ of
Bengal, is either this or a closely allied species.
Its climbing powers are extraordinary.

THE CORSICAN MOUFLON.
This is the Ofis Musimon of Linnajus, a
native of Corsica and Sardinia. Speaking of
it, Mr. Biyth remarks — "It has always ap-
peared to me, however, that the specifical dis-
tinctness of the Mouflon is very obvious ; and
I doubt whether it has contributed at all to
the origin of any tame race. That it inter-
breeds freely with the latter, under circum-
stances of restraint, is well known; but we
have no information of hybrids, or TJmbri, as
they are called, being even raised from wild
MouQons, though the flocks of the latter will
occasionally graze in the same pasture with
692

domestic sheep ; and all but mingle with them.
The male of this animal is denominated, in
Corsica, Mufro, and the female, Mufra;
from which Bufibn, as is well known, formed
the word Mouflon. In Sardinia, the male is
called Murvoni, and the female Murva ; though
it is not unusual to hear the peasants style
both indiscriminately Mouflon, which (as Mr,
Smyth remarks, in his description of that
island) is a palpable corruption of the Greek
Ophion. It is sometimes stated, but I do not
know upon what authority, that a few of these
animals are still found upon the mountains of
Murcia."

This would seem to be the same as the Ovis
Mouflon of Buffbn, found in the islands of the
Grecian Archipelago, in Sardinia, Greece, Asia,
and in the western part of European Turkey.
It is two-and-a-half feet high, and about three-
and-a-half long. It has large semicircular and
wrinkled horns, bending gracefully backward,
resembling, in some degree, the black-taced
sheep of the Highlands. They are, however,
much thicker, usually measuring from twelve
to sixteen inches at the base, and sometimes
as much as twenty-two inches in length. The
colour of the animal is grey ; and it is covered
with hair, of a curly and woolly kind. There
are a few black hairs about the head. When
the female has horns they are very small, but
she is frequently entirely destitute of them.
They always browse upon the sides of hills, or
upon their summits, in very temperate lati-
tudes. They are gregarious, herding together
for the purposes of defence; and, like other
sociable animals, place themselves under the
protection of the largest and the strongest ot
their rams. When the females are in season,
they separate into smaller flocks, and this is
the signal for the wars of the males. The
females usually tliroio two lambs in the month
of April or May, and these the dams defend
with indomitable courage in any emergency.

According to Cuvier, these animals are very-
dull and uutameable. He says that " domes-
tication has had no influence" in taming them ;
" it merely accustoms them to the presence of
new objects ; and they are no longer aft'righted
at the sight of man, but rather seem to acquire
more confidence in their own powers as they
become more familiarised with him. Instead,
therefore, of avoiding their keeper, especially

MOCFLOy.]

AND TllElK VARIOUS BREEDS.

[moufi.ox.

the malea, they attack him with fury." There
is another pcculi:irity helonging to thia species.
Their flesh is woll-flavoured ; but they are
always in lean comliLion. Tlieir skins are so
thick as to be ahiiost im|)ervious.

In this review of JNlr. Blyth's piijier, wo have
omitted the Ixiilas Probation, Oj,'ilby (of which
a unique spociinen exists in tho nuiaeum of
the Zoological Society, London, and the history
of which is obscure), and the Aoudad {Ovis
Tragelaplius, auct.), which we refer to the
goats. From none of the species here enu-
merated can we conlidontly select the type of
the domestic sheep {Ovis Aries, Linna)us) ; but,
" applying our knowledge as obtained inferen-
tially from the most ancient records," observes
the autlior of The Cow, " we iind incidental no-
tices tending to fix the character of the ear-
liest sheep, of which history informs us, with
the one or the other of the class of animals
above referred to, but especially the latter."
Abel had " firstlings of his ilock." Hence he
possessed domesticated animals. The lambs
of the Argali would be a ready means of pro-
creating a flock, as they are even now easily
domesticated, and which would hardly be the
case with the untameable Musmon. Abel also
offered fat, which is a secretion common to the
Argali, but of which the Musmon is said to be
destitute. The sheep of tlie Patriarchs, too,
had horns ; at any rate the rams had that dis-
tinction. Nor could they be simply upright ;
as a ram, it will be remembered, was " caught
in a thicket by his horns," when the staying
angel arrested the hand of Abraham. The
curvature of the horns being much more nearly
complete in the Argali than the Musmon (which
are merely bent back), renders it the most
likely of the two to be entangled in a thicket.
That sheep were, some of them, brown in Jacob's
day is quite certain, from their being set apart
for his wages; and this again agrees with the
colour of the Argali. That the covering of the
skin was something better than hair, even in
early days, is quite evident from Laban's shear-
ing his sheep ; for it always indicates, at least,
a woolly texture rather than a hairy one, which
requires the application of the shears. Job,
who lived, it is supposed, in early patriarchal
times, evidently made use of the wool of his
sheep. His flock consisted, at one period, of
7,000 sheep ; and, at another, of double that

number; and he thus reminds his friends of
his benevolence : — "If I have seen any perish
for want of clothing, or any poor without cov-
ering; if his loins have not blessed me, niid if
ho were not waruunl with tho llccce of my
sheep."

Tho Mouflons aTid Argalis — that is, the wild
species of tho genus Ovis — are covered witli a
harsh kind of hair; having beneath it, at its
roots, a short spiral wool, which, in winter,
becomes longer and fuller. Mr. Bell, indeed,
considers tho harsh hair as essentially wool in
its structure, presenting the imbrications which
tho microscope shows to be the cliaracteristic
of wool, and on which its felting property de-
pends ; and ho regards the short under-coat
as composed of hair, and not of wool. ]Mr.
Touatt makes the contrary statement ; and,
notwithstanding tho appearances noticed by
Mr. Bell, we incline to Mr. Touatt's opinion ;
for, be it observed, in the Cashmir and the
Angora goats, the long outer garment is hair;
the short under-coat, exquisitely fine v/ool. In
other wool-bearing animals, as the beaver and
otter, the same arrangement prevails ; and, in
some neglected breeds of common sheep, the
wool becomes mixed with long hairs (not
short and fine), which more or less obscure the
wool.

Dr. John Davy, in the Pliilosophical Journal,
furnishes a striking instance of the eftect ot
climate in changing the character of covering
on the body of a sheep. He says — " The
sheep from Barbadoes, originally from an Eng-
lish stock, afi'ords a striking example ot tho
change that may be effected by climate, in a
few generations, in the character of the hair of
an animal. In that island, instances are fre-
quently to be seen of sheep in which hair has
so taken the place of wool (using the terms in
their usual acceptation), that, were it not for
the form of the animal — and that is not alto-
gether free from change — it would be impos-
sible to suppose that they belonged to the
same species as our English sheep." He care-
fully examined two specimens of hair — one
from a sheep of two years old, the other from
one a year old. Both were of the same colour —
a light reddish-brown — and the same length.
" The hair of the three-year-old," he proceeds
to say, " was coarser than that of the one-year-
old ; it consisted chieflv of harsh fibres, slightly

G93

MOTrFLOIf.j

SHEEP,

FCRETATS" SHEEP.

tortuous, each about tlie 180th of an inch in
diameter— some cylindrical, others more or less
flattened — all looking towards a point at their
distal extremity. The hair of the one-year-old
consisted of coarse and fine fibres in about
equal portions, the one about the 3G3rd of an
inch in diameter, the other the 1333rd of an
inch ; the former resembling the hair of the
elder sheep, the latter having the appearance
of wool, both in its fineness and general aspect,
whether seen with the naked eye or under the
microscope. The presence of a portion of
wool underneath the hair of the younger sheep,
accords, I may remark, with the belief of my
friend, that all the very young lambs of the
island have wool, which gradually passes into
hair as they grow older." This, the Doctor
thinks, is the fact. He then expatiates on the
care "Divine Providence exerts in changing
the clothing of an animal to be suitable to the
climate it inhabits."

The causes which have rendered the fleece
of the European sheep what we now find it, are
involved in obscurity. AVe attribute much, in
the first instance, to the effects of temperature ;
for though the merino sheep of Spain (a race
originally imported from England), and the
flocks of Australia and Southern Africa, are
pre-eminent as wool-bearers, yet it would seem
that the predisposition to develop wool at the
expense of hair, is acquired only in temperate,
elevated, or even cold climates. Eor instance,
we learn from Mr. Hodgson, that the wool of
the Bhotean domesticated sheep, called Huniah,
is superb ; and, he adds, the animal is suited
only to the northern district of Nepal, suff"ering
much from the heat of the central district.
On the other hand, it is clear that, in the early
ages of man's history, the shepherds must
have selected, for breeding, those individuals
on which the wool predominated ; and that,
by following up this system, the sheep gradu-
ally attained its present condition, so that a
wool-bearing breed became, at length, per-
manently established.' Originally, perhaps, the
sheep, then a wool-bearer, and Jong domes-
ticated, was of a brown or rusty-black colour —
a hue still lingering on the faces and limbs of
many of our breeds, and sometimes appearing
as the general tint of individuals, thus con-
spicuous in the midst of their white-fleeced
companions. Nine out of ten of the sheep of
694

Dukhun are black, with short, crisp, coarse
wool. As the primitive fleece of the sheep
was a mixture of hair and wool, we cannot be
surprised to find races domesticated, in which
the hair predominates over the wool, and that
so greatly, that they may with propriety be
termed hairy. Sometimes the hair is like that
of a spaniel dog, long and silky ; and many of
the flocks of the Bucharian Tartars are thus
clothed. To this breed may be referred —

THE WALLACHIAN OR CRETAN SHEEP.

This is the Ovis Aries, var. Strepsiceros,

common in Crete, "Wallachia, Hungary, and

the western parts of Asia. A splendid ram

of this variety, from Mount Parnassus, was

presented by Dr. Bowring to the Zoological

Society, London. Its was vicious, unruly, and

of amazing strength. Its horns were very large,

and spirally contorted, adding greatly to its

striking and picturesque appearance. Its fleece

consisted of hair and wool, the former being of

great length, perfectly straight, close-set, and

beautifully fine, falling from the middle of the

back on each side of the animal, almost to the

eround. On the face the hair was short, and

of a rusty black ; on the body it was white.

In general, the horns in the male rise almost

perpendicularly from the skull, making a series

of spiral turns in their ascent, the first turn

being the largest ; while, in the female, they

diverge, taking a lateral direction. In the

specimen, however, to which we have alluded,

they extended laterally from the skull, and,

after the first turn, took a downward sweep.

Variations in these points may be expected in

domesticated animals. " The WallacJiian sheep

is a remarkable animal," says Mr. Milburn;

" and altogether the most beautiful, as a picture,

of all the various breeds. They are common

in the whole of Southern Eussia. The horns

of the ram are of a peculiarly tall and spiral

form. The wool is of a hairy character, but

beautifully white. The tail, however, is the

peculiarity. Kohl, in his Eussia, says, 'it

really carries its fat about in its tail, which

grows into a shape something similar to a pear,

swelling at both sides to an enormous size, and

tapering to a point at the extremity.' The

Eussian shepherds are a very dull and helpless

race of men ; and more credit is due to the

dogs and goats which accompany the flocks, for

AFUiCAN SHEEP.] AND 'nlEIll VAKIOUS BKEEDS. [taiit.vuia:? siilep.

their care of the anininln, than to those eorfH,
who arc indolent, and dull ol" oompn-lu'iision.
About four goats are associated with a lloek of
every hundred sheep to brave thcPontiuo hur-
ricanes, and to load the sheep over ravines, and
by the sides of steppes, which otiierwise neither
the sheep nor their shepherds would face. The
sheep follow the courageous goats ; and, on
onco making the eflort, they have powers quite
equal to the task. The sliephcrds aro strictly
nomadic. They wander from pasture to pas-
ture, accompanied by their dogs and a waggon,
which is their kitchen and bed. The sheep
are collected for the night into as narrow a
compass as possible. The dogs watch them,
each sleeping on a mat; and with this the
flock is generally secure from the wolves, who
prowl about in the hope of finding some stray
or sickly animal on some unguarded point.
This race of sheep has spread for a great dis-
tance over Hungary, Bohemia, and Austria.
The peasants still use the shaggy skins for
coats, which are an ample protection from the
cold blasts of the northern climate." The tail
is large and fat, almost more from its length than
its breadth — a characteristic in which it diflers
from the African sheep, to which we shall
now allude.

AFRICAN SHEEP.

In the specimens of Guinea sheep which we
have seen figured, the limbs are long, the body
gaunt, the ears pendulous, the forehead arched,
and two fleshy excrescences hang from the
throat. A smaller hair-clad breed extends
along the Slave Coast. The Fezzan sheep, of
which we have seen examples, closely resemble
the Guinea sheep, but have a pendulous dew-
lap instead of the tassels of skin on the throat.
They are gaunt, coarse-haired, ill-formed ani-
mals, with high withers like a buffalo. The
males have small horns. In Madagascar the
sheep are covered with short hair. The South
African sheep is of the fat-tailed species ; but
instead of the long, pendulous, and conical
tail, it is broad and flat. All other parts of
the body are wolf-like and lank, with the flesh
flabby and thin. The tail of this animal is the
great furnace which supplies it with heat
against the chill and rainy seasons, when
caloric is requisite to resist the cold effects of
the atmosphere. Barrow, in hia work on

South Africa, says — " The tail is short, broad,
and flat ; naked on the under side, and weighs
the amazing weight of from six to twolvo
pounds. It is of a thin oily consistence, and
is sometimes used as a substitute for butter.
This tail is from twelve to eighteen inches
long, and tapers downwards, being five or six
inches thick near its setting-on at the rump."
The animal is covered with long curly hair, of
a powerfully resistive texture, which, from its
elasticity, is used for making cusliions. Tlio
wool varies from black to grey ; is often spotted,
and sometimes dun and brown. Little care is
taken of the breed, which furnish the Hottentot
witli a large proportion of his food. ^Nor is
Lheir covering more carefully preserved ; it
being usually allowed merely to drop off in
the autumn of the year. Some individuals
have a second or under coat, which has a groat
resemblance to fur, and is used for making
coverlets by the superior classes of Boers. A
similar sheep occurs in the same or higher
latitudes, and they are found in Madras and
Bengal. In Northern Africa there is an
animal similarly formed, especially in Barbary.
It has three, and sometimes four horns; but
its tail is thinner and fatter than the variety
of South African. Its colour is mostly white ;
and while the anterior parts are covered with
soft hair, the posterior are clothed with fine
wool. The ears are pendulous.

THE TARTARIAN SHEEP.
In Tartary, Persia, and other parts of the
East, there has long existed a singular variety,
with a great deposit of fat on the tail and
creep, giving an unsightly appearance to the
animal. The tail itself is short, and seems
buried in the mass on each side ; and the body
is generally white; the head and neck bhick.
Of the variety Ovis Aries, var. Sleatopi/jus^ we
have seen a specimen. The fleece of the sheep
consisted of short, coarse wool, mixed with
hair. This sheep is hornless, and thin and
gaunt in its general contour. Its ears are
pendulous, and reach to the bottom of the
jaw. Its shoulders are thin and small; and
its head somewhat deep, but not forward.
Behind the shoulders it is small. The legs
are also short and thin, as regards the mus-
cular parts; but the whole vital power of the
animal seems to tend to the production of tho

Cr'.j

PEESIAN SHEEP.]

SHEEP,

[PERSIAN SHEEP.

perfect cushions of fat by the sides of the tail,
which absolutely bury it. The female has
smaller horns, or is altogetber without them.
The colour varies, but is usually roan, or of a
light brown, mixed cast, while the ewe is black.
The wool is somewhat short, and fine in quality.
The weight of fat about the rump will be
nearly as much as thirty to forty pounds. It
must be kept in mind, however, that the fat
of the rump of this species is diflerent from
the fat of our mutton. On this subject, Dr.
Anderson observes— " There is no meat on
the body of our common breeds of European
sheep, which, in many of its distinguishing
characteristics, resembles that of the tail of
the broad-tailed sheep of the southern parts
of Africa or Asia; far less does any part of
the flesh of our mutton bear the smallest
similitude to that of the hemispherical bumps
on the bullocks of the Steatopaga breed, which
so much abounds in the northern parts of
Asia. The bumps are called fat, because they
resemble that substance in colour and con-
sistency, more than the lean of mutton ; but it
differs externally from the fat that is found on
any part of the body of our sheep."

THE PERSIAN SHEEP.
The Fersian Hornless sheep is one of the
fat-rumped varieties, and is very different
from every kind of sheep we have yet de-
scribed. It is short-eared, and the head and
neck are without wool. The body is both
deep and cylindrical ; whilst the breast is con-
siderably rounded in front. The legs are
small and thin; but this is compensated by
the rumps, which literally make a pair of
cushions of fat, and almost entirely conceal
the tail, notwithstanding its great size. The
wool is as white as snow, but is short, and
not very fine. In the Mosaical sacrifice, there
ia incidental allusion made to the rump,
Moses having taken the fat, and the rump,
and all the fat that was upon the inwards.
Mr. Youatt quotes this as indicative of the
Jewish sheep having been of the fat-rumped
variety. The author of The Cow gives reasons
which induce him to come to an opposite
conclusion. There were six parts of the ram
to be burned: — 1st, the fat; 2nd, the rump;
3rd, the fat of the inwards; 4th, the caul
above the liver; 5th. the two kidneys, and
GOG

the fat that is upon them ; and, 6th, the right
shoulder. "Now it appears to us," conti-
nues the same author, "that these directions
rather oppose than support the conclusion
that the rump was covered with fat. If so,
why did they not specify the fat covering the
rump, in the same manner as covering the
kidneys? And if the mention of the rump
along with other fat parts is to convey the idea
that it was fat also, the mention of the shoulder
would convey the same impression, which
would not be at all accurate. The assumption
that the fat was accumulated on the rump
and legs, would operate in favour of its also
being equally deposited on the shoulder. We
imagine that all that was intended was, that
all the hest parts were to be sacrificed in the
' ram of consecration.' The internal accumu-
lation of fat, too, is opposed to much external
formation."

Another fat-tailed variety of the Persian
sheep is mixed up with others which develop
the fat in other parts of the body. Its wool is
of a long hairy grey, and extremely coarse.
It, however, has horns. The tail consists of a
large accumulation of fat, tending to the pen-
dulous, and has a somewhat conical form.
The wool is of a much finer staple than the
Wallachian, and is of two kinds — long and hair-
like, but thinly scattered, and wiry. There is an
under coat, from which the finest cL'^ss of wools
are obtained ; and these are said to be equal
to Cashmere in their fineness of texture.

The Abtssikian sheep is the same as the
Persian; and, according to Mr. Milburn, is
but one remove from the Argali, even at the
present time. Its habitat is along the shores
of the Eed Sea. Its tail is somewhat short ;
its wool coarse and heavy, and of a greyish or
brownish colour. The horns diverge from
their roots, and are bent so as to make the
large form of a circle. The relationship is
very close ; and it is thought not to be difiicult
to imagine this long-legged, horned, hair-
covered sheep, to be a variety of the Argali.

Among other strange varieties of sheep, may
be here noticed the sheep of Syria and Egypt,
with a long tail loaded with fat, which some-
times even trails on the ground. In the Egyp-
tian animals the tail is broad throughout, but
in the Syrian it narrows to a point. The ordi-
nary weight of the tail is fifteen pounds ; but.

ICELAND SHEEP.] AND TIIElli VAlvIOUS JiliEEDS. [ali'aca and lama.

in some of the larj^or kiiul-s, well fiittencd, tho
tail will weigh seventy, eighty, and it 13 said,
even 150 poiuuls. Ludolph saw, in Egypt, a
sheep's tail of eighty pounds' weight. This
overgrown appendage is a great inconvenience
to tlie animal; and, in order to prevent injury
to it, the shepherds are often obliged to lix a
thin piece of board to the under surface of tho
part that trails on the ground, to which small
wheels are sometimes added. The caudal
deposit of fiit in these varieties of sheep is
olea'^iuous, being of a consistence between fat
and marrow, and is often used in the place of
butter : when the animal is young, this fat is
stated to be little inferior to tho best marrow.
The long-tailed breed (var. Macrocercus) is
not only found in Arabia, Syria, and Egypt,
but is very numerous in the interior and
southern parts of Africa, and is covered with a
mixture of coarse short wool and hair.

Aristotle speaks of the Syrian sheep in his
day, and names a variety which had tails a
cubit broad. Such a naturalist ought certainly
to be credited. Dr. Eussell describes the tails of
modern Syrian sheep as weighing fifty pounds ;
but these are house-fed animals, and excep-
tions to the general rule. The head is bare,
and the horns semicircular, and bending down-
wards. The ears are pendulous, aud the face
free from wool. The throat is covered with
long shaggy hair, projecting almost as far
forward as the mouth. The posterior parts are
woolly, aud the tail reaches nearly to the fet-
lock joint ; but, before it extends that length, it
makes an upward turn at its pointed tip.

THE ICELAND AND FAROE ISLAND SHEEP.
Leaving the regions of the East, and coming
nearer our own island, we find that in Iceland
and the Earoe Islands, there are two races of
sheep — one of a small size, and of a dun or
rust-black colour; the other of larger size, and
white. Both of these races are remarkable for
the number of their horns, varying from three
to eight. Eour, however, is the usual number.
Tlie larger race are strongly-built animals,
with a coarse fleece, consisting of long hair
externally, aud an under-layer of close wool,
impenetrable by the heaviest rain. The wool,
however, is of little value, being fit only for
horse-cloths and common rugs. These sheep
yield an extraordinary quantity of milk, far
4 u

superior to that of any of tho more soutliern
breeds. Von Troil, in his Letters on Icthmd,
states that a single ewe will yield from two to
six quarts a day. Tho Faroe Island race of
sheep is of great antiquity, and wild. They
are covered with black, short, curled wool, and
their ilcsh has a peculiarly dark aji[)ear:uiec,
and venison-like flavour. When IMr. Trevelyan
visited these islands, he found the remnants of
this wild race in no way dependent upon or
under the control of man. They are some-
times caught by dogs ; but can seldom be ob-
tained, except by being shot, or intercepted in
a narrow space, and driven over the cli3"d.

THE ALPACA AND THE L.\MA.

The alpaca and the lama, or Peruvian sheep,
are natives of the Andes, in South America.
The lama is somewhat taller than the alpaca;
and, though in some respects a remarkable
animal, its peculiarities are not such as to
render it, for purposes of practical utility, so es-
pecially interesting as the alpaca, ovt of its na-
tive regions. The alpaca — which it is proposed,
under the most respectable auspices, to domes-
ticate in Britain — is an animal combining tho
appearance of the common European sheep
with that of the goat, and partly of the deer and
camel. Like the sheep, it is lanigerous, or
wool-coated ; in its general structure it is
light, and possesses limbs adapted for spring-
ing and leaping like the goat. It resembles
the deer in skin, flesh, and general appearance ;
and though without the camel's deformities,
it is gifted like him with patience and docility,
being often used as a beast of burden by the
natives of South America. The height of the
alpaca is from three to four feet, when measured
from the ground to the top of the back ; tho
eyes are large, black, soft, and expressive ; the
animal has no horns ; the neck is long,
slender, curved backwards, and finely set; tho
head handsome, and the muzzle and cars
lengthened. To common observers, the alpaca
might seem to bo a fine tall goat, with small
head and no horns, but of more gentle and
fleecy appearance than that animal. The fine
quality of its wool forms, of course, a point ot
peculiar importance, taking into view the fact
of its having been introduced to Europe.
The flesh is also delicious. The experiment of
keeping these animals in Great Britain has

697

AXPACA.]

SHEEP,

[alpaca.

been tested, and with some success. The
Earl of Derby has, at Knowsley, a flock of
lamas and alpacas, which not only live, but
multiply. The wool, it is said, is improved by
our pasture. These animals also adorn the
pleasure-grounds of the Marquis of Breadal-
bane, the Duke of Montrose, and other noble-
men and gentlemen. Their first introduction
to Europe is due to the Spaniards.

The alpaca was, after great difficulties, and
many misadventures, introduced to Australia,
in 1855, by Mr. Charles Ledger, an English
mercliant, established many years at Tachna,
in Peru. In 1852, this gentleman proceeded
to Sydney, for the purpose of fixing on the
most favourable localities for the pasturage
and breeding of alpacas. Having satisfied
himself as to the capabilities of the country,
he returned to Valparaiso in 1853 ; crossed the
Cordilleras in the same year, and rejoined a
flock of about four hundred, which he had
purchased previously to going to Svdney.
Overcoming a thousand obstacles, he succeeded
in procuring about three hundred and fifty
more of these precious animals, in order to
supply the place of others he had lost during
his absence, by the neglect of those whom
he had left in charge of them. This great
reverse, which would have overwhelmed any
ordinary mind, acted on him as a stimulus to
renewed exertions. He was, however, at this
stage, brought to a standstill by want of pecu-
niary resources ; and, to his great regret, com-
pelled to return to Valparaiso. Here he
speedily procured the amount required, and
uudertook, with greater confidence than ever,
new wanderings through the desert solitudes
of Peru and Bolivia, in order to recruit his
diminished flock. Einding himself under the ne-
cessity of deceiving the diff"erent governments,
in order to withdraw his flock from the Peru-
Bolivian territories, Mr. Ledger divided his
alpacas into three divisions, and commenced
his march, by different roads, to the Argentine
Eepublic. The details of this remarkable
journey, the obstacles, both natural and arti-
ficial, which had to be overcome, form the
subject of a journal full of incident and hard-
ships of all descriptions. After losiug nearly
one-half of his alpacas in a very severe snow-
storm, which, lasting without intermission for
nine days, placed the lives of even the drovers
698

j in jeopardy, Mr. Ledger succeeded in re-
, uniting two parts of his flock in the province
j of Sulta, Argentine Eepublic, during the
j month of August, 1855. During this part of
I his journey, he had to be constantly on his
j guard against the machinations of the Bolivian,
authorities, who were untiring in their efforts
to procure the destruction of the flocks. The
most active agent in endeavouring to carry
out this malicious purpose, however, was de-
feated in his object. In the same month, the
third division of his flock was seized in San
Pablo (Bolivia); but at length, in Eebruary of
the following year, he was enabled to deceive
the vigilance of the espionage under which
he was placed, and escaped with his alpacas
from the Bolivian territory. Mr. Ledger now
commenced his march on the valley of Cal-
chaquies, his object being to proceed to a spot
where "alfalfa" was cultivated, in order to
habituate the animals, by degrees, to this
species of pasture, both fresh and dry ; thus
preparing them for their ultimate shipment, by
giving them a little dry food every day. Whilst
resting, after the accomplishment of this por-
tion of his task, a terrible calamity overtook
him, and upwards of two hundred of his
precious flock died suddenly, after drinking
the water of one of the lakes, which was
infested with leeches. This great loss involved
the necessity of once again setting out in
search of a more suitable locality ; and although
Mr. Ledger had been separated twenty-two
years from his native land, and more than
five years from his home and family, he
determined to devote another year to the
purpose of recruiting his diminished flock.
The enterprise was one well worthy of the
labour and difficulties which it involved, being
nothing less than transporting, from the loftiest
peaks in the world, and introducing to Aus-
tralia, an animal which appears destined to
work out two great revolutions — the one in the
breeds of wool-producing animals, tlie other in
the fabrication of woollen textures. On leaving
the valleys, he kept the mountain sides, avoiding
the leech-infested lakes, and giving his flocks
the advantage of the invigorating air of the
highlands. Here he recommenced his wan-
derings, travelling very slowly, notwithstanding
the extreme severity of the weather, which
tried him greatly both by day and night; and,

TIIK ALPACV.]

AND TIT I'll: VARIOUS BREEDS. [si-amsii meuino.

finally, arrived at Laj^una Blanca. Beinj;
satislietl that ho had now arrived at a dc-
sirablo spot for the propagation of the speciea,
not only did he, in time, aequiro a new flock
of alpacas, acclimatised to temperatures less
pure and rigorous than tliose in which their
predecessors had been reared, but succeeded
in educating them, to a certain extent, for the
great voyage which lay before them. For him-
self and people he built a hut of stones, which
furnished an indillercnt shelter from the in-
clen.cncy of the weather. For the animals,
large yards were enclosed, and provided with
troughs, in which they were supplied with
their daily rations of dry alfalfa, cut up and
mixed with bran, to which they became grad-
ually accustomed. Twice was Mr. Ledger
arrested by the authorities, and twice did he
effect his escape — once by exercising his medical
skill in the cure of the wife of the detaining
prefect, and next by mixing laudanum with
the grog of his military custodier.

The safe arrival at Sydney nf the flock of
alpacas was a great evidence of the skill, daring,
and perseverance of Mr. Ledger, and deserves
grateful acknowledgments on the part of a
discerning public. " We hope," says the editor
of the Sydney Morning Herald, "that it will
be found that the enterprise will pay in some
measure for the labour and the sacrifice. It
is, unfortunately, too true that benefactors
are themselves rarely benefited ; that the cost
of experience, and the toil of primary steps
towards success, often obtain no return for
those who first adventure on a new under-
taking. Thus, the fate of inventors and dis-
coverers is proverbial. It requires time to test
the value of their labours — to silence detrac-
tion— to realise the fruits of their enterprise —
to place their merits conspicuously before the
world ; and it often happens that those who
have most served mankind, never hear the
unmixed melody of praise : their services are i
only appreciated when it is impossible to reward
them," Tlie government of New South AVales
purchased Mr, Ledger's flock for £15,000, and |
secured his services for five years, allowing him
£1,300 per annum for their maintenance and
superintendent* — Such is a condensed narra-
tive of only some of the difficulties which
attended the introduction of this valuable
•animal to the shores of Australia. I

TIIK SPANISH MKRI.NO SHKi:i'.
Among tho breeds of Europe whicii have
attained to tho highest celebrity, and bv nu-ans
of which, through juiiiciouH erossin^r, tlie hheep
of Saxony, Prus.sia, Austria, and England have
been greatly improved as respt'cts the quality
of tho fleece, is tho far-famed Merino of Spain.
The term "Merino" alludes to the over-sea
origin of tho race; and there are good grounds
lor believwig tliat the.se Spani.-iii sheep are
originally of British extraction, being of the
old Ryland or Cotswold stock. Stow and
Baker, in their Clironicles, say — " This yero
(llGl), King Edward IV. gave a licence to
pass over certain Cotteswoldo sheep into
Spain." Baker adds— " King Edward IV,
enters into a league with King Joliu of Arra-
gon, to w hom ho sent a score of Costal ewes
and four lambs,"

This is a breed so far superior to all others
of the ovine race, for the production of fine
wool for the manufacture of our most costly
cloths, that its breeding and culture have
received the greatest attention in every quarter
of the globe. There is no country where these
efforts have better succeeded than in Spain,
except, perhaps, in Australia, where the breed
has been brought to the higliest perfection.
The origin of this breed is involved in dark-
ness ; but it is supposed to have been introduced
from Barbary, probably about the time when
the Saracens were making their conquests in
the Iberian peninsula. This, however, is mere
conjecture ; but Spain has long been distin-
guished for the exc(?llent quality of her wools.
Ancient writers make several allusions to this
fact; and Columella mentions a cross made with
the Tarentine breed by his uncle, a farmer or
herdsman of Bootia. This was effected with
some wild rams of an extraordinary colour,
which had been imported to Cadiz from Africa.
The Bffitis, or Guadalquivir, was said to have
brown or grey wool; and Pliny remarks that
it had a red covering. Martial was a Spaniard,
and he praises the wool of BoBtia] whilst Strabo,
speaking of that of Turdentia, says — "Much
cloth used formerly to come to this country.
Now, also, fleeces come from it more than from
Coraxi, and they are exceedingly beautitul,
so that rams for breeding are sold for a talent
each. Also the fuie tvebs are very famous,

(j99

SPANISH MEKINO.]

SHEEP,

[SAXON MERINO.

which are made by the Saltatise." Eroin all
these testimonies, it may safely be concluded
that Spain has long been celebrated for its
wools, for which it, no doubt, owes something
to climate, as well as to the constant care, and
the admirable management in the feeding and
breeding of the flocks. This once famous
country, however, has fallen from her high
estate in the scale of nations. She no longer
conquers, but succumbs ; whilst her cloth
manufactures have almost ceased to exist.

There are other breeds of sheep in Spain,
besides the Merinos, more or less intermixed
with them ; but of the pure race, it is calculated
that there are about ten millions, which, ex-
cepting, perhaps, the flocks of Leon and Estre-
raadura, are migratory, and termed transhu-
mantes, being periodically conducted from one
part of the country to another, and back again.
These translmmantes are divided into flocks,
which, under the care of a mayoral or chief
shepherd, and assistants, migrate from the
mountains of the north to the plains of the
south in winter, and return to the moun-
tains in summer. The flocks follow the shep-
herds, who lead the way, and direct the length
and speed of the journey. A few wethers,
perfectly tamed, tread in the footsteps of the
conductor, and the rest follow in due order.
Al powerful breed of dogs accompany the shep-
herds, in order to defend the flock from wolves ;
and a few mules carry their provision and other
necessaries, as well as materials for making up
the fold at night.

This migratory system is regulated by a
tribunal termed Mesta, which is of such long
standing as to be traced back to the middle of
the fourteenth century, at which period definite
laws with respect to it were enacted. These
enjoined, that persons were not to travel along
the course of the route pursued by the flocks
while tlie sheep were in motion ; they also
established a right to graze on all the open
and common laud that lay in the way; and,
moreover, assigned a path, ninety yards wide,
through all the inclosed and cultivated country.
The jouriiey taken by the Merino flocks is
upwards of four hundred miles, which they
accomplish in six or seven weeks, and the
same time is spent in retracing the route; so
that, in every year, about fourteen weeks (or
nearly a quarter) are spent in these toilsome

7oa

journeys. Popular prejudice, in Spain, attri-
butes the superiority of the Merino wool to this
practice — a practice injurious to the agricul-
turists, through whose corn-lands and vine-
yards the flocks pass, and injurious to the
keepers of stationary sheep ; inasmuch as the
common and pasture lands are completelj'-
eaten bare by the multitudes that slowly pass
over them ; while wilfully, or through careless-
ness, serious damage is done to farms, planta-
tions, fields, and vineyards, for which no redress
can be obtained. It is, however, much to be
doubted whether the Merino wool owes its
superiority, as is asserted by the Spaniards, to
this system. The stationary Merinos in Leon
and Estremadura, produce wool equal in quality
to that of the migratory flocks ; and these are
again exceeded by some of the German
Merinos, which never travel. Thus it would
appear that the advantages of the Mesta sys-
tem have been overrated ; while the evils result-
ing to the flocks from fatigue, and the injury
done to the lands in their course, have been
treated with indifierence.

THE SAXON MERINO SHEEP.
This is the same breed as the preceding,,
difiering from it only in accordance with the-
difierent management adopted in its rearing
and tending. It is not very migratory, and
it receives far more attention than the Spanish,
Merino. The flocks are clothed and sheltered,
and furnished with covered buildings provided
especially for them ; and, like the horse of the
Arab, are esteemed as nothing less than
members of the shepherd's family. In summer
they are depastured in the open air during the
day; but when night comes on, they are either
clothed or driven into their sheds. This is a
very ancient practice. In the days of Columella,
the Tarentine sheep were covered with skins,
and denominated " soft ;" but whether the
terra is meant to apply to their wool or their
constitutions, appears uncertain. In a modern
sense, we should think it was meant to desig-
nate the latter. Columella says that tlieae
animals were principally reared in the house ;
that great care was necessary to be bestowed
upon them in regard to warmtli, food, and
cleanliness ; and that, in his time, a similar
practice was pursued in Spain, and adopted by
the Eomans who settled in the north of G-auL

MEBINOS.]

AND TIIEIK VARIOUS BREEDS.

[UEUINOS.

With a view to acclimatise this valuable
breed of sheep iu En!j;laiul, fretjueiit utteinpU
have been made. The lir.st took |)hice in the
reign of George III., who, himaelf, made the
experiment, and took a deep interest in its
uaturalisation iu our island ; but tho fates
proved adverse. Tlie losses were so j^reat as
not to be eompensated by the extra value of
the wool ; while the absence of mutton would
have been a want to which the English Ucsh-
loving people would never submit. Tliey pre-
ferred the line and short wool of the Down,
though far inferior, because it was accompanied
by a superior class of mutton. The wool did
not, however, degenerate ; but tho lowland
pastures of England, witli their rich luxuriant
grasses and succulent herbage, were too strong
for the Merino. The first experiment was
made in 1791, from a very fine flock presented
to his majesty ; but in this country they
degenerated, and seemed to become less hardy
than when they were imported. The next
was made by the then Marquis of Breadal-
baue, who resolved to adopt all the skill and j
care that could be suggested, in order to
secure the safety of the fl.ock. Tho sheep
were housed, or shedded, at periods when
other breeds were exposed. They had the '
best of keeping — perhaps an error arising from
the endeavour to increase the mutton ; but the
three shear wethers could not be made to i
exceed 61- lbs. each, except in very rare cases, ;
and these not more than 72 lbs. ; while less!
pampered breeds realised nearly double these
amounts of weight, and at an earlier period of ,
their lives. The humidity of the climate seemed
to bear hard upon their constitution, as they
became weak under it. Lord "Western also !
devoted considerable time and attention to the
breeding of Merinos in this country, llis
chief efforts were directed to crossing with
the Leicester ; but while the frame and mutton '
of the animals seemed to improve, the wool in
some degree varied. He obtained it, however,
of a beautiful texture, and of great length ;
but it was not quite the Merino wool.

An experienced and well-known agricul-
turist favoured Mr. Milburn with the follow-
ing remarks on the Merino breed, which are
wortliy of the deepest consideration : —

"Although the importance of this breed of
sheep, at the fi.rst glance, may not be fully

recognised (for they are little known ; ond,
since tho deaths of Lonl Wi-sttTu and Mrs.
Dorien, have only been bred by -Mr. Sturgeon,
of Grays), a littlo reflection will show that it
can hardly bo overrated ; for it is this which
8ui)plie3 our colonists, at tho Cape and Aus-
tralia, witl> tho fresh blood which tho nature
of their climates renders periodically necessary.
In the latter colony gold may now absorb tho
greatest attention of its population ; but wo
must not forget that wool was the foundation
of its rapid growth and prosperity, nor over-
look its importance in finding employment for
our ships and our manufacturing artisans, by
its successful cultivation. Tho Merino sheep
is more distinguished for tho quality of its
wool than for other excellences. It presents
a very peculiar appearance — the face is beau-
tifully soft and white; a little rise is percep-
tible on the points of the shoulders, as also on
the back of tho head; the knees incline sliglitly
inwards, and the legs are covered with wool to
the feet. The rams are horned, and the ewes
almost invariably polled. The Merinos exhibit
a remarkable tendency to throw out horn,
their feet growing so rapidly, that it is neces-
sary to use the knife where they have not tra-
velled much — a provision of nature, seemingly
designed to fit them for the migratory life of
their ancestors They endure wet weather, or
low situations, with ditficulty ; but, in hot
weather, no sheep appear in better condition."
It is stated by Mr. Sturgeon, that our
climate seems to affect both the carcass and
wool of imported sheep. Nature would, there-
fore, appear to refuse to give the Jlnest wool to
the largest carcass. Mr. Sturgeon's exertions,
for many years, appear to have induced some
relaxation in his favour; for on sheep that
would, if fatted, weigh ten or twelve stones,
we find a quality of wool that can hardly be
surpassed ; and such sheep as (possessing the
requisites of size and form, and the constitution
peculiar to JEnglish-hred animals) must always
be in request by our colonists, and have the
preference over the German-bred animals,
which seem to want the size, form, constitu-
tion, and length of staple they are sent to
restore. Mr. Sturgeon's Merinos were tho
result of an amalgamation of the flock of his
majesty George III. with tliose of Lord "Wes-
tern aud ]Mrs. Dorien.

701

BEITISH SHEEP.]

SHEEP,

[beitish sheep.

In Spain, as in the East, from the earliest
times, the shepherd leads his flock. In Italy,
in Greece, and some parts of Erance, it is still
the custom ; and the reed-pipe of the shepherd
may be heard calling the flock together, or the
troop be seen following him as he leads them to
their evening folding- place. In Greece, it is
usual, as formerly, to give names to the sheep,
which they know, and will answer, coming to
the shepherd when called.

Before closing this chapter, let us revert to
our starting-point — the question as to the
origin of the domestic sheep ? It is clear
that we cannot identify it with any wild spe-
cies with which we are yet acquainted. If
such exists, it is most probably to be found on
the mountains of Armenia — but this is proble-
matical; and there is some ground for sup-

posing that, though the sheep of every region
intermingle with eacli other, they have de-
scended from difierent primitive origins. The
subject is full of obscurity It is, indeed,
strange, that while history teems with the
accounts of battles, massacres, invasions, the
reigns and the crimes of kings, it throws no
light upon the domestic animals which man
has reclaimed. The motives which led him to
attempt this important work, the manner in
which he accomplished it, the characters and
native abodes of the species selected, are buried
in oblivion. The subject was too mean for
history — the actors too humble to be noticed;
but it is always the case, that the glare of
mighty deeds eflaces the record of the useful,
tlie beneficent, and the truly great ; whilst that
which ia in reality mean, is magnified.

CHAPTER II.

BRITISH SHEEP. — LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS.

PRELIMINA.RY REMARKS.
Teaditional testimony, as well as the oldest
records, are very unsatisfactory regarding the
existence of the sheep in Britain ; and no early
historian whatever deigns to take the slightest
notice of them. Wliether this neglect has
arisen from their, perhaps, comparative unim-
portance in those times in this country, it is
now impossible to say ; but even Caesar, who
enters at considerable length into a description
of tlie manners and customs of the ancient
Britons, docs not make the most distant allu-
sion either to the sheep or its wool. "When
he mentions the cattle of the ancient Britons,
however, it is probable that he meant sheep to
be included ; as Herodotus, when speaking of
the Persians, says—" The wealthy provide an
ox, a horse, a camel, and an ass, roasted whole
in furnaces ; and the poor provide the smaller
cattle." This is said in allusion to the feasts
of that people. After the subjugation of
Britain, the Itomans turned their attention to
the improvement of the country, cultivating
702

the soil, and gradually bringing about an order
of things very different from that which had
hitherto existed. Among other acts, they
established a woollen manufactory at "Win-
chester, which, as a matter of course, must
have been supplied by native fleeces, as there
was no other source whence these could be
obtained. This speculation succeeded so well,
that, in a very short time, the woollen cloths of
Britain entered into competition with those of
the Eoman empire, and early began to excel
them. This was soon evidenced by the fact,
that the finest and most costly dresses made use
of on days of ceremony and festivity at Eome,
were the product of British wool. The sheep
employed in furnishing the material for these
manufactures, were the short-woolled breed — •
Winchester being situated in the centre of a
county which was then favourable to the sup-
port of that kind of sheep alone. Erom this
period a darkness falls upon the history of the
sheep and its productions for some centuries,
until an old chronicler appears, and gives a

BRITISH suKKP.] AND TIlElli VAlilOL/S JWiKKDS.

[buitisu sheep.

pleasing picture of the manners of the ago in
the time of Alfred, of whom it is said —

"His godemothcr ofte siiinl gyftes to liiiu slu- kiiully
toko.
For to li'vc o'bcr pli-, auJ lokc upon liis bokc."

This godmother seems to have had a just
approciation of the s^oiiius of Alfred, and is
said to have been skilled in the spinning of
wool, and to have busied herself in training
her daughters to the same employment. From
this circumstance, it would appear that the
long wool had now begun to bo employed,
although the manufactures of the AViuchester
mills continued to be held in due estimation.
In point of fact, remote as this period is, the
woollen manufacture may be said to have
already begun to assume a considerable degree
of importance, as various breeds of sheep were
cultivated, and diflferent kinds of cloth made,
so as to constitute it the principal source of
employment and wealth in the country. At
the time of the Conquest, we find it stated,
that an acre of land and four sheep were about
the same value. In the Saxon period, sheep
were valued at one shilling per head until
fourteen weeks after Easter, when, in all like-
lihood, they had attained to a higher condition
from the grass having sprung up, and, conse-
quently, aflbrdiug a better supply of pasture.
Both in lOil and 1125, a great destruction
took place among sheep on account of some
destructive epidemic ; and this might be one
reason why the price of sheep, subsequently,
became much higher. In the reign of
Henry I. the price rose to 20s., and in that of
Henry II., 25s. In the earlier part of the
fourteenth century, a variety of breeds had
been cultivated, and the prices for the different
kinds of wool varied considerably. The pro-
duce of the Shropshire sheep was sold at
£9 Gs. 8c?. per sack ; whilst the Cornish wool,
no doubt the produce of a mountain or forest
breed, was only £1; per sack.

The first determined and general improve-
ment of the sheep took place in the reign of
Henry III. ; but the great impetus to sheep-
farming was given by the introduction of
turnips. This well-known plant is cultivated
for its bulbous roots, both in the garden and
the field, and was originally introduced from
Flanders into Norfolk two centuries ago, and

from Norfolk was carried into the south of
Scotland and tho north of England, about a
century after. In IGSl, we find Mr. A\''orlid';o
.saying — "Sheep fatten very well on turnips,
which prove an exocHent nourishment for
them in hard winters, when fodder is scarce ;
for they will not only eat the greens, but feed
on tlie roots in tho ground, and scoop them
hollow oven to tho skin. Ten acres sown with
clover and turnips, will feed as many sheep as
ono hundred acres would havo done before."
Previous to the introduction of this invaluable
root, it is not easy to see how large flocks of
sheep could be kept alive throughout a long
winter. It must bo remembered that flocks
were so extensive as to require a vast amount
of provender. Harrison, who wrote a century
before AV'^orlidge, says that the farmer pos-
sessed as many as 20,000 sheep, notwithstand-
ing that an act had been previously passed
restricting one man to the number of 2,000.
In 1002, according to the Berkeleyan MSS.,
the price of a " sheepe was vi.ss. ;" and,
according to the same authority, in the time
of Edward I., " a fat sheepe was worth from
XYii.d. to XX. d., a lambe i.d. ;" "a weight of
woll," in Eicliard II. 's time (twenty-one
pounds) "was v.s." Distinctions between
grass-fed and corn-fed sheep — winter and
summer mutton — were made by act of par-
liament in 1314. It determined the price of
a "corn-fed sheep." "A lambe" is spoken of
as being worth x.d. or xii.d. in the reign of
the first Eichard. In 1G09, there were said to
be twelve millions of sheej) in Britain, and the
carcass value of each was Is. 4d. The fleece
averaged about 10s. 4:d.; and, the boast of the
writers of the period is, that " no country but
England and Ireland, having a sward or turf,
would bear sheep producing the wool of which
the English draperies were made." Tiiey
were willing to let the Spanish wool have the
palm for the costly dresses of the peer ; but it
was insignificant — " not above 9,000 pieces of
these Spanish cloths were sent abroad;" and
these were only for the "wear of the richer
sort."

AVe will now consider individually the
various breeds which have obtained amongst
us, and which we will class separately, under
the heads of long-ivoolleti and short -icooUed
species. Before doing this, however, we will

703

TEESWATEE.]

SHEEP,

[teestvatee.

give, from Mr. McCullocli's Dictionary of
Commerce, the following compendious view of
the more prominent characteristics of the
various bi-eeds:—

Names of Ereedo.

Wool

"i'o %

|a

"ibiT
28
25

22
2i

22

25
16
15
14
12
18
20
18
18
18
10
16

7

8
14

6

Si

1. Teeswater

Long wool

Short \\

Lon? „
Short „

Fine ',',
Short „

(fine)
>>

(coarse)
(fine)

(Mid.)
)>

(super)
(fine)

lbs.
9
10

8
9

8

9
6
3

2J

li

3i
3

7

2

2

2

3

li

\i

Zh

'A

2

3. Dishley, or New Lei-

cester

4. Cotswold

2
2

5. Romney Marsh

6. Dartmoor, orBramp-

ton

2

2

2

6. Biack-faced or Heath
9. Hereford— Kvelaiid

10. Morf., Shropshire ...

11. Dorset

'ih
3J

0*

12. Wilts

3

13. Berks

2J

?,

15. Norfolk

3i

16. Herdwick

4^

17. Cheviot

4J

18. Dun-faced

4i

19. Shetland

4i

20. Spanish

2i

21. Ditto Cross

2

THE TEESWATER.

Properly speaking, the long-woolled breeds of
sheep originally belong to the rich and marshy
pastures of England, whence, with the ad-
■vauces gradually made in agriculture, they have
extended to all parts of Britain ; and, in many
localities, have encroached on the land previ-
ously appropriated to the short-woolled breeds.
!From this circumstance they have, for many
years, been increasing in numbers, while the
others have been either decreasing or remain-
ing stationary. This is to be accounted for
by the fact of the long-woolled varieties being
more profitable than the short-woolled, pro-
vided they are pastured upon such land as
may be found agreeable to their nature.
When this is the case, they produce a much
greater weight of fleece, which yields as much
per pound as that of the others ; while the
earlier maturity, and the superior fattening
qualities of one particular variety, render them
a much more preferable stock to the others.
Tet, it has been observed, that whilst many of
the mountain or up- land breeds have been
preserved in a state of purity from remote
ages, most of the ancient long-woolled breeds
have either altogether disappeared, or been
preserved, by the curious, in individual flocks ;
they have either been changed by extensive
crossing with the New Leicester breed, or
701.

altogether supplanted by it. A distinction has
been made of two classes of long-woolled
sheep ; one belonging to the fens and marshes,
and the other to the inland plains. The for-
mer embraces the Teeswater, the Leicester,
and other varieties ; and the latter, the Lin-
coln and the Romney Marsh.

The Teeswater is a very large breed, and
may, in some degree, be considered the giant
of the fleecy tribes, as it will frequently attain
to the heaviness of 50 lbs. per quarter, or
240 lbs. weight. The fleece is long, very
open, and somewhat coarse. It weighs from
9 to 12 lbs. This breed of sheep is very old,
and, for a long space of time, has been located
on the banks of the river Tees, whence it
takes its name. Most writers class it with
the Lincoln sheep, from which it is supposed
to have derived its origin. This, however, is
very uncertain. " The principality of Dur-
ham," says Mr. Milburn, " celebrated for its
native wild cattle and pigs, had doubtless its
own peculiar breed of sheep and cattle ; and
the old Teeswater sheep had as much a
habitat in those rich pastures as the wild
cattle of Brauspeth, or the deer at Auckland
Palace. The great peculiarity of the animal
was its slow growth, and, at the same time,
its large size and bone, its heavy, thin, and
coarse wool. The length of the legs, in par-
ticular, gave it an imposing and somewhat un-
gainly appearance ; while its thick skin made
it a slow feeder in any but its native pas-
tures— the alluvial washings of many gene-
rations." At one period, this gentleman ob-
tained two lambs, as a great favour, from a
flock of pure Teeswaters. The farmer forbade
histaking two of his best animals, and he had to
be contented with one. He selected another,
so close in the pelt, and so unsymmetrical,
that he decided in putting it off. The best
was well kept, and astonished both himself
and his visitors by its amazing size, and the
great weight and quantity of its wool; but,
just before shearing, it died the victim of wool
and mutton. As it was skinned, and not
shorn, there was no mode of weighing the
fleece ; but it could not be lighter than 12 lbs.
The load of fat, added to the envelop of heavy
wool, seemed to have suffocated the animal,
for it was exceedingly well kept.

Pure Teeswaters are now nqyj scarce. As

KENTISH BHEEP.]

AND TREIK VARIOUS BREEDS.

[KENflBU BUEEr.

we have already observed, they have all, more
or less, been improved by crosses with the
Leicpstors ; and a more beautiful cross can
hardly bo soon. The Leicester sliortens tho
leg; but it also shortens tho wool. Still, the
cross so far keeps up tho character of an open
fleece, that it is excellent in a point where tho
Leicester is somewhat deficient. Tho cross is
always the substitution of a Leicester instead
of a Teeswatcr ram to a Teeswater llock of
ewes. The finest animal shown at a meeting
of the Royal Agricultural Society at Liverpool,
was one of these crosses ; but it was excluded
because it was not a pure Leicester. " Long-
■woolled," however, was a term soon after sub-
stituted for Leicester, so as to admit sheep
of this description to compete. Tiie old Tees-
water was a large, full sheep, of ungainly form,
with a coarse bead, rounded haunches, and
long and large limbs. Other large breeds
formerly existed in the midland counties, but
most of them were smaller than the Teeswatcr.
These and similar breeds, however, have now
altogether disappeared in England.

The Teeswater sheep thrive best in small
flocks, and when they are dispersed over pas-
tures with other stock, rather than when tiiey
are crowded on the ground. The ewes are
very fruitful, and usually produce two, and
often three lambs at a birth. They are ex-
cellent mothers, and famous milkers ; and
though almost incapable of being brought up
to a state of fatness at one year old, they will
weigh 25 to 30 lbs. per quarter at the shear
without difficulty. The contest respecting
large and small sheep on good land, and the
most politic course for breeding and fatting,
is by no means settled.

KENTISH OR ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP.

I
The Kentish, or Romney Marsh sheep is

not, in its external characteristics, unlike the

Teeswater : it inhabits a locality to which it is

peculiar)}' adapted. In the northern and

eastern districts of this county, there is much ;

open ground, covered with short pasture, upon

which this variety thrives amazingly. Sir

Richard Phillips says of them, in his day —

"The marsh lands of Kent, used for breeding

sheep and fattening cattle, are 82,000 acres ;

of which Romney Marsh is 41,000. It has '

fourteen miles in length, and ten in breadth,

4x

and for tho greater part consists of a rich clay
soil, well ada[)ted for rearing a large breed of
sheep. This had been reclaimed, at somt*
time, from tho sea." Sir liichard again says,
"that four sheep will live on an acru oi' mode-
rate land in summer, and two in winter." Tho
proportion is now quintupled, but tlio scosca
is reversed. lie then huneuts "tho deteriora-
tion of tho wool of tlie liomneys ; for the wool
of sheep deteriorates as the sheep's carcass in-
creases; hence, for some years, owing to the
enlargement of the English sheep by new
breeds, the wool has become too long and
coarso for Cue cloths. Our long and coarse
wool will not unite or produce the required
substance for clothing."

The head of the original Romney Marsh
sheep is largo and thick, and covered with a
white woolly tuft. Tho forehead is flat and
broad, the neck long, and somewhat small for
the size of the animal. The loin and back
are wide, but the sides are flat, and the belly
is deep. This exaggerates a naturally narrow,
and not very deep chest, so as to make it
appear still less favourable. The legs, speak-
ing of them in the sense of mutton, are large
and broad; and the hind quartex'S generally
are better developed than the fore. The wool
is long, but fine, and very suitable for combing.
It weighs about nine pounds per fleece. The
mutton is good in quality, and the weight is
often 140 lbs. ; and, in some cases, loO or
160 lbs.

The race can bear cold, wet, and eastern
exposure. Formerly they were fed, both
winter and summer, on grass and a little hay,
and were seldom provided with shelter; so
that, not unfrequently, the lambs all died,
and the ewes suflered from the cold and wet.
The long-established custom of the Romney
breeders has been to send their lambs to the
farmers on the uplands, to be fed during the
winter; but they are usually kept very hard,
chiefly on the stubbles for a long time, when
they are often greatly debilitated before they
are transferred to the pastures. They are
rarely allowed hay — a kind of economy which
sometimes proves very destructive to the stock.
In the management of the ewes in the marshes,
the same negligence and want of caro are
apparent. However severe the weather may
be, shelter is very rarely alFarded them ; but

705

LINCOIK SHEEP.]

SHEER

fLINCOLir SHEEP.

^^•he^e this is done, it amply repays tlie cost
and trouble in the lives which it saves. The
breed, however, is now seldom found in a pure
state, as it has been extensively crossed with
the New Leicester, which has greatly improved
its form. The eifusion of Leicester blood,
says Mr. Milburn, " effected a change, possibly
for the better, on the old Eomney Marsh
sheep. It made a finer animal, reduced the
quantity, but not the quality, of the wool;
deepened the chest, and increased its width ;
rounded the rib, and lessened the bone gene-
rally ; drew up the belly, and destroyed the
tuft of hair on the top of the head ; so that it
made the sheep altogether a better feeding
animal, without destroying its suitability to
the soil and climate which it had inhabited for
years. With its other improvements, the
cross had also the effect of reducing the period
of bringing the animals to market. They
were usually three years old before they were
sold to the butcher for killing. They are now
prime for the London market at two ; and as
this enables the feeder to turn over one-third
more capital in sheep-fattening, it is a great
advantage, though he has possibly somewhat
injured the hardihood of the animal; and it
now requires a greater amount of care and
skill for the bringing up of the lambs. Nor
has the wool been so far injured as to prevent
the breed from being classed among those
celebrated for this commodity. The Leicester
may have shortened a little, and made the
fleece set closer on the body; but it has
neither destroyed its fine texture, nor pre-
vented it from standing high in the estimation
of the manufacturer."

THE LINCOLNSHIRE SHEEP.

This breed bears a strong resemblance to
both the Teeswater and the Eomney Marsh
or Kentish sheep, and, in all probability, had
a similar origin to them. The Lincolnshire
fens extend into Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, and
the adjoining counties, and are well suited for
ihe rearing of a large race of sheep ; and, ac-
cordingly, they form the native habitat of the
Old Lincoln— a breed in its pure state, we
believe, now almost quite extinct. They were
of a large and coarse make, with hollow flanks
and flat sides, large legs and feet. Their
fleece almost touched the ground, was long and
706

oily, and weighed from 10 lbs. to 12 lbs., and
upwards. They fed slowly, but accumulated
a great deal of internal fat, and were, on that
account, much sought after by the butcher.
This was the Old Lincoln, the progenitors of
the present existing race, which has been im-
proved by extensive crossing with the New
Leicester, and which ]\Ir. Milburn describes
as having been of great value. He says that
they have smaller faces than the Eomney
Marsh sheep, and are altogether lighter in
flesh. The carcass is large and coarse ; the
length, from the head to the tail, measuring,
in some cases, four feet six or seven inches.
It is to this great length that he attributes the
apparent hoUowness which this variety has in
its back. The ribs are flattish, and not covered
very thickly with flesh ; whilst the belly is deep,
and the shoulders so forward as almost to hide
the breast. The neck is thick and large, and
is encumbered with a deep and flabby dewlap.
The hind quarters are full and fat, with a ten-
dency to accumulate fat at the rump. The
legs are fleshy and deep. The whole animal
is of an ungainly form, taking the standard of
connoisseur taste as a criterion ; but, wlieu
the wool covers the animal, the whole of his
imperfections are hid. He is one living square
of wool, ranging from fifteen to eighteen inches
long; and more of this material is clipped
from the Lincolnshire sheep tlian from amj
English slieep to7iateve7\ The fleece varies from
12 lbs. to 14 lbs. weight, which, when it sells
for 15d. or ISd. per pound, is equal to the value
of the whole carcass of some of the smaller
breeds of sheep. Nor is it far behind in mutton.
The wether will weigh from 30 lbs. to 35 lbs.
per quarter, sinking the oflal, or a nett weight
of mutton, per sheep, of 140 lbs.

The effect of crossing this animal with the
New Leicester has been to reduce the size,
diminish the length, and to restore the power ot
internal accumulation of fat, and also to deposit
it externally on the sides and back of the sheep.

Messrs. Kennedy and Grainger state, that
the sheep bred in the wolds are deeper crossed
with the New Leicester than those in the
marsh lands, which may account for the fleece
of the latter being heavier. "The breed of
sheep generally," they observe, " has been
greatly increased since the turnip husbandry
has been introduced. Those bred in the wolds,

LEiCESTEB SHEEP.] AND THEIR V A Kl O U S intEEDS. [leicestee siikep.

and, indeed, in every pnrt of the diatrict where 1
tliia system is pursued, aro roared chiefly on
artifie'ial grasses. Tlioro aro, however, groat
numbers bred on oUl pastures, the best of which
are kept for the purpose of fatting sheep."
The ollVctou tluMVOol.as to (piaiitity, certainly
depends on the degree of Leicester blood
infused. The lowland sheep, when the in-
fusion prevails to a smaller extent, have a largo
massv frame of flesli, covered and grained witli
fat. They are compact and kiiuUy feeders,
though they require more food than when a
larger proportion of Leicester blood prevails,
and cannot either be put on land so inferior,
nor on any land in the same average quantity.
Their produce of wool is very great. A
wether killed at Grantham, one of au equal
lot of twenty-seven, clipped 17 lbs. of wool,
and weighed almost 30S lbs. The sheep are
always sold at two shear, and the united clip —
the one made as a shearling, and the other at
two years old — will often average 20 to 25 lbs.
"When fatted to the utmost extent, a wether
has been known to weigh 300 lbs., and a ewe
262 lbs. Such instances exhibit the power of
these large-framed sheep to produce both wool
and mutton. Assuming a choice specimen to
be two shear, his whole produce will be —

£ s. d.
Two fleeces of wool, 24 lbs., at Is. 3rf. . . 1 10 0
Carcass, say 250 lbs., at 5d 5 4 2

Total . . . .£^6 14 2
"With higher prices, of course, the value of
the animal would be more ; but this is sufficient
to show that the Lincolnshire sheep, when
not far removed from its original stock, is an
animal very remunerative both as to wool and
mutton.

THE DISHLEY, OR NEW LEICESTER SHEEP.

Tlie Leicester, or the Hew Leicester slieep,
had its type in the Teeswater, the Lincoln,
and the Eomney Marsh breeds. It was a
large, heavy, coarse sheep, with a disposition to
feed favourably, but with much grossncss about
it. Its wool, however, was excellent for comb-
ing. The rams would weigh, when fat, 40 lbs.
per quarter ; and the fleece would weigh 13 or
14 lbs. It was on these animals that Bakewell
began his experiment, with a view to improve-
ment ; and, in 17G0, he commenced the system
of letting rams, as distinguished from selling.

The usual course was for the farmers to save

the best of their several flocks, and resorvo
them uncast rated, as male lumbc*. Bakewell
began a letting system; but so liltlo was it
liked, and so little was thouglit of his ramn,
that ho lot one in that year, for tlio season,
for only sixteen shillings; and it was not till
twenty years afterwards, that anything like a
remunerative price was received. It was tlien
onlv ten guineas for one ram ; but it afterwards
rapidly increased, till, in 17SU, ho received
300 guineas for one ram ; and, three years
afterwards, he realised no less than G,'20Q
guineas, thus rewarding him for his unwearied
perseverance, under almost every species of
discouragement and opposition. Subsequently
he established the Dishley Society, with the
view of extending the breed, preserving it pure,
and benefiting the members of it. As an im-
prover of the breed of sheep, this gentleman
stands alone; but how ho accomplished the
great points he achieved, remains a secret, for
the plan he adopted died with him. It is cer-
tain that ho reduced the size of the native
animal, and gave him small offals, induced him
to lay on flesh and fat all along the breech,
the sides, the shoulders, the flank, and the
neck ; opened his wool, and also reduced it in
weight, and a little in length. He likewise
increased the tendency to lay on fat in propor-
tion to the food consumed, and made the animal
take on fat a year or two earlier at least, and
thus enabled two or three animals to be fed
where one only could be kept before. All this
he did ; and the same breed of sheep has, for a
century, not only maintained its position, but
has been employed, with more or less success,
to improve nearly every breed of sheep in the
United Kingdom, and, at the same time, has
more or less displaced almost every other breed.
The various points of the New Leicester
have been thus accurately set down by Mr.
Low: — "The head should bo hornless, long,
small, tapering towards tho muzzle, and pro-
jecting horizontally forwards. The eyes should
be prominent, with a great expression ; whilst
tho ears should be thin, somewhat long, and
directed backwards. The neck should be
full and broad at its base, where it proceeds
from the chest, but gradually tapering towards
the head, and being particularly fine at the
junction of the head and neck ; tho neck

707

XEICESTEES.]

SHEEP,

[leicestees.

seeming to project straight from the chest, so
that there is, with the slightest possible devia-
tion, one continued horizontal line from the
rump to the poll; the breast broad and full;
the shoulders, also, broad and round, and no
uneven or angular formation where the shoul-
ders join either the neck or the back ; par-
ticularly no rising of the withers, or hollow
behind the situation of these bones ; the arm
fleshy through its whole extent, and even
down to the knee ; the bones of the legs
small, standing wide apart, no looseness of
skin about them, and comparatively bare of
wool ; the chest and barrel at once deep and
round ; the ribs forming a considerable arch
from the spine, so as, in some cases, and
especially when the animal is in good con-
dition, to make the apparent width of the
chest even greater than the depth ; the barrel
ribbed home ; no irregularity of line on the
back or the belly, but, on the sides, the carcass
very gradually diminishing in width towards
the rump ; the quarters long and full, and, as
with the fore legs, the muscles extending
down to the hock ; the thighs, also, wide and
full ; the legs of a moderate length ; the pelt,
also, moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and
covered with a good quantity of white wool,
not so long as in some breeds, but considerably
finer." Such is the Dishley, or Leicester
sheep ; and the breeders of the Teeswaters, of
the Downs, and of the Lincolns, all claim the
breeds as the source of Mr. Bakewell's im-
provement on the old Leicester stock. They
allege that he might reduce the bone and
frame by a simple dash of the favourite blood,
and thus obtaining a firm superstructure,
breed in-and-in, until it was indelible. But
this, according to some authors, is very im-
probable. He, no doubt, however, selected those
animals which corresponded with his ideas of
what were the best, with light offals, and a
tendency to feed, and which exhibited early
maturity, and very natural forms,

"It seldom happens," says Mr. Milburn,
"that one great man discovers any new fact
or principle in science alone. Discoveries,
according to Providential arrangements, seem
to bo made in different places at once. Mr.
Joseph Allom, of Clifton, in Leicestershire,
who rose from the plough-tail, by his mind
and energy, to be an extensive farmer and
70S

breeder, was known to select and purchase
choice ewes from all parts of the country,
chiefly from Melton. ^He had a breed which
were great favourites before Bakewell was
lieard of. Specific characteristics we cannot
very easily define. Mr. Touatt slurs even
Mr. Allom, in a note ; and, in the text, says,
'Up to this period (the middle of last cen-
tury) very little care had been bestowed in
the breeding of sheep.' Mr. Marshall goes
to tiie other extreme, and says that the origin
of Bakewell's improvements are due to Allom.
The truth is probably between the two.
Allom's stock might be made available to
Bakewell's purposes ; and his practice might
set the latter to work in more zealously im-
proving the breed."

Another cause was also in operation towards
the same end ; and, doubtless, gave another op-
portunity for Bakewell's selecting his speci-
mens to improve his breed. In I74i7, there
were some successions of bad seasons, which
so operated on the succulent grass of Leices-
tershire, as to sweep off nearly the whole of
the sheep on the lower clay soils of that
county. ' This banished the more wealthy
farmers from the district, and they had to take
refuge on the wolds of Yorkshire, and then
purchase some small-horned, fine-bred sheep,
for a supply to their decimated flocks. The
trade of jobbing thus commenced ; and it is
said that Bakewell employed the jobbers, who
brought down, from time to time, these York-
shire wold sheep, to allow him to cull the
best, before they offered them to the farmers.
He thus obtained compact, square, rapidly-
feeding animals; and persevered, year after
year, in selecting the best, in his judgment,
from his own flock, until he had obtained the
celebrity which has handed down his name as
the greatest improver that ever lived ; and the
once new Leicester sheep has become the Lei-
cester sheep ; so completely has it eaten out
its progenitors.

Although this breed has been intermixed
with many other breeds, in almost every kind
of degree, it still, in most respects, holds its
ground. Breeders, however, now incline to-
wards the production of a large animal, as be-
ing more profitable. Thus, the improved Cots-
^^old — frequently designated the New Oxford-
shire— and some of the heavier species, have

LEicESTEE SHEKP.] AND TIIEIll VAKIOUS BREEDS. [cotswold sueep.

become successful rivals of tlio pure Dishloy
breed. Tho LtMoestcr, Iiowovlt, still commands
a liirge extent of tlio mo.st fi-rtilo districts of
England, and has long been introduced to
Scotland, where it has boon cultivated with tho
utmost caro and success. In both countries
it is chieily restricted to tlio lowlands, or to
land of pretty good quality. lu the Journal
of the Koyal Agricultural Society of England,
we find an account of tlio modes of nianago-
luent pursued in Ivoxburghshire, on the borders
of tho Tweed and the Teviot, whicli niiglit bo
taken as the system generally adopted in tho
superior districts of both countries. " Before
the oommeucement of the present century, tho
Cheviot were almost tlie only sheep found in
Teviotdale and Tweeddale; whilst, witliin the
space of thirty years afterwards, the Leicester
breed, with few exceptions, had the entire pos-
session of these districts ; and they not only
greatly exceeded their predecessors in num-
bers, but still more so in weight. On nearly
all the farms of any considerable extent in
breeding, a stock of these sheep is kept ; and
from the ewes, thi-ee successions of lambs are
taken ; the dams being sold off at the close of
their third breeding season, or when four-and-
a-half years old. In general, the whole pro-
duce of these ewes is retained upon the farm
on which they are bred ; a proportion of the
ewe lambs, when gimmers, coming in to take
the place of the old ewes sold in each year.
The wcdder-lambs, again, are disposed of as
fat ; many of them, immediately afterwards,
being deprived of the first fleece ; and the re-
mainder, after being fed on turnips, in the
winter or spring of the second year. Not un-
frequently, however, upon farms where a large
proportion of turnips cannot be raised, the
whole wedder-lambs, and, sometimes, part of
the ewe-lambs, are disposed of at weaniug-
time ; and those ewe-lambs kept beyond the
number required to maintain the complement
of the year, are sold when gimmers, usually
at about eighteen months old. These young
sheep, being thus so early matured for the
butcher, are maintained from their earliest
time on full feed ; it being a great object to
prevent them losing any of the condition they
generally possess when taken from the ewes.
AVith this view, also, they are early put upon
turnips, as it is very desirable tliey should be

woU acquainted with this their ossential moans
of 8U[)port, previous to any failure in tho nu-
trilious properties in tho gra.ss, or tho occur-
rcnco of severe weather. To tho young stock,
intended to bo kept for breeding, fewer turnips
aro commonly allowed, although they aro sel-
dom, during any j)art of tho winter, entirely
without this useful assistance. Tho ewea
having, at this season, the range of the whole
pasture, are only allowed auxiliary food during
tho severity of a storm, and in hard winter
weather, until towards the aj)proach of the
period of lambing, when a proportion of turnips
becomes indispensable to maintain thorn in
sufficient condition to bring them well through
this critical and interesting season. In gene-
ral, more sheep aro fattened than aro bred in
the district." This system, with some modi-
fications, caused by tho qualities of the land,
prevails, with little difference, throughout the
midland districts of England.

The Leicester, as a turnip-feeder, is, perhaps,
the most successful of all breeds of sheep.
The fat is in greater quantity, collected on
the surface, than any breed whatever ; and it
will accumulate as much fat, if not more,
for the food consumed, than any other kind of
sheep. A better proof of the value of the
Leicester could not be adduced, than is
found in the fact of their having super-
seded a vast proportion of the sheep of this
country, under every circumstance of pastu-
rage and climate, and established themselves
in their stead. They have also been used to
improve the desirable points of almost every
breed, which still at all keeps its ground. la
fine, the Leicester is the only sheep whicli
can, with any degree of success, be fattened
at one year old.

THE COTSWOLD SHEEP,

Cotswold is one word produced by the union
of two, and signifies a. sheep-fold and a naked
hill. The breed of sheep which goes by this
name is both ancient and celebrated. The
hills which were its original habitat are of no
great elevation ; but they enjoy a fragrant
herbage ; and though, at one time, consisting
only of bleak marshes, have, in the course of
years, undergone great improvement. Kelative
to its breed of sheep, Camden speaks of it as
furnishing wool both fine and soft ; whilst

7U9

COTSWOLD SHEEP.]

SHEEP,

[daetmook sheep.

Drayton writes of its abundance. Speed,
writing upwards of 200 years ago, speaks of
the wool as similar to the Eyeland, and rival-
ling that of the Iberian peninsula. Indeed,
some have gone so far as to say, that the Cots-
wold is the progenitor of the Merino sheep,
as, in 1464, Edward IV. permitted a number to
be exported to Spain, where they multiplied
and spread. Before this period, however,
Spain enjoyed a celebrity for her wools. The
Cotswold is a large breed, with a long and
an abundant fleece. In the time of Queen
Elizabeth, when Markham wrote, he describes
them as a long-woolled race. The ewes are
not only prolific, but good nurses. At one
time they were bred only on the hills, and put
to fatten in the valleys of the Thames and the
Severn. Since the enclosure of the Cotswold
hills, however, coupled with the improvement
in their cultivation, they have been reared
and fatted in the same district. This species
has a great tendency to accumulate fat upon
the back ; and whilst its breast is not so wide,
deep, or prominent as that of the Leicester, it
IS of larger bone. Its sides are flatter, but it
is neither so broad nor so prominent in the
shoulders and legs. The fat and flesh are laid
in the back, in a large and unyielding mass ;
whilst the Leicester has a soft elastic firmness,
in every way agreeable to be touched. This
may arise from the fineness of the pelt. The
Cotswold, on the contrary, has a thicker pelt,
and the wool mats itself near the skin, and is
more straggling at the edges. The head is
white, and so are the legs ; while the ears are
small, and fall downwards and outwards. The
top of the head is a mass of soft bushy wool.
The weight of the animal will sometimes reach
28 lbs. per quarter ; but 28 to 30 lbs. will be
a nearer average for two-year-old sheep. At
a year and a quarter they will, when properly
fatted, be found to yield 19 lbs. per quarter,
and sometimes attain to 20 or 21 lbs. Their
yield of wool, v\ hich is fine and light in propor-
tion to its bulk, is from 8 to 9 lbs.

The gradual infusion of Leicester blood is
general amongst the most celebrated and ex-
tensive flocks of the Cotswold breed, other-
wise thi re would be longer wool, more hardi-
ness, less ?arly maturity, more bone, and some-
what ligl ter fore quarters. The Leicester
mixture, h 3)wever, is not excessive, and occurs,
71G

perhaps, in a very remote degree. The sheep
is still and quiet in its habits, and is one of
the best kinds for carrying out the board or
hurdle feeding. In Gloucestershire, the Cots-
wolds, now almost lost in the Leicesters, have
multiplied to a degree which would hardly
have been believed to be possible in this pavt
of the kingdom ; and the short-wools are nearly
driven out of this district. Writing upon this
breed, Mr. Spooner says, that "the superior
hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the
Leicester, and their adaptation to common
treatment, together witb the prolific nature of
the ewes, and their abundance of milk, have
rendered them, in many places, rivals of the
New Leicester, and have obtained for them
more attention to their selection and treat-
ment, under which management still further
improvement appears very probable. They
have also been used in crossing other breeds,
and have been mixed with the Hampshire
Downs. It is, indeed, the improved Cotswold
that, under the term of New or Improved Ox-
fordshire sheep, are so frequently the success-
ful candidates for prizes oflered for the best
long-woolled sheep at some of the principal
agricultural meetings or shows in the king-
dom. The quality of the mutton is considered
superior to that of the Leicester, the tallow
being less abundant, with a larger develop-
ment of muscle or flesh. We may, therefore,
regard this breed as one of established reputa-
tion, and extending itself throughout every
district of the kingdom."

THE DARTMOOR SHEEP.
This is one of the principal forest breeds of
the West of England, and it bears a strong
resemblance to the Dorset. Its habitat is
found in the higher situations of Devonshire
and Cornwall ; and, from the hardiness of its
nature, it is well adapted to the poverty of the
pasture which the forests of Dartmoor and
Exraoor afi'ord. They have white faces and
legs ; have horns generally ; but some are with-
out these. The head and neck are small, and
so is the bone in every part of the animal t
whilst the carcass is narrow, and the sides are
flat. When fat, they weigh from nine to twelve
pounds per quarter. In the yolk, the place is
three or four pounds in weight, and the wool
is somewhat short, with a coarse top. It is

eiMOOU suKEP.] AND TllEIli VAliiOUS BllEEUS. [aAMuououuu sujiEP.

classed, by some writers, amonpj tlio middle-
wooUoJ bieods; but, in our classitii-ation, wo
Imvo Ibllowod ^rcCiillocli, and inado only two
distinctions — namely, a long and u short, for tlio
sake of simplicitj-, Lnrgo numbora of them
browso on the hills and the commons of the
heathy parts of Devonshire ; but the ewes are
taken into inclosurcs to lamb. For tho sake
of their wool, tho wethers aro kept on the
downs, until they are five or six, or even eight
or ten years old, save when tho winters arc
severe, when they are inclosed to prevent their
being lost in tho snow. Their mutton is deli-
cate, and, in the metropolis, procures a ready
customer. Their wool, however, is not vei'y
fine. Indeed, from an early period, tho Devon-
shire produce of this article has had but an
indifferent character. In a note in the work
published in the Library of Useful Knowledge,
it is stated to have been inferior even in the
days of Edward IV., when the Devon manu-
facturers petitioned him to permit them to
mingle flocks with their wool, in the making
of their serge cloths, because the material was
so gross and stubborn, that cloth could not be
made thereof, without mixing it with flocks.
Since the introduction of the Leicesters, how-
ever, a better article has been produced. It is
mostly used for the manufacture of livery-cloths.

THE EXMOOR SHEEP.

This species is very like the Dartmoor as to
conformation and character, but it is of a still
smaller size. The males have hair under the
chin, like goats, and bear a striking resemblance
to these nimble-footed animals in their activity
and boldness. They are milder than the
Dartmoor breed, and their flesh is equally
good. The horns are large, and very peculiar,
spreading at the roots so much, as nearly to
touch each other, and proceeding backwards,
and growing outwards, so as to be somewhat
spiral. The little cars peer out of these folds,
and a dull, heavy-looking head is situated be-
tween. The throat is flabby and hairy ; the
breast narrow and thin, sinking backwards,
almost behind the fore legs; and the fore
quarter is short. There is a falling of the
back behind the shoulder, and a rise at the
rump. They are now much improved by the
infusion of a little Leicester blood. They are
the sheep of Cornwall, which, in early times,

were remarkably small, and their fleccoB so
coarse, that the wool boro no better title than
that of Cornish hair. Under tliat, name, tho
cloth made of Cornish wool, was allowed to bo
exported without being subject to tho cus-
tomary duty paid for woollen clotli. Wlien
cultivation began to extend, and tlio catlh; to
improve in size and quality, tho Cornish had
tho same poundage conferred on them by
grant from Edward the Black Prince, tho first
Duke of Cornwall, on condition of their paying
•is. for every hundredweight. These sheep
principally occupy the heaths and downs of
every part of the county, even as far as the
sandy hills, which hardly have a covering of
green towards the Land's-end. "\Ve have seen
many of them cropping their scanty herbage
in these parts, where they are highly valued,
on account of the peculiar flavour which their
mutton has, from the numerous aromatic plants
with which this part of England abounds. Tho
native breed is considered to have reached its
maturity at four years old; and the average
number of twin lambs produced, is about one
in six.

THE BAMDOROUGH SHEEP.

This is both a short and long-woolled race,
very peculiar and valuable, says Mr. Milburn ;
and yet it is scarcely named by half tho writers
on sheep. It makes mutton readily, and pro-
duces a valuable wool. It is bred in the
south-eastern parts of Northumberland, and
north of Durham — in fact, from the Tweed to
the Tyne — and the regular fair for their pur-
chase is Rodbury. Tho flocks are remarkably
like each other, having flat level backs, being
good grazers, producing G lbs. of uool of a
strong but close quality, and weighing 22 lbs.
per quarter when fat. The heads are placed
horizontally, and the animals rapidly accumu-
late fat. With ordinary keep the ewes are
always fat. They are excellent feeders, and
consume a great deal of food. The fat is laid
on internally to a large extent, but it is duly
mixed with the muscle ; and consequently tho
mutton is somewhat insipid. In feeding, they
grow more fiit and less muscle, perhaps, than
any other breed. From their great resemblance
to each other, they seem to be a distinct breed,
and are a good deal grazed, the ewes being pur-
chased for lambing in Yorkshire. After the
lambs are weaned, the ewes soon become fat

711

HEATH SHEEP. J

SHEEP.

^HEATH SHEEP.

on grass in summer, and the lambs rapidly
feed for the butcher.

THE BERKSHIRE SHEEP.
About the centre of Berkshire, its old breed
was wont to be found, with their Eoman
noses, black faces, long tails, and black and
mottled legs. Some of them were polled, but
most of them were horned. Their strength,
activity, and height were considerable ; whilst
they folded well, and, when fattened, assumed
large proportions ; but to bring them to this
condition usually took a long time. Mr.
Herbert says, that " they were nest in weight
to the old Leicester breeds, but higher than
them on the legs. The wethers, when mode-
rately fat, weighed from ten to thirteen
stones ; and when fattened for prize show, they
weighed from sixteen to twenty-two stones."
This breed was first improved by a cross with
the Wiitshires, and subsequently with the
Southdowns, which are now the prevailing
breed in the county. The blood of the old
race may be said to have become so deeply
amalgamated vv'ith the Southdowns, that they
have lost their original character.

THE BLACK-FACED, OR HEATH SHEEP.

This peculiar breed of sheep inhabits the
lofty, but barren and heathy hills which, com-
mencing in Derbyshire in the south, run
thence into Scotland, through Lancashire,
Yorkshire, Cumberland, and "Westmoreland.
It is questionable whether they are the
aboriginal breedof these districts; but whether
they are or not, they have extended themselves
into the mountains of the Highlands, and even
penetrated to the Orkneys and Zetland, where
they have taken the place of the original and
more inferior breeds of these parts. They are
celebrated for the excellence of their mutton,
but their wool does not rank so high. There
is no doubt, however, that a breed of sheep
producing wool of a superior kind to that now
yielded by the black-faced sheep, was at one
period common in Scotland.' Hector Boe-
thius, who wrote about the year 1460, speaks
of the fineness of the wool produced in various
parts of this county. Remarking on the
sheep which inhabited the vale of Esk, where,
until the introduction of the Clieviots, the
rough-wooUed, black-faced sheep alone were
712

found, he says, as given by HoUinshed —
""Whose sheep have such white, fine, and
excellent wool, as the like of it is hardly to be
found again in the whole island." Sebastian
Munster, in his Cosmograpliia Universalis,
published ninety years afterwards, says — " The
sheep pasture in each country (England and
Scotland) is such, that nowhere is there better
or finer wool." Dr. Anderson proves, that
three or four centuries ago, a fine-woolled
breed of sheep was common in Scotland. In
Galloway, Annandale, and JS'iddesdale, it was
found in the greatest numbers; but it re-
mained longest in some of the mountainous
districts of Aberdeenshire. liot a century
ago it existed in Eifeshire ; and if any of it
now remains, it is perhaps in the islands of
Shetland.

Eeturning to the black-faced sheep, how-
ever, we find it observed by Mr. Torr, that it
is a breed which possesses characters that
distinguish it from every other species in the
British Isles. It belongs to the smaller races
of sheep in regard to the weight to which it
attains ; but is not only larger, but more
robust than the Zetland, the "Welsh, and the
ancient soft-woolled sheep, which it displaced.
It resembles the "Wallachian, which has an
affinity with the Persian ; and, like it, a conjec-
ture might be ventured that it came originally
from the East. Its peculiarity is its extreme
hardiness, as it will subsist where many other
races would literally starve. It is left to shift
for itself amongst the heather and furze ; and,
when unmolested, wanders almost wild among
the hills, picking up such herbage as it finds
suitable or agreeable to its palate. Thus it is
reared at very little expense, until it is trans-
ferred to richer pasture, or till turnips are
given it, with the view of its being fattened
for the butcher.

The face and neck of these sheep are usually
black, though sometimes they approach to
grey ; and, a little before shearing-time, become
brown. Elegant and graceful horns grow from
each side of their heads, and usually bend
backwards and downwards. The specimens
on the heads of some four-year-old wethers,
have been pronounced really beautiful. The
head is broad, and the back straight and broad ;
the chest deep, and the legs straight and
fleshy. The wool is long and pendulous, and

DonsETsniRE SHEEP.] AND I'lIEIR VAlilOUS BTIEEDS. [dousetsiiiue sheep.

considerably curled. The eyes are full, and
expressive of life : whilst tlie carcass is round-
barrelled, wilh well-nrched ribs. The lines
down the hams and the breast ore straight and
perpendicular. The neck is fiiio and clean.
The lean Higliland sheep are usually bouglit at
Falkirk trysts, where myriads of atiiinals cover
the moor. As many as 80,000, and even
90,000, are sometimes exhibited at the Oc-
tober trvst. Twenty thousand is a common
number at the other trysts. About half this
number are wethers of the sbear ; tho re-
mainder are two-year-olds, for further picking
on the moors, and for store or for feedinc;, and
a few rams. The year-old wethers arc either
purcliased there to fatten, or arc run on in
winter in any low pasture with rough grass,
and fattened in the summer of the following
year on grass. During the winter these will
subsist, and even improve, on very inferior
grass ; such, indeed, as almost every other
animal will refuse ; and if they are not crowded
on tlie ground, tbey will manage to get through
the winter. Many persons imagine, that it
takes four, or even five years, before the full
mutton-development of the black- faced sheep
takes place ; but this is not tbe case. Heather-
fed sheep, fed in the second winter after they
are lambed, are, when rapidly fatted, in as good
condition as they can be at any subsequent
period. " This breed," observes Professor Low,
" does not appear to amalgamate well with
other races, so that crossing has not generally
been successful as a means of permanent im-
provement. It has been frequently crossed by
the Cheviot, but the descendants have been
found inferior in weight, form, and quality of
wool, to the pure Cheviots, and to the black-
faced heath breed in hardiness and aptitude to

thrive in an upland country of henthH. Hut
as it is not always deemed aitfe to change a
stock of sheep, habituated to their locality, tho
practice of a continued crossing with the
Cheviot, until tho (lock haa acquired tho
cliaracters of the latter, has been Homeliines
adopted ; so that tlie original black-faced Htock
has become, in time, almost Clioviot. Another
species of crossing haa become remarkably
successful — namely, the employing of mahaof
the Leicester or Southdown for a first cross.
Tho lambs — tho result of this mixture — are
excellent, rising to a much greater weight than
those of the pure black-faced blood. Of these
crosses, the best has been found to bo with tho
Leicesters. That with the tSouthdowus pro-
duces very handsome sheep, having perfectly
black faces and legs, and a close good fleece ;
but they scarcely attain tho size of the Lei-
cester crosses ; and the latter, accordingly, are
preferred for the special purpose for which
this species of breeding is designed."

To keep black-faces properly, or well, they
should not be crowded, or too much over-
stocked. They are capable of bearing very-
hard treatment; will stand almost any degree
of cold, and any quantity of wet, whilst sup-
porting themselves on the poorest of pasture;
but they are seldom tried with this ; therefore,
age has to make up for previous neglect ; and
they must be kept longer than any other kind
of sheep, to bring them into suitable condition.

Heavy stocking will, nearly always, make
the difference between good and bad produce;
as it will diminish the size of the sheep, throw
it back in its feeding, and the breeder and the
feeder will be a much greater time in bringing
up their produce to that condition which may
be called ready for the market.

CHAPTER III,

SHORT OR MIDDLE-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEF.

THE DORSETSHIRE SHEEP. I the Norfolk, the Suffolk, and Cheviot breeds,

What some designate the middle-woolled with some others, which were all formerly
sheep, comprise the Dorset, the Southdown, short-woolled. For the sake of simplicity, we
4 Y 713

BOESET SHEEP.]

SHEEP,

[doeset sheep.

Lave retained their original distinction, as
their wool has been lengthened only by the
improvements made in breeding. The Dorset-
shire sheep is a breed of itself, although it is
now greatly encroached upon by the South-
downs. It is a valuable breed ; and where
pure, is entirely white, with a long and broad
face, and with a tuft of wool on the forehead.
The shoulders are broad and low ; the chest
deep ; the back straight ; the loins broad ; the
legs somewhat long, and the bone small. They
are a hardy and useful race, folding well, and
yielding excellently flavoured mutton. AVhen
three years old, they average from 16 to 20 lbs.
per quarter. "The great peculiarity of the
Dorset sheep," says Mr. Milburn, " appears to
be, that while other breeds receive the ram
only at one and the same season, the Dorset
will take hira all the year round, and even
while the lambs are suckling. There is thus
the power of supplying lamb at any season of
the year for the pampered appetite of the epi-
cure ; and vast sums are thus realised by those
who keep them for the purpose. Nor is this
peculiarity one which at all applies, as might
be supposed, to the mild climate, or favoured
pasturage, of Dorsetshire. The breed possesses
the same peculiarity in all parts of the country,
even in Scotland ; though it must be obvious,
that the rearing of lambs at the period of mid-
winter, is far more likely to proceed favourably
in the mild and genial south-west of England,
than in the colder and more northern climes.
The ewes take the ram in May, so that they
will produce in October ; and the early lamb at
Christmas, in Loudon, is obtained from this
late produce." These lambs are house-fed — a
practice which is not now so common as it
used to be ; but the manner in which it was,
and still is, partially pursued, in the districts
near the metropolis, has been thus described
by Mr. Middleton. He says, that "the ewes
are always, witliout exception, of the Dorset-
shire breed, and the early lambing species are
sought for, throughout the country, with great
diligence ; for it is thought that not more than
one in three will lamb sufficiently early for the
purpose. Those of large size, with white noses,
are most in esteem ; and anything like black
on that part would occasion their being re-
jected. The colour of the flesh of those lambs,
when butchered, is, also, a matter which, in a
714

great measure, governs their value ; and,
therefore, those which can be warranted to die
fair always bear the highest price. This, evi-
dently, cannot be guaranteed when produced
by ewes which have been promiscuously pur-
chased at the fairs ; those breeders with whom
the sucklers usually deal, are, consequently,
careful in the selection of the rams, the issue
of which is said to be known by certain marks
in the mouth, even before any previous know-
ledge of their progeny. The rams and ewes
should be put together at such a time that the
lambs may fall at the proper season — say,
somewhere about Michaelmas — from which
period there is usually a succession of them,
until towards Christmas. The ewes, both
some time previously to this, and during the
whole period of suckling, are kept in a croft,
adjoining the lamb -house, and must be well-
fed, in addition to after-grass, cole, cabbage, or
any succulent roots which may be in season,
together with brewers' grains, pollard, ground
oats, or barley-meal, pea-meal, and linseed, or,
in short, any food which will best promote an
abundance of milk, and the consequent growth
of fat in the lambs. The lambs are separated
from their dams, and put into the house, which
should be well-littered with clean wheat straw,
a little of which should also be placed in racks,
with the ears downwards, in order to amuse
themselves, and prevent them from gnawing
each other's wool. Some chalk, baked in an
oven, should likewise be put in the troughs,
both in lumps and powder, in order to guard
them, as much as possible, against looseness ;
and the most scrupulous attention should be
paid to cleanliness, as they do not leave the
liouse until sent to the butcher. To prevent
them from playing, and thus insure quiet,
light is excluded from the house, until par-
tially admitted at such times when the dams
are brought to suckle them, which, in most
cases, is three, or even four, times in the day.
If the house, however, be large enough to ad-
mit of the ewes being allowed to remain with
them during the night, the usual plan is to
admit them at sun-down, and turn them into
the pasture soon after the dawn of day; in
which case, they should be again brought to
them about noon. The lamb-house is, how-
ever, generally too hot; and this successive
change from hot to cold is so very injurious

DonsETsuiBE sheep] AND TlIEIIl VARIOUS lUiEEDS. [bouthdown biikbp.

to the ewes, tbfit it ia no uncommon thing
i'or a ewo or two to dio in the night. "Wlion
the ewo is eapablo of supplying as much milk
as the lamb will consume, such aa havo
lost thoir own, or which havo boon sold early,
aro brought in and lu'Kl by tlio head, or put
into a yoke, till the lambs, by turns, suck them
dry. They aro then turned into tho pasture,
and, at twelve o'clock, the dams aro driven into
the lamb-houso for an hour, in tho course of
which time each lamb is suckled by its mother.
At four o'clock, all the dam-ewes — as those
which havo not lambs of their own are called
— are again brought to the lamb-house, and
held for the lambs to suck ; and the mothers of
the lambs are afterwards brought to them for
the night. Lambs thus treated, and kept free
from all disturbance, will, in about eight weeks'
time, become sufficiently fat, and their flesh
extremely white and delicate." Should a lamb
die, the ewe is still retained to milk the rest in
turn ; and stands are made with stocks, into
which she is fastened until her udder is
thoroughly drained. This is done previous to
each lamb being allowed to suck its own
mother ; and thus the loss of a few lambs is
not so much felt, as tlie whole stock then de-
rives a larger proportion of the fattening milk.
The price at which the lambs arc sold will vary ;
but sometimes they produce as much as £3 ;
though £2 is possibly nearer the average,
which is a large sum for the care, and short
period of time (about eight weeks) which they
take to be fattened. When grass lamb is to
be produced, the ewes are put to the ram at a
later period, so as to have the offspring dropped
about March, and they are only partially pro-
vided with shelter. The ewes are kept in the
same liberal manner ; but the lambs have more
liberty, and are much less trouble to their
owners. Ten or twelve days after lambing,
whilst being fed on such nutritious food, they
will again often admit the ram, and thus will
bear lambs twice in the year. Such as are
house-fed, have by far the best chance of suc-
cessful breeding, as the second time of pro-
ducing the grass-fed lamb would be at an in-
convenient portion of the year, and the young
would be likely to suffer damage from flies,
and other insects, from the restlessness which
these little torments cause them at this early
period of their lives.

THE WILTSIIIRK siii:i:i'.

Tho old race of WdtHhire Hheep formerly
extended over tho greater portion of the
county, but they may now bo said to be
extinct. Tho present race ia tho largest of
tho fine wool-bearing animals; and what it
produces is extremely fine, and weighs 'iilba.
per fleece. It is described by Mr. !Milburn as
having horns rising near each other, and
bending backwards and downward^, close to
tho head of the animal. Tiie hair on the
face and legs is perfectly white. The bones
are large ; and, although the animal, compara-
tively speaking, makes little flesh, it eata
voraciously. The belly is destitute of wool ;
the head is long ; tho nose somewhat arched ;
and the nostrils open, wide, and prominent.
The fore quarters, especially tho breast and
shoulders, are light ; and there is a consider-
able dewlap. The hind quarters are better
developed, and the saddles and legs very
good. The back is black in the middle, and
the shoulder-points project upwards. On the
whole, it is a clumsy sheep, and is only pre-
served in an unimproved and native form on a
family farm near Hendon, where the stock is
kept pure, under tho provisions of a will,
which permits the fiirm to be held on this
special condition. The old Wiltshires were,
to a certain extent, improved 'oy selection of
the smaller, the better formed, and the more
generous feeders among the native breed ; but
they were chiefly indebted to the South-
downs, by which they were crossed again and
again, until almost every trace of the old
breed had been eradicated, and a useful variety
of the Southdown took its place. This
variety was distinguished from the true
Sussex sheep by being of a larger size, having
a lighter and finer fleece, and being of a lighter
colour.

THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP.

This sheep is, in England, what the black-
faced sheep is in Scotland, being, as a mutton-
producer, held in the highest esteem, especially
for the tables of the rich. Nor can there be
mentioned a breed which has undergone more
improvement than these beautiful sheep. The
advancement of the old short-wooUed sheep
into a middle-woolled race, is an advantage ia

715

SOUTHDOW^'S.j

SHEEP,

[SOUTHDOWNS.

everv sense, particularly as the short wool,
used exclusively in the manufacture of fine
cloths, is abundantly supplied by foreign
" growers." Of this race, one of the first is
the improved Southdown breed, depasturing
on the long range of chalky hills extending
from the sea-coast of the Isle of Thanet, and
the cliffs of Dover, through Kent and Sussex.
Formerly this breed, as Mr. Ellman states, in
the Library of Agricultural Knowledge, was a
small size, far from possessing a good shape,
and late before they were capable of being
fattened ; now, however, they are greatly
improved, both in shape and constitution.
" They are smaller in bone, equally hard, with
a greater disposition to fatten, and much
heavier in carcass when fat. They used sel-
dom to fatten till they were four years old ; but
it would be a rare sight to see a pen of South-
down wethers at market more than two years
old, and many are killed before they reach that
age." The Southdown sheep is, in fact, the
model of what a hill sheep ought to be, and the
ilesh, in fineness of grain and flavour, is pecu-
liarly excellent. The wool is of a very useful
quality, but is both larger in fibre, and less
numerously serrated, than the short Saxony,
and does not, therefore, possess such a felting
power ; hence it is rarely used in the manufac-
ture of fine broad-cloths. Still, from its fine-
ness and felting powers, compared with the
wool of many other middle-woolled breeds, it
is highly esteemed; and for flannels and
worsted goods in general, is extensively em-
ployed.

In describing it, the hair on its face is black
or brown, even, short, and fine. The wool is
short, close, and remarkably fine in texture
and quality. It lies thick over the whole
body, and has, when touched, a feeling of great
softness, accompanied with a high degree of
elasticity. The top of the head is free from
wool, and the countenance is fine and placid ;
the eye is full and expressive, yet mild and
gentle, and somewhat prominent. The ears
are small, and fall backward and a little up-
ward. The legs are short, especially from the
knees to the feet. Tihe breast is full, round,
and moderately wide ; the neck thick and
short, but free from loose fleshy skin. The
top of the back is straight and flattish, but not
reu TLrk ably broad; whilst the bellv is nearly
716

straight, but a little tucked in behind the
shoulders. The wool is remarkably fine, and
is the only kind of English material altogether
suitable for the finer class of cloths. Tbn
breed is without horns, and comparatively
hardy, occupying the downs of Dorset, and
now gradually extending into Norfolk, York-
shire, Hampshire, Kent, &c. In the London
market, where their mutton is considered
superior to all other kinds, they are in great
request. This is the improved Southdown;
but the older breeds were low, and light in
the fore quarters, although they were backed
with good saddles and legs. The improvements
have not been effected by crossing from other
breeds, but from selecting the best, and breed-
ing carefully from them ; and while the sym-
metry and points of the animal have been so
much improved, the quality and grain of the
mutton, the equal distribution of fat and lean,
the marblings of the flesh, and the internal
fulness of tallow, have all been fully sus-
tained. An earlier maturity in the breed has
been attained, and the fattening process has
progressed. The wool is longer, being about
four inches, though not yet long enough for
combing. The fleece usually weighs from 2\
to 3 lbs. ; and the average weight of the
carcass may be taken at 18 lbs., though the
improved breed will often weigh from 20
to 23 lbs. per quarter. Mr. Ellman, of Glynde,
was the great improver of this breed. Two
of his rams were bought by the emperor of
Eussia, to try the effect of a cross on the
Northern sheep. This honour was appreciated
by Mr. Ellman, who requested the Duke of
Bedford to put a price on them, as he did not
wish to charge a sovereign a greater price
than any one else. The duke accordingly
fixed the price of the two at 300 guineas,
and purchased a pair for himself at the same
rate. In order to thrive well, and groio in
mutton, the breed requires a dry, chalky lime-
stone, or gravelly soil, with fine short herbage.
The ewes are prolific, two bearing twins to one
being single ; and the draft ewes are usually
sold off, at four years old, to feed in the turnip
districts of Norfolk and Suffolk. The care of
the sheep is nowhere better understood than
in Sussex, where they are housed and sheltered
in severe weather, at and near the lambing
season. When the lambs are a-foot, they are

irORFOLK SlIEEP.l

AM) Til I'll: VAKIOUS HHERDS.

[cheviot bhlkp.

well provided with shelter, and tiieir dams
witli noiirialiin? food. Tlio Soutluiown is a
sheep remarkably free from disease, especially
the sturdy ami tlie rot.

TlllC NOlilOLK SIIKKP.

This breed was tormerly extensively did'used
throughout the u[)lanils ot -Norfolk, ISuflblk, and
Cauibridgeshiro ; but it is now fast disappear-
ing before the Leicesters and the Southdowns.
They are a hardy raee, and have a striking re-
semblance to the black-faceil, or heath sheep,
being similarly marked in the face and legs,
•with long, spiral horns, largo bones, long
bodies, Hat sides, high backs, uarrow loins,
and light and somewhat short wool. The
mutton, however, is of rich flavour, such as is
usually found to be the characteristic of all
wild and semi-wild animals. They are of a wild
and roving disposition, and will leap over the
ordinary fences ; and their long continuance
in the county is probably one reason for the
somewhat elevated embankments on which the
fences are generally planted. Owing to this
disposition they are now mostly fed on the
large open, heaths, which, strange to say, are '
still prevalent in Norfolk, notwithstanding its
fine climate, and general capability of improve-
ment. When fatted they are usually folded,
and will weigh from IG to 20 lbs. per quarter;
will fatten at two years old, and are famous ■
travellers.

The principal value of the breed, however,
is in their haunches of mutton, and their deer-
like, graceful heads and horns. The mutton,
when long kept, perhaps more closely re-
sembles venison than the flesh of any other
breed. The horns are nine or ten inches in
circumference at the base, and as much as
thirty-six inches long. Lord Leicester, if not
the first, greatly helped to efi'ect a change in
this breed. " When he found that the Nor-
folk sheep," says Lord Spencer, " were a very
unprofitable sort, the same reasons induced
him to try the New Leicester breed, a variety
of sheep probably as ill calculated to succeed
on such a soil as the one he occupied, as any
breed which he could have selected. He, at
last, found that the very best sort of sheep he
could adopt were the Southdowns. In this,
however, as in every other of his farming ex-
periments, Lord Leicester acted with great

caution, and did not niako the changes which
ho contemplated, till thoroughly convinced by
practical exi)erienee that they would answer.
Accordingly, for several years he had upon ids
farm, at the same time, Norfolk sheep, New
Leicester, and Southdowns ; ho also tried tho
Merinos, but ho did not persevere long with
them," Subsequently, this celebrated agricul-
turist kept no other sheep but Southdowns.
The Norfolk breed were speedily abandoned
by the neighbouring farmers ; and in a very
short time, from Lynn to llolkhant, there was
not such an animal as a Norfolk sheep to bo
seen. The Southdowns entirely superseded
tJjem.

THE CHEVIOT SHEEP.

Tho Cheviot breed is very distinct from tho
common mountain, or black-faced race, with
which it is, on all sides, immediately surrounded,
these two races dividing the north between
them. The Cheviot is hornless, and tho
general contour is excellent ; the shoulders
become full, the body round and long, and tho
limbs small-boned. The mutton is in great
esteem ; and the wethers average 16, 18, or
20 lbs. weight per quarter. It appears from
the testimony of practical farmers, that the
attention paid to the improvement of this
breed, in reference to the condition of the
carcass, has been followed by a deterioration
in the quality of the wool, which is said to
have been formerly capable of entering into
the manufacture of fine cloths. Still, how-
ever, the wool is good, though inferior to that
of the Southdowns. It far surpasses that
of the black-faced breed; and as the Cheviot
race is equally hardy, and as capable of sus-
taining cold as the former, and is content
with the alpine plants of the bleak hills and
mountains, it must be expected to supersede
the black-faced breed, as it has already done
in the forest of Ettrick and the whole of Sel-
kirkshire, and even Sutherland. The fore-
knowledge which these sheep possess of ap-
proaching storms, and the assiduity with
which, while the shepherd dreams of no im-
pending evil, they will seek a place of shelter
and security, are curious traits in their charac-
ter. It is thus that they often warn the
shepherd, by the display of this instinct,
wisely implanted within them, and lead him
to add his precautions to those which they

717

CHEYIOT SHEEP.]

SHEEP,

[cheviot sheep.

have themselves adopted. In spite, however,
of the vigilance of the shepherd and the in-
stinct of the sheep, many of them often perish
beneath towering snow-drifts, and sometimes
whole flocks are lost. It often happens, that
when sufficient shelter cannot be obtained, the
flock crowd together for the purpose of mutual
warmth, and are soon covered with the snow.
If this does not occur, the lambs, unable to
endure the severity of the storm, perish y and
the mothers, bewildered, wander about seeking
their ofispring, till they themselves sink ex-
hausted with their efibrts and distress. With
but little food, sheep can remain for many days
buried beneath the snow ; but where this
cannot be obtained, the period of endurance
is proportioned to the strength of the animal's
constitution and the intensity of the cold.
One winter, a sheep, near Kendal, was buried
in the snow for thirty-three days and nights,
without the possibility of moving, and yet
survived ; and a sheep in Cumberland was
buried for thirty-eight days. When extri-
cated, it was found to have eaten the wool off"
both its shoulders, and its frame was reduced al-
most to a skeleton. By due attention, however,
it gradually recovered. The Cheviot has a white
face and legs, somewhat resembling the cover
of the hills during the greater period of winter ;
but the grand characteristic of the Cheviot
flocks is their extraordinary likeness to each
other, how many soever there may be. Their
imperfection is a narrowness of the back, ribs,
and shoulders, from which arises their incapa-
bility of carrying a large accumulation of
mutton. Judges, therefore, choose those with
iroad faces, because this, they think, is indi-
cative of a large bony development. In select-
ing lambs, or even sheep for fattening, the
hand of the grazier grasps the back-bone, over
the kidneys, and forms his judgment by its
broadness, whether it be sufficiently capacious
to carry the complement of flesh and fat which
he calculates should be put upon it. The
eyes of the Cheviot are small, prominent, and
lively. The body is long; the fore quarters
somewhat light; the legs clean, and small
turned ; the feet thin ; the wool close and fine,
but neither so soft nor so elastic as that of the
Southdown. It is also too thick lor combing.
The improvements in the sheep have added a
little to the breast and shoulders, without di-
718

minishing the feeding qualities, or injuring
the wool. The neck and shoulders are fuller.
The breast has assumed greater prominency,
but is still narrow. The back retains its nar-
rowness ; but the fall behind the shoulders,
common in the old breeds, has been removed.
The ribs are flatter than either the Southdown
or the Highland. The animal combines fat
with muscle, and is, when well brought up,
covered internally with tallow. They are re-
markably hardy animals, and live on very poor
and stunted food growing on the mountains
of Northumberland. Their hardiness has in-
duced many of the Scotch farmers and breeders
to locate them on the Scottish mountains,
where, even on the hills of Sutheriandshire,
they are to be found successfully bred and
thriving. They have also an extensive range
on the Yorkshire hills.

The Cheviot hills form a part of that ex-
tensive and lofty range wliich, commencing in
Galloway, runs through Northumberland, into
Cumberland and Westmoreland, to the extent
of from 150 to 200 miles. The majority of
their summits end in points, and form termi-
nations to a series of conically-shaped moun-
tains. The sides of these are covered with
smooth, short herbage, and have a considerable
degree of steepness ; whilst, at their bases, they
nearly join each other. With the exception
of the summits the soil is fertile. On these
hills the Cheviot mutton is reared, celebrated
for its tenderness, sweetness, and delicacy.
The sheep are now sometimes fatted at one
year old ; and the flesh, in appearance, has,
when well kept, a striking resemblance to the
Welsh mutton ; but it is more tender, and not
so high in flavour. The bags will weigh
14 lbs. or 15 lbs. per quarter ; and the two
shear-wethers will sometimes weigh as much
as 22 lbs. Instances are mentioned where
they liave been brought to weigh 25 lbs. per
quarter; but these are extreme cases. The
improvements of this breed have chiefly been
effected by a mixture of the Leicester blood.
This has been done with great caution, as the
Leicester is a tender and delicate sheep, not
well adapted to cold regions, such as the
snow-clad moors of Northumberland, of West-
moreland, and of Scotland. While a single
dash of Leicester, however, improves the
frame, lengthens the wool, and increases the

BTELAND SHEEP.] AND THEIR VARIOUS BREEDS. [uteland sheep.

feeding tendencies, it is not bo severe (if the
impression bo cnrriod ra[)idly back to tho
Cheviot race) as to woaken materially the vital
power of tho animals. Tho pcnod, when
Cheviot and black-faced sheep shoukl bo
selected for breeding and rearing on moun-
tain pasture, is given by Mr. TMilburn : — AVhen
the produce of tho hills is simi^ly black furze,
or heather, the black- faced Highland sheep
will bo preferable. "When tho grass is green,
though ever so pOv)r, the Cheviot will yield a
greater amount of profit. Tho following, tak-
ing this princi[>le, will bo about tho compara-
tive merits of the two breeds : —

Black-fared. Cheviot.

Wool inferior . . . "Wool superior.

Mutton superior . IMutton inferior.

Harciinesi? equal . . Hardiness equal.

Maturity later . . . Maturity earlier.

Feeding less rapid . . Feeding more rapid.

Less mutton .... j\Iore mutton.

The balance, on the whole, on suitable lands,
seems to be decidedly in favour of the Cheviots.

THE RYELAND SHEEP.

This sheep is another old, if not original,
breed, and takes its name from a district in
the southern part of Herefordshire, where
a large quantity of rye used to bo grown,
and where many of this kind of sheep were
reared. It is a small breed, rarely exceeding
more than fourteen or fifteen pounds the quarter
in the wether, or from ten to thirteen pounds
in the ewe. Its wool is white, and covers the
sides of the face, coming over the top of the head
in a bushy tuft. It is in great favour for carding;
superior, indeed, for this purpose, to all other
kinds of British wool, and almost rivals the
Australian. It is, therefore, put down as
essentially a wool-producing animal. As the
desire for mutton began to extend in the
country, and improved turnips, cultivated in
the light lands, enabled farmers to produce
more of that material, the breeding of the true
Ryeland sheep somewhat declined. So far
back as 1343, it was noted for its wool;
but even then it does not seem to have been
considered the most valuable of the British
fleeces. The Shropshire, Staffordshire, and
Oxfordshire, were all sold at a higher price
than the Eyeland. " It is difficult to account
for this inferiority," says a writer on the Sheep,

in the Library of Useful Knowledge, " at that
timt; for our earliest writers on tho sheep,
speak of tho liyelaiida as btaiiding at the head
of the short-woolled breeds. If, however, the
opinion of i\lr. Herbert bo correct, some light
is cast on the subject. Ho believes that tho
Ryelands, almost exclusively, in early times
of sheep-husbandry, extended longitudinally
through those districts, from the Thames to
tho Tyne ; and the Cotswolds were produced
by a cross between tho Ryelands and some
heavy sheep. Tho Herefordshire, Shropshire,
Staffordshire, and OxI'ordshiro wools, spoken
of in this record, were only varieties of the
Ryeland, and of which tho Herefordshire hap-
pened at the timo to bo the worst. In the
course of years, however, the Ryelands were
gradually displaced by a heavier sheep over
the greater part of the other counties, but
continued to be cultivated in a portion of
Herefordshire." Formerly these sheep were
taken great care of, and regularly housed at
nights — a practice which, no doubt, arose with
the view of preserving the sheep from the
inclemency of tho weather, as well as of im-
proving the quality of the wool. The race is
small, but it attains an early maturity. The
head and face, from being covered with wool,
have a large and heavy appearance, compared
with the short leg and compact carcass of
the animal. The ears are somewhat thick and
erect; the chest deep, but not broad; the
barrel round, but the back by no means flat.
The fat of the animal accumulates mainly on
the rump and tail, but not to such an extent
as to interfere with its activity. It is extremely
hardy, and is supposed to be capable of living
on less food than any English breed ; but re-
quires it to bo of a fine quality. Like all the
old races of sheep, it has a tendency to accumu-
late fat internally.

To improve the Ryeland, ""the principal ob-
ject has been to assist the development of fine
wool by crosses with tho Merinos. Years ago.
Dr. Parry, of Bath, M.D,, stimulated by the
venerable Bath and West of England Agricul-
tural Society, crossed the ewes with tho
Merino ; and the first cross was most success-
ful. The fleece was increased one pound per
animal ; the texture was finer; and the carcass
was considerably enlarged ; while the flavour of
the mutton was said not to be deteriorated.

719

SHEOPSHIEE SHEEP.]

SHEEP,

["WELSH SHEEP.

The wool, indeed, was pronounced as fine as
the pure Merino. But an error was committed
by interbreeding with the crosses themselves ;
hence, in three or four generations, they fell
off so much, that the Anglo-wool became so
inferior as to be nearly unsaleable. Having
once crossed, they ought to have carried back
the cross to the one pure breed or the otlier ;
or, what would have been, perhaps, better,
they should have kept a stock with which to
cross, and thus have preserved a fresh and con-
tinuous breed of newly-crossed animals. At-
tempts to improve the size of the sbeep have
been made by crosses with the Leieesters, Cots-
wolds, and Southdowns ; the results of which
were the destruction of all the peculiarly de-
sirable properties of the Eyeland, as well as
the obliteration of several of the others. The
breed has therefore been abandoned for more
profitable mutton-producing kinds of sheep.

THE SHROPSHIRE SHEEP.

In the centre and north-western districts of
Shropshire sheep predominate ; the north be-
ing principally devoted to the dairying of cows,
and the breeding of cattle generally. Formerly,
there were several varieties of sheep in tbis
county, but modern times have brought them
to a greater equality of character. The old
Shropshire sheep had black or mottled faces
and legs, and were horned. They were about
the size of the Southdowns, but the neck had
greater length, and the carcass was not so com-
pact. They inhabited a rye-producing dis-
trict, probably the Morfe-down, consisting of
about 4,000 acres of common land, near the
Severn, which yielded a short and stunted, but
fine grass. The fleece is about the same weight
as that of the Eyeland' — 2 lbs.; but the staple
is particularly fine. They are seldom kept till
more than five years old ; and the ewes will not
weigh more, when fat, than 9 or 10 lbs. per
quarter. The wethers will weigh 13 or 14 lbs.
Modern tastes and habits, however, will not
allow of sheep being kept for 2 lbs. of wool,
and 40 lbs. of mutton ; and hence the altered
demands and wants of the population are fast
banishing all these original breeds. The Cots-
wolds and Leieesters having been introduced
into Shropshire, both pure, and in various
crosses with each other, they have changed the
character of every short-wooUed sheep. The
720

Shropshire short wool, however, was, at a
former period of our history, held in verv o-reat
estimation. The author of a work on the com-
mercial policy of the times, in 1694, speaks
thus of it: — "It is no small advantage to
trade, to be fitted with a complete assortment of
goods, abounding in the middle sorts of wool,
excellent of its kind, and suitable to a middle
sort of people, which are far the greater num.
ber; and herein chiefly is our strength: not
that we, in the least, full short in the merits of
our fine wool ; our Herefordshire and our
Shropshire wool is not to be equalled, in its
kind, by any part of the world, and suitable
to almost any degree."

THE WELSH SHEEP.
This is held as the most excellent of all the
mutton-producing race, owing to its flesh being
so highly- favoured, and so fine in the grain.
They are the very converse of the Lincoln-
shires, and are a truly Lilliputian breed. They
are the most remunerative of any kind of
mutton sold in the London market, and are
thus described by Mr. Milburn : — " The two
haunches are usually cooked together, undi-
vided, and present a most uncommon appear-
ance. The wethers are killed at four or five
years of age, and will then weigh, when fat,
only 8 or 9 lbs. per quarter. The ewes usually
weigh 2, or even 3 lbs. per quarter less. The
sheep, when alive, is a goat-like animal, some-
what resembling the gazelle of the Nimrod
sculptures. The ram has two crumpled horns,
rising upwards, and falling backwards again to
the neck. The ewes are usually hornless.
The neck is long ; the shoulders high and thin ;
the breast small, narrow, and backward ; the
legs and loins full and broad. The ribs are
flatfish, and the belly a little depressed ; the
tail long, and bushy towards the extremity,
nearly down to the middle of the hind legs.
The bones are remarkably small. They are
the most active and sure-footed race of sheep
we know. They are essentially wild in their
habits, and clip about 2 lbs. of somewhat fine
wool. The ewes are sometimes milked by the
Welsh farmers ; but this pulls them down, and
is very injurious to them. Some persons clip
them twice ; that is to say, they shear them at
the usual time in June, and again take off part
of the wool from tbe fore quarters in the month

ui;kdwick SHEEP.] AND TlllMli \'Ai:i()lS lUiHEDS. [ueuuwilk bui,^i'.

of October, alleging that they aro less liable
to have it torn oil by tho I'ur/.o ami briarn, and
luore able to forage for their daily supply of
scauty herbage amongst tho buahcd iu wiuter."

THE IIKRDW H K SlIKKl'.
This i3 tho most valuable sheep ou the
inouutaiufl of Cumberland and AVcstniorelaud ;
and their origin is thus given by au admirable
writer on tho sheep. In the beginning of the
last century a ship was stranded on tho coast
of Cumberland, and had ou board some Scotch
sheep, which seem to bo now unknown in that
country. They were got ou shore; and being
driven up the country, were purchased by
somo farmers, who lived at Wasdale-head, in
the neighbourhood of Keswick. They were
small, active, polled, and their faces and legs
speckled, having a great proportion of white,
with a few black spots strewed upon it. They
were turned, at once, upon tho neighbouring
hills. They had not been long there before
they evinced a peculiar sagacity in foreseeing
the approach of a snow-storm ; for, a little
before its coming, they clustered together on
the most exposed side of the mountain, and
where the violence of the wind usually pre-
vented the snow from lodging. This instinct
caused them to be regarded with a degree of
interest, and almost of superstition ; and their
excellent qualities and adaptation to their new
situation, became speedily evident. Their
fleece was considerably finer than that of tho
common black sheep, and the matted quality of
the wool enabled them to endure any severity
oi weather, and even to pass tho whole of the
winter without the smallest quantity of hay
being expended upon them. They were con-
tinually moving about, and, therefore, rarely
or ever overwhelmed by tlie snow ; and, by
their ceaseless activity, they scraped away the
snow, however deeply the herbage might be
buried under it. The ewes weigh from six
to eight pounds per quarter, and the wethers
about eleven. The wethers are slaughtered at
four or five years old, and seem not only to
thrive best ou their native pastures, but, when
the ewes are driven away, they will invariably
return at lambiug-time to their old quarters,
however distant they may be. This shows a
remarkably wild instinct, and is of the same
character as that of the black-faced Highland
4z

sheep — flocks of which will Bometimes actually
swim across tho Firth of Forth to find their
way to tlieir native mountains.

Tho ewes breed for fifteen or twenty years,
and aro always kept as long aa tht-y will con-
linuo to do bo; the sales being made of tho
fatted wethers. AVMien killed at home, tho
legs aro usually cured and dried; and it is
jocosely said that tho inhabitants of these up-
lands never eat mutton but when they lind a
fallen sheep, which, when they do, they shako
by tho leg, and if it drops to pieces it is re-
jected ; but if not, it is carried home, dressed,
I and eaten. Their flesh has a strong game
j kind of flavour, much relished by the epicures
of large towns. Tho animal is said to have
fourteen instead of thirteen ribs, which is tho
number possessed by all other species.

Having thus specified some of tho more im-
portant of the middle-wooUed breeds of sheep
in our island, most of them, or all, derived from
the old short-wooUed breeds by a system of
judicious management, wo have now to state
that the middle- wool varies in difierent breeds,
in fineness and in its power of felting. Long
wool is much more uniform, and for this
reason — that it is the produce of tho Leicester
race, and of races with which tho Leicester
race has become completely intermingled.
" All long-woolled sheep," says Mr. Youatt,
" both in appearance and in fleece, are becom-
ing one family." Long wool, which is now
very much improved, it being the aim of tho
breeder to render it finer (at the expense of
its length, which it will bear), is characterised
by strength and transparency, but it is do-
ficicnt in the power of felting. Its average
length is about eight inches. This applies
more particularly to that sort called the long-
coiubiug wool ; there is, however, a variety of
long wool which approximates to the middle
wool, and termed the short-combing wool,
which is somewhat shorter than the other,
finer, and more disposed to felt. Tho long-
combing wool is used in tho manufacture of
hard yarn, and for purposes in which length
and firmness are essential ; the other is used
for stufls of a soft texture, and for hosiery
goods. AVe have alluded to the Leicester
breed as the typical example of the long-
fleeced races ; but it is to be observed that
] this breed is an improvement upon the heavy,

721

HEKDWICK SHEEP.]

SHEEP,

[herdwick sheep.

ill-made, and coarse-wooUed race, formerly
spread over all our midland counties. Lin-
colnslure also bad a breed of sheep celebrated
for its fine long wool; but tbis breed, de-
fective in form, and yielding mutton of inferior
quality, is now greatly improved.

There is one question which suggests i^zQli
and which we cannot omit to notice. As fai
as records serve us, it would seem that a long
woolled and a short-woolled (now middle-
woolled) race of sheep have tenanted our island
from the earliest times. To what causes, then,
are we to attribute this original difference?
Are the two races descended from different
primitive sources, or have food and soil grad-
ually produced the differences which have
been so long maintained ? No one, we think,
will hesitate to say the latter; impossible as
it may be to follow step by step the progress
of the change, or to determine the modus
operandi of the causes contributing to effect
ifc. It is, however, very remarkable, that it is
only in animals which have been so long do-
mesticated that we cannot tell their primeval
origin, and which there is reason to think are
factitious beings (that is, the produce of dif-
ferent, but still closely-allied species com-
mingling together), that these extreme varia-
tions as to size, figure, and length and quality
of fur, are most decidedly observable. "We see
these varieties in the dog — from the silky,
long-haired spaniel of Spanish race, to the
close-haired old setter of the same country;
from the woolly Erench poodle, to the mutin ;
from the rough English water-dog, to the
mastiff: so, in the sheep, we find a short-fleeced
breed, with tbe filaments of the wool peculiarly
fine, and uameroualy serrated ; a still longer-
fleeced breed, again subdivided into many
minor varieties, and having the wool fine, and
more or less capable of felting — or, in other
words, more or less numerously serrated ; and
a long-woolled race of old standing, in which
the wool, but thinly serrated, is inferior in
felting properties, but of great value to the
woolcomber. But further, as the misfciire of
a long and silky-haired breed of dogs with one
of close hair does not improve the coat, the
young resembling, some the male, some the
female, but not equalling them in their excel-
lences; so the crossing of long-woollcd and
short-woolled sheep leads to no good results}

snd, as it is with dogs, the improvement of
each breed depends on a judicious and careful
selection of the best and purest of that breed,
by which the properties distinguishing it may be
developed to their maximum in their progeny.
In England, the sheep is now only valuable
for the sake of its woo\ and flesh; but in
various parts of both Europe and Asia, the
milk of the ewe has been used from the earliest
times, either pure or curdled, as an article of
diet. Formerly, in many parts of England,
cheese was made from the milk of the ewe ;
and the ewes, to the injury of the lambs, were
milked regularly, as described in the Odyssey,
and, at a later era, by Virgil : —
" He next betakes him to liis evening cares,
And sitting down, to milk his ewes prepares ;
Of half their udders eases first the dams,
Then to the mothers' teats submits the lambs.
Half the white stream to hardening cheese he press'd.
And high in wicker baskets heap'd ; the rest,
Reserved in bowls, supphedthe mighty feast."
To the process of shearing we need scarcely
.allude; all are familiar with the manner in
which the removal of the fleece is effected ; and
it would seem that, in the earliest patriarchal
ages, the same process was in use. Among
the Eomans, however (and the practice has
been but lately discontinued in the Orkney
Islands, and is, perhaps, still prevalent in Ice-
laud), the wool was torn off" the animals; and,
as Pliny states, they were kept for three days
previously without food, in order that the
wool might be the more easily detached, their
bodies being exhausted. In his time, however,
the practice of shearing had begun to super-
sede this cruel and unjustifiable method. It
gave, however, origin to the word vellus
(fleece), from veUo (to pull away) ; and the
hill termed Velleia was tbe ancient spot on
which this cruelty was perpetrated.

With us, the season of sheep-shearing is a
season of rejoicing; and the manner in which
tbe important work is conducted, and the
dexterity of tbe shearers, are, to those not
accustomed to rural life, replete with interest
and amusement. It is, indeed, a pleasing
spectacle to see a large flock of snow-white
sheep collected together, and, in turn, losing
their soft fleece, rolled into an unbroken and
well-arranged whole, beneath the shears of the
shearer. The picture is poetical, and has been
the subject of many pleasing representations.

■WOOLLEN TBij)B.] AND TllElJi VARIOUS 15 REEDS. [woollen tradi.

CIIArTKU IV.

niSTOUY Ol- TIIK WOOI.I.KN TRADK.

Professor Owex di'Gnes wool aa "a peculiar
nunlitieatiou of hair, cliaracterised by lino
transverse or oblique lines, I'roni 2,U0O to
4,000 in the extent of au inch, indicative of
a uiiuutely imbricated, scaly surface — when
viewed under tlie microscope— on wliich, and
on its curved or twisted form, depends its re-
markable felting property." In a state of
nature, many animals have a covering botli of
wool and hair ; the former underlying the
latter ; but a single fleece, whatever its charac-
ter, yields many varieties of wool, which seems
to have been the staple material of the primi-
tive weavers of Palestine, Syria, Greece, Italy,
and Spain. Previous to the art of manufac-
turing in wool, however, man, to clothe him-
self, made use of the sldns of animals; and
even in the patriarchal times, we find that the
skin of the goat was used by Jacob. At
this period, however, or very little later, the
fleeces of animals came into use ; for we find
that Joseph had a coat of many colours, made
him by his father, who would seem not only
to have understood the proper application of
the fleece, but, also, the art of dyeing it.
Still later, we find Job saying to his three
friends — "If I have seen any perish for want
of clothinj, or any poor without covering, if
his loins have not blessed me, and if he were
not warmed with the Jleece of my sheep."
Here is direct evidence that the fleece of the
sheep was novr used for the purposes of cloth-
ing. Weaving, in its rudest form, was prob-
ably pursued as a domestic employment at
this time; for there is no handicral't more
ancient, and none more universal. The al-
lusions to this art in the Scriptural writings,
have made us all familiar with it from our
childhood. " My life is cut oflf as by the
weaver," says Isaiah. '• My days are swifter
than a weaver's shuttle," says Job; and as
weaving was, from the remotest antiquity, the
occupation with which women engaged them-
selves, it has supplied the old epic and lyric
poets with many a beautiful figure, and the

ancient dramatists with some of their most
touching incidents. Tl)c antiijuariea who liavo
unl'ohied tlie cerements of tlie Egyptian
mummy — the travellers who have devoted thera-
eelvea to the CTploration of Central Africa —
the missionaries who have familiarised us with
the habits and traditions of the more than

! semi-savage South-Sea Islanders — all testify
to the antiquity and the universality, in some
form or other, of textile industry. It is apart
from our province hero to enter upon the
history of such an art ; bat it is full of interest
as developing the inventive faculties of man,
in his onward progress towards a high and
refined civilisation. Its history links itself
with the colonisation of the Greeks; with the
dissemination, throughout the new-born Italy,
of the industrial arts of Constantinople ; with
the rapid rise of the Italian republics ; and with
that — more marvellous still — of the great com-
mercial city of the Netherlands. When the
textile industry of the Italians and of the
Flemings passed over to Prance and to Britain,
its development came to bo intimately con-
nected with three questions of state policy —
namely, the good or ill treatment of aliens ;
the liberty or thraldom of religious worship ;
and the restriction of the enfranchisement of
trade. AVith the mode of handling these three
questions by government, the fortunes of
weavers have been singularly involved. It is
probable, however, that, contemporaneous with,
or possibly antecedent to weaving', the process
of felting was adopted. If wool be pressed
together, or considerably heated in junction,
or otherwise be brought in very close contact,
it becomes a thick impervious mass, very
difllcult, if not impossible, ♦^^o be separated
again. This is owing to the structural con-
formation of the wool. Though the absolute

; cause was not known, the fact was understood
and described at a very early period. The
wool is covered with a complete series of scales,
or serrations. These are capable of being
opened and compressed ; and felting is no more

723

•WOOLLEN TRA.DB.]

SHEEP,

["WOOLLEN TRADE.

tlian tbe junction of these, and their compres-
sion with one another. So far will this go,
that even the smallest particle of wool seems
to possess the above quality.

" It is to this felting property," says Mr.
"Milburn, " that we have long been indebted
for our hats." It is mentioned in the Iliad
of Homer. Plato speaks of it as " cloth made
by the thickening of wool." Pliny, describing
it with the more practised eye of an observing
natural historian, says—" Parcels of wool, driven
together by themselves, make cloth." Hero-
dotus, when he describes the clothing of
Xerxes' army of Persian soldiers, says, they
wore " light and flexible caps of felt," which
he also describes as used by the Medes and
Bactrians. Julius Caesar, finding his soldiers
annoyed by the arrows of Pompey's army, de-
scribes them as making shirts or clothing of
felt, to protect them from the archers. Thucy-
dides mentions a similar device to protect the
body from the effects of arrows. The more
peaceful Greeks used the wool for a more
pastoral purpose. They clothed their sheep
with felted wool, according to Aristotle, in
order to produce an impression on the texture
and colour of the fleece. Tasso mentions that
the Attic sheep were clothed to improve and
preserve their fleeces ; and Demosthenes calls
them " soft sheep." It was the impossibility
of felting the hair of the goat and the camel,
doubtless, which first suggested the idea of
weaving.

Tasso says — "As the sheep yields to man
wool for clothing, so the goat furnishes hair
for the use of sailors, and to make ropes for
military engines and vessels for artificers. * * *
The goats are shorn in a great part of Phrygia,
because they have long shaggy hair. Cilicia
(Jiair-clotlis), and other things of the same
kind, arc commonly imported from that
country." The character of this cloth is inti-
mated in the prophetic symbols of the signs of
the second advent : — " The sun shall become
black as sackcloth of hair."

Dyeing seems to have been of very ancient
origin ; and nature appears to have suggested
the idea in the rearing of black, white, and
party-coloured sheep. But a taste for bril-
liant and glaring colours has prevailed in all
countries and in every age ; and although the
art of dyeing is, like many other arts, indebted
724

to chance for its origin, still it can be traced
up to a very remote antiquity. "We have
already alluded to the " coat of many colours"
possessed by Joseph ; and as the Israelites,
soon after their departure from Egypt, under-
stood the art of dyeing scarlet and purple,
or crimson, it is obvious, that at least 1,500
years before the birth of Christ, dyeing was
practised among the Egyptians. The proba-
bility is that they derived it from some one of
the Indian nations with whom they traded ;
but, be this as it may, it appears by Pliny,
that the Egyptians even knew the use of what
are called mordants, in fixing or modifying the
colours which they made use of. " Tyrian
purple" is alluded to by Juvenal. The Greeks
seem to have been slow in acquiring this art,
as, in the expedition of Alexander into India,
it was so little known in his army, that the
soldiers were surprised at seeing ensigns of so
many colours used by their opponents. After
its introduction to Greece, it passed into
Italy, and thence into other European coun-
tries, Bffitis had fieeces possessing " metallic
tints," especially the prized " golden hue,"
and also the sober native hues of " Baetic drab
or grey." The two colours of Spanish wool
were said, in 1G07, to be — one a golden yellow,
and the other a ferruginous or brown colour.
These colours probably depended on the soil
on which the animals fed. Ancient monu-
ments attest the remote period at which the
wool trade was cultivated. On a Eoman altar,
dedicated to Hope, above the emblematic ears
of corn and the bee-hive, is a distinct bale of
wool. On the altar to Silvanus, is the cadu-
ceus of Mercury and a bale of wool, evidently
tied with twisted and knotted cords, as if
packed up for exportation. Amongst the
Belgaj and the Gauls, woollen manufactures
seem to have been common. The latter is
alluded to in contrast to the proud purple, or
Tyrian, and designated "goss Gaulish grey."
In Juvenal's ninth Satire, allusion is thus made
to Gailician manufacture : — " Some coarse
brown cloak I may happen possibly to get —
some Gallic fabric, as a defence from the rain."
At the Eoman conquest of Britain, Caesar
describes the inhabitants as a pastoral people,
possessing cattle, clothed in the skins of ani-
mals, and subsisting on flesh and milk. This
description especially applies to those who

TVOOLLEX TRAUL.] AND Til K Hi V A li 1 O L S IWiEEDS. [woollkn tuaue.

lived nortli of the Thames. Tlio iuhabitants
of Kent are described, by Strabo, as excelling
tbo Gauls in their nianufaeturod. Eumoniua,
in his euloj^iutn on tho Emperor Constantius,
in 310, says — " And fortunate Britain, now
the happiest country upon earth ; for thou
bast been the first to seo Constantino made
emperor. * ♦ * Thy woods contain no
savage beasts ; thy land no noxious serpents ;
but an innumerable multitude of tame cattle,
distended with milk, and loaded with Jlecccs.'"

Mr. INLilburn tliinks that there cannot be a
doubt that, at the time of the invasion of
Ca"'sar, there were two kinds of wool produced
in this country, and two kinds of garments
manufactured by the polished Belgio, who
inhabited Kent. The one kind was thick and
rough, calculated to protect from the cold, and
common to northern countries ; the other, a
fine soft material, resembling the Highland
plaid. Doubtless the one symbolised the wool
of the Teeswater or the Cotswold, and the
other of the Southdown. That fine wool was
then known, amply appears by the quotation of
old Holinshed from Dionysius Alexandrianus,
who said — " The wool of Britain is often spun
so fine, that it is in a manner compared to a
spider's thread." The decay of the arts, con-
sequent on the irruption of the barbarians into
Home, does not appear to have extended to the
woollen manufacture, as clothing continued to
be made in most of the countries in which the
Eomans had established colonies. The wool
employed was, at first, the produce of their
onni country ; but they afterwards imported
wool from other countries, and carried on the
manufacture to such an extent, that the Low
Countries became, in a great measure, the
clothing district for Europe. Spain produced
cloth for herself, and, about the thirteenth cen-
tury, acquired considerable reputation for the
beauty of her fabrics. Consequently, we may
presume that the fine wool wliieh the Spanish
sheep have, for centuries, produced, is the best.
The Italians and Erench entered on this manu-
facture at a later period. In the time of William
the Conqueror, an inundation which occurred
in the Netherlands, drove many of the clothiers
into other countries ; and some of them came
to England. AVilliam of Malmesbury says,
that the king, glad of such an accession, placed
these Elemish clothiers first in Carlisle, and

then in the western counties. From that
time the mention of clothiers is frequent in
the old chroniclers. London, 0.vford, Lincoln,
York, Huntingdon, Nottingham, and Win-
chester, aro enumerated as towns wherein llio
manufacture was carried on ; while, at other
towns, there were clolh-dealera who paid a
licence duty to the king lor tho privilege of
buying and selling dyed cloths. Although,
however, clothiers are frequently mentioned, it
was not until 1110 that any very definite or
distinct allusion is mado to the British woollen
trade by any historical document. In that
year a petition was presented to King Stephen,
soliciting tho power to enable them, by his
charter, to form themselves into corporations
or guilds. The object of this petition was to
possess, under the monarch, self-government ;
to have the power of appointing their own
members, and subjecting them to such orders,
laws, and regulations as they, from time to
time, saw expedient.

The guild of Winchester, the old established
seat of woollen manufacture, paid one mark
(about forty shillings) for the power of self-
government; and an annual payment of £1G
is afterwards noted. The Loudon weavers
paid a similar sum ; while that of Oxford paid
forty shillings. Others paid even larger sums ;
which lead to the conclusion that these guilds
had arrived at a considerable degree of impor-
tance. The Worcester guild paid 100 shillings
for certain specific privileges ; and, in ten years'
time, the decaying Loudon guild paid £12 only.
In 1172, prohibitions against mixing Spanish
with English wool were issued, probably from
a desire to stimulate improvement in tho native
material. If this were really the intention, it
had the eflTect of throwing the British on their
own resources for the manufacture of broad-
cloth ; and from that day they acquired tho
power of manufacturing it independent of
Spain.

Tho religious crusades of the middle ages
drained the country alike of its fanaticism
and its money. So impoverished was our
Eichard I., that when he was imprisoned by
the Duke of Austria, he had his heavy ransom
of £300,000 paid .by levies on the plate of tho
avaricious monks ; and when they had no
plate, they had to send one year's produce of
wool, Into their hands the best of the sheep

725

lyOOIiliEN TRAD 15. J

SPIEEP,

[WOOLLEK TRADE.

lands, and mostof tlie silver, ■were very rapidly
finding their way ; and hence they afforded a
ready means of r:\ising the ransom of their
king from the hands of the freehooter. In
the roign of Henry I., another inundation in
the Low Countries brought more Flemish
weavers to Britain, and gave a new impetus to
the cloth manufacture. The Gilda 8ellariorum
is of this reign, and is the oldest of the London
companies. It possesses a charter of Henry I.,
which exacts that Eone but members shall
have tlie power to intermeddle with their craft
within London, South wark, or the parts adja-
cent. This ciiarler was confirmed by Henry II.
and by Edward I. ; but in the fourteenth of
Edward II., the privileges claimed under it
were brouglit into question by a writ de quo
icarranto. The consequence was, tliat the
company had to moderate its pretensions ; but
it continued to exercise an important jurisdic-
tion for several centuries. During the strug-
gles of the barons with tlie monarchy, the
woollen trade seems to have become depressed ;
and Sir Matthew Hale says, that in the reigns
of tlie two first Edwards it was " wholly lost,"
and the money for wool was made by exporta-
tion. The Flemings had again established
their manufacture, and beat the English out of
the market. The third Edward set about re-
storing it by vigorous means. Aware of the
impetus given to it before, by the importation
of Flemish weavers (or from their present
skill in beating out tlie English manufacture),
in 1331, he brought John Kemp, with seventy
"Walloon families, from Flanders, and an act
of parliament was passed to encourage them.
Flemish or other foreign goods were also pro-
hibited by statute ; and, to crown all, exporta-
tion was altogether prohibited; although it
had before raised the sum of £53-1— a large
sum in these days— equal, perhaps, to £8,000
of our money ; and tliis at a period when popu-
lation and trade were equally scanty. The
promises made by Edward to the Flemings,
during his visit to the Duke of Burgundy,
were faithlully kept. Part of them were lo-
cated in Kent- the seat, no doubt, of woollen
manufacture before the Eoman conquest.
Some settled in the valleys of the Severn,
where they established the celebrated manu- .
facture of AVest of England cloths ; while '
others went to the valleys of the Aire, where
726

they found situations and water suited to their
requirements. The two latter localities are
still the seats of woollen manufactures in this
country. " Happy the yeoman's house," says
old Fuller, in his characteristic way, " into
which these Dutchmen did enter, brino-in"-
industry and wealth along with them. Such
as came in strangers, soon after went out
bridegrooms, and returned sons-in-law, having
married the daughters of their landlords who
first entertained them ; yea, those yeomen in
whose houses they harboured, soon became
gentlemen, gaining great estates." Edward
strengthened both his purse and his country
by these judicious steps. He found that tlie
woollen trade he had encouraged, afibrded the
sinews of power in his wars with the French;
and when English wool again found its way to
Flanders, in 1337, it sold for £100 per sack;
and 10,000 sacks were sold at that time in
Brabant. In 1312, the king exported to
Cologne a great number of sacks of wool, in
order to redeem Queen Philinpa's crown,
which had been pawned there for £2,500
sterling. The average of wool at this time,
was Is. 3ii. per lb. Previous to this period
the wool had been weighed by means of steel-
yards, of nearly the same construction as those
used in some country places at the present
day; and hence the yard in which the mer-
chants usually met was designated "steel-vard."
In 1352, the weighing by the steel-yard was
prohibited, on account of the deception prac-
tised with it. and an equal balance was intro-
duced.

The reign of Henry VIII. imparted an im-
pulse to cloth manufacture, though his enact-
ments appeared calculated to repress it. Still,
when one man (John AYinchcombe) could
equip sixty soldiers at his own expense, and
maintain them at the battle of Flodden Field,
it is evident that his one hundred looms had
realised him a considerable profit. This was a
way in which the manufacturers were able,
when willing, to assist their monarch. The
privileges to certain cities, for services ren-
dered, doubtless had an origin soraewhat in
this manner. York had an exclusive monopoly
granted in the manufacture of coverlets ; and
worsted spinning was limited to ]N"orwich.
Another impetus was given to the trade hj
Elizabeth ; whilst the severities exercised by

1V00LLWN lEADE.]

AND TILKIU VAUIOL'S BllEEDS.

[woollen tbadb.

tlio cruel Diiko of Alva ou tho protestant
inaiiufiictunTs of the Netlierlanils, caused
many of tlioin to omigrato to this country.
To tlicse it was tho policy of Elizabeth to
cxioiul luT protection, well kno\vin<; tlio skill
which they had in wi-aving, and tho iinprove-
nicuts which they wcro likely to introduce
amongst her own native subjects. Eivo hun-
dred of tlicse refugees settled in London ; and
the southern seats of maiuifacturo had large
accessions of weavers. The scarcity of hands
complained of in tho reign of Henry VII., was
no longer heard of; and Norwich was not
necessitated any more to deplore the paucity
of manipulators in her manufactures, lu this
reign, trade with Kussia, and the formation of
a Kussian trading company, followed, and still
further increased the foreign relations of tho
country. Tho Turkish Company was estab-
lished in 1581 ; the African Company in 1585 ;
and the East India Company in 1600.

In 1GG7, importation of foreign dyers took
place. They arrived under the guidance of a
person of the name of Brewer. The principal
English dye had hitherto been wood ; but he
taught them all the mysteries of dressing cloth
as well as dyeing. In the reigns of Charles I.
and II., the public turbulence and arbitrary
interference seem to have crippled the trade.
By Charles II., as well as by the Common-
wealth, the exportation of wool and sheep
was strictly prohibited. But in the reign of
William III., manufacturers made steady pro-
gress. Considering Ireland to be a linen manu-
facturing country, he discouraged the woollen
manufacture there. Florentine wool manu-
facture was stimulated by every means, legiti-
mate and otherwise, and Sweden began to
rival England ; the silk trade was pushed, and
a general activity pervaded all classes of tho
community.

The Georges encouraged the woollen trade ;
and thej were indebted to it in more ways

than one. Manufacturers and staplora raiacd
troops to assist them to repel invaders. John
llouth, a stapler of Thorplield House, in York-
shire, raised a troop, and had colours prcBcnted
by his sovereign, George II., for his loyalty.
Tho king also granted h charter, conceding
freedom of tolls to John llouth and othern, on
tho Aire and Calder rivers — an immunity of
great value to a wool-stapler. In tho reign of
George 111. our manufactures rose to their
[)innaclo of greatness; and, though heavily
taxed, wo were enjoying the blessings of
peace when all tho rest of the world was at
war. A largo portion of our national debt
doubtless passed into the hands of tho British
manufacturers for the cloths they made ; and
fortunes were realised, which created the
inillocracy of England. In this reign, inven-
tions in mechanical appliances, stimulated,
doubtless, by the vast demand for woollen
goods during tho war, raised the English
clothier to the highest opulence. At this
period we obtained wool from Auntralia, Ger-
many, Spain, Eussiii, the Cape of Good Hope,
South America, and the East Indies. In
England, the woollen manufactures will always
bo intimately bound up with its pastoral
character. Though dependent on foreign
countries for a large amount of the raw ma-
terial, it still produces within itself a vast
proportion of what it requires ; and the paying
character of sheep, both directly and indii-ectly,
has a great tendency to maintain mutual de-
pendence and reciprocity between the wool
grower and the manufacturer. The present
extraordinary rage for cheapness is amongst
the most wonderful tendencies of the age. It
is inducing the English manufacturer to make
up fabrics mixed with calico, and to work up
wool-dust, which is not only unprofitable to
the wearer, but must ultimately have a ten-
dency to bring discredit on himself, and those
with whom he is connected.

727

snEEP-BEAra:s"G.]

SHEEP,

[SHEEP-EEAEING.

CHAPTER V.

BREEDING AND EEARING OF SHEEP.

"Whatever may be the object of the scieutific,
wealthy agriculturist in cattle or sheep breed-
ing, it is evident that, in the case of the farmer,
it resolves itself into a question of plain pounds,
shillings, and pence. In breeding the sheep,
however, the same principles which regulate
the production and improvement of any other
class of animals, must, in a great measure, be
acted upon ; and should one person be more
successful than another in the production of
stock, that person will be found to have given
greater attention to the subject, to have been
more persevering, and to be possessed of
qualities better adapted for carrying out the
object in view than the other. The question
for the consideration of the farmer is, what
kind of animal will ultimately become the
most profitable? This is the all-important
interrogatory whicli he must put to himself.
The present or immediate he must sink in the i
comparatively distant ; and, whatever may be
liis diappointment, he must persevere, and
try again and again, until the arrival of the
triumphant day which is certain to crown his
efforts with success. It was thus that Bake-
weil acted. It was by unwearied perseverance
that he succeeded, at last, in producing his
New Leicester, which, in the end, rewarded
him for all his labours.

The New Leicester and the Southdown
are the two breeds which have occupied the
attention of the agricultural world in putting
forth their claim to favour. As far as a ten-
dency to fatten and to arrive at an early
maturity are considered, there is no doubt
that the Leicester stands foremost in every
known breed of sheep whatever. For the
attainment of thfjse qualities, its form is a
perfect model ot adaptation; and all other
breeds which most closely resemble this form,
will possess these qualities in a more or less
degree. Even tlie Southdown is no exception
to this rule ; for if one of the improved, and
another of the neglected specimens were
placed together, the excellences of the former
728

would at once appear to lie in those points
whicli had the nearest approximation to the
Leicester. The production of wool, too, is
also to be considered ; for the fleece of the
Leicester is much longer than that of the
Southdown. "Where, therefore, the pasture
is favourable, and the sheep taken care of, and
not unduly exposed to cold and wet, the
Leicester must be esteemed the most remune-
rative of the pure breeds. What, however, are
its drawbacks ? These are, says Mr. Spooner,
the incapability of the animal to bear exposure,
for travelling, or living hard, being weak in
constitution, and very liable to inflammatory
disorders. Erom these circumstances, it is
unfitted for folding purposes, or to stand the
exposure of the Southdowns, and still more
for bearing up against the severities of the
Grampian Hills, or the Welsh mountains. In
the climatic variations of these localities, the
sheep would soon perish. Besides these draw-
backs, their mutton is by no means so good
as that of the Southdowns, which, however,
is partly owing to the early period (twenty
months) at which they are ready for the
butcher, and partly to the very large quan-
tity of tallow they make in proportion to
the lean. © Their mutton, therefore, is not
much esteemed in the London markets. Ac-
cordingly, the first cross between the Leicester
and the Down has been raised instead of the
Leicester ; and it is said that this first cross is
the most profitable sheep that can be fattened,
making greater and more rapid progress than
the Down, and yielding a better quality of
meat than the Leicester.

The improved Southdown is also possessed
of most valuable qualities; its tendency to
fatten being inferior only to the Leicester. It
is also later in coming to maturity, taking
from thirty to thirty-two months ; but it is an
excellent traveller, folds well, is haidy, com-
pared with the Leicester; can live on short
pastures ; and is, perhaps, the best of all the
breeds for the Down farmers in the south of

SlIElir-UEAltlNO.]

AND Til Hill VMMors BREEDS.

LhHEEl'-UEAlilNU.

England. AVitli tlio exception of tiio small
mountain slieop, its mutton has ft lii^luT repu-
tation than any otlicr; and those ipialitifs,
with the wool it produces, have enabled the
breed, also, to lioKl a foremost place in the
favour of tho publie. »Yitli these two valuable
breeds, each adapted to dill'erent pastures, it
may bo asked, what need is there for any
other ? It will, however, be found that, in
tho marshes of Kent, and many other places,
tho superior hardihood of tho native breeds
Las rendered them more profitable than the
Leicester ; though, unquestionably, crosses with
the latter have much improved their value.
Notwithstanding the valuable qualities of the
Soutlidowns, however, they have been found
insufficiently hardy to endure the severities
of the Grampian hills, or the "Welsh moun-
tains. They have been tried, and found want-
ing. In these bleak situations, vast numbers
of them have fallen victims to the inclemency
of the weather ; and the losses which many
speculators have sustained, have been the
cause of discouraging others from following
their steps.

T\"here breeding is the object of tho farmer,
the first rule to act upon is to breed from
the best ; but this has its limitations and re-
strictions, as will be seen in the following
illustrations of Mr. Milburn : — " A man may
easily ruin liis flock by adhering to this rule,
without attending to its antecedents and ad-
juncts. There are two modes of effecting it.
One man will scour the whole country to
obtain the best ram, or to buy a few prize gim-
mers. From these he will select the most pro-
mising, and insure better alliances for his flock.
The result will be a set of nondescript mongrels.
Some distant impurity of breed manifests
itself; some tendencies, far back in the genea-
logy of the race, break out, which are modified in
one case, and fostered in another, until the flock
shows signs of indiscriminate and injudicious
dabbling. Another man, better acquainted
with the rules that regulate vitalism, takes
his own flock ; and, having selected the best,
he takes only those which he Icnoics to be of the
same breed ; and thus goes on steadily aiming at
giving breadth to the animal. He knows that
the sheep, in order to thrive, must have a large
lymphatic system. It must have a capacious
chest and loins, and a frame on which to secrete
5 a

fat, with lightness of oflul. Henco bo does not
select, at first, that wliich has tho most of the.so
qualifications, but which hiw, perhaps, tho
widest form, and most unlike liis own flock : ho
also takes such as show a tendency to pervade,
in one uniform direction, not an individual,
but tho whole of tho flock ; and this ho takes
to mend his own. liy this means all arc a
little improved in tho direction ho requires ;
and all keeping alike in their general contour,
there is a kind of permanency and uniformity
in tho main features of tho improvement.
Hence, if we look at the flock of the first-
named breeder, we shall have breeds both large
and small, 'bony' and 'bloody,' rough and
fine, white faces and blue, coarse and tender —
in fact, a set of mongrels, none of which are
of sufllcient value wherewith to form a flock,
and none to be depended upon for any future
breed. The other breeder, by his cautious and
judicious course, has a uniform JlocJc — a mark
both of purity and of skill; for no unskilful
man ever kept a flock long in a state of any-
thing like similarity to each other. Uniformity
is as important to the jobber and the butcher
as it is to the grazier. The merit of being
' even' is always appreciated in a market,
because it always suits the same class of
customers. One butcher buys a large fat
animal ; it suits his friends : another, a light,
thin one (wool being required by one, and
mutton by another) ; one requires fat, and
another muscle ; and to make an uneven lot
of sheep sell for all they are worth in a market,
they must be judiciously sorted."

"Whatever may be the breed selected, it
should be suitable, and, in its management,
be tended with the greatest care and atten-
tion. Theory and practice have clearly shown
that health and thrift are intimately con-
nected in the breeding of sheep ; that tho in-
fluence of cold has such a deteriorating effect;
upon the body, that it contracts its proportions,
and renders a greater supply of food necessary
to support it. Therefore, to a certain extent,
warmth is a substitute for food. This, then,
suggests tho great importance of the covering
of fleece during the winter. It preserves the
temperature of the sheep, and prevents waste ;
and shows us the reason why animals thrive
better in the summer than the winter, except
during the verv hottest period. The usual

729 '

SnEEP-EEAEING.]

SHEEP,

[sheep- HE AEING.

course adopted in breeding is, to take one
of the owner's ewes, and buy it, or put it
to the ram of another breeder. Before doing
this, two selections have usually been raade by
the breeder ; first, those ewes which are so fa-
vourable to the object he has in view, are drafted
from his flock ; after which his best gimmers are
selected from the flock of the preceding year ;
he next chooses a ram of the same breed, suit-
able to their condition, and possessed of such
characteristics as he wishes to be reproduced
in his stock. The ram should be thoroughly
bred ; and unless it be one of his own, with the
qualities of which he is perfectly acquainted,
it should have been tried at least one year on
a small number of ewes of a good sort, in
order to test his excellence. This is com-
mended as safe-breeding ; but if uniformity of
flock, and purity of blood, are the objects de-
sired to be obtained, the surest way to get
them, is by adopting the best means. It
must always be borne in mind, that the im-
provement of a flock, by means of breeding,
requires not only very great caution, but long-
continued attention and care.

In breeding, the qualities of both parents
must be considered, equally with a view of eradi-
cating the bad, as well as perpetuating the good
qualities. Speaking on this subject, Professor
Spoouer, in his treatise on the sheep, remarks,
that it must be acknowledged, that in the ma-
jority of cases, the influence of the male pre-
ponderates over that of the female, and the
characteristics of the former are more likelv
to be impressed on the offspring than those
of the latter. This, he says, is shown in most
animals ; and instances several cases. " The
mule," he says, " partakes much more of the
nature and size of its sire, the ass, than its
dam, the mare. A large Cotswold ram, put
to a Down ewe, produces an offspring much
more resembling the former than the latter ;
and a pony mare, put to a full-sized horse, will
produce an animal half as large again as the
dam. Though this, however, appears to be
Nature's rule, it is not without exception ; for,
occasionally, we see the very opposi'^te results.
In breeding animals of a pure kind, the prin-
cipal rule to be observed, is to breed from the
very best of both sexes, and cull the faulty ones
every year, saving only the female lambs for
the future flock that are as free Irom defects
730

as possible. Of course the flock must be kept
up to its proper size ; but, year by year, the
finest animals should be selected, until, in the
course of time, the flock will entirely consist ot
them. When tliis is nearly accomplished, it
will not be prudent for a farmer to employ his
own tups for the purpose, as he will probably be
able to hire superior rams from others ; and it
will not do to spare expense in thus rais-
ing the character of his sheep.' "When a dif-
ference occurs in the general outline of a flock,
it is to be corrected by the breeder acting on
the flock itself, by regularly drafting oft' the
failing ewes, and breeding from the com-
mon size. This is said to have a very favour-
able influence on the breed — much greater
than that of the dam ; for, while she can only
influence two animals, the ram exercises hia
power, in a greater or less degree, over the
whole of the produce. The leading features to
be attended to in a ram, are, fineness of skin,
light offals, broad, deep, and round frame, and
the absence of superfluous coarse wool. The
back should be broad, especially near the
shoulders, and well covered with solid, but
yielding, and slightly elastic flesh ; though it is
sometimes said, that an animal on which it is
possible to get a full fat development, is one to
be selected, on the ground that, in a bad one,
this is impossible. As adipose matter, how-
ever, is necessarily laid on muscle, it is obvious
that where there is plenty of muscle, there also
fat may be expected. A deep chest, broad at
the base, is very essential ; for this is indicative
of xoeiglit. For successful feeding this must be
thoroughly capacious. The sheep should walk
wide on both legs, keeping them at a distance
of at least six inches parallel to each other.
The head should be fine, not flat, and rather
broad. The eyes very full and prominent, ex-
hibiting, on the whole, an expression of quiet
liveliness. The ears small ; and the bare parts —
the face, ears, and legs — must have a clothing
of fine hair or wool.

The colour, which varies according to the
breeds, is of great consequence. A departure
from white in the Cheviot, would be as great
a lailing as black in the Highland or the Heath
sheep ; brown in the Southdown, or blue in
the Leicester. Mr. Milburn thinks that the
colour of the face of a Leicester is of far more
consequence, in a fattening point of view, thaa

siiEEP-nEAniKO.] AND TllFJll VAllIOUS BREEDS.

[SIIKEP-IIKAUINO.

ia generally imngined. It ouplit, in liis
opinion, always to have a ttMnli'iu*y t'> liglit-
blue in the ram, or Hotuo Loiri-sUM-sIiiro or
Teeswatcr tampering may bo suapfcted. Good
legs is nnotlu'r great e8^^CIltial. The tendency
is to encourage llesh developments on tlio
bnclv, to the ne:;lect of the legs, especially in
the Lcicesters. The fino development of the
back seems not only to have robbed tlio leg of
its muscle, but, by contrast, to have exagge-
rated its owu deformity. The dread of a long,
coarse leg of mutton has diniiniahed the cir-
cumference, as well as the length ; and, though
)] short leg of mutton is desirable in a Leices-
ter, we must guard against a loss of its rotun-
dity. Size is also of consequence. The finest
ppecimeus of Leicester — the purest and most
Fvmraetrical — are now decidedly the smallest.
Breeders should earnestly look to this, and bo
careful, in selecting the ram, to have masculine
ijualities enough to secure a hardiness in the
flock. In reference to the various points
sought after by breeder?, not because of their
own intrinsic value, but because of their being
evidence of other valuable qualities, is an
aptitude to fatten, and the attainment of an
early maturity. In the Southdown breed, for
example, small heads, legs, and horns are es-
teemed, because experience has pronounced
them qualities which are found usually as-
sociated with fattening properties. Black
muzzles and legs are, also, highly valued, be-
cause they are indicative of a good consti-
tution, and a certain degree of hardiness, which
epeaks well for the animal. Roughness of the
back, roundness of frame, and breadth of loin,
are also points in great request, being not
only the signs of good qualities, but, in reality,
good qualities in themselves. Straightness of
the back, although perfect in the Leicester, is
not natural to the unimproved Southdown,
but rather the contrary. In the improved
breeds, however, it appears, and is considered
an excellent point, as it gives a greater sm'face
for the accumulation of flesh, and aflords
larger scope for the abdominal organs. The
opposite of this, as witnessed in a round or
convex back, is produced, and increased by the
effects of hunger and cold, and is almost sure
to make its appearance, should the breed be
exposed to neglect, and the rigours of an in-
clement season. In summing up some of the

profitable requisites of a well-formfd anima),

it may be stated, that it should have as mucii
flesh, aiul as little bono and griHtle as possible;
and this flesh should be found where it is most
wanted, and, therefore, most valuable. For
example, it is much more profitable on the loins
and quarters than about the head, and upper
or scrag-end of the neck. AVIiere there ia a
largo development of flesh, a proportional dis-
position to fatten may be expected ; but to bo
profitable, it is necessary that these qualities
should be early developed, or, in other words,
should bo exhibited by an early maturity.

Having described the points of the ram, wo
may observe that the ewe should be straight
and broad-backed, wide in the loins, and deep-
breasted. The angles of her frame will always
be sharper than those of the ram ; but depth
and breadth, with fineness about the throat
and legs, ought always to be specially attended
to. To secure uniformity in the flock, the
ewes ought always to be as much alike as
possible, otherwise it will be the next thing to
an impossibility to obtain this desirable object.
We have already observed that, in breeding
for improvement, it is a good rule to breed
from the best of the kind ; and if a superioi*
ram of the same breed can be obtained from
another flock, it ought to be taken, and a
preference given to it, should its qualities be
equal to any one possessed by ourselves. If
our own, however, excel all others within
reach, then it should be used, but with the
precaution of marking the ewes which are
deficient in any of the qualities desired to bo
perpetuated.

Cross-lreedinij of sheep has attracted a
great deal of attention ; and its object is either
to increase the size, or to improve the form ;
to stimulate its fattening tendencies, to give it
an earlier maturity, and to extend the length,
or enhance the quality of the wool. To prac-
tise any of these improvements, it might, at
first sight, appear that all that would have to bo
done, would be to select a ram of any special
breed, distinguished for the particular quality
desired to be produced. This, however, will
not always prove suitable ; for, by so doing,
a breed will frequently be reared, either weak
in constitution, or defective in form, on ac-
count of the too great dissimilarity between
the parents. Therefore, to render crossing

7:U

SHEEr-EBAEING.]

SHEEP,

[SHEEP-REARINa,

successful, it may be taken as a general rule,
that there should be some affinity of consti-
tution between the intended improvers, and
those sought to be improved ; and this affinity
is sometimes denoted by the character of the
-n-ools. The most usual crosses are those of
the Leicester with the SouthdotV7i. The true
Leicester is unfashionable, is fed too early,
and is said to be too fat for its amount of
muscle to secure favour at the tables of the
rich epicure. Luxury seems greatly inclined
to discard that profitable animal; whilst the
Southdown has been selected to impart a
quality to the mutton, a fineness to the fleece,
and a tendency to lay on fat, with hardihood.

Some of a flock of this breed were seen by
Mr. Milburn, at the farm of Mr. Johnson, of
Chevet Grange, near Wakefield, in the West
Eiding of Yorkshire ; and he speaks greatly in
their praise. He says — " We happen to have
seen some extraordinary specimens of his flock,
embracing, perhaps, more of the qualities of
the two breeds than could be conceived pos-
sible. There was considerable size; a heavy
fleece of the finest wool ; large frame ; plenty of
fine-grained mutton ; with early maturity, and
a fair mixture of fat and muscle. These are
qualifications seldom realised in one animal.
AV^hat is more, they were precisely like each
other. The result seemed uniform ; and though
they cannot be considered as stereotyped cha-
racteristics, yet they are qualities preserved
with considerable tenacity, and, we are as-
sured, not at all obliterated by continuing to
breed in-and-hi with the crosses. Be this as
it may, the result is pretty certain ; and a good
flock of Southdown ewes, put to a Leicester
ram, may, with pretty considerable accuracy of
calculation, be depended upon as a successful
cross of sheep — fashionable to the butcher
and wool dealer, profitable to the farmer, and
more to be depended upon to meet a market
than, perhaps, any other class of sheep, if we
take the average of the run of seasons. We
have heard of the reverse. Mr. Johnson has
himself succeeded in breeding good produce
from Leicester ewes and a Southdown ram;
but we think that evidence is entirely in favour
of the reverse of tliis cross."

The Colsivold is sometimes crossed tvith the
Leicester, to wliicli size is thereby given, as it
is the custom to feed them at one year old.
7:32

A successful cross has, also, been made between
the Hampshire Down and the improved Cots-
wold. The Cotswold or Gloucester sheep is
of large proportions^ and has for centuries
been famous for the length and weight ot its
fleece. As one of the long-wooUed races, it is
superior to most others ; but its carcass could
not bear comparison with the Leicester. After
being crossed with it, however, it greatly im-
proved in its fattening properties, and attained
an earlier maturity, whilst it continued to
preserve the quality of its fleece. The Hamp-
shire was originally, in a great measure, derived
from the flocks of Essex, and is a larger variety
of the Southdown. Either from choice or
economy, the largest and coarsest animals were
selected and crossed with the native horned
sheep, and this breed has been perpetuated oa
the farms of North Hampshire for years.

A cross between the Leicester and the Black-
face is now well established, notwithstanding
the wide difference which exists in the cha-
racter and habits of the two breeds. The ex-
cellent mutton qualities of the one, and the
fattening tendencies of the other, have caused
this race to be extensively cultivated in the
north, where large numbers of them are reared,
and where they are held in very high estima-
tion, not only on account of their mutton
and their hardiness, but for the excellence
of the wool which they yield. Eor this cross,
however, it is not the very highest kind
of Leicester that is chosen to produce it. It
is the good and the useful, rather than the
delicate. Therefore, they possess in them-
selves a certain degree of hardiness, which
renders it more easy to acclimatise them to the
temperature and hill pastures of Scotland.
The cross between the Leicester and the
Cheviot is also established, and the produce of
this cross is rapidly taking the place of the
pure Cheviot. Its size is greater, its fatten-
ing tendencies better, and it attains to an
earlier maturity. Another cross, in the north,
is noticed as being somewhat successful. It
is between the Cheviot and the Black-faced —
the rams of the latter, and the ewes of the
former. This cross, Mr. Milburn says, is cal-
culated for barren pastures, and such exposed
situations as cannot be so well borne by any of
the other crosses already specified. This cross,
as might be expected, produces an extremely

snEicp-iu:ARixo.] AM) TIir.IK V \ K I O rs BREEDS.

[BiiKEP-nEAnma.

hardy race, in wliich the quality of the mutton fertile cause of horc^ditary predisposition to
is not at all di'torioratcd. To obtain it, how- disease is prevented. A liealtliy form and
ever, requires considerable perseverance, as the sound conslitntion are essential to successful
first is not always successful. "When {gradually j breedinjr, and for the development of the
carried back to the pure Cheviot ram, it greatly I points wo seek to obtain. Thus, tlie principal

improves, when good mutton, better wool, and
heavier weights arc secured. Complications
in crossing are considered neither safe nor
successful.

Breeding from close affinities, or, in other
words, in-and-in breeding, has been much dis-
cussed : and, in the estimation of many, is still
an unsettled question. AVhatevcr may bo its
advantages, it certainly has its disadvantages.
Sexual intercourse is forbidden by tlie law,
between near relatives in the human subject ;
and even marriage between relatives of the
second, degree — such as cousins — is looked
upon by many persons as very objectionable,
from the liability of entailing disease on the
ofliipriug, and especially disease of a mental
kind. This opinion is strongly supported by
statistical facts bearing upon the subject.
*' In the animal," says Professor Spooner,
" there is no reluctance to sexual intercourse
between the nearest affinities ; and the custom
of breeding from sheep closely related, has
been, for a long time, practised by breeders of
considerable eminence. In the human subject,
the objections to the practice are at once
granted ; but let us see whether they likewise
obtain with animals. In the former, marriages
are generally entered into, with little, if any,
regard to the health of the individuals con-
cerned ; the consequence of which is, that the
diseases of the parents, or, rather, their pre-
dispositions, are entailed on the offspring.
The result of this is, that most families have
predisposition to some particular complaint ;
and thus, if two members of the same family
have sexual intercourse, the probability is, that
if both parents had predisposition to a par-
ticular disease, in an equal degree, this will be
increased in their offspring in a double ratio.
But, on the contrary, if a man unites with a
woman of a different family, and a different
predisposition, the idiosyncracy of the offspring
to the diseases of either parent is likely to be
prevented or retarded. "With animals, how-
ever, the case is very different. If due atten-
tion be paid, a principal object will be, to breed
from healthy subjects, by which means one

objection to breeding from near affinities,
which exists in the human subject, does not
obtain amongst animals; and even if, in the
former, mental disease is more apt to occur
when this practice is pursued, this, also, is an
objection which does not apply to animal^;
though it has been urged by some, that sheep
bred in-and-in, are more subject to diseases of
the brain — a conclusion, however, which 1 am
much disposed to doubt." From this passage,
then, it is evident that the effects of in-and-in
breeding may be productive either of good or
evil ; although, in neither case, may this result
be attributable to nearness of affinity, but
rather to the circumstances with which it is
connected. If due care is not taken in culling,
or making a selection of the flock, both defect
and disease may reasonably be expected to
arise; and two animals, having each a predis-
position to the same evil, defective, or diseased
tendencies, if permitted to have connection,
will produce an offspring similarly predisposed,
but in a double degree. If proper care is em-
ployed, however, in the selection of the flock,
the opposite result may be anticipated.

In managing rams and ewes for the purposes
of breeding, care should be taken, tliat about
the close of the month of September, the ewes
are put upon better keep. Eape is, perhaps,
the best thing to give the Leicesters ; but if
this be not present, aftermath or clover stubble.
If a largo progeny is the ))rincipal aim, such
food, will bo found greatly conducive to the
effecting of this object. It is said, that of
keeping sheep on rape before the ewes are per-
mitted to receive the ram, fully thirty per
cent, of lambs may be obtained. Ciima.te, and
the quantity of spring food provided, must, of
course, in a great measure, regulate the time
when the rams are to be put to the ewes. It
is of the utmost importance that the lambs
should be dropped as early as possible, in order
that they may be well nursed, and have sufficient
time to gather strength enough to enable tliem
to provide for themselves before tlie winter sets
in. It is also advantageous to the ewes, that
they may arrive at good ''nndition before the

733

SHEEP-EEABTNG.]

SHEEP,

[snEEP-EEA'RIN'G.

commencement of the rutting season ; thus a
full crop of lambs may be secured. A proper
proportion of tups should be employed — say,
three to one hundred ewes, if they are much
scattered ; but, if they are kept in enclosures,
two will be sufficient for a hundred. " A ram,
when shearling, or two shear," Mr. Milburn
says, " will serve sixty ewes, or even eighty, if
proper care be taken. The too common mode
is to allow him to run with the ewes at large.
There is a great waste of the animal's virile
powers ; and when as many as the last-named
number of ewes are given him, another course
should be adopted. A shepherd should be left
in entire charge ; a pen or pair of stocks, as it
is indifferently called, provided, and the ram
kept confined in the house, or in a very small
croffc. An active lively ram should be sent
with the ewes, and should have an apron tied
about the crop, so as entirely to cover the ge-
nitals. If his breast is smeared with red it is
no disadvantage, as it more distinctly marks
the ewes. AVhen a ewe is observed in full
season, she should be brought to the stocks,
and served by the ram with whom she is in-
tended to produce, and immediately carried
away ; but, when eighty ewes are provided, it
is indispensable ; and when twenty to thirty
guineas are given for the loan of a ram for one
season, it is not unreasonable to expect him to
discharge more duties to the flock than is pos-
sible by running at large. When the flock
comes in season very rapidly, the ram serves
them only once ; if not, they are served twice,
and then turned away for a fortnight, when
they are brought back to the teaser ; and he is
then smeared with a blue or black colour, to
distinguish those who come once. When the
ewes are not named, they should all be num-
bered, and a register kept of the ram and his
breeding, and the date of each ewe being served.
This is not only an invaluable record in the case
of pedigrees, but it is still more useful as being
a guide to housing, when near the period of
lambing; and, though the doggrel distich is
true, tliat —

" ' There was never a shepherd, that ever begun,

Can tell wliether they go nineteen, twenty, or twenty-
one ;"
still, a very important classification is secured
by those who have their register, who cannot
house the whole flock, especially in a time of
734

severity and difficulty. When the active pro-
cess of gestation has commenced, care should
be taken to prevent the ewes getting too fat.
If they do, inflammatory disease, absence of
milk, and general risk, are sure to be the eon-
sequences." The apron alluded to in this pas-
sage, is believed by Dr. Parry to have been an
invention of the celebrated Bakewell. The
sexual appetite of the ewes being provoked,
and their condition being discovered, by it,
they are taken in succession to the proper
ram, which is kept in a yard or small enclosure,
and permitted to serve each only once. The
common practice, on high farms at this season,
is to collect the ewes, and drive them to the
low ground ; but this has frequently the efl'ect
of harassing the animals, and spoiling the
winter pasture. If they be altogether left at
liberty, however, an inconvenient number of
rams is requisite. The duties of the shepherd
at this season are extremely onerous, as he
must be constant in his attendance. If the
weather permit, the ewes must rather be kept
on the high ground, in separate bodies, scat-
tered here and there, in accordance with the
nature of the pasture, and the condition of the
ground. Each of these detachments sliould
have a proportion of rams allotted to it ; and
the shepherd cannot be too careful in not
allowing the lambs to quit the ewes to which
they have been appropriated. If this be done
properly, fewer rams will be required on the
ground. When the ewes have become large,
they should be run about as little as possible.
Nor should they in any way be disturbed, but
carefully watched over, and kept away from
wet ground, and everything that may be sup-
posed to have an injurious effect upon their
health. When very heavy, they are apt to get
cast, and unable to rise ; and when this is the
case, the shepherd should approach them with
gentleness, and help to raise them with as
much tenderness as he can use. Should a«e.we
miscarry in very cold or severe weather, she
should be brought to her cot, and kept there
until she has recovered. In mild weather,
however, she will be equally safe in the open
air. When the yearning time arrives, the
ewes should be placed on the most level and
driest ground, not only for their own accom-
modation, but for that of the lambs when
dropped.

SUEEl'-JtKAUl.NO ]

AND Til El II VARIOUS BREEDS.

[silKEl'-llt.vniKO.

Having alluded to the ouerouB duties of the
shepherd during tho breeding seiiaoii, wo may
hero observe, that one, whoao pastoral care lies
among the mountains, must bo possessed of
certain qualifications to enable him to act upon
his trust with pleasure to himselt" and satisl'ac-
tiou to his employer, lie must bo active,
attentive, careful, honest, and good-tempered
withal. This last qualification is as indispon-
sabld to make up tho character of a good shep-
herd, as it is to complete the character of a
moral philosopher or a sago. Should he sulVer
himself, at any time, to get into a passion with
his sheep, the probability is that he will not
only injure them, but act greatly to his own
disadv;uitago in herding and working among
them. This observation is not applicable to
the shepherd alone. It applies to every man
who is in a position to govern, command, or
control. He who loses his temper, generally
loses a portion of his time, as he certainly does,
a portion of his reason, which temper must
again restore, before be can do for himself, or
get others to act for him satisfactorily, A lad
or shepherd, and a close-mouthed dog, will ac-
complish the object desired in half the time,
and with half the trouble which will be given
to the quick-tempered, passionate man. It is
not by running and hounding his dog after
them, that sheep are to be easiest driven to
where they are wished ; but by quickly direct-
ing them, agreeably to the quality of the soil,
the nature of the climate, the locality of the
farm, where they may obtain in greatest quan-
tity, and with certain safety, a, sufficient supply
of nutritious food throughout the year. In
Little's Practical Olservations on Mountain
Sheep, it is remarked, that " it is not by walk-
ing much or seeming to be doing much, that a
shepherd proves himself to be a good one ; but
by walking so as to disturb the sheep the least,
and by doing, and at the time, whatever is
necessary to be done. There is not an expe-
rienced shepherd, who does not, as soon as he
rises in the morning, and observes the state of
the weather, know almost to a certainty where
to find nearly every sheep on the hill ; and he
will, accordingly, take his course to the place
where he knows bis presence is most wanted.
If any of bis own or bis neighbour's sheep
have trespassed, it is foolish to dog or to abuse
them ; bat the more quietly they can be turned

back the better. If tho boundary should be

on the top or ridge of a lieit,'ht, towards which
sheep are apt to draw at night, it is better to
turn his own u little closer to tho boundary ia
tho afternoon, than to drive back his neigh-
hour's ; it will better answer tho simo purpuse;
and, after tho flocks have been a few times
gently directed in tho morning, without dogs,
they will become so well acquainted with their
own side, that, at the very sight of the shep-
herds, they will take to it without trouble.
Those slu'pherds who dog and force their
Hocks, I take to be bad herdsmen for their
masters, and bad herdsmen for the neighbour-
ing farmers. If the boundary be a bourne or
brouk on low ground, where the sheep graze in
the middle of the day, the same plan should be
adopted by turning the sheep down tolerably
early in the day." These observations, although
directed to tlie mountain shepherd, have yet,
more or less, an application to every one who
has the care of sheep in any situation.

About a fortnight before the expiration of
the period of gestation, the ewes should be
separated from the flock, and placed in a grass
crofc near the house. They should be sheltered
by being allowed temporary houses made of
hurdles and straw, with smaller houses, in
which the newly-dropt lambs may be sepa-
rated from the rest, and kept free from danger.
This is not always practised ; but it ought to
be done ; and for the lambing season, a croft
of winter-freed grass, or uneaten moss, should
be preserved. To save the grass at a time
when, from a backward spring, or other
reasons, it is scarce, the ewes may be driven
daily to tho turnip-field, and taken at night
elsewhere — a plan which, by giving them ex-
ercise, will bo found very beneficial. The
best food for the ewes, after shelter is no
longer necessary to the lambs, is Italian rye-
grass, or rye, which, after being eaten down,
grows rapidly; and nothing teaches the lambs
to eat sooner than this. The corn should still
be continued along with Swede turnips ; while
the advent of fine weather, and the diminished
wants of the lamb, will be the criteria for
deciding when the practice ought to be dis-
continued. "When lambs are observed to drop
on a spot where they cannot easily rise, they
should be lifted, and placed on their feet ; but
if everything be favourable, they are better

735

SHEEP- EEAEINa.j

SHEEP,

[SHEEP-EEARIKG.

left to themselves. "When a day or two old,
they may be docked, which will be the means
of saving a great deal of trouble afterwards,
when the disease called " pinding" attacks them.
About three inches is, perhaps, a length suffi-
cient for the tail ; but males, provided pinding
does not take place, should not be docked
until the season for performing the operation
of castration has arrived. When lambs ex-
hibit little signs of sportiveness, in all proba-
bility there is something the matter with them,
and they should be examined, as well as their
dams. By nature they are lively and frisky,
full of fun, and much given to play; if, there-
fore, they exhibit little or no signs of this
disposition, it may be taken as a certainty
that there is something the matter, either with
them or their dams. If they are in any way
deformed, they should be slaughtered for home
consumption. Should a lamb die, it ought to
be slowly dragged home, when the ewe will
follow it. After she has been brought into
the house, a twin lamb from another ewe may
be put to her ; and, as soon as she has allowed
it to suck, they may be both turned out
together.

In the weaning of lambs, the ewes should

be taken from the lambs, and not the lambs

from the ewes. It is said to be always best

to place the ewes and lambs together in a

pasture most suitable for the lambs. The

ewes should be carried out of hearing of their

oiFspring, and placed in a poor pasture, and

milked for a few days, until the lactiferous

system ceases to secrete, and then it is best

to send them to a cool upland, if possible.

Lambs, however, should be allowed to suck

during three months and a-half, after which

they may be taken up and kept for a fortnight

or three weeks, at a distance from their dams.

Sale lambs are usually not taken up till their

purchaser comes and removes them at once.

It is the practice of some to wean their lambs

about the middle of July, considering it as

important to habituate them to a change of

provender before the arrival of the season

when braxy is likely to set in. If nature

were to be taken for our guide, however, early

in August would be sufficient time for the

removal of the lambs.

Should lambs become infested with vermin
before the time of smearing, the following
736

directions, given by Dr. Parry, will be found
serviceable : — The ticlc, or hippohosca ovina, is
extremely injurious to sheep, by making the
animal bite and rub itself, so as not only to
prove detrimental to the fleece, but to break
the skin ; in consequence of which, the fly is
apt to fix on the wool near the wounded part,
and there deposit its eggs. This troublesome
animal may be, in a great measure, destroyed
by a solution of white arsenic in powder,
made in boiling water, in the proportion of
an ounce to a gallon, and poured, when cold,
on the back of the sheep, and allowing it to
diS'use itself down the skin on each side ; in
this method, however, several of the ticks
escape by crawling to the extremities of the
filaments. It will be still better to wash the
lambs in the autumn, whether shorn or not,
in a tub of a similar mixture. Eor this pur-
pose, three pounds of the same arsenic in
powder, may be dissolved in six gallons of
boiling water, and the solution mixed with
forty gallons of cold water. The whole being,
then, well stirred with a stick, the lambs may
be plunged into it, great care being taken that
they do not dip their heads, or taste the
water. The liquor must be squeezed out of
their fleeces back into the vessel, in order that
it may not be wasted. It is hardly necessary
to point out the poisonous quality of this
liquid, and how important it is to keep the
vessel locked up, and, after the operations are
performed, to clean it well ; or rather never to
use it for any other purpose ; and to throw
the liquid which remains, where not the
smallest quantity of it can be drank by any
creature whose life we value. Infusion of
tobacco is equally eflective, but not so eco-
nomical.

When the lamb is fairly on its legs, and able
to do something for itself, it is frequently the
case, that a pasture is chosen for the dam, as
uncongenial for the production of milk, as it
is unfit for teaching the ofl"spring to feed, which
thus prolongs the dependence of the latter on
the lacteal supplies which it must draw from
the mother. When the vegetable food which
the lamb consumes becomes increased, the
milk of the dam diminishes ; and, either from
natural constitution, or from some accident, it
frequently happens that she becomes dry, not-
withstanding the efl"ort3 of the lamb to preserve

SHEKP MAyAOKMEN'T.] AND TlIEIli VAlilOUS BREEDS, [bukep management.

the laotilerous stream. AVhca thia is tliecaso,
tho lambs are often depastured on over-eaten
seed ; and as their bowels are tender, and not
yet inured to such food, they becoino alll-cted
with purginj];, and hence the cause of unweaned
lambs being afllicted with the scour, wlien un-
availing recourse ^is bad to the shears and
medicine, to savo lives which too often pass
beyond the reach of skill. The discovery is tlien
made that the lambs have been so weaned, and
have bad improper pasture Ouce place
weaned lambs on over- eaten seeds, and the
whole flock takes the scour, followed by flies,
maggots, medicine, and death. To prevent
such a calamity, Mr. ^Milburu recommends
a bard old grass, or a second crop of mown
clover, which he considers perfectly safe. " It is
not the excellence of the pasture," he says,
" as regards its quantity, which is to bo feared,
but the quality ; for if the land be rich,
with grass and newly-grown seeds, the scour
is certain to follow. Some flock-masters, who
have not red clover, or poor grass laud, will
send their lambs to a poorer soil to graze, until
their bowels have become accustomed to purely
vegetable diet. Should scour take place, it is
often diflicult to stop it. Tho bowels must bo
relieved of the dry food, and the system
hardened by tonics. A dose of a quarter of

an ounce of flower of sulphur, in old milk, will
generally succeed in stopping tho disease, if it
bo properly attacked in its early stages."

" ]t is an excellent plan," tho same practical
gentleman further remarks, "to have a few
wetiiers, ur barren ewes, to put in the flcld
with tho lambs after weaning. They teach
them to select their food ; they draw out tho
instincts of the young lambs, and mati-ri.illv
assist in drawing and training. A pea should
be provided in tho corner of the field ; and to
dip as soon as possible after weaning is by no
means a bad practice. As soon as the ewes
are shorn, and before the weaning, it is very
desirable to have the l^mbs dipped. If deferred
till after weaning, there is often much fretting
excited in them, and they seem to sufier more
by far than when they are subjected to tho
process during the period when they arc re-
maining with their dams. It is often necessary
again to dress tho lambs in the autumn, and
so keep them from tho annoying and irritating
eflects of insects whicli seem to grow upon
them, despite every care, unless they are sub-
jected to frequent remedial applications. If
sale at one year old is intended, the lambs
should be kept on artificial food, Irom the veiy
season of weaning, in order that they may be
well brought up."

CHAPTER VI.

THE MANAGEMENT AND F.MTKNING OF SHEEP.

Befoke directly considering the methods pur-
sued in the management and fattening of sheep,
the construction and power of the digestive
organs of the animal, upon wliieh experiments
are to be tried, should be well known. These
in the sheep, like those of almost all vegetable
feeding animals, are extremely complicated ;
and, in the exercise of their functions, accom-
plish a much more diflicult task than those
which are possessed by animals that princi-
pally feed upon flesh. The food of these, be-
fore it is eaten, is in a great measure ready
5 B

prepared. The constituent parts of which it
is composed have a close resemblance to those
of tho blood itself, and necessarily bafve an exact
similarity to the very flesh it is intended to
nourish. This being the case, a much smaller
quantity is required to sustain the body,
as there is little of it given off" in the way of
waste, or ejected in the form of foeccs. This,
however, is very difllirent from what is neces-
sary to sustain the body of the herbivorous
quadruped. The food required for it has to be
sought in the wilds of nature, in the fields auc^

737

MATfAGEMENT.]

SHEEP,

^lv^A■^rAGE■M:E^"T.

the forest, -where it is found in the very cru-
dest state, and requires to be consumed in large
quantities, in order to yield a sufficiency of
nourishment for the sustainment of life. This,
as a matter of course, iiecessitates a diiference
of construction in those internal organs which
have to act upon such a bulky species of nutri-
ment. Accordingly, the digestive organs of the
graminivorous animals are much more extensive
than those of the carnivorous, and proportion-
ally more complicated, that they may be equal
to the performance of their work. Both the
ox and the sheep have very extensive digestive
organs. Their intestines are of great length ;
and, in place of having only one stomach, like
the horse, they have no fewer than four. " The
usual course of the food," says Professor
Spooner, " is into the rtnnen, ov first stomach,
whose entrance is close to the termination of
the oesophagus and the entrance of the canal.
This stomach is of enormous extent, occupying,
indeed, when full, nearly three-fourths of the
abdomen. It lies towards the left side, ex-
tending to the flank ; and, by a sort of muscular
band, it is partially divided into two principal
compartments. It is lined internally by the
peretonial membrane, in common with the other
contents of the abdomen, and, internally, by
an insensible membrane, called the cuticular,
between which there are two other coats —
the mucus, which secretes the fluid found in
the stomach ; and, external to this, the muscu-
lar coat, which is formed of two orders of fibres
running in opposite directions. Its interior
aspect presents a number of pouches or com-
partments, which are formed by muscular
bauds, thrown across from one part to another ;
and the surface presents an innumerable num-
ber of pupillo?, or eminences, not sharp, but
blunt pointed, which are formed by the mucus
coat, and merely covered by the cuticular.
These pupillaj are coarser in the lower com-
partment of the viscus than in the upper. We
have said the rumen consists of two compart-
ments ; but, with greater propriety, it may be
stated, that there are three ; a smaller one be-
ing situated immediately below the termination
of the oesophagus, and adjoining the second
stomach. The use of these partial divisions is
very evident. They relieve one portion of the
stomach from sustaining the whole of the weight
of the food ; and thev afibrd a sort of steps, or
738

resting-places for the food that has undergone
maceration, the upper, and smaller, compart- ■
ment being that into. which the food is raised
just previous to being ruminated. The rumen
is partly attached to the second stomach, but
only communicates with it through the common
opening into the cesophagean canal. The
second stomach is called the recticulum ; its
size is considerably less than the rumen, but it
possesses much strength in its coats, and its
muscular fibres are more developed. It is
globular in shape, and somewhat larger than
the maniplus, and is familiar to us in tripe,
not only from its cellular structure, but
from its being thicker than the others. Its
internal aspect is very singular, having a vast
number — indeed, several hundreds — of shallow
cells, somewhat like a honey-comb. The cells
are much smaller at the part of the viscus
nearest the entrance, and gradually increase in
size from this point. The sides of these cells
consist of ridges formed by the mucus and
cuticular coats, and smaller ridges are also
observed, running across within the cells.
Most of them are pentagonal, but many have
six sides ; and, on their surface, we observe an
immense number of sharp-pointed pupillse,
much smaller in size, though sharper than
those of the rumen, and which secrete a mucous
fluid. This viscus has the same coats as the
rumen, but the muscular coat ha-s two layers of
strong fibres, arranged both transversely and
longitudinally. The opening into this stomach
is of some extent, compared to its size; the
duplications, or lips, which form it, are, indeed,
the floor of the greater portion of the cesopha-
gean canal. Though, in the ordinary state,
the root, or upper part of the reticulum, is the
floor of the cesophagean canal, yet if air is
pumped into the oesophagus, so as to distend
the stomachs, the situation of the reticulum
will become reversed, rising up towards the
oesophagus ; and thus, if this rexius is distended
in the disease of hoove — as, from its free oom-
munieation with the rumen, it probably is — it
must press on the diaphragm with consider-
able force, greater in proportion, even, than
the rumen itself. The contents of this stomach
are more liquid than those of the others.
Somewhat before the end of the entrance of
the secend, the canal terminates, as it were, in
the third stomach — the oiianiplus, ovonmifold;

siiKEi' MAyAOEMEXT.] AND Til 111 R VARIOUS BKEEDS. [siikkp manaoiment.

80 called from its curious internal struo
ture, which is roriiicd by n j^rt-at number ot"
plaits, or folds, arraiigfJ loiii;itutliiially iu a
direction from tiio entrance of the stomach; so
that, althous^h it is not larc;e externally — not
exceedinj^ t!io reticulum — its external surfnco is
increased in more than a tenfold decree. These
plaits aro very curiously arraiij^ed, being in the
form of seven or eight {groups of six leaves, each
leaf dissimilar in lenj^th, tho largest extending
almost froi i tho upper to t!io lower part of the
stomach. These leaves arc studded with
numerous small pupillae, much harder than
those of the reticulum, and some on the edges
of the plaits, of the shape of a bent cone, the
points directed towards the entrance. It has
been found, in certain cows that would never
retain their Ibod, but were continually scour-
ing, that these plaits were unusually short.
The uianiplus has but one opening, but this
opening is in dii'ect coraniunicatiou with both
the canal and the fourth stomach. The plaits
are studded with numerous minute pupilla),
somewhat similar to those found in the reticu-
lum. The maniplus possesses four coats like
the others, and its external appearance is
globular. Its contents are generally found of
a much harder consistence than those of the
oth^r stomachs. This stomach, when full, is
found above the ojsophagean canal, forming,
indeed, a portion of its roof; and its longest
leaves fall down, as it were, almost into the
canal. The ahomasum, as the fourth stomach
is called, is, in fact, the true stomach, being
that which secretes the gastric juice, by which
the food is converted into chyme. It is this
peculiar acid which gives it the power of
coagulating milk; and, in calves, it is particu-
larly employed for this purpose in the manu-
factureof cheese, under the term rennet. Exter-
nally, this organ is somewhat conical in shape,
its apex being the part which joins the intes- 1
tines. It possesses three coats, like the other
stomachs, but its internal surface is very
different, being smooth and shining, and of a
pale-red colour. Its mucous membrane is,
indeed, very vasicular, and this secretes the
gastric juice. The internal surface is greatly
increased, and exceeds tlie external, by being
in the tbrm of plaits, arranged longitudinally,
but very different from those found in the
manii)lus. Tlie entrance to this stomach (its

cardiac opening) is close to tho ontranco of
tho manipluH; it is arranged in a somewhat
crescentic form, and is sitinited at one ex-
tremity of tho base ; whilst the pyloric opening,
backfng into tho small intestine, is, as before
observed, situated at tho apex. Such is tho
situation and appearance of the stomachs; and
we deem it unnecessary to follow tho course of
tho food through them.

"To meet the necessity of all these slomacha
in the sheep, wo all know that a certain quan-
tity of food is required, that tho animal may
not only bo preserved in health, but be kept
alive. This quantity is designated its neces-
sar}' ration of food ; and if it is given more
after it has consumed this portion, it will
grow in flesh, or yield milk, or wool. When
an animal is growing, whether of tho human
or any other species, it should never be stinted
iu its food. Keep tiie stomachs of babies and
puppies full, and thero will be comparatively
little crying in the one, or whining in the
other. Stint them, however — never let them
feel themselves full, and they will necessarily
make known their dissatisfaction. It has
been found that an ox requires two per cent,
of his living weight in hay per day ; if he
works, be requires one-half per cent. more.
A milch cow requires three per cent. ; and a
fatting ox five per cent. — four-and-a-half when
half fat, and only four when fat. Grown
sheep take three-and-a-half per cent, of their
weight iu hay per day, in order to be kept in
store condition."

Mr. E-ichardson, in his treatise on the Sheep,
supposes a fiirmer purchasing a score of the
Leicester and Cheviot hogs at the same period,
and feeding them for the same length of time
on. the same food; when the results would bo
something like the following :■ —

£ t. d. & s. d.
20 Leicester hops, at 335., bought in spring 33 0 0

Then Eay 7 lbs. each of -wonl, at an average
price of Is. 1'/. per lb., 7s. 7rf. each, or . 7 IS 6

Si)l(l off fat, say at Chiistinas, weighing
24 lbs. per quarter, at 5J. per lb. . . 40 0 U

The 20 sheep will leave for food and profit

— — A'l 13

8

14 13

8

20 0
3 5 0
3G 0 0
39 5

(J
0

20 Cheviot hoRS, at 20s.

Then say 3 Ins. of wool each, at Is. \d.

Sold oil' fut, 18 lbs. per quarter, ut ijd.

The sheep ■will leave for food and profit . 1 J 3 0

As quiet and warmth contribute in a largo
degree to the fattening of sheep, these should

73t)

MANAGE:M;E^X.1

SHEEP,

[maitagement.

always be taken into the calculations of the
farmer. Their modus operandi is simple, and
verv easily described. Experience has taught
us that, as we accelerate our own motion, we
increase respiration, when the excess of oxygen
inhaled requires an increased quantity of car-
bon, which would otherwise be given to the
accumulating of fat. So, likewise, cold takes
away from the system its animal heat ; to renew
which, more oxygen and more carbon must be
employed in producing extra combustion, in
order that the diminution of temperature may
be restored. iSTature effects this restoration
of heat, by causing cold to produce both hunger
and the desire lor motion ; supplying carbon
by the gratification of the former, and oxygen by
the indulgence of the latter. In proof of these
facts, the following experiment may be given :
— One hundred sheep were put into a shed,
and ate 20 lbs. of Swedes each per day ; whilst
another hundred, in the open air, ate 25 lbs.
At the end of a given period, the former weighed
3 lbs. more than the latter ; which proves that,
to a certain extent, heat, with animals, is a sub-
stitute for food. This was also proved in other
experiments into which the effects of exercise
on the living animal entered. No. 1. — Eive
sheep were fed in the open air between the
21st of November and the 1st of December.
They consumed 90 lbs. of food per day, at a
temperature of about 44°. At the end of this
time they weighed 2 lbs. less than when first
exposed. No. 2. — Eive sheep were put under
shelter, and permitted to run at a temperature
of 49°. They consumed at first 82 lbs., then
70 lbs. per day, and increased in weight 23 lbs.
No. 3. — Eive sheep were put in tlie same shed,
but not allowed any exercise. They. ate, at
first, 64 lbs,, then 58 lbs., and increased in
weight 30 lbs. No. 4.— Eive sheep were kept
in the dark, quiet, and covered. They ate
35 lbs. per day, and increased in weight 8 lbs.

Mr. Itichardson gives the following experi-
ments bearing closely upon this subject.
They were mostly made by Mr. Lawes. That
gentleman instituted a series of inquiries as to
the abstract food and increase in weif^ht of
these sheep in themselves, and also as com-
pared with the Hampshire Downs, assuming
the Sussex Down to be the type of the original
Southdown sheep. One disadvantage was,
tliat they had to be fed on dry food ; they had
740

294

0

259

12

3941

0

oil- cake and clover chaff. At first they had
food supplied in given quantities, and propor-
tioned to their weight. The quantity given,
per day, to the Hampshires was one pound of
each ; while to the Sussex Downs it was only
three-fourths of a pound of each per day
The former weighed 113^ lbs., and the latter
only 8S lbs. Swedes were also given ad
libitum, but from quantities previously weighed.
The sheep were fed for twenty-six weeks.
The Hampshires consumed 1,249 lbs. of oil-
cake, 1,120 lbs. of clover hay, and 16,995 lbs.
of Swedes; and the increase of live weight was
428 lbs. So much for the large sheep. The
smaller, or Sussex Downs, in fact, consumed
965 lbs. of oil-cake, 926 lbs. of clover hay, and
12,445 lbs. of Swedes, and gave an increase, in
live weight, of 324 lbs. To put it in a more
striking light, it required, to produce 100 lbs.
increase in live weight, the following quanti-
ties of each kind of food in the Hamp-
shires : —

lbs. oz.

Oil-cake . . . ,

Clover hay

Swedes ....

Or a total of food of all kinds . 4494 12

Whereas the Sussex sheep required, to pro-
duce 100 lbs. live weight, the following quan-
tities:—

Oil-cake .
Clover hay
Swedes

Or a total of food of all kinds . 4704 7

The Sussex sheep needed, therefore, in
twenty-six weeks, 20 lbs. 4oz. more oil-cake,
44 lbs. 7 oz. more clover hay, and 145 lbs. less
Swedes, to produce 100 lbs. live weight ; or
about 7 per cent, more oil-cake, I7i per cent,
more clover, and 3^ per cent, more Swedish
turnips, for the same result. The taste indi-
cated a difference in the animals : the Sussex
sold at about 3^. 2d. per stone of 8 lbs. ; the
Hampshire only 2s. 10\d. per stone ; and after
paying their way, and allowing for the pur-
chased food — the cake and hay — the forty
Hampshire sheep left a profit, as well as the
increase, of Gs. 7^d., and the Sussex, of Qs. O^d.
per head. The oil- cake is, however, reckoned
at only £6 15s. per ton, and the clover hay at

lbs.

314

oz.
4

304

3

40S6

0

SHEEP MAXAOEMEKT.] AND THEIR VARIOUS BREEDS, [sueei- management.

£1 per ton. Nothing is clmrgod for atten-
dance.

As fur, therefore, ns tliis was a piiynig
spccuhition, neither seemed to answer. Tlio
Swede.<<, the attendanee, the waahinj^, shearing,
and other et-celcras, woukl diminish the profit
to less than nil ; but this was hardly tlic
object of ]\rr. L.iwes. The forty ITampshires
consumed 40.;^ tons of Swedes, and the Sussex
only 3G.V- The latter were, however, much
the smaller, and more would bo consumed to
the acre. jNEp. Lawes himself, however, puts
the case in another light, lie says — Suppose,
then, that in both cases 100 tons of Swedes
had been eaten, we should have had consumed
with them, and paid for by the increase of the
animal —

Oil cake, lbs. Clover, lbs.
By the Sussex sheep . . 17,o74 and 1G,GTG
By the Ilampshire . . . 1G,170 and 14,7G7

904 1,909

That is to say, in consuming 100 tons of
Swedes (and the dry foods), Sussex sheep
would, according to our experiments, have
given the increase from 904 lbs. more oil-cake,
and 1,009 more clover, than the Ilampshires.
To have consumed the quantities of food sup-
posed above, however, in twenty-six weeks,
there would have been required eighty Hamp-
shire, and about one hundred and ten of the
Sussex sheep.

Mr. Lawes subjected the Cotswold to the
same course. Having, however, originally in-
tended them for a comparative trial witli the
New Oxfords, but without success, he tried
the fifty sheep alone, on diflcrent qualities of
food, and subjected them to a comparison (as
to their fattening tendency) with the two
kinds of Downs he had before tried. He
commenced with the flock selected by Mr.
Game, on the 24th of October, and fed them
on turnips in the field until the 21st of No-
vember, when he put them on boards or rafters,
and then fed them on oil-caice, clover-chop,
and as many Swedes as they could eat. The
same proportion of dry food was allotted to
the Cotswold in proportion to their weight,
which was 113. V lbs. average per animal. The
food at first given was 1 lb. per day each of
clover chaff, and the same of oil-cake. Near
the conclusion of this experiment the oil-cake
was increased by one- half. The average

weight, on the 1st of December, was llDlbg.
14 ozs. ; but there was a difTLTcuof! between the
greatest weighted animal of IKJ lbs., and the
smallest, 1():J lbs , which showt-d how vnnt a
variation there may be in a lot pn.-ttv nearlv
equal in appearance. ]\Ir. Vernon JIarcourt
.showed that great diflerences of produce would
take place in tho same field in various parts
similarly treated ; and Mr. Lawes' experiments
show tho same results. In the first month of
tho experiment, after the weighing alluded to,
tho increase was in a margin frcjm nil to
22 lbs. ; nor could previous weight, or any
other element, account for tho difference.
Tho weekly average gained, per head, was
3 lbs. 10,V 0Z3. during the month. In
the second month, the extreme variations of
increase were 1 lb. against 22 lbs. ; but it is
very remarkable that it was not the one which
had been the greatest gainer the precedin<T
month, or increased the most, nor vice versa.
Though it eventually happened, that the one
which gained the most was that which realised
the greatest amount at the end of the experi-
ment. The average gain in this month was
less, being on 3 lbs. 3,\ ozs. per head per
week. In the third month, the greatest in-
crease was again 22 lbs., and the smallest
3 lbs. ; and it is again remarkable, that the one
which gave the smallest increase in the second
month, was that which progressed tho most in
the next. The average gain fell, however, to
3 lbs. 6^- ozs. per week. In the fourth
week, the lowest increase was again 3 lbs., and
the highest 28 lbs. ; the latter being the one
which stood highest in the second month.
The average increase was 3 lbs. 5 ozs. per head
per week — an increase which shows how much
may be gained by judicious management
and proper treatment, under the circum-
stances.

Tiie result of these experiments was, that the
final mean weight, without woo!, was 174 lbs. ;
tho highest weight, 214 lbs. ; and the lowest
weight, 147 lbs. The highest average increase,
per week, was the one before particularly
referred to, which averaged 4 lbs. 7 ozs. ; tho
lowest average being lib. x4 ozs., and tho
general average 3 lbs. 2.} ozs. The increase in
twenty weeks, per 100 lbs. of live weight, took
259 lbs. 11 ozs. of oil-cake, 2 19 lbs. 1 oz. of
clover hay, and 3,G0Slb3. of Swedes. Now,

741

MANAGEMENT.]

SHEEP,

[management.

the comparlsoa with the Downs, of the two
•kinds before referred to, is as follows : — The

Cotswold gained, per week
Hampshire Downs
Sussex Downs .

lbs. ozs.
3 2^
2 12"
2 1?

But there was a difference in the food. The
Cotswold consumed more food — more of every
kind than the Sussex Downs ; and more,
though very slightly, of all but the clover hay,
than the Hampshires. But then they had a
larger frame, and produced greater results.
Taking the 100 lbs, increase, for instance, as
the test, as it ought to be, the result is, in
every way, in favour of the Cotswold ; as the
following: shows : —

Oil-cake .
Clover hay
Swedes .

Cots-svolds.

239£- lbs.
219 „
3601 „

Hampshires. Sussex.

294 lbs. 314 lbs.

259 „ 304 „
3941 „ 4086 „

The increase in weight, per 100 lbs., was
about 2 per cent, greater with the Cotswolds.

The "balance-sheet," always so satisfactory,
is not here of the same consequence as the
experiment. It is not likely, when the animals
are so confined and often weighed, that so
much can be defined as clearly to make profit
a guiding element. The cost of the sheep is
given at £66 IO5. ; the quantity of purchased
food consumed by oil-cake and clover hay,
£29 6s. 5^d.—si total of £95 IQs. 5ld. ; while
the proceeds of the sale were £92 35. 7-3-c/. ; a
small difierence of £3 12s. 10 J., in the lot, with
the manure, for the risk, return for capital,
land crop, and Sv.edish turnips ; but they were
sold at a " heavy" market, and this may partly
account for the loss. There is one curious
fact, in this and the preceding experiments,
which we cannot help noticing. Mr. Lawes
observes, that there is some general uniformity
to be seen in the quantities of food in their
fresh state, consumed by all the three kinds
of animals, per 100 lbs. live weight weekly.
"But when the quantities of the respective
foods are calculated, each to their contents of
dry substances', it is found that the total
quantity consumed to a given weight of animal,
within a specified time, is all but absolutely the
same for the three breeds."

Fatteniuf) sheep, at one year old, aliould begin
to lamb ; and not only must artificial food be
given to the lambs as soon as they will eat it,
742

but they must be supplied with it indirectly
before they begin to partake of it in the milk of
the mother. Oat, bean, and linseed cake may,
and ought to, be given to the parent animal, so
that the offspring may always have plenty of
the materials wherewith to form bone and
muscle, and even fat. The fattest lamb (other
things being equal) not only makes the fattest
shearling, but will eat the least amount of food
to produce any given amount of mutton. Eape
cake is said to lay on mutton very cheaply, and
is second only to linseed, whilst its price is one-
half less.

When the hogs are weaniug, they require
clipping, and superior food. Por this purpose,
different combinations of spirits of tar, arsenic,
tobacco water, with a mixture of oil or soft
soap, are used in various proportions ; but
Biggs' or "Wilson's composition is recommended
as being the best. At this time the lambs
should not be placed where sheep have been
depastured before. The object of this caution
is to prevent the probability of an attack ot
diarrhoea. The second crop of mown red clover,
or the fog of inferior grass land, is by far the
best food. Should this, however, not be ob-
tainable, a cattle-eaten pasture, but not of
the richest kind, will be the most favourable,
and the quantity of food given artificially
should be slightly increased. Great care must
be taken in confining the young sheep on the
turnips. The best mode is gradually to accus-
tom them to the watery and succulent, but
very valuable sheep-feeding food. With re-
spect to the most advantageous food to be
given to sheep, there is a difference of opin-
ion— some preferring oil-cake, some beans or
peas, and others oatmeal or barley-meal. Much,
of course, will depend upon the nature of the
farm, as it must, to a considerable extent, be
preferable to make use of the product of the
land. Sheep prefer beans to oats ; and beans
abound in that principle in which turnips are
most deficient. Thus they are, in some mea-
sure, well adapted to counterbalance the disad-
vantages of turnip-feeding ; and, as the latter
abounds more in the elements of fot, it probably
prevents the beans from hardening the flesh
too much, which they are apt to do. Barley
and oats contain less albumen than beans, and
are therefore more fattening. Oil-cake does
not yield much nourishment, bat possesses

BHEKP MAy.vGEMEXT.] AM) Till' IK VAKIOUS BREEDS, [bukki- maxaoemknt.

the fattening principle in a concontrnted form.
!Mr. Cliildera states, that slieep led with the ad-
dition of half a pint of barley per sheep per day,
lialf a pound of linseed cake, a little hay, and
with a constant supply of salt, becomo ready
for tho butcher in ten weeks; and ^ain, of
flesh and tallow, from thirty-three to forty
pounds per head (one sheep gained fifty-llvo
pounds in twelve weeks) ; and that, with ar-
tificial food, thirty tons of turnips uill feed
eiity sheep ; while, on tho usual plan of feeding
on turnips alone, out of doors, tlio average of
the country is, that twenty tons of turnips will
feed, in sixteen weeks, ten sheep, with a gain
of only twenty pounds of ilcsh and tallow.
This gentleman long ago established the fact,
tiiafc house, or shcd-fcediug, was a great saving
of food. Mr. Eichardson was staying with him
at Cantley during the experiment, whicli was
most carefully conducted by Mr. Childers in
ercry way. The same food was given to eacli
lot — one exposed, and the other sheltered in a
walled and -well-littered yard: 27 stones of
turnips, 10 lbs, of linseed cake for each lot, and
half a pint of barley per sheep per day, with a
little hay and salt to go to, were given ; but
soon the sheltered sheep ate less, by 3 stones
of turnips per day, than those exposed, and ul-
timately 2 stones more, as well as 3 lbs. of
cakes per day. The result was, that in three
months, two field-fed sheep had increased 3G
stones 8 lbs., and the shed-fed, 56 stones G lbs.
— <i difference, in twenty sheep, of just 20 stones
live weight ! This experiment, Mr. Richardson
says, gave the example for general imitation,
and has divided sheep-feeders into several
classes. The field feeder values the consoli-
dation of the animal's kneading, and feeds
out of doors. Amateurs, like Mr. Mechi,
advocate loard-feeding, or houses with hollow
floors of boards, set on an edge sufficiently
near to prevent the sheep's feet from falling
through ; and one from his Cotswolds may be
fat at one year old. As we disapprove of
bo-ard-feeding, except under very special cir-
cumstances-^strong clay land, for instance,
or some equally potent physical preventive to
the feeding out of doors — we think it fair to
give the opinion of a gentleman who warmly
advocated it — we mean the Hon. Captain
Dudley Pclham.

"The sheep," he says, "should be upon

gratings, made with oak frames and deal tops,

three-(]iiarter8 of an inch between the bars.
Beneath the gratings, which should bo sup-
ported on either side, without cross-supports
(which are inconvenient in emptying tho pit),
should bo a tank or pit in brickwork, or rammed
with marl, not less than two-and-a-half to three
feet deep, so as to contain all tho manure
dropped by one lot of fattening sheep ; thus
avoiding tho necessity of disturbing tho animals
for tho removal of the manure." Tiiis gentle-
man rcconunends gypsum to be thrown over
tho gratings to prevent unpleasant smells, and
that tho sheds should be even cooler than those
intended for oxen, 15° being the point he con-
siders to bo aimed at, while those of oxen ho
thinks should bo 50°. The size of the pons ho
recommends to be eight feet by six, and to
contain six Down sheep. The quantity of
food eaten by fifty Down sheep, he estimates
at two tons; and sheep in these sheds, be
conceives, will feed in about twelve weeks. He
has had sheep, for three weeks, increase at tho
rate of 4,i-lbg.; and each animal will make, ho
calculates, 2 cwt. of powerful solid manure.

Stall-feeding sJieej) is n step still more in
advance even of this ; and, though inapplicable
to young sheep, is, in some parts, practised
with considerable success.

Respecting the co7nparative economy of
feeding sheep ai one or two years of age, Mr.
Richardson made an estimate, which he pub-
lished in the Farmers' Magazine. Ho showed
that, during the two years tho two-year-old
feeding system was iu operation, the produce
would be, on thirty acres of land, 7,S001b3. of
mutton; and the same area of laud would
produce 11,000 lbs., in the same period, by tho
one-year-old system ; thus showing a gain, per
annum, of 1,900 lbs. of mutton, on thirty acres
of land, to the community. He further cal-
culated the comparative advantage to the
feeder ; and showed that, with mutton at Gd.
per lb., tlie one plan would leave a profit on
the two years — out of which the rent was to bo
paid — of £G2 10s. ; while that of the oqe-year-
old system would leave a profit of but £59 is.
The figures and calculations are too extended
for us to make use of them ; but the change,
he says, in the demand for small mutton, since
the period wheu these calculations were pub-
lished, will somewhat modify the calculation,

DISEASES.]

SHEEP,

[diseases.

and give the turn in favour of the one-year-old
system — a course, it will be seen, which is
only perfectly right, as more capital would be

required in the one-year than in the two-year-
old system, however it may otherwise bci
thought.

CHAPTER VII.

DISEASES OF THE SHEEP, AND THEIR REMEDIES.

In the whole range of domesticated animals,
there is none so difficult to manage as the
sheep, labouring under a state of disease. In
acute cases, the use of remedies seems to be
utterly in vain ; whilst the power of known
remedies seems to have literally no effect
whatever in effecting the purpose for which
they are administered. This is, perhaps, of
less consequence now, seeing that the system
of management is so well understood, that the
animal is always kept fat and ready for the
butcher, in order that, on the first symptom
of illn<ess, it may be dispatched before the
disease has affected its vitals. Let sturdy, or
rot, or inflammation, however, take place, and
all the medicines in the world may be admin-
istered, and no effect will be produced.

The first ailment — for it cannot be called a
disease — of which we will take notice, is that

of

PARTURITION.

In this country, the usual time of lambing
with the greater number of sheep, is in the
months of March and April ; but sometimes an
earlier period is obtained, for the purpose of
having the lambs sooner fattened for the
market. Accordingly, the Somerset and Dorset
eheep have their lambs dropped generally be-
fore Christmas. At this season great care
and attention should be given to the ewes, by
way of affording them proper food and shelter
from those inclemencies of weather which
frequently prevail during the earlier months
of the year. They should either be driven
nightly into yards or cots properly protected,
or a shelter should be supplied to them in the
fields, by means of double rows of hurdles
lined with straw, with a pouud or iuclosure,
744

which will afford still greater protection. The
care of the shepherd should, at this period,
be in constant exercise ; whilst the eye of the
master should be continually on the watch,
as a little assistance, opportunely extended to
the labouring ewe, might be the means of res-
cuing her from the dangerous position of a
too much exposed situation in reference to life.
Mr. Price, in his work on sheep, observes,
that many lambs may be lost without its being
possible to chaise the lamber or shepherd
with either ignorance or neglect, although
greater attention on his part might have saved
many, which otherwise would perish. . The
practice of lambing is at times very intricate,
and is apt to exhaust the patience of a lamber.
Sheep are obstinate ; and lambing presents a
scene of confusion, disorder, and trouble,
which it is the lamber's business to rectify,
and for which he ought always to be prepared.
Some of the ewes, perhaps, leave their lambs,
or they get intermixed ; and the ewes that
have lost their lambs run about bleating, while
others want assistance. These are only a few
of the various circumstances which call for the
immediate attention of the lamber, and which
render it necessary that the owner of the
sheep should be on the spot, and should
superintend the whole of the operations. The
shepherd, however, must not be led to inter-
fere with the ewe prematurely, if she appear
to be labouring under great uneasiness and
pain. He must watch her closely ; and so
long as she rises at his approach, he ^may be
assured that, whatever amount of uneasiness
she exhibits, still all is going on well. Much
pain is apparent, as she will repeatedly lie
down, and rise again with seeming distress.

PABTUurno-v.]

AND TIIEIK VAlilOUS HllEEDS.

[pAmuniTioN.

Should this occur whilst he is driving her to
fold, ho must give her time, nnd exercise great
caution in urging her too fast. Symptoms of
tliis kind ought to bo sullored to continue for
two or tluvo hours, or even longer, before lie
feels himself called upon to interfere, unless
the lamb is in such a dangerous position as to
excite fears of losing it. Protracted labour
often occurs in cold weather. On such occa-
sions, should the ewo seem exhausted, and to
bo gradually sinking under the prolonged
severity of her labour, some oatmeal gruel,
with a little linseed, in the proportion of a
spoonful of the latter to two of the former,
should be given her. "When, the ewe feels
that she cannot of herself expel the lamb, she
will quietly submit to the interference of the
shepherd, and almost look for his assistance.
Where this assistance is necessary, the first
duty will be to ascertain whether the presenta-
tion is natural. "When this is the case, the
muzzle of the lamb is foremost, with a foot on
each side of it. Should this be the presenta-
tion, his first business will be to disengage
the lamb, by gently drawing down the legs,
and, with all possible tenderness, smoothing
and accelerating the passing of the head with
his fingers, rather tliau forcibly extricating it
— the particular attention of the shepherd
being given to these points. This is to be
done by passing the finger up the rectum
until the back of the lamb's head is felt, which
must be urged forward, at the same time that
the legs are gently pulled. It sometimes hap-
pens that the legs are too backward, whilst
the head is sufllcieutly advanced. In such
cases, the head should be gently pushed back,
and the hand, being well oiled, that the object
may be the more easily effected, must bo in-
troduced into th.e vagina, and applied to the
legs, so as to place them in their natural posi-
tion equal with the head. On the other hand,
should the fore feet protrude, they must, in
like manner, be returned, and the same assis-
tance given to advance the head. If the hind
quarters present themselves first, the hand
must be so applied as to get hold of both legs
together, and draw them gently, but firmly.
In this position the lamb may be often easily
removed. It frequently happens that the
head of the lamb is much swollen and pro-
truding. "Where this is the case, both patience
5c

and gontlo manipulation will bo required to
bring it forward by degrees. Nature herself,
however, if not unduly interfered with, will,
provided the pelvis bo not very much deformed,
(•(feet her own operation. In case the strength
of tho mother should bo rapidly diminish-
ing, the head may be taken awav, and then
tho operator will bo able to [)ush back tho
lamb and introduce his hand, when, by layinf»
hold of the fore legs, ho will ellcct the delivery,
it sometimes happens, however, that tho legs
are thrust out to the shoulder, when, from tho
throes of the ewe, it is not possible to replace
them so as to raise tho head of the lamb ; but
by partially skinning the legs, they may bo
separated from the shoulder-joint, when room
will be given for tlie introduction of the hand,
and by laying hold of tlie head the ewe may
bo delivered. The practice obtained in one
season, however, will do more to enable the
farmer to act in difllcult cases of labour, than
all the instructions that can be given in a
volume of writing; but, as a general rule, it
should be remembered that the foetus should,
if possible, be placed in its natural position
previously to any attempt to extricate it by
force. "W'hen this must be employed, it ou"ht
to be in as gentle a manner as can be consistent
with tho tenderness of the object to be de-
livered. After parturition, it is hardly neces-
sary to observe that tlie ewe should be nursed
with the greatest care and attention until she
has completely recovered. After difficult
labour, and where much assistance has been
given, the labiao of the uterus and vagina are
sometimes ruptured. In such cases, where
there is no other hope, a veterinary surgeon
will have to divide the ligatures

"When ruptures of the vagina take place, use
the following dressing, rudely known as tho
" Driffield oil," or black oil :—

Take of Olive oil . , .1 pint.

Spirit of turpentine . 2 ounces.
Sulpliuric acid . . G drachms.
They are safest mixed in a stone jar, as great
heat will be generated during and just after
the mixture. "When cool, it may be put in a
bottle for use.

If an appearance of mortification or gangrene
occurs, a more decided application will be ne-
cessary, when it is best to call in a veterinary

J4.0

TEVEB.J

SHEEP,

[EOT.

GARGET.
This is an iullammation of the udder, and is
a Tery common, painful, and sometimes fatal
disease. It is less frequent in the sheep, how-
ever, than in the cow, and may be produced by
cold and wet lair, and, it is stated, from the
hardness and dryness of the ground, or from
constitutional derangement. "Warm fomenta-
tion in the first stage, and rubbing with marsh-
mallow ointment after each fomentation, with
a warm, dry towel, is the best local application ;
while an internal medicine, composed of —

Three drachms of nitre,
Two of cream of tartar,
Dissolved in four ounces of lukewarm water,

may be given with advantage. The black oils
may be used, after the first few days, to pro-
mote suppuration of the matter formed in the
udder, and, after it breaks, a dressing of tinc-
ture of myrrh. An ounce or two of Epsom
salts is also recommended to be given to the
ewe, with a drachm of ginger dissolved in
warm water or gruel, and the udder fomented,
for some time, with water as hot as she can
bear it. The lamb may afterwards be allowed
to suck her. The fomentation, if necessary,
should be repeated, and the camphor ointment
rubbed in twice a day. If the swelling con-
tinue, it should at once be opened, and the
discliarge of the pus assisted by pressure,
and renewed fomentation. Should the wound
smell disagreeably in the least degree, it
should be syringed with a weak solution of
chloride of lime for several days. It some-
times happens that, from the eflfects of garget,
some portions of the udder become hard or
schirrous, as it is termed, and, of course, no
longer secretes milk. When such is the case,
the ewe should invariably be drafted and fat-
tened for the butcher.

PUERPERAL FEVER.
This is not so common in the ewe as it is in
the covr. When it does occur, the medicine
recommended for acute garget will be found
useful, and may in general be given ; or the
following may be administered : —

Epsom salts . . . . ^ oz.
Tincture of opium . . .1 drachm.
Camphor pulo . . . . X drachrji.
746

This is recommended by Professor Spooner
after ahortion — a complaint which sometimes
attends ewes when kept exclusively on turnips.

CASTRATION.

When this operation is performed on lambs
about a mouth old, it is very simple; and,
though often executed in a manner somewhat
barbarous, it may be more humanely done by
a kind of combined knife and forceps, which
has. been invented for the purpose. In per-
forming the operation, an attendant holds the
lamb with a fore and hind leg in each hand,
and with the back close to his breast. The
operator cuts oW the end of the scrotum,
presses on the bag till the testicles protrude,
and either seizes the testicles with his teeth,
one by one, or with the forceps — and no more
trouble is necessary than to confine the lamb
for a night or two, if the weather be frosty.
To accomplish the castration of aged rams,
however, is a more difficult operation. After
ascertaining that there is no rupture, both the
testicles, which are very lau'ge, are inclosed
and held firmly together by iron clams, and
the testes are divided in a line with these by
the cautery. Other methods are adopted, but
this is by far the most popular. Some use
two sticks united at one end, into which each
testicle is inclosed, the inner part of the sticks
being smeared with a solution of sulphate of
iron. The other ends of the sticks are then
tied, and the testicle cutofi". In twelve hours
the sticks are removed by cutting the string,
and all the vessels are thoroughly cauterised.
This mode is a great improvement on the
cautejy.

ROT.

Bad and unwholesome food is generally
believed to be the cause of this disease, espe-
cially as it appears to be much, more prevalent
in wet seasons, when plants, at other periods
wholesome, become rank and impregnated
with poisonous qualities. Drainage is doing
much to banish it from the country ; for it is
found that the disease is very rare when the
sheep are fed on dry, heathy pastures. There-
fore, when it makes its appearance, the sheep
should be removed as early as possible, either
to a salt marsh, or to such pastures as are of
the driest description. Salt may be given to

sniEP-pox.]

AND TilEIll VARIOUS BliEEDS.

[SHEEP.POX.

the anitnalB in as lar£^e quantities as they will
take it with thfir l\»od ; uiid to tliia t!io sulphate
of iron uiay be aihit'il. Half a drachm duily
lor each ahoe[), with the same quantity of
Cfingcr, is rfconunendcd to be {;iven in nourish-
ing gruel. Dining the treatment an api'riont
!?hould be given onoo or twice, and it may be
composed of one or two ounces of sulphate oi
magnesia, or a hirgo tablespoonful of common
salt dissolved in warm gruel or water. Food
of the most nourishing kind should be given ;
and a pint of beans daily is esteemed an ex-
cellent diet, with good hay, or sound pasture.
The best preventive of the disease, Mr. Mil-
burn thinks, is an allowance of plenty of dry
food, with salt ad libitum. He knew a farmer,
in Cleveland, who saved his Hock of Teeswaters
in a rot year, which almost denuded that valley
of its sheep, w-ithout any other exception than
his own Hock. Tliey had constant access to
the hay-stack, and so were preserved amongst
the general ruin. "When the rot unhappily
sets in, it is by far the best to sell the whole
of those which are at all fit for the butcher, for
immediate slaughter. ^

SHEEP-POX.

This disease was introduced into this coun-

Germany, and Central Kurope. But while tho

communication of sick with healthy animals
might be said to bo an essential element in tho
propagation of stnall-pox, yet it waa Been that
this could not bo tho sole element. For now
tho disease had been observed to break out in
one or two scattered instances, and then would
appear with a malignity wliich almost set
control at defiance. At one time the flocks
showed a higher susceptibility to tho disease
than at another. This consideration entered
largely into the question of prevention. " In tho
case of human small-pox, Professor Simouda
observes, "that we possess a simple, efficacious,
and an almost harmless means of prevention
in vaccination; but it was not so iu the case
of sraall-poi in sheep. Vaccination affords
thera no protection. "Where the separation
of the affected animals from the healthy ones
proved insufficient to stay the disease, there
remained only inoculation to be had recourse
to. Kothing was more efficacious than this
for securing the ultimate welfare of tho flock.
He could well understand why so great aa
authority as Dr. Copeland should, on account
of the greater protective power of inoculation,
express sometliing like a regret that, in this
country, it was prohibited for man. Dr. Cope-
try by the continental sheep. It is very I land apparently doubted the greater value of
destructive to the flock, and highly injurious vaccination as a protection against small-poi.

to those animals which recover from it.
Professor Sim ends, of the Veterinary Col-
lege, London, recently lectured upon it, as his
experience has, unfortunately, lately been very
great in the treatment of this disease. We
find that, before ISi?, the malady had never.

Of the justness of this doubt Professor Simonds
expressed no opinion ; but he thought it well
that it should be alluded to at a time when
the recent events in Wiltshire had led to so
much discussion on the question, and when the
fact of the prohibition of inoculation for man

during the present generation, been observed had been used as an argument I'or prohibiting
among the flocks of this kingdom. It had it in the case of sheep. It had been forgotteu
long, however, been prevalent and well known by the objectors, that, iu the case of sheep, wo
iu several of the great sheep districts of the had no option between vaccination and iuocu-
contiuent. In some localities, the aflectiou latiou. Wide and extended ex])erience had
was, so to speak, naturalised ; iu others it had shown that vaccination was valueless as a pro-
shown itself, from time to time, iu wide and tection against small-pox in sheep Wider and
disastrous outbreaks. Within historic periods, more extended experience had, oj the other
the disease had probabl}! never appeared hand, shown the great value of inoculation in
among healthy flocks, unless there had been mitigating the severity of the disease. Small-
prior communicatiou, immediately or recently, pox lirst appeared among the flocks of England
with animals suflering from the aff'ection. One in 1847. It was introduced by foreign sheep
sheep would iufecc a flock ; a flock would infect sold in Smithfleld market. The disease spread
a district; and in this way the malady would rapidly, and committed frightful ravages in seve-
be spread over the area of a vast country. So ral counties during the years 1817, '18, '-19, and
it had happened once and again in France, 18-30. Since the latter year, the malady had not

747

POOT-EOT.]

SHEEP,

[the scab.

been heard of among our flocks until tbe month
of July, 1862, when it broke out at Allington,
near Devizes, It soon spread ; and neither the
shepherds nor the proprietors were satisfied as
to its real nature until the aid of Professor
Simonds had been sought; and at that time
many animals had been lost. The disease
quickly spread to neighbouring flocks, and
subsequently extended to Berkshire. At the
present moment there is good hope— thanks to
the preventive measures adopted — that the
malady has been stayed in the vicinity where
it had first showed itself. As the value of the
flocks of this country amounts to many millions
sterling, the loss by death, from small-pox,
ranges from one-fifth to one-half, or even more,
of an infected flock ; but this is only one part
of the loss which the farmer has to suffer. He
has to bear the effects of the disease on the
breeding and rearing of lambs, the fattening
of stock, &c. In treating for this disease, the
advice of an experienced veterinary surgeon
should be at once taken.

FOOT-ROT.

This is one of the most obstinate and pow-
erful local diseases to which the sheep is liable,
and, if not immediately attended to, is difficult
to cure. Should the affected animals not be
kept assiduously from the sound, the disease
will, for some time, obstinately keep possession
of the flock. The infected sheep, therefore,
should at first be carefully examined, and all
the diseased parts cut completely away. A
dressing should then be applied, consisting of —

CoiTosive sublimate . . . 1 oz.

Sulphate of iron . . . 1 j>

Muriatic acid . . . . 1 ,>

Sulphate of copper . . • 1 »

Coarse turpentine . . . 1 u

Sulphuric acid . . . . 1 j,

Spirit of turpentine . . . 1 „

Slieep ointment . . . 4 „

This mixture, simple as it is, is sometimes a
necessary application. The sound portions of
the flock should have all their four feet dressed
with tar, and should be kept all night on a
floor smeared with quick-lime. As the diseased
slieep approach convalescence, they should be
carefully watched, and dressed, if required,
daily. In the course of 1862, this disease was
rather prevalent in the south-eastern districts ;
748

and the following practical suggestions may be
valuable. Mr. E. C. AVaide, an experienced
farmer, says — " Take Jib. of alum, and 2 ozs. of
blue vitriol; boil them in one pint of water;
when quite cold, add f of a pint of aquafortis,
and it will be ready for use. It is equally effi-
cacious for the foul in beasts feet." Another
cure is suggested by a farmer at Malton: —
"With a sharp knife cut away the infected
part, and then, with a clean wooden skewer,
apply once a day some muriate of antimony.
This will stop the disease, and effect a cure. A
strong solution of sulphate of copper would
answer the purpose, applied with a brush ; but
it is neither so speedy nor so effectual." An
" East Suffolk Earmer" suggests the following,
which, he believes, is a certain cure : — " Take
sixpennyworth of quicksilver dissolved in six-
pennyworth of nitric acid ; add the same quan-
tity of good vinegar ; pare the horn well ; shake
the bottle, and apply to the parts affected.
One or two applications will be suflB.cient."

THE SCAB
Is a disease of the skin, arising from the
presence of minute insects called acari. The
German naturalists trace it to the actual fact
of the acariis, which buries itself in the skin
of the animals, and which must be destroyed ;
and the sooner the better. The following oint-
ment rubbed in, the wool being first shed lon-
gitudinally, and at about four inches apart,
will often be successful : —

Sand 2 lbs.

Sulphur . . . . . 1 ),
Spirits of tar . . . . h „

The application of mercurial ointment is
another mode of cure. To make it — take from
three to five parts of lard, and mix with it one
part of strong mercurial ointment ; and after
parting the wool, rub it into the furrows
from the head to the tail, and about four inches
apart. — The following is also au effectual oint-
ment : —

Lard or palm oil . . . 2 lbs.
Oil of tar . . . . h „

Sulphur . . . • . 1 »

Mix the two latter ingredients gradually
together, and then rub down the former with
it. Tobacco- water is another remedy, which
has been found very effectual.

BTUitDY— uiAUinia:.v.] AND Til H Hi VAKIULS BliEEDS.

[uiStNlLUT.

THE BLIND.

This is a disease of tlio eye, and soon
takes tho cliaracter of an epidemic. At firsl
it appears in n little iiillaniiiiation, and tlien
becomes opaque, Tho animal sutlers dread-
fullv, and ia reduced both in frame and con-
dition. Smearing tho eye with tar relieves
the pain, and abates tho inllammation ; but it
sometimes removes the wool, and causes the
animal to look ugly if he is for sale at any
early period.

THE STURDY.
This is an incurable disease, arising either
from water in the head, hydatids in tho brain,
or other disease of the latter organ. As the
fattest sheep are usually attacked, the animal
should at once be sent to be slaughtered, for
the mutton is not impaired in the slightest
degree. Various modes of treatment have
been tried to cure the sturdy, but they have all
been, more or less, failures.

DIARRHOEA.

This disease is most frequent in hogs or
young sheep, and is often caused by improper
as well as by rapid changes of food. It has

Ist. Diarrhoja chiefly attacks hogs and two-
year-old sheep; whereas dybcutery ia frequent
among such as are older.

2ud. Diarrhcea almost always occurs in the
spring, and ceases about June, when dysentery
only commences.

3rd. In diarrhcea there is no fever or pain
before tho stools, as in dysentery.

4th. In diarrliuua the Icjeces are loose ; but,
in other respects, natural, without any blood
or slime; whereas, in dysentery, the ia'ces
consist of hard lumps, passed occasionally,
the rest being blood or slime.

5th. There is not the degree of bad smell in
the excrement, in diarrlia'a, which takes place
in dysentery.

6th. In dysentery the appetite is totally
gone ; in diarrhcea it is rather sharper than
usual.

7th. Diarrhoea is not contagious ; dysentery
is highly so.

8th. In dysentery the animal wastes rapidly ;
but, by diarrha>a, only a temporary stop is put
to its thriving, after which it makes rapid ad-
vances to strength and vigour.

9th. Dysentery is commonly fatal ; diarrhoea
rarely, unless the animal has been previously
much debilitated. In cases of dysentery, the

been said that two teaspoonfuls of sulphur : following treatment is as good as can be ad-
will seldom fail of producing the effect, when vised, provided proper care is bestowed upon
administered in gruel in time ; but if the first [ the animal, and the food attended to : —

Linseed oil . . . . 2 ozs.
Powdered opium ... 2 grains.
This is to be given to each sheep, in an infusion
of linseed, the gruel being repeated several
times; and, on the following day, the opium
to be again administered with half a drachm of
powdered ginger, and the same quantity oi'
gentian. This may be given several times,
and sometimes combined with linseed oil.

These are the principal diseases of the
sheep. Those which refer to inflammations of
the chest, bowels, &c., require the treatment
of a skilful veterinary practitioner, whose ser-
vices should be sought as early as possible ;

stage is over, it will require more vigorous
means. A dose of two ounces of linseed oil,
with two grains of opium, to allay the irrita-
tion of the bowels, will often answer the pur-
pose ; but if the disease should still prevail —

Prepared chalk . . . 1 oz.

Opium ^drachm.

Ginger ..... 3 „

Port wine .... 2 ozs.

may be given in a gill of gruel with great ad-
vantage.

DYSENTERY.
This disease resembles the preceding to

Bome extent, yet is distinguished by other , for the longer the delay, the greater is the
symptoms, which should be well observed. ^ danger of fatal consequences being the result.
Sir G. Mackenzie thus draws the marks of , This ought always to be borne iu mind in such
distinction between them :— { cusea.

749

MEBICINES.]

SHEEP,

[iTEDTCIXEg.

MEDICINES USED IN THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES IN SHEEP.

Aloes. Used as a tincture to stimulate wounds.
It should not be given internally to the sheep,
because of the danger uhich attends it.
Alum. Used externally, in the form of a lotion ; ap-
plied to several diseases of the mouth ; and, mixed
-with chalk, it makes an excellent external appli-
cation to sores. As an astringent, it is inferior
to other medicines used as such ; but when given,
the dose is half a drachm, with gruel.
Antibiony, Butyr, or Chloride of. This is an
admirable caustic for foot-rot and other diseases,
and should be applied with a feather.
Arsenic. This is sometimes employed as an in-
fusion, in Avhich the sheep are dipped, for the
purpose of destroying ticks and other insects.
Great caution, however, should be used with it ;
and all vessels into which it has been put, should
be immediately cleaned after using them.
Camphor. Used with oil or spirits of wine, cam-
phor is employed as an external stimulant. When
used internally it acts as a narcotic, sedative,
and anti-spasmodic. The dose is from one
scruple to a drachm.
Cantharides, or Spanish Flies. This is rarely
employed in the diseases of the sheep, except in
the form of blisters, in which it makes the chief
ingredient.
Caraway-seeds. A stomachic, in which the dose

is from two to four drachms.
Catechu. Given with opium and chalk in case of
diarrhoea. The dose is from half a drachm to a
drachm.
Chalk, Prepared. Used as an external applica-
tion to wounds and sores ; also as a mild astrin-
gent in diarrhoea. In such case the dose is from
half an ounce to an ounce.
Copper, Sulphate of, or Blue Vitriol. Ex-
ternally, this acts as a mild caustic; internally,
as a tonic. The dose is half a drachm.
Corrosive Sublimate, or Bichloride of Mer-
cury. This requires to be very cautiously used.
It is employed as a strong caustic and poison in
cases of scale, and to kill vermin.
Castor Seeds, or Oil. A powerful purgative,
useful in cases of severe costiveness. The dose is
from five to fifteen drops of the oil.
Digitalis, or Foxglove. Used as a sedative
to diminish the rapidity of action in the heart.
The dose is one scru])le.
Epsom Salts, or Sulphate of Magnesia. An
excellent i)nrgative, given in doses of from one
to two ounces, or more, dissolved in warm-water

gruel.

750

Gentian. A vegetable tonic of great usefulness,
administered in doses of from one to three
drachms.
Ginger. Used as a cordial and stomachic, usually
with aperient medicine. Dose, from half a drachm
to three drachms.

Hartshorn, Spirits of. Used as a stimulant and
anti-spasmodic in cases of hoove. The dose is
two drachms, in six ounces of water or gruel.

Iodine. A powerful stimulant to the absorbent
vessels. It is used both internally and externally,
and exercises great influence over glandular
swellings. As an external application, it is
generally used in the form of iodide of mercury,
mixed with eight parts of lard. In the form of
iodide of potassium, it is used internally, in doses
of from four to six grains.

Laudanum, or Opium. A sedative and anti-
spasmodic, used either in the form of a powder or
a gum: the dose is ten grains. When given in
the form of tincture of opium, or laudanum, the
dose is from one to two drachms.

Le.\d — Acetate of Sugar of Lead. A common
ingredient in cooling lotions. Used in the form
of Goulard's extract.

Lead, White. A useful application for the pre.
vention of the fly.

Lime, Chloride of. Useful as a preventive of
infection, and also an excellent application to
foul wounds and ulcers.

Linseed Oil. A useful and safe purgative. Dose,
two ounces.

Muriatic Acid, or Spirit of Salt. Useful in
foot-rot, as a powerful caustic.

Nitrate of Potash, Nitre, or Saltpetre. A
diuretic. Dose, two drachms.

Olive, or Sv^eet Oil. A laxative, but less valu-
able than linseed oil. As an external applica-
tion, it is useful in cases of burns and bites from
venomous insects.

Pimento, or Allspice. A cordial and stomachic.
Dose, from one to two drachms.

Rye, Spurred, or Ergot of Rye. A strong
stimulus to the uterus, given in cases of pro-
tracted lambing. The dose is a scruple, infused
in hot water; to be repeated, if necessary, in the
course of one or two hours.

Salt, or Muriate of Soda. In small doses, a
stomachic and tonic. In large, a purgative.
When given in moderate quantities it is useful
to the health of sheep. For counteracting and
curing the rot it is very efl'ective. As a pur-
gative, the dose is about an ounce.

HEMEDIES.]

.WD TllHIK VAKIOL'S HuEEDS.

[UKMKUllSB.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether, or Swkkt Simrit op
NrrUK. An nnti-spasmodic or stiinulunt. Dose,
two drachms.

S'JU'UATE OE Ikon, or Gkkks Vitridi,. Used
as a tonic. Dose, a drachm mixed witlj ginger.

SiM'iiATE OE Copper, or Blue Vitriol. A
strong tonic, but rarely given to tlie sheep.
Dose, one scruple. As an astringent lotion it is
excellent, infused in hot water.

Sulphur is a well-known substance, sold in the form
of a ])owder or in solid pieces, when it is called
brimstone. It ie procured in the neighbour-
hood of volcanoes. In the tract of land between
Naples and tlie ancient Baiir, called Solfa-tcrra
— the smoking plains, the remnant of a hulf-ex-
tinguished volcano — it is found in great abun-
dance ; and is also brought in large quantities to
this country from !Mount Etna, in Sicily ; but is
to be had, in greater or less quantities, near all
volcanoes, of which the number throughout the
world is very great. It is often found in coal
mines ; and, indeed, the common coal in our fires,
more or less, contains this mineral ; which is fre-
quently combined with iron, copper, and other
metals, when it is called pyrites.

SuLPHURETS are combinations of alkalies or metals
with sulphur.

SuLPnuElc Ethek. A strong stimulant, and
anti-spasmodic. Dose, with warm water, one
drachm,

SuLPHrRic Acid, or Oil of Vitriol, is gene-
rally procured by burning a mixture of sulphur j
and nitre in chambers lined with lead. It is a j

liquid, somewhat of an oily consistence, trans-
parent, and colourless as water, without any
smell, and of a very strong acid taste. When
applied to animal or vegeUiblc substances, it very
soon destroys their texturo. It may be procured
by the following jjrocess :— Put into u glass re-
tort two parts of 8ul|)huric acid and one part of
mercury, and apply the heat of a lamp; the mix-
ture effervesces ; and a gas issuing from the beak
of the retort, may be received in glass jars
filled with mercury, and standing in a mercurial
trough. Tliis gas is sulphurous acid. It is a
very strong caustic, and is used in cases of foot-
rot, either alone, or combined with tar.

Sulphur, Suijlimed, or Flower of Sulphur.
Given with Epsom salts, as an aperient. Dose,
from one to two ounces. In the form of an
ointment it is used externally for the scale.

Sulphur Verum. This is cheaper, but not so
pure as the yellow sulphur. It is of a grey
colour, and is only used as an external appli-
cation.

Tar. Applied to the feet in cases bordering on
foot-rot ; it is combined with sulphur, acid, or
other caustics. — Oil of Spirit of Tar is used
for the same purpose. It is also used for wouads
in the skin, and also for the fly.

Turpentine. The common is used in digestive
ointments, but is not given to the sheep inter-
nally. Venus turpentine is pure, and more ex-
pensive.— Oil, or spirit of turpentine, is given as
•A poAverful anti-spasmodic and stimulant, in doses
of one drachm.

7«l

DIVISION VI.

PIGS.

CHAPTER I.

THE ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTICATED PIG.

The hog family is a genus of pachydermatous
mammalia, exhibiting strongly-marked dif-
ferences, in most of their characteristics, from
tlie rest of that very singular class. Like
all the ruminating animals, they have cloven
feet, or only two fully developed toes; and
they are the only pacliydermata which do not
entirely confine themselves to vegetable food.
The others are exclusively vegetarians, prin-
cipally subsisting on strong and harsh vegeta-
tion; though most of them would give the
preference to a more delicate food, if they
could obtain it. Hogs are omnivorous, but
chiefly vegetable in their feeding, and they
prefer such as are succulent, especially wild
fruits and roots ; though, when other food
fails, they can subsist upon almost any kind of
digestible matter that falls in their way.

All naturalists admit that the wild hog is
the origin of our domestic race ; but at what
period it was reclaimed is very uncertain. The
circumstances, indeed, connected with the
domestication of every animal subject to the
bondage of man, are enveloped in obscurity.
The domestication, however, of the wild hog
would not involve much ditBculty. Young
animals, taken in their native forest, soon
become reconciled to captivity, and display the
same contentment and familiarity which are so
conspicuous in tl ^ <irdinary tame beast. It is
this disposition — ^ cliaracteristic of the pachj-
dcrmata — which renders the elephant, the rhi-
noceros, the tapir, and others, so easily subju-
gated ; but, on tlie other hand, the readiness
with which they submit to the restraints of
captivity, is counterbalanced by an equal readi-
ness to assume a life of independence. The
752

hog, when left to itself, resumes its original
habits — as is the case in America, where wild
herds roam the forest ; and, as we are told,
the elephant often escapes its trammels, and
joins its wild brethren ; but immediately sub-
mits, if retaken, to the voice of authority
which it had previously learned to obey. The
horse, in a wild state, scours the plains of
Tartary and South America, and it requires
but a brief struggle to break-in the most

DO

spirited. It may be laid down as an axiom,
that the animals of the services of which man
stands most in need, are, each in their way,
those whose nature most readily induces them
to submit to his dominion — nay, even to court
his friendship. Some can be tamed, and only
tamed ; others can be educated.

The skull of the hog affords an index of the
habits of the animal, and is of a conical or
wedge-like form. The base, or occipital por-
tion, forms a right angle with the oblique upper
surface, and a bold transverse ridge is formed
by the union of the occipital and parietal bones.
The nasal bones are prolonged nearly to the
end of the snout, which, in the living animal,
terminates in a movable cartilaginous disc,
pierced by the nostrils. The lower jaw is of
great strength. The dentition consists of — iu-
6 1—1 . 7—7

cisors, — ; canines,

; molars, ;=-

= 44.

(i ' ^'' 1—1' — ^^^"' 7—7

The canines of the upper jaw are prismatic,
and curve downwards, having their anterior
surface worn by the action of the huge canines
of the lower jaw, which are sharp, sweeping
out from the sides of the mouth, and often at-
taining to the length of eight or ten inches,
and sometimes even more. These canines, or

WILD 1!0\R.]

V\C,S, AM) Til 1:1 K VARIOUS liRllKDS.

[wild BOAn.

tusks, are terrible weapons: rushing on his
antagonist, the boar strikes obliiiucly upwanls,
right and left, with prodigious force — a mode
of action the best calculated for bringing these
weapons into ellL-ctivo play, and in which the
muscular powers of the neck and sliouldcrs are
the most advantageously and naturally exerted.

The hog is found in both continents; but
the American animals are so diflerent from
those of the eastern continent, that they require
to be separated as a distinct sub-genus. They
are much smaller than those of the oast, but
less useful, and more limited in their distribu-
tion, being met with only in the humid woods !
of the central parts of South America, to the
eastward of the Andes. In some parts of these .
woods, however, they are very numerous. In
every part of the globe they delight in humid
localities, reposing in the sun by the margins ^
of pools and streams, wandering amongst mud
or mire ; or, in the absence of anything better,
basking by the side of some soft dung-heap.
They are much more extensively distributed
in the east tlian iu the west — in Asia than in
America ; but it is iu the damp forests of
tropical countries where they most abound.
In some of the more central parts, and in tlie
south of Europe, they are plentiful, but not so
extensively distributed as they once seem to
have been. In Britain the wild race is ex-
tinct; but tradition has handed down to us
records of their having, at one period, abounded.
In the remote islands of the Pacific they are
still general ; whilst, in the more densely
wooded portions of Africa, and south-eastern
Asia, they are to be found in largo herds. In
some parts, however, there is considerable dif-
ficulty in distinguishing between the wood hog,
which is the native, or aboriginal, and such as
have been introduced from other countries, and
naturalised in their new regions ; as these,
having been turned loose into the woods, have
multiplied, assumed the habits of the wild
species, and proportionately lost many of their
own original characteristics.

In no essential point does the wild race of
Europe differ from our domestic breeds, saving
that the snout is more elongated, and, as miglit
be expected, the contour of the frame is more
gaunt and bony. The ears are short and erect,
the tusks large, and the bristles long and
coarse; the general colour is rusty-black, or
5d

blackish brown, more or less brindled ia
patches. After the ago of tlireo years tlio
wild boar leads a solitary life in the forest,
fearless of every foe, and confident in his
weapons, which, added to his great strength,
render him a formidable antagonist. It is not,
however, until the ago of five or six years that
he attains to his full dimensions, and the dura-
tion of his life is from twenty-five to tliirty
years. The females, with their young, asso-
ciate in herds, for the sake of mutual protec-
tion. On tho approach of an enemy the young
are placed in tho centre, the old ones forming
a circle round them; and should ho be hazard-
ous enough to venture on tho attack, he meets
with a rough reception. It is thus that the
young are preserved from wolves, the chief foes
to be dreaded by them ; to which, in some dis-
tricts, they often fall a prey, notwithstanding
the vigilance of their parent. It is only in
defence of their offspring that the females are
furious ; but the old males are not to be ap-
proached without caution, and often rush out
upon those who venture near the precincts of
their lair. At certain seasons, indeed, the wild
boar is very savage ; and should he meet a rival,
the most sanguinary combat ensues. The wild
boar of Europe is now, however, by no means
the terrible animal he once was ; nor is he
hunted in the German forests in the same
brave and adventurous spirit which, in former
ages, mark the spirit of the Teutons. This is
evidenced by the present style of hunting the
boar in Germany, where he still roams in free-
dom, and where he is still hunted, but in a
manner which appears to us very unsportsman-
like. As a proof of this, we will describe tho
manner in which his serene highness of Co-
burg enjoys the sport.

About four miles i'rom Coburg, and a little
to the westward of Ivoseuau, rise several abrupt
hills, clothed to the summits with pine woods,
altogether occupying a space of a thousand
acres. These are tho boar preserves of his
highness; and having been honoured by a
visit from her most gracious majesty Queen
Victoria, they had earned for themselves
an extraordinary prestige. The person who
describes this scene was directed to be iu
attendance on the chamberlain of the hogs at
five o'clock precisely ; and exactly at that hour,
as ho made across certain fields of flax lying

753

WILD BOAE.]

PIGS,

[VILD EOA.It.

between the woods and the high road, that
functionary appeared, emerging from his pig
penetralia. He went about the ceremonial in
which he was engaged, quite according to the
craft or etiquette of his order. The narrator
was requested to approach the preserve with
gravity and decorous legerity of foot. On-
wards he went, treading lightly, till he arrived
at a sort of park-paling inclosure, some six feet
high, and closely boarded. Entering there by
a gate, which closed behind him, he was shown
by an ancient forester, with a mortal blunder-
buss on his shoulder, and a rapier by his side,
into a thing like a cockney summer-house
upon stilts. Within this he was shut up
among much musty hay, there being a party of
tea in a room suitable only for two. On each
of the four sides of the square box were peep-
holes, through which these anxiously watched
the process of strewing around provisions of
corn and potatoes, that savoured very much of
the board frugal housewives at home spread
for their domestic circle of bacon. Long and
fearfully they waited for the guests. Some-
times the master of the ceremonies hinted tliat
perhaps they might not come at all ; and when
some of the musty hay-dust elicited a sneeze
from one of the party, he said he almost des-
j)aired of an arrival. But they were not des-
lined to be so disappointed. At the end of
an hour, spent about as agreeably as it
would be in the black hole of Calcutta, a
xidette at the peep-holes cautiously gave the
words, " Here they come !" And sure enough
there they did come, as orderly and well-be-
haved as if they had been borne in, in rashers,
and ornamented with poached eggs. First
marched a matron of the sty, accompanied by
a very numerous family— quaint little roasters
— like nothing in zoology so much as hedge-
hogs upon a large scale. Anon, through all
the loopholes opened for their admission,
trooped boars, singly, and in parties; but save
an occasional poke in the spare ribs, given by
the snake-like snout of some bully to a more
gently-disposed sow (the ladies were the most
quarrelsome), all went off very tamely. Thus
did the feast proceed till the potatoes and corn
were consumed, or so much of them as these
ravenous creatures were disposed to discuss ;
for all went to their afternoon meal aa gingerly
as a Paris elegante,
754

The wild boars of Germany have, indeed,
the characteristics of a race not exactly bred to
pass from their nurses into sausages. They
give you the idea of a cross between the wolf
and domestic swine, but retain, apparently, no
trace of their savage origin, except a look of
cunning, and an apparent instinct of misan-
thropy. The least move made by the cooped-up
witnesses of this scene, was instantly detected
and acknowledged; but that was all. The
herd made no manifestation of fight. They
are as unpoetic and unvalorous a race as those
that frequent the trough of the English
farmer — at least, those that were there — and
their hunting offers no features of enterprise
beyond the slaying of pigeons at the Eed
House. "When a boar is to be shot, the herd
is enticed to dinner in the inclosure already
spoken of. Then, all but the devoted one
being scared away, the trap -door of the loop-
holes are closed, and the sportsman, ascending
a sort of box — like the distance-chair of our
English race-courses — quietly administers a
leaden pill to his patient. The reigning duke^
though keeping up a herd of nearly two thou-
sand, kills a vast number this way every season
— such is the degeneracy of European wild hog
shooting: no horse-riding, no spear-pointing,
no dog-barking; nothing to give the excite-
ment of sport ; not even the smallest danger,
which we take to be one of the grandest ele-
ments that enter into the pleasures of hunting
this once formidable animal.

An old French newspaper furnishes an ac-
count of an extraordinary boar killed near
Cognac, in Angoumois, He had been fre-
quently hunted, but unsuccessfully. His pro-
digious strength and powers of endurance
carried him, on all occasions, safely through
the various dangers to which his notoriety
had, from time to time, exposed him. He had
killed many valuable horses and dogs, and had
maimed, as well as destroyed, several men.
When at last victimised, several bullets, re-
ceived during previous conflicts, were found
between the skin and the flesh. This animal
is described by Sonuiui, who does not give his
exact measurement, but says that his size was
immense. He had a very long head, an elon-
gated and sharp snout, and a terrific mouth,
armed with tusks of unusual magnitude and
singular shape. The hair on his body was

BOAK-IIDNTIXO.]

A:SD TlIEIlt VAKIUUS BKKEDS.

\rhite; that on tho head yellowish; and on
the neck ho hail a blaek haiul ; tlie ears wore very
larj^e and straiL;ht. Notwithstundinfj tlio pro-
dis:jioiis bulk of this formidable and ferocious
brute, it is stated that ho dit^played great
swiftness.

Boar-hunting in India still forms a fa-
vourite amusement to those who delight in tlie
excitement incident to such diversion. The
animal is usually hunted with Arabian horses;
the swiftness of which, and their well-ktiowii
tractability, render them well adapted for this
kind of sport, AVhen the boar is just started,
he sets oft' at a slow trot at first; but this is
soon quickened into a sort of shambling gallop,
keeping his eyes well heliind upon his pursuers.
Tiie pace now becomes exceedingly swift, and
he can only be taken by being run down.
After running three miles he frequently makes
his escape, and will sometimes run even and
even without suftering himself to become a
victim. The usual height of this animal is
about three feet; but some of them reach a
few inches over that. The young of the Indian
boar are of a palish yellow hue, irregularly
marked with yellowish brown. From a remote
period, hunting the wild boar has been a
favourite amusement with those who delight
in manly exercises, and have nerve sufficient
to confront danger even when it glares from the
eyes of a hard-pressed and infuriated animal,
capable, by his strength, of bringing a horse to
the ground, and, with a single rip of his tusks,
depriving it of life.

In the mouth of December or January, each
male attaches himself to the society of a chosen
female, which he accompanies in the deepest
glens of the forest for about thirty days.
When about to produce her young, the female
seeks some undisturbed retreat, remote from
the haunts of the male, which, it appears,
exhibits a propensity to devour her progeny if
he discover the litter. To her young the
female is a most attentive mother. She suckles
them lor three or four months, and they remain
with her for a long time. An aged female is
sometimes seen followed by several families,
among which are some of the age of two or
three years. These young rovers are called,
by the French hunters, leles de compaqnie.
The wild boar seldom stirs from his lair during
the day. and may, therefore, be regarded as,

[BOAn-nUNTIKO.

in Rotne degree, nocturnal. On tho approach

of twilight, ho rousivs from his indolent slum-
bers, and sots out in quest of food, which con-
sists of acorns, beech-mast, grain, different
vegetables, and roots. In search of tho latter,
he ploughs up tho ground with his snout.
Corn-fields in tho vicinity of fun-sts, whero
wild hogs exist, often suft'er extensively from

I their nightly incursions. Tho wild boar,
though not truly carnivorous, does not refuse
animal matters which chance may throw in his
way. Jfe does not, however, ordinarily attack
and kill others for the sake of their flesh, but
only devours what he may meet with in his
rambles. In the morning he returns to his

. lair, which is generally in the thickest and
most gloomy part of tho forest, under a rock,
in a cave, or under the canopy of gnarled and
intertwined branches. When roused by tho
hunter and his dogs, the old boar retreats
sullenly and slowly, gnashing his teeth, foaming
with anger, and frequently stopping to receive
his pursuers, on whom he often rushes with
sudden impetuosity, striking with his tusks,
goring dogs and men, and scattering terror
around. When he turns upon a pack, the
foremost dogs are sure to suffer, and several
will fall by as many strokes. An instance is
on record in which a boar turned suddenly
upon a pack of fifty dogs which pursued him,
and instantly dispatched six or seven of them,
wounding all the rest with the exception of
ten. The young boar is less resolute than the
old, and will run to a considerable distance
before he is brought to bay ; nor is the
assault attended with any great degree of
danger.

AV^'e have said that, from a remote period,
boar-hunting has been a favourite diversion ;
and we find the writings of the Greek and Ro-
man classics abounding with allusions to it, and
the great risks which men run in its pursuit.
Ovid gives a spirited account of the chase, in
which tho fury and strength of tho enraged
beast are admirably depicted. It would seem
that the ancients endeavoured to enclose the
boar by nets, so as to prevent his esca|)ing into
the recesses of the forest. The combat being
close, it was necessarily dangerous. Driven
from his lair by tho dogs, and liemmed in, the
infuriated animal turned savagely upon his as-
sailiints, and died — after killnig and wounding

755

BOAE-nUNTING.]

PIGS,

[BOAE-HUNTIXa.

flogs
javelins

and men — transfixed by spears and
Our Saxon forefathers, in the middle
n^es, deemed the wild boar one of the noble
"beastes of venery," and kept a powerful
breed of hounds for the chase. The weapons
used by the huntsmen were spears, and a sort
of short sword, or couteau de chasse. The spears
were used when the boar was brought to bay,
aud the attack gave abundant opportunities to
the hunters of showing their skill and courage.
Tlie loud blast of the horn, mingled with the
ehouts of men and the baying of the hounds,
proclaimed the vigorous home-thrust which
brought the savage lifeless to the ground. The
hunters were always mounted on horseback;
and, instead of meeting the animal with spears,
attacked him with javelins, which were launched
Qt him as he fled, or as he rushed to the charge,
which was often so determined that the horses
could not be brought to stand the shock, or, if
they did, were thrown down and gored. Serious
accidents sometimes occurred. Mr. Johnson
relates an Indian instance, in which a large
and resolute boar, after being driven by the
hunters into a plain, stood at bay, and chal-
lenged the whole party. He charged every
horse that advanced within fifty yards of him,
with great ferocity, causing them to rear and
plunge, and throw oft' their riders, whose lives
were in jeopardy. Though many of the horses
were accustomed to the sport, none would
stand his charges, or bring the rider within
javelin distance; and at last, he fairly drove
the party from the field ; and then, gnashing
his tusks and foaming, made his way to the
iungle, where it was useless to attempt to
follow him.

The wild hog was once common in Britain ;
and it is surprising, considering the passion for
the chase, which seems to be part and parcel
of our English temperament, that this animal
is not re-established in some of its old haunts,
the parks and forests of nobility. Englishmen
in India are enthusiastically fond of chasing
the wild boar ; but, as tliere is greater room in
that country than in this, for such a ferocious
monster to play his gambols, it may bo as well
to leave him there. Perhaps the revival of
boar-hunting in England would not be attended
with that success which some enthusiasts may
anticipate. When that animal tenanted our
glens and forests, however, he was by no means
756

held in slight estimation. He enjoyed royal
protection ; and there are in existence various
records, which principally consist of edicts or
proclamations issued, announcing sundry pains
and penalties as the consequence of its illegal
destruction. Howel Dha, or Howel the Good,
gave permission to his grand huntsman to hunt
the boar from the riiiddle of November to the
beginning of December ; and AYilliam the Con-
queror inflicted, as a punishment, the loss of
sight on those who illegally killed the boar.
In the old forest laws, the season laid down
when the animal might be hunted, was from
Christmas to Candlemas.

In the History of the Anglo-Saxons, by
Sharon Turner, we are informed, that " among
the drawings in the Saxon Calendar, in the
Cottonian Library (Table vi. 4), the month of
September represents a boar-hunt. A wood
appears, containing boars. A man is on foot
vi'ith a spear ; another appears with a horn
slung, and applied to his mouth ; he also has a
spear, and dogs are following." And in the
Saxon Decalogue, we have this conversation : —
" I am a hunter to one of our kings !" *' How
do you exercise your art?" "I spread my
nets, and set them in a fit place, and instruct
my hounds to pursue the wild deer till they
come to the nets and are entangled, and I slay
them in the nets." " Cannot you hunt with-
out nets ?" " Yes ; with swift hounds I follow
the wild deer." "What wild deer do you
chiefly take?" "Harts, boars, and fallow
deer." "Did you hunt to-day ?" "No, be-
cause it was Sunday ; but yesterday I did. I
took two harts and a wild boar." " How ?"
" The harts in the nets, and the boar I slew."
" How dared you slay him ?" " The hounds
drew him to me, and I, standing opposite to
him, slew him. Such was his fate — one of
the most handsome animals I ever beheld of
his kind, and such as few have ever seen the
like. His size was very great ; whilst his
enormous tusks added a formidable fierce-
ness to his appearance, which I shall never
forget."

Strutt thus mentions the wild boar in the
days of Edward the Second : —

" Master John Gyftbrd and William Twety,
that were with King Edward the Second, com-
posed a book on the craft of hunting, the which
book is now preserved in the Cottonian Library.

WILD BO.vn.]

A^D TilElii VAIilOL'S BltEEDS.

[wild boab.

Part of it is in verse: it runs tliU3, with no
inapt achnouitioa against a lifo of idleuesa : —

" ' All such ilysport as voyileth ydlenesso
It syltytli every gentlfinnu to knowc,
Far inyrth annexed is to genlKncssc.
*****
Anil for to sette yonge huntcrys in the way
Of N'encry, I rnst nie fyrste to goc
Of wliieh foiire beastes be — that is to say,
The Hare, the Uerte, the Wulf, the Boor also.
And thare bon other bestis five of chase
The Ikick the liist, the scconde the Do,
The Fox the thyrdc, whiclj oft has hardc grace.
The forthe the Marty n, and the last the Hoc.'

" The boor," say the authors of tlie book
referred to, " is first a, pi j as long as he is witli
his damme ; and wlien tlie damme levjeth
him, tlien he is a gorgeant ; and iu the thirde
yeare he is called an hoggast ; and when they
be foure yeares of age, they shall depart from
the sounde for aye ; and when he goeth soolc,
then he is called a boor."

At what precise period the wild boar became
extinct in our island cannot be exactly deter-
mined ; it is evident, however, that as popu-
lation increased, and the vast woods which
spread over many parts of the country were
cut down and the land cleared, that the range
of the boar would become more and more
limited, and its numbers decrease, till at
length its extirpation would be complete. "We
look iu vain for the forest which, iu the twelfth
century, covered the country to the north of
Loudon ; and of wliicli Fitzstepheu, in the reign
of Henry II., writes, observing that, " on the
north are corn-fields and delightful meadows,
intermixed with pleasant streams, on which
stands many a mill, whose clack is so grateful
to the ear ; beyond them an immense forest
extends itself, beautified with woods and groves,
and full of the lairs and coverts of beast and
game, stags, bucks, boars, and wild bulls."
Banished, however, as the wild boar is from
among our native mammalia, " its name is
immortalised," as Mr. Bell observes, " by
having given origin to the appellation of many
places in difl"ereut parts of the country, and
by its introduction into the armorial bearings
of many distinguished families of every division
of the kingdom."

The special haunts of the wild boar in ancient
times, are distinguished by such still-existing
names as " "Wild Boar's Fell," iu Cumberland ;

"Barlow," or "Boar's Field;" Byro lliiia,
formerly " Buar's Hills," near St. Andrew'u,
iu Scotland ; Mucros, near Killarney, in tho
county of Kerry, in Ireland ; and Mucross, in
Fifeshire, Scotland — meaning literally, " Boar'a
Promontory." This last designation origi-
nated in commemoration of the slaughter
of an enormous boar, which had previously
committed terrible ravages throughout tbo
surrounding country. " The village of Brancc-
[)etli," says I\Ir. Bell, in bin History of British
(2ucidritj>L'ils, " and the adjoining iiill of Bran-
don, in the county of Durham, took their names
from a wild boar or Irawn, which is recorded
to have been a terrilic beast, and tho dread
of the whole neighbourhood ; his deu being
on Brandon (brawn's den) hill, aud his usual
path or tract leading through tho woods of
Braucepetli (brawn's path). Tradition states,
that one Eoger Hodge, or Iloodge, valiantly
slew the monster, and delivered the district
from his ravages. The seal of this illustrious
lioger still remains, and represents a boar
passant."

Fitzstcplien, who wrote in the latter part of
the twelfth century, states that boars, wolves,
wild bulls, aud other game, abounded iu the
great forests surrounding Loudon ; aud Scot-
tish writers have not failed to meution those of

" Caledonia, stern and wild."

And it is known, that so recently as the date
of Charles I., that monarch endeavoured to
introduce the wild boar to the Xew Forest,
Hampshire, They were, however, all destroyed
during the time of the civil wars.

Formerly the boar's head was held as a
trophy of victory won in single combat between
the hunter and the enraged beast. AVoe to
the former, if, either froni want of skill or
weakness of nerve, he missed his aim. The
attack of the roused animal, like that of the
Spanish bull iu the arena, was both sudden
and impetuous, ripping up with his formidable
tusks whatever came in his way, whether man
or horse ! Shakspeare's description of an en-
raged boar is as true as it is graphic.

" On his bow-back he hath a battle set.

Of bristly i)ikes that ever threat his foes ;
His eyes like glowworms shine when he doth fret ;

His snout digs sepulchres where'er he goes.
Being moved, he strikes whate'er is in his way,
And whom he strikes his cruel tushes slay.''

To7

DOMESTIC HOa.]

PIGS,

[domestic hog.

The genus Siis, as at present constituted,
contains, besides the common wild hog and
its domestic relatives, two other species known
to naturalists. Of these, one is the Papuan
hog, or Bene of the natives of New Gruinea
(Sus Papuensis), figured and described in the
Zoologie de la Coquille, by MM. Lesson and
Garnet. Ifc is remarkable for its small size,
its light and agreeable proportions, and the
shortness of the tusks. It is common in
the forests of New Guinea, whei'e it is
esteemed by the native Papuans as delicate
food, and who contrive to catch these animals
when young, and rear them in a state of
domestication. The other animal is the Wood-
swine of Sontliern and Eastern Africa, and of
Madagascar — the Bosch- Vark of the Dutch
colonists of the Cape (Sus larva tics, Cuv.).
This savage and formidable brute resembles
the wild boar of Europe ; but its head is larger
in proportion, its snout broader, and an ele-
vated callous protuberance is seated on the
cheeks between the tusks and eyes, imparting
a revolting aspect to the physiognomy. Prompt
and vicious, the Bosch-Vark is much to be
dreaded in combat, its strength and the size of
its tusks rendering it a match for almost any
foe. It dwells in excavations in the ground,
where it is dangerous to attack it, as it sud-
denly rushes out from its retreat, and deals

rapid destruction among its assailants. Dr.
Smith observes that this species is subject to
great variety of colouring, scarcely any two
specimens being precisely alike. Some are of
a brownish black, variegated with white ; and
others are of an almost uniform light reddish
brown, or rufous without white markings ;
and it is scarcely possible to say which is the
most prevailing style of colouring. The bristles
are long, particularly upon the upper parts of
the neck and back ; the canines are of huge
size and strength; the ears are short, and
thinly covered, both without and within, with
coarse black hair, which is longest at their tips.
The tail is thinly covered with black bristles.
Average length of body, between four and five
feet ; of the tail, one foot.

The discovery of the bones of an extinct
hog, of huge size, in the cavern of Sund-
wick in Westphalia, is due to M. Goldfuss.
Bones of three distinct species occur in the
Epplesheim sand (Miocene division of tertiary
deposits, Lyell) ; and fossil relics of a species
have been found in Hutton Cave, in Mendip,
and in other places. Several species of an
extinct genus (Chseropotamus), closely allied to
the hog, have been discovei-ed in the gypsum
of Montmartre, in certain strata in Switzerland,
and in the Eocene formation of the Isle of
Wight.

CHAPTER II.

THE DOMESTIC HOG, AND FOKEIGX VARIETIES.

TriE domestic hog is too well known to
require particular description, and its utility
too well appreciated to call for comment. It
is not, however, valued alike in all countries;
and in some it is regarded with abhorrence.
In India, both Brahmin and Mussulman reject
its flesh as food ; yet, in many districts of that
country, semi-domesticated hogs wander about
the villages, feeding on the refuse which they
pick up in the streets. Colonel Sykes states,
that in Dukhun, "every village abounds with
758

hogs ; but any property in them is equally
abjured by individuals and the community."
Detestation of the hog was a feeling enter-
tained by certain nations in remote antiquity.
Tlie animal was classed by the Jews among
the vilest of quadrupeds; and in Egypt the
swineherd was numbei'ed among the profane,
and forbidden to enter the temples of their
gods. Even the lowest dregs of the people
refused to bestow their daughter on him in
marriage. The Egyptians sacrificed the hog

DOMESTIC hol}.] and TlIElJv VAJ:i()L'S JUiEEDS. [westphalian breed.

to Bacchus, and also to the moon when full.
"In tho evening of the festival of Bacchus,"
savs Herodotus, "thouj^h everyone bo obliged
to kill a hog before the door of hia house, yet
ho iinnunlialoly restores the carcass to tlif
swineherd that sold him."' Tlie ancient Scy-
thians, according to the same authority, made
no use of swine, nor sullored any to be kept in
the country. The Abyssinians and tlie Copts
of Egypt, as well as the Moliamtnodans, reject
the iiesh of the hog. Among tho ancient
Greeks and Romans, though tho ofBco of
swineherd ajipoars to have been held in con-
tempt, the ilesh of the hog was in high estima-
tion, and a sucking pig was as favourite a dish
with them as it is with many of our own
countrymen at the present day. The Chinese
have derived no prejudices against tho hog
from the Mohammedan nations of tlie East:
on the contrary, they rear these animals in
great numbers for the sake of their flesh ; and
even the numerous population, who tenant the
floating town of rafts or barges, contrive to
keep and rear them. " One of the most sin-
gular circumstances," says Mr. AVilson, in the
Qnarterli/ Journal of Agriculture, "in the
domestic history of this animal, is tlie immense
extent of its distribution, more especially in
far-removed and insulated spots inhabited by
semi-barbarians, where the wild species is
entirely unknown. For example, the South
Sea Islanders, on their discovery by Europeans,
were found to be well stocked with a small
black-legged hog ; and the traditionary belief
of the people, in regard to the original intro-
duction of these animals, showed that they
were supposed to be as anciently descended as
themselves. Tet the latter had no knowledge
of the wild boar, or any other animal of the hog
kind, from wliich the domestic breed might be
supposed to be derived."

The domestic hog is by no means destitute
of intelligence, and little deserves the charac-
ter of a stupid filthy brute, as some are pleased
to give it. As regards filthiuess, this, iu a
great measure, depends on its keeper. It is
true that, like the elephant and hippopotamus,
it delights to wallow in the mire ; but no
animal more luxuriates in clean straw ; and
when it is styed up in filth, justice is not done
to it. The hog is a " huge feeder ;" but so are
the horse and ox ; and a fat hog is a more

comely-looking beast than ono that is lean and
ill-fed. "With respect to intelligence, it may
bo ranked far before tho ox and horse, though
it is less docile. In Alinorca it is used to draw
tho plough, and works well ; and Pennant
says, that in the district of Murray, between
the Spey and Elgin, in Scotland, it was for-
merly employed for the same purpo:>o ; and
that a credible eye-witness informed hiu),
•' that he had seen, in his pariah there, a cow, a
sow, and two young horses, yoked together,
and drawing a plough in light sandy soil, and
that the sow was the best drawer of the four."
The senses of taste, smell, and hearing arc
possessed in great perfection by the hog. It
is a saying among a certain class of persons,
that pigs can smell the wind ; and they are
certainly aware of the approach of a storm, as
they have often been seen in a state of great
agitation during its continuance, screaming,
and running about with straw in their mouths,
or carrying it to their sty as if to add to their
shelter. In Italy, advantage is said to be
taken of the sense of smell with which this
animal is endowed in searching for trufiles ;
and in our own country, the famous sow Slut,
of which we have spoken in a preceding division
of this work, was broke-iu to the gun, and
stood to her game as staunch as the best
pointer. But it is now time to speak of some
of the continental varieties of this animal,
before noticing the British breeds.
Perhaps the most important is —

THE WESTPHALIAN BREED.

The hams of this species have, in this country,
become greatly celebrated, from tho peculiar
excellence of their flavour ; and, on this ac-
count, large numbers of them are imported
from Germany. Tlie animal which supplies
these is closely allied to the wild boar of his
native country, and, like him, roams the forest
in search of food, which principally consists of
acorns and beech-malt, to which they are ex-
tremely partial, and which gives a favourable
development to their flesh. After they have
fattened themselves upon this, they are driven
home to be slaughtered. In former ages, iu
Britain, the acorn was the principal food of
the hog, as its flesh then formed a large pro-
portion of the diet of the people, who esteemed
the increase or luultiplicatiou of these animals

759

S-EAPOLITANS.J

PIGS,

[FRENCH BEEEDS.

as a necessity to their comfort and happiness,
if not absolutely to their existence. Even at
the present day, the hogs of Spanish Estrema-
dura are mostly reared on the acorns of the
Ballota oak. In the Westphalian species, the
colour of the adult varies. Many are so
coloured, that, were it not for their superior
condition and less bristly appearance, it would
not be an easy matter to point out any striking
difference between them and their feral rela-
tives ; but in every case, whatever may be the
hue of the parents, the young are, at birth, and
for some months afterwards, marked with the
longitudinal bauds so characteristic of their
wild blood. In several parts of England, espe-
cially in the New Eorest, herds of swine are
permitted to roam at large during the acorn
season, and, when driven home, are said to be
in prime condition. Erom this circumstance
it may readily be inferred how valuable were
the oak forests of our forefathers to their very
subsistence, by enabling them to feed and
fatten their swine. Indeed, one of the most
oppressive measures of William the Conqueror,
was that by which be converted the English
forests into hunting-grounds, and thereby de-
prived the people of the means of rearing their
hogs to a good condition. It was felt to be
such a grievance, that King John was called
upon to remit it at Euunymede, when, on
June 19th, 1215, he was, by his assembled
subjects, forced to sign Jilagna Cliarta. Swine,
like some other animals, seem naturally dis-
posed to return to their feral condition, should
an opportunity offer, and the circumstances be
favourable to their feeding. Mowbray tells us,
that two young boars, retiring into a wood
between Colchester and Mersey Island, con-
tinued, for years, to be the terror of the
neighbourhood. The Westphalian swine are
seldom over-fat; but they are not on that
account to be deemed difficult to fatten. On
the contrary, they take on fat with great readi-
ness, and attain to an enormous weight.

THE NEAPOLITAN BREED.
The colour of the Neapolitan breed is black,
with little hair on their bodies, and no bristles
whatever. Their flesh has a very delicate
flavour, the fat being entirely destitute of that
rankness whiah characterises that of some
other varieties. Most of the native Euo-lish
760

breeds may be improved by a cross with the
Neapolitan. Indeed, by far the larger portion
of the middle breed of pigs, in all the counties
of England, manifest some relationship to it
by the existence of blue spots on different
parts of the body. Mr. Eowlandson, the
author of the Prize Essay of the Eoyal Agri-
cultural Society of England, on the Manage'
inent of Pigs, endeavours to prove that the
Neapolitan is the original breed of pigs ;
and even urges that the Essex, or rather the
improved Essex breed, is due to that race, of
which he says it is an improvement ; but Mr.
Milburn thinks that the Italian climate,
operating on the wild boar domesticated, as
well as that of China, softened down the as-
perity of activity and bristles, and made the
soft delicate animal we now see, in the shape
of the one or the other of these varieties.
""With the true Berkshire breed," he continues,
** the Neapolitan produces a cross, to be sur-
passed by none in every desirable quality that
the breeder could look for, more especially if a
dash of the lohite Chinese be added. The inter-
mixture of these three breeds — the Neapolitan,
Chinese, and Berkshire — may be regarded, if
done judiciously, as the ne plus ultra of swine-
breeding Thus was produced that long-
celebrated breed kept by Lord Harborough.
After having been a short time in this country,
the Neapolitan hog begins to lose his naked
appearance, and to acquire a coat better
suited to the more chilly climate into which
he baa been introduced."

THE FRENCH BREEDS.
It is believed that the French breeds have
some relationship to the Chinese variety of
the hog, as the breeders of that nation have
been long acquainted with the valuable
qualities of the variety which claims the
celestial empire for its original habitat. The
most distinguished of these breeds are those
of Poitou, the Pays d'Auge, Perigord, Cham-
pagne, and Bologna. In describing these, it
may be observed that the Poitou breed has a
long and somewhat large head, with pendu-
lous and rather coarse ears — an elongated
body, broad and strong feet, and large bones,
with coarse bristles and hair. That of the
Pays d'Auge has a sharp muzzle, and a smaller
head, narrow and pointed ears, long body,

TRENCn imEF.DS.]

AND TIII'IK VAKIOL'S lUiHllDS. ■'nii; hiinksi: uiiEKi).

broad and stron£» limbs, but 8m:ill bono. Its colour is that of a reddish yellow, and their

hair is very rough. Tiio lluiigariun j)ig8 aro
of a grey colour, with straij^ht, poiuted oars,
short body, and short and linn legs. These
arc very rough in the coat, and the young aro
nuirked with longitudinal bands — two circum-
stances indicative of a connection, and that by
no means remote, with tlio wild boar. They
inhabit Turkey in Europe, Bosnia, Croatia,
Hungary, and Austria, and are designated
according to tiio country from which tiio spe-
cimen immediately iu question may have been
procured. In reference to tlio Portuguese hog,
it is 80 extremely like the Chinese, tliat it has,
by Mr. Laurence, been made a question whe-
ther these varieties aro not identical ; the
former being but the latter naturalised in that
of Portugal.

THE CHINESE BREED.

The Chinese hog is found in the south-
eastern countries of Asia, as Siura, Cochiu-
China, the territories of the Birman empire,
the kingdom of Cambodia, Malacca, Sumatni,
and in Batavia, and other islands of the
Eastern Archipelago. There are also varieties
iu India and China.

The principal point of difference between
the hog of Siam and that of China Proper, is,
that the former is usually black, whilst the
latter is of a white colour. Neither, however,
exhibit a constant uniformity iu this respect,
the colours of each frequently varying — the
blacks coming from China, and the whites
from Siam. Even in the same litter, pigs
of different colours frequently appear ; and
instances are not uncommon in wliich even
pied individuals have occurred. On account
of these differences of colour, some have gone
so far as to assert that there are no fewer than
seven varieties of the Cliinese pig ; but, as the
distinctions are referred only to colour, these
varieties can hardly be said to have more than
a hypothetical existence. The small white
breed is almost perfect iu make and quality.
Parkinson says — " These are certainly pigs in
miniature ; their legs about two or two-and-
a-half inches long ; their ears, the size of a
large leaf on an apple-tree ; the length of the
jaw, from the snout end to the crown, about six:
inches ; from the crown to where the tail is set
are small, but they are hard feeders. Their I on, about two feet ; with height proportionate ;
5 E 701

hair is also coarse, but scanty in quantity, and
of a white colour. The Perigord are generally
hlaek, with a very sliort thick neck, and a
broad compact carcass. The swine of Cham-
pagne aro of considerable size, long-bodied,
and ftat-sided, witti broad pendulous ears,
and not favourably looked upon. Those of
Bologna are related to the English breeds.
Tliev arc of a large size, have a largo and
broad ear, arc quick fatteners, and white in
colour. It is to these that we are indebted
for the celebrated Bologna sausages.

The following extract from the Annales
d\igricnlture Fran^aise, presents us with the
unsuccessful trials of a breeder to improve his
stock: — "I commenced," he says, "with the
large Shropshire pigs. They pleased my eye,
and, for some little time, I felt perfectly satis-
lied. In a short time, however, I began to
observe that, although they devoured an im-
mense quantity of food, they fattened but very
slowly, and seemed to derive no advantage
from the herbage and vegetables which they
found in the fields. When killed, the flesh,
and especially the fat, was exceedingly coarse.
The sows, nevertheless, produced many pigs at
each farrow, which, from their size when young,
sold well to persons who were tolerably rich,
and knew little or nothing about the breeding
of pigs. I next tried the small Berkshire pigs,
and immediately perceived a very sensible im-
provement. They fattened quickly, procured
most of their nourishment from the fields, and
their flesh was very superior to that of the
last-named breed. But as they were large, I
thought to effect a still greater improvement
by exchanging them for the Chinese ; but here
I fell into the opposite extreme. The Chinese
■were prolific, fattened speedily, and almost
obtained their own subsistence; but they were
faulty in form, and their flesh was not firm,
but loose in fibre, as if they had died of disease."
Jutland swine are long-bodied, curve-backed,
long-legged, with large pendulous ears ; and
they attain a very great size. They, however,
are of a coarse make, and heavy -boned. Sweden
possesses many diflerent breeds, the favourite
being a supposed oft'-shoot from the wild boar,
with erect ears, a turned-up snout, and long,
bony legs. The hogs of Russia and Poland

J8J1ITISH BEEEDS,]

PIGS,

[beITISH BEEEDS.

weif'lit, when full-grown and fat, sis stones,
at two years old." The black variety is of
similar shape and beauty, and, when fat, is
of a heavier weight. Both the Chinese and
Siamese pigs feed well, and attain to an early
maturity. They require less food, and, within
a given time, become fatter and heavier than
any of the European varieties. To the flesh
of the pig the Chinese are remarkably partial,
and they fatten it to an enormous extent,
taking great care that the animals which yield
it are thoroughly attended to, and fed regularly.
Those which are kept in temples become per-
fect monsters, and are viewed by the Chinese
with an eye of great tenderness and partiality.
They are not even permitted to 'distress them-
selves with w\'ilking, but are often carried
from one place to another, to which may be
attributed the admirable qualities of their pork.
The animals are kept especially dry and clean,

which, no doubt, has a corresponding efiect
upon their health ; and the very knowledge of
which has a tendency to impart a greater relish
to their flesh when it is brought to the table.
Those which are generally seen in this country,
principally come from the neighbourhood of
Canton, and have been brought thence as part
of sea-stock. They have greatly improved
the larger kinds of our English pigs, having
been advantageously crossed with our own
coarser domestic breeds. The ofi'spring of this
cross have shown a vast improvement even in
their Chinese progenitor: and, on the whole,
proved a most profitable breed.

The Chinese pigs are less known in Ireland
than in England or Scotland; although the
climate of the last-named country would appear
unsuitable to their Asiatic temperament and
constitution, probably from the variableness of
its temperature.

CHAPTER III,

BRITISH BREEDS OF THE DOMESTIC HOG.

"We have, in a previous chapter, alluded to
the fact of the hog being of great importance
to our Saxon ancestors. Its flesh was a staple
article of consumption in every household ; and
a great portion of the wealth of the farmers
and landed proprietors consisted of droves of
swine, which were attended by swineherds,
thralls, or bond- slaves, and which were driven
into the woods of oak and beech, in order to
feed on acorns and mast, and all the while
guarded from the attacks of the wolf. The
domestic hog of that period, appears to have
closely resembled, in form and colour, the
wild species; and the old unimproved breed,
now seldom seen, may be regarded as its
modern representative. There are now, in our
island, several breeds of this useful animal, of
acknowledged excellence, the result of judicious
crossings. The test of excellence is producti-
bility, a readiness to become fat, small bone,
and the quality of the whole animal when
7G2

converted into bacon. Size is of minor im-
portance. The introduction of the small
Chinese breed is one great source of improve-
ment. This breed, we have said, is short in the
head, with neat ears, low on the limbs, and
high in the chine. It is very prolific, and
fattens readily. The prevailing colours are
black, or half black and half white. Another,
closely allied to it, extends from China
throughout various groups of islands in the
Pacific. The breed nearest to the Chinese, in
this country, is the Suflblk, which is generally
white, compactly made, and deep in the chest.
Another source of improvement is the Nea-
politan hog. This, as already described, is a
plump animal of a black colour, without any
hair, and wuth a singular predisposition to be-
come fat. It is, however, of a tender con-
stitution. The pure black breed of Essex,
which has very little hair, is closely allied to
it; and when crossed with the Neapolitan,

TUK BKUKSHTKE iioQ.; AND TIIKIR VAKIOUS BUEEDS. tiik ueuksiiihe iiuo.

produces a most valuable stock. A cross be-
twceu tlio NoapolitfUi niul iKM-kshire breed is
also in his^li esteem. A breed between the
Berkshire, Chiueae, and Neapolitan, may, by
careful eeleetion, produce every quality wliicii
can bo desireil — •'reat tecundity, an early ac-
quisition of fat, and moderato size, with ad-
mirable form and proportions. Mr. Cully
asserts, that there are, in this country, only
three true varieties of the domesticated lion; —
the Berkshire, the Chinese, and the lii<j;hland,
or Irish ; and that all other breeds, altlioufjh
they have a separate description, are nothing
more than ofl'-shoots from one or other of these
three main stocks. In some degree this may
be true ; but these themselves, must, at the
same time, be regarded as only oft'-ahoots
from the great original wild stock. To dis-
tinguish these, therefore, as the primitive
breeds to which we are indebted for all the i
other breeds now grown in Britain, is to i
give them a distinction which can hardly be |
said to belong to them. Indeed, the fact of j
the matter is, that we are not only indebted
to these breeds for the numerous varieties
amongst us, but to the Spanish, Portuguese,
Italian, and African hogs, as well as to the
wild boar of the large forests of Europe.

THE BERKSHIRE HOG.

Berkshire was the first county to avail itself
of the opportunity of improvement afforded by
the introduction of foreign stock ; and among
the black breeds, the improved Berkshire
stands at the top of the list, either for breed-
ing pure, or crossing with other breeds of in-
ferior qualities. The old breed is said to be
now extinct ; but, for a long period, it had a high
reputation, and held a prominent place among
breeders or rearers of swine. The improved
Berkshires are almost all traced back to the
herd of Lord Barrington, who died in 1S29.
In Mr. Touatt's treatise on the pig, we find it
remarked, that the improved race is now con-
sidered, by the Berkshire farmers, to have de-
viated into a middle-sized and a small-sized
breed. To rank in the first class, they should be
well covered with long, black, silky hair ; whilst
the white should have only four white feet, a
white spot between the eyes, and a few white
hairs behind each shoulder.

The old race of Berkshires had' a long and

crooked snout, witli tiio muzzle taking; an up>
ward turn ; tlio cars were large and heavy, with
u 8lii,'lit inelination to be pendulous ; the body
was not deep, but long and thick ; whilttt tho
legs were short, the bono largo, and tho sizo
enormous. Tho modern improved Berkahiro
is an animal of large size, wi»ich, to bo fully
developed, should not be allowed to breed
until it is over a year old. Mr. Sadler, one of
tho most successful improvers of Berkshires,
considers the improved breed superior to anj"
other black breed for size, quality, hardness o^
constitution, Iruitfulness, early maturity, and
aptitude to fatten. Tho Kev. T. C. James,
one of the judges of pigs at the Royal Agri-
cultural Society's show at Warwick, in 18-39.
says, that "the improved Berkshire is a good
big animal, well calculated to produce a pro-
fitable llitch. A good little pig is very well,
but a good big pig is better, if with aptitude
to fatten. Two exhibited at Chelmsford, in
1856 (of Sadler's breed), weighed each twelve
score at seven months old ; and, with that
weight, were of such good constitution, that
tiiey were well upon their legs. They had
walking exercise in an orchard every day while
fattening." The Mr. Sadler alluded to in this
passage, resides at Bentham, near Crickdalc,
and is one of the most successful improvers ot
Berkshires: his original stock all came from
the herd of Lord Barrington. Speaking of
the Berkshire breed, Mr. Loudon says, "that
they are, in general, of a tawny, white, or
reddish colour, spotted with black ; large ears
hanging over the eyes ; thick, close, and well-
made in the body ; short legs ; small in the
bone, with a disposition quickly to fatten, and,
when well fed, producing fine flesh. This
county has long been famous for its breed of
swine, which are excellent in all respects, but
particularly so as a cross for heavy, slow-feed-
ing sorts. It has extended itself from tho
district from which it takes its name, over
most parts of the island ; is the sort mostly
fattened at the distilleries ; feeds to a great
weight ; is good either for pork or bacon ; and
is supposed by many to be the most hardy,
botli in respect to its nature and the food
on which it is fed." Mr. Bakewell, the founder
of the new Leicester sheep, was a great im-
prover of domestic swine.

"Before his time," says Mr. Martin, "tho

763

nA:MPSUIEE HOG.]

PIGS

[HAiiPSHiBE no a.

Leicestershire' hogs were of the same coarse,
ungainly kind, which prevailed generally
tliroughout the midland counties. He com-
menced, as he had done with the sheep, by a
judicious selection of stock destined for breed-
ing ; and, by persevering in this course, he
greatly modified the characters of the old
races. This was imitated in Yorkshire. The
old breed, by crossings with the new Leicester
stock, was much improved. The cross breed
lost in size, but gained in every other good
quality. Ifc became deep-chested, short-limbed,
small-boned, and fattened readily. The coarse
ugly bristles were exchanged for fine thin hair,
and the whole aspect of the animal underwent
a transformation. The hogs, at about two
years old, averaged from thirty to fifty, and even
sixty stones, of 14 lbs. ; the younger animals
weighing in proportion."

Some of the Yorkshire breeders still rear
the pure new Leicesters, and consider them
more profitable than the larger kinds. These
breeds have also found friends in Yorkshire ;
and among these, are the Berkshire crosses
with the old Yorkshire, and with Lord Wes-
tern's improved Essex breed. The improved
Berkshires are classed among large swine ;
but the effect of crossing with various smaller
breeds, has been to reduce the size and improve
the shape; so that the present Berkshires are
Lihort of limb, roundly made, arched in the
neck, with heavy cheeks, sharp ears, and
abruptly rising forehead, short snout, broad
back, and clean limbs. In colour they are usu-
ally a mixture of half white, half black. The
average weight of an improved Berkshire hog,
fit to kill, is about 400 lbs.; but ham-curers
purchasing them from the farmers, give a pre-
ference to the smaller breed, which averages
Irom nine to fourteen score.

THE HAMPSHIRE HOG

This hog is about the same size as the
Berkshire; but as less attention has been paid
to its improvement, it possesses a degree of
coarseness to which the other is a strano-er.
It is generally black, or spotted with red ; but
there arc, also, a considerable number of white
pigs in this county. Within the last twenty
years a great improvement has been produced
in their make, which may be considered to
have been forced upon the breeder, on account
764

of his being so near a good market where
improved animals could meet with ready dis-
posal. No Hampshire farmer, however, has
distinguished himself as a pig-breeder ; and we
do not remember an instance of Hampshire
pigs carrying away any of the prizes at the
Smithfield show. Prom these facts we may
draw the conclusion, tliat although the county
is productive of excellent hogs, still these are
not such as would be choseu to establish a
new, or improve an old breed. The New
Porest of Hampshire was long notable for
the numbers of swine which fed upon the
acorns that fell from its oaks. Even so re-
cently as the time of the Eev. Mr. Gilpin, we
find him describing, in his liemarlcs on Forest
Scenery, the manner in which the swine were
suftered to regale themselves as they wandered
beneath the umbrageous trees, which were the
means of both sheltering and nourishing
them: — " These woods afi'ord excellent feeding
for hogs, which are led in the autumn season
into many parts of the forest, but especially
among the oaks and beeches of Boldre-wood,
to fatten on mast. It is one of the rights of
the forest borderers to feed their hogs in the
forest during the 2Jawni?iy month, as it is termed,
which commences about the end of September,
and lasts six weeks. Eor this privilege they
pay a trifling acknowledgment at the steward's
court at Lyndhurst. The word pawnage was
the old term for the money thus collected.
The method of treating hogs at this season of
migration, and of reducing a large herd of
those unmanageable brutes to perfect obe-
dience and good government, is curious. The
first step the swineherd takes is to investigate
some close-sheltered part of the forest, where
there is a couveniency of water, and plenty of
oak or beech mast, the former of which he
prefers, when he can have it in abundance.
He fixes next on some spreading tree, round
the bowl of which he wattles a slight circular
fence of the dimensions he wants ; and covering
it roughly with boughs and sods, he fills it
plentifully with straw or fern. Having made
this preparation, he collects his colony among
the farmers, with whom he commonly agrees
for a shilling a-head, and will get together
perhaps a herd of five or six hundred hogs.
Having driven them to their destined habi-
tation, he gives them a plentiful supper of

nAMPsiiinE iioo.] AND THEIR VARIOUS BREEDS. [hampsuiuk iioo.

acorna or bt'ecli-uuidt, which ho had already
provided ; sounding liia Iiorn during tlio repast.
IIo then tnrii3 them into tho littor, whore,
after a lo'ii; journey and a hearty meal, they
eleep comfortably. Tho next morning ho lets
them look a little around, and shows them
the pool or stream where they may occasionally
drink; then leaves them to pick the oflalof the
last night's meal ; and, as evening draws on,
gives another plentiful repast, scattering acorns
among them for an hour together, to the
sound of his horn, lie now scuds them again to
sleep. The following day ho is perhaps at
the pains of procuring them another meal,
with music playing as usual ; and then leaves
them a little more to themselves, having an
eye, however, to their evening hours. But as
their stomachs are full, they seldom wander far
from home, retiring generally very early to
bed. After this he throws the sty open, and
leaves them to cater for themselves ; and from
henceforward has little more trouble with
them during the whole time of their migration.
Now and then, in calm weather, when acorns
fall sparing!}', he calls them perhaps together,
by the music of his horn, to a gratuitous meal ;
but in general they need little attention, re-
turning regularly home at night, though they
often wander, in the day, two or three miles
from their sty. There are experienced leaders
in all herds, which have spent the roving
life before, and can instruct their juniors
iu the method of it. By this management
the herd is carried home to their respective
owners iu such condition that a little dry meal
will soou fatten them. The hog is commonly
supposed to be an obstinate, headstrong, un-
manageable brute. lie may, perhaps, have a
degree of positiveness iu his temper ; in gen-
eral, however, if properly managed, he is an
orderly, docile animal. The only difficulty is
to make your wishes, when they are fair and
friendly, intelligible to him. Effect this, and
you may lead him with a straw.

"Nor is he without his social feelings, when
be is at liberty to indulge them. In these
forest migrations, it is commonly observed, that
of whatever number the herd consists, they
generally separate, in their daily excursions,
into such little knots and societies as have
formerly had habits of intimacy together ; and
iu theic friendly groups they range the forest,

returning homo at night in difleront parties,
some earlier aiul some later, as they havo been
more or less fortunato in tho purnuits of tlio
day. It sounds oddly to afllrm tho life of u
hog to bo enviable ; and yet thero is something
uncommonly pleasing iu tho lives of tlicHO
emigrants — something at least more desirablo
than is to bo found iu a hog Epicuri dc greye.
They seem themselves, also, to eujoy their modo
of life. Tho hog has a greater variety of lan-
guage than, perhaps, any other quadruped, lie
signifies his want of food with great energv ;
when affronted, his note is very significant;
and his cries of distress are truly lameutable.
But here you see him perfectly happy, going
about at his ease, and conversing with hia
friends iu short, pithy, interrupted sentences,
which are, no doubt, expressive of his enjoy-
ments and of his social feelings. Besides tho
hogs thus led out iu the mast season to fatten,
there are others, the property of forest-keepers,
which spend the whole year in such societies.
After the mast season is over, the indigenous
forest-hog depends chiefly for his livelihood on
the roots of fern ; and he would find this food
very nourishing if he could have it in abun-
dance. But he is obliged to procure it- by so
laborious an operation, that his meals are rarely
accompanied with satiety. He continues, how-
ever, by great industry, to obtain a tolerable
subsistence through the winter, except in
frosty weather, when the ground resists his
delving snout; he must then perish if he do
not, in some degree, experience his master's
care. As spring advances, fresh grasses, and
salads of diflerent kinds, add a variety to his
bill of fare ; and, as summer comes on, he finds
juicy berries and grateful seeds, ou which he
lives plentifully, till autumn returns and brings
with it the extreme of abundance. Besides
these stationary hogs, there are others, which,
in some of the more desolate parts of the forest,
arc bred wild, and left to themselves without
any settled habitation ; and, as their owners
are at no expense, either in feeding or attending
them, they are content with tho precarious
profit of such as they are able to reclaim."

This kind of feeding has brought the Hamp-
shire bacon much into demand ; and it brings
even a higher price than the Westphalian.
This is, in some measure, to be attributed to
the manner in which it is cured, and which

763

suffole: noG.j

PIGS,

[tokkshire ho a.

has been greatly the means of preserving its
high reputation.

THE SUFFOLK HOG.

Mr. Eichardson, with some other writers,
thinks that the Suffolk hog is the most nearly
allied to the Chinese; and Mr. Loudon de-
scribes it as a small, delicate, white pig, which,
lor many years, has enjoyed a great reputa-
lion. It is shorter, he says, and more pug-
Tormed than the Norfolks; and, by its dish-
face and pendent belly, it may be supposed
that the variety proceeded originally from the
white Chinese. Some of tliem are extremely
handsome, and very regularly shaped. Otliers
Jiave observed, that the Suffolk is the best
bred race in England; but whether such be
the case or not, is a matter of opinion. " The
present breed of Suflblk," says Mr. Eichard-
son, " or, at least, that which existed in that
county within the last few years, is a long,
straight-backed pig, with a broad forehead,
and short, bristly hair; appearing large and
heavy from its extreme length." Prince Albert
was very successful with a cross of the Suffolk
and Bedford.

The improvement in the Suffolk breed con-
sists in small and light oftals, with greater
length being obtained. It is a white pig, and,
on several occasions, has figured popularly in
the Smithfield Club Show; but the most cele-
brated pigs are quite black. Mr. Crisp, of
Butly Abbey, a distinguished Suflblk breeder,
reared both black and white pigs. The best
Suffolks now, however, are Torkshire-C umber-
lands, which have settled in the county, and
have found their way to Windsor.

THE YORKSHIRE HOG.

The old Yorkshire pig was a large, narrow
animal, having a strong coat of white hair, and
a few pale-blue spots on the skin, the hair
on these being white. It was long-headed,
great-eared, long-logged, and strong in the
bone. A long period elapsed before it attained
its full growth, when it could bo fr.ttcucJ up
to 800 lbs. ; but it is doubtful if this could be
done with profit. The first step taken for the
improvement of this breed, was the introduc-
tion of tlie white Leicesters to Yorkshire.
These were a large species; but their heads
were smaller than the old sort ; their ears erect ;
7UU

their hair finer ; their bone smaller, but with a
carcass less deep, and not so full in fiesh. The
white Leicesters were the great improvers of
the Yorkshire large breed, which is now prin-
cipally confined to the northern part of the
county. On the introduction of the Leices-
ters, in the early part of the present century,
they were carefully bred from until several
admirable qualities were obtained — viz., early
maturity, beautiful proportion, and a constant
fatness, even from the time of their birth.
The difficulty with this breed is, how to keep
them poor, as the sows have enough to breed
and suckle their offspring. This species is
denominated the swjfl^Z treed; and the spinners
and artisans of the large towns, more particu-
larly those of Bradford and Leeds, discover
great skill in breeding them. In a new edition
of Mr. Youatt's work, we find it stated, that
in the "West Eiding, the competition in pigs
is keener than in any other part of England.
There is scarcely a town which has not its pig
and pouitry show, where prizes are presented
for pigs reared by working-men, with rules
that entirely exclude shopkeepers and small
tradesmen. The breed of these competitors
is usually of the large or middle-size; and
the prizes contended for are — for the first,
£4; second, £3; third, £2; fourth, £1.
The Keighley Agricultural Association keep
a van for conveying the pigs of the exhibi-
tors to their shows; and the following de-
tails from Mr. Youatt's work, edited by Mr.
Samuel Sydney, places, in a graphic point
of view, the enthusiasm which pervades the
minds of some of the small pig-breeding fan-
ciers of Yorkshire. "One evening in August,
1858, a stout labouring woman left her home
iu Airedale, accompanied by her only sow and.
her litter of pigs, on a journey (by rail) of
sixty-five miles, to the city of York, where the
Yorkshire Agricultural Society held its show
that year. She bore with her the wliite
rosettes of several previous victories of her
treasure, 'Lady Kate;' but on this occasion
fortune did not smile on her, and ' hwAy Kale'
suffered her first defeat. Although, however,
she did not win the prize, she carried tiie
public pig-breeding opinion so far witli her,
that she was able to sell all * Lady Kate's'
suckers at £5 a-head. When, next month,
the Keighley and Shipton shows arrived, * Lady

TOUKSniUE llOQ.l

AND Til HI i; VARIOUS BREEDS.

[iJEDKOUK IIOO.

Kate' retrieved her first and only defeat, and
stood at the top of her class. Thirty-eight
.soveroigns had hi'en counted down on tl>o
table tor * Lady Kate.' She afterwards reared
a litter of sixteen, and enabled lier owner to
maintain an aged father and invaliil sister in
comparative comfort. She was, indeed, tlie
prop of tlie house; and by the side of many a
sty in Airedale, for years after her flesh
had been consumed in bacon, were her merit
and victories discussed in the long summer
evenings consecrated to pig-gossip. ' Lady
Kate' was of the middle breed ; a cross between
a small boar and a sow of the modern improved
large breed.

"At Northallerton, iu 1S59, the finest lot of
large sows ever seen iu one place were col-
lected together. There were at least a dozen,
the live weight of each of which would not be
much less than half a ton. The Eoyal Agri-
cultural prize-winner at Norwich only got
second honours. When the two famous sows,
'Lady Havelock' and the 'Duchess,' went
for the Chester prize, the partisans of each
were confident of success, and the betting was
hot and heavy. ' Lady Havelock' was in
splendid condition, having been bought at a
long price, and 'bottled up' specially for
tliis event; while the 'Duchess,' from having
weaned her little ones so lately, was not quite
up to the mark, but was again in a breeding
state, and it was thought that would have
weight with the judges. It was, however,
universally agreed that one of the two must
win, for Yorkshire had never sent anythinf'
like them before. On "Wednesday night it
oozed out that the 'Lady' was the prize-
winner. The telegraph was set in motion,
and the morning trains brought in a motley
crowd of the Leeds pig fancy, with wives, aunts,
and sisters, all bound to the Ehoodee, to cele-
brate the triumph. There the ' missus' of the
' Lady,' excited by the congratulations of her
friends, gave her native Yorkshire eloquence
full swing, and astonished the assembly with a
speech, in which she complimented the judges ;
vowed that ' Lady Havelock' should lick all
the world ; whispered her Tom would never
have bought the sow but for her, and an-
nounced that the prize money should be spent
ou the spot." In Yorkshire, the prejudice
against black pigs is now greatly modified. |

TIIL Llll.MlIRIi: HOG.
The size of the Chehhiro hog is very great;
his proportions having been pronounced jri-
gantic ; but is now, however, almost extinct.
Ho was long-legged, long-eared, and had u
loose kind of unsightly skin. His colour was
either white, patched black and white, or
blue and white. The prevailing pigs, now
mostly used in Cheshire, are what are termed
" Manchester boars," which is only another
name for the Yorkshire- Cumberland breed.

Til 15 WILTSHIRE HOG.

This hog is a long-bodied, low animal,
hollow about the shoulder, aud high on tlio
rump, round in the bone, with middling-
sized pointed ears, and of a light colour. It
is supposed to have come originally from
Wales, and was of comparatively little value ;
but since it has been crossed with the im-
proved Berkshire breed, its worth has in-
creased. AViltshire bacon is celebrated, the
reason of which may partly be attributed to
the judicious crossing which has, from time
to time, been practised with the Neapolitan,
Chinese, and other improved breeds. These
are not so large as the former breed ; while they
are more compact, and fatten quicker, without
any deterioration to the quality of the meat.

THE BEDFORDSHIRE HOG.
Bedfordshire cannot boast of an original pig
stock ; but one bred at AVoburn, aud described
by Mr. Youatt, was a good animal, although
it had no specially-marked character worthy
of notice. It was a bad smeller, but a good
feeder. It has, however, been allowed to die
out ; and a race sprung from Berkshire sows
crossed with Suflblk boars, has taken its place.
At present a white breed is looked upon with
the most favour in Bedfordshire. The late Duke
of Bedford introduced ^the improved breed,
and was the means of introducing them also
to East Lothian iu Scotland, where they carried
off" all the agricultural prizes. They have the
peculiarity of growing very rapidly, and, at the
same time, when mature, feeding very fast
iu proportion to the food given. The former
breed was so little distinguished, that the
tenant of a large farmer in the shire, said
he was not aware that such a race had an

707

LUICESTER HOG.]

PIGS,

[koefolk hog, etc.

existence, until he saw it notified over one of
tlie pens of the late Prince Albert, about ten
years ago, at the Smithfield Show.

THE LEICESTERSHIRE HOG.

The original hog of Leicestershire was a
large, deep, flat-seated, light-spotted animal,
possessed of rather a handsome head, with
well-formed ears. Mr. Bakewell, however, by
skilful crossing, not only improved the breeds
of sheep and cattle, but also those of pigs.
Accordingly, his Dishley pigs evinced con-
summate skill, as did his Leicester sheep.
" With symmetrical form," says Mr. Richard-
son, "as far as rotundity, depth, and thickness
could constitute it, he combined such great
aptitude to fatten, that it has, with the Chinese
and Neapolitan, been the source of almost all
the in/provements of our breeds of pigs ; and a
pig is just good ' blood' or bad in proportion
as it is allied nearly or remotely to the Dishley
breed. There was a little tenderness of con-
stitution, but so much flesh and fat in pro-
portion to time and oflal, that it looked more
like one great cylinder of flesh than a living
animal — the feet, neck, and face being lost in
the exuberance of fat. Owing to its lethargic
disposition, and thoracic temperament, it is not
a vigorous breeder, and much less prolific
than many other kinds ; neither will it grow
so rapidly as some varieties, being more cal-
culated to lay on fat than to make bone and
muscle. Still it is a physiological wonder — a
triumph of skill." The Leicesters have been
crossed into middle, or small Yorkshires, and
have been the grand improvers of the large
York breed. Mr. J. V. Williams, of Hay-
grove, Bridgewater, Somerset, in 1S54, ex-
hibited a pair of white Leicesters, and received
the gold medal of the Smithfield Club. Writing
to Mr. Sydney, he says—" I first exhibited in
1852, and have since won, besides the Smith-
Held Club gold medal, two gold medals of the
Paris Universal Exhibition in 1855, five silver
medals and cross, and upwards of one hundred
prizes." Ilia fat pigs usually average the
following weights : —

5 to G months old, from 7
^ )» »> ., ,,10

10 ,. » „ „ 12

12 „ 18 „ „ „ l-i

The three pigs exhibited in 1S5-1., at eighteen
7G8

to 9 score lbs.
12

" l-^ » „
„ IS ., ..

weeks' old, weighed, sinking the offal, nine
score each.

THE HEREFORDSHIRE HOG.

Of this animal there is little to say ; but it
is commonly believed to be the result of a
cross with the Shropshire. Mr. Eichardson
says it is little inferior to the Berkshire breed ;
and that it is to the adoption of crosses from
the boars of Herefordshire and Berkshire, that
we are to attribute the major part of the im-
provement which has, of late years, appeared
among the Irish breeds. To the present white
breed of this county no attention has been
paid, although the sow is acknowledged to be a
useful animal.

THE NORFOLK HOG.
The Norfolk breed is small, with pricked,
erect ears ; and variously coloured, but gene-
rally white. They are well-formed, fatten
quickly, and produce good meat. Those that
are white are said to be the best; but in the
vicinity of Lynn, and generally on the Lin-
coln side of the county, there is a larger
spotted variety, of good form and quality.
AYe believe, however, that little or no attention
has been paid to this variety.

THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE HOG.

The hog of Gloucester is less in size than
the Hampshire breed ; still it is of suflicient
proportions to be ranked among the larger
breeds. It is round in form, somewhat short
for its depth in the belly, and altogether pre-
senting a very compact appearance. It is
generally white, and has — what may be either
an ornament or a disfiguration — wattles hanging
from each jaw. Its constitution is hardy ; the
sows are prolific, and the pigs are very profit-
able, more particularly for pork. As store
pigs they are excellent.

THE NORTHAMPTONSHIRE HOG.

This animal is considered handsome, being
very compactly formed, steep-sided, and having
little bone. It feeds well, attains early to
maturity, and fattens rapidly. Por storing or
pork it is excellent. It is of a light colour.

THE LINCOLNSHIRE HOG.

The old Lincolnshire breed was a \vA\t-

THE SUSSEX noa.] A:sD TILElii VAiilOL'S liiiEEDS. [tue ebsex iioo.

coloured, long-logged, ungainly-looking animal, ^
with a narrow buck and a thick skin, covered
with close, coarse hair. The hcail was largo,
and the Ibrehead being ample, the oars were
necessarily placed far apart. It was an enor-
mous cater, and a very indiflercnt lattoncr.
The true Lincolnshire is now a very dillerent
animal from this, having a straight body, round
carcass, fine skin, and few bristles. It is gen-
erally white, and is easily fattened. At a year
and a-half old it will often weigli twenty-five
and even thirty stoues, giving 11 Iba. to the
stoue.

THE SHROPSHIRE HOG.
The original breed of this county ha3 been
improved by a cross with the Berkshire,
Chinese, and other favourite breeds. The
former breed was not very well adapted for
farm stock ; but by brewers and distillers, who
have large quantities of refuse grains and
mash, they were held in some degree -of esti-
mation.

THE CUMBERLAND HOG.

Little has been done towards the improve-
ment of the large Cumberland breed; but the
small breed of this county has risen into con-
siderable favour. It is larger than the small
Yorkshire, and is the offspring of a cross
between the Cumberland and the Yorkshire;
the former giving quality and proportion, and
the latter affording size. The bacon of this
county has attained great celebrity in the
north of England. The breed is described as
being short in the legs, with a straight and broad
back, well-developed ribs, full neck and breast,
and cood hams. The snout is short ; the ears
clean, fine, and of moderate size ; whilst the
body is evenly covered with short, fine hair.

THE SUSSEX HOG.
The bogs of this county are of moderate
size, well-formed, thin-skinned, and black and
white. The hair upon them is both long and
fine. They rarely feed over twenty stones ; but
they attain an early maturity, fatten quickly,
and produce excellent flesh. In this county
there was formerly a breed called the Eudgmik
swine, among which were some of the largest
hogs ever seen in England. Although they
yielded capital meat, they were considered
5f

very unprofitable, from the time which they
took to fatten. They are now extinct.

THE OIUCINAL OLO ENGLISH HOG.
The primitive breeds of England have now
almost lost all traces of their individuality,
from the diflferent systems of crossing to which
they have been subjected, by the spirit of im-
provement which has [)Ossessed many of tho
breeders of agricultural stock. It may be a
question, however, whether this has not been
alreadv carried too far. Mr. Low observes —
""While we should improve the larger breeds
that are left us, by every means in our power,
we ought to take care that we do not sacrifice
them altogether. "We should remember that
an ample supply of pork is of immense im-
portance to the support of the inhabitants of
this country. England may, one day, have
cause to regret that this over-refinement has
been practised, and future improvers vainly
exert themselves to recover those fine old
races which the present breeders seem aiming
to efface." The original English breed had a
heavy head, a large ear, long legs, and rugged
coat, and had by far too much bone to be a
profitable animal.

THE ESSEX HOG.
Essex, like other counties, has improved ita
breed of pigs, by crossing with the Berkshiro
and Neapolitan races. The original animal,
however, possessed some good points ; but as
improvement seemed necessary, a new breed
appeared, and now takes a high place among
the different species of Great Britain. The
present race has erect ears, a long, sharp head,
a short flat back, with small bone. The colour
almost invariably is white. It is a rapid feeder,
and makes fat so quickly, that before it has
obtained its due proportions it usually attains
an inconvenient state of obesity. So great,
indeed, are its fattening properties, that it
sometimes becomes the victim of them.

" One of the finest specimens of the improved
Essex breed," says Mr. llichardson, " was
reared by C. L. Clare, Esq., of Hiudley House,
near Liverpool. She won eight first prizes,
! two seconds, and one third ; and several of her
j litters have been sold for £120. The pecu-
liarities of Mr. Clare's improved breed, are
small hone, great aptitude to fatten, early

7G9

ORKNEY HO a.]

PIGS,

rORKNET HOG.

arrival at maturity, and a small proportion of
loss between live weight and dead. A very
favourable specimen of the whole, weighed,
alive, 688 lbs. ; and dead, as much as 653 lbs.
— a most unprecedented fact — her offiil being
but 30 lbs. She was shown at the Yorkshire
Agricultural Society's meeting at York, with
twenty-nine competitors ; and though she did
not receive a prize, was highly commended.
This, against all the best pig-breeders in the
kingdom, showed her to be of a very prime
sort."

There is another improved breed in this
county, called Half-blacks, supposed descen-
dants of the Berkshire race. Lord Western ori-
ginally introduced it into the county, and it rose
to great celebrity. They are black and white,
line-skinned, short-haired, with smaller heads
and ears than the Berkshire, having short
snubby noses, and a very fine bone. They are
broad and deep in the belly, full in the hind
quarters, but light in the offal. They feed re-
markably quick, grow fast, and are of an
excellent quality of meat. The sows are
capital breeders, and bring litters of from
eight to twelve; but they have the character
of being bad nurses.

THE ORKNEY BREED.
In the Orkney Islands, the Hebrides, and
the Shetland Islands, there exists a small breed
of swine, characterised by Dr. Hibbert, in Ins
Account of the Shetland Isles, as a little, ugly,
brindled monster — an epitome of the wild boar,
yet scarcely larger than an English terrier.
" This lordling of the Shetland scatholds and
arable lands," says he, "ranges undisturbed
over his free demesnes ; and, in quest of the
roots of plants, or of earthworms, hollows out
deep furrows and trenches in the best pastures ;
destroys, in his progress, all the nests which
he can find, of plovers, curlews, or chalders ;
bivouacs in some potato field, which he rarely
quits until ho has excavated a ditch large
enough to bury within it a dozen fellow-com-
moners of his own size and weight. Nor is
the reign of this petty tyrant altogether
bloodless. When a young lamb is just dropped,
it is then that he foams, and, as Blackmore
Las pompously sung, 'flourishes his ivory
war,' never quitting liis ground till the grass
is stained with the red slaughter of his victim "
770

These small animals give their owners little
care, as they are mostly left to shift for them-
selves in the best way they can. They are
wholly unprovided with shelter ; and although
they must, during some part of the year, un-
dergo great privations, still they are healthy,
and produce good and agreeable flesh. In
autumn they are in best condition ; and if
then put up to fatten, very inexpensive prov-
ender will suffice for this purpose, as they
lard themselves with considerable rapidity,
growing quickly in size, and presenting a short,
diminutive, aldermanic appearance, capable of
raisins: astonishment in the minds of those
who, before the commencement of the hringing
up process, had seen them.

The Eev. G-eorge Low, in his Fauna Crea-
densis, describes them as very diminutive
creatures, but exhibiting a great variety of
colour. They are bristly in the back, stand
erect on their legs, and have short, pointed
ears. Their snouts are singularly strong, pro-
duced, no doubt, by the constant exercise of
their grubbing propensities in t!ie inhospit-
able region to which they are confined. They
travel far and near in search of food, wander-
ing over distant hills, and feeding on such roots
and earth-worms as they can find. With
such roving habits, it need be no matter of
wonder that this little animal, notwithstand-
ing his dwarfish size, should perpetrate greater
ravages in corn-fields than the most gigantic
of our English porcine breeds. This small
breed is usually converted into pork, and
forms an article of considerable commerce
between the natives and the coast, for shipping
stores. In Mr. Low's time, the butchers used
to purchase the breed from their owners at
from four to five shillings a-piece ; and after
being cleaned and cured, they were disposed of
to the shipping contractors at the rate of two-
pence per pound. The average weight of these
pigs is from sixty to seventy pounds. Eopes
are made of their hair, and used in the Orkneys
by those adventurers who suspend them-
selves from the summit of the clifis, in search
of the eggs and young of the sea-fowl. They
are preferable to those made of hemp, on
account of their not being so apt to cut from
the efiects of friction against the sharp edges
of the rocks. The Highland pig of Mr. Cully,
is the same as that of the Orkney Isles.

OLD iKisn noo.]

AND TTTKIU VAlilOUS IMIEEDS.

lEXTINCT uace.

TIIK OLD lUlSn IIOU.
In Ireland tho pi^» is truly a ilomoslicatcd
animal, ol'ten haviiiij tho suugi^ost part of tho
labourer's cabin allotted to him, wliero ho
sleeps at his ease, leeds with comtbrt, ^rumphs
to tho children, and fattens for the rent. Tho
old, high-leirged, tlat-sided race, has for many
years been gradually dying out, and is now to
be met with perhaps only in Galway, and the
western part of tho country. An improved
breed is taking their place; and as they ex-
hibit all or most of tlie characteristics of the
English races, it has become dilficult to dis-
criminate between them. The small cost at
which pigs can be kept and fattened, coupled
with their extraordinary fecundity, make them a
real substantial blessing to many a poor cottier,
who, with his small savings, may purchase a
young and poor-conditioned animal, fatten it
on all the refuse he can spare or collect,
and sell it at a very remunerative profit.
Nay, he may kill it with advantage to his own
family, who will thereby obtain a large supply
of a cheap, nutritious, and strengthening
diet. AYere it not for this animal, numberless
individuals of the labouring poor would hardly
be able to preserve a roof over their heads ;
and, on this account, the pig is not inaptly
called " the poor man's friend." The improve-
ment effected in Ireland upon her old stock,
has been done by the introduction of Berkshire
and Chinese boars and sows, with which the
old breed has been extensively intermingled.
Accordingly, the great size and large bone have |
been reduced, whilst the fattening qualities
have been very much increased. It is well
known that England imports a large propor-
tion of the bacon, pork, and live pigs, whether
fat or as stores, necessary to her consumption,
from Ireland, which has a great tendency to
keep up the price of bacon in that country.
Notwithstanding the rather unpromising ex-
terior presented by the original old Irish pig,
there was one shown, some years ago, at the
cattle-show of the lioyal Dublin Society, which
is said to have been the oflspring of a cross
with the Hampshire. AVhetber this was or
was not the case, the animal weighed over
forty-one stone, and was the property of an
humble cottier. It attained that weight with
a very small proportion of feeding. Irish ,

Bwine possess flesh of a peculinrly good flavour,
which tho principle of iinproveinent does not
deteriorate; whilst tho hams chisely restinble,
in form aud quality, those of Wcatphalia.

EXTINCT RACE.

The skull of a variety of pig found in an ex-
cavation in an island on Loch (iur — a lake in
tho neighbourhood of Limerick — is, by Mr.
Kichardson, supposed to indicate suilicient
evidence of having been the great ancestor of
our well-known long-faced pig, once so plenti-
ful in Galway, and usually designated, from its
long limbs and gaunt appearance, by the name
of tho " Greyhoutid Pig." Several of these
skulls were found at Loch Gur, with those of
oxen, goats, sheep, red deer, reindeer, and the
extinct gigantic deer, sometimes erroneously
styled the "Irish Elk." They were found
several feet below the surface, resting on layers
of a calcareous tufa, and covered with black
bogstuft', the result of the decomposition of
vegetable substances. All the skulls, appa-
rently, belonged to animals which had been
slaughtered ; as their froutals were all broken
in, as if by the blow of a pole-axe, or other
heavy instrument. It would be difficult to
assign the precise period when these animals
were thus slaughtered ; but, from the circum-
stance of their being cotemporary with the
gigantic deer, it has been suggested as possible
that they lived in the times of the Druids, and
that Loch Gur was the scene of one of their
vast assemblages, and these osseous fragments
the long-buried remnants of a stupendous
sacrifice to their sanguinary gods.

Having thus described the principal breeds
of swine, several of which present really such
veiy slightly-marked differences from others,
that it was almost unnecessary to introduce
them to our pages — but, in order to give this
work all the fulness possible, we deemed it un-
avoidable— we may observe, that there are cer-
tain fancy breeds, which require no specific
descrii>tion, as being less adapted to the prac-
tical, than to the gentleman farmer and breeder.
Prominent among these is the Windsor breed,
greatly cultivated by his late royal higiiness
Prince Albert; the Coleshill and the Bushy
breeds. Tiiese are all wiiite, and much sought
after by gentlemen pig-breeders, who hold
them in high 'Nstimation.

771

POINTS OF A PIG. J

PIGS,

[points of a pig.

POINTS OF A PIG.
In describing the points wliicli are to be
looked to in making the purchase of what is
called a good pig, it may be as well to remark,
at the outset, that care must be taken not
to be influenced by a mere name. There is
nothing easier in the world for an eager and
unscrupulous salesman to do, than to say that
his pig is a true Suffolk, when it is, in reality,
no more allied to the Suffolk, than the buyer
might be himself if he were a Hebrideau. The
only certain plan to go upon, is to make oneself
thoroughly acquainted with the approved points
of the animal, and rely upon that knowledge
rather than upon the declarations of the seller.
"If you find a pig," says Mr. Eichardson,
" possessed of such points of form as are indica-
tive or productive of early maturity and facility
of forming flesh, you need care little what it
has seemed good to the seller to call him ; and
remember that no name can bestow value upon
an animal deficient in the qualities to which I
have alluded. The true Berkshire— that pos-
sessing a dash of the Chinese and Neapolitan
varieties — comes, perhaps, nearer to the desired
standard than any other." The chief points
which characterise such a pig, are suflicient
depth of carcass, and such an elongation of
body as will insure a wide lateral expansion.
The loin and breast should be broad; the
breadth of the former denoting room for the
play of the lungs, and a consequent free and
healthy circulation, essential to the thriving
or fattening of the animal. The bone should
be small, and the joints fine. Nothing is more
indicative of high breeding than this ; and the
legs should be no longer than, when fully fat,
would just prevent the animal's belly from
trailing upon the ground. The leg being the
least profitable portion of the hog, no more of
it is required than is absolutely necessary for
the support of the rest. The feet should be
firm and round ; the toes lie well together, and
press straightly upon the ground; and the
daivs oven, upright, and healthy. " Many say
that the form of the head is of little or no con-
sequence, and that a good pig may have an
ugly head ; but the head of all animals is re-
garded as one of the principal points in which
pure or impure breeding will be the most
fibviously indicated. A high-bred animal will
772

invariably be found to arrive more speedily at
maturity, to take flesh earlier, and with greater
facility, and altogether to turn out more profit-
able than one of questionable or impure
stock ; and, such being the case, the head of
the hog is by no meana a point to be over-
looked by the intending purchaser." It should,
therefore, be rather light in bone ; not too flat
in the fore part, or too long in the snout.
" Indeed, the snout should, on the other hand,
be short, and the forehead rather convex,
recurving upwards ; the ear, while pendulous,
should be inclining somewhat forward, and, at
the same time, be light and thin." Nor should
the carriage of the pig be overlooked as an in-
dication of the health and spirit of the animal.
Of course, if you are purchasing a fat hog tor
slaughter, or a sow heavy with young, you are
scarcely to look for much sprightliness of de-
portment ; but, in young stores, sprightliness
is a consideration.

The points of each breed, though generally
similar, have still a difference. In the small
breeds the hair should be soft and delicate,
and short, light, and silky in its texture ; nor
ought there to be any indications of bristles,
or any increased thickness of hair on the top
of the neck. The skin should be soft and
elastic to the touch ; whilst the cuticle should
be thin, and almost transparent. A thick
cutis is an almost invariable symptom of hard-
ness, and of difficulty in fattening. In the
side-view, the frame should have a resemblance
to a rectangle. The back should be long, and
show nearly a straight line from the rising
behind the ears to the setting-on of the tail,
with only a slight elevation over the shoulder
and ham, to the line, or even above it. This,
however, must be so slight as not to present a
slack back. When the back is so raised as to
be nearly as high as the shoulder-blade and
hip-bones, it is a good sign, for there must be
room for the active and full play of the vital
viscera. The elevation at the back of the ears
is, perhaps, the surest indication, as regards
form, of the power of the animal to accumulate
fat. When there is a fattening tendency in
this part of the animal, it may be taken as an
almost certain indication that the animal will
deposit it elsewhere with facility. The same
will take place with the shoulders and the
hams, which are the best portions of the animal.

poiKTs OF A no.] AND Til KI U VA IMOUS BREEDS. [roiNxs of a pig.

Hence they should have depth enough to give
the two enda of the rectanf,'lo, which is the
desideratum in a well-formed pip;. The same
remark applies to the throat. It is not natu-
rally fat; but if it descends so as to till that
corner of the rectangle, it is also indicative of
the thriving propensity. The chest should be
deep and long ; and as the belly carries with it
a deposit of internal fat, it may bo ex[)ccted
nearly to fill that corner also of the rectangle.
Such may be considered the principal features
of a perfectly formed pig.

It must bo further stated, that whether
viewed from behind or before, the animal
should still present the rectangular view.
Looking at it in either of these directions, the
back will exhibit a broad and flat appearance,
and form the top ; the sides will be full, and
the hams and shoulders will fill up the angles,
and give the base of the rectangle. In con-
junction with these marks, the head should be
fine and small ; while the chaps and upper
part of the face should show a full develop-
ment of muscle and fat, not only because the
snout is useless and the chaps valuable, but
because the smallness of the former is highly
characteristic of a fine quality in the pig,
while the latter indicates a power to feed well.
The neck siiould be short and deep ; for if
flabby and loose, coarseness and grossuess
must be expected in the animal. The ears
should be small, pricked upwards, thin and
fine, and either destitute altogether, or very
slightly sprinkled with fine soft hairs. The ,
bones should be small ; the legs short and i
fine ; and the tail small and curled, as beinc
indicative of a strong back. The eyes should <
have a bright and mild expression, and all the
extremities should be as small, light, and •
delicate as possible.

In the large breed of pigs, there is much ,
that is the converse of this. Here the skin
is thicker, the hair stronger and coarser ; and .
though the large animal can grow and thicken, i
and increase in size, it is not fat only that is
accumulated. It is divided with muscle ; and
hence the bacon is the streaked, marketable '
article, which is sought after much more than
that of the prick-eared animal. This sort of
pig is also hardier and constitutionally stronger,
and much more able to resist the influences of
a cold climate than the smaller animal. Ac-

cordingly, in the valleys which intersect the
hills, especially of the " backbone of England,"
this breed is highly esteciiu'd. It is fed on
the skim-milk of dairies where butter is made,
and on the whey where cheese is the product,
and is, therefore, altogether more prolitable to
the dairy farmer than the small-bred pig.
IMany efl'orts have been made to combine the
qualities of the two ; but, to a certain extent,
they have been found incompatible. More
rapid feeding and earlier maturity may bo
gained, at the expense of size, constitutional
power, and mottled or streaked bacon.

As types of the smaller and larger breeds,
the Leicester pig, or the Essex, will be the
most perfcxit for the former, and the Yorkshire
and the Berkshire for the latter. In the pur-
chase of a pig, Mr. Eichardson says, that even
colour is not altogether to be neglected. " In
the case of pigs," he says, " I would, as in ref-
erence to any other description of live stock,
prefer those colours which are characteristic of
our most esteemed breeds. If the hair be
scanty, I would look for black, as denoting
connection with the delicate iS'eapolitan j but
if too bare of hair, I would be disposed to ap-
prehend too intimate alliance with that variety,
and a consequent want of hardihood, which,
however unimportant if pork be the object,
renders such animals hazardous speculations as
stores, from their extreme susceptibility of cold,
and consequent liability to disease. If white,
and not too small, I should like them, as ex-
hibiting connection with the Chinese. If light
or sandy, or red with black marks, I should
recognise our favourite Berksliire; and so on,
with reference to every possible variety of hue.
Some judges are much influenced by the colour
of an animal. They disregard his make and
qualities, and pass him by if he is not UacJc.
It is true that the black nose in cattle is gene-
rally indicative of a want of pure blood, as the
white back is in any ox, not a Hereford or an
Irish. To so ridiculous an extent was this
notion at one time carried, that the best pigs
were passed by, at the Show of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England, and the prizes
given to those which were of the black breed;
this being considered an indispensable qualifi-
cation for a winner. As indicative of breed,
therefore, it may be useful to attend to colour;
and it may be taken as one point indicative of

773

PIGGEKIES.J

PIGS,

[PIGQEEIES.

quality: the blue spots of Neapolitan; the
white, if small, of Chinese ; if large, of the old
English ; if black, of Berkshire, &c. ; but be-
yond this, it is neither politic nor reasonable

to go."

PIGGERIES.

For general purposes, an inclosure which
allows sufficient space for the number of swine
to be kept, with the means of extending it, if
necessary, will be found the best ; for there are
few things which conduce more to the health
of the pig family, than spacious, airy, well-con-
structed, cleanly kept accommodation. At one
time, swine were imagined to be far happier
when kept in a continual state of filthiness ; any
place was then deemed good enough for them ;
and the consequence was, that the poor despised
animals were housed in dirty, damp, close sheds
or sties, without the smallest atteation to com-
fort or cleanliness being bestowed upon them.
In such places who could expect the blood of
any animal to be preserved lor any length of
time in a healthy state ?

" The blood, the fountain whence the spirits flow ;
The generous stream that waters every part,
And motion, vigour, and warm hfe conveys
To every moving, breathing particle."
A proper piggery should have a range of
sheds, so situated as to be quite sheltered from
the north and east winds ; from snow and rain ;
and it should be paved or flagged at the bot-
tom, with an outward slope. To insure clean-
liness and dryness, very efficient drainage is
absolutely necessary ; and it will be advan-
tageous if the bottom be of concrete, as well as
drained. " The whole pig-cote should slope
towards one corner, and be intersected by chan-
nels in the flagstone or pavement : the former
is by far the best ; and to this a common metal
stench-trap should be placed. This is, in every
respect, the best. Connected with this drain
fchould be a tank ; or it might communicate
with the drainage of the rest of the buildings.
The interior, or covered shed, should be kept
constantly littered ; and so, indeed, should the
court-yard, if the object of the pig-keeper be to
convert his straw into manure. If not, it
should be swept and washed clean, and occa-
sionally sprinkled witli fresh sawdust. Thero
is no better absorbent — no cleaulier material
than this — and it is cheaper than straw, when
both have to be purchased ; much more por-
774

table, easier obtained, carried, or stowed away,
and should be the sheet-anchor of the amateur
pig-keeper."

Mr. Henderson recommends a house on an
entirely different plan. " Have a house," he
says, " thirty feet by fifteen, with four doors,
all opening outwards, and three partition-walls
through the house, by a wall between each of
the doors, dividing the house into four com-
partments— the two middle ones for eating,
and the others for sleeping apartments, having
an inner door between each eating and sleep-
ing apartment. By this plan, the keeper is
enabled to get the eating chambers swept out,
and troughs cleaned, and the food put into
them, without disturbing the swine, or being
disturbed by them. There should be a divi-
sion-wall through each sleeping apartment. In
the hinder part should be the litters ; and the
front and smaller compartments, through
which the animals pass to their food, may be
used by them as a kind of necessary; for these
animals will never defile their beds, if they can
avoid it.

" The manger should be as long as the house
is wide, and fixed against the middle wall ; in
form similar to a horse manger — wide at the top,
narrow at the bottom, but not so deep. It
must be divided into compartments by par-
tition-boards four feet in length or height, and
a little broader than the manger is wide. At
such a trough a number of pigs will feed as
quietly, and as well, as two or three. Before
every meal the trough should be well washed,
and the place swept; and once every day a
little fresh litter should be placed in the sleep-
ing chambers. Each of the eating and sleep-
ing rooms should be divided into two. The
sleeping rooms should be dark, as animals
fatten more rapidly when they can quietly lie
down and sleep after each meal." — Mr. Par-
kinson suggests, that in the yard, or inclosure
before every piggery, there should be "a rub-
bing-post, or, what is still more beneficial,
two posts, having a hole between them, similar
to a horse's leaping-bar, but not revolving;
this pole should be raised or let down to the
height of the pigs, as the rubbing of the ani-
mals against it causes a freer circulation of
blood, the same as the flesh-brush does to
human bodies." All these plans, however,
are suitable only for large farm-yards. Por

BRKEDINO.

AND TIIEIK VARIOUS HIM-KDS.

[uUi^KDIMO.

cottage?, therefore, some mode less aspiring

should bo adopted.

In this case, a well-built stand, and water-
proof shed for a sleeping-plaee, with an inclo-
sure for air and cxeroise, as largo as conve-
nieut, will bo sulllcient. It should not open
to northerly or easterly winds; nor should it
be exposed to the full heat of the mid-day sun.
Its dimeusioua should bo about eight feet
square, and the court about ten. Tho second,
or supplemental sty, need not be more than
six feet square ; and it does not necessarily

require a court. Of courso, if the three mud
walls can be built, and a little gate appended
for tho ingress and egress of tho tenant, it
will be 80 much tho better; but here cottier
management only is spoken of. In construct-
ing cottier pig-cotes, it is Iiardly nece.ssarv to
say that tho roof should always slope from the
court and behind tho sty, or be spouted in
such a nianner as to allow the water to be
carried off by a system of drains cntirelv sepa-
rate from those conveying tho liquid from the
sties.

CHAPTER IV.

EEEEDIXG REARING, FATTENING, AND FEEDING THE HOG.

It is now a fact admitted in the principles of
breeding, that the progeny usually inherit the
physical and constitutional qualities of one or
both of the progenitors ; and in the case of the
hog, it is the qualities of the boar which prin-
cipally predominate in the offspring. Hence
the male animal, in swine, should always be
selected with the utmost care. "In the
breeding of swine," says Thaer, "as much as
in that of any other live stock, it is important
to pay great attention, not only to the breed,
but also to the choice of individuals. The sow
should produce a great number of young ones,
and she must be well fed to support them.
Some sows bring forth ten, twelve, or even
fifteen pigs at a birth ; but eight or nine is the
usual number ; and sows whicli produce fewer
than this must be rejected. It is, however,
probable that fecundity depends also on the
boar. He should, therefore, be chosen from a
ram that multiplies quickly. As good one-
year bacon-hogs are much in request, we must
do all wo can to obtain a breed well adapted
for producing them. Swine of such a breed
may be known by their long bodies, low bellies,
and short legs. Long pendulous ears are
usually coupled with these qualities, and at-
tract purchasers. If, however, as is often
advisable in large dairies and cheese factories,

hogs are to be sold at all seasons to the
butchers, great attention must be paid to
quickness of growth and facility of gaining
ilesh, so that the animals may attain their full
growth, and be ready for killing before they
are a year old. This quality is particularly
prominent in the Chinese and African breeds ;
but among our ordinary varieties, hogs are
oi'tea met with wliicli are better adapted for
this purpose, than for producing large quan-
tities of bacon and lard. The boar should be
selected from a breed well suited to these
several purposes. He must be sound, and
free from hereditary blemishes. He should
be kept separate from the sows till he is about
a year old, and has finished his growth, or he
will begin to leap too early. He is usually
castrated before completing his third year,
otherwise bis flesh becomes uneatable. If,
however, he is of a peculiarly excellent breed,
one which cannot be easily replaced, his flesh
may be sacrificed for the sake of preserving him
for breeding from, a few years longer. A boar
left to pasture at liberty with the sows, might
suffice for thirty or forty of them ; but as ho is
generally shut up, and allowed to leap at stated
times only, so that the young ones may be
born nearly at the same time, it is usual to
keep one boar for ten or twelve sows. Full-

BEEEDIKG.]

PIGS,

[beeeding.

grown boars being often savage, and difficult
to tame, and attacking men and animals, must
be deprived of their tusks. The sow must be
chosen from a breed of proper size and shape,
sound, and free from blemishes and defects.
She should at least have twelve teats ; for it is
observed that each pig selects a teat for him-
self, and keeps to it ; so that a pig not having
one belonging to him would be starved. A
good sow should produce a great number of
pigs, all of equal vigour. She must be very
careful of them, and not crush them by her
weight ; above all, she must not be addicted
to eating the after-birth, and what may often
follow, her own young ones. If a sow is
tainted with these bad habits, or if she has
difficult labours, or brings forth dead pigs, she
must be castrated forthwith. It is, therefore,
proper to bring up several young sows at
once, so as to keep those only which are free
from defects. Breeding-sows and boars should
never be raised from defective animals."

These observations comprise much that is
excellent in connection with the principles of
breeding ; and they might be greatly extended,
although it would be a work of repetition.
It may be observed, however, that, in every
case, whether bacon or pork be the object of
the breeder, a spirited-looking head, a deep
and broad chest, ample ribs and barrel, a
haunch almost as low down as the hough,
broad loins, wide hips and long body, in pro-
portion to the height, are the qualifying points
of a good animal. The back should also be
broad, and the flesh abundant, round, and be-
hind the ears. Smallness of bone is also one
of the first considerations, and should be taken
into calculation with the proportion of flesh,
fineness of the best parts, and the lightness of
the ofi'al.

Breeders are not altogether agreed as to the
exact age for the boar and the sow to commence
breeding at. In speaking upon this point,
Mr. Eichardson advises that the sow should
be at least one year old, and the boar at least
eighteen months; but, if the former have
attained her second year, and the latter his
third, a vigorous and numerous off"spring are
more likely to result. The boar and sow con-
tinue to breed for about five years ; or until
the former is upwards of eight years old, and
the latter seven. A boar should not be used
77G

after he has passed his fifth year, nor a sow
after she has passed her fourth, unless she has
proved a peculiarly valuable breeder. In such
a case she might be sufi'ered to produce two
or three more litters.' When the services of
the boar are no longer required, he should be
emasculated — an operation that can be per-
formed with safety at any age — fattened, killed,
and sold. "When it is no longer desirable to
breed from the sow, she should be killed also.
Perhaps the most saving plan, where the breed-
ing and fattening of pigs are carried on simul-
taneously, is to take no more than three litters
from a sow before she is killed. If less are
taken, she will not have attained her full ma-
turity ; if more, she will prove injurious for
bacon. A sow that has had only three litters,
will be as fine bacon as an emasculated hog ;
but, if she has had more, the flavour of her
flesh will be coarse and strong. Should a sow
exhibit a more than ordinary tendency to take
on fat, she should be bred from at an early
age — say at about nine months — as the rapid
accumulation of fat in the animal is attended
with danger at the period of parturition. She
should be allowed the boar a couple of months
after pigging, and permitted to breed as fre-
quently as she is capable of doing. This will
effectually check her fattening tendency. After
having taken a few litters from her, the rapidity
with which she will consume her food, will soon
bring her into condition for the butcher. The
boar should be well fed, in order that he be
kept in high condition without being fat. On
the other hand, till after conception has taken
place, the sow should be kept rather low ; but
after that, she should be gradually brought up
to good condition.

For successful breeding of swine, the best
times are in the month of April and the
beginning of August. After this period, the
litters being farrowed late, they have a good deal
to contend with regarding the inclemency of
the weather ; consequently they do not always
turn out profitable. Indeed, some assert that
the litter, either from accident or some other
cause, is not worth keeping. Should, how-
ever, a late litter be brought into the world,
the best plan is to trust them entirely to the
care of the sow ; and both her and them should
be well fed on warm stimulating food. This
will secure good pork at a period when that

BREEDIXO.]

AXD TIli:ii; VARIOUS liliEKDS.

[UKAKIKQ.

commodity is both scarce and bigl>-priced, and
when a payiii"; profit may be obtained upon
it. This is the only phui to realiao some
benefit by a lato litter. The time which
the sow carries her youiii:; is about ll;i days,
or sixteen weeks. This is our observation ;
but a French gentleman, of the name of
M. Tessier, afTirnis, that from his having care-
fully observed the period of gestation in twentv-
five sows, he concluded that it varied from 109
to 1-J:3 days. Be this as it may, however, the
young produced average from eight to thir-
teen, and sometimes even more at a litter. "We
have beard of one sow producing, in thirteen
litters, no fewer than 301 pigs ; and of others
exhibiting an extraordinary degree of fecundity;
but it is questionable if this is desirable, as the
pigs are generally much smaller than those that
form tlic aggregate of litters less abundant.
"When giving suck, the sow should be well fed,
as she has then a craving appetite for both
meat and drink ; and which, if properly satis-
fied, will keep both her and her pigs in good
condition. This is an important point ; for, if
the mother is allowed to become lean, it will
require double the quantity of food to en-
able her to get into condition again ; and the
young ones, if suffered to degenerate, will not
only require extra feeding and time before they
can be brought to market, but will never make
such good swine as they would have done had
tliey always been kept up to a proper standard.
" To guard against such evils," says Mr. Hen-
derson, in his Practical Grazier, " let the sow
and her progeny be fed three times a-day with
milk and wheat-bran, or something similar.
Water, a little warm, may be substituted for
milk, when it is scarce or too valuable. The
mixture, of whatever kind, ought never to be
thick, but should be more of the nature of a
drink than anything else. After the pigs are
about ten days old, if the weather is mild, they
ought to be allowed to stretch their legs a
little, once a day, in an open court attached to
their house ; during which period the sow may |
be turned out from them, which will contribute

very materially to the supply of milk ; but care
must be taken to avoid the sow's remaining out
from them all niglit. Feeding as above will be
found very beneficial almost in every case ; but
more especially when a sow brings forth more
than she is able to support, which is not un-
6g

frequently the case. It is likewise of great
importance to accustom pigs to food when

sucking, as such will prevent their taking tho
• weaning brasli.' AVI.en tho pigs are about a
month old, such as ar(< not intended for breed-
ing should be castrated or spayed."

As some sows are apt to lie upon, and
thereby destroy their young, it is better to
keep such from getting too fat, and to havo
tho straw of her bed short, and not too much
in quantity. It has been suggested by some,
to put an inclining or projecting rail to tho
lower part of tho interior wall of the sty, that
the pigs might run through between the rails,
and make their escape if the mother attempted
to lie upon them; but whether this plan
would be successful we cannot say, as wo
havo never seen it tried, although we believe
such has been the case. Before weaning the
pigs they should be gradually fed; and should
they and their dam have been kept warm and
dry, and well supplied with drinks moderately
warm, mixed with a little meal or wheat-bran,
the young ones may in general be weaned
when they are six weeks old. Should they,
however, have been neglected, they will re-
quire to be left with their mother two weeks
longer, and even then will not be in such good
condition as they otherwise would have been,
had they received a sufficiency of food for six
weeks. If the pigs are intended for sale, this
is the time that they should be driven to
market, as they have then a better appearance
than they would have for many weeks after
j being weaned. After they have been taken
from the sow, it is necessary that she should
be well fed for ten days with boiled potatoes,
meal, oats, &c., which, in a short time, will
stimulate coition, and tho proper season for
bringing forth her young will not be lost.
After weaning, the pigs must be regularly fed
three times a day, with similar food to that
recommended to them while sucking, and in a
few weeks they will begin to eat raw potatoes
or grain. The author of The Pig says, that
young pigs should be gradually fed* before
they are perfectly weaned; and recommends
milk for their first food ; which, he says, " may
be succeeded by ordinary dairy wash, thickened
with oat or barley meal, or fine pollard ; and
this is better scalded ; or, better still, boiled.
To tho sow some dry food should be given

777

TATTENING.]

PIGS,

[fa-ttenifg.

once daily, whicli might consist of peas or
beans. Swedish turnips, carrots, parsnips, or
tlie like, either well boiled or raw, may be
given ; but a preference should be shown for
the food alicays boiled, or, what is better,
steamed. Some wean the pigs within a few
hours after birth. It can hardly be conceived
under what circumstance this may be found
advantageous. The best mode of management
is clearly to turn the boar into the hog-yard
a month or two after parturition, at which
time it is proper to remove the sows for a few
hours daily from their young, and let them
accept his overtures when they please. It
does not injure either the sow or her young if
she take the boar while suckling ; but some
sows will not do so until the cessation of their
milk; and this is much more natural. At
weaning-time the young pigs may be rung.
After about five weeks' high and careful feed-
ing, subsequent to weaning, the young pigs
may be put up for stores, porkers, &c., accord-
ing to the owner's views respecting them.
Very young pigs, indeed, immediately after
being weaned, if fed on the refuse of a dairy,
can be brought up for delicious pork in five or
six weeks ; for the last week, prior to killing,
the addition of beans, peas, or bruised corn,
will impart a degree of firmness to the flesh,
which is considered an improvement. This is
called "dairy-fed pork," and it never fails to
fetch an enhanced price, thereby amply remu-
nerating the producer."

"When pigs are intended for pork, they should
not be so highly fattened as those which are des-
tined for bacon. This should especially be the
case with such animals as are designed for
home consumption, or, in other words, domes-
tic purposes. To the feeder whose object is
to sell, however, a different line must be pur-
sued. What he wants is fat, because fat
produces weight, and weight yields profit. It is
questionable, however, even whether he should
feed the animals till they attain the enormous
state of obesity to which we see them brought
and exhibited for sale. "There is," says
Ilurtrel D'Arboval, " no animal so liable to
become over-fat as the pig, and especially the
Chinese and Siamese swine. Naturally in-
clined to corpulence and gluttony, they easily
acquire an enormous bulk ; and when fat has
once begun to accumulate, the animal eats
778

little, breathes with difiiculty, becomes inert,
unable to sustain its own weight, and deficient
in sensation. "We have seen wretched pigs
so fat that they wei'e obliged to be lifted or
dragged out of the sty whenever it was neces-
sary to move them. We have, also, made in-
cisions in their buttocks, and even taken off por-
tions of skin from their backs, without their
betraying any sense of pain. We saw a hog
that had lain for a considerable period on one
side, too powerless or too inert to shift its
position ; and when it was raised, a large hole
was perceived in that part of the back which
had been undermost. This had been made by
rats feeding and gnawing into the fat of the
beast, evidently without its being in the least
conscious of their proceedings." When fat-
tening pigs for bacon, they should be kept by
themselves, as they require no liberty. Their
sties, however, should be kept nice and dry,
and clean ; whilst, in order to bring them into
the condition required for the knife, they
should be abundantly fed. It seems almost
ridiculous to talk of the cleanly comforts which
ought to be extended to the pig ; but if its
accommodation be not attended to in every
way to make it feel comfortable, it will not
thrive so fast or so well as it would otherwise
do. Whilst speaking of pigs being fattened
for bacon, Parkinson says, that when he lived
with his father, acorns were so plentiful in the
woods one year, that they made the pigs
sufiiciently fat for bacon without any other
food. The flesh was equally good, and as well
flavoured as that of other animals which had
been fed on beans and peas. In the United
States, when apples and pumpkins are abun-
dant, the swine are fed on these fruits, which
are considered excellent for them. A breeder
says on this subject, that on the lOfch oi
October, twenty swine were put up to fatten,
all of which were only in middling store order,
in consequence of the scarcity of food. The
covrs producing very little wash from the
dairy, and the crops of apples being scanty
this season, they had only, during summer,
the free range of a small orchard containing
an acre and a-half of land — with the premature
apples which fell — in which was a pond of
water ; a very essential requisite to hogs, and
one to which, under the powerful influence of
the sun, they will resort for their chief

FATTEiriNO.

AND TlIElJi VAKIOL'S BliEEDS.

[l ATTKMNO.

comfort. These twenty pwino wero divided into
three lots, and closely confined ; we proceeded
to fattt.!! them, by stoaininn; four bu.shela of
small |)otntoo3, twelve bushels of apple pomace,
four bushels of pumpkins, and one hundred-
weight of buck-wheat cornel, addin<; u little
salt; the whole being well incorporated to-
gether, while hot from the steamer, with a
wooden pounder, and suttered to undergo fer-
mentation before it was used as food. They
were, at the same time, supplied with plenty
of charcoal and pure water. AVhile feeding
them with the first steamer, or the compound,
a more than ordinary moisture was observed
on their litter, which was occasioned by urine:
a knowledge of animal nature convinced the
owner, that any more than an ordinary flow
would weaken the system, and retard the
progress of fattening ; and he attributed this
evil to the steamed pumpkins acting as a
diuretic, stimulating the kidneys, and increas-
ing the evacuation of urine. In the next
steamer, therefore, four busliels of ruta-baga
were substituted for the pumpkins, and this
had the desired eflfect. The experiment af-
forded proof that a mixture thus compounded,
contains a larger mass of nutritive material
ready prepared for the action of the stomach,
and therefore producing flesh more rapidly,
than any other combination of food made
use of.

Professor Johnston furnishes a table of the
comparative nutritive elements of different
kinds of food ; and from which we take the
following materials used in the feeding of the
pig:—

Flesh -and-bonc-
Hoat-produfing : producing : Fat-producing :
Starch, sugar. Gluten, albumen,

gum, &c. legumt-n, &c. Fatty matter.

Wheat . . 55 . . 15 . .3 per cent.

Barky . . CO . . 14 . . 2 „

Oats . . CO . . IC . . C

Rye ... CO . . 13 . . 3

Indian corn . 70 . , 12 . . 7 ,,

B-ice ... 75 . 7 . . 07 „

Beans ... 40 . . 20 . . 3 ,,

Peas ... 50 . , 24 . . 21 ,,

Potetoes . . IS . , 2 . , 0-3 ,,

Turnips . . 9 . . 1-5 . . 03 ,,

Carrots . . 10 . . lo . . 04 „

Mangel-wurzel 11 . . 2 . . ,,

A food, formed of the combination of roots
— say potatoes and grain, as oats — is general) v
chosen by the best pig-feeders for fattening

larpfe pigs. The Ilov. Arthur loung, in bis
work on fattening cattle and Bwine, gives
the following directions in refert'uco to the
beat method of using grain aa a meal for this
purpose: — "The most prolitablo method of
converting corn, of any kind, into food f^r hogs,
is to grind it into meal, and mix this with
water in cisterns, in the proportion of five
busiiela of meal to one huiuired gallons of
water; stir it well several times a-day, for
three weeks, in cold weather, or for a fortnight
in a warmer season — by which it will have
fermented well, and become acid ; till which
time it is not ready to give. It should be
stirred immediately before feeding. Two or
three cisterns should be kept fermenting in
succession, that no necessity may occur for
giving it not duly prepared. The diirereuco
in profit between feeding in this manner, and
giving the grain whole, is very great — so great,
that whoever tries it once, will not be apt to
[ changeit for the common method." In another
portion of his work, tlie same author observes
— " Some persons appear to be exceedingly suc-
cessful in fattening their pigs on bread made
of coarse rye or barley-meal. They cut this
bread in pieces ; dry it in an oven ; then soak it
in water, mash it, and give it to the animals
in the form of porridge. Where sour milk or
whey can be substituted for water, this food is
said to surpass all others for quickness and
efficacy in fattening, and for the goodness of
the flesh and the fat it produces."

AVheat-meal is not so well relished as oat-
meal, because, from its glutinous character, it
sticks to the teeth of the animals, and thus
annoys them ; and all annoyances do harm to
fattening animals. For store pigs, nothing
more is necessary than the pickings of the
fold-yard (especially where cattle are fed on
linseed cake ; for they will carefully collect all
the dung in this case, and feed upon it), with
a few chopped turnips and a little sour wash
in winter. In summer tliey may be given a
run in the grass fields, with a little wash, in
which almost any refuse may be thrown. As
the pastures fail, and before the stubbles are
ready, a handful of old dry beans in the
morning, per animal, will exercise a very
wonderful influence for the better; the biijding
character of the beans will counteract the too-
relaxiniT wash and grass ; and, when the harvest

77!)

FP.EDIKG.]

PIGS,

[feeding.

is over, the stubbles are a very valuable aux-
iliary. When these are finished, the pigs
should at once be put up to feed ; and at first
a large quantity of roots may be given. It is
a great satisfaction, then, that diseased pota-
toes will not only have no injurious tendency
on either the live animal or its bacon, but will
be almost, if not altogether, as fattening as
when they are sound. Hence the value of a
stock of pigs. As the feeding progresses,
barley or oatmeal should be given in increasing
proportions ; and, as the process becomes more
nearly completed, the whole of the roots may
be abstracted with advantage.

When the pig gets too heavy to stand, in
the west of Yorkshire they give him oatmeal
balls, made just dry enough to hold together;
and the display by the porcine tun-bellied
mammoth, as he lies, eats, and sleeps, with the
evident satisfaction he evinces, shows that they
are no bad j udges of his appetite. Boiling and
steaming the food is absolutely essential to
pigs. Their digestive powers being by no
means strong, they partake of the sluggishness
of their general organism. Hence they must
have their roots broken down by steam or
boiling, and their grain not merely crushed,
but absolutely made into flour.

Position, circumstances, and price, will often
decide the kind of food given to pigs ; and those
who make pig-feeding a business, and conse-
quently keep a number of them, should so
manage as to be enabled to provide for their
maintenance and fattening from the produce
of their crops. "They should therefore cul-
tivate, for pig-feeding, beans, peas, barley,
buck-wheat, potatoes, flax, parsnips, carrots,
lettuce, lucerne, rye-grass, Italian clover, rape,
chicory, and vetches ; they should also sow
thistle — which is a most nutritious article of
diet for pigs ; but so much neglected, that it is,
as yet, scarcely ever to be met with in a state
of cultivation, or in any condition but that of
a weed. Nor ought we to forget a most im-
portant article of porcine dietary — namely,
mangel and Swedish turnips."

" Until this last year," says an anonymous
writer in the Farmer's Gazette, " I was in the
habit of giving them steamed potatoes, with a
portion of broken corn, and now and then
bean- meal. The latter article I have used
very little, as beans are seldom grown in mv
780

district, except by the landed proprietors, and
a few extensive farmers. I resolved this year
to try, for experiment, if pigs could be fat-
tened on Swedish turnips ; and am happy to
say, at present, my herd are fattening as well
as they were this time last year, when they
were consuming a great quantity of potatoes.
Hay being so scarce this year on my small
farm, I should have been obliged to buy a con-
siderable quantity, had I not changed my
mode of feeding. The potatoes my pigs ate
last year, I am able to give to my horses and
cows, thereby saving my hay ; and I have no
doubt but pigs can be fattened as well, though
not, perhaps, as quickly, on steamed Swedish
turnips. I give them as much as they can eat
of the turnips, mixed with a little broken corn
and wheat chaff", with about a pint of buttermilk
to every three pigs ; and I have every reason to
expect, judging from their present improve-
ment, that they will be ready for market about
a fortnight later than I had them last year,
and at, at most, one-half the expense. I bought
them in the beginning of December, for about
£2 a-head ; and, if they continue to improve
as they are doing, I have no doubt but they
will average from 4 to 4-2- cwt. at Christ-
mas," &c.

Eice is, also, an important article used in
porcine dietary. An amateur pig-breeder
says — " We purchased from the government
stores several tons of damaged rice at a very
cheap rate ; with this we fattened our pigs ;
and such pork I never saw before or since.
The fat was as firm and solid as the lean, and
the flavour of the meat very superior. The
way in which the rice was prepared as food
was as follows : — My copper held forty gallons ;
in the afternoon it was filled, or nearly so,
with water ; as soon as the water boiled, the
fire was raked out, two pails of rice immersed
in the vrater, and the whole covered close
down, and left to stand until the morning.
On the following day tlie copper was emptied
of its contents, which consisted of a thick jelly,
so firm as only to be taken out with a shovel ;
and on those contents the pigs were fed. The
effect was perfect. As to the economy of the
plan, that, of course, must be a matter depen-
dent upon circumstances; we louud it more
profitable than almost any other kind ot food
we could have given, from the price at which

rEEUIKO.]

AND Til 1:1 K VARIOUS BREEDS.

[feedixo.

we were able to purcliase tl>e rice, aud its
goodness. From slight experiments, I am
induced to tliitik that fqual parts of rico-jelly
and niashfil potatoes would coiistiluto an ex-
cellent food." iiay-toa is another advanta-
geous kind of feeding, of which wo have an
account given by ^Ir. liichardson. Tho article
was firi<t publicly announced by ^Ir. Saunders,
of Stroud, in Gloucesteri^hirc. This gentle-
man was induced to try it with pigs,
from having observed its elficacy in weaning
calves ; and the result was laid before the
public in the columns of tho Agricultitral
Magazine. In the manufacture of his tea, he
employed various sorts of qualities of hay.
The most suitable were found to bo clover,
sainfoin, and lucerne. The tea produced from
an infusion of these plants was thickened with
grains, pollard, bran, any kind of meal most
abundant at the time, boiled cabbages, or po-
tatoes ; but he had no carrots, or he would
have used them. Mr. Saunders generally
compounded several of these ingredients into
a mess, aud found that one sack of potatoes,
thus used, went as far in feeding as four or
five bags given in an unmixed state ; the ex-
pense being also greatly reduced. He gradually
increased his stock of swine to the number of
400, and, in the course of his experiments,
used upwards of 1,500 hogsheads of wash, or
about live hogsheads daily, llis swine were
thus maintained at a rate somewhat under one
penny per day for eacli — were in excellent
condition, and many, indeed, ripe and ready
for the butcher. He had previously been
feeding them on potatoes alone ; and after he
resorted to this new method of feeding, he,
within a week or fortnight, found his stock not
only improved in coat and skin, but in general
health and condition. Mr, Saunders used to
store his potatoes, after having them steamed,
in casks carefully closed ; and found that, thus
stored, they were preserved sweet for twelve
months, and fermenting, generally, a sort of
spirit, which, as it promoted sleepiness in the
swine, conduced to their acquiring fat with
more than ordinary rapidity, as well as giving
to the pork a peculiarly rich and delicate
flavour. One sack of meal was thus found
to go as far as two under the old system ;
and he found also, that thickening the wash
gradually with meal, formed the best introduc-

tion to what are generally kuu ,vu as tho higher
and last stages of tho process of fattening. la
Mr. Saunders' calculationH, ho did not take
tho manure into consideration at all ; but had
ho done so, of course, even his eatiiiiate of ono
penny per day for tho feeding of one pig,
would have been considerably reduced.

Indian corn is another article employed iu
fattening tho pig. Professor Voelcker says
tiiat it is richer in fat-forming matters than
any other description of food. Tho ready-
made fat, in corn, amounts to from live and
a-half to six percent. ; but animals should not
bo led entirely on Indian corn, because the
flesh-forming matter in it is small. Bean-
meal supplies the deficiency. Five pounds ol'
Indian corn, ground or crushed, to one pound
of bean-meal, is a mixture which contains tho
proportion of flesh-forming and fattening
matters nicely balanced. Flax-seed is also
used for fattening swine ; " but," says Mr,
Richardson, " such as have adopted it, have
not found it to answer nearly so well in the
crude state as in boll, previously kiln-dried,
and well crushed, so as to crack the seed ;
otherwise the animal will pass a large pro-
portion of the seed in a whole state. Tlie
whole seed also acts as a purgative and diu-
retic— qualities which will be seen to be opposed
to the secretion of fat. To prepare the bolls
for food, steep them for twelve hours in water,
which may be poured on them in a tepid
state, but not at boiling heat; and, prior to
giving the mess, add as much lukewarm wash
as will bring it to the consistence of gruel.
This wash may be produced from brewer's
grains, or simply from mangel or Swedish
turnips, well boiled and smashed, and given
with the water in which they have been boiled.
The addition of a proportion of bran improves
the mess ; and, when at hand, it should not
be omitted. The adoption of hay-tea, as the
vehicle for mixing these ingredients, will be
found also advantageous. Do not boil the
flax bolls. Boiling will produce a coarse,
tough, and not very digestible mass ; but
steeping, on the contrary, furnishes a rich aud
nutritious jelly. Linseed-cake is a good sub-
stitute for the bolls ; and it is to be given in
the proportion of a stone, substituted for
seventeen or eighteen pounds of ground bolls.
Xeither the linseed-cake nor the bruised bolls

781

FEEDING.]

PIGS,

[rEEDiNa.

should be given, except in combination with a
large proportion of other substances, as they
are of a very greasy nature, and are apt to nn-
part a rank flavour to the flesh, if given in an
unmixed state ; and are, besides, actually more
eflacacious in combination. If there is plenty
of meal, the addition of a little to one of the
daily feeds will be found to tell well, especially
towards the close of fattening, a few weeks
previous to transferring your stock to the
butcher. The refuse of mills also forms a very
valuable item in swine-food, when mixed with
such boiled roots as have been enumerated;
or as what are called starch-sounds, the refuse
from the manufacture of that article; and
also the fibrous refuse remaining from the
manufacture of potato starch." In treating
of this subject, we must not forget to notice
the important experiments made by B. Lawes,
Esq., on the chemistry of pig-feeding; and
published in the fourteenth volume of the
Eoyal Agricultural Society. This Essay is of
the greatest value to the scientific agriculturist;
but for general perusal, is, perhaps, too elabo-
rate. The food employed in the experiments
made by this gentleman, comprised —

1. Equal weights of beans and lentils. —
2. Indian corn. — 3. Bran.

The food was accurately weighed, and the
animals were, every fourteen days, put into
the scales. Eor the first series of experiments,
thirty-six animals, of the same character and
age — about ten months — were bought and
separated into lots of three each. They were
then inclosed in twelve pens, and, for twelve
days, fed alike; but afterwards changed from pen
to pen, and the evil-disposed, or quarrelsome
ones, whipped, so that they might all be
brought into a sufficiently agreeable state, to
start fair in the feeding experiment for weight.
When this had fairly commenced, twelve dieta-
ries were prepared from three standard food-
stuffs, and arranged in the following order: —
Pen 1. — Of bean and lentil mixture, an un-
limited quantity allowed.

Pen 2. — Two pounds of Indian corn to each
pig per day ; of beans and lentils, unlimited.

Pen 3. — Two pounds of bnin per pig per
day, and beans and lentils unrestricted.

Pen 4. — Two pounds of Indian corn, two
pounds of bran, and the beans and lentils un-
restricted.
782

Pen 5. — Indian corn alone, in unlimited

quantity.

Pen 6. — Two pounds of beans and lentils,

and an unlimited quantity of Indian corn.
Pen 7. — Two pounds of bran per day, and

an unrestricted quantity of Indian corn.

Pen 8. — Two pounds of bean and lentil

mixture, two pounds of bran, and unlimited

Indian corn.

Pen 9. — Two pounds of bean and lentil

mixture, with bran unlimited.

Pen 10. — Two pounds of Indian corn-meal,

and bran unlimited.

Pen 11. — Two pounds of bean and lentil

mixture ; two pounds of Indian corn, with an

unlimited quantity of bran.

Pen 12. — Beau and lentil mixture ; Indian

corn-meal and bran; each separately and un-
limited.

To render this food more palatable it was

mixed with water, and the animals were fed
with it three times a-day — early in the morning,
at noon, and at five in the evening. In the
first two feeds, a small quantity of the food
which was to be given ad libitum, was mixed
with that which was limited, and care was taken
that the pigs should always have a liberal al-
lowance within their reach. The troughs were
also carefully cleaned out before a fresh supply
of food was put into them.

Three sets of pigs having been portioned off,
and put into twelve pens, containing three
each, they were subjected to three series of
experiments, with the various proportions of
the food mentioned. In one series, barley-
meal took the place of Indian corn ; and the
third series was devoted to the trial of dried
Newfoundland cod-fish, in connection with the
other food named. The quantity given varied
from one to two pounds of cod-fish per day.
In all cases it was boiled, and a portion of other
food mixed with the soup thus obtained. The
more simple conclusions at which Mr. Lawes
arrived are as follow : — " Indian corn, or bar-
ley-meal, given with a liberal supply of bran, is
f^ood ; the bran contributing to the value of
the manure. Wiien the animals had unre-
stricted access to three kinds of food— namely,
to the highly nitrogenous false mixture, the
non-nitrogenous Indian meal, and the mode-
rately nitrogenous bran— the proportion of their
first week's consumption was gradually diacon-

FEEDINa.l

AM) 111 1:1 li VAKlolS BKKKDS.

[kebdino.

tinued as they approached maturity ; and,
throughout, cousunied ouly five per cent, of
brail. The average eonsuinption of corn, per
pig, per week, was sixty pounds, or ahout nine
pouiuls per day, wliicli yielded from ten to
twelve pounds of meat per week, or about one-
and-a-half pounds per day. As tlio animal
fattened, a considerable reduction took place in
the consumption of food. The nearer it ap-
proaclicd to maturity, the greater was the j)ro-
portion of fat in the gross increase obtained.
On the whole, it was found — " That the larger
the proportion of nitrogenous compounds in
the food, the greater was tiie tendency to in-
crease in frame and flesh ; but that the ma-
turing or ripening of the animal — in fact, its
fattening — depended very much more on the

hard, and the fat wastes in cooking. Fish,
flfHh, and strong oily matters, give the pork a
rank flavour. Finally, it is the iutercHt of the
farmer to uso highly nitrogenous leguminous
seeds, and even refuse flcHh, if at command,
during the earlitT and growing stagca of his
bacon hogs. But if a constant market ia to bo
secured for pork, barley-meal, or other cerfal
grain, must supersede everything else as fat-
tening proceeds."

Sucli were tlio general conclusions arrived
at by Mr. Lawes, after he had made a series
of the most elaborate experiments which were
ever entered upon by any scientific pig-breeder
whatever; and we arc all aware that swine aro
often kept and maintained by butchers, mostly
upon such garbage as entrail.'', the paunches,

amount of certain digestible non-nitrogenous lights, and the viscera of sheep and cattle, as
constituents in the food. It also appeared that well as the blood. The pig being omnivorous,
some of the cheaper, highly nitrogenous foods, | hardly any kind of food comes amiss to him;
would produce a given amount of gross in- but, when the animal is not fed upon choice or
crease more economically than the expensive selected food, his flesh becomes both rank in
ones (peas, beans, etc.), which are usually pre- smell and taste, and is easily recognised as
ferred by pork -feeders. If the amount of gross not having been nourished by a vegetable
produce of meat, in return for a given amount dietary. Pork-butchers, resident in large
of food of a given money value, is alone to be towns, usually feed their pigs with their gar-
taken into consideration, then, in addition to bage, and not unfrequently help greatly to
roots, wash, &c., it would be most advantageous I support one pig by the offal of another. This
to rely for fattening upon highly nitrogenous practice is very disgusting ; and, if it were
foods, such as dried fish or animal refuse, or generally known, we believe that there would

leguminous seeds, beans, lentils, and the like ;
because, not only would the weight be obtained
at less cost than by the use of cereal grains,
but the manure, the value of which must never

be much fewer purchasers of pork than there
really are. ]\Ir. Eichardson says that there is
yet another kind of pig-feeding, which has a
great tendency to produce revolting sensations.

be lost sight of in calculating the economy of. It is that of feeding swine in knackers' yards,
the feeding process, would be much richer than "The animals are kept by these persons iu
if the latter were employed. But it is not a ' considerable numbers, and are fed wholly upon
large amount of gross increase that makes the the refuse of the dead horses — chiefly the en-
farmer's profit upon his sties. When pigs arc ; trails, the carcass being in too great demand
fed freely upon highly succulent food, such as ' among those who keep dogs to permit of its
cooked roots, the refuse of starch, herbs, and being unnecessarily wasted. I have frequently
the like, they are frequently found to give a been disgusted by the sight, in one of these
very rapid increase. But pork so fed is found ' yards, of three or four fierce, wolfish-looking

to sink rapidly iu the salting process, and to
waste considerably when boiled. And, al-
though the first batch of pigs so fed may fetch
a good price, their character is at once de-
tected, and the market closed against a second
sale. On the other hand, when pigs are fat-
tened upon the highly nitrogcnised legumin-
ous seeds — peas being, however, much less
objectionable than some others— tlie bone is

hogs, thfir muzzles plunged to the eyes in the
abdomen of a slaughtered horse, and their
savage jaws dripping with gore. Nor aro
these horses always fresli. I have witnessed
the swine, on more than one occasion, revelling
in corvKj^tion, and disputing with the maggot
and the worm the possession of a mass of liquid
putrefaction. In Paris this shocking practice
has been long known ; but where the hiacJcera

7S3

FEEDING. J

PIGS,

[feedikq.

themselves are in the habit of regaling on the
choicest morsels, can we wonder that they
should fancy the less dainty portions of the
same old carrion good enough for hogs ? In
the yards attached to many of the continental
schools of veterinary science, a similar, but, if
possible, more disgusting spectacle is con-
stantly to be witnessed. "While such a practice
is tolerated, with what caution should we not
purchase bacon or pork, lest we should thus
eat, at second-hand, of substances so revolting
to the feelings, so dangerous to individual and
public health ! Whether knackers should be
permitted to keep swine at all, is, indeed, a
question ; for, without an express prohibition
to that effect, issued by the higher powers, I
do not see how the evils of which I have spoken
could possibly be removed. Chandler's greaves
are likewise objectionable as food for swine,
unless given in comparatively small quantities,
and mixed with bran- meal and boiled roots.
If fed wholly on either greaves or oil-cake,
or flax-seed, the flesh becomes loose, unsub-
stantial, and carriony, and gives out a flavour
resembling that of rancid oil."

Pigs that have been fed chiefly on corn, al-
ternately with the vegetable diet, yield pork
nearly equal in delicacy of flavour, whiteness of
colour, and consequent value, to that well-
known delicious article, dairy pork. "When
swine are not of very large size, and it is de-
sirable to raise pork rather than bacon, a very
economical mode of feeding may be advantage-
ously adopted. It consists of equal parts of
boiled Swedish turnips and bran. If it be de-
sirable to render the accumulation of fat a little
more rapid, let oatmeal be substituted for bran.

"We have more than once spoken of the great
requisite of cleanliness to the well-being of
pigs. A hog washed weekly with soap and a
brush, will be found to thrive, and take on flesh
in a ratio of at least five to three, in compari-
son with one not so treated. This has been
proved. There can be no possible question
about its correctness ; and, as it is not a very
difficult operation, neither involving a great
deal of time or much cost, it should be attended
to. Surfeiting hogs is an evil as well as starv-
ing them. Illustrative of this, the following
anecdote is adduced by Mr. jNIoubray : — " Pour
or five-and-twenty years ago, the late Mr. Tat-
tersall requested of me to choose him a store-
78i

pig, to put up for fattening. I applied to Mr.
Wyat, the then salesman, and we chose one at
Pinchley, out of a fine drove of Serefords, not
then out of fashion. After the hog had been
at Mr. Tattersall's two or three days, I re-
ceived a letter from him, to tell me it was taken
very bad — in fact, dying/ On inspection, I
found the animal sleepy and torpid, refusing
food, but occasionally throwing up the contents
of its stomach, which consisted of half-digested
meal. I immediately perceived the cause of
the patient's malady. The feeder, determined
to lose no time, had been assiduously filling
the trough with food. The hog being empty,
after a long journey, voraciously devoured it,
until its stomach was filled, and its digestive
organs totally overpowered. My prescription
was, abstinence from corn, a moderate quantity
of sweet grains, thin wash, and sulphur with it :
in a few hours the hog was perfectly recovered.
In the sequel, the feeder held up his hands with
astonishment at the possibility of a hog being
gorged with food."

Many examples might be given of the great
weight attained by pigs, when they have
been skilfully fed and properly attended to.
A Mrs. Snarbrich, of Naseby, is instanced as
having fed a pig, which, eight weeks before she
was publicly noticed, farrowed nine fine young
pigs, which were sold in Garstang market for
£7, being five weeks old, and this her second
litter. The former litter realised the same
sum ; and, when slaughtered, the sow weighed
thirty-four score, which realised, at 85. per
score, £13 125.; which, by adding the £14
for the two litters of pigs, makes the value of
this pig amount to £27 12^. This was a
profit of more value than could be made from
a fat cow in the same neighbourhood.

The following was the mode of feeding
adopted : — " Profit was the great object of the
feeder of the pig slaughtered by Mr. Eccleston,
of Garstang; and it would have well repaid
keeping for a few weeks longer ; but Lent being
at hand was the reason why it was not kept.
Here, in this experiment, is a clear proof that it
is better to keep pigs more than one year for
profit ; and it is well known that there is little
gained by feeding an old sow. The food of this
pig had been principally whey, as in this neigh-
bourhood there are large quantities of cheese
made, and the whey is excellent both for pigs

CAT I lO.NS.]

AxND TliKlli VAUIULS liUKEU.S.

CAL'TIONS.

ami calves ; uiul if it was not for them it ,
would not bi' coiisuiued. To this wlit-y wore
merely added what waste and leaviut,'8 were j
made in the house, or what is called the sioil- ^
lens. When she had the younp pi^js, she luid j
about 12 lbs. oforttnieal allowed the first week,
which was made into porriiiii;e. The mode of
feeding for fattening was on oalmeal and
potatoes. Tiie latter were boiled by them-
selves; to 21 lbs. of meal were added 7 lbs. of
potatoes, they being boiled to a complete jelly,
and then mixed witii the meal, and made into
balls. It consumed 90 lbs. of meal, and 30 lbs. 1
of potatoes per week, with whey and water to
drink ; so that in eight weeks it consumed
720 lbs. of meal, the price being lid. per lb.,
and which, therefore, amounts to £3 15*. ; and ,
the oOlbs. of potatoes per week, amounts to
210 lbs., which, at Id. per pound, amounts to
5s. ; and there were also 20 lbs. of wheat bran
given to it at diflerent times, to keep its bowels
open ; the price of this bran was Is. 2d. ; and
for 2ilbs. of meal, given to it when it had the
young pigs, 2s. Gd. The price of the pig, at
tirst, \\as 125. : which makes the total amount
laid out on this pig, to be £4- 15*. Sd. ; and, j
therefore, by deducting this sum from the '
£27 12s., the produce, it leaves a clear profit |
of £22 IG*. -iid., besides the valuable manure it
must have made in the course of the two years." ;

The ibllowiug cautions, which we have ■
slightlv altered, in conjunction with the direc-
tions already given relative to feeding, are
suggested by Mr. Kichardson : — j

Avoid foul feeding. No food fit for the
table can proceed from unclean feeding. — Add
salt, in moderate quantities, to the mess given, i
It is advantageous to do this. — JTeed at regular
intervals. Nothing is more essential to a
healthy animal. AVithout this precaution, all
other attempts at cleanliness will be in vain. —
Cleanse the troughs previous to feeding, by
washing out carefully. — Do not overfeed. Give
only as much as will be consumed at the meal.
Never allow any to remain in the trough :
clean it out for the store pigs. — Vary the bill
of fare. Variety will create, or, at all events,
increase appetite; and it is, farther, most con-
ducive to health. These variations should be
guided by the state of the dung cast : this
should be of medium consistence, and of a
greyish-brown colour. If hard, increase the

o 11

quantity of bran and hueculent roots. If too
licpiid, dimini.sh or tii.spenso with bran, and give
beans or acorns, and let the ntess be firmer. If
a portion of corn can be added, hucIj uh may
have been spoiled, and rendered unfit for other
purpose.««, it will bo found to answer |H'rfectly
well. — Feed stock .sfpitratcly, in classi-.-*, uc-
curding to their rehitivi^ conditions; keep sows
in young by themselves; stores by themselves;
and bacon pig:< and porkers by themselves. It
is not advisable to keep stores too high ia
llesh ; for high feeding, however strange it
may seem, is calculated to retard development
of form and bulk. It ie better to feed pigs
intended to be put np for bacon, loosely, and
not too abundantly, until they have attained
their full stature. They can be brou'^ht into
the highest possible condition in an incon-
ceivably short space of time. It is by such
a system of management as this, that the
monstrous swine ave raised — their weight
frequently exceeding 1,200 lbs., or, at all
events, half a ton.- Do not regret the lost
or scarcity of potatoes, so far as swine-feeding
is concerned. The potato is capable of being
replaced ; and its loss has been the means of
stimulating inquiry, and producing experiment,
which has resulted in the discovery that many
other useful vegetables have been hitherto
neglected, and thoughtlessly passed aside. —
Do not neglect to keep swine clean, dry, and
icarm. These are essentials, and not less im-
perative than feeding ; for an inferior descrip-
tion of food will, by their aid, succeed far
better than the highest feeding without them ;
and, while speaking of cleanliness, we may
reiterate the benefit derivable from washiiig
pigs; this will amply repay the trouble.
They are always washed for agricultural shows,
where they must be exhibited fat. — Watch the
warJcets. Sell when a reasonable profit is to
be got. Many a man has swamped himself by
his cupidity, and by desiring to realise an un-
usual amount of gain. Recollect how very
fiuctuating are the markets, and that a certain
gain is far better than the risk of loss. Even
great capitalists have fallen from over-avidity.
Before leaving this subject, it may be bene-
ficial, as well as interesting, to give a few in-
stances of pigs which, by difterent kinds of
feeding, have, in a given time, arrived at a pro-
portionate increase of wcighi. 31 r. Laureraco

7S.5

FATTENIXa.]

PIGS,

[rATTENiya,

notices a few of these. He says that fifty
large Norfolk swine, from 18 to 19 stone
each, in thriving, healthy condition, were
kept so on four-and-a-half bushels of peas per
day, with wash ; being about three quarts each
per day. A Hampshire sow, .weighing 11
stone, was stored upon two quarts and a-half
of peas per day, with roots and wash. A
Shropshire hog, three years old, was kept in
high condition as a store — being nearly 80
stone, or 640 lbs. weight — on three bushels of
barley-meal, with house-wash as usual, for
every seventeen days : about eleven pints per
day. The Earl of Winchelsea's celebrated pi'ize
hog, so much admired when exhibited, con-
sumed, of corn and meal, one quarter, one bushel,
and one peck, in fourteen weeks and three
days. This animal was of the Suffolk breed,
and consequently small. A Kentish hog, being
six months old, and weighing 20 stone 1 lb., or
161 lbs., having been put up to fatten, con-
sumed, during a period of forty-two weeks,
forty-six bushels of peas and barley. It was
then killed; and when stripped of its head,
feet, flare, or internal fat, all loose fat, skirts,
and kidneys, it was found to weigh 53 stone
3 lbs. A Tonquin pig — an epithet then given
to the black and white, or improved Essex
breed — weighed, at four months old, 104|- lbs.
It was put up for forty-seven weeks; when,
during that period, it consumed eleven bushels
two pecks of hog peas, and eighteen sacks of
meal, at 85 lbs. to the sack. "When killed, its
weight was 30 stone 2 lbs., at 8 lbs. to the
stone; and it bad, as usual, been dressed London
fashion; that is, deprived of head, legs, flare,
loose fat, &c.

Mr. French Burke gives the following
details : —

" The time requisite for fattening, depends,
of course, on the condition of the animal when
put up, as well as upon its age. If a young
store, five or six weeks may be sufficient ; if
older, six or eight ; and if the mature age in-
tended for a perfect bacon hog, of that mode-
rate degree of size and fatness which is pre-
ferred for the general consumption of the
middle classes, from twelve to fourteen. A
bacon hog, if intended to be thoroughly fat-
tened for farm use, should, however, be of a
large breed, and brought to such a state as
not to be able to rise without difficulty ; but
786

may, perhaps, require five or six months, or
even more, to bring him to that condition.
This, however, supposes him to be completely
fat ; to ascertain which with perfect accuracy,
he ought to be weighed every week during the
latter part of the process ; for although his
appetite will gradually fall off as he increases
in fat, yet the flesh which he will acquire will
also diminish, until, at last, it will not pay for
Ids food, and he should then be immediately
slaughtered. Thus the increase of flesh in a
pig put up to be fattened, and regularly
weighed, was, on the following dates : —

stone.

lbs.

' Oct. 10 .

. . 36

7

„ 24 .

. 41

5 .

. 38 lbs. gain.

Nov. 7 .

. 45

7 .

. 34 do.

„ 21 .

. 47

2 .

. 11 do.

Dec. 5 . .

. 48

7 .

. 13 do.

» 22 . .

. 48

6 .

1 lb. loss.

*• Eespecting the quality of food, vast num-
bers of bacon hogs are imported from Ire-
land, where they are almost invariably fed
upon potatoes ; but however apparently satis-
factory may be their weight and condition,
yet, when slaughtered immediately, or before
having several weeks of substantial food, to
harden their flesh, they are always found in-
ferior to the corn-fed pork and bacon of this
country, the fat having a tallowy appearance,
of an insipid taste, and shrinking for want of
firmness ; whereas, when boiled, it should be
transparently hard, with a tinge of pink in
its colour ; the flavour should be good, and the
meat should swell in the pot. Potatoes, there-
fore, though fine food for stores, should never
be used alone as sustenance in the fattening
of bacon hogs ; for, in proportion to the quan-
tity employed, they will render the flesh, and
consequently the price, inferior to that of hogs
which have been properly fed. They are,
however, frequently employed, when steamed,
in conjunction with either tail or stained
barley, coarsely ground; and farmers who
grow potatoes for the market, may thus profit-
ably dispose of the chats along with their
unmarketable corn: but those persons who
wish to acquire a reputation for producing
fine bacon, should never use anything for fat-
tening but hard meat, together with skim-
milk, if it can be procured." The rapidity
with which flesh can be laid on by pigs,

BLATJonTEnrso.]

AM) Tiii'i \i v.\iM(M's ni;Ki:ns.

[rlaughtebino.

(says Mr. Kiclmrdaon), when all the resources
of human skill aro broiip;ht to bear upon the
point, is further illustrated by an experiment
mailo by a very intellii^eut agrieulturist, Mr.
John duthwaite, of Bainessee, related at the
Thir.sk meeting; of the Yorksliiro Agricultural
Society. He laid a wager of £10, that one of
hi3 pig3 would lay on 10 stones in a month,
in place of one iu a week, which is the usual

average of a well-fed pig. He estimated the
weight of the atiiinal at 32 stones ; and it
increased lu-arly a stone over the gain of 10
stones in twenty-eight days. The eye can,
perhaps, detect tho increaMO in pigs' flcHh more
readily than either in cattle or in sheep — the
touch being called to tho aid in both these, to

I assist tho eye, which is scarcely ever done ia

[ tho fat pig of any ago whatever.

CHAPTER V.

SLAUGHTERING; CURING BACON AND IIAMS.

The ordinary way of slaughtering a pig in the
country, is to tie a rope round the upper jaw,
and throw it across a joist or beam. This, by
an assistant, is pulled just sufBciently tight to
force the animal to support himself upon the
extremities of his toes, whilst his snout is
raised in the air. The butcher then kneels in
front of him, and taking a knife, first shaves
away the hair from a small portion of the front
of the throat ; then gently passing the blade
through the superficial fat, he gives it a forward
thrust, a turn, and then draws it out. This
operation is followed by a gush of blood, which
is caught in various vessels, for the purpose of
being manufiictured into black-puddings. The
rope is next a little slackened, and life speedily
becomes extinct. The next process is to put
the pig into a scalding-tub, whence he is soon
withdrawn, placed upon a table, and the hair
and bristles carefully removed by scraping
with a knife. He is next disembowelled. The
more humane practice of stupefying the animal
with a knock on the head before his throat is
submitted to the knife, is often done ; but we
have heard it asserted, that a pig does not
scald so well unless he has some remains of
life in him. The ordinary way of ascertaining
the death of the animal, is by passing a sharp
knife between the claws, where the part is
extremely sensitive ; and the scalding process,
if he quivers or exhibits some lingering signs

[ of life, is not allowed to begin utitil this ceases.

! When this no longer appears, it is token for
granted that sensation has fled. An important
element in the production of good bacon is,
that the pig should be slaughtered as quickly,
and with as little excitement, as possible. Tho
animal, for at least a day, ought not to be
allowed any kind of nutriment ; and in killing
the greatest care should be taken thoroughly
to divide the jugular vein, so that he may
bleed both rapidly and completely. After this
comes the cutting-up.

" The hog," says Mr. Henderson, " should
be left fasting for full twenty-four hours before
being killed ; and, after the carcass has hung
all night, it should be laid upon its back upon
a strong table. The head should then be cut
off close to the ears, and the hinder feet so far
below the houghs as not to disfigure the hams,
and leave room sufficient to hang them up by ;
after which the carcass is divided into equal
halves, up the middle of tiie back-bone, with a
cleaving knife, and, if necessary, a hand-mallet.
Then cut the ham from the side by the second
joint of the back-bone, which will appear on
dividing the carcass, and dress the ham by
paring a little off the flank, or skinny part, so
as to shape it with a half-round point, clear-
ing oft" any top fat that may appear. The
curer will next cut off the sharp edge along
the back-bone with a knife and mallet, and

787

CURING.]

PIGS,

[cueing.

slice off the first rib next the shoulder, where
he will find a bloody vein, which must be taken
out ; for if lei't in that part it is apt to spoil.
The corners should be squared off when the
hara is cut out."

For curing bacon, there is, literally, no end
of recipes ; and in Yorkshire, Westmoreland,
and Cumberland, no sugar is made use of.
Mr. Eowlaudson's plan for saltiug is thus
described : — " Having cut up a well-fed hog,
which absorbs much less salt than an ill-fed
animal, and runs very little risk of having been
over-fed, salt and saltpetre, in the proportions of
about one pound and a-half of salt, and one of
saltpetre, to 41 lbs. of meat, must be sprinkled
over the flitches, &c. ; and then they must be
liid, one over the other, in a slate trough, or
a wooden trough lined with lead, to the num-
ber of half-a-dozen. In the course of twenty-
four or forty-eight hours, according as the salt
is converted into brine (and this will depend
on the atmosphere ; in frosty weather the meat
will not take the salt, and in moist weather
it is apt to spoil), tiie sides are removed,
rubbed, replaced in inverse order, the top at
the bottom, with a little fresh salt sprinkled
between each course, and the brine thrown
over the whole. In favourable weather for
curing, once turning and replacing \%ill be
found enough, and will not occupy more than
a vreek. Packed dry with layers of salt, and
covered with canvas, bacon is thus prepared
' green' for the Loudon markets, and thence
drawn to be smoked as required for consump-
tion." To this Mr. Eowlandson adds, "that
nothing makes better hams or bacon than a
well-bred sow, spayed after producing four or
five litters."

The most approved method of curing bacon,
as practised by a majority of extensive curers,
is thus given by Mr. Eiehardson : — " If the
swine you design killing have been a recent
purchase, and have been driven from a distance,
so as to have become winded or jaded, it is
right that they should be kept up for a week,
or perhaps more, until the eill'cts of the jour-
ney have been entirely removed, and the
animals restored to their original tranquillity
and primeness of condition. During this in-
terval they should be fed upon meal and water.
A difference of opinion exists, as to whether
this food should be given in a raw state or
788

boiled. I have taken some pains to ascertain
the truth, and have no hesitation in pronounc-
ing in favour of the latter. At the same time,
however, the mess should be given in a per-
fectly cold state, and not of too thick con-
sistence. Some recommend that a small dose
of nitre should be given daily in the food for a
fortnight previous to killing. Others pro-
nounce this to be unnecessary ; but all unite
in recommending a very considerable reduc-
tion in the animal's food for two days before
killing, and a total deprivation of food for at
least the last twenty hours of life."

For dosnestic purposes, bacon is cured by
well rubbing into the flitches a sufficient quan-
tity of salt with a little nitre, either with the
salting-glove or the bare hand. The flitches
are then placed on the floor of an outhouse, and
covered with straw, with the rind downwards-
straw being laid above this ; then another flitch,
and so on. Over the whole is placed a board ;
and, above all, heavy stones or weights. In
three weeks, or a month, the meat is suffi-
ciently salted, and is hung upon hooks in the
kitchen rafters. The general practice of burn-
ing wood and turf, in some kitchens, imparts a
sweetness to the bacon not to be met with in
any which can be purchased. Another mode
is to prepare a pickle, by boiling common salt
and nitre in water. ]\Iix, for a single pig of
tolerable size, 1 lb. of coarse brown sugar with
half a pound of nitre: rub this well in with
the salting-glove; then put the meat into the
pickle, and let it lie there for two days ; after-
wards take it out, and rub it with salt alone ;
then put it back into the pickle. A sweet
pickle may be formed by boiling molasses with
salt and water. In using this, rub the meat
with sugar and nitre ; add a small portion of
strong pickle to the meat ; put the meat into
this, and let it lie in it for three weeks. If
there be any spare room in the cask, fill it up
with molasses. Eight pounds of salt, one pound
of nitre, and sis pints of molasses, will about
suffice for each hundredweight of meat, and
will take about five gallons of water. In about
three weeks — less or more time being required,
according to size — take the meat out of pickle,
and hang it in the drying-house. While
kept there, the flitches should be hung neck
downwards. The ham and the flitch may
be cut out and trimmed, according to fancy.

WESTi'UALiAN ii-VMs] AND TllElK A'AKlOuS IJlil^CDS. [yokksiiiuk u.vcox.

"Nearly every county has, in this respect, a
fashion ot* its own. If you possoss tlio means,
retnovo your haiu.s suul bat'on to the sinoking-
lioiise. They should not bo sulfcrod to touch
each other. With this precaution you may hang
them as closely iis you please. JSnioke-liousea
are of every dimension ; but the smallest an-
swer as well as the most extensive. Before
euspendiiig the meat in the smoke-house, it
should be previously well rubbed over with
bran. The fire is made of sawdust, which
burns with a low smouldering glow, giving out
far more smoke than if actually flaming. In
the process of smoking, your meat will lose
from about 15 to 20 lbs. per hundredweight —
a fact necessar}' to bo borne in mind."

Sometimes the pigs are killed before they
arrive at full size, and their hair removed by
singeing; the bacon and hams of those are
said to possess peculiar delicacy of flavour.
The best sawdust for smoking hams or bacon,
is ihat made from oak, and it should be
thoroughly dry. The sawdust of common
deal imparts a flavour of a disagreeable charac-
ter, not unlike that of red herrings.

"WESTPHALIAN HA:MS.
The genuine Westphaliuu bacon is particu-
larly good, and the fine quality depends on
several causes ; as the healthy and semi-wild
life the swine are permitted to enjoy ; their re-
lationship to the wild boar; and their not being
fattened to the fullest extent previous to kill-
ing. A large portion of sugar and juniper-
lerries is used in curing, the proportion beiu"-
usually 1^ lb. of sugar to 3 lbs. of salt, and
2 ozs. of nitre. The smoJce is also applied in a
cold state. This is, perhaps, the principal
secret. The hams are hung at the top of a
very lofty building, and by the time the smoke
reaches them it is perfectly cold. Tiiese hams
are the most famous in Europe, and are prin-
cipally cured at, and exported from, Hamburg.
The smoking process which they undergo, is
performed in extensive chambers in the upper
storeys of high buildings. Some are four or
five storeys high ; and the smoke is conveyed to
these rooms from fires in the cellar, through
tubes, on which the vapour is condensed, and
the heat absorbed ; so that the smoke is both
dry and cool when it comes in contact with
the meat. They are thus kept perfectly dry.

and acqm'ro a colour and flavour unkuown to
those smokeil by tlie common method. Hams,
after being smoked, may be kept for any length
of time, by being packed in dry aslies or pow-
dered charcoal, or by being left in the smoke-
liou.se, if that is secure against theft; or a
smoke being nj:ide under them once a week.
When meat is fully smoked or dried, it mav
be kept hung up in any dry room, bv Hlipiiing
over it a cotton bag, the neck of which in
closely tied around tiie string that supports
I the meat, and thus preserving the bacon from
bug, Sy, &c. The small part of a iiam or
I shoulder should always be hung downward in
j the process of smoking, or when suspended for
preservation.

I YORKSHIRE BACON.

I The mode of curing, in Yorkshire, consists
I of hanging the pig for twenty-four hours, until
it has become perfectly stilF. It is tlieu cut up
in the common way. The large veins which
I proceed from the jugular are carefully ex-
tracted with a fork. The bacon is then removed
to leaden bowls — the salt wiped over the smooth
side, and the shanks carefully stopped with
salt and saltpetre, from four to six incites deep.
The skin siue is then laid downwards, and the
whole flesh side covered with salt, and sprinkled
with saltpetre. The same is done to the hams
and the other sides ; and the proportion of
coarse salt — which is always used for the pur-
pose, in preference to the more finely pounded
— allowed for a 20 stone pig, is 1 stone of
salt, and 1 lb. of saltpetre ; and so on in
proportion. Two or three pigs may be laid
in a leaden bowl, exposed to a northern aspect,
with plenty of air, and in a place especially
free from all putrefying matter. In three
days all the sides are removed, the bottom
ones placed uppermost, and the whole of the
bare places, in tiie flesh side, again covered with
salt. In tliis way the bacon is removed three or
four times in a mouth, during which period it
is said to be in pickle. It is then taken out
of the leaden bowls, set on an edge, and the
extraneous salt wiped off". It is hung for three
weeks more in the kitchen, and is then fit for
storing away. This is generally done in
sacks, strewed with bran, where it remains
until taken out for use, when it is much
esteemed.

789

DAilPSniEE BACO:S'.]

PIGS,

[scotch BACOir.

HAMPSHIRE BACON.

This bacon is held in very high estimation.
With both Hampshire and Berkshire bacon, the
proper time is to choose a dry day, when the
wind is blowing from the north ; and kill the
hog early in the morniug, if having fasted
the day before. "When dressed," says Mr.
Touatt, " hang him up in some airy place for
twenty-four hours ; then proceed to cut him
up. This being done, lay the flitches on the
ground, and sprinkle them with salt lightly ;
BO let them remain for six or eight hours ; then
turn them up edgeways, and let the brine run
off. In the meantime, take two or three gal-
lons of the best salt, and two ounces of saltpetre,
pounded very fine, and well mixed together ;
and the salting-bench being made of the best
seasoned oak, proceed to salt the flitches by
rubbing in the salt on the back side of the
flitch. This being done, turn the inside up-
wards, and lay on the salt about a quarter ol'
an iucla in thickness. In like manner treat
every flitch. On the third day afterwards
change the flitches — namely, take ofi'the upper-
most, and reverse them at the same time,
laying the salt a quarter of an inch in thick-
ness. There will be no need of rubbing as
before mentioned, neither should the saltpetre
be repeated, otherwise the lean of the bacon
will be hard. The changing and salting should
be done every third day for six successive times,
when the bacon will be suIScieutly salt. Then
proceed to rub oflf all the stale briny salt, and
lay on each flitch a covering of clean fresh
bran or sawdust, and take it to the drying-loft.
It should be there hung, by means of crooks
fastened in the neck of the flitch, and remain
for fourteen or sixteen days. Cleft oak or
ash is the best wood for drying bacon." In
both this county and in Berkshire, singeing is
adopted more generally than scalding; and
this process is considered superior to scalding,
the latter being supposed to soften the rind
and render the fat less firm. The Wiltshire
bacon is of a peculiarly delicious quality ; but
the cause is obvious, and is not to be referred
to any of the details of the curing process.
It is prepared from dairy-fed pork. This is
the true secret. The same remark applies
to the Cumberland bacon. In several counties
the hog is shinned prior to curing. Some
790

amount of additional profit is, of course, de-
rivable from this practice; but the bacon is
inferior, being liable to become rusty, as well
as to waste in the boiling. Hams and flitches
should always be hung up in a dry place.
Indeed, it will be found useful to sew up the
former in pieces of canvas or sacking, as is
the practice with the Westphalian.

THE SCOTCH MODE OF CURING HAMS AND
BACON.

In Mr. Henderson's treatise on swine, we
find the following account of the method of cur-
ing hams and bacon in Scotland: — "In killing
a number of swine, what sides you may have
dressed the first day, lay upon some flags or
boards, piling them across each other, and giving
each flitch a powdering of saltpetre, and then
covering it with salt. Proceed in the same man-
ner with the hams themselves, and do not omit
giving them a little saltpetre, as it opens the
pores of the flesh to receive salt, and gives the
ham, besides, a pleasant flavour, and makes it
more juicy. Let them lie in this state about
a week ; then turn those on the top under-
most, giving them a fresh salting. After lying
two or three weeks longer, they may be hung
up to dry in some chimney or smoke-house ;
or, if the curer chooses, he may turn them
over again, without giving them any more
salt ; in which state they may lie for a month
or two, without taking any harm, until he haa
convenience for drying them. I practised, for
many years, the custom of carting my flitches
and hams through the country to farm-houses,
and used to hang them in their chimneys, and
other parts of the house to dry — some seasons
to the amount of 500 carcasses. This plan,
however, was found to be attended with a
number of inconveniences. About twenty
years ago I contrived a small smoke-house of
very simple construction. It is about twelve
feet square, and the walls about seven feet
high. One of these huts requires six joists
across — one close to each wall, the other
four placed at proper distances. To receive
five rows of flitches, they must be laid
on the top of the wall. A piece of wood,
strong enough to bear the weight of one
flitch of bacon, must be fixed across the belly
end of the flitch by two strings, as the neck
end must be hung downwards. The pieces of

IinSIt HAMS.]

AND Tlli:iU VAIilOUS BKEEDS.

[lUlSU BACON.

wood must be lonpjer than the flitch is wide,
80 that their ends may rest upon a beam.
They may bo put so near to each othi-r as not
to touch. The width of eacli will hoKl twenty-
four flitches in a row, and there will bo five
rows, which will contain 120 flitches. As
many liains may bo hung at the same time
above the flitches, arran£!;ed in the best
manner you can. The lower end of the
flitches will be within two-and-a-half or three
feet of the floor, which must be covered five
or six inches thick with sawdust ; this should
be kindled at two diflorent sides. It will
burn, but not cause any flame to injure the
bacon. The door must be kept close, and the
liut must have a small hole in the roof, so
that part of the smoke may ascend. This lot
of bacon and hams will be ready to be packed
up in a hogshead, and sent off in eight or ten
days, or a little longer, if required, with very
little loss of weight. After the bacon is salted,
it may lie in the salt- house until an order
is received."

THE IRISH MODE OF CURING HAMS
AND BACON.

In Limerick, hams have long had celebrity ;
and their excellence is supposed to arise princi-
pally from the sparing use of salt, and the
substitution for it, to a large extent, of coarse
sugar, accompanied with a judicious plan of
smoking. Some of the rooms in which this
process is carried on, have a height of upwards
of thirty feet. To extract the superabundant
salt from the meat, Mr. Richardson recom-
mends the following : — " Put your meat to
steep in tepid water ; and after it has lain in it
for some hours, add a small quantity of sul-
phuric acid. In three or four hours take it
out, and wash it two or three times in water;
to the third water add a small portion of car-
bonate of soda. Take your meat out, wash it
again, and boil it for dinner. Tou will find
the salt nearly, if not wholly discharged ; but
you need not be surprised, should the colour
of the meat be somewhat darkened ; the dete-
rioration does not extend further ; the flavour
remains the same as when first corned, and
the article becomes as wholesome as fresh
meat. It is possible tiiat this simple process
may be found useful in long voyages ; for a
long- continued diet of salted animal food,

without a tiro ubo of vegotableB, is found to
contribute to the production of many diseaaea.
A much more himplo ])roce38 in the utecping
of the bacon over-niglit in cold water. So
great is tho alllnity of salt for water, that a
twenty-four, or even eighteen hours' steep
will generally remove any degree of superabun-
dance of salt. It intorfcres less with the fla-
vour than any other chemical mixture whatever;
and is, on this account, and its easy mode of
being effected, by far the preferable plan."

The following communication was sent by
IVfr. .1. Hawkins, Dublin, to ]\Ir. Jiichardson,
and explains tho Irish mode of curing hams
and bacon : —

" The hog is usually kept fasting for twenty-
four hours previous to being killed. Ho is
then brought to the slaughter-house, and dis-
patched in the following manner: — The
butcher takes a maul (a hammer with a long
handle, like those used for breaking stones on
a road), and with it strikes the pig on the fore-
head. If he be an expert hand, a single blow
will suflice to knock the hog down, and ren-
der him quite senseless. A knife is then
taken, and the butcher sticks the animal in
the lower part of the throat, just between the
fore legs. A boiler, or tub, full of very hot,
or boiling water, is iu readiness, in which
the hog is immersed until the hair becomes
so loose that it can be scraped off with a knife
quite clean. When there is no convenience
of this kind, the same effect may be produced
by pouring boiling water over the pig. The
hog is then hung up by the hind legs, cut up
the middle, and the entrails taken out ; after
this, the carcass is left there for about twelve
hours, to cool and become firm, when it is fit
for boning or cutting up. Sometimes, instead
of scalding, the pig is swalcd by fire : burnt
straw is generally used for this purpose ; and
this is called ' singed pork.'

" The following is the mode of boning or
cutting : — The pig is placed on a strong table
or bench ; the head is then cut off close to the
ears, and the body opened down the back.
A cleaver or saw is used for the purpose, and
both back-bone and hip-bones are taken out,
except in one or two places, yet to be spoken
of, where a different system is pursued. The
hind feet are then cut oft', so as to leave a
shank to the ham. Tiie fore legs are next cut

791

lEISH EACOX.J

PIGS,

[lEISH BACON'.

roinul at the hough, the flesh scraped upwards
off the bone, and off the shoulder-blade, which
is taken out quite bare under the side. The
saw is then run along the ribs, so as to crack
them, when they will lie quite flat. The pig
is then divided straight up the bade, and the
sides are ready for salting ; the ham still
remaining in. This is the method usually
practised in the county of Wicklow. When the
sides are ready for salting, they are well
rubbed on the rind side, and the space from
which the shoulder-blade was taken out is
filled with salt. The sides are then laid singly
upon a flagged floor, and salt is shaken over
them. In a day, or two days, if the weather
is cold, they must be again salted in the same
manner; but now two sides may be put to-
gether, and povi'dered saltpetre shaken over
them, in tlie proportion of about two ounces
to each side, if of average bacon size. After
three or four days, the sides are to be again
changed, the shanks of the ham rubbed,
the salt stirred, a little fresh salt shaken
over them, and Ave or six sides may now be
placed over each other. The sides may then
be left thus for a week, when they may be
piled one above the other, to the number of
ten or twenty, if there liave been so many
pigs killed. Leave them so for above three
weeks, until they get firm. They may then
be considered cured, and will Iceep so for six
or eight months, or according to pleasure.
AVhen required for use, or for market, the sides
are taken out of the salt, and well swept and
cleaned ; the ham taken out, hung up, and
dried with turf. If a brown colour is desired,
a little sawdust of hard wood may be thrown
over the turf. ,If hung up in a kitchen where
turf is burned, and suflered to remain, not too
near the fire, the same effect will be produced ;
and if the bacon has been well cured in salt,
it will be excellent. The Belfast and Limerick
methods of cutting differ from what I have
described, inasmuch as the hip-bones are left
m, and the liams are cut out while the pig is
fresh, and cured separately. In some cases,
also, the ribs are taken out of tlie sides ; and,
in Belfast, the shoulder-blade is taken out over
tlie side. Both the Belfast and Limerick
liasiis are cured in the same mild manner;
they are, as I have stated, cut out of the pig
when fresh, cured separately, and only left a
792

sufiicient time to be cured, and no more.
They are not suffered to become too salfij — a
fault sometimes perceptible in the Wicklow
hams. The Limerick and Belfast curers also
make up diflerent other portions of the pin'
separately, as long sides, middles, and o'olls, for
the English market. Sometimes the ribs are
taken out, and sometimes not, according to
the market for which they are intended.
Limerick, Belfast, Wicklow, and Waterford,
are the principal curing districts of Ireland.
The Wicklow method, first described, is that
in use in all counties of Ireland which prepare
their bacon for the Dublin markets. The
bacon, when cured, is then consigned to fac-
tors in Spitalfields, and sold on commission to
the provision-dealers of Dublin. Limerick
and Belfast haras are cured in the following
manner. They are, as I have said, cut fresh
from the pig, with the hip-bones left in them,
and are placed on a flagged floor, the front of
the second ham resting upon the shank of the
first, and so on until all are placed ; they are
then sprinkled with strong pickle from a
watering-pot, and a small quantity of salt is
shaken over them. Next day the haras are
taken up, well rubbed with salt, and laid down
as before, when saltpetre is shaken over them
in quantities proportionate to their size ; they
are left so for two days, and then taken up and
rubbed as before, when they are laid down
again, according to the space they have to fill
— from three to six hams in height, with layers
of salt between. After six days, the hams are
reversed in the piles ; that is, those that were
packed on the top are put at the bottom.
They then remain for six days longer in the
pile, when they are considered cured. After
this, they are taken up and washed, and hung
up to dry in the air. When it is intended to
smoke them, they are placed in a house made
for that purpose, and smoked — in Bellast, with
wheaten straw and sawdust ; in Limerick,
with peat or turf."

Curing hacon for the navy is differently per-
formed from ordinary salting. A little more
skill is exercised in cutting up the pig into
pieces of as nearly equal size as possible ;
when a combination of salt and saltpetre dis-
solved in water, and almost in a saturated
solution, is placed in the curing-tub, and there
allowed to remain from three to four weeks.

DiSE.vsrs.]

AN 1) Til HI li VA UK) IS 15Ki;i:i)S.

[AlOl'LtXY.

A bnrrel is provided, and the bottom covered
with a liiver of hay and salt ; tlien altoninte
lavorjt of pork and salt up to tlio top, when it
is covered and ooopert'd up. »o as to oxoludo the
air as completely as possible. A holo is then
made in the head of tliooask, and the saturated
pickle is poured in till tho cask is full, when it
is plugged up, and ready for use. Salt pork,
ns it is called, is generally a much more useful
and genuine article than either of the pre-
served meats, or tho salted beef supplied to
tlie navy.

The principal injuries to which bacon, after
curing, is liable, is that of becoming resfi/,

and being infested with tho larvs of a small
fly known as Jumpers. Tho first often takes
place if it is dried too near tho fire, or
is exposed unnecessarily to tho air. In

I drying, it should bo so near tlie firo aa to bo

I within its inllueuco — so far from it as to pre-
vent its frying, and so turning rancid, knowa

' provincially as "rusty" or " reasty" bacon.
Some parties recommend whitt-washing tho
bacon with lime- wash after it is dried ; and this
is certainly a decided preventive ; but it may
be equally prevented by being cured with

' plain bran, or any wholesome material which

I will keep it from the air.

CHAPTER Vr.

DISEASES OF THE PIG.

It is observed by Mr. Touatt, that swine,
from having been, until recently, considered as
a subordinate species of stock, have not yet, to
anv extent, become sharers in the benefits
which the present advancing state of veterinary
science has conferred upon other domesticated
animals. "AVhen anything goes amiss in the
pic:gery, the farmer, too often, instead of exer-
cisino' that shrewd sense which he turns to so
good an account in almost every other instance,
either sends for the butcher, or consigns the
sick tenants of the sty to the care of an igno-
rant pig-doctor, whose whole pretensions to
leech-craft rest on the possession of some
antiquated recipe, which he uses, indiscrimi-
nately, as a grand panacea for ' all the ills that
swine's flesh is heir to,' or on the traditionary
lore he inherits from some ancestor, famous in
his day for certain real or supposed wondrous
cures." That this is still, in a great measure,
the case in many parts of the country, cannot
be doubted ; but if proper care were taken of i
the pig, disease would much more rarely
attack him, and his owner would reap far
more advantage from it than he otherwise
does.

" Cleanliness," says Mr. Eichardson, " is
'5 I

the great point to be insisted upon in swine
management. If this, and warmth, be duly
attended to, the animal will not, in one case
in a hundred, become afll'cted with any ail-
ment. The pig-feeder will find that, in most
cases, bis pigs will never ail from their
birth to their slaughter. There may be a
few attacked with disease; but the feeder
will generally find that the first symptoms of
it will give way before a dose of flour of sul-
phur— say half an ounce for a large animal,
combined with new milk, which he will gene-
rallv drink — with warmth and confinement.
As it is almost impossible to administer medi-
cine by force, it is better thus to take the
disease in its first stage, and give it to them
by enticement."

The following are a selection of some of the
principle diseases to which the pig is liable;
and the treatment recommended in them is
such as has been found eftectual.

APOPLEXY.

This disease is chiefly brought on by high-
feeding, want of exercise, and laziness, all of
which beget a plethoric habit, inducing apo-
plexv, which in swine is often fatal. When it

7.0^

CASXBATlOSr.]

PIGS,

[CEACKINGS.

appears, the treatment must be very prompt,
aud blood should be immediately taken from
the palate. As purgatives, Epsom salts and
sulphur should be given, or emetic tartar, dis-
solved in sufficient water to cause the animal
to vomit. Should these prove effectual, there
must be no stiaiulatiug food given for some
time afterwards, and the animal should be
bled, at least, every three months. There
should also be some nitre infused with the
water he drinks.

CATARRH, OR COLD.

This disease springs from the same causes
as those which affect other animals with it.
It consists of an inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the nose, &c. ; and, if taken in
time, is easily cured by opening medicine,
succeeded by a warm bran mash, abstinence
from rich grains, and careful, comfortable
housing. "Where the cases are very severe, it
is well to administer medicine ; and the follow-
ing is recommended by a writer in Morton's
Cyclopcedia : —

Antimonial powder . . . 2 to 6 grains.

Nitre . . . . . 10 „ 30 „

Digitalis . . • • 1 » 2 „

This to be given daily. Should the disease
extend to the lungs and become bronchitis, in
addition to the above medicine, the animal
should be bled, and a stimulant rubbed on the
brisket.

COLIC.

Colic frequently attacks the bog, and is in-
dicated by the animal rolling on the ground,
murmuring sounds that betray suffering, and
exhibiting great restlessness. The following
is recommended to be administered : —

Peppermint water
Tincture of opium

1 gill.
40 drops.

The animal must be kept warm, and supplied
with new and warm milk, until well. Some re-
commend a dose of Epsom or Glauber salts ;
but for colic, oleaginous medicines are the best ;
therefore, castor-oil, given in a dose propor-
tioned to the size of the pig, may be safely
administered.

CASTRATION.
As this can be no more called a disease than

794

parturition or spaying, it might have been
introduced in another part of the Division of
this work ; still, as it is a surgical operation,
we consider this the most appropriate place to
speak of it. There is no great difficulty in
the performance of this operation, conse-
quently, in country towns, there is always one
sufficiently skilled in the art to gain a liveli-
hood by it. In castrating hogs, which should
not be older than three weeks, they are
grasped by an assistant by the hind legs, with
their faces towards his person, so that the testes
may be kept on a level with the hands of the
operators. As the skin of the testes is loose,
a longitudinal cut is made in the scrotum, over
each of them, when the finger and thumb are
pressed gently on each side of the incision, so
as to cause the testes to protrude. This
being done, it is gently taken hold of by the
other hand, and the spermatic cord separated
by the knife. The whole of the operation is
soon over ; but, after it, the pig should be suf-
fered to fast for a few hours, although the
little animals seem to be so slightly aflected by
any pain which they may have endured, that,
by the following morning, they are as active as
ever. Beyond three weeks, and in proportion
to the age of the animal, the operation becomes
proportionally difficult. " With the aged boar,
especially, it is a very tedious affair, as he
cannot be held up in the way the young pigs
can under a month old. It is thus necessary
to lay him on his side, and have him well
secured before the operation is performed.
He should also fast a little before it is done,
as well as through the following night, and be
supplied only with bran and milk after. Sows
in season should be kept from him till the
wound is healed. There is more difficulty,
however, in performing the operation, either
on the old or young, when there is a rupture,
which is not unfrequently the case. Greater
care must be taken in making a perfectly clean
cut. The pigs should fast a day before, and a
night, at least, after the operation; and the
scrotum should be carefully stitched up after
its performance, otherwise inflammation will
ensue."

CRACKINGS.
The cause of crackings is exposure to the
extremes of temperature; and when they do

rEVEn.]

ANT) TTIKIR VARIOUS BREEDS.

[fetek.

appear oa a \ug, it is usually u[)Oti the Hanks,
!iiul at the ruots of the ears ami tail. In the
heat of summer tlio disease is es|)t'eially
troublesonio, shoukl the hog bo ex|)ost'd, for
any length of time, to the direet inlluenee of a
liot sun, and no pool or marsh near in whieh
ho might reeruit himself, and eool his body
with a bath. To euro the disease, after ne-
glect has brought it ou, tlie all'ectod parts
should be anointed two or three times a day
with tar and lard, well melted together.

DIARRIIffiA.
Among all our domesticated animals this
disease is very common, and is produced by
scanty and unwholesome food, as well as by
over-feeding. It arises from intlammation or
congestion of the mucous lining of the intes-
tines, and consists of a thin discharge of the
foecal matter. Before trying to stop this
discharge, a change of diet, from that which
the animal has been feeding on, will often be
effectual in producing a cure. If, however,
it continue for any considerable length of
time, medicinal remedies should be resorted
to. The best for it is —

Prepared chalk .
Powdered catechu

1 oz.

2 drachms.

„ ginger

„ opium . . . -h „

These should be mixed and dissolved in
half a pint of water, and from half an ounce to
an ounce of the mixture, according to the size
of the animal, given twice a day. The diet
should, as far as possible, be composed of dry
farinaceous food.

EPILEPSY.

This disease is common, and often arises
from the ringing of the mother during the
period of gestation. The indications are rest-
lessness, constant grunting, and a greater
quickness in the breath, accompanied with an
unsteady, staggering gait. Bleeding, strong
purgatives, and cold effusions applied to the
head, followed by low diet and cooling medi-
cines, are the remedies.

FEVER.
The symptoms of this disease are, redness
of the eyes, dryness and heat of tlie nostrils,
the lips, and the skin generally. The appetite

is entirely gone, or very indifiorcnt; whilst tho
thirst is usually violetit. Tho animal should,
as soon as possible, bo bled at the back of tho
ears; and if this is not sufficient, a portion
of the tail should be excised. ( lood and com-
fortable housing must bo attended to; whilst, nt
the same time, there must bo a free admission
of fresii air. The bleeding will, perhaps, in
an hour or two be followed by such a return
of appetite as to induce tho animal to eat
sufficiently to enable it to support tho ad-
ministration of some internal remedies. For
giving it these, the best vehicle is bread,
steeped in broth. The fever, however, will
usually be found to yield to tho bleeding ; and
the only object to be kept in view is, to en-
deavour to support the strength of the animal
by small portions of nourishing food frequently
administered. It must, however, be borne in
mind, that, as the hog surpasses every other
animal in the rapidity witli which it accumu-
lates fat, so does it in the facility with which
its strength becomes prostrated when once it
loses its appetite. The French veterinarian
practice recommends the addition of pepper-
mint to the bread and broth ; and if the
bowels are confined, the addition of castor and
(unboiled) linseed oil, in equal quantities, and
in the proportion of two to six ounces, accord-
ing to the size of the pig, should not b-
omitted. Mr. Moubray relates the following;
instructive case, which may serve as an ex-
ample to be taken in others : — " One of my
sows, ibur years old, a good mother, remark-
ably good-tempered, a cross between tho
Oxford and China breeds, with eleven fine
pigs by her side, which had been farrowed
three weeks, was suddenly seized with fever
and inflammation. In twelve hours she be-
came unable to stand ; was very restless, and
apparently in great agony ; no evacuation
having taken place during two days. In conse-
quence, I called in the aid of a noted cow-leech
in tho vicinity, who gravely promised he would
do what he could for her, but that all would
be of no use. The operations of bleeding,
anointing, and medicine, were carried on for
three days, at a charge of thirty-five shillings,
when tho sage doctor dismissed the case, with
the consolation to me that he could do no
more for the patient, and that it was impossi-
ble that she could live. I then took her in

795

FJEVEE.]

PIG^S,

[rEVER.

hand myself, bled her, and gave her a strong
dose of salts and jalap, which I succeeded in
delivering, her jaws being held open by a rope
attached to each. In about an hour there-
after she had three pints of warm gruel ; and
in less than three hours I had the satisfaction
of obaei-ving symptoms of great tranquillity
and improvement in my patient. After leav-
ing her at night on a clean and comfortable
bed, I was gratified by finding her on her legs
the next morning, and in a fair way of re-
covering. I then repeated tlie above dose,
somewhat reduced in strength, and still keep-
ing her on warm gruel, when, in two days,
my satisfaction was complete, on finding her
quite restored to her former health, saving a
little inconvenience from the obstruction of her
milk. Of the young pigs, previously removed,
nine did well ; and the sow became freed from
all relics of her disease in ten or twelve days.
I did not, however, choose to risk another
farrow with her, therefore put her to the boar
in October, and fed her for the knife. She
was killed at Christmas, and made excellent
bacon. Thus, I saved a fine bog by Dr.
Common Sense, to atone for the insufficiency
of the most skilful leech then and there going ;
and if my brethren pig-breeders would follow
my example, in most cases, in my opinion, it
would be to the benefit both of their pockets
and their pigs."

There is a description of fever that frequently
occurs as an epizootic, which is described by
M. Kooche Lubin, in The Veterinaricm, and
from which we make some detached extracts
bearing upon this subject.

" The Charlonneiise typhus of pigs does not
always assume the same character. It often
attacks the male pigs, and generally the most
vigorous and the best looking, without any
distinction of age, and with a force and promp-
titude absolutely astonishing ; for in the space
of twelve hours I have seen a whole piggery
succumb. At other times its progress is mucli
slower; the symptoms are less intense and
less alarming; uud the veterinary surgeon,
employed at the commencement of the attack^
may promise himself some success. It will
be advisable to divide the whole into difierent
classes.

" PlRST ChK^Q.— Symptoms. — The pigs that
are ranged in this class often die without
790

there being the slightest precursory symptoms.
I have been able to collect only the following :
— Sudden loss of appetite, and a general
prostration of strength ; small and frequent
pulse ; the ears drooping, of a dark colour, and
tender to the touch ; the eyes projecting and
haggard ; the conjunctiva of a deep red ; the
mouth half open, red, and charged with foam ;
a leaden tint stealing over the part ; frequent
and laborious perspiration ; anxiety ; plaintive
cries ; frequent convulsions ; the appearance
of red spots, and becoming more and more
deep at the ears, the belly, and the inner sur-
face of the thighs; palsy of the hind limbs;
involuntary and fetid discharge. In less than
an hour this animal died.

" Second Class. — Symptoms. — In this class
I range the pigs in which charbonneuse typhus
follows a somewhat rapid march, and offers
some sufficiently distinct periods. The symp-
toms that are the least alarming, and the
malady the least rebellious, are the following :
— The animal is dispirited, continually lying
down, and not getting up without evident
pain; the ear is hot and painful; the pulse
quick, but regular; the conjunctiva red; the
eye fixed ; the respiration a little agitated ; the
flank distended and painful ; the tail hanging
down ; the animal drinking with difficulty, and
eating, without appetite, even the most delicious
food ; he is likewise constipated. This state
sometimes remains two days without any sen-
sible change ; but, on the third or fourth day,
if the medicine that we have employed is with-
out effect, the symptoms redouble their inten-
sity. The pig grinds his teeth, trembles, and
is convulsed in every part ; the pulse becomes
intermittent, and, by degrees, is almost per-
fectly lost; the pupil is dilated; the red spots
become more and more deep in colour, and
death is near at hand. The pathological lesions
are nearly the same as those already described,
except those of the tissues. I have sometimes
found the nasal and buccal membranes quite
decomposed, and the interior of the mouth
presenting numerous black and charbonneuse
spots. One mark should be regarded. The
sows with young ones always resist the attack
of the disease ; but, as soon as the little ones
are produced, the malady does not spare either
the one or the other. The causes of the dis-
ease are, in the majority of cases the had sties

rEVEH.]

AND Til 1:1 R VAIMOUS i; K H H DS.

[feyeb.

in which the pigs are lodged, and the noisome
victuals which they often contain. The food
which the pign nu'ct with and devour, is the re-
mains of inoulii) hit'ad and fruit, more especially
peas and lentils — the fermentation and decom-
position of which fariniicious suhstances, with
the quantity of bran which \s too frequently
given to them, occasion the most serious ills in
the animal economy, in addition to this, is
the constant lyint;: on the dung-heap, whence is
exhaled a vast volume of deleterious gas; and
also, when they remain too long on muddy or
arid ground, or are exposed to the rigour of
the season for any length of time. Such are
the causes which eficct a functional derange-
ment that cannot fail of being dangerous or
fatal, especially when brought back to the farm.
The pigs are then exposed to an alarming de-
gree of humidity ; they lay themselves down on
a poisonous and disgusting dung-heap, which
is certainly destructive. I could also cite many
villages and farms which, for two months of
the year, have the houses of their pigs desti-
tute of almost everything that is conilbrtable
and useful. Although, during the whole course
of the year, this typhoid disease never suspends
its ravages, yet there are certain times in which
it rages with great intensity — in the course of
the summer, and the commencement of autumn.
Tliere are farms and communes where it is
enzootic. It is a highly contagious disease. I
could cite many facts confirmatory of this ; and
need only speak of the inoculation in different
parts of the body, and the ichorous matter
which is contained in the spots that aflect
every part. The consequence to the pigs at
first brought home, apparently sound, is, that
when a little time has passed away, the disease
spreads through the whole of the piggery.
As to the transmission of tlie malady, by oi-dl-
nary means, to difierent kinds of animals, I
am unable to give any opinion. The flesh of
infected pork has been given to dogs. Is'o evil
has resulted from this experiment ; and the
inoculation of blood and of ichorous matter
has not occasioned any morbid affection to
the last of these animals ; but it was not the
same with regard to some sheep that were
submitted to a similar experiment. They
died two days alter the operation, presenting
all the symptoms and pathological lesions of
charhonueuse fever.

*• Preservative Treatment. — The experience of
every day proves that it is more easy to pre-
vent a malady than to cure or coujbut it. In
consequence, 1 have always said to the far-
mers who suller the accumulation of typhoid
maladies, that they will never banish these from
their piggeries whilst the system of careless-
ness and ignorance, touching the rearing of tho
pig, continues to bo bo negligently overlooked.
i have always said to them, that, in despite of
their singular remedies, tho scourge under
which they labour will not disappear nnlil
they place the animals in proper situations —
not humid, but well aired, and where the liti'jr
is often renewed ; until, also, they give tiiein
sound nourishment, properly regulated, and of
sufficient quantity ; a pure and limpid water to
quench their thirst; and bathe them, when-
ever the temperature is much increased, while
they are weltering in the mire. It is also
requisite that the pigs should remain in their
sties in cold and rainy weather. In the course of
the summer, it is always necessary to give,
from time to time, some nitrated, salted, and
acidulated food. The Kochefort cheese is a
useful stimulant for those that are weak and
feeble ; and the administration of any bitter de-
coction will often be productive of benefit.
During the principal ravages of the epizootic, I
have seen benefit derived from small quantities
of camphor and nitre, mixed with a decoction
of sorrel. To this some have added, and with
considerable benefit, a small quantity of mer-
cury. The nasal membrane then secretes
more abundantly, the urine is clear and more
frequent, and the evacuation of the foecal
matter is more easy and copious. This mode
of treatment may be continued eight days.
If a pig is evidently ill, it should be separated
from its companions ; and even their abode
should be changed, and fumigation should be
practised every tliird day. As soon as a pig
is attacked with disease, he should be separated
from the others, placed in a warm situation,
some stimulating ointment applied to the
cliest, and a decoction of sorrel administered.
Trictions of vinegar should be applied to the
dorsal and lumbar region, with aromatic fumi-
gation about the belly. The drinks should be
emollient, and slightly mixed with nitre and
vinegar. If the fever now appears to be losing
ground, which may be ascertained by the

797

IJSTLAM3IATI0IT.J

PIGS.

[lepeost.

regularity of the pulse, by the absence of the
plaintive cries that were before heard, by a
respiration less laborious, by the absence of
convulsions, and by the non-appearance of
blotches on the skin, there is a fair chance of
recovery. We may then be content to ad-
minister, every second hour, the drinks and
the lavements already prescribed, and to give
the patient his proper allowance of white
water, with ground barley and rye. "When,
however, instead of these fortunate results, the
symptoms are redoubling in intensity, it will
be better to destroy the animal ; for it is rare
that, after a certain period, there is much or
any chance of recovery. Bleeding, practised
at the ear or tail, is seldom of much avail, but
occasionally produces considerable loss of vital
power and augments the putrid diathesis."

FOUL SKIN.

Washing the animal with a solution of
chloride of lime, and keeping it clean, will gene-
rally cure this disease, provided it has not
been sufiered to go so far as to have assumed
a malignant character.

HEAVINGS.

This disease takes its name from the prin-
cipal symptom by which it is characterised,
and, is scarcely to be regarded as curable.
"In its first stage," says Mr. Eichardson,
" when indicated by loss of appetite, and a
short hard cough, it might run some chance of
being got under by copious bleeding, and
friction with stimulating ointment on the
region of the lungs. Minute and frequent
doses of tartar emetic should also be given in
butter ; all food of a stimulating nature care-
fully avoided, and the animal kept dry and
warm. Under these circumstances there
would be no reason absolutely to despair of a
cure ; but it would be advisable at the same
time, if the pig, when this primary stage of
the malady is discovered, were not in verv
poor condition, to put him to death." The
cause of the disease is damp lodging, foul air,
want of ventilation, and unwholesome food.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.
This disease is frequent among pigs. Pro-
fessor Dick says, that the only hope of savintr
the patient, is by attacking the complaint in
798

its early stages. Bleeding should be imme-
diately resorted to. A dose of the followino-
ingredients may be tried to stave off consump-
tive tendencies : —

Spirit of sweet nitre .
Digitalis tincture
Emetic tartar .
Hydroceanic acid o

T oz.
20 drops.

1 drachm.
10 drops.

If, after the first stage, incipient infiammatory
action passes over, warmth and milk diet will
be necessary ; and the sooner the animal is fed
the better. Mr. Youatt says, as soon as the
first symptoms are perceived, the animal
should be bled ; the palate will, perhaps, be
the best place to take blood from ; purgatives
must then be given, but with caution. Ep-
som salts and sulphur will be the best, adminis-
tered in a dose of from two to four drachms
of each, according to the size of the animal.
To these may succeed sedative medicines,
composed of the following ingredients : —

Digitalis .

Pulv. antimonialis

Nitre

2 grains.
6 „
•9 drachm.

This forms a very soothing and efficient medi-
cament for moderate-sized pigs, and will often
produce very satisfactory results. Cleanliness,
warmth, and wholesome, cooling, nutritious
food, are likewise valuable aids in combating
this disease.

JAUNDICE.

The symptoms of this disease exhibit them-
selves in a yellowness of the white of the eyes,
and also of the lips, and sometimes in a swell-
ing of the under portion of the jaw. In
treating for it, the food given to the animal
should be restricted, and an aperient given to
it every day. Aloes, combined with colocinth,
in proportion to the size of the animal, may
be administered. French veterinarians have
recommended a decoction of woodbine-leaves,
with shoots ; but we are not prepared to speak
of the effects of this preparation.

LEPROSY.

The symptoms of this complaint naually
show themselves in a small humour in the eye,
the head drooping, the breathing short and
hot, accompanied with giddiness, and a dis-
charge of matter from the eyes. When the

LKTllAltUt.]

AND Til 1:1 K VAKIOL'S lUiEEDS.

MANOS.

disease is pretty far advanced, the ukin be-
comes quite scaly. The flesli of a leprous pig is
Baid to possess extremely deleterious qualities,
aud to bo wliolly unfit for human food. In
the fust stage of the disease, a little blood
should be taken Irom the animal by cutting
the ear aud tail ; then boil a handful of nettles
in a gallon of small beer, and add half a pound
of Hour of sulphur, a quarter of a pound of pul-
verised aniseeds, three ounces of liquorice,
and a quarter of a pound of elecampane.
This liquid should bo given in milk in six
doses, and the diseased animal kept on whole-
some food. To remove the scurf, the pig should
be washed with soap and warm water. Mr.
Kichardson recommends the following mode
of treatment : — " The cause of this disease is
want of cleanliness, absence of fresh air, want
of due attention to ventilation, and foul feed-
ing. The obvious cure, therefore, is — first,
bleed ; clean out the sty daily ; wash the af-
fected animal thoroughly with soap and water,
to which soda or potash has been added;
supply him with a clean bed ; keep him dry
and comfortable ; let him have gentle exercise,
and plenty of fresh air ; limit the quantity of
his food, aud diminish its rankness ; give bran
with wash, in which you may add, for an
average-sized hog, say one of 20 stone (8 lbs. to
the stone), or IGO lbs. weight, a tablespoonful
of the flour of sulphur, with as much nitre
as will cover a sixpence, daily. A few grains
of powdered antimony may also be given with
effect. The animal, if in the summer, should
be kept in the shade, and placed in a house
facing the north, where he may have free access
of air of the coolest kind."

LETHARGY.
The symptoms of this disease exhibit them-
eelves by the animal apparently labouring
under depression, with the head drooping,
the eyes occasionally red, a general torpor,
and a great desire to sleep characterising

this, reduce the quantity of food usuaMy
allowed, and mix with each morning's miul a
little sulphur and nitre.

Lie P..

!!\rercurial ointment, tobacco-water, and tur-
pentine, are the most effectual remedies for
vermin, which are engendered by inattention
to cleanliness, and often become exceedingly
iroublesomo and annoying. Every animal
affected with vermin should immediately bo
separated from its herd, to prevent the affec-
tion extending. Mr. Parkinson says, " the
cause of vermin infecting animals, clearly
arises, in a general way, from bad feeding,
which occasions weakness of the blood ; for,"
he adds, " if an animal be ever so lousy, by
giving him strong food for a few days, the
vermin will disappear, probably because the
rich blood is poison to them." He considers
that a free access to water for bathing, also
occasional exposure to heavy rain, is not only
necessary to the general hcaUh of swine, but
a most excellent preventive of vermin.

MANGE.

Mange is, by some, supposed to be caused by
the presence of a minute insect, called acarus
scabiei, or "mange-fly," burrowing beneath
the cuticle, and, in its progress through the
skin, causing much irritation and annoyance.
Others, again, ascribe it to a diseased state of
the blood, which eventually conveys its morbid
influences to the superficial tissues. But what-
ever may be the cause, the si/mptotns of the
disease are sufiicieutly well known. These
consist of blotches, scabs, and sometimes mul-
titudes of minute pustules, on different parts
of the body.

In treating for this disease, it is recom*
mended, by Mr. Eichardson, that the animal
should fast for five or six hours ; after whichi
to a pig of average size, give Epsom salts,
2 oz., in a warm bran wash. This quantity is,

the whole appearance. It is caused by the ! of course, to be increased or diminished as the
want of cleanliness, improper food, and bad size may require it; but would suffice for a

air. In treating for it, the animal should be
bled as copiously as possible at the back of both
the ears, or at the tail. Besides this, admin-
ister an emetic, consisting of a decoction of
chrometic flowers, or a dose of emetic in ac-
cordance with the size of the patient. After

pig of from 15 to 20 stone (8 lbs. to the stone).
It should be previously mixed with a pint of
warm water, to which should be added about
half a gallon of the warm bran wash. It will
act as a gentle purgative, and be found highly
beneficial.

799

MEASLES.]

PIGS,

[PARTUEITION.

Give afterwards, in every meal, for three
days or a week— according as you observe the
state of the disease— one tablespoonful of flour
of sulphur, and as much nitre as will cover a
sixpence. When you perceive the scabs begin
to heal, the pustules to retreat, and the fiery
sores to fade, you may pronounce your patient
cured. But, before that pleasing result will
make its appearance, you will perceive an ap-
parent increase of violence in all the symptoms
—the last eff'ort of the expiring malady, as it
were, ere it finally yields to your care and

skill .

There are, liowever, some very obstinate
cases of mange occasionally to be met with,
which will not be so readily subdued. When
tlie above mode of treatment has been put in
practice for fourteen days, without efi'ecting a
cure, prepare the following : —

Train oil .

Oil of tar

Sph-its of turpentine

Naphtha .

1 pint.

2 drachms.
2 „

1 .,

Add as much flour of sulphur as will form the
above into the consistence of a thick paste.
Eub the animal, previously washed, with this
mixture, and let no portion of the hide escape.
Keep the pig dry and warm after this applica-
tion, and sufi"er it to remain on the skin for
three entire days. On the fourth day, wash
it off once more with soft soap, adding a small
quantity of soda to the water. Dry the animal
well afterwards, and allow it to remain quiet,
having again changed its bedding for a day or
so. Continue the sulp^iur and nitre as before.
The patient being convalescent, whitewash the
sty ; fumigate it, by placing a little chloride of
lime in a cup, or other vessel, and pouring a
little vitriol upon it. In the absence of vitriol,
however, boiling water will answer nearly as
well.

MEASLES.
Mr. Touatt describes this disease as rather
a sub-cutaucous than an actual afi'eetion of the
skin, consisting of a large number of small
watery pustules, which take up their seat
between the skin and the fat, and scatter
themselves, besides, throughout the cellular
tissue and the adipose matter. Some have
supposed it to be a milder form of leprosy — a
SOU

supposition which has a good deal to support
it. The measles in the hog is not always fatal ;
but it has a very deleterious effect upon the
quality of the flesh, making it pale, flabby,
tasteless, and little disposed to take salt. In
the adoption of remedial measures, the animal
should be made to fast for twenty-four hours,
and then have a warm drink, containing an
ounce of bole armenian, and a drachm of car-
bonate of soda. Cleanliness should be care-
fully attended to ; and at every feeding, or three
times a day, it should be given thirty grains of
flour of sulphur, and ten of nitre. The ancients
treated a hog affected with the measles in the
following manner : — After being put into a sty,
and kept three days and nights without food,
they took five or six apples, picked out their
cores, and filled up the holes thus made with
flour of brimstone. The holes were then
stopped, and the apples thrown to the measly
hog. He first tasted one or two, then one or
two more, until he ate them all. He was thus
treated for five or six days, by which time be
was quite well, and as wholesome as ever.

MURRAIN.
The murrain bears a great resemblance to
leprosy in its symptoms, with the addition of
shortness of breath, staggering, and a discharge
of viscid matter from the eyes and mouth. The
treatment should consist of cleanliness, cool-
ness, purging, bleeding, and limitation of
food. Cloves of garlic have been recom-
mended to be given. Garlic is an antiseptic ;
and as, in all those febrile diseases, there
exists, more or less, a tendency to putrefaction,
it is not improbable that it may be found
useful.

PARTURITION.

Of all domestic animals, the pig suffers least
from parturition. This, however, is not a dis-
ease; still, as it frequently requires surgical
care, we have placed it in this chapter. No
animal is so easily delivered as the pig, which,
when her time is near, generally discovers
considerable uneasiness ; first, by being angry
with every one of her species that happens to
fall in her way, and then by collecting straw,
and carrying it to the place she seems to have
chosen to litter. She must not be interrupted
in this, or prevented from doing it. It is

PAitTUiu rioy.]

AND TIIEIli VAIMOUS JJKI'KDS.

[UAUIKS.

luT nature thus to act ; and wIkmi lliat is
satialied, she will bo inoro reconciled to
her condition. Allien lier bod is niado, slio
should bo taken into a liouao somewhat dark,
about eiLjht or nine feet sijuare, which will bo
room Bufllcient to admit of her turning hor-
Bclf in every direction. IMr. Kichardson re-
commends tor this, a lath to bo run round the
house, six inches from the ground, and six
from nil sides of the house, well stayed below,
and on each side, by perpendicular and hori-
zontal pieces of wood. This will prevent her
lying close to any one side of the house, and
keep her from crushing to death any of her
oflspring during the throes of parturition.
At the commencement of her troubles, atten-
tion is necessary, to see that she is all right.
She must be kept as still as possible, unless
needing help, whicli is not often the case.
It does, however, occur ; as, when a false
presentation, a sinking of the pig into the
uterus, instead of its being presented in the
vagina, or a contracted orifice shows itself.
In the latter instance, a veterinary surgeon,
of correct anatomical knowledge, is indispen-
sable. The most usual false presentation is
when the pig comes sideways, and so chokes
the passage. In such a case, a mere turn with
the hand will make things as they should be.
If the pig has sunk down, it may be necessary
to have a child's hand introduced, to raise up
the young animal to its proper position. This
will succeed when all other methods fail.
As soon as each pig is delivered it should be
placed before its mother, and it will soon
begin to select its teat. Once selected, it
will generally keep to it, if its right is not
disputed by a stronger brother. If any pig
should be extremely weak, and the weather
very cold, it may be taken near the fire,
and wrapped in flannel. So soon as parturi-
tion is completed, the sow will begin to
cleanse — or, in other words, eject the placenta ;
which, when accomplished, should at once be
removed, or she may begin to eat it, or learn
from it to devour poultry, lambs, and, very
probably, her own produce. As parturition
usually begets thirst, let the sow have a
quart of slightly warmed milk, thickened with
a little bran. This is one of the best of
medicines. As soon as she has cleansed, and
all the young ones have been suckled, she

0 K

shoulit bo gently dnvi-ii out to slaie. '• A littlo
caro of her boweis, plenty of bran and milk
food, given in small (juantities, with frequent
turning out for short periods in a sheltered
place, will bo necessary at first. If much
fever or consti[)ation should take place, a
little sulphur — two heaped toaspoonfuls — in
her milk will relievo her; nor will she refuse
tho milk which contains it, if it is thickened
with a littlo wheat meal, liarley, and even
oatmeal, must bo avoided for tho first three
or four days. Afterwards she may have :inv
kind of food whatever, except meal, which,
useful as it is to store pigs, should never be
given to those that are suckling."

QUINSY.

This disease consists of an infiaramatory
affection of the glands of the throat ; is of fre-
quent occurrence, and often proves fatal.
Acidulated drinks, tonics, cleanliness, warmth,
and strict attention to diet, accompanied with
active cautery to the root of the evil, is the
treatment prescribed. In Mr. Richardson's
treatise, we find shaving away the hair, and
rubbing the parts affected with tartar emeiic
ointment, recommended. " Steeping with very
warm water is considered useful. AVhen ex-
ternal suppuration takes place, it may be re-
garded as rather a favourable symptom than
otherwise. In this case, wait until the swell-
ings are thoroughly ripe ; then, with a sharp
knife, make an incision through the entire
length, press out the matter, wash with warm
water, and afterwards dress the wound with
any resinous ointment, which can be obtained
from the nearest apothecary. If this cannot be
obtained, a very tolerable substitute may be
made by blending yellow soap with coarse
brown sugar."

R.\BIES.

This is one of those diseases which is, per-
haps, developed in the greatest possible degree
in the pig. All hope of recovery should be at
once abandoned, and the animal slaughtered
by shooting, and buried whole. If there is
any chance of preventing the affliction, it is
by immediate incision of the part where the
animal has been bitten, and an application of
the cautery. Medicines may alleviate the
symptoms, but the disease is incurable.

bOl

BPAYIXG.]

PIGS,

[tetanus.

SWELLING OF THE SPLEEN.
In the hog the spleen is of great length,
and, throughout its whole extent, of nearly
uniform thickness and breadth. The symptom
which indicates tlie disease called ratille, is per-
ceived by the animal leaning towards one side,
bending towards the ground, and drawing it-
self together, as it were, from internal suffer-
ing. The cause of this proceeds from over-
feeding, which, in the animal, has injured the
condition of the secretions, and obstructed
the excretory ducts. As a curative, strong
aperients, to produce copious evacuations, are
recommended ; also bleeding, if the disease
has continued some length of time. French
veterinarians recommend the expressed juice
of the leaves and tops of wormwood and liver-
wort, to be given in quantities of half a pint to
a dose. The decoction of these plants, pro-
duced by boiling them in soft water for six
hours, is more readily obtained than the ex-
pressed juice ; and this may be given in doses
oi" from half a pint to a pint and a-half, accord-
ing to the size, age, &c., of the patient.
IScammony and rhubarb, mixed up in a bran
mash, or with Indian meal, may be given the
following day, or equal portions of blue-pill
and compound colocynth pill, formed into a
bolus with butter; and the animal, having
been kept fasting the previous night, will
probably swallow it. If not, it is recom-
mended to keep the pig fasting for a couple of
hours longer, and then it will take it. Lower
the diet, and keep it on reduced fare, with
exercise, and, if you can manage it, p'azinr/,
until the malady has quite passed away. If
you then wish to fatten, do so gradually. Be
cautious of at once restoring the patient to
lull diet. Indeed, it would be better to keep
it for a month as a store ; and then feed at
regular intervals, always removing vrhatever
food is left from each meal.

SPAYING.
Spaying of female pigs is an operation
which usually requires considerable care ; and
is generally performed when the pig is about
three weeks old. The whole litter is usually
cut at prices varying, in difierent localities, Irom
Is. Qd. to 25. Gflf. per litter, great or small.
In performing the operation, the little animal
S02

is first laid on its right side, and the two hind
legs are stretched out straight, so as to allow
the mid-flank to come fairly under the eye and
hand of the operator. An incision, about two
inches long, is then made with a round-pointed
knife, and the thumb and finger are introduced
to search for the ovaries, which, from their
being separate at one end, and presenting a
convoluted or knotted appearance to the eye,
are easily found. These are collected together,
and folded in a downward direction over the
edge of the wound. "When the operator finds
that all are exposed, he cuts them by a little
pressure of the knife towards the skin, and
the uterus falls back into its place. He now
stitches up the orifice, and the animal usually
very soon recovers. The operator should
clean his knife well after every cut ; secure the
whole of the ovaria, and be careful not to
stitch up any of the intestines with the skin.
If this be done, death is almost certain to
follow. Though this operation is usually per-
formed at or before the pig is a month old, it
may be safely done at any reasonable age of
the animal.

STAGGERS.

Tliis complaint is caused by excess of blood
to the head. Bleed freely from behind the
ears, and purge.

SURFEIT.

This is another name for indigestion. The
symptoms are — loss of appetite, swelling of the
region about the stomach, &c., and fi'equently
throwing up the food. The illness will, in
general, pass away of itself, provided the ani-
mal be kept from any kind of food for a few
hours. A small quantity of sweet grains, with
a little bran wash, may then be given, but not
nearly so much as the animal will take. For
a few days the food had better be limited in
quantity, and also be of a washy, liquid
nature.

TETANUS.

The common name for this disease is Lock-
jaw, and is by no means an unlrequent malady
in pigs. It is often produced in young ones
by castration, especially if, after this operation,
they are highly fed for a few days. The disease
is frequently fatal, and soon brings the life of

MEDICINES.]

AM) Till; Hi VAKlors lUiEEDS.

[medicikes

the patient to a termiuation. Bleediug, lotions,
warm baths, ami friction, witli stimulating oils,
are all recomiuoniloil ; also pur^^iitivcs, if the
mouth can be forced to admit them ; if uot,
anoilvncs and enemas must be given.

TUMOURS.

Tuiiiourfi, or liard tswellings, niako their
appearance on dillerent parts of the auiumrs
body. Give aperient medicines; keep the

animal clean, and administer u change of
wholesomo food.

These are all the principal diseases to which
swino are subject. Tho remedies accompanv •
in<j them are such as have been found njo.>^t
i.'lleclual ; but where these fail, a skilful practi-
tioner should be called in, that tlie lifu uf a
valuable animal may not bo sacriliccd.

MEDICINES USED IX THE TKEATMENT OF DISEASES IN SWINE.

Antimony. — Tiiis is rarely given alone; but, in
combination with sulphur, it forms a cooling and
cleansing medicine. Wiien combined with sul-
j)hur, hog's-lard, or palm or train-oil, it forms the
common mange-ointment.

AKsr.NlC. — Used in cases of disease of the skin.
To form a solution of sufficient strength for
external application, use from one ounce to
an ounce and a-half, dissolved in a gallon of
water. Arsenic, in the metallic state, is of a
bluish-while colour, subject to tarnish, and grows
first yellowish, then black, by exposure to air.
It is brittle, and, when broken, exhibits a lami-
nated texture. Its specific gravity is 5 -703. In
close Vessels it sublimes entire at 35G° F., but
burns with a small flame if respirable air be
present. The arsenic met with in commerce has
the form of a white oxide. It is brought chiefly
from the cobalt works in Saxony, where zafTre is
made. Co!)alt ores contain much arsenic, which
is driven off by long torrefaction. The ore is
thrown irlo a furnace, resembling a baker's oven,
with a fiue, or horizontal chimney, nearly 200
yards long, into which the fumes pass, and are
condensed into a greyish or blackisli powder.
This is refined by a second sublimation in close
vessels, with a little potash, to detain the impu-
rities. As the heat is considerable, it melts the
sublimed flowers into those crystalline masses
which are met with in commerce. Arsenic is
used in a variety of arts, and enters into metallic
combinations, wherein a white colour is required.
It is a deadly poison when received into the
stomach. The best remedies are mucilaginous
liquids and milk. Syrups and linseed tea are of
service. Vomiting should be excited by tickling
the throat with a feather.

Arsenic Acid is formed by the distillation of the
white oxide with nitric acid ; or by exposing it

to chlorine vaixiur. It is a white concrete sub-
stance. The arsenic acid has a sour, and, at the
same time, a metallic taste. It reddens vegetable
blues, attracts humidity from the atmosphere,
and effervesces strongly with solutions of alkaline
carbonates. AVilh alkalies, earths, and oxides,
it constitutes a class of salts, called arseniates.
The arseniate of potash was introduced into the
materia inedica by Dr. Fowler, for the cure of
agues; but it is not used in the diseases of
swine.

Calomel. — This drug being very dangerous, should,
whei'e used at all, be given with extreme caution.
In combination with an equal portion of tarta-
rised antimony, it may be administered in cases
of great emergency. To form an active emetic,
take from two to three grains.

Creosote. — In cases of virulent cutaneous erup-
tions this is a useful medicine.

Croton Oil. — In cases of severe constipation,
from one to three drops may be given of this
powerful 'purgative.

Digitalis. — Valuable as a sedative in cases of
fever.

Epsom Salts. — A purgative, used in almost every
ordinary case. In a general way, the dose is
from half an ounce to an ounce and a-half.

Gentian. — Used as a stomachic. A portion of it
should be given with every aperient draught, with
great care and consideration.

Ginger. — Used as a tonic. It is also an excellent
stomachic.

Linseed Oil. — In cases of considerable intes-
tinal inflammation, this may be given as a pur-
gative.

Mercurial Ointment.— In conjunction with the
sulphur ointment, this is used for the mange and
scab. The proportions are, one part of the former
to eight parts of the latter.

803

MEDICINES.]

PIGS, AND THEIE VAUIOUS BEEEDS.

[medicines.

j;-j.pRE. In febrile cases this is used as a cooling

medicine. The dose is from one to two drachms,
dissolved in the water the animal drinks.

Palm Oil. — This is esteemed the most valuable
emollient for forming the basis of all ointments
for cutaneous eruptions. Under the name of
Palmce, Linnaeus arranged several genera, which
he placed apart in an appendix to his work. The
same plants constitute one of the seven families
or tribes into which all vegetables are distri-
buted by Liniiffius, in his Philosophia Botaimica.
They are defined to be plants with simple stems,
which, at their summit, bear leaves resembling
those of the ferns, being a composition of a leaf
and a branch ; and whose flowers and fruit are
produced on that particular receptacle, or seat,
called a spadix, protruded from a common calyx,
in form of a sheath or scabbard, termed by
Linnaeus "spalha."

Salt. — Valuable for purifying the blood. A little
of it should regularly be mixed with the food of
the animal.

Sulphur. — An excellent cooling medicine, and one
of the best, if not the best, gentle aperient for

common use. In mange-ointment it forms the
principal ingredient.

Tartar Emktic. — Used as an emetic.

Tobacco. — A decoction of this plant, when mingled
with equal parts of digitalis, is efficacious in
cases of mange and other cutaneous diseases.

Turpentine. — Useful in cases of worms, which it
destroys. There is no danger in administering
it to swine.

Vinegar. — Used in cooling fomentations. Its spe-
cific gravity varies from 1-0135 to 1-0251; and
it differs also in its other properties, according to
the liquid form in whicb it has been procured.
It is very subject to decomposition ; but Scheele
discovered, that if it is made to boil for a few mo-
ments, it may be kept afterwards for a long time
without alteration. Besides acetic acid and water-,
vinegar contains several other ingredients, such
as mucilage, tartar, a colouring matter, and often,
also, two or more vegetable acids. When dis-
tilled at a temperature not exceeding that of
boiling water, till about two-thirds of it have
passed over, all these impurities are left behind,
and the product is pure acid diluted with water.

TM VISION VI r.

POULTRY.

CIIArTEIl I.

OniGIN OF TIIK rOMKSTIC FOWL.

Feom the earliest records of time, tlie cock
seems to have been known to man, and to liavc
held an important place in his estimation, not
only on account of his qualities as a table fowl,
but on account of the heroic courage with which,
as a game bird, he is animated in combating
for viotorv over an antagonist. Ilis origin,
however, is involved in obscurity. We have
no means of deciding where was situated the
Eden in which the Adam and Eve of our do-
mestic fowls were first placed. All, we believe,
are agreed that it was in the East; but it is
very singular tliat they arc no longer found in
a wild state, any more than the camel is ; that
their originals are a matter of theory and spec-
ulation rather than of certainty ; and that, if
we assign them to India, we can do so only by
a process of reasoning based upon probability,
rather than fact. Presuming, however, that
India was the country of their origin, we find
it stated, on the highest authority, that the
range of the wild common fowl does not
extend, westward, beyond the lofty ranges of
mountains tliat form the natural boundary of
India in that direction; and yet the domestic
bird is said, by the same authority, to liave
been common among the western nations from
the remotest antiquity. As difterent views of
this subject have been taken by difierent writers,
we will bring the theories of each before the
reader in a form as condensed as we possibly can.
One supposes that the early patriarchs, before
leaving the eastern cradle of mankind, were
fortunate enough to possess themselves of an
individual wild species of cock and hen ; which,
by some means, they managed to tame, and
attach to either themselves or the locality in
which they settled. By constant care these
became domesticated ; and their ofl'spring, in-
heriting the attachments of their parent:), be-

came still more civilised, and consequently
less inclined to wander from the j)lace of tlieir
birth. To what species, however, did this first
pair belong? Mr. Edward Blyth, Curator to
the Asiatic Society's IMuseum at Calcutta, and
one of the ablest ornithologists of the day,
adheres to the opinion that all the domestic
varieties of fowl are derived from one wild
species of jungle fowl — namely, from that
common in the Bengal Presidency, and the
countries to the east and south-ea^t of it, and
not at all from Gallus Sonncratii, as has been
so often suggested. " In the formerly Burmese
province of Arekan," says Mr. Richardson,
following Mr. Blyth's argument, " many of the
tame hens are scarcely distinguishable from
the wild, and only so by being a little coarser
in the leg, with a tendency generally to a
greater development of comb ; and these hens,
hardly removed from the wild, are fi'ce breeders.
Domestic cocks, of various breeds, may often
be found to match, feather by feather, with the
wild bird, even some of tolerably gigantic di-
mensions; and the voice is absolutely that of
an English game fowl. This is of importance,
as the notes of the two other Indian species
are so utterly difierent ; the dill'erence of voice
among the races of domestic fowls being as
nothing in comparison. Moreover, the wild
hen signifies aloud, after the same fashion as
the tame one, her deposition of an egg ; and
thus it is that the eggs are occasionally found,
though not very commonly."

]\[r. Blyth remarks, in reference to the re-
searches of M. Suudevall — "He might well have
sought in vain for traces of the wild Gallus
Sun/icraiii in the domestic poultry of India,
inasmuch as though, curiously enough, I have
found that species of South India far moreeasiltf
domesticable than the Bengal jungle fowl — the

OEIGINAIi FOWL.]

POULTRY.

[OKIGINAL FOWL.

latter is, 'beyond all question, the exclusive abori-
ginal stock from wliich the whole of our domestic
varieties of common poultry have desceuded."

Mr. Blyth continues — " However difFerent
these may be, whether the silky fowl of
China, the gigantic Chittagong race, or the
feather-legged bantams of Burmah, their
Toice at once and unmistakably proclaims
their origin, and is as difFerent as can be,
in every cry, from that of G. Sonneratii;
besides that we continually meet with common
domestic cocks which correspond, feather by
feather, with the wild bird, the peculiar notched
comb of which is again retained invariably,
even when the comb is double or compound.
This much premised, however, it is remarkable
that the domestic jjoultry of India do not ap-
proximate to the wild race in any respect more
closely than the common fowls of Europe ; and
I have sought in vain for traces of intermixture
of jungle-foivl blood in districts where the
species abounds in a state of nature^

A friend of Mr. Blyth's, in one of his sport-
ing excursions in Cuttack, came upon the nest
of a jungle hen, in the hole of the trunk of
a tree. It contained nine eggs, which he took
home with him, and placed under a common
hen. The chickens were all reared, and lived
with his other poultry, being permitted to go
at large to feed during the day, whilst, at
roosting time, they returned home with the
other fowls. He, however, set no particular,
value on them ; but observed them sufficiently
to be able to state that they interbred with
the other fowls, and that the breed finally
merged in the general stock. From this,
taken in connection with other facts, Mr.
Blyth is certain that our domestic poultry
are derived from this particular wild species ;
and of the tame pea-fowl being desceuded
from the vital Indian one. He further
says, that the peculiarities of many of
the domestic breeds are not such as occur
among any wild birds whatever ; such, for in-
stance, as the silk fowl, with its black skin and
periosteum; the frizzled birds, with their
feathers twisted the wrong way; those with
supernumerary toes; and the feather-legged
varieties. This theory, however, is apt to
startle us when we think of the gigantic
Cochin-Chiuas and Malays, the tiny Bantams,
the superb Polish, and the droll Kumples and
8UG

Negro fowl, being all the progeny of one
single Indian species. This supposition, how-
ever, is coincident with that maintained by
some in reference to the origin of all tha
varieties of the dog:.

Mr. Blyth goes on to say — " It is a curious
instance of how little is currently known of
the zoology of India, that, to this day, authors
who write on the history of the common fowl,
generally repeat the statement, that 'its
original stock is very uncertain ; but it is sup-
posed to be descended from a wild species still
met with in the island of Java!' The truth
being, that the genuine wild common fowl is
familiarly known to every sportsman in all
Northern India, and is with justice highly
prized as a game bird — abounding in all
suitable localities, from the sub-Himalayan
region on the north, to the Viudhyan range on
tlie south, and spreading farther southward,
along the eastern coast of the peninsula, to
some distance beyond Vizagapatam ; while to
the eastward it likewise abounds in Assam,
and all along the eastern side of the Bay of
Bengal, throughout the Burmese countries,
the Malayan peninsula, Java, and Sumatra.
G. Sonneratii begins to replace it on the
Viudhyan range of hills, bordering tlie great
table-land of the peninsula to the northward ;
and wholly replaces it in Southern India
generally ; while in Ceylon two other wild
species occur, the hen of one of these being
figured by the name of G. Stanlejji, in Hard-
wick's Illustrations y

In support of his position, Mr. Blyth bids
us look to the crest of a Polish fowl, and see
how different it is to the crest of the pea-fowl,
or of the Impeyan Lophophorus, consisting of
hackles similar to those of the saddle and
neck. The same is the case witli the feather-
legged breeds. It is observed that the tarsal
plumelets of owls, grouse, &c., are of a charac-
ter peculiar to themselves ; while the foot
plumes of pigeons, and some other fowls, bear
a striking resemblance to those of the corre-
sponding joints of the wings. That animals
long domesticated fall into singular varieties,
we have sufficiently shown in the case of the
dog, which has entirely lost the uniformity of
appearance which, with the exception of a
few, is found in the numerous wild animals
belonging to that species. Even among fish

OniOIXAL FOWL.]

POULTKV.

[onioiNAL rowL.

there are endlesa varietips. The domesticated
Cliinese gold lish is continually varyiiii? aa to
the nunibor of both its Una and tails, lu
place of one, some of thcao have three tails ;
whilst, in point of shape, tho changes are end-
less. These cireuiustauccs have a stronji^
tendency to make us ceaso to wonder at tho
varieties found in other species of animals —
in the dog and tho domestic fowls. These are
much more under the inlluenco of domestica-
tion than the Gsh ; they are in nuieh more
constant association with man; whilst the
cross-breeding that is continually taking
place amongst them, may be expected, in the
course of time, to produce feathers, so dill'ercnt
from those which chanicterised their originals,
as to give them all the appearance of a new
and distinct species. In tho common fowl we
might expect extraordinary varieties. Every
day experimentalists are trying to produce
new breeds, which, in their turn, will produce
other breeds, and so on, until the originals are
lost, and an entirely diiferent character of fowl
is tlie result.

The principle that "like produces like,"
applies to fowls, as much as to the horse, or
any other species of animal ; and it is from a
knowledge of this fact that the breeder acts
when he desires to produce another variety in
such animals as he may have under his care,
and will breed together.

AVith respect to cross-breeding, Mr. Teget-
meier remarks : — " Should it be deemed desir-
able to cross the Dorking, for the purpose of
producing a hardier fowl, such a plan as the
following seems to offer the best chance of suc-
cess ; being based upon the fact that, in cross-
breeding, the pullets usually resemble the
mother, and the cockerels the father. Early
in the year, so as to obtain a brood in May,
put two or three large Dorking hens with a
short-legged compact Cochin cock, either a
common buff, or a grey Shanghai, or Brahma
Pootra. Erom the chicken?, select those
pullets possessing, in the greatest degree, the
Dorking character— viz., having liue bone, short
white legs, and compact body, square on the
limbs ; in the following season mate them with
a good Dorking cock. The progeny will be
three-fourths Dorking ; and, if care is taken
in the selection, will show very little trace of
Cochin blood; whilst the size and constitu-

tional hardihood of tho breed would be much
imj)rovcd, by tho infusion of new blood from
tho hardiest of races. One caution, however,
would bo requisite : if tiiese birds were allowed
to breed amongst themselves, they would occa-
sionally throw back to tho Cociiin ; it would
be therefore necessary to mate tho pullets
again with a Dorking cock ; and, as in all
cases of breeding for size and strength, great
care must bo taken to avoid breeding closely —
viz., from birds related to each other." Here
is the secret of variety, which we see is tho
simple and natural effect of cross-breeding.

Ecgarding tiie processor domestication, con-
siderable weight is laid on tho difference of
disposition exhibited in diflerent individuals of
the same species, whether they have only been
tamed, or fully domesticated. In the breeding
of horses, and even of cattle, disposition is
greatly considered ; and the breed of a vicious
animal is avoided, whatever may be the excel-
lences of its physical conformation.

That the domestication of all our reclaimed
species has been gradual, and originally accom-
plished by those whoso lives were chiefly de-
voted to pastoral pursuits, may be reasonably
inferred. In accomplishing this, the process
would be both simple and natural. The dani
would be either killed or taken from her off-
spring, which would be petted and fed by an
individual of the household, to whom they
would naturally become attached. As they
would be always provided with food, they
would not be forced to seek it in those wild
places to which their originals were compelled
to confine themselves ; and from being con-
tinually under kind inlluences, and tiie sound
of the human voice, they would gradually lose
their natural fcrocit}^ and become tame. Erom
being tame they would soon be reduced to a
state of domestication; and in the multiplica-
tion of their species, varieties would be thrown,
and perpetuated by the art of those who would
naturally make it their study to watch their
dispositions, and mark whatever distinctions,
in their physical forms, might appear. But,
however plausible these arguments may
seem, it is somewhat extraordinary that we
have never been able to tamo a quail, a par-
tridge, or a pheasant. "We have never been
able to attach the Argus pheasants to our
dwellings, as we have done the peacock ; nor

OEIGINAIi rOWL.j

POULTET.

Ftheoeies.

the wolf as we liave done the dog. How ia
this ? How is it that the wild animals, with
which we are acquainted, are now found to be
so difficult to be brought into a state of
domestication ? Ai'e we in these matters the
inferiors of those who lived in pre-historic, or
even anti-traditional times ?— for it must have
been in these that cattle and poultry were
brought under the subjection of a household.
These are questions easier put than answered ;
but, as the subject may be found discussed in
Ornamental Poultry, by Mr. Dixon, we must
refer those who are interested in the subject
to the pages of that gentleman's work.

In placing the various arguments, by the
different investigators, before his readers, Mr.
Eichardson says — " It is candidly acknowledged
— and a very important admission it is, though
there is no possibility of refusing to make it —
tliat the wild types of sevei'al of our domestic
animals no longer exist, while that of our fowls
is thus precisely indicated ! The wild origin
of the camel in the old world, and of the llama,
and alpaca, in Chili and Peru, and even of the
little guinea-pig, which was found domesticated
among the natives of Brazil, is quite un-
known. Neither the guanaco, nor still less
Mie diminutive vicugna, will suffice for the
former, nor the restless and other wild cavies
for the latter. Eespecting the wild original of
such an every- day and familiar creature as
the domestic cat, our knowledge is anything
but superabundant. Great doubts are enter-
tained whether either the true wild horse, or
the true wild ass is known, or the parent of the
humped ox (a most decided species) ; and it is
far from clear that the so-called wild yaks are
the true origin of the tame breeds. Amongst
birds, it is not pretended, or even hoped, that
the wild stock of the knobbed or China goose
(^Anser Cycnoides) is still in existence; although
there must be in China several tame breeds of
that remarkable bird. The original type has
probably been exterminated for ages."

Of some of our domestic creatures, therefore,
there is no idea, among our best-informed
naturalists of the present day, of indicating
the wild ancestor ; but of others such a notion
does prevail. Eespecting a few, there can be
little or no doubt. Of the Indian buffalo,
there can be no mistake ; nor of the hogs of
different countries, from several nearly. related
808

wild races, though the origin of the Chinese
hog is probably lost. Amongst domestic birds,
the pea-fowl, the turkey, and the guinea-fowl,
come from an undisputed parentage, which are
still found wild in their native home ; bat there
are other companions, of which we are unable
to speak with the same degree of certaintv.
It is doubted whether we know the true wild
origin of the domestic canary-bird. Mr.
Blyth actually remarks, " that the albinos (or
what can we call them ?) of all green birds
(amongst others, the yellow wagtail) are
yellow ; for instance, parrots, bee-eaters, &c.;"
and, as he observes, the tame canary-bird has
a true albino eye ! The origin of the cage
turtle-dove is uncertain. The voice of the
wild Turtur risorius is quite different. Mr.
Hodgson has clearly shown that certain very
large and short-tailed Asiatic breeds of sheep
are derived from the wild ammon ; the fighting
rams of India may have their origin in ovis
vignei ; but though the species of Asiatic wild
sheep are remarkably numerous, there is no
other that seems to have contributed to any
domestic race ; and it is probable that the
wild origin of the long-tailed, tame, and other
sheep, is no longer in existence. The list of
" doubtfuls" might be extended; but the ob-
ject here is merely to show that there is such
a list, and to impress it on the reader's atten-
tion.

Whether the several varieties of Domestic
Fowl are of ascertained or doubtful de-
scent, must always remain an open question
Naturalists, generally, think that it required
more than one wild type to produce the many
difterent species which we now find adorning
the poultry -yard ; whilst Mr. Blyth, who has had
great opportunities of observation, adheres to
the idea of one Indian species being the common
parent of all the forms, sizes, and colours which
exist. Notwithstanding this, however, there
are circumstances which he acknowledges and
points out, suggesting considerable difficulties
in the way of establishing his theory.

As other naturalists affirm that the wild
type of our tame cocks and hens has no ex-
istence, it is no more than fair that their
reasons for entertaining such an opinion should
be stated. Geological progress has proved
that many species of beasts and birds have be-
come extinct, and are now, instead of walking

EXTINCT srKcn:s.]

POULTRY.

[kxtinct species.

on the face of the earth, or soaring through
the fields of the nir, lyintj hiiried in tlio depths
of the morass, or iinhedded in the various utrala
which help to form '• the great gloho" which
wo inliabit. In the Geology of Sir Charles
Lvell, we lind a notice of some of the species
tiiat have become extinct in our own island.
Besides those which have been driven out from
some haunts, and, everywhere, reduced in num-
ber, there are a few which have been wholly
extirpated; such as the ancient breed of indi-
genous horses, the wild boar, and the wild
oxen ; of which last, however, a few remains
are still preserved iu the parks of some of our
nobility. The beaver, which was eagerly
sought after for its fur, had become scarce at
the close of the ninth century, and, by the
twelfth century, was only to bo met with, ac-
cording to Giraldus do Barri, in one river in
AVales, and another in Scotland. The wolf,
once so much dreaded by our ancestors, is said
to have maintained its ground in Ireland so
late as the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury (1710) ; though it had been extirpated in
Scotland thirty years before, and in England
at a much earlier period. The bear, which in
AVales was regarded as a beast of the chase,
equal to the hare or the boar, only perished as
a native of Scotland in the year 1057.

Many native birds of prey have also been
the subjects of unremitting persecution. The
eagles, larger hawks, and ravens, have dis-
appeared from the more cultivated districts.
The haunts of the mallard, the snipe, the red-
shank, and the bittern, have been drained
equally with the summer dwellings of the lap-
wing and the curlew. But these species still
lin<^er in some portion of the British isles:
whereas the large capercallie, or wood grouse,
formerly natives of the pine-forests of Ireland
and Scotland, have been destroyed within the
last fifty years. The egret and the crane,
which appear to have been formerly very com-
mon in Scotland- are now only occasional
visitants.

" The bustard (^Olis /«?•(/«)," observes Graves,
in his British Ornithologij, "was formerly
seen in the downs and heaths of various parts
of our island, in flocks of forty or fifty birds ;
whereas it is now a circumstance of rare occur-
rence to meet with a single individual."
Bewick also remarks — " That they were for-
5 L

mcrly moro common in this island than at pre-
sent ; they are now found only in the open
counties of the soutli and east, in the plains of
Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and some parts of
Yorkshire." In the few years that have
elapsed since liewick wrote, this bird lias
entirely disappeared from Wiltaliire and Dor-
setshire.

The extinction of such a species as the dodo
(for wo must conclude, we fear, that this bird
is blotted out from the catalogue of living
animals) is remarkable.

" The most striking example of the loss, even
within the last two centuries, of a remarkable
species, is that of the dodo — a bird first seen
by the Dutch, when they landed on the Isle of
France, at that time uninhabited, immediately
after the discovery of the passage to the East
Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. It was of
a large size and singular form ; its wings short,
like those of an ostrich, and wholly incapable
of sustaining its heavy body, even for a short
flight. In its general appearance it difiered
from the ostrich, cassowary, or any knowa
bird.

" Many naturalists gave figures of the dodo,
after the commencement of the seventeenth
century ; and there is a painting of it in the
British Museum, which is said to have been
taken from a living individual. Beneath the
painting is a leg, in a fine state of preserva-
tion, which ornithologists are agreed cannot
belong to any other known bird. In the
museum at Oxford, also, there is a foot and a
head, in an imperfect state ; but M. Cuvicp
doubts the identity of this species with that of
which the painting is preserved in London.

" In spite of the most active search, during
the last century, no information respecting the
dodo was obtained; and some authors have
gone so far as to pretend that it never existed ;
but, amongst the great mass of s.atisfactory
evidence in favour of the recent existence of
this species, we may mention that an assem-
blage of fossil bones were recently discovered,
under a bed of lava, in the Isle of France, and
sent to the Paris museum by M. Desjardins.
They almost all belonged to a large living
species of land-tortoise, called Testudo Indica;
but amongst them were the head, sternum,
and humerus of the dodo. M. Cuvier had
many of these valuable remains in Paris, and

b09

EXTINCT SPECIES.]

POtlLTET.

[extixct species.

asserted that they left no doubt in his mind
that the huge bird was one of the gallinaceous
tribe."

When new species, multiplying widely, and
requiring large supplies of food, are introduced
into a country, the older tenants of the soil
must necessarily be reduced by want, and some
classes must be destroyed. The millions of
wild cattle and horses which are established in
the New World, from the latitude of 25° N.
to 40° S.; the sheep and goats which have
multiplied enormously there, as well as the
cat and the rat, tlie latter having been intro-
duced unintentionally in ships; the dogs
which have at different periods become wild in
America, and hunt in packs, like the wolf and
the jackal ; and " the many millions of square
miles of the moat fertile land, originally oc-
cupied by a boundless variety of animal and
vegetable forms, which have been already
brought under the dominion of man, and com-
pelled, in a great measure, to yield nourish-
ment to him, and to a limited number of plants
and animals, which he has caused to increase ;
must convince us that the annihilation of a
multitude of species has already been effected,
and will continue to go on hereafter, iu certain
regions, iu a still more rapid ratio, as the
colonies of highly-civilised nations spread
themselves over unoccupied land."

Those who have closely studied the poultry
question have doubted whether living creatures
do undergo, from generation to generation,
such changes as would be evidenced by the
conversion of a wild jungle fowl into the
marked and distinct sorts which constitute our
races of domestic fowls. "They doubt the
progressive transmutation of species, and are
more inclined to regard them as immutable.
That animals do vary, they readily allow ; but
they also believe there is a limit to their vari-
ation. The pea-fowl, for instance, and the
guinea-fowl, ought to have branched off into
as many breeds as the common fowl, if the
theory of derivation from the jungle fowl
were true. These innovators also say that
each creature has its natural disposition im-
planted in it from the first, which no art of
man can alter; that there are tameable and
untameable species of animals, unconquerablv
shy, and unhesitatingly confiding; that they
are reclaimable, partially reclaimable, and
810

utterly irreclaimable ; and that those authors
who, by a pleasant legerdemain, so easily trans-
form one of the Indian ffalli into a barn-door
fowl — who put the Sonnerat's jungle cock,
or perhaps some quite apocryphal bird beneath
a bushel, hocus-pocus a little, lift up the cover,
and then exhibit a veritable chanticleer — write
as if they had only to catch any wild bird in
the woods, turn it into a court-yard for a week
or two, and make it straightway as tame as a
spaniel ; — an educational feat as yet imprac-
ticable with most of the creatures which fall
into our hands."

Taking these various arguments into con-
sideration, it has been suggested that many
varieties of fowl are aboriginal (though no
longer to be met with in a wild state), and are
not the results, but the protegees of domestica-
tion ; that the wild race, the one which ibr-
merly ranged the primaeval woods and jungles,
is now extinct ; and that many of our domestic
animals are the survivors of extinct races —
survivors, because domesticable — of extirpated,
because defenceless creatures — and many na-
tural historical difficulties vanish, and become
reconcilable with what we see around us.

There are other theorists who think that the
various breeds of poultry bear an analogy to
the different races of mankind, as found in the
different parts of the habitable globe. "Either,"
they say, "you must commit the heresy of
asserting that Adam and Eve were not the
common parents of all mankind, or you must
give up your doubts about domestic cocks and
hens. Either you must allow the native Aus-
tralian man to be a distinct and peculiar species
of Homo, or you must admit the more than
probability of the Bengal jungle fowl being
the original type of our domestic fowls." In
meeting this argument, Mr. Eichardsou ob-
serves— that, " passing over the fact that no
one wild original species of man is pointed out
to fulfil the ofiice of type to the existing
human inhabitants of the world, in the sam
way as the Bengal jungle fowl is supposed to
be for domestic fowl — omitting all that, it may
be fairly remonstrated that the argument is
not a generous one, inasmuch as it takes an
unfair advantage of people's dislike to shock
the feelings of others, especially in matters
which, in the slightest degree, touch upon
Scripture history ; it is exactly the same kind

inEOKIES.]

POULTEY.

[destuovixq biuds.

of opposition as was made to geological truths
Bomo years ai»o. AVero an observant ami ro-
ileotinc; naturalist, driven by pressure and per-
secution, to make such a recantation, it would
be of as little value to his opponents, as a
triumph, as Galileo's denial of his deliberate
statement that the earth moved; and niij^ht,
like his, be (]uielly followed by the private as-
fertiou that the earth did niovo nevertheless.
But suppose that, to avoid the charge of insin-
cerity and cowardice, our speculator were to
seize the dilemma by one of its horns, and
render himself liable to be suspected of be-
lieving the native Australian man to be a dis-
tinct and peculiar species ; other naturalists,
of deservedly high reputation, have previously
entertained t!ie same suspicion, and declared
their doubts whether the negro and tiie Euro-
pean have proceeded from the same origin. It
is impossible to say that much has yet been
done in the way of taming and incorporating
into civilised Anglo-Saxon society any one
tribe of Australian natives. They still remain,
as yet, both physically and morally undomesti-
cated. AVhat are the prospects of the abo-
rigines of Tasmania? Even tlie more domes-
ticated iXew Zealanders diminish in num-
bers, while they are trying to fall in with
the ways of civilised life. Their constitution
cannot stand it. Keither has the Red Indian
proved a rcclaimable animal. Captain Fitzroy's
well-meant experiment wltli the boy and girl
from Terra del Euego cannot be called a suc-
cessful one. Darwin's description of the loild
men he saw there, in his voyage in the
Beagle, impresses most readers with the
idea of beholding a totally distinct species of
human creature.

" Some people are bold enough to aver, that
the more they consider, the more they are con-
vinced that the solution thus given of the
mystery about the derivation, or rather non-
derivation of many domesticated from wild
creatures, is correct ; and they also feel equally
assured that there are certain races of men,
whom to concentrate and domesticate, is to
destroy. Immense sums, and great pains have
been extended on the education of children of
the Australian aborigines. Tliey are found
docile ; they learn to read and write, even
more quickly than white children ; but, as
they attain the age of puberty, they either die,

or tako to the woods. A geutlcinau in Aus-
tralia had two orphans, whom he saved amidst
the slaughttr of a hohtilu tribe. They were
faithful even to death; one was killed at hia
side — but nothing could prevent them Iroui
periodically associating with their black brotliers
and sisters. The Kew Zealanders, on the
other hand, are perfectly capable of civilisa-
tion ; but, in spito of that, their numbers de-
crease."

Tiio possibility that our domestic fowls are,
jierhaps, rather a chanco possession than other-
wise, is strengthened by the acknowledged
fact that animals, in a state of nature, and un-
protected, are liable to extermination, nut only
in consequence of the assaults of man, but
from the persecutions of other species, often
those most nearly allied to their own. A lew
years ago there was a violent onslaught made
upon the hawk tribe, in consequence of their
imagined propensity to destroy game. In
some of the sporting journals and periodicals,
letters appeared upon the subject ; some fear-
ing that the whole race of the Falconidcc
would fall victims to the cruel prejudice
which had risen against them ; whilst others
rejoiced in the destruction of these beauti-
ful birds. One of the latter says — "Tour
description of the hen-harrier is excellent,
&c. You will, I have no doubt, remember
how plentiful hen-harriers and other hawks
were here, when wc took the gi-ouud; you
will therefore scarcely credit it, when I tell
you that I have not seen a hen-harrier for
the last two years ; I have exterminated them
by trapping them at the remains of what they
killed themselves. In five years we have killed
upwards of 900 head of vermin ; and the result
is, that we have now live head of game for
every one we had on our taking the moors. Wo
have had two merlins' nests here every year
since I have been here. They build in the long
heather, similarly to the hen-harrier; I have
known them carry grouse poults to their young
heavier than themselves. The sparrow-hawk
builds in trees, and is very destructive to
grouse in the months of April and j\lay ; sho
kills principally the hen birds, these being, at
this season of the year, very slow and heavy in
their flight, and consequently fall a very easy
prey ; I have tra[)ped hundreds of hen sparrow-
hawks at grouse and partridges which they had

Sll

DE3TE0XING BIHDS.]

POULTET.

[destkoting bieds.

killed, but I never trapped the cock sparrow-
hawk at the remains of a grouse or partridge,
although I have frequently taken him with the
remains of small birds that he had killed ; I have
known a sparrow-hawk take nine grouse poults
to her nest in less than twenty-four hours.
I have seen the sparrow-hawk, build for years
in succession in the same tree, although the
hen bird was killed every year, and sometimes
both birds. They sometimes build in an old
hoddie's nest When they build for them-
selves, their nest is very similar to that of a
wood pigeon."

Here is an instance, amongst others that we
liave already adduced in the progress of this
work, of the exterminating war which is
occasionally made upon certain species of the
lower kinds of animals ; these, howevei'^ some-
times find defenders, and several rose up to
propitiate mercy for the doomed hawks. One
who signs himself " Merlin," says — " Of your
numerous correspondents who have given
their vote against the poor hawks, but one
has attempted to discriminate betwixt the
different species ; and, although describing
the most fatal mode by which each may be
destroyed, he has not pointed out those against
which game-preservers have no just cause of
complain'."

In woodlands, the female sparrow-hawk, and
on moors the hen-harrier (called sometimes
the ringtail and glead), are the only species
deserving of death for any breach of the game-
laws. Tlie former bird does destroy a few
partridges and young pheasants during the
summer and early autumn (although its prin-
cipal quariy is the young wood and house-
pigeon) ; the hen-harrier anything it can meet
with, from a grouse to a frog upon the ground,
over which it makes its daily beat. Against
these birds, the pole-trap, so generally recom-
mended, is almost useless, although certain to
capture the harmless mouse-hunting little
kestrel, as also the equally harmless long-eared
owl, particularly when baited, as one corres-
pondent advises, with a liviug mouse, which,
he tells us, "is certain death to any hawk in
the neighbourhood." One would have thought
that this fact alone was sufficient to enlishteu
the writer as to the usual objects of pursuit
amongst the birds he would exterminate. To
the agriculturists the little hawks are of the
812

greatest service, by destroying, in the courso
of the year, immense numbers of these true
" pests of the farm ;" and if they ever do inter-
fere with the game-owner's property, it is by
picking up a half-dead chick or two, artificially
reared under a hen confined to the coop, and
therefore incapable of defending her charges.
To game, in a state of nature, they do no injury
whatever. At certain seasons of the year, it
would do little local good, even supposing all the
charges against the birds were true, to destroy
every hawk over a tract of country ; because,
being, like others of their feathered brethren,
more or less migratory birds, the majority of
tliose which, during the breeding season, fre-
quent our woods and wilds, and elsewhere,
and the comparatively few which remain in
this country, shift their quarters before that
period arrives.

We know how useless it is to attempt to argue
against prejudice, and therefore shall refrain
from pointing out how much enjoyment to the
lovers of animated nature — and these are not
a few — the presence of some of these victims
to the game-keepers' art in the smiling land-
scape affords — particularly when, to this pre-
judice, is added the feeling which could prompt
one writer to advocate the hanging of human
transgressors " on the first lamp-post ;" and in
a subsequent epistle, when treating on his
feathered foes, to recommend that the chain,
by which the trap is secured to the pole, should
be fastened about a foot from the top ; by which
humane contrivance, the hawk, when caught,
is suspended mid-air by the mangled limb.

As there are a few remaining who still
retain a love for the use of these birds, in the
management of which, activity, both of body
and mind, is required, ib might be suggested to
those who will catch them, that by the use of
small traps without teeth, and where the jaws
do not quite close, and are wrapped with some
soft substance, as tow, profit may be combined
with humanity ; as they would find a ready
sale of such birds as the peregrine, hobby, or
merlin, if offered with unbroken limbs.

Were it not for the gamekeeper and the
sportsman, the red-legged would soon get the
upper hand of the grey partridge in many
English counties; the Norway rat has made
the black old English rat exceedingly scarce ;
and the mute swau of our parks and streaiua,

THEOUY.]

POULT KV.

[theory.

if carried to Australia, aud suflVred to fly wild
there, would, in the course of years, drive the
native black swan iuto us narrow quarters as
tbo European settlers did the human aborifjines
of Tasmania. Domestication ailords a refa<;e
against this extermiuatinjj; warfare, in which no
quarter is given ; but in whicli, species that re-
fuse to accept the asylum, aud which obstinately
shout for "death or liberty," must take the
consequences of their choice, and disa|)prar.

A singular instance of extermination, as
liaviug occurred iu modern times, is given by
Mr. llichardson. " It happened in the island
of Tristan d'Acunha, where poultry, intro-
duced by tiie first settlors, became wild, and
multiplied to an extraordinary degree. About
1822; cats having unfortunately been imported,
began to multiply still more rapidly, and
entirely destroyed the wild poultry, and much
of the tame. Similar cases are very likely to
have occurred in early ages, and point to the
probable distinctness and antiquity of the pre-
sent races of domestic fowls."

Having placed the conflicting theories be-
fore our readers, we may observe that the
inquiry is not one of mere curiosity, but of
secondary importance — though it is extraordi-
nary, that our ejforts to tame the pheasant, the
partridge, and the quail, have proved unavail-
ing. A fact of this kind has induced many to
entertain the belief that the races of domesti-
cated animals were never wild ; and the follow-
ing observations are not without weight upon
this point : —

" In the first place, tbere is no evidence of
a greater number of kinds of domesticated
animals now in the world, than have been from
the earliest period of history ; and, in the next
place, there have always existed as many kinds
of domesticated animals as have been useful
to man iu his most civilised state. As the
civilisation of man increased, so have the
variety aud quality of domesticated animals
increased ; but the number of their kindg
has not enlarged. There were horses, as^■es,
camels, dogs, cattle, sheep, and goats, in the
days of Abraham, as well as now ; and these
constitute the largest proportion of our do-
mesticated animals. Many attempts have
been successfully made to tame single individ-
uals of wild races ; but such animals, though
tamed, are in quite a difl'erent state from our

domesticated animals. Some wild animals
exhibit a degree of familiarity. The swallow
builds her nest in our windows, and the robin
enters our dwellings ; whilst tho blackbird and
sparrow are constantly before us. 'J'his famil-
iarity, liowever, does not amount even to
tameness, far less to domestication. It ap-
pears, indeed, that wild animals are preserved
unchanged, for the great purpose of Providence,
throughout tho globe, and that jN^ature has pre-
sented to man only such anin'»als as are obvi-
ously most suited to his wants. With these
he must be satisfied. AVhat wild creature
would he desire to substitute for any one of
our animals ? Should we desire it, Nature
{i.e., the Creator) has placed such a barrier iu
our way, that it is impossible for us to make a
single wild creature available to our domestic
purposes. We may exercise our ingenuity,
judgment, aud even caprice, in moulding tho
habits aud qualities of domesticated animals to
our tastes, wants, and conveniences. There
the field of experiment is open to us — not to
an unlimited, but to a great extent; but
Nature will not permit us to make a single
predatory excursion among her wild animals."
Of the power of man to impress modifica-
tions of great apparent amount on the forms
and properties of animals and plants, there is
sufllcient proof to be found in the field of the
farmer, as well as in the garden of the horti-
culturist. Every ox, sheep, and pig ; every
plant and apple ; every cabbage and cabbage-
rose, is an instance of the ease with which
the natural constitution of organised beings
may be changed, aud of the wide diff'ereuce
which may be made from the progenitor of the
stock, as it appeared when man received it
from the hand of Nature. These changes, how-
ever, are only permitted, and not adopted by
Nature, and endure only so long as man con-
tinues to extend to them his fostering care
and supervision. Let him be taken away ;
let human labour no longer till the field, or
prune the garden ; tend, or feed domestic
animals ; and the scene soon chauges. The
natural war of the various tribes of the
animal and vegetable worlds recommences.
Tlie species that had developed their secret
powers whilst iu a state of social alliance with
the lord of the creation, when deprived of his
assistance, are no longer capable of maintaining

M3

THE HAMBUEGH.]

POULTET.

[the hambtjegh.

their ground. The weak either perish, or
are speedily destroyed, whilst the strong be-
come fierce and pugnacious. The sheep and
the ox become the prey of the dog and the
wolf; whilst the garden-flower, renouncing
the dress and habits of its artificial home, as-
sumes those of the daughters of the field.
All change. The bond which bound them
together has been broken. The alliance has
ceased between them ; and the sweet flavour

and beautiful exterior of the products of the
orchard, are assailed by a democratic aggression
of thorns and brambles. In this struggle they
either perish, or preserve their place only by
becoming as rude and as coarse as their
neiglibours. The crab, the sloe, and the weed
may remain ; but the fragrant apple, the
luscious plum, and the curded cauliflower, are
to be found no longer. Vicissitude has be-
come the rule.

CHAPTER II.

THE DOMESTIC FOWL AND ITS VAKIETIES ; THE HAMBURGH; DOHKING; GAME FOWL ; SPANISH; POLISH;
COCHIN-CHINA; MALAY; BANTAMS; RUMPLES; SILKY; NEGRO AND FRIZZLED; SCOTCH BAKIES;
BOLTON GREYS ; PARIS SHOW.

THE HAMBURGH.

In treating of the varieties of our domestic
fowl, we will confine ourselves to such as may
be deemed the most suitable for the collection
of the amateur ; and, where we can, endeavour
to indicate their points of excellence according
to the opinions of the best authorities. The
first that we shall treat of are the Hamburgh
fowls, which all partake of one common type,
and which are remarkable for the beauty and
purity of their distinct races. They are very
fertile in producing eggs ; are of moderate
size ; excellent table birds, but are non-setters.
There are said to be thirteen points in a
Hamburgh ; but one of the most successful
breeders of this kind of fowl, says—" That he
never yet saw a bird possessed of the thirteen
points which some of the Lancashire breeders
say a good Hamburgh ought to have. In the
silver-spangled variety the cock should have
large white ear-lobes ; a well-formed, compact
comb, nicely pointed; breast regularly span-
gled ; back and hackle white ; tail white, with
perfect spangle at the end of each feather;
legs slate-coloured ; eye large ; cariiage erect.
The hen should be one mass of spangles— the
back spangled as perfectly as the breast ; tail
white, with spangles at the end ; hackle span-
gled or Inced ; legs, comb, &c., the same as the
811,

cock. The ground-colour of both must bo
pure white, neither muddy nor splashed.
In the Northern and Midland counties, Ham-
burghs, both gold and silver, are more exten-
sively reared, and more highly prized, than
all the other varieties of fowl put together ;
although their constitution is considered, by
many, to be less robust or hardy than
that of some other breeds. In the pen-
cilled, the cock should have comb and ear-
lobes like those of the spangled ; body (of tho
golden) a rich gold colour, with tail nicely
bronzed. The hens pencilled from the hackle
to the end of the tail ; hackle of a clear gold-
colour ; comb, eyes, legs, &c., same as cocks."

The points considered necessary by the
Lancashire breeders, are thus given in the
Eev. W. W. AViugfield's Poultry book:—
Cumb. — Best double ; best square ; best piked

behind.
Eni-s.- — Largest and whitest.
iVc'c/w— Streaked with green black in middle of

feather, fringed with gold at the edges.
Breast. — Largest moons ; brightest green black,

free from being tipped with white or red at the

end of the moon ; clear red from moon to bottom

colour.
Back. — Ditto, ditto, ditto, ditto.
Rump. — Ditto, ditto, ditto, ditto.
7f7/i.y.— Four points :— 1st, bow: bright green,

black, and clear red. 2nd, bars : two distinct

bars, formed by largest, clearest, brightest, greea

nAMBUROlIS.J

POULTKY.

[iiAMBunons.

black moons; bright red from moon to bottom
colour. 3rd, Uiglit: clear red. -llh, the lacing
or top oJ" llie wing ahove tlu- lliglit: large,
clear, bright, given black spots on the end of
the feathers ; clear red from spot to bottom
colour.

2\til. — liright dark-green black ; full feathered.

Z^-'/.s-. — CK'ur blue.

General appeanmcc. — Best feathered hen.

For a considerablo time our knowledge
rcspcctinc; tho diflVrent varieties of llain-
biirgli fowls was both imperfect and confused.
Mr. llallam, liowever, in his lUiistrations,
published at Birmingham, has done much to
dilVuse more correct ideas on this species of
fowl ; and as ho is regarded as high authority
on this subject, we acknowledge our obliga-
tions to him for the following observations : —
" Nothing, probably, has occasioned greater
perplexity to the poultry fancier, or interposed
more frequent obstacles to the satisfactory
prosecution of his plans, than the multiplicity
of synonyms by which the several varieties of
llamburgh fowls have been long known in
dillercnt parts of the country. For a con-
siderable time there appeared to be no help
for him ; and any ellbrts to identify one or
other class, under the changing and arbitrary
designations applied to them, were little less
arduous than tho attempts to determine who
was ' Junius,' or ' the Man with the Iron
3Iask.' If he had any faith in books, he would
naturally enough resort to some of the pub-
lished treatises on the subject of domesticated
birds, which, however, instead of extricating
him from his difScidties, only ' darkened
counsel by words without knowledge,' and
rather added to, than lessened his embarrass-
ments. The path of knowledge, proverbially
rugged and toilsome, was, in this instance,
beset with accumulated discouragements ; and
instead of receiving assistance, he was removed
farther than ever from the attainment of his
wishes, by finding, with one exception to be
presently noticed, the objects of his search
indiscriminately described as 'Creoles,' 'phea-
sants,' 'corals,' 'moonies,' 'moss fowl,' ' Bolton
bays,' 'Bolton greys,' 'Dutch fowl,' ' Chitte-
prats,' * everlasting layers' — and so on, through
a wearying catalogue of local and conflicting
terms. To simplify the nomenclature of the
llamburgh fowls, and to apply to each of their
specific variations such dcliuitions as would be

easily understood and universally recogni.Hed,
was, thfrt'fori', a necessary undertaking; and it
may bo said to have been satisfactorily accoiu-
pliahed by the principlu of classification laid
down in tho prize list of tho great Binning-
ham Exhibition, which has become an authority
iu all matters of tho kind.

" Of modern English Poultry books, that of
Mowbray stands first in the order of time,
lie speaks of 'the coral, or Bulton greys,' as
' apparently tho crack breed of their vicinity,
but entirely unknown in tho metropolis ;' and
appends a description of them, by the Rev.
Mr. Ashworth, vicar of Tamworth, in the fol-
lowing terms: — 'Small sized, short in tho leg,
and plump in tho make. The colour of tho
genuine kind invariably pure white in the
whole lappel of the neck; the body white,
thickly spotted with bright black, sometimes
running into a grizzle, with one or more black
bars at tho extremity of the tail: they are
chiefly esteemed as very constant layers,
though their colour would mark them for good
table-fowl.'

" The Hambuxghs are now classified in the
Birmingham prize list as follows : —

1. Golden Pencilled Hamburgh.

2. Golden Spangled Hamburgh.

3. Silver Pencilled Hamburgh.

4. Silver Spangled Hamburgh.

The use of the terms employed to distinguish
what were erroneously called sub-varieties, is
entirely discontinued, all the llamburgh fowls
being included in the four classes thus enu-
merated. It should also be mentioned here,
that all birds having crests or top-knots, are
distinguished in the same list as Poland fowl ;
an arrangement now universally adopted.

" The Hamburgh fowjs, however designated,
have been for a considerable time, and still are,
held in much estimation iu this country, on
account of their attractive appearance and
great utility. Tho silver pencilled have met
with zealous cultivators iu Yorkshire and Lan-
cashire, as ' Chitteprats,' and 'Bolton greys;*
' Creoles' and ' corals' are tho titles they have
received iu the South and elsewhere. They
are handsome and prolific; though persons
wlio have paid attention to them incline to the
opinion that they are somewhat less hardy than
the others. But when the situation and other
circumstances in which each is placed are

&1.J

HAMBIJRGUS.]

POULTET.

[hambueghs

exactly alike, such an impression may, after
all, be more fanciful than real. Single combs
may occasionally, at rare intervals, be met with
amongst them ; but when they are of pure
blood, no variety of our domestic poultry
transmits their own characteristics to their off-
spring with greater constancy. They are, at
present, more frequently met with than the
gold pencilled, to which they must yield the
palm, so far as mere beauty of colour is con-
cerned. In this respect the latter are not
surpassed by any of the inmates of our poultry
yards. The cock, with the rich metallic lustre
of his sickle feathers, and the glowing hues of
the rest of his plumage, is a peculiarly hand-
some and brilliant-looking bird. There is no
difference between the two, except as to the
ground or foundation-colour, which in one is
golden, and in the other silvery white.

"Mr. Edward Lowe, of Comberford, near
Tamworth, had a pair of the gold pencilled,
which formed part of the pen which gained the
first prize and silver medal for a cock and three
hens, at one of the Birmingham Exhibitions.
They were never shown elsewhere. This gentle-
man, who has been a very successful cultivator
of the variety, gives the following results of
his experience of them: — 'I find that a hen,
now twelve months old, which has laid about
five eggs each week since Christmas, weighs
exactly three pounds six ounces ; and a cock
bird, ten months old, weighs three pounds five
ounces. If in good condition, and at full
maturity, the cock should weigh at least four
pounds, and the hens three-and-a-half pounds
each. I have had them at these weights soon
after moulting, and before the hens commence
laying; but I find them produce such an ex-
cessive number of eggs, that they always feel
lighter in hand compared with their apparent
bulk, and no amount of food which they are
able to take seems sufficient to keep up their
flesh. I have never been able to ascertain the
exact number of eggs that one hen will lay in
a year, but I know that some of them have
produced more than two hundrea. ')Juder
very favourable circumstances, a single hen
might produce at least two hundred and fifty ;
but I should say about one hundred and seventy
would be the average for any given number of
fowls. True-bred llamburghs never show any
inclination to sit ; and this, which is considered

by many one of their best qualities, might prove
a serious difficulty to many poultry-keepers who
are not able to keep another sort of hens as incu-
bators. I keep a good many game fowls, and the
two sorts work well together, though, of course,
I am obliged to have them on separate walks,
as the Hamburghs are very timid, shy fowls,
and easily distressed. When the chickens are
produced healthy and right, I always find them
endure quite as much hardship as any other.
Eor ornamental as well as useful purposes, the
pencilled Hambm-gh fowls are certainly un-
rivalled ; and I decidedly give the preference
to the golden variety, because they do not
show the dirt in a wet season so much as the
silver. Their plumage is equalled by none,
and their symmetry and qualities of flesh are
only surpassed by the game fowls ; and they
are the greatest producers of eggs of any breed
we have."

In the formation of an estimate as to the
relative value of particular breeds of fowls, it
is important to consider not only the number
of eggs which the hens will lay in a given
period, but also the proportions in which they
are likely to be produced at particular seasons.
As chickens, the silver spangled are vivacious,
hardy, thriving little creatures. Tliey are
thickly clothed with dark-grey down, present-
ing a mottled appearance ; and it is not until
they are nearly full-grown that the true
character of their feathering is clearly mani-
fest. The cocks are not unfrequently black-
breasted, a peculiarity occasioned by the in-
creased size of the spangles, and from the
overlapping of the featliers concealing the
white portions of them from view. Many
persons do not object to breed from a bird of
this description, and some of the very best
chickens, both cockerels and pullets, have
emanated from such parentage. According,
however, to exhibition requirements, the breast
of the cock must be marked in the same man-
ner as that of the hen, or they will be deficient
in an essential qualification. In some locali-
ties the taste runs in favour of a black breast ;
but, according to accredited standards of judg-
ment, it is founded in error, and will not hold
o-ood. Their qualifications for the table are also
very considerable ; for although they are in-
ferior to some other varieties as regards bulk,
for firm plumpness they are unsurpassed.

HAMBUBOHS.]

POULTRY.

LHAMUL'UUIIS.

** Silvkr-Spakolkd Hambuuoii. — JUale. —
Head of moderato size ; eyes lari:;e and full ;
beak stroiii:^, pointed at tho end, and slate-
coloured ; wattles larLje, and of n rich briijlit,
transparent eriinson, liaiiying freely. Comb
large and double, but not overhanging tho
bead ; tho pointa should bo sharp, thickly set
together, and not open or cupped ; it should
rise a little iu the centre, narrowing behind,
and terminating in a point ; it should hang
loosely, and move as the bird moves. The
comb of the cock is much larger than that of
the hen ; but it should, nevertholesa, bo re-
markably neat, and really ornamental, and not
have the appearance of a heavy and unneces-
sary excrescence. The ear-lobes should bo
large and well-defined, of a creamy white, and
appear as if they were raised from the cheek
The neck and tail hackles should bo a pure
■white, and full and long, covering together
nearly the whole of the upper part of the body ;
but not too thick on the neck. The cock
sliould be clearly spangled on the breast and
on the lower part of the body ; and the wings
should also be marked with rows of spangles,
and distinctly laced on the edges ; the lacing
being bold and unbroken — this forming a very
important property. The sickle, and other
principal feathers of the tail, should bo pen-
cilled in the centre of each feather, one half
being black, and the other half perfectly white.
The other tail-feathers should be of a rich blue
black ; the tail should also be full and well
spread. The legs should be strong, and slate-
coloured ; a white or yellow, leg would dis-
qualify a pen of otherwise good birds. An
average-sized bird, at his full growth, will
weigh from four-and-a-half to sis pounds,
which some fine specimens may be found to
exceed.

" Female. — Head small, and snake-like ; eyes
bright, lively, and surrounded by a peculiar
dark rim. Comb double, of moderate size, and
upright ; but so loose as to follow every move-
ment of the bird, without banging over the
front or side of the head ; the back part of the
comb should terminate in a point; the projec-
tions on its upper surface should be small,
sharp, and placed at equal distances ; and its
colour a bright transparent red. Ear-lobes
white, and of good size. The neck feathers
distinctly pencilled with black along the centre;
5 M

each one of the«e markingn extending, in width,
to one-half tho surface of the feather. Tho
breast and tho whole of tho body of tho hen,
with tho exception of tho neck, should bo
clearly and distinctly spangled ; tho wings
being also marked with rows of spangles, and
regularly barred with straight lines or 'lacings*
' along tho edges of tho large coverts ; tho h-sser
I coverts are laced round the edge. Tho princi-
pal tail-feathers margined with black, and per-
fectly clear and free from 'mottle,' or stain ;
the legs a clear slate-colour ; tail spread out
and elevated ; and the carriage and general
appearance of the bird should convey the im-
pression of great vivacity. The ground-colour
of tho body throughout must be pure white,
and the markings, whether 'pencilled' or
' mooned,' an intense glossy black. An aver-
age-sized hen will weigh from three-and-a-half
to five pounds."

The following is the basis, which is given by
a "Dublin Amateur," of great eipericuce, for
judging these fowls : —

The Cock.

Head. — Surmounted with full, globular, floating
crest, pure white, each feather pointed witti
black. — The comb rudimentary, or in two small
spicula ; the smaller the better. — The beard full
and black, or pure wliite pointed with black.

Hackles. — Pure silvery^white, each feather clearly
ti])ped with black.

Breast. — The largest moons best defined black,
most free from being tipped with white at the
end of the moon ; best and purest white ground-
colour.

Bac7c. — The largest and most distinct black edging,
according to the size of the feather, on purest
white ground.

Sudd/e.— Ditto.

IFhiff. — Divided into four parts: — 1st, The shoul-
der : the best and purest white, with largest and
most distinct black moons. 2iid, The bars : to
liave two distinct bars crossing the wing, com-
])osed of the largest, clearest, brightest, and best
black lacing on purest wiiite. 3rd, The flight :
the cleanest and purest wliite. 4th, The secon-
dary fli','ht feathers : the clearest, best, and most
distinct black lacing, on purest white ground.

Tiiil. — The fullest and purest white, most free from
mossing, and most distinctly laced with purest
black.

Lc(/s, — The clearest and best blue.

Tin; Hex.
Identical in markings with the cock, except the
head ; the crest most globular, largest and ptircst
white, with best and largest moons at the end of
the feather.

Golden.
Descriptive points of both cock and hen the same

817

DOEKINGS.]

POTJLTEY,

[doekinqs.

as in the silver, the difference being only in the
ground-colour variety.

THE DORKING.

Dorking fowls, comprising the Surrey,
Sussex, and Old Kent fowls, attain to a heavy
■weight, produce eggs of considerable size, and
are very superior table-birds. They derive
their name from a town in Surrey, where they
are bred and fattened in large numbers. Their
leading characteristic is an additional toe on
each foot. Their varieties, in which the fifth
toe is absent, are known as the Sussex or Sur-
rey— heavy, short, square, and plump fowls.
Good hens weigh from seven to nine pounds,
and cocks even heavier. They stand low on
their legs ; are wide in the breast, with plenty
of white and well-flavoured flesh. The hens
are generally good layers; and their egg3,
smaller than those of Spanish, and larger than
those of Polish fowls, are white and well-
flavoured. In point of colour, there are pure
white Dorkings, mostly somewhat smaller than
the tinted birds. These, it is generally
understood, require to be furnished with a
double comb. Of the darker hues, there is a
great variety ; some are speckled birds, with
"white pea-like spots upon a rich brown ground ;
and the cuckoo Dorkings, banded with grey
and white, are both very handsome and very
highly esteemed. For coloured birds, eitlier a
single or double comb is admissible, though
many fanciers of experience prefer the former.
In the Birmingham Prize Lists, all the
coloured Dorkings have been classed together,
without distinction of comb; but single and
rose-combed birds are equally eligible. All the
Dorkings are good incubators, though their
heaviness and their extra member render them
somewhat clumsy nurses.

A breeder at Dorking furnishes the following
information in reference to these useful
fowls -.^

The Qualities of ihe Bird. — There can be no dis-
pute as to the size lo which tlie white Doikiiig will
{Xrow, compared with tiie coloured birds; but, since
the commencement of the poultry shows, there has
been added, I shouhl tliink, about 31bs. to their
weight; and doubtless, wiili care, even tliis may be in-
creased (if necessary), though I certainly think a
fowl of live, six, or seven pounds' weight is quite
sufHcient for the table — in fact, the perfection of
size. I have been testing several diiferent breeds
of fowls; and I think I can say, perfectly free from

818

all prejudice, that no one will compare with a
white Dorking at five months old — it is the very
model of a perfect table-bird.

Their Laying Qualities. — They do not, as a rule,
by any means enter into competition with the
Polands, Hamburghs, or Cochins, as layers ; though,
during the season, they will lay a great many eggs,
and these of a large size, and very delicate in
flavour. By rearing early birds, eggs may be pre*,
cured in winter, as the pullets generally commence
laying in November.

As Sitters and 3Iothers. — In this department
they certainly are unequalled, with the exception,
of course, of the coloured birds. They sit remark,
ably close ; are very courageous in the protection of
their young; good foragers ; and, what is a very
great advantage, remain a long while with their
chickens before turning them off.

3Iude of Rearing, etc.— There is a prevalent idea
that they are delicate ; but certainly my experience
will not indorse such an assertion. Last year 1
reared very few ; but the year before, the results
were these — seventy-three chickens hatched ; one
of these had to be cut out of the shell, and, won-
derful as it may appear, every chicken was reared
with the exception of this one, which was killed by
the hen treading on it : so much for the delicacy of
these birds. Of course, this was under as favour-
a!)le circumstances as could be ; that is, they were
well and judiciously fed, kept scrupulously clean,
and had a run on what is, perhaps, one of the most
beautiful commons in England — I allude to the one
called " The Holmwood," and which almost adjoins
the town of Dorking. For the benefit of the mere
novice, I will now explain our mode of feeding,
&c. : — Let the chickens be undisturbed under the
hen tv*enty-four hours after hatching, only taking
care occasionally to remove the loose shells ; after
this time, place the hen under a coop, and feed the
chickens with equal parts of hard-boiled egg and
stale bread crumbs, well chopped up together ; let
the next meal consist of ground oats, mixed with
either milk or water into a stiff crumbly mass ; this
to be followed by chicken groats. Let the chickens
be fed every hour, varying the meals as above : at
the expirstion of a fortnight, a little crushed barley
may be added ; and, at the end of a month or six
weeks, they may be allowed to run and fare as the
older fowls — supposing, of course, that you feed all
your poultry liberally, and with various foods.
Pursue this plan ; and when you see a hundred
beautiful white fowls roaming over some green
lawn or fields, I think you will have no cause for
regret that you have chosen ^or your favourites a
breed that can be equalled by none for its useful
qualities, and is surpassed by few in beauty.

Till the Cochin-Cbinas came into fashion,
the Dorkings — whose proprietor had utility
in view — held the highest place in all poultry-
yards. The abundance with which they supply
the London markets, both as capons and
chickens, is incalculable; and the breed, not-
withstanding the excessive favour shown to-
wards its modern rivals, still preserves, in the
estimation of buyers, a very forward place.

D0KKIK08.]

POULTUT.

[doukings.

lu.Mr. Dixon'a Ornamental and Domestic
Fault ry, wo fiiul the follow in j:^ roinarka upon
this kind of fowl :—" For thus.^ who wish to
stock their poultry-yardd with fowls of the
most dosirablo shape and size, c-loLhid in rich
and varii'gati'd pluniai^o, and, not oxpectin!^
perfection, aro willing to overlook one or two
other points, the speckled Dorkings aro the
breed to be at ouce selected, Tho hens, in
addition to their gay colours, havo a largo flat
comb, which, wheu they aro in high hcallh,
adds very much to their brilliant appearance,
particularly if seen in bright sunshine. The
cocks are magnificent. The most gorgeous
hues are frequoully lavished upon them, whicli
their great size aud peculiarly square-built
form display to the best advantage. The
breeder and the farmer's wife behold with
delight their short legs, their broad breast, the
small proportion of ofial, and the large quan-
tity of good profitable flesh. "When fattened
and served at table, the master and mistress
of the feast are satisfied. The cockerels may
be brought to considerable weights, and the
flavour and appearance of their meat are in-
ferior to none. Those epicures who now and
then like a fowl killed by dislocation of the
neck without bleeding (the more humane way),
will find that this variety aflbrds a tender aud
high-flavoured dish.

"Dorkings aro better adapted than any
other fowl, except the Malay, to hatch super-
abundant turkey's eggs. Their size and bulk
enable them to aflford warmth and shelter to
the turkey-poults for a long period. For the
same reason, spare goose's eggs may be in-
trusted to them. But, with all these merits,
they are not found to be a profitable stock,
if kept thorough-bred and unmixed. Their
powers seem to fail at an early age. They arc
also apt to pine away and die just at the point
of reaching maturity. "When the pullet ought
to begin to lay, and the cockerel to crow and
start his tail-feathers, the comb, instead of
enlarging and becoming coral red, shrinks aud
turns to a sickly pink, or even to a leaden
hue ; and the bird, however well fed aud
warmly housed, dies a wasted mass of mere
feathers, skin, and bone."

Aa a remedy for the above-mentioned weak-
ness, a fresh, well-selected cock-bird or two
should be introduced into the walk, every

second or third year at farthcHt, With such
|)recaution carefully altendi'd to, tlio race will
gciu*rally bo much improved, Tho arrange-
ment is the best that can bo devised ; but tho
necessity for adopting it shows that the cocks
of this breed aro deficient in vigour,

A high authority gives us tho following de-
scription as a basis for judging tho grey
Dorking : —

The Cock.
Jio(h/. — Long and square; the back and belly,

breast and behind, forming nearly ])aralkl lines.
7/t'a(/.— Comb erect, single, rather low than high,
serrated, free from cKft behind or side sprigs;
waxy eyes orange-red ; cheeks crimson-red ; ear-
lobe" small, whitish ; wattles turgid, rounded, not
pendulous.
Neck. — Hackles bright straw colour, either per-
fectly frie from markings, or having the mid-rib
black, and webs straw colour; if marked, mark-
ings must be distinct.
Buck. — Same colour and same markings as hackles.
.S"arW/e.— Ditto.

Winq. — Shoulder clear straw colour, crossed with

a broad, rich coloured steel blue bar ; flight

feathers white, having the secondaries spangled

or partly laced with black on the inner web.

Breast. — Largest, clearest, and best black, least

splashed with white.
Tin/.— Very full, black, well carried, shot with

iridescent colours.
Legs. — White, shorter in proportion than other

breeds.
Feet. — Five-toed; the articulation of the hind and
rudimentary toe to be perfectly defined.

The Hex.

Head. — Comb, when in high condition, falling^ to
one side, serrated, free from cleft behind or side
sprigs ; waxy eyes orange-red ; cheeks crimson ;
ear-lobe whitish ; wattles rounded.

iVec/c— Hackles, mid-rib black; edges silvery white,
well defined.

^ac/c— Shaft white; webs minutely dotted with
black on whitish ground, presenting a grc-y
appearance.

Saddle. — Same,

irui/;,— Shoulder same grey as back ; shafts broad,
and very distinct straw colour; flight, dark
brown.

Breast. — Reddish fawn colour,

7(1/7.— Full rich brown, with minute black mark-
ings ; edges approaching silvery.

Zer/s and i^t'c!!,— White ; toes, five in number;
articulations clearly defined.

Dorking (WniTE).

7/^rtr/.— Comb single or double; if the former, sub-
ject to the same rules as the grey Dorking; if
double, the duplicature to be di.-.tinct.

Body. — Clear white.

Tail. — Full and well carried.

Legs. — Five-toed ; articulation of toes well defined.

Dorking (Pheasant and Speckled),
Of doubtful purity ; no markings to be relied on.

819

GAME FOTVL.J

POULTET.

[game fowl.

THE GAME FOWL.

The Game Fowl is, iu the estimation of many,
one of the most beautiful of birds. His flesh is
excellent ; whilst the hen is a fair producer of
eggs, a good sitter, and attentive mother.
Both male and female, however, are very
troublesome, from the extraordinary combative
qualities with which they are endowed. The
cock has long been known for his fighting pro-
pensities ; and mankind having early discovered
this, made them administer pleasure to their
own destructive tendencies. " Cock-fighting
is indeed so old," says an article in the Sport-
ing Dictionary , " that we hardly know whence
to derive its origin. Asia, however, has the
credit of first fostering it ; and it seems to
have been cultivated by the natives amongst
their earliest games. The first records of
China note it. In Persia, it was early encou-
raged, in conjunction with hawking and quaii-
fighting ; nor was it to be wondered at, that, as
man became belligerent, he would, in order to
extend his conquests, commence his education
by observing the ofiensive and defensive opera-
tions of animals, thereby the better to regu-
late his own. When Themistocles was engaged
iu warfare with the Persians, he was struck
■with admiration at the bravery and determina-
tion displayed in the battles between the cocks
of that people ; which was such as to occasion
him to exclaim to his admiring army, * Behold !
these do not fight for their household gods,
for the monuments of their ancestors, nor for
glory, nor for liberty, nor for the safety of their
children, but only the one will not give way
tinto the other.' This so encouraged the
Grecians, that they fought gallantly, and ob-
tained the victory over the Persians ; upon
which, cock-fighting was, by a particular law,
ordained to be annually practised by the
Athenians. The inhabitants of Delos were
great lovers of the sport ; and Lanagra, a city
of Boeotia, the Isle of Rhodes, Chalcis and
Euboea, and the country of Media, were famous
for their generous and magnanimous race of
chickens. It also appears that they had
some peculiar method of prepariug the birds
for battle. Cock-fightiug was an institution,
partly political, at Athens, and was continued
there for the purpose of cultivating the seeds
of valour in the minds of youth. But it was
820

afterwards perverted and abused, both there
and iu other parts of Greece, till it became a
common pastime and amusement, without any
moral, political, or religious intention, as it was,
until lately, followed amongst us."

In his form and aspect, and in the extra-
ordinary courage which characterises his nat-
ui-al disposition, the game fowl exhibits all
that either the naturalist or the sportsman re-
cognises as the heau-ideal ofliigh Mood.

He is somewhat inferior in size to other
breeds ; but his shape, approximates more
closely to the elegance and lightness usually
characteristic of a pure and uncontaminated
race. Amongst poultry, he is what the
Arabian is amongst horses, the high-bred
short-horn amongst cattle, and the fleet grey-
hound amongst the canine race. Such being
the character of this variety of fowl, it would
doubtless be much more extensively cultivated
than it is, were it not for the difficulty attend-
ing the rearing of the young ; their pugnacity
being such, that a brood is scarcely feathered
before at least one-half is either killed or
blinded by fighting. Their elegance of form,
and brilliancy of colour, however, render the
breed objects of great admiration. They are of
all colours ; and each variety seems to have had
its patrons, the rule being to mate the cock
with hens of the same feather, or " rightly
plumed to the cock," as Spetchly has it. Devia-
tions from this rule are frequent, as we find the
same to be the case in all kinds of animals which
have been reduced to a state of domestication.

When a cock is selected, he should be
placed with from four to six hens, bringing
them together in IS^ovember or December. If
he be young, the hens may be full-grown ; if
two years' old, then the hens may be young
pullets, in the case of a strong breed being
desired. Mark attentively how he bears him-
self to all his hens, as it frequently happens
that one or other of them falls under his dis-
pleasure, in which case she should be removed.
Choose the best-shaped eggs, and neither the
earliest nor the last laid ; and, to avoid mis-
takes, mark them, and place them under an
old game hen — the old being excellent mothers.
Their place for sitting should be private, and
free from all annoyance or intrusion.

When hatched, the young should be regu-
larly audi often fed, in small quantities at a

THE SPANISH FOWL.]

POULTKY.

[tub bpanisu fowl.

timo, after tlio first day or two. Thi'ir food
sliouKl bo : —

Macerated epps l)oili'(l hard.

Crumbs of white bread

Lettuce-leaves and meadow aiiLs.

M:i«;}j(it3 from j^raiiis.

Steeped oats and small wheat.

Curds, witli new milk.

Bread, toasted, and steeped in chamber-ley.

Tho varieties of game fowl bred in thia king-
dom are very nuuierous, and, to the unin-
itiated, their designations very unintelligible.
For the purposes of combat, the black-breasted
reds have been the favoured variety. The recog-
nised breeds are, according to Spetchly : —

1. 151ack reds.

2. Silver black-breasted

ducks.

3. Birchen ducks.

4. Dark grey

6. Mealey greys.

6. Blacks.

7. Spangles.

8. Furn esses.

9. Polecats.

10. Cuckoos.

11. Gingers.

12. lied duns.

13. Duns.

14. Smoky duns.

" In all these," says Spetchly, " good birds
may be found. From them, however, have
been raised crosses innumerable ; and it is the
aim of the fine breeders of the present day, to
have their birds as much as possible uniform
in feather, blood, and constitution."

The best montli for hatching game chickens
is IVIarch, as it has been generally found, that
when hatched in this month, they prove to be
the most hardy birds. We should state, how-
ever, that whatever may be their beauty and
high courage, game fowl will be very trouble-
some in a poultry-yard of various breeds,
especially if another chanticleer is kept; for
although their smaller size might lead to the
supposition that they will not be the aggres-
sors, this is a mistake. Their indomitable
spirit forces them to quarrel with every other
bird; and their activity and strength render
them dangerous to the heaviest adversary.

THE SPANISH FOWL.

The Spanish fowl is one of the largest
breeds ; a productive layer of full-sized eggs ;
and, in the great majority of cases, a non-
sitter. Its plumage is black ; and it is a little
smaller in size than the old "shakebag;" but
in every other quality, in which excellence is
to be expected, it surpasses that bird. The

back of tho Spaniali fowl is tinted witli a
glancing green; whilst the feathers of the
legs, thighs, and belly are particularly decided
in the hue, and of a velvety aspect. In its
carriago it is stately, having a grave and
majestic deportment, such as might be sup-
posed to become tho monarch of the poultry-
yartl. AVhen in condition, ho is not only a
beautiful, but a useful bird, with white
clieeks, and large comb and wattles, very
highly coloured. Tho legs are of a leaden
eulour, and so are tho feet, except the soles,
w hich aro of a dirty fleshy hue. A full-grown
cock weighs about seven-and-a-half pounds;
tho hen about six-and-a-half.

These fowls have long been established in
Great Britain and Ireland; and exhibit no
constitutional peculiarities which suggest diffi-
culties in either hatching or rearing. As
table-birds, they hold a place in the very first
rank, their flesh being particularly tender and
juicy ; whilst the skin possesses that beautifully
clear white hue, so essential in birds designed to
be consumed by the gourmand. The hens are
the highest class of layers ; and of all tlio
naturalised and' indigenous varieties of fowl,
they, with other sub-races of the same type,
produce the Andalusians and Columbians,
being the largest and best-flavoured eggs.
Besides, they are prolific, and extremely easy to
feed. Spurious specimens of this fowl are
often in the market; consequently, a buver
should know all the points of a fine bird
before he enters the market. To purchase a
spurious fowl will cost as much as the other;
will be as expensive to feed, but will not bring
an equal return in the way of profit. By
applying, in the first instance, to a breeder of
known respectability, much disappointment
will be avoided ; and though the price demanded
may appear high, it may not, perhaps, be
higher than what would have been paid for a
bad article. Even should a few shillings extra
have to be laid out, it is better to do so
willingly, as, in the long run, it will be found
the most prudent plan. It may hero be
observed, that the addresses of the leading
amateurs and dealers in poultry, may be learned
by consulting the catalogues of the principal
shows throughout the country.

Spanish fowls have occasionally changed
their plumage, and become perfectly white.

THE POLISn FOWL.]

POTJLTET

[the polish fowl.

A person writing to a sporting paper, says
that he has seen a perfectly wliite Spanish
hen which had once been entirely black ; and
inquires if such a thing is not very uncommon,
and if any of his readers can account for such
change ; it had not the plea of cold, like the
ptarmigan and mountain hare. We have
heard of several instances of a black Spanish
fowl becoming a white bird ; and recollect one
exhibited at a poultry show as a white Spanish
fowl, which we were told had undergone this
curious change.

In forming a judgment of the excellences
of the Spanish fowl, the following are the
points to be looked at : —

The Cock.
Head. — Comb erect, serrated, surface waxy, free
from side sprigs or warts ; not too high; face
pure opaque white, as well over the eye as the
cheek, separated from the comb by a distinct
line of black feathers ; ear-lobe pure white, free
from pink or bkie tints, and very large, meeting
under the wattles ; eyes orange ; beak blackish
horn colour; wattles long and pendulous; all
the body black, brilliantly glossed ; legs black.

The Hen.

To match ; distinctive marks the same, except in

the comb, which should fall over on one side.

THE POLISH FOWL.

I'olisJi fowls, have a top-knot of feathers in-
stead of a fleshy comb. They are generally non-
sitters ; lay medium-sized eggs ; are of middle
weights, and great favourites with the epicure.
"Why these birds are called Polish, or Poland,
we are unable to say, as there is no evidence
of which we are aware, to show that they origi-
nally were imported from Poland. They are
birds which frequently exhibit great courage,
whilst their beauty is unquestionably very con-
siderable, although that property has, in one
point at least, formed a subject of dispitte.
This point is the beard ; but the best way of
determining the merits of this appendage of
the head, is by making both bearded and un-
bearded specimens equally eligible to prizes.
There is now only one class for bearded or
unbearded Polish of each colour— the same
applying, in this case, as in Dorkings.

The impression, however, is, with many, that
the ruffs, or beards, should be taken as one
point in favour of the birds which are adorned
with that appendage. Mr. Wright's opinion
is, that the bearded fowl will, in every case, be
822

found to be the best in all respects. It is
quite true, that while the unbearded varieties
have greater delicacy of form and plumage, the
bearded are endowed with considerably more
constitutional vigour.

" The favourite varieties of Polish fowls, are
the Black, with white crests ; the Golden
Spangled, and the Silver Spangled. The Golden
Spangled is of no ordinary beauty ; it is well
and very neatly made ; has a good body, and
no very great offal. On the crest, immediately
above the beak, are two small fioshy horns, re-
sembling, to some extent, an abortive comb.
The wattles are small ; the hackles on the neck
are of a brilliant orange, or golden yellow ; and
the general ground-colour of the body is of the
same hue, but somewhat darker. The thighs
are of a dark brown, or blackish shade, and the
legs and feet are of a bluish grey. The full-
grown cock weighs about six pounds, and the
hen five-and-a-half pounds ; the eggs moderate
in size, and very abundant. In the Silver
Spangled varieties, the principal difference is,
that the ground-colour is a silvery white. But
the spangles themselves have been the subject
of serious feud ; and the Birmingham list now
discreetly contents itself with calling them
Golden and Silver Poland ; which it has the
greater right to do, inasmuch as the degree of
disposition of the markings is not so rigidly
laid down for Polish as for Hamburgh fowls.
Besides these, there are pure white Polands,
entire dun-coloured Polands, and other com-
binations of hues. A much-desired variety —
white, with black top-knot — like the common
cuckoo, * tuneful bird, seldom seen, but often
heard' of — is to be met with in every Poultry-
book, and would make the fortune of any one
who could produce a pair or two alive."

In England, these fowls are esteemed rather
a fancier's than a farmer's stock. Their non-
sitting disqualification renders them unsuitable
for agricultural purposes ; but their flesh is of
the very highest excellence. They are reared
in Egypt, in immense numbers, the practice of
artificial hatching supplying the constitutional
defect of the birds. A vast number of Polish
fowls are bred in the department of Calvados,
in France, especially in the neighbourhood of
Caen, whence they are brought to Le Havre
by various conveyances, for the supply both of
the town and the shipping. No care is taken

•WHITE FOWL.]

POULTKY.

[COCUIN-CIIINA FOWLS.

to keep the breads p\ire, and thoy are found
with or without beards, as tho caso nmy be.
A warmer and drier cliinato than that of Great
Britain secma to bo nioro congenial to the
Polish fowl. Tho chickens are very slow in
•^rowing, and it is dilhcult to distinguish the
sexes at an early period of their life. Still
they are exceedingly pretty objects, as they
carry their little downy top-knots on tho very
day of their entrance into existence.

In referenco to this fowl, one, who seems
to have studied its nature and qualities, says,
that in judging of tho jjoints of this kind of
fowl, he would suggest the following as a good
basis to go upon : —

Fowls with Crests.

Improperly calUd Poland or Polish ; nc record to

be found of fowl so named.

White-crested Black.

Tin; Cock.

Head. — Surmounted with a globular, floating crest,
in two parts ; smallest amount of black on fore-
head, and fullest and clearest white falling equally
on all sides. — The comb rudimentary, in two
small spicula. — The ears fullest and clearest
wliite. — The beak, horn colotn-. — Wattles full.

JN'ec/;. — Best brilliant shining L...k, free from white
or any other colour.

B.)f/v.— Ditto.

Wings. — Ditto.

T(;j7.— Ditto.

Legs. — Blackish grey.

The Hex.

Similar in all respects to the cock, the crest ap-
pearing more globular on account of a difference
of shape of feather.

Black-crestkd White.

The reverse of the foregoing, believed to be extinct ;

the greatest desideratum of the poultry fancy.

Chest i;d White Fowl.

Description as to form of crest the same ; the colour

best and purest white.

The Sultan fowl, or Serai Tii-ook, is, by
Eonie, supposed to belong to the Poland species.

"In fulfilment of a promise of long stand-
ing, to Mr. Tegetmeir," says an intelligent
writer, " to send him the first Sultan
fowl which should die, for the purpose of as-
certaining whether these fowls are possessed
of the peculiar conformation of head of the
Polands, I lately sent a hen for post-mortem
examination ; and he stated, ' tlie structure is

of that very ri'inarkablo kind, found in the
Polands. ' When tho young chickens aro
hatched, the embryo crest shows itself as in
tho chickens of other Polands ; and, in all their
habits, they pronounce themselves of that
variety. So much for their kind.

" Tho SuUan is a short-legged, plump, com-
pact fowl of medium size. Tho tuft on tho
head is large, compact and globular ; it has a
mull", whi.skers, and gravel eye. Tho plumago
is abundant, and of a pure white. The legs
are well booted and vulture-hocked; there aro
five toes on each foot. It is a brisk, active
fowl, and exceedingly ornamental.

" In their own country, Turkey, they are
known by the name Serai of Til-ook ; literally
translated, ' Sultan's Palace Fowls,' or ' FowU
of the Sultan's Palace.' The first fowls re-
sembling the kinds which attracted my notice,
were Dr. Burney's Ptarmigans ; but they
were very inferior to those imported in
ISoi (which, with their progeny, have taken
so many prizes since that time), being very
poor in the crest, leas compact in form, un-
mufted, and without the fifth toe. But, like
the handsomer Sultans, they were good layers
of large eggs, and non-sitters."

COCHIN-CHINA FOWLS.

The Cochin-China fowl is of great weight;
very prolific of eggs and young ; a good incu-
bator, but not of a decidedly good quality for
the table.

This species of fowl, on its appearance
amongst us, produced a perfect mania in the
poultry world ; and we are principally indebted
to her Majesty and the late Prince Albert
(who, in April, 1846, sent two fine specimens
to the cattle-show of the Eoyal Dublin Society)
for having first made them knowii to our
poultry-yard.

Since that time the breed has been exten-
sively cultivated ; and new, whenever there ia
a poultry exhibition, the representatives of the
celestial empire are suro of having a place.
The large prizes awarded for these fowls, and
the extraordinary prices they realise at public
sales, show the excess to which a passion may
be carried. At Kensington, a collection, con-
sisting of a lew birds (with their young
chickens) which had obtained the prize and the
extra medal at the Birmingham Exhibition in

Sl'3

cocfliK rowiiS.]

POULTET.

[COCHITT FOWLS.'

December, was sold at what might well be con-
sidered fabulous prices. For a cock, £8 5s.
was given; and for a hen, £5. The entire
sale realised £100. At a sale bj auction of
Cochin-China fowls, in Kiug-street, Covent
Garden, and at another in Deptford, light
buff-coloured specimens fetched the highest
prices. A pair of chickens, hatched March
6th, the pullet being " fine and light," fetched
£3 17^.; "a light-coloured cock," hatched in
the same month, was sold for £2 ; " a beautiful
light-coloured imported hen, 1851," for six
guineas ; and another light-coloured hen, and
a light-coloured cock, both hatched in 1851,
sold for £5 each. Inferior specimens averaged
about 105. a head. The Deptford specimens
were much too leggy to fetch very high prices.
One lot, a light cockerel and pullet, was sold
for £3 55. " But what is still more extraor-
dinary," says Mr. Eichardson, " we are assured
that a gentleman, well known as a breeder
near London, lately sold a pair of fowls for
thirty guineas, and another for thirty-two
guineas. The same person has been offered
£20 for a single hen ; and has sold numerous
eggs at one guinea each. He has also been
paid down, twelve guineas the half-dozen for
chickens just hatched, to be delivered at a
month old. Nay, we are credibly informed
that as much as £60 per pair has been given
for the pure breed. The collection of Cochin-
China fowls formed by Mr. Andrews, of Dor-
chester, was sold by him to Mr. Catliu,
for £250."

The exhibition of the first white Cochin-
Cliiuas, in this country, was at Birmingham, in
1850 ; and Mr. E. Herbert, of Powick, Wor-
cestershire, was the exhibitor. He had them
from the Dean of Worcester, who received
them directly from the importer. A price of
£5 was placed upon the pair, which was in-
tended to bo prohibitory ; but tliey were, not-
withstanding, immediatel/ bought; and the
buyer was at once offered £7 for them, which
he refused. At a subsequent Birmingham
show, tho same birds were sold for £10 ; and
the prices of tho variety have since risen con-
siderably.

The first birds of this breed were brought
to the Queen's aviary, and called the " Cochin-
China," from their being imported from tluit
country. The breed is also called " Shanghae,"
824

from specimens having been early introduced
by Mr. S. Moody, of Manchester, from that city.
The terms Cochin-China and Shanghae are,
therefore, used synonymously. Cochin-China
is a country about one-third larger than the
British Isles, and ranges from about 9° to 23^
north latitude ; while Shanghae is one of the
most northerly ports with which we trade in
the Chinese dominions, being situated in a
much higher latitude than Cochin-China. It
is quite possible that birds of this kind may
have been imported from both parts of China,
and have originally sprung from the same
stock ; or, if difterent varieties exist, there is
certainly some difficulty in discriminating. As
commercial intercourse has long been estab-
lished between the Chinese and the Cochin-
Chinese, either country may have imported them
from the other. At Shanghae they are known
by the term Loo-Choos — the name of a group
of islands lying ofi" the channel coast. It is
also well known, that birds of large size, with
feathered legs, and having all the principal
features of these birds, have been imported
to Adelaide, in Australia, from Singapore. Some
years ago, they were in the very southern part
of the Malay peninsula.

From these circumstances, we may reason-
ably infer that the breed has, for some years,
been pretty generally distributed over the
eastern coast of Asia, and that to establish the
precise place of its origin, would be a matter
of considerable difiiculty. This fact will, to
some extent, account for the many spurious
specimens, or impure-bred birds, which have
been brought to Britain from the southern
ports of China, as this is the district of the
Malay variety of which we shall by-and-by
speak. The birds, therefore, from Shanghae,
are, perhaps, of the purest blood. At all events,
to separate them into two classes is decidedly
a mistake, as no sufficient marks exist to estab-
lish a Cochin-China as a distinct bird from a
Shanghae.

The author of the F oultry- Keeper^ s Calen-
dar, furnishes us with the following interest-
ing remarks : — " There are, doubtless, many
handsome and profitable kinds of poultry, in
difterent parts of the world, which are unknown
and unnoticed in England. In Eussia, there
are some which are so much valued there, that
it is almost impossible for strangers to obtain

cocnix-cuiNA rowLS.]

ruULTKY,

[CUCHI

K-CHIN.V FOWLS.

them ; and, in Turkey, the Cochin-Chinns were

known and lii^'hly prized while still stmiij^cra
here, having passed into that euuiitry hy way
of Asia. A few years back, while the Cochiti-
China fowls were yet unknown to me, and
after I had met with only disappointment in
an endeavour to discover, in the Spanish, the
good qualities often attributed to them, I was
told of some fowls to be found in Turkey, pos-
sessing size and other good qualities in great
]ierfection, and I, of course, became immedi-
ulely very anxious to buy some of these rare
birds. Several of our friends, at that time
living in Constautinople, and their friends,
kindly placed themselves in full pursuit of
these wonderful fowls, but without success ;
and we were, after some time, obliged to give
up the idea of having them. At length, one
of our Constantinople friends came to London
to see the Exhibition, and, on his return, I sent
bv him a Cochiu-China cockerel and two pul-
lets, as a present to his father. During the
vovage, many persons from the different ports
came on board to see these wonderfully large
fowls, with a strange, unearthly crow ; and, on
the arrival of the ship at Constautinople, it
was found that those were the very same fowls
which I had been so anxious to obtain from
Turkey ; which had, however, become very
scarce there, and which, if ever sold at all,
were only to be purchased at an enormous
price.

" About eight years ago, a young sailor, who
had served in our family before he went to sea,
brought me a fowl from the Cape of Good
Hope, of a kind which I have never seen since.
He (for it was a cock bird) was entirely jet
black, with long scarlet wattles, and a very full
roie comb ; the shape of his head and neck
was Malay-like, and his tail drooping. He
was very upright in carriage, and he looked
tall, even by the side of a fine Spanish cock.
He was certainly very handsome. Of his other
qualities I had little opportunity of judging;
for very soon after I had him, he and his rival,
the Spanish cock, got together and fought, al-
though we had fancied them securely sepa-
rated, and both ultimately died from the injuries
which they then received. I never but once
saw a bird like him, and which I have always
thought must have been brought over at the
same time ; for the same sailor had two cocks
5 k

with him in that voyage. Thin nccond bird I
saw exhibited at a poultry exhibition in the
Zoological Gardens, Ivegcut'H Park : lie was
mated with hens very unlike hiiiiHelf, and the
coop was labelled ' Crow Birds.' "

In the essentials of size and power, tho
Cochin-China fowls excel every other kind of
poultry ; wiiilst the softness of their colour is
the admiration of many. This generally con-
sists of rich glossy brown, or deep bay, with
an occasional mark on the breast, of a blackish
eolour, and of the shape of a horse-shoe. This
mark, however, is not to be taken as an infal-
lible sign of tho breed. Tho comb is of a
medium size; sometimes, but not always,
ylightly serrated ; and the wattles are double.
The plumage is bright, and has a peculiar soft-
ness to the touch ; whilst the prevailing and
most admired colours are buff, yellow, cinna-
mon, and grouse.

In exhibiting the Cochin-China fowl, colour,
beauty, symmetry, weight, and general excel-
lence are of great importance. Various rules
have been laid down for the guidance of
amateurs in the purchase of these birds ; and
having been framed, the following general
outline can safely be given : —

1. Moderate length of legs, inclining rather
to short than long. The legs yellow, or yel-
lowish, in front, with reddish or flesb-coloured
sides, and well covered to the toes with
feathers. Fowls without feathered legs (that
is, " not booted," to use the technical phrase),
do not possess one of the essential character-
istics of a first-rate bird. The more densely
the outside of the leg is feathered, and the
nearer in colour the leg feathers are to those
of the other parts of the body, the greater the
beauty, so far as the booting is concerned.

2. Head, rather small and narrow ; face
red ; comb somewhat diminutive, single, and
not too deeply serrated ; even {i.e., not bent in
and out) and upright.

3. Tail very short, so as to be almost buried
in the rump feathers, especially in the hen.
Pure Cochin-China fowls have no "scimitar
tail-feathers." Some were exhibited at Lewes,
which had these feathers naturally, aud were,
therefore, disqualified.

4. Wing small, the extremitie.-} of which
should be almost hidden under the breast fea-
thers before, and by the saddle feathers behind.

COCHIK FOWLS. J

POULTET.

[cochin rowLs.

5. Body deep from back to breast; wide
on the rump, and very broad behind, which
part, as well as the thighs, ought to be covered
with downy feathers, in such abundance as to
give them a very large appearance. Tail and
wiug very small ; thigh remarkably thick, and
the stilt short ; den^e fluffness of the stern and
thighs ; legs well-feathered, or looted, down
the outside.

In matters on which there are many opinions,
it can never be an iujudicious plan to give
what are esteemed the best, by those who have
a large acquaintance with the subject of which
we are treating. Accordingly, from others
which we will presently give, we select the
following for insertion here, as being from an
amateur of great experience : —

" The cock bird is of a dark-red colour, with
a dark hackle, edged with yellow ; very fluffy
about the thighs ; each flufly feather presents
a very peculiar characteristic — viz., being semi-
double, or as if it had been split from the apex
to the base (I have never found the feathers
thus in half-bred birds) ; the wings very short,
and doubled under ; comb single serrated, but
not deeply so; legs short, flesh-coloured in front,
pink down the sides, and somewhat feathered ;
a few sword feathers in the tail ; the crow
generally ending in a prolonged kind of roar :
weight about 10 lbs. Hens partridge-coloured;
by abundantly, very dark, middle-sized eggs ;
weight tbout 7 lbs. or 8 lbs, each. Chickens
feather slowly; cockerels even more so than
pullets. When about three months old, cocks
weigh 41 lbs. ; hens, 3 lbs. to Z\ lbs. each :
roost on the ground at night ; all of a quiet
disposition, seldom or never fighting. Hens
excellent sitters and kind nurses."

The remarks of Mr. Trotter, of Henley Mill,
near Hexham — written in further illustration
of the Essay for which the Eoyal Agricul-
tural Society, in 1851, awarded him a prize —
merife notice here. They are valuable, as
coming from a gentleman of great practical ex-
perience, who carried off several prizes at the
Northumberland and Durham Society's show,
for the best Cochins, Dorkings, Spanish, and
Pencilled Hamburglis.

*' Beneath the vent," he says, " there is a

much^ greater abundance of ' fluffy' feathers

than in other varieties of fowls. The feathers

on the thighs also partake greatly of this

826

fluffy nature. The outside of the legs, and
the outside toe, ought to be profusely covered
with feathers. The wings are so short as
almost to deprive the birds of flight ; in fact,
it is with difficulty they can mount a balk two
feet high ; it is therefore necessary to have the
balks where these fowls are kept, even lower
than I have already recommended. These
fowls having great length, breadth, and depth,
attain to almost incredible weights, averagino^
about 11 lbs., if good specimens. The hen
weighs seven, eight, nine, or even sometimes
as high as 10 lbs. ; but as some commence to
lay much earlier than others, a greater dif-
ference prevails in their weights than in those
of the cocks.

" The most esteemed colour of these fowls is
ginger ; but as there are pure bred birds of
almost all colours, including black and white,
I am in favour of selecting them as much by
their shapes as by their colour. No judge of
* short-horns' would, when acting in that capa-
city, give preference to an animal of * fine roan,'
the shape of which was less perfect than
one of a less admired colour — such as red or
white — providing the character of purity were
evident. Neither do I think any judge of
fowls ought to give advantage to any Cochins
on account of colour, if the shapes are less
perfect than others of less admired colours.
The colour of the legs varies in different speci-
mens ; but a ' pinky' is most admired. Their
eggs mostly partake of a chocolate colour, but
difler very much in deepness of hue ; some ap-
proaching almost to pink, while others are only
a few shades removed from white."

As a basis for forming a judgment, the fol-
lowing points are given by a Dublin ama-
teur :—

The Cock.

Head. — The beak, in the lighter varieties, yellow ;
in the darker, horn colour. — Eyes pearl, or
orange red. — Comb low, single, serrated, free
from sprigs, and smooth. — The wattles full and
round. — Earlobe very full, falling to a level with
the wattles. — Face brilliant crimson.

Neck. — Orange, varying in tint according to variety.

Back. — In the light-coloured varieties, orange ; in
the dark, orange marone.

Wing. — Shoulder, and throughout, graduated tints
of orange yellow in the light colours ; in the dark,
orange marone ; flight feathers bay.

Breaat. — In light colours, buff; in partridge-
coloured, brown, with dark markings, sometimes
pheasanted ; in grouse-feathered, black breasted.

cocniN-cniXA fowls.]

POULTUV

[COCIIIN-CUIXA FOWLS,

Tail. — Black, scanty, and droopinp.

Letjs. — FfntluTPil to the tot-s; yellow; the skin, in

the dark varietifS, iiicliiiini; to roil nt the hiu k.

In the li;;liter vnritties, pule yellow, free I'rum

blotches of dark colour.
Thiijhs. — Fully covered with long loose featlier.t.

The Hi:n.

Head — Small ; comb sin^'le ; eyes pale orange, or
pearl colour ; wattles sunie as cock, but smaller
HI proportion.

Keck. — Graceful ; small at the insertion of the
head. 'In the lighter varieties, tlie hackles
graduated tints of pale orange buff; the lower
ieatliers brown in middle, outside webs orange.
In the lemon colour, free from marking. In the
partridge, mid-feather brown, edge golden.

Sack. — In the ligliter varieties, gradations of yel-
lowish buff, accordinu: to class. In the partridge,
brown, with yellow sliaft and liglit edge. In the
grouse, a darker brown.

Saddle. — Ditto ; feathers very long and loose, almost
obscuring the tail.

r<a7.— Brown.

Lcgfi. — Yellow : well feathered to the feet, according
witli body colour.

Thiyhs. — Very full-feathered ; webs long and dis-
united.

Of the gentle disposition of the Cochin fowl,
much has been said ; for it seems quite averse
to any display of pugnacity ; whilst it may,
with safety, be inclosed within a fence of not
more than three feet high. From this cir-
cumstance, its desire to wander cannot be
deemed very great. Tliere are instances where
it has been kept in a flower-garden, in a space
of about thirty feet long and twelve wide,
inclosed by galvanised iron network only three
feet high ; and it never attempted to get over.
The feathers of the wings being short, and well
doubled under, or clipped, entirely prevent
its flying, or "over-leaping" a fence.

An amiable trait in the character of Cochin
fowls, is the tameness which they evince in all
their relations with man. Domestication, in
their case, seems to be brought to the highest
perfection : as they will not only readily feed
from the hand, but permit themselves to be
handled witliout betraying the slightest un-
easiness. At first sight, however, they do
not seem so attractive as other fowls. In
this country, we have bad, constantly before
our eyes, clean-legged poultry, with plenty of
tail : it is therefore some time before we become
accustomed to this eccentricity ; but when the
eye has become used to it, there are no finer-
looking birds in the poultry-yard than they
are — the cock birds wei"liin<j; from 10 to 12 lbs.

each, and tlie hens from 8 to 9 lbs. In the
specimens, the cocka are best— upright fellows,
square built, and ubundiintly feathered on tlio
leg and ttiigli, with only n bunch for a tail, and
a bright crimson saddle. Long golden-reddish
feathers fall over eaoli side of the back, just
beyond the wings. The hens have a very small
tail, and tlio fullness of the thigh is more
marked in them than in the male bird. The
crow of the cock birds is not like that given by
the common chanticleer, but ends with a note
similar to the growl of a dog.

It is not unnatural for the Cochin-Cliina to
roost ; but their wings are so defective, tliat tliey
cannot attain any considerable height by flight ;
and, if enabled to mount up by a ladder, they
arc apt to maim themselves in leaping down.
A bench, with a top, si.t inches broad, and
raised a foot from the ground, with the floor
swept out, and fresh sand every morning, is
the best roosting-place that can be made for
them.

There appear to be several distinct varieties
of the Cocliin-Cliina race, some of them being
square-built, and others resembling the Malay;
which are considered the purest breed. The lat-
ter throw out the indispensable single comb,
before and while laying, and, to a great extent,
lose the Malay- like appearance about the head.
The white Cochin-Chinas are a splendid va-
riety, of robust shape, and equally hardy with
the others. There is also a variety termed tho
"Lovell breed," which, for fulness of breast,
generally surpass all others ; but the breed is
scarce. A careful and judicious cross between
the large Slianghae birds and the Cochin, has
been found to improve the progeny in size and
constitution ; but, for breeding purposes, the
shortest-legged Shanghaes must be selected,
and those with most of the properties of the
Cochins.

A correspondent of the Cottage Gardener
says, that he succeeded in producing, from a
very large imported hen, and a magnificent
cock, three or four decided grouse-piumaged
pullets ; and so definite is the colour, he says,
that strangers, one and all, exclaim, *' How liko
the grouse!" They are large, strong upon
their legs, and have the usual quiet demeanour
of the Cochin. The dark-red and partridge-
coloured cockerels, which attain to a consider-
able bulk, are preferred by some ; while others

827

COCHIir FOWLS.]

POULTEY.

[cOCHIir FOWLS.

prefer those of a medium size, deep in the
breast, broad across the back, and with short
legs. Putting aside all these minor points,
however, which are mere matters of taste to
the fanciers of these fine birds, we may safely
say, tliat the light-coloured varieties are in
general highly prized ; while, for strength and
weight, the dark birds are superior ; but for
beauty, the yellows, fawns, and bulFs carry off
the palm. Eed cocks, with hackles of a uni-
form gold colour, produce a variety of good
light birds, especially if with light hens, and
thus materially strengthen the stock.

In rearing and keeping these birds, rice,
boiled and kept well, and stirred for six minutes,
so that the grains are separated one from an-
other, should form a portion of their food.
When young, it is particularly grateful to them.
In the spring, when the hens are laying, the
most suitable food is the best heavy barley,
with occasionally a few oats and wheat, and,
once a- week, some offal meat, such as sheep's
pluck, well cleaned and cut in pieces ; sheep's
noses, with the hair scalded off; worms, plenty
of chickweed, and now and then a cow-cab-
bage.

When moulting, barley, oats, wheat, Indian
corn, and soft meat of barley meal, with the
best sharps, mixed rather stiff together — not
exactly scalded, but made up with warm water
— should be given. Fowls are fond of a variety
of food, and like it frequently to be chauged ;
but for staple food, give them the best heavy
barley. Put some lettuce-seed into the ground
early, and, as soon as fit, transplant in a warm
place. Give the fowls plenty of these, as well
as cabbage-leaves, as they like most kinds of
green meat. To be kept up, they must have
their meat constantly by them. It will not do
to feed them at stated times, for then they
glut themselves, and do not lay so weil ;
whereas, if the food is by them, they take it
regularly.

In rearing chickens, much attention must
be paid to their food, giving them frequent
changes, and tending them with great care.
Bread scalded in milk, rice, grits, barley ; and,
for a change, put some rice into the side-oven
with water, leaving it to be scalded only to
such an extent as will make it separate or
granulate easily ; the same with barley ; and
8^ soon as the chickens eat well, let them
82S

have barley- meal. They should also have,
once a-day, some chopped meat, such as beef
and mutton ; and of chopped green meat, such
as lettuce, they will eat abundance.

An eminent writer on poultry states, that
he allows three pints per day of grain to twelve
fowls, besides a dish of potatoes, and a quart
of middlings made into porridge. He also
gives them the run of a small orchard a few
hours each day.

To attain those heavy weights for which
this breed is distinguished, the birds must not
only be liberally, but judiciously fed. To the
growing chicks, the materials necessary to
form bone, as well as flesh and sinew, must be
supplied. " At Birmingham, a cockerel, other-
wise perfect, was supposed to have suffered
some injury or fracture in the legs; but
he was only rickety. His frame abounded
in all requisites, except phosphate of lime,
which, of necessity is a great essential. Ifc
should be remembered, that quadrupeds suck
in this luilding-material of their skeleton with
their mother's milk, which contains it in suffi-
ciency ; but that gallinaceous birds, to attain
weight and corpulency, must take it with their
food. Therefore calcined oyster-shells, broken
egg-shells, chopped bones, pollard mixed stiff
with milk, and such like, should be allowed to
be freely eaten ad libitum.''''

The whole of the Cochin- China race are ex-
cellent layers — a circumstance which, in an
economical point of view, adds greatly to their
value. With the exception of a short interval
at moulting, they lay the whole year round ;
and a supply of young pullets would produce
eggs even at the time when the old ones cease
laying. A hen exhibited by her majesty at a
Dublin show, laid ninety-four eggs in 103
days. Pure birds will generally lay from
thirty to thirty-five before wanting to sit.
The number of Cochin eggs laid at poultry
shows, especially when the exhibition is one
that happens to be open for several days, and
the fowls, therefore, have to be on the spot
some time before and after, is surprising.
But this may not be a subject of wonder,
when it is recollected that most of the birds
are in the best possible health and condition.
On such occasions, the poor things are sadly
puzzled to know what to do with their incon-
veniuntly-timed produce ; and to see a hen,

COCIUX-CIIIN'A.3.]

POULTRY.

[COCllIN-cillNAS.

after a few momenta of uneasinosa, carefully
roll her possible chicken up into ono corner of
her pen, frequently aliorda consiJenible aniuae-
ment to the loolcor-on.

As to tlio fecuntlity of the China fowl, it is
thus testilied to, by tlie Rev. W. W. Winlield.
He says — "A rcnuirkiiblo instance of the
merits of Cochin-Chinas, as layers, has just
come before me. A young Punchard hen was
brou<;lit homo on tlie 2lth of last December.
She laid on the 25th, and continued to do so,
till, in 90 days, 95 eggs were laid : 10 more
eggs were then laid in 20 days — making, in
all, 105 eggs in IIG days ; she then sat and
reared a brood." Mr. F. W. Rust, of Stow-
market, Sull'olk, says that ho had a hen, which,
ou two occasions, laid two eggs in ono day ;
the first time on the IGth of April, within
three hours, and the last on the 12th of June,
within the hour. Captain W. "VV. Hornby,
H.N., of Knowsley Cottage, Prescot, Lan-
cashire, reared pale buS'-coloured Cochin-
Chiua cockerels of the very first class ; and
states that one of bis hens laid two e2:2;s in

DO

one day, but that she did not lay on the
following. The eggs of the Cochin-China
are not quite so large as those laid by the
Malay, and the colour is generally a pale
chocolate, or yellowish-white ; but some are
nearly white. They have a very delicate flavour.

An essential object in the hatching of these
birds, is to infuse fresh blood into your stock,
by purchasing a fine young cock, or eggs of I
good breed from some party on whose stock i
reliance may be placed. As eggs obtained in j
town are often inferior, try to get them from
the country ; and, if possible, see the parents. '■
The eggs will carry perfectly safe, if placed in '
a box, with the large end uppermost, and well
bedded in bran — not sawdust, as the turpen- !
tine may injuriously affect them.

The usual time of sitting and hatching is '
from nineteen to twenty-two days ; but it may
be a day sooner or later. If, however, an
unusual delay takes place, it may be attributed
to staleness of the eggs, or unsteadiness of the
sitter at the commencement of sitting. Some-
times young chicks, from various causes, die
in the shell, either from some fault in the parent
birds, or the eggs having been stale ; from
want of warmth or steadiness in the sitter ; or
from their being put in a situation which is

too dry. But tho uHme mischances are
likely to occur with other birds. If tho eggs
aro fresh, they do not require a longer time
for hatching than those of ordinary i'owU;
but instances have occurred of a couple of daya
longer being required for tho purpose of in-
cubation. As sitter and nurse, tho Cochin-
Cliiria hen ia decidedly superior to tho Malay,
tho length of the limb of which makes her aii
awkward sitter, wliilat it also renders tho taak
irksome to her. The hens should be set early
in spring, and not later than tho middle of
April. But if in March, it allows a chance of
mild open weather during April ; and thb
birds will bo finer grown in tho ensuing
autumn than if hatched later. Cochin-China
hens are kind and attentive mothers to their
young brood, and generally remain with them
for a week or ten days after beginning to lay,
which is usually one month after hatching.

Mr. Broughton Kingston, of Eieter, a suc-
cessful breeder of the Cochin fowl, gives tho
following results of his experience : — " I com-
menced with a pair of young fowls, whose
grand-parents were imported birds. Tho
pullet began to lay on January 14th : on
March 3rd she hatched sixteen chickens, and
again began laying when these were five weeks
old. On May 27th she brought out another
fine brood, and recommenced laying in about
a month. On August 12th she hatched a
third brood ; and in six weeks laid again. In
October she wished to sit a fourth time ; but,
being so late in the season, I prevented her.
On the 13th of December, 1851, she again began
to lay, and continued to produce her daily
Qgg, having laid, that year, 101; eggs. Of tho
March brood, some of the pullets began to lav
when about eight months old ; and several of tho
cockerels weigh about 9.} lbs. ; cockerels of the
May brood, about G lbs. As regards the iiardy
nature of the breed, I need say no more than
that I have not lost a single chick from ill-
ness."

After setting his hens, the breeder should
be careful to have them oft' their nests at stated
times, and see that they are liberally fed with
barley and soaked bread. The strongest
chickens come from the eggs of hens twelve
months old, or the second season of their
laying. To have a healthy stock, cock birds
should be changed every two years, and never

S29

COCHIK- CHIN-AS. J

POULTEY.

[cOCHIJf-CHIN-AS.

be bred from the same stock, if it can be
avoided. By ' this method the quality of the
breed will be kept up. It is quite as easy to
have good birds as mongrels. Chickens, to be
larce, must be abundantly and uourishingly
fed, on the same principle that a race-horse,
from the day he is foaled, has his milch-cows
kept for him. At ten weeks old, they are just
at the age when they have scarcely a feather
to cover their nakedness. After this age,
however, if they are kept warm, and fed
generously, they speedily become covered with
feathers. They usually prefer oats to barley,
which are, in some respects, better for them.

The principal circumstance in which the
treatment and management of the Cochiu-
China fowls differ from that of the lighter
varieties, is in the mode of their roosting.
They do not require to be coddled. At
Shanghae, the winter weather is, at least,
equally severe as it is with us in England.
The vacant space beneath the greenhouse stage,
makes an excellent winter roosting-place. If
kept clean, and they are prevented irom getting
into the house, there will be little fear of their
injuring the plants.

These heavy birds, indeed, should not be
allowed to ascend a high perch. Those per-
mitted so to do, invariably become deformed in
the breast-bone; and have an unsightly ap-
pearance, independently of their health being
greatly impaired. When a hen's ladder is placed
against the perches, the fowls will make use of
it in mounting to roost ; but in coming down,
they almost always use their wings alone.
Many persons attribute this deformity in the
breast-bone to injury sustained in these hasty
descents (which are often as bad as a fall) ;
but it proceeds rather from the great weight
of the fowl bearing upon one point for so
many hours together. Where this is the case,
either high or low perching is likely to be
injurious. But, be this as it may, high perch-
ing is proved to be so, to heavy fowls.

Broad perches, near to the ground, are some-
times provided for them ; but a bed of straw,
either on a wooden platform, or in a basket, so
large as to avoid any danger of injuring the
plumage, is to be preferred. The straw should
be shaken up, cleansed every day, and renewed
once a-week, or oftener, if necessary. The
purchase of this straw occasions an additional
830

outlay of money ; but this will be found no
loss to those who have even a small garden, as
the rotted straw, mixed with fowl's manure,
forms a valuable addition to the dung-heap.

When ordinary care is taken of the Cochin
fowl, it is not found more delicate in habit, or
more difficult to bring to perfection, than any
English fowl ; and the chickens are quite as
easy to rear. Cross-bred chickens are some-
times very delicate, subject to roup, and diffi-
cult to raise ; but this is seldom the case with
the pure breed. On the contrary, these are
generally thriving, and hearty -feeding chickens.
Where common poultry are fed twice a-day, it
is desirable to feed the Cochin-China three or
four times, and to give the food so abundantly
that some may be left after the fowls have satis-
fied themselves.

Viewing Cochin-China fowls as subjects of
profit or loss, it has been contended that the
Polish fowl may be more profitable than some of
the Cochin-Chinas ; but, if they are fed alike, it
is certain that the best Cochin breed will surpass
the Polish in the number of their eggs. Some
are of opinion that the Spanish are a more profit-
able variety than the Cochin ; but a gentleman,
who has paid much attention to the subject of
profit and loss, says, that " after a fair trial of
almost every breed — the Spanish being the
last — I have given them all up but the Cochin-
Chinas, and now keep no others. Erom
March, up to the 1st of May, I have hatched
131 chickens, and disposed of a large number
of eggs — all from six hens. I have now chick-
ens, hatched the first week in February, weigh-
ing 9 lbs. per pair ; and one of the pullets laid
an egg before she was four months old."

It has frequently been asked, whether the
brown or white Cochin-China fowls are the
more productive ? — and whether the latter are
so superior to the former as the great differ-
ence in price would lead us to expect ? But no
very marked diflference in productiveness has
yet been observed. The extra price is asked
and obtained for the rarity of the colour
— many fanciers being willing to pay some-
thing more for an article which their neigh-
bours do not possess. The same conventional
value is attached to most other objects of fancy.
Cochins are highly esteemed as table birds ;
and, as such, may be turned to profitable ac-
count. The great size and weight which they

cocniN-cniNAS.]

rOULTKV

[COCIIIX-CUINAS.

attain, at a very early age, render them de-
sirable for the table ; and thoy cost but little
for food in the short space of tiino required
for rearir:g them. Ac four months old, there
should be no dilliculty, under ordinary circum-
stances— allowing a good run and fair feeding
— in getting pullets to three-and-a-half poumls,
and the cockerels to live pounds, live weiglit ;
and, by being then cooped, they may, with ease,
be grown still larger. In flavour they are most
excellent, and their tenderness is unsurpass-
able. Another valuable produce of the Cochin-
China fowls, and consequently a source of prolit,
is their feathers, which are nearly equal to
goose down.

All circumstances considered, in reference
to the Cochin fowl, it may safely be said that
it is the most profitable for the poor man and
the farmer; viewing it, not as an object of
fancy, but as productive stock. The early
period at which the pullets begin to lay, is
capable of being turned to valuable account by
the cottager ■while getting his stock together
by the restoration, during the scarcity of win-
ter, of the little capital expended during the
year. Thus the owner, who has raised or pur-
chased chickens in the spring, may obtain a
brood or two late in the summer, or earlv in
autumn, and have chickens ready for the table
abour Christmas, which might partly or wholly
replace his original outlay.

If any of the fowls exhibit symptoms of dis-
ease, a jalap pill should be given, and they
may be crammed a little with stiff" barley-
meal.

The whiteness, or scurfy appearance of the
cocks' comb is a kind of disease which does
not appear seriously to affect their health ; but
it greatly militates against their appearance,
and should be taken as a true sign that the
birds are not in a perfect condition. The dis-
ease is not confined to the comb only, but
spreads itself dowu the neck, both before and
behind, denuding it of its feathers, and leaving
only their stumps. For the cure of this, some
have considered high-feediLg to behest; but
the following recipe has been given by Mr.
Payne. He says — " A lady friend of mine, who
has just returned from India, after a residence
of eight years, happened to see my fowls, and
told me that the ' Kulm fowl' — which I be-
lieve ig the ' Malay,' and of which she kept a

conHiderublo number in India — was aubject to
the Bumo iliHeaao, nn<l that the natives, upon
discovering it, u|)plied cucoa-nut oil and tur-
meric. IShe strongly advised mo to do the
same, which 1 did immediately, and with the
most complete eucceas ; for it 8to[)ped the
spreading of the disease at once, and very soon
restored tho comb to its original colour : but
for the return of feathers, I must wait till tho
moulting season."

An experienced amateur thus speaks gene-
rally of the Cochin-China, or Shanghae fowl : —
" A great deal has been said and written about
the colours and tints of these fowls. I say tints,
because even tlio buffs are subdivided into
lemon-buffs and buff's proper ; and if it may bo
included in tint, as it is allowed to be equi-
potential in merit, to the cinnamon. Then we
have the various grades of shade, till we come
to the downright partridge colour. Some ama-
teur, or some scientific colouriat, should take
the lead, and lay down a new scale of degrees in
this matter ; it would be useful, and, I opine,
it would be acceptable. Supposing such a one
should say at once — There are three grand di-
visions of these coloured birds ; viz., the buffs,
the cinnamons, and the partridge-browns — not
forgetting the whites and the blacks of this
race. These three divisions of coloured birds
are again subdivided into the self, the pen-
cilled, and the spangled, or mottled, buffs, cin-
namons, or partridge-brown. I do not see wliy
a pencilled bird should not be as good as a buff-
coloured one : they are as line in the fluff' and
feather, and decidedly, as I could show by
reference to my own stock, much prettier
specimens. I have two pullets of one year,
and another of the year preceding, of exquisitely
fine buff, charmingly pencilled (almost as richly
laced as a gold or silver-laced Bantam), and of
fine shape and luxuriant proportions — of finer
development, as a whole, than any I possess.
But, however this may be determined, one thing
is very certain — no yard will ever remain,
throughout the year, as it may be constituted
in spring. Shape, size, gait, and weight, may bo
assumed as permanent characteristics ; not so
feather. In the birds of the air, and of the water,
and many others, as the ostrich, the emu, &c.,
feather is as invariable as tho other characters.
But either it never was so from the creation,
or it has become otherwise from circumstances

b31

COCHIN-CHINAS.]

POULTRY.

[COCHIN-CHINA-S.

nnd time immemorial, that the domestic races
oi poultry vary their plumage ad infinitum. Not
only do white or black Bantams, cuckoo-Dork-
ings, and game-fowls sjjot't in the feather, but
the more uniform breeds, the black Polanders,
the Minorcas, and even the Spanish, take a
white speck spot, and even feathers, when the
fit is on them. So with the Shanghaes. The
breeder may start in spring with buffs, cinna-
mons, or partridge-coloured parents, and their
progeny in November will display all the
colours of the rainbow, except, to be sure, the
blue. Nay, tJiei/ may put 07i the affirmative of
due proportions of the whole as white, or the
negative as black specimens. The yard may be
kept to one colour by cutting the sporters, and
the propensity to sport may be checked, but,
I believe, never subdued. Pancy must direct
choice in colours, and the leading fanciers will
give the eclaf to their preferred colour. It is
true that the lighter tints are of the more deli-
cate feathers, perhaps of the more delicate
flesh. But the dark birds are the finest,
largest, and, almost invariably, the fairest
specimens, which are, at the same time, of
good growth and weight, of good buff colour,
and so rare, that the}^ are very highly prized.

" The Cochin- China, or Shanghae fowl, which
has made so great a noise, and brought about
so great a revolution in poultry-yards and
poultry shows of late years, may possibly retire
from public estimation with no less silence and
rapidity. Eor, unquestioned as its novelty of
form, beauty of plumage, and gentleness of
disposition and manners are, its usefulness as
a supply for the tables of the upper classes,
though not as a contributor to the couch and
the pillow, by its soft and silky redundancy of
fluff and feather, have been long under anxious
consideration. It is well to speak of the
game-like flavour of its delightful flesh, and to
dilate on the pounds avoirdupois which they in-
dividually rise to. Is it as well to be silent
■upon the large proportion of offal ? — to ignore
the fact of the boasted game-like flavour being
unattended by the shortness of substance so
acceptable to the rcflned palate? — to be blind
to the colour, and insensible to the pachy-
dermy ? Regarding them as such exceedingly
pleasant inhabitants of the yard, and orna-
mental to the lawn and the pleasure-grounds,
we grieve over the defects we are bound in
832

candour to admit. The frequent announce-
ments of salesmen and auctioneers, of whole
stocks and yards to be disposed of, is far from
a disallowance, much less a contradiction, of
our position.

" In respect to size and weight, there is
much solid ground for scepticism. Doubtless
there have been individuals of large develop-
ments, with legs several inches in length and
three in girth, and a great length of middle claw,
which would be important iteins if reducible to
broth or jelly ; but such growths are not aver-
age, or even usual. In my own yard, and
in every other I have inspected, I have seen
nothing approaching these models. I do
not say that Mr. Sturgeon may not, out of ten
or twenty scores of annual produce, have been
able to select a very few of such specimens as,
at the second or third year, may have reached
twelve pounds in the male, and nine in the
i'emale ; but even that gentleman, the spirited
and highly commendable proprietor of the
breed, does not achieve or speak of more. I
have heard mention of even greater weights.
Inspection has convinced me of the soundness
of the late Lord Althorp's advice to gra-
ziers, ' Not to look at their own cattle with
too much partiality,' so as to see them in
points of view which sober eyes cannot find
or allow. I think I should not be hazard-
ing too much to say, that the weight of
Shanghaes does not absolutely exceed that of
the finest Dorkings; and, relatively to use —
sinking the ofliil — would fall below it. I
have possessed both in their best forms and
degrees.

" The propensity to incubation, in the female
of this breed, is so remarkable, so persevering,
so irremediable, that, while it would make a
\Q\; hens desirable to the general breeder, it is
a serious drawback to them as sale stock.
They begin to lay their winter supply of not
large, but delicious eggs in the midst or end of
November, and lay regularly, for six or eight
weeks, one egg a day. Then they assume the
broody humour, and are with difficulty diverted
from their purpose. After some eight or ten
days' seclusion, they reappear as layers to
the extent of from ten to twenty eggs, when
they again claim the sweets of maternity.
Then you cannot easily turn them from
their purpose. I have frequently taken hens

cocniw-OHiirA fowl.]

POULTRY.

[tiIU MALAY KOWL.

off their nests, put thorn down on the floor,
and left them, only to find them hours after in
the siune spot, and in preoiaely the aamo acci-
dental posture, like dead thingn, as I left
them. Tiiey are the sweetest, gcntloat, and
most rational of irrational niothera. The
chicks are hardy and 'fendible' — a very excel-
lent Yorkshire word, with which the next
edition of Johnson may bo enriched. It is a
Tery, very rare occurrence for one to die, or to
be weakly. The soft and warm flulTiness of
the hens makes their brooding most eliectivo.

"I may add that they are most conformable
creatures in this, as in most other respects.
They will sit wherever you wish to place them.
One winter, about the beginning of January,
I diverted some hens from this purpose for a
week or two ; in February, they became again
hroody, while the weather was yet untoward.
I brought them from their laying-nests in the
poultry- house, and placed them on eggs in
cupboards in my kitchen. They then sat,
batched, and got through the chickenhood of
their ofispring as kindly as could be. It was
a subject of mirthful observation to my
household, that the same hens, when again, in
May or June, they became prone to multiply,
bounced up, in profound fussiness and impor-
tance, to the kitchen, and demanded, by peck-
ing at and opening tho door that stood ajar,
admittance to their comfortable winter quar-
ters. They were, unresistingly, put on eggs
in a new place ; but, as that was not far from
the kitchen door, they sometimes repaired,
after their periodical recreations, to the old
and favoured, instead of their new locality, of
•which they only needed a gentle memento to
resume their maternal duties. I have spoken
of the rarity of a weakly chicken ; and I add,
that I do not remember ever to have lost one,
except by some such death as the mother
treading on it, or a door blowing-to, and killing
one.

" Talle Qualities. — Since writing the above
jots of experience, I have sat down to a young
Cochin-China, or Shanghae chicken. It was a
deformed bird, though otherwise very hand-
some, and therefore condemned. Its weight,
ready for spit, was only 5} lbs., but of fine ap-
pearance, sent up turkey-wise. The quality
of the meat was better than I expected. Still,
its flesh must be pronounced coarse in fibre,
5 o

compared with tho old breeds of poultry.
There was great whiteness, plumpness, and
juiciness— tho substance as beuf to veal, or as
codfish to turbot— not denying that both tho
antecedents in tho contrasts aro excellent
eating. Tho legs were, ajjparently, of whiter
meat, and moro delicate consistency, than is
usual with tho legs of chickens or of turkeys.
It will bo obvious, hence, that I do not con-
sider their table-excellence unsurpassable or
unsurpassetl."

In judging these birds, another amateur
suggests tho consideration of the following
points : —

Head. — Beak to harmonise with colour. — Eyes red
{ptarl rye too Malay likt).—Comh single, small,
straight, evenly serrated, fine in texture, and
free from excrescences. — Earlobe in cock, red,
full, and long ; in hen, small. — Face, red.

Body. — Very square ; j'. e., broad and deep in the
keel, with abundance of thick, soft plumage,
giving breadth behind ; short neck.

Tail. — Remarkably short; in colour harmonising
with that of the bird; almost buried in long
loose feathers.

Wi7ig. — Folded up very close, so as to leave the
fluff of the thigh standing out full.

Legs. — Yellow, and heavily feathered.

Colour of Chinese Fowls.

Cinnainoji. — Cock and hen both to be cinnamon,
and, as far as may be, to agree in shade; liackle
marking nothing deeper than a golden tinge ;
absence of black in tail and flight, a beauty;
colour throughout of a uniform shade.

Buff. — Cock and hen to agree in shade to a great
degree ; marking on neck-hackle to be tolerated
in hens ; tail, colour of plumage, or mixed with
black ; plumage clear, unflecked, and to agree in
shade throughout.

Gruusc. — Very dark ; each feather a mixture of
rich brown and black, as in a pheasant. Breast
and tail of the cock, black [accordiny to tne
Dublin amateurs'] ; hackle richly marked. In
the hen, breast like a pheasant.

Partridge. — Dark ; the plumage of the hen a minute
mossing. Cock with black-spangled breast, and
dark-red hackles.

Blade. — Pure deep black ; no coloured feathers.

White. — Pure and clear white ; no foul feathers.

Cuckoo, or Grey Shanyhae. — All the plumage evenly
])encilled, clear grey ; no mixture of red or yellow
tinge.

THE MAL.\Y FOWL.
IMalays are a tall race of birds, of high ceurage,
excellent nurses and incub.itors of other spe-
cies, but moderate layers themselves, and not
easy to fatten to a fleshy state. The name of
this fowl implies that it is a native of the

833

THE MALAY FOAVL.]

POULTET.

[the MALAY FOWL.

peninsula which forms the southern point of
Hiudostan ; and is a title probably much more
correct than most other names of poultry
derived from the countries whence they are
supposed to come.

Malays stand very high on the legs ; are long-
necked, serpent-headed, and carry too much
oflUl for the poulterer. They are, accordingly,
Bot so valuable to him as are some other fowls.
Their flesh, before cooking, is not tempting in
its appearance, and they very often have yellow
skins. Their colour is various: some greatly
resemble the duck-winged game; others are
dark-brown, streaked with yellow. Black Ma-
lays are handsome birds ; and the white va-
riety, with bright yellow legs, is a remarkable
creature. Good Malays, although unprofit-
able, certainly adorn a poultry-yard ; but hav-
ing a domineering disposition, with the power
to indulge in it, they frequently are the cause
of considerable annoyance. Chittagongs are
members of the Malay family, which is widely
spread throughout the East. Crosses with
Malays produce fine birds, but they are of
uncertain qualities and colours. Their weight
is considerable ; and their efficiency as duelists
terribly certain, if it were the fashion now to
indulge in such practices.

Tears ago, tiiere used to be a variety of fowls
much in request in England, called the " Shake-
bag," or the " Duke of Leeds' fowl ;" a noble-
man of that name having been a great amateur
breeder of them. These fowls were as large as
the Malays, but differed from them in the su-
perior whiteness and tenderness of their flesh,
as well as in their very superior combative
qualities. Mowbray thus writes of one in his
possession : — " The only one I ever possessed
was a red fowl, in 1784, weighing about ten
pounds, which was provided for me, at the price
of one guinea, by Goff", the dealer, who then
lived upon Hulborn Hill, in Loudon ; and who,
at the end of two years, received him back at
half a guinea, having allowed me, in the interim,
three shillings and sixpence each for such tho-
rough-bred cock chickens as I chose to send him.
At that puriod, the real 'Duke of Leeds' fowl' bad
become very scarce, which induced the dealers
to put Shakebag cocks to Malay hens, by that
means keeping up the original standard size,
but entirely sacrificing their colour, and delicate
flavour of the fiefsh."
83-i

The name of this fowl seems to have arisen
from the old practice of cock-fighting, when the
fancy used to challenge all-comers, who had
their cocks concealed in a bag ; and the tre-
mendous size and power of the Duke of Leeds'
fowl proving so far superior to all competitors,
as usually to insure conquest. The breed
eventually obtained the ndLme,par excellence, of
Slialcehag, since corrupted into Shackbag.

Mowbray informs us that this fine bird was
not unfrequently substituted for a turkey ; and
this, IS he facetiously adds, " to the great
convenience of poulterers and inn-keepers of
Wokingham and elsewhere."

In judging this bird, an intelligent writer
suggests the following points for a basis : —

The Cock.

Head. — The beak, horn colour. — Eyes, orange red,
sunk beneath a projecting eyebrow. — Comb
low, indented. — Wattles, very small, more pro-
perly folds of the skin of the throat than wattles.
— Earlobe, rudimentary. — Face, brilliant crimson.

Neck. — Orange red.

Back. — Marone.

Saddle. — Orange red.

Wing. — Shoulder, marone; steel-blue bar across;
flight-feathers, bay.

Breast. — Black, with irregular bay markings.

Tail. — Scanty, drooping.

Legs. — Olive-brown.

The Hen.

Head. — Same characters as cock, but less de-
veloped.

Neck. — Middle of feather brown, edges golden,
shaft straw colour.

Back. — Brown, shaft of feathers straw colour.

Breast. — Brownish fawn colour.

I'ail. — Brownish black.

Legs. — Olive-brown.

The Malay is widely distributed. It is to
be met with largely in India, China, the islands
of the Indian Archipelago, the South-Sea
Islands, and America. Its introduction into
England is of comparatively recent date ; and
as, in our culture of poultr}'-, varieties of food
and climate enter so largely into the consider-
ation, diversities will necessarily arise ; and,
whether the birds exhibited be brown- breasted
reds, cream-coloured, white, or otherwise, all
we mean to suggest is, that main descriptive
points shall be attended to, and lots assorted.
Of the sub-varieties of Malay, there are three
well-defined. The first, Temminck's Gigan-
teus, long cultivated in India, under different
names, stands nearly two feet in height.
The second, the variety commonly imported

THE MAI AT TO

AVL.]

POULTRY.

[Tin; MALAY FOWL.

from Singapore — that generally seen in the
English poultry ."^howa — is a smaller ami more
lep^v bri't'd. Tlio third, cultivatod in Crylon
for lighting, is about tho sizo of our game-fowl.
In this the comb is of tiio same character, bul
scarcely above the level of tho skull ; no wat-
tles; neck naked; tail very long, carried on a
level with tho back ; feathers very narrow,
drooping, almost sweeping tho ground ; pri-
maries turning outwards — almost leading ono
to suppose it indebted, for these peculiarities, to
G all us f (treat us, found wild in Ceylon. Tail of
hen drooping in like manner ; colour and mark-
ings, same as in description. This last kind is
rare.

Another, who has observed the bird in India,
thus gives his opinion : —

*' T/<e Cock. — General carriage and appear-
ance, restless, independent, and commanding ;
head largely developed, and somewhat eagle-
shaped ; tho bone above the eye projecting
and overhanging it, giving it a fiery, savage
expression ; iris of the eye, pale straw colour ;
beak very strong, particularly the upper man-
dible, which is thick, and curves downwards to
the apex; neck long and snake-like; the comb
a low, double, warty excrescence — the points oi
papillae on its surface being very close and
minute ; fiice nearly devoid of feathers, the
t-kin being of a bright blood-red colour; throat
also nearly naked, and red, extending from be-
hind the ears to a point three or four inches
down the front of the neck ; wattles and ear-
lobes rudimentary ; hackle feathers of neck
rising as a thick mane from its upper third, and
falling in to the neck at its lower part in front
of the shoulders, not spreading over them as
in the game-cock. Shoulders of the wings
greatly developed, standing out prominently
from the body ; body broad in front, tapering
off, and descending to the rump ; breast round
and full ; skin covering the crop in the centre
of the chest, naked, and of a livid red colour,
particularly remarkable when the craw is full ;
tail close, somewhat pheasant-formed, and but
slightly elevated ; legs rather long ; feathers of
the thigh very close; leg, or shank, strong,
clean, and of an olive-yellow tinge ; foot large
and strong; spur thick, not sharply pointed.
Colour — general hue of the neck, back, and
rump, a deep glossy chesnut-red ; the neck
hackles being browniah-red in the centre, and

of a brilliant chesnut-red at the edges; rump
hackles entirely of a very deep and beautiful
glossy cheanut-red ; lesser wing-coverts, a rich
glossy lake-red colour; greater wing-covt-rts
•)f a deep metallic Hteel-blue, with green reflec-
tions; primary llight-featliers a dull black,
edged, on tho outer web, with chesnut or bay ;
secondary flight-feathers also dull black on
their iinier webs, and alight bay on their outer
webs, those feathers of the flight nearest tho
body being tipped with metallic steel-blue;
tail-coverts of a metallic blue-black ; tail-
feathers of a dull black, showing somo metallic
lustre on their outer webs ; general colour of
the breast, under part of the body and thighs,
a dull black, tinged and blotched with brown.

" lien. — Shape of head, neck, and body, much
as in the cock ; tail close, and carried generally
more elevated ; comb of the same general cha-
racter as the cock's, but nearly rudimentary.
Colour — head and neck a dark chesnut-browu,
with brighter edging to each feather ; back and
body generally a clouded chesnut ; tail — inner
webs, dull black ; outer webs, chesnut ; wing-
flights, a light chesnut, edged with black ; inner
webs nearly black ; feathers of the throat
scanty and short. Somo hens, in colour, ap-
proach more to the grouse character of body
feather, and some are spangled with white.
The feathers of the Malay fowl sit exceedingly
close to the body of the bird, and are more
scanty than in any other variety of poultry."

At poultry shows the Makjs are not
favourites, as may generally be inferred from
the following remarks, made by one of the com-
mittee of the Annerley show: — "In arranging
the prize-list, and deciding upon tho regula-
tions for the next meeting at Annerley, the
committee have been actuated by a desire to
conciliate all parties. How far they are jus-
tified in doing so, depends upon the co-opera-
tion of those who are interested in the rivalry
and emulation which properly-conducted ex-
hibitions usually excite. Yet there are, doubt-
less, some in the poultry world who have still
reason to complain. The first cause is tho
omission of the ' Malay' in the prize-list,
Now, this omission has not arisen from any
neglect to, or want of appreciation of this
class of birds ; for its merits are at once
acknowledged, and have been fully discussed ;
but the onus rests entirely with the owners

835

BASTAMS.]

POULTRY.

[ba-n-tams.

themselves — they won't bring them out. Erora
this cause, like the ofBcials in the celebrated
•Circumlocution Office,' they appear to try
* how not to do it.'

" I can bear my own humble testimony in
favour of the Malay, not only for its indomitable
courage, but for its delicacy of flesh and general
utility ; and, however much the owner of a
courtly Spanish or plebeian Dorking may pooh-
pooh its appearance, its time has yet to come ;
and we should be glad to see it take a promi-
nent position in our list. But how stands this
class at exhibitions ? At Annerley, last year,
four pens were shown, and the same number
only at Birmingham in the adult class. The
reply, of course, will be, that nothing has
hitherto been held out to induce emulation in
this peculiar variety. Yet it is not too late, if a
sufficient amount of competition can be antici-
pated, to ofi'er handsome prizes for these
neglected but valuable birds, whose owners
always seem reluctant to exhibit. Divested
of all extraneous motives, the real object of
poultry shows is, 'purely and simply,' the
improvement of the various breeds. If any
should doubt that such is their ultimate
result, let them contrast a Cochin at Hue with
an English specimen of the same class, or
taste any native bird in its own climate, and
one from the breeds of our distinguished
amateurs or dealers.

" In 1847, I had an opportunity of sharing
a variety of presents from high Cochin- China
authorities. Many fowls were included, and I
can scarcely conceive that the present bird, in
this country, ever emanated from this same
stock. Ducks, also, presented the same melan-
choly comparison to the prize birds here.
So much for cultivation and care ! But why
should the Malays be doomed to a status quo,
from the apparent diffidence of their possessors?
I have oftentimes, with much satisfaction to
self, 'discussed' a portion of 'Malay' on their
own coasts ; and if they be good there, taking
other classes of birds as precedents, why allow
them to degenerate here ?"

BANTAMS.
Bantams are high-spirited little birds ; good
•layers ; delicate to eat ; useful as destroyers of
insects and small vermin ; and pretty domestic
pets, but dreadfully combative.
836

The varieties of Bantam fowl cultivated in
England, some thirty or forty years ago, would
fill a longer list than they do at present.

The gold and silver-laced, or the laced gold
and silver, are the most popular favourites, and
were most carefully cultivated under the aus-
pices of the late Sir John Sebright, if they do
not owe to him their existence as a breed.
The baronet's mode of proceeding is thus de-
scribed by one who had opportunities of know-
ing it : — " As I am living only nine miles from
Beechwood, it may be interesting to you to
learn, that neighbours, who knew the late Sir
J. S., say that he sometimes hatched five hun-
dred chickens in a season, but killed all those
which showed the slightest irregularity of
colour, and only reared a very few. Ordinary
people cannot aflibrd to breed fowls on that
system; and, even if they could, such waste-
fulness and wantonness, approaching to cruelty,
would not be creditable to them."

Mr. Eichardson says, that the forms of the
Bantams are usually modelled after the Game
and the Hamburg fowls. The Sebright has
its legs perfectly naked down to the toes. The
cock, of this breed, should have a rose comb,
full hackles, a well-feathered and well-carried
tail — from which, however, the sickle feathers
should be absent, and he is thence said to be
hen-tailed — a stately courageous demeanour,
and should not be quite a pound in weight. The
lacings, which must be fine and regular, should
follow the edge of the feather, on a golden yellow
or creamy-white ground. The bird is of high
courage, and will fight with great resolution.
The attitude of the cock is proud and haughty ;
his head being thrown back so as nearly to
touch the feathers of his tail, much in the style
of a fan-tail pigeon. Well-bred birds fetch
high prices.

The white Bantams, kept by her majesty at
the Home Park, are of a perfectly white colour,
and ■ exceedingly small size ; they appear also
to have exhibited some peculiar traits of habit
and disposition. The cocks were so fond of
sucking the eggs laid by the hen, that they
would often drive her from the nest in order to
obtain them. They have even been asserted to
attack her, tear open the ovarium, and devour
its shell-less contents. In order, if possible, to
subdue this unnatural propensity, her majesty's
keeper first gave the cocks a hard-boiled, and

BAN I'AMS.]

POULTRY.

[BANTAMS,

then a marble egs; to fij^lit with, takinp; caro,
at the s:imo time, to prevent their access to the
liens or to any real egi^s. After a few weeks
the birds p;ave up their unprofitable labour,
and, as the keeper had anticipated, wholly
abandoned, for tlie future, all attempts to de-
stroy the hen or the actually laiJ ei,'";.

"The black Bantam," says Mr. Dixon, "is
a beautiful example of a great soul in a little
body. It is the most pugnacious of its whole
tribe. It will drive, to a respectful distance,
great dunghill cocks five times its weight. It
is more jealous, irascible, and domineering, in
proportion to its size, than tlio thorough-bred
game-cock himself. Its combativencss, too, is
manifested at a very early period. Other
chickens will fight, in sport, by the time they
are half-grown ; but these set to work in good
earnest. One summer we bought a small
brood, as soon as they could safely be removed
from their mother. There were two cockerels
amongst them. They were little things, beau-
tifully shaped, but ridiculously diminutive —
fairy chickens, some of our friends called them.
They had not been with us long before the
liberal supply of barley began to excite them ;
and the two little imps spent the greater part
of their time in fighting, which only made us
laugh, judging serious injury impossible. But
shortly observing one unusually triumphant
(for it had always been a sort of drawn game
between them), and the other walking about
in an odd uncertain manner, though firm and
fearless, I found that this latter had both its
eyes closed from wounds received the day
before. I carried it to my dressing-room, to
relieve it by sponging, and set it on the staiu-
cloth, while I went to fetch some warm water.
Still blind, it began crowing vivaciously. In
a few minutes its eyes were unsealed, and it
was returned to the yard. But battle after
battle was immediately fought, and we were
obliged to eat one of the combatants to pre-
vent the mutilation of both. We can, con-
sequently, confirm the statements of those
who praise the excellence of their flesh, par-
ticularly if it be accompanied by a little good
bread sauce. One, that I have seen, was in the
constant habit of fighting, or rather sparring,
with a little spaniel that belonged to the
same owner. Though apparently attacking
each other with great fury, they never seemed to

bo really in earnest. The arrival of strangera
was generally the signal for tlio commence,
ment of this sham figlit, which ended without
bloodshed as soon as one or both of the com-
batants were out of breath. The spaniel was
mostly the first to give-in, when the victor
evinced as much triumph as if ho had van-
quished a feathered foe.

" The black Bantam, in his appearance, is a
pleasing little fellow. Ho should have a full
rose comb, clean and sinewy legs, glossy
plumage, with almost metallic lustre, of a dif-
fercnt tint to the glancing green of the Spanish
towl ; arched and llowing tail, waggish impu-
dent eye, and self-satisfied air and gait. The
hen is of a duller jett3'-black, is less knowing
in her manner, and, I think, in every way of
inferior capacity. These little black hens
liave great credit for fulfilling their maternal
duties well ; but I have found them less
afiectionate and careful than other Bantams.
They are great stayers at home, prowling very
little about, and therefore are desirable in
many situations, such as suburban villas that
are surrounded by captious neighbours. They
will remain contented with the ranf^e of a
moderate stable-yard, and the least bit of
shrubbery ; and will do much good by the
consumption of numerous insects. They are
reputed good layers during winter; but that
will depend on the liberality with which they
are fed. Cooks say that their eggs, though
small, are ' very rich ;' which means, perhaps,
that they contain a greater proportion of yolk
than those of larger fowls. Guinea-fowls'
eggs are prized for the same quality ; and any
one may, at breakfast, observe how much less
a proportion of white there is in them than in
those of the Turkey. Black Bantams' eo-ors
are smooth, tinged with bufl', decidedlv louc-
oval in most individuals, and with a zone of
irregularity towards the smaller end in some.

" The new-hatched chicks are covered with
black down, which occasionally has a grevisb
cast under the belly : bill, eyes, feet, and legs
black. The female chicks are not bigger than
the queen of the black-and-yellow humble
bees, and their slender little legs appear fitter
to belong to an insect than a chicken, A
desire to obtain the largest possible brood,
induced me to hatch some under a great
Dorking hen, because she can cover so many

S37

BANTAMS.]

POULTRY.

[BA5TTAMS.

eo-gs; but I only overreached myself. The
hie hea was too heavy and clumsy to officiate
as nurse to such fragile atoms."

The Creeper is also a small variety of
Bantam, with very short legs. In addition to
these diminutive races, there is another, the
Jumper, mentioned by Buflbn, as being so
short-le^yged, that they are compelled to pro-
o-ress by jumps. They are prolific, as well as
excellent sitters, the hen having been known
to batch two batches of eggs in succession,
without even an intermediate day of rest.
These dwarf fowls were described by Aldro-
vandi, more than two hundred years ago ; and
also, much further back, by Pliny, under the
designation of the Adrian breed.

A gentleman of known experience suggests
the following points for a basis : —

Sebright Bantams.

The Cock.

S'ead. — Best helmet comb ; best, fullest, and clearest

black eyes. — The ears, best, largest, and clearest

vhite.
]Sfeck.—B.Ack\es, shortest and clearest red, and best,

laced with black.
Breast. — Clearest and best red, and laced with

largest and clearest black.
Bach— Ditto.
Winrjs. — Ditto.
Saddle. — Ditto.
Tail. — Hen-tailed, most erect, clearest and best,

red ; the two longest tipped with best and

clearest black ; the other feathers best, laced with

black.
ie(/s.— Clearest and best blue.

The Hens to Match.

General Appearance. — The smallest, _ most sym-
metrical, and best-feathered birds.

Silver Sebright Bantams.

Characteristics the same, on clearest and best white
ground.

Indian Bantams. — {Glean Legged).
The Cock.

Eead. — ^The comb, best double, best square, best
spiked behind. — ^The eyes, brilliant orange. — The
ears, roundest and clearest while.

Neck. — Hackles, best, fullest, and clearest golden
red.

Back. — Best and richest golden marone.

Saddle. — Ditto.

Tail. — Best carried, fullest, and best glossy green
black.

Breast. — Clearest and best reddish fawn colour.

Legs. — Best and clearest olive, or best and clearest
yellow.

Wings. — Shoulder, best ana richest marone ; flight-
feathers, best and clearest bay.

S38

The Hen.

Head. — The comb, best double, best square, best

spiked behind. — The eyes, brilliant orange. — The

ears, roundest and clearest white.
Neck. — Hackles, best and clearest brown in middle,

edged with golden ; shaft, straw colour.
Breast. — Clearest and best fawn colour.
Back- — Clearest and best brown, and clearest and

best straw-coloured shaft.
Tail. — Ditto.
Legs. — Clearest olive, or clearest yellow.

In reference to the name of a species of
Bantam, formerly called the Calcutta Jungle
fowl, several amateurs have written their
opinions, and suggested what they deem more
appropriate designations. One says — " It has
been hinted, that it would be better to name
these birds, lately imported from Calcutta,
Indian Feather-legged Bantams. The owner
considered it better to let them keep the name
under which they were purchased at Calcutta,
until some certain intelligence respecting their
origin should make a change advisable. AVhen
new fowls have been imported, the owners have
often appeared to seek a well-sounding name,
rather than one which should continually point
to their origin. If the last rule bad been ob-
served, the nomenclature of fowls would be
less puzzling than it is in many instances.
The little fowls in question were called Jungle
fowls ; but it seemed likely they had been
domesticated, as, although very wild, they
were not sufficiently so for wild fowls. They
came over in the Lady Jocelyn screw-steamer,
where a lady passenger kindly took them in
charge, and fed and noticed them after every
meal during the passage. Calcutta Bantams
would be a better name for them than the
above."

Another says — " The little fowls which won
prizes at Birmingham and Colchester, and en-
tered under the title of Calcutta Jungle fowl,
were bought at Calcutta as Jungle fowl, and
have some similarity in the head to the Bankiva,
being for a long time very wild. These are
the circumstances which attached to them the —
probably inappropriate — name of Junrjle Ban-
tams. Tar from having lost the sickle feathers
and hackle, like the Sebright, their furnishing
is quite ridiculous for their size. The hackle
of the old bird is bushy, and long enough to
reach the ground when he feeds ; and the tail
so well furnished with sickle feathers, that, in

bantams]

rOULTRY.

[rUIZZLBD jrOWLS.

windy weather, its owner ia borno along with it,
as if it were a sail. Tlio j)lutniif;o is black,
with a brilliant {jreen tnt'tallic lustre ; ami about
the head and neck are streaks of white, which
increase as the fowls approach maturity, at
which time tlie head ia nearly wliite. The
iei^s are feathered, not booted. The fowls are
Bantam-like in size, very plump, compactly
made, short in the leg, and exceedingly
spirited. The cockerels will light a cock of
any size, and make large Brahmas fly before
tliem. The little hen is a good layer. The
eirgs are almost invariably fertile. AVhen tho
chickens are hatched they are tiny black and
yellow things, with a slight appearance of a
turned ridge on each side of the head, a little
distance from the eye. They are active and
Imrdy — exceedingly so, considering the change
of climate they have had. The cock is a capital
father; as soon as the little hen will let him
(for she is a virago when she first gets her
brood), he takes as active a part with the young
ones as any hen can do, leading and feeding
them by day and watching them at night : this
attention he continues long alter the hen has
turned them off."

" The Calcutta Jungle Bantam," says an in-
formant, " is not a Jungle fowl, but a domestic
bird from the coast of liangoon and the Straits,
and, although timid, has nothing very wild.
The real Jungle fowl I have shot, in great
numbers, on the range of hills running through
Midnapore to Hajmahaul. The cock is very
handsome and beautiful, delicately formed,
and something less than half the size of tlie
Malay fowl — his carriage and colour much the
same ; but he has a very small head, with
single comb ; his legs are not long, but clean,
with olive-yellow tinge; he stands very upright ;
spurs thin, and very sharp. He is courageous,
and generally has six or eight hens. The ben
is handsomely made ; blackish-brown, speckled,
with a diminutive head, and very dark-red round
the eyes. I have known many attempts to
domesticate these fowls, but none succeeded,
even when the eggs were set under a house
ben ; when the chicks were able to provide for
themselves they went off."

Another says—" I believe, as yet, India is
known to possess but two species of Jungle
fowl — Callus BanJciva and Sonneralii ; the
former is supposed to be the origin of all our

domesticated varieties, although doubted by
some. Experience hart jiroved that it can bo
domesticated, antl that the cross is fertile with
others, inttr se. Sonneratii have been bred with
Bantams, but rarely ; tho cross was not fertile,
thereby proving it a distinct species. Tlioso
birds are described as feather-legged ; there-
tore I take them to bu JJankiva, bred in-and-
in : by which means the feathered leg ia pro-
duced, and the loss of sickle feathers and
hackles, tho hen-hackle being produced, as in
the Sebright Bantams. 1 had, many years ago,
from India, Bantams identical with Baukiva,
although smaller, tlie hens of which were very
wild. By in-and-in breeding I produced tho
crested liamburgs (kuown as such for a
century before the erroneous nomenclature
of 1S18), wanting tho sickle feathers, and
with feathered legs, which I have found most
difficult to eradicate, each year producing
one or two, notwithstanding the introduction
of new blood. I have a pullet of this sort,
which I should have killed, but have kept,
thinking some of the curious in varieties
would like to have her."

RUMPLESS, SILKY, NEGRO, AND FRIZZLED
FOWLS.

Eumpless, Silky, Negro, and Frizzled fowls,
are interesting birds, and deserve the attention
of the fancier. Their leading characteristics
are indicated by their names, and the first are
found of all colours. They are more abundant
in Trance than in England, and have a singular
appearance, reminding one, to some extent, of
the English sheep dog. Their appearance
never fails to attract attention, whether in the
yard or at the exhibition ; but they find no
favour with the epicure, depriving bi:a of a
dainty morsel.

" Of Silky fowls," says Mr. Richarason,
" there are several varieties, mostly direct im-
portations from the East, their merits being
unduly appreciated, and their cultivation as
good as neglected. As an exception, Mr.
Bedingfield, of Ditchingham Park, Norfolk,
adopting the judicious plan of having only one
sort of fowl about his house, selected silk
fowls for the purpose. They increased well,
laid a sufficiency of eggs, and proved most
docile sitters and nurses, both for their own
young, and for pheasants and partridges.

b'SO

rEIZZLBD POWLS.]

POTJLTET.

[scotch BA.KIE3.

Some of the hens would submit to be placed |
on a nest of eggs that might happen to be
found in the park, and took to them directly,
hatching them off without further trouble.
They were, of course, so posted as to make her
sit at once. These silk fowls were of the kind
sometimes called Hong-Kong Bantams — small,
short-legged, and but slightly furnished with
wings and tail, and, in the eyes of some be-
holders, very pretty. People condemn a thing
seen in a dealer's cage, or an exhibition pen,
which they would delight in if they made its
acquaintance at a country mansion. Still silk
fowls are not slww birds, and find but little
favour at Birmingham. But till the Cochin-
China epidemic had a little subsided (and the
remedy of bleeding the purse was boldly prac-
tised on patients in an advanced stage of the
complaiiil), the phoenix itself was 'pooh-
pooh'd' into the background. There are silky
fowls with black skins ; and they make a near
approach to negroes."

Of the jN'egro fowl, Mr. E. L. Layard, bro-
ther of the distinguished Ninevite discoverer,
thus writes from Jafira, Ceylon : — " The kallu-
mas-JcuTcullo of the natives is, as the name
implies, a fowl with llach flesh ; its bones are
also black ; and, on table, it is a revolting-looking
dish. But taste it! No other fowl, in this
country, can compare with it for juiciness and
tenderness. I never saw this fowl in England ;
here it is abundant. The prevailing colour of
the hue breed resembles a white fowl drawn
several times through a sooty chimney ! The
skin, the eye-wattles, legs— in fact, all flesliy
parts bearing the same leaden hues. It is
little eaten by the Europeans, on account of its
colour. I am, however, glad to get it on my
table; and always esteem it (knowing, from
experience, its good qualities) as one of my
most favoured dishes."

The Erizzled fowl— so called from the friz-
zled and crisped appearance of the feathers,
and not from a corruption of Eriesland, at one
time erroneously conceived to be its native
country— varies as much in colour as the
Eumpless fowl, and is quite as striking to an
unaccustomed beholder. The natives of Ceylon,
where it is occasionally seen, say that it origi-
nally came from Batavia. Tiiis agrees with
Temminck. It is susceptible of cold, diiEcult
to rear, and mainly prized as a curiositv.

BOLTON GREYS, CREELS, CHITTEPRATS, Etc.

Forjudging these fowls, the following points
are suggested as a basis : —

Dutch Pencilled Fowl (Gold or Silver).
The Cock.

Head. — Best double rose comb, best square in
front, most erect, and best spiked on the top and
behind. — Wattles full and round. — Ears largest
and best white.

Neck. — Clearest and best white.

Breast. — Largest, clearest, and best white.

Hump. — Largest and best clear green, black spot
on the end of the feather, and clearest white
ground.

Wing (in four parts). — 1. Shoulder. 2. The Bars
— The clearest white ground ; best and clearest
edging to upper and lower Aving-coverts, forming
two distinct black bars on the clearest white
ground. 3. Flight — Clearest and best white.
4. Lacing on top of wing above the flight; i.e.,
the inner webs of secondary flight-feathers :
largest and best clear green-black spots on the
end of the feather, and the clearest white ground.

Tail. — Best brown, v/aved witli black; best and
clearest silver edging, dotted with clearest and
best black spots.

Legs. — Clearest and best blue.

Tiir: Hen.

Head. — The Comb — Best double rose comb, best

square in front, most erect, and best spiked

behind. — Wattles full and round. — The ears

largest and best white.
Nech. — Clearest and best white.
Breast. — Largest and clearest white, each feather

ended with clearest black spots, increasing in

size, proportionate to feathers.
Bacli. — Clearest white, crossed with clearest black

bars, separated by white shaft.
Thighs. — Clearest white, with largest and clearest

black s])ots.
Rump. — Clearest white.
JVing. — Clearest white, crossed with most distinct

and clearest black lines.
Flight- — Clearest white, crossed with clearest wavy

black lines.
Tail. — Clearest white, crossed with broadest and

clearest black bars ; shaft white.
Legs. — Clearest and best blue.

(Golden).

Markings and characteristics the same, on a bay

ground.

SCOTCH BAKIES, OR DUMPIES.

" Of this variety," say the authors of the
Poulinj Booh, " Mr. Fairlie, of Cheveley Park,
near Newmarket, the only person, we believe,
into whose hands they have yet passed, has
recorded so favourable an opinion of their.
merits as layers and mothers, no less than for

BOOTCH BAKIES.]

I'OULTKY,

[SCOTCU BA.k.I£S.

the table, that wo shall bo much surprised if,
oither in their present state, or erosHed with
other fowls, they fail to prove a useful addition
to our poultry-yards.

" Mr. Fairlie obtained his binls from Seot-
hiiul ; but all his inquiries have hitherto been
uuablo to trace their origin in, or importation
into, that country. Their general character,
however, so closely assimilates to that of tho
Dorkings, that the probability of their being
descendants of birds of the latter breed, stinted
in growth by the less genial climate of the
northern district of our island, may readily be
admitted ; and this the more easily, when we
remember how many would describe the early
ancestors of the Dorking race as * stumpy,
thick-set, white fowls.'

'-* For a detail of their several characteristics
and points, let us refer to Mr. Fairlie's own
words, * The Scotch Bakies, or Dumpies,' he
tells us, ' are a breed of fowls closely resembling
the Dorking in form, symmetry, and quality of
flesh : the average weight of the full-grown
male bird, is from six pounds to seven pounds ;
and of the hens, from five pounds to six pounds ;
their legs are singularly short, not exceeding
two inches in length from the hock joint ; the
comb is generally single, erect, and well
serrated ; the body round and plump, and the
tail ample. As layers, they have great merit;
for after filling one nest, if the eggs are re-
moved, they at once take to another, filling
that also before they sit ; during which process
thev fully justify the oft-repeated remark made
at a late Metropolitan Exhibition — ' What ex-
cellent sitters they must make.^ They cover
many more eggs than might be expected from
their size ; for while on the nest, they appear as
if they had been pressed flat upon it. They
are gentle and quiet when hatching, and sub-
sequently prove fond and attentive mothers,
their short legs enabling the chickens to brood
well under them, even when standing up. I
have found them very hardy ; and their eggs are
larger, and the shell of a clearer white, than
the usual average of an English market Q^^^

"In the pen of these birds exhibited at'
Cheltenham, in June, 1853, the ground colour
of the cock's plumage was white ; the hackle,
breast, saddle, with the flight and tail-feathers,
beinfr a little freckled with black. The white
earlobe was very fully developed. I

'5p

" Wo are glad to lenrn that tho effect of a
warmer climate and high feeding will be care-
fully watched in this instance ; and if there is
a manifest increase in size within the next two
or three generations, tho probability of their
inheriting eomo of the old Dorking blood
w ill be thereby greatly increased ; while the re-
tention of their present dwarfed proportions
would indicate their claim to bo considered as
a permanent variety."

In concluding this cha])tor, we will notice a
report of the Paris Agricultural Meeting, at
which various breeds of fowls held a prominent
place — there being present 400 pens. Thero
were, besides, 1,300 beasts, with goats, rabbits,
zebras, lamas, deer, &c., &c., conveniently and
tastefully arranged in and about a building
splendidly decorated with the choicest flowers,
trees (of no small size, transplanted for
tho occasion), fountains, painted glass, and
tapestry.

In the galleries, specimens of agricultural
produce, of diflierent countries, were laid out
for inspection ; wliilst, outside, a number of
handsome tents were provided for the use and
protection of the sheep, pigs, goats, and agri-
cultural implements.

At first the poultry were sadly injured by
the scorching sun during many hours of the
day, as they were totally without covering,
and many suffered greatly. Afterwards, how-
ever, an awning was erected, and they did
better.

We must, however, remember that tho
Erench are not much used to cattle shows;
and taking this circumstance into considera-
tion, we may give them credit for the way they
managed their first large exhibition of cattle. .

It is somewhat curious to observe the man-
ner in which they belied their character, as
admirers of what is neat and beautiful, in
distinction to that which is coarse and ugly.
If you notice a crowd, it is sure to be col-
lected round the coarsest and ugliest animal of
its kind, size being the great attraction. It is
the same with the poultry ; they prefer the
]3rahmas and the biggest Cochins to the
Dorkings, or to any neater or smaller breed.

There are a few, however, who seem to know
what a good fowl is ; and we shall not easily
forget the look of disgust with which a well-
known breeder of Dorkings received an iuti-

811

FBEKCH rOWLS.]

POULTET.

[feexch fo^ls.

mation from a "stout party," that she considered
his pen of fowls very fine, and could imagine
nothing better than a fricassee of his fowls !

In describing the most remarkable breeds of
poultry at this exhibition, the reporter begins
with the first named in the catalogue, as it is
an acknowledged French breed, and is called —

" The Oreve-cceurs. — I tried hard to discover
the real merits and characteristics of this fowl,"
he says, " but obtained different and very dif-
fering accounts. All my informants, however,
were agreed on one point — viz., that they were
the best sort of fowl for the table that they
had in France. This, however, is not saying
much, for we know that the French raise large
numbers of every kind of poultry for the mar-
ket ; they are not over-particular as to quality,
or the appearance a bird presents on the table.
It is seldom (very, very seldom indeed) that
an entire bird is placed before you : it is
either hashed, smashed, pulled, fricasseed, or
smothered and smuggled into you in some way ;
so that often nine persona out of ten would
not be up to what they were eating. This
fowl has, however, by no means a badly- shaped
body ; it is long and low, and not very narrow.
They gave me an idea of coarseness, yet I have
no doubt they are hardy, useful birds in their
own country ; but their rusty-black feathers,
and smutty legs and feet, are anything but
pleasing to the eye ; nor do I, in any way, com-
mend them to the notice of the English
amateur. No two Frenchmen could agree
upon what their shape or plumage ought to be ;
and the birds, in their pens, differed very widely
in form and feather. At the same time, we
could not but admire them in all their charac-
teristics, which were not of a common order,
and which called forth general approbation.

" TJie CoeJiin-Ohinas were divided into five
classes — viz., yellow, white, black, brown, or
freckled, and those not classed in the above
descriptions. The cinnamon and buffs are, by
common consent, called yellow in France ; and
it was not at all considered necessary that tlie
birds should be matched. Nothing was more
842

common than to see prize pens composed of a
cock and two or more hens of quite difierent
colours. The rule is, that there must be one
cock, and not less than two hens, in a pen ; but
as many more as the exhibitor pleases.

" There are very few Frenchmen who have
as yet discovered the value of the Dorkings.
We trust they will allow them a fair trial, and
have no doubt they will acknowledge their
many excellences. The first-prize pen was
greatly admired for the size and beauty of the
birds.

" "We now come to the Breda fowls. "What
are they ? you will ask. "Why, it appeared to
me that they were no-breed-at-all fowls. This
would certainly apply more reasonably to the
birds I saw exhibited under the former name ;
for of all the jumbles I ever beheld, this was
the most complete. There were some with
tufts, and some without ; some like Silver-
pencilled Hamburgs, and some like cross-bred
Cuckoos, and so on. I actually did not stop
to see who had the honour of the prizes, but
passed on to the

" Bralimas. — This breed has been greatly
prized in France. ]\ir. Baker had a compli-
ment paid him that few can boast of, and of
which he might well have been proud. His
birds in this class were so good that three
first prizes were awarded to him. One of the
pens, containing the handsomest cock of the
kind I ever saw, he sold for 1,000 francs ; and
another, I understood, was marked out for the
empress. For my part, I never wish to see
better fowls than those brought to the exhibi-
tion by Mr. Baker, and I heartily congratulate
him on his success.

" The other classes of fowls were not well
represented. I shall, therefore, abstain from
any remarks.

" The Turheys were not very fine.

" For Geese there were only four com-
petitors.

" The Ayleshury BucTcs were good ; but the
Bouen Ducks were not the truest of their
kind."

STOCK.]

POULTRY.

[stock.

CHArTRK III.

ril()(iSIN(; OK STUCK.

Airo?ro tlic reciprocal bonofits wliieli unite tlio
lover of poultry and his cliar^e, porliaps a liabil
of early rising takes tho tirst place. At a
season of the year when a protracted winter
mav, in a small degree, have induced a dis-
inclination to early exertion which we arc
unwilling to encourage, it is a very good thing
if our favourite recreation is one which calls us
betimes in the morning into the open air.
One of our best judges has repeatedly advised
that chickens should be fed soon after sunrise.
There are (ew young things in whose case food
has to do so much as in that of young chickens.
Unlike those animals which come into the
world with their clothing of warm fur, young
birds depend on food for all the necessaries of
life, for them food must secrete the requisite
supplies for feathers as well as for bone and
muscle ; and there is never a time when good
and frequent feeding are of such vital impor-
tance as while the little ones are fledging. A
fast of a number of hours is a greater call upon
the vital powers of young poultry than they
can support. The careful cottagers, to whom
is often entrusted the charge of turkeys, are
■well aware of this fact ; and, although they keep
the poults shut in, safe from getting wet with
the dew, they feed them early.

Poor liichard says, " The eye of the master
does more work than both his hands." Let the
owner's eye, then, whether it be master or
mistress, see that the young broods of the
different kinds of poultry receive the early
attention indispensable for the production of
prize birds. Let the fancier see that the
poultry-houses (which will naturally be close
after being shut up all night) are thrown open
to the wholesome morning air ; that tlie twit-
tering, liberated little throng have the where-
withal to satisfy their morning appetites before
the twittering changes to complaint ; and we
believe we may prophesy, that the good which
the poultry cannot fail to derive from such
care, will reward their owners by a great ac-
cession of health.

To whatever branch of scientific culture wo
turn, whether it be to tliat of plants or aniinaia,
nature seems to point out that there aro
certain forms and characters more pleasing
than others, which must be accomplished to
attain perfection ; as, for instance, in flowers,
pelargoniums, pansies, &c. Wo can all recol-
lect the long, loose-petalled flowers of former
days ; the onward progress of improvement
pointed out that, the nearer the approach
to the circle, tho more perfect the i'orni. Tho
gardeners of the time, as in every new theory,
ridiculed the idea. AVe have, nevertheless,
seen that, however diflicult or apparently im-
possible it is to change natural forms, it
has been done. The same applies to poultry.
Sir John Sebright, and other eminent breeders
of cattle, arrived at similar results ; and it is
only by settling and insisting on points, whe-
ther of colour, shape, or markings, form of
combs, &c., and discouraging shortcomings,
that perfection will be generally arrived at.
In estimating the qualities of poultry, there
are many conflicting opinions, which is a cause
of much dissatisfaction to poultry-breeders,
particularly beginners ; but we see no reason
why rules cannot be framed, binding judges — a
most important step — which would greatly
lighten their labour ; because the public, being
made acquainted with a given standard, would
breed to points. This would also prevent tho
caprice of judges, so much complained of.

To specify some particulars, wo may ob-
serve that the eyes of fowls are distinguished as
pearl or grey eyes, and gravel or red eyes, of
various shades. Some fowls have crests of
feathers instead of combs. The Poland crest
is large and round, hanging almost over the
eyes. A lark crest is narrow, and falling back-
wards ; but although Mr. Dixon honours lark-
crested fowls as a variety, we think this crest
is nothing but an accident from some distant
cross with Poland-crested fowls. A muff, or
beard, is a bunch of feathers hanging from the
lower mandible. Many of the Poland sub-

S13

STOCK.]

POULTEY.

[stock.

varieties have it ; and we cannot recollect ever
having seen it on an uncreated fowl. Whiskers
need hardly be minutely described. In poultry,
they consist of tufts of feathers standing out
from the cheeks. There used to be a kind of
fowl, called the Eussian fowl, in which they
■were the chief characteristic ; and they are also
seen in some kinds of Polands.

The wing of a fowl is divided into various
parts. The primary quill or flight-feathers are
those which grow on the last joint of the wing.
They are ten in number, are the main instru-
ments of flight, and those which we conse-
quently shorten, to destroy the balance of
power, when we wish to check the licentious
wanderings of my lord or my lady. The
secondary quills grow on the next joint of
the wing, are shorter than the primary, and
are those which are most seen when the wing
of the fowl is closed. We believe there are
thirteen of these. The wing of a bird, in its
skeleton, has been not inaptly compared to the
skeleton of the human hand. The joint, repre-
senting the thumb, is set with three additional
smaller quill feathers, which lie down over the
first few primaries in an uncommonly neat
arrangement. In the Hamburgs, the spots
or spangles on the secondary quills, and those
on the first range of the greater wing-coverts,
form the bars so much insisted on by judges.
The greater wing- coverts are the first few
ranges of feathers which lie in order over the
quills ; and the lesser wing-coverts are the
feathers of smaller size and softer texture,
which finish up the wing, and pass round its
edge so neatly. The under side of the wing is
covered with soft feathers, also arranged in
beautiful order.

Legs (familiarly, the shanks — learnedly, the
tarsi — the part between the knee-joint and the
foot) may be clean (or, in other words, with-
out feathers), feathered (with a stripe of fea-
thers down the outside), or booted (entirely
covered with feathers). Sultans, or Serai
Tii-ooks, Ptarmigans, and some Bantams, are
booted. Shaughaes, Brahmas, Ghoon Docks,
and two or three other kinds, are feather-
legged. Spanish, Dorkings, Game Fowls,
Hamburgs, and most Polands, Sebrights, and
black and white Bantams, are clean or plain
legged. Some feather-legged and booted fowls
are abundantly feathered on the feet also.
8U

Vulture or falcon hocks are tufts of long
feathers, standing out from the hocks.

The tail-feathers are the fourteen stiif ones
of the tail. The tail-coverts are the softer
curling feathers which hang over these. We
believe there are, properly, only two (the
centre two) sickle feathers, which are really tail-
feathers ; the others are tail-covert feathers.

Dubbing — generally, only applied to game-
cocks— is cutting off" the comb and wattles.

We may mention, that Spanish fowls are,
perhaps, the most profitable to keep, provided
the owner is lucky enough to have some that
may turn out very excellent ; but there is un-
certainty in this, as fowls breed somewhat at
random. There is great difficulty in getting first-
rate Spanish fowls, even at a very high price ;
and there is no certainty that first-rate fowls will
produce first-rate chickens. The latter are,
besides, delicate to rear, the handsomest being
generally the most tender. If you stoop to
the now vulgar consideration of the merely
useful — eggs and fowls for eating — there is no
particular fault to be found with Spanish fowls
for the table (especially pullets) : they lay a
respectable number of the finest eggs which
the poultry -yard can produce; and, as to ap-
pearance, a little lot of Spanish fowls, in high
condition, is no contemptible ornament to the
pleasure-ground of a nobleman. High condi-
tion is that state of exuberant health which
will make almost any fowl handsome and orna-
mental. It shows itself in the clear beaming
eye, and the ruddy comb (according to the time
of year); a feeling in the flesh, firm yet pliant ; a
good covering of meat upon the bones, but not
too much fat; and last, not least, crispness
and resplendence in the plumage — over which
the bird, in fine condition, has as complete con-
trol as he has over his other limbs. When a
bird is out of condition, tbe eye looks dull, the
flesh is pufty, hard, or absent without leave,
and the plumage entirely without gloss. You
could not draw a feather without tearing the
fevered skin. We speak now of condition,
because it is a thing especially to be observed,
if you buy Spanish fowls or chickens. With-
out attention to this, the smart new hen-bouse
may soon be empty again ; and perhaps you
will blame the species, when you should find
fault with your ill-conditioned purchase. To
know the points of a Spanish fowl, study what

CnOOSINO STOCK.]

roui/riiv

[cnOOSINO STOCK.

we hftve nlroady said of the cock of that species,
and get a bii<l as luar to the description as
you can ; adil a couple of bhxck hens, of a
cheaper sort, to lay ei^Ljs for family uso ; and
the chances are, you will make a bi-ttcr start
in Spanish tluui you would do if you bought a
dozen hens and tliree or four cocks, hap-hazard,
at high prices, and turned all in together to
fight it out. The price of tidy Spanish fowls
varies from £1 upwards. Dorkings are nice,
motherly, good-looking fowls; and first-rate
specimens fetch high prices : they are only
tolerable layers, but the eggs are largo and
delicately llavoured. As fowls for the table
they rank A 1 ; and, iu this particular, are
popular with poulterers, almost to the exclu-
sion of all other kinds. The chickens are deli-
cate, and so dillleult to rear, as to prove dis-
heartening to the most experienced amateurs.
You may get good Dorking fowls at 5*. each ;
but, if anything superlative is desired, prices
run up much as in the Spanish.

The accusations brought against Cochins is,
that they eat more than any other kind of
fowl, and have a continual propensity to incu-
bate. On the other hand, they are tame,
tractable creatures, and very good fowls to
have where a high fence would be unsightly,
as an altitude of four feet is sufficient to
keep them in. They are capital layers — a
quality often more important than any other
to amateurs, who are anxious to begin to keep
just a few fowls, chiefly with an eye to the
luxury of new-laid eggs. Malays are well
worth attention ; they are very good fowls,
besides having the advantage of being some-
what handsome.

Brahmas have all the merits of Cochins,
without their faults, and are as handsome as
Malays. Cochin-China fowls may bo bought
for from almost nothing up to £5 each ; very
good birds from 10s. to £1 each. Pretty
good Malays may be bought for 10s. or 15s.
each ; and Brahmas at prices varying from 10s.
to £2. In trying to give those who purchase
fowls for the first time, some idea of their
prices, we take those of the usual run of good
birds. There is but one first-prize pen of a
sort in every show, be it remembered : if,
therefore, you want first-prize birds, you must
be prepared to give the price which the owner
sets on them ; for the same reason that makes

it necessary to givo more for pearls than for
pebbles — because they are less plentiful.

Three varieties of fowls coino next, varied
and etjual in beauty, and all very ornamental
and very good layers — llamburgH, Polauda,
and Game. If you try the first, you may
chance to see your fowl perched on the top of
your nei'^hbour's chimney, with an cvitient
intention of extending his travels — a position
of your vested property at which you will feel
rather annoyed. If you try Polands, all the
young chicks may die in rearing ; and if you
devote your attention to Game fowls, they mav
take a sudden freak of animosity, and peck out
each other's eyes before you are up some
morning. "With these little drawbacks, they
are all really good and beautiful I'owls: only,
if you try Hamburgs, take care that your
fences are high enough ; if Polands, bestow
especial care on the young chickens while they
are fledging, and for some little time after-
wards ; and if Game, do not let them get to
fighting — ifi/ou can help it.

Tolerable Hamburg and Game fowls will
cost from five to fifteen shillings each, and
Polands from ten to twenty.

Where there is scarcely room for common-
sized fowls, or for the large varieties, a few
Bantams may be kept. They will always look
active and pretty ; and the eggs, though small,
are deliciously delicate. Pretty Bantams may
often be bought for a very iew shillings.

The next thing to the price of the fowls,
is where to buy them. We have a prejudice
against buying at auctions ; because we do
not think owners would allow birds, likely to
do good service to the purchasers, to go for so
much less than they can get for them either at
home, or by selling them through the medium
of a respectable dealer. The best plan is,
either to go to a reputable tradesman, or to
an amateur, and see and choose the birds at
home. Another good way of making purchases
is by going to the poultry-shows. There the
beginner can look well at the prize birds, and
choose the cheaper ones which are most like
them. We do not recommend a great outlay
to hegin ivith. Buy fowls at a moderate price;
see what good you can do with their chickens;
gain experience ; and then spend a large sum,
and get first-rate fowls if you feel disposed to
do so.

845

CHOOSING STOCK.]

POULTRY.

[choosing stock.

There are many amateurs who would like to
have handsome, productive fowls, but who care
little about the fancy. We think they might,
with great advanta<7e, turn their attention to
systematic crossing. We are as great an enemy
as the most fastidious fancier can be, to turning
in a lot of differ'ent fowls hap-hazard ; but we
believe judicious crossing may give excellent
results in producing fowls which shall be very
hardy, fine for the table, and abundant layers.
The experimentalist has an almost unlimited
field ; let him only mark the merits of difierent
varieties, and study to unite, reproduce, and
continue them.

Let a Malay hen run with a Game cock ;
set the eggs, and save the pullets which are
hatched from them. Match these pullets with
a good stout-built Spanish cock, and the
chickens will prove brilliant in plumage, very
hardy, excellent for the table, and will lay four
days out of five for most part of the year.

Brahmas and Cochins would be valuable in
crossing, to produce hardihood and size. A
touch of the Game gives delicacy of flavour to
both fowls and eggs. The good properties of
almost every kind might be turned to profitable
account.

"The great point of selection," says Mr.
Eichardson, " is the breed which it shall be de-
termined to keep ; and this must be mainly de-
cided by circumstances. The wealthy amateur
may do as he pleases, but a diff'erent rule must
be the guide of those who make poultry-keep-
ing a matter of business. A few words of ad-
vice shall be hazarded.

"Both for appearance and for profit's sake,
it is advisable that the farmer should confine his
stock to some one approved breed. To retain
several breeds in their purity, requires more
personal attention, hired labour, and choice of
out-buildings, than he can usually aff'ord. It
is best managed by such country gentlemen as
have three or four lodges belonging to their
park, at each one of which a distinct set of
fowls may be maintained, and another or two
quartered upon the gardener and the game-
keeper, if the former official will submit to be
plagued with them. In this way things will
go on satisfactorily, especially if the people
can be brought to take an interest in their
charges, and perhaps to feel a little rivalry as to
whose set is the best managed. A large farmer
846

may often attain the same object by making a
like use of the cottages of his workpeople. But
that is not the thing which he requires. Pure
chickens may be had from fowls that usually
live together in miscellaneous socialism, by
secluding the intended parents in an airy out-
building, and rejecting a few of tlie eggs first
laid by each hen. This plan requires constant
attention and a pitiless hand, to clear off the
many good-looking mongrels that will be con-
stantly displaying their new-fashioned charms
in the yard. The farmer had better decide to
keep one pure breed only of cocks and hens,
especially now that pure-bred fowls often fetch
such extraordinary prices.

" If it is asked to determine wJiich variety
shall be kept, the counsel given must be ac-
commodated to what the farmer loants. Are
eggs greatly in demand in his neighbourhood ;
and does he wish to be spared the expense and
trouble of rearing many young birds ? Then
let him take some of the non-sitting breeds.
At the head of these stand the Black Spanish
fowls, and their sub-variety, the Andalusians ;
next come the Hamburgs — the races that
are so highly prized in the midland and
northern counties — i.e., the Bolton Bays, the
Bolton Grays, the Silver Moonies, and the
Copper Moss fowls, according to the numerous
local aliases of the four sub-races. Last in
profitableness among the non-sitters, though
not in beauty nor in excellence of flesh, are
the Polish fowls. But the Spanish fowls are
larger birds, and consume a good deal. It is
true that their eggs are of proportionate size
and excellence ; but, in the market, an egg is
an egg', and we believe that greater numbers
will be obtained, at the same cost of food, by
adopting one of the Hamburgs as the estab-
lished colonist of the farm-yard. We there-
fore beg leave to take the Bolton Bays, or
Golden-pencilled Hamburgs, by the hand,
and introduce them to the favourable considera-
tion of the farmer and his amiable consort.
Whichever breed of non-sitting fowls is se-
lected, the stock must be annually kept up by
sending out eggs to the neighbouring cottages
to be hatched, and paying, for all reared, a
certain amount of head-money, at an age
agreed upon.

" If, however, eggs are not the principal desi-
deratum, and Madam has the leisure and good-

bicei:di>'q.]

POULl KV.

[UBEKUIRO.

will to see to the rearing of numerous broods ;
if sho Ima also three or four rosy-cheekod sons
ami dauL^litera to assist luT in t\w ainusi'inent,
besides a boy and a maid to do tho lieavior
^ork — then let one of tho often-incubating
breeds bo destined to people her barn-door
paradise with tho pliiloprogenitivo set of in-
habitants. Sho may honour tho Dorkings
and tho Surrey, or tho Game fowls, or tlu-
Cochin-Chinas, with her preference. There
cannot be a better sort for tho farmer than
the race of Surrey fowls, known as Cuckoo
fowls. They are somewhat dull and quaker-
like in plumage, and inactive in their move-
ments. So much the better : the fowl-stealer
cannot spy them out so well in tho dusk ; and
they fatten famously, besides being good
layers, sitters, and nurses ; and, in short, pos-
sessing every gallinaceous virtue. Game fowls
are more beautiful, and are equally good
parents ; their flesh, too, is delicious, but wants
the weight of tlie Cuckoos, and is apt not to
dress so white for market. The cocks, as they

grow old and jealous, are very j)rone to kill tho
other male inhabitants of tho poultry-yard,
such as turkoys, guinea-fowl, and ovi'ii drakcH,
if they fancy tlR'niHi-lvea insultfd by tliem.
They aro more suited to tho lodge, tho dog-
kennel, tho coach-house court, or oven tho
cottage orn^, than they aro to tho farm-yard,
to which ([uiet place, when very good, they aro
apt to give a sort of sporting character. It
must bo confessed they aro often birds of
great beauty ; but tho Cuckoo fowls aro much
more business-like. Tho Cochin-Chinas, even
yet, are more in tho hands of wealthy ama-
teurs and exhibitors at poultry-shows, than
available for farmers as a main crop of fowls.
Tho prices asked for specimens that have been
cried-up by fanciers, aro altogetlicr unprece-
dented, and will bo quoted hereafter, in his-
tories of the present times, as instances of tho
lengths to which a popular mania will go. Still,
some farm-yards aro peopled with them ; and
the effect is good, whilst the result is highly
satisfactory."

CHAPTER IV.

SELECnON OF STOCK ; IXTERBREEDING ; EGG-BUYING; nATCIIING ; FEEDING; FATTENING; HOUSING.

Among the earliest authorities we have on
the subject of the breeding and management of
poultry, is Columella ; but besides him, there
is something to be found in Cato, Pliny, and
Varro ; but all may, substantially, be considered
as entertaining similar views. Columella is,
however, the grand source of poultry antiquity ;
and, in our day, by the writers on this subject,
he is mostly quoted at second-hand. Gesner
made a collection of passages relative to birds ;
but Aldrovandi was, in his time, the exhaust-
less mine of all that was known on the subject.
Considering the immense mass of his ma-
terials, this ornithologist arranged his matter
in marvellous order ; but his discrimination
was much less than his patience ; and his judg-
ment was, perhaps, less than either. AVe are
not aware of there being an English transla-

tion of him ; therefore his voluminous treasures
have not yet fallen into the coffers of every
literary artist. To the common fowl, alone, he
devotes one hundred and forty-six pages of his
folio, opening his subject with half a page of
preliminary matter, and then entering on his
ambiguities touching cocks and hens. Tlien
comes his Synomnia ; followed by his account
of the dillerent kinds ; which is again succeeded
by a general description of the cock and hen,
replete with learning. Amatomica is the head-
ing of the next section ; followed by the natural
history of their mode of increase up to hatch-
ing. This comprises the growth of the egg,
the progress of the chick during incubation,
&c., with a vast deal of mosaic work in the
shape of truth and falsehood, sense, and non-
sense, on the breeding of these creatures. "We

i>-17

BBEEDING.]

POULTRY.

[beeedino.

have then six pages on the food of chickens,
succeeded by a number of separate sections,
with which we have here little to do, but
which remind us that what we have indicated
in this brief review, is introductory to a large
portion of the subject of this chapter.

Eeturning to Columella, we find that he
allots twelve hens to one cock. Since his day,
however, polygamy, even in the poultry world,
has been less fashionable. In the Farmer's
Director, by Bradley, one cock is to be satis-
fied with seven or eight hens. The same num-
ber is recommended by other breeders, of
equally abstinent principles. These, however,
are English breeders. On the other hand,
Parmentier, a French writer, assigns fifteen,
or even twenty hens to one cock, provided he
be young, vigorous, and healthy, which, in our
humble opinion, he would need to be. Bose,
another French writer, says that it is only in
spring that a cock should have fewer than
twenty hens ; but as the Gallic bird may have
more vigour in him than the Saxon, we will
not stay to dispute his opinion. Our own
Dixon sensibly says, that the hens allowed to
one cock, should vary in accordance with the
object in view ; but it is the opinion of Mr.
Nolan that in order to secure a prime breed,
a cock two years old should not have more
than five hens. Breeders of game fowl for
combat limit the number to four, or, at most^
five ; their objecfc, of course, being the produc-
tion of strong chickens. In winter, or in cold
or damp weather, Mowbray says, a cock should
only have four hens.

Even from these high authorities there are
dissentients, who say, that if fowls are kept
chiefly for the sake of the eggs, for domestic
purposes, ten hens, or even more, may run
with one cock; and some of our best judges
affirm, that it makes no difference in the num-
ber of eggs produced, whether a cock is kept
at all or not. If, therefore, it is thought ad-
visable to avoid the expense of keeping a gen-
tleman, a few eggs for setting can be bought,
begged, or exchanged. In the case of the
cottager, the keep of one hearty fowl, to be set
off" against the produce of the sale of eggs at a
penny or twopence each, may be worth con-
sideration. When fowls are kept with a view
to rearing chickens, we think no more than
four hens should run with the cock. If a fine
84.8 '

healthy, well-fed bird is allowed to run with
four fair ladies only, the owner may fairly
expect every e^g to prove productive ; that is
to say, after the danger of the chills of the
early season is past.

It is impossible to be too careful in keeping
choice hens from the intrusion of any male
bird except the one which it is wished to have
as sire to the chickens. "We know so little of
the intricate rules of good breeding, that we
entertain a prejudice against brood hens mixing
even with hens of different kinds, especially
with fowls of colours which would be objec-
tionable in their chickens. Authorities too
high to be doubted, affirm, that one stallion will
influence not only the one foal, but those which
the mare may have in after years. We would
therefore keep choice pullets away from other
fowls from chickenliood, and never, at any
season, allow them to mix with either cocks or
hens of a different breed. In assorting the
fowls, care should be taken that both cock and
hen have not the same fault or deficiency.
Too many beauties and perfections they cannot
have.

" If you look to the production of eggs
alone," says Mr. Hichardson, "one cock — if a
stout, young, and lively bird — may have as
many as twenty-four hens. If, however, you
want to obtain strong and thriving chickens,
you must restrict them to six at most. If
your object be the improvement of a worn-out
and degenerate breed, the fewer hens you
allow to one cock the better ; and you should
not, under these circumstances, allow him
more than three. But whatever the breed
selected, or the object in view, the cock should
be in perfect health.''''

Having, we hope, got over this difficulty as
to the number of ladies to be assigned to the
Spanish gentleman in black, or any other gen-
tleman, however gaudy may be his colouring,
we trust we shall be able to pursue our subject
without much interruption from the diverse
opinions of opposite parties.

In reference to breeding, if the object in
view be strength of constitution, it is a maxim
with many, that there is nothing like breeding
from two-year- old fowls on both sides ; but if
great weight is given to beauty and points, it
is doubted whether it is not better to pair a
one-year-old hen with an old bird. Without

BRKEDINO.]

POULTRY.

[llUKEDINO.

attempting satisfactorily to solve the problem
ourselves, the following has been proposed by
one of the most eminent amateur breeders of
the present day : — " I ahouUl very much like
to know what exporleiiced bri'iclers think of
the three folK)wiii'; oases, and from which they
would expect the chickens to turn out best: —
No. 1. A two-year-old cock with a hen : No. 2.
A one-year-old cock with a two or three-year-
old ben : or No. 3. A two or three-year-old cock
with a one-year-old hen." The same gentleman
thinks that, for his first breeding season, the
young cock should have only two females.

AV'heu a hen gets broody, there is no danger
of mistaking her meaning. Sometimes she
fusses about the yard, with tail set and feathers
erect, like an angry turkey-cock. Sometimes
she establishes herself in a nest, and, with
great avidity, takes possession of any egg
which may be there. It is a curious sight to
see a broody hen carry an egg. She takes it up
under the chin (if we may be allowed to speak
of the chin of a hen), holding it carefully against
her breast with her beak ; and so we have
known it conveyed to some little distance, and
over a low partition. As no sentimental idea
of meiim and tuum influences sitting hens, it
will not do to set them side by side without a
partition between the nests ; for the hen gifted
with the largest bump of acquisitiveness, will
be continually pilfering eggs from her neigh-
bours ; in process of which manipulations, some
eggs will get broken, others chilled, and, in
others, the germ of the chick, very tender
during the early period of incubation, will be
deprived of life.

AJ"ter health and strength have been duly
considered, the next grand object to enter into
the calculations of the breeder, is the age of
the birds. In the selection of the cock, he
should be neither too old nor too young, but
running from one year and a-half to three
years and a-half Some vigorous gentlemen,
of good constitutions, retain their power till
they are even past six ; but these are not to
be chosen for breeding purposes ; nor are those
young fellows, whose premature amative pro-
pensities are developed so early as the age of
live or six moiilhs. It is, in every proceeding in
life, safer to rest on a certain than an uncertain
basis ; and this principle holds good in poultry
breeding, as well as in matters of greater ini-
5ci

portanco : therefore, the best plan to pursue,
is to obtain a strong healthy bird, in the very
fulness of his prime, and so avoid such prema-
ture developmonta, which are always deci'()tive.
aM well as the iiilirinities of ii<;e, wliicli, although
existing, may not be so readily detected. Ex-
tremes are, at all times, dangerous.

As in all fowls, except Brahmaa and Cochins,
it is a dtmbtful exj)eriment to move a broody
hen, it is best, as soon as a fowl gives warning
to sit, by remaining long on the nest for laying,
to give her a movable one, which will do for
the pur[)03e. If she should steal a nest in a
hedge, or any out-of-the-way corner, it should
be considered as desirable. If she choose
one in the hen-house, most hens will bear
moving, nest and all, to a quiet place ; but a
great many will not like to be taken out of
the chosen nest, and placed in another. The
brooders should, if possible, be placed where
they cannot be interrupted or annoyed by other
fowls. Food and water should be put near
them, that they may come ofi" and eat when
they feel the desire, which will be once a day.
Give them gravel as well as food, and some
dust to roll in and clean their feathers. A per-
son should bo on the watch to know when the
bens leave the nest, to see that they do not
remain ofi' too long, or get to fighting, and that
each one returns to her own place. Most hens
remain ofi" from five minutes to twenty.

Sometimes annoyance will be caused by the
pugnacity of the cocks. This is said to arise
from their temperaments having a large infusion
of tlie amorous element, which causes a great
jealousy of disposition. jNIascall, or rather his
original. Columella, recommends, as a cure for
this, that we should "slitte two pieces of thick
leather, and put them on his legges ; and
those will hang over his feete, which will
correct the vehement heat of jealousies within
him." This direction is approved by M.
Parmentier, who adds, that "such a bit of
leather will cause the most turbulent cock to
become as quiet as a man who is bound both
hand and foot."

Dorkings are better sitters than layers;
whilst Spanish fowls reverse this order; and
these conditions will be found to be pretty
generally characteristic of hens partaking of
the prevailing colours of these two varieties
respectively — the black usually being the best

819

BEEEDING.]

POULTRY.

[INTEEBEEEDII70.

layers, and the grey or chequered hens, more
particularly those with light-coloured legs, the
best sitters.

When a hen is anxious to sit, she intimates
her desire by a peculiar kind of cluck, which
she continues, even after hatching, and until
ber brood no longer require her motherly care.
At this period the heat of her body is mate-
rially increased, which, no doubt, generates an
uneasy feeling, should it not be drawn off,
either by the gratification of natural desire, or
by artificial means. Should she not be desired
to sit, a common practice for allaying this heat
is immersion in cold water ; but to place her
in her coop, in some cool, quiet spot, where she
may look out upon the grass, is a much more
humane method of proceeding.

Should doubts be entertained as to the
steadiness of the hen required to sit, she
should be tried for three or four days, by
having her placed on several eggs of little or
no value. If chickens are desired to be hatched
by some particular time, and there are no hens
cluclcing^ or ready to sit, the desire of incuba-
tion may be excited by stimulating food, such
as oatmeal porridge well boiled, seasoned with
Cayenne pepper ; toast, or dry bread, steeped
in good ale, or hard-boiled eggs, and fresh raw
meat cut small. The practice of plucking the
feathers, or using nettles, is a bad one, and far
less efficacious than cruel.

There are some hens as constant in their
sitting as those we have been describing are
the reverse ; and birds possessing this tem-
perament will frequently sit until they half-
starve themselves, if not prevented. Mr.
Lawrence says, that he has had hens which,
under these circumstances, reduced themselves
to such a pitch of weakness as even to faint ;
and, after the chickens were hatched, to be so
weak as to be scarcely able to attend to them.
Quoting Mr. Eickardson, in a previous page,
we have observed, that the great point of
selection is the breed which it shall be deter-
mined to keep, and that this must be mainly
decided by circumstances; that the wealthy
amateur may do as he pleases, but that a
different rule must be the guide of those
who make poultry-keeping a matter of busi-
ness. This should always be borne in mind.
We recommend the farmer to coufiue his
stock to some one a2)proved hreed.
850

INTERBREEDING.

Whilst remarking on the selection of the
breed, we would observe, that in poultry, as well
as in all other classes of animals, an infusion of
different blood, so to speak, is necessary to
improve or prevent a degeneracy in the stock.

For exhibition purposes, it has been allowed
that cross-breeding is of no avail ; but holding
the opinion that the exhibition of birds is only
a secondary consideration, when compared with
their commercial utility, a good primd facie
case may be made out how cross-breeding is
likely to be advantageously and profitably
pursued without interfering, in the slightest
degree, with those whose tastes confine them
to the production of pure-bred birds.

The two great points to be desired in poultry,
are the increased production of eggs, and its own
improvement for the table. These are, perhaps,
the only legitimate grounds on which we can
justify ourselves in entering upon cross-breed-
ing. If either one or the other of these can be
obtained, it follows, as a matter of course, that
a great benefit will be conferred, especially
upon those who keep poultry when the latter
may be made to help to keep them. That
judicious cross-breeding does materially im-
prove the value — that is, the marketable value
— of many animals, is a well-established fact.
For example, a pure Southdown or Leicester
sheep is exceedingly valuable, but a cross
between the two is more valuable still : the
meat not only brings more per pound in the
market, but the quality of the wool is mate-
rially improved ; vrhile hardihood and early
maturity are not to be forgotten as important
considerations arising from this excellent cross.
Besides this argument, the cross will live and
fatten, where the pure-bred will starve and die.
The same argument holds good with cattle.
Many of the cross-breeds make what is called
"the best butchers' " beasts. If such is the
case, why may not poultry, judiciously crossed,
produce the most profitable varieties ? And
that they will do so we have not the smallest
doubt.

To combine quality with size, of course, is
the great desideratum in table poultry. From
observation in such matters, the best birds to
start ivith are, perhaps, a cross between Co-
chins and Dorkings. A good cock of the first

INTERliUEKDIXG.]

ruLLTJvi',

[euq-bellinq.

vnriety, not above three j'cnrs old, should be
seli'ctod, and mated with six lirst-rato Dorkinii:
hens of a year old. The pulhti of tliat eross
should bo mated the next season witii (^iine,
and their produce used. It ia not recommended
to breed from them again on any consideration,
as it cannot be done to gain any point of ex-
cellence. By the above crosses all the essentials
of a good fowl are obtained. In the first
place, size is obtained from tho Cochin, and one
good cross of quality from tho Dorking. By
the Game cross very little in size is sacrificed,
whilst another first-rate cross, in point of
quality, is added. AVe have seen birds of this
cross attain first-rate and rapid weight, and,
when killed, retain nothing of their Eastern
origin, except that peculiar juiciness for wliich
they are remarkable — the flesh being as white
as snow, and as savoury as any aldermanic
gourmand could desire. "We believe that this
cross cannot be improved upon for table pur-
poses. We have seen the above first cross,
crossed with Malay instead of Game ; but it
may easily be conceived it was a mistake, as
the IMalay cross was going too mucli back to
the Eastern type, without giving any counter-
balancing advantage.

It is great folly to breed further than one
cross ; or, in other words, to mate cross-bred
birds together, as it has been found that the
further we get from the first cross the more we
are disappointed.

In crossing, it is much easier to produce
increased value for the table than increased
egg-layers. Indeed, we do not think that any
amount of crossing can produce birds which
would, in laying, beat some of our present
known favourite varieties ; therefore, on this
head, it is unnecessary for us to enlarge.

If, by cross-breeding, additional size and
superior quality can be obtained, it is, to a
certain extent, worthy of carrying out — not
that we would, on any account, advocate it in
the fancy, but it might be the means of sup-
plying our markets with an improved variety
of domestic fowl, with a profitable return to
both breeder and feeder.

An anonymous writer, who has evidently had
great experience in animal-breeding, remarks
— "I have bred in'and-in from almost all
varieties of pigeons, rabbits, pigs, canaries,
and numerous varieties of flowers and vege-

tables: in t;u!i and every easel found that,
for tho iirst few generations, they improvi-d,
and finally degenerated : in aniinaln, invariably,
diseases of tho head aro prominent; in fiowera
and vegetables it produced general delicacy.
This is forcibly exhibited in some of our
favourite flowers ; many of tho pet roses are
useless on their own roots, and wo bud them
on the healthy briar, which man has not tam-
pered with, I am often, almost daily, in com-
pany with short-horn breeders. A common
complaint is, of tho barren heifers and bulla.
I make no exception in their case; I would
cross them with tlie "West Highland cattle,
and so fulfil our trust and duty to posterity by
saving to them a breed which the present
system of shows is encouraging all breeders to
render degenerate.

"So long as man confines himself to the
species, and does not breed too near akin, he
will be successful in producing useful animals,
especially in the first cross ; but it is against
nature to decrease the natural size of any
animal's head. It is against nature, also, to see
a four-year-old heifer standing on four legs that
would well become a full-bred yearling colt.
In a recent instance I measured a prize four-
year-old heifer, 95 stone weight, and a year-
ling Elatcatcher : the former I could span, the
latter not. As responsibility rests upon all
show committees, it would be well for them to
consider it. A few years ago, cottagers, about
me especially, cried out for something with a
little more ^' blood" wlien buying their pig:
now the complaint is the reverse."

EGG-SELLING, AND BUYING.

"We have frequently heard great complaints
made about bought eggs ; and we have often
thought that two reasons may account for the
disappointment complained of. Those who
sell the eggs are careless as to what they sell;
and those who buy them expect better luck
than it is in the power of eggs to command.

In selecting eggs for sitting, it should bo
borne in mind what are the number of hens
the cock should associate with. Tliose of the
average size, laid by that particular hen, are
most likely to prove productive. The oft-
repeated notion that round eggs contain female
chicks, whilst long ones produce cockerels, has
been refuted over and over again.

851

EGO-BrrTIXG.J

POULTRY.

[E&a-BUTINO.

Those who sell eggs for incubation, unless
they are usually tJiemselves on the spot, to see
that every circumstance connected with the
transaction is properly conducted, had better
keep but one kind of fowl in one locality. As
the eggs are laid they should be put by in a
box of chaff or bran, with memoranda to state
the date when each was laid, the kind of fowl,
if different varieties are kept, and the particu-
lar hen that laid each separate egg. Eggs
more than three weeks old should not travel,
as the fresher they are the better. When
amateurs have eggs to dispose of, we think it
is best to advertise them ; and we decidedly
recommend pre-payment to be made a condi-
tion. To pay for a dozen of eggs which were
set weeks ago, is a trifle which may escape a
person's recollection; although, perhaps, it
ought not to do so ; and, therefore, we recom-
mend pre-payment to be made a condition in
all such sales. Eggs are sold now at more
moderate prices than they fetched some years
ago; and numerous letters, to jog the me-
mories of backward payers, become a discount
rather more than should be allowed on each
sale. Many persons who forget to settle
trifles of this kind, do so quite unintentionally.
If, therefore, amateurs generally made pre-pay-
ment imperative, we believe it would prove an
advantage both ways. Dealers cannot do this :
those who run long accounts with them, and
other tradesmen, neglect to calculate the mag-
nitude of the spreading evil they create by
doing so; but amateurs, to whom we may
reckon selling a matter of less importance, can
take the law into their own hands. No one
ever yet sold eggs for hatching, without having
some complaints, and demands for more eggs,
in place of those that have proved unproduc-
tive. "Whether these demands should be ac-
ceded to, must, of course, depend on their
apparent fairness. AVe think those who sell
eggs should never promise to make up loss
or failure ; but many would wish to do so
under certain circumstances.

Having spoken of selling, we may say a few
words upon buying eggs. In this case we
can only depend on the known character of
the amateur, or the dealer, from whom we pur-
chase. By holding the eggs in a strong light,
we may ascertain, by the size of the air-bladder
at the large end, whether the egg is fresh ; and
852

this is about all we can do beyond placing
reliance upon the seller. In fairness, we must
give the eggs a good chance, by having them
immediately placed under a good hen, in a
place where her sitting cannot be disturbed by
other fowls, or entities still more mischievous.
If the chickens are in the proportion of two to
three, or even to four eggs, we may reckon
that we have been well treated, and lucky into
the bargain. If it were intended to establish
a stock by purchasing eggs, the best plan
would be, to buy sittings from difterent
breeders ; to bring the chickens up apart ; or to
place such marks upon them as should distin-
guish them as they grow older, and then to
mate the cocks from one stock with the hens
of another. The objection to this plan is, that
the fowls, the next year, when their owner
would wish to breed from them, would be all
young alike. A better plan would, therefore,
be, to rear pullets in this manner, and in the
autumn, or following spring, to purchase a good
mature cock. Then, the owner would at once
be in a position to breed fine chickens.

" Caution," says Mr. Eichardson, " is neces-
sary in the purchase of eggs for sitting, espe-
cially from strangers and from a distance.
Mr, Puuchard has demonstrated, that skill in
the packing of eggs is well bestowed, and
that the average amount of productiveness of
travelled eggs, may be greatly increased by the
way in which they are sent out upon their
journey. Much, however, must always depend
on the manner in which they are treated in their
transit by railway porters and other officials.
In the county court of Lynn, Norfolk, an
action was, on one occasion, brought to recover
the sum of £4 10s, Qd., the value of thirty-six
Cochin eggs which had been sent by the plain-
tiff from Penzance, Cornwall. The box not
arriving at the time it was due, he sent to the
station to enquire, and was told by one of the
clerks that it had not arrived ; but on a search
being instituted, the box was found in an open
shed, exposed to frosty weather. Hens, and
Cantelo's incubator, failed in producing from
them a single chicken. Eor the defendants —
namely, the East Anglican Eailway Company-
it was argued that the action had been brought
against the wrong parties. In order to recover
damages for loss, the plaintiff was bound to
show that vitality existed in the eggs when they

EOG-BUYIXO.]

POULTRY.

[hatch 1. so.

were brought to the station of the company.

The box had beiMi luuler aevcral fonvi'yniicea —
by steamer from l\'iizanoe to IJri.stol, ami from
Bristol to PaddiMpton by tin- (rreat Wcatern,
wheiiee it had to bo convoyed over the stones,
from I'addiiigton, to the Eastern Counties sta-
tion ; and it did not eomo into tlie jurisdietion
of the East Anglican Company until it arrived
at Ely. The judge said that bo could not con-
scientiously see that it had been proved that
there was any vitality in the eggs when they
arrived ; but there was clearly a wrong, on the
part of the company, in not delivering the goods
as soon after they arrived as possible. The
plaintitt" was, therefore, nonsuited, without
costs on either side. la short, it was dis-
covered that all the law in the world could not
bring the addled eggs to life again. Other
confiding purchasers of Cochin-China eggs have
found that their beautiful chcsnut tint has been
the result of skilful dyeing."

Eggs for batching should be preserved by
placing them, with the small end downwards,
in sawdust, bran, sand, wood-aslies, or any
other substance which will form a soft bed,
and, at least, to some extent, exclude the air.
Li\ however, the object is to preserve them for
a considerable length of time, with the view
that they may be eaten, they should, when
newly laid, be dipt in oil, or warm — not hot —
pure hog's-lard. The greasy substance should
be rubbed with the fingers into the pores of
the eggs, and then they should be packed, with
the liroad end upwards, in a box or barrel. If
they are to be exported across sea, a coat of
varnish might be tried upon them ; but if they
are intended for hatching, all these extraneous
substances must, as a matter of course, be re-
moved. In packing them, care should be taken
that it be compactly done, so that as much
shaking as possible may be prevented. For
this purpose various modes are adopted. Some
pack in hay in a crate, and others in hay in a
hamper. Baily, the great breeder, packs in a
crate of hay, and Baker in a hamper of hay.
Both plans are good ; the chief thing being
to give the eggs plenty of room, so that the
bumps and thumps of outrageous fortune
they are pretty sure to meet with in the rail-
way transit, may not injure them. Some per-
sons pack in a box, with chaff, or in oats ; and
others tie a wisp of hay round each egg, and

fill in the intor«tice8 with any yielding com-
modity. After packing carefully, the owner caa
do uo more than Imvo the package safely con-
veyed to the railway, and consigned to tlio
mercy of the oiliciiils, which wo fear is fre-
quently of a Romewhat rough kind, consider-
ing the fragility of the articlo entrusted to
their caro.

HATCHING.

Itegarding the number of eggs to be placed
under a hen for hatching, from nine to eleven
is usually chosen. Much of the ill luck attend-
ing hatching is caused by setting too many
eggs under one hen. Nine eggs are sufficient
for any hen — of course we mean Spanish eggs.
The result generally proves this to be so. We
all know that the eggs of our prize fancy fowls,
which are, to a very great extent, brought up
artificially, do not hatch so well as tiiose of
commoner kinds. May it not be that the germ
in the egg is far more delicate, or, properly
speaking, weaker, and requires greater warmth
to give it life ? This is, however, dependent
on the size of both eggs and hen. An odd
number is preferred as better adapted for cov-
erinq in the nest. Be sure they are fresh.
During the early period of incubation, hens
will sometimes eat their eggs — a circumstance
arising from their craving after calcareous
matter and animal food, with both of which
their appetites should iiave been satisfied pre-
vious to the commencement of incubation.

Never let a poor hen waste the anxiety of
three weeks on bad eggs. When she has sat
nine or ten days, try the eggs, and take away
every one which has no chicken-germ within.
It is easy to discriminate between the good and
the bad eggs ; that is, those that contain, and
those that do not contain chickens. The
manner in which this may be done is simply
by holding them up to a good light; but the
best contrivance is to make a round hole in the
hen-house door. Should this not be convenient,
make a hole in the bottom of a box, which will
always come in handy for the same purpose,
as it can be fixed up pro tern, against the win-
dow of the hen-house, or a lamp can be placed
inside. The best size for the hole is 1:^ inches
in diameter. This will furnish sufficient light
to try Spanish fowls' eggs, and will do equally
well for Sebrights. Have this apparatus close

853

HATCHING.]

POULTET.

[HATCHINa.

at handjwhere the liens have been sitting be\-ond
a week. Eemove the eggs from under each hen,
and carefully guard against allowing them to
be shaken, or kept away from the fowl long
enough to get in the slightest degree cool.
Hold each egg to the round hole, and the opaque
germ of the chick will be quite perceptible, as
well as the delicately-traced blood-vessels upon
the shell, which are intended to nourish the
embryo until they dry up at the expiration of
the period of incubation— as a hint to the
chicken that it had better issue forth, and
scratch for its own living in this world of orni-
thological as well as human cares. Eggs which
appear to have undergone no change must be
removed. It is better to make up each nest
to nine good eggs ; and if any hens should, by
these manipulations, be left at liberty, they
may have fresh batches of eggs given to them.
It will do no injury to any good steady sitter to
remain in the nest thirty days, or even a little
longer.

Except in this one examination of the eggs,
which must be conducted in the gentlest man-
ner possible, never interfere with the sitter.

The day before that day three weeks on
which the eggs were set, especial care should
be taken to notice the nest when the hen
leaves to feed, and to observe if any of the
eggs are chipped. When hatching-time arrives,
the bill of the expanding chick presses up one
spot of the shell, with starry cracks diverging
from it. If there is no appearance of this kind,
the hen may safely be left until the twenty-
first day, as the chickens generally require no
feeding for the first twenty-four hours. The
chick, from this first spring in the shell, spreads
the cracks by its own force alone, until it
opens a door for itself. Then it lies, a little
wet and weakly thing, beneath its mother's
warm feathers for some time. When twenty
hours old or so, it begins to eat. Then we
think it best to place before the mother, in the
nest, a tiny basin filled with moistened oat-
meal or barley meal. We would give this
in preference to a chopped egg, as some do,
because most likely the mother will set to
work herself, and devour that greedily ; and if
she does her duty, she is worthy of her hire ;
that is, her share (sometimes the lion's cer-
tainly) of the good food provided for the
chicks. When this is gone, a chopped, hard-
854

boiled egg, mixed up wnth stale bread-crumbs,
and a little water, should be put into a very
shallow pan, as the chicks soon want to drink.

" Eor about twenty-four hours after birth,"
says Mr. Eichardson, " chiclis not only do well
enough without extraneous nourishment, but;
will be far more likely to .thrive if let aloue.
The next day they may be fed with crumbs of
bread and eggs, boiled hard and chopped fine.
Eor the first four days they require food at
least hourly, to supply the rapid increase in
bulk and feathers. Damp is fatal to them.
Small-grained oatmeal, gives raw, or slightly
scalded, and suffered to cool down to a very
low degree of tepidity, will be found useful
and good. Do not forget that, in all prob-
ability, thirst will be present before hunger;
and there ought, therefore, always to be a flat,
shallow pan, or plate of clean spring water
left within reach ; and the hen herself, glad of
a little refreshment after so long a task, will
usually lead the way to it."

Eor the purpose of breaking open its prison-
house, and " seeing the light," one would think
that there could not be any living thing in the
world so ill adapted as a chick when about to
emerge into life. Yet Nature, in her exhaust-
less powers of ingenious operation, enables it
to do so. If the chick, however, be weakly,
artificial assistance is sometimes necessary to
give it the liberty it seeks. The position
which it holds in the egg is such, as frequently
to render it difficult for such a tender young-
ling to Ireak its way. The neck slopes towards
the belly, to about the centre of which comes
the head ; whilst the head reposes beneath the
right wing. The feet are gathered up, some-
thing in the style of a fowl trussed for the
spit ; and the claws are bent backwards to such
an extent as almost to touch the head. It is
in this confined position that the shelly wall
of the prison has to be broken through. Such
is the position; and when we consider the
hardness of the calcareous wall that has to be
reached, we can hardly conceive anything more
difiicult for the accomplishment of a chick.
" The process of eflecting the breaking of the
shell, is a succession of taps from the beak, by
which first a crack or star, with many cracks
diverging from it, takes place ; a hole is soon
efi"ected; the sides gradually chip away, and
the chicken enters into its new sphere of being.

HATCniKG.]

i'or i/riiv

[uATCinxo.

Sometimes the little bird, on proceeding to
leave the broken slu'll, imexpectcilly fimls
itself retained in its place by some accidental
or irregular circumstance. The shell may, lor
instance, have been well crackod, and yet its
lining membrane may bo bo tough as to defy
all the eflbrta of the inmate to rupture it, and
thus still present a barrier — often, williout
assistance, an insurmountable one. Some
chickens wasfe their time striving to tear this
membrane before they have made a sulUcient
crack in the shell. These had better not
receive assistance, as they will speedily find out
their error, and go to work in a proper
manner."

It is recommended that, in every case, the
egg should be looked through before helping the
ciiick. The chicken, whicli comes forth pre-
vious to the complete absorption of the yolk,
is sure to be an unhealthy, delicate little
thing, walking about like a gallinaceous ghost,
ready to fall olT its legs at every pull' of wind.
Before quitting the shell, a chicken ought to
have imbibed such a portion of nourishment
as will, at all events, support its existence for
twenty-four hours afterwards. The yolk is
designed for this purpose ; an I any excess of
light that may be permitted lo strike upon
the egg, or any injudicious handling of it
as the close of incubation approaches, will
generally be the cause of inducing the chicken
to strive to get out too soon, which, as a na-
tural consequence, is frequently productive of
considerable numerical loss. As every mem-
brane or shell is not alike in point of thickness,
another difliculty presents itself in preventing
the chick from easily coming forth.

Dipping the eggs into warm water the day
before (some poulterers think they will be
pecked at), is a plan sometimes adopted ; but,
as this ca'.i produce no real difference upon
the consistence of the shell, the plan may
safely be pronounced futile. This practice
has, therefore, been objected to. Too much
heat is another obstacle in the way of the
egress of the chick, as the albumen with which
it is encompassed, sometimes becomes con-
verted into a kind of ^lue, which fastens them
to the extraordinary abode in which they are
inclosed.

The only case in which interference can
prove useful; is said to be — '* When you find

the fracture on tho outside of the shell re-
maining the Hamo for five or nix hourB, and
when, on examining tho ed/^ea of thia fracture,
you linil tlicm dry and uumoiatened by any
fluid, you may conclude that aHHistanco is
called for, and may procei'd to render it with
all possible caution. Tho best mode to bo
adopted, on such occasions, is to imitate, as
nearly as possible, tho natural eflbrta of tho
chicken itself, which may be done by Hharp,
short strokes with the back of a knife or key ;
or, what is better than either, tho point of a
pair of scissors. Bo, however, both gentle,
firm, and deliberate, and take care lest you
penetrate the cavity of the egg. Having suc-
ceeded in making a sufficient opening in tho
sliell, you may, by a careful and tender use of
your fingers, extricate the chick. Sometimes a
few scales of albumen, or of tho lining niejn-
brane of the egg, may remain on the bird's
plumage for some days. Do not be uneasy
about thera. Leave them alone, and, as they
dry, they will fiill off of themselves. In aftord-
iug your assistance to the embarrassed chick,
be extremely tender with your finger?. You
may otherwise often kill when your intention
is only to cure.

" For my own part," continues tho same
authority, "my confidence in the unassisted
powers of nature is such, that I should be dis-
posed to permit, at least, eifjht hours to elapse
before I resorted to mechanical means of in-
terference. A chick so weak as to perish be-
fore that time, is not worth striving to extri-
cate ; and, on the score of humanity, its death
within the shell will be less painful than after
quitting it."

"When the chickens are all hatched out and
dry, we think it a capital plan to move the
mother and her family into a clean warm ne?t,
because the one in which she has been sitting
will most likely be infested with hens' fleas ;
and if these get into the young brood — for they
love to prey on the young — the evil will be great.
In this the chicks may remain over the second
or third day, according to their strength, and
the state of the weather.

In reference to the vermin " pest," affecting
the chickens, two anonymous writers supply
tlie following statements and suggestive reme-
dies, or preventives : —

"Last year my chickens, as also those of

855

HATCHING.]

POULTEY.

[hatching.

my neighbours, were attacked with lice on the
bead, which destroyed numbers of them. This
vear some of my neighbours have the scourge
again. When I set a hen, she has always the
opportunity of getting a dust-bath whenever
she comes off her nest. This she had also last
year, and she was, and is, removed to a fresh
peu after hatching. The plan I have adopted
this season is, before giving the hen her
chickens, to dust her well with flour of sulphur
under her wings, on her breast, and under her
feathers : it can do the chickens no harm. As
yet I see none of my former enemies. My
houses were perfectly clean last year, as they
are this."

" To insure a sufficient amount of moisture,
when it is found necessary to set the hen in a
spare hay-loft or room, with a boarded floor, I
would recommend a plan which I have found,
so far, to answer well this season — viz., to place
beneath the box in which the hen sits, a piece
of matting or carpeting which has been ex-
posed to a good shower of rain. No doubt,
the ground is the best place on which to set a
hen ; and, at this season of the year, it should be
in-doors ; but it is not every one who has such
convenient places, where the kindly-inten-
tioned visits of other hens, adding to the store
of eggs for incubation day by day, can be
avoided. It would, perhaps, add to the com-
fort of the hen if, previous to setting her, a
little flour of sulphur were dusted under her
feathers. This would settle the vermin, which
are a source of annoyance, not only to the
niuther, but to her young progeny. I have
found young chickens infested with them, even
when the hen, in summer, had sat under the
hedge of my lawn, where she had every oppor-
tunity of dusting herself."

When chickens are hatched during cold
weather, they require artificial warmth, or, at
the very least, comfortable housing ; and the
kitchen of a farm-house afi'ords this in the ut-
most perfection.... Freedom from annoyance,
commodious and warm housing, and a sheltered
walk, are all that they require. It ought
always to be borne in mind, that the dangers
which are most likely to prove destructive
to the hopes of an amateur in rearing his
broods, are wet, cold, bleak winds, neglect,
short commons, cats, rats, hawks, and vermin
of all kinds. If a hen is left at liberty with
85G

her brood, she leads them under shelter at the
approach of rain ; and many little bright eyes
may be seen glancing from their safe retreat,
and watching for the return of fair weather.
By our interference, the exercise of this in-
stinct in the old hen is often prevented. We
place the coop, in the morning, on a warm
sunny spot, where — with the addition of good
feeding of course — we think they will be con-
tented and happy for many hours. But, in
the course of a few revolutions of the long
hands of the clock, what changes may happen !
The sun either leaves the place, or blazes on
it with an intensity of heat enough to give the
hen the vertigo ; a sharp east wind springs
up, and the poor little ones stand pinched and
shivering in its blast ; or a chilly rain comes
on, and beats into the coop. The coops should
be visited once an hour while the chickens are
very young, and every two hours afterwards.
The chickens should then be fed and supplied
w^ith clean water, and the coops shifted if neces-
sary. At night, the hen and her chickens may
be driven into the hen-house, and a slight
shelter, according to the weather, placed before
the bars of the coop. Constant attention and
frequent feeding are indispensable for chickens.
Cats and other hairy and feathered enemies
will require unceasing vigilance, and, perhaps,
a good gun. Por these, too, the services of a
well-trained terrier are invaluable ; nor are
good traps to be despised. With regard to
feeding, it is with young chickens as it is with
grown fowls- — variety is best. Sometimes food
of various kinds should be given them in one
day ; occasionally, a change of the kind should
be made from day to day ; and, in addition to
all that can be given them, the hen should be
allowed to roam at large for a little time every
day, to seek for her progeny, ants' eggs, worms,
&c., taking care to coop her again before she
can over-tire the little ones. For the first
week, there is nothing better to feed with
than chopped hard-boiled eggs. The eggs
which are removed from the nests of the sit-
ters, within the first ten days, will do very
well to boil for the young chickens.

After the first week, various other viands
may be given. Perhaps the best plan for us
to pursue here, will be to give a bill of fare.
Barley-meal and oat-meal, moistened with
water or with milk : grain broken in a mill ;

HATCUrNO.]

POULTRY.

[uATcnrso.

boiled barley ; pearl barley rolled in bran or
pollard ; pieces of meat and potatora ; bones,
and any other scraps from tlio table ; swoUed
rice rolled in bean-meal. Ship biscuit, lu-inp-
seed, canary, buck-wheat, and in:iny other
things may be used occasionally, in small quan-
tities, by way of a change.

Should the chicks be very weakly, they
may be crammed with crumbs of good white
bread, steeped in milk or butter, with well-
minced, hard-boiled egg; but, at the same
time, it must be noted that their little crops
are not capable of holding more than the bulk
of a pea — therefore rather under than over
feed. If the hen has been much exhausted
by hatching, it will do well to cram her with
crumbs of bread steeped in port wine ; or, in
the absence of wine, diluted spirits or ginger
cordial may be substituted. Such treatment,
however, is very rarely necessary.

Tor hatching, warm damp weatlieris wanted.
Kothing can be worse than an east wind,
especially if accompanied with occasional bursts
of cold rain, also from the east.

Sprinkling the eggs, now and then, has
been recommended when the hen comes
off to feed. Tor this, of course, warm water
must be used. AVe once placed a little pan
of water in a hen's nest, for her to drink from.
This she cleverly upset, and gave the eggs a
cold shower-bath, which killed all the chickens,
or nearly all.

"Whilst on this subject of hot and cold water,
it will not be out of place to give an extract
from Bechstein, which was written with refer-
ence to the fledging of young cage birds ; —
" It sometimes happens, in very dry seasons,
that the feathers of the young birds cannot
develop naturally. A bath of tepid water, em-
ployed on such an occasion by Madame ,

was so successful, that I cannot do better than
recommend it." In another passage, Bech-
stein recommends that the young birds shall
be dipped in lukewarm water, so as quite to
moisten the quills of the sprouting feathers.

Mr. Bailey — about the highest poultry autho-
rity in the country — advises that the old hen be
confined under a rip, placed on the grass in a
warm sheltered situation, and moved about,
as often as necessary, to keep the mother and
her brood on a clean spot.

At farm-houses, complete success often
5 li

attends chicken-rearing with much Bitnplcr
and cheaper apparatus ; namely, by a common
wicker coop, which may bo bout^ht nnywhero
for lifteen pence, or a bit of wide flannel list,
with which to tethiT the hen.

Some breeders have gone to the exponso of
making permanent chicken coops, with a com-
fortable little house, and a run of three feet by
six for each brood ; but we do not think this so
likely to form the best treatment for chickens
as any little movable contrivance.

As prevention is better than cure, and
example better than precept, wo may as well
say a few words about hatching diflicultiep,
at such times and seasons as they generally
occur. One Monday, under a bright sky and
a biting wind, a breeder divided twenty eggs
(of a choice kind, of course — for who thinks
of anything else ^low ?) between two willing
recipients — well-tried, broody hens. lie set
one wide, plump, short-legged old hen in a
nest nine inches by ten ; and she soon gave
signs that her quarters were too straitened
by breaking four of the eggs. The remaining
sixteen, he found, contained twelve chickens,
which went through the process of incubation,
without further breakage, to the twentieth,
twenty-first, and twenty-second day: still no
chickens made their appearance. B}' this time
the chicks were cheeping inside the egg-shells,
but none were cracked, A drying and bitter
east wind prevailed, finding its way through
the few crevices that were in the hen-house.
In two of the eggs the chickens had died,
which left ten eggs under one hen. The other
had had a fresh batch given to her when this
was discovered. Tliis was a most unsatis-
factory state of things ; therefore he had the
nest (with the hen in it) taken into his house,
and placed over a foot-bath, into which hot
water was poured, and an old piece of flannel
thrown over ail, in a manner to give the hen
and eggs a vapour-bath, but not enough of it
to set her panting. The nest was left in a
room with a fire in it, and very soon the eggs
hatched.

lie believed the loss of the two chickens,
which we have mentioned as having died in tho
egg-shell at an early stage, to have been his
own fault ; for, finding one hen had but two
good eggs, he made up her nest with others,
ivhich he gave her cold; and we have no doubt

857

rEEDIlTG.

POULTRY.

[feed IN O.

these cold eggs chilled the two she had.
Another hatching, by the same gentleman,
was better managed. He gave the hens good
roomy nests; almost all the eggs contained
chickens, and the egg-shells began to crack on
the twenty-first day. Two or three times in
the course of the day, he had the hen-house
watered with hot water, so as to produce steam
in the place, where, as a matter of course,
there were no fowls to roost. The next
morning, bonny broods were popping in and
out round the mothers ; but a few of the eggs
were still unhatched. One was a good deal
broken ; but the white skin looked hard and
dry, and the chicken was unable to extricate
itself. This he opened carefully, dividing the
two skins sufficiently for the chicken to expand
itself. He replaced it under the mother, and
the next morning could not tell it from the
rest. On the twenty -third day, two eggs only
remained uncracked. These he opened, and
found dead chickens inside, the lives of which
might have been saved if he had opened the eggs
the day before. "We do not blame him for the
delay, although it proved unfortunate in this
instance, as the chickens were not crying in
the eggs, and as we have known the egg-shell
to be, sometimes, opened on the twenty-second
day, and found that it should have been left a
day later.

Premising that a constant supply of suitable
food is the great essential which enters into
the rearing of the delicate birds, such as
turkeys, pheasants, and guinea-fowl, the fol-
lowing hatching-table shows the periods of
incubation of a few tame birds : —

r^umber of Eggs.

Days

Swan . . ,

5 to 10

. . 42

Goose . , .

o 11 to 13 .

. . . 30

Duck . . .

. 11 to 13 . .

. . 30

Turkey . .

. 11 to 13 .

. 27 to 31

Pea-fowl . .

5 to 7

, . . 29

Guinea fowl

. 11 to 15 .

. . . 30

Hen . .

. 9 to 13 .

. . . 21

If'EEDING.

All who have bestowed attention on the
feeding of stock of diflerent descriptions, tell
us tliat various kinds of food are necessary for
the diflerent functions which it is the object of
food to perform. One kind is required to give
warmth, and to aid respiration ; and anotlier to
858

restore the muscular waste of the matured, or
to increase the bulk of the growing animal. If
we give only warmth-producing substances, the
consumers will fail in the increase of bone,
muscle, &c. ; and if we give too much flesh-
producing nourishment, it goes to waste, or
becomes injurious. Experimentalists say that
peas, beans, wheat, pollard, oatmeal, and some
other vegetables, contain much flesh-forming
substance ; but it is difficult to say what pro-
portion of them should be used, or what
quantity given, without doing mischief. We
have known chickens to be fed on two meals
a day of these nourishing kinds of food, making
up the other meals with barley-meal, potatoes,
ground corn, and green food ; and they have
thriven well.

Powls, however, are blessed with capital
appetites, as every breeder can prove by his
bill at the corn-dealer's. The plan of feeding
which used to be followed by almost all poultry-
keepers (what one may call private poultry-
keepers), and which still is followed by some,
was to give the fowls plenty of barley, and
nothing else. This is neither good for them
nor for their owners. Eowla do not thrive on
it, and are constantly ravenous. It is proved
by the elaborate experiments of M. Eeaumer,
that each fowl will eat a quarter of a pint of
grain ^cr die)n, when fed on this kind of food
only. A great objection which we find to it
is, that it is the most expensive kind of feed-
ing we can use. Mr. Bement, the American
writer on poultry, found that eight Poland
fowls consumed a peck of Indian corn in eleven
days ; a peck of oats in six days ; a peck of barley
in seven days ; a peck of wheat in ten days ; a
peck of millet in eight days ; and a peck of
wheat screenings in seven days. During the
experiment, the fowls had a few boiled potatoes
only, in addition.

Opposed to this plan of feeding on grain
only, is that of some of our most experienced
breeders, who feed entirely on meal dough.
We do not think, however, that fowls would
remain healthy, year after year, fed on meal
food only, with no mixture of hard corn to
swell in their interior, and to give work to the
gizzard.

"The substances that may be used in
poultry-feeding," says Mr. Kichardsou, "are
very numerous and various— viz., cabbage, rape^

lEEDINQ.]

vol LTKV.

[fkuuino.

turnipa, cnrrota, parsnips, nmngel-wurzel, oats,
wheat, barley, ryo, and dHut >^nunA — sul)-
Btaucea too well kuowu to require enuinoratinj^.
It will not answer to feed fowls entirely upon
aril/ one variefi/ of food ; neither will it be fouml
advisable to feed wholly upon any one class of
food. 1 must speak of the latter point lirt<t.
Fowls require a mixture o^ green with hard food,
fully as much as horses or cattle do. When
the birds have the advantage of an extensive
walk, they will find this for themselves ; when
they have no such advantage, you must provide
green food for them. Some do so by supplying
the birds with cabbages, or other greens, chopped
small. My plan is to fasten heads of cabbages,
lettuce, rape, or other green herbs, to some
fixture, by means of the roots, and to let the
fowls pick for themselves. This practice not
merely prevents waste ; but is, in consequence
of the amusement it afibrds, decidedly conducive
to health."

If we make the health and well-being of our
poultry the only consideration, everywhere, in
the neighbourhood out of doors, is the best run
they can have; and if their hahitat should
happen to include rick-yards, with barns and
corn -stacks, stock-sheds, with abundance of
litter and unavoidable waste food, kitchen-
gardens with hotbeds and vegetables of every
sort, and flower-gardens, shrubberies, and wil-
dernesses composed of fine loam well stocked
with insects, it will be first-rate/br the fowls.
But, as the master is pretty sure to dislike the
little unavoidable derangement of the corn-
ricks likely to follow this free range ; and, as
the gardener has a prepossession in favour of
doing all the raking himself, it is generally
necessary to fence in a piece of ground for the
fowls. If they can have a run out into a field
or lane, although it may be only for a very few
hours eacli day, we are sure they will pick up
many things for themselves, and supply wants
which, with all our study of their habits, we
may probably overlook, or of which wo may be
ignorant.

The run, even for a very limited number of
fowls, should not be smaller than fifteen feet
by thirty. If it is twenty feet by sixty, so much
the better, or as much larger as can be con-
veniently managed. AVhen confined to one
spot like this, there are many requisites towards
health and well-being, with which the fowls

must bo supplied, that they would find for
themselves, if tliry enjoyed a free range. Somo
of tlieso are grass, lime, jind small stones.

AVi; consider a mixed dietary the bent, both
with regard to giving diflerent kinds of food,
and a change from time to time. An intelli-
gent and large breeder gives whole corn onco
a day, and meal-dough twice a day ; or corn
twice a day, and meal once. The meal-dough
is mixed with the hand, with 'o little water
as to leave it dry enough to i'all to j)iece3 when
thrown on the ground ; or it may be mixed
with boiling water — not with the hand ; tliat
might prove inconvenient — or it may be boiled
until quite thick. Ik can bo made of oatmeal,
which is very good, but dear; or barley-meal.
Either of these, for economy or change, may
be mixed with one-third (measure) of middlings
or pollard. Potatoes and scraps from the
table, bits of stale bread, and pot-liquor to
mix with the meal, all make valuable changes
in the poultry-yard. These things, and others
of a like nature, may form one meal a day, at
least, for the fowls.

This gentleman thinks that fowls should have,
at least, one meal a day of corn. Dilferent
kinds of grain are favoured in different coun-
tries. In this country barley is the staple
commodity ; in America, the fowls are fed al-
most entirely on Indian corn; in France, a
great deal of buck-wheat is used. All these
diflerent kinds of grain are good in change,
and also oats and wheat. It has been found a
good plan to give barley and oats alternately,
feeding with each for a fortnight. Wheat,
Indian corn, and buck-wheat are used more
sparingly, because they are so much dearer ;
but a little of each is given every day, some-
times for a week at a time, as a change.

In addition to these regular meals of vege-
table produce, fowls require a little flesh meat
sometimes. AVhen they run out every day
into fields and roads, there is no necessity
for the owner to attend to this want, except
in continued frost, as the fowls hud the means of
supplying themselves with meat, in the shape
of worms, flies, insects of all kinds, slugs,
snails, frogs, and such comestibles as suit
their palates, and their voracity ; nor will a
good plump field-mouse escape being turned
into hen's meat, if it venture within reach of
Dame Partlet's strong beak. But if fowls are

859

FEEDING.]

POTJLTKY.

[feeding.

kept to a smaller plot of ground than will
give good scratcbing-room to the number on
it, a little meat will do them good, and pro-
mote laying.

Varioua plana have been suggested for pro-
ducing poultry game. Oliver de Serves ver-
miider has often t^een mentioned by writers
on poultry. It was a hollow place, twelve
feet square, and four feet deep, sloped at the
bottom for draining. In this were placed
straw, horse manure, and earth, each six
inches deep ; and over all blood was poured, and
garbage of any kind, mixed with chafif. In
this manner the pit was filled : the rain soon
rendered the whole sufficiently moist to pro-
duce putrefactive fermentation, and myriads
of worms were engendered for feeding poultry.
A miniature verminier is described by Mr.
JS^olan, in his work on domestic poultry.
" Place bran in a deep crock ; lay on it a piece
of carrion ; cover it with a glass, so. as to admit
light, but exclude rain ; and in a few days, it
will be a moving mass of living insects." Worms
thus generated by corruption, may be as good
as those which come naturally in mother earth ;
but we cannot help feeling a prejudice against
fowls eating such; besides, the hosts of blue-
bottles, with which such a neighbour would
infest the place, might prove a great annoy-
ance. "When the fowls want meat, scraps from
the family refuse, fresh ofial from the butcher,
or even fresh greaves are better. Care must.
be taken not to give too much. A quarter of
an ounce to each fowl, and that not often, is
quite enough.

" I do not think," says Mr. Eichardson
again, " that one circumstance connected with
the feeding of poultry, and that a most im-
portant one, is sufficiently well known — I
allude to the necessity they are under of ob-
taining czotized, or, in other words, animal
food. Of course, when the birds possess the
advantage of an extensive run, they can them-
Belves pick up insects, worms, snails, or slugs ;
but, in cases where they do not possess this
advantage, it is necessary that you cater for
them. I have always experienced the best
effects, especially as manifested in greatly in-
creased laying, of giving scraps of animal food
about twice or thrice a week to '^the fowls.
Bullock's liver answers the purpose well.
This I consider to be better in a raw than
860

in a cooked state. In winter, in order to
supply the place of the insects and other
animal food, which they pick up in summer, I
give them, once a week, sheep's entrails, boiled
and peppered, together with meat bones to
peck at, and also barley made hot in a sauce-
pan, without water, and given warm. Hot
potatoes are always good food. Small pota-
toes may be picked out, and steamed for the
purpose. But meat is indispensable, if you
wish to have eggs in winter."

Gravel is necessary to birds to aid digestion,
and lime for the formation of egg-shell, &c.
Stones can be best given by keeping a part of
the run gravelled ; and lime by throwing down
a heap of old mortar, rubbish, oyster-shells
either burnt or broken up fine, egg-shells broken
up fine, or lime in any other form which will
admit of poultry pecking and swallowing small
portions.

Of green food, grass is best. Fowls will
not do well without green food of some kind ;
if they cannot run out upon grass, they should
have turfs, and a moderate quantity of cabbage,
lettuce, or any other green vegetable.

The poultry should be fed with regularity,
and have enough to satisfy their hunger.
The food should be so scattered abroad that
the fowls will have to use some activity to
earn the meal ; and care should be taken to
avoid leaving quantities of food always lying
about.

The American principle upon which fowls
are fed, is thus shown in the Miner's Domestic
Foultry: — " The principal food for fowls should
be Indian corn, in some shape — sometimes
whole, sometimes cracked, sometimes ground
to meal, and occasionally ground to the cob.
Then you want oats, buck-wheat, and any
other grain you please; but the three kinds
here named constitute a good supply for the
extensive breeder. Besides the above grains,
furnish a mess of boiled potatoes or other
vegetables several times a week, mixed with
meal of some kind ; and be careful to change
the diet of your fowls often. In the laying
season, a solid feed of shelled corn (Indian
corn), given profusely, is too heating ; and boiled
potatoes, if taken to excess, are too laxative.
The careful breeder will always guard against
these results, by watching the condition of his
fowlf. If they are relaxed, a change of food

FEBDINO.]

POULTKV.

[feeding.

must be given at once, of a more solid nature.
A little rye or wheat is an excellent change
in such caaes. If they are costive, a boiled
nash of potatoes will generally bo a remedy. "

In a work of this kind, it iniglit bo expected
that calculaliuus would be given as to the most
economical mode of rearing poultry ; but, as no
general rule, alike applicable to Great liritain
and Ireland, can be established, we have
deemed it better to omit them. Not to speak
of the dill'ereuees of prices which exist between
the several products of these countries, there
are even diflereuceg, in these particulars, to bo
found in various localities in the same county.
Tliis circumstance, alone, presents a difliculty,
doubtless, sufficiently great to render all cal-
culations upon this part of our subject nu-
gatory. Respecting the profits of poultry-
keeping, the Agricultural Gazette has, at
various times, given statements. The foUowiug
are taken from the columns of that paper, and
may enable the inquirer upon this portion of
our subject, to form a basis for his own cal-
culations, as they have done for those of
others.

The actual cost and receipts for the produce
of ten hens and a cock in one year, and of
twelve hens and a cock in another, are given.
The food was all bought at a high market price,
and the produce sold in the village where they
were fed. The fowls were kept clean, and well
housed and attended. They were fed regularlv
three times a-day when young, and had the
run of a large grazing-yard in the day-time.

the Dorking breed ; six ducks, and from seventy
to eighty geese : —

COST.

Darlpy, milk, meid

luid corn
Woiiiiin'n wuRCH and

iiiurkft cliurK<''i .
70 Keciiv, ut"2j. 0</. .
Bulunco pruflt

£ (. J.

G 4 1

•« 12 7

. 8 15 0

. 31 8 10

£'.! 0 (i

SOLD.

1. d.
7 0
i 0

3,4()Ooirif", nl Ut.M.

l>iT 100 . . 9

2()H chickens, at

l«. 9</. . . .18
b\ cbickeni con-

HUiiicJ lit lioino . 4 14 0
CO (rccpte, ul 5«. M. . IC 10 0
10 ditto cuiiHiimed . 2 15 0
20 duckji, ul 2j. fid. .2100

Pro fit

54

0 0
8 10

COST IX ONE YEAR.

£ s.

0 8

0 19

0 19

1 0
1 0
0 3

40 pints groats

Oats

Barley-meal .

Barley .

Tail Wheat .

Eggs for sitting

Collecting eess, &c. 0 5

Balance, profit . 3 18

£S 14 2

RECEIPTS SAME YEAR.
£ s. d.

For eggs, at 8d. . 0 13 8
10 ducks, at Is. 9d. 0 17 C
12 do. at li. 8rf. 10 0
82 chickens, at

Is. (id. . .630

8 14 2
Profit . . £3 18 0

COST FOLLOWING YEAR.
£ *. d.
For 16 pints of groats 0 3 4
9 bushels barley . 2 14 0
Barley-meal . " .079
Collecting eggs .029
Balance, proht .558

£8 13 6

RECEIPTS.

£ a. d.

2 11 G

For eggs, at 9(i. . 2 U G
66chickcns, atls. 8i. 5 10 0
8 ditto at Is. Gd, n !•> n

0 12 0

8 13 6

Profit ,

. £j 5

Another authority, in the neighbourhood of
Newcastle, gives the following statement of
cost and income for sixty hens, priucipallv of

To produce anything approaching to these
profits, however, it is necessary to have a
superior breed, in place of the fowls commonly
found in the barn-yard; and also to have
suitable houses and yards for their accom-
modation.

With respect to the poultry of cottagera,
which are fed on what would otherwise bo
wasted, or what is collected by the industry
of their children, and warmly housed under
the same roof as the owner, they often thrive
better, and prove more prolific, than the ex-
pensively tended inmates of ornamental poultrv-
houses. The celebrated Aylesbury ducks are
an example of this kind. They are often
reared under the beds of the cottagers in Buck-
inghamshire; and dunghill hens, that roost
in the " kitchen and parlour and all" of the
peasant, often lay, when the choice, everlasting
layers of neighbouring noblemen and gentle-
men, seem to have retired on half- pay.

A gentleman breeder found, that from the
2'ith of March to the 7th of May, he had set 9S
eggs under nine hens. From this number o2
chickens were hatched, 20 were dead in tlie
shell, and 46 had no birds in them.

The next year he commenced setting on the
2ndof April, and put, altogether, 72 eggs under
eight hens. The produce was 40 chickens ; 14
were dead in shell, and crushed by hatching
hens, and 12 eggs were addled. Instead, how-
ever, of having only 17 chickens from three
hens, which were set at the same time, he did iu)S
hesitate to say that he ought to have had 21 ;
but, in consequence of two o\ the hens desert-
ing their nests seven days before the chickens
were hatched, he had to get another broody
hen, which had only set a few days. The
other eggs he had to divide among several hens
which were sitting; and, as they chipped, ho

8G1

FEEDING.]

POULTET.

[feedixo.

had to take them out and place under one
hen, and some in flannel on a stove. So that,
in fact, it might be said that one hen and the
stove hatched these 17 chickens — which were
perfectly strong and healthy.

The only sickness he had with chickens was
caused by lice, which destroyed great numbers.
The bad hatching of eggs was not confined to
hens, but extended also to ducks ; for out of
24 duck-eggs, he had only five ducklings. He
reared 29 chickens over nine months old. For
his breeding stock he had two cocks, with five
hens each. Only one case of roup occurred; and
as the hen was not a valuable one, he destroyed
her. One hen died from paralysis, and an-
other from diseased liver. The number of eggs
he had was nearly 2,000 ; and he knew, with
the exception of 17, to what purpose every egg
was applied. A stock consisting of 17, in-
creased to 60 by chickens in the spring, and
purchases, consumed —

^^19 loads, at a cost of
£12 13s. 6d.

The expense of rearing fowls, as we have
said, is subject to great variation ; but let us
suppose that there were but one kind of
cereal on which poultry could be fed, and that
it maintained one invariable price throughout
the kingdom ; " still, the proportional amount
of hand-feeding, required by an equal number
of fowls, varies greatly, according to the cir-
cumstances of their owner. A head of fifty
birds, kept at a suburban villa, with high-
dressed gardens, and little other elbow-room,
•will not be able to obtain for themselves the
same amount of unpurchased food as the fifty
which belong to a small farmer, who has a
common in front of his yard, and a young
plantation at the back. The fifty that are
kept on a dairy-iarm will fare diff'erently from
another fifty, in whose master's barn the flail
is perpetually going. Cochin-China fowls,
too, and Malays, will consume a different
amount of food from what bantams do ; and
to strike an average on a miscellaneous col-
8(52

Barley
Indian meal
Sharps
Wheat and rice,

, 2 loads
. 2 „
_ . 1 „
mixed 5 ,,

Indian corn
Oats

Potatoes .
Barley meal
Wheat .

. 2 „
. 1 „
. 4 „
. 1 »
. 1 „

lection, gives, in truth, but the phantom of a
precise result."

The writer from whom we have just quoted,
suggests, as the only way to obtain a safe cal-
culation, to shut up a given number of fowls
of the same breed and age, and mark what
they consume in a given time. " But the ex-
perimenter should be warned, that the birds,
when first confined, will probably sulk, and not
eat nearly so much as their brethren at large ;
and so an error will be admitted that would
prove of considerable importance, if the calcu-
lations founded thereon, were of equal conse-
quence with those on which astronomy, navi-
gation, or even large mercantile enterprises
rely for satisfactory results. It is better,
therefore, not to attempt giving any account
of the quantity of grain each bird may be ex-
pected to consume, than to give such an ac-
count as must necessarily mislead, if it is
made the groundwork of any calculation in-
tended to be generally applicable." Instead,
therefore, of aiming at anything like exactness
in this matter, we will quote, from the Agricul-
tural Gazette, a tolerably full account of the
miscellaneous collection of an amateur, and of
the way in w'hich they were fed and managed.

"It may be premised," says the writer,
" that my object in keeping fowls is not mere
money profit. If it were clearly proved to me,
that, at the end of the year, I lost a small sum
by them, I should still go on keeping them,
for convenience and amusement sake ; and so
would many other country ladies, gentlemen,
and clergy. If it could be demonstrated to
me that the eggs laid at home cost more, per
score, than what eggs can be bought for in
Leadenhall market, I would still indulge in
the home-produced article, instead of French
eggs, twenty-four for the shilling — just as I
would prefer a joint of home-fattened pork ;
although meat, spelt with the same four letters,
might, perhaps, be bought in a neighbouring
city one-eiglith of a farthing cheaper per
pound. If men want to enter on the business
of fowl-dealing and fatting on a large scale, as
a trade to live by, let them serve a short ap-
prenticeship, and they will soon discover the
most profitable way of proceeding, according
to the produce and the demand of their own
special locality. This class of very useful
persons are, in general, too acute and too

r£EDI>'Q.]

POULTKI.

[fKKUl.NQ.

practically experienced, to need much in-
btructiou of the kind Iroiu books.

"Another point in view lins been, not to
attempt tlie foriiiatiou of anylliiii'^ like a com-
plt-te collection or menagerie of poultry —
though wo have alwaya wished to have j
plenty, both to observe and to eat — but rather
to have a succession of breeds ami species
continually passing in review through our
premises ; to have their peculiarities noted ; a
pen-and-ink sketch of their portraits taken ;
and then, when what we fancy to be the secret
of their life has been coaxed out of them, or
shrewdly guessed at, to dismiss them as incon-
venient supernumeraries, and to replace them
with less familiar faces. This mode is better
suited to the income, the establishment, and
the brains too, of most naturalist poulterers,
than to have a vast, overcrowded, unwieldy
aviary population, which distracts and per-
plexes the student as much as it pleases the
common starer. There are minds capable of
threading their way continuously through such
a wilderness of interesting objects, and of
carrying along with them a collection of clear
and conclusive ideas ; but such minds are not
the majority. It is wiser to attempt the per-
formance of a feat a little below, rather than a
little above one's powers.

"Our collection, then, consists of turkeys,
geese, ducks, various breeds of fowls, pigeons,
with their several young, besides guinea-fowl,
guans, a stork, a brood or two of pheasants and
partridges, and a few pair of cage birds ; alto-
gether about a hundred and fifty head. At
seven in the morning, during summer, those
birds which had been shut up in their re-
spective houses the night before, are let out
for the day. A sprinkling of barley is
thrown on the floor of each house the pre-
vious evening. The geese (to begin with
them) are driven into a large, well-screened
orchard (nearly an acre), that slopes slightly
to the south, and contains a good-sized pond.
There they have thrown down to them a few
handfuls of barley, as much as is thought suffi-
cient for their gradually diminishing numbers
• — i.e., about half of a quarter of a peck for
ten or a dozen geese. This, however, is
shared with them by such fowls as choose to
fly over the fence and join the breakfast party ;
the ducks, too, will frequently creep through

and under the palings ; bo that, although two
or three additional handfula may be given oa
such occasions, still, if every handful, or even
every grain were counted, no truo aeecjunt
could be exactly rendered of the (luiinlity ot
corn appropriated to the geeae. Their [jrin-
cipal maintenance ia the grass in the orciiard ;
and wo find that, during summer, they are tliua
kept in sufficiently good condition to kill for
the house. During autumn and winter they
require to bo shut up, to fatten in the regular
way. About half this quantity of barley is
given at noon, and again at sunset, in tho
court-yard, when they are driven up for the
night about eight o'clock.

" Our ducklings are kept pretty nearly in
confinement — i.e., in coops with small iiiclo-
sures in front — from the time they are hatched
till they are about a quarter grown. During this
infantile state they are entirely dependent on
the food brought to them, consisting of bread-
crumbs, mixed barley- meal, worms, &c. As
soon as they are judged sufficiently robust to
take to the water — of about an acre of which
they have the range, besides open drains and
ditches — they arc turned loose with their nurse,
but are always got home at night. Previous
to this complete enfranchisement, they are, of
course, disciplined by a few preliminary swims
in a large milk-pan sunk in the ground. If
their nurse be a hen, they very soon desert
her, and cater for themselves ; if a duck, then,
under her guidance, they pick up by far the
greatest part of their maintenance, costing
nothing but the few kernels of barley that are
thrown to them three or four times a-day to
keep them in the habit of returning home with
tolerable frequency. Now it is impossible to
make any calculation of what these birds con-
sume or are maintained by, that can all'ord
any real instruction. I cannot properly enter
into ray balance-sheet, the insects, worms,
seeds, and water-weeds on which my ducka
grow, get flesh, and even fat, although they
are all the produce of my own premises. De
minimis non curat lex. The law careth not for
crumbs and atoms. A farmer who wants to
know the exacc profit and loss on each duck
and hen, would, we take it, be penny, or
rather farthing wise and pound foolish ; that
is, if his time and thoughts are worth money to
him. And what most baffles us is, that these

803

FEEDING.]

POULTET.

[feeding.

savings, which poultry get from off their walk,
to the sparing of the barley-sack, perpetually
vary. Thus, from Midsummer to Michaelmas,
ducks cost very little to keep, where they
have a proper range ; and so do other poultry.
Nature is then in her most liberal mood.
But when the ground is petrified by frost, and
covered with snow, it becomes quite a different
affair. Powls are then at their most costly
time. A calculation of the expense of keeping
them, at either period, cannot but mislead.
And as the greater number of ducks do not
live six months, their yearly average consump-
tion cannot be taken.

"In the same way, turkey-chicks and common
chickens are, with us, assiduously fed on their
proper diet, their mothers being cooped, and
dependent on the grain given to them. As the
younglings gain strength they are gradually
released ; and, when finally turned adrift, have
the range of more than eight acres of lawn and
grove, where their mothers and themselves
find abundance of nutriment, which, though
valuable, cannot be charged in any bill for the
maintenance of the growing families. During
the time the mothers remain cooped, a per-
son goes round to them as often as is thought
needful (that point being much regulated by
their respective ages), with a supply of suitable
food. It mainly consists of hard-boiled eggs
chopped up with lettuce and onions, bread-
crumbs, boiled rice (costing Is. 4<d. the stone
of 14 lbs.) as a variety, barley-meal, and fine
pollard, either mixed with parboiled rice, or by
themselves, with as little water as is sufficient
to bring them to a consistence. Little chickens
are treated to a few kernels of wheat. The
most economical way of distributing grain is
to scatter it on the bare ground, and to give
no more at a time than the fowls will quite con-
sume ; and we find that the only mode of pre-
venting the sparrows from getting much more
than their fair share (their really fair share
should be none at all), is to remain with the
birds and chickens while they are eating, till
they are quite satisfied, and to repeat the
visit after a short interval, Youus: chickens
never should go more than two hours at most
without a supply of food ; for adult birds, three
times a-day is plenty. It does not appear to me
that extreme precision in stating tho weights
and measures of the articles used as food
SGI

for live stock, is so very necessary or expedient.
For creatures that have either to work hard, or
to grow, or to get fat, a little too much food is
better than a little too little. "We should pre-
fer even some waste by sparrows, to seeing our
poultry stunted in their growth, or checked iu
their moulting, or moping about in ill-con-
ditioned plumage. Full-grown guinea-fowl,
that have a range (and they should not be
kept otherwise), require no more corn for
their maintenance in health and in full laying
powers, than what they tvlll have when the
poultry is assembled by the rattling of the
corn-measure at morning, noon, and night.
AVith us, the least profitable birds are, we
believe, the pigeons, of which there are about
forty. Besides the corn which these get at
the general mess, they are entertained with
peas, at the rate of about a peck a- week, in
their private apartment, the pigeon-loft, to
which, however, they are not at all confined.
They are fed at an extra rate to prevent them
trespassing on our neighbours' fields. Pigeon-
pies, in sufficiency, could be had at a less cost ;
and the sale of choice pairs is not resorted to
as a means of lessening the expense of keeping
the flock.

"The commissariat department of every
rearer of a general stock of poultry, must be
arranged, not as for a regular army, where the
men are all of a certain equal height, and are
supposed to be of a certain equal capacity of
stomach ; but as for a mixed multitude or
rabble, such as the followers of Peter the
Hermit ; or a disorganised riotous populace,
consisting of old and young, male and female,
healthy, sick, and lame. To the entire mass
of this feathered band of insurrectionists (rjnd
very riotous tliey do become as the pangs of
hunger continue to pinch them), it may be
advised that three feeds of corn a-day be ad-
ministered till they are tolerably satisfied. It
is an error to believe that poultry will eat corn
to repletion; they will turn from that, when
they feel they have had a sufficiency, to pounce
upon the fly, drag out the half-hidden worm,
or crop the sprouting grass. Wastefulness iu
giving corn to fowls, consists in throwing them
down a large quantity at once — more than
they care to have — and then leaving them to
themselves, instead of doling it out, handful
by handful, and stopping the distribution as

FATTENIKO.]

roL'1/rKV

[PA.TTK.NI>0.

80011 as appetitt' bc^ina to iliig. Tlioy should
not bo allowed to leave a grain. The juiiiorn,
the prisoners, ami the invalids must havo sepa-
rate attention, which wo shall not bo expected
to particularise here. For poultry that is put
up to fatten loose in a small shed — really a
good and more healthy way than tattening-
coops with separate compartments (for we
never see a return of the number of birds
which die, instead of fattening, from this incar-
ceration")— for poultry so confined, no feeding-
trough is better than that iigured as for
turkeys in Dixon's Ornamental FouUry ; but
even the degree and kind of fatness expected
in poultry, is a matter of local taste and fashion.
Most country-people like a fowl, or a duck,
that has been kept at large in high condition,
either at the barn-door or in the pond, with-
out any confinement at all — thus making an
approach to the edible qualities of game.
Londoners prefer birds that have never stirred,
except in a dark cellar, nor used their wings,
unless to help them to a perch three feet from
the ground at most. This inaction of the
muscles gives a peculiar tenderness to the
flesh, and unctuousness to the fat, •which is
much valued by metropolitan purveyors. As
far as the digestion of the eaters is concerned,
it would be well if the parties could change
their taste. The capon-like and luscious pecu-
liarity of the fowls supplied by the best London
poulterers, requires a little fresh air and exer-
cise to settle comfortably ; while the lightness
of the barn-door flesh, if not eaten too soon
after slaughter, is more suitable to a sedentary
stomach. How hard, then, is it to dictate
which is 'the best mode of feeding and fatten-
ing,' when connoisseurs difter so widel}'' as to
the result most worthy to be aimed at!"

FATTENING.

Poultry intended for the table, like every
other living thing raised to be eaten in an
artificial state of society, must pass through a
certain change previous to its being sub-
jected to the masticating process of the mouth
of man. In order to have a chicken fat, the
best thing to do is never to allow it to get
thin. To "fetch them up," however, for the
table, they should either be absolutely cooped
up, or, at all events, inclosed in a very small
space. If they are put into coops, these should
5 s

bo worm, rather dark, and placed under cover.
They should also havo HuiRcient height, and
ho large enough for each fuwl to be CKm-
fDrtable, without being forced to move about;
and each should havo a portion of the coop
partitioned olf to itself, so that it may see its
neighbour, without touching it. At the front
of the coop, there should be a large trough to
hold tlio food, with a compartment for water,
raised fully an inch from the ground. "What
this convenience is to bo made of is a matter of
taste; but, instead of wood, cither pottery or
glass is recommended as even more suitable,
on account of their being more easily kept clean ;
whilst they look equally well, and are by no
means expensive. Tlie back part of the floor
ought to bo grated, so that the droppings of
the fowls may readily pass through. Tho
birds should be starved for a few hours after
cooping, and then supplied regularly, three
times a-day, with as much food as they will cat,
and no more. The trough should be cleaned
out each time after they have been fed. Very
little water should bo given them. In this
manner, steamed potatoes alone have fattened
chickens in eight or ten days. Boiled dry
rice, moistened with milk or water, is also a
very fattening diet ; and if accompanied with
a portion of treacle, the process is greatly
quickened. By great attention, and giving a
constant variety of food, in order to excite tho
appetite of the fowls, they ought to be ready
for the table in a fortnight. Vegetables of
every description, and grease of every kind, they
will eagerly devour and fatten on ; and tho
most economical plan is to boil everything
given to them. Upon this subject Mr. Bailey
has written a practical little pamphlet, called
The Dorking Fowl : Hints for its Management
and Feeding for the Table ; from which wo
extract the following passage: —

" I advise, from the first, to feed tho hcu
and her chickens well, in the following manner.
Instead of throwing down handfuls of whole
corn, let it be ground, and slaked with luke-
warm milk, to such consistence, that when a
ball of it is thrown on the ground it will break,
and scatter about in particles. If there be
green-meat, such as onion-tops, chopped fine,
and mixed with it, so much the better. The
chickens should be fed in this manner three
or four times per dav, and the little extra

SG5

HOUSING.]

POULTRY.

[HOTJSIN&.

trouble will be amply repaid by their growth
and health. As they get older this may be
gradually discontinued, and they may feed
with the old fowls on whole corn. But even
with old birds a change of food is not only
advantageous, but necessary ; and I would
therefore advise that, once a fortnight, the food
be changed for a day or two, and boiled or
crushed corn substituted for whole. They
must also have constant opportunities of pick-
ing among grass and other herbs. Fowls in
confinement will starve and pine to death with
heaps of barley around them, unless they have
such opportunities." An observance of these
rules would save the editors of agricultural
journals the task of answering many a poultry
inquiry, in their '■ xM'otices to Correspondents."

For the banquets of the ancient K-omans,
poultry was carefully reared and fattened, as
well as crammed; the operation of which, ac-
cording to authority, does not seem to have
greatly differed from that practised in our own
day. The tastes of the birds, and the advantages
to be derived from feeding them in a dark
place, were well understood.

In France, the practice of cramming is, at
present, quite common. For this purpose a
machine is used, constructed on the principle
of the forcing-pump. With the aid of this
instrument, one man can cram fifty birds in
half-an-hour. In operating, the throat of the
bird is held until the stomach is gorged through
a pipe, which forces the food from a reservoir.
This process causes the fowls to attain the
highest state of fatness and flavour in fifteen
days.

HOUSING.

In choosing a hen-house, as in many great
events of life, most persons have to consider
what they can have, rather than what they
would prefer. The house musi be weather-
tight and well ventilated ; it should occupy a
sheltered spot, and enjoy a warm, sunny as-
pect. Crowding should be carefully avoided :
a dozen fowls is enough for a house ten feet
square, and so in proportion. The talented
author of the Poultry Pentalorjue, says the
house " should be composed of non-conduct-
ing materials, that it may be comparatively
warm in winter, and cool in summer." This
would promote laying in cold weather, and
866

mitigate distress from heat. " My own fowls,
however," he continues, "never did better
than when kept in a rough weather-boarded
place ; but then it was but loosely parted off
from the end of a large cow-house, which was
always filled with cattle in the winter, and
empty in the summer."

It sometimes happens that mortality, for
which we can assign no reason, makes most un-
welcome inroads on our poultry ; and when we
reflect upon the manner of life of our favourites,
it is difficult to find a solution of the dis-
couraging enigma. The fowls had access to
gravel, lime, grass, and also had a liberal sup-
ply of food properly varied ; yet sickness and
death were of frequent occurrence. As whole-
some air is as necessary to the well-being of
every living animal as wholesome food, the
breeder of stock, of every description, will find
it advantageous, occasionally, to visit the sleep-
ing-places at night. When fowls follow their
own instinct, they seek a lofty place to roost
upon. Now that we bring them to a weight
and buUc which they would never attain in a
state of nature, we counteract this instinct;
and, as the wings of such heavy birds are in-
capable of saving them from injury in a great
descent, we oblige them to roost near the
ground. By this means we bring them nearer
to the carbonic acid gas, which, from its specific
gravity, falls to the ground. Many useful
hints, on different subjects connected with the
rearing of stock, may be found in a work entitled
Agricultural Chemistry,\ij^. C. Nesbit, F.G.S.,
F.C.S., &c. ; to which we refer the reader.

A piece of any convenient part of the hen-
house may as well be left unfloored, to be
divided off into nests, leaving the bare earth
for the bottoms of them. They will do either
with or without straw. If baskets or boxes
are used for nests, for the safety of the eggs,
they had better have an abundant supply of
straw.

We have just observed that large fowls should
never roost high ; for if lialf-a-dozen hen-ladders
are placed for their convenience, they prefer
to use their wings, which were never made to
poise, in mid-air, from seven to eleven pounds
of fatted, feathered flesh and bone. The best
practical judges reckon that the perches should
be witUn two feet of the ground, and made of
poles from four to six inches in diameter

nousiNo J

poiJi/nn'

[lIOCSlNfl.

We would never leave fowls dependent on

the hon-luniao alono tor slu'ltiT. In addition
to tliat, tlifv slioiiUl have u alied, undi-r which
tbev niav find protection from rain and hot
sun, ami a dry spot for a dust-balii, which
must be always supplied with plenty of dry
dust, in the use of which the fowls will require
no teaching. If a good potting-shed, or any
shed of the kind, bo included within the
precincts of the hen-run, nothing can be better
for the fowls; and they can do no harm by
having a corner for a scratching-bit. If there
be no such shed ready to hand, a slight ono can
be constructed at small expense. A few lengths
of carpenter's quartering, made into an oblong
frame, fixed upon a sullicient number of legs
(according to its length), and covered with
rough board or patent felt, will answer the
purpose very well.

There are numerous kinds of fencing for
forming the boundary-line to the run. Gal-
vanised iron wire, stretched on a framework,
is neat and durable. Galvanised iron netting
may be set up, with the support of upright iron
rods only. A firm rod along the top of a low
fence bad better be avoided, for it will be used
by the fowls to lodge on in getting over.
As they are less likely to rest on an edge
which is shaky or uneven with spikes, some
manufacturers make their wire- work for poultry
witliout the finish of a wire at the edge which
is intended for the top of the fence. The cost
of a wire fencing is from one penny to three-
pence per square foot.

In Suffolk, an excellent warm fence is made
by bracing fagots of fern, gorse, &c., close to-
gether upon iron hurdles.

Common sheep hurdles, in the usual position,
will make a good fence for poultry ; but placed
on end, fixed together, and made firm with
stakes, they afi'ord a fair high fence, where
appearance is not an object of consideration.
If thatched, they will make a very tolerable
hen-house. Simply fixed with the spikes in
the ground, they are not high enough to keep
in any poultry, nor firm enough after two years'
wear and tear ; but these defects may be reme-
died, and a good lasting fence made of them,
at the expense of a little labour. If the poplar
or the willow grows in the neighbourhood, it

is not a bad plan to cut largo sprays of either,
about six feet high, and stick them into tho
ground so close together, along ono side of tho
hurdles, that tho twigs moot and cross above
them, so as to form a tolerably clo.so screen.
They will take root, becointj firm Hup])orterrt to
tho hurdles, and f'oriii u la.-sting, and not an
unsightly fence.

A lattice of laths is quite as dear as wiro
netting, and not so pretty; neither, wo tliink,
will it bo found so durable.

With tho addition of drinking-pans — of
which tho best are those which can bo kept
clean most easily — tho home of the fowls may
now be reckoned ready for their reception.

All pans for food, and divers contrivances for
inducing the fowls to stuff themselves immode-
rately, we repudiate.

As a suitable conclusion to this part of our
subject, we subjoin a description of the cottier's
poultry-house, as given by Mr. llichardaon.

" One of the best modes of rearing fowls, is
the old custom of suffering them to roost on
the rafters of the room in which the cottier
keeps his fire. It is, perhaps, owing to
the warmth thus afforded to the birds, that
during winter, when eggs are scarce, and con-
sequently at a high price, they will bo procur-
able from the humble cabin, when they have
long vanished from the elaborately constructed,
but less warm poultry-house of the more
affluent breeder.

" Should circumstances, however, render the
keeping of poultry in the cabin objectionable
or unadvisable, a very suitable place may be
erected for them against tho outside of tho
cabin wall. If possible, the part of tho wall
against which the little hut is erected, should
be that opposite to tho fire-place within ; thus
securing the necessary warmth. If shelbe.'* bo
required, it can be obtained by means of a
few bushes, or a wall of sods. Tlie neighbour-
ing roads will serve as an ample walk ; and
the nearest stream will slake their thirst. A
few laying-nests may bo placed in a warm
corner of the cabin. By these means, tho
poultry of the poor cottier will thrive as well,
and yield as great a profit, as those kept in
the best-appointed establishments in the
kingdom."

867

THE TUiiB::^;^.]

POULTET.

[the tueket.

CHAPTER V.

THE TURKEY ; GUINEA IIEN ; PEA-FOWL ; PHEASANT, ETC.

THE TURKEY
Under the singular impression that this bird
and the Meleagris of the ancients are identical,
Linnaeus, and some other naturalists, have de-
signated the Turkey as the Meleagris Galli-
■pavo. This error was first observed by the
Prench academicians, who pointed it out ; and
it is now generally accepted as correct.

The common turkey is a native of North
America, and was introduced into England in
the reign of Henry YIII. According tc
Tusser's ^ive Hundred Pointes of Good Hus-
handrie, it began, about the year 15S5, to form
an article in our rural Christmas feasts : —

" Beefe, mutton, and porke, shred pies of the best,
Pig, veale, goose, and capon, and turkie well drest;
Cheese, apples, and nuts, jolly carols to heare,
As then in the countrie is counted good cheere."

The turkey is one of the most diflBcult birds
to rear of any that we have ; yet, in its wild
state, it abounds in the forests of Canada.

The origin of the name appears to have
arisen from the confusion that, at first, sub-
sisted relative to the identity of the bird with
the Guinea fowl, which is really a native of
Turkey, and was introduced into England from
the Levant. Athenians, and other classical
■writers, with the most minute accuracy, refer
to this fowl ; and in scarcely one particular, can
any resemblance be traced between it and the
turkey.

The disposition of the female turkey bird is,
in general, much more mild and gentle than
that of the male. "When leading out her
young family to collect their food, though bo
large, and apparently so powerful, she gives
them very little protection against the attacks
of any rapacious animal that may approach
them. She rather warns them to shift for
themselves than prepares to defend them.

The best mode of keeping turkeys, is to allow
them a large open shed, sufficiently protected
from tlie weather, and, above all, from moisture,
to the destructive eliects of which the turkey
is singularly liable. The j^erchcs should be

soy

high, and a hen-ladder is very necessary to be
placed in their habitation. The reason for suo--
gesting this is, that although turkeys may fly
very well in their natural state, yet when fat-
tened by the arts of domestication, they be-
come by far too weighty for the strength of
their wings. The consequence of this is, that
they often injure themselves in their descent
from a lofty perch, more particularly if kept
in a state of confinement. When enjoying
the fulness of their liberty, they are enabled
to take better care of themselves, and also to
take such an amount of exercise as will pre-
serve them from assuming alderraanic prooor-
tions. In warm weather they should be al-
lowed to choose their own roostiug-places,
whether on the trees or about the farm ; but
if frost be expected, this liberty must not be
granted them, on account of the tenderness of
their toes, and their susceptibility to be frost-
bitten. To these birds, although originally the
inhabitants of an extremely cold climate, it is
now found that summer is the only season of
the year when they may, with safety, be per-
mitted to roost out of doors.

In a wild state turkeys are gregarious ; and
associate in flocks, sometimes to the number of
five hundred. They frequent the great swamps
of America to roost ; but leave these situations
at sunrise, to repair to the dry woods in
seai'ch of acorns and berries. They perch on
trees, and gain the height they wish, by rising
from bough to bough, and generally mount to
the summits of even the loftiest. They are
very swift runners, but fly awkwardly; and,
about the month of March, become so fat that
they cannot carry themselves beyond three
or four hundred yards, and are then easily run
down by a horseman.

The females lay their eggs in spring, gene-
rally in some retired and obscure place ; for
the cock, enraged at the loss of his mate while
she is employed in hatching, is apt to break
them. They sit on their eggs with so much
perseverance, that, if not taken away, they

THE TURKEY.]

POULTRY.

[iiir.

1 I kkky

■will almost perish with hunger before eutirely

leaving the nest.

The morning is the time wlicn the hen
turkev usually lays; bonie performing this
operation daily, and others only every Bccond
uav. From iirtoen to twenty egi^'s is the number
generally laid ; but this varies aceording to the
age of the bird — a hen of a year old laying
fewer eggs than one of greater maturity.
"When tlie turkeys are about to be let out in
the morning, the hens should be examined, and
those whieh are about to lay should be kept
iu until that process has taken place.

Tiie eggs, :'.3 we have said, are to be taken
away as soon as laid, lest they bo broken,
through the awkwardness of the hen, or sucked
by vermin ; and if put into a basket, and sus-
pended iu a dry place, they will keep till the
hens have done laying. As the hen turkey has
no very reBned feelings of exclusiveness, there
is no necessity for keeping the eggs, belonging
to each, in a separate place. Her disposition
manifests no wonderful excess of maternal
love towards her eggs ; neither are her dis-
criminative qualities very great ; for she will,
witli equal kindness, care, and attention, rear a
batch belonging to another, as if they were
her own. Even in the nest, such eggs as those
of geese, ducks, and common fowl, do not come
amiss to her. In the second laying, the eggs
are fewer in number, and rarely exceed from
ten to thirteen; but, on this occasion, more than
ordinary care is requisite.

We have observed that the hen turkey is
a most persevering incubator; and Mr.
Ixichardson says, that "if her eggs were not
taken away, she would sit upon stones, if she
could not procure the eggs of another bird,
and would perish before quitting the nest.
Eggs should, therefore, be left with her, not
only to tranquillise her, but because sitting
upon eggs fatigues her less than sitting upon
an empty nest. These eggs, however, should
be marked, in order to distinguish them from
those the poor bird continues to lay. Any
eggs that seem to her to be slow of hacching
will be abandoned, as she will quit the nest as
soon as she perceives the chick. Consequently,
as soon as the eggs you have placed under her
are hatched, she will leave the nest, and the
eggs of her own laying will be sacriticed.
liemove, therefore, the former. It is for this

reason that I recommend them to be markci!.
Kee|) the lu-nt clean while tho turkey lien is
sitting, as dirt will injure tlio eggs. No popHon
should go near a hen when sitting, except her
keeper ; and none shouhl turn the eggn, or
meddle with them further than I have already
indicated. Tiie bird will turn lier eggs with
more judgment than you can."

The time of sitting varies. Sometimes it is
twenty-seven, and at other times thirty-one
davs. "When tho latter takes place it is at
Midsummer. As some of tho chicks c-uno
forth more slowly than others, these should bo
removed to a place where they may get greater
warmth ; but, generally speaking, all inter-
ference should be avoided : where, however,
they have been removed, they may be returned
to the hen for six or eight hours before feeding
them. As in cases with more common fowls,
assistance is sometimes necessary to enable the
chick to leave the egg ; and if so, the utmost
caution should be observed, lest any injury
be the result. A too great eagerness to ren-
der aid, on these occasions, often does far more
harm than good.

Many writers recommend a vast deal of what
may well be denominated quackery in the treat-
ment of the young chicks ; but they generally
thrive much better when left to themselves.

In feeding poults, after the second month,
it will be sufficient to supply them with such
boiled herbs and plants as are esteemed nou-
rishing. Those which in their natural state
they would feed upon, are, as a matter of course,
the best. Among these may be enumerated
wild succory, nettles, milfoil, turnip-tops, cab-
bage-sprouts, or the outside leaves of greens,
well macerated by boiling. Potato skiu;^, or a
few potatoes themselves, may be given ; and,
if beans, oats, barley, or buck-wheat be amal-
gamated with them, the poults will rapidly
fatten. Besides these, the meal of Indian corn
is advantageous ; but, as this requires to bo
boiled three times more than that of oats, it is
proportionallv more troublesome to be used as
a food. If, however, the market has to be met,
the sooner the poults can be " got up" the
better ; and, although the feeding required for
this may be a little more expensive than usual,
the results will, nevertheless, prove satisfac-
tory. "When approaching their sixth month,
especially if there be an appearance of cold

869

THE TUEKET.J

POULTEY.

Fthe guinea hek.

weather setting in, give them boiled potatoes,
mashed and mixed with meal, and then chopped
small. This should be given them /res/i and
fresh, in a vessel perfectly clean, and always to
be kept so, lest it contract a disagreeable smell.
It must be remembered that turkeys are par-
ticularly nice in their appetite, and are also
very cleanly in their habits. After a month of
this kind of feeding, morning and evening, the
poults will be in a condition to be made use of;
and, if of a good sort, they ought, at least, to
weigh eighteen pounds. During this process
of fattening, they should, after their meals, be
kept pretty much in the dark ; indeed, a great
portion of their time should be spent in dark-
ness, and their exercise much curtailed.

In considering the advantages in connec-
tion with the expense which attaches to the
raising of turkeys, it must be borne in mind,
that until they are wanted to be fattened for
sale, there is no necessity for nourishing them
to the extent we have just indicated, as, of all
our domestic fowls, they are the best providers
for themselves. They are also blessed with a
good digestion ; therefore, nothing comes amiss
to them in the way of herbs, grass, berries,
fruit, corn, insects, and even reptiles. This
universality of appetite, so to speak, generally
enables them, in their wanderings, to find
plenty to satisfy themselves, almost without
the artijB.cial assistance of man. In its native
forests, a favourite food of the turkey is the
seed of a kind of nettle, and a small red acorn,
on which latter food they soon become so fat
as not to be capable of flying, when they
are easily run down by a dog. The weight to
which the bird attains, in this country, has been
much exaggerated ; but twenty pounds is a fair
weight for a fat yearling bird. For one only
six months old, this is a very great weight.
A turkey weighing thirty pounds, of any age,
is a fine bird ; and few, save the Norfolk, ever
exceed forty.

Cold, or damp, being fatal to turkey poults,
it is necessary that the weather should be
watched before allowing them to stray far from
their habitation. Intense sunshine is also fatal
to them. In such weather, therefore, they
must not be led to pasture, unless this can be
tlone under shade. Should rain fall, they must
be at once housed.

To the peasant the turkey is a bird of con-
870

siderable profit ; as, among the hedgerows, and
upon the roads, it can find almost as much
food as sufiices for its maintenance. Worms,
snails, and slugs are amongst its most favoured
repasts ; and any stream suffices to quench its
thirst. From its great partiality to grain, how-
ever, it is a pest to the farmer, who should
circumscribe its roaming propensities to the
boundaries of his yard, until his crops are so
strong in their roots as to offer no temptatioa
to its depredations.

THE GUINEA. HEN.

It is diiBcult to ascertain the precise time
when the Guinea fowl was first brought into
Great Britain ; but its introduction must, at all
events, have taken place at a remote period ; for,
in Kennet's Parochial Antiquities, it is stated
that it was well known in England as early as
the year 1277. Its original country is Africa.
The Guinea fowl is a little larger than our ordi-
nary barn-door fowl ; but it is inferior in size to
the larger foreign breeds, as the Malay and
Spanish. In both aspect and character, it ap-
pears to occupy a position between the
pheasant and the turkey. Although long
familiarised, the Guinea fowl has never been
fully domesticated. It still retains much of the
restlessness and shyness of its primitive feral
habits. Its courage is very great, as it will
not only attack the turkey, but frequently
conquer him.

The cock and hen are so nearly alike, that
it is not easy to discover which is which.
Sometimes there is a difference of hue in
certain parts ; but this difference only occurs
occasionally ; and it is rather on the distinction
of voice and demeanour that we must chiefly
depend, in order to distinguish the one from:
the other. It must be remarked that they
pair ; therefore, a second hen will be neglected
and useless, except for eggs.

As a source of profit these fowls are not
much to be recommended. The eggs are very
small, three of them being scarcely equal to
an ordinary hen's egg; and the flesh of the
bird is not relished by every palate, though ifc
is in tolerable request in the London markets,
when the game season closes. Its flavour re-
sembles that of the pheasant.

This bird dislikes confinement, and will not
thrive unless it has perfect liberty: where such.

THE PKA-FOWr.]

POULTRY.

[tIIK J'UEASAKT.

tliorefore, cannot bo afforded, it is uaclesa to
attfinpt to kei'p it.

The lion commencoa to l:iy in May, luul
ccntinucs throughout the outiro auramer. For
the table, the birda are in season from February
to June. Tlie period of incubation is twenty-
eight dara. The chicks, while young, reijuiro
careful uianagemeut, and must bo constantly
fed. In a short time they become perfectly
hardy. At nine months they aro lit for the
table. The hen is prolific.

THE PEAFOWL.

A peacock, in all tlie pride of his " Argus-
eyed tail" spread before the rays of the sun,
parading on a green lawn, or from the extremity
of a terrace wall, is one of the most beautiful
of living objects which can adorn the garden
landscape. Of fruit, however, he will be
found a devourer, not to be guarded against ;
and both him and his mate are not uufrequently
the veritable assassins of the young of other
fowl. The cock does not attain the full splen-
dour of his plumage until ho is three years
old : and the hen does not lay until she is of
the same age. She lays from live to seven eggs,
and sits twenty-nine days. If the first batch
of eggs is taken away, she will lay a second ;
so that, by having a hen turkey as foster-nurse,
two broods in one summer may be obtained.
The pea- hen generally chooses a very retired
spot, quite out of the way of the peacock,
M-hich is often a cruel, uni.iitural father.

The young of this breed must be tended like
Guinea fowl and young turkeys ; and without
they are abundantly and regularly fed, they
are apt to wander. "When fat, and hung long
enough, they make a delicious and enviable
roast. They should be larded over with slices
of fat bacon; the head and neck, with the
feathers on, carefully wrapped in paper, and
tucked under the wing, away from the fire ;
and, when ready, set up in purple glory, to
match the tail adorned with feathers, neatly
stuck in at the last moment.

THE PHEASANT.

We have already treated of the Pheasant
in the division on "The Gun;" but here it is
necessary to say a few words upon it, in what
may be called its domesticated state.

To hatch the eggs of this beautiful bird, a

Haiitaiii hen is the boat. The young oriea
Hlu.uld b(.' left with her for twenty-f(»ur houra
after being hatched, without being disturbed ;
and then they ahould bo fed every hour with
hard-boiled eggs, bread and milk, bread crumbs,
young nettles, or lettuces, chup|)ed fine, and
eggs from ants' nests. They Hhuuld bo kept
in a dry, warm place, and be allowed plenty of
lino soft sand. A piece of meat may bo put
in a convenient spot, and kejit there till it bo-
eoiuea lly-blown, when tho maggots, thereby
generated, should be given them every day.
When moulting, supply them with a little
boiled rice. The vessels in which they aro fed
must be kept quite clean; and as they aro sub-
ject to various diseases, alum-curd, made by
boiling new milk with a lump of alum, until
it is of the consistence of custard, may bo
given them. If vent-bound, clip ofl' the vent
feathers carefully, and apply some sweet oil to
the part.

Although we havo recommended a Bantam
hen for a sitter, there are many circumstances
under which it may be found necessary
to hatch and rear young pheasants by means
of common hens. In Stonehenge's Manual
of British Sural Sports, the author says —
" The old hen of each hive < :• nide is
always anxious, if alive, to retain her old nest,
and to drive the young hens away from her
neighbourhood. If the keeper is not on his
guard, the hens stray far oflf his beat; but
if watchful, he can easily detect the nest
of almost every pheasant. If the eggs are
likely to be taken, he may then, and then
only, as soon as the hen has laid her full
number, remove them." Hen pheasants will
spread themselves abroad, and no art will keep
them closer together than they like ; but the
above plan may save a great many 'ggs.
There are many situations in which nests
should be disturbed, if found early enough, or
the eggs taken if found late : for instance, in
situations likely to be flooded ; in ditches or
hollow water-ways, or in clover-fields or
vetches which will be mowed over before tho
time of hatching."

As the hen pheasant never rears her full
number of chicks, five or six eggs should be
removed from every nest which is found. A
moderate-sized hen will cover thirteen egga.
She should be set in a box without a bottom,

S71

THE PHEASANT.J

POULTET.

[THB DOMESTIC DUCF

SO that the nest shall be on the ground;
and the box should have a lid, that the hen
may be shut in. The boxes should be eighteen
inches high, and perforated, to admit of venti-
lation. The hens must be let off to feed, and
shut up again. Boxes are only necessary where
a number of hens are set together. When
the hens have sat for five or six days, the eggs
may be tried, and all which are not good, re-
moved, making up each hen's nest, and giving
fresh eggs to those that may be left without
any.

After the pheasants have been batched
about ten hours, the hen should be put under
a coop, solid all round, except two bars in
front, just wide enough to allow the poults to
run in and out. In other respects it is the
same as a common rip for ben and chickens.
This should be placed on the grass, on a
sunny spot, with a west or south-west aspect.
While the chicks are quite young, a run
should be made for them, by three boards a
foot and a-hali wide, to be supported by pegs
driven in the ground, to fence in a square
piece before the coop. This piece to be made
safe by a network covering.

If the chicks are strong at the end of a
week, the little inclosure may be removed, and
they may run at large. When the chicks are
a month old, some breeders recommend that
the hen should be tethered by day, and placed
in the coop again at night. A constant sup-
ply of ilean water is very important.

The greatest difficulty is to hatch the eggs,
for t'ley are very easily spoiled by being
shaken. In the early days of sitting, the
embryo chick is so delicate, that a very slight
blow or shock destroys life, and the egg be-
comes addled. If a hen can be reckoned on,
it is far better to wait till within a week of
the time of hatching, as the eggs will bear
removal very well at that time, if placed in a
basket full of warm, dry wool. In this way
we have known eggs removed more than
twenty miles, and afterwards nearly all
hatched.

I'or a coop, some make a box, nearly three
feet long, two feet wide, and two feet high in
front, sloping off to one foot high at the
buck, and give it a boarded floor. This box
has a lath front, with intervals to allow the
young birds to pass out. This is the coop for
872

the hen ; but the young birds ought to have-
a further space of about two yards square to
run in, fenced off by some means. In rearing
young pheasants and partridges, success is
more likely to crown our care in a walled
garden, as they are then almost safe from the
attacks of the weasel, stoat, or rat. If this
cannot be procured, we should be careful to
select a good aspect, sheltered from the east
and north, and open to the morning sun. It
should not be exposed to the incursions of
poultry. For food, ants' eggs are the best,
if they can be got in sufficient quantities ;
or maggots, scoured by keeping them twenty-
four hours in bran. Mix oatmeal and eggs
together carefully ; tie them up in a cloth ; boil
them until hard-; and this, broken up, makes
excellent food. When the young ones are a
fortnight or three weeks old, soaked bread, or
bruised barley soaked, may be given, and, soon
afterwards, whole barley ; but ants' eggs and
maggots should be continued even until the
birds are turned into the woods. The feeding
recommended by some is — first, hard-boiled
eggs chopped fine, crumbs of bread soaked in
milk, curd pressed iu a cloth until dry, and
ants' eggs ; afterwards, dough, of oatmeal and
water. This mu^o not be thrown down
to them, but they must be fed with little balls
of it as long as they will eat, Tor change, give
barley and wheat.

THE DOMESTIC DUCK.
In keeping ducks, one of the first considera-
tions to be attended to is, to see that they
have plenty of water; for, although a small
quantity of this will suffice for them, still, to
have it always in such a situation as will admit
of easy access to it, is one of the most essen-
tial points of duck-keeping. As the flesh of
this land of fowl always, more or less, partakes
of the flavour of the food upon which the
bird has been fed and fattened, it should be
confined, at least, for not less than a week
before it is killed, and put upon a more choice
kind of food than the duck will feed upon
when left entirely to provide for itself. This
bird is by no means very particular as to
what it eats ; whilst its capacity of gorman-
d'ising is, where opportunities offer, carried to
an enormous extent. We have seen some ot
them admitted into a field to follow the plough

THE DOMESTIC DUCK.]

POULTRY.

[the call duck.

while at work, when they have bo stuflVd thom-
selves with the exhumed worms, that they have
actually been unable to rise after lyin-^ down.
For tlio purpose of fattenin£», and brint^iiig
their tlosh to a good flavour just before killing,
boiled potatoes are excellent, and, if mixed
with a little grain, the feeding is greatly im-
])roved. Imlian meal is also good, although,
at iir.st, it should be given sparingly. If ducka
are allowed to enter a garden, they will not do
much harm, while they will help greatly to
free it from slugs and insects ; but, as they are
rather ungainly walkers, and by no means
remarkable for any extraordinary beauty of
plumage, we, ourselves, would rather put up
with a i'ew extra slugs in our flower-beds, than
permit a few of these unhandsome creatures
to walk over them at their pleasure. Ducks
lay a large number of eggs ; and we have
heard of the case of one laying upwards of
eighty in succession. This is prodigious ; and
when we consider that three duck-eggs are,
in culinary estimation, of the value of six hen-
e"f^s, a bird possessed of such prolific powers
is not, even in a commercial point of view, to
be lightly estimated. It is mostly by night, and
not by day, that the duck lays ; and while pro-
ducing, she requires a greater degree of at-
tention than the hen, until she has acquired
the habit of resorting to a regular nest.
"When she has done this, attention is no longer
necessary. In hatching, the eggs require
thirty-one days ; and after the ducklings have
come forth, they should have, for their first
food, boiled eggs, nettles, and a little barley.
For the first day or two they should be kept
from water ; but after they have seen the light
for a few days, they may, with the greatest
safety, be left to shift for themselves. The
drake should have from four to six females, as
he does not pair like the wild duck. Of the
domestic duck there are many varieties ; the
white having a preference by some over all
the rest. Of this variety, the Aylesbury is
the favourite. It is very easily tamed ; and, in
Buckinghamshire, it lives with tiie cottager in
a state of domestic familiarity, similar to that
which characterises the sociable qualities of
the pig in the cabin of the sister isle. In this
county, many of the cottagers add to their
little incomes by rearing the Aylesbury duck
for the market; and the interior of the cot-
5 X

tagerfl' dwellings Bomotimes presents a singular
appearance to the eye of the Htranger. They
are 8up[)lied with boxes and pens, ranged
round the walls, for the purpose of protecting
the early broods, which may be said to bo
brought up by hand. Tins duck ia a large,
handsome bird, with unspotted plumage, yellow
legs and feet, and flesh-coloured bill. It is a
most assiduous mother, and very productive.

Until the introduction of the Khone, or
liohan duck, which is very prulilic, and lays
largo eggs, the Aylesbury variety was held to
bo the most valuable of all the species. The
latter, however, still fairly divides the honour
with the former, and is by some regarded as
superior. Its flesh is of a most delicate flavour,
being by many compared to that of the chicken ;
but it is said, that a cross between it and the
Khone is superior in flavour to all others.

In France, ducks are both excellent and
abundant, especially in Languedoc and Nor-
mandy, where duck-liver pies are considered a
great delicacy.

THE MUSCOVY, OR MUSK DUCK.
This bird does not, as some suppose, take
its name from having been imported from that
country, but from t\\Q flavour of its flesh. It
is easily distinguished by a red membrane sur-
rounding the eyes, and covering the cheeks ;
and the Mush name, by which it is distin-
guished, is both a contraction and a corruption
of the term Muscovy. It is a distinct species
from the common duck ; and the hybrid race
will, therefore, not breed again between them-
selves. They are, however, capable of doing
so with either of the species, from the com-
mixture of which they spruug.

THE BLACK EAST INDIA DUCK.
This species of duck is all black, except the
bill, whicli is deeply tinged with a rich green.
When floating on the bosom of a pond, mingled
with the pure white Aylesburys, they present
a beautiful contrast. The varieties of water-
fowl may, perhaps, be as well studied in the
inclosuro of St. James's Park, Loudou, as auy-
where else.

THE CALL DUCK.

Thisi3thci?(7«/«;«ofitsrace,u3uallycoloured
like the wild mallard, but often ichite — a colour

873

CAPONISING."]

POITLTEY.

[toflouse goose.

preferred by fowlers, who use it in the decoys,
on account of its being so easily distinguished
from the others. These birds are a AViltshire
breed, with compact and elegantly rounded
crests, and are very handsome.

CAPONISING.

The practice of converting fowls into capons
has been long followed by the Chinese ; but
it does not appear to have been early practised
in Europe. Some years ago the Erench began
to use it extensively ; and now, both on the
male and female fowl, the practice is quite
common. The object proposed in making a
cock a capon is the taming of his natural
fierceness, so as to render him of a more placa-
ble disposition ; and assuredly it has this effect.
His pugnacity entirely deserts him. He no
longer seeks the company of the hens ; he
grows to a far larger size than he otherwise
would have done ; acquires flesh with far greater
rapidity ; and that flesh is peculiarly white, firm,
and succulent. Even the fat is perfectly
destitute of rankness. The process which
efiects this singular metamorphosis in the dis-
position of the bird is extremely simple, and
one which the rural hen-wives of France per-
form with facility and certainty. The practice
of these is to select the close of the spring, or
the beginning of autumn, as well as fine
weather, for operating upon their fowls. The
parts necessary to be removed being fixed in
the abdomen, and attached to the spine at the
region of the loins, it is necessary that the
abdominal cavity should be opened for the
purpose of their extraction. The bird should
be healthy, fasting, and about three months
old. He must then be secured by an assis-
tant, laid upon hie back, with his belly up-
wards, and his head down, that the intestines,
&c., may fall up towards the breast ; the tail is
turned towards the operator. The right leg
is then carried along the body, and the left
brought backwards, and held in this position,
so as to leave the left flank perfectly bare.
Here the incision is to be made ; and this is
to be directed, from before, backwards, trans-
versely to the length of the body, at the
middle of the flank, and slightly to the side,
between the ends of the breast-boue and the
vent. Having plucked away the feathers from
the space where the cut is to be made, a fine-
874

tempered pen-knife is taken, and the skin,
abdominal muscles, and peritoneum incised.
This is best done by two or more cuts, in
order to avoid the possibility of wounding the
intestines — a casualty which would, in most
cases, be attended with fatal results. The in-
testines will then present themselves at the
orifice ; but they must not be allowed to pro-
trude. On the contrary, they must be pressed
gently aside, so as to leave room for action.
The incision should be sufficiently large to
admit the fore-finger, previously well-oiled, to
pass into the abdomen, and to be carried
carefully towards the lumbar region of the
spine. There will be found what is wanted.
You first reach the left substance, which is to
be detached with the nail, or with the finger
bent book- fashion. The right is treated
similarly. Bring both substances forth, and
return the intestines ; sew up the wound with
a silk thread — a very few stitches will suflace —
and smear the place with a little fresh butten
Some , persons recommend the amputation of
the comb, close to the skull of the newly-made
capon ; but this is an unnecessary piece of
torture ; though, of late years, it has been ex-
clusively adopted on the continent : the pro-
posed object of this amputation being to in-
sure the recognition of the capon among his
co-mates of the poultry-yard.

DOMESTIC GEESE.

Amongst the varieties of our common do-
mestic goose, there is one which has, not a
great number of years, been introduced to our
island ; and which, from its great size and
capacity of carrying flesh, has taken a very high
place in the estimation of the breeder. This
bird is designated —

THE TOULOUSE GOOSE.

Originally, this fowl was imported from the
Mediterranean by the Earl of Derby, and is
known indiscriminately by the names of Medi-
terranean, Pyrenean, and Toulouse. It is
principally remarkable for its vast size, being
perfectly gigantic, and therefore to be regarded
as a most valuable addition to the poultry-
yards of Great Britain. Its prevailing colour
is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, and
occasionally relieved with black. The head
and neck, down to the beginning of the breast,

THE OniNESB Q003E.]

POULTET.

[the ciiikese aooss.

aud the back of the neck as far as tlio
bliouKlera, are of a dark brown ; tho breast ia
slaty blue, and the belly and uiider-surface of
the tail arc grey. Tlio bill is oraii<^e-red, and
tho feet are llesli colour. This bird is sup-
posed to bo the unmixed and itnmediato de-
scendant of tho grey-lag. In its habits it
resembles its congeners, but appears to possess
a milder and more easy disposition. Of its
other peculiarities, it may be remarked, tiiat
the curl of plumage on the neck cornea closer
to the head tlian in the common goose, aud
that the abdominal pouch, which, in other
varieties, is attendant only upon age, exists in
these birds from the shell. The white Irish
goose is fully larger than the Toulouse.

THE CHINESE GOOSE.

A Ci/gnoides. — Of the Chinese goose there
are three sub-varieties, each presenting strik-
ing points of difference, and yet sufficiently
alike to justify their being classed together.
These are — The Hong-Kong, which has a
large horny knob on the bill and forehead.
Its prevailing colour is grey, with a longi-
tudinal stripe, of a deep brown, running
above the back of the neck. The legs are of
a red colour, whence it is sometimes dis-
tinguished as the "Red-legged China goose;"
and has long been known amongst us as the
" Poland goose." The Black-legged Chinese
Goose. — Also knobbed, and usually with a
white edging round the hnoh, somewhat similar
to that of the wild breed called the " AVhite-
frouted goose." The White Chinese Goose. —
A very handsome bird, knobbed like the rest,
of snow-white colour, and with legs of a bright
orange-red. These geese are all smaller than
the Toulouse; but they are, nevertheless, very
fine birds. The white variety, especially, with
red legs, is very beautiful, and forms an appro-
priate ornament on a piece of water. The
flesh is also good, and they feed well, fatten
easily, aud are very prolific. Of our ordinary
domestic geese there exist but two sorts, the
only distinction of which seems to rest in their
relative size. They are divided into the large
and small ; and by some, according to their
colour, into the ivhite and the grey. These di-
visions are, to a certain extent, arbitrary ; as
out of one clutch, several varieties, both as to
size and colour, will generally be found. The

best sorts of geeso, however, are those which
vary least in colour. Those approaching most
nearly to tho [)riinitivo stock, are the birds
which every good judge will prefer breeding
from. Grey is tho best colour, as coming
nearest to tho original groy-lag: white is not
quite 80 good ; but mixed colours are not so
prolific, and the young are more difficult to feed
up to tho required standard. Markhaiii says*
" the largest is the best; and the colour should
be white or grey, all of one paire ; for pycd geese
are not so comfortable, and black are worse."

In reference to mating the gander, it ia
observed by Mr. Richardson, " that this en-
tirely depends upon the object which tho
breeder has in view. If eggs are wanted, one
gander is plenty for six or even eight geese;
or he may abandon the unnecessary trouble of
keeping a male at all, and only occasionally
send his geese to his neighbour's. It so hap-
pens, however, that keeping geese for the pro-
duce of their eggs alone is not profitable; and
hence these must be rendered duly fertile. To
effect this, one gander to a large number of
geese will not answer. For the purpose of
hatching, a gander should bo mated with, at
most, four geese. If of the ordinary kind,
amongst which colour varies, he should bo of a
pure white, or ash-grey colour ; but not at all
of two colours. His dimensions should be
large, his gait active, his eyes lively and clear,
his voice ever ready and hoarse, and his de-
meanour full of boldness. The goose should
be chosen for her tceight of body, steadiness of
deportment, and breadth of foot — a quality
which indicates the presence of other excel-
lences. In one season the goose lays from ten
to twenty eggs; and, should she noc be desired
to sit, by removing the eggs as fast as she lays
them, and at the same time feeding her highly,
she may be induced to continue laying to the
number of forty-five, or even fifty. This is,
however, unusual, as well as unprofitable.
When tolerably well looked after, geese may
be made to lay, and even hatch, three times in
the year. "When this is desired, the plan to
pursue is only to feed highly, and house them
well, and early in the spring, so as to have
the first brood soon in March ; but we would
rather have two good clutches reared than
three bad ones ; and therefore recommend pa-
tience aud moderation."

875

CHIlfESE GOOSE. J

POULTEY.

The goose will begin to lay about the latter
end of February, or the beginning of March.
The commencement of her laying may be
readily discovered, by noticing her running
from one place to another, carrying straws iu
her mouth. This is for the purpose of forming
a nest, when she should be watched, lest she
drop her eggs where they cannot be found.
On this account Mascall recommends trying
the geese manually over-night, and confining
such as are ready to lay. When a goose is
shut up, and lays her first eg^ in any particular
nest, no further trouble need be taken with
her, for she will continue to lay in that spot,
and will not be likely to stray elsewhere.

When the inclination to hatch discovers
itself, the nest should be made of straw, with
a little hay as a lining, and should be so
formed that the goose will not throw the eggs
over the side when in the act of turning them.
There is no necessity for banishing the gander.
On the contrary, he may be suifered to remain
as near the nest as he chooses, and he will act
the part of a guardian. Fifteen eggs will be
found sufficient for a fair-sized goose to pro-
perly cover ; and they should not be touched
during incubation, or the goose interfered
with. As she is heavier than the hen, her
food and drink should be left rather nearer to
her than is necessary with common poultry,
because, if she chance to absent herself from
her eggs so long as to allow them to get cool,
she may abandon the process of incubation
altogether. It is, however, not necessary to
mix either vinegar or pepper with her food or
water, as some recommend, or in any way to
meddle with her. The necessary period of in-
cubation is one month ; but the early-hatched
goslings must be removed, lest the more tardy
be deserted. About the twenty-ninth day
these begin to chip the shell ; and, should their
own capabilities prove inadequate to their
liberation, aid should be rendered them. The
Eggs should all, as nearly as possible, be of
equal freshness, that they may be hatched at
one time. On the appearance of the goslings
they should be turned out into a sunny walk,
if the weather will permit ; but they should
not be made to feed for twelve hours, at least,
after leaving the shell. Their food may then
be bread soaked in milk, boiled greens, curds,
porridge, or even bran, mixed with boiled
876

[CHINESE GOOSE.

potatoes; and care must be taken that th&
food is not given in too hot or too cold a state.
Avoid exposing them to rain or cold breezes ;
and be particularly careful that the walk into
which they are turned is sheltered both from
wind and weather. The goslings should also
be kept from water for at least two days after
hatching, lest they become afiectedwith cramp
— a disease which frequently proves fatal to
them.

Geese should be confined as little as pos-
sible, and should be kept in an inclosed yard,
sufficiently large to admit of their having
plenty of room for walking about ; and if there
is a common in close proximity, they should
be allowed to stroll about and shift for them-
selves. This will considerably lighten the
expense of keeping them. They require water,
and cannot be advantageously kept when
they are deprived of it ; still, however, they
may thrive without having access to any pond
or river, if they have only a small artificial
pool in which they may bathe themselves.
When geese are within range of water,
and suffered to roam at large, they usually
discover it, and afterwards daily resort to it.
Though they are so fond of water, their sleep-
ing-places must be kept perfectly free from
damp. Grass is as necessary to them as
water; and the rankest, coarsest kind, such as
cattle reject, constitutes their delicacy. Such
grasses as they prefer will be found on swampy
lands, of which, perhaps, no more profitable
use could be made. The stubble-field is, when
it can be obtained, also an excellent walk for
geese ; for they not only find the young grass
and herbage springing up amongst the stubble,
but likewise pick up much corn that would
otherwise be lost

Goslings, produced in June or July, will
fatten without other food than such as the
stubble-field may yield, as soon as they are
ready to consume it ; but if required to be
brought up by a given time, potatoes, tur-
nips, or other roots, bruised with meal,
should be given at least once daily. The
goose is very voracious, and only requires to
get plenty to eat in order to accumulate fat.
Geese, fed principally on grass and corn, dO'
not, perhaps, attain the same bulk with such as
are crammed ; but their fat is much sweeter,
and they are altogether much more desirable-

STRASBITRa GEESE. J

POULTRY.

[btbabburo geese.

for the table. Early geeso require l»ome-
feediiig, as they have no atubble-tielda. Loudon
feeders, therefore, when they receive goslings
from the country, about Mareli or April, feed
them first with meal from the best barley or
oats, made into a liquid paste, and »ubse(juently
with corn, to give greater lirmuesa and con-
sistence to their fat.

Geese are fattened in large numbers in some
places of the European continent. This is
especially the case in the neighbourhood of
Strasburg — a place celebrated for its pies.
There geese have a shepherd to tend them as
sheep have. The birds arc reared by the
peasantry, every one of whom is possessed of
some stock of these valuable fowls ; and the
shepherd, every morning, wakes the echoes of
the village by the sound of a trumpet, with
which he assembles his feathered Hock, which,
in the company of a herd of pigs, repairs to
pasture on the common devoted to that pur-
pose. In the evening, the shepherd leads back
his tlock ; but, before they arrive at the village,
almost all the geese take flight, rise above the
roofs, and settle down in their respective
homes. They flap their wings, cross, and fly
against each other in the air, uttering a cry
not unlike the note of a hoarse trumpet, and
presenting an animated scene to the delighted
villagers.

Towards autumn the peasants carry to town
their finest birds, and occupy a place in the
market, which is so large as to furnish a very
great number with plenty of accommodation.
One hundred and fifty thousand geese annually
pass through the market of Strasburg. The
woman who fattens them is acquainted with
those peasants who come from where the best
geese are produced. She fingers the bird to
assure herself that the body is well formed ;
examines the foot and beak, to determine its
age ; then makes her bargain, and carries home
her purchase. When she returns, she places
the goose in a separate compartment, and feeds
it with marsh-beans. As soon as it is considered
sufficiently strong to undergo the process of
fattening, this is begun. The pupil passes into
a higher class, and is fed with maize, steeped
in salt water. Erom this time the feeding is
regular and forced. It is admitted, now-a-days,
that geese ought to be fattened without exer-
cise ; therefore they are packed, about thirty

together, in a stable, and, during the last eight
days of tho fattening, they are placed in a cago
open at the top. It is tho skill of the trainer,
in this latter period, that determines tho suc-
cess of tho operation ; and as it is nece»sary to
kill the bird just at tho time when tlio liver
will remain white and firm — night and day
must this favourable moment bo watciied for.
Tiie following is the manner in wliich tho fat-
tening process is carried on : — Tiie feeder places
tho gooso between her knees, and holds tl.o
wings fast, whilst the feet are left free. With
one hand she holds the beak open ; with the
other she drops tho grains of maize into the
throat, and pushi's them homo with her fore-
finger. This operation is gone through regu-
larly thrice a-day. One woman alone cannot
cram more than twelve geese an iiour. Au
estimate of tlie labour may be made i'rom the
fact, that 200 geese are often trained by the
same feeder. The bird being killed, plucked,
and disjointed, the feeder hangs it up in an
airy place ; and not until twenty-four hours
have elapsed can she judge of the condition of
her treasure. She then takes down the bird,
and carefully efl'ects the extraction of the
much-esteemed liver, which is immediately
taken to the pie-makers, who make of it the
well-known pies. Matthieu, the cook of Car-
dinal de Rohan, was the first who suggested
the use of the liver of the goose for pies. Suc-
cess crowned his efibrts ; and from that period
the fattening of geese became a trade. It is
by the feeding of geese, that the wife of the
mechanic, who is deprived of work in the win-
ter-time, supports her family. Other women,
who have a little capital, carry on feeding on a
larger scale. The business is a very arduous
one. The woman has to rise two or three times
in the night, and inspect her stock ; geese, dur-
ing the latter period of their feeding, being sub-
I ject to apoplexy. This dreadful watch-woman
{ marches about with a sharp knife, to cut the
I throat of the first which shows symptoms of
sufibcation. Every goose that dies against
rules, occasions to its owner a clear loss of
more than 65., besides labour and time. A
goose costs from 2^. Gd. to '3s. in the market ;
and, on an average, it consumes, in food, about
2s. (id. Killed in good condition, it ought to
weigh from 6 to 7 lbs., and is worth about Gd.
per lb. It yields, besides, 1 lb. of fat, worth

877

POULTEr-HOUSES.]

POULTEY.

[POULTET-HOUSBS.

about lO^d. ; the ofFal fetches Sd. ; the feathers
and down about Is. 2d. ; making a total of
5*. 8d. All the profit, consequently, is derived
from the liver, which is sold, according to its
size and quality, from 2s. 6d. to 4s. Qd. The
value of the liver is said to depend, like beer,
chiefly on the quality of the water.

POULTRY.HOUSES.

Previous to the laying-in of a stock of poultry,
a house must be made ready for their reception,
or more harm may be inflicted on them than
will ever be repaired, by setting them to roost
in a cold place, or cooping them up in what
may be called little better than a hole, where
the heat of their bodies engenders an atmo-
sphere at once deleterious and destructive.
A poultry-house may easily be erected, and
at very little cost. In nine cases out of
ten, some outhouse, without preparation or
alteration, is appropriated to the poultry ; but,
if consistent with the owner's means and posi-
tion, a proper house should be constructed.
If this be done, a piece of gravelly soil,
well drained on a slight declivity, near trees
which will afford shade from the sun, and
shelter from winds, should be chosen. The
building must be sufficiently high to admit
the poultry-keeper without stooping, and the
roof should be kept weather-tight. Thatch is
■warm and ornamental, but apt to brued vermin.
If, therefore, slates or tiles are employed, the
house should be ceiled, in order to protect the
fowls from draughts and sudden changes of
temperature. In the absence of lath and
plaster, a piece of patent asphalted felt, closely
nailed, forms both a cheap and efficient pro-
tection.

The best perch is made in the shape of a
broad double ladder, and in such a way as to
form a wide angle — the bars being placed so far
apart, that one fowl shall not overhang another.
If roosting-bars are so placed as to run across
the fowl-house, care should be taken that a
convenient hen-ladder is attached to them, and
that they are not placed too high. Perches,
if lofty, and unaccompanied with a ladder,
are dangerous to the heavier fowls, as they fre-
quently break their breast- bones in descending
by flight from them. After the fowls have
taken up their roosting-places for the night,
the poultry-keeper should see that they are all
878

comfortable, and not too crowded, with sufficient
room for the weak ones to remove themselves
from the strong, which are apt to peck them.
The floor must be sound, dry, and strewed
with fine gravel or sand, and it should be swept
clean every day. Nothing injures the health
of fowls more than bad smells, A basket of
slaked lime or cold mortar ought always to be
kept in a corner, with a shovel, so that it may
be shaken over any droppings. For the same
reason, the interior wal'ls should be frequently
whitewashed, and the window opened in fine
weather. The door should have a hole at the
bottom, with a sliding panel to admit the
poultry during the day ; and if there are no
windows, movable loose boards, fitted to the
door, may be useful to admit air. As warmth
is very requisite to poultry, one side of the
poultry-house, if it can be done, might stand
against the outside wall of a kitchen or boiler-
house ; or a hot-water pipe, running through
it from the hot-house, will well repay the out-
lay. With a sweet, warm, clean poultry-house,
a good supply of eggs may be expected as the
result.

lu reference to the nests, the great object
should be to have them near the ground, that
they may be easily cleaned, and of moderate size.
If they are too large, two fowls will often try
to sit in one nest at the same time ; and
if tliere is any difficulty in getting at them,
hens are apt to drop their eggs on the ground.
Nests may be made of wood, uuglazed earthen-
ware, or basket-work. If of the first, there
should be a small ledge to prevent the eggs
from rolling out. A little old mortar, or wood«
ashes laid at the bottom, will tend to keep the
nests clean. Straw and heather both make
good lining for nests ; but the latter must be
cut into short lengths. Should the ne-*ts be
arranged in two storeys, there ought to be a
broad ledge, sufficiently wide for a hen to walk
on, in front of the top row, and a hen-ladder
should be placed at each end; but nests are
better on the ground. It is of some advantage
to have fowls that are sitting placed in a retired
situation, where they will not be annoyed by
the others, and where, when the hatch takes
place, they can be cooped with their young,
out of danger, vrith a dry yard, or close-
cropped lawn in front to run on. Many
hens, as well as pea- fowl and turkeys, are

POULTRY-ITOUSKS.]

POULTJiV

[POLLTUV-HUUSES.

Vicious, and will try to destroy a rival brood.
A small brick hutch, about a yard square,
with a hard dry lloor, and a movable woodou
top, is excellent as a titling- rootn for hens.
Before a fowl is put to sit, the nest should
be made perfeelly clean ; for if the hen
becomes infested with vermin, she [)inc3,
and cannot sit close. Should tho stock
comprise more than ono breed of fowls, and
should the races be intended to bo prosi.'rvcd
pure, they must, as a matter of course, bo kept
separate.

""Where this is attempted," says Islv.
Eichardson, " an iucloauro adjoining tho poul-
try-house, with three divisions of iron wire, if
the space can bo spared, will bo found useful.
In these inclosures, in wet cold weather, the
poultry can be confined, with room to scratch
and feed. The largest division will be for
laying hens and turkeys, and miscellaneous
stock. In this space you can muster them,
accustom them to be fed, see that all are in
health, and make the close observations which
are needful for success. In the second, you
can place hens with young broods, before they
are strong enough to mis with the other fowls.
In the third, and smallest, you can keep poul-
try for fatting. If the accommodation is large
enough for them to enjoy the air without being
able to run about much, with shade, sun,
plenty of clean water and food, they will
generally thrive better than when cooped. A
few good coops, either of wood and wire, or
wicker, with the top thatched, should always
be at hand. These may be made so as to
shut up the chickens, if necessary, as well as
the hens. If the fowl-house is largo enough,
have a small hollow sunk in one corner where
there is light, and fill it with fine sand or
ashes, slaked lime, or burnt oyster-shells, as
a dust-bath for the fowls. If it is not, place
in the yard, under cover, a large glazed earth-
enware pan. By placing the dusting material
in a pan, it is easily changed from time to

time. If you are obliged to put up with :i
siuall loan-to, or other confined place, for your
fowl-houao, at any rate tako caro to keep it
clean ; for warmth, cleanliness, and judicious
feeding are tho cardinal muxim.s for poultry
management."

THE rOTTlKR'S POULTRY-HOUSE.
Under tho head of " Housing," wo have
already observed, that the bent mode of reaririLT
fowls, is tho old plan of allowing them to roost
on tho rafters of the room in which the cottier
keeps his fire. Owing to the warmth thus
afibrded during winter, when eggs are scarce,
and consequently at a high price, they are to
be obtained from tho humble cabin, when they
are not to be got from the less warm poultry-
house of the more affluent breeder. Let us
repeat, however, that should circumstances
render tho keeping of poultry in the cabin
unadvisablc, a comfortable house may bo
erected for them against the outside of the
cabin wall. If possible, tho part of the wall
against which the little hut is erected, should
be that opposite to the fire-place within. It"
shelter is required, it can be obtained by means
of a ievf bushes, or a wall of sods ; and the
neighbouring roads will servo as an ample walk ;
whilst the nearest stream will slake their thirst.
A few laying-nests may be placed in a warm
corner of the cabin. By such means as wo
have stated, the poultry of the poor cottior
will thrive as well, and yield as great a profit;,
as those kept in the best-appointed estab-
lishments in the kingdom. Indeed, we are
not certain that they will not thrive better;
simply because the artificial means adopted
to nourish and preserve them, is of a less
complicated kind than such as aro employed
by the more affluent. iS'ature is left much
more free to carry on lier own operations; and
' as she is usually the best nurse of the bird,
j she generally performs her duties with aa
. unerring certainty as to results,

879

DISEASES.]

POULTEY.

[diseases.

CHAPTER VI.

THE DISEASES OF FOWLS, AND THEIR TREATMENT.

As the poet Burns has affirmed that the best-
laid schemes of mice and men " gang aft ajee ;"
so may it, with equal certainty, be affirmed,
that the strongest, as well as the weakest
of animated beings, are the subjects of oc-
casional disease. From this penalty incident
to life, fowls are no more exempt than other
animals ; consequently, when the poultry-
keeper sees one of these beginning to droop,
or to fail in appetite, it is better, at once, to
have it dressed for the table. If, however, it
is of great value — perhaps a Spanish cock, worth
more than a sovereign — a trial to save its life
should be made.

The most common diseases to which fowls
are liable, are the following : —

ACCIDENTS.

When these show themselves in bruises,
loss of feathers, fractures, ulcers, &c., they
may, in most cases, be left to nature. When
bones are broken, however, the patient had
better be consigned to the cook ; but in less
severe cases of accident, common sense will
generally dictate the remedy.

ASTHMA.

This disease is accompanied by panting,
gaping, and difficulty of breathing, and is
usually caused by the sudden and frequent
change of weather which takes place in this
country. Poultry, having originally been
brought from warm climates, still inherit the
natural love for heat, transmitted to them by
their progenitors, and are, notwithstanding the
feathery covering with wliich nature has pro-
vided them, easily aflected by climatic in-
fluences ; and hence the colds, catarrhs, coughs,
and consumptions to which they are subject.
Eor asthma, the treatment recommended is
warmth, with small doses of hippo powder,
frequently repeated, and sulphur mixed with
butter.

CONSUMPTION.

This disease is pronounced incurable ; but
a change of air and warmth is recommended.

880

CORNS.
These may generally be extracted with the
point of a penknife. Should weight have
brought them to an ulcerated state, a little
lunar-caustic may be applied to them with
success

COSTIVENESS.
When this occurs, change the diet, and let
it be given more sparingly than usual. Thin
porridge is good. For a cure, give a little
castor-oil with burnt butter.

DIARRHCEA.

This disease is usually caused by damp and
improper food. Therefore change the diet,
and have the fowl taken into a dry place.
Should the disease become very severe, ad-
minister chalk, and a little starch, mixed with
cayenne in porridge, and give it a little warm.

FEVER.
In all febrile affections to wliich fowls ar
frequently subject, give castor-oil, with a little
burnt butter. Also, let the birds have a
change of air, if possible, with light food, and
not much of it.

GOUT.

Administer pellets of colchicum.
may also be found useful.

Sulphur

INDIGESTION.

This is caused by over-feeding and want of
exercise. Administer powdered gentian and
cayenne in the food, of which the usual quan-
tity should be lessened. With this regimen
let the fowls have an open walk to run in.

INFLAMMATION OF THE TRACHEiE.
The disease to which this term is improperly
applied, is an inflammation of the tail-gland.
The symptoms are — difficulty of breathing,
dimness of sight, constant gaping, and total
loss of sight ; a discharge from the nostrils,
that gradually becomes purulent and foetid;

INFLAMMATIONS.]

POULTllY.

[iNFL.VMMATIOSS.

nlso loss of appetite ; but tliirst remaitis, to the
most aj^L;ravated I'xtoiit. Someliinea tliis
disease appears to occur iiulepeudeutly of any
obvious cause; but dirt, too hot feeding, and
want of exercise, are anionv,'st tl»o most usual.
Tiio remedies reeommi'iided are various.
^Ir. -Martin prescribes one grain of calomel,
made up with bread into a pill ; or, if preferred,
two or three grains of Plummer'a pills (pilJij/dr.
Siib/nur. co., Lond. Fharm.) ; alter which let
il iwer of sulphur be administered, to which add
a little ginger, with mixed barley-meal reduced
to a paste, and the mouth well washed in a weak
solution of chloride of lime. lu the mean-
time, let the bird bo kept in a dry, warm, well-
ventilated apartment, separate from the other
tow Is. AVhen the bird dies of this disease, the
trachea will be found swarming with narrow
worms about half an inch in length, imbedded
in slimy mucus. The worms are the distoina
lineare — a long and short body united ; the
lor.g body being the female, the short the male.
Tiiey are permanently united ; otherwise they
are quite perfect in themselves. Mr. Martin
is uncertain whether these worms are the
cause or consequence of the disease ; but it is
certain that when they have once established
themselves, their removal is necessary to give
the bird a chance of recovery. This is sometimes
done by means of a feather, neatly trimmed,
and introduced into the windpipe. It is there

given every morning. If tho discharge should
become fcutid, tlie mouth, nostrils, and eyes
may bo bathed with a weak solution, coin-
posed of equal part^ of chloride of lime
and acetate of load. Fomentation with aa
infusion of cainomilo flowers is al»o highly
beneficial. Tho other affection — that impro-
perly passed under this name, viz., swelling
of tho tail-gland — may be treated as a boil.
If it become inconveniently hard and ripr, let
the J} us or mailer out with a penknile, and it
will soon get well.

Mr. Tegetmcier first announced, in his
writings, the elTieacy of certain local applicx-
tions, in some stages of roup ; and a person of
the name of Homer, wo think, first gave the
solution of copaiba. This was administered
through a quill : for where so given, it becomes,
to a certain extent, a local application also ; in-
asmuch as the fowl usually makes a coughing
or a sneezing effort after it is given. The
caustic potash, spirit, &c., used in forming the
solution, seems to increase its efficacy as a
local agent. Tor this purpose, Fauk's solution
of copaiba is as good as any. It is readily given
by means of a quill ; which should be shaped
like a blunt-pointed pen, or rather a scoop, for
the facility of pouring the solution into it.
The plume, or top of the quill, should then be
cut off", leaving a circular aperture. On this
end the fore-finger should be placed ; the

turned round once or twice, and then, drawn solution poured in at the scoop end, and well
out. This will dislodge some of the worms if inserted in the bird's mouth above the tongue,
dexterously performed, and with some know- The fore-finger should then be raised from the
jL'dge of the anatomy of the parts. A cock, in other end, when the contents of the quill
the last stage of roup, was cured by washing quickly flow into the fowl's throat. As all arc
its mouth and nostrils with soap and warm not equally informed, we shall be pardoned
water; its eyes with warm milk and water; ' for stating, that there is a difference between
and the internal application of pellets, consist- balsam of copaiba and solution of copaiba ;
ing of " barley-meal and flour (equal parts), the latter being, in some respects, weaker, as it
with mustard and grated ginger (equal parts), is prepared from the former. But the ingre-
and half the above." Its drink consisted of I dients used in preparing the solution are, them-
lukewarra water sweetened with treacle. An ' selves, of efficacy, especially from their local
acquaintance of the Kev. Mr. Dixon gave action. But we must warn fowl-keepers not to
spirit; of turpentine in rice, and afterwards a expect that catarrh or roup in fowls is now to

little salt in the water given them ; he thus
saved sixteen out of twenty chickens attacked
with this disease. Mr. Kichardsou's treat-
ment is, for pellets — Powdered gentian, one
part ; powdered ginger, one part ; Epsom
salts, one-and-a-half part ; flower of sulphur,
one-half part; marlo up with butter, and
.") u

be " cured in one minute," as some peripatetic
" doctors" vouch for the tooth-ache. These
diseases seem often to be as depressing and
lingering in fowls, as influenza or inflammatory
sore throat is with ourselves.

The treatment frequently found most speedy
and beneficial, is, first to give a dose of

b81

IXPLAMMATIOS^S.]

fOULTEY.

[PAEASITES.

powder jalap, made into a bolus, the size of a
filbert or nut. The dose may be repeated
twice or thrice every third day. Give a large
quilfull of the solution of copaiba every night ;
that is, about a teaspoonful. In bad cases, we
should give it night and morning, especially to
large fowls. When the eyelids are swollen
and gummed up, besmear them with an oint-
ment, made from half an ounce of spermaceti
and five drops of Goulard's extract. If this
cannot easily be procured, or is not at band, a
little softened tallow from a caudle, spread
on the eyelids, greatly prevents their being
gummed up. Such is good treatment. Every-
body knows that the birds should be kept
vrarm and dry; and we cannot too strongly
protest against all effluvia and want of atten-
tion to cleanliness and ventilation. Let it al-
ways be remembered, that when these are not
attended to, they are more frequently the
cause of vi'hat are usually termed colds, and
roupy attacks, than even cold and rain.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS
Is attended by quick breathing, with a rattle,
an audible dulness, disorder of plumage, va-
cancy in the eye, and general indisposition.
We know of no cure recommended for this
disease.

INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART.
A fatal disease among poultry, and only de-
tected by examination after death. The patient
appears to droop; refuses to eat, retires to roost,
and is found dead in the morning. In this
case, the peritoneal membrane exhibits indica-
tions of active inflammation. This complaint
is more peculiar to parrots, and caged birds of
that description.

INFLAMMATION OF THE MUCOUS

MEMBRANE.

This generally proceeds from aggravated

diarrhcea. Damp and improper food is the

cause of the disease. The remedy, to be sue-

cesaful, must be administered early! First, give

Q small quantity of castor- oil ; alterwards,' give

doses oZhydrargyriim mm creta {Land. Pharma-

co;;a?/«), with rhubarb and laudanum, as follows:

—Ilydr. cum creta, three grains ; rhubarb, two

or three grains ; laudanum, two, three, or four

S82

drops ; mixed in a teaspoonful of gruel and
given twice a-day.

MOULTING.
Moulting- ean hardly be called a disease,
but, as it takes place annually in birds, and is
very dangerous to young chickens, it is neces-
sary to notice it. With full-grown fowls,
warmth and shelter from the inclemency of the
weather, are usually sufficient to preserve then,
from any evil consequences, if fed with an extra
degree of nutritive and stimulating food.
This treatment is recommended, from the fact
of Nature causing the wild birds to moult at
the very season when they have food in great-
est plenty ; which may be safely taken as a sign
that good food is necessary to them at this
time. After the third year, the time of moult-
ing becomes later and later ; and in proportion
as this happens, so the degree of warmth
should be supplied. Two or three grains of
Cayenne made into a pill, with bread, may
be given them. Sometimes the feathers will
fall off fowls when they are not moulting,
which is caused by a cutaneous aflectiou simi-
lar to the mange in dogs. The treatment for
this disease is such as we have recommended
for animals so aflected, in the preceding divi-
sions of this work : and which are alteratives ;
such as sulphur and nitre, in the proportions
of one quarter each, mixed with fresh butter ; a
change of diet, cleanliness, and fresh air in ad-
dition to this, will generally be found suffi-
cient to effect the cure. Care should be taken
not to confound this infection with moulting.
The distinction is, that in the latter case, the
feathers are replaced by new ones as fast as
they are east ; in the former, this is not so, and
the animal becomes bald.

PARASITES IN FOWLS.
The insects which infest poultry are particu-
larly obnoxious, and the utmost possible clean-
liness, and frequent lime-washing and fumiga-
tion, are necessary to keep them away. Mr.
Eichardson says, that *' a correspondent of the
Agricultural Gazette, had a beautiful brood of
black Spanish chickens hatched. Taking one
in his hand on the second day, be was much
struck by observing on his poll five or six full-
sized lice {Goniocotes liolog aster'), evidently
caught from the mother. All the brood wore

PIP.]

POULTRY.

[ulcers.

Bimilarly affected. Some white precipitnto I lessens ; and tlio bird hIiows ita diatross by

powder, applied with a snudl c:unel-hair pencil,
was sprinkled over tliein,anil the day after the
parasites had disappeared ;" nor could ho dis-
cover ono during their after-growth. This
powder must bo used in very small quan-
tities.

Like the donics^lie fowl, tho peacock has also
its parasites in tho Qoniodes pulciornis.
" Alter the death of tho bird," says Mr.
Dennv, in the Monograph Annphtroniin Bri-
tannia, "the insect may be found congre-
gated m numbers about the base of tho beak
and crown of the head." This gentleman was
afterwards induced to examine all the genera
of domesticated birds ; and ho found on the
turkey, Lipeurus polyirapezius as a common
parasite: the Goniodcs stylifcr is also fre-
quently in the head, neck, and breast. Over
the domestic fowl he found three species of
parasitic Goniodes dissimilis, of rare occurrence.
Lipeurus variabilis preferring the primary and
second feathers of the wing, among the ribs of
which they move with great celerity. Menopon
pallidum he also found in great abundance ;
and, as a general rule, he observed, that when
two or more species frequented the same de-
scription of bird, each had its own locality.
The remedy in all cases is cleanliness (when
the fowls are over-infested), fumigation, and
a plentiful bath of clean, dry, and rough sand :
for the white precipitate powder, named
above, is poisonous, and only fit to be used
on very young birds, which have not yet
learned the art of preening their feathers with
their bill.

riP.
This disease, to which young fowls are ex-
tremely subject, exhibits its symptoms in the
effected birds having a thickening of the mem-
brane of the tongue, especially towards its tip,
and, by-and-by, a gasping for breath, when the
beak will often be held open. The plumage
becomes ruffled and neglected, especially about
the head and neck. Tho appetite gradually

pining, moping, and seeking solitude and
darkness. Tlio cause of all thin is want of
clean water, and from feeding too much \ipon
hot fxcitinrj food. Dr. JJechslcin coiiHiders it
to bo analogous to tho injluenza of humaa
beings. In treating for it, mo.st writers
recommend tho immediate renjoval of tho
thickened membrane. Mr. Martin has 8Ug-
gi'sted that tho tongue be cleansed by apply-
m" a little borax, dissolved in tincture of
myrrh, by means of a camel-hair pencil, two
or three times a day. Mr. Jiichardson would
rather anoint tho part with fresh butter or
cream. Prick the scab with a needle, if you
like ; and give, internally, a pill about the sizo
of a marble, composed of equal parts of scraped
garlic and horseradish, with as much cayenne
pepper as will outweigh a grain of wheat.
Mix this with fresh butter, and give it every
morning — keeping the fowl warm. Keep the
bird supplied with fresh water; preserve it
from molestation, by confining it to itself, and
you will generally find it get well, if you have
taken the disease in time.

ULCERS.

These may be kept clean by being dressed
with a little lard, or washed with a weak
solution of sugar of lead, as they appear to
require it. If the ulcers seem sluggish, they
may be touched with bliiestone, in order to ac-
celerate their action, and bring them more
speedily to a healthy state.

Such are the principal diseases to which
poultry is subject ; and which, whenever they
make their appearance, should be attended to
with as great promptitude as those which
afflict animals of much higher value to man-
kind. If fowls are kept, they should have
every attention their condition requires. Hu-
manity, if not interest, demands this; and
it is very frequently the case, that precisely
in proportion to the attention given them,
their beauty ia developed, and their value
enhanced.

SS3

DIVISION VIII.

PEINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF MODERN ENGLISH FARMING.

CHAPTER I.

LINES OF COMMUNICATION ; NECESSITY OF LABOUR ; THE FECUNDITY OF WEEDS ; AGKICULTUTJAL
EDUCATION ; THE LITTLE SMITHFIKLD CLUB ; TURNIP CROPS ; THE ROTATION OF CROPS ; ARTHUR
YOUNG ; THE EARL OP LEICESTER ; ARTIFICIAL FATTENING.

LINES OF COMMUNICATION.

'• Of all inventions," says Lord Macaulay in
liis Sistory of England, " tlie alphabet and
the printing press excepted, those inventions
which abridge distance have done most for the
civilisation of our species." Every improve-
ment, he adds, of the means of locomotion,
benefits mankind morally and intellectually,
as well as materially. Of the truth of this
remark, every one who has, whether from plea-
sure, choice, or business, had to traverse the
primitive cutllngso^^ British colony in its semi-
iufautine state (as the present writer has had
to do), must be conscious. There, as a general
rule, there is nothing but difficulty to the
traveller. If his excursion is commenced in
love, he soon finds that it must be prosecuted
with toil ; and if he set out with the intention
of viewing the country, he discovers that he
must first see through the wall of an intermin-
able forest, the immediate trees of which
extend their branches over his head, and, for
the greater part of his journey, shade the
narrow way upon which he is proceeding,
even, in many instances, to the shutting out
of the light of the sun. He does not proceed
easily and gaily over the smooth and level
surface of a macadamised road, but over a
sort of mud swamp, hardened— when it may
happcu to he hard— by the broken and decay-
ing branches of the neighbouring trees ; pre-
senting no other sign of an approach to civili-
sation than that of its having been rudely cut
by the hand of man. It is evident that where
there are difficulties of this kind in the way of
communication between different parts of a
884

country, its progress must be slow indeed
towards the goal of an advanced civilisation.

The earliest maker of roads, of which his-
tory has given us any information, was an
Egyptian Pharaoh, who, by forced labour,
constructed a gigantic causeway, to enable his
workmen the more easily to convey materials
for the erection of a useless pyramid, which
has certainly immortalised his folly, notwith-
standing that the name of the founder is a
subject of doubt. Herodotus has handed
down to us the cruel edicts which this despot
passed for the purpose of compelling the un-
fortunate creatures subjected to his power,
to carry out his fanciful caprice, and the
curses with which they loaded his memory.
On this remote effort at road-making, how-
ever, it is here unnecessary to dwell, when even
road-making, especially through the most popu-
lated parts of Great Britain, has, in a measure,
been put out of fashion, in order that railway-
raakiug may apparently take its place. But
it must be long, if it is ever to take place,
before the railway can be made subservient to
the requirements of every portion of an agri-
cultural district. There, if farming is to
thrive, good roads must still be preserved in
a state of repair. " It is well known," says
Sir John Sinclair, " that the best cultivated
districts are those which possess the greatest
facility of internal communication, without
which agriculture languishes in the most
fruitful soil ; and, with it, the most ungrateful
soil soon becomes fertile." The truth of the
last clause of this sentence is remarkably
verified when we look at the efi'ect which the

HAmi.0W2M©. "WITH ©XEK

(COW ■ leiOlD'i^K

noAUs AND K.U1.S.] MODEKN ENdl.lSlI rAK.Ml.N(

[lauoub.

expansion of our railway system Ims had in
Btimulating tho faiiniiif^ operations of tlio
couutrv. "For several years past," snya a
well-informed writer on this subject, '• all the
railway companies have agreed to convey live-
stoelv free, and implements at half their usual
cliarges, to and from the shows of tliu Itoyal
Aj^rienltural Society ; tho railway companies,
at the towns where they are held, generally pro-
viding accommodation for the mechanical com-
partment. This, at Chelmsford, coat the Ivistern
Counties Eailway Company upwards of £3,000.
Kaihvay fares and pace could alouo bring the
number of shilling-])aying strangers who contri-
bute to the enormous expense of these exhibi-
tions. The population of the city of Salisbury,
including men, women, and children, amounts
to 10,000 ; but the visitors to the show, in
ISC 7, were over 35,000. This is of itself a
striking proof of the wide and eager practical
interest which is felt in agriculture, for there
is little to gratify the eye of mere holiday-
gazers ; and when, in addition, wo consider
the mountains of coal, iron, timber, artificial
manure, lime, and chalk conveyed in the one
direction, and live-stock and corn in the other,
we cannot help coming to tho conclusion,
that George Stephenson's locomotive has
been the great cultivator of the farmer's mind
and the farmer's land — the great agent for the
extraordinary advance which British agricul-
ture has achieved in the last quarter of a
century. Very significant were the figures
given by the chairman of the above company
at the Chelmsford dinner, when he told
his farmer friends, that, in tho course of the
preceding twelve months, the lines over
which he presided had conveyed 21,000
tons of guano and other portable manures ;
700,000 quarters of grain ; "50 sacks of flour;
71,000 beasts; 3S0,000 sheep; 13,000 tons
of meat and poultry ; and 43,000,000 quarts
of milk !" This was ten years ago ; and, as
Dopu'.alion has since greatly increased, and
agricultural appliances considerably multi-
plied, we may fairly presume that these figures
have increased in amount to a proportionate
extent. AVell may tho writer exclaim —
*' Who can calculate the value of the maiiy
rewards held out to breeding, feeding, and
corn-growing, in the shape of four thousand
miles of railway ! and how little are men, who

live in tho midst of these changes, conscious
of their magnitude until tho results are col-
lected and put on paper !"

TIIIC NIXKS.^ITY OF L\UOUIl.
If a pcr.son enters upon tlm operations of
farming, ho must not ex|)ect that ho is begin-
ning a life of idleness. In tho mere fecundity
of tho weeds upon his fields, intermingling
with ids crops, ho will very soon find the truth
uf tiie original sentence passed upon A<iam, and
thus written iu Milton's Furadise Lust : —

" Cursed is the ground for thy srikn ; thou in sorrow
Shalt cat thereof all the days of thy life ;
Tliorn«, also, and thistles it shall bring thee forth
Unhid."

Nothing can be truer than i\u^, for ill weeds
grow apace. As the crop ripens, so do they ;
therefore there is a constant vigilance, accom-
panied with labour, to keep them down, or
rather to eradicate them from the soil, in
wliich they seem to find such a congeniality
of conditions, that they appear literally to
love it with an enduring and inseparable af-
fection. Sir John Sinclair, however, considers
these wild and spontaneouslj^-growing children
of the soil as a positive advantage. Strange if
this is really the case, when every farmer com-
plains of them, and labours at their extirpa-
tion. No doubt Providence has supplied them
for something more than merely that of cursing
the ground. " What," says Sir John, " is the
inference from the fact, that couch-grass and
thistles can by no means be extirpated ? Is
it not perpetual exertion, fallowing and agri-
cultural labour ? Some may be inclined to
say, 'A melancholy rellcction!' But I say,
No ! not at all. Providence could not have
better contrived than that exertion should
be perpetual, and that success should be iu
proportion. There is not a weed that we
ought to wish out of our fields, unless we
remove and destroy it ; because if there were
none, or very few, all fields would be clean,
and no praise could light on superior modes
of tillage. Some may say, again, ' So much
the better!' But I say, iS^'o-' Does any man
think that our various soils would have been
sufficiently pulverised and worked, had there
been no enemies of this sort to challenge forth
our labours ? Sterility would have seized
upon our turnip lauds, which are only con-

885

A>'CIE>'T

A>'ECDOTE.] PRINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF

[steeds.

tiuuod in a state to bear tlieir rotations of
crops, by tlie necessary periodical renewals of
their fertility. The necessity of subsistence
produces industrious hands for every depart-
ment of labour; but the sluggish nature of
man requires every stimulus to exertion. The
weeds of the fields excite emulation among
farmers ; and foul fields are always a reproach
to the occupier. Thus we are compelled, by
an unseen hand, to better habits and more
active industry."

This reasoning, we fear, is more specious
than sound, as there are thousands of fiower-
gardeus entirely destitute of weeds, and yet
possessing soils perfectly pulverised. We
have heard even of kitchen-gardens being so
completely denuded of weeds, that it was
deemed necessary to cultivate groundsel, for
the humble purpose of feeding a solitary pet
bird. Whatever may be the providential
purpose of weeds, however, toil is as neces-
sary to eradicate them, as tillage of the soil is
necessary previous to its reception of the
seed for a valuable crop. We profess to
small knowledge, indeed, of the meanings of
the ways of Providence ; but that weeds will
multiply rapidly and indefinitely, without they
are rooted out, is a fact which comes within
the experience of every farmer, and which,
without any effort of memory, is daily brought
within the range of his observation upon his
own grounds. Pliny tells a story which will
bear quoting, as it strikingly shows the value
of labour when nicely applied to the objects
of agriculture. " I cannot forbear stating,"
says he, "one instance from old times, from
which we may perceive both that questions of
culture were brought judicially before the
people, and also how men of that time were in
the habit of defending themselves. C. Purius
Cresinus, a freeman, became the object of
much ill-feeling on the part of his neighbours,
in consequence of his gathering, from a very
small field, much more produce than they
could procure from very large ones. He was
accused of attracting the crops from otlier
fields by charms. Sp. Albinus appointed a
court day to hear this charge ; and Cresinus,
fearing that he might be found guilty, when
the tribe were about to pronounce their
verdict, brought his live and dead stock into
the forum ; and he brought with him a stout
886

wench, and Piso says that she was in good
case, and well clad. His iron implements
were exceedingly well manufactured ; the
spades were strong, the shares powerful, and
the oxen in high condition. Then he said,
' These, Romans, are my charms ; but I can-
not show you, or bring into the forum, my
mental labours, my vigils, nor the sweat of my
brow.' " Here are some of the great secrets
of good farming — strong and willing labourers,
good implements, long watching, and hard
labour.

THE FECUNDITY OF WEEDS.

What is a weed ? is a question much more
easily asked than answered. Por example,
every person at all conversant with fields and
flowers in this country, would be loth to con-
sider the dandelion as a specimen plant, suit-
able to take its place in the garden ; yet has
this very plant been lionised in Australia. It
has there formed one of the attractions at a
flower show, and was the means of drawing
thousands to gaze upon its charms. Dr. John-
son defines a weed to be "an herb noxious
and useless" — a definition more brief than
true. In his Booh of the Farm, Mr. Stephens
says — " AVhen any plant is found growing
where it should not be, it is a weed. Por
example, a stalk of wheat in a bed of tulips in
a garden, is a weed, and should be removed ;
and, in like manner, a tulip in a wheat-field is
a weed, and should be eradicated." This is
just saying that it is a fruit or a flower out of
place. The author of the_ article on " AVeeds,"
in Morton's Cijclopcedia of Agriculture, says —
"Every plant different from the crop, and
growing with the crop, to its hindrance, is a
weed. Regarded in this light, most of our
wild, and even cultivated plants, may take the
place of weeds : thus potatoes, left in the soilj,
may completely smother a succeeding crop ; or
the shed seeds of a former crop may germi-
nate amid a new one ; and, in both cases, their
removal by weeding will be necessary to suc-
cess." This is sufiiciently clear and compre-
hensible for the farmer's view of the subject;
and as weeds are certainly greatly obnoxious
to good cultivation, it may not be amiss to
show here the wonderful fecundity with which
they are endowed. Professor Buckland, in
an article in the Agricultural Gazette, says

WKKOS.]

MODERISr ENGLISH 1\\ RMIXO.

[■\VEEUS.

that "tho Crow-garlie is a liliaceous plant,
the scapo or llower-stein of which is as much
as from two to threo feet high, rising from a
bulb, which, especially in non-llowering exam-
ples, will bo surrounded by from four to eight
s;iialler bulbs or htilbrls. Tlio original inleu-
tiou of tho scapo is to bear tho flowers, after
the manner of tho garlic and onion of our
garden; but it curiously happens that, instead
o[ flowers, tho scape is surmounted by from
one to three compacted heads of minute bulbs,
possessing tho structure and characters of
those at the base of the plant, and endowed
with such a power of vitality, as to be, in
most cases, viviparous; that is, growing or
sending out leaves before they fall from the
parent stem. These are sometimes, but very
rarely, mixed with flowers ; and as they readily
and singly separate from the parent as its
stem becomes dry, they become scattered
around, and take possession of the soil. Thus
a whole colony, in one season, results from a
single plant.

" Thus, then, we see that the Crow-garlic, if
allowed to seed, has a prodigious method of
increase; but we must recollect that this in-
crease is not, like the majority of weed-plants,
by seeds which are agreeable to birds and
insects, by which means many much more
productive plants are kept in check. On

the contrary, it would appear to be avoided
by all classes of tlieso creatures; whilst the
bulbols themselves, which uro seldom abortive,
possess such wonderful powers of vitality,
that they may bo kept like onions, or tho
ordinary flowering bulbs, for months, and,
perhaps, oven years, and still maintain their
germinating power."

The importance of this subject must be our
apology for tho length of this quotation ; but
it makes it clear, that the farmer who does not
know that tho principal means by which tho
Crow-garlic is multiplied is through the bulbs,
has done but half his work in tho destruction
of tho weed, if ^ho allows these still to exist.
Facts of this sort necessarily suggest the value
of a knowledge of botany to the farmer, espe-
cially when tho operation of weeding alone, on
an acre of arable land, costs the yearly sum of
from five to twenty shillings. An old rural
rhyme says that —

" One year's seeding
Is seven years' weeding."

And the truth of the maxim it embodies will
be apparent from the following table, drawn
up from several hundreds of observations,
stretching over a period of five years, in dif-
ferent parts of England, and under the most
varied conditions of geological formation and
modes of farminer : —

Tahh of the Fectmdity of Weed-Plants.

Trivial Xames.

Botanical Names.

Kumbcr of Seeds
to a Plant.

When Gathered.

Black Mustard . .
Charlock ....

Shepherd's Purse .
Hedge JNIiistard . .
Cow Parsnip . . .
Fool's Parsley , .
Red Bartsia . . .
Dandelion . . . o
Hardhead Scabious .
Nipple Wort . . .
Stinking Chamomile
Slay- weed ......

Burdock ....

Sow-thistld; . •■ .
Giouudsel . . o .
I\Iusk-thistle . . .
Corn Cockle . . .
Common Campion .
Common Dock . .
Red Poppy . . .

Siuapis I\ igra . . . .
Sinapis Arneusis . .
Capsella Bursa-pastoris.
Sisymbrium OBicinale .
Heraclium Spoudylium
QSthusa Cynapium . .
Bartsia Odontites . .
Leontodon Taraxacum .
Centaurea Scabiosa .
Lapsana Communis . .
Autlicmis Cotula. . .
Authemis Arvensis . ,
Arctium Lajipa . . ,
Lonchus Oleraceous . .
Seiiecio Vulgaris . . .
Carduus Kutaus . . .
Agrodtemma Githago .
Lychnis Dioica . . .

Humex

I'apaver Rhacus . . .

8,000

4,000

4,500

5,400

5,000

0,000

4,800

2,040

4,000

8,400

40,050

45,000

24,520

19,000

6,500

3,750

2,940

3,425

13,000

50,000

August 17.
September 18.
September 9.
October 13.
August 17.
August 17.
October 1.
OctobL-v 1.
September 10.
September 23.
September 23,
October 14.
October 1.
October 1.
September 10.
October 13.
September 8.
October 1.
September 15.
October 19.

bST

FAltlllXG.J

PRIJ^CIPLES AND PEACTICE OF

[r ARMING,

Such is the astonishing fecundity of weed-
plants. Of 21,950 seeds of the followmg
weeds, upwards of 6,000 have been found ripe
in April, when hosing is frequently carried on.
Tlie grey speedwell, ivy-leaved speedwell,
shepherd's purse, hairy bitter cress, chick-
weed, and groundsel. In the very process of
hoeing, then, these are scattered about under
the most favourable circumstances for grow-
in^; and, if the hoeing is, for some little time,
deferred, or not done at all, the 21,950 will,
in all probability, by next season, have taken
entire possession of the soil. The manner in
uhich weed-seeds are propagated are, first, by
the neglect of way-sides and waste places;
second, from permitting weeds to be thrown
on the manure heap ; and third, from sowing
weed-seeds with the seeds for the crop. To
these circumstances, therefore, the farmer
should be particularly attentive.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.
Of the necessity of an agricultural education,
independent of his other scholastic acquire-
ments, for the young or rising farmer at the
present day, no one of the slightest intelli-
gence has the smallest doubt. The customs
of our grandfathers are already old and eftete ;
whilst those of our fathers are fast wearing
out. In a lecture delivered by Mr. Morton,
at the Eoyal i\gricultural College, he laid
down these three points as essential to the
young farmer : — 1st. That he should have
practical skill. 2ud. That he should have
business tact. 3rd. That he should have a
liberal and scientific education. This gentle-
man showed that, if a man possessed a merely
practical skill, and nothing more, he was
little better than a labourer ; that if, added to
his practical knowledge, he had business tact,
he might not only be a labourer, but become
tl>e manager of a farm ; but that, without
having, in addition to capital, a liberal and
scientific education, he was not fitted to hold
a large farm in the present day. This sub-
ject is a most important one. We ourselves
are acquainted with several young gentlemen,
the sons of farmers, who have been boarded
out to receive what is called a liberal educa-
tion ; and they have gone homo to follow the
occupation of their lathers, with as much of
the kind of knowledge necessary for such an
8SS

object, as a watchmaker may be supposed to
have for the manufacture of a steam-plough or
a threshing-machine. Their case, however,
is by no means singular. At a meeting of
the weekly council of the Eoyal Agricultural
Society, in April, 1801, the subject of ngricul-
tural education was introduced by Mr. Hol-
land, M.P., and discussed. Among the
authorities quoted upon this subject was Mr.
AVilson, of Edington Mains, the author of
British Farming ; who, in respect to the rising
young farmers, gives his opinion in the ibl-
lowing terms : —

" The mere possession of capital," he says,
" does not qualify a man for being a farmer ; nor
is there any virtue inherent in a lease to insure
his success; to these must be added probity,
knowledge of his business, and diligence iu
prosecuting it. These qualifications are the
fruits of a good education in the fullest sense
oC the term, and are no more to be looked for
without it, than good crops without good hus-
bandry. * * * But the great diflaculty, at
present, lies in finding appropriate occupations
for such youths between their fifteenth and
twentieth years. In many cases, sons of
farmers are, during that period, put to farm-
labour. If they are kept steadily at it, and
are made proficient in every kind of work
performed on the fixrm, it is a good profes-
sional training, as far as it goes. The more
common one — at least as regards the sons of
the larger class of farmers — which consists of
loitering about, without any stated occupa-
tion ; attending fares and markets, and, pro-
bably, the race-course and hunting-fields, is
about the most absurd and pernicious that
can well be imagined. Such youths are really
to be pitied, for they are neither inured to
bodily labour, nor aff"orded the benefits of a
liberal education. It need not surprise any
one that such hopeless lads often prove in-
competent for the struggles of life, and have
to yield their plans to more vigorous men
who have enjoyed the benefit of bearing the
yoke in their youtli. Unless young men are
Iccpt at labour, either of mind or body, until
continuous exertion during stated hours, con-
finement to one place, and prompt obedience
to their superiors, have ceased to be irksome,
there is little hope of their either prospering
in business, or distinguishing themselves iu

8M1TIIF1ELD CLUB.] MODEliX ENGLISH lAKMlNC.

[lUUNIP CHOPS.

their prufc't^sion. Owing to tlio ulterLtl liubita
of" Hocifty, tlicro is now lesa likeliliooJ tliaa
lifntoforc, of such youn^ pL-r.soiis us we are
rt'frrriiig, to, being subjeitcii to the arauous
tiviining to bodily labour, wiiich was onco the
inii\iM\<al jtractico ; and hcnro tlio necessity
i'oi- an appropriate course of study to take
pliice. * * * It is al^^o couinion loi^'such
youths to be sent to .luiinburji;l» for a winter
or two, to attend a class of agriculture, and,
perhaps, also of chemistry and the veterinary
college. This is well enough in its way ; yet
there is wanting in it an adequate guarantee
that there is real study — the actual perform-
ance of daily mental work. * * * After
enjoying the benefits of such a course of
training as we have here indicated, young
men would be in circumstances to derive re;ii
advantage from a residence with some ex-
perienced practical farmer, or from a tour
through the best-cultivated districts of the
country."

Enough to show what the present age
requires in the young farmer to rise or be suc-
cessful in his profession.

THE LITTLE SMITHFIELD CLUB.

In order to come clearly down to the present,
we must look a little way into the past. In
170S, the Duke of Bedford, Lord Somcrville,
and several others, with Arthur Toiiug as
Iionorary secretary, formed the "Little Smith-
fiLdd Club," with the view to the exhibition of
fat stock at Christmas-time. A specification
of the food upon which each animal had been
kept was to be given, and prizes were to be
competed for. This society has wonderfully
grown in strength, and has rendered incalcu-
lable service to the interests of agriculture, by
making known the kinds of food most favour-
able to the rearing of cattle for meat, and by
educating both the grazier and the butcher up
to the knowledge of the best form of animal.
In ISOG, a toast of Mr. Coke, of Ilolkliam,
afterwards Earl of Leicester, was — '' Small in
size, and great in value." But notwithstanding
the far-sightedness which, even at that time,
in the face of great proclivities, he exhibited
in his judgment of cattle, the tallest ox con-
tinued to take the prizes. Long legs have
long been reckoned a serious fault, as they arc
the most profitless parts of tiie beast. In
5 X

1S50, a little Devon ox, of aa egg-liko »hape,
whicii is tho modern heau-idral, gained the
Smithfiehl gold medal, in competition with
gigantic Hhort-horna, and llereforda of ele-
phantine proportions; uud, iu IbGA, a large
animal of Sir Harry V'ernoy's wua puased over
without even the compliment of a commenda-
tion, because ho carried on his carcaso too
much olTal, and nionj threepenny than uinc-
penny beef. Tho Smitlilield Club is now a
great institution, bringing annually together
all the best breeders and cattle-judges iu the
country.

TURNIP CROPS.

In order that the improvement ot cattle
might extend generally, as far as possible,
throughout the country, and not mostly be
restricted to rich grazing districts of the
midland counties, it was felt that some ad-
dition to the usual supply of food was neces-
sary. Already had the finest, most productive
arable laud, of the kingdom been exhausted,
by the years upon years of cultivation it had
undergone ; whilst the barren fallow, w hieh
annually absorbed one-third of tlie soil, was
inadequate to the task of restoring -ts fertility.
In this emei'gency a new source of agricultural
wealth was discovered. Turnips sprung into
notice, and were received with a sort of geiicral
enthusiasm in the farming districts. Tiiey
were found to answer the purpose of a fallow
crop, which cleaned and rested the old arable
land ; they were excellent food for fattening
cattle in winter ; and when raised on light
land, and afterwards eaten down by sheep,
which pressed the soil into firmness with their
feet, led the way for corn crops on wastes
which had before been hopelessly assigned to
the rabbits. By this means the heatiis and
wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, with
some assistance from marling and tho travel-
ling sands of Norfolk, jN'ottingiiamshire, and
Bedfordshire, were gradually recovered and
peopled by the race of farmers, who have been
first to adopt all the improvements in English
a;:^riculture for the last century. The nev»-
system, however, required capital ii: both the
landlord and the tenant. Erom the landlord,
it required barns and yards, and houses
suitable to the wants, habits, and tastes of
first-class men, with high means. But when

8S0

MAltx->MtT.]

PRINCIPLES AND PliACTICB OF

[mahltsg.

the spirit of improvement takes possession of
a class or people, neither proper men nor
plenty of means will be wanting to realise the
objects in view. Mr. Coke, of Holkham,
expended over £100,000, in twenty years, on
dwellings and offices alone. This sum, how-
ever, was by no means unprofitably laid out ;
but whatever sums the new system required
to be expended by the landlord, it also de-
manded a proportionate expenditure on tlie
part of the tenant. It required him to lay
out a large sum on flocks and herds, and,
above all, in labour, for years, before the ^M
laud began to return a profit. We are told,
that a Mr. Eodwell, in Suflolk, sunk £5,000
in merely marling 820 acres, with a lease of
only twenty-eight years. The value of his
produce, during that period of his occupancy,
was £30,000 greater than the twenty-eight
years preceding his improvements. Specula-
tions of this kind required no mean degree of
intelligence to conduct them, and no small
amount of spirit to enter upon them; yet
they seem generally to have been crowned with
success.

Turnips' are said, by Young, to have been
brought into farm cultivation by the celebrated
Jethro TuU, and found an ardent advocate in
Lord Townshend, who, in 1730, retired from
taking part in public affairs. After this, he
devoted the remaining eight years of his life
to the improvement of his estate. It is said'
that lie originated practices which increased
the produce not only two but a hundred-fold,
and from which the country still continues to
draw the benefit. In England, the practice of
marling and claying farms was far from being
new. Indeed, it was very old. In the reign
of Elizabeth, Harrison, in his Description of
Britain, says — " Besides the compost that is
carried out of the husbandmen's yards, ditches,
and dove-houses, or out of great towns, we
have with us a kind of white marl, which is of
so great force, that if it be cast over a piece
of land but once in three-score years, it shall
not need of any further composting." The
usage, however, died out ; and seems not to
have been again recovered until Lord Towns-
hend and a Mr. Allen applied it to the sands
of Norfolk, and converted immeasurable acres
of rabbit-warrens and sheep-walks into rich
soil. At the close of the last century, Young
880

estimated that three or four hundred thousand
waste acres had been reclaimed and turned
into gardens, and rents rose from sums
varying from a sixpence and two shillings an
acre up to fifteen and twenty. Marling, how-
ever, would not, of itself, have reclaimed the
wildernesses of Norfolk ; it required the as-
sistance of something else ; and that was found
in turnips. Townshend had the sagacity to
perceive that this was to be the parent of all
future crops. Without a supply of food
through, the winter, a limited stock must be
kept, and this could yield but little manure,
without which profitable farming was vain.
"The turnips were, therefore, employed to
secure a large dung-heap; and the dung-heap,
in turn, was mainly appropriated to securing
the largest possible store of turnips. This
tillage, in a circle, w^as as productive as it was
simple. The ground, cleaned and enriched by
the root-crop, afterwards yielded abundant
harvests of corn; and as has already been
observed, the treading of the sheep upon the
loose soil, while they fed off a portion of the
turnips, gave it the necessary firmness. Thus,
through the agency of the turnips, a full fold
and full bullock-yard made a full granary."
Essex and Suffolk soon followed the method,
although they did not proceed in it so far as
they did in Norfolk ; and, in many parts, the
turnips were never thinned or hoed, upon
which their dimensions) and, consequently, the
largest portion of their value, depended.

To the reader of the ancient agricultural
writers, it will seem strange how it was that,
for so many centuries, the value of the turnip
was not perceived by the farming mind, when
its qualities were, at least, tolerably known
eighteen hundred years ago, Pliny tells us,
that no crop is so valuable except grasses and
corn. He also says (we quote from an article
of Ancient Agricultural Literature), "That
they are most wholesome food for man, and
excellent, dressed in a variety of ways ; that
they keep through the year, cither potted or
when mixed with mustard ; that they are most
valuable in ornamental cookery, as capable of
receiving six colours besides their own, one of
the colours being purple — a quality possessed
by no other kind of food ; that, when boiled,
they will feed fowls, and that the leaves are
good for cattle ; and, finally, that he has seen

KOTATiox ciioi's.] MODEliN EXGLISII FAHMING.

[AnTiiun Youyo.

Olio 40 lbs. weight." Columella says, that " in
Gaul, the bulbd are used as winter food for
cattle aucl slicei);" showing that the aiieieiit
fathers of our neighbours across tho Clianiiel
were not ignorant of tho value of tho turnip,
in supplying their Hocks and herds willi
nourialiiug food throughout tho long, dreary
months of tho wiuter. Nor is marling a
discovery of the moderns, for it seems to havi-
been, both in Gaul and Britain, a sta[)lL'
practice in husbandry. Pliny recommeuds
six dill'erent kinds of marl used for pulverising
the soil. Some were of a clayey description,
which were used for light ground ; some
sandy, for heavy. Some were of a rocky son,
which pre^c^ved its form till several years of
the effects of sun, rain, and frost reduced it to
amalgamate with the soil. Some lasted ten,
some thirty, and some fifty years. Some were
got at in a day : and one kind which endured
eighty years, and which no man had ever been
known to apply twice to the same land, was
obtained in Britain from narrow pits, dug to
a depth of thirty yards.

THE ROTATION OF CROPS.

The course of Eoman agriculture, with some
partial exceptions, was of the simplest de-
scription— a crop of grain and a fallow. Every
year one-half of the arable laud was in grain,
and the other half in fallow. A third of this
was sown with a green crop of some kind, to
be given to the cattle ; and this was the only
portion of the fallow that received the benefits
of manure. The result of this mode was, that
the arable land was manured once in six years ;
and, in that period, produced three crops of
grain, and one of green stuff". This system,
by degrees, wore out the land. It took tlie
very heart out of it, so to speak ; so tliat, in
the time of Varro, a great falling-ofT had taken
place in the returns for the quantity of seed
sown. Fi'.ty years later, Cicero gives an
account of the rich Sicilian lands, and claims
2| bushels to the statute acre. This, well
cultivated, seems to have yielded eight or ten
for one, equal to t.venty or twenty-five bushels
respectively. In another half century. Colu-
mella tells us, tliat over a large part of Italy,
the instances are few in which the return is
more than four to one ; and the increasing
lamentations over the penury with which the

lurid returned it8 grain for the seed, as we

descend in tho series of authorB, aro in entire
accordanco with the paucity of tla-ir crops.

In England, during tho last century, tho
rotation of crops wa^ viewed as tho special
characteristic of tho husbandry of Norfolk.
Unlil past tho year 17.jO, no just ideas upon
tho subject seem to have been formed in any
part of the kingdom ; in proof of which, Sir
Juhii Sinclair makes the remark, that all
courses were thought to bo alike, and merit-
ing neither censure nor praise. Tho estab-
lished rule upon which the farmers of Norfolk
acted, and to wliicii they doggedly adhered,
was never to take off tho same ground two
corn crops in succession. But this formed
only one rule or part in tho whole of a valu-
able system. They had not discovered tho
importance of alternating grain with other
products of tho soil ; but they had perceived
and I'ound the advantage of following turnips
with barley ; this with clover ; and this with
wheat. Tliey had discovered that the fibrous
roots of the clover were the best possible
pabulum for the nourishment of the wheat,
and that nothing else answered so well. By
1767, Young found this four-course system
widely prevalent, the principal variation being
in the duration of tlie clover, which some
farmers permitted to remain for two or three
seasons previously to its being broken up for
wheat. All these changes occurred during
the thirty years between 1730 and 1700 ;
but, with slight exceptions, they were entirely
confined to Norfolk ; and it was not till Young
made his appearance upon the scene, that
they began to penetrate into other districts.

ARTHUR YOUNG.

One who did so much, in his time, to en-
lighten the agricultural mind of this countrv
when it was involved in a cloud of thick dark-
ness, merits some notice in these pages. The
reclamation of barren sheep-walks ; an im-
provement in the different breeds of live-
stock ; an increase in the quantity of food
grown on arable land for their support ; and a
better rotation of crops, are the principal
events which distinguish tho progress of
English agriculture during the last century.
After some advances had been made, the next
step was to demolisli those obstructions which

bOl

EAEL LEicESTEii.] PEINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF [state of ^ojbpolk.

kept the formers of that day apart from each
other, and which held them in the bonds of
ignorance as to what was passing in every
district beyond the immediate limits of their
own, as complete as if they were so many
Eobinsou Crusoes, doomed to cultivate a piece
of solitary land, on a solitary rock, in the
middle of the Pacific. The man who entered
heartily into this work was Arthur Young,
the son of a prebendary of Canterbury. A
writer describes him as one of the most useful
and sagacious, if not one of the most brilliant
of men. Long before his time, however, Nor-
folk was celebrated for the superiority of her
roads. The inhabitants quoted with pride an
observation of Charles II., who said that the
county ought to be cut up to make highways
for the rest of the kingdom. This, however,
only proved how deplorable, in this respect,
were the other parts of the country. When
Young made his "tours," and visited Norfolk,
he did not fsill-in with a single mile of good
road in it. In Essex, the lanes were so narrow
that it was only possible for a carriage to get
along them. " Euts," says the writer already
quoted, "of an incredible depth; and chalk-
waggons stuck fast, till a line of them were in
the same predicament, and it required twenty
or thirty horses to be tacked to each, to draw
them out one by one. The thoroughfares, in
fact, were ditches of thick mud, cut up by
secondary ditches of irregular depth. In at-
tempting to traverse them, Young had some-
times to alight from his chaise, and get the
rustics to assist him in lifting it over the
hedge. Such was the state of things when, in
1.7G7, he abandoned the farm, in which he had
experimented too much to be successful, and
availing himself of the frank hospitality which
lias, in every age, been the characteristic of
our farmers and country gentlemen, made
those celebrated ' tours,' which are absolute
photographs of agricultural England, and are
models of what all such reports should be —
graphic, faithful, picturesque, and philosophi-
cal 1" Such was the man and his work, which
did so much to iin[);irt an impetus to agricul-
ture; and which, from Ins time to the present,
has, without pause, continued to advance.

THE EARL OF LEICESTER.

Mr. Coke, of llolkham (afterwards Earl of
892

Leicester), headed the agricultural movement
towards the close of the last, and throufrhout
the first quarter of the present century. Ee-
claiming the Norfolk wastes, marling the light
lands, extensively cultivating the turnip, and
introducing the rotation of crops, have all
been ascribed to Iiim. That he was the
originator of all these improvements, however,
can hardly be the case, as Young states, in his
Tours (published some years before Mr. Coke
held an acre in Norfolk), that every one of
these practices were then in common use.
But though the precise nature of what Mr.
Coke did has been exaggerated or misunder-
stood, what he really did accomplish was very
great. He is the first in the ranks of that
class of whom Young wrote in 1770 — " Let
no one accuse me of the vanity of thinking that
I shall ever, by writing, wean farmers from
their prejudices. All improvements in agri-
culture must have their origin in landlords."
Five years after this, Mr. Coke succeeded to
the estates of the Leicester famih' ; and here
we find it stated, that " the fine house at
Holkham, erected from the designs of Kent,
about the middle of the last century, bears an
inscription, which imparts that it was built in
the midst of a desolate track ; and its noble
founder was accustomed to say, at once jocu-
larly and sadly, that his nearest neighbour
was the King of Denmark. There was still
many a broad acre in its primitive sheep-
walks ; and Mr. Coke graphically described the
condition of portions of the property surround-
ing this princely mansion, by the remark,
'that he found two rabbits quarrelling for one
blade of grass.' " This was an unprofitable, as
well as an uninviting, condition of things; but
he was not disheartened. He immediately
set about applying the known methods prac-
tised, to bring into a state of fertility the
wilderness with which he was encompassed; at
the same time adopting such improvements as
suggested themselves on the existing modes.
He also endeavoured to persuade his neigh-
bours to adopt his practice. Having, by per-
severance, labour, and example, succeeded in
rousing them from the lethargy into which
they had sunk from the success which had
attended the practice of Lord Townshend, the
second revoltition commenced. The great
evil of the time, as we have already observed,

IIOSI'ITAMTV.]

MODKKX HNdl.lSIl I'AKMIXG.

[kattenino.

was the isolation in which farmers lived. They
wtMv nearly as much lixturea as tlicii* houses;
and what was done upon one side of a hedj^o
w :is hardly known upon the other. " Tho
Lortl of Jlolkham instituteil his annual sheep-
yhearing, at which he feasteil crowds of quests
from all parts, and of all degrees. Under tho
guise of a gigantic festival, it was an agricul-
tural school of tlie most eft'i-ctive kind ; for
the social benevolence engendered by such
magnificent hospitality disarmed prejudice ;
and manv wlio would liave looked with dis-
dain upon new breeds of stock, new-fangled
implements, and new modes of tillage, re-
garded them with favour when they came
recommended by their genial host. * * •
Excluded by his political opinions from public
oQice, and the favour of the court, Mr. Coke
found abundant compensation in the feudal
state of gatherings, at which, as a contem-
porary journal records, hundreds assembled,
and were entertained. Tarmiug, hunting, or
shooting in the mornings : after dinner, dis-
cussing agricultural subjects ; whether the
Southdown or new Leicester was the better
sheep — whether the Devon or the old Norfolk
OS was the more profitable. In dealing with
those who farmed under him, he showed the
same wisdom as in his own village. He formed
an intimacy with Young, and acted on three
of his maxims, on which agricultural progress
mav be said to depend — ' that a truly good
tenant-farmer cannot be too much favoured,
or a bad one have his rent raised too high ;'
tliat 'good culture is another name for much
labour;' that 'great farmers are generally
rich farmers.' By these methods he raised
his rental to more thousands a year than it
was Inindreds when he inherited the estate,
lind had enriched a numerous tenantry into
t!ie bargain. « * * The wealth, never-
theless, which accrued to himself was the
snv.dlest part of the gain. He was a national
benefactor upon a mighty scale, and was the
cause, directly and indirectly, of adding a
countless mass of corn and cattle, of beef and
mutton, bread and beer, to tho resources of
the country."

ARTIFICIAL FATTENING.
In lS2i, from a suggestion made by Mr.
Blackie (^the steward of Mr. Coke), Mr. John

Hudson, of tho farm of Castlo Acre, entered
upon tho experiment of supplying his young
wethers with oil-cako and sliced turnips.
"What, in tho last century, would have been
thought of such an act ? Ho would have hci'n
pronounced mad, and in a cotulilion suitable
only to become tho inhabitant of a lunatic
asylum. Jiut what was tho result ? When
]\Ir. Coke asked to see tho produce of his
tups, he foutul that they had been sent to
market twelve months before the usual time.
Yet even the neighbours of Mr. Hudson, and
even his own father, a man of intelligence and
agricultural progress, prognosticated his ruin
from his extravagance in purchasing food for
sheep. Now, however, tho buying of linseed-
cake, or meal, or foreign pulse, is one of the
regular means by which an increased quantity
of meat is grown. Wherever turnips are
raised and sliced, there the cake-trough is
to be seen ; and the improved material for
feeding, united to the natural tendency of the
best breeds to arrive at an early maturity, has
increased, to an amazing extent, the quantity
of mutton in the kingdom. It is affirmed, by
Mr. Morgan, that, twenty years ago, the
majority of sheep brought to Smithfield
market were three and four years old; and
to find a score under two, Avould have been a
matter of some difficulty. And now a three-
year-old sheep is scarcely to be met with ;
whilst fat sheep, no more than a twelve-
month old, are abundant. Thus, independent
of the vast increase in the numbers kept,
three generations of sheep are fed and fat-
tened for our tables, in the same space of
time in which one was prepared in 1S3S.
But purchased food would have been almost
thrown away on the former species of tardy-
growing animals. Applied, however, to the
improved stock, reared on the principles of
Bakewell, it has created a demand, not only
for tups from Sussex, steers from the Quan-
tock hills, and oil-cake from Germany, but for
new im[)lement3 and machinery of almost
every agricultural description.

For some time the Leicester breed of sheep
was preferred by Mr. Coke ; but he subse-
quently replaced them with the Southdowns.
Tiiese he considered superior ; and the bring-
ing of them to the high state of perfection in
which they are beheld by the present genera-

893

EOTAL sociETr.] PEINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF [kotal society.

tion, was accomplished by Mr. Jonas Webb,
and arose out of one of those trifling circum-
stances from which great results often ema-
nate. His grandfather was a breeder of rams
in Korfolk ; and it was one of the oddities of
the old gentleman, at his annual sales, to put
his grandsons to ride on his tups, without
saddle or bridle, but making them hold fast
bj the immense horns of the animals. Ex-
periencing both the pain and the diificulty of
retaining his seat on these occasions, it sug-
gested itself to tlie mind of Jonas, that, if
ever he arrived at manhood, and bred sheep,
he would endeavour to provide them naturally
with " better saddles of mutton." A lean
hurdle-backed Norfolk ram was at this time
the animal ; which, indeed, might have better

racing qualities, but could not compare, in
eating qualities, with the beautiful firkin-
bodied Southdown, for which Mr. Webb re-
fused 500 guineas at the Paris Exhibition of
lS5i). Nothing but Norfolk sheep could
have thriven upon the uncultivated Norfolk
heaths of former times ; and nothing but the
roots of artificial grasses, the cake, and the
corn of modern days, could have brought the
Babraham "Downs" to their present state of
matchless perfection.

We have now arrived at the period when
Norfolk is no longer foremost in the race of
agricultural improvements, and when the new
era commences in the foundation of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, incorporated
by special charter.

THE EOTAL

CHAPTER II.

GEICfTLTTJKAT, SOCIETY; DEAINAGE ; THE FIRST FIELD DEAINED ; Tm
POPvTABLE MANUKES ; THE GEOLOGISTS; THE GAINS OF FAEMi:-.G.

CHEJIISXS ;

THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
The source of the present mode of farming
dates from the foundation of the Eoyal Agri-
cultural Society, in 1837-'38. The late Mr.
Henry Handley, M.P., has the merit of having
suggested the formation of this association, in
a pamphlet which he published in 1837, and
which seems, very rapidly, to have carried
conviction to the minds of those who became
the originators of the society. Mr. Handley
was a Lincolnshire squire; an excellent judge
of stock, and a good sportsman ; whilst he
cultivated liis own estate, it is said, with a
higher degree of intelligence than was usual
in his time. The first meeting of the asso-
ciation was held at Oxford, in 1839 ; and the
first number of its Journal appeared in the
following year. It was placed under the
editorship of Mr. Philip Pusey, who died in
1854, wiio was a good writer, an ardent
farmer, and who devoted his time, his talents,
and his fortune to recording the progress of
89-1

his favourite science, and stimulating improve-
ments in every direction to which his influ-
ence extended. He is said to have been an
example of "that delightful combination of
scholarship and practical energy which is so
common in England ; and he exercised the
double influence of an accomplished gentle-
man and an enliglitened agriculturist."

It is impossible to calculate the benefits
which have been conferred on English agri-
culture by the establishment of this society.
The brightness of its own light has been dif-
fused through the remotest corners of tl)e
land. In the able article from which we have
alreadv quoted, it is stated that, "with its
council of peers, squires, tenants, and imple-
ment-makers ; its professors of chemistry,
botany, and veterinary art; its thousands of
subscribers spread over every county of Eng-
land ; its journal of transactions and reports ;
and, above all, its annual encampments in the
centres of successive districts, has done lur
farmiui? what the great fairs of the middle

nuYAL SOClETr.]

i\rODEKX ENGLISH FAlOlJXr^.

[DnAINAOK.

. - d did for commcrco — concentrated and
(iilFiised knowledge, brought ciistoinors nnd
producers into contact, and helped to ex-
linguisli prejudices in the excitement of sociul
triUherings. Tiioy have carried to provincial
cities the best live-stock, the best inipleuientH,
:itid the best cultivators. Tiie inlluenco of
»v;iinple, of competition, and even of rank and
Irishion, has been brought to bear on local
obstinacy. Squires have been encouraged to
improve their estates by tlio speeches of
superior men ; and young noblemen, in want
of an object, have found it in agricultural
duties. Implement-makers have had the ad-
vantage of the suggestions of their customers,
and, thus taught and teaching at the same
time, have, every year, become more de-
pendent on tenants, and less on fancy farmers."
As with every institution which is founded
•with great objects in view, and which meets
with success, there always remains something
■which has not been fully foreseen, and which,
in the course of time, gradually develops
itself. Thus it happened that, when this
society was founded, not one of the promoters
foresaw the importance of the machinery de-
partment. In the ten sections of its cliarter
of incorporation, explaining the objects of the
association, implements have only an inci-
dental reference, as one of the objects to
which scientific men were to be stimulated to
direct their attention, in a miscellaneous para-
graph, which includes the construction of
farm buildings, the application of chemistry to
the general purposes of agriculture, the de-
struction of insects injurious to vegetable life,
and the eradication of weeds. At Oxford, a
few manufacturers perceived an opening for
procuring customers, and found their way to
the " show-yard," notwithstanding the difficul-
ties from the absence of that kind of cheap
conveyance which is now, happily, placed
within the reach of the humblest member of
the community at large. One gold medal for
a collection of implements, three silver medals,
and £5 for a paddle plough for raising
potatoes, were all the rewards distributed
in 1S39, for what was destined to be the most
attractive, as well as the most useful feature
of the exhibition of the society. After the
meeting at Cambridge, in 1840, the importance
of the implement department was acknow-

ledged; and tho mechanical appliances dis-
played, beginning with some three hundred at
Liverpool, in 1811, increased at tho rate of
about one hundred on every Bucceediug year;
until, in 1853, at (51oucehter, they reached
their highest point in a total of two thousand.
Tho rise and fall of a few hundreds chiefly
depends upon tho importance in railway facili-
ties of tho town where tho " show" is held ;
and tho number of implements cxliibited is
not so great a test of tho progress of me-
chanical invention as of tho sales which are
likely to be effected in any particular district.
Tlio annual show is only one of the numcrouB
ways which the manufacturers adopt to adver-
tise and exhibit their ingenuity of invention,
and beauty of workmanship, in producing their
mechanical contrivances. The real prize to
the maker is the one which brings to his estab-
lishment plenty of custom.

At the show at Bury St. Edmund's, steam-
engines and barn machinery constituted the
class of implements brought to the test; but
one hundred acres of heavy land, and twenty
acres of light land, were provided for the per-
formances of the steam ploughs. Several new
arrangements were made in the show-yard ;
.among which we may observe that a fence
encircled the horse-ring ; and the horses which
gained the prizes were distinguished by a set
of numbers, similar to those which gave so
much satisfaction at the Yorkshire sho\^ of
1SG6. Tho poultry show was revived, and
£209 worth of prizes were distributed.

DRAINAGE.-
AVlien the Eoval Society was founded there
were about 400 local societies in existence;
but they were associations formed rather
for the encouragement of the social qualities of
life, than for the promotion of the arts by the
means of which tlie materials for eating and
drinking are increased. The speeches de-
livered at these convivial " gatherings" were
usually of a highly complimentary character ;
and the members congratulated each other
upon the pre-eminence which distinguished
their own enlightened district. They were,
in short, associations apparently formed for no
other purpose than that of maintaining local
ignorance, rather than of obtaining additional
knowledge from practical experiment and

b95

FIELD beainagk] PEINCIPLES and PKxVCTICE OF [field dkaixaoe.

experience. This is a lamentable truth ; but
we must now give our consideration to those
especial improvements which liave, during the
career of the society, taken place in the agricul-
tural parts of the kingdom. Amongst these,
perhaps, tlie very first deserving of especial at-
tention is drainage. Prom the earliest times at-
tempts have been made to drain. We believe
there are in existence specimens of clever work-
manship in this art, upwards of a century
old ; but when it ought to be done, and why
it ought to be done, and how it ought to be

was drained on the four-foot plan. Prom
small beginnings, however, there often spring
very large results. Accordingly, this was the
commencement of the subterranean network
of those pipes, which have more than doubled
the value of our retentive soils. There was,
however, still a great deal to be done. The
proper tools had not yet been made, nor had
a cheap conduit yet been discovered. But, in
1814, a Birmingham maker succeeded in
manufacturing the cutting implements, which
have gradually been brought to perfection ;

done, was never reduced to the simplicity of \ and, in the preceding year, at the Derby show

an intelligent practical rule. AVhatever books
there were upon the subject, were entirely
destitute of principles. Lord Bacon, who pos-
sessed a large collection of works upon agri-
culture, had them, one day, piled up in his
court-yard, and set on fire; for, said he, "in
all these books I find no principles; they
can, therefore, be of no use to any man."
This we take to be one of the truest signs of
liis wisdom ; and this was just the deficiency in
all that had been done respecting drainage until,
in lSi3, Josiah Parkes undertook the task of
explaining its principles. Two years later, he
m.ade suggestions which led to the manufac-
ture of the steel tools which were necessary
for forming the deep cuttings, as well as the
cheap pipes, which were essential to carry oft'
the water from them after they had been
formed. Ten years previous to this, however,
when draining a peat-bog near Bolton, in
Lancashire, he made the discovery of the great
eftect which deep cuttings produced in
relieving the soil of a certain number of
inches of the water which, during a rainy
season, is stagnant, and remains in that state
until removed by evaporation in a dry season.
Purther experience brought him to the con-
clusion, that the shallow drainage advocated
by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, about eight miles
Irom Stirling, Scotland, was a vital error, and
that four feet, which left a sufficient layer of
dry, warm, surface earth, after allowing for
the rise of the moisture by capillary attraction
above the water-level of the drain, should be
the minimum depth.

THE FIRST FIELD DRAINED.
On a farm near Bolton, Lancashire, belong-
ing to a celebrated bone-setter, the first field
89(3

of the Agricultural Society, a person of the
name of John Eeade, a gardener by trade,
and a self-taught mechanic (well known as the
inventor of the stomach-pump), exhibited
cylindrical clay pipes, with which he had been
in the habit of draining the hot-beds of his
master. His method of constructing them
was, to wrap a lump of clay round a mandril,
and rub it smooth with a piece of flannel.
]N"othing could be more simple. It was seen
by Mr. Parkes, who showed one of them to
Earl Spencer ; remarking, at the same tinie,
" My lord, with this pipe 1 will drain all Eng-
land." The council, on the motion of liis
lordship, awarded to John Eeade a silver
medal for his idea ; and, in the following year,,
ofi'ered a premiam for a tile-making machine.
A great deal of money was wasted in attempts,
and many patents were taken uut for the pur-
pose, but with indifi*erent success. At length,
in 1845, a person of the name of Thoimis
Scragg, at Shrewsbury, received a prize for u
raachino which triumphed over the diliicultics,
and pipes can now be made as fast as the
kilns can take them. Prom that hour the
work proceeded at a rapid pace. In tlie iV.-
lowing year, Sir Eobert Peel, from the know-
ledge he had obtained in the management of
his own property, passed an act, by which lour
millions sterling were appropriated towards
assiating landowners with loans for draining
their land, with leave to repay the advance by
instalments extending over twenty-two years.
Nearly the whole of this first loan was taken
up by the Scotch, before Englishmen had
made up their minds to take advantage of it.
The four millions of government money, how-
ever, was comparatively small, when placed in
juxtaposition with the sums supplied by pri-

TIIF. CHEMISTS.]

MODERN E X 0 L 1 S 1 1 1' A K M 1 N G. [portable ma}juub§.

vr.te enterprise, for cnrrying out an improve-

ineiit which, on tho worst chiss of wt-t hiiul,
"•ave m'iilonce of ita value by tho nvilisutioti of
iiiiinediate profits.

Resides the government encouragenjent
given to tlie drainage scheme, there was
another circumstance which gr(>:\tly helped to
promote the worU. About the period when
the system of deep draining was brought to
perfection, tlie great hmiiowners, being solici-
tous of encouraging their tenants, who were de-
pressed by the approaching free trade iu corn,
madt) thorough draining the most fashion-
able improvement. Tlie Norfolk sheep-
folding rotation had accomplished much for
li<Tht laud : had brought the cultivation of roots
to a high pitch, and proportionably increased
the live-stock on every light-land farm. The
proprietors of strong retentive soils were
naturally anxious to follow in the path of
their light-land neighbours, and to grow tho
roots which were seen to afford such high
profits in beef and mutton; and deep drainage
enabled them to realise these hopes and
desires.

THE CHEMISTS.
Previous to the farmers, and the agricul-
turists generally, having become accustomed
to the value of certain foreign manures which
had been imported into the country, Professor
Liebig suggested that the fertilising power of
bone manure, which had already been used,
would be increased by the application of sul-
phuric acid, and the consequent production of
superphosphate of lime. This suggestion was
not lost on some of our keen commercial
speculators. Accordingly, the experiment was
tried by a carboy of sulphuric acid being
poured over a few bushels of ground boucs,
when Suffolk drills, charged with superphos-
phate and guano, were despatched through
the farming districts of the country, to show to
agriculturists, that if they desired to grow
larf'e root-crops, there was something neces-
sary to be added to their immemoriably-
estublished favourite manure, which they
designated by the name of " muck." "We
are told that one of the first to experiment
upon the new manure, and then to manufac-
ture it on an extensive scale, was Mr. Lawes,
of Uertfordshire, a squire and scientific chemist.
5y

Uo was followed by Mr. Pursor, of London;
who, ill ISi:}, be^^an with a solitary carboy of
sulphuric acid, which cost ten shillings; and fre-
quently afterwards he ])urcha8ed ten thousand
cnrbovs at a time. A few years later, Mossrs.
Dixon aiul Cardus, at Soutlmmpton, niado a
profitable speculation by a contract with tho
government of Buenos Ayrcs, fur the cxclu-
sivo right of exporting tho charred llesh and
ashes of joints of meat burned, for want of
other fuel, on tho treeless Pampas, to boil
down tho tallow. This animal refuse (tho
accumulation of a quarter of a century), when
treated with sulphuric acid, is converted into
valuable superphosphate. But, although every
quarter of tho globe, even battle-fields, w^re
searched for bones, the supply was insufllcient
to meet the demand. It consequently became
necessary that some new resource should be
found, in order to keep down the price of
those manures, become so scarce, and deemed
30 valuable.

PORTABLE ]MANURES.
Before 1835, farmers and agriculturists, in
addition to farm-yard dung, or night-soil, used
for manuring their lands, gypsum, chalk, lime,
soot, marl, salt, saltpetre, rape-cake, and
bones. The discovery of the fertilising pro-
perties of bone was made by accident, at a
fox-hound kennel in Yorkshire. Generously
strewed over the heaths and wolds of Lincoln-
shire, it proved to be the philosopher's stone,
which converted rabbit-warrens and gorse fox-
coverts into fields of yellow grain. A Mr.
Nelson, one of the late Lord Tarborough's
tenants, was wont to say, that he did not care
who knew that he had made £SO,000 out of
his farm, by making use of bones before other
people were acquainted with the manner of
usiu"' them. But what proved to bo a success
in one parish, or field, frequently failed in the
one adjoining ; and sometimes the farm which
had once yielded abundantly in return for a
dressing of lime or gypsum, inflexibly refused
to respond to a second application. More
extraordinary still, the root-crop — the founda-
tion of the famous Norfolk rotation, the Gol-
conda of half-a-dozen counties — began to fail,
devoured in infancy by the fly. This was
startling enough; for, without the turnip,
whence was the provender to come for sheep,

b07

PORTABLE MANUEE3.] PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP [geologists.

and 'svinter-fed cattle? The philosopher,
however, happily stepped in. He came to the
assistance of the fanner, and, by his know-
Jedge, relieved him from the difficulties by
which he was encompassed. Nitrate of soda
and guano were imported ; and, as we have
just shown, superphosphate of lirae from bones
was invented. Agricultural chemistry soon
won the place of a practical or a profitable
science, and the anomalies in connection with
the use of lime, chalk, gypsum, &c,, were
explained by the joint exertions of the farmer
and his new ally, the philosophical explorer
and expounder of Nature's secrets — the
chemist. Nitrate of soda was imported from
Peru, and sold, in small quantities, by an agri-
cultural manure-dealer, about 1835 ; and, in
the same year, a cargo of guano was consigned
to a Mr. Myers, a Liverpool merchant. The
value of this manure proved immense. At
first its merits were not credited by the
farmers — a tardy race, and much given to
incredulity in their own vocation ; but the
shrewd-witted dealers in artificial manures
accepted the new article, and sold it, either in
a pure state, or under a special name, mixed
with less active ingredients. In 18i3, a store,
inferior to that of Peru, having been discovered
on the Ichaboe Islands, off the coast of Africa,
1,100 feet long, 400 broad, and, on an average,
35 feet deep — the whole was removed before
the end of 1844, and realised upwards of a
million sterling. Three years before this, an
article of forty-three pages, from the German
of Dr. Charles Sprengel, appeared in the first
volume of the Journal of the Boyal Agricul-
iural Societjj ; in which, though every kind of
animal manure was described, guano only
received a passing mention as a curiosity ; and
no note, to supply the deficiency, was attached
by the editor — so little was it then known to
the most intelligent cultivators, and so rapidly
had the knowledge of its value spread in the
interval.

About 1851, an important addition to the
portable manures was discovered by Mr.
Odams, in the blood and garbage of the
London slaughter-houses. This refuse had
hitherto been thrown down the.^ sewers, or
upon dung-heaps ; but, in 1858, it was con-
tracted for, to the extent of upwards of nearly
800,000 gallons a year- Mixed with ground
898

or calcined bones, and sulphuric acid, it is
turned into a vig irous corn and root fertiliser,
known to agriculturists as the " nitro-phos-
phate manure." The mere circumstance of
these products becoming articles of sale, and
not of home manufacture by the farmer, had
the effect of greatly extending their use. The
seller of artificial manures helped, in another
way, the general movement, which was stimu-
lating the whole of the agricultural mind
throughout the kingdom. He made the dis-
covery, that his fertilising stimulants were
stripped of half their value when applied to
wet or ill-cultivated land. - " Hence," says
the reviewer already quoted, " he became the
eager advocate of thorough drainage, and
that thorough preparation of the soil, which
can only be effected by the best class of
ploughs, hari'ows, horse-hoes, and clod-crush-
ers. His customers would have been cus-
tomers no longer, unless he could have con-
vinced them that the fault was in themselves,
and not in the goods. He argued to ears
which had, at least, been opened, and pre-
vailed without the assistance of the hedge-
stake. A man grudged growing weeds on a
fertile soil, for which he had paid hard
cash ; nor could a manure that cost £10 or
£12 a ton, be refused the economy of a
machine to distribute it carefully; and thus
drill husbandry spread, led by pipe-drains
from Norfolk, Sufiblk, and Bedfordshire, into
every county of England, and with it brought
all the machines and implements required for
a clean, rapid, concentrated cultivation."

THE GEOLOGISTS.

The chemists having performed their work,
it remained for the geologists to do theirs.
Accordingly, Professor Henslow, the botanist,
had, in 1842, observed some nodules at Felix
Stowe, on the coast of Sufiblk; and, in the
following year, collected a quantity of them, and
forwarded them to a Mr. Potter, for analysis.
The manipulation proved them to be fossils,
commonly called coprolites, on the hypothesis
that they consisted of the excrement of ani-
mals, and containing from 50 to 55 per cent,
of phosphate of lime. Prom this discovery
the professor might have realised a fortune ;
but professors of science are not proverbially
shrewd in monetary affairs. The quarry of

C. HKEX CUOl'S.l

I\I()UEKN ENGLISH FARMING.

[OUEES CHOPS.

coprolites was to be obtained at a common
rer.t ; nnd there were munuro iimimructurera
pnpiirod to pay lor tlio information ; but Mr. |
Ilenalow " did not consiilor 8ucl» a course i
consistent with his position as a uiuu of;
science and a clerfjyinan,"" Jlo was rciiuestcd
by Mv. Potter to keep silent I'or some months
upon tlio subject, as that gentleman " wiulied
to have the chance of availing himself of the
discovery." Accordingly, he sent the results
of his investigation to jNIr. J. B. Lawes, who
made the superphosphate, obtained iVom copro-
lites, the subject of a patent, which he, how-
ever, was not ablo to maintain. After this,
beds of coprolites were discovered in Hamp-
shire, Cambridgeshire, and Dorsetshire ; and
further investigations ia Norway put Mr.
Lawes in the exclusive possession of large
beds of a mineral called apatite, rich in
phosphates; of which he began to import
whole cargoes, for his manufactory at Bow,
near the English metropolis. The super-
phosphate of lime, however, produced from
fossils, being much less soluble than those
which are obtained from fresh bones, can
only be applied when mixed iu moderate
proportions with the latter.

GREEN CROPS.

One of the best essays ever read oa a
matter of agricultural art, was delivered by
Mr. J. K. Fowler, of Aylesbury, at the
Midland Earmers' Club ; the chairman,
Viscount Sandon, very justly praising it as
•• quite a model paper, full of facts." ifarmers
are, on most occasions, twitted with their
delight in '* talking turnips," and the subject
of Mr. Eovvler's paper was the congenial one
of growing green crops. Although tabular
statistics and elaborate calculations were kept
iu the background, still Mr. Eowler, in his
practical little treatise, has embodied as much
sound information as experts in other
branches of industry contrive to compress into
their literary efforts. But we will not follow
the thread of Mr. Eowier'a diicou;ae throusrls

the details of preparing seed-beds, sowing,
weeding, utilising winter and spring vetclies,
rye, w inter oals, trilolium, incarnalum, lucerne,
rape, white mu:«tard, and oilier crops, clasaod
as green food for the summer and early autumn
mouths. Neither is it necessary lor ua to
describe his production and treatment' of the
various kinds of turnips, SwedcH, Kohl liabi,
cabbage, and mangold- wurzel, chissed as food
for winter and early spring. The Biinple
mention of this diversified list of subjects will
show the wide range of agricultural produce
treated of iu a well-handled paper, on one single
but important branch of the business of the
farmer. Mr. Fowler's opening remark, how-
ever, merits attention. Very naturally allud-
ing to the importance of maintaining the
supply of animal food, he observed that the
great point for consideration was, how to raise
the largest quantity of vegetable produce for
feeding the live stock, not upon grass farms,
but upon arable or mixed farms ? He believed
that more stock and meat might be produced,
acre for acre, on arable than on grass land ;
and, in discussing the subject, one gentleman
observed — "He was glad to hear that Mr.
Fowler thought the growth of green crops the
foundation of British farming, because many
of the farmers of the midland counties were
disposed to place that fouudation upon the
plan of consuming a vast amount of corn by
their cattle. This was like beginning to build
a house with the chimney-pot. If, by the
purchase of four shillings' worth of superphos-
phate of lime, Peruvian guano, or other arti-
ficial manure, they produced one ton of roots
(which he held they could), and that tou was
worth nine shillings by their stock, then the
raising of their green crops must ever be the
foundation of agricultural progress and im-
provement."

In concluding this division, we must ac-
knowledge our great obligations to several
articles in the Quarterly Rfvieio, which show a
mastery in the treatment of agricultural sub-
jects, highly cre«^table to that periodical.

DIVISION IX.

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY OF ENGLISH FAEMING.

CHAPTER I.

AGRICULTURAL PKOGRESS.

Up to a very recent period, tlie history of agri-
culture, in this country, presented a very
curious anomaly. A few facts were promi-
nently exhibited ; but the gradual progress of
It as an art, a manufacture, and as a branch of
commerce, was entirely unnoted and un-
chronicled : and an industrial occupation, the
capital of which, even thirty years ago, was
calculated at £217,000,000, had no history,
no Btatistics, no representative in the law or
the state — no board, no minister, no depart-
ment ; in fact, nothing. Yet, about a cen-
tury ago, this country was doing a large
trade as an exporter of corn. Between the
years 1773 and 1703, there was a sort of " pivot
period," when the exports and imports nearly
balanced each other : a slow but steady in-
closure of land, at the same time, began to
mark the consumption o*. a gradually increasing
trade and population ; the price of wheat ■
averaged 45^. per quarter; and rents were
from 7s. to 10s. per acre ; so that the price of
a bushel of wheat was, in fact, about two-
thirds of the rent of an acre of land. There
was no account of the progress of inclosure
during the century ; but a committee of the
House of Commons, in 1797, computed the
total quantity at about 4,000,000 acres.

In the present century, there has been a
detinite record kept of inclosures, of popu-
lation, of corn imported, of prices, and rent of
laud. From 1800 to 1810, the amount in-
closed was 1,057,980 acres ; the population of
Great Britain having increased 150,087 ; while
the quantity of wheat imported was 6,009,408
quarters. From 1810 to 1820, 1,410,930 acres
were inclosed ; the population increased to the
900

extent of 1,978,523 ; but the imported wheat
was reduced to 4,585,780 quarters. From
1820 to 1830, 340,380 acres were inclosed,
and the population increased 2,161,495. In
the next decennary period, from 1830 to 1840,
236,070 acres only were added to the cultivated
soil, although the population increased by
2,249,648 ; while the imports gradually dimin-
ished. Thus, during the forty years, rather
more than 3,500,000 of acres were added to
the cultivated soil, against an increase of popu-
lation to the extent of 6,000,000 ; while the
foreign supplies did not amount, on the average,
to three weeks' consumption in the year, cal-
culated over the whole period. During this
time the country had passed through some
remarkable phases. While a large amount of
acreage had been brought into cultivation, the
circulation had been restricted to a metallic
currency, and wheat had fallen from 78s. 4<d.^
at the close of the war, to 58s. 3d. And
nothing but the steady increase of population,
and the still more rapid increase of trade and
capital, could have sustained cultivation at the
point it had extended to ; nor was this done
without considerable reduction of rents, though
to nothing like what they had been before the
war. During the agitation for the repeal of
the corn-laws, it was thought that the measure,
if passed, would have the effect of throwing
much of the land out of cultivation ; but, on
the contrary, Britain was beginning to present
the opposite phenomenon of a population
overtaking the resource of fresh inclosure, and
compelled to have recourse to some other
means for increasing the produce of the soil.
Just at this period, agriculture begins to

AGBIdrLTUEE.]

ENGLISH FARMING.

[aqbicultiue.

nssiimo ft diftoront ami most important aspect, amounted to no lens than 2,<X'{2. Jiiit tliia is

lour distinct elements at once conspiring to an argument equally applicable to older or-

open up new resources. Tlieso were- the in- paniscd associations, wliicli havo f^ono throuj^U

troduetion of the use of guano ; the publi- aimilar changes. Drainage, tho fourth ele-

cation, in this country, of the works of Liebig ; ment, has uiupiostionably been a j)rincipul

the establishment of tho Koyal Agricultural cause of agricultural progress, and does not

Society of England ; and tho introduction of a require illustration here. It may be observed,

new system of drainage. Q^he two first of these liowever, that there are two great heads into

elements may almost bo taken together; for, which agricultural improvement naturally di-

though the manure had been discovered which vides itself; viz., tho Chemical and tlio Me-

has since efiected a marvellous revolution, the chanical— the former applying especially to tiio

prejudice was so great against it, that, but for light soils, and the latter to tho clays. ]t is,

the authority of Liebig's name, it might
not have been admitted as a manure; or, in
other words, the manure having come, a man
was needed to answer the challenge ; and
that man was found in the distinguished Pro-
fessor of Giessen, whoso publications, if they

however, to the latter that we must chiefly
look for any increase in the production, inas-
much as, on tho lighter soils, the wheat crop
occurs only onc« in the four-course system ;
whilst upon the clays, whether managed upo. .
the six-course system, or upon the older threo

did not initiate, at least drew attention to tho course shift, it is grown upon a larger odd-
important and new-sounding fact, that, the mark, approaching to the ratio of a third, in-
bulk of a plant not being derived from the stead of a fourth, of the arable land, and is,
soil, the bulkiness of a manure had little to do therefore, looked to by the farmer as laruishing
with its value. Nor must we omit to mention the profit which, on the light soil, is drawn from

the important point subsequently established
by Mr. Lawes ; namely, that " the lasting
qualities of farm-yard manure are, in a com-
mercial sense, not an advantage ; for it is get-
ting back your money by instalments, instead
of getting it back all at once. A great deal of
your capital is placed in the laud, where it
lies dormant for a long time ; but science can
correct that evil, by enabling you to put the
right manure in the right place."

With regard to the third element, perhaps
it does not merit the same value in the cate-
gory of agricultural elements ; lor high patron-
age gives no lasting prosperity : and we must
not forget, that if any benefit has been derived
from societies, in several parts of the couutry,
these already existed, and still exist, to extend
their influence in their particular localities. If
the Hoyal Agricultural Society has done any
especial good, the seeds were sown before it
had been called into lite ; and it has only had
ihe effect of giving a stimulus to agricultural
pursuits, by summoning up a new race of po-
tent genii, and setting them all at work for the
farmer. This may be illustrated by the fact,
that at the Society's first meeting at Oxford,
in 1S39, for the exhibition of agricultural
implements, the entries were but twenty -two ;
while at Gloucester, in 1852, the number

the wheat and barley crop together, besides a
wider range of profit derived from the sheep
flock. It seema obvious that the improvement
of the clay soils to their utmost extent, is tho
special, nay, perhaps, the only means left to
us for operating in any important degree to
maintain the produce of wheat proportionately
with our increasing numbers. Accordingly, it
is by increased mechanical means that we
diminish the amount of time required for
bringing the land, alter the crops, into pre-
paration for the future crops. Much has, in-
deed, been done by improved implements ; but
the application of steam culture to the soil is the
greatest agricultural feat of tho dav. The
clavs are thereby enabled to hold the race
more evenly with the ligliter soils; for the
great inherent powers of the heavy soils then
come in aid to counterbalance the easier work-
ing of the lighter soils. These remarks naturally
lead us to speak of the MACiiiNEur of tue
FAini, under which general heading, we have
introduced some articles which may not pro-
perly be called machinery, but which, never-
theless, take a part in the numerous appliances
of the agriculturist, farmer, or husbandman.
The whole of this division we have arranged
alphabetically, as it gives greater clearness and
facility of reference.

901

HXTiiMELLEE.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY [sBEAKiNa macsii,-b.

ASPHALTING APPARATUS.
This is au apparatus used for asphalt floor-
in^'-, being well knowu as the best, cheapest,
and most healthy flooring for barns. It ren-
ders every description of agricultural building
impervious to VFet, not liable to decay, and se-
cure from the touch of vermin. The materials
are cheap, and the cauldron used for it may
also be used for boiling cattle-food. The price
of 100-gallon size, with working-tools, is about

£17.

AXLES AND WHEELS.

The naves of these wheels are of iron, cast
on chills, by which the wearing parts become
go hard as to resist tlie file ; the spokes are of
oak, and the Iclloes of ash. They are made by
machinery, which, from the accuracy this gives,
jenders them superior to those made by hand.
They are also durable, and run easy. Mr.
Crosskill is both their inventor and maker;
and upwards of 90,000 of them have been sold
for various purposes, and sent to every quarter
of the globe. Price, per pair, £8 5s. ; if with
tire, 3 by finch, £7 IO5.; and 2^ by finch,
£7. An improved set may be purchased for
£10 lis. Four pairs of patent wheels and
axles, fitted with naves cast on steel pins, have
also been highly spoken of. The spokes are
made of the best malleable iron, one end of
which is cast into the nave, the opposite end
having a box screwed firmly on to receive the
felloe ; the end of the spoke is let up into
the felloe by au auger, thereby preventing the
destructive mortice holes. The tire is shrunk
on hot, in the usual way. Price, No. 1, one
pair 4 feet 6 inches high, 2^ inches tire, 2}
inches axle, £6 106\ per pair; No. 2, one pair
3 feet 6 inches high, 2i inches tire, 2j inches
axle, £5 10s. ; No. 3, one pair 4 feet high, 2
inches tire. If inches axle ; and No. 4, 1 pair
o feet high, 2 inches tire. If inches axle,
£12 12s., with boxes to carry oil.

BARLEY HUMMELLER.
This implement is designed to separate the
horns from the barley. It is fitted with re-
volving cutters and wire cylinder, so that it
will take oft" the horns, and, at the same time,
separate them from tiio barley, at the rate of
about two bushels per minute. Its price is
about £3 .12s. One of these machines, in-
y02

vented by Mr. Holben, of Barton, Cambridge-
shire, consists of an elevating apparatus, which
supplies the corn direct from the dressing-ma-
chine, and a breaker, making nearly 300 strokes
per minute, under which the barley passes in
a thin layer, at the rate of from ten to twelve
quarters per hour. Whilst this process is
going on, it, at the same time, brightens and
improves the samples, which are delivered per-
fectly free from awns. It is easily worked by
a lad ; whereas all other machines for the pur-
pose require two men. The price is £5 10s.

BREAKING MACHINES
Are now very much in use. One, invented
by Mr. Nicholson, of Newark, Norwich, has
received high commendation, and was, at Ches-
ter, awarded the prize for being the best for
common cake. It is made with Nicholson's
patent method of driving the movable roller
with an internal cog-wheel ; thus obtaining an
unusually great variation in size, broken in a
simple and effective manner, and greatly dimin-
ishing the friction and power required to work
it. Its strength and simplicity are further in-
creased by a new and effective setting arrange-
ment. The price is £3 13s. 6J. Another, manu-
factured by Messrs Airaes and Barford, re-
ceived the first prize at the North Lincolnshire
shows, open to all England, both in 1S60 and
1861, in competition with all the prize machines
by the best makers : it is immensely strong, and
adapted for either hand, horse, or steam power.
This machine is fitted with two sets of rollers,
both of which are adjusted by a double eccen-
tric movement. It will reduce the hardest
and largest cakes into seven sizes, varying
from the largest size required for bullocks,
down to dust for drilling. Price, including
dust-screen and wood box, £6 10s. ; pulley
for power, 12s. Qd. extra.

Other oil-cake breakers have obtained con-
siderable celebrity ; and among these are
those manufactured by Messrs. Ransome and
Sons, of Ipswich, Suftblk. They have one both
powerful and effective. It is fitted with a
pair of toothed rollers, for breaking the hardest
cake; and, by means of a parallel adjustment,
the distance between the rollers may be varied
so as to reduce coarse or fine at pleasure.
It is fitted with another roller and face-plate,
through which the broken cake may be made

CAiiTB ATO) WAOGoxs.] OF ENGLISH FARMING.

[CAHTS AWD "WAOOOyS.

to pass when required to bo reduced to powder
for mnnure. The jirico of tliis maohino is
£12 5*. (id. — Another, by the samo miikera,
and callt'il a Combined Mill niul Oil-cake
Breaker, consists of a benii-outter, nu oat-mill,
and an oil-calve breaker ; all conibined on a
neat iron stand. This is a cheap, durable, and
cilifient mill, for cuttinj* oats and beans, and
breakinfj; oil-cake for beasts and sheep. Its
price is £0 9s.; pulley for steam-power rxira.

CARTS AND WAGGONS.
Carts and wajxgons of every de8cri|ition, and
for every conceivable purpose to facilitate
farming operations, have been invented and
improved. The Nevrcastlo prize or model
one-horse cart, invented by "\V. Crosskill,
has had awarded, by the Eoyal Agricultural
Society of England, the Silver Medal, at Lin-
coln, and the first prize of £5, at Newcastle.
It is plain and durable ; useful for general pur-
poses ; and, we are informed, that upwards of
6,500 have been sold. It has loose side and
end-boards ; a simple tipper for delivering
manure, &c., in heaps, and patent wheels.
Its price is £14 55. ; or, with harvest shelving
£15 15s. — A light spring cart, by the same
maker, has had awarded to it the prize of £2
for a cheap market cart, by the Eoyal Agri-
cultural Society of England, at Leeds; also,
the first prize by the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland. It has patent wheels,
4 ft. 6 in. high, Ij in. convex tire, to carry
15 cwt., and is well adapted for a nag-horse to
convey luggage, &c. Price, £12 15s. — A
harvest cart, invented by J. Hannam, Esq., of
Burcott Park, is a very good one. It possesses
a light and low body (expressly adapted for
carrying hay, corn, &c.), and patent wheels,
4 ft. 6 in. high, with convex tire — which does
not injure grass land like the flat tire with
aharp edges — 4 in. wide. Its price is £14, or,
with front and hind ladder.s or raves, £15 10s.
Thi?, also, has had a prize awarded it. An
improved one-horse cart, with harvest frame,
is a capital implement for farm work ; and there
is a very good one, made by Woods and Cock-
sedge, Stowmarket, Suffolk. It has been
awarded a first prize by the Eoyal Agricultural
Society of England ; and is made of the beat
seasoned timber ; fitted with an improved self-
acting tipping apparatus, with side boards,

florap-iron arms, fagoted, Bteeled, and turned
up, boxed and capped, with the improved
fall linch-pin, rendering accident imposBible ;
11-apoko patent boxccl iron nave wheels ; navo
of the best seasoned English timber; tire of
wheels, 4 in. wide, and § in. thick. Price, com-
plete, £15 10s; without the harvest frame,
£18 10s. — ]\rr. Thompson, of Lewes, Sussex,
sells a combined one-horse cart, water-cart,
and irrigator ; invented, improved, and manu-
factured by him. This implement obtained
the first prize — a gold medal — and 250 franca
in Paris, in 1S5G, and is a complete one-horse
cart, which, by a very simple and effective con-
trivance, can instantly be converted into a
water-cart, and with an irrigating apparatus
for water or liquid manure; its slight addi-
tional cost, beyond that of an ordinary cart, lias
commanded an extensive sale. Price, £18. —
The improved harvest cart, by Messrs. Hayes
and Sons, Stamford, Lincolnshire, has a great
advantage over all other carts, being low to
the ground, very roomy, mounted upon wheels
with 3 5-inch hoop tires, and Scotch iron axle-
tree, ao arranged that the wheels and axle can
be removed in a few minutes, when not re-
quired for harvest, and put under a manure
Scotch cart body, as preceding ones. Its
price is £13 los. — A pair-horse waggon, in-
vented by W. Crosskill, has had awarded, by
the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, the
first prize of £10 at Norwich, £10 at Exeter,
£5 at Lewes, £10 at Gloucester, and £3 at
Leeds. This implement has patent wheels,
3 ft. 4 in. and 4 ft. 9 in. high, 2^ by in. tire ;
ia light, will carry 3 tons, and turn in a short
space. Price, with pole or single shafts,
£29 10s., and with double break, £32 10s. ;
harvest ladders, £1 10s. extra. — Tiie Yorkshire
waggon has had awarded the first prize ot
£7 by the Eoyal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land. It is constructed with oak soles, and
stout red deal or plank sides. ^Haa patent
wheels, 3 ft. 9 in. and 4 ft. 9 in. high, 3 by
2 in. tire, to carry 3 tons. Price, with pole
or single shafts, £30 10s. ; and with deep side
and end-boards, to put on for carrying bones,
soot, &c., £32 10s. ; drag-chain and shoe, £1
extra. — A light waggon, improved by Cross-
kill, has its framework of the body constructed
of oak, and lined with red deal. It has patent
wheels, 3 ft. and 4 ft. hiirh. 2h by ^ in. tire,

003

CHAi'i--cuTrEES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEEY [chaff-cutters.

will carry 30 cwt., and turn in a short space.
This is a neat and useful vehicle, suitable for
one horse, or a pair of ponies. Price, £21 with
single shafts.

A two or ihree-horse waggon, invented and
manufactured by Messrs. Hayes, is excellent
for quick delivery of corn, flour, or any other
produce. It is mounted upon springs and
patent axles, of the best manufacture, and will
carry 60 cwt. It is fitted with pole, or two
pairs of shafts, so arranged that either pair will
work with a single horse. It has a seat in
front, whereby the horses can be driven at a
fast rate. The body is so constructed, with a
circular front, made of iron, that it will turn in
twenty feet of ground; the front wheels,
4 ft. 4 in. high ; and body no higher from
the ground than ordinary waggons without
springs : a great advantage in loading and
unloading, and easy draught. This waggon
has obtained several first-class prizes. Price,
£i2 10s. — The same makers produce a light
one-horse spring waggon or van, mounted upon
patented axles, and fitted with four side and
three cross springs, of the best manufacture.
The front wheels lock under ; body wide and
square, up-fitted with floating raves, and
strengthened with angle iron plates, for top
loading. The framing of the body is made of
the best English oak. In every respect, it is
complete for railway carriers, merchants, and
manufacturers ; and very suitable for town or
country. — Its price is £35. It would be al-
most endless to describe all the excellent carts
and waggons in use. They are, as we have
said before, of every kind ; and almost every
maker has his patented article.

CHAFF-CUTTERS.
Chaflf-cutters are, like carts, very numerous,
many of them exhibiting very slight dif-
ferences in their construction. One is espe-
cially arranged for small occupations, fitted
with toothed rollers, and having all the work-
ing parts securely protected. Its price is
£2 105. — Another is constructed entirely of
iron, having the improved form of toothed
rollers, rising mouth, and adjustments similar
to the larger machines. Its price is £3 15s. —
Another is constructed to work by a simple
arrangement of wheels, instead of worm ; fitted
with an improved form of toothed roller, rising
904.

mouth, patent steel mouth-piece, and arranged
to vary the length of cut without change
wheels. This is well adapted for export, pack-
ing in a small compass. Price, £5 10*. — An-
other has a stop-motion, and a patent steel
mouth-piece, which is never worn hollow or un-
even by the friction of the passing knives.
Price, £7. — Another, of greater power and ca-
pacity, is adapted for steam or horse-power ;
fitted with the patent steel mouth and other
improvements, the rising mouth adjusting
itself to all and every variation or irregularity in
feeding. Price, £10. — Another is constructed
on entirely new principles, having two pairs of
feed-rollers acting independently of each other,
with the steel mouth-piece and stop motion.
The accuracy of the fitting, and the solidity of
construction, recommend this implement for
steam-power. — Besides these, Mr. Samuelson,
of Banbury, has invented a chaflf-cutter on an
iron frame, and adapted for hand or machine
power. The feed-rollers are self-adjusting, to
suit the thickness of straw or hay, so as to keep
it at a uniform pressure. It is fitted with
stop motion, enabling the man feeding to throw
it out of gear without stopping the driving
power. It has two knives, and the size of
mouth is 11 in. by 3^ in. ; intended to cut
1-inch chaff, but wheels for other lengths are
supplied at 5s. per length extra. Price (car-
riage-paid to any principal railway station in
England, Scotland, and to Dublin, Cork, or
Waterford), with pulley, £10 15*.; without
pulley, £10. — Messrs. Eansome, of Ipswich,
produce chaff'-cutters adapted for large occupa-
tions, railway carriers, job-masters, &c. These
may be used by steam or water-power ; cuts
■jSyth, ^, and f-inch lengths, and more, if so
ordered. They are fitted with rising and fall-
ing rollers, adapting themselves to the thick-
ness of the feed ; have three knives, and will
cut from 30 to 35 cwt. of l-inch chaff per hour.
The cog-wheels are all covered over, and fitted
with striking-out gear. The box can be re-
moved when not at work. Price, £24 ; pulleys
for steam-power, extra. — Another, by the same
makers, can be worked by one or two men,
horse or steam-power. , It cuts diflerent
lengths of chaft"; viz.,i and i inch, or a greater
variety, if ordered. It has rising rollers and
patent striking-out gear, and is well adapted
for General use. Can be fitted with two or

cm

•iixs.]

OK I'NOLTSIl FAKMTXG.

[ci.oD-cnusnEns.

three knives, as ordered. Price : for one man,

iClO lOs. ; for two nuMi, £ll ; for hor.-<c-power
only, £10 10s.; stoam-pDwer only, .Cll 11*.
— The prize chatV-cuttinc; engine, for steam-
power, was invented by the hite Hugh Carson,
of Warminster, and improved and inanufaclured
bv the Messrs. liansomo. It was awanhui the ■
only prize at the Canterbury meeting of the
Eo\al Agrieultural Society, and at tlie Cardiff
meeting of tlie Batli and West of Enghind
Soeitty. Tlio mouth of this machine is lOi
inches wide, and it will rise to 5 inches deep.
It has two pairs of feed-rollers, rising mouth,
and roller, and will cut three lengths of chaff'.
The feed can be stopped or reversed instantly
at the will of the feeder, or in case of accident.
It has three convex knives ; and its price is
£13 I'o^. ; pulley for power and change-wheels
extra.

CHURNS. !

Although these implements can hardly be
said to belong to the machinery of the farm^ ;
properly speaking, still they are very necessary
in the manipulations carried on in one depart-
ment of it. Accordingly we will describe a
few of them that have obtained some degree of
celebrity. The improved barrel-churn con-
sists of a sort of barrel, made of the best oak
wood, hung on a frame, so as to revolve
without much friction ; the cream is put
inside, and the whole turned round by means
of the handles ; in this manner the cream is
thoroughly shaken, with the least possible ex-
penditure of power. It is adapted for from 2
to 40 lbs. of butter. Price, £1-.— The patent
Sussex churn, invented by Green and Hale, of
Brighton, improved by R. Green, of London,
and manufactured by Perkins and Son, of
London, is made of block tin, with trough for
placing hot or cold water, to obtain, at any
season of the year, the proper temperature:
to make 7 lbs. of butter. Price £I 5*. —
The patent American churn, invented by C. I.
Anthony, of America, has received prizes at all
the meetings of the Eoyal Agricultural Society
since its introduction, including that given
at the Great Exhibition of ISOl. It is simple
in construction, easily cleaned, and the opera-
tion of making butter is usually performed in '
ten minutes. The principle is, that by means
of cells in the dasher, the air is forced through
5 z

the cream, thereby causing a greater separa-
tion of partich'9 to take place, and also a
larger quantity of butler to bo made. Tlio
price, to make 3 lbs. of butter, ia £l lOs.

CLf)I). CRUSHERS.

The clod-crusher, invented by AVilliam Cross-
kill, (if Beverley, is an improvement upon tho
well-known roller to which tho gold medal of
tho Society was awarded, in ISIG; and it re-
ceived tho first prize at the competitive trial
of clod-crushers at Warwick. The roller-discs
are made of different diameters, in order that
they may be cleaned by the irregular motion
produced ; and they are kept in an upright
position by a novel arrangement of the bosses
or centres. The 6 ft. size is most generally
used. Its price is £16 10*. ; travelling-wheels,
£2 extra. — There is a cast-iron press-wheel
clod-crusher or land-roller, invented, improved,
and manufactured by Messrs. Amies and
Benford, Peterborough, Northamptonshire,
with cylinders or rings 30 inches diameter, on
Cambridge's principle ; but the frame is made
wholly of wrought iron, and has a steerage
wheel and guide-rod, instead of the ordinary
wood shafts. By this arrangement the undue
strain upon the shaft horse is avoided, and a
saving of at least one-third in power is effected ;
the greatest possible strength is also secured.
It ia provided with a seat for the driver,
which enables him to dispense with the services
of a boy, as, with the assistance of reins, he has
perfect control over both horses and imple-
ment. The price, fitted with patent scrapers,
is £19. — jMessrs. Wedlake and Dcndy, Ilorn-
ciiurch, Essex, have registered an economic
clod-crusher and pulveriser. Tho great defect
of all rollers and revolving clod-crushers is, that
when the soil is partially pulverised, they have
a tendency, instead of crushing the remaining
clods, to press them into the loose soil beneath,
so that the process of harrowing and rolling
must frequently be repeated, and the land thus
often rendered hard and solid, without effect-
ing the desired pulverisation. This defect is
said to be both easily and quickly remedied by
the economic pulveriser, which rubs the clods
into a fine mould, at the same time levelling
the surface of the land, and leaving it light,
friable, and in a greatly improved condition.
Price £5 15s.

905

CHEESE PEES3ES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEEY [cultivators.

' CORN-SCREENS.

The corn-screen, or smut machine, tas a
diameter of 14 inches, and consists of iron
conical-flated scrubbers, interspersed with
covered fans at suitable distances. Immediately
the grain leaves the machine an exhaust-blast
is applied, which draws chaff and light seed up
from the good grain. Price, £30.— Another
implement of this kind, invented, improved,
and manufactured by William Ball, of Both-
well, had awarded a silver medal by the Eoyal
Agricultural Society of England, at Chelmsford,
an°d the first prize at the trial of corn-screens
by the Eoyal Agricultural Society, at Chester.
This machine effectually separates all the thin
kernel from either wheat, barley, or sainfoin,
and gives an equal and weighty sample by
means of a patent screen that clears itself at
every oscillation. It will screen about sixty
bushels per hour. Price, £7.

A new implement of this description, in-
vented by Mr. Boly, of Bury St. Edmund's,
has two screens, worked from one spindle.
The advantage of this is, that the same lad era-
ployed to turn a No. 1 screen, can work this, as
it requires no more power, one screen acting as
a counterbalance to the other ; and, compared
with a No. 1 screen, just double the work can
be done. It will screen, in fact, ISO bushels
per hour. Price, £16.

CHEESE-PRESSES.

A single cheese-press, with wooden stool and
double lever and pulley, invented by the late
Hugh Carson, of Warminster, has been, and
is now, improved and manufactured by Messrs.
Wedlake and Dendy. It has a compound
lever, and a pulley at the end of the second
lever, over which a chain passes, secured at
one end to the press, and, at the other, the
weights are suspended ; the effective weight is
thereby doubled, and great pressure obtained
for large cheeses. There are four weights,
which can be used as occasion requires, de-
pending on the state of the cheeses. The
price of this implement is £2 15s. — Another,
by the same makers, has received prizes from
the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, at
Chester, and a silver medal at Salisbury ; from
the Bath and West of England Society, at
Newton Abbott ; and at Cardiff. It is similar
900

in principle to the other, but has an iron stool,
eighteen inches in diameter, with a channel for
carrying off the whey which runs from the
cheeses. Price, £3. — A cheaper press is made
by Messrs. Wightman and Dening, Chard,
Somerset. It has been improved by a roller
being placed on each side of the follower, to
facilitate its working against the uprights, or
guides, thereby preventing friction. It occu-
pies but small space, and the pressure can be
regulated from 1 to 16 cwt., by means of a
weight shifting on a lever. Its price is
£2 10s.

CORN-DRYING MACHINE.

A patent corn-drying apparatus, invented
and improved by Don and Co., of London, and
manufactured by Smith and Co., of Leeds, is,
perhaps, rather expensive for most farms. It
is made for drying all kinds of grain, seeds, or
berries ; is heated by steam, and fitted with
apparatus to exhaust the steam as it is given
off from the grain. It is well adapted for the
drying of Egyptian and Black Sea wheat, or
other grain which has been washed, for the
purpose of freeing it from clods of earth or
other impurities, and for mollifying the
grain which has been injured by salt water, or
found too dry for grinding purposes. Com-
plete, and fixed in London, its price is £150.

CULTIVATORS.

Messrs. Eobinson and Son, of Burtou-upon-
Huuiber, Lincolnshire, have invented a drag-
harrow, or cultivator, suitable for working tal-
lows. It is made almost exclusively of wrought
iron ; the teeth can be moved either horizon-
tally or vertically, so as to suit the number of
teeth to the state of the land. The principal
improvement consists in one lever in the middle,
raising and lowering the whole of the harrow,
without the aid of side levers, as in other cul-
tivators. They are made of various widths, to
suit different occupations ; and the price is
£10 10s.

A chain harrow, invented by Cartwright,
of Shrewsbury, consists in the absence of any
rigid links in the body of the harrow, which, in
some states of the soil, have a tendency to clog ;
the links are expanded by improved bars, which
! only touch the extremities of the harrow, leav-
! ing all the links free. The size 9 feet wide by

DIBDUXO MACUDTE.]

OF ENGLISH rAHMIXG.

[UUKSSINO MACillNES.

7 feet G inches, and very atroni":, is chartjed
£G ios. Messrs. ISiuith aiui Taylor, of Ips-
wich, have u patent cultivatiir, or broailshare,
adapted for all the purposes ol' a bromi share,
scarifier, or drag-harrow, lilted with live
wrought iron tines, arranged so that either
shares or points may bo used, which can be
raised out of the ground backwards. It is
similar to a drag-rake, and is self-relieving,
when choked with weeds, stubble, &e., or when
turning at the ends of the land. Fitted with
side levers, to regulate the depth of work, it
is charged £9 10s.

Mr. Charles Clay's cultivator and cradica-
tor is a very good implement, applicable to all
cultivating purposes, such asbroadsharing, cul-
tivating, and grubbing. The tines are lixed to
revolving bars by keys, in a very simple man-
ner, and are raised out of the soil backwards,
similar to a horse-rake. Prizes have been
awarded by the Koyal Society, at A\'arwick,
and by the Council of the Paris Exhibition, as
well as by numerous local societies, to this cul-
tivator, and it is now well known as a first-class
implement. It is worked by two horses, with
five tines. Price, £7. — This maker has also a
new implement adapted to steam-power. It
runs on one pair of wheels, five feet in diame-
ter; requii'es one-half the usual power, and
does not require to be turned at the ends. The
tines are mounted upon revolving bars or axles ;
and, by reversing the engine, the tines place
themselves in and out of work without any at-
tention from the man, who sits at one end of
the implement, and steers by a lever attached
to the large pair of wheels, which are in the
middle of the frame. Its price is £iO.

DIBBLING MACHINE.

A new patent grain and seed-dibbling or
planting machine, with six planting wheels,
invented and manufactured by Mr. Freer, of
liothly, Leicestershire, is an expensive imple-
ment, but of excellent construction. It deposits
its seeds by hollow iron wheels, which, when
drawn over the ploughed soil, press holes, con-
centrating the ploughed soil, and reuniting it
with the subsoil, by which means the roots of
the plants are conducted deep into the earth.
Another advantage of concentrating the soil
beneath the nots is, that the surrounding
loose soil, as it falls by the weather, breaks from

the steins, allowing them to expand, and niakinf^
the crop less liable to bo brought down by
storms. The maeiiino is capable of depoMilinf;
from one peck to four bunhels per acre ; but not
more than half the seed used by tho drill is
required to produce an average of Ovo bushols
per acre more than witli the <lrill. It in also
durable, and warranted to work elDciently.
Its j)rice is £00.

DRESSING IMACIIINES.
Of these machines there are several good
makers, each of whom has his own improve-
ment to recommend. Mr. Crosskill's has five
riddles, and two screens for wheat, beans, &c.,
and can bo used as a blower by removing the
riddles. It is very simple and ellective, and an
immense number are now in use. Price,
£8 10*. Messrs. Holmes and Sons have
manufactured 3,000 of these machines, which
are very efficient and simple. They turn easy
for the man ; will dress a large quantity, mak-
ing a good sample; are very .strong, and fitted
up with great care. Price, £9 95. ; carriage
wheels, 7*. 6d. extra. — The sauie makers have
another, which is very useful for small oc-
cupations, and is much approved. It is
made on the same principle as the preceding,
but smaller, with riddles of 18 by 10 ; and the
price makes it a favourite in small occupa-
tions. It is £o lO*. — A 20-in. riddle corn-
dressing machine, for all kinds of grain, is
made by Messrs. Stacey and Sons. With
improved wind-board it is convertible, with
ease, into a powerful blower or rectifier;
being simple, and its perforn)ance equal to the
more complicated arrangements. Fitted with
six corn-sieves, its price is £10 10s. — Another,
to which upwards of forty prizes have been
awarded during the last twelve years, including
the first prize at the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society's shows, held at Glasgow,
Edinburgh, and Dumfries; and lirst and second
prizes at Perth. These machines efiectuaUy
separate the grain from all impurities; are
easily driven, and deliver the grain at the side;
They are made by llicliardson, of Carlisle, in
Cumberland. Price, £9 10*. — Another, for
hulling clover and trefoil seed, and made by
the liev. li. Hunt, of Earl's Colue, Essex,
received the prize at the Bath and West of
England show, and the silver medal at Carlisle.

907

DUILLS.}

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEEY [i-aem EAiLWATa.

It is for separating the husk or hull from the
seed, which it does in a most expeditious man-
ner, and without injury to it; a dressing
apparatus is attached for separating chaft",
seed, and hard cob, mounted on four wheels
for travelling. Its price is £46.

DRILLS.
These implements are made by numerous
manufacturers, but are all very similar in their
construction. What is called the Improved
Suffolk Lever Corn Drill, made by Messrs.
Garrett and Son, obtained the prize of £10 at
Norwich. It is adapted for drilling in rows,
at any distance apart, wheat, barley, beans^
peas, and other grain ; also turnips, mangel-
wurzel, and other seeds, on every description
of land, and will deposit quite evenly on steep
or side hills. The price of the 13-row drill,
with good levers, is £26 15s. — Messrs. Holmes
and Son have a seed and manure drill, on the
flat ridge. This machine received the highest
prize of the Eoyal Society of Leeds, and has
rollers working between the manure and seeds,
which effectually cover the manure, and leave
the ridges in their proper form. The seed is
also covered up by a light roller following,
when worked as a ridge drill. Price, £25.
—Messrs. Tasker and Sons have invented a
broad-cast corn-sowing machine, which delivers
the corn by cups from the box on to a wire
screen, which distributes it regularly, the
quantity is regulated by difterent-sized cog-
wheels. Three screens are sent with each
machine, to be used according to the descrip-
tion of corn to be sown. One horse can draw
it, and twenty acres a-day can be gone over.
Price, £1G 10s. — They have also invented a
corn drill for eleven rows. This implement will
drill every description of grain in rows at any
distance apart, from six inches and upwards,
and is seventy inches wide between the car-
riage-wheels. The quantities sown are regu-
lated by diiferent-sized cog-wheels, and the
supply of corn from the box to the barrel by
movable slides. The price, fitted with im-
proved steerage, is £27 10*. ; without steerage,
£123. — Another machine of theirs, the nine-
row corn and seed drill, is suitable for small
occupations. It will drive all kinds of grain
and turnip seed, the quantities being varied by
different-sized cog-wheels. The distance be-
908

tween the rows may be increased to suit the
various crops. The whole of the different
parts are arranged as simply as possible.
Price, £21; mangel-barrel, £1 10s. extra. —
They have, besides, a drill for sowing turnips
and mangel-wurzel seed with manure. The
quantity of manure drilled can be regulated
by a slide moved by racks and pinions, and can
be adjusted, at pleasure, by the man in at-
tendance. It is 84 inches between the car-
riage-wheels. Price, £24 10s. ; steerage,
£4 10s. extra.

ELEVATORS.
A portable straw elevator was invented by
James Hayes, of Elton, and improved and
manufactured by Messrs. Clayton and Shuttle-
worth. It is adapted for taking the strr.w
from the end of shakers, when worked in con-
junction with a portable thrashing machiue, to
the height of 20 feet, or more ; absorbs very
little power ; will deliver the straw, in any
direction, from a straight line to right angles,
and is calculated to save the labour of three
men. Tiie price is £59. — The same firm has
another implement, invented by S. "W. Cam-
pain, of Deeping St. Nicholas, and improved
by them. It is adapted for conveying the
straw, by means of an endless wire rope, to any
distance, height, or angle. The apparatus is
simple, and not liable to get out of order.
Price, complete, including carriage for travel-
ling, £45. — Another implement, of a similar
description, was invented by James Hayes, of
Elton. It is worked in conjunction witli the
portable thrashing machine, and will deliver
the straw 20 feet from the machine, on to a
stack at any angle, which saves, also, the labour
of three men. Price, £59.

FARM RAILWAYS.

Specimens of improved portable farm rail-
ways, invented by William Crosskill, have
appeared at various exhibitions. The rails are
constructed to carry loads of 15 cwt., and are
made of wood edged with iron where tiie
wheels run, and framed together in lengths of
15 feet. These lengths are connected by an
improved fastening-piece, easily adjusted, and
not liable to get out of order. Price, 4s. per
running yard. There i*^ an additional charge
for points, switches, &c. Trucks are con-

QUUUBEH8.]

OF ENGLISH FARMING.

[nABBOWB.

structed to run on this portable railway — ono to cut or break tho "couch," but draw it from
to tip the load on either side, and one to tip tho soil, and deliver it on tho Hurface. The
endwise. Price, JL'5 10a'. each. — An in\proved price, with five conltorH, ia £5, incrcasinp £1
turn-tablo for portable railways, ulso invented , for every additional two coulterH, up to eU-vcn,

by William Crosskill, is constructed to fit the
portable railway, 2 ft. G in. gauge, and is found
to be an important addition to it when re-
quired to turn the trucks at right angles, or

for which tho price in dCS.

Grubbers, scarifiers, scufflfrs, &c., perform
a very important function in agriculture, di-
minishing the amount of labour, and reducing

round sharp corners, and especially when the the expense of tillage. It has been calculated

railway is fixed in cattle-sheds, for carrynig
turnips, &c. Price, £5 10s. These inventions
have not vet been brought into very great use.

CRUBBERS AND SC.\RIFIERS.
If the utility of any implement is the nicasure
of its worth, there can be no question of the
value of the various classes tliat come under
the difl'erent denominations of grubbers and
scarifiers ; the great object gained by their
use being a very considerable saving in tho
number of ploughings required for any course
of farming, as much even as to the extent of
half of the number, according to the calculations
made by some. They are also of use in stir-
ring the soil in the intervals of the drills.
Carson's seven-share scarifier is a very excel-
lent implement of its kind, covering a large
space in its operations, and with the shares
made broad. — Coleman's scarifier, with five or
nine tines, is a well-known implement. A
prize medal was awarded for it at the Ex-
hibition of 1S51 ; and, in the report of the
jury, the advantage in saving of labour is thus
pointed out : — " Coleman's scarifier, one of the
best for hard ground, is five feet wide, seven
times as wide as a plough, and drawn by six
horses. These three pair, therefore, will cover
as much ground as seven pair at plough ; and
the labour, accordingly, would not be half of
one ploughing." It is also stated of this, that
it " never rises or swerves, but does its work
as true as a plough — doing it, therefore, once
for all. This is a decided advance, and greatly
facilitates the substitution of the scarifier for
the plough." A prize was also given for this
at the meeting at Carlisle ; and it is ranked as
the fii'st of the class, together with Garrett's

that, by tho use of these machines, the number
of ploughings is brought down to one- half,
and the work more efTt'ctually done. Mfssrs.
Bentall have long been known for their broad-
share : it has three or more points, the centre
one projecting, and may be used as a broad-
share with several tines, to a breadth of Git. Gin.,
or, with the centre point alone, as a subsoil
plough. This implement is especially adapted
for heavy soil. Messrs. Bentall have also cul-
tivators for light land. — Messrs. Clay's imple-
ment, of this class, is strong, the tines being
raised backward, as in a horse-rake, and tho
width of the cup can be varied during the
working. — Tennant's self-cleaning grubher
cleans and pulverises the soil, and is ni;ide so
as to take to pieces easily, and be packed into
a small compass.

HARROWS.

Amongst the makers of harrows, Messrs.
Howard, of Bedford, take a high place. "JMieir
set of patent four-beam iron harrows are re-
commended as useful three-horse barrows,
having a width of 10 feet. Price, £4. Tlieir
patent jointed iron harrows are of similar con-
struction to these, but with six rows of teeth,
and furnished with joints in the centre of each
harrow, which allow them to adapt themselves
to the form of the ridges, or any unevenness of
the surface. By a simple arrangement tiiese
joints may be easily locked, or allowed as much
play as required: this is a valuable improve-
ment. It is found desirable, in very rough
work, to fasten the joints. AV^idth, 9} ft.
Price, £4< Gs. Tiieir patent jointed iron iiar-
rows gained the first prize, as the best light
harrows, at the Gloucester, Lewes, Cheiins-

and Bentall's, of wl;ich " the superiority was i ford, and AVarwick meetings of the Koyal

not contested" at the Paris Exhibition of 1855.
— The Messrs. Howard's scarifier is of wrought
iron, so made as to combine strength with
lightness. The coulters are formed so as not

Agricultural Society of England. The teeth
are arranged so as to leave a fine surface, and
they are adapted for a pair of horses. Width,
So tt. Price, £3 12s. Their patent two-beam

909

HAEEOWS.]

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

[hat machines.

iron harrows are adapted for land plouglied
in small stitches of eight, ten, or twelve fur-
rows. Tliese harrows having but two beams,
they adapt themselves to the shape of the
ridge, and fall into the furrows better than
wider harrows. The couplings are made with
an improved joint, which preserves the relative
distance of the harrows. Width, 9 ft. Price,
£4i Ss. — Mr. Cambridge, of Bristol, has a pa-
tent-jointed self-expanding chain harrow, in-
vented and improved bv him. This harrow is
so made as to yield to the land, however un-
even it may be. The links are made to work
between each other, producing double effect.
It is fitted with a tubular iron whippletree,
which is not so heavy as wood ; yet stronger,
and more durable. The links are made of
round iron, which work cleaner and lighter in
draught, but producing more effect. It is so
constructed, that two most perfect harrows
are combined in one, as the front part can
easily be removed, and the two other parts
attached to the whippletree. It is 8 ft. 6 in.
wide, and 7 ft. 6 in. long. Its price is £6.
He has also a set of three four-beam patent
tine harrows, invented and improved by him-
self. They are made with thin cutting tines,
which are more effectual than any other. The
beams are of double -flanged or ribbed iron,
put on edge, which makes the strongest
beam that can be used for harrows. The tines
are fitted in the flanges of the beams, and
secured by bolts and pins, and there is no
possibility or their getting loose. Each tooth
cuts a separate track, at equal distances. The
price of the set is £4 10s. A set of light
patent solid frame harrows, with adjustable
teeth, have been invented and improved by
Messrs. Kansome and Sons. They are of en-
tirely novel, yet simple construction. The
teeth are of equal size throughout, not being
shanked as usually is the case, and therefore
very strong. They can be shifted when the
points are worn, so as to make the teeth as
long as when new. Any tooth can be taken
out in an instant, and replaced with the least
trouble. The framework is quite independent
of the teeth, and is not taken to pieces when
packed. It covers nine feet, and the price is
£5.— A set of patent double-action steam
harrows are invented and manui'actured by the
Messrs. Howard. They are made to work
910

either backwards or forwards, like the steam
cultivator, the attendant steering them in the
same manner. They are most useful imple-
ments after the land has been broken up by
the steam cultivator; and fifteen to twenty
acres a day may be done with them much
more effectually than by horse-power. Price,
£12. — The improved Norwegian harrow, bv
the same makers, is adapted for steam-
power, and worked backwards and forwards
in the same manner as the last implement.
Price, £18.

HAY MACHINES.
A great saving of labour results from the
use of these machines, and the work is more
quickly done ; the great point to be attained
in the construction being, that the work shall
be done without clogging. All the working
parts of the machine must, therefore, be so
arranged as to prevent any grass or dirt from
interfering with the mechanism. The patent
haymaking machine, invented and manu-
factured by Messrs. Howard, was first exhibited
at the Leeds meeting of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, in 1861, when it gained
the first prize. The fork barrels are so ar-
ranged as to render clogging almost impossible.
The forks themselves are mounted on short
heads, in sets of three, and placed in zigzag
position, which more perfectly separates and
distributes the crop. The gear-work is strong
and simple ; the sliding pinions used in other
double-action machines for reversing the motion
being dispensed with. A simple eccentric
moves the pinions in and out of gear instantly.
A similar movement is also used for raising
and lowering the barrels. Its price is £15 ; if
fitted with patent roller — to prevent the grass
lodging on the front — 15s. extra. Their
patent haymaking machine is similar to the
preceding, but with double shafts, for two
horses abreast. Price, £17 ; if fitted with
patent roller— to prevent the grass lodging in
the front — 15s. extra. — Messrs. Ashley and
Co., of Stamford, have a patent haymaking
machine, to which, for ten yeai's in succession,
all the prizes of the Royal Societies of Eng-
land, Scotland, and Ireland, were awarded, as
well as the prizes of all the principal provin-
cial societies : also seventeen additional prizes
since the expiration of the ten years; seven

noEsi-Howr.]'

OF ENGLISH FARMING.

[lIORSK-UOKS.

prizes bavinpj been taken in ISOl, including
the tirst prize of one huiidreil guildt-rs, at the
great trial of haymakers, at Jlaerlein, in llol-
Jand. The first prize gold ined.il and 200 francs
were also awarded to it at the great nu'eting
in Paris, 18G0. It still continues to maintain
its well-earned reputation ; 800 having been
sent out during the last two years without a
single failure. The price of this excellent
machine is £15 15*. ; if with wire guard, to
keep the hay oft' the horse in windy weatlier,
15s. extra. — The same makers have another
similar machine ; but it has attached to it
double-edged steel blades, for cutting down

of Ireland, at Londonderry. It has a now
steerage apj)aratuH, under the iiniiadiato con-
trol of the man attending it, which turns tho
wheel, and, at the sani(> tin)e, alters tho line of
draught in the contrary direction. It thus
secures straight work on tho hill side. Price,
£!•. — Messrs. Priest and Woolnough have a
patent horse-hoe for roots, invented by theru-
selves. It was awarded a priz(; at tho meeting
of tho lioyal Agricultural Society of England,
at Salisbury, and lirst prize at that society's
meeting at Leeds. It is adapted for hoeing
between the rows of all drilled crops. Tho
hoe is made the same width as tho drills it

young thistles. — They have also patented a ' is to follow, and hoes at once as many
method of attaching forks to the same for rows as were drilled. Each boo works on a
breaking and distributing manure on grass \ separate lever, which is pressed into the ground
laud. Price, £15 15*. ; if with eight thistle i by weight like a drill, so that all tho ground
Jcnives, 32s. extra ; forks, 40s. extra ; forks and between .the plants is cut, however uneven it
Icuives, £3 3s. the set complete. — Another, in may be. The exhibitor's patent improve-

many respects similar to the preceding, but
simplified in its construction, with external
instead of internal shifting gear, and the fork
bearers revolving on a solid main axle, is made

ments are indispensable to the effective work-
ing of the implements. Price, £19. — Tiiey
have another machine for corn and roots, to
which was awarded a prize by the Royal

by them. It is remarkably easy to take apart i Agricultural Society of England, at Salisbury,
for cleaning or repairs, by an ordinary smith ; and first prize at Leeds. It is of similar con-

and the apparatus for reversing the action and
throwing out of gear is operated upon by means
of a lever at the near side, so that the man
has entire control of his machine without leav-
ing his horse. He can also raise or lower the
machine while going along by the side of his
horse. Price, extra strong, £16 IGs.

HORSE-HOES.
In the manufacture of hoes, Messrs. Gar-
rett and Sons have been very successful.
Their patent lever horse-lioe has successfully
carried off fourteen prizes — £65 in specie —
and five medals. It will hoe effectually all
drilled crops of grain or roots, and on every
description of soil. A man and a boy will do
iroin ten to fifteen acres per day, at a cost of
6d. per acre. Fitted with the new patented
;;rraugement for regulating the position of the
hoe blades, its price is £19. ]\[essrs. Carson
and Toone have a wrought iron horse-hoe, for
hill sides, with hoes, and five tines ; invented
by the late Hugh Carson, of AVarmiuster. It
received a prize from the Bath and West of
England Society at Cardiff, and was highlv
commended by the Royal Improvement Society

struction to the precedimg, but set for hoeing
wheat. The patent improvements allow the
attendant to adapt the hoe to lands or ridges,
or side hills, as well as to regulate the depth
of the hoeing while it is in motion. Price,
£22. — Another implement for small occu-
pations, for turnips, &c., is similar in principle
to the preceding, but reduced in size, and num-
ber of levers and hoes, to adapt it to farms of
moderate extent. It is fitted with an arrange-
ment whereby the man steering, by depressing
the steerage handles, takes the hoes out of work.
Price, £12 12s. — Another, for small occupations
and general purposes, is also similar in principle
to the preceding, but fitted with sufficient
levers and hoes for two hoes to work between
the different rows of plants. These horse-
hoes are well adapted to follow small occu-
pation drills. Price, £14 14s.

A patent turnip-thinner and horse-hoe com-
bined, invented, improved, and manufactured
by John Eaton, had a prize of £5 awarded to
it at Leeds. It is especially adapted to thin
or bunch-out turnips or wurzels, on the ridge
or flat, pre;paratory to singling by hand;
leaving the bunclies at nine, twelve, or fifteen

911

HOKSE-KAKES.]

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEKT

VllOESE-EAKES.

inches apart, and hoeing all the ground be-
tween the rows at the same operation.—
Another, of a similar description, is made by
the same manufacturer. A man and cob horse,
-with these implements, will bunch-out and hoe
from three to four acres per day, requiring
only children, or inexperienced persons, to
follow after the cut plants are withered, leav-
ing the best and single plant— thus expe-
ditiously often saving the whole crop.— Another
implement enables the operator to miss the
plants in thin places, by simply raising the
handles, and thus avoid cutting-up one plant
that ought to be left growing, the flat hoes
remaining in work as before. These imple-
ments can be used as ordinary horse-hoes,
by simply taking off the revolving frame. —
Another implement can regulate the size of
the bunches left, according to the state of
the soil or superabundance of the plants
growing, by putting on longer or shorter re-
volving hoes. Extra hoes for the purpose
at 5s. per set. The price of each of these
machines is £6 Gs.

HORSE -RAKES.
These implements very materially diminish
the labour, and, in consequence, are very ex-
tensively adopted. In most of them, the tines
are made to act separately, so as to yield to
any inequality of surface. The leverage has
been latelymuch improved, the action beingvery
light. The Messrs. Howard have patented a
horse-rake, which has carried all the first prizes,
for some years past, awarded by the Royal
Agricultural Society of England for this imple-
ment. It is used for collecting hay, corn,
stubbles, twitch grass, and leaves ; for drag-
ging meadows after a flood, raking in clover
and grass seeds, and as a weed extirpator on
corn crops in the spring. A guide is fixed to
all the rakes, to prevent the lever from being
strained by careless usage ; the end of the
guide forms loops, through which a pair of
reins can be passed. Extreme width, 7^ feet.
Price, £8 5s. ; if fitted with twenty-eight steel
teeth, £8 12s. (Jd. — Another, invented and
manufactured by the same makers, gained the
first, and only prize, as the best horse-rake at
the Leeds meeting of the Eoyal Agricultural
Society of England, in 1861. The teeth of the
rakes are formed so as to collect no rubbish
912

with the corn, and, by a new arrangement,
are allowed greater freedom to adapt them-
selves to the irregularities of the surface.
The raising bar is placed above the heads of the
teeth ; so that when the lever is put into
action, the raising bar, pressing upon the heads,
brings the teeth out of work. Price, £8 15s. ;
if fitted with thirty-two steel teeth, £9 2s. Qd.
— Another, with movable shafts and wheels, is
on the same principle as the former, but made
so that the shafts can readily be moved to the
end of the rake, by which means the implement
can be drawn endwise through any gateway, or
along very narrow roads. It is well adapted
for "Wales, and other mountainous districts,
where the roads are too narrow for the ordi-
nary horse-rake. Price, £9 10s. — Messrs.
Smith and Brothers, of Thrapston, North-
amptonshire, have a steel-toothed horse-rake,
which took a prize at the Eoyal Society's
Show, at Salisbury ; also a special prize at the
Manchester and Liverpool Agricultural Show,
at Wigan. The beams are made of tubular
iron ; the teeth of spring steel ; which makes
it light, strong, and durable. It has a lever
behind to raise the teeth when the rake is full.
It is mounted on wrought iron wheels, which
are capped to prevent the hay from winding
round the axles. Price, £7 15s. — A patent
balance horse-rake, invented by C Woods,
of Ipswich, improved and manufactured by
Messrs. Eansome and Sons, is made on an
entirely new principle. The man rides, and,
by his weight, partly counterbalances the
teeth ; so that the work of discharging the
load, which is done by his foot, is greatly
lessened. The wheels are of wrought iron,
and very high, so that the draught is light.
This rake is especially useful when large tracts
of land must be covered in a short time, both
at home and abroad. •. It covers 10 ft. in work.
Price, £17 10s. — The same firm has also
invented and improved a lever horse-drag rake.
This light and effective implement rakes the
laud quite clean, and is unloaded without
stopping the horse. The form of the teeth is
so constructed as to enable them to carry a
great load. By means of a sliding-rod, each
alternate tooth may be raised out of work — a
desirable arrangement for raking twitch, &c.
It is fitted with side levers, by which the
teeth can be heightened or lowered at plea-

DISTniBUTOBS.]

OF ENGLISH FARMING.

[mIJ,L8.

euro; ami also with steel teeth. This implement
will cover, iu work, G ft. 0 in. Price, .CS 5*.

MANUKK DISTRl 151 TORS.

TIio introduction of artitlciiil niaMures haa
necessitated the conatruction of iiuplenients
which shall distribute tlicin equally over the
surface. These distributors are well adapted
for the purpose. l^Fany of the drills are also
arranged so as to deposit these manures in an
even manner.

Chambers's patent broadcast manure dis-
tributor, invented and improved by Thomas
Chambers, jun., and manufactured by Messrs.
(larrett and Sons, has taken prizes at Lincoln,
Carlisle, Salisbury, and Leeds. It is made
with screw regulator and frame shafts ; is well
.•ulapted for the regular distribution of guano,
blood manure, salt, nitrate of soda, &c. ; and
will sow from two to sixty bushels per acre on
flat or ridge. Its price is £10. — Another, on
the same principle as the preceding, but of
more simple construction, is charged £1G 10s.
— The liquid manure distributor, or water-cart,
invented by W. Crosskill, carried the silver
medal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of
England, at Cambridge. The body is made of
iron plates, fitted with a brass valve, which a
man can open and shut as he walks by the
side of the horse. The spread-board is easily
adjusted, so as to hang level when on hill sides.
It is fitted with patent wheels, 4 ft. G in. high,
Mith convex tiro, and holds 120 gallons.
Price, £17 ; or, with apparatus for watering
four rows of turnips, &c., 15«. extra. — A
portable pump, for liquid manure or water, by
the same inventor, was awarded the first prize
by the Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland, at Edinburgh. It has a .'?^-in. work-
ing barrel of cast iron, fitted with brass valve
and bucket, so that it is not liable to get out
of order. Price, with seven feet of leather hose,
and three feet of copper tube, £.j lijs. ; porta-
ble tripod stand, 1-Js. extra. — Another liquid
manure distributor, or water-cart, was awarded
the first prize of £6 by the Koyal Agricul-
tural Society of England, at Leeds, 18G1. It
will hold 200 gallons, and is much used for
conveying water to cattle, portable steam-
engines, &c. Price, £22 ; or, with apparatus
for watering four rows of turnips, &c., 15s.
extra. — The patent manure distributor of
G A

Mesara. Pricat and "Woolnougli, is made for
depositing broadcast guano, and other artificial
manure-^, in (juantiticH of from three to forty
bushels ptT aero ; and ia fitted with a patent
manure barrel and steel spring scrapera. The
pressure of the spring scrapers on the barrel
is so light, that considerable diflerence ia mado
in till' horse's draught; and thoy may almost
instantly be removed when not required. Im-
proved means are adopted to insure a regular
delivery of manure ; and the distributor ia
mounted on iron wheels. Price, £19.

MILLS.
The machines which fall under this heading
comprehend crushing mills, grinding, crushing
and grinding combined, bean, malt and oat
mills, ilour mills, and bono mills. A few of
them will suffice for our purpose. The univer-
sal mill, invented, improved, and manufactured
by Messrs. Kansomo and Sons, consists of a
pair of smooth rollers of equal diameter, for
crushing oats, malt, barley, linseed, &c. ; with
a bean mill attached for cutting beans, peas,
Indian corn, &c. It will cut and crush every
kind of grain or seed on the farm. It is
mounted on a strong iron frame, and is con-
structed with a view to durability and economy
of power. Price, £21 10*. ; pulley, extra. — A
steel grinding mill, invented by John Hardley,
of Sliide, and improved and manufactured by
Messrs. Picksley, Sims, and Co., as a general
grinder and crusher, has been acknowledged,
by competent judges, to be a high-class ma-
chine. It combines the properties of a pair
of stones and the smooth-roller crushing mill,
and its advantages are consequently manifold.
It is suitable for grinding all kinds of graiu
into meal for feeding purposes, at the rate of
twelve bushels per hour, or it can bo adjusted
merely to break the grain. Price, £12 10^.
— A portable corn mill, invented, improved,
and manufactured by Messrs. Eansome and
Sons, is mounted on a strong, compact,
wooden frame, and is fitted with three-
feet best Erench burr-stones, ^Yith a flour-
dressing apparatus, for preparing flour for
household purposes, which can be thrown
out of gear w hen grinding barley, beans, peas,
&c. This machine is adapted to be driven by
steam, water, or horse-power; will produce, of
barley-meal, six bushels per hour, or of fine

913

MomKG MACHINES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEET [moaving machines.

flour, three bushels per hour, with the power of
four horses. Price, £70 ; pulleys, 70^. per pair
extra. — The same makers have also a port-
able corn mill. This is a useful mill, mounted
on a strong, neat, and compact iron frame,
and is fitted with 24-inch best French burr-
stones ; the lower stone, in this mill, being the
runner. The adjustments are easy of access,
and it is not liable to get out of order. It
can be worked by steam, horse, or water-power.
Price, £35. — They have also a portable horse-
gear thrashing machine, which is arranged so
that it can be put to work without unloading
the horse-gear. The power is communicated
to the barn-works, through an intermediate
motion, by means of a strap. The horse-gear
is timed for horses, and calculated on the
strength of foreign horses. It may be worked
by oxen, if necessary. Price, £85.

MOWING MACHINES.
The mowing is an offshoot of the reaping
machine, requiring no delivery ; it is more
simple in its construction, and has been brought
to a great state of perfection, cutting any de-
scription of grass crop with ease and certainty.
Messrs. Burgess and Key have made great
improvements in this machine. Cranton's is
made on Wood's principle ; it is a smaller im-
plement, and can be worked by one horse.
Many of the manufacturers have also com-
bined implements, both for reaping and mow-
ing. This has been done with a view to eco-
nomy in the purchase-money ; but as the
principle involved differs in each, the com-
bination can scarcely be expected to produce
an implement which can work effectually.
"Wood's prize grass mowing machine, invented
by W. A. Wood, of Hoosick Palls, New York,
awarded the highest prize by the Eoyal Agri-
cultural Society of England, at Leeds, in July,
1861, was highly commended by the Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland, at Perth ;
and received a gold medal and 1,000 francs,
and the grand gold medal of honour, from the
Prench government, at Vincenues, in June,
1860 ; also, the highest prizes by the United
States' National Agricultural Society; first
prizes of the Yorkshire, the Eoyal North
Lancashire, the Eoyal North Lincolnshire, and
the Kent County Agricultural Societies. Of
this implement, 800 have been sold in one
914

season. It is said to be unsurpassed in close-
ness of cut, simplicity of construction, light-
ness of draught, portability, &c., and will cut
one acre per hour, with one man and two
horses. It is built in the best workman-like
manner, with steel-cutter bars and cutters,
connecting-rod, crank-pin, and shafts ; the
metal used for the wheels and gearing is of a
very superior quality, which admits of being
made much lighter without reducing its
strength, making them more durable, and re-
quiring less power to work them. The cutters
are so arranged as to follow the uneven sur-
face of ground when at work, and can, by a
lever, be instantly elevated to pass over cut
grass and other obstructions by the driver.
The knives never work when the machine is
backed ; they are placed in front, the more
easily to be seen by the driver. Price, in-
cluding two extra knives, six blades, six fingers,
bevel pinion, oil cup, &c., £22. — Another
machine, constructed on the same principle, is
a little cheaper, on account of its not being
arranged with shafts for one horse, and a shorter
cutter bar, which is 3 ft. 6 in. long. When
not in use it will pass through 4-ft. gates.
It is light, portable, and of easy draught; simple
in construction, and well adapted for the use
of small farmers ; and will cut from five to six
acres per day. Price £20. — Wood's prize
combined mowing and reaping machine, is
another implement patronised by his late royal
highness the Prince Consort, the Emperor of
the Prench, the King of the Belgians, &c., &c.,
and has been awarded more prizes than any
other in the world. Simple in construction,
light draught, portable, easily managed, it can
be changed from a mower to a reaper, and vice
versd, in a few minutes. Of this machine, the
large number of 1,200 have been sold in
three years. It will cut any kind of grass or
grain at the rate of ten to twelve acres per
day. Its price, including extra knife, blades,
fingers, pinion, and package, is £35. Notwith-
standing the great merit of these machines,
and the extensive patronage they have re-
ceived, we have some excellent makers amongst
ourselves.

PLOUGHS.
In implements like the plough, the per-
manent form having been determined by

PLOUGHS.]

OF ENGLISH FARMING.

[pLouons.

experience, improvements can only be made in
the inanut'aoturo ot tlie aocoiulary parts, and in
the proper adjustment of tlio whole. Iron lias,
in a great measure, superseded wood, the
nu-tal combining strength with lightness ; the
mouki-boards are of varying liMigth, to suit
uiriV'rent soils, and the coultors can bo inclined
to one side or the other. The Messrs. lian-
some may be said to have originally taken the
first steps in improving the plough ; and, with
iSlessrs. Busby, llornaby, and Howard, still
sustain the reputation they all have so long
merited. The Messrs. llansome, besides their
ordinary ploughs, have introduced a double-
furrow plough, for turning two furrows at the
same time ; by removing the mould-boards of
the ridging-plough, it is adapted for a sub-
soiler, to work after the plough ; and, by at-
taching a pair of open-ribbed mould-boards,
it is adapted for raising potatoes. — Messrs.
Howard, in addition to their other ploughs,
have a small pony plough. — Messrs. Hornsby,
also, besides implements adapted for heavy
and light lands, have a pony plough. — Messrs.
Hunt and Pickering have invented a new
mode of pitching the share : by a simple con-
trivance, the nose can be altered so as to regu-
late the depth ; and the patent oil-boxes for
the wheels, while retaining the oil, exclude
the grit. — IMessrs. Page have some very ex-
cellent forms of ploughs, with an adjusting
coulter. In some localities the wooden beam
has been retained, and attention has, there-
fore, been directed to the improvement of the
implement under this form of construction. —
Messrs. Grey have a sub-soil pulveriser, with
improved leverage ; and Messrs. Hancock, a
triple-trenching plough, which, on any soil,
will make a seed-bed at one operation.
These are gratifying tests of the inge-
nuity, and also of application, in reference to
the agricultural department of science. It
must be remembered that the steam-plough
was unknown at the Exhibition of 1S51. It
might then be considered as in an embryo
state, soon, however, to burst forth as an agri-
cultural fact. In general terms, the principle
which has now been established would appear
to consist of a strong frame, containing either
fixed ploughshares or tines for stirring the
soil, to which wire ropes are attached ; these
are received on a revolving drum, worked by a

portable steam-engine, the framework being
drawn to and fro between anehorn fixed at op-
posite jiniiits, until the operation is completed.
— Mr. Fowler's name stands among those who
have directed attention to the development of
steam-ploughing. In that implement the soil
is turned over either by shares or by tines
fixed in a frame, and having a double set of
each, BO as to bo worked either way. The
windlass is attached to the engine itself, or
there are revolving drums worked bv the
engine : to prevent tiie drag of the slack chain
on the land, wire-porters are used — a very
important element in saving the wear and tear
and tlie dead weight. The Messrs. Howard
make use of revolving drums, worked direct
from the engine, by which much power is
saved ; the wire ropes pass through two re-
volving wheels lying horizontally, and near the
ground. A great improvement has lately been
made in the working by the additional central
wheel, placed at a little distance from the
others, which regulate the action of the wire
rope ; the rope-porter also is new, and very
eflicient. — Mr. Stevens's general-purpose im-
plement differs from the others. It is made
of wrought-iron and steel, and consists of a
main framework, which carries two under-
frames. To these are attached eight ploughs,
four at each end, which rise and fall parallel
to the ground, thus avoiding the balancing or
tipping motion. The centre wheels that sup-
port the whole machine are strong, and stand
5 ft. 6 in. in height, by which the draught is
considerably diminished when in motion. — Mr.
Hayes has invented an improved windlass for
steam cultivation ; the framework is very
strong. The following are the peculiarities ;
— " The plough can be instantly stopped by
anchormen at the headland, without stopping
the engine, the engine continuing in motion
as in thrashing or other work : no signals are
required ; the work may be performed in foggy
weather, or by moonlight, with perfect safety
to the machinery. One man can superintend
engine and windlass. A double cylinder is not
needed, as the engine is not 8to[)ped; and no
wheels are required to be put in or out of
gear." — The machine of Messrs. S.imson and
Jewell is called a paring and breaking cul-
tivator, and is adapted both for horses and
steam-engines. It consists of an iron frame,

915

PLOUGHS.]

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY [potato-digqees.

upon which are placed four paring ploughs in
succession; behind each ploughshare is a
rotary digger; as the plough turns the soil,
the digger, revolving rapidly, thoroughly pul-
verises it, and it is at once made into a seed-
bed. The machine is worked by a cogged
wheel.— Mr. Halkett's is known as the guide-
way system of steam-cultivation ; in order to
adapt it, rails must first be laid down. The
machine consists of a large frame running
on the rails, and drawn by a steam-engine ; to
this framework are attached all the imple-
ments employed in the cultivation of the soil ;
and there are arrangements by which labourers
can work upon the frame. The system is
complete in itself, and, in certain soil and
localities, might be made use of to advantage. —
These several implements indicate the different
-plans that have been invented ; but they are
all worked by portable steam-engines acting
upon wire ropes, by means of which the
frames themselves are drawn to and fro.
Besides the general advantages which must
arise from the establishment of steam-plough-
ing, there is this especial one — that lands,
whether heavy or light, can be tilled in un-
favourable seasons, when it would be impos-
sible to use horse labour. This principal
process of cultivation is thus rendered more
certain, and less dependent on the changes
4ind chances of the weather. To descend from
generals to particulars, we may instance a two-
wheeled general-purpose plough, invented and
improved by William Busby, of Newton-le-
Willows, and manufactured by the Busby
Implement Company. It received the award
of the council medal at the Great Exhibition
in 1851 ; a first-class medal at the Paris
Exhibition; also six prizes from the Eoyal
Agricultural Society of England in eight years ;
£10 at the Eotherham meeting, 1856 ; and a
prize at Warwick, 1860. Its price is £4 4s. ;
steel breast clasp chain and weight, 16s. extra.
Price, £5 complete. — The same company have
also a new implement, which is called a com-
bined plough and presser, invented by Thomas
Ilarrison, foreman to the Rev. W. F, Wharton,
Banuingham Rectory, and J. Gr. Harrison,
Kirby Ravensworth, Yorkshire. ' It completes
the ploughing and pressing the seed-furrow
at one operation, saving much labour at seed-
time, and requiring little, if any, more horse-
916

power than the ordinary plough. The
price of the plough is £3 15s. ; presser, 40s.
extra. The pressing plate wheel may be
readily attached to any plough. Price, £5 15s.,
combined. — Messrs. Page and Co. have a
double-breast or moulding plough, for earth-
ing-up or forming ridges or bouts for turnips,
potatoes, mangold, &c., or for striking water-
furrows. The breasts are made of steel, and
can be expanded or contracted, as required.
The plough is also easily convertible into a
horse- hoe, by merely removing the breasts
and attaching a set of hoes. The price Is 75s. ;
with one wheel, 70s. ; two wheels, 75s. ; marker
to regulate the width of ridges, 7s. 6^. extra ;
and horse-hoes, 10s. extra. — Another, similarly
constructed, but adapted for the use of a small
horse or pony. Price, with one wheel, £2 15s.
— Another combined moulding plough, horse-
hoe, and stirrer. This is, perhaps, one of the
most useful, efficient, and economical com-
bined implements ever introduced, it being
adapted for three superior implements, and
easily and simply arranged for transition into
a one-horse hoe, a moulding or bouting
plough, and a five-tined expanding scuffler
or scarifier. This implement is especially
adapted for small occupiers, to whom it
is recommended as a valuable appendage.
Price, £4 10s. ; if without bouting-ploughing,
£3 10s. — The combined plough, drill, and har-
row, invented by Levi L. Sovereign, of Canada,
manufactured by Clubb and Smith, of 118,
Fenchurch-street, London, is another instance
of combining several implements in one.
The object of this implement is to complete
three operations by once going on the land,
which economises time and labour, and also
prevents horses compressing the soil after the
land is ploughed. It is so constructed as to
deposit the seed entirely out of the reach ot
birds. Any width or depth can be drilled.
Seed drilled by this implement in Western
Canada, produced far superior crops to any
wheat otherwise sown. Price, £25.

POTATO-DIGGERS.

A potato-digging plough and cultivator, in-
vented and improved by L. D. Owen, and
manufactured by Childs and Owen, of New
Oxford-street, London, weighs only 85 lbs. ; is
light of draught, and simple in its construction.

BEAPIXQ MACHINES.]

OF ENGLISH FA UM IXC

[itr.AI'INd MACIIINKS.

One man, vfith a pair of pinall liorsi-s, will j
ensilv dig potatoes as fast ua twenty per-
sona can pick them up. Tlio potatoes nro
turned out and distributed on the surface of
the ground so clean, that scarcely one bushel
in a hundred, whether largo or small, is
left uncovered. Price, £2 10*. — Anotlier, in-
vented by Levi L. Sovereign, and manufac-
tured by Clubb and Smith, Fcnchurch-street,
London, will, when the tops of tho potatoes
are gathered, raise the potatoes into baskets.
With two horses it will save the labour of ten
men. Price, £25,

REAPING MACHINES.
The invention of the reaping-machino is due
to the ingenuity of the Americans. It is true
that, in the early part of this century, a machine,
with a revolving drum, had been used to cut
corn in this country ; but it did not achieve
success ; and it was not until Messrs. M'Cor-
mick and Hussey brought their implements
over, that any practical solution of the subject
took place. These, with the machine of the
Kev. Mr. Bell, have been the models on which
all improvements have taken place. In tho
report of the Exhibition of 1851, there were
only two reapers mentioned as being present —
M'Cormick's and Hussey's; and at a trial
made, the council medal was given to M'Cor-
mick, Hussey's on that occasion not working
well. At a subsequent trial, however, this im-
plement worked equally with the other, but it
was too late to alter the decision. There are
two principles on which reapers have been cou-
etructed — the one where the implement is
drawn forward by the horses ; the other, where
it is propelled from behind by the horses.
The awards of the Eoyal Agricultural Society
Beem to have been distributed without any ref-
erence to this distinction, so that the principle
is still in abeyance. — Messrs. Burgess and
Key's implement is an improved M'Cormick,
the cutting being done perfectly ; the delivery
is effected by means of Archimedean screws,
by which the cut straw is thrown on one side,
ready for the binder. There is a revolving
fan, to bring the standing corn more readily
upon the cutting-knives. It is thus made en-
tirely self-acting, working w ith two horses ;
and, by a simple contrivance, the machine can
be shut up 80 as to pass through any ordinary

gate. — CroskiU'B machine is an improved Boll's.
It is proprllrd bv thrco horses abroaht, and
guided by tho driver, who walks behind tlio
horses. Tho delivery can bo made on either
side, by means of revolving endless bands.
Tho breadth of cut is 7 foot, so that tho work
is done expeditiously. — Messrs. itunsoine's
machine is drawn by horses ; tho delivery
is nmdo on tho side, by means of a series of
rakes and arms revolving round a vertical
shaft. — IVIessrs. Samuelson's implement is a
modification of the same plan.— Messrs. Kemp,
J^Iurray, and Nicholson's reaper is on Hussey's
plan, tlie delivery being made by a man seated
on tho machine; thus, with tho driver, two
persons are employed. The cut corn falls upon
a tipping platform, which is delivered on tho
side by rakes. — Messrs. Dray's is on the same
principle. — Messrs. Cuthbert's machine also
requires two persons, the delivery being mado
by a rake over a receiving platform. — Bamlett's
is a combined implement, worked with one
horse only ; the delivery is made by a man on
the machine. — Messrs. Picksley and Simms' is
made on Eamlett's patent, but with improve-
ments. There is a simple contrivance by means
of a lever, by which the cutting-knives can be
raised or lowered G in. This gives to it the
power of a combined machine, and, at the same
time, there is the power of accommodating tho
cutters to any inequality of surface ; these two
last can be worked by one horse. In 1851,
M'Cormick's machine, at the Exhibition,
created a greater sensation, in its way, than
either Power's statue or Hobbs' locks. Its
fame at once, of course, raised up for it a host
of antagonists and imitators ; and it was not
till the golden fruits of many autumns in the
fields of England, France, Belgium, and Ger-
many had been saved by this machine, that
its superiority was tacitly acknowledged ; and
even competing agricultural implement-makers
were compelled to own that, if not the best,
it was certainly the most popular, and tho
most generally used. The manufacture of tho
machine, for this country, was, after 1851,
entrusted to the agency of Messrs. Burgess and
Key ; and, since that time, as many as 3,000
have been made, and supplied to the farmers
of the United Kingdom, and probably as
many more exported to the continent.
Since 1851, however, Mr. M'Cormick's patent

917 •

EEAPiN&MACHiKES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEET [eeaping machines.

for these machines has expired in America, and,
of course, the attempt to renew it waa violently
opposed by all who had, or fancied they had,
a better reaper themselves. In the course of
the investigation, it came out in evidence that
Mr. M'Corraick had sold no less than 40,000
of his reapers in the United States alone ; when
the patent authorities at "Washington, thinking
that, out of such a large transaction, the in-
ventor of the machine must himself have
reaped a golden harvest of no common weight,
declined to renew the patent. Hence Mr.
M'Cormick was driven to invent another and a
better machine, which has been approved in
this country. The old machine, as we may
term it now, was one which cut the corn, and,
as it dropped back upon the platform behind
the cutters, turned it off in " swath" — i. e.,
left it in a continuous roll alongside the track
of the machine. In very moist countries, this
swath delivery is rather an evil ; and during
wet seasons, the machine has been often left
unused altogether. In addition to this draw-
back, a great amount of manual labour is, of
course, necessitated to collect the swath into
sheaves, and this, too, must in some cases be
done before the return of the machine over
the same track. The object, therefore, has
always been to invent a machine which will
deliver, on the ground, the cut corn in sheaves
ready for binding; and such a machine Mr.
M'Corraick has now invented. It is founded
entirely on his old machine, as made by Burgess
and Key ; the new patent consisting simply in
the introduction of an automaton rake, which,
at regular intervals, by one rapid sweep, draws
the corn on the platform together, and, with a
quick turn, throws it aside in a loose sheaf out
of the way of the machine. The mechanism by
which this is effected is very simple, though,
from its very simplicity, it is difficult to give a
clear idea of it to the reader. Putting it in its
briefest form, we may say that the wheels on
which the old machine was drawn along, set in
motion a mechanism by which tlie corn was cut
close off at the ground, and, at the same time,
revolved a light four-armed wooden fan or
gleaner, which, as fast as tlie corn fell, pushed
it on to the platform. This, in substance, is
the old macliine. The new one consists in an
addition of the automaton rake, which has two
actions. During one part of the revolution of
918

the gathering fans, it acts with and as one of
them, till its wooden teeth are level with the
platform where the cut corn lies. It then
ceases to revolve, and, by a most ingenious
piece of mechanism, makes a sudden horizontal
movement, throwing aside, on to the ground,
the entire sheaf, and instantly after resuming
its motion as one of the revolving fans. Thia
machine was publicly tried iu the presence of
a number of gentlemen farmers, about three
miles beyond Hemel-Hempstead. This trial
was made under the most unfavourable circum-
stances ; in fact, under circumstances which,
the farmers present contended, should have
prevented the machine from being tried at
all. The night and morning had been very
wet, and the rain was still falling, when the
machine, drawn by two horses, and wielding
its fans and rake in the most aggressive man-
ner, was brought to a field of twenty-one
acres, covered with a heavy crop of red laramas
wheat, completely saturated and bent down by
the wet. Along the edge of this field, where
the ground was very rough, and the corn
straggling and beaten down, the machine was
turned. Much misgiving was expressed, before
starting, as to the power of the rake to act on
such ground against wind and rain, and to re-
move the soddened crop from the platform
into regular sheaves. A very few moments^
however, sufficed to put these fears at rest.
The reaper went to its work about three
miles an hour, making a clear cut broad track
of 5 ft. G in. wide, and turning out neat and
remarkably large loose sheaves, at intervals of
about 15 ft. apart. The movements of the
reaper were exact and perfectly noiseless, aiid
it was easily turned in any direction. An
ordinary agricultural labourer at first drove it.
Afterwards Mr. Dixon took the place of
driver ; but the results were the same. The
bunches were well laid ; the cut was clean and
close to the earth ; and the spacing between
the sheaves as clear and accurate as if every
foot had been measured. At one part the corn
was tangled, and badly flattened — badly enough
to have presented difficulties to the ordinary
reaper ; but the machine went through it with
the same ease and regularity as through all
the rest. The horses were tlien turned direct
and across the thickest part of the crop, from
corner to corner of the field ; and thougli, as a

BOLLEBS.]

OF EXaLISH FAEMING.

[sACE-JJAUBO'n'S.

matter of course, the passage of the aiiim:ils
drawing the machino traiiipK'il clown a largo
portion of the stalks before its track, tlie reaper
still worked as clearly and eilk-iently as ever.
First came one of the fans, pushing its <y«a/J-
tutn, when cut, on to the platform ; thou a
second, third, and fourth, when the rake swept
round in a senu-curve, and turned the whole
mass out in a thick sheaf on to the ground.
The horses appeared to draw it easily — more
easily, in fact, than the old machine; while,
from the strength and simplicity of the im-
proved mechanism, it was evident that, even
in the most inexperienced hands, nothing but
wilful damage could derange its slight but
strong machinery. It is estimated that this
reaper can reap and stack, in sheaves, from
sixteen to eighteen acres of wheat per day, at
a cost, including wear and tear of plant, food
of horses, &e., of Is. Gd. per acre. Manual
labour costs from 7*. Qd. to 10s. per acre ; and
a good reaper averages only from half to a
little over half an acre a-day. The new machine
effects a saving of, at least, one-third of the
manual labour that was still necessary with
the old reaper ; and the price at which Messrs.
Burgess and Key will be able to sell it, will
be lower than that which has hitherto been
charged — probably about £34.

ROLLERS.

A universal-jointed land-roller, invented,
improved, and manufactured by Mr. Nicholson,
is a three-part plain roller, constructed on an
entirely new plan, to adapt itself to the ground,
however rugged or uneven the surface, or
high or irregular the ridges, thereby overcom-
ing the great defect of all ordinary laud
rollers. By an ingenious arrangement of
universal joints, each part will move up or
down, or at any angle, independently of the
others. Price, 18 in. diameter, to cover 7 ft. of
ground, £11 ; driving seat, £1 extra. — Messrs.
Woods and Cocksedge have constructed a
double barley roll, to which has been awarded
a prize of ten guineas by the Eoyal Agricul-
tural Society of England. It is designed for
rolling spring corn, and is so constructed as to
obviate the evil complained of with those in
common use, which, in turning, are apt forci-
bly to displace the soil, and disturb the new-
sown seeds. This implement has become one

of general utility to the farau-r, liom its ap-
plication to 80 many |niri)osea us a roll.
Price, £S 8s. — Amies aiul Barford have a new
implement, called a Water Ballasting JioUer.
It is mado with two separuto water-tight
cylinders of best wrought iron, which can be
(illud at j)leasure. A removable plug is let into
the solid plate, so that a tube or hose-pipe can
bo inserted, and the cylinders iilled in two or
three minutes. When full weighted this roll
reaches 25 cwt. ; when empty it is about 12
cwt., so that a two or three-horse roll is secured
in one implement. The size of the cylinders
is 27 in. by G ft. G in. Price, £17 10«.— Mr.
Cambridge has a patent double-action press-
wheel roller and clod-crusher, to whicix wa3
awarded the Boyal Agricultural Society's
prize at the Warwick meeting. It is com-
posed of a number of patent plain wheels;
and a serrated or notched wheel, of peculiar
construction, is placed between each plain
wheel, by which arrangement the ellective
action of the best clod-crusher and wheel-
roller are combined. It is G ft. wide, with
2U-iiich wheels. Price, £14.

ROOT-WASH ER.

Mr. Croskill has an improved Archimedean
root-washer, consisting of an open cylinder
partly immersed in water, containing an Archi-
medean screw. The potatoes, roots, &c., are
put into a hopper ; and as long as the cylinder
is turned round in one direction, they remain
in it, and are well cleaned; but when the
handle is reversed, the Archimedean screw
brings them out of the cylinder without the
necessity of lifting it out of the water, as in
all other root-washers. Price, £5 10«.

SACK-BARROWS.
A combined sack-barrow and elevator, in-
vented, improved, and made by Amies ■ and
Barford, is a convenient implement. By its
aid one man can fill, tie, and remove a sack of
corn with ease, thereby doing the work of three
men at a great saving of time and money.
For corn-factors, maltsters, merchants, wharf-
ingers, coal-wharvea, and farmers' use in
general, this machine is found invaluable, as
also for facilitating the removal of corn from
a steam thrashing-machine. To prevent the
possibility of breakage, the best malleable iron

919

STEAMING APPABATus.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEEY [cultivators.

racks are now substituted for cast iron ones.
Price, £3 5*.

SOWING MACHINES.
A grass and seed broadcast sowing machine,
invented, improved, and manufactured by
Earrett and Exall, consists of a box 12 feet
long, with a spindle running through the
centre of it, on which are fixed brushes work-
ing against copper regulators, and a barrow,
on which the box is placed transversely
when fixed for work. The barrow-wheel drives
all the machinery, and the quantity of seed is
regulated at pleasure. Price, £3 3s. — A broad-
cast corn-distributor, invented and manufac-
tured by Gower and Son, is quite a new im-
plement, and has been brought out to supply
a want in wet seasons — of a machine to sow
when the use of a drill is impracticable. Two
men, or a man and a lad, can sow with it more
expeditiously, and with much greater regula-
rity, than by hand. Price, £5.

STEAMING APPARATUS.

A fixed steaming apparatus for large farms,
gaols, unions, asylums, &c., was invented by
the late W. P. Stanley, of Peterborough, and
improved and manufactured by Messrs. Amies
and Barford. It consists of a strong 2-horse
power boiler or steam-generator; two 100-
gallon boiling or compound pans, made of
strong galvanised iron, for boiling water, cook-
ing, washing, brewing, and other domestic
purposes; also for preparing linseed meal, and
other compounds for cattle, horses, and pigs ;
two 12-bushel galvanised chaff or root pans ;
strong brass feed-pump for boiler, with all
pipes, cocks, and fittings as fixed. A similar
apparatus is in constant use at the Nor-
thampton, Cambridge, and Arlsey asylums;
the Strand and Poplar unions, London; and
nearly 200 other public and private establish-
ments. Price, £S0 ; wood and felt lagging to
the boiler, £5 10s. extra. — Another, called the
i'armcr'sportablesteaming apparatus— invented
by the same gentleman, and sold by the same
maker — received the prize of 300 francs and a
gold medal at the Paris Exposition ; and more
recently distinguislied at the public trials open
to all England at the North Lincolnshire shows,
and at every other local show where it has
been snhjpcted to competition. It consists
020

of a strong wrought iron portable boiler or
steam-generator, with an improved oval flue
of Lowmoor iron, one 6-bushel root pan, and
10-gallon compound pan, as fixed. Price,
£27 10s. ; water-gauge, 20s. extra. — Mr.
Thompson, also, has a paragon portable steam-
ing apparatus, which combines every improve-
ment for steam-cooking for agricultural pur-
poses, or for asylums, or other large establish-
ments : the boiler is constructed to produce
the necessary steam with a minimum quantity
of fuel ; it is fitted with a steaming-pan to
contain six bushels of roots, and a 40-galloa
copper boiler, in wood tub, for boiling linseed
compounds, soups, &c., by steam ; but the
apparatus may be arranged, in various other
forms, to suit any particular requirement.
Price, complete, £21 10s.

STEAM CULTIVATORS.

The patent steam plough and cultivator, with
windlass and rope-porter, manufactured by
Messrs. Eisken, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, takes
its place among other agricultural mechanical
improvements. It is a three or four-furrow
plough, on the balance principle, capable of
being used as a cultivator. The peculiarity of
the apparatus is, that the power is transmitted
from the engine by an endless rope, acting on
self-moving anchor-windlasses, so that the
plough is dragged directly from one windlass
to another. Price, £150. — A new implement,
called a regulating windlass, invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by Messrs. Han-
cock and Co., has also a claim upon the
notice of the agricultural world The hauling-
drums are tied to, and mounted on, independent
shafts ; and each drum is acted on by "clutches"
of two speeds, by which the speed of the im-
plement is adapted to the power of the engine
without stopping. It is a common 8-horse
power engine ; is enabled to master all the
difficulties of steam tillage ; and by which the
land can be tilled to a greater depth by a light
engine than heretofore. In hauling imple-
ments up hill, or through heavy or wet patches
of ground, the speed can be two miles an
hour of the implement up hill, the engine
working equal to 16-horse power; and four
miles an hour down hill, the engine going
at 8-horse power, or any speed that may be
required Price, £100.

STEAM-ENUI^ES.]

OF ENGLISH FARMING.

[tDDABHINO HACHINEB.

stk.vm-i:nc;ini:s.

There are, no doubt, some who look upon
the iiitroilia-tioii of a sli'aiii-eii;^'iiio into runil
matters, with tlio same kiiul of liorror tliat tho
poet Wordsworth did thr invasion of a railway
into his own hike scenery. A ateam-cngiiio
may not be, perhaps, an object for poesy ;
although we do not see, if treated in the right
way, why it should not be considered wortiiy
of poetical illustration quite as nuieh as the
many rural objects which have eo long been
sung in the poet's song. There is nothing in
a spade, per se, poetical, or iu a plough. They
have been merely rendered so. The labourer
jiimself is only poetical afar oflf; and few will
care for a closer connection, especially after a
day's toil. AVhen the eye has become used
to the steam-engine in the field, and the ear
to its puffing and snorting, some poet may
arise to clothe it " in liquid lines niellifluously
bland," and thus give to it a poetical name
and habitation. Our business, however, is to
deal with it practically. A steam-engine, as
compared with the human or equine machine,
is more useful, economical, time-saving, and
money-making. There is a limit to the labour
of man, and the drudgery of the horse. Each
requires rest to recruit exhausted nature ; but
the steam-engine knows not fatigue. Feed it
with the " black diamond" drawn from the
bowels of the earth, and, so long as the supply
lasts, the engine plies its ceaseless toil. It
cares not for sunshine or rain. The storm
passes over unheeded ; and it knows no dis-
tinction between night and day.

Fixed engines have been in use some time
in the north. It is only within the last fifteen
years that movable engines have been brought
into use through the instrumentality of the
Koyal Agricultural Society, as being more
convenient; for, with a fixed engine, the pro-
duce has to be taken to the barn ; while, with a
movable one, the corn may be at once tlirashed
out in the field. A saving is thus eftocted in
time, in labour for the tenant, and in buildings
for the landlord, fewer being required for
storing, &c. One of the principal points to
be taken into consideration as to the efficacy
of an engine, is the amount of the consumption
of fuel ; and even, iji 1851, great progress had
been made ; for, as stated iu the report of the
G B

Exhibition, " our boat engine now conRumes
leas than 8 lbs. of coal per hour per horae-
power; whereas au engine made by tho
winning manufacturer of four years ago, con
Bumcd lis lbs. ; that is, four limes as much fuel
for the same work."

Now, however, there are portable steam-enginea
in tlie field. Meaara. Aveling and Porter;
Barrett, Exall, and Andrews; Burrell, Brown
and May, Clayton and Shuttleworth, (iarrett.
Gray, Hornaby, Humphries, Kansomo and
Sims, Kobey, Huston, Turner, and Tuxford,
are all makers of portable engines. There are
also fixed engines, which, under the require-
ments of modern farming, may, in some cir-
cumstances, be of more avail even than port-
able engines for carrying out tho necessary
operations. It is unnecessary to particularise
the merits of all these makers' machines.
They are well known. Wo may, however,
notice alO-horse-power patent portable steam-
engine, invented by Messrs. Biddell and Balk,
of Ipswich, and improved and manufactured
bv Messrs. Kansome. This engine is fitted
with Biddell and Balk's patent boiler, which
is so constructed, that the fire-box, tubes, and
tube plates can be taken out all in one piece,
and put in again, with facility ; the advantages
of this boiler being facility of cleaning, in-
spection, and re{)air3. The boiler is proved
to 100 lbs. pressure on the square inch. The
crank shaft is of wrought iron ; the bulk of
the plates are Lowmoor, the others being best
Stafibrdshire. Price, £280 ; steam-gauge, 60s. ;
pulley, extra.

THRASHING MACHINES.
This is the most complicated agricultural
machine in general use. Before 1829, so great
was the imperfection of farm machinery, that,
technically speaking, the duty performed was
2o per cent. only. But the application of
steam has induced improvement in all kinds
of machinery, and in none more than in
thrashing machines. So great, indeed, have
been the improvements, that they may bo
considered as equal to new creations. Tho
corn now is commonly delivered from the
stack upon the machine, and then from the
machine into sacks ready for market — a great
saving of time and money. These imple-
ments received due notice at the Exhibition

921

THRASHING MACHINES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY [lUIiNIP-CUTTEES.

of 1851, and prizes were awarded to Messrs.
Garrett, Hensman, and Holmes ; and though
not now possessing actual novelty, there have
been so many improvements effected, that the
present machine is almost a new invention. The
Messrs. Garrett, instead of three blasts, have
now contrived one blast, by which the currents
of air are conducted through separate channels
to dress the grain. The machine is, in con-
sequence, much simplified in its construction,
and requires less power to drive it. Messrs.
Barrett, Exall, and Andrews manufacture a
finishing-machine, with their perforated beater
drum, and the patent corn-elevator, which
dispenses with the ordinary tin cups; there
is less wear and tear, and the working gear is
more simple. — Messrs. Clayton and Shuttle-
worth's improved machines are fitted with a
centrifugal-force corn-elevator, which dispenses
with six driving-pulleys and three driving-
bands. — Messrs. Hornsby's has only one belt
for working, giving three dressings with two
blasts. — There are also only two running
spindles and four pulleys ; the machine is
fitted with a centrifugal-force elevator, and a
new differential shaker. — Messrs. Eansome
and Sims have introduced a new rotary shaker,
which separates the straw, carries back the
grain to the dressing part of the machine, and
carries away the straw. There is also an ad-
justable rotary screen, which separates the
good from tlie light corn. — Messrs. Turner
have a small machine which may be worked
by a 4-horse-power engine. — There are also
machines made by Messrs. Burrell, Gibbons,
Gray, Holmes, Humphries, Eobey, Euston,
Tasker, and Uuderhill. In connection with
the thrashing machine, a new implement has
been brought forward within the last few
years. It consists of a frame, on which is a
straw-elevator: the straw thrown from the
thrashing macliine is received upon the
elevator, and is carried by an endless revolv-
ing band, with projecting spikes, to a height
of 20 feet, and upwards, doing the work of
several men in stacking the straw. The old
winnowing machine has not been altogether
Buperseded by the thrashing machine ; but, in
an improved condition, still keeps its place,
being better adapted for small holdings than an
implement which can only be worked by steam-
power. Nor has the steam-power machine
922

thrust out the horse thrashing machines. They
are useful on small occupations, and continue
in great demand on the continent, where the
system of farming has not reached the standard
that is required in this country. Many of
these useful machines are still manufactured
by some of the largest implement-makers.

TURNIP-CUTTERS AND PULPERS.
A root-cutter, invented and improved by
G. A. Biddell, of Ipswich, and manufactured
by Messrs. Eansome, is an excellent machine.
The knives remain stationary, while the hopper
revolves on a vertical axis. By this arrange-
ment great freedom of cut is attained, and it
is impossible for the last piece to escape with-
out being cut. It works easily, and cuts roots
at a rapid rate. They are made to cut slices,
finger-pieces of difierent sizes, and very thin
strips. Price, £5 IO5. ; wheels and handles,
12s. extra ; pulley for steam-power, extra. — A
patent root-pulper, invented by the late
F. Phillips, of Brandon, improved and manu-
factured by Woods and Cocksedge, has been
awarded several prizes by the Eoyal Agricul-
tural and other societies. This machine has
been perfected, and is now offered as the most
simple and effective implement for pulping of
roots. All complicated parts are done away
with ; there is no worm or cutter-block ; and
no oscillating motion is required to assist the
cutting-barrel in reducing the largest roots to
a fine regular mince. This is a small-sized
macliine for limited occupations, for stables,
or where one or two cows are kept. Easily
worked by a lad. Price, £3 10s. — Another,
of larger size, by the same makers, has the
cutting-barrel or cylinder 12 inches in diame-
ter, 14 inches in width, and is constructed
entirely of iron ; each tooth being fixed in sepa-
rately, and secured by a wooden wedge, so that
any common labourer may replace the teeth
at a cost of a penny each, without taking the
barrel out of its bearings. It will cost con-
siderably less to keep in repair than any other
turnip-cutter yet made. Price, £4! 15s. —
Another, fitted with brass bearings, and made
stronger for increased power, will cut a very
large quantity with greater ease than any other
machine of the kind, as has been proved at the
trials of the Eoyal Agricultural and other
societies. This size is especially adapted for

/XTllll'AToHS.

OK ENGLISH FAl^M I NO.

rWEinHINO MACHIKES.

BtiM'k-iVedt'i-s. It produces a perfect pulp,
witlioht ill liny whv bruisiiiir or BIIl^^*llill•; llio
roots, or deslroyiiii,' or losiii^j; tlie juice — :i iiiOMt
important tcjitiire. Price, £o 10*. — Another,
with a 20-iiHli barrel, will perlonn a very large
quantitv of work when attiu-lictl to steam-
power, and is especially adapted to lar^e atoek-
feeders. Since the tirat introduction of
Phillips' root-pulpers, several thousands have
been sold to the first agriculturists of every
country in Europe. One of tlieir best qualities
is, that they never clog, and seldom got out
of repair; and in case of accident to the teeth,
these can easily be replaced at the cost of one
penny each. Price, £7 10s. — Messrs. Perk sly
and Sons have a root-pulper, which is a new
implement. It is constructed with a double
cone cylinder formed of perforated steel plates,
with gauge or diamond-shaped cutting-points :
the ends of this cylinder, being larger than
the centre, discharge the pulped matter as
rapidly as it falls into the interior, without the
assistance of an iron weight, worm, or other
contrivance, hitherto inetlectually employed
for such purpose. The cutting-plates are
fixed upon the cylinder in sections, and are
cheaply and easily replaced by duplicates in
cases of accidental breakage. It will perform
a greater amount of work, more efficiently,
and with less power, than any other machine
of the kind, and is less liable to breakage, and
more readily and cheaply repaired. The
frame and other parts of this machine are of
iron. Price, £5 10s.

WEED EXTIRPATORS.

A poppy and weed-extirpator and fer-
tilising lever harrow, invented by the late
Fred. Phillips, E;;q., of Brandon, and improved
and manufactured by Woods and Cock sedge,
has been awarded a silver medal by the lioyal
Agricultural Society of England. It loosens,
by its gentle action, hidebound lands, making
them tender and friable ; opening countless
millions of pores to the influence of the atmo-
sphere, promoting vegetation, and bringing
fresh nourishment to the plant. ]S'o farm
should be without it, as the extra produce on
a few acres will more than repay the cost in
the first year. Iron frame and levers. Price,
£8 10s. — Anotlier, called a Weeding-Padule,
or 'Lhislle-JJestroyer, by iieeves, has been

awarded a silver medal at tho Bnyal Agricul-
tural Show at Leeds. It is sMiiple, and used
tho »anie as a comtnon wceding-paddlo, which,
at the Hnino tiiiit* as it is pumhed into the
pround to cut off the weed, diHchnrgCH a por-
tion of Bait on the bleeding root. Tlu' nalt
thus penetrating tho roots, cH'ectunlly destrovs
them. It is portable, and is easily used as .-i
common paddle. Price, lOs. each.

WEIGHING MACHINES.
A three-ton cart-weighing machine, im-
proved and manufactured by !Mr. ^lason, is
fixed level with the ground, so that a cart can bo
easily weighed, or any ponderous article. It
is also fitted with a pen for weighing cattle ;
will weigh from 1 lb. to 3 tons ; and is taken
out of gear by a lever, so that it cannot
be injured when out of work. Price, £21 ; wiih
pen for cattle, £2 10s. extra. — Another port-
able machine for weighing cattle alive, is set
on wheels, with large platform and guard, to
weigh 15 cwt. with mall weights. Price, £0.
— Anotlier, for weighing pigs and sheep alive,
is adapted for all general purposes by removing
the guard and balance-weight, which is done
in an instant : having a large platform or scale,
it can be used either for corn, wood, or any
bulky article. Price, £-1 10s. — Another, adapt t-d
for the same purpose, but on the lever prin-
ciple, only requiring small weights, is made by
the same manufacturer, to weigh 4 cwt. Price,
£4. — A combined sack-holder and weighing
machine, invented by John Spencer, and im-
proved and manufactured by JMr. Mason, will
enable sacks of corn or other products to bo
filled and raised, by a rack and pinion attached
to the machine, to the height required for
carrying oft" on the back. Price, £5 5s.

WINNOWING MACHINES.
The manufacturers of implements of this de-
scription are Messrs. Ilornsby, Gooch, Gar-
rett, Dray, Coleman, Sawney, Caborn, Cam-
pain, and Hunt. On these machines generally,
the report of the Exhibition of 1S51 contained
the following remarks: — "Even winnowing is
becoming a refined process ; for, instead of
trusting the corn to the wind, it is now placed
in a machine so discriminating, that the best of
these — Messrs. llornsby's — required, on the
part of the judges at the York meeting,

923

wiiT>-owiifG MACHINES.] IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY [conclusion.

epecific terms for describing its work, more
than are easy to understand." It then goes
on to say — "Messrs. Hornsby and Son are,
above all others, the most successful in these
machines, dressing more than double as much
corn as any otlier in a rough state ; it is also
excellent for finishing the corn for market ;
we, therefore, awarded it a medal." Price,
£13 10s. This machine received a prize at
Carlisle. The report then adds—" Mr. Gooch
oxhibited a machine which did its work well." —
Messrs. Garrett have several corn-dressing
machines, which were highly commended at
Carlisle, the price varying from £7 IO5. to £12.
Extra sieves may also be obtained for beans,
peas, &c. — Messrs. Dray have a patent grain
and seed-separater, invented by G. Salmon, of
Illinois. ^The judges at Carlisle said of this
— " AVe consider it likely to throw a new light
on dressing machines. Its performance in the
hands of its inventors was wonderful ; but it
must be seen to be appreciated. We awarded
it a medal." — Messrs. Coleman have corn-
dressing machines ; prices varying from £7 10s.
to £8 10s.: and Messrs. Caborn have also a
machine — the price being £14. — Mr. Sawney's
winnowing machine is priced at £8 IO5. — Mr.
Campain has a very complete machine, price
£25. This includes a patent elevator, which
raises the dressed corn by a revolving baud,
to which are attached tin troughs. These
receive the corn as it is dressed, and, raising
it, deliver it into a sack placed to receive it.
A very considerable saving of time is tlius
effected. — Mr. Hunt's engine for drawing
clover and trefoil seed was considered worthy
of especial mention at Carlisle, and had a silver
medal awarded to it. This machine separates
the husk from the seed, at the rate of from
two to three bushels of clover per hour, and
from four to six of trefoil seed. It is mounted
on a pair of wood or iron travelling wheels,
and a pair of draughts are attached, so as to
render it portable. The net price for steam-
power is £25 ; for horse-power, £27 ; and
the travelling wheels, with draughts of irou
or wood, from four to five guineas extra.
Numerous testimonials of merit have been
given for its efiiciency and superiority.

In closing tlio account of these valuable im-
plements, we cannot do better than give the
sentiments of tlie Jurors of the Exhibition ot
921

1851, which are just as a[)[ilicable now, as
they were then : — "Adopting the standard of
economy as the test of their merit, we find
that if a ploughing be valued at Ss., they can
save 7s. an acre yearly over the whole of an
arable farm ; and we may adopt this calculation
in their favour more confidently, because, by
other means, an equal saving of horse-work
can be made at other seasons in other descrip-
tions of work. Some exceptions to this
general use of cultivators will occur, of course,
to every farmer; but the substitution of them
for the plough has long been known to many
good farmers, though probably it has not, as
yet, been carried out upon system by any one
of them to its fullest extent."

CONCLUSION.

AVhatever strides have lately been made in
the science of chemistry and the improvement
of mechanics, as applied to agricultural opera-
tions, there is yet another subject which, under
the name of Meteorology, ought to claim the
serious attention of those who are occupied in
the cultivation of the soil. As in other
matters connected with agriculture, the first
step in improvement, or the first advance in
the acquisition of any views of practical im-
portance, has been made in Scotland ; so, on
this point, the men of the north have, for some
time, busily interested themselves in establish-
ing a system of observations of what may be
generally termed m.eteorological occurrences,
which cannot fail to be of great value in
guiding the agriculturist in his course. It
must be evident, that to be of any practical
use, such observations cannot be confined to
one spot, but must be carried out over a large
extent of country. Every one in his own
neighbourhood, with but little trouble, can
add to the general stock of knowledge, and
thus the book of nature will be gradually un-
folded. A great fact will then be made ap-
parent to the comprehension of the farmer;
namely, that he must not look to the result
of a favourable or an unfavourable season — to
the chances of war or famine — to the supplies
that may come from other countries, to bid
him down as it were in his own ; — but that he
must extend and enlarge his views ; and he
will then find that, if he grounds his calcula-
tions upon reasonable expectations, the laws

CONCLUSIOX.J

Ui-' ii.NtlLiSII FA i;.M INT,.

[conclusion.

of uuturo will bo found sullicieiitly firm and
iiivaiiabli' to all'ijrd liim cvory liopo that liid
labour will not be lost, if, at tlio same tinie, lio
takes advantage of tlie science and skill wliich
have already opened their resources for his
use. The variableness i)f climate, in tlieso
islands, arises from causes of easy explana-
tion. Tliero are disturbing forces, ou the one
hand, from the vast tract of land comprisiu"'
the continent of Europe ; and, on the other
from the extensive inlluence of the Atlantic
Ocean. The changes that wo thus experience
are dependent ou elements existing afar off
From the cold and inhospitable steppes and
tracts of Eussia on the one hand, and from
the tropical warmth convoyed through the
waters of the Mexican Gulf on the other, may
be traced the influences that affect our climate.
And thus it is found that the temperature is
more equable than is felt in similar latitudes,
cither in America or on the European con-
tinent. But these elementary influences pro-
duce a marked effect on the characters of
climate in those parts of our island that
receive their impulse from one or other of
these causes. Thus, on the west coast there

is a Inrp'er quantity of rain-fall than on tlio
east, litre, then, a rule for agricultural opera-
tions is at onco arrived at. Cereal grains
flourish bettor in the cast ; while grasses and
green crops find a. more genial climate in the
humid atiiiosphero of tlio west. There are,
besides, local causes affecting climate, but still
dependent on theso great outlines. It is
from theso peculiarities of local situations
that information may be derived, which, by
being classified, can be made generally useful
in guiding the inhabitants as to the course to
be pursued, bo as to regulate their system of
husbandry under the most advantageous cir-
cumstances. And we urge, therefore, upon the
agricultural body, not to keep their attention
confined to the chemistry and .mechanics
of agriculture — although, separately, each is
of incalculable importance; and, combined,
they have, within a few years, completed a
total revolution in all the routine of the farm
— but to study Nature and her laws ; and
there will be found such rules as cannot fail
to point to the farmer how to act, so as to
make the governing influences of the world
in a manner subservient to himself.

025

DIVISION X.

THE PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE

CHAPTER I.

THE GARDEN OF EDEN ; THE GARDENS OF EESPERIDES ; THE OAilOEN OF ALCINOX-^S ; THE GARDSSS
OF CYRUS • GARDENS OF THE EAST GENERALLY ; GRECrAN GARDENS ; ROMAN GARDENS ; VEGETABLH
GARDENS.

THE GARDEN OF EDEN.

The cultivation of a garden, as it is one of
the most innocent, so must it have been one
of the first of the employiiieuts of man. Ac-
cording to the sacred writings, our Adam and
Eve were placed in Paradise, or the Garden
of Eden ; and profane historians and poets of
the remotest antiquity, have bequeatlied to us
descriptions of gardens, redolent of the most
enchanting beauty, and breathing fragrances
capable of inspiring the utmost delight. Ee-
specting the locality of some of these gardens,
however, learned topographers are very widely
divided. For example, the garden of Eden
is supposed, by some, to have been situated in
Armenia ; by others, in Persia ; by others, in
Chaldea ; and James Silk Bucluugham in-
forms us, that the people of Damascus im-
plicitly believe that it was placed in the
neighbourhood of their city. Happy belief!
as it must impart to the reflective and dreamy
mind of the ^i:,Turk, the most agreeable
visions of the \<jng, long past. But the inha-
bitants of Ceylon declare that the garden of
Eden was in their country, in which we know
there is an Adam's Peak, rising to a height of
7,420 feet above the level of the sea ; an
Adam's Bridge, which consists of a chain of
shoals extending across the gulf of ilauaar,
between the island and the peninsula ; and a
tomb of Abel. They have also a tree, the Bivi
Ladncr, which, they say, bore the forbidden
fruit, which still grows in great beauty, amidst
an abundance of the most deliciously scented
flowers, most inviting and tempting to all who
behold them. The form of the fruit is such
as to suggest the idea of a piece huviug been
92G

bitten out of the side by the sweet and innocent
mouth of our first mother ; and, to confirm
this fact, the Ceylonese affirm, that the fruit
was exquisite before this event took place,
though it is now •poisonous. Other countries
have been chosen for the localisation of this
celebrated garden ; and a Swedish professor
of the seventeenth century, composed a book
to prove that Sweden was the happy land in
which Eden had been placed. If so, it must
have been very cold in winter.

THE GARDENS OF HESPERIDES.

Eastern nations, in general, must have
taken great delight in gardens, from the man-
ner in which their enjoyments are usually
described. The gardens of Hesperides were
placed in Africa, near to Mount Atlas, or,
rather, somewhere among the valleys of the
chain which goes by that name. They are
described as situated in a spot upwards of
100 feet deep, and enclosed by very steep
and almost inaccessible heights. In them
grew apples of gold (oranges), pomegranates,
mulberries, olives, almonds, w'alnuts, and
grapes. The ornamental trees comprised the
arbutus, myrtle, bay, ivy, and wild olive.
They were inhabited by three celebrated
nymphs, daughters of Hesperus, and gmirded
by a terrific dragon, which never slept. Here
were —

" Groves whose rich trees wept cilorons gums and bnlm ;
Others whose fruit, burnish'd with golden rind,
Hung enviable, Hesperian fables true,
If true, here only, and of delicious taste."

Some writers have supposed these gardens
to have been nothing more than the oases in

ANCIENT QAUDENs.] PRACTICE OF 11 ORTI C TTLTURE. [«ahdbks of crnus.

the desert; but wluituver llu-y wrri-, or are
m imagination, the vast exuberance of thtir
oJoriterous llower.-^, and the " thousand and
one" euchantin|j[ charnia with wliich the Greek
mind, as seen iu its poetical mythology,
has invested tlieiii, have been thorougld}' de-
molished by the ruthless hand of Ijientenant
]3i.'echy. It is a sad, but, we believe, an
undeniable truth, as shown by this writer,
that these famous gardens were nothing more
than old stone quarries, out of which the
material ni'ce^sary to build the town of Be-
renice, now 13ougazi, had been taken.

'THE GARDENS OF ALCINOUS AND
LAERTES.

The gr.rden of the Phoenician king, Alci-
nous, is said to have been situated in an
island of tliat name, supposed to have been
Corfu, in the Ionian sea ; but, wherever it
was situated — whetlier in Corfu, or in some
one of the Asiatic islands, as some suppose —
its description, by the Homeric muse, is ex-
C-'i.diugly beautiful. It lay close to the gates
of the palace of the king ; and was carefully
defended from the inclemency of the weather
by such means as may be supposed, at that
time, to have been at the command of a
powerful sovereign. It consisted of four
acres, and was fenced all round with a green
enclosure. It was planted, here and there,
with fruit trees ; and contained beds of cu-
linary vegetables, and some borders of flowers.
The poet, however, describes it in much
warmer terms than we are attempting to do.
Here the reddening apple ripened into gold ;
and —

" Here the blue fig with luscious juice o'eiflows,.
With deeper red the full pomegranate glows ;
The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear,
And verdant olives flourish round the year.
The balmy spirit of the western gale
Eternal breathes on fruits, untaught to fail ;
Each dropping pear a following pear supplies,
On apples, apples, figs on figs arise ;
Tiie same mild season gives the blooms to blow,
The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow."

Besides its fruits and flowers, it contained
a couple of fountains, or wells ; the one for
the use of the palace, and the other for
watering tho garden. — The garden of Laertes
was similar to that of Alcinous ; and they
are both described in the Odyssey.

THE (iARDENS OF CYRUS.
Tlie Babylonian or AHHyriaii kinga seem to
have ])033L'a8ed u reniarkublo predilection for
magnificent gardens, 'i'hoae of Cyrua, the
founder of the Persian empire, have fre-
(juently been deHcribed. According to Mr.
i iioudon, who condeuHcs from Dr. rulconer,
the form of these gardens was square, each
side liaving a length of about one hundred feet,
and the whole giving an area at the base of
closely upon four acres. "They were made
to rise with terraces, constructed in a curious
manner above one another, in the form of
steps : and were supported by stone pillars to
the height of more than three hundred
feet, gradually diminishing upwards till the
area of the superior surface, which was flat,
was reduced considerably below that of the
base. This building was constructed by vast
stone beams, placed on pillars of stone (arches
not having then been invented), which were
again covered with reeds cemented with bitu-
men, over which was placed a double row of
bricks united by cement. The bricks were
covered with plates of lead, which effectually
prevented the moisture from penetrating
downwards. Above all, was laid a coat of
earth, of depth sufficient for plants to grow in
it ; and the trees planted there were of various
kinds, and were ranged in rows en the side of
the ascent, as well as on the top ; so that, at
a distance, it appeared as an immense pyra-
mid covered with wood. The situation of this
extraordinary efibrt of human skill, aided by
wealth, was nearly adjoining to, or upon, the
river Euphrates, from which water was sup-
plied by machinery, for the fountains and
reservoirs employed for cooling the air, and
watering the gardens." Yet the monarch
whose power and wealth enabled him to con-
struct these wonderful monuments, was as
deeply impressed as the most reflective plii-
losopher could be, with the fast-fleeting
glories of all earthly materialities. Saadi, in
his Gulistan, copies the inscription which
Cyrus ordered to be put upon his crown.
" What avails a long life spent in the enjoy-
ment of worldly grandeur, since others,
mortal like ourselves, will, one day, trample
our pride under foot ! This crown, banded
down to me from my predecessors, must soon

027

EASTERN GAEDENs.] PEACTICE OF HOETI CULT UEE. [ouecian gaedens.

pass in succession to the lieads of many
others." Keraarkable as this may be, it is
not nearly so striking as his epitaph :— " 0
man! whoever thou art, and wherever thou
comest (for come I know thou wilt), I am
Cyrus, the founder of the Persian empire.
Envy me not the little earth that covers my
body." Peace to his manes!

GARDENS OF THE EAST GENERALLY.

Erom the foregoing descriptions, it will
readily be inferred, that gardens, among the
Asiatics generally, were objects from which
great pleasure was received ; and hence the
reason that they are so frequently spoken of by
the inspired writers in such away as to illustrate
subjects of a spiritual or heavenly nature.
One of the first essentialities of an Eastern
garden seems to have been elevation of situa-
tion. " When Serairamis came to Chanon, a
city of Media," observes Diodorus Siculus,
" she discovered, on au elevated plain, a rock
of stupendous height and considerable extent.
Here she formed another paradise, exceedingly
large, enclosing a rock in the midst of it ; on
which she erected sumptuous buildings for
pleasure, commanding a view of both the
plantations and the encampment." The exist-
ence of these gardens, however, has been
questioned; and so has even that of Queen
Semiramis.

Looking back to a period 1500 B.C., Solo-
mon's gardens necessarily come into view.
The form of this plot was quadrangular ; and
it was encompassed by a high wall. It was
adorned with plants of various descriptions —
curious as objects of natural history, such as
the hyssop : but it was also fragrant with the
rose, the lily of the valley, cinnamon, spike-
nard, camphire, saffron, and other plants.
Its timber trees were the cedar, the pine, and
the fir. Its fruits were the pomegranate, the
tig, the grape, the apple, and the date. No
doubt, like Milton's Eden, it was supplied
with grots and caves of cool recess, over which
the mantling vine —

'« Lays forth her purple grape, and gently creeps
Luxuriant ; meanwhile murmuring waters fall
Down the slope hills, dispersed, or in a lake.
That to the fringed bank with myrtle crown'd
Her crystal mirror holds, unite their streams."

In the hotter parts of Eastern couutries, a
92S

constant supply of water is so necessary, that
were the application of this precious beverage
to be denied to a garden but for a few days,
everything in it would be literally burnt and
destroyed. There is, therefore, in these parts,
no garden whatever without a certain supply
of water, obtained either from some neigh-
bouring river, or from some reservoir, either
collected from springs or filled during the
rainy season, to an extent sufficient to yield
an ample quantity for the rest of the year.
As a general description of the manner in
which an Eastern garden is laid out, that of
the Emir of Berytua may be taken. Eefer-
ring to this piece of art, Mr. Maundrell, in
his Travels, says — " The best sight that the
palace afi'ords, and that which is most deserv-
ing of recollection, is the orange garden. It
contains a large quadrangular plot of ground,
divided into sixteen lesser squares, four in
a row, with walks between them. The walks
are shaded with orange trees of a large
spreading size. Every one of these sixteen
lesser squares in the garden was bordered
with stone; and in the stone-work w^ere
troughs, very artiScially contrived for con-
veying the water all over the garden, there
being little outlets cut at every tree, for the
stream, as it passed by, to flow out and water
it." Kempher describes the royal gardens
at Ispahan as being watered in a precisely
similar manner.

GRECIAN GARDENS.
The Greeks, original, elegant, and refined iu
most things, yet copied the Persians iu
gardening. We are informed by Diogenes
Laertius, that the philosopher Epicurus took
great delight in a garden, and chose such a
scene for teaching his principles. This plot
was in the city of Athens ; and he is stated
to have been the first who introduced tie
charms and enjoyments of trees and flowers
into the heart of a city. Thus the pleasures
of country life could be experienced without
the necessity of going out of town, and thoso
of town life might be participated in without
having to go into the country. This was in
accordance with the philosophy which teaches
that happiness consists in pleasure, not cer-
tainly altogether of the pleasures of sense,
but of that species of pleasure which would

TioMvx iJ.vnDEXs.] I'UACrU'H OF 1 1 o KT U" T l/iriv E. [kitcuejj OAnDENS.

deny an energetic activity to the faculties of
the niiiid. The Athenians, however, etijined
both the j)hilo30j)hy and the llowers, nuionji;
which were the narcissus, the violet, and the
rose. "The rich and polished Atlienians,"
observes Gilbert Laini:; ^leason, "preferred
n residence in the country, that they might
withdraw theraselves from the jealousy of
envious citizens. In villa gardening they
borrowed from Asia IVlinor. They had myrtles
and roses ; the box and the lime tree were
planted for topiary works : and Theophrastus
rells us that flowers and fruits were cultivated
in the winter ; and that the violet was in
profusion in the market of Athens while
enow was on the ground." The cemeteries
of the Greeks may be included in their
public gardens ; and groves, and even the
waysides, were sometimes chosen for the
burial-places of public men.

ROMAN GARDENS.
The gardens of the Romans were similar to
those of the Greeks, the one being a copy
of the other. Those of the Emperor Xero
partook of the appearance of one of our
modern parks. Tacitus says — " Moreover,
Nero turned the ruins of bis country to his
private advantage, and built a house, the
ornaments of which were not miracles of
gems and gold, now usual in vulgar luxuries ;
but lawns and lakes, and after the manner of
a desert ; here groves, and there open spaces
aud prospects ; the masters and centurions
being Severus aud Celer, whose genius and
boldness could attempt by art, what nature
bad denied, aud deceive with princely force."
The city gardens of the Eomans seem to
Lave been nothing more than small square
plots in the fronts of their bouses, enclosed
with trellis- work, planted with espaliers, and
ornamented with fountains, urns, and other
sculptural works of art. Plants in boxes and
pots appear, sometimes on the walks and
window-sills; and over the doors there appear

ciimberB, resembling lioneyBuckles. The size
of the plots would Heem to liavo varied, aa
they do with us, from a few Bijuare yanb up
to, perhaps, a (juarter of an acre.

V i£ ( ; i:r A n l i-: r. a r d f: n s.

In the laws of the Bicinnviri, among the
Koinans the word hortus originally meant
both a garden and a country-house ; but, in
the course of time, the word pinguis was
added to it, when the conjunction of the two
words signified a kitchen garden. AVe aro
informed by Cato, that the principal citizens
had their liortiy or garden-farms, in which
they reared their vegetables, close to the city.
In the earlier ages these farms were cultivated
by the hands of their proprietors, as was the
case with Cincinnatus ; and the success of
some of these dignifled growers, in the culture
of certain plants, suggested family names, not
only for themselves, but for future genera-
tions. Thus we have Piso, from the pea ,
Cicero, from the vetch ; Tabius, from the
bean ; Lentulus from the lentil ; and otliera.
If the owner had reared too large a crop of
vegetables for his own use, the remainder
was taken to the Fora Olitarum, and there
exposed to sale. The principal culinary pro-
ducts cultivated by the liomans were cab-
bages, which were esteemed alike by the
sovereign and the slave ; turnips, carrots,
beet, parsnip, radish, skirret, asparagus,
sorrel, onions, and several kinds of garlic.
Of leguminous plants, the pea, and the com-
mon, as well as the kidney bean, were cul-
tivated. Of salads, endive, mustard, lettuce,
succory, and others. Of pot and siccet herbs,
dittander, alisanders, orache, parsley, fennel,
elecampane, chervil, and a variety of others.
Mushrooms were in repute ; and although not
vegetables, wo may here observe, that bees,
snails, and dormice bad appropriate places
assigned them, as necessary additions to the
kitchen garden.

Gc

929

OBSEEYATIONS.l

PKACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[nonesuch.

PRELIMrNABT OBSERVATIONS ;

CHAPTER II.

NONESUCH; PROGRESS OP GARDENING IN ENGLAND
GARDENS AT WINDSOR.

THE EOYAL

PRELIMINA.IIY OBSERVATIONS.
By the time that the Eoman cominonwealth
had ceased to exist, the catalogue of fruits
then cultivated had risen to a considerable
number. According to Hirschfeld, the Eomans
had received the almond and the fig from
Syria, the citron from Media, the peach from
Persia, the apricot from Epirus, the pome-
granate from Africa ; pears, apples, and plums
from Armenin, and cherries from Pontus. The
list was greatly extended by tlie numerous
different species of some of these, and the
principles of grafting and pruning were both
understood and practised. Even the mode
of generating heat, and applying it to the
purposes of horticulture, seems to have been
known ; but, with the decline of the empire,
garden cultivation also declined, or, at least,
became stationary. Subsequently it seems to
haye sunk into the torpid state into which
the whole of Europe had passed ; but, with
the revival of learning, it awoke from the long
slumber of the dark ages, and, once more,
began to unfold its innumerable charms to
the eyes and imaginations of men. Eor some
time it continued to be repressed by the
dreams of alchemistical empiricism, the re-
strictions of unlucky days, and the supposed
effects of lunar influences ; but it gradually
shook itself free from these chains of igno-
rance and superstition, and joined in the race
of general improvement, which was fast taking
place in society. Throughout Europe its
advancement has been general ; but in no
state has it made greater progress towards
its present condition, than it has done in
Great Britain, where it has been cultivated
with great steadiness, assiduit)^ and ardour,
by men not only possessed of the means and
position, but of the talents capable of de-
veloping the science in all its departments.
It is to Britain, therefore, that we will chiefly
confine ourselves in treating of this subject ;
and, also, more especially to the middle por-
930

tions of the island, taking mostly, for our
guides and authorities, such men as Dr.
Lindley, the first of physiologists, and Mr. C.
Mackintosh, the first of gardeners. Before
entering upon this portion, however, we wld
notice a few of the royal gardens of England,
briefly tracing the progress of the art down
to the present time.

NONESUCH.

After the revival of gardening in England,
it made great progress in the time of
Henry VIII., who encouraged and patronised
the art, to an extent commensurate with his
means. It was in his reign that the royal
Gardens of Nonesuch were laid out and

o

planted. In a survey taken in 1650, above a
century after the death of Henry, these
gardens are said to have been divided into
several compartments, alleys, and rounds, in-
tended, no doubt, as an exemplification of
improving taste, and surrounded with thorn
hedges. On the north side was the kitciien
garden, and, on the west, a wilderness sepa-
rated from a little park by a hedge ; the whole
containing ten acres. In the private gardens
were fountains, and basins of marble, pyramids
and statuary, representing various subjects.
Indeed, it seems altogether to have been an
extraordinary place for the age. Hentzner
tells us, that " Nonesuch was built by
Henry YIII., with an excess of elegance and
magnificence even to ostentation ; as one
would imagine everything that architecture
can perform to have been employed in this
one work. Tliere are everywhere so many
statues, that seem to breathe ; so many
miracles of consummate art ; so many easts
that rival even the perfection of Eoman an-
tiquity, that it may well claim and justify its
name of Nonesuch, being without an equal;
or, as the poet sung —

This which no equal has in avt or fame,
Britons deservedly do Nonesuch name.

" The palace itself is so encompassed witk

OAltDEJJlNO.]

PUACTICE OK IIOKTICULTURE.

[in ENGLAND.

parka full of deer, delicious gardens, grovea
surrounded with trellia-wurk, cabinets of
veriiuiv, and walks so embowered by trees,
that it seems to be a place pitched on by
Pleasure herself to dwell in along with Heulth.
lu the pleasure and artificial gardens are
many columns and pyramids of marble; two
fountains that spout water — one round the
other like a pyramid, upon whicb are perched
small birds that stream water out of their
bills. In the grove of Diana is a very agree-
able fountain, with Actteon turned into a
stag (as he was), sprinkled by the goddess and
her nymphs, with inscriptions. There is,
besides, another pyramid of marble, full of
concealed pipes, which spurt upon all who
come within their reach." Such was the
style of a royal garden in the time of
Henry VIII. Taste, however, has entirely
changed ; and great as may be the opulence
of modern garden proprietors, whether of
the patrician or the plebeian orders, '" statues
that seem to breathe," where they do exist,
do not take such a promiiieut place as they
did in the days of " Bluff King Hal."

PROGRESS OF GARDENING IN ENGLAND.

Passing by the immediate successors of
Henry, the art met with great encourage-
ment from our Stuart kings. James I. greatly
improved the gardens at Theobalds and
Greenwich. Of the former, Maudelso, who
visited this country in 1G40, says — " It is
a large square, having all its walls covered
with phillyrea, and a beautiful jet d'eau
in the centre. The parterre hath many
pleasant walks, part of which are planted
on the sides with espaliers and others,
arched over. Some of the trees are limes
and elms ; and at the end is a small mount,
called the Mount of Venus, which is placed in
the midst of a labyrinth ; and is, upon the
whole, one of the most beautiful spots in the
world." Lord Bacon, who himself bad a lair
garden, endeavoured to improve the taste of
the time, but w ith little success. " As for
the making of knots or figures," says he,
"with divers coloured earths, they be but
toys. I do not like images cutout in juniper
or other garden stuff; they are for children."
No great advance was made during the Com-
monwealth; but in the reign of Charles II.

tho art was iniprovod. It waa in this reign

that Chatsworth, the splendid neat of the
Duke of Devouhhire, wua laid out ; and Daincii
Barrington tiiinks that gard«'n buildings were
first erected in England during this reign, at
Beckett, near Farringdon ; and the celebrated
Inigo Jones was the archiifct. Evelyn
fiouri.shed in this reign ; and, by his writings
and his taste in gardening, did much to im-
prove tho art.

During tho reign of AVilliam and IVIary,
Switzer says that gardening had attained to
tho highest point of perfection ; and we daro
say that it is the opinion of many that such
is the case at the present day. But anv
sudden revolution in the taste of the nation
would change the whole of its features, now
deemed beautiful and perfect, within the com-
pass of a very few years. Dainea Barrington
informs us that King William greatly ex-
tended what is called to])iary-icorJc, which
consists of giving fanciful forma to arbours
and thickets, trees and hedges. This gro-
tesque style "Was patronised by William, who
loved to see clipped yews, accompanied with
magnificent gates and rails of iron. The
largest iron screens of this kind in England,
after those of Hampton Court, were formed
by Switzer, at Leeswold, Flintshire, the
grounds of which were laid out by that artist
in a mixed style. Mr. Loudon informs us,
that Hampton Court being, at this time, the
actual residence of the royal family, the
gardens underwent considerable improvement.
" An elegant alcove and arched trellis were
added at the end of one of the alleys, and
four urns placed before the principal part of
the house — supposed, by Daines Barrington, to
have been the first that were thus used in
England. Towards the end of this century,
Tegetable sculptures and embroidered par-
terres were probably in their highest vogue —
a conjecture confirmed by the works of
Le Blond, James, Switzer, &c., published
during this and the following reign." Longleat,
the tiiagnificent seat of the Marquis of Bath,
was laid out in this reign.

In the reign of Queen Anne, the principal
alteration which appears to have been made,
took place in the royal garden.s at Windsor,
when the parterre before the great terrace
was covered with turf. It was this queen who

931

DESiaiflNG.]

PEACTICE Oi' HORTICULTUEE. [eaelt gardening.

caused the old gardens at Kensington, com-
menced bv William, to be finished. Wise (of
London and AVise, noted gardeners) was en-
gaged for this purpose. He converted the
gravel-pits into a shrubbery, laid out in mean-
dering walks ; the effect of which upon the mind
of Addison was so great, that he elevated Wise
to a comparison with an epic poet, considering
the improved pits as episodes to the garden,
which of course was, in the eye of the Spectator,
the epic itself. Both London and Wise were
nurserymen and designers, who enjoyed great
popularity in their time. To them succeeded
Bridgeman, who banished vegetable sculpture,
substituting in its place wild scenes and cul-
tivated fields. This was a better taste. He
still, however, continued to clip his alleys,
though he left to their natural growth the
central parts of the masses through which
they were pierced. *' Blenheim, Castle
Howard, Cranbourne, Bushy Pai'k, Edger,
Althorp, JS'ew Park, Bowden, Hackwood,
Wrest, and, indeed, almost all the principal
noblemen's seats in the ancient style, were
laid out during this, the preceding, and part
of the latter reigns, or between the years
1660 and 1713. Blenheim was laid out by
Wise in three years. Wanstead in Essex, and
Edger in Hertfordshire, were the last of
London's designs.

Under the first of the Georges, gardening lan-
guished rather than improved ; but under the
second George, his queen enlarged and planted
Kensington gardens. She also formed what is
now called the Serpentine Eiver, by uniting a
Btring of detached ponds. This bold step was
the precursor of subsequent changes in taste.
It would appear from Daines Barrington, that
Lord Bathurst informed him, that he (his lord-
ship) was the first who deviated from the straight
line in pieces of made water, by following the
natural lines of a valley, in widening a brook
at liyskins, near Colnbrook ; and that Lord
Strafford, conceiving that it had been done
from poverty, asked him to confess fairly how
much more it would have cost him to have
made it straight. In Mr. Loudon's Encj/clo-
pcedia, it is stated that Christopher Wren
(chaplain to Charles I., Dean of Windsor, and
father of Sir Christopher Wren, the architect)
claimed, as his, the invention of making serpen-
tine rivers. In a marginal note, ajQ&xed to
932

Sir H. AVotton's Elements of Architecture^
published in 1624, he says — " Eor disposing
the current of a river to a mightier length in
a little space, I invented the serpentine, a
form admirably conveying the current in cir-
cular, and yet contrary, motions upon one and
the same level, with walks and retirements
between, to the advantage of all purposes,
either of gardenings, plantings, or banquetings,
or very delights ; and the multiplying of in-
finite fish in a little compass of ground, with-
out any sense of their being restrained. la
brief, it is to reduce the current of a mile's
length into the compass of an orchard,"

The extent of Kensington gardens,, ori-
ginally, was twenty-six acres, to which Queen
Anne added thirty, and Queen Caroline nearly
three hundred more, taken out of Hyde Park,
and laid out by Bridgeman. Beckham, who
wrote in 1712, says — " The gardens of Ken-
sington Palace, which are three miles and
a-half in circumference, are very fine ; they
have been much improved and enlarged since
his present majesty came to the throne, under
the care and management of the late inge-
nious Mr. Bridgeman. They are kept in the
greatest order ; and in the summer-time, when
the court is not there, are resorted to by a
vast concourse of the most polite company."
Canons, the magnificent seat of the Duke of
Chaudos, is one of the principal places laid
out in the ancient style during this reign.

Having thus traced the rise, progress, and
decline of the ancient style of gardening in
England, we will now, without entering into
the disputed point as to the originators of
the modern style, give, principally from jNIr.
Loudon, a brief description of the royal
gardens at Windsor, as being, perhaps, the
finest in this country.

THE ROYAL GARDENS AT WINDSOR.

Notwithstanding that Windsor Castle has
been a royal residence since the time of
William the Conqueror, we hear nothing of
the garden till the time of Henry V., when
James I., of Scotland, celebrated it in a poem
whilst a prisoner within the walls of the
fortress. In the reign of Elizabeth, the prin-
cipal terrace was formed on the north side of
the castle ; and in that of Charles II., this
same terrace was extended round the east,

KOTAL oAnDExs.] PRACTICE OF IIORTICULTUllE.

[at WINDSOtt.

nutl a part of the soutli, fruiit. Duiiiifj the Britain. Tho Great Park lias a circumference
reign of William and Mary, the Litllo Park of eif^hteun mili's ; and both it and tlio Littlo

was enclosed by a brick wall, ami avenues of
elms and clumps of forest trei's planled. This
was continueil to bo done by Queen Anne ;
but not one of these autjust personaj^es seema
to have thought anything about a garden.
Although plans seem to have been suggested
for furnishing tho caallo with gardens and
plea^^ure-groumls, they do not ap[)ear to have
borne fruit. Wiiately, the author of Obaei-va-
tioris on Modern Gardening, wrote, in 1772, a
paper upon the subject, which he left in manu-
script, and which, many years afterwards,
came to light in the Gardener s Magazine. In
this paper he says — " A more magnificent and
deliglitful royal residence can hardly be
imagined than that of "Windsor Castle. Tiie
eminence on which the castle stauds is de-
tached from every other, and advanced into

Park aro studded with largo treea, mostly
arranged in avenues. It is observed by
Whately, that the space which these avenues
enclose might be divided into three parts.
"Tho declivities of the hill towards Trog-
moro and Datcliet aro comprehended within
one of these divisions ; tho level from the foot
of tho hill towards Datchct, constitutes tho
second ; and all tho plain which borders on
tlio Thames, from Datchct to Eton bridge, is
included in tho third." ]\Ir. Loudon observes,
that, in the first of these divisions, the ground
varies considerably. Ancient oaks and lofty
elms are scattered about, sometimes crowning
tltc brow of the descent, and at others giving
richness to tho valleys. Among these trees
appear diflercnt views of the towers of the
castle ; and, from some points, two fronts may

the plain which it commands ; it falls in a ' at once be seen in perspective. The beauties
bold slope on one side, wiiile it is easy of i in the second division are of a tamer character,
access on the other ; and, as the palace occu- The castle is entirely hid ; and the principal
pies almost all the brow, the whole liill seems ' point of importance is a little water-course,
but a base to the building. It rises in the which might easily be converted into a rivulet,
midst of an enchanting country, and it is Tiie plain between the castle and the Thames
there the most distinguished spot; but though is remarkably rich; and it is on this side that
the situation is singular, it is not extravagant ; the slopes are situated, which, in the latter part
it is great, but not wild. It is in itself noble, of the reign of George III., were turned into
and all around it is beautiful. The view from a garden. On the other side of the Great

the terrace is not the most picturesque, but it
is the ga^'est that can be conceived. The
Thames uilTuses a cheerfulness throuirli all the

Park stretches "Windsor Forest — a vast tract,
which exhibits almost every possible variety
of scenery. The slopes, which form the

counties where it flows; and this is, in itself, declivity of the hill, making the north ter

peculiarly cheerful. It is luxuriantly fertile ;
it is highly cultivated ; it is full of villas and

race, were first enclosed in the reign of George
III.; but about eighteen acres of pleasure-

villages, and they are scattered all over it — grounds adjoining them were subsequently

laid out.

not crowded together. No hurry of business
appears, and iio dreary waste is in sight.
Country churches and gentlemen's seats are

In the reign of George IV., a grant was
obtained for making improvements in "Windsor
everywhere intermixed with the fields and Castle ; and a suite oi apartments was built,
the trees. E\ery spot seems improved, but under tho direction of tSir Jelfery Wyatville,
improved for the purposes of pleasure. All are a new terrace being formed in front of them,
rural, none are solitary : and the amenity of 1 which was carried round a small flower-garden,
the plain is, at the same time, contrasted with ' This garden coniprises between three and
the rich woods in the Great Park — their height, four acres; and is twelve or fifteen feet below

their shade, and their verdure."

the level of the new terrace, which is on the

This enthusiasm of Whately is by no means same level as the old terraces. The descent
undeserving his theme ; for, in reality, the to the garden is by two flights of stone steps,
whole domain which encircles the castle of Tiie orangery is formed under part of the ter-
AVindsor, is, perhaps, not only the most beau- race, and has an opaque roof. It is lighted by
tiful, but the moat maguiliccut in Great upright windows, after the manner of the old

U33

POINTS.]

PEACTICE 0¥ HOllTICULTUEE. [plan of a gaiidex.

orangeries at Kensington and Versailles,
facing the south and south-west. It follows,
from this arrangement, that those walking on
the terrace round the flower-garden, look
down on its arena of grass, and beds of trees
and shrubs on the one hand ; and outwards
towards the splendid park scenery on the
other. The effect thus produced is dignified
and grand, and well suited both to the castle
and the situation. The slope is grass ; and
the greater part of the level surface of the
::yarden is in grass also, with beds of shrubs and
flowers parallel to the walks. There is also a

slope of turf from the inner edge of the
terrace to the level arena of the garden.
Several years after the foundatioii of this
garden, it received the addition of a number
of marble vases and some statues, nine of
which were in m'Jirble, and seven in bronze.
Some of these are I'rom the antique ; but the
others resemble those seen in the French
gardens, laid out in the time of Louis XIV'
A fountain was also erected in the centre of
the garden ; and additional improvements are
still being made to this royal domain, which
is the finest in Enjjlaud.

CHAPTER III.

POINTS IN A GAKDEN ; PLAN; SIZE ; FORM ; WATEE-SUPPLY ; SITUATION' ; SOIL ; "WALLS ; SLIPS AND
KING-FENCE ; SHELTER, ; HOT-HOUSES ; THE MEL0>f-GE0UND ; DISTRIBUTION OP THE GARDEN" AREA.

j setting out to make his Italian conquests,

POINTS IN A GARDEN. ^.[^g^ j^g swept the legions of the Austrians

Peevious to the planting of a garden, there : before him. He planned and calculated;

foresaw, conquered, and entered the capi-
tals of his loes, and even predicted where
battles should be fought between the con-
tending forces, and whicli actually did take
place on the very spots, as indicated by black
and red- headed pins on the maps of the
countries through which he was to lead his
armies. Although the designing of a garden
is a much more humble effort than the plan-
ning of a campaign, still it ought to be con-
sidered of sufficient importance to those who
are to enjoy its fruits, to induce them to
make a draft of its general features in
tlieir own minds before they commence to
form it. Indeed, everything connected with
this part of it should be clearly set down
upon paper. "A well-arranged plan," says
Mr. C. Mackintosh, " is as necessary in com-
mencing a garden, as in beginning to build a
mansion, if unity and system are things worth
caring for. The whole of the projected ar-
rangements of a garden should be laid down
onpajjer, and submitted to competent examina-
waathus that Napoleon I. acted previous to his I tiou. The execution of the diflerent parts
93db

are various points to which attention should
be given, and which will indeed, to a large
extent, absolutely determine the manner in
•which it must be arranged and laid out, in
order that its space may be thoroughly
utilised, both as regards beauty, and the
fruits, vegetables, and flowers with which it
is intended to be stored and adorned. The
principal of these points comprise Plan, Size,
Form, Water-supply, Situation, Soil, Walls,
Slips, and Eing-feuce ; Shelter, Hot-houses,
the Melon-ground, and the Distribution of the
Area.

PLAN.

Whatever is to be carried out with taste,
skill, or enterprise, no matter of what cha-
racter it may be, the mind should previously
form a clear conception upon, at least, its prin-
cipal features, if for no other purpose than to
impart greater vigour to action, and ensure
greater certainty of success. It is thus that
every general conducts his campaigns. It

SIZE— FORM.]

PKACTICE OF HOKTICULTURE.

[WATKR- SUPPLY.

may be carrii-il iiit.i rlVcct ul diici', or pro-
gressively, according to tlie wants and wishes
of the owner. Thus tho walla may bo built ;
artificial Bhelter planted, it* required; tho
ground drained, levelled, and trenched, so that
tho fruit trees may be early ]>lante(l, as it
requires some years to brin;; the majority of
them to a fruit-bearing state."

SIZE.
As a niatter of course, the size of a garden
must be determined by the amount of pro-
ducts desired to be obtained from it, the place
in which it is situated, the family it is to
supply, and, in some degree, their social posi-
tion. It should, however, be proportioned to
the dwelling to which it is attached, and to
the number of iuhabitants it does or may
coutain. Tiiis is a judicious rule; yet it is
always better to have the garden too large
thau too small ; and it is not considered
anomalous for a large garden to be annexed
to a small house. It is well known that there
are some families who care very little about
vegetables ; whilst there are others who prefer
them to almost every other kind of food.
Some will go for weeks together without them,
whilst others will not go a day. Accordingly,
it may be as v>ell to state, that the quantity of
ground to be laid out for a family of four
persons, exclusive of servants, should be a
rood, provided it be good working, open
ground ; and the same proportion preserved
ia calculating for higher numbers. If it be
possible, however, to allow more, it should be
done, as the over-ground may be allotted for
the cultivation of tho strawberry in all its
varieties ; or, if not for this, it may be stocked
in such a manner as to secure the family
from, at any time, running short of vegetables.
It should also be considered that artichokes,
asparagus, and a long succession of peas and
beans, require a quantity of ground ; whilst if
cucumbers, melons, &c., are to be raised in
any considerable quantity, the hot-beds neces-
sary for them will occupy a good deal of room.

FORM.

Either a square or an oblong is the form

most approved of by practical men for a

garden. Abercrombie, however, proposed the

long octagon form ; or, in other words, an

oblong with tho angles cut uli', a.sHigning, aa a
reason, that it equalised the advantages of
aspect beLwoeu the inner and outer hides of
tho wall. Hill recommended a geometrical
square, " set out in such a manner that each
wall may have as much brielit of tiio sun aa
possible." Besides these, circular, oval, and
irregular figures have bcLMi recommended and
adopted ; but tho general opinion is, that tho
square or oblong form is the most convenient;
but every form appears to bo admissible.
" Tho oval, polygonal, and trapezium forms
have been adopted for the walls of a garden,"
says Mr. Loudon, '* in order to procure a more
equal distribution of sun and shade ; but the
inconveniences attending tlie culture and
management of the compartments of such
gardens are considerable. Nor does it appear
that an equal distribution of sun is so suitable
as that of having some walls as advantageously
exposed as possible for tho more delicate
fruits, and others less so for hardier aorta,
and for retarding fruits."

WATER-SUPPLY-

"Water is one of the most essential elements
in all garden operations. To a kitchen garden
it is indispensable ; and from whatever source
it is supplied, it should be kept either in open
cisterns, reservoirs, or in pipes properly pro-
tected, in different parts of the garden. It
should, also, be handy to the hot-houses.
Many kitchen crops are lost, or produced of
very inferior quality, from being denied a
sufficiency of water. It is from this circum-
stance that lettuces and cabbages are often
hard and stringy ; that turnips and radishes
do not swell ; that onions decay ; and that
cauliflowers die off. Generally, in dry seasons
all the Crueifera (turnips, cabbages, radishes,
&c.) become stunted, or covered with insects,
even in ricli deep soils. Even the foliage of
fruit, as well as other trees, require watering
in dry seasons. By dispensing it freely, it
destroys and prevents the accumulation of
insects, and the fruit of the strawberry-bush,
and other fruits, are enlarged by it. "If
there be no natural stream that can be con-
ducted through a garden," observes Nicol,
" water should bo conveyed from the nearest
river, lake, or pond ; sofc water being most
desirable for the use of a garden."

035

SlTtXATIOX.]

PEACTICE Oi^ HOETICULTUEE.

[soil.

SITUATION.

As convemence of situation is one of the
first considerations tliat concerns us in the
taking of a house, so ought it to be in making
choice of the ground intended for a garden.
In making this choice, the bottoms of valleys
and all low situations should be avoided.
"The greater warmth of low situations,"
observes Dr. Darwin, " and their being gene-
rally better sheltered from the cold north-east
winds, and the boisterous south-west winds,
are agreeable circumstances ; as the north-
east winds, in this climate, are the freezing
winds ; and the south-west winds being more
violent, are liable to do much injury to
standard fruit trees in summer, by dashing
their branches against each other, and thereby
bruising or beating off the fruit ; but in low
situations, the fogs in vernal evenings, by
moistening the young shoots of trees, and their
early flowers, render them much more liable
to the injuries of the frosty nights that
succeed them, which they escape in higher
situations." Thus, of two evils, choose the
least; and Professor Bradley adduces a fact
decisive of Dr. Darwin's opinion. A friend
of his had two gardens, one not many feet
below the otiier ; but so different that tlie
low garden often appeared covered with the
evening mists, when none appeared in the
upper one ; and, in a letter to Bradley, he
mentions, that his lower garden is much
injured by the vernal frost, though his upper
one has escaped. A similar fact is mentioned
by Lawrence, who observes that he has often
seen the leaves and tender shoots of tall ash
trees after thick mists, to be frozen, and, as it
vrere, singed in all the lower parts and
middle of the tree; while the upper part,
wliich was above the mist, remained un-
injured.

As the selection of ground for a garden is
a most important point, we vvill dwell upon it a
little longer, and adduce several other opinions
as to situation. Abercrombic says that this
should not be so elevated as to be exposed to
boisterous and cutting winds ; nor should a
very low situation bo chosen, if circumstances
afford any choice : but it should be situated
conveniently for access from the house.
Nicol and Forsyth agree in preferriu"- a
930

' gentle declivity towards the south, a little
inclining to the east, to receive the rays of
the morning sun. " If it be situated in a
bottom, the wind will have the less effect upon
it ; but then damps and fogs will be very
prejudicial to the fruit and other crops. If
situated too high, although it will, in a great
measure, be free from damps and fogs, it will
be exposed to the fury of the winds, to the
great hurt of the trees, by breaking their
branches, and blowing down their blossoms
and fruit." Respecting the situation of the
kitchen garden Nicol speaks very strongly.
In relation to the house, he considers the
most awkward situation for the kitchen
garden is to be in its front ; especially if
placed near, so that it cannot be concealed by
some sort of plantation. " Generally speak-
ing," he remarks, " it should be placed in the
rear or flank of the house, by which means
the lawn may not be broken and rendered
unshapely where it is required to be most
complete. The necessary tiaffic with this
garden, if placed in front, is always offensive.
Descending to the consideration of more
humble gardens, circumstances are often so
arbitrary, with respect to their situations, as
that they cannot be placed so as to please or
give satisfaction by their products. There
are cases where the kitchen garden is neces-
sarily thrust into a corner, and, perhaps, is
shaded by buildings, or by tall trees, from the
sun and air ; where they are placed on steep
slopes, in a northern aspect, the subsoil is a
clayey or cankering gravel, and the site cold
and bleak. Such situations as these are to
be avoided, and may be considered among the
worst possible. The next worst are open, un-
sheltered plains ; but even there, if the soil is
tolerably good, and the subsoil not particularly
bad, shelter may be formed, so that, in a few
years, the garden may produce a return for
the expense laid out in its improvements."

SOIL.

As a good man may often enhance the
respect of a humble ofiice, so may a good soil
make a fair garden, even in an indifferent
situation. A bad man, however, degrades the
best of positions ; and a bad soil, let the situ-
ation be what it may, will never make a
good garden. But it is within the power of

SOIL.]

PRACTICE OF HORTICULTURE.

[walls.

raan to change the soil, althou<;h ho cannot,
exee|it to a very limited extent, cliaiii^e the
situation. He niay cover what is bad with
what is p^ood ; and, by de^'iees, so e(nn|)letely
mctaniorphoso the surface of the eartli, that
he will have no difficulty whatever in rearing
the best cropa upon it. IMany of our best
gardeners, in da^'s gone by, were sometimes in
the habit of sacrificing soil to situation ; but tliis
is not now so much the case. Nicol tliought
that several kinds of soil were necessary in the
same garden ; and Dr. Neill was of tlio same
opinion. " It is a happy circumstance," says
Nicol, " that, in many instances, we meet
with different soils in the same acre. In the
same garden they should never be wanting ;
and where nature or natural causes have been
delicient, recourse must be had to art, inas-
much as the variety of fruits and vegetables to
be cultivated, require different soils to produce
them in perfection." J^orsyth, in his Treatise
on Fruit Trees, recommends a deep soil, "of a
mellow pliable nature, and of a moderately dry
quality ; and if the ground should have an
uneyoa surface, by no means attempt to level
it ; for, by that unevenness, aud any little
difference there may be in the quality, you
will have a greater variety of soil adapted to
different crops. The best soil for a garden is
a rich mellow loam ; and the worst a stiff
heavy clay. A light sand is, also, a very
unfit soil for a garden."

The soil of a new garden should be from
two to three or four feet deep ; and, according
to Loudon, its varieties should comprise —
strong clayey loam, light sandy loam (which
are the two grand objects), a composition of
one-fourth strong, with three-fourths light,
loam ; half strong and half light, and one-
fourth light, and three-fourths strong. These,
ho says, by a proper treatment, and with the
proper application of manures, may be ren-
dered productive of any of the known and
commonly cultivated vegetables in the highest
degree of perfection. In selecting a piece of
ground for a garden, it is not a bad plan to
take for our guide the natural herbage with
•which it may be covered. !N'eill recommends
this. He observes — "Tiie plants growing natu-
rally on the surface should be noted ; as, from
these, a pretty correct opinion may be formed
of the qualities of the soil. The subsoil
G i>

should nleo be examined. If this bo radically
bad,HUc]i as an iron tiltii mixed with gravel, no
drawing, trenching, or manuring will ever prove
an effectual remedy; if, on the contrary, the
subsoil be tolerably good, tho Burfaco may bo
greatly meliorated by these means. In every
garden, two varieties of soil aro wanted — a
strong and a light one; or, in otlier words, a
clayey loam and a sandy loam ; different plants
requiring these respective kinds. For tho gen-
eral soil, a loam of middling quality, but par-
taking rather of the sandy than the clayey, is
accounted the best." Loudon recommends
these qualities of soil : — a strong loam, a light
loam, and a loam of medium quality ; the
latter occupying the borders, aud about half
of the compartments.

WALLS.

"Walls with a south aspect have always been
considered the best fur growing fruits ; and
the approved height is from ten to twelve
feet ; but this is a circumstance usually de-
cided by the form and size of the garden.
AVith respect to the height of fruit-walls,
considered merely as such, jS'icol gives the
preference to twelve feet ; that height being
very convenient for pruning, watering, and
gathering the fruit. It also admits of a
sufficient expansion for the branches of most
trees. A small garden encompassed by high
walls, has a bad effect, aud presents a gloomy
appearance ; but if they be of different heights
they give relief to the view. In a garden of an
acre, for example, forming a parallelogram of
the best proportion, aud gently elevated, the
north wall may be raised to the height of four-
teen feet ; the east and west walls to twelve
feet ; and the soutii wall to ten feet above
the ground-level. Although walls are erected
round a garden chiefly for the purpose of rear-
ing fruit against them, still they have another
advantage. — A kitchen garden may be as per-
fectly fenced aud sheltered by hedges as by
walls, which was the case in former times. But
in order to obtain the finer fruits, it becomes
necessary to build walls, or to erect pales as
substitutes. The influence which walls have
in increasing the temperature of the air im-
mediately in contact with them, is estima<"ed
at 7° of south latitude. Tlie mean tempe-
rature of a south wall, or within a few inches

937

SLIPS, ETC.J

PRACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[bheltbb.

of one, is equal to the mean temperature in
the open plain of T further south. Hence it
is that grapes, which ripen in the open air at
Bordeaux, require a south wall in the vicinity
of Loudon, whicli is 7° further north.

The best materials for building the walls of
a garden are pronounced to be bricks ; and
where these cannot be got, it is better, For-
syth says, to dispense with walls altogether,
or to adopt wooden ones. Nicol is of the
same opinion, although he considers stone
best for the foundation and basement. Bricks
are warmer and better for training trees upon
than stone. It is, therefore, recommended
that the south, east, and west aspects, should
either be entirely composed of bricks, or faced
with them. If the wall be entirely con-
structed of, or backed with stone, though
faced with bricks, and trees are to be trained
against such backings, the stones should be
laid in regular courses of from four to seven
or eight inches thick, and be each fifteen or
twenty inches long, in order that there may
be a frequency of joints, and that the trees
may be properly trained against the wall.
Dark-coloured whiustone (greenstone or ba-
salt) is, after bricks, the next best material ;
and the nearer it approaches to black, the
higher does it rise in value. "Walls having
south, south-west, or south-east aspects,
against which apricots, figs, nectarines, peaches,
and the finer kinds of pears and plums are
grown, should be built with this stone, provided
bricks cannot be obtained. The basement of
the wall, however, should always be built of
durable stone.

SLIPS AND RING-FENCE.

There are few who have walked into the
country, and still fewer, we presume, whose
usual abode is in the country, who have not
observed that there is generally round the walls
of large gardens a fence consisting of a hedge
of some sort — a paling or a low wall, or sunk
fence, placed at some distance from what may
be called the inner or principal wall, by which
the garden is surrounded. This is technically
designated the Bhuj-fence, and the interven-
ing spacs between it and the principal wall, is
donominatcd the Slip. One of the objects of
this arrangement is to enable both sides of
the main wall to be brought into use if ne-
938

cessary ; another is, to obtain an additional
portion of garden-ground ; and another is, to
serve, in some degree, as a protection to the
principal garden. The sli[>, 'according to
McPhail, and most authors, should not be nar-
rower than thirty feet ; neither should it be
so wide as to throw the plantation for shelter
too far off. According to Nicol, the breadth
should be, at least, twenty feet, in order to
afford a sufficient border for the trees and
a walk. It may, however, be increased in
breadth to such an extent as to allow ground
without the space, enclosed by the principal
walls, for the supply of the family ; and it may
be enlarged on all sides, or any particular
side, for that purpose. In addition to these
opinions, Forsyth states, that the garden
should be surrounded with a slip from forty
to sixty feet wide, or more ; and this, again,
enclosed with an oak paling from six to eight
feet high, with a clieval-de-frize at top, for the
sake of additional protection, as well as of
giving more strength to the paling. By making
slips on the outside of the garden wall,
ground, upon which gooseberries, strawberries,
and currants may be grown, is obtained; and
that part of the slip lying nearest to the
stables (if well sheltered, and, at the same
time, exposed to the sun), may be laid out in
melon and cucumber beds ; whilst, as has
already been stated, both sides of the prin-
cipal garden wall may be occupied by fruit
trees.

SHELTER.

Shelter from the inclemency of the seasons
is as necessary to the infancy or blossoming
of the vegetable, as it is to that of the animal
world ; and horticulturists concur in the
opinion that a garden should be especially
sheltered from the east, north, and west
winds. McPhail says that this should be
done by hills, rising grounds, high buildings,
or plantations of trees, and at such distances,
on the east and west sides, as not to intercept
the rays of the sun. Nicol is of opinion,
that the kitchen garden should be sheltered
by plantations ; but should by no means be
shaded or crowded by them. If walled round,
it should be open and free on all sides ; or, at
least, to the south-east and west, that the
walls myy be clothed with fruit trees on both

WINDS.] PllACTICE Ui-

pides. Soiiio years at:;o, the followinfj calcu-
lations, respecting the prevaK'iico o( certain
winds, were nuiile by tlio l\oyal Society of
London ; and are worthy the consideration
of tiioso engaged in horticultural, as well ns
even agricultural pursuits. Jn England, the
following are the number of days from which
the winds specified blow : —

Soul'i-wcst 11- days.

Nerth-cast i'S „

North- west r)() „

North 10 M

South IS „

West r);j „

East 2(5 „

South-east 32 „

3G5

"Westerly winds seem to prevail most in
the months of July and August ; north-east
during those of January, March, April, May,
and June ; north-west from November till
March. The north-east wind is less fre-
quent during Fcbruar}^ July, September, and
December ; and the north-west less frequent
during September and October, than iu any
other months.

As similar calculations have been made in
the neighbourhood of Glasgow, the following
table may serve for the west of Scotland : —

North-east 101 doys.

North-west 40 „

South-east 47 „

South-west 171 „

365

In Tveland, tlic prevailing winds are the
west and south-west.

AVhilst these tables may assist in enabling
us to determine the quarters in which the
garden requires the greatest shelter or pro-
tection, Wo» may observe that this may not
uafrequently be derived even from the natural
shape and situation of the ground. It is ob-
served by Neiil, that gentle declivities at the
bases of the south or south-west sides of hills,
or the sloping banks of wii;ding rivers with a
similar exposure, are very desirable. If plant-
ations exist in the iieiglibouihood of the
house, or of the site intended tor the house. '

iioKTicrLTriii:.

[noT-noui5i:s.

tho de.sigticr of a garden naturally turns hia
eye upon tlani ns tlic nu-ans of hia principal
shelter. Hi- takes care, however, that his
ground hhall be chosen at bucIi a dislauco
from then> as will prevent his fruits from being
shaded by thorn. If the [tlanlations bo young,
and contain beech, elm, oak, and other tall-
growing trees, allowance, as a matter of
course, is made for this in tho meaHurement
of tho distance. It is a rule, however, that
there should be no tall trees on tho south of a
garden, except at a considerable distance.
This has been suggested from tho fact, that
during winter and early spring, they fling
their long shadows into the garden at a time
when every sunbeam is a welcome visitor. On
the east, also, they must be sufficiently re-
moved to admit the orient beams of the early
morn ; but on the west, and more particularly
on tho north, trees may be suffered to be
nearer — say, perhaps, within about a hundred
feet— and they may be more clustered.

HOT-HOUSES.

It is frequently a matter of choice as to
where the hot-houses e.hall be placed in a
kitclien garden ; but in extensive establish-
ments, a whole garden, or walled enclosure, is
sometimes entirely devoted to the cultivation
of the products belonging to this department
of horticulture. This is the case both at Kew
and at Frogmore ; but in places of more
moderate dimensions, the hot-houses either
find a position against the north wall of the
garden, or against some of the cross-walls,
which, here and there, partially intersect ita
area. Occasionally they are placed in the
slijy, which has greater width accorded to it
for that purpose, either on the east or west
sides of the garden, or on tho north, where
there may chance to be a favourable declina-
tion of the ground. It is the opinion of iMr.
Loudon, however, that their efl'ect is always
best when they are situated witliin the boun-
daries of the garden proper, either attached
to, or on, the north of the cross-walls. "In
this way they are sources of greater interest
to the proprietor, and come more naturally
into the general course of promenade than by
any other arrangement ; for it must not be
forgotten that the pleasure or satisfaction
derived from even culinary hot-houses, does

939

MELOX- GROUND.] PRACTICE OF noBTlCULTUEE. [garden auea.

not wholly consist in being put in possession
of certain fruits of excellent qiiality (for, if so,
recourse need only be had to public markets),
but in marking the progress of the trees or
plants on which these fruits are grown in all
their different stages ; and, as jSTicol observes,
in being able to say — These are the products
of my 010 n gar den. ^^

It is advisable not to mix culinary hot-
houses with such as are erected for the rearing
of ornamental plants. This is the case in some
old-fashioned places which, like the customs
of the East, have been handed down from
father to sou, as if they had been stereotyped
from time immemorial. This, however, should
not now be the case, if there be space enough
for a different arrangement. In the old plaus
alluded to, the green-house, the plant-stove,
or botanical hot-houses, were attached to
those in which the culinary products were
reared, without any considerations of taste, or
suitableness whatever, entering into the minds
of their owners. In some instances it was a
work of necessity, and may still be in mode-
rately-sized gardens ; but where variety and
effect are taken into the calculation, " the
ornamental or curious productions of garden-
ing will be kept separate from those whose
beauty consists entirely or chiefly in their
utility. In this way two distinct and strongly
marked characters are produced, instead of
scenery ofa mixed and, as it were, neutralised
character."

THE MELON- GROUND.
It is a practice pretty well established to
place the melon-ground in the slip. "Where
the range of the hot-houses occupies the north
wall, with such a degree of slope, or declivity,
as will shorten the shadow of this wall in
winter, when the sun is low, the melon-ground
may then most appropriately be placed in what
may be designated a bay of the slip behind
the north wall. Mr. Porsyth, as he usually
does, gives reasons for assigning a portion of
the outside slip next the stable to hot-beds
for raising melons and cucumbers. These are,
first, because there will be no litter to carry
within the walls to dirty the v/alks ; secondly,
the beds will not be seen from the garden ;
and, thirdly, there will be a convenience in
carrying the dung, by which a great deal of
9i0

time will be saved in carting and wheeling.
It will be necessary, especially in exposed
situations, he says, to enclose the melon-
ground with either a wall or paling, from six
to eight feet high. It was formerly a prac-
tice to enclose melon-grounds with reed-
fences ; but although these are tolerably
warm, and are easily removed from one place
to anotber, being made in separate panels,
they are very apt to harbour vermin. It will
certainly be found the most convenient plan
to have the mould and compost-ground as
near to the melon-ground as possible : and
if placed between the pits and the hot-beds,
it will be all the better. This is Loudon's
opinion ; so that when the melon-ground is
placed in the bay behind the north wall, the
compost-ground will occupy a space which
would otherwise be too much shaded for hot-
beds or pits.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE GARDEN AREa.

The most propitious seasons for forming or
laying out a garden are those of the spring
and summer ; but at whatever period the opera-
tions are commenced, they should be disposed
in such a manner as to enable them to be
finished early in autumn, in order to admit of
the planting of fruit trees, and the laying
nicely the edges of the walks. When we
liave resolved to make a garden, the distri-
bution of its several compartments is neces-
sarily one of the primary considerations. In
this we must, in a great measure, be guided
by the form and size which we have deter-
mined to make it. " The best figure," says
Porsyth, " is a square, or oblong, where the
garden itself is of either of these forms ; but
if not, they may be laid out in any other figure
that is thought to be most convenient." In
some of our best gardens, the compartments
are laid out in beds four feet wide, with narrow
alleys. These alleys, however, occupy a large
space, and are, therefore, not to be recom-
mended for a small garden. Mr. Kelll
thinks that their " advantages of convenience
and neatness, in enabling the workmen to clean
and gather the crops without trampling the
ground, seem to compensate for the sacrifice
of space." Por currant, gooseberry, or rasp-
berry bushes, the compartments remain un-
divided ; whilst for large perennial plants,

GAHDEN BouDEus.] PR A CTI C E O F II ORTI C U LT Ull E. [gabden bouukbs.

such aa rhubarb ami artichukos, narrow bcJa
are not requisite.

la ret'ciouL'o to tlio luyini; out of borders, it
is reconuiieuiK'il by Abercrombie, that tliosu
next the walla should bo coini)osod of pre-
pared soil of from eight to twelve feet wide,
and the same deseriptioii of soil extended
under the walks, in order to allow a liberal
width for the roots to spread without impedi-
ment. Next to the borders a s[mco should
be left for a walk entirely round the garden,
of from four to six feet wide. Some persons
fancy a border on the inward side of the walk,
lor llie cultivation of espaliers and esculents
of small growth; whilst others divide the
central parts, at once, into main compart-
ments or divisions. In regulating the walks
or alleys, convenience of access is the principal
object to bo attended to ; and when the
ground is large, its centre should be traversed
by a walk, with parallel borders, from which
cross-walks may be made to I'amify, if neces-
sary. It must be remembered that it is not
enough to provide good surface soil for fruit-
tree borders. In addition to this, the ground
must be thoroughly drained, and the roots
must not be permitted to penetrate the sub-
soil, but be kept within a few inches of the
surface of the ground, that they may draw
their nourishment from the upper soil. Re-
specting the most congenial soil for the
nurture of fruit trees, we find an intelligent
writer in the Gardener's Chronicle, observing,
tliat the soil, in the most productive part of
Kent, is locally called hassock, or stone-shatter.
The surface of this is a mixture of sandy loam,
largely intermixed with small pieces of ligiit-
coloured Kentish rag-stone, and is from six
inches to two feet deep on solid stone rock.
In this soil, "fruit trees of all sorts flourish
and produce abundantly ; even peach and pear
trees, of tlie most delicate kinds, grow with the
greatest luxuriance, and are free from disease.
Tj what are we to attribute this result?
rruit trees growing in the kind of soil just
described produce short-jointed wood ; when
the roots are stimulated by rich manures,
ram[)ant luxuriant branches are produced;
when they descend to a distance beyond the
genial influences of the atmosphere, they
absorb a large quantity of water, which tlie
leaves are unable to get rid of by perspiration, |

and the inevitable result is green canker, aud
a whole host of diseases. Such trees eontinuo
to grow to a late period of the aulunni, when
the lownesa of the temperature, and tho
absence of sunlight, render it impossible for
them to give oft* their superabundant water
by per.spiration, tho only means by which all
trees and plants are enabled to part with it."
On tho other side of the question wo find it
stated, that trees in tho stone-shatter soil,
"grow slowly; their tissues become perfectly
organised as they proceed, and are not liable
to bo acted upon by accumulated moisture.
As the days become short, and the power of
the sun declines, the motion of the fluids and
the action of the cells gradually cease, when
the whole system is in unison with the course
of nature; in winter the roots are almost
dormant, the branches are short-jointed, and
well-ripened, and all are prepared to with-
stand the severity of the weatiier, and to
awaken in spring, full of life and blossom."

In laying out the area of the garden, the
principal points demanding attention are
clearly enumerated by Mr. Loudon, in the
following passage, with which we will conclude
this part of our subject. " The area, or space
enclosed by the garden wall?, is usually formed
into compartments, very commonly called
quarters and borders, or narrow slips, running
parallel to the walls and walks. The magni-
tude and number, both of compartments and
borders, as well as of the walks, depend on
the size of the garden, and partly, also, on the
taste of the designer. Rectangular figures are
almost universally preferred to both. Tho
breadth of wall-borders ought, generally, to
be the same as the height of the accompanying
wall ; the borders may be broader, but do not
produce a good effect when narrower. In a
garden of an acre within the walls, the walks
are never less than six feet broad, the sur-
rounding or wall-border from ten to fifteen
feet, and the marginal borders from seven to
eight feet wide. In the latter an espalier rail
is frequently 6xed about five feet from tho
edging of the wall ; in other cases the trees
are planted along the middle of the border,
and trained as dwarfs ; an alley, or a path,
commonly two feet wide, separates the borders
from the compartments. In the slip may be
formed irregular compartments, or borders,

911

TEGETAliLE STBTTCTUBE.] PRACTICE OF H OETI C ULTUEB. [PBOPAaATIOK.

the gardener's house, and the compost and
melon-ground. The fence on the south side
may be" an open railing, and on the north a
wall or close holly-edge, the whole surrounded
by a plantation near or more distant, according
to circumstances. The hot-houses being
placed against the north wall, behind them
are placed the sheds ; and, on a moderate scale,
these may contain a working-room, fruit, and
seed-room, tool-houses, and the furnaces. To
the open space behind, for composts and hot-
beds, there should always be a carriage

entrance for bringing in earth, fuel, dung, &c.
lu the centre of the garden, may be a
fountain, or basin of water ; and in the
gardener's house an upper bed-room to over-
look the whole. In smaller gardens the same
general plan is adopted, as far as their extent
admits. To comhine ornament with use, the
standard fruit trees and shrubs may be planted
in borders accompanying the walks ; but where
economy of ground is the object, the trees and
shrubs may be collected together in compart-
ments, and borders altogether omitted."

CHAPTER IV.

VEGETABLE STRUCTURES ', PROPAGATING BY SEEDS ; BY BULBS, SUCKERS, AND RUNNERS ; BY SLIPS

AND OFFSETS ; BY LAYERS ; BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING ; BY IN- ARCHING AND CUTTINGS ; BY
SINGLE LEAVES.

VEGETABLE STRUCTURES.
Ix considering the microscopic portion of the
vegetable structure, we find that its elementary
tissues are few and simple. They consist of
organs, to wliich the designation of celh and
vessels has been given ; the former taking the
shape of minute bladders or vesicles, varying
in size and form ; and, united together, consti-
tuting what is called a cellular tissue. The
latter are closed tubes of an elongated form,
often tapering to each end, and, when com-
bined, constituting vascular tissue. The dis-
tinction between cells and vessels is based
on their comparative length; but occasiouallv,
cells become lengthened so as not to difi'er
from vessels in tliat respect. This is the case
with some veins, and also with the filamentous
or thread-like tissue of fungi. Where such long
cells exist, they are briefly characterised by
the thin and delicate nature of tluir texture.
The first form of the elementary organs of
plants is a closed spherical or elongated
vesicle, its walla being composed of a mem-
brane, in which a fluid is contained. If, after
its development, it still continue closed, it
then receives the name of cell; but if a row
of vesicles, arranged in lines, become united
in the course of development, so as to form a
9^2

tube with an uninterrupted cavity, by absorp-
tion of the cross walls, then what has received
the name' of a vessel is produced. " On
making a transverse section of a succulent
stalk," says a modern scientific writer on
Botany, " such as that of rhubarb, or of a cu-
cumber or melon, we perceive, by the aid of a
glass, circumscribed angular meshes and
rounded openings ; and, in a longitudinal
section of the same stalk, similar meshes are
also seen, with long tubes of various kinds.
The membrane, forming the walls of both
cells and vessels, is composed of a substance
called cellulose, in many respects resembling
starch, but dilfering in giving a yellow in place
of a blue colour with iodine. The membrane
has, in general, no visible pores or perfora-
tions, but fluid matters pass tlunnigh it
easily. Some plants — such as sea-weeds,
mushrooms, and lichens — consist of cellular
tissue alone, and hence are called Cellular
plants ; while others — such as ordinary flower-
ing plants — consist of cells and vessels com-
bined, and receive the name of Vascular
plants."

PROPAGATING BY SEEDS.
Among the most curious, as well as difiicult,

IMturAOATION.]

riiACriTH OF UOIITICULTUEE. [uuujs, buckebs, etc.

operations of p^nrdeoing, is the propngatioa of
plants. This is univers<ally doiio by seed ; but
also, to soino extent, by f^crms or bulbs,
suckers, runners, slips, and olVitcts. Arti-
iicially, it is done by layers, budding, grafting,
iti-ardiing cuttings, and siuijlo leaves. ]t
is a general rule that imported seeds should
be sown as soon as passible after their re-
ce[)tion, except in tho case of such as speedily
vegetate, which, however, should not be put
into the ground either lato in the autumn, or
early in the winter. Tho reason for this ad-
vice is, that if. they vegetated during the
dark months of the year, the probability is
that the young plants would be cut off. Hard
seeds, and such as have no ti-udency to rapid
vegetation, uiay be sown at those seasons
when it is calculated that their growth will
commence. A primary object, however, as
regards all seeds, is to be sure that they have
the principles of life iu them ; for some are
deprived of their vitality very early after they
are gathered, while others retain it only for
one, or perhaps a couple of seasons. Anotlier
consideration of some importance, is the size
of the seeds, as on this depends the depth to
which they require to be covered with the
soil. For the same reason, the texture of
their own covering must be attended to. Mr.
Loudon tells us, that on the form and surface of
the outer coating of seeds, sometimes depends
the mode of sowing, as in the carrot ; and on
their qualities in general, depends their liability
to be attacked by iusects. The germination of
the seed, likewise, greatly depends on the
presence of moisture, and a due amount of
heat and air iu the soil. No seed will sprout
or germinate at 32° Fahr., nor if enclosed in
hermetically sealed vessels, nor even if too
deeply buried in the earth. Such are the
points to be kept in remembrance in propa-
gating by seed; whilst the nature of the
climate, the soil, and the season, must assist in
determining how, where, when, and in what
quantity, the seed should be sown.

PROPAGATING BY BULBS, SUCKERS, AND
RUNNERS

Whether the bulb be cauline — that is,
growing immediately on the herbaceous stem
or stalk — or radical, it generally requires to be
planted very soon after it has bt'cu removed

from the parent plant. It ehould, also, be
put into light earth, and buried no deeper
than about tiio dc|)th of its own diameter
from tho surface. Jiulba which huvo attained
to maturity, may bo preserved for several
months out of tho soil, without their powers
of vitality aulli-ring in any degree; but infant
bulbs cannot bear treatment of this kind. If
withheld from the soil, they soon dry up, and
become seriously injured, if, iudecd, they do
not entirely lose their vitality. Suc/cers have
been described as mere runners under-ground ;
and propagation by them is seldom adopted,
uulefs it be in tho case of some hardy shrubs,
and the piue-apple. Plants raised by these
means, among the former, however, are
usually held to be of inferior quality ; but in
the case of the pine-apple it is otherwise.
Wliero a system of good culture is pursued,
an abundant stock is easily maintained to
meet the necessities of a private supply, by
making choice of the strongest suckers pro-
duced on the stem. The redundancy of
these, of course, depends, more or less, on the
amount of check which the plant may have
sustained by the formation of the fruit. Bare
sorts may be vastly increased by retaining the
stump instead of throwing it; away, which is
usually done after the fruit has ripened, aud
placing it in a damp pit, with a bottom tem-
perature of 90'. Every latent eye should then
sprout, and a large quantity of young plants
be the result. Loudon, in speaking of pro-
pagating by suckers, says, all that is neces-
sary to be done is to dig them up, and to
cut off each plautlet with a portion of root ;
after which its top may be reduced, by cut-
ting off from one-fourth to one-half of the
shoot, in order to fit it to the curtailed root ;
and it may then be planted either in the
nursing department, or, if a strong plant,
where it is finally to remain. Propagating by
runners is, with a certain species, both con-
venient and certain. All that is necessary to
be done, is to allow the plantlet on the shoot,
or runner, to be well rooted before being
separated from the parent. It; may then be
planted in the spot where it has been deter-
mined it shall remain.

PROPAGATING BY SLIPS AND OFFSETS,

A slip is a shoot which springs from tho

9i3

PEOPAOATION.]

PRACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[layers, etc.

upper part of the roots of herbaceous
plants, and may be readily seen in the
auricula, or in under-shrubs, as the thyme.
Wlien the lower part, from which the roots
DPoceed, has acquired a comparatively firm
texture, or begun to ripen, the shoot sought
is to be slipped or drawn from the parent
plant, so far as to take with it a claw of the
old wood stem, or root. As this claw is
usually ragged in its edges, it is to be made
smooth by means of a sharp knife, and the slip
then planted in a congenial soil. It should
be kept in shade until it strikes root afresh, or
a!)i)ear3 to have recovered from the effects of
its separation from the parent plant. Propa-
gating by offsets is, strictly speaking, appli-
cable only to young radical bulbs, which,
when taken from the parent roots, are only
termed offsets.

PROPAGATING BY LAYERS.
A layer is a branch bent into the earth, and
luxlf cut through at the bend, the free portion of
the wound being called a tong.e. It is, n
fact, a cutting only partially separated from
its parent. Dr. Lindley, in his celebrated
work on the Theory and Fractice of Horti-
culture, informs us, that the object of the
gardener is to induce the layer to send forth
roots into the earth at the tongue. " With
this view he twists the shoot half round, so as
to injure the wood vessels ; he heads it back
so that only a bud or two appears above
ground ; and, when much nicety is requisite,
he places a handful of silver sand round the
tongued part ; then, pressing the earth down,
so as to secure the layer, he leaves it without
furtlier care. The intention of both tongue-
ing and twisting is, to prevent the return of
sap from the layer into the main stem, while a
small quantity is allow^ed to rise out of the
latter into the former; the effect of this being
to compel the returning sap to organise it-
self externally as roots, instead of passing
downwards below the bark as wood. The
bending back is to assist in this object, by
preventing the expenditure of sarp in the for-
nration, or rather completion, of leaves ; and
the silver sand is to secure the drainage so
necessary to cuttings." L;\yering is practised
iu the case of roses and other shrubs, which
do not strike so readily by cuttings. It is a
944

matter of no importance as to how the layer-
ing is effected. It may, therefore, be varied
according to circumstances.

PROPAGATING BY BTj DOING AND
GRAFTING.

These operations, says Dr. Lindley, consist
in causing an eye or a cutting of one plant to
grow upon some other plant, so that the two,
by forming an organic union, become a new
and compound individual. The eye, in these
cases, takes the name of bud ; the cutting is
called a scion ; and the plant, upon which
they are made to grow, is named a stock.
Propagation by eyes aud cuttings is, there-
fore, the same as budding and grafting, with
this important difference — that, in the one
case, the fragments of a plant are made to
strike root into the organic soil, and to grow
on their own bottom, as the saying is ; while,
in the other, they adhere permanently to
living organic matter- In like manner, the
operation of in-arching, or causing the branch
of one plant to remain attached to its parent,
and, at the same time, to grow upon the
branch of another tree, is analogous to layer-
ing.

The object of these operations is to effect
many purposes. Plants, such as the apple
aud the pear, will bud or graft easily ; but
they are both difScult to strike from cuttings.
There are many other plants of a similar consti-
tution. It would appear, that the species which
are naturally delicate, become strong when
grafted on robust stocks. The result of this
is a greater abundance of fruits and flowers.
"Thus, the more delicate kinds of vines pro-
duce larger and finer grapes when worked
upon such vigorous sorts as the Syrian and
Nice. The double yellow rose, which so
seldom opens its flowers, and which will not
grow at all iu many situations, is said to
blossom abundantly, and grow freely, when
worked upon the common China rose. One
plant may be made to bear a different variety
upon every branch, as has been seen with
pelargoniums, fuchsias, and cacti. The pecu-
liar qualities of some plants can only be pre-
served by working. This is especially the case
with certain kinds of variegated roses, which
retain their gay markings when budded,
but become plain if left to their own modes

l'U01'A(JATU)N

N-]

PRACTICE OF IIOKTICULTURE.

[ULDDINU, Lie.

of grorting. Fruit may be obtnincd from
8Ct>illinij plants by thoao prooosses much
earlier than by any o'hora : tho ijuality of
eet'iiling fruit trees mny bo ascertuined in
two or tiireo years, instead of twenty or
thirty ; and thus loni:^ ami objectless ex-
pectation may be avoided." It has been

denied by Mr. Knight ; but it Ih maintained by
Dr. Litidley. In his Theory of Jforticiilfurti
ho says—" Probably in Perwia, tho nutivo
country of the peach, that speciefl, or its wild
typo tho almond, is the bcHt stock for the
former fruit ; because tho temperature of l;ie
earth is that in which it was created to grow,
ascertained, by Mr. Knii^ht, that it is within Jiut in a climate like that of England, tho
the reach of possibility to transfer tho blossom- i summer temperature of whoso soil is eo much
buds of one plant to another, so as to obtain I lower than that of Persia, the plum, on which
tiowers or fruit from them immediately, llo tho peacli takes freely, is a iiardy native, and
thus fixed on the wild rose the llower-buds of suited to such soil ; and its roots aro aroused
garden roses ; and these buds being pleuti- from their winter sleep by an amount of
fully supplied with nourishment, produced warmth insufficient for the peach. Experience,
much finer roses than they would have done in this case, completely confirms what theorv
had tliey been permitted to retain their teaches ; for although there may be a fevv
natural situation. He repeated many similar healthy trees in tliis country, growing upon
experiments upon tho pear and peach tree, the almond stock, it is certain that the greater
with equal success ; but in the case of the part of those which have been planted have

pear, he discovered, that if the buds were
inserted earlier than the end of August, or
the beginning of September, they became
branches and tiowers.

The modes in whicli these manipulations were
performed, were both numerous and various ;
aiid the whole theory was fully explained |
by De CandoUe, in his Vegetable Fhysiology ; ■
by D'Albret ; also by Knight, and others.
The most valuable information on the subject,

failed ; while, in tlio warm soil of France and
Italy, it is the stock upon which the old trees
have, in almost all cases, budded."

That budding and grafting may be practised
with greater certainty of success, a soil suit-
able to the nature of the stock should bo
carefully chosen. Thus experiment has proved
that, in loamy soils, the apple succeeds best
on the Doucin stock; and in chalky soils,
the crab. The pear thrives best in a loamv

however, is to be obtained in Dr. Lindley's soil, or in light soils enriched with decayed

Theory of Horticulture, from which we have
already quoted, and which is one of the best
works on this subject in the language. As
the parent possesses considerable iniluence
over the scion, great care should be taken
in making tho selection. If nothing more
than the increase of individuals was to be
expected froni the operations of budding and
grafting, then the stocks most readily ob-

vegetablo matter, when grafted on the
quince; but on light chalky soils the wild
pear is preferable. The plum succeeds best
on loamy soils ; when worked on the piuni
stock ; but it does better on the almond, if in
chalky or light soils. Tlie cherry thrives best
in loamy, or in light rich soils, when worked
on the wild cherry ; and in chalk when on
the mahaleb stock. In horticulture, as in every

tained, if of a relationship near enough to the other science, one condition influences another.

scion or bud, would be the most suitable.
But this is only of secondary importance.
AVhat is of far higher moment, is the fact
that the operation ennobles the tree, by meta-
morphosing its character to an improved con-
dition, whether as regards its flowers or fruits.
To a certain extent, it hardens a tender sort
when worked on a stock more capable of eU'

Thus, the stock considerably affects the fruit
as well as the strength of the scion. This ha^
been proved in the case of the Stanwick nec-
tarine, which has a great tendency to crack
rather than ripen in the ordinary way. A\'e are
informed tliat this tendency can be cured by
bcing first budded on a very strong magnum
bonum plum, about a foot high from tho

during cold, or one which is better adapted to ground. Tlie quality of the fruit is, in general,
the low-soil temperature of northern latitudes, also improved by growing the plant in this
than such as may bo natural to the tree from manner.

which the bud or scion is taken.
G E

This fact is ' Budding has been defined as consisting iu

945

PEOPAGATION.]

PExlCTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[geafting.

introducing a bud of cue tree with a portion
of bark adbering to it, below the bark of
another tree. In order to accomplish this, a
longitudinal incision is made through the bark
of the stock down to the wood ; and is then,
at the upper end, crossed by a similar cut, so
that the marks made bear a resemblauce to the
letter T. The bud, with a portion of the bark,
is then pared off from the scion, and the back
portion pushed below the bark of the stock,
until the bud is actually resting on the naked
wood of the stock. The upper lips of the
incision in the stock, as well as in tlie bud,
are made to fit each other, when the whole is
iastened down by a ligature of bast applied
wet, narrow tape, adhesive straps, or white or
green worsted, which completes the operation.
The bud should be inserted either when the
vegetation of a plant is languid, or the growth
above the place of insertion should be arrested
by pinching the terminal bud. If this be not
done, the sap, which should be impelled
into the bud, in order to aid in the process of
adhesion, passes on to other parts, and the
bud is literally starved to death. Tor similar
reasons, when a bud has firmly fixed itself
upon a stock, and began to grow, the stock
should be headed back neai'ly as far as the
bud, with the view of forcing all the ascending
current of sap to flow towards it. It is neces-
sary that this should be done ; for, if not,
the buds of the stock itself will receive the
nourishment which ought, more properly, to
be given to the stranger.

In the operations of grafting, there are also
some very essential points to be attended to.
Dr. Lindley says, it is always found that
a union between the scion and the stock
occurs most readily when the latter is headed
down : but as he is here thoroughly practical,
we will take the liberty of quoting his own
words. " The scion," he says, " should always
be so prepared that a bud is near the point of
union between itself and the stock ; because,
such a bud, as soon as it begins to grow, as-
sists in the formation of wood, and, also, in
binding the two together. The scion should
be more backward in its vegetation than the
stock, because it will then be less excitable ;
otherwise its buds may begin to grow before a
fitting communication is established between
the stock and scion, and the latter will be ex-
946

hausted by its own vigour. If, on the con-
trary, the stock is in a state of incipient
growth, and the scion torpid, cellular granu-
lations will have time to form and unite the
wound ; and the scion will become distended
with sap forced into it from the stock, and
thus be able to keep its buds alive when they
begin to shoot into branches. In order to
assist in this part of the operation, a ' heel' is
sometimes, in difiicult cases, left on a scion,
and inserted into a vessel of water, until the
union has taken place ; or, for the same pur-
pose, the scion is bound round with loose
string, or linen, with one end steeped in water,
so as to secure a supply of water to the scion
by the capillary attraction of such a bandage.
Indeed, the ordinary practice of surrounding
the scion and stock at the point of contact
with a mass of grafting clay, is intended for
the same purpose ; that is to say, to prevent
evaporation from the surface of the scion, and
to aftord a small supply of moisture ; and
hence, among other things, the superiority of
clay over the plaisters, mcstics, and cements
occasionally employed, which simply arrest
perspiration, and can never assist in commu-
nicating aqueous food to the scion."

In concluding our remarks upon this por-
tion of our subject, we give the following
recipes, from Dr. Lindley's work, for making
grafting-wax : — 1. Bees'-wax and tallow, equal
parts, laid on warm with a painter's brush.
2. Four proportions by weight of pitch, four of
resin, two of bees'-wax, one of hog's lard, and
one of turpentine, melted and well mixed.
When this, or some similar composition, is
spread on brown paper, it forms grafting-
paper, as it is sometimes termed, which, being
cut into slips, can easily be applied. — Another
substitute for grafting-clay is sheet india-
rubber, cut into narrow strips or ban-
dages, from one-half to three-quarters of an
inch broad. The india-rubber is said to
possess all the requisites sought for in clay.
It is air-tight and water-tight, and will not
fall away ; it is, also, elastic, which admits of
the swelling of the scion in its growth ; and it
is applied with great ease and rapidity.
After wrapping the bandage round the gralt
and stock, as a linen bandage is applied to a
cut finger, the last turn only requires securing,
by tying w^ith a piece of thread or thin bast.

riiOi*A.OAT10X.]

PRACTICE OF IIOKTICULTUKE. [is-ABcnixa xtc.

PROPAGATING BY IN- ARCHING AND CUT-

TINGS.

In-arching ia auppoaecl to have been the
most ancient kind of j;r;it"tini^, as it naturally
ami by accident takes placo in IbrL'sta. Tlio
point iu which it stands distinct from Rralt-
iug, ia found in the scion not beiuj; cut or
separated from the parent, but remains
attached to it, nntil it becomes part and par-
cel of the stock to which it is tied and
adapted iu a variety of ways. The scion and
stock are, accordingly, mutually independent
of each other, the former subsisting on ite
own resources until a complete union takes
place between them. Professor Thowine enu

at one operation, or only partially cut through
first, and, in a few days, completely severed.
A week or two after tho union has taken
place, tho remaining portion of tho scion, if
any is left on, when separated from tho
parent plant, should be cut oli' close to tho
stock, that the wound may heal over, and leave
tho stem as [)erlect as possible. ISidc in-arching
without tonguing ia well adapted for young
shoots of camel ias, oranges, &c. ; and when
the wood of both scion and stock is soft and
lull of sap, a union speedily takes place.
Tongue in-arching is useful when both or
either stock or scion are more fully matured,
and are somewhat hard and dry."

Propagation by cuttings is, with tho ei-

nierates no less than thirty-seven varieties of i ception of grafting, by far the m^st common of

this mode of propagation. Practical gar-
deners, however, reduce these to two, which
are thus defined by Mr. Mackintosh: — Crown
in-arching, which consists of cutting oft' the
head at the time of operating ; side in- arching,
which retains the head for a certain time.

all the modes of artificial plant culture, and de-
pends upon its success from tho circumstance
of the cuttings themselves bearing leaf-buds or
eyes upon their surface. In bo far as physio-
logical science can explain the operation of
propagation by cuttings, Dr. Lindley states,

For performing these operations, generally, . that '* it appears that roots are formed by the
the spring is the proper season ; but any j action of leaves ; that branches are developed
season wlien the sap is iu suitable condition, ! from the buds ; and that the buds are main-
as it may be in hot-houses, will serve for the | tained by the suitable aliment stored up in
purpose.

as that of grafting, by inducing an earlier
disposition to the bearing of fruit. It may,
likewise, be applied to plants vrhich may be
difficult to propagate by other means. In
order that in-arching may be the more certainly
accomplished, Mr. Mackintosh says, that " it is
necessary that the plants, both the stock and
scion, should be either growing near to each
other, or, if in a portable state, placed so that
their branches may meet. A portion of the
bark is then removed from each at the intended
point of union — say from one inch to three
inches in length, according to the size and
strength of the subjects. These parts are fitted
together so that the inner barks of both co-
incide ; and the process of tying and claying, or
mixin'j:, follows, as iu common grafting. Some,
however, tongue tho scion and stock in the
same manner as is done in tongue-grafting.
In either way, the cambium shortly becomes
developed ; the alburnum of the scion and
stock becomes united ; and when this is ac-
complished the scion may be cut oft", a little

The eftect of in-arching is the same [ the stem. Everything beyond this seems to

be connected with specific constitutional
powers, of which science can give no expla-
nation." The earth in vrhich cuttings strike
most readily is thus practically described by
Dr. ]N"euman : — " Difi'erent sorts of trees do
not root equally well in all soils. There are
some cuttings which can scarcely be made to
succeed in saline earth, while others succeed iu
it very well. The soils considered the best
for striking cuttings in the open air, are those
which are free, sandy, and soft to the touch.
Tamarix elegans, and T. Germanica, prosper in
a soil rich iu saltpetre; but the Gingko and
Poplars eannot strike in it. Cuttings made
in glass-houses generally require to be planted
in earth mixed with peat in preference to any
other, but varied according to the nature of the
plant. Wliatever composition is used, we
must take care not to employ it too dry, or
too moist : ni the first case, the earth not
being able to sustain itself in a convenient
manner around the cutting, tiie latter falls or
I ia displaced when we wish to water it; in the
below where it is united to the stock, either second case, tne earth being too compact, it

917

PEOPAGATION.]

PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[single lea. yes.

hinders the formation of roots. Nature
makes vain efforts, and the cutting suffers,
decays, and dies, in spite of its disposition to
vegetate."

It is a rule with all practical gardeners, that
the root end of a cutting should be close be-
tween a leaf-bud. Every one, however, seems
to have a mode of his own in managing cut-
tings ; and as the whole are too numerous to
describe, we give the following by Professor
Delacroix. "My cutting," he says, "is
placed entirely under-ground, so as to form a
subterranean curve, of which the convexity is
uppermost, the very middle of the curve being
on a level with the surface of the soil. At
this middle point there must be a good eye,
or a small shoot. In this way the whole
length of the cutting is protected by earth,
and the smaller end, instead of becoming the
seat of dryness, which is always more or
less injurious, becomes a passage for absorp-
tion. The bud, which, under these circum-
stances, is the only part exposed to the air,
bears, without injury, or rather, with advan-
tage, all the causes of excitement." — "Although
I did not commence my experiments before
the end of June," says a writer on this subject,
" I have seen quite enough to satisfy me
that the method may be of serious advan-
tage. Two drills, about three inches apart,
were drawn parallel with each other, in a
kitchen garden of indifferent quality, situ-
ated on a calcareous plain near Be8an9on. A
Imndred cuttings of apples, pears, plums,
apricots, tulip-trees, roses, &c., almost all of
one year's wood, were bent and buried in the
manner described, with their ends in the two
drills. They were watered a few times ; and,
at this moment, every cutting in the open air,
and exposed to the full sunshine, is just as fresh
as it was when planted. In most of them, the
part exposed to the air (the bud) ia the seat
of active vegetation, especially in the pear
and tulip trees, the buds of which have al-
ready made some progress."

AVhen the means at command of the propa-
gator are limited, there is a method of striking
cuttings in vials of water. A writer in the
Gardener's Chronicle, thus describes hia prac-

tice : — " I tie vial-bottles together by the
necks, and hang them in the windows of our
small greenhouse, having filled them with
clean soft water. I then put in slips of salvia,
calceolaria, mimulus, myrtle, or anything I
wish to propagate of the same description of
plants. In about two or three weeks, or
a month, the little silver-like roots appear;
and in a week or ten days I plant them in
small pots well watered. They never seem to
flag or mind the change, and I rarely lose a
slip. Myrtles are longer in forming roots ;
cuttings from the same plant have varied from
six weeks to twelve months. They were planted
in November. A string of bottles I also
hang against the back of the greenhouse,
where they have plenty of light ; and they do
equally well, although not quite so quickly."
This practice is old, and well adapted to soft-
wooded plants ; but even some of the hard-
wooded kinds, such asazalias, will strike freely
with this treatment.

Light has a great effect on the colouring
matter of some plants. Ducaisne found that,
in the madder plant, when the lower parts of
it were enclosed in cases, glazed at the side
with transparent green, red, or yellow glass,
the leaves and stem of the part surrounded by
red glass became pallid, and exhibited signs
of suffering in a greater degree than under
the other colours ; but uU were more or less
affected.

PROPAGATING BY SINGLE LEAVES.

Some plants possess the peculiarity of
producing adventitious buds upon their upper
surfaces and edges ; and some leaves, like
those of the echeverias, strike root soon after
they fall to the soil. Some genera, as the
gloximia, gesnera, clianthus, and others, re-
quire to have only the footstalk of their leaves
planted in sandy soil, in which, with a proper
temperature, they will produce young plants.
These leaf-cutticgs form, at first, a callosity at
their base ; then roots ; aud, lastly, a bud,
from which the future plant is organised.
Some plants produce this bud more freely
than others ; while a few exhibit great back-
wardness in producing it at all.

948

PLANTING.]

PKACTICE OP HOETICULTUllE.

[V&UIT TttEEI.

CIIArTEK V.

TUEATMKNT OF THE SmJErT ; PI-ANTINC KKI'IT TUKKS ; TIIK SORTS AM> AdKH OK I'I.ANT-1; KlSTANCEa
IN 1'I.ANTING ; I'LANTlMi ; TKA1.MM5 ; I'KoTKt TloN <»K TUK IIUlSSOM ; KSl'Al.l KllS.

TREATMENT OF THE SUBJECT.

What has, iu the preceding chapter, been
stated in a general way, may, in some par-
ticular instances, in this be repeated, when
speaking of tliose trees which more especially
belong to the fruit garden. AVo will, how-
ever, avoid this as far as possible, only allow-
iuc: ourselves to do so when we think greater
perspicuity will be given to the special subject
of which we may be treating. It has been
customary to treat the fruit and culinary
gardens as one, seeing that they are in reality
often both united. But it is far better to
keep them distinct ; although this cannot, in
many cases, be done because of the want of
space. In large establishments, however,
where system and order are held to be leading
features in the arrangement of the grounds,
the fruit and the kitchen gardens should be
separately disposed, and each complete in it-
self. Tliis would be a vast improvement on
the promiscuous mode now generally prac-
tised ; but, as we have said, in places of cir-
cumscribed dimensions this cannot be accom-
plished ; so, we fear, that the medley system
of huddling fruits and vegetables together
within the same enclosing walls, must still
be practised ; and that it must be a long time
before we can expect to see many examples
of an entire separation between the culinary
aud fruit gardens.

PLANTING FRUIT TREES.

In the formation of a garden, the selection
and distribution of the difi'ereut kinds of fruit
trees, is one of the most important and in-
teresting points. Those which are adapted
for walls, may be considered in respect to
their sort, tlieir fruit, the mode of planting
them, and the distance at which they should
be planted from each other. These are points
which ought never to be lost sight of; nor
should the advice of Mr. ^'^icol bo forgotten.

" I have long made it my busineas," says this
practical gardener, "to per.iuado my em-
ployers, in the planting of new gardens and
orchards, to limit the varirties of fruit, in the
firm conviction that I was acting for their
interest ; for, certainly, the rago for multiply-
ing them, and of having a numerous collection,
has too much prevailed of late. It were better
to bo contented with a few kinds which pro-
duce well in most seasons, tlian to plant many
sorts for the sake of variety, of which a crop
is obtained, perhaps, once in three or in seven
years. It is, no doubt, of very great importance
to select and adapt the kinds to the climate, soil,
and aspect ; and, in some situations, a greater
variety may be planted with propriety than
in others. This matter must be determined
by existing circumstances, by the fancy of the
proprietor, and by the discretion of the
gardener."

In Delecting the various sorts of fruit trees,
and distributing them along the different
aspects of the wall, principles should be
adopted, and, if correct, as far as possible
rigidly adhered to, and acted upon. In select-
ing fruits to be grown against walls, the
general principle is, that the more delicate
species of trees, such as the peach, fig, and
grape, should be planted in the warmest parts.
This ia the most congenial situation for them ;
whilst the next warmest part should be as-
sigiied to the more delicate varieties of the
hardier fruits, such as the cherry and pear; as
well as to such descriptions of the hardy
fruits as it may be desirable to bring to a
state of ripeness at a very early period.
Abercrombie lays it down as a rule, that the
best border and wall should be given to the
peach, the vine, apricot, fig, and nectarine.
These are all delicate fruits ; and the vine
should, iu this country, have the first place
in respect to aspect, as it does not readily
ripen out of doors north of London. Where
a south aspect is not to be obtained for tliese

nio

soETS AND AGES.] PEACTICE OF HOETICTTLTURE.

[distances.

delicate fruits, a south-east and south-west are
the next best ; although some of the earlier
kinds of the apricot will attain to maturity on
an east or west wall. In so far as regards the
cherry, it may be placed in any situation,
except that which is directly exposed to the
north ; but the finest cherries will not arrive at
the height of perfection unless they have a south
border. The morello cherry, the plum, pear,
apple, and mulberry, will succeed on any wall:
•' but all late fruit is universally improved in
proportion to the goodness of the aspect
from the west to the east, through all the inter-
mediate points to the south ; and some of the
high-flavoured French pears require a high wall,
and a good aspect, to bring them to perfection."
For a free-growing pear tree, the end of a
building is a good situation ; for if the wall of
the garden be not higher than usual, it wiU
not have sufficient room. A long and high
wall is also required for fig trees.

THE SORTS AND AGES OF PLANTS.
Standards planted against a wall are in the
form of dwarfs and riders, which may be one
year old from the graft, or they may be
several years trained. The permanent trees
are understood to be the dwarfs, the riders
being merely temporary plants, introduced to
give fulness to the upper portion of the wall.
In selecting from both kinds, it is the practice
to choose those trees which have passed
through the training of two or more years ;
or should they, every second year, have been
moved in the nursery, they may take five or
six years to train ; and in such case they will
bear immediately. Touug plants, however,
are preferred by some gardeners. Eegardiug
the age of the plants, it is observed by Nicol,
that the " maiden, or one-year-trained trees,
are to be preferred, especially if apples and
pears. Even of the stone fruits such will
succeed best; though two or three years'
trained are often planted. I here allude to
the dwarfs. Riders of greater age than
dwarla may be planted, in any case, with pro-
priety, they being considered temporary, and
it being desirable to obtain fruit from them as
soon as possible." It is recommended as a
Kul'e plan, to plant partly maiden and partly
trained plants ; by wliich mode, those which
fructify early, should they turn out of inferior
'950

quality, may be replaced by others, or re-
grafted with improved species. Meanwhile,
the kinds to which approval has been given,
will afford a return sufficiently early to com-
pensate for any additional labour or expens?
they may have cost.

DISTANCES IN PLANTING.

The distances at which the permanent trees
are planted, are regulated by the known
growth of the different sorts selected to be
trained against the wall, as well as by the
height of that enclosure. It may be remarked,
too, that the distance of the stem of the tree
from the wall, on the surface of the ground,
should be about nine inches. In rearing nec-
tarines, peaches, and vines, this distance may
be somewhat diminished. In respect to the
height of the walls, there are some slight dif-
ferences of measurement given. Marshall
says, that for one nine or ten feet high, the
distances at which nectarines, peaches, and
apricots are planted from each other, should
be twenty feet. For a wall twelve feet
high, Nieol gives the following distances : —
apples, eighteen or twenty feet ; apricots,
from twenty to twenty-four feet ; figs, from
fifteen to eighteen feet ; nectarines and
peaches, twelve or fifteen feet ; pears, from
twenty-four to thirty feet ; and plums, eighteen
or twenty feet. For low walls, of no more
than five or six feet high, apple trees should
be planted at thirty feet apart, and plums from
twenty to twenty-four feet. " The distances
at which wall trees ought to be planted, ac-
cording to Abercronibie," says Mr. Loudon,
" depend on the general growth of the species,
connected with these other tilings — whether
the individual plant has been dwarfed by the
mode of propagation, or is a free grower ;
whether the species will bear to be kept
within bounds by the knife ; and, lastly, on
the height of the wall. Thus, a higlier wail
is a compensation for a reduced distance, and
a lower will make it necessary to increase the
intervals. Supposing the wall to be twelve
feet high, the following are gi)od avera!j;e dis-
tances for planting the kinds Jiamed : — Vines,
from ten to fifteen feet apart, or in vacant
spaces between other walls, where the distance
is less, because the vine bears pruning well,
and can always be reduced to the prescribed

PLANTING.]

PKACricE OF HOirnCULTURE.

[t»\i>ino.

limits. Peacli trees und lU'ctariiicH, from
fit'ieeu to tweuty lo<ft. l''!-^ trt-t's, from
eightt'cix to tweuty iW't or more, as the bfar-
er8 are uot to be short eueil. Apricot treeH,
fiiieen feet, fur the dwarf early aorta ; eiphteuu
to twenty-four leot for the free-j^rowers, as
tliis plant does uot boar the knife well.
Ciierry trees, from lit'lt»oii to twenty feet; the
stroug-j^rowiug, large-leaved sorts requiring
the wider distauee. Pear trees, tweuty feet,
if on dwarf stocks ; twenty-four to thirty
feet, if on free stocks. Plum trees, from
fifteen to twenty-four feet, Apple trees, if on
dwarf stocks, lifteeu feet ; if on free stocks,
from twenty-five to thirty feet. Mulberry
trees, fifteen or twenty leet. Along the line
of the walls only nine feet high, increase the
intervals to one-lifth as much again ; and of
walls six feet high, to one-fourth."

PLANTING.

It is generally agreed that November is the
best month to plant in, as at that time the
leaves have mostly fallen to the ground. It
is also agreed, that about the middle of De-
cember is the period when the tree should be
headed back. Before planting, the root of
each plant should be trimmed, cutting ofi" the
points of those which have been braised in
the taking up, and moderately thinning them
out, if too thick, or too much crowded. I
Maiden trees do not often require this opera-
tion ; but plants which have, for several years,
stood in the nursery, or which have been
trained against walls or pales, and have
strong roots, frequently requu'e thinning
out. The roots should, in some degree, be
rendered proportionate to the tops ; and as
the shoots and branches are to be headed
down, or to be considerably shortened or
thinned out, as a consequence, the roots
should also be moderately thinned and
pruned. In performing this operation, how-
ever, great care must be taken that the most
promising plants, and those furnished with
the most fibres, be retained. The spot for
planting being determined, a pit, no deeper
than that from which the plant has been re-
moved, should be prepared, and the future
tree placed just as deep, and no deeper, in
the ground than it was before. The roots and
fibres should he spread out, and carel'uUy

bedded in Huilablo corupost. Then the com-
mon earth should bo tilled ^n, pently trod
upou rouud the »Um\, prcMervinp it a irw
inciieH clear of the foundation, and Becuriii^
the plant from tlu) injuridUB rlloctH of high
winds, by nailing it to tlie wall. Thus,
sbouhl tree alter tree be planted ; and ihev
will require? no further atlLMition till th»? fol-
lowing ]\larch, when they should bo headed
down.

TRAINING.

In training, the knife is the grand inntru-
ment; and he who has had 8uflicientexperien3e
and practice to be able to apply it with skill.
mav be said to have a jjerfect command over his
trees. The points wiiich most essentially belong
to the operation of training are, tliat they
should be as simple as possible, and the work
of amputation or lopping be not too frequently
carried on ; that it should accord with the
growth of the tree ; and that it should be
such as to render it more easy for the fruit
to come to perfection. That these points may
the more certainly be secured, it has been laid
down as a maxim, that the knit'e should be
used with some degree of reserve, as nothing
is more injurious to the health and fructifica-
tion of fruit trees of every descriptiou, than
frequent and injudicious cutting.

In placing a fruit tree against a wall, it is
evident that it is put into a constrained and
unnatural situation, from which it would
endeavour to make its escape by every means
in its power. Much care is, therefore, neces-
sary to check this tendency, as the more it is
permitted to exert itself, the more unsightly
must become the form of the tree. He,
therefore, to wliom the charge of a garden is
assigned, should be well acquainted with the
theory ot vegetation ; should make the manner
in which dift'erent sorts of trees grow a study ;
and, above all, should never forget the real
eud or object of all training — the production oj
hearing loood. Perhaps one of the greatest
difficulties is to preserve equality in the growth
of the several points of the same tree. It
should thereibre be known that a shoot will
push itself forth more vigorously when
enjoying a free situation in the open air,
than when it is nailed against a wall. Con-
sidering this fact, it naturally suggests that, in

951

THE BLOSSOM.]

PEACTICE OF HOETICrLTTJEE.

[ESPALIERS.

training, a weak shoot should be left free,
whilst a strong one should be restrained.
A shoot slightly turning off from the perpen-
dicular will, ccBteris paribus, be more plentifully
supplied with sap than one which is laid out
in a horizontal direction, or deflected from its
parent stem. The growth of a luxuriant shoot
may, for some time, be impeded by having its
tender extremity pinched off, when one of a
much weaker description may even surpass
it in the capacity of fruit-bearing. By giving
attention to these hints and expedients, and
making a judicious employment of the pruning-
knife, it will be easy for any practical gardener
to execute the general forms which trees are
made to assume, and which are mostly de-
tailed in horticultural works. The most simple
of these, and the most practised for their
general excellence, are distinguished as the
horizontal, the fan, and the lialf-fan forms.
But the choice of particular modes of training
is too often determined by mere fashionable
prejudice, which leads to the application of the
same form in all sorts of trees. " Thus,"
says a writer on this subject, " the French are
apt to reduce everything to the fan system,
while some English horticulturists are inclined
to force trees of the most rambling growth
into the pillory of a horizontal arrangement.
Such a uniformity cannot possibly be in
accordance with nature. The enlightened
cultivator will employ various forms, and will
determine for himself which is the most appro-
priate, not only for every species, but even for
each particular variety of fruit trees. By
attentive observation and rational experiment,
more knowledge in this department may be
obtained in a few years, than by a whole life
spent in routine practice."

PROTECTION OF THE BLOSSOxM.

In a climate so variable as that of England,
more especially in the northern and eastern
parts of the island, it is necessary that the
gardener should be furnished with such appli-
ances as will enable him to protect the blos-
soms of his fruit trees from the late frosts in
the season of spring. Frames covered with
osnaburg, bunting, and similar light fobrics,
have been recommended for this purpose, with
the observation that they should be set in a
slanting position in front of the trees It is
952

said that the best protection for wall trees are
portable wooden copings about nine inches
in breadth, attached to permanent iron brac-
kets, fixed in the wall immediately below the
stone coping. These wooden defences should
be applied during spring, previous to the
commencement of the blossoming and ex-
panding of the buds ; and there should be
connected with them a material called scrim-
cloth — a sort of thin canvas, admitting light
very freely, yet, of itself, sufficiently capable
to ward off frosts of ordinary severity. This
cloth should be let down on the approach of
evening, and drawn up again on the return
of the morning ; but any invention which
serves to interrupt radiation, though it may
fail to preserve the temperature much above
the freezing-point, will act beneficially.
Standard fruit trees must be left to themselves ;
and, indeed, from the lateness of the season at
which they flower, they are generally more
deteriorated by drenching rains and blight,
than by the immediate influences of cold.

ESPALIERS.

In making choice of the trees most suitable
for an espalier rail, it may be taken as a
general rule, that those which are of a finer
quality than can be cultivated with advan-
tage as standards, are the best ; and, at the
same time, not to take such as require the
greater heat and the protection of a wall.
" It should be a maxim for all climates,"
says the Eev. Nathaniel Paterson, who has
devoted much of his attention to horticulture,
" that fruit, good of its kind, though the kind
be inferior, is preferable to that of a better
nature, but imperfectly produced. A good
crop of codlings is better than a bad crop of
golden pippins. . . . Having your walls
already furnished with the best sorts that may
suit your climate, you have only to go a degree
lower in the scale to make up your espaliers.
But should your wall be so limited as not to
aftbrd room for so many of the better sorts
as might otherwise be admissible, it will bo
proper to cultivate as espaliers certain trees
which ought, in other circumstances, to have a
place on the wall. That part of your rails
which is opposite to the south wall, and has
some benefit from its reflection, is the most
favourable for such an experiment. At the

GRAPE-VINE.l

PKACTICK OF HORTICULTURE.

[aUAI'£-VINE.

medium elevation the Kibstou pippin will do
well in this situation ; for tliough it will not
come to such perfect maturity, it will yet be
better than most other fruits, and the tree will
prDve more healthy than it usually iloi-s on the
bi'st wall. A jarixonello pear, in the like cir-
cumstances, may be not unsuccessfully tried ;
and in lower situations, failing the extent of
wall, a variety of the finer sorts of ai^jiles and
pears may be raised in this way. The less
favourable aspects of the espalier rows must,

of course, bo fitted up with such as aro

coarser and more hardy It

may be remarlicd that none of the stone
fruits do well for training in the es-
palier mode, save cherries, which bear for
a number of years on the old wood ; but
though they admit of the protection of a
net as well as on tho wall, yet this method
is in other respects less eligible, as tho young
wood cannot bo laid in to tho uaino ad-
vautaee."

CHAPTER VI.

PRELIMINARY ; THE GRAPE-VINE ; THE FIG ; PEACH ; APRICOT ; PLUM ; CHERRY ; PEAR ; APPLE ;
STORING PEARS AND APPLES ; QUINCE ; MEDLAR ; SERVICE-TRKE ; MULBERRY ; CURRANT ; TUB
GOOSEBERRY; RASPBERRY; STRAWBERRY; CRANBERRY; ALMOND TREE ; HAZEL-NLT; WALNUT;
CHESTNUT.

PRELIMINARY.

In passing to particulars from the generalities
into which our treatment of the fruit garden
has, to some extent, necessarily led us, we
will commence with the more delicate or
tender sorts of fruits, and restrict the lists which
we shall give to selections from the very best
descriptions in present cultivation. It is in
the forcing garden alone, however, that many
of the finer sorts of fruits can be brought to a
state of perfection. To that department we
must, therefore, refer the reader for whatever
details we give of these, as it is there that, in
this country, the artificial processes of vege-
tation are pursued upon the principles of ex-
perimental science, and with a view to attain
to the highest results.

THE GRAPE-VINE.

This plant is generally considered to bo a
native of Persia ; thence passing into Egypt,
Greece, and Sicily. From this island it was
carried into Italy, Spain, and France; and,
ultimately, by the Eomaus into Britain, but at
what period is uncertain. That there were vine-
yards in England in a.d. 280, is certain, if the
authority of the venerable Eede is to be be-
lieved. But, however this may be, wherever
it is now cultivated in England, it is absolutely
0 F

necessary that it should have a good aspect ;
and to the north of York, a dessert of grapes
cannot be produced without the assistance of
a hot wall. It is said that, in the extreme
south-west districts of England, grapes, suit-
able for tho manufacture of wine, perhaps
equal in quality to those grown in the north
of France, might be produced on dwarf stand-
ards. Of this we entertain no doubt, unless
the climate has greatly changed for the worse,
as there is abundant historical testimony-,
shoving that productive vineyards once existed
in that part of the island. In the catalogue
of the London Horticultural Society, 197
kinds of grapes are enumerated. Some of
these, however, are of indifferent quality, and
some are utterly worthless. We will, there-
fore, select the names of a few of those which
are considered to be most deserving of the
attention of the cultivator.

Black Damascus, Black Hamburg, Black
Lombardy, Chasselas Musqud, Frontiguan,
Muscat of Alexandria, Eoyal Muscadine, Nice
or AVhito Nice, Barbarossa, Black Prince, Es-
perione, or Turner's Early Black, the Syrian
Grape, Slillward's Sweetwater, or Chasselas
Precorce, Trobbiaua, tho Yerdellio, and White
Sweetwater.

The Black Damascus is a late variety, and
does not set well ; but its bunches are large,

953

THE riG.]

PEACTICE OP HOETICULTUEE.

[the peach.

and the berries round and sweet. The Black
Hamburg is highly valued, and more generally
cultivated in this country for the dessert than
any other grape. There are several seed
varieties of it in existence. The Black Lom-
bardy is a late and excellent fruit. There are
five varieties of the Frontignan, distinguished
as the blacTc, Hue, grizzly, red, and wJiite.
They are all of great excellence. The Muscat
of Alexandria has a most delicious flavour, but
it requires a high temperature, and ought to
have a vinery set apart for itself. The other
varieties require no especial remark, with, per-
haps, the exception of the Esperione," which
ripens on the open wall in the vicinity of
London.

For a vinery of ordinary description, the
Black Hamburg, CbasselasMusque, Stillvvard's
Sweetwater, "White Prontignan, Black Lom-
bardy, andEoyal Muscadine are recommended.
Tor a slow or late vinery, the Muscat of Alexan-
dria, the Barbarossa (Black and White), the
Grizzly Erontignan, the Black Tripoli, and the
Canon-hall Muscat. For training against the
rafters of a greenhouse, the Verdelho, the Black
Prince, Black Cluster, and Esperione, are the
most suitable. The grapes usually grow^n in Eng-
land against the open wall are — the Esperione,
"White Muscadine, Miller Burgundy, Grove-
end, Early Black, Pitmaston,"White Cluster, and
the "White Sweetwater. Both in the north of
England and the south of Scotland, hot walls
are always required for the cultivation of the
grape ; but, even with this artificial help, vine-
culture can never be calculated on with
certainty in this country, if pursued in the

open air.

THE FIG.

The fig tree is a native of Asia and Bar-
bary, and was imported to England by Car-
dinal Pole, about 1525 ; but it is not a
favourite in this country. Gardens of first-
rate character, however, should not be with-
out some trees ; and the following are in
greatest esteem : — ■

Angelque, Brunswick, Black, "White, and
Brown Ischias, Large AVhite Genoa, Malta,
Marseilles, Nerii, Brown Turkey, Pergusata,
and Lee's Perpetual.

The Marseilles, the Brown Turkey, Lee's
Perpetual, and the Black Ischia, are the best
954i

for forcing ; whilst the others are better
adapted for walls.

THE PEACH.

Persia is considered the original country of
the peach ; but this fruit, from time immemorial,
has been cultivated in most parts of Asia. The
characteristics of a good peach, or nectarine, are
firmness of flesh, thinness of skin, depth and
brightness of the red colour next the sun, and
a yellowish-green next the wall. Its pulp
should, also, be of a yellowish colour ; and it
should be full of high-flavoured juice, with
the fleshy part thick, and the stone sm411.
The two principal varieties of the peach, pro-
perly so called, is the one (the peach) with a
downy skin; and the nectarine with a smooth
skin. Each of these varieties is again divided
by gardeners into freestones, or peclies, and
clingstones, ov pavies, according as the stone
adheres to the pulp, or parts freely from it.
In the horticultural catalogue, there are given
183 peaches, and sixty-five nectarines. One
would think that invention would fail in
finding names sufficient to distinguish such a
family : we, however, will indicate a few of
those most congenial to our climate.

Peaches. — The Acton Scot, Bellegarde
(the Galande of the nurseries). Late Admiral,
or La JRoyale, Madaleine de Courson, No-
blesse, Grosse Mignone, Eed Nutmeg or Avant
Eouge, Eoyal George, and Spring Grove.

The Eed Nutmeg is one of the earliest, and
produces abundantly. All the others are ex-
cellent varieties ; and one of the very best
late ones is the Late Admiral, which ought to
be in every collection.

Nectaeines. — Of these the best are the
Early Newiugton, theElruge, Fairchild's Early,
Hunt's Tawny, and the Eed Eoman. We may
enumerate a i'ew more first-class nectarines,
suitable equally for open-air culture or for
forcing. These are, oi freestones — the Brinion,
Downton, Murray, Pitmaston, Orange, Vio-
lette Grosse, Due de Telle, New White, and
the Hardwick Seedling. Of clingstones —
there are the Iniperatrice and the Newington
Tawny ; but these last are not deemed so suit-
able either for opeu-air culture or for forcing.

THE APRICOT.

Armenia is the country in which it is sup-

THE xriticoT.]

PJiACTlCE OF IIOJ: riCULTUllE.

[thK IM.UM.

posed the apricot oriLrlnattil ; ullium^h Pallas
Btates tliat it is louucl aloiii; tho whole rniigo
of tho Caucasus, the mountains of which, even
to their summits, are covered witli it. It is
described as being, in Japan, a lar;i;e, Hpreadiiig
tree, full of branches ; and in China, as cover-
ing the mountains to the west of Pekin. It
appears to have been first cultivated in Etig- ;
land about 15G2. It is used in a raw state
for the dessert, and is esteemed next to the
peach iu tiie quality of deliciousness. It is
also made into jellies, marmalades, and pre-
serves. The following are the principal va-
rieties : —

The Blenheim, Breda, Ilemskirke, Moor-
park, Musch-Muach, Kaisha, New Early, I
Koman, Turkey, Large Early, Orange, and
Ivjyal.

The Blenheim is of En2;lish origin, and a
good bearer. The Breda is of the highest
excellence, and in the south of England does
well as a standard ; but the best apricot in
tliis country is the Moor-park, of which there
are several sub-varieties, known by different
i.ames; and among them Shipley's is the best.
The Turkey is an excellent late variety ; and
the Kaisha has quite superseded the rea and
white Masculines, which, in former days, were
our earliest kinds.

The apricot, being a tree of much stronger
growth than the peach, requires more room
and pruning, both in summer and winter.
The most common error in pruning apricots
is the laying-in of the bearing-shoots too
thickly, Keferring to this tree, Dr. Lindley
says that the principal branches "must be
trained wider apart than those of peach and
nectarine trees; but, in other respects, they
should be regulated by the same principles.
The main branches of the apricot may be
fifteen inches apart."

TIIE PLUM.

The plum tree, although a native of, or,
perhaps, only naturalised in, Grreat Britain, is
supposed to have been originally taken from
Asia Minor ; for Pliny says that it was brought
from Syria into Greece, and thence into Italy.
It is frequently found growing spontaneously
in our hedges ; and in its cultivated state is
highly esteemed as a dessert-fruit. " Plums,"
says Professor Martyn, " when suUiciently

ripe, and taken in modcrato (pianiitv, are not
unwholesome ; but in an immature state, thev
are more liable to produce pains in tho stomach,
diarrhoa, or cholera, than any other fruit of
tliis class." Tiiere are many varieties, rang-
ing from ten to nearly a hundred, as given by
different autiiorities ; but tho catalogue of tho
Horticultural Soeiety gives 274 sorte. Wo
notice a few of tho best for tho dessert, and
then select some others, most esteemed for
culinary purposes.

Tho Green-gago (or Heine Claude of tho
French), Coe'a Golden Drop, the Drap
D'Or, Angelina Burdctt, tho Blue Impera-
trice, tho Jell'erson, the Koine Claude Violotte,
the Washington, Koine Claude de Buvay,
Cowper's Large lied, Coo's Late Ked, D'Af^en,
Blue Perdii^'on, Duwnton Imperatrice, Law-
son's Golden-gai;e, and the White Perdrigou.

It is supposed that the green-gage was in-
troduced into England by the Gage family;
and the foreign name having been lost, or for-
gotten, the present was given to it, as being
the next most appropriate. It is, in every
respect, a fruit of the highest excellence.
When grown against a wall with an east or a
west aspect, the fruit attains to a large size ;
but, as a wall tree, it rarely bears well till it is
old. Coe's Golden Drop requires a wall of the
most luvourable aspect, and is excellent, botli
as a table and preserving plum. It does not
succeed in a bleak climate. A\^e are informed
that the Angelina Burdett, the standard of
England, and the Woolston black-gage, were,
some years ago, raised from seed by Mr.
Dowliug, of Woolsion, near Soutiiamptou.
They are all plums of tlie highest excellence.
Speaking of their qualities, Mr. Thompson
says — " These plums are first-rate, and I should
recommend their extensive cultivation. As
regards the last, it throws the green-gage into
the shade, for it contains all the properties of
that fine plum, with more sugary sweetness.
The Jefierson is tho best of all the American
plums. The Washington is also a good
plum, and succeeds as a standard. Cowper's
large red is a fruit of great productiveness,
and on that account deserves a place in the
garden. Gisborue's early plum is one of
the best that can be recommended, especially
for the northern parts of the island."

Of second-rate plums we may enumerate

955

THE CHEEET.]

the Cheston, Sliarpe's Emperor, the Fother-
ingham, Goliath, La Eoyale, Wilmot's IS'ew
Orleans, the Orleans, and the Morocco.
There are also some Damasks, which should
find a place in the garden. The Early Violet
is a capital bearer, and highly recommended
by Lindley for cottage gardens.

For preserving, and the use of the kitchen,
the following are recommended : — The Cale-
donia or Nectarine Plum, Isabella, Shrop-
shire Damson, Imperial Diadem, White Mag-
num Bonum, Eed Magnum Bonum or Im-
perial, the St. Catharine, the Mirabelle,
Bullan, and Wine Sour, Deen's Jedburgh
Seedling, Denniston's Superb, Tay-Bank,
Topaz, Gisborne's Plum, Guthrie's New
Apricot Plum, Pond's Seedling, and Guthrie's
Minette.

In training plum trees they require plenty
of room, and are chiefly propagated by bud-
ding upon Musell or St. Julian stocks. They
are sometimes grafted ; but when this is the
case, gum is apt to exude from the tree at the
place of junction. On common walls they
should be allowed from twenty to twenty-five
feet of breadth, over which to extend them-
selves ; and for this purpose a preference
should be given to such as have been trained
in the nursery for a couple of years.

THE CHERRY.

In 73 A.C., the cultivated cherry was
brought to Italy by Lucullus, the Eoraan
general, who found it growing in Cerasus, the
name of a town in Pontus in Asia, and from
which the designation given to the fruit is
derived. It is supposed to have been intro-
duced by the Eomans into Britain ; but if
such was the case, it would seem that it was
suffered to die out. It is stated to have been
re-iiitroduced by Eichard Harris, the fruit-
erer of Henry VIII.; but Wharton shows,
by a quotation from Lidgate, a poet who
nourished about 1415, that the London
hawkers exposed cherries for sale in a manner
similar to that which is now done in the
early part of the fruit season. The tree is
very generally cultivated, not only as a wall,
but as a standard fruit, and has been intro-
duced to the forcing garden for upwards of a
couple of centuries. The fruit is used as a
dessert, and for making pies, tarts, aud other
956

PEACTICE OE HOETICULTUEE.

[the peae.

elegant preparations, in both confectionery
and cookery. The Horticultural Society's
catalogue, with geans included, gives no fewer
than 219 varieties, of which the following
may be considered as among the most excel-
lent : —

The Bigarreau or GrafSon, Belle de Choissy,
Black Tartarian, Amber or Yellow Spanish,
Buttener's October Morello, Early Purple
Griotte, Elton, Harrison's Heart, the May
Duke, Late Duke, Morello, Kentish Cherry,
and the Waterloo, Besides these, may be
specified the Black Heart, Black Eagle, Early
Heart, Bowyer's Downton, Carnation, White
Heart, Knight's Early Black, and the Flo-
rence.

The Early Purple Griotte is the earliest of
all cherries, generally ripening at the end of
May. The May Duke is one of the most
common, and, at the same time, one of the
most valuable of cherries; but the Kentish
cherry is one of the oldest and most prevalent
of English cherries, much cultivated in the
orchards of Kent. It ripens at the end of
July, and is commonly grown as a standard.
The Morello is a late cherry, much in request
for confectionery ; and of the same species are
the Erogmore, New Morello, and Eumsey'a
Late Morello. The Bigarreau is an excellent
fruit, largely cultivated in England for the
London market.

Guignes, or Geans, are cherries, but in a
state not so highly cultivated, or so far
removed from their natural state. When old
they are very prolific, and are usually grown as
standards. The Amber Gean, and the Lunelle
Gean, are the principal kinds ; the former a
sweet tender fruit, and an abundant bearer;
the latter a small black cherry, of high flavour.

THE PEAR.

The pear tree bears its fruit on wood up-
wards of one year old, but principally on spurs,
and very rarely on two-year branches. In the
Theory of Horticulture, Dr. Lindley has the
following remarks relative to the rearing of this
tree : — " Plant a maiden tree in autumn ; allow
it to establish itself for one year, and then head
it back to a good eye, a 'i^'^ buds from its
base. Let one shoot grow as strong and
upright as possible during the summer, and
bead it back to within thirteen inches of the

EAUl.V rEA.B3.]

PRACTICE OF HOETIOULTURE.

[late peabs.

gnniiul ill autumn, cutting very close to a
buii, in onler tlmt the shoot springing from it
may lorm little or no btMiding. Tniin it up-
rigljt ; whilst three or lour shoots, from buila
immediately below it, should be more or less
inclined to a horizontal direction, according to
their strength ; the strongest should bo nmat
depressed. These three or four constitute
the commencemenb of the lirst or lower tier.
For the next tier, head back the upright
leader to within eighteen inches of its base, if
the soil is rich ; if not to tit'teen inches ; and
from the shoots produced in the following
season from buds, just under the cut, train a
ehoot for a leader, and three or four some-
what horizontally, as before, for a second tier.
Precisely, in this manner, tier after tier must
be started, till the tree attains its assigned
height. All this can be effected in accordance
with the natural disposition of the tree, to
form an upright stem, and with the tendency
of the sap to develop the uppermost buds of a
shortened shoot. But it ia not to be done
without serious difficulties."

The list given of cultivated pears amounts
to upwards of 600. We will, therefore,
confine ourselves to specifying a few of tlie
best dessert sorts, both early and late.

Eablt. — Autumn Bergamot or English
Bergamot, Early Bergamot, Elton, Beurre
d'Amalis, Citron de Carmes (this is the Made-
leine of Lindley, and the Premature in
Scotland), the Dunmoro, Doyenne Blanc,
Flemish Beauty, Foudaute d'Automne, Man-
suette, the Summer Hose, the Jargonelle,
Summer Francreal, Duhamel, Seckle, Red
Doyenne, the Van Mods Leon Leclerc. The
summer and early autumn pears may be
added. The Summer Francreal, Summer Bon-
chretien, William's Bonchretien, and the Musk
Robine. These generally require the pro-
tection of a wall.

The Jargonelle is the most esteemed, as it is
the most common of our early autumn pears.
It grows to a large size against the wall ; but
the fruit does not keep well. The Citron de
Carmes is our earliest pear, ripening in July.
It is a sweet pear without much flavour.
The Summer Rose is an excellent variety, and
the Summer Francreal a large bearer. The
Early Bergamot is one of our best early pears ;
and the Autumn Bergamot one of our most

richly flavoun d. It ripens towards the end of
October, but it does not keep.

Late. — Of late pears the assortment is
large ; but the following may bo viewed aa
some of the choicest : — Bergamot de Hollaude,
Ik'urre Die!, Easter licurro, Beurre liance,
Beurre Laiigflier, Brown Btnirn', licurn'? do
Cii[)iamont, Bello do Bourne, Moorlield Egg,
Gansel's Bergamot, Bezi do la Motte, Marie
Louise, Craaanne, Colmar, Passe Cohnar,
i'oire Neill, and the Urbaniste. To these may
be added, as late autumnal and winter pears,
the Autumn Colmar, Aston Town, Beurre
Spence, Echassery, Bezi Vaet, Bezi de la Motte,
Sylvange, Chanmontelle, Glout ^lorccau,
Downtown, Hacon's Incomparable, Ducheso
d'Angoulfime, Swan Egg, Winter Nelis, Flem-
ish Beauty, Napoleon, Brougham, Calibasse,
Chaptal, Comp de Laney, Althorp Crasanne,
Winter Crasanne, Dundas, Elton, Emerald, De
Louvain, Eyewood, Fulton, Groom's Prin-
cess Royal, Jean de Witte, Louis Boune of
Jersey, Moccas, Ne Plus Mennis, and Knight's
Monarch.

Of stewing pears, or the kitchen sorts, wc may
name — Uvedale's St. Germain, Catillar, Bel-
liaine d'Hiver, the Black AVorcester or War-
den, and the Gilogil. These are either kept
as dwarf standards, or placed on espalier rails,
or inferior walls.

Of the early pears, the autumn or English
bergamot has long enjoyed an established re-
putation for the high flavour it possesses. It
comes to perfection about the end of October;
but it does not keep. The jargonelle is the
most esteemed of our early autumn pears ; and
when grown against a wall, it attains to a
very large size. The fruit, however, does not
keep well. The others call for no special
remark. Of late pears, the Brown Beurre is a
plentiful bearer ; and so is the Beurre de Ca-
piamont. The Moor-fowl Egg is of Scottish
origin, and presents us with two varieties, of
which the Galston is the best. Tlie tree ia
hardy, and the fruit of excellent quality. The
plant should be grown as a standard. The
Marie Louise is a large and an excellent pear,
raised by Duquesne. Thompson says it ia
one of the finest, even as a standard, on which
it bears abundantly. The Easter Beurr^ ia
hardy, and an abundant bearer. Thompson
observes that it is one of the most valuable

057

APPLES.J

PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[apples.

of the spring sorts, " compared with which, the
early pears of short duration deserve not a
wall." The Beurr6 Eance is the best very late
sort yet known.

" Summer and autumn pears," says a writer
on this subject, "should be gathered before
they are fully ripe, otherwise they will not, in
general, keep more than a few days. The
Jargonelle, as Torsyth rightly advises, should
be allowed to remain on the tree, and be pulled
daily, as wanted ; the standard fruit thus suc-
ceeding the produce of the wall trees. In
reference to the Crasanne, Mr. George Lind-
ley recommends gathering the crop at three
different times : the first, a fortnight or more
before it is ripe ; the second, a week or ten
days after; and the third, when fully ripe.
The first gathering will come into eating
latest ; and thus the season of the fruit may
be considerably prolonged. It is evident that
the same method may be followed with the
Brown Beurre, and Gansel's Bergamot, or with
any others which continue only a short time
in a mature state."

THE APPLE.
In a wild state, the apple is a native of
most European countries ; but when the cul-
tivated fruit first came into Britain is
entirely unknown. It is supposed to have been
introduced by the Eomans, as, in the time
of Pliny, these people were acquainted with
twenty-two varieties. But, however this may
be, we have it, on the authority of Stowe, that
carp and pippins were brought to England
by Muscal, who, in 1572, wrote on fruit
trees. The apple tree never bears, except
accidentally, upon young wood. It is on
wood two or more years old, and on the
stunted branches called " spurs," that its
fruit appears. The fruit is principally grown
as a staudanl, which should have a clean,
straight, and substantial stem. Of the apple,
there are upwards of 1,400 varieties
enumerated in the Loudon Horticultural
Society's catalogue, of which about one-
seventh, perhaps, may be good kinds. To
attempt to give detailed descriptions of such
a multitude of species would be vain; we
fiball, therefore, conliue ourselves to giving a
list of the sorts deemed most worthy of the
attention of the grower.
958

Table Apples. — The earliest of these are
the Juncating, or White Geniton, ripening
about the close of July ; the Eed, or Striped
Juncating ; the White Crofton, an abundant
bearer, and useful for the kitchen, as well as
the table ; the Arbroath Pippin, or Oslin ; the
Early Julian, or Clydesdale ; Summer Golden
Pippin; Eed Quarrenden, or Devooshire, and
the Early Harvest. To succeed these, we
have Hick's Eancy, or the Early Nonpariei;
the Autumn, or Eoyal Pearmain ; the Doon-
side ; Baird's Favourite ; White Astrachan ;
Eed Astrachan ; Shepherd's Parae ; Pearson's
Plate; Old Golden Pippin; Franklin's
Golden Pippin ; Pomme de Niege ; Maclean's
Favourite ; King of the Pippins, or Hamp-
shire Yellow, a valuable variety ; Kerry
Pippins, one of the best of the Irish apples ;
Cole Apple, or Scarlet Perfumed ; Leishman'a
Pippin, and Longville's Kernal.

Winter dessert apples being in great force,
we can only enumerate a few of the best.
The Eibston Pippin has long h«ld a high
character, not only for the richness but the
highly aromatic flavour of its juice. Hubbard's
Pearmain is of the finest quality ; the Golden
Harvey, or Brandy Apple of Forsyth, though
a small, is a capital fruit, characterised by Mr.
Lindley as juicy, rich, and finely flavoured.
It has the quality of great hardiness, and is
an abundant and a constant bearer ; and no
garden in which a dozen trees can be con-
tained, ought to be without one. The Doun-
ton Pippin is also an excellent fruit, and
a large bearer ; it ripens at the end of October,
and keeps till January ; the Tellow Ingestre ;
the Berehamnell; Court of Wick Pippin;
Wood's Transparent ; Scarlet Crofton ; Scarlet
Pearmain ; Dutch Mignonne ; Fearn's Pip-
pin ; Paradise Pippin ; Old Nonpareil ; Brad-
ick's Nonpareil ; Scarlet Nonpareil ; Pitmas-
ton Nonpareil ; Kirke's Golden Kennet ;
Sykehouse Eusset; Cornish Aromatic, a
famous apple; the Sam Young, an Irish
fruit; and the Norfolk Beaufiu, which is the
best apple for drying and preserving, making
an admirable winter fruit.

Desseet Apples. — The Baddon Pippin,
and Barton's Incomparable, are excelient;
as are the following: — Ashmead's Kernel;
Clara Pippin ; Christie's Pippin ; Cockle
Pippin; Cornish Gillyflower; Creed's Mari-

BTOuiTio FnriT.] TRACTICE OV II o U TICULTUKE. [quince— medlab.

gold ; Colonel Vaughun'a White Crofton ;
Elford Pippin; Formaii's Cri'we ; Scarlet
Goliieu Pippiu ; Golden Kussi-t ; Now (ioldfii
Pippin; Winter Goldea Pearmain ; Clay;,':ite
Peannaiii ; Heretbrdaliire Pearmain ; Ijaiub
Abbey Pearmain ; Scarlet Pearmain ; Uoyal
Pearmain; Iveepinij liuaset; lieiuette iVanclio;
iiud Powell'sn Ivusset.

Of American apples, the most suitable for
our climate is the Boston Husset.

Kitchen Apples. — Under this specification
we mean such as are principally used for tarts
or sauces ; and they are so very numerous
that the names of some of the best can only
here be given. The Nonsuch, Ilanwell
Souring, Fulwood, Menshul Crab, Alexander,
Blenheim Orange, Wheeler's Kusset, Cat's
Head, Forman's Crewe, and the Ilunthouse
of Yorksliire, are all held in high estimation.
The Bedford Foundling is a certain bearer,
whilst it is a large and handsome fruit ; and
the Cellini is a good apple for November.
Some of the best apples for keeping long are
Scottish Gogar Pippin ; Moncrieff, or Stone
Pippin ; the AVormsley Pippin ; Baxter's Pear-
main ; Winter Strawberry Apple ; the York-
shire Greening ; the Northern Greening ; the
Calvill Malinger ; Winter Lud ; Pentcarland
Pippin ; Cockle Pippin ; Green Fulwood Al-
friston ; Beauty of Kent ; London Pippin ;
Hawthornden ; Glory of England ; Pope's
Apple ; Eoyal Russet ; Carlisle Codlin ; and
the Eastern Pippin.

STORING PEARS AND APPLES.
For this purpose there should be attached
to every considerable garden, a well-ventilated,
commodious fruit-room, fitted up with the
necessary drawers and shelves, and such other
conveniences as may be iound requisite.
Forsyth says — " The fruit on shelves should
be turned two or three times during the
winter ; as delicate and tender fruit, by lying
long without turning, is apt to rot on the
under side, even if perfectly sound when hud
up. Be particularly careful, however, to pick
out all the damaged fruit. TVheu the fruit is
laid in, put the earliest sorts on the lower
shelves or in the lower drawers, according to
their time of coming in, beginning with the
Nonsuch, Golden Eenuet, and Juncating
apples ; and Bergamot and Beurre pears.

Thus, by proper management, you may havo a
coiiHtant snccession of fruit from ono season
to the other." The best way of kccfjing fruit,
however, is to pack it in glazed earthen jart.
" The peara and apples must bo separately
wrapped up in soft paper; then put a little
well-dried bran in the bottom of the jar, and
over the bran a layer of fruit, then a little
raoro bran to fill up the interstices between the
fruit, and to cover it ; and so on, a layer of
fruit and bran alternately, till the jar be full;
tlien shake it gently, which will make the fruit
and bran sink a little; fill up the vacancy at
top with more bran, and lay some paper
over it, covering tho top with a piece of
bladder, to exclude tho air ; then put on the
top or cover of tho jar, observing that it fits
as closely as possible. These jars should be
kept in a room where you can havo a firo in
damp weather."

THE QUINCE.

This fruit is a native of Austria, and other
parts of Europe, and, in lo73, is mentioned by
Tusser ; but it does not seem to have ever
been much cultivated in this country. The
tree is much branched, of low growth, and
generally distorted. Two or three trees
are usually sufficient to be planted either in
the slip or the orchard. They may be pro-
pagated either by grafting, by layers, or by
cuttings ; and the two principal sorts are the
Portugal Quince and the Pear Quince, the
latter being the most productive, and serving
for all culinary purposes equally well as the
former.

THE MEDLAR.

The Medlar is a native of tho south of
Europe, but appears to have been naturalised
in some parts of England, by birds which, ia
tlieir migrations, have sown it in copses.
This is the opinion of Mr. Loudon. The
vririeties most worthy of notice are the Dutch
Medlar with broad leaves, and the Notting-
ham Medlar with narrow leaves. The fruit is
gathered in November, and kept till it begins
to decay, when it is served up in the dessert,
and much relished by some. The tree is pro-
pagated by seeds, layers, cuttings, or grafting
ou seedliugs of tlieir own species. The plant,

r.-o

THE CUEEANT.]

PRACTICE or HOETICULTUEE. [the goo3ebeekt.

hovvever, is somewhat difficult to strike by
cuttings.

THE SERVICE-TREE.
This tree is a native of the mountainous
parts of Cornwall, and, though not much cul-
tivated, must not be entirely overlooked. Its
fruit has a peculiar kind of acid flavour, and is
used only when thoroughly mellowed by
keeping. There is both a pear-shaped and
an apple-shaped variety, both of which may
be propagated by layers, or by grafting on
seedling plants of their own species.

THE MULBERRY.

This is a fruit but little known in Scotland,
although, in old gardens, there are to be
found some aged trees which, in favourable
seasons, yield some berries. The plant is
originally from Persia ; and, in this country,
requires to be cultivated in warm situations.
During the months of August and September,
the fruit is in request for desserts, possessing a
rich aromatic flavour, and a fine sub-acid juice.
Where it grows abundantly, wine is made
from it : and, in Devonshire, a little of the
juice added to full-bodied cider, produces a
delightful beverage, known as Mulberry Cider,
which preserves its flavour for several months.
The tree is propagated by layers or by cut-
tings ; also by branches of an inch or more
in diameter.

THE CURRANT.

Under the general title of Small Fruits, the
red, white, and black currant, the gooseberry,
the raspberry, tlie strawberry, and the cran-
berry are usually cultivated in this country.
Their uses in cookery, confectionery, as well
as in making some wines, give them con-
siderable importance. Besides our red and
white currants, there are included, in the
Eibes Jiithrum, many sub-varieties. Among
these may be noticed as the principal — the
Euby Castle, the Dutch Eed, Knight's Early
Eed, Knight's Sweet Eed, Wilmot's Large
Ec(], Goodwin's Eed, Champagne, Dutch
White, AVoolly-lcaved Dutch, Victoria White,
and Wilmot's New White.— The Black Cur-
rants comprise the Common Black, Black
Kaplos, and Ogdcn's Black Grape.

Efd and wliite currants are easily propa-
960

gated by cuttings, and succeeii in any sort of
common garden soil. They thrive best, how-
ever, in warm moist situations, where they may
have the benefit of plenty of air. When
planted by themselves, in separate compart-
ments, or trained as dwarf standards, or as
bushes from single stems of about a foot high,
they are best : but care must be taken that
the principal branches do not cross each other.
In winter, the young bearing- wood is short-
ened down into spurs of from one to two
inches in length, — The Black Currant succeeds
best in a shady situation, with a deep, moist
soil. Its culture is much the same as that
of the other currants, only the young shoots
are not spurred.

THE GOOSEBERRY.

The bush which bears this exquisite fruit is
a native of several parts of Europe ; and, in
the Vallais, abounds in copse-woods, where it
produces a small, green, hairy, and highly-
flavoured fruit. In England it has been na-
turalised in various places against old walls,
among ruins, and in the woods and hedges
about Darlington. In Lancashire it is culti-
vated in greater perfection than in any other
part of Britain. The following are some of
the sorts recommended by the Loudon Horti-
cultural Society, Of the Yellow Kind — the
Golden Tellow, the Yellow Ashton, and the
Yellow Champagne, the Smooth Yellow,
Smiling Beauty, Eumbellion, Sulphur, and
Yellow Smith. — Of the Eed Kind — the Eob
Eoy, Ironmonger, Eed Champagne, Keen's
Seedling, Small Eed Globe, Lord of the
Manor, Leigh's Eiflemau, Wellington's
Glory, Shipley's Black Prince, and the Eed
AVarrington, — Of the White Kind — the
Cheshire Lass, White Champagne, White
Crystal, Bright Venus, White Damson, White
Smith, and the White Honey, — Of the Green
Kind — the Green-gage, Pitmaston, Langley
Green, Green Gascoigne, Green Laurel, Late
Green, Gregory's Perfection, Green Walnut,
Cupper's Bonnie Lass, and the Jolly Tar.

The gooseberry-bush thrives best in a loose,
rich soil, which readily absorbs, but does not
retain much moisture. It may be propagated
by all the modes of application to shrubs or
trees ; even by pieces of the roots ; but the
mode usually adopted is by cuttings for con-

THE STBAWDEnuv.] I'KACTICE OF 11 OUTI CULTUKE. [the cnA^JBKuuY.

tinuing varieties, and that by seeds for procur-
ing them.

Tilt: RASPUIilRRY.

This is a imtivo of Britain, and ia vitv often
found in woods where the situation ia low and
uioist. The fruit ia grateful ; but sugar used
with it heightens the llavour, which helps to
make it much esteemed when niado into sweet-
meats, jams, tarts, and sauces. The best
varieties are the Eed Antwerp, Yellow Aut-
vrerp, Baruet, Cornish, Ked Globe, Belle
de Fontenay, Coxe's Honey, Kiver's Large-
fruited Monthly, Eoger's Victoria, Prauconia,
White Monarch, White Globe, and Falstaff;
which last is the most profitable.

In propagating the raspberry, " varieties can
be perpetuated by young sucker-shoots, rising
pleuteously from the root in spring and sum-
mer. When these have completed one season's
growth, they are proper to detach with roots
for planting, either in the autumn of the same
year or the next spring, in February or March,
but not later than the middle of April. These
new plants will bear some fruit the first year,
and furnish a succession of strong bottom
shoots for full bearing the second season.
New varieties are easily raised from seed ;
and they come into bearing the second
year."

THE STRAWBERRY.

This fragrant, delicious, and universally-
esteemed fruit, is a native of temperate or cold
climates, such as Europe and America. In the
catalogue of the London Horticultural Society,
no fewer than 112 varieties are given; but
the following are sufficient for any garden, as
they are the most worthy of cultivation : —
Cuthili's Black Prince, for its early ripening
qualities; Grove-end Scarlet, most suitable
for preserving, on account of its fine carmine
colour ; Elton, on account of its late ripening ;
British Queen ; jNIyatt's Pine ; Deptford Pine ;
Eleanor; Ingram's Prince of Wales; Keen's
Seedling; Princess Eoyal ; Princess Alice
Maud ; Trollop's Victoria ; Nicholson's Ajax ;
White and Ked Alpine; Sir Harry Myatt's
Mammoth ; Large Plat Hautbois, and Comte
de Paris.

Scientific gardeners have difierent modes of
growing the strawberry ; and among these we
G a

believe that the experiments of Mr. Cuthill, of
Cuinberwell, have been very eucoeHHful. The
present writer has been shown, by tliia exoellciifc
grower, numerous medals preaeuted to hun aa
prizes, for the various varieties he has produced
by his judicious mode of cultivating this fruit.
'* The plants multiply spontaneously every sum-
mer, aa well by suckers from the parent btein aa
by the numerous runners, all of which rooting
and forming a plant at every joint, n cpiire only
removal to a bed where there is room for theia
to fiourish. Each of these, separately planted,
bears a fine fruit the following season, and
will bear in full perfection the second summer.
A plantation of the Alpine yields fruit the same
year that it is made. The wood and the al-
pine come quite true from seed, and bring a
finer fruit than from offsets. Tlie other species
are uniformly propagated by oflsets, except the
intention be to try for new varieties."

In reference to the soil and site most suit-
able for strawberries, Neill says that they are
generally placed in a compartment of the
garden by themselves, and it should be one
which is freely exposed to sun and air. They
are sometimes, however, planted in single
rows, as edgings to borders ; and in this way
they often produce great crops. In either
case, care must be taken to re-plant them
every fourth or fifth year at the furthest. The
alpine and wood species may be placed in
situations rather cool and shady ; perhaps as
an edging in the shrubbery. In such places
they produce their fruit perfectly well, and
late in the season, which is desh-able.

THE CRANBERRY.

This plant is a native of North America,

and was known to Miller, who, of the tribe in

general, says—" They can only be cultivated

for curiosity in gardens, for they will not

thrive much, nor produce fruit out of their

native swamps and bogs." The culture of

' the cranberry, however, need not now be

confined to swamps and bogs. Salisbury

says that it may be cultivated very suc-

cessfully in situations not positively wet, if

' only planted in bog earth, which retains its

' moisture longer than any other soil. Hallet

I found both the cranberry and the bilberry to

succeed perfectly in a dry bed of peat earth ;

1 80 tiiat it may be cultivated in any garden

UGI

THE WALNUT.]

PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[the chestnut.

where that kind of soil exists, or can be pro-
cured.

THE ALMOND TREE.
This is a native of China, and may be
noticed here, although its importance as a
fruit tree in this country is very little. Every
good garden, however, should contain a tree or
two as standards. In very fine seasons they
will yield a crop; and in spring they are
always ornamental, from the beauty of their
blossoms. The sorts most worthy of notice,
are the Tender-shelled Sweet Almond, or
Jordan ; aud the Common Almond, or Bitter.
The tree is generally budded on seedlings of
its own kind ; but, for heavy soils, plum-stocks
are preferable.

THE HAZEL-NUT.

Of nuts the hazel is indigenous to this
country, and is the original parent of the Red
and White Filbert, the Cob-nut, Cosford-nut,
Frizzled, Spanish, and other improved varieties.
The whole of these thrive best in a rich dry
loam, carefully worked, and receiving from
time to time a slight application of manure.
It is the usual practice to plant them in slip ;
but they succeed best by themselves in an
open quarter. The mode of pi-opagating them
is by suckers or layers ; and where there
are stocks of the common hazel, the other
sorts may be grafted upon them. Preference is
generally given to the Cosford, on account of
the thinness of its shell, and its possessing a
kernel of high flavour. If the Filbert or
Cosford be grafted on small stocks of the
Spanish nut, which grows fast, and does not
throw out side suckers, small yet fruitful
trees may be obtained. By pruning the
roots in autumn the trees may be kept in a
dwarfish state.

THE WALNUT.
The tree which produces the walnut is
originally from Persia, or the south of Cau-
casus ; it does not, therefore, arrive at com-
plete maturity in this island, except in the
warmer districts. The common walnut is
well known ; but, besides it, there are several
cultivated varieties, which are held in much
esteem. These are the Large-fruited, or
Double Walnut ; the Tender-shelled ; aud the
962

Thetford, or Highflyer. This last is by far
the best walnut grown. It is only by budding
that the varieties can be propagated with
certainty ; but this operation being rather
delicate, frequently does not succeed. Upon
this subject, that great gardener, Knight,
observes — "The buds of trees, of almost
every species, succeed with most certainty
when inserted in the shoots of the same year's
growth ; but the walnut tree appears to afibrd
an exception ; possibly, in some measure,
because its buds contain within themselves,
in the spring, all the leaves which the tree
bears in the following summer, whence its
annual shoots wholly cease to elongate soon
after its buds unfold : all its buds of each
season are also, consequently, very weedy of
the same age ; and long before they have
acquired the proper degree of maturity for
being removed, the annual branches have
ceased to grow longer or to produce new
foliage." Notwithstanding many difficulties
with which Mr. Knight had to contend, he at
length succeeded in propagating the walnut
tree by budding ; but, as we have said, it is a
very nice operation. The tree has generally
been propagated by the nut ; and this mode is
recommended both by Miller and Forsyth;
probably, Mr. Loudon thinks, from their not
having known that the tree may be continued
by inoculation, as successfully practised by
Knight.

THE CHESTNUT.

Some of the oldest trees in the world belong:
to this species, which is supposed to have
been originally brought from Sardis, in
Italy, by Tiberius Caesar. It is so common
there, as well as in France, as to be considered
native to the soils of each country. Some
consider it to have been naturalised in Eng-
land; but, however this may be, it is well
known to have been long an inmate of our
forests. Several varieties have obtained cele-
brity, especially Knight's Prolific, the New
Prolific, and the Devonshire. These are
propagated by grafting upon stocks raised
from nuts ; and when grafts are taken from
bearing-wood, fruit may be produced in a
couple of years. It is on a dry sub-soil that
the tree succeeds best.

roncivo.]

riiACTicE OK iioK'Pirri/ruRE.

[llEBTlNO.

CUAlTKll VIL

yoRriNO ; rf.stint. ; r.riT.nixo ok ikit-iidisks ; Ari'LK'ATiuN of autikicial iikat; roxsTiircTiON of
builkr; dikkkkknt mopks ok ukatinc; scikntikio instkimknts ; 8olaii hkat; lkmit axu

AlK ; TMK VIXKKY ; TllK I'EACU- UOL .sK ; TllK FlU-llOlHK ; THE Cll KltKY-HOlSB ; THE I'ISKKY ; TUB
MELOMiY : TUE CUCl'MUEU.

FORCING.

Ix tlio science of horticulture, the term
forcing si>j;nified the art of raising, by artificial
heat, plants", flowers, and fruits at an earlier
season than that to which nature has assigned
them. To what nation or people we are
indebted for the discovery of this art, we

believe no one has yet shown ; at all events, ' dition in which it cannot grow. This ia
it could not have been made in those Oriental , analogous to its winter state. In reference to

land, she, as a lady moving in the highe»t
circles, must have frequently beea regaled
w ith tlicm ut the tables of tlie gruut.

RESTING.

As there is a forcing system in the science
of horticulture, so is there a resting syhtem,
which consists in exposing a plant to a con-

countries where the genial warmth of the
climate is such as to produce two or three
harvests within the year, and to furnish, spon-
taneously, successions of the finest fruits and
vegetables known to man. It must, there-
fore, have been made in some of the nations
of Europe where the climate is always more
or less variable and uncertain. From Martial
we learn that the Eomans were acquainted
with the use of hot-houses ; but whence they
borrowed the idea of their uses and structure
nowhere appears. Tiberius Caesar, being fond
of cucumbers, erected houses in his garden,
and had them heated by means of stoves
throughout the year. Pliny informs us that
they were grown in boxes, which were, in fine
weather, wheeled out into the open air, and
returned to their artificial abodes in the nights
or in cold weather. "With the construction of
flues the Romans were well acquainted, so
they possessed the knowledge of the means of
heating the houses constructed for the arti-
ficial ripening of their fruits and vegetables.
In England, hot-houses for the growing of
pUies do not seem to have been known in the
beginning of the eighteenth century. We
infer this from the fact, that Lady Mary
Wortley Montague, on her journey to Con-
stantinople, in 171G, makes the remark of
pine-apples having been served to table in the
dessert, at the Elector of Hanover's — a cir-
cumstance she had neither seen nor heard of
before. Had pines been then raised in Eng-

what relates to forcing, this is a very important
point for consideration. " If we look over the
diirerent climates of the world," says the
author of the Theory of Horticulture, "we
sliall find that in each there are a season of
growth, and a season in which vegetation is
more or less suspended ; and that these
periodically alternate with the same regu-
larity as our summer and winter. I do not
know that there is in nature any exception to
this rule ; for even in the Tierra Tempeleda of
Mexico, where it is said that, at the height of
4,000 or 5,000 feet, there constantly reigns the
genial climate of spring, which does not vary
more than 8^ or 0° — intense heat and excessive
cold being alike unknown, and the mean
temperature varying from G8^ to 70° — we
cannot suppose that even in that favoured
region a season of repose is wanting ; for it is
diflicult to conceive how plants can exist, any
more than animals, in a state of incessant
excitement. Indeed, it is pretty evident that
these countries have a period when vegetation
ceases; for Xalefra belongs to the Tierra
Tempeleda ; and we know that Ipomosa
Purga, an inhabitant of its woods, dies down
annually, like our own Couvolvuli.^ We also
know that jonquils, hyacinths, and tulips,
when grown in the Bahamas, where they are
unable to take the rest which is natural to
them, refuse to flower." The author goes on
to say, that, although plants have naturally a
season of repose, their winter is not, in all

0G3

nOT-HOUSES.]

PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[nOT-ilOUSES.

cases, cold. In the tropics it is marked by
coolness and dryness, while the summer is
rainy and very hot; and in extra-tropical
countries the two seasons vary in their cha-
racter, in accordance with latitude and local
circumstances.

The above is sufficient to lead to the
conclusion, that "the natural resting of plants
from growth is a most important phenomenon
of universal occurrence, and that it takes
place equally in the hottest and the coldest
regions. It is, therefore, a condition neces-
sary to the well-being of a plant, not to be
overlooked nnder any circumstances whatever ;
and there cannot be any really good gardening
where this is not attended to in the manage-
ment of plants under glass. Rest is effected
in one of two ways — either by a very con-
siderable lowering of temperature, or by a
degree of dryness under which vegetation
cannot be sustained."

BUILDING OF HOT-HOUSES.
It is not necessary that we should recapi-
tulate here what has already been written by
many authors on this subject : it may be re-
marked, however, that the improvements in the
construction of hot-houses have by no means
kept pace with those which have, within these
few years, taken place in other departments
of gardening. In the Annals of Horticul-
ture, a writer observes — " There is yet much
which remains to be realised in the erec-
tion of bouses for the cultivation of plants,
not only as regards their number and di-
mensions, but also their arrangement and
details. We seldom see more than the same
kind of flat lean-to or span roofs ; the same
kind of formal stages where the plants are
grown in pots ; and the same kind of formal
beds when the latter are planted out in
borders of prepared soil. Even refinements
or elegancies of construction fail to invest
Buch buildings with any character of distinct-
ness or novelty, owing to the sameness or
monotony which forms the basis of the de-
sign." Since this was written, however, there
have been improvements in the construction of
hot-houses. This has, perhaps, been more
especially the case in regard to the roofs.
Among these, the ridge-and-furrow form, as it
is called, may be considered the greatest It
904

was, in 1816, first suggested by the late Mr.
Loudon, and afterwards admirably worked
out by the late Sir Joseph Paxtou, in the
large house at Chatsworth and elsewhere ; but
more recently in covering in nearly twenty
acres of ground for the Exhibition in Hyde
Park. This, at the time, was the largest
building ever constructed of timber, iron, and
glass ; and showed, with the most perfect
clearness, the possibility of extending the
same description of pillared covering over any
space, however extensive.

In discussing the merits of this subject in
his Book of the Garden, Mr. C. Mackintosh says,
that " the greatest advantage of a ridge-and-
furrow roof is, that any extent of area may be
covered without internal walls. Indeed, no
walls whatever are required, as the sides and
ends may be glass close to the ground— the
whole being supported on cast-iron tubular
columns, with cast-iron valleys, or gutters.
A good idea of the effect and practicability of
roofing over a whole garden, may be obtained
by a careful examination of some of our
most extensive raijway stations — that at
Derby, for example, which, we believe, could
be extended over a hundred acr5*s, if re-
quired."

We do not wish to enlarge upon this sub-
ject ; but it may not be amiss to give, in
Sir Joseph Paxton's own language, an ex-
planation of the principles of this improved
sort of roof. In a lecture which he delivered
before the Society of Arts, in London, he
says — " In the construction of glass- houses
requiring much light, there always appeared to
me to be one important objection. In the plain
lean-to or shed roofs, the morning and evening
sun — which is, on many accounts, of the
greatest importance to forcing fruits — pre-
sented its direct rays at a low angle, and,
consequently, very obliquely to the glass.
As, at those periods, most of the rays of light
and heat were obstructed by the position of
the glass and the heavy rafters, so that a con-
siderable portion of time was lost both
evening and morning, it consequently became
evident that a system by wliich the glass
would be more at riglit angles to the morning
and evening rays of the sun, would obviate
the difficulty, and remove the obstruction of
the rays of light entering the house at uu

AnriFicrAL HEAT.] PKACTICE OF HORTICULTURE. [autificial iilvt.

early and lato hour of the day." By this
imule of reasoiiiiif?, 8u^'<;estt'd by close obser-
vation, ho was k-d to adopt tlie ridgo-aud-
furrow priiu'iple for glass roofs*, which phjccs

gen and carbon — all of which ore extremely

injurious, not only to vegctablp, but to animal
life— it need excite no Burpritio that tlio pre-
ference has been given to steam over smoke,

the glass in such a position, that tlio rays of in the heating of the forcing-house. Besidcn,
liflht in the mornings and evenings enter the bricks usually employc"d in constructing

the structure without " let or hirulrance," and
present themselves more perpendicularly to
the glass at those periods when they are least
powerful ; whereas, at mid-day, when they arc
most powerful, they present themselves more
obliquely to it.

APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL HEAT.
Hot or forcing-houses are .'loated by dif-
ferent means, and in various ways. The
means are hy JIiics and ivpcs ; and the ways
are in allowing the former to convey both
emoke and air through the building ; and the
latter to conduct steam or hot water in any
given direction. The other means are by
constructing the forcing-house in such a man-
ner as will enable the calorific action of the
Bun's rays to be increased ; and, occasionally,
by the heat wliich is produced by the process
of fermentation of vegetable substances : this
mode, however, is rapidly disappearing from
amongst us. The smoke-flue is now pretty
generally abandoned for the hot-water pipe,
which possesses many advantages over the
former. In the first, it is more lasting ; in
the second, it requires much less space ; in
the third, it admits of being placed in situa-
tions where the flue could not be placed; in
the fourth, it yields a more uniform heat ; in
the fifth, it can rarely be over-heated — a
great matter in a forcing-house ; in the sixth,
it is much more cleanly and elegant ; and, in
the seventh, it seldom gets into such a state
of disrepair as to require mending. On the
other hand, the flue is liable to burst by ex-
plosion from the ignition of the inflammable
gases generated within. This, of itself, is con-
demnatory to the flue ; and although the pipe is
more costly than the flue at its first erection, it
has usually been found the cheapest in the end.
It must be remembered that noxious gases
cannot be prevented from entering the struc-
ture, be the flue ever so well built; and when
it is considered that these gases consist of
sulphurated, phosphorated, and carburated
hydrogen, besides various comparts of uitro-

tho flues, have, from the softneas of their
texture, the power of withdrawing from the
air of the house much of the moisture ne-
cessary for the health of the plants— a power
which the hot-water pipe, being unabsorbent,
does not possess. Upon this subject, the
Book of the Garden thus delivers its opinion
— •* Heating by hot water is, undoubtedly, the
most wholesome form yet adopted ; and, in its
various modifications, it may be applied to all
kinds of structures. The temperature it
produces is uniform and moderate when
compared with hot-air stoves, flues, or steam.
There arc a 'icw cases, however, which should
be noticed, where heating by hot water would
be attended with more expense than is ne-
cessary; and these are small green-houses and
nurserymen's plant-liouses, where only half-
hardy plants are kept, and where a well-con-
structed flue can be introduced without occu-
pying much space. These only require heat
suflicient to exclude frost; and they miglit be
heated by an Arnott's, White's, or other
stove, placed outside the building. In ordinary
winters, it might not be necessary to use the
stove above a dozen times ; and as frost, in
general, sets in pretty suddenly, these houses
would, by such means, be heated in less time
than by a hot-water boiler and pipe."

The length into which a complete considera-
tion of this subject alone would lead us,
would occupy more than the space allotted to
us for the treatment of horticulture in this
work : we must, therefore, content ourselves by
referring the reader to the numerous systems
which he will find explained, and illustrated
by diagrams, in the Book of the Garden, by
Mr. Charles Mackintosh. After all that has
been said, written, and practically carried out
in this matter, it would appear that we have
still to be supplied with a proper heating
apparatus for the forcing-house. In an excel-
lent paper read by John Rogers, Esq., before
the Horticultural Society of London, we find
him declaring this fact. After alluding to
the many and various modes which have been

965

THE BOILER.]

PEACTICE OF HOETICULTURE.

[heating.

adopted for heating forcing-houses, and ac-
knowledging the decided superiority of the hot-
water system over all other methods, he states
that the saving of fuel is equal to 25 per cent,
in well-arranged hot-water apparatuses, over
flues, however well arranged or well managed
they may be. He, however, at the same time,
observes that many of the modes, even at pre-
sent in use, are so defective, that they actually
consume a greater amount of fuel than ordi-
nary furnaces : he then adds that " this remark
applies not merely to the earlier apparatus,
when the power was inadequate to the work
required, but even to the best-constructed
modern ones; and the waste of fuel arises
from a misunderstanding of the nature of a
hot-water apparatus, and from an attempt to
make it do that which, if it be properly con-
structed, it is impossible that it should do."

CONSTRUCTION OF THE BOILER.

Almost every variety of form has been sug-
gested, and even practically carried out, in
the construction of the boiler designed to heat
water for the forcing-house. As a matter of
course, many of these are of no value what-
ever; but in the Gardener's Magazine we find
the rationale of the process of heating the
conical boiler, invented by Mr. Rogers, of
Sevenoaks, Kent, thus given : — " As fuel
cannot be consumed without air, if a furnace
be constructed of considerable depth, and filled
with fuel, and air be admitted only at the
bottom, that fuel alone is consumed which lies
immediately on the bars, and first receives the
draught of air. The fuel above, provided it
transmits the air, becomes red-hot, or nearly
so ; but does not consume until that below it
is destroyed. In this manner, one of these
conical furnaces being lighted and filled with
fuel, that portion in the upper part of the
furnace which cannot burn, absorbs the heat
ot the burning fuel below, and radiates or
transmits it to the water on every side. So
perfect is this absorption of heat, that for
several hours after the furnace has been filled
up with cinders, though there may be a fierce
fire below, little or no heat escapes up the
chimney— the whole being taken up by the
surrounding water. The economy, tlierefore,
of fuel in such an apparatus is very great.
It ia evident that excess of draught must be
9GG

carefully guarded against, so much only being
allowed as will consume the fuel steadily ;
but this is easily learned by experience. The
necessity, also, of keeping the aperture in
front close, so that air enters the furnace
only through the ash-pit, is, hence, evident.
The water is (then) in close and immediate
contact with the red-hot fuel on all sides, no
black, smoking coals intervening, as in most
kinds of boilers ; hence the great power in
proportion to size." In commenting upon
these boilers, another writer says, that the
economy in fuel is not their chief advantage ;
their great recommendation being a long and
steady heat. When properly managed, this
heat may be relied upon from fifteen to
twenty consecutive hours. Tbey have been
successfully applied to all kinds of hot-houses ;
but for pits they are eminently useful, from
the limited space they occupy. "When fired
with coke, gas-cinders, or anthracite, they
give off very little smoke.

DIFFERENT MODES OF HEATING.

An ingenious method of heating has been
exhibited by Mr. Fowler, in a tract written
on an instrument which he terms the ther-
mosyphon. By this contrivance, he shows
how walls, as well as glass-houses, may be
heated. He says, that any one may prove
that hot water will circulate in a syphon, by
taking a piece of lead pipe, say of half an inch
in bore, and four or five feet long, bending it
like a syphon ; but one leg a good deal more
bent than the other, in order to give the
descending water time and space for giving
out its heat ; and then filling this tube with
water, and placing one hand on each end to
retain it full, immerse the extremities in a pot
of water over a fire. Supposing the water of
a uniform temperature in both legs of the
syphon, no circulation would take place ; but
supposing it to cool sooner in the long leg
than in the short one, then the equilibrium
would be destroyed, and the water in the long
leg would descend and draw up water through
the short leg. This circulation would continue
as long as the water was preserved at a tem-
perature above that of the surrounding atmo-
sphere.

Another invention is Mr. Kewley's adapta-
tion of the syphon to heating purposes.

HEATING.]

PRACTICE OP nORTICULTUEB.

[iNBTttUMBNTS.

Mr. Perkins constructed an apparatus con-
sisting of BUiall tubes, bernietically sealoci, in
which water circulated at a tennierature vary-
ing from .'^OO^ to •100'' Fahrenheit. This in-
vention, however, ia uusiiitablo for horticul-
tural purposes.

Be.-*ides these, there is a mode of heating,
applied by Mr. Ivendlc, of Dynioutli, in wliich
tanks, in place of gutters or pipes, are em-
ployed, and which is designed to be adapted
to the purposes of both surface and bottom
heating. These tanks are built of brick or
stone, or made of cast-iron or wood. AVlien
made of wood, the planks require to be good
and sound, not less than a couple of inches
thick, well jointed ; and they are usually
covered with slates. If they are built of brick
or stone, the inside should be clothed with a
thick coating of Soman cement ; and their
covers should consist of slate, stone, or brick
pavement. The cast-iron tanks have covers
of the same materials. In describing this
mode of heating, a writer observes, that
" when only one tank is fitted up in a house or
pit, a division is made along the centre,
leaving an opening at the end furthest from
the boiler for the water to flow through ; the
hot water, or flow-pipe from the boiler, being
fixed to the end of the tank on one side of
the division ; and the cold water, or return
pipe to the boiler, being fixed to the end on
the opposite end of the division. When two
tanks are used, they are joined to the flow and
return pipes respectively, and united at the
extreme ends. In pits, the tanks may be
carried round the sides and ends of the pit,
with a division between the flow and return
pipe." It would appear that the advantage
to be gained by this plan of heating, consists
in its adaptation to the production of bottom
heat. It is necessary, however, that pro-
vision should be made for preventing no more
of the steam or vapour rising from the hot
water (into the house) than is required. If
this precaution be not adopted, there will be
too much damp, in the winter season, for the
proper growth or preservation of the plants.

In closing this important branch of our sub-
ject, it should be remarked that, in the
management of artificial heat, it is necessary
to exercise a considerable degree of care. All
the operations of nature being in opposition

to those of artificial force, and being gradual,
tho best plan is to follow theni. Tlie skil-
ful horticulturist will, connequently, apply
his heat, ut lir.st, very gradually. Ho will,
for several weeks, slowly increase it by de-
grees ; and, ospeciully, ho will watch tliat
no sudden decrease of warmth occurs, as
nothing more certaiidy insures buccchh, tiiaa
that tho course of vegetation bo continued unin-
terruptedly through foliation, inflorescence,
and I'ructification. Ho will make tho tem-
perature increase by day, and decrease by
night ; to rise in summer, and to fall in
winter. In short, the operations of tho sun
shall bo his guide : by its natural and vary-
ing influence ho shall be ruled.

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS.

Tho scientific instruments absolutely ne-
cessary to the horticulturist, are a Fahrenheit
thermometer, which is not only an indispen-
sability in the forcing-house, but is required
in almost every department of his professional
practice. Six's registering thermometer ia
also a convenient instrument for ascertaining
the extremes of the temperatures of night and
day. Besides the thermometer, the hygro-
meter is very necessary to the hot-house, as it
measures the quality of elastic vapour in the
atmosphere ; and thus enables us to ascertain
the degrees of its humidity. In the Theory of
Horticulture, it is observed, that " skilful
balancing of temperature and moisture in the
air, and a just adaptation of them to the
various seasons of growth, constitute the most
complicated and diflicult part of a gardener's
art. An excess of dampness is indispensable
to plants in a state of rapid growth, partly
because it prevents the action of perspiration
from becoming too violent, and partly because,
under such circumstances, a considerable
quantity of aqueous food is absorbed from
the atmosphere, in addition to that obtained
by the roots. But it is essential to observe,
that when not in a state of rapid growth, a
largo amount of moisture in the air will be
prejudicial rather than advantageous to a
plant ; and if the temperature is, at the same
time, high, excitability will remain in a state
of continued action, and that rest which is
necessary will be withheld; the result of

967

LIGHT ATTD AIE.]

PRACTICE OF HOETICULTUR]^. [light and aie.

wliich will be an eventual destruction of the
vital energies. But, on the other hand, if the
temperature is kept low, while the amount of
atmospheric moisture is considerable, the
latter is absorbed without it being possible for
the plant to decompose it."

SOLAR HEAT.

Perhaps it might be deemed an omission
if we did not take notice of the solar rays,
being a species of artificial heat, when re»
fleeted from other surfaces. Mr, Mackintosh,
referring to this subject, says — " This species
of heat is materially affected by the admission
of the air necessary to the growth and healthy
st^te of the plants. Solar heat, if properly
regulated by ventilation, is of immense im-
portance in the ripening of many of our finer
fruits. In the orchard-houses, brought into
notice by Mr. Eivers, fruits are ripened by
the influence of solar heat alone. The idea is,
however, by no means new. We have known
many glass-houses in which peaches and grapes
have ripened in the greatest perfection, with-
out any other heat than that of the sun.
. . . . The management of the tempera-
ture consists solely in the proper regulation ol
the ventilators, securing as much solar heat
during the day as possible, ventilating early
in the morning, and shutting up early in the
afternoon."

LIGHT AND AIR.

Whatever may have been the nature of the
experiments of natural philosophers in investi-
gating the laws of light, and the eflect which
the ditFerent coloured rays produce upon the
vegetable kingdom, the conclusion arrived at
by Mr. Lindley is, that the white light which
is natural to plants, is, therefore, the one best
adapted to their constitution. Mr. Hunt,
who has given much patience to experimenting
upon this subject, has still, according to Mr.
Lindley, failed in arriving at any valuable
practical results in his investigations. " No
advantage seems to have resulted from glazing
the great palm-house, at Kew, with green
glass, of a tint selected by Mr. Hunt himself."
In the Tkeonj of Horticulture, it is stated,
that "when a leaf ia exposed to the direct
influence of the sun, it gives ofi" oxygen by
decomposing the carbonic acid; whereupon
1)U8

the carbon remains behind, in the interior of
the leaf, in a solid state. In the total absence
of solar light, there is little or no extrication
of gaseous matter ; and what little is given off
will be found to be carbonic acid, which plants
exhale at all times in small quantities : oxygen,
however, which was before expelled, is inhaled.
Hence plants decompose carbonic acid during
the day, and acquire it again during the night ;
and during the healthy state of a plant, the
decomposition of this gaseous matter by day,
and its recovery by night, is perpetually going
on. The quantity of carbonic acid decom-
posed is in proportion to the intensity of light
which strikes a leaf, the smallest amount
being in shady places ; and the healthfulnes8
of a plant is, cceteris paribus, in proportion to
the quantity of carbonic acid decomposed ;
therefore, the liealtliiness of a plant sliould be
in proportion to tJie quantity of light it receives
by day." In times when the science of horti-
culture was less advanced, no great degree of
attention was paid to the form of the roofs of
those houses in which plants were artificially-
raised. Now, however, the minutest circum-
stances enter into the calculations of the
scientific gardener. That the greatest pos-
sible influx of light might be secured. Sir
George Mackenzie proposed hot-houses with
curvilinear roofs ; for he thought that " if we
could find a form for a glass roof, such that
the sun's rays should be perpendicular to some
part of it, not on two days, but during the
whole year, that form would be the best."
Such a form is the sphere ; accordingly, this
shape of structure has been, by some, warmly
advocated. But, however this may have been,
the span and ridge-and-furrow roofs are now
the prevailing forms ; and any form is better
than that of the lean-to, both for the con-
venience of internal arrangement as well as
efl'ect.

As the natural element of plants is the open
atmosphere, where they are constantly sur-
rounded with air in a state of continual
motion, to arrive as nearly as possible at the
circumstances of their natural conditions in
the climates to which they belong, ought to
be the aim of the gardener. " The atmo-
sphere is the proper pasture of plants," says
Dr. Lindley ; " and its ever- varying density is
a natural phenomenon, most intimately con-

THE VINEIIT.J

PKArriCE OF IIOKTlcn/rURR

[the VlNEllT.

M'l'ti'd with the maiiit(Minnco of vegetable
lifulth. It ia a beaut ilul compensation for
tlieir want of locomoLion ; aa planta cannot
move to tlio atnioaphere, the atmosphere ia
fVtT nioviii},' towarJa them. It ia therefore
certain, without imiuiring into the exact
philosophy of the matter, that free aceesa of
abundant air must bo secured if the hi-allh of
phuita in ghiss-houses ia to equal that in the
opi'U air." To remedy the defecta felt to
exist iu the former modea of ventilation, wliat
is termed aeration, or subterranean ventilation,
liua now been adopted. The mode in which
tiiis is efifected is by introducing supplies ot
fresh air tiirough tubea or drains, placed at a
distance of several feet uuder the surface of
the borders, and having one end opening into
the open air, while tlie other opens through
various parts of the floor or border, and often,
very properly, under the hot-water pipes. By
this means fresh air is admitted, at almost the
same temperature as that of the air close to
the front of the house, and also charged with
the moisture which it receives iu passing
through the damp pipes or drains. As plants,
like animals, cannot long exist without their
necessary supply of air, whether by night or
by day, when it is admitted iu this manner, it
may often be allowed to act beneficially during
the hours of natural darkness, as well as those
of natural light.

THE VINERY.

The vinery admits of almost every variety
of structural form ; for, of all the fruit trees
cultivated under glass, the vine is the one
which entails the least trouble upon its
growers. If the design be to bring the crop
to maturity chiefly by the natural heat of the
sun, or by this alone, then the vinery may
have any form, provided the trees are trained
near the glass. If the crop is designed to
ripen in July, it is recommended by Knight
that the roof be at an angle of 35°; but both
Miller and "Wilkinson recommend an angle of
45°, which is the slope most generally adopted
for both grapes and peaches. The angle of
inclination in glass-work is not, however, of
the very highest importance. Abercrombie
says that the diagonal side of a glass case, de-
signed for a short periodical course of forcing,
beginning on the 21st of December, may be
G H

55°; 22nd of January, 50" ; 2lBt o( February,
4(3°; 21»t of Mnrch, Vi". If the front and
back wall of a vinery iiavo ehuttera for venti-
lation, ita roof may bo fixed. The comraon
trellia ia a.s good as any for training vines.

In reference to the pruning and training of
the vine, every h()rticultMri.>'t of eminence
entertains an opinion of hia own. It would,
therefore, bo tlie next thing to an impossibility
for ua to reca[)itulato even the half of what
haa been written upon this subject. MePhail,
however, saya, that " to liavo good crops of
grapes, much more depends on the soil they
are planted in, and the climate in which they
are kept, than on any methoda of pruning
and training that have been, or ever can bo
adopted." Mr. Loudon coincides with this
remark ; but, according to a high authority,
the great object ia "the reproduction of bear-
ing ; that is, annual wood over every portion
of tiie house. When this ia accomplished,
the next matter to be determined ia the
number of eyes or buds to be left on each
shoot ; that is, whether we shall adopt the
sJiort or the lojig system of pruning. Tbe
former is most allied to the practice of foreign
vineyards, and has been most successfully em-
ployed in this country. According to this
system all the lateral shoots are cut down to
single eyes. The other it is unnecessary to
describe." In estimating the merits of the
diflerent modes, however, Mr. Lindley says —
"As the ultimate object of every metliod of
pruning and trainiiig must be supposed to be
the obtaining a large crop of good fruit, it is
material to consider how and by what means
this is to be ellected ; and whether it ia de-
sirable to grow a large number of bunches or
a number of large bunches ; the weight of the
whole of each being the same. 1 have myself
ever been an advocate for large fruit, or the
largest size to which any particular fruit
usually attains ; being fully satisfied that the
value of fruit is more to be estimated by its
individual bulk or weight, than by the number
of individuals composing that weight. I mav
illustrate this by taking, for exainjde, any
variety of either the grape or of any other
fruit. For example, let the Muscat of Alex-
andria, the Black Uamburgh, or, indeed, any
other sort, be selected, and compare fifty
single berries, of the largest size, with a bun-

nu9

THE VIXEUT.]

PRACTICE OF HORTICULTUEE.

[peach-house.

dred smaller ones, making the same aggregate
weight, equally ia a state of maturity, the pre-
ponderance ill the scale of merit will be given,
I apprehend, by all competent judges, to the
filtv berries instead of the hundred. If, then,
we are to consider the maximum of merit to
consist in the attainment of the largest- sized
fruit, this can be best accomplished by having
the vine in a vigorous and flourishing state."
This condition is, according to this eminent
man, to be attained, provided all other circum-
stances are favourable, by the alternate system
of fruiting one shoot every year, to be cut
down at the winter pruning, for the purpose
of furnishing a shoot to succeed it in the fol-
lowing year. This is neither more nor less
than what McPhail denominates the long or
new method of pruning, and what Mr. Speechly
called the alternate system. Mr. Loudon
agrees with the system advocated by Mr.
Liudley.

As to the soil for a vinery, it ia recom-
mended that the front border should be fresh
and rich. It should not exceed 2h feet in
depth, and should be laid over a vaulted foun-
dation, or one rendered perfectly dry by
drainage; and all borders of forcing-houses
should be elevated in height equal to their
depth above the general ground-level. The
soil, however, is not of such importance as the
obtaining of a dry bottom, which may be
secured by using the following ingredients: —
Oue-half of good loamy soil with its turf, one
quarter of rich old dung, and one quarter of
brick and lime rubbish ; the turf well rotted,
aud the whole well mixed. Plants raised
from eyes, and prepared for two years in pots,
are preferable for a vinery ; and when planted
inside the house, there ought not to be fewer
than two plants to each four feet of space.

In forcing grapes, the kinds should be as-
sorted according to the order in which they
ripen. Thus the Muscadines, Chasselas
Musque, and Hamburghs, should be planted in
a house by themselves, as being the first or
earliest in order ; the Prontignans, being of a
medium character, may occupy a second ; while
the Tokay, the Muscat of Alexandria, Nice,
Syrian, Barbarossa, and others would be suit-
able for a third. These, if planted in order,
Will succeed each other, and keep the table
well supplied.
\)70

THE PEACH-HOUSE.

Peach-houses, constructed in what is known
as the lean-to form, and intended to be heated
by one furnace, have usually the dimensions
of forty feet in length, ten or twelve in width,
and a height of forty feet. These, however,
may be considerably varied, according to the
time at which the crop is desired to be brought
into season. Por early forcing, it has been
suggested that twenty-five or thirty feet in
length, and seven or eight in breadth, are suf-
ficient ; whilst a house in which the operations
of nature are only to be slightly assisted, may
be extended to fifty feet. Por peaches, as for
vines, the span-and-ridge and furrowed roofed
buildings are equally adapted, as in them the
trees can be treated as standards, which is
their natural habit. Besides, the fruit obtains
a more favourable position, in so far as respects
air and light, than it can obtain under any
other form of house-training.

In the forcing-house, the pruning and train-
ing of peach trees does not materially differ
from the practice followed in the open air.
" Pire-heat is commonly applied about the
beginning or middle of Pebruary ; but where
there is a large suite of houses, and an ex-
tended succession is wanted, forcing, as it then
truly becomes, may begin a month sooner.
At first the temperature is kept at 45° ; but it
is afterwards gradually increased to 50° or
55° Pahrenheit. While the trees are in flower,
and till the fruit be set, the house is occa-
sionally steamed by sprinkling water on the
warm pipes; but, much belter, by placing
shallow troughs of water so as partly to sur-
round the lower or returning pipe, the lower
pipes being less heated than the upper ones.
After this period the foliage is washed, from
time to time, with the garden engine. When
the fruit has stoned, or the kernels have been
formed, the temperature is raised to about
G0°." Water is then plentifully supplied
to the border, the fruit thinned out, the
different operations of disbudding and tying
are performed, aud air admitted in abundance.
After the end of April little fire is required for
the peach-house.

The best soils for fruit trees, generally, are
such as are open and well drained, in order
that the air may get freely into the roots.

ClIKlilty-llOUSE.]

PKACTICE OF iioKTicr i/ri'Ki:.

[the IMNEllT.

Loamy Boila are genonilly proferrod for
peaches, iioctarinea, apples, ami pears; but
light gravelly or eaiuly soils aro euitablo for
figs and apricots. Dr. Liiulley saya that tiio
reason chopped turf forms the best of all
soils for fruit trees, is, that the " roots pene-
trate the soil in all directions, forming myriads
of fine tubes, which convey air and moisture
throu'.;h the whole mass of earth." Tiie beat
soil for peaches and nectarines is the turf
Irom the loamy soil of an old sheep-walk, or
line pasture field, pared off about three inches
thick, and roughly chopped. The fresher it is
used the better.

The sorts recommended as the best for
forcing, are — Gross Mignonne, Eoyal George,
Eoyal Charlotte, Eed Magdalen, and Belle-
garde.

Is£CTABiNE8. — Ebruge, Violet, and Ilative.

THE FIG-HOUSE.

For the forcing of figs alone houses are
but rarely built, as in most families there is
no great demand for this fruit ; and, perhaps,
because figs are generally forced in flues or
tubes in the peach or cherry-house, and
managed in the same manner as the trees of
these houses are.

THE CHERRY-HOUSE.

The cherry is amongst the most difficult of
all fruits to force. This arises from its blos-
soms being apt to fall off before the fruit is
set, and also from the fruit itself frequently
falling off" before it has attained to the size ot
a pea. The period of commencing to force
the cherry is sometimes in December, but
more generally in January or February.
Newly-planted trees, says Kicol, will bear
gentle forcing next spring, from the first
or middle of March, which ought to be con-
sidered merely as preparatory to forcing them
fully from about the Ist of February the third
year. As cherry trees are trained against
the back wall, the house should be narrow,
and the roof steep. When the fruit is setting,
the temperature is kept, as steadily as possible,
at 50^ ; but after it is set, a plentiful supply of
water should be given to both their roots and
foliage. When the fruit is colouring, water is
almost entirely withheld, and air freely ad-
mitted. During the whole process of forcing

cherriep, an excessivo heat from the rnys of
the Bun mu^t bo prevented, either by hliading
or a duo ailmisMion of air. In the clierry-
houso the plum and thu apricot may iiavo a
place, as their treatnient is almost identical.

TIJE IMNKllY.

Tho pine-apple being a native of the tropics,
naturally requires, in this country, all the light
which our cloudy cliniato can afford it. It iti
rarely propa<^'ated by t^eed, but frecjuently by
crowns, which grow ou the top of tho fruit;
though oftener by suckers, which rise from tho
stem. Tho following may be taken as a choice
list for propagation : —

Enville, Black Antigua, Old Jamaica, Globe,
Eussian Globe, Montserrat, Queen, Moscowr
Queen, Antigua Queen, Ripley 'a Queen,
Smooth Queen, Prickly Cayenne, Smooth
Cayenne, Providence, and Prince Albert.

Formerly it took about three years to bring
the fruit of the pine to perfection in this
country ; but on the system of training prac-
tised now, that period is reduced to much less
than one-half. In regard to the rearing of
this luscious fruit, it would appear that it is
only to be brought to its highest state of
perfection by being grown in low pits, just
sufficient for the full development of the
foliage of the crown and the fruit. " So
closely is this adhered to by Mr. Fleming, of
Treutham, one of our most successful cul-
tivators, that he has had occasion to take out
a pane of glass to allow the crown of the
fruit to protrude into the open air. A pas-
sage a'ong the centre of such pits is exceed-
ingly useful, particularly in the fruiting depart-
ment." In order to obtain sufficient warmth
fur these plants, the pots in which they are
placed are usually buried in a bed of tanner's
bark, decaying leaves, or other kinds of fer-
menting matter. This hoitom-heat, as it is
called, is somewhat difficult to be properly
managed ; and it would appear to have been,
bv gardeners, universally kept at too great a
height. " Perhaps the upper limit of its
temperature may be fixed at blood-heat, or, at
moj^t, 100°, while the richer or winter limit
may be brought down to 7o° or 75°. The
principles of the application of bottom-heat
have, until lately, been little understood. Iq
practice its value has been acknowledged for

971

THE MELOKET.]

PEACTICE OF HOETICULTFEE. [the cucumber.

ages, having been aa element in Eomau gar-
dening in the days of Claudius. The roots of
fruit trees, even of the hardiest description,
become paralysed whenever they descend too
deep into the soil ; and this paralysis is one of
the evils of deep planting." Although pine-
apples have been usually potted, it is found
that they succeed better unpotted, if planted
freely in soil, and exposed to a proper
ar)iount oflottom-heat. In the Theory of Hor-
ticulture, we are told that a Mr. Martin
Call, one of the emperor's gardeners at St.
Petersburg, was the first to assert this ; and
others have since proved it. In 1830, a pine-
apple obtained by this treatment, weighing
9 lbs. 4oz., was sent to the King of England
by Mr. Edwards, of Eheola ; and, in modern
practice, all great pine-growers adopt this plan
when circumstances permit them to do so.
The following summary, by Mr. Lindley, in
reference to the culture of this fruit, will serve
to complete our notice of it: — "One of
the best methods, without entering into any
lengthened detail of operations, seems to be
that which has been recommended by Mr.
Sweet; which is, to pot the young plants in a
mixture of one-third loam, and two-thirds of
half-deca*yed leaves ; in which they root very
freely. They may then be plunged in frames,
or a stove ; but not in too much bottom-heat,
as that will injure their roots, as is often done
by those who expect to force them on by
bottom-heat ; and who, by that means, kill
their plants, or injure them so much that they
never perfectly recover. They do not con-
sider that giving plants a strong bottom is
working against nature ; for, in their native
climate, it is the sun that warms the ground
in which they grow ; and this heat should not
be exceeded here."

THE MELONRY.

The melon has long been cultivated in
Britain ; but its original country is not tho-
roughly ascertained, neither is the period of
its introduction into this island. The plant is
a tender annual, demanding considerable
attention and skill to bring to perfection,
although it repays the labour of the horticul-
turist, by showing a large, and, to most
persons, by being an agreeable fruit. The
water-melon ia seldom reared in this country
972 '

save as a curiosity ; but the following species
may be taken as a list somewhat select : —
The Beachwood; Trentham high-bred, green-
fleshed ; Cuthill's Early Cantalousse, remark-
able for its earliness and hardiness ; Broom-
ham-hall ; Green-fleshed Egyptian ; Cassabar ;
Sweet Melon of Ispahan ; and Green Valencia.
The melon succeeds best in a strong rich soil,
in a prepared compost, formed of two-thirds
of rotted turf, and one-third of old cow-dung.
This should be prepared some months before
being used in the melon-bed. The average
heat required for the successful growth of
melons is about 70° Fahrenheit. In the com-
mon hot-bed, this is maintained by protecting
it during the night, and by applying linings
from time to time. In pits or houses heated
by the circulation of hot water, this is easily
efiected at any season ; and such pits are said
to supersede the hot-bed frame altogether.

THE CUCUMBER.

This, like the melon, is a tender annual,
which, in order to bring it to perfection,
requires the assistance of artificial heat. It
also requires great care and attention, although
it is somewhat hardier than the melon, and in
summer requires less heat. In every other
respect, however, it is managed precisely in
the same way as the other. The leading
varieties are — the Victory of Bath, Tilly's
Captivation, Cuthill's Black Spine, Hunter's
Prolific, Lord Kenyon's Favourite, Sir Colin
Campbell, Canrobert, Snow's Prize, Allen's
Victory of Suffolk, Duncan's Victory, and
several others ; but, like the melon, they
run into endless varieties if grown in the
same structure. The prickly sorts of cucum-
bers are, in the summer months of the year,
frequently raised under hand-glasses. To do
this, a cavity is made in a border in front of a
wall or rather warm place, and is filled with
hot dung. This is covered with earth, and
two or three plants are put into it, and shel-
tered with a hand-glass. They are, from time
to time, watered and dressed ; and by this
means a sufilcient supply of small cucumbers,
or gherkins, is obtained for pickling. In the
southern counties of England, pickling cu-
cumbers are easily raised without any arti-
ficial heat, being sown in drills in the open
ground.

AUTICIIOKES.]

PKACTICK OF HORTICULTURE.

[jl81>AUAUUd.

CIIArTEU VIII.

ANOKLFCA ; AUTICIlttKE (j KRUSAI.Em) ; AUTICUOKK (qLOBE) *, ASPARAaUS ; BROCCOLI; BERT; BEANg
(cLlMlilNC.) ; BEANS (r.KOAl») ; BKANS (krk.NCU) ; BRU8.SEIJ4 SPROUTS; (;AIUJA<iK; CARHOON ; CARR'»T ;
CAULIFLOWER; CELERY; CELKRIAC ; CUKRVIL, ETC.; CRESS ; CRESS (AMERICAN) ; CRESH (NORMANUV) ;
CRESS (INDIAN) ; ENDIVE; ESCHALOT; (JARLIC ; ICE PLANT: LEEK; LETTUCE; MALLOW (ciRLED);
MARJORAM (KNOTTED); MELON; MUSHROOMS; ONIONS; PAR.SLEY ; PARSNEP ; PEAH ; POTATOES J
KUUBAKU; SAVoy ; SEA-KALE; SPINACH; TURNIPS; VEtiETAULE MARROW.

ANGELICA.

In treating of the plants of the kitclicn
garden, we shall adopt an alphabetical arrange-
ment, as being simpler than that which would
bring them before the reader in the order of
their importance. Accordingly, tlio fii&t is
Angelica, a biennial, and a native of England,
where it is found in moist situations, as it is
over the northern countries of Europe. It
grows freely in any soil and exposure. It
should be sown in September, in drills a foot
apart. When the seedlings have attained to
a height of six inches, they should be trans-
planted to the spot where they are to remain
for use. Tlie stem may be blanched and eaten
like celery ; and the young green shoots may
be gathered in May, candied or preserved in
sugar, and used in confectionery.

ARTICHOKE (JERUSALEM).

This is a perennial, which flowers in August
or September. It is a native of tho south of
Europe, and, in ISiS, was introduced into Eng-
land. The three varieties cultivated, are the
Conical, Erench or oval Artichoke, with a green
head; the Globe, or largest, with dusky-purplish
head ; and the Dicar/lsk Qlobe. It will grow in
any soil in which the potato will grow; but light,
friable, and loamy soils will always produce the
best-flavoured tubers. It is useless, however,
to plant on poor barren land. Trenching, to
the depth of two feet, should be done, and a
good dressing of manure given, if a line crop
is desired. Plant in rows, alternately two and
four feet apart, allowing the tubers to be at
least eighteen inches apart in the row, which
should run north and south, so that the sun
may shine freely on the soil. The tubers
should be planted whole, any time from No-
vember until March. The former, however,

I is profcrablc, on various accounts. This root
I may bo grown for years upon the same spot
of ground, and tho produce increased, pro-
vided the soil be annually well trenched, and
afterwards kept loose and open by thorough
surface-stirring.

ARTICHOKE (GLOBE).

About the last week in October this vege-
table should receive its winter dressing, and its
old leaves should be cut away close to tho
ground. This must be done without giving
any injury to the centre or side shoots. The
bed should then be forked over, the earth
being thrown in a ridge about eight inches
high over each row, at the same time putting it
close round eacii plant, but taking caro to pre-
serve the heart from being touched by any
crumbs of the soil. This accomplished, pile
round each plant with some long litter or pea-
haulm, four inches thick; and to prevent this
from being carried away by the wind, as well
as to help to preserve the roots from severe
frosts, the litter should be covered over witli
coal ashes, to a depth of about two inches.
In the spring the ashes may be turned inte
the soil, as they are congenial to the arti-
choke. Should the land be stifl^" and clayey,
trench it to a depth of eighteen inches, filling
in with a mixture of dung and mould ; and in
April plant out in this mixture. A plantation
will last many years.

ASPARAGUS.

This perennial is found near the son, in
stony or gravelly situations ; but it is not verj
common in such places. It grows in the Isle
of Portland, near Bristol, and, not very abun-
dantly, near Edinburgh. For growing first-
class asparagus, the following plan is recom-
mended by Mr. Arthur Henderson. After

973

BROCCOLI.]

PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[beans.

having selected a piece of ground that has been
well trenched, manured, and, for years, worked
about for other crops, apply all the manure
that can be got in the shape of decayed vege-
tables, and good, sweet, rotten dung. Then
trench the ground three feet deep, and fork up
the sub-soil. This should be done iu February,
allowing the ground to remain until the
young plants (one or two years' seedlings)
have grown an inch, which will be the best
time for planting. The rows should be six
feet apart, and the seed sown four inches
apart in each row. "Where the ground is wet
and damp, and no expense spared to have the
best grass that can be raised, " it is advisable
to have a drain right under each row, of any
rough material ; and a very efficient one can
be made with bundles of rough stakes (not
brushwood), which lasts ten or fifteen years.
The finest asparagus has been raised in this
way." To have asparagus in fine condition,
the third season after planting, a few may be
cut for use, but not too many ; and all through
the summer the berries should be gathered as
they make their appearance.

BROCCOLI.

Mr. Loudon tells us that, in the time of
Miller, the few broccolis then known were
supposed to have come from the cauliflower,
which was originally imported from the Isle of
Cyprus, about the middle of the sixteenth
century. Miller speaks of the white and
purple broccoli coming from Italy ; and it is
supposed that from these two sorts all the
subsequent kinds have sprung, either by
accident or intentional impregnations. To
cultivate this plant successfully, it requires a
deep, rich, and somewhat adhesive soil. The
ground should be kept clean, and all weeds
kept down. As broccoli is often cut off by
the frost, as many as possible should be
planted in sheltered situations. Mr. Hen-
derson says that the following is an excellent
plan for growing first-class broccoli: — "Prick
them out from the seed-bed nine inches apart
in July, choosing strong sturdy plants, dis-
carding all that are doubtful. Let the bed or
border be well prepared with plenty of manure
To get them strong and vigorous plants
biifore they are finally planted on a dry clay,
mark, with a spade or dibber, one yard
974

away from their destined places. Take
out the mould from each successive place,
one foot wide and one foot deep ; pass it
through a coarse sieve, adding a teaspoonful
of guano, or a cupful of horse-dung. The
refuse clods or stones should be put in the
bottom of the hole, well broken up ; press the
earth down firmly with the foot, and then
plant the above sturdy, stout plants from the
bed or border, taking up with each plant
plenty of ball and earth. It is an excellent
plan, in hot, dry weather, which often prevails
when the Cape broccoli is put in the ground,
to sow the seed thinly in drills, where a por-
tion can be taken out, and the remainder left
for the crop."

BEET.

Red Beet is a biennial, and a native of the
sea-coast of the south of Europe. The white
beet is also a biennial, and is a native of the
sea-coasts of Spain and Portugal, and was
introduced into this country in 1570. The
sea-beet is a native of the shores of Britain, but
is not common. The field-beet, or mangold-
wurzel, is supposed to be a hybrid between
the red and white species of beet. This root
is best grown in a deep and somewhat sandy
soil. For salad beets no manure need be
used, as it is not requisite to have them large.
Ground well pulverised, with plenty of the
manure of former years, well worked and
trenched three feet deep, is what this root
likes. For early use, a little should be sown
in the middle of February ; but for general
use, sowing should be done about the middle
of May, twelve inches from row to row, and
finally thinned out to about eight inches.
When the crop is taken up, store it in a cool
dry shed, covering it over with straw, after it
has thoroughly dried, among dry sand.

BEANS (CLIMBING).

The climbing section of beans are natives
of South America; and of late years there
have been some valuable additions made to
this class, excelling, both in tenderness and
prolificness, the French beans, and even the
Scarlet Eunners. None of this section should
be sown before the 10th of June, being strictly
late summer and autumn kinds : notwith-
standing, their growth is so rapid, and they

BBussELs sntoLTs] PKAc'TU'i: OF ii(»KTic' r i/rr Ki:,

[CALLIFLOWEH.

art* 80 tlolifato aiul toiulcr i-atinij, tliat they
tli'iiiaiul ii siiiiij, warm, ami ahi-ltcrcd bilualiou
ill cvtry garden, liowever Huiall.

BEANS (iniOAD).

For tlioso the ground sliould bo trendicd to
a dt'pth of two leet, with some good manure
added through the top spit. If sown in rows
parallel to each other, thorows (siiigli') should
be about three feet apart, and the beans six
in the row, tlio large Windsor kinds re-
quiring more room. As soon as a crop is
insured, it is a good practiee to pinch oft" tho
tops. This makes the pods swell better, and
impedes tho ravages of the dolphin lly, to
which this family is peculiarly liable ; it also
concentrates the sap, and brings them forward
a week earlier. ^Marshall's Dwarf ProliHc is
excellent for early work ; and the Mazagan,
though not so productive, is valuable because
of its hardiness and early growth.

BEANS (FRENCH).

For the cultivation of this valuable and
wholesome vegetable, choose a warm, snug
border, taking care to earth them up in good
time, in order to prevent the wind from break-
ing them. The hoe must be liberally used,
and also watering, should the weather be
very dry. Single-row culture is recom-
mended ; but if another mode is adopted, the
rows should be two feet and five inches apart
between the plants. Regarding the time of
sowing, about the first week in May, in the
open garden, is the best; and should the
weather look suspicious, lend them a slight
protection. One of the most prolific and
finest flavoured sorts for forcing is the Tellow
Canterbury, or Golden Dun; and, for sowing
out-of-doors, the White Battersea is excellent.
It should be placed in a warm, snug situation.
Fulmer's Sion House, Newington Wonder,
and the Early Battersea, are the best for
forcing.

BRUSSELS SPROUTS.

This is one of the most valuable winter
greens, and ranks also among the hardiest of
vegetables. The seed should be sown in the
middle of March, and again about the 15th of
April. If sown in May, which is a very gene-

ral and a vi-ry wrong cuBtom, it is impoaaiblo

for the planla to becomo tall and stout.

CAIJIiAGE.

Tho common garden cabbage is too well
known, and too universally used, to recjuiro
any description hero. In British gardeuB, by
proper culture, it produces, from May to No-
voinber, llrm, compact heads, glaucous, green,
or greenisli-yeliow externally, but blanched
within ; and varying, in difl'erent sorts, from
three to twelve or fifteen inches diameter, and
from two to fifteen or twt-nty pounds' weight.
Its sub-varieties are numerous.

CARDOON.

This is a perennial, and a native of the
south of France and Spain. It closely re-
sembles the artichoke, but is larger. It pros-
pers in a light deep soil. The seed is sown
annually, about the middle of May, in shallow
trenches, like those for celery, and the plants
are thinned out to ten or twelve inches from
each other in the lines. During severe frosts,
the tops of the leaves should be defended with
straw or litter.

CARROT.

The best varieties of this root are the Early
Horn and the Long Horn ; the former for
early, the latter for general cultivation. Tho
Altringliam is also a good garden sort. The
Carrot delights in a light, deep, fresh soil, in
which it may be free to push down its long
spindle-shaped roots. On a bed moderately
hot a few Early Horn carrots may be sown in
February ; and, in the beginning of March,
the same sort may be sown in the open air.
The other sorts may follow in April, as a
general crop. Tlie carrot succeeds best in
drills. After sowing, it is only necessary to
thin the plants, and keep them clear of weeds.
They are stored in winter, alter the manner iu
which turnips are doue.

CAULIFLOWER.

Tliis variety of the cabbage tribe is culti-
vated for the sake of the flower-buds, which
form a large dense head, and yields one of the
most delicate products of the kitchen garden.
The sowing, for the first or spring crop, takea

97o

CELEBIAC]

PRACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[C2S38.

place in the latter half of the month of
August ; and, iu the vicinity of London, the
growers adhere, as nearly as possible, to the
21st of that month. A second sowing takes
place in February, on a slight hot-bed ; and a
third in April or May. As the cauliflower is
a tender plant, when young, it requires pro-
tection in winter. A good method is to plant
them thickly in the ground, under a common
hot-bed frame, and to secure them from cold
by coverings, and from damp by giving air in
mild weather. A rich soil, and a warm situa-
tion, are the best conditions for growing cauli-
ilower, of which the varieties are — Early
Loudon, White, London Particular, Early
Dutch, Large Asiatic, Walchereu, and Wait's
Alma.

CELERY.

This plant, a native biennial, and inhabitant
of ditches near the sea, is usually sown at
three different times : on a hot-bed in the
beginning of March, and in the open ground
in March ; and again in April. The seedlings,
when about two inches high, are pricked into
rich soil, in which they are allowed to stand
till they have increased to four or five inches.
The first crop is defended by frames, or hand-
glasses, and is planted wide, to admit of being
lifted with balls of earth adhering to the roots.
As the plants advance iu growth, earth is laid
up about the stalks of the leaves — an opera-
tion which is repeated at the end of every ten
or fifteen days, care being taken not to choke
the plants. As the celery approaches ma-
turity, scarcely anything but the tips of the
leaves appear above the ridges; and, when
lifted, the stalks are found to be completely
blanched. Successional crops should be
planted out from the 1st of June till the 1st
of August, in a rich light soil, where there is
plenty of moisture, iu which this plant de-
lights. The varieties are — Cole's Superb Eed,
Colu's Superb AVhite, Lion's Paw, Seymour's
White Champion, Nutt's Champion, Man-
c'.iester Giant Eed, Cole's Crystal White,
Wall's AVhite, and Cole's Dwarf lied.

CELERIAC.

This plant resembles celery in its flavour,
and is, at first, treated like the early crop of
that salad. In the beginning, or middle of
97(5

June, it is planted out in a flat bed, in drills
fifteen inches apart. Afterwards, a single
earthing suffices. Its roots are used in soups;
but it is not so much a favourite in Britain as
it is in France and the Low Countries.

CHERVIL, AND OTHER PLANTS.

The chervil. Lamb's lettuce, marigold, and
borage, are all used either as salads or in cook-
ing, and may be sown in spring or in summer,
in any light, fresh soils. The common sorrel
the French sorrel, and the horseradish a.
perennials, and are increased by parting their
roots. They succeed best in any cool, shady
situation. The capsicum, or chili, and the
love-apple, are tender annuals, from tropical
climates. Both are sown in hot-beds in
spring; and after being transplanted, and
nursed in separate pots, are planted out — the
former in a warm border, and the latter
against a wall. Dill has, for a long time, been
cultivated in our gardens, though not exten-
sively. It is easily raised from seed. Fennel
is a beautiful perennial, used iu salads and
sauces. It may be propagated either by
parting the roots or by seeds, which should be
sown in autumn, soon after they are ripe.

CRESS.

The common or curled cress may be sown
in shallow drills, a little successively every
week, in spring, summer, and autumn, by
those who prefer it cut in the seed-leaf; but
if it is not cut till in the fourth or fifth leaf,
as many prefer it, one sowing will last many
weeks, provided the outside leaves only are
picked off". In winter it may be sown in pots
kept iu a window, or on moistened sponge or
flannel. As it is not required to produce large
or strong plants, air may be wholly dispensed
with. Heat, darkness, and moisture alone are
necessary to make it germinate. It should be
always sown on the surface of the soil, and
not covered with it; for the more rapidly it is
grown, the more tender will be the crop.

CRESS (AMERICAN).

This is a very good autumn, winter, and
early spring salad, in use from September till
INlay. It is an excellent substitute for water-
cress, and may be cultivated in any corner of

o vit Lie AND 0 11 IV K.] P 11 A C T 1 C V. O 1 " 11 O IIT I C U LT U II R.

[lkttucb.

the garden. The best time to sow it is in the

tirst week of July.

CRKSS (NOUMANDY).
A liardy variety, succeeding well iu the open
air. If sown in a sheltered situation, about
the beginning of Sepleinber, it will produce
leaves throughout the latter niontlia of the
iiutainn, the winter, and spring. Sow the seed
thin, and keep the bed or edging well hoed
up.

CRESS (INDIAN. OR NASTURTIUM).

This is a ealad not niuch used in this
country ; but, wlien young, it is considered
wholesome. Sow at intervals iu heat, begin-
ning as early as January, cutting it down in
the same nuinner as Common Cress for use,
or make use only of the tops. It soon sends
out side-shoots, which produce many gather-
ings.

ENDIVE.

This is an annual, and a native of China,
whence it was introduced to this country in
1518. It is the lettuce of winter, the blanched
hearts being used for salads and soups. It
prefers a very rich but light soil, and should
be sown at various times, beginning iu the
middle of May, and sowing monthly after-
wards ; the last sowing for autumn and winter
being made in the middle of July. Some-
times they are planted in drills, to facilitate
the operation of blanching. The Batavian
and the Curled are the most highly-marked
varieties ; and of these there are many sub-
varieties.

THE ESCHALOT, OR SHALOT.

This plant is originally from Palestine, and
is much used in cookery, for higlily-flavoured
soups and gravies. It is also sometimes put
into pickles. There are two sorts — the Com-
mon, and the Kussian, which is much larger,
and less pungent. It is propagated by oflsets,
which are commonly planted in September or
October.

GARLIC AND CHIVE.

This is a common ingredient in continen-
tal cookery, but is not much used in this
G I

country. A few rows are quite Bufliciont for
dome^4tic purposes. It is propugjited by
olV-tela from tho roots or by the bnlbelrt, which
grow on tho ilower-Htem. The Chive is also
occasionally used as a salad and alliaceous
seasoning. A sijigle row may bo planted as
an edging; and it is eahily increased by
parting the roots in spring or autumn.

ICE PLANT.

As a garnisher for tho table, this plant
possesses great elegance, and is easily cul-
tivated. The seed tthould bo sown iti heat,
about the beginning of April, potting them
oft' singly as the plants acquire strength.
They siiould be hardened off, and planted
out about the end of May.

LEEK.

The Leek is originally from Switzerland;
but, in all probability, has been cultivated iu
this island for many centuries. It is sown
in beds in spring ; and in June or July
planted out in rows, fifteen or eighteen
inches apart, and six inches asunder between
the rows. When the weather is moist it is
beneficial merely to lay the plant into the hole
made by the dibble, without closing the earth
upon it, the stem being, by this means, en-
couraged to swell out and fill the hole, as well
as getting blanched at the same time. The
varieties are — the London Flag, Dutch Flag,
Musselburgh, Erfurt, and llouen. Of these,
the Musselburgh is the most hardy plaut.

LETTUCE.

The native country of this plant is not
known. There are two principal varieties — the
Cos, or upright, and the Cabbage Lettuce. Its
sub-varieties are numerous ; and among them
the following may be named : — The White
Cos, Cilicia, Winte Cabbage, Early Forcing
Cos, Dutch Cabbage, Imperial Cabbage,
Grand Admiral, Pans White Cos, Green
Paris Cos, Brown Cos, Wait's AV'liite Cos,
Malta Cabbage, Neapolitan Cabbage, Tennis-
ball, Hardy Green Hammersmith, and Black-
seeded Grotte. By proper care fresh lettuce
may be had throughout the year. The first
sowing is made in January, in some sheltered
situation ; or in February, on a gentle hot-

077

MU8HE00MS.]

PEACTICE OP HOETICIJLTURE.

[onion.

bed : the second in the beginning of March ;
and the third in April. For winter a sowing
is made in August or September, and the
plants are pricked out in October, along the
bottom of walls, or under glazed frames.

MALLOW (CURLED).

This plant is a very hardy annual, and is
used for garnishing, in the place of vine-
leaves ; but when the leaves of the vine can
be obtained they are preferable. The plant
grows to a height of about three feet, and
flowers in common garden soil.

MARJORAM (KNOTTED).

The most suitable time for sowing mar-
joram is about the end of Tebruary, and
during March. This should be done on a
bottom-heat ; and when up, it should be
potted and gradually hardened off for plant-
ing out-of-doors, or forced for early use.
"When the demand for it ia large, a portion
of what is planted out-of-doors should be
cut down before the flower-stems run to
seed ; and as soon as the an ts begin to
grow again, they should be taken up, potted,
and placed in a pit or house, to cut as
green marjoram during the winter. A light,
deep, and friable soil is the best adapted for
succestjfully growing of this plant.

MELON.

"We have spoken of this fruit in the forcing
garden ; but those who take pleasure in trying
experiments, may be informed that melons
are to be cultivated out-of-doors with success.
The points to be attended to, are a south-east
aspect bed, raised one foot above the level of
the ground, only allowing nine inches for
the plants to grow in ; below them, to have a
good drainage of rough bushes, straw, leaves,
or other similar material. Plant under hand-
glasses, and continue the use of them for
some weeks, depending, of course, on the con-
geniality of the season. The plants intended
for this purpose should be brought up very
hardy.

MUSHROOMS.

This is one of those fungi with which it is
dangerous for the inexperienced to deal. Those
who desire to study the artificial production
978

of their spawn may cultivate them ; but for all
other ends they are.better left alone. However,
small spare spots under stages, platforms, or
at the ends of houses, can always be found
for making a flat little bed, two feet in thick-
ness, of droppings ; soiled, and defended by a
mat, taking care to beat the bed well down.
By this means abundance of mushrooms will
be produced with very little trouble ; but
" excessive moisture," says one of the flrst
gardeners, " is not only apt to destroy the
spawn, but it debases the flavour of such fungi
as are produced under it ;" and such excess
of moisture, he further observes, is sup-
posed to render the "salutary sorts less,
and to make the unwholesome kinds more

acrimonious.

ONION.

This is one of the most precious inmates of
the garden ; and one sort differs far less from
another than the degree of skill in different
hands, or the degree of quality in different
soils. "The best sort for keeping," says
Mr. Paterson, " is the Strasburg ; and, for a
large crop, the white Spanish; the silver-
skinned is beautiful, and the dwarf-grown of
that sort are the handsomest for pickles. The
Blood-red and James' Keeping are excellent
for pungency, and for the quality, which the
latter name implies. The soil cannot be too
light, if it be rich with old manure, incor-
porated by digging about the end of autumn."
It is advantageous in the course of winter,
after the manure has become amalgamated
with the soil, to ridge up the earth like potato
drills, which, by pulverising and drying, pre-
pares for early sowing. Drilling is greatly to
be preferred to broadcast, as the former
admits of the hoe, which not only promotes
the growth of the crop, but saves the trouble
of weeding. One or two ounces of seed may
be sown in August for a spring and early
summer crop. At a medium elevation the
middle of August is the proper season ; and,
sooner or later, from the beginning to the end
of the month, according as the locality is near
to mountains or the level of the sea. Some,
in any condition, will shoot ; but, by pinching
off the early buds, good-keeping bulbs may
be secured. The potato onion is very hardy,
very productive, and of mild quality— equally

POTATOES.]

PRACTICE (U- HORTICULTURE.

[the bavot.

80 with the Spnniah ; aud it comes into uhu
earliiT tlinii ftiiy othor sort. Plant in tlio
iniiiiUe of October: it is as well to give them
a 8lij:;lit covering of litter in eevero weatlier.
There ia a silver-skinued vnriet}' of this under-
ground onion, very excellent, aud equally i)ro-
litic aa tlie old aort.

PARSLEY.

Sow this plant iu lines one foot apart, the
first sowing being performed in the last week
of March, aud the second in the first week of
June. The soil should be deep and rich ; and
the plants should be thinned out to six inches.
As an edging to borders it is very suitable.
Perhaps the best variety ia Myatt'a extra line-
curled, or the Enfield Market. The turnip-
rooted parsley ia treated in the same manner
as the common parsley, sowing it in drills in
the middle of April, and thinuiug out to four
inches from plant to plant.

PARSNEP.

The parsnep agrees with a deep and rich,
but not recently-manured soil. It may be
sown in March, either in drilla a foot apart, or
broadcast. It should be thinned out to half
a foot from plant to plant. As the parsnep is
not injured by frost, it may be taken up as
required, or the whole crop may be gathered
in October, and pitted like potatoes. The
Hollow Crown and Large Guernsey are the
sorts most in use.

PEAS.

A deep, rich, and loamy soil is that in which
the pea delights ; but any ordinary garden
soil, if dug deep, and well manured, will alibrd
fair crops. Nothing is more idle than to
study the almost endless varieties of peas ;
but we must recommend the following as
among the best varieties : — The Champion of
England, Mammoths, Knight's Marrow, Epps'
Monarch, Ne Plus Ultra, British Queen,
Bedman's Imperial, Auvergne, and Kingwood
Marrow. Thurston's Keliauce ia also an
excellent sort, superior in flavour, and keep-
ing green much longer than the ordinary
kinds.

POTATOES.

The management of thia root is so well

known that it Hupcrsodcs the necessity of
saying much abi)ut it liero. Wo nuiHt, how-
ever, rocoinmend the planting of curly vario-
ticH, of which tho crop iu generally positively
certain. Tiio Ash-leaved Kidney is good eating,
up, at least, to ChriBtinas; and Martin'u
Early Olobe is a sure cropper, ripe and ready
for use just before tho diaeano makea its ap-
pearance in this country. It also possesscB
tho excellent property of always eating like a
now potato, even as late aa April and May.
Autumn planting, nay from the middle of Oc-
tober to the end of November, ia recommended
for general and main crops. It ia advisable
to use whole seta of tubers of a moderate size,
putting charred wood-ashes in with each set.
This acts beneficially. Earthing up early, and
keeping tho ground clear of weeds, are the
chief duties to be attended to, never making
use of any manure to tho ground, or at plant-
ing time. Fresh broken-up ground usually
produces very good crops, and mostly free
from disease.

RIIUDARB.

This root is excellent for tarts and pies ia
the early part of the season, before the goose-
berry has made its appearance. To have a
good supply, set a dozen or more cuttings of
the roots, reserving to each a part of the
crown or top, on deep rich ground, in rows
four feet apart, and three feet distant in the
row, taking care to have none less than a yard
from the walk, or box edging. The best
varieties are the Prince Albert (early), Ean-
dal's Prolific, and Myatt'a Victoria.

THE SAVOY.

This vegetable delights in a deeply-trenched
soil; and the best sorts are — Dwarf Green,
Curled, Dark-Green Globe, and Yellow
Curled, more delicate than the greens. The
celebrated Ulra comes into use in the middle
of August ; but the earliest sorts can be sown
the second week in March ; again in the middle
of April ; and, lastly, in the first week of May.
Plant two i'eet and a-half between row aud
row, and about twenty inches from plant to
plant, with the Dwarf and Early Ulm just half
the distance. There are few vegetable plants
more generally relished than the Savoy, when
properly cooked for the table.

979

THE TUENIP.]

PEACTICE OF HORTICULTUEE. [vegetable markow.

SEA-KALE.

This fine esculent is little inferior to aspa-
ragus, and a great deal more abundant, with
less cost. The ground prepared for it should
be well manured, and trenched to a depth of
three feet. It should also be forked up, and
the bottom spit of the trench loosened. Sow
the first week in April, thinly upon a bed in
an open part of the garden, or in straight
lines three feet asunder; the plants in each
row to be eighteen inches apart. During
August and September, or earlier, should the
young plants be in a vigorous state, a little
salt and soot, dissolved with manure water,
may be applied once a fortnight. The follow-
ing spring, about the beginning of April, take
them up, carefully shortening the roots to
seven inches. Tlieu plant them out in deeply-
trenched ground, as already stated, in rows
four feet apart, and two feet from plant to
plant, placing the crowns of the roots a couple
of inches below the surface.

SPINACH.

This vegetable is not particular either as to
soil or season ; and it makes its appearance
early in the spring, when there is no great
abundance of culinary plants in the market.
It is sown in shallow drills, with a width
between each sufficient to allow the hoe to be
worked. Sow in the latter end of March, and
again in the middle of June, in order to ensure
a succession of leaves, the size and succulency
of which entirely depend on the richness and
moisture of the soil. This is the only vege-
table, in common use, that has the male and
female flowers on different plants — a circum-
stance which gives no trouble in the raising of
seed, as it is certain to happen, that, among a
considerable number of plants, there will be
some of both sexes.

THE TURNIP.

Mr. A. Henderson says, that turnips, to be
tender and mild, must be grown rapidly, re-
ceiving no check of any kind from the day the
seed is put into the ground. Tiiey delight in
a generous, well-worked soil, abounding in
manure, and thoroughly incorporated to'"-ether
—filled, in fact, with the vegetable manure of
980

previous years. Under such circumstances
the fly becomes unknown, and the flavour is
delicious, the bulbs being tender and delicate.
Perhaps the row system is the best for garden
culture ; and the distance between should vary
from two to fifteen inches, and, in the row
form, to six inches. Very clean culture, scari-
fying and stirring the ground, jvith early
thinning, is requisite. The fly must be averted ;
and charred ashes, and chimney or charcoal-
dust, used in the dry state, is quite a preven-
tative for this pest. Sow Early Dutch in a
sheltered situation in the middle of March ;
the Early Stone monthly, till July, when a
good breadth of a hardy sort (say the Orange
Jelly) should be put in for winter use. There
is another excellent variety, called the Chick
Castle Black Stone, for winter use ; and, for
this purpose, should be sown about the latter
end of July, and middle of August. The
American Strap Stone is also very superior in
quality and flavour, being quick in growth,
and very white and crisp.

VEGETABLE MARROW.

This is both a valuable and a profitable
vegetable. The celebrated green, long-fruited
variety, named Prince Albert, and the long
white one, are the best in cultivation. It is
better to sow the seed in a gentle hot-bed, or
under cover, about the middle of April, when
they have four rough leaves. Plant them in a
rich soil, and in a warm and sheltered situa-
tion, about the third week in May, taking
care, at first, to cover the plants over with an
inverted flower-pot at night, or other similar
contrivance. When hot dung is to be had,
about four barrowfuls, buried in the ground,
greatly assists them : the earth that is taken
out ridge up round the plants. Tiiis will pro-
tect them ; whilst the hot dune will be of sreat
benefit in giving the young plants a vigorous
start ; after which they will require no extra
care. In dry weather they require an abundance
of water ; and, at the least, once a week, a
thorough good soaking of liquid manure,
washed in afterwards with clear water — always
applied in the evening.

The pumpkin and the squash are treated in
the same manner as the vegetable marrow ;
but they are not so generally esteemed.

8TYI E.J

PRACTICE OF II OKI" I CULTURE.

[fLOWKR OAIlDHNfl.

CIIAPTEIl !>:.

style; BKTTISn FI.OWKR OAHPRKS ; SOIL; «I!AVi:i,-WAI,K.S ; TUB SHRlTHnKIlY ; MOKRH OF PnOPAOA*
TION ; rKKK.NMAL I'LANTS ; UIKN-NIAL I'l.ANTS; ANNIAL I'LA.NTH ; TIIK IIVACINTIC; TILIP ; UANLN-

CULUS ; anemone; naucissu's ; lily; dahlia; otheu florist's fluwkils ; oalknuaii.

STY LE.
The jxroat Coiide, utter spciulltif:; half of t1)e
mature manhood of hia life in war, strategy,
polities, and intrigue, fell back upon the culti-
vation of a flower garden, as bein<T the most
delightful of all out-of-door amusemeuta; and
there are tens of thousands of men, who,
although they have never had the chance of
becoming Coiid^s, pass much of their recrea-
tive hours in the tending of flowers. It is,
therefore, not altogether, as some think, an
occupation only suited to employ the leisure
of ladies ; although there is no fairer sight than
to see a beautiful Proserpine trimming her
flowers beneath tl)e golden beams of an early
spring or summer morning. The principles of
gardening, however, are both vague and evan-
escent. "As flower gardens," says Mr. Lou-
don, "are objects of pleasure, the principle
which must serve as a guide in laying tliem
out, must be taste. Now, in flower gardens,
as in other objects, there are different kinds of
tastes. These, embodied, are called styles, or
characters ; and the great art of the designer
is, having fixed on a style, to follow it out
unmixed with other styles, or with any devia-
tion which would interfere with the kind of
taste or impression which that style is calcu-
lated to produce. Style, tiierelore, is the
leading principle in laying out flower gardens,
as utility is in laying out the culinary garden.
As objects of fancy and taste, the styles of
flower g.irdens are various. Tlie modern stvle
is a collection of irregular groups and masses,
placed about the house as a medium, uniting
it with the open lawn. The ancient geome-
tric style, in place of irregular groups, em-
ployed symmetrical forms ; in France, adding
statues and fountains ; in Holland, cut trees
and grassy slopes ; and in Italy, stone walls,
walled terraces, and flights of steps. In some
situations, these characteristics of parterres
may, with propriety, be added to or used
instead of the modern sort, especially in flat

situations; such as aro cndospd by high
walls ; in towns ; or where the princi{):il build-
ing or object ia in a stylo of architecture w Inch
will not render these appendages incongruous.
Tliere aro other characters of gardens, such as
the Chinese, which aro not widely different
from the modern ; the Indian, which consist
chiefly of walks under shade, in square grass;
the Turkish, which abound in shady retreats,
boudoirs of roses and aromatic herbs ; and the
Spanish, which are distinguished by trellis-
work and fountains : but these last gardens
are not generally adapted to this climate ;
though, from contemplating and selecting
what is beautiful or suitable in each, a style
of decoration for the immediate vicinity of
mansions, might be composed preferable to
any one now in use."

BRITISH FLOWER GARDENS.
In Britain two varieties of flower gardens
have principally prevailed; one in which the
ground is composed of turf, and the pattern,
so to speak, exhibits a variety of figures cut
out on the turf, and planted with shrubs and
flowers: the other when the flower beds are
separated by walks, usually covered with
gravel, without having any grass whatever.
As a matter of course, situation should, in a
great measure, determine which of these is to
be chosen ; but when the garden is to be viewed
from the windows of the house, or any other
elevated point from which the whole or a con-
siderable portion of the design may be per-
ceived at once, preference should be given to
the former. Where the surface is irregular,
and the situation more distant, and par-
ticularly if the flowers are to be taken as the
primary objects of interest or admiration, the
choice should be given to the latter. The
situation of the flower garden must be
governed by the nature of the lawns, and the
site of the house or mansion to which it
ia attached. As to form, the flower garden

9bl

OEATEL-WALKS.]

PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE. [the sheubbebt.

may take any shape ; but if it is large, its
boundaries ought not to be continuously
visible.

SOIL.

The soil of a flower garden is one of the
principal things to be attended to, as it should
be varied in such a manner as to meet the re-
quirements of the species of plants designed
to be grown in it. For example, earth
varying from boggy peat to pure sand, is re-
quired for American plants. The best sort is
alluvial, or that kind of boggy earth which
has been washed away and incorporated with
white sand. Peat, cut from its natural bed,
and only partially decomposed, is valueless, if
not really prejudicial to plants. "In col-
lecting soil from the surface of a moor,"
observes a practical writer on this subject, " it
is proper to take no more than the upper
turf or sod, with the peat adhering to it,
and only from the driest parts of the ground,
where, besides the common heath, fescue-
grasses occur. When this cannot be pro-
cured, a good substitute is found in vegetable
mould ; that is, decayed leaves, swept from
lawns or woods, and allowed to lie in heaps
for a year or two. For the general purposes
of the flower garden, a light loamy soil is
advantageous ; and where the natural covering
is thin, or requires making up, recourse
should be had to the surface-earth of old
pastures, which, especially when incumbent
on trap-rocks, is found to be excellent. It
is expedient to have a large mass of this
material in the compost yard. The turf, and
the surface soil adhering to it, should be
laid up in a rough state, in which way it is
continually ameliorating by the decomposition
of the vegetable matters, and the action of the
air."

GRAVEL-WALKS.

The principal walks of a garden should
never be made narrower than to admit of, at
least, three persons walking abreast upon
them. It is a very common practice to see
gravel-walks so contracted as scarcely to admit
of two persons walking arm-in-arm upon them.
We would therefore recommend that, even in
small gardens, a considerable breadth of walk
Bliould be given, not only for the sake of conve-
982

nience and pleasure, but on account of the much
better efiect such an arrangement has upon
those who contemplate the garden. As a great
deal of the neatness of walks depends upon
the material of which they consist, gravel from
an inland pit is preferable to any other. In
the neighbourhood of the sea-coast, this is, in
some parts, to be obtained of very good quality;
but the gravels of Blackheath and Kensington,
in the vicinity of London, have been much
celebrated for the beauty of their colours, and
have been transported to various parts of the
kingdom for the purpose of being applied to
the walks of gardens. Where the walks are
covered with gravel, hoeing and raking, from
time to time, is necessary in summer, to
destroy the weeds with which they are apt to
be disfigured. After this, or even after they
have only been swept, they should be rolled
down with a hand-roller, and this repeated as
often as the surface is ruffled. Nothing has a
greater tendency to heighten the beauty of
garden-walks than the operation of frequent
rolling.

THE SHRUBBERY.

The beauty of a garden greatly depends on
the choice which is made of its trees and
shrubs, and the mode in which they are
artificially disposed. Of the many excellent
species of these with which Britain is now
enriched, it would be impossible for us to
speak, in the space to which we are limited. In
this department of horticulture, we can there-
fore only mention a few ; but these few will be
introduced on the authority of one of the best
practical gardeners of the present day. We
will, as far as possible, avoid the Latin names.
— Besides the Common and the Portugal
Laurels, there are other evergreens which merit
especial notice, as suitable to be disposed in
large masses. Among these we may notice the
American Arbor Vitae, and the Chinese Arbor
Vitae, which last is well adapted for small
compartments. The difierent varieties of
Ehamnus Alaternus, and the species of Phil-
lyra and Junipers, have long enjoyed favour
in the eyes of the admirers of evergreens.
"The Sweet Bay," says Mr. Mackintosh, "in
favourite situations, rises into a handsome
shrub or low tree, and may convey to the stu-
dent of the classics, the idea of the Delphic

PEHENNIALS.]

PRACTICE OF nOKTirULTUKE.

[annuals.

Laurel." Beaitlea these there are thoStrawberry
tree, the Irish Yew, the Cyprosa, LarustiiiuH,
Swedish and Irish Juiiii)L'r3; dilleroiit kinds of
Daphne ; the Andrachne, the Broad-leaved
Myrtle; the Acuba Japonica, the Ciatus and
lleliantheinum. Among the shrubs requiring
a peaty or, at least, a moist and eliadv situa-
tion, are the Khododondron, the Azelia, the
Andromedaa, and several others more recently
introduced. Among these, some of the hardy
heaths should find a place. Of deciduous
ilowering shrubs, there is not a finer object in
the vegetable kingdom than the Flowering
Lilac, which, from the deliciousness of its fra-
grance, and the pendent graces of its foliage,
should always find a place in a garden. Of
climbing shrubs, the Clematis and Honey-
suckle may be first mentioned ; but, indepen-
dent of them, it may be observed, that there
are numerous varieties of Fuchsia, Escallonia,
and Ceanothus, which, when planted against a
wall, or even in the open ground, and shaded,
in winter, with an occasional covering, convey
to us a better idea of the riches of Chilian
vegetation, than when they are restricted to
the shelves of the green-house. Many roses
are also well adapted for walls, such as the
varieties of Noisette, Boursault, and the dif-
ferent species from China.

MODE OF PROPAGATION.

"Nearly all shrubs may be propagated by
layers ; some by budding or grafting ; many
by separating the roots. In planting, shrubs
may be arranged either singly or in masses.
The latter method is the most efficient in the
production of effect ; but it should not be very
servilely adhered to, as it is apt to beget
monotony. Some kinds should never appear
in masses ; the white Portugal broom, for
instance, when so arranged, gives a limy tint
to a garden. Perhaps it is better that groups
should contain a predominance of one shrub,
set off" by a few others of a contrasting figure
or colour, than that they should be entirely
homogeneous."

PERENNIAL PLANTS.

The principal plants employed for floral
decoration are the common perennial ilowers,
whether strictly bulbous or herbaceous in
their character. In planting these, they

should bo arranged according to their height,

otherwise matiy of the most charming floweru
of lower pri)porti«)n8 will bo entirely loHt sight
of. It is essential, therefore, that the lowest
plants stand first, or next to the border or
margin of the parterre — to bo succeeded by tho
next highest, and so on backwards. Tho
fiower-pots should present a regular bank of
foliage and blossom, ascending gradually from
tho front: "but as this might convey an idea
of too great precision, a few starinrj plants, on
the same principle as those emphjyed in green-
houses, should be thinly scattered over tho
surface." Most herbaceous or perennial
plants are pro()agatod by parting the roots, or
by cuttings; but some, most conveniently, by
the sowing of seed. For tho names of those
showy flowers best adapted to the British
climate and garden, we must refer our readers
to tho catalogues of practical horticulturists
and nurserymen.

BIENNIAL PLANTS.
Plants which have been designated biennials
are such as have an existence only of two
years, when they wither and decay. Many of
them are invested with great beauty ; and by
the easiness with which they are propagated,
and the rapidity of their growth, they furnish
a ready means of ornamentation to garden
borders. "Where a very desirable variety is
obtained, attention should be directed to the
striking of cuttings during the summer, as the
only way of continuing it. The end of spring
is the proper time for sowing biennials, which
is done in beds ; and, in the course of the
following autumn, they are generally trans-
planted into those places designed for them,
and where they are intended to stand. Tho
object of this is to enable them to get con-
firmed before the winter, that thev may
readily shoot into flower in the foUowic
summer.

ANNUAL PLANTS.

Annuals, besides being easy of culture,
possess great beauty and elegance of Ibrm.
All that is necessary to be done to have a crop,
is only to throw the seeds into the bed or
spot where they are wished to grow, and in.
due season they will make their appearance aa
plants, without care or trouble. They aro

9b3

THE DTACiNTH.] PEACTICE OF H ORTI C ULTUEE.

[the ttjltp.

divided into three classes — the hardy, the half-
hardy, and the tender. The first are sown at
once in the ground assigned to them ; the
second, if wished to succeed well, should be, at
first, assisted bj a sliglit hot-bed, and then
transplanted into the open air. The tender
should be kept in pots, and cherished, as store
or green-house plants, which is the treatment
more properly belonging to them. It is
hardly necessary to remark that the two
former may be grown either in patches or in
beds, and should be subjected to all the rules
which apply to the disposition of common
border flowers. Many new annuals have,
within a few years, been introduced into this
country ; and doubtless, at no distant period,
this will be the case with many more.

FLORISTS' FLOWERS

The flowers of the practical florist are, as
might be expected, certain favourites to which
that class of gardeners have devoted a large
share of their attention. They comprise the
Hyacinth, the Tulip, the Ranunculus, the
Lily, Anemone, Narcissus, Dahlia, Auricula,
Polyanthus, Carnation, and some others. We
will devote a few remarks to each of these.

THE HYACINTH.

This flower is originally from the Levant,
where it grows abundantly ; and is possessed
of great beauty, associated with a delightful
perfume. In form, it bears some resemblance to
the common harebell ; and in the East it has
long been a favourite. It is scarcely credible
■what an enthusiast in particular flowers will
give for a single bulb of his favourite. The
catalogues of the Haarlem florists were wont
to enumerate 2,000 sorts of hyacinths, some
of which have been bought at £200 per bulb.
They have now, however, diminished in variety,
as well as in price ; and are either single,
semi-double, or double. A perfect flower of
this sort is thus described by Mr. Glenny, in
Ilia work on The Properties of Flowers and
Plants : — " Each pip or flower should be
round, and not ragged. The petals should be
broad, thick, and round at the ends, not
]ioiiited, and reflex enough to throw up the
centre well. The foot-stalk should be strong,
and hold the flower out stiff in a vertical
position, and by no means weak, to allow the
984

pip to bang with the face sloping downwards.
The foot-stalk should be of a length to make
the pips touch, and no more. The pips should
be large, and the flowers close on the stem.
Double flowers should have the rows of petals
above each other very regularly imbricated, so
as to throw up the centre. The spike should
be bold, round, compact, and pyramidal. The
flower should be very strong, and diminishing
to a single flower at top. The flower-stem
should be very strong and upright, and no
part of it should be seen, in consequence of
the closeness of the pips to each other. The
colours should be bright, clear, and dense,
whatever the shade ; and any better approach
to scarlet, blue, or yellow, than those shades
we now possess, would be highly esteemed."

The proper soil for the culture of the
hyacinth is one that is rich, light, and sandy.
The best compost is, perhaps, that used by
the Dutch, which consists of one-third of
coarse sea or river sand ; one-third of rotten
cowdung, without litter; and one third of
leaf mould. The natural soil is removed to
an extent of, at least, a couple of feet deep,
and the vacant space is filled up with the
compost, previously well mixed. It is said
that these ingredients retain their nutritive
properties for six or seven years, although the
Dutch do not plant hyacinths in the same
place two years successively. In the alternate
vears, they plant it with the crocus and
narcissus. About the 25th of October is the
best time to plant the bulbs.

THE TULIP.

This gorgeous flower is, also, a native of
the East, and was introduced into Europe
about the middle of the sixteenth century.
The properties of a fine late tulip, as given by
Mr. Glenny, are these:— "The cup should,
when quite expanded, form from half to a
third of a hollow ball. To do this the petals
must be six in number; broad at the ends,
smooth at the edges, and the divisions between
the petals scarcely to show an indenture.
The three inner petals should set close to the
three outer ones, and all being so close as to
show no openings between them. The petals
should be smooth, thick, and stiff", and should
keep their form well. The ground colour
should be clear and distinct, whether white or

THE BAKUNCDHTs.] PKACTlCi: OK 11 ( ) liTI C ULT UK E.

[rut U.VItLIA.

yellow. The least stain, even at tlie lower

I'tul of tl>o petal, would rt'iuler a tulip com-
paratively valueless. "Whatever be the ilispo-
«itioa of colours or marks upou a tulip, all tho
six petals should bo marked aliko ; and be;
therefore, perfectly uuifunu. Tiio feathered
flowers should have an even, close featlicring,
forminfj au unbroken edging all round. If
the flower have any marking besides the
feathering of the edge, it should be a beam or
bold mark down the centre, but uot to reach
the bottom of the cup ; tho mark or beam
must be similar in all the six petals. Flowers
not feathered, and w'ith flame only, must have
no marks on the edges. None of tho colour
must break through to the edge. Tiie colour
of the petals should not descend too close to
tho bottom. The height should be from
eighteen to thirty-six inches ; the former
being right for the outside row in a bed, and
the latter for the centre or highest row."

The proper soil for tulips is similar to that
suitable for hyacinths, and the season for
planting the same.

THE R.YNUNCULUS.
This flower is from the Levant, where it is
in great favour with the Turks. The existing
varieties in this country are now mostly of
British origin. The properties of a fine
double ranunculus are, according to Glenny,
the following : — " The flower should be the
form of two-thirds of a ball, two inches in
diameter, and the upper part of it square or
horizontal. The outline of the bloom should
form a perfect circle. The petals should be
thick, smooth on the edges, and gently cupped ;
they should lie close, so that little but the
edges should be seen. The flower should be
symmetrical to the centre, which should be
close, so as perfectly to conceal the seed-
vessel. The colour should be very dense,
whatever be its hue. If an edged flower, the
edging should be well defined, and the marking
even and uniform. In no case should tlie
ground-colour break through the edging ; but
spotted flowers, with one spot on each petal,
are allowable. The stem should be strong,
and long enough to raise the flower clear six
inches above the foliage. Striped flowers are
not perfect, nor are flowers speckled at the
edges."

G K

The ranunculus requires a stronger and
moister suil than moHt other floweru. It is
generally sown in boxes, iu tho autumn or tho
spring ; and no florist's flower iu moro readily
propagatod from seed.

TlIK ANKMONE.

This beauty of tho flower garden comprises
two species, called tho Anomono llortensis,
from Italy, and tho Anemone Caronarics, from
tho Levant. In a double 8[)ecimen tho stem
should bo erect, strong, and not less than nine
inches high. The soil and culture are so similar
to those of the ranunculus, that it is unneces-
sary to specify them.

THE NARCISSUS.

This is an extensive genus, which rather
belongs to the botanico-florist than to the
florist proper. The polyanthus narcissus
gives the varieties principally cultivated by
florists ; and they succeed best in a rich, light
soil, containing a little dung.

THE LILY
Of this flower there are numerous species ;
and the old "White Lily, after furui^liing tho
poets with so much imagery, has sunk into the
humble station of a modest border flower.
The Orange Lily, and the Lily Mortagan, may
follow its example ; but the Scarlet Turk's
Cap is worthy of more care, as being more
beautiful and more tender. The Tiger Lily—
a splendid specimen — flourishes best in a peaty
soil; and the same remark applies to the Lilyi
Canadeuse and Superbam, both of which aro
magnificent specimens. In tho Lily Japo-
nicum and Longiflorum, the genus attains its
greatest maguiticence ; but the climate of
Britain is unfavourable to them out-of-doors.
They must, therefore, be grown in pots under
glass.

THE DAHLIA.

This splendid flower is a native of Mexico,
and was, iu 1789, introduced into this country,
but was afterwards lost by our cultivators.
There are two species, the Dahlia Variabilis,
and the Dahlia Cocciiiea ; but tiie varieties
are endless. In 1801, it was re-introduced
to this country, and the results have been
very favourable to the flower garden, from the

9bo

CALENDAE.]

PEACTICE OF HOKTICULTUEE.

[calendar.

magnificence of its appearance. The plant
succeeds best in an open situation, and in neb,
deep loam; but there is hardly any garden
soil in which it will not thrive with manure.
Dahlias, however, should not be repeatedly
planted in the same spot ; and they generally
flower till checked in autumn by the frost.
The roots are then taken up, dried, and stored
in a cellar, or some other place, where they
may be secured from frost and moisture.
Old roots often throw up numerous stems,
which render thinning necessary.

OTHER FLORISTS' FLOWERS.
It would lead us greatly into detail to speak
fully upon Calceolaria, Chelone, Phlox, Pen-
testemon, Pansies, Eoses, Cinararias, Lobelias,
Verbenas, Chrysanthemums, Picotees, Holly-
hocks, Fuchsia, Petunia, &c., notwithstanding
all of them enter into the category of florists'
flowers. We may observe, however, that the
Auricula is a native of the Alps and the Cau-
casus ; that the Polyanthus is supposed to be
a seminal variety of Primula Vulgaris ; that
the Carnation is a native of Germany ; and
that the Pink is merely one of its varieties.
These are all favourites of the garden ; more
especially the Carnation, not only on account
of the delightful fragrance of its blossoms,
but also for the beauty it possesses.

CALENDAR.
Januaet.

Fruit Garden. — Open weather in autumn is
the proper season for planting ; but if it has
not then been done, do it now, watching over
the roots to protect them from any draughts
which may occur in spring. All sorts of
fruit trees should, in mild weather, be pruned ;
nailing only in fine weather. Any trees which
may be infested with insects, should be washed
with tobacco liquor, or with soapsuds and
flower of sulphur.

Forcing Department. — Shrubs to be forced
should bo taken to the green-liouse or to a
warm pit first, to prepare them, and their
roots thoroughly soaked, as they are often very
dry ; see also that they are not heavily laden
with flower-buds, and that they are in proper
trim as to training, &c. Hard- wooded plants
must have fire-heat during frosty weather ; but
it must not rise above 40° at night, and 50° by
986

day. Soft-wooded plants may be kept growing
freely, but not at high temperatures.

Kitchen Garden. — Sowing of peas, beana,
two-bladed onions, coUards, York cabbage,
h"orn carrot, and parsneps, may, at any time,
be made this month. There is, of course, a
certain amount of risk in early sowing ; but in
mild and tolerably dry seasons, there is suf-
ficient compensation for losses at other times
in the earlier production or increased bulk
and excellence of the crop. Ehubarbj in the
open ground, may be forwarded by covering
the crowns with sea-kale pots, or a lot of old
boxes.

Flotoer Garden. — Evergreens should not
now be planted, but deciduous trees may
be, during open weather. It is a good time
to make alterations, and to stack up turf,
and mix composts. Tulips and hyacinths
require protection from severe frost, but must
be allowed as much air and exposure as pos-
sible. Those in beds, exposed to the morning
sun, should be watered with cold water very
early, when the foliage has been frozen in the
night. Prepare beds for anemones and ranun-
culuses. Eoses may be planted, and after
planting, layed out on a heavy mulch of half-
rotten dung.

Febefaet.

Fruit Garden. — Vines should be pruned,
and laid in. This should be done only with
the ripest of last year's shoots, at a distance
of about eighteen inches from each other, and
not more than four eyes in length. The walla
should be cleared, and the plants nailed up
firmly, making use of as narrow shreds as
possible. Netting for espalier and wall
trees should be prepared, and employed when-
ever the buds begin to swell, especially if
north-west winds prevail. If strawberry
beds be early formed this month, on rich firm
ground, they are likely to bear well. Bush
fruits should be planted and pruned. Grafting,
if the weather be favourable, should be begun ;
and scions put into the earth in bunches,
with a tally to each, will keep a month, if
necessary, and take better than if put on a3
soon as cut.

Forcing Department. — Fire-heat may be
used more liberally now; and cinerarias,
primulas, and other soft-wooded, early bloom-

CALBHDAE.]

PItACTICE OF HORTICULTURE.

[calendar.

in<^ plants, placed as near the glass as possible, j
Abunduiice of water bIiouKI bo given to every-
tliiiig that is growing iVoely. llaril-wooded i
I'lants, that have been kept dry oil the winter, I
very possibly need to bo plunged to tho rim of
the pot in a vessel of tepid water, to soften !
the ball of eartli, nnd allow water to pass
through freely. Old plants of bedders should
be started for cuttings ; and these put in as
soon as they can bo taken, iu order that tho
bedders may bo brouglit forward iu time to
jilant out strong. All store plants from boxes
and cutting-pans should be potted oil'. Look
to the nnder sides of the leaves of tho cinera-
rias, calceolarias, pelargoniums, &c. ; and, if
any fly be there, put these together iu a box and
fumigate, or fill the house with smoke, and
syringe next day. All hard-wooded plants
coming into leaf should be freely syringed.
Temp. 45° at night, 55' to GO' by da}'. Bot-
tom-heat for cuttings, G0° to 70°.

Kitclien Garden. — Prepare immediately
every inch of ground intended for summer
crops. Where peas, beans, onions, cauli-
flowers, and broccoli are to be put in, the
ground must be liberally manured and deeply
stirred. Mark out the soil for onions into
four-feet beds, and raise the beds six inches
above the general level, leaving the surface
rough. Choose, for potatoes, ground on which
cabbage, broccoli, or celery has been grown,
and which was well manured in the preceding
year. Make up sloping borders under warm
walls and fences, for early horn carrot, onion,
radish, lettuce; and to prick out cauliflower
and broccoli from seed-pans, &c. Plant, on
dry ground, potatoes as soon as possible ; sets
should be of moderate size, and with short,
stubby, hard sprouts upon them ; when the
sprouts are long and white, a sound and
abundant crop can hardly be expected. Sow
in the open qua7'ters, peas, beans, parsneps,
spinach, leeks. Sow on warm slopes, radish,
hardy lettuce, cabbage, parsley. Plant po-
tatoes, garlic, shalot, chives, onions for seed.

Flower Garden. — Deciduous trees should
be planted without delay. Mixed borders
forked over, where it can be done without
fear of damaging paionies, bulbs, &c. ; but if
these are not tallied, it will be better to leave
the borders alone till the plants appear above i
ground. Walks, rockeries, edging, roseries,

peat-beds, and lawns, may all bo formed and
planted this month; and llieHOonerthe better.
Jlerbaeeous plantrt bIiouUI, nlso, bi? parted and
planted. Also ranunculuHea and atiomoues.
Sow hardy annuals in pans for planting out.
Californian annualn, such as escholtzias,
godetias, clarkian, candytufts, nemophilas,
vi.-^carias, &c., may bo sown in tho borders
where they are desired to bloom.

Mxncn.

Fntit Garden. — Cuttings of bush fruits
may still bo planted, and grafting should not
bo delayed. Pruning and cleaning ought to
have been completed some time ago. All tho
prunings and clippings of trees and hedges
should be burned, and tho ashes used as a
top dressing for quarters of bush fruits.
Mulch raspberries with half-rotten dung, and
they should not be dug between. Plenty of
manure should bo laid down between straw-
berries.

Forcing Department. — Tliero must now bo
no delay in shifting on all subjects tiiat require
increased root-room, for vegetation is fast
becoming active ; and if plants make new roots
in old exhausted soil, their vigour and their
beauty are both deteriorated. Pot gladioli,
liliunis, Cape bulbs ; shift ericas ; start
fuchsias, and take cuttings. Camellias, which
are done flowering, should be started into
growth iu a moist atmosphere and genial tem-
perature. Plenty of water should be given,
alternating with liquid manure, to cinerarias,
calceolarias, pelargoniums, and other subjects
advancing into bloom. Temp. 50' night, 00°
to G5° day.

Kitclien Garden. — The plots to be sown or
planted this month and next, should be
manured, and the ground dug pretty deep,
and left rough. Should the soil be well
drained, the principal crop of potatoes may be
planted at once ; but if the soil is damp, it
will be better to wait till next month. Plant
horseradish in any spare corner, digging the
ground pretty deep, manuring the sub-soil,
that the roots may come finer. Onion-beds
should be marked out, and the soil liberally
manured. Prepare for all crops that are to
succeed each other, so as to have the ground
well sweetened in time to receive them.
Sow turnip, long radish, main crop of parsneps,

987

CALEN^DAB.]

PEACTICE OF HOETICULTUEE.

[calendar.

broccoli, savoy, cabbage, cauliflower, horn
carrot, main crop of onions, parsley, leeks,
beans, peas, lettuce, spinach, and small salads.
Flower Garden. — Herbaceous plants for
summer and autumn bloom can now be planted,
though it is always better to do so in autumn.
Hardy annuals in the borders should be sown,
and tallied to each patch : as soon as large
enough to handle, thin the patches, and plant
out the thinnings wherever necessary, or pot
them for blooming in the window. Strike
chrysanthemums in heat, for planting out
in May. Set dahlias, and take cuttings.
Give sufficient air to carnations, pansies, auri-
culas, &c. ; and water freely during bright
weather. Weak liquid manure should be
given once a week. Plant dielytra spectabilis
from pots in rich deep loam. Finish planting
roses, and stake them at once. Examine
tulip beds, and remove, witli a knife, every
particle of canker. Keep beds of pansies
clean, and peg down the branches at equal
distanceSj covering them with soil up to about
two inches of the ends of the shoots. Lay
down turf, turn gravel-paths, make box
edging, and use the roller freely on lawns and
walks. Train and trim ivy at the close of the
month, reducing the growth on walls, &c., to
one regular felt or layer of shoots ; and re-
moving all the leaves, so as to esDose those
shoots to view.

Apeil.

Fruit GarcJen.—Vroteet wall trees from the
east winds, and with something that may be
easily removed, so that the trees have free air
night and day, weather permitting, and be
covered with the least possible trouble if the
wind shifts to the east or the north. Prunino'
and grafting, in the exposed quarters, must be
completed quickly. Abundance of water
should be given to fruit trees in pots, and the
crcliard-house kept in an orderly state.

Forcing Department — A moderate heat
only should be given to general collections,
and a strong healthy growth should be pro-
moted by the admission of abundance of air,
with a view of dispensing with the fires for
the season. Many of the less tender things
may be transferred to cold pits, to give room
for other things that want continued pro-
tection to be brougiit to fine plants. Youu'^
988 ""

stuff fi'om the propagating-house should be
potted as fast as rooted, and kept close till
started afresh, and then gradually inured to
air and light, so as to be vigorous by the
middle of May. All tropical plants required
for summer blooming should be hastened, and
a quick growth promoted, so as to give them
as long a season as possible for blooming, and
ripening their buds for next year. Average
temperature this month. 55° by night, 60° to
65° by day.

Kitchen Garden. — Sowings may now be
made of all leading kitchen crops that are to
succeed each other ; and where the work of
the last month has been delayed, seeds should
be got in early. Windsor, longpod, and
Johnson's Wonderful beans may be sown ;
Marrow, Auvergne, and dwarf mammoth
peas, and a few rows of the earlier sorts to
come in before the late peas are ready.
Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbages, cauli-
flowers, Lorn carrot, Scotch kale, and savoy,
for autumn use, should be put in. Among
cabbages, Atkin's Matchless, Early York, and
Shilling's Queen, and West Ham, are excellent
kinds to sow now ; but the principal crop of
cabbages should be up by this time, and they
should be hoed between when the ground is
in a fit state. In ground deeply dug, but not
manured, beet should be sown in the second
week. The main crop of celery should be
sown on a rich warm border, with the surface
made light and fine ; sow thin, and merely
dust the seed over. Sow also asparagus, let-
tuce, onions, radish, sea-kale, and small salad
— the two last in drills, one foot apart, and one
inch deep for asparagus, and two inches for
sea-kale. To raise seedling rhubarb plants,
sow about the middle of the month in shallow
drills, eighteen inches apart, dropping the
seeds in patches, six inches from each other.
Potatoes not yet got in should be planted
without delay ; and towards the end of the
month, scarlet runners and French beans
sown. The principal crop of carrots should
be planted about the middle of the month ;
and there is still time for a crop of parsneps,
but they must be sown directly. Slips of
kitchen herbs will do any time this mouth,
but will root quicker if planted in a rather
dry sandy border.

Flower Garden. — Hardy annuals and pe-

CAIEND.vn.]

PKACTIt'R OF HORTICULTURE.

[CALENDAn.

rtniniala are to be sown early ; and towards the
I'ud of the month the more ttnuler Bort8 niny
be put into the ground ; but very snmll sei'da
of choice plants need not bo sown till next
month, as heavy raina may wasli them dnwn
into the soil, and eaiiso tliem to bo lost.
Perennials may be planted out, and old stools
of ehrysanthomiun, lynchnia, phlox, &.C., may
be parted. Dahlia roots may also bo planted ;
and if the shoots rise before tiie night-frosts
are over, they should be protected by inverted
flower-pots, and the holes covered with pieces
of tile. Tigrida bulbs may be planted two
inches deep ; walks should be turned and
rolled, and grass-plots dressed.

Mat.

Fruit Garden. — Plums and pears, and all
bush and pyramid fruits, will require to be
jnnched in to the third or fourth leaf from
the base. Strawberries should have plenty of
water. If raspberries have not been mulched,
give them at once a top-dressing of half- rotten
dung. Do not dig it in. lu the orchard-
house renew the mulchings, if needful, giving
abundance of water.

Forcing Department. — Plenty of air ought
to be given to hard-wooded plants, and spe-
cimen plants in flower should have shade.
Allow nothing to form seed, unless seed be
specially desired. All kinds of shrubs that
are out of shape should be cut back, and kept
somewhat close afterwards, to obtain good
breaks, so as to bring them into decent shape,
and get the wood well ripened for next year's
bloom. All soft-wooded plants advancing in
growth should be shifted, stopped, and tied
out; but if required to bloom shortly, they
must not be disturbed, but merely kept in
shape, and plenty of water and free ventilation
allowed. Continue to strike bedding stock
for late blooming. Fuchsias, geraniums,
petunias, and verbenas make charming spe-
cimens for pot-blooming in the autumn, if
struck now, and kept regularly stop|)ed till
July. The temperature should not be high
for fuchsias especially, which like shade and
moisture. Azaleas and camellias that have
made their young shoots should have a little
more ventilation, to prepare them for the open
air next month to ripen their wood. Pelargo-
niums out of bloom should be cut in and

allowed to break before re- potting them, and
tho Byringo and fumigator kept in use, uh may
bo nccesaary, to destroy tho red Bpider and
green fly. Fire-heat nhould bo dinpeijBcd with
as far as pos.siblc, beloro clearing and cleaniog
out tho hou.io.

Kitchen QarJen. — Aim now at high culture
with all vegetable crops; stir frequently between
tho rows with tho hoo, to keep down weeds,
and supply an abundance of water and Ikjuid
manure. Kows of peas should be staked, and
those that are formed well banked up. Thin
parsneps and carrots to eight inches apart, and
go on transplanting from ueed-beds as fast as
the plants areof suflicient size to handle, leaving
tho smallest to become more vigorous before
removing them. For transplanting choose
showery weather, if possible, or else give shade
for a few days, and gentle watering. Flat-hoe
potatoes, and draw but little earth to their
stems. Thin out celery, and make up small
beds for the plants on very rich, hard ground.
Trenches with about six inches of rotten dung
forked into the bottom of each, should now be
made 'for celery. Look to seed-beds, and
transplant ; well hoe and clear the ground as
may be necessary. Sow beans and peas for
succession, and savoy for a late crop. Beet-
root, broccoli, cabbage, kale, kidney beans, both
runners and dwarfs, cucumbers, lettuces,
marrows, spinach, and turnips, may now be
put into tho open ground for a late supply.

Flower Garden. — Sowings should be made
of all hardy annuals required to succeed those
sown in March; and tender kinds, such as
asters, zinnias, &c., may now be sown in the
open ground. This is a good time to sow
hardy and half-hardy perennials of all kinds.
Tlie Chinese primula should be now sown
for the next spring. Lute-planted roses
should have an abundance of water, and the
surface mulched ; and similar treatment should
be given to hollyhocks and chrysanthemums
put out last month. Carnations and picotees
should be staked without delay, and their
shoots thinned. Part and plant polyanthuses
and primroses done blooming, and give themii
rich loam and a shady aspect. Koll and mow
grass turf frequently, to promote a fine close
growth ; and make everything look clean
and tidy, which greatly adds to the beauty
of the garden.

CALENDAE.J

PRACTICE OF HORTICULTUEE.

[CALENDAE.

June.

Fruit Garden. — Saails are now harbouring
ou the stalks, and among the side-shoots of
raspberries. Look for them every morning.
If large fruit is wanted, thin the blooms at
once, and dispense liquid manure. Dis-bud
and nail in. Pot trees to have plenty of
water; and, if weakly in their new growth,
give pretty strong doses of liquid manure at
intervals of a week each. Pinch, regulate,
and, where the fruit grows thick, thin it out.

Forcing Department. — If plants in flower
are desired to be prolonged in their beauty,
a shading of Shaw's tiffany or Haythorn's
hexagon net should be used ; the latter will
also exclude bees and wasps ; for flowers on
which bees have settled, perish sooner than
those to which they have no access. Cinera-
rias having ceased to bloom, may be propagated
by suckers and side-shoots ; if the plants are
turned out on a border, and heaped round
the collar with sandy loam, they will give out
suckers, which may afterwards be slipped off
with a portion of root attached.

Kitchen Garden. — By this time the ground
will be, for the most part, entirely occupied,
and everything in full growth. The hoe must
never be idle. Next to keeping down weeds,
give plenty of water ; but do not drench to
excess plants lately put out, lest a chill should
check their growth. Cucumbers, gourds,
tomatoes, and capsicums may be put out in a
rich soil, giving a sunny aspect to the toma-
toes. Manure-water should be freely given to
all crops in full growth, especially to straw-
berries; but there should be two or three
waterings with plain water, to one with liquid
manure. Sow beet, cabbages, cauliflower,
endive, early horn carrots, Prench beans,
lettuces, radishes, spinach, scarlet runners,
turnips, and peas and beans. Salad plants
should have a shady situation, or they may
run to seed. In sowing peas and beans,
depend on the earliest sorts at this time of the
year, as they are soon off the ground ; but
Knight's Marrow and Bed man's Imperial are
excellent peas to sow now for late supply.
Dress asparagus and sea-kale beds with one
pound of salt to every square yard, and give
the asp;iragus powerful doses of liquid manure
from liorse-dung.
990

Flower Garden. — Newly-made lawns re-
quire a little special care at this season.
Carnations, pinks, and picotees, may now be
propagated by pipings on the north side of a
fence, or in pots half filled with sandy loam.
Ranunculuses require water frequently ; and
beds of valuable kinds must be screened in
the same way as tulips, with netting or canvas.
Pansies strike readily from short side-shoots;
the old hollow stems will also strike, but never
become good plants ; the new growth is that
to be depended on. Dahlias should be im-
mediately staked, if not done at the time of
planting, so as to avoid damage to the roots
when they have begun to grow. Perennials
should be sown for next season's blooming,
that strong plants may be obtained. So thin
in nursery beds, and prick out the plants in
rows as soon as they make rough leaves.

JULT.

Fruit Garden. — Gooseberry and currant
bushes should be kept open in the centre;
and leave on the bush-fruits only as much
wood as will bear a fine crop next season.
Cuttings of gooseberries and currants may be
struck now in a moist shady border. Mulch
raspberries with half-rotten dung. Strawberry
beds should be well attended to. Strong-
rooted runners should be taken off to form
new plantations, and be pricked out into well-
manured beds, pretty close together. After
three years, strawberry beds cease to pay, and
should be broken up, and the ground trenched
for winter crops.

Forcing Department. — All green-house plants
require shifting for late blooming, and they
should be grown to a good size before allowed
to blossom. Cinerarias for winter blooming
must have good culture and shifts as required,
and camellias may be shifted if necessary.
Ericas generally require to be pruned, and
cleared of seed-pods and dead flowers. All
the ventricosas should be put into the open
air in a north aspect, and sheltered with spare
lights during heavy rain. All those with
woolly leaves should be put in cold pits, and
kept shaded at mid-day. Any not shifted in
the spring should be cut in at once, and as
soon as they break re-potted. Re-pot leschen-
aultias. Every kind of hard-wooded plants
may be re-potted now if out of bloom.

CALEXnATT.]

rKACTicE OF iioiM'icci/rrKi:.

[CALENDAH.

Kitchen Garden. — Clear the ground, and
di£» it over at onco, from wliioli early crops
have been takon. Brusaela sprouts, kulo,
savojs, cabbages, broccolia, &e., bliould be
planted out in srrouml dci'ply dug. For wiiilor
spinach, seed- bods should uow bo niado up
and well manured, and the seed put in with-
out delay. In gathering French and runner
beans, all should bo taken or none. If seed
is desired, a row should be left untouched.
Never take green pods and seeds from the
same plants. Take up garlic, onions, and
shalots as they ripen, and store them for
winter. Give asparagus beds plenty of liquid
manure. Earth up celery for early use, and
plant out the main crop as soon as the ground
is ready. Artichokes should be cut down.
Hoc between all growing crops, and especi-
ally potatoes. Top runners, aud keep them
well staked. Sow the last auccession of
runners and French beans; also endive,
lettuce, peas, radish, small salads, spinach,
Stadtholder aud Mitchell's cauliflower, and
turnips. High and dry land may be planted
with potatoes now, for use early next spring.

Flower Garden. — The most important
operation this month is budding. Out of
doors, cuttings of all kinds may be struck;
including, besides the bedding of every sort
of plant, most kinds of hardy evergreen
shrubs, the young shoots of which soon make
roots in the sliade. Dahlias want special
attention as they come into bloom. Another
lot of pompone chrysanthemums should be
struck this month, under hand-glasses, to
make dwarf plants for the window and green-
house in autumn. Layer carnations, picotees,
and pinks ; and put pipings of the same iuto
a gentle bottom-heat.

August.

Fruit Garden. — To keep off the birds, nets
should be thrown over the fruit-bushes, and a
little shade given to keep a few bunches
hanging for a late supply. Nail in all good
shoots on wall trees, that they may have the
heat of the wall to ripen them. In dry weather
gather fruit; and, as a rule, not till quite
ripe. Plant strawberries.

Forcing Department. — Such pelargoniums
as have been pruned back and rested, should
be re-potted as soon as they have broken

regularly. Place them in the smalleat potii
into wliirh their roolH can bo got, so an to
allow of a 8erie:i of shifta till tiiey are onco
tnoru in their blooming- potu. Young plantH
and green-houao shrubs uhould bo woll liar-
di-ned now btforo going to their quartera for
the winter. Canielliaa and azaleas should
have plenty of sun, and little water. Summer-
struck geraniums, achimenea, and fuclisiaa,
may bo got into bloom now, in order that a
display may bo kept up till Christmas.

Everything that requires potting should bo
so done at once, as all plants get through
the winter best when their pots are full of roots.

Kitchen Garden. — Brussels sprouts, broc-
colis, savoys, Scotch kale, «S:c., ought now
to be strong; and wiiero they have been
planted between rows of peas, to stand the
winter, they should now bo looked over, and
every other plant taken out, to make fresh
rows if they are crowded. Most sorts of
cabbages may be sown in the second week of
August ; Eed Dutch, Siiilling's Queen, Sprot-
borough, and West Ham, ought to have a
place in every garden. Prickly spinach should
be sown on slopes in rich soil, and plenty of
hardy green Hammersmith and black-seeded
cos lettuce. Cauliflower should be got in
from the 7th to the 20th, to keep over winter
in frames. The summer-sown endive will now
be strong enough to plant out on slopes or
raised beds. Leeks should be earthed up,
and the rows of parsley thinned out, so as to
get rid of every plant not well curled.

Floicer Garden. — Bedding plants should be
propagated for stock. Strike verbenas and pe-
tunias from tlie points of young shoots ; and
strike calceolarias in chopped moss or peat.
Herbaceous plants, such as pansies, die-
lytras, double walls, double Canterbury
bells, double feverfew, and hollyhocks,
may also be struck in quantities to keep
over winter in frames. Dahlias and holly-
hocks should be kept well fastened, and put;
stakes to chrysanthemums before their heads
get heavy, as a protection against storms.
Porapones may still be struck for blooming in
pots. Pinks and carnations may be planted
out in nursery beds, in well-manured loam.
Give plenty of water to chrysanthemums,
with occasional doses of strong liquid manure.
Pansies may be sown, as may also most hardy

991

CALENDAE.]

PEACTICE OF HOETICULTURE.

[CALEJTDAK.

annuals, to stand over winter for early bloom-
ing next spring. Eoses and fruit trees should
be budded in damp, dull weather ; they take
best just after heavy rain. In budding on the
manetti stock, enter the bud just above the
collar, close to the ground.

Septembee.

Fruit Garden.— \^hen the pips of apples
and pears have become dark in colour, it
is usually taken as the signal for harvesting
the crop ; but in looking for this sign a sound
fruit must be taken, not one that has been
pierced by an insect. Have all fruit gathered
with care, and stored without bruising.

Forcing Department.— T\iQ growth of all
hard-wooded plants should be well ripened
while there is plenty of sun-heat. Bedding
plants should be got into small pots as speedily
as they make good roots in the borders, or
can be spared from the decorative grounds, if
worth keeping. Keep the houses gay with
amaranthus bicolor, balsams, cockscombs,
coleus, fuchsias, gladioli, heliotropes, liliums,
and plants with fine foliage.

Kitclien Garden. — "Winter stock which was
sown last month may now be sufficiently for-
ward for planting out. The ground from
which onions have been cleared is usually the
best for cabbages for spring use. Winter
spinach should be thinned to six inches from
plant to plant ; also the rows of lettuce that
are to stand the winter. Celery should be
earthed up as the rows require it in dry
weather. Sow saladings, and gather seeds as
fast as they ripen. Potatoes should be taken
up as the tops wither; but carrots and beet-
root may remain till the frost cuts off the
foliage, no longer. Parsneps may be left in
the ground, to be trenched out as wanted for
use, unless the space is required, in which case
store them in sand.

Fioicer Garden. — Plant out pinks and car-
nations, and rooted cuttings of herbaceous
plants. The season has now commenced for
planting bulbs, but tulips should not be put
into the open ground till next month. This
and next month are the best times for strikiujr
calceolarias.

OCTOBEE.

Fruit Garden. — Gooseberries, currants, and
raspberries may be moved towards the close of
992

this month ; and new plantations made on
ground deeply trenched and manured. Goose-
berries and raspberries need a richer soil than
currants ; and black currants and raspberries
will thrive in more marshy ground than any
other of the bush-fruits. Eoot-pruning and
planting may be commenced in the last week
of the month ; but root-pruning should only
be resorted to in cases of over-luxuriant, un-
fruitful trees.

Forcing Department. — House at once what-
ever is to be wintered under glass. Chrv-
santhemums ought now to be in such bloom as
to keep the house gay for a while ; and, as they
go off, fuchsias and geraniums, from summer
cuttings, should be got into bloom by giving
the plants good places and shelter from
di'aughts.

Kitchen Garden. — In getting ready for next
year's crops, first trench over the ground in-
tended for root crops; and choose for potatoes,
carrots, parsneps, and beet, plots that have
been well manured this year. Plant out the
August-sown cabbage ; leaving the weakest
in the seed-bed for future planting. Also
plant out lettuce in a warm situation ; taking
up potatoes, carrots, beets, and parsneps.
Earth up celery ; lay cabbages and broccolis
that are forward with their heads to the north.
Asparagus beds should be forked over, and all
litter cleared away. Remove the stems with a
knife, and dress the crowns with manure,
and a little fresh mould over all. This is the
best time to make plantations of rhubarb for
next season's produce. Tomatoes, not ripe,
should be cut with a length of stem, and taken
into a warm green-house, where they will soon
ripen.

Flower Garden. — Chrysanthemums should
now be securely staked ; plants in pots
trained out, and made neat and tidy, for
blooming; give plenty of water. The bulbs
to be planted this month are crocuses, crowu
imperials, hyacinths, irises, liliums, narcissus,
jonquils, dafl:bdils, scillas, and early tulips.
For late tulips, next mouth is sufficiently early;
and anemones and ranunculuses are best kept
out of the ground till February, except in
places where autumn planting has been proved
to be congenial to them, in which case it is
preferable. Herbaceous spring-floweriug
plants may be got into the borders, to bloom

CALKN D.VU.]

PKAOTICE OF IIOliTlCULTURE.

[CALENUAa.

at the same time as the bulbs, such asalyssuin,
urnbis, aubrietia purpurea, diolytras, ibt-ris,
pansios, polyauthusL-s, primulua, wullllowors,
&c.

NoVEMntR.

Fruit Garden. — Prune and plant as weather
permits. Prune bush-fruits, and fork the
ground over botwoou the rows. Burn the
prunings, and strew the ashes over the ncwly-
Ibrked surface. Bed and white currants 1
should bo cut back to skeletons. Old apple |
trees should be scrubbed, if infested with
bliglit, with a strong brine, and the holes
stopped with a mixture of clay, sulphur,
soot, and cow-dung, beaten together into a
tenacious paste.

Forcing Department. — Begonias, camellias,
chrysauthemunis, iuchsias, late-struck gera-
niums, and salvias, will now contribute greatly
to the gaiety of tlie conservatory.

Kitchen Garden. — Wherever trenching and
digging are required, let it be done without
delay. Turf should be stacked, and the
clippings gathered for burning, to make
dressings of manure for beds and borders.
The general work of the kitchen garden is
only a continuation of last month.

Flower Garden. — Get under cover, without
delay, whatever is too tender to bear the
frost. Get up dahlias, tally, and stow them
away, out of the reach of frost, moisture,
and heat. Obtain a supply of rose stocks at
once, if you intend to graft or bud for yourself
next season. Plant in good loam, and stake
tbeni securely. Plant bulbs as soon as possi-
ble, both in beds and borders.

December.

Fruit Garden. — Old fruit trees should be
dug round, and a layer of old dung, six inches
thick, laid down in a ring, three feet round
the stem of each, to improve the sizo of the
fruit against next season. Any trees that
grow too luxuriantly to bear well, should bo
pruned at the roots. Protection to any ten-
der fruit trees should be given, and boards,
G I,

in a blope, laid over vino borders to hlulter
them from t-xeeMHively cold rains. Strawberry
beds may bo made this month; but it is not
a fiivourablo period for struwhcrriea. Jiush-
fruits Bhould bo planted, potted, pruned, and
manured. Gno.HL'berries and ciirrunls may bo
lightly forked between, to ainalganmto tho
uianuro with tlio Boil ; but raspberries should
have three or four inehea of dung, not very
rotten, laid over tho piece, and tho soil between
them should not bo dug at ail. Orchard-
house trees may be pruned ; and it is recom-
mended that they bo washed with a solution
of eight ounces of Giahurat to a gallon of soft
water.

Forcing Department. — Till after Christmas
chrysanthemums will keep this department gay,
when tho first lot of forced shrubs, especially
azaleas, will be ready to take their place,
llard-wooded plants in the green-house must
have as much air as the weather will permit,
and as little water as possible, from the expec-
tation of frost setting in. The thermometer
should not descend below .38°. Ericas should
have air at every opportunity ; and if forced
with other flowering shrubs, must have the
coolest place in the forcing-pit, and be very
gently stimulated. Greeu-house temperature,
40° to 45°.

Kitchen Garden. — Plantations of asparagus,
horseradish, rhubarb, and sea-kale should be
made. Eoots of dandelion, packed together
in leaf-mould, and put into gentle heat, will,
in five or six weeks, furnish a delicate salad.
Early peas and beans should now be sown on
warm dry slopes ; and broccoli heeled over,
witli their heads to the north.

Flower Gardm. — Bulbs ought to bo all
planted by this time ; but if any remain out
of the ground, they should be got in without
delay. I'uchsias to remain out all the winter
should be cut down, and their roots covered
with litter or coal-ashes. Pansies, pinks,
and other choice things in open beds, should
have a little light litter sprinkled over them
in frosty weather, or be protected with canvai
on hoops. Protect tulips in the same way

«JU3

DIVISION XI.

THE BEE, AND TEE MANAGEMENT OF THE APIARY.

introductory; interest attached to the bee; functions of bees; numbers in a hive;

attachment' AND HOMAGE TO THE QUEEN BEE ; THE PASTURAGE OF THE BEE; PRODUCTS OF THE
BEE • CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMBS ; THE FORMATION OF SWARMS ; THE APIARY ; DIFFERENT
SORTS of' hives ; SITUATION OF THE APIARY ; THE DESTRUCTION OF BEES.

Addison remarks, " shows, by his way of
writing, the simplicity, or rather coarseness,
of the age in which he lived." But, whatever
may be the simplicity or the coarseness of
his manner of writing, he has certainly been
highly complimentary to the virtues of the
bee, if we are to consider that such women as
his tenth species could be composed of the
forms, qualities, and instincts of that notable
insect. If so, we trust that every kind and
careful bee-master may have the happiness of
falling in with a hee-wife.

INTEREST ATTACHED TO THE BEE.

" The bee is little among such as fly ; but
her fruit is the chief of sweet things." This
is the language of the Scriptures ; and from
the ancients this insect has claimed a greater
interest than it has done among the moderns.
No nation upon earth has had so many
historians as this remarkable creature. De
Montfort, who drew " the portrait of the
honey-fly," in 1646, enumerates the authors
up to his time who had written upon the same
subject ; and they amount to between five and
six hundred. Varro, Columella, Celsus, and
Pliny have each given in their contributions
to the subject ; and some idea may be formed
of the minuteness with which they extended
their investigations from a passage in Co-
lumella, who, in speaking of the origin of
bees, says that Euhemerus maintained that
they were first produced in the island of Cos ;
Euthronius, in Mount Hymethus ; and Nican-
women, nor passes away her time with them I der, in Crete. The subject of the fourth book
in wanton di.-<courses. She is full of virtue | of the Georgics of Virgil, is the management
and prudence, and is the best wife tliat Jupiter j of bees. Their habits, economy, polity, and
can bestow on man." Simonides lived about } government are described with great fidelity,
400 years after the siege of Troy ; and, as [ and with all the charms of poetry. In David-
994

INTRODUCTORY.

Addison, in his 209th Spectator, translates
some of the iambics of Simonides, and tells us
that this poet was famous in his generation,
and that he is the author of the oldest satire
now extant. The subject of this satire is
woman ; and we find him stating that the souls
of one kind of women were formed out of
those ingredients which compose a swine ; a
second were formed out of the same materials
that enter into the composition of a fox ; a
third were made up of canine particles ; a
fourth were made out of the earth ; a fifth
were composed of the sea ; a sixth were manu-
factured of the ingredients which make an ass,
or a beast of burden ; the cat supplied the
materials for a seventh species of women ; the
mare with a flowing mane, which was never
broken to any servile toil and labour, composed
an eighth species of women; the ninth kind
were taken out of the ape ; and the tenth, and
last, sort were made out of the bee. In
reference to this species, Simonides says —
" Happy is the man who gets such an one for
his wife ! She is altogether faultless and un-
blamable. Her family flourishes and im-
proves by her good management. She loves
her husband, and is beloved by him. She
brings him a race of beautiful and virtuous
children. She distinguishes herself among
her sex. She is surrounded with graces.
She never sits among the loose tribe of

THE BEE.]

THE MANAGEMENT OF Till- Al'IAliV.

[the hee.

son's translfition, the invocation runa — " Next proboBcia almost as lonp; as the body itaelf,

will 1 si't fortli tho lu'avouly f»irt of neri:il microscopic in its bcvituI parts, telescopic in

honey. Vouclisafe, INIax'enas, thy reganl to its mode of action ; with a «ting so iniiuitoly

this part, also, of my work. I will sing spec- sharp, that, wore it magnified by tho same

tacles to you inarvoUous of minute things ; glass whirh makes a needle's point seem a

the magnanimous leaders, tho n\aiiners and (piarter of an inch, it would yet itself bo in-

employmenls, tlie tribes and battles of tho visible, and this, too, a hollow tube ; — that all

whole race in order. My labour is u[)on an these varied operations and contrivances

humble theme; but not mean tho praise, if should bo enclosed within half an inch of

the adverse deities permit one, and Apollo in- length, and two grains of matter ; while, in

vocated, hear." Virgil, however, in this tho same small room, tho largo heart of at
Georgic, has proved himself a better poet than I least thirty distinct instincts is contained, is

a well-informed naturalist.

Besides the multitude of authors who have
written express treatises on bees, periodical
works have been published, confining them-
selves entirely to their management and
economy ; whilst learned societies have been

surely enough to crush all thoughts of Atheism
and IMaterialism," wherever such opinions
may bo held.

The leading feature in the history of bees,
and one which gives them a marked distinc-
tion from almost all other insects, is tho dif-

established with the sole view of conducting ferent kinds into which they are distributed,
researches upon this subject. The most dis- and which, to all appearance, constitutes so
tinguished association of this kind is the ' many difl'erent modifications of sex. First of
iSocjV/e </es -4ie///^5, founded upwards of half a all comes the drone, who may readily be
century ago, in Little Bautzen, a village in ' known from the heavy noise which he makes,
Upper Lausatia, under the auspices of the and from which he has received his name.

He is the " lazy, yawning drone" of Shake-
speare ; and is, indeed, all over the world, a
by-word, applied to those who are more lazy
than active — more sleeping than awake when
performing any duties that may be assigned
them in the several positions they may have
been called to occupy in life. " The drone,"
says Butler, "is a gross stingless bee, that
speudeth his time in gluttony and idleness.
For howsoever he brave it with his round
velvet cap, his side gown, his full paunch, and
his loud voice, yet he is but an idle companion,
living by the sweat of others brows. He
worketh not at all, either at home or abroad,

Elector of Saxony. The labours of this
society have greatly added to the general stock
of knowledge on the subject of bees,

FUNCTIONS OF BEES.
Every reader of the Scriptures knows that
the Supreme Being has, in many senses, sup-
plied the houseless and the wanderer with
" wild honey," and " in a piece of honey-
comb," and "honey out of the stony rock;"
whilst, " a land flowing with milk and honey,"
has, from the first, been the type of another
and a better country. The little honey-
maker, too, is, in itself, one of the most mar-

vellous proofs of the goodness and power of and yet spendeth as much as two labourers

the Almighty. " "Wise in their government,"
observes Kirby, " diligent and active in their
employments, devoted to their young and to
their queen, the bees read a lecture to man-
kind *.hat exemplifies their Oriental name,
Deburah, she that speaketh.'''' — " That within
so small a body," says another writer, " should

you shall never find his maw without a good
drop of the purest nectar. In the heat of the
day he flieth abroad, alr*^'*" and about, and
that with no small noise, as though he would
do some great act ; but it is only for his
pleasure, and to get him a stomach; and then
returns he presently to his cheer." This lazy

be contained apparatus for converting the member is distinguished by a thicker body, a

virtuous sweets which it collects into one
kind of nourishment for itself; another for the
common brood; a third lor the royal; glue
lor its carpentry ; wax for its cells ; poison for
its enemies ; honey for its master ; with a

more flattened shape, a round head, and more
obtusely terminated abdomen, within which
are contained the male organs of generation,
as he is admitted to be the male of the species.
The queen-bee is tho next and the most dis-

995

THE B£E.]

THE BEE, AND

[queek-bee.

tinguished character in a hive. In fact, she
reigns over her people. She is —

" First of the throng, and foremost of the whole,
One stands confest the sovereign of the soul."

Her embrace is said to be fatal to the
drones, and her power was acknowledged long
before her sex was known. Greeks, Latnis,
and Arabs invariably designate her as the
king ; and so does Shakespeare.

The queen-bee is, however, not a king-bee ;
and she is said, by an old author, "to differ
from the vulgar, both in shape and colour."
Her abdomen is of greater length, and she
is provided with a sting and two ovaria of con-
siderable size. The working bees compose
the third class, and are marked by the small-
ness of their size, the length of the proboscis,
the singular structure of their thighs and legs,
and by the seeming want of generative organs.
These are now set down as undeveloped
females. Mr. Scherach, of Little Bautzen?
and secretary to the Lausatian Society, has
proved this. It is on these creatures all the
laborious duties incident to tlie community
devolve. They are the working classes, who
construct the interior of their habitation ;
explore the fields in search of food and other
materials ; bring them to the hive, and apply
them to the purposes for which they are
adapted. They are also the constant- at-
tendants of the queen, whose wants they
supply ; besides being the soldiers of the
hive, which they defend against the attacks of
enemies ; so that their whole lives is a scene
of constant and busy occupation, from early
dawn till close of day, when the weather and
season are congenial to tlieir employments.
The lives of the females are chiefly occupied
with laying eggs, and conducting the colonies,
which, at certain periods, emigrate from the
parent hive; so that tlie drones seem to be
the only encumbrances upon the state. They
bave, however, their uses, as everything in
nature has. They perform the important duty
of impregnation ; but they perish the moment
they hav«! fullilled their purpose.

NUMBERS IN A HIVE.

she is entitled by the dignity of her station.
The nuniher of labourers, however, vary con-
siderably in different hives. In a strong
hive there are about 15,000 ; and of drones
about one to ten of these. This proportion,
though seldom exact, is rarely very much
exceeded or fallen short of. According to
Dr. Bevan, a single family, where swarming
is prevented, will sometimes amount to 50,000
or G0,000. A writer observes, upon the
strength of a hive, that the drones, even in
the spring, seldom compose more than one-
thirtieth or one-fortieth of the whole ; and at
other seasons there are none to be found in
the hive. " In order to form an estimate of
the number of bees which can occupy a certain
space, Mr. Hunter counted what number of
drowned bees could be contained in an ale-
house pint, and found it to be 2,1G0; so that
if a swarm were to fill two quarts, their
numbers would be nearly 9,000. Keaumur,
with the same view of -ascertaining their
numbers, employed the more accurate method
of weighing them. He found that a collec-
tion of them weighing one ounce, consisted of
330 bees ; and, therefore, that sixteen ounces,
or one pound, would consist of 5,376 bees."

ATTACHMENT AND HOMAGE TO THE
QUEEN-BEE.

The sole province and occupation of the
queen of a hive is to lay eggs, which, in the
height of the season, she does at the rate of
200 a day. If the weather be particularly warm
and favourable, she will lay even more than
that ; and continue to do so, tliough at a
gradually diminishing rate, till the approach
of cold weather in October. " So early as
February she resumes her labours in the same
department, and supplies the great blank
made in the population by the numerous
casualties that take place between the end of
summer and the commencement of spring.
Her great laying of the eggs of workers begins
generally about the fifth day of her age ; and
she continues to deposit eggs of the same kind
for the succeeding eleven months ; after which
she commences laying those of males." In

the operation of laying the queen puts her

In a hive there is usually only one perfect ' head into a cell, and remains in that position

queen existing at a time, and she receives all not more than a couple of seconds ; after which

the honour, deference, and affection to which

996

she withdraws her head, curving her body

qi-i:f.n'-dee.] the ]\I AN AGEMENT OF TIFK Al'IAliY. [qi'EKit.ijee.

dowiuvards; inserts her abdomen into tliocell,
and turns half round on liersselt*. In a I'l'W
Beconii.s the vi;^!; is safely deposited in tlio ci-ll,
wlien she witluiraws ber body, and thus pasacs
on from cell to cell. Wliilst she ia making
this progress she is the subjeet of the most
maikod attention of the workers. Thev show
their alloction for her by caressing her with

death of one of the combatants. This mutual
enmity is an inborn dispusition with them.
No sooner has the tjueeu-bee in o hive thrown
off a second swarm, and escaped frotn her own
cradle, than she iiurries away in search of her
rival, and, with tho moat impetuous eager-
ness, uses every exertit)n to destroy her.
To rehearse tho many stories which have

their antennro, and occasionally supplying her been told of the attachment and homage which

with food from their probosees, " t)n one oc-
casion," says the writer of the article on the
bee, in the I^^utitralist's Library, " we gave her
subjects an opportunity of testifying their
courar/c in her defence, as well as their affec-
tion and zeal. Observing her laying eggs in
the comb next to the glass of the hive, wo
gently but quietly opened the pane, and en-
deavoured to seize ber. But no sooner did

the working bees show to their queen, would
be endless. One or two must sullice. In
the notes to l)r. Evans' poem of The Bees,
we find the following affecting anecdote: —
"A queen, in a thinly-peopled hive, lay on a
iioneycomb, apparently dyijig; six woikerj
surrounded her, seemingly in intent regard,
quivering their wings as if to fan lier, and
with extended stings, as if to keep off in-

Ihe removal of the glass afford room (while traders and assailants. On presenting tliem
shut, it was almost in contact with her back), honey, though it was eagerly devoured by the
and before we could accomplish our purpose, other bees, the guards were so completely
they threw their bodies upon her, to the absorbed in their mournful duty, as entirely to
number of, at least, a hundred, and formed a disregard the proffered banquet. The follow-
cone over her of such magnitude, that she ing day, the queen, though lifeless, was still
could not be less than two inches distant from surrounded by her guard; and this faithful
any part of the surface. We dispersed the , band of attendants, as well as the other mem-
mass with our finger, and got hold of her : bers of the family, remained at their post till
precious person, and kftpt looking at her for | death came kindly to extinguish both their
some minutes before we restored the captive affections and their grief; for though con-
to her alarmed defenders. It is remarkable stantly supplied with honey, not a bee re-
that this violence was not resented by them : mained alive at the end of the four days."
though they coursed over our hands in scores This is an extraordinary instance of bee de-
while we kept hold of their mistress, not one votedness ; and, we presume, is not common,
individual used its sting. The all-engrossing i We can give, i'rom another writer, an instance
object was the queen." The same writer of an opposite kind. It is in the case of a
remarks, that bees may be even roughly hive which, having early exhausted its store,
handled without danger of being stung when was found, on being examined one morning,
they are swarming. Then, being only intent to be utterly deserted: the comb was empty;
on securing a habitation for themselves and \ and the only symptom of life was the poor

their sovereign, they seem incapable of enter-
taining, at the same moment, two diflerent
ideas, and their natural irritability is not
awakened to exertion. There is one striking

queen herself, " unfriended, melancholy, slow,"
crawling over the honeyless cells — a sad spec-
tacle of the fall of bee greatness. The writer
thinks that Marius among the ruins of Car-

feature in the natural history of queen-bees ; thage, or Napoleon I. at Fontainebleau, was
and that is, the hatred which they have for nothing to this. In reference to the homage
each other. Queen Elizabeth's to Mary, Queen I which they show their queen, if we are to
of Scots, was as nothing to it, notwithstanding believe Sydserff, it would appear, that " when-

that it stimulated the English lady to take otF
the head of her fairer cousin. When two
queen- bees in a hive happen to emerge from
their cells at the same time, a pitched battle

ever the queen goes forth to take the air, as
she often does, many of the small bees attend
upon her, guarding her before and behind.
By their sound I have known when her ma-

takes place, which is only terminated bv the jcsty has been coming forth, and have had

997

THE BEB.]

THE BEE, AND

[the BEB

time to call persons who bave been desirous
of seeiug her." These are human rather than
insect cliaraeteristics ; although similar anec-
dotes are well attested by other authorities.

THE PASTURAGE OF THE BEE.

Eor the pliysiohgy of the bee, we must refer
the reader to such works as specially treat
upon that branch of the subject, our space
being insufficient to enter upon it at length :
we must, therefore, confine ourselves to the
more practical management of the bee, and
such portions of the subject as may be sup-
posed to be more desired to be known by the
common keeper of a hive or an apiary. In
noticing what is necessary to the nourishment
of bees, we may observe that their food con-
sists chiefly of two kinds — the fluid secretions
of vegetables contained in the nectarea of the
flowers, and the dust of the autherse, which
has been designated by botanists, the pollen ;
but which, when collected by the bees, has
received a variety of names, such as farina,
raw wax, bee-bread, and others. Occasionally,
however, we find bees feeding upon other sac-
charine substances besides honey, such as
honey-dew, treacle, syrup, &e. A large quan-
tity of ink has been consumed by writers who
have treated of the poisonous eff'ects of some
plants, not only upon the honey, but sometimes
upon the bees themselves. Every classic
schoolboy will be able to recall the narrative
which Xenophon gives of the effects produced
upon the Ten Thousand, by the honey of which
they partook in the neighbourhood of Trebi-
zond. The soldiers were affected in propor-
tion to the quantities they had taken. Some
seemed drunk; some mad; and some even died
the same day. This quality in the honey has
been referred by Pliny, and some others, to
the poisonous nature of the rhododendron, of
which there is an abundant crop in those
parts. But this is not to be believed ; for it
has been found that the honey in this country
is not aftVcted in districts whepe the rhodo-
dendron abounds ; nor, indeed, is the common
bee ever observed to settle on its flowers.

If we are to nourish or cherish bees, of
course the pasturage on which they are to
fi!cd ought to be one of our first considerations.
Yet we have heard of a man who kept bees on
the top of his house in Ilolborn ; and wishiu'^
9Uy °

to find out where they pastured, he sprinkled
them all with a red powder as they came forth
from the hive in the morning. He then set
off to Hampstead, deeming it the nearest as
well as the best bee-pasture in the neighbour-
hood of London; and what was his delight
at beholding, amongst the crowds of other bees
some of his own, carrying upon their indus-
trious persons the marTcs of his own ingenuity,
by which they were to be singled out from
the others. The apiary of Bonner, a great bee
observer, was placed in a garret, in the centre
of the city of Glasgow ; and that of Mr.
Payne, the author of The Bee-Jceepei-'' s Guide,
was placed in the middle of a large town. It
is conclusive, then, that the industrial popula-
tions of these hives would have to fly over the
chimney-tops in order to get to the fields ;
and if there was plenty of Dutch clover (some-
times called honeysuckle) in them, they would
be sure of making a good honey year. This
is one of their favourite flowers, the red clover
being too deep ; for the proboscis of the com-
mon bee is not so useful to it aa it is
generally thought to be. There have been
made many lists of bee-flowers, and of such
as are deemed suitable for planting round the
apiary. It has been suggested that mig-
nonette, borage, bugloss, rosemary, lavender,
the crocus for the early spring, and the ivy
flowers for the late autumn, might assist in
making up a pretty bee-garden. Pliny recom-
mends thyme, apiaster, violets, roses, and lilies.
There is no doubt that the prevalent flower
of a district will flavour the honey. The fine
honey of the Isle of Bourbon will taste for
years of the orange-blossoms, from which, we
understand, it is gathered ; and, on opening
a bottle of it, the room will be filled with the
perfume. The same is the case with the honey
of Malta. Corsican honey is said to be
flavoured by the box-tree ; and honey has
been pronounced utterly valueless, from its
having been gathered in the neighbourhood
of onion-fields. Dr. Bevan suggests that
lemon-thyme should be used as an edging for
garden-walks and flower-beds, instead of box,
thrift, or daisies ; but we think, on the whole,
it little matters to the bee what flowers
are placed in the garden, as it is too much of
a wanderer to confine itself to such an arti-
ficial spot. It is in the wild tracta of heath

TOE C0MIJ3.] THE MANAOKMENT OK TIIH Al'lAKV.

[sWAItMINO,

and furze, the lime avoduos, the clover

meadows, and tlio broad acres of beaii-nolda
ill which it tinda its delij^ht, aud from which it
cuUa the sweets with which it stores its colls.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMBS.

Boos almost invariably commence building
their combs from the top, contiuuinu; it down-
ward, as far as they have room; and iinishiiig
it oil" at the bottom in a somewhat irrej^ular
curved line. Each comb possesses a double
set of honey-cells, dos-ii-dos, in a horizontal
position. These are the receptacles of the
eggs which tlie queen lays, and which are con-
structed, not with propolis, but with wax. To
sustain them iu common straw hives, cross-
sticks are employed, round which the labours
of the bees are carried on, so tliat the comb
is often almost laid in ruins in detaching it
from these wooden supports. This circum-
stance, however, has, in a great measure, been
obviated by fixing a small piece of comb under
several removable bars, and inducing the bees
to work upon them. Huber, we believe, was
the first to accomplish this. He fixed a small
piece of comb under each of the bars, exactly
parallel. The bees then followed their leader,
so tliat any one of the pendant combs could be
lifted upon the bar : this again replaced, and
the bees once more set to work. This point,
from which they commence their operations, is
called the guide-comb ; and the hive itself,
though somewhat modified, is the same as
that of the Greek islands. In constructing
the combs, it is observed, in the Naturalist's
Library, that the two classes of tcax-icorkers
and nurse-lees have tlieir separate and distinct
provinces. " That of the former is to supply
the rough materials, and attach them coarsely
together; and that of the latter to finish aud
perfect the edifice. And while these last are
occupied in this more refined operation of
finishing and polishing, the former, like in-
dustrious labourers, are continually bringing
forward additional loads of materials. One
comb is scarcely begun, or contains not more
than two or three rows of cells, when the busy
architects proceed to lay the foundations of
two others, one on each side of that already
founded ; continuing their operations in this
manner till they have taken in the whole
range of their building ground ; and with such

diligence do thoy ply their labouru, that in
one day they will construct no fewer than
4,000 cells. A comb mcaaures, in thicknesH,
generally one incii ; and tlio iutorval bctwicu
them is about ont'-third of an incli, allordiiig
a passage for two bees, back to back, without
obstruction or inconvenience. These dimen-
sions, however, are varied according to circum-
stances."

Tin: FORMATION OF SWARMS.
The breeding season of the bee begins about
the end of January, or early in Pi-bruury, and
continues throughout the summer with con-
stantly augmenting progress and activity. The
population, therefore, increases with amaz-
ing rapidity ; and the heat of the hive
rises to such a degree, as to be frequently
above 100". This, doubtless, coupled with
the want of accommodation, hastens the
swarming, although the jealousy and out-
rageously destructive propensities of the royul
mother is said to be another of the prin-
cipal causes. The commencement of the
swarming season is iu spring, as no swarm will
ever take place while the weather is cold, or
until the hive is well stocked with pggs of
every description. The queen, in consequence
of the vast number of eggs she has parted
with, is now more slender than she was, and
better adaped to make an excursion through
the air. " Her aversion to the royal brood
which she seems to foresee will in no long time
become able to dispute the throne w ith her, and
the vain attempts she makes to destroy them
in the cradle, in which she is invariably re-
pelled by the bees who guard them, produce
in her a constant restlessness and agitation,
which, as Huber represents it, rises to a degree
of delirium." This frenzy acts upon the
workers ; a tumultuous noise resounds through
the hive, and everything gives token of a
change. This occurs a few days before the
swarm actually takes wing, whilst provisions
are being collected in larger quantity by the
workers. Mr. Knight, in the Fhilosophical
Transactions, gives a curious account of their
manoeuvres about this time. In the cavity of
a hollow tree, which, by the application of a
board, had been fitted up for the reception of
the swarms, ho constantly observed, "that
about fourteen days previous to their arrival,

1)09

8WAEMINO.]

THE BEE, AND

[the apiaet.

a small number of bees, varying from twenty
to fiftj, were every day employed in examin-
log, and, apparently, in keeping possession of
the cavity ; for, if molested, they showed
evident signs of displeasure, though they never
employed their stings in defending their pro-
posed habitation. Their examination was not
confined to the cavity, but extended to the
external parts of the tree above : every dead
knot particularly arrested their attention, as
if they had been apprehensive of being injured
by moisture, which this might admit into the
cavity below; and they, apparently, did not
leave any part of the bark near the cavity
unexamined. A part of the colony which pi'o-
posed to emigrate, appeared, in this case, to
have been delegated to search for a proper
habitation ; and the individual who succeeded,
must, apparently, have had some means of
conveying information of his success to others ;
for it cannot be supposed that fifty bees should
each accidentally meet at and fix on the same
cavity, at a mile distant from their hive, which
Mr. Knight has frequently observed them to
do, in a wood where several trees were adapted
for their reception ; and, indeed, he observed
that they almost uniformly selected that cavity
which he himself thought was the best adapted
for their use. It not unfrequently happened
that swarms of his own bees took possession
of these cavities ; and such swarms were, in
several instances, followed from his garden to
the trees ; and they were observed to deviate
very little from the direct line between the one
point and the other, which seems to indicate
that those bees who iiad formerly acted as pur-
veyors now became guides."

The first settlement of a swarm is, doubt-
less, merely a spot, or place of rendezvous
anterior to the emigation that is to establish
them. If they are not hived they will soon
take flight, and in a direct line, for some
locality which their instinct has previously
marked out as suitable for their accommoda-
tion. They have been known to make straight
for an old hollow pollard, the only one to be
found within a mile or two of the hive. The
first swarm is invariably accompanied by the
old queen, who, on this occasion, looks out for
a fine day, as she has a strong aversion to
leaving home in bad or disagreeable weather.
I'ur after-awarms, it would appear, she is
1000

not so particular. If the first swarm sends

forth a colony the same year, it is the same

queen who places herself at the head of her

wandering subjects, in the settlement of which

she takes a truly parental interest. In

descanting on this part of our subject, a

writer says, that "there seems to be an

unerring method by which the exact time

when the first swarm will leave the hive can

be determined — their hanginsr from the en-

F.
trance being very fallacious — except by

watching the genei'al state of things ■within.
With the after-swarms, however, there is a
most curious and certain sign in the * piping'
or ' trumpeting' of the queen and the prin-
cesses. About the ninth day from the issue
of the first swarm, if another colony is about
to leave the hive, this singular duet, in most
regular intonation, between the emerged queen
and the princess still a prisoner in her cell, is
heard ; and extravagant as the account may
seem, and confused and embellished as it has
been from the times of Aristotle and Virgil,
till recent days, it is now the practical sign by
which every attentive bee-keeper judges of
the time of emigration of the after-swarms.
The second swarm is called a 'cast ;' the third,
a ' smart ;' and the fourth, a ' pquib.' A swarm
from a swarm is called a 'maiden' or 'virgin'
swarm, and the honey is reckoned more pure.
It seldom, howevei', happens that there are
more than two from the same hive, except in
some very fine bee-years ; and there are, on au
average, two good years in every ten."

THE APIARY.
The objects whicb 0UL,ht to be chiefly
attended to in the construction of an apiary
are various, and should be constantly kept in
the view of the bee-master whilst engaged in
the important task of making a domicile for
his insects. Tlie first is the security and mul-
tiplication of colonies ; the augmentation of
their productive labour; the obtaiument of
their products with ease and certainty, and
with the smallest possible injury to the stock.
Besides these primary objects, the apiary
should give to its inmates the best possible
shelter against moisture and the extremes of
heat and cold ; but more especially against
sudden changes of temperature. It should
also be a principal means of protection against

niV£3.]

Til E 31 A N A r. !•: M K N r ( ) F T 1 1 l' A V 1 A K V .

[HITES.

their enemies, and furnish them with every j and twelve inches in diameter, is applied to
facility for the construction of tlicir combs, I the uppermost storfy, maJo faat to tlio hivo
and the roarinj:; of their juvonilo brooda. It with a packinj^-ncollo and thread, and care-
should, likewise, admit of every part of the ' fully luted. IJeforo it is put on, a piece of
combs being occasionally seen, and bo capable clean paper, of the •<aino dimensions as the
of being removed when required; and it ' top of tho hive, Hhould bo laid over the barn,

should be made of materials that are durable.
In the construction of hives, nuu-h ingenuity
has been, from time to time, exerted by apia-
rians, who have laboured to unite, in the
gre itest possible degree, all tliese advantages ;

to prevent the bees from working in the inter-
vening »[)aces.

Besides the above, there is the Crecian hive,
as used in the Greek islands, and Bometimes
called the Candiote hivo. It is shaped like a

but success to that extent, so far as wo are flower-pot, and has a flat cover, adapted to the

aware, has not yet been attained. It would same purpose as that described in WiMman'a

be impossible, as, indeed, it is unnecessary, for hive, lluish adopted it, with some additit)nal

us to describe all the diflerent sorts of hives apparatus. There is also Lombard's hive,

which have been constructed for the bee; but which is, to some extent, a storeycd one, but

those made of straw, we believe, are generally dillering from others of that kind in having

preferred, on account of their being less liable its upper Biurey less than half the capacity of

to over-heating by the solar rays, and likewise the body of tlie hive. Whatever may be the

of easier purchase, from their lowness of price, merits of these hives, however, a decided pre-

They also possess the merit of kee[)ing out ference has been given to AVildman's, botli as

the cold better than other hives of greater pre- regards the material of which it is made, and

tensions. Of sfraio hives, notwithstanding the the mode of its construction. It is said to

imperfections of those of the common bell- preserve a constant equability of temperature,

shape, there are many in use, because they and to enable the operator to practise the

coat little, and are easily made ; and be- method of partial deprivation. Into the

cause there is no great skill required in the respective merits of bee-boxes and straw hives

handling of them. They ought, however, to we will not enter ; but we may briefly describe

be globularly shaped, having the third of their the hive invented by the celebrated Huber,

diameter cut away. This would make them and called by him the book or leaf-hive. In

concentrate, and retain the heat better, and
thereby accelerate the hatching of the eggs, on
the success of which so much depends.

DIFFERENT SORTS OF HIVES.
"Wildman's storeyed straw hive is, by many,

the bee volume of the Katuralisi's Library, it
is spoken of aa possessing " more valuable
properties, taken as a whole, than any other
we are acquainted with," It is thus described
— " The leaf-hive consists of eight frames, each
eighteen inches high (English measure), and
preferred to modern hives made on the same ten inches wide inside, having the uprights
plan. It consists of two or more storeys, each and top cross-pieces one-and-a-half inch broad,
seven inches in height, and ten in diameter, and one inch thick ; so that the eight frames,
There is a hoop of about half an inch in when placed close together, constitute a hive
breadth in the upper row of straw ; and to eighteen inches high, twelve inches between
this hoop are fastened six or seven wooden end and end, and ten inches between back and
spars, each one-fourth of an inch thick, and front — all inside measure. The frames are held
one-aiid-a-quarter of an inch broad, and half together by a flat slidiug-bar, on each side
an inch apart from each other. To these secured by wedges and pins. To the first and
bars the bees attach their combs. That eighth of these frames is attached a frame
greater steadiness may be given to tiie combs, with glass, and covered with a shutter. The
to prevent their being broken or deranged , body of the hive is protected by a sloping
when the hive is moved, a rod is run tiirough ! roof, and the entrance is made through the

the middle of it, in a direction across the bars, thickness of the floor-board la

or at angles with them. A flat cover of straw, taking honey from this hive, the bee-master
worked of the same thickness as the hives, has the whole interior completely under his
6 M 1001

THE APIAET.]

THE BEE AND THE APIAEY.

[situation, etc.

eye

d at his disposal, and can choose what
combs besb suit bis purpose, both as to
quantity and quality ; taking care, however, to
do 80 only at such periods as will leave the
bees time to replenish the vacancy before the
termination of the summer season. It is also
well adapted for artificial swarming. By
separating the hive into two halves, the honey,
brood-combs, and bees, will, generally speak-
ing, be equally divided; and by supplying
each half with four empty frames, we shall
have two hives (one half empty), equal in
number of bees, of brood, and even of stores.
One of the new hives will possess the queen ;
and if the operation has been performed at
the proper time — that is to say, a week or ten
days before the period of natural swarming —
the probability is, there will be royal brood
coming forward in the other ; at all events,
there will be plenty of eggs and larvse of the
proper age for forming an artificial queen."
For descriptions and diagrams of other hives,
we must refer the reader to more extended
treatises on this part of our subject, and also
to the bee volume of the Naturalisf s Library.

SITUATION OF THE APIARY.

The " house of bees" should face the south,
with perhaps a slight turn towards the east,
and should be protected from the north and
prevailing winds. It should not be placed at
too great a distance from the dwelling, lest its
inhabitants become wary of man ; nor should
it be too near, lest they feel themselves dis-
turbed by him. Its entrance should be
crossed by no paths, nor should the homeward
flight of the laden bees be intercepted by
bushes or high trees. A quiet, retired spot,
in low ground, is better than an elevated
situation. Dr. Bevan says — " Excepting in
peculiarly sheltered nooks, an apiary w'ould
not be well situated near a great river, nor in
the neighbourhood of the sea, as, in windy
weather, the bees would be in danger of
drowning from being blown into the water.
. . . . Yet it should not be far from a
rivulet or spring : such streams as glide gently
over pebbles are the most desirable, as tliese
afford a variety of resting-places for the bees
to light upon. . . . AVater is most im-
portuut to them, particularly in the early part
of the season. Let shallow troughs, therefore
1002 '

never be neglected to be set near the hives, if
no natural stream is at hand." In the Isle of
Wio"ht, the people have a notion that every
bee goes down to the sea to drink twice a
day; and they are often seen to imbibe of the
farm-yard pool, although clearer water may be
near. It is thence supposed that a small
piece of rock-salt might be of service to these
winged insects, on the same principle that it
acts favourably upon the bovine stock of the
grazier,

THE DESTRUCTION OF BEES.

In order to obtain possession of the hoarded
treasures of the bee, it was long deemed neces-
sary to destroy it. The following simple
method, however, has been adopted, as it ia
described by a writer in the latest edition of
the Encydopcedia JBritannica : — "Uncover the
hole in the upper centre of a flat-lopped straw
hive or box, and place a glass vessel over it in
such a way that no bee can get either in or
out, except by the ordinary opening of the
lower hive. The glass hive must be covered
with an empty hive, or with a cloth, that too
much light may not prevent the bees from
working. As soon as they have filled the
straw hive or box, they will begin to work up
into the glass hive." Mr. Thorley made the
addition of a glass window to his hives, that
he might witness the progress which his bees
made ; and which was of some consequence,
particularly if one hive was to be taken away
before the season was over for their collect-
ing honey ; for when the combs are filled
with honey, the cells are sealed up, when the
bees forsake them, and live mostly in the hive
where their operations are carried on.

Eor the purpose of uniting swarms, and
also for artificial swarming, chloroform has
been applied with success. It is also used for
the purpose of taking the honey from the
hive. A quarter of an ounce, placed in a
saucer, covered with a perforated card, or with
wire gauze, should be placed on the board of
the hive, and all apertures carefully closed.
In about half a minute the bees will have
fallen completely under its influence; and, on
the admission of air, after fifteen or twenty
minutes have elapsed, they will be restored to
their functions, and the capacity of using
their wings.

1)1 VISION X I I.

ANGLING.

ANOtTXr. APPARATrS; Rons; LINES; hooks; AKTIKICIAL FLIES; BAITS FOR ANOLINO ; THE RALMOR ^
THE COMMON KlVini TKolT; THE (JKKAT LAKE TK'iUT; THE «RAYI.IN<i; THE I'IKK FAMILY; THB
CAHl' FAMILY ; THE COMMON CARP ; THE BREAM ; THE TENCH ; THE BAKIIEL ; THE (Hill ; THE UA<'E ;
THE ROACH; THE BLEAK; THE GUDOEON J THE MINNOW; THE LOACH; THE EEL FAMILY; THB
COMMON EEL ; THE PERCH ; CONCLUSION.

I with fine j)oint9, small pliers, wax and needles,

ANGLING APPARATUS. I ^3 aH these are necessary to his thoroUL;h

An angler, to be well equipped, requires to equipment for practising his art with pleasure,

carry many things about him. The most i

. . • RODS

necessary articles consist of rods, lines, reels,

hooks, baskets, and landing-nets. Besides Numerous are the kinds of rods which have

these, he must have a stock of different kinds been invented for angling; but, in pureliasing

of feathers, such as those which are denomi- ! this instrument, the nature of the fishing

nated hackles, and which are taken from the | intended to be pursued should enter first

necks and backs of common poultry, as well as into consideration. To show the necessity of

from the wings of woodcocks, rails, snipes,
plovers, grouse, partridges, chicks, and others.
He must also carry with him some of the furs
of animals. The most useful of these are
such as are taken from squirrels, hares, mar-
tins, moles, mice, and water-rats. The hackles
which anglers hold in highest favour are the
duns; but since the introduction of Spanish
poultry, black hackles have come into use.
Christmas is the most suitable time to pluck
the hackles from their owners ; but, inde.
pendent of these, the feathers of the peacock,
and of other showy birds, are sometimes useful.
The sea-trout and the salmon are attracted by

this, we may mention that there is a special
kind of rod for fly-fishing, bottom-fishins:, and
a trolling-rod ; there are also the single and
double-handed rod, the bag-rod, the cane and
the wood, and the walking-stick rod, with a
great many more smaller varieties. The
general rod, however, is the most convenient
for the young practitioner, or for use when
travelling in localities where there is no cer-
tainty as to the sort of fisli tliat may be taken.
According to Colonel Hanker, a trout rod
should be about twelve feet tliree inches
long, and about fourteen ounces in weight.
It must not be top-heavy, nor must it have

the gaudy plumage of the parrot, and those too much play in the lower p;irt ; but the play
of other tropical birds, deeming them, under | should be just in proportion to the gradual
the deceptive forms of flies, no doubt, exotic ; tapering, by which there will be very little
morsels of great delicacy. Silks are ai.other I spring till after about the third foot of its
necessary with which the angler cannot dis- length. It is difllcult to determine the exact
pense. The first of these is what is called degree of pliancy which a fly-rod should have ;
Barber's silk, which is used double for splicing but a stiff rod is worse than a pliant one, and
the top-pieces of rods ; the second is not so never can be used advantngeously. The fly-
strong, its use being to fasten on the rings fishers, both of Scotland and Ireland, use more
through which the line on the reel runs; the flexible rods than those of England ; and many
third consists of fine nettinir silk for dressing of the sportsmen of these countries are fan.ons
flies and whipping hooks. Besides these the for their piscatory feats. Christopher North
auo-ler should carrv with him a pair of scissors is one example.

1003

HOOKS.]

ANGLING.

[aetificial flies.

LINES.

The lines of tlie angler are either composed
of the gut of the silkworm, or of silk and hair
combined, horsehair, cow-hair, and also of
Indian and other grasses. They are either
purchased or made by anglers themselves ; but
the lines of the tackle-makers are generally
reputed the best. The hair-line is de-
scribed, by Mr. Daniel, as requiring much
knowledge in procuring the materials of wliich
it is to be composed. The hair should be
taken from " a young, healthy, grey, or white
stallion," from the middle of the tail, and it
should be of "a pale, transparent, water
colour." He adds, that hair must not
be touched with oil, or it will become hollow
and rotten. This, however, is doubted ; but
who would take all this trouble, when a better
line could be purchased for half the value of
even the time it would take to make one our-
selves ? Many artists, however, prefer making
their own tackle, not with the view of saving
time and expense, but from the pleasure which
it gives to tish with that which is of their own
manufacture.

The single-hair line is used by many of our
best anglers, at bottom, for roach, dace, and
other j^.'ze fishing. On the advantages of this
sort of line, Mr. Salter, in hvi Angler's Guide,
speaks at large; but we may state, that, as a
general rule, of whatever material a line is
made, if it is not already of the colour of the
water usually fished in, it should be dyed to that
colour.

HOOKS.
The principal hooks made use of by the
practical English angler, come under the
denominations of the Limerick, the Kendal,
the Sneak bend, and the K.rby. To trace the
progressive history of these little instruments,
from the primitive simplicity of their invention
up to their present perfected state, might be
interesting, but it could not be useful. AVe
will, therefore, briefly state, that upoa the
quality of the material of which they are
made, much of the success of the angler
depends. Mr. Blaine observes, that " every
fish-hook should be manufactured of a proper
temper:" by which he means, that it should
be capable of resisting all ordinary force
lOOi

applied, without snapping, and be tempered so
equally that it will not snap. Each hook
should be kept separately in the flannel with
which the hook-book should be furnished,
whether the hook be giraped, or gutted, or
naked.

ARTIFICIAL FLIES.

To describe all the artificial flies used by
the angler would occupy a large space; but a
iew of the most popular must not be omitted.
Those who wish for a fuller list, may consult
the F/i/-ftsJiers Entomology, by Alfred Eonalds ;
or Blaine's Eticyclopcedia of Rural Sports.
The first we shall speak of is the Black Gnat,
which appears about the end of April. It
should be made of the light part of the wing-
feather of any dun-coloured bird, and should
be dressed thick and short. The tail should
be of mohair, or black ostrich, which is pre-
ferable. Trout, as well as grayling, will
occasionally rise to this fly, even so early as
February and March. Besides the Black
Gnat, there are the Alder, or Eed-fly ; the
Dark Dun ; the Blue Dun ; the Black Palmer
Hackel; the March Brown, and several
others. The wings of this last are formed
from the mottled feathers of the tail of a
partridge ; the body consists of the fur of a
hare's ear, mixed with a little yellow worsted ;
the legs are a grizzled hackle. This fly con-
tinues to the end of April. According to
Mr. Baiiibridge, author of the Fly-Jisliers
Guide, this fly may be used during mild
weather in Eebruary. It is made from the
dull feathers of a mallard's wing ; the body of
mole-fur, mixed with a little dark-brown
mohair ; and a dark grizzled hackle composes
the legs. Salmon often rise to this fly, which
may be successfully used early in the morning
throughout the fishing season. The Hazel-Jig
is famous for May and June fishing, where
bushes are plentiful. It is made of black and
purple ostrich harl, twisted together ; the
wings should be of the light-brown feathers
taken from under the wings of a thrush ; and
a bluish hackle should be taken for the legs.
Some of the flies, as enumerated for April, by
Mr. Blaine, are — The Eed Dun, Orange-
bodied Dun ; Ashy Dun ; Large Spider, or
Crane-fly ; the Oak-fly, and the Stone-fly.
Those for May are — The Later Willow-fly;

BAITS."!

ANGLIXG.

[trE flALMON.

the Brifjht-yellovr Dun ; Cream -coloiiroil Dun ;
Dun Cat; Green Drake; Grey Drake, or
May-fly ; Land-fly ; Wasp-flv ; Wliito ]\Ioth,
and Brown ^loth. For Juno — Tlie Oil-
fly ; Ej)liemeral lied Spiirness llumble-bfo ;
Jia/.t'l-fly (already mentioned); House-fly;
Large Blow-fly, and Blue Gnat. For July —
The Largo Black Ant-fly; Largo lied Ant-
fly, and the Blue-blow. For September —The
Golden Dun ; Dark Dun; Alder, or lied-fly;
Late Dark-bodied AVillow-fly, and the Cinna-
mon, or Fttid Brown-fly.

In reference to the artificial flies used in
salmon-lishing, there are certain writers
•who recommend diflerent sorts of salmon-
flies ; and among these are Bainbridge ; Sir
Humphry Davy, in bis Salmonia ; Taylor,
Cajitaiu Williamson, and the Hev. R. Las-
celles, iu bis Letters on Sport in j. In this
last work, seven flies are enumerated and
described as applied to fishing in North
Wales ; but to insert them here would occupy
too much space. He says, however, that all
the salmon flies of K'ortli Wales, with the
exception of the wasp and hornet, should be
made to imitate dragon-flies, being the only
large ones that are seen playing about the
rivers there.

BAITS FOR ANGLING.
Baits are numerous, but the best for trout
are well-scoured earth-worms. The garden,
the dew, and the lob-worms are all of the
same species, notwitlistanding that they vary
considerably in the points of size, form, and
colour, iu accordance with their ages, and the
season and soils in which they are found.
According to Daniel, there are two kinds of
lob-worin — the old, which is Jcnottcd, and the
young, which is destitute of knots, and which
is sometimes called maiden lobs — as well as
red worms. The latter is in highest esteem
among anglers. These, with other sorts of
worms, are obtained iu fields and gardens, but
more abundantly iu such places as contain
soil recently mixed with vegetable or animal
remains. Another worm, called the brandling,
is, from its head to its tail, streaked with red
and yellow in alternate circles, but darker at
its anterior than at its posterior portion. It
is usually found among rotten tan bark, heaps
of rich vegetable mould, and old dung-hills.

The pnhncr-worms, or wool-beds, aro the
hairy cnterpillars of certain niotha which fly
about iu tho night. They are taken by trout,
and aro capable of preservation for many
weeks, in a box with damp earth, covered with
some of tho bu-^h h-aves on uliicli tho insect is
knowa to fi-ed. Jie(>a and wanps are, aliio,
bait for the angler. Tho roe of the salmon in
greatly praised by Barker, who Hcems to liavo
been the flrat to discover its merits as a bait.
Pastes, too, are of great value to the ll.ther;
among which tho following have been recom-
mended as good sorts : — A red paste is made
with a large spoonful of fine wheat-flour,
moistened with the white of an egg, and
worked with the hands until tough. A small
quantity of finely-powdered loaf-sugar should
be added, with some cotton wool spread over
the paste when flattened by the hand. Tl-e
cotton sliould be well mixed with it, and the
whole dyed with a little vermilion. It will
keep good for a week, if a piece of fresh
butter be added to it. By omitting the colour-
ing matter, white paste may be composed of
the same ingredients; yellow, also, using a
little turmeric as a colouring. To make a
salmon-paste — Take one pound of salmon-
spawn, in September or October; boil it about
fifteen minutes ; then beat it in a mortar until
sufficiently mixed with one ounce of salt,
and a quarter of an ounce of saltpetre. Pick
out the membrane in which the spawn is con-
tained, as it is disengaged from it. After it
has been beaten to a proper consistence, put
it into gallipots, and cover it over with blad-
ders, tied down close, and so preserve it for
several months. Minnows are frequently used
by anglers as a bait for trout, and the tackle
employed is both lighter and finer t!:an that
used for the salmon, with a single line of gut
at the bottom. With this, very large fish are
frequently captured.

We shall now describe some of the principal
kinds of fish, the snaring of which form the
chief object of the angler's art.

THE SALMON.

This is the king of fresh-water fishes ; and
the family to which it belongs is, in an econo-
mical point of view, the most important in the
eyes of the angler. It embraces the grey
trout, salmon trout, common trout, Loch

1005

BITEB TEOUT.]

ANGLING.

[lake TliOUT.

Leven trout, Great Lake trout; the charr,
pmelt, grayling, groniad, vendan, poman, pol-
lan, and the argentine. It would occupy too
inucli space to do more than tbua notice the
whole of these ; but some of the principal of
the species must be described. The most
characteristic feature of the family is the pe-
culiar form of the posterior dorsal fin, which
is fleshy and adipose, or destitute of rays.
The enumeration we have given, however,
does not constitute quite one-half of the
family, when viewed in relation to Europe.
Both America and Africa produce other forms ;
but these, to some extent, deviate from the
typical structure. The most characteristic
members are the most northerly fresh-water
fish with which the naturalist is acquainted.
According to the opinion of some anglers, the
salmon bites most frequently from about six
o'clock in the morning to eleven in the fore-
noon ; and from three in the afternoon till
sunset. The best months are those of March,
April, May, and June. Sometimes this
noble fish measures four feet in length, and
weighs upwards of seventy pounds. The
capture of such a pisces is a prize indeed.
The most successful bait to take it with is
the artificial fly, made in imitation of butter-
ilies and dragon-flies of various kinds. At the
loot of a strong stream, where there is an
eddy or a whirlpool, salmon are most fre-
quently found when feeding ; and old
Walton observes, that you shall find he does
not usually stay long in a place, as trouts
will, but covets still to go nearer the spring-
head. In trolling with the minnows or other
small fish, the foot-lengths ought to be about
three yards, and provided with one or two
swivels, to prevent the line from twisting, as
well as to allow the bait to have free play.

THE COMMON RIVER TROUT.

This is the sahno fario of Naturalists ; and
although, perhaps, the best known of our
fresh-water fishes, it is among the most beau-
tiful of the species. It is generally distributed
not only throughout Great Britain, but over
the whole of Northern Europe, and that, too,
'.n such abundance that there is hardly a col-
/ection of water of any extent, whether run-
ning or stationary, in which it is not to be
found. It is pre-eminently the angler's fiah
1006

as it is always open to the temptation of
bait, and may be taken by the rod, at almost
any time of the year, not even excepting the
winter months in favourable weather ; but
during the proper fishing season, when the
river or lake is in good condition, it is almost
certain to aff'ord plenty of sport. It would
appear that there are some strange and un-
accountable differences to be seen in several
of the same species of fish, but more particu-
larly in trout. This was observed by Isaac
Walton, who says — "I tell you, that you may
the better believe that I am certain, if I catch
a trout in one meadow, he shall be white and
faint, and very like to be lousy ; and as cer-
tainly, if I catch a trout in the next meadow,
he shall be strong, and red, and lusty, and
much better meat. Trust me, scholar," he
continues, "I have caught many a trout in a
particular meadow, that the very shape and
the enamelled colour of him hath been such as
joyed me to look on him; and I have then,
with much pleasure, concluded, with Solomon,
' Everything is beautiful in his season.' "
This fish is generally supposed to rise more
freely during gloomy weather, succeeding clear,
bright nights ; as, when the moon is clear, they
confine themselves to shadowy places. It is,
therefore, supposed that in the following day
they are hungry, and more ready to snap at
bait.

THE GREAT LAKE TROUT.

This is the salmo ferox of Natural His-
tory, and sometimes weighs two pounds ;
though its usual weight is under one. In the
first volume of the Naturalist' s Library, it is
said that " some varieties spawn about Michael-
mas, ascending, for a short way, the rivers
that feed their native lakes ; others spawn in
the end of December, and deposit their ova in
the shallow parts of the lake. The charr
occurs in all the three kingdoms, although it
is by no means generally distributed. The
northern lochs of Scotland yield it in tolerable
plenty; it is also found in Orkney, and has
been long known in some of the Welsh lakes.
As it haunts deep, cool water, and is seldom
found at the surface till late in the autum..i, it
is not frequently made an object of sport
with anglers. In the Cumberland and West-
moreland lakes, however, it may be taken

■:i«B«Wjriiiiiiiiiiiiii!iT''Mii;'»uiMiniiiii\WiiiiiliimiilwliwiiniiliJin

THE riKE.j

AiNGLlNG.

[tiik cahp

sometimes in tolerable plenty, by trollinfj, and
occasioimlly it rises to a Uy. Tlio dilU'reiit
states ami varit'tioa are known in Knf^land ns
Case cliarr, (iilt cliarr, lu'ii eharr, Silvor cliarr,
&c." Keturninfito tlio Grtat Lake Trout, wo
tind it stated, by Mr. Wilson, in his article on
" Anf^lintx," in the last edition of the Encyclo'
fxediii Bntannica, that " the ordinary lut'lhud
of tisliing tor this king of trouta is with a
powerful rod, from a boat rowing at the rate
of from three to tour miles an hour — the lure
a common trout, of from four to eight inches
in length, baited upon six or eight salmon
nooks, tied back to back upon strong gimp,
assisted by two swivels, and tiie wheel-line
coarse and f*trong." Yet all this, he adds, is,
in the first impetuous eflorts of the tit;h to
regain its liberty, frequently carried away for
ever into the crystal dejiths of Loch Ane !

THE GRAYLING.

In tlie Salmonica of Sir H. Davy, an opinion
is expressed that the grayling has been intro-
duced to our rivers; but it is not a common
fish in some parts of this island. In the Sal-
monica its localities are stated to be the Avon,
in Hampshire; the Severn and its tributaries,
in North Wales ; the Wye and its tributaries ;
the Lug, in Herefordshire ; the Dee, Dove,
Trent, and Blithe; the Kibble, Erne, Wharf,!
Huinber, Derweut, and Kye, in the north of
England ; and in the Esk and Eden, in Cum- I
berland, it is also occasionally caught. These |
are considered its most northern localities on '
the mainland ; but Lowe affiims that it is
very frequent in the Orkney Islands. It has
neither been found in Scotland nor in Ireland,
notwithstanding that it is common in much
colder parts, being abundant in Lapland. Mr.
AVilson, also, says that he has killed it readily
in Switzerland, with a moor-fowl wing and hare-
ear body.

THE PIKE FAMILY.
The representatives of this family in the
British favour are the Pike, Garfish, Savory
Pike, Half-beak, Flying Fish, and the Great Do.
The common pike is designated by Lacep^de
as "the shark of the fresh waters;" and by
Walton as "the tyrant of fresh waters."
The voracity of this fish is enormous ; and one
which was kept in the preserve of Eusliy

Park, ISfr. Jesse tolls us, possessed an appe-
tite almost insatiablo. Hi* threw to him o\w
morning, otm after anothor, fivi* roach, «'nch of
about lour itu-lu's in ItMigtli, four of which he
swallowed, kee|)ing the (ilth in iiis mouth for
ub tut a quarter of an hour, when it uImo dis-
appeared. In this preserve there were eij^ht
pike, of about live pounds each ; and, out of
800 gudgeons which were counted into the re-
servoir, there were, at tlie end of three weeks,
hardly any to bo seen, though some barbel
and perch probably had tlieir share. The tish
is in season from May to Februarv, and is
angled tor by trolling with a stnjiig-topped rod.
The fresher and cleaner the bait is kept for
this fish, whetiier for trolling, snap-fishing, or
line-bait, the more likely is the angler to
succeed in taking him. The fish delights in
the bends of rivers and the bays of lakes,
where there is no great depth of water, and
where reeds, weeds, and water-lilies are plenti-
ful. In trolling for him, it is advisable to
keep as far from the water's edge as possible,
and to begin by casting close by the near
shore, with wind blowing against the bank ;
but when the weather is bright, and the water
clear, there are some anglers who prefer fish-
ing against the wind. It is said that the
largest pike ever taken in Britain was done
with a peacock-feather fly, in Loch Ken, near
Xew Galway. Its weight was seventy-two
pounds. According to Mr. Colquhon, the
most deadly way of catching the pike is bv
set lines; and the best time "is on one of
those delicious evenings with scarcely a breath
of air, when the shadow of the mountain
becomes more imposing on the unrippled
loch, and twilight begins to steal over the
scene."

THE CARP FAMILY.
This is a numerous family, but it has not a
large number of representatives in the British
fauna. Among these are the Common Carp,
the Bream, the Tench, the Chub, the Barbel
the Eoach, the Dace, the Bleak, the Gudgeon
the Minnow, and a few others less geni-rallv
known in this country. To each of these we
will devote a few lines.

THE COMMON CARP.

To angle for this fieb, old Isaac smvs a very

1007

THE BEEAM.]

ANGLING.

[THE TENCH,

hrf^e amount of patience is required. In the
\\inter months it haunts the broadest and
Ipast disturbed parts of rivers, where the
bottom is muddy and soft ; but in summer it
usually occupies deep holes beneath hollow
banks, under the roots of trees, or in the
neighbourhood of beds of aquatic plants. On
account of its being a wary fish, it is difficult
to deceive it when it has " come of age." The
best months to take it are May, June, and
July ; and the best times of the day are from
sunrise to eight in the morning, and from
sunset throughout the time of twilight, and
onwards through the night. Mr. Daniel says
that "three rods may be employed, one with
the bait at mid-water, another a foot or less
from the bottom, and the third to lie upon it
when the line and lead are not discovered, as
in the two former. The places intended to be
fished in should, the night before, be ground-
bated with grains, blood, and broken worms,
incorporated togethei- with clay ; the hook bait
should be red worms taken out of tan, flag or
marsh-worms, green peas, so boiled as to
soften, but not to break the skin, and throw-
ing some in now and then. "When this bait
is used (which should be with one on the
hook to swim a foot from the ground), in case
of a bite, strike immediately ; a large carp,
upon taking the bait, directly steers for tiie
oDposite side of the river or pond."

THE BREAM.

The carp-bream is called by "Walton a large
and stately fish, which thrives best in large
pieces of water, and in deep, quiet rivers. It
is to be found in the Mole and the Medway ;
and also in the Cumberland lakes. In those
of Ireland it has been caught of such a size as
to weigh from twelve to fourteen pounds. In
Scotland it is little known, Lochmaven bein<y
its only recorded habitat. May is the time
for spawning, when they feel rough to handle.
This, however, according to Mr. Tarrell, " is
nothing more than a periodical assumption,
wliich, as in the other Cypridse, disappears
when the season of reproduction is passed."
A well-conditioned earth-worm is said to be
the best bait for bream ; but wasp-grubs,
grasshoppers, and paste made of bread and
honey, will all lure them to their destruction.
For angling this fish Walton gives very minute
1008

instructions. He tells us carefully to study
the selected spot ; advises an abundant supply
of ground-bait, and a visit, with fitted tackling,
to the water-side, about three or four o'clock
in the morning. The angler, however, is not
to venture too near the water, as bream
" have a cunning sentinel, and are watchful
themselves too." Mr. Daniel gives the fol-
lowing account of a day's sport in Essex with
this fish : — " The weather w as cloudy, and the
wind brisk ; there were seven rods used by
the party, and very frequently were there
biters at them all at the same time. When a
fish was hooked, and played at the top, or near
the surface of the water, numbers were seen
to follow him ; and as soon as the hooks were
fresh baited, were alike greedily taken. They
averaged at least two pounds a fish ; and of
these, from six in the morning till dusk in the
evening, some hundredweights were taken."

.THE TENCH.
As an agreeable habitat the tench is said
to prefer ponds to rivers, and pits to both.
Where it is found in rivers it is mostly in
those which are slow and deep ; but in such
situations it does not breed so abundantly as
it does in ponds. In deep pits, in which clay
for bricks has been dug out, it is often plenti-
ful, as it likewise is in broad, shallow waters,
on muddy bottoms. It is alleged that this fish
is possessed of certain sensitive properties,
which render it invaluable to other piscatory
tribes as a physician. Indeed, in Germany it
is called the Dootor-fish ; and hence Boccius
affirms that no fish of prey will ever touch a
tench. Walton says— "I hope I may be so
bold as to tell you that tlie tench is the phy-
sician of fishes, and for the pike especially ; so
that a pike, being either sick or hurt, is cured
by the touch of the tench ; and it is observed
that this fresh-water tyrant will not play the
wolf to his physician, but forbears to devour
him though he be never so hungry." The fish
spawns from June till September, and is in
best condition from the latter month till the
end of May. As bait, small marsh-woi'ms,
middle-sized lobs, or the red species found in
rotten tan, are recommended. Walton says,
" he will bite at a paste made of brown bread
and honey, or at a marsh-worm or a lob-worm :
he inclines very much to any paste with which

THE CnCB.]

ANGLING.

[the ndAcn.

tan is mixed, and ho will blto also at a ainuller
worm with his head nipped ofl", atul a Bod-
worin put on the hook befiire that worn) ; and
I doubt not but he will also, in the three hot
months — for in the nine colder ho Btirs not
much — bite at a Ihig-worm, or a green gentle;
but ean positively say no more of the teneh,
he being a lish tliat I have not often angled
for; but I wish my honest scholar may, and
be ever fortunate when he 6shed."

THE BARBEL.

This " bearded fish" (so called from x,..« cirri
at its mouth) is pretty common throughout
Europe, although it is not known in Scotland.
Mr. Jesse tells us that it is an extremely
sly fish ; although in the spring, when sup-
posed free from observation, it will roll itself
about, and exhibit a considerable degree of
playfulness. He also remarks, that, in very
cold weather, it appears to be in a perfectly
torpid state. " They make their hybernaculum
amidst tufts of weeds at the bottom of the
Tliumes, apparently either asleep or insensible.
Indeed, so torpid are they, that they may be
taken up by the hand. In very cold weather,
the fishermen provide themselves with a net
fastened to an iron hoop, having a handle to it,
which they place near the fish, and, with a
pole, put it into the net, so perfectly inanimate
are tliey at this season." The barbel is rather
particular in the baits he will take ; they must,
therefore, be kept clean and sweet, and be un-
tainted with the scent of musty moss. The
angling season begins in May, and continues
till September; and the best hours are from
daylight till tea in the morning, and from
four in the afternoon till sunset.

THE CHUB.

This fish is common both in England and
Wales. It is also found in the waters of
Annan, Scotland, and in many parts of the
neighbourhood of the English lake country. It
is called the Skelly, because of the largeness of
its scales. In the deep holes of rivers it is
found; and, during the summer months,
commonly lies on the water's surface, enjoying
the shade of some bush or tree. Timidity
^eing one of its principal characteristics, it
sinks to the bottom on the slightest alarm,
although it will soon again resume its position.
a N

It will fine nt a fly, and feeds generally oa
worms and inspects. The baits employed are
beetles, maL'gotH, grasslioppcra, iialinon-roe,
&c. It is called by Pennant a coarse fish ; but
one of tlto best ways of preparing it for the
table is by boiling it with the bcalca on.

THE DACE.

This fish is known in some parts of England
under the designations of the dure and the
dart : it bears a strong resemblance, both in
its appearance and habits, to those of the
roach. It is gregarious, and frequents the
deep waters close by the piles of bridges, or
beneath masses of collected foam caused by
rapid eddies, or in shady pools. Tliey are
taken with the red-worm, brandlings, &c. ;
but will rise at a variety of flies. In the
Thames, above Ilichmond, as soon as the
weeds begin to rot, they will rise freely from
the shallows to a grasshopper, used as an arti-
ficial fly in hot weather.

THE ROACH.

The common roach (Z. rufilus), which
Walton designates the icater-shcfp, on account
of its simplicity or foolishness. This fish is
common to many parts of England, as well as
to the ten)perate parts of Europe. It is rarer
in Scotland, and haunts still rivers and lakes,
confining itself, during the day, to the deeper
parts, and, in the night, feeding in the shallows.
During the winter it seeks other haunts, and
in the months of May and June ascends the
shallows to spawn. The proper season for
roach fishing in the Thames, where it grows
to a larger size than in any other river, begins
about the end of August ; and "Walton tells
us to fish for it in winter, with paste or gen-
tles ; in April, with worms or caddis ; in the
very hot months, with little white snails, or
with flies under water. In many of the hot
months roaches may also be caught thus: —
"Take a May-fly, or ant-fly ; sink him, with a
little lead, to the bottom, near the piles or
posts of a bridge, or near to any posts of a
weir ; I mean, any deep place where K>ache8
lie quietly;. and theu pull your fly up very
leisurely, and usually a roach will follow your
bait to the very top of the water, and gaze on
it there, and run at it and take it, lest the fly
should fly away from him." This is from old

1009

THE MINNOW.]

ANGLING.

[the eel.

Isaac, who further states, that in the Thames
many have been taken weighing two and
a-half pounds ; and Mr. Jesse mentions that
the largest he had known taken, weighed three
pounds ; but if we are to credit Mr. Pennant,
tlie London fishmongers sometimes see them
as large as five pounds.

THE BLEAK.

The bleak, or blink, is common throughout
England, and abounds in the Thames, and over
rivers in the vicinity of London. Libbald
says it is a native of Scotland ; but whether
this opinion has received due confirmation we
are not aware. It is gregarious, swimming in
large shoals, and spawning in May, when its
scales are rough to the touch. It is a small
and active fish, and may be taken with a small
red worm, gentles, or a fly. In angling for it,
the tackle must be very fine.

THE GUDGEON.

The common gudgeon abounds in the Euro-
pean continent, as it also does in the southern
parts of England. Like many of its compeers,
however, it is unknown in Scotland. Its
usual length is from five to six inches ; but it
is stated by Mr. Pennant, tliat those caught
in the Kennet and Cole are three times the
weight of those taken elsewhere. The largest
he ever heard of was taken near Uxbridge,
and its weight was half a pound. The
gudgeon frequents the shallows during the
hot months ; and before the winter finally sets
in, retires into deeper waters. It is angled for
near the ground, with a small red worm.

THE MINNOW.

This is a pretty little fish, and is common to
the continent of Europe, to England, and the
southern parts of Scotland. Isaac Walton
tells us that this fish is "a sharp biter at a
small worm ; and, in hot weather, makes ex-
cellent sport for young anglers, or boys or
women that love that recreation ; and in the
spring they make of them excellent minnow-
tansies ; for being washed well in salt, and
their heads and tails cut oiF and "gutted, and
not waslied after, they prove excellent for that
use ; that is, being fried with yolks of ecrt^a,
the flower of cowslips, and of primroses and
1010

a little tansie. Thus used, they make a
dainty dish of meat." It may be so ; but
speaking for ourselves, we are by no means
admirers of some of the piscatory dishes recom-
mended by the enthusiasm of old Isaac.

THE LOACH.

This fish we have often heard called the
"Beardie" in Scotland, where it is common,
as it is in both England and on the continent
of Europe. It has six cirri on the snout, and
its nose is destitute of spines. It haunts
streams with gravelly bottoms covered with
large stones, under which it lurks- It does
not often exceed four inches in length, and it
feeds upon worms and aquatic insects. It is
very prolific, spawning in the spring. It is
considered a nutritious food for man, and is an
excellent bait for eels.

THE EEL FAMILY.

Of this family there are given, in the Natu-
ralisfs Library, eleven species as the repre-
sentatives in British fauna. " When it is
stated," says the writer on fish in that work,
" that the type or most characteristic repre-
sentative of this family is the common eel,
one of the most familiarly known of our native
fishes, little more need be added to convey an
idea of the general appearance of the species.
Diflering considerably from each other in the
details of their structure, they possess in
common, a long, narrow, serpent-like body,
which, owing to the conformation of the ver-
tebral column, is extremely flexible; the greater
part of the body surrounded by a low, nearly
continuous fin ; scales so minute as to be, for
the most part, almost invisible, and the surface
frequently invested with a slimy mucus. The
cseea are wanting ; but all have an air-bladder,
which sometimes assumes a very peculiar
form." The common eel being the type, we
will confine ourselves to a brief notice of it.

THE COMMON EEL.

The sharp-nosed eel is regarded as the
common one, although the hroad-nosed is in
many parts equally abundant. It is found in
all the fresh waters of this country ; and, with
the exception of the Arctic regions, and a few
of the rivers, such as the Wolga and some of

THE prnrir.]

ANGLIXn.

[C05CLr8IOlf.

the tributaries of the Dumibe, wliich Imvo tlu'ir
Bourot' ill vi'py colli rt'i^ioiis, abinimla tliroii<;liout
Europe. It also Dci-urs in Asia, in tho great
islands of the Pacific Ocean, niid iu ^forth
America. Strictly spoakini;, it ia a fresh-water
fiah, iu which it can pernianenlly Bubaist.
Its habits aro nocturnal, and tiie larj;eat and
finest aro usually cauglit with niglit-linea.
They give little amuaeinent to anglers accus-
tomed to the more eleuiant branches of their
art, as they are a troublesome iish, and from
their great tenacity of life, and their tortuous
motions, often destroy tho tackle of tho
lisher.

TIIE PERCH.
This is the last fish we shall hero notice.
"When it attains to three pounds iu weight it
is considered of a large size. It thrives well,
both in lakes and rivers, in the latter of which
it prefers the sides of the streams to the
more rapid parts of the current. It is very
common in temperate climates, and generally
abounds throughout Europe. In the sOuth of
England, AVales, Ireland, and in the lowlands
of Scotland, it is common. Mr. Selby says
that it is a rare fish in tiie north of England,
and still rarer in the northern parts of Scot-
land, being met with only sparingly in the
lochs north of the Forth ; and, in several in-
stances, when found in these localities, its
introduction can be traced to no remote period.
" In all the almost countless waters," he adds,
*' of the northern counties, it is wanting." It

is gregarious in its liabitH, and is angled for
with H worm or minnow. In the winter it is
very abateiniou^, but in tho Buiniurr it is a bold
biter. AVIumi the weatluT in cool and cloudy,
with a rullliiig breeze from tho aouth, perches
will bito tho whulo of the day. The be»t
fishing-houra, towarda the end of ppring, aro
from seven to eleven in tho morning, and from
two to six in the afternoon. In warm and bright
Bumnur weather, a good time ia from («unri«o
till six or seven in the morning, and from aix. in
the evening till aunsct.

In closing this, tho last divi.sion of ErnAL
Life, we think wo cannot do better than quote
the following lines, from a fishing poem nearly
two centuries and a-half old, and respectfully
recommend them to the perusal of the angler.

•* The lofty woods, the forests wide and loni^,

Adorn'd with leaves and branches fresh and green,
In whose cool bowers the birds, with many a song,
Do welcome with their quire the summer's Queen;
The meadows fair, where Flora's gifts among.
Are intermixed with verdant grass between ;
The silver-scaled fish that softly swim
Within the sweet brook's crystal watery stream.

" All these, and many more of His creation.

That made the heavens, the Angler oft doth see;

Taking therein no little delectation,

To think how strange, how wonderful they be

Framing thereof an inward contemplation,

To see his heart from other fancies free ;

And whilst he looks on these with joyful eye,

His mind is rapt above the starry sky."

THE EKr.

NDEX;

DIVISION I.

THE HORSE. AND MODEUN VETEUI-
NAKY rUACTlCE.

OFll^rnr* IN OKStnAL—
Al)^^^in:lIl, U»', Iti.
Ar.'ibi.in, th.'. IS.
AmiUCiUi, North, 48.
„ 8uulb, -l-t.

Birb, 13.
hiiiish, 41.
Canadian, 49.
Circu.-sian, 34.
r).iiiisU, 3S.
Dc-iTt, la.
Ku'vpiian, 10.
rio'mish, 38.
J'loiich, S9.
Gallowayii, 54.
Cii rmaii, oi).
11 ickiicy, the. 92.
Uuuicr, Ibf, i*i>.

„ Coiidiiioninp the, 116.
Horse, Cavalry, the, 103.
„ Coach, U8.
„ Lady's, 97.
„ Draught, 103.
,, Maua^cemcnt of, 104.
,, Piirchasiiiij of, 15J.
„ Skeleton of, 173.

E.xaniininff thi', l.'iO.
„ Zi>oloi;ieal clas>ili.' itiou of, 176.
„ 15re.iking-in of. Hi.
„ Breeding of, 13S.
„ Castration of, HG, 242.
„ Choosing of, 1 iti.
, Jud-.'iug of, by leeth, 170.
'„ Riding, 147.
„ Leaping, 153.
,, Early history of, 1.
„ Native state of, 42.
„ Training the, 335.
„ Diti'erent systems, 335 to 345.
„ Restiveness of, 335.
,, Supposed degeneracy of the, 5G.
Indian, 1.
Irish, 41.
Italian, 40.
Lapland, 37.
Norwegian, 38.
Nubian, 18.
Persian, 25.
Ponies, 54.
Portuguese, 41.
Russian, 34.
Spanish, 41.
Swedish, 30.
Toorkoman, 31.
Turkish, 31.
Rack Its —

.\Uce Hawthorn, 83.
Arabian, Darley, 70.
„ Godolphin, 70.
„ Wellesley, 71.
Bay Walton, 78,
Headsman, 84.
Jieeswing, S3.
Cnilders, Bleeding. 72.

„ Flying, 71.
Eclipse, 74.
Escape, 79.
Governess, 84.
lliu'hflycr, 79,
King Herod, 72.
Mask, 73.
Pot-8-os, 78.
Economy of the Stable—
Air, 10.5.
i-arlcv, 132.
Beans, 133.
Bread, 135.
Carrots, 135.
Clover, 134.
Exercising, 113.
Floor, the, 106.
Grains, 133.
Grass— Rye, 134.

„ Turning out to, 136.
Groominif, 103.
Light, 106.
Litter, 188.
Lucerne, 134.
Manger, tlic, 107.
Manger- feeding, 130.
Oats, 132.
Peas, 134.
Physicking, 137.
Potatoes, 135.
Rack, the, 107,
Bhoeirg, 311).
Stall, the, 1U7.

Tarcv 1)1.
•I I

Disk

Wiiiisui, Etc.—
. Joa.

if. is:'.

-uf. Jll.

.uut uf, 218, 240.

J(ilnt«, noundi In the, 100.

h:.i).. ^v ""-V

h 1 in the, IU8.

.11 tlM, 214.

1, . , .. .a the, 237.

Bin-, .W'.i.

Bladd< r. infl^<mniatlon in, 228, 301, 3ui.

1'.! . :. -I M.uiuro of, IbJ.

1
1

B, i.aiou in the, 2iO.

Itluody uuiir, '-'10.
BoK-«paviti. lOi!.

B ■■-"', i77.

V '.. \'^'>.

1 .1 .;...n in the, 208.

Bi. .'.. -^i'J.

Broken wind, 273.
Bruises, 2:^6.
Capped hock, 197.
Catarrh, 21)8.
Chest, dropsy in, 208.
CofHn-joiiit, hprains of the, 250.
Couiuion inllannnaiion, 2U3.
Consiimptiiin, '2'J'i.
Cough, chronic, 271.
Crib-biting, 233.
Cropping, 3:i7.
Curb, spniins of the, 251.
Diabetes, 23!).
Diarrhoea, 23.'.
Digestion, 2'.t4.
Dislocation, 184.
Docking, 3:;4.
Dropsv, 234.
Eye, of the, 199.
„ Cataractin the, 285.
„ Epilepsy in the, 280.
,, Oulta Serena, 206.

Intiammation in the, 204.
„ Muscles of, 199.
Farcy, 192.

Fetlock- joint, sprains of the, 250.
Fevers, 261.

„ Common, 263.
„ Inflammatorv, 263.
„ Malignant, 206.
„ Symptomatic, 267.
Fistulous withers, 220.
Foot, Canker in the, 317.
„ Contraction of, 308.
„ Corns in the, 304.
,, False-quarter in, 318.
„ Giogginess, 311.
„ Inflammation in the, 306.
„ Over-reaching of, 316.
,, I'uniiccd, 312.
,, Tiinctured, 315.
,, Quiuorin, 316.
„ Sundcrack, 314,
„ Thrush in, 313.
Fractures, ISO.

Elbow, of the, 182.
„ Head, of the, 180.

Pastern-bone, of the, 184.
Ribs, of the, 180.
„ Snank-bone, of the, 182.

Spine, of the, 181.
„ Thigh-bone, of the, 183

Glanders, 275.
Grease, 186.
Gun-shot -wounds, 214.
Head, Dropsv in the, 235.
„ Wounds in the, 208.
Hernia, 214.
Uide-tjound, 191.
Hydroiihobia, 302.
Inflammations, 252.

Applications of, 260.
„ Bladder, of, 301.

„ neck of, 302.
„ Eve, in the, 204.

„ Uiart, of, 297.

Intestines, of, 299.
„ Kidnevs, of, 301.

„ Liver, of, 300.

„ Phlegmon, 254.

,, Proximate causes of, 255.

,, Remote causes of, 254.

„ Symptoms of, 250.

„ Termination of, 257.

,, Treatment of, 257.

Int-stines, disease in the, 227.
Jaundice, 231.

Ihc, 231.

17.

-M.

.ain of thp, 351.
.n of the, 247.
1 the, 237

h|)i.iiiij ii; tjuiier.-il, 245.
Siuggen, Mad, 2H0.

,, btomiicb, 288.
Ptifli-bone, dihlocuUou of, 181, 251.
Siranj.'lo!t, 222.
htrangurv, 241.
String-halt, 280.
Suifeit, WJ.

SvnOlCAI. Ol'F.llAT10!«8 —

Bl-iding, 3J7.
Blistering, 334.
Bnincholoiny, 322.
Cropping, 327.
Firing, 333.
Neurotomy, 322.
Nicking, 325.
CEsopbaguloray, 322.
Purging, 328.
Sutures, 216.
Swellings, 196.
Tendons, 211.
Thick wind, 272
Thorough-pin, 197.
Ulcers, 218.
Vegetable poisons, 303.
Veins, 212.
Vives, 223.
AVarbles, 226.
Vans, 191.
Windgalls, 196.
Worms, 229.
Wounds, 206.

VETERINARY DEPARTMENT, Ott
MEDICINES AND THEIU USES.

Acidum arsenicum— .Arsenic, 347.

Adcps— Hog's lard, 349.

Alcohol, 349.

Alkanet root, 350.

Anlhemis— Camomile, 349.

Armenian bole, 350.

Barbadoes tar, 357.

Black pitch, 358.

Blistering tiy, 351.

Camphor, 350.

Capsicum berries, 351.

Caraway seeds, 351.

C.istile soap, 359.

Common salt, 359.

Common turpentine, 360.

Copaiba, 352.

Croton seeds, 352.

Euphorbium, 353.

Extract of catechu, 351.

Extract of deadly nightshade, 353.

Fox-glove leaf, or digitalis, 353.

Gentiana, 354.

Gmger root, 361.

Gum-arabic, 346.

Horse aloes, 349.

loiiine, 355.

Kino, 356.

Leaf of Aconite, or Monk'fl-hooo, 348.

Lime, 356.

Linseed, 356.

Liquorice root, 354.

Muriate of ammonia, sal-ammoniac, 349.

Muriatic acid— Spilils of salts, 347.

Myrrh, 356.

Nicotiana, 356.

Nitrate of silver— Lunar caustic, 350.

Nitrate of potash— Nitre, 358.

Nitnc acid— Double aquafortis, 347.

Oak bark, 359.

Oil of tar, 357.

Oil of turpentine, 357.

1014

INDEX.

Olive oil, 35G.

Opium, 3.57.

Oxide of zinc, 361. .

Oxymuriate of mercury— Corrosive sublr

mate, 353.
Prepared chalk. 351.
Prussic acid, 48.
Quicksilver— Mercury, 355.
Rectified spirits of wine, 360.
Bed 8aunders-wood, 359.
Salt, 359.

Semivitrificd oxide of lead, 358.
Sinapis— .Mustard, 3G0.
Soft soap, 359.

Strong acetic, or pyroli^ncous acid, .347.
Subacetate of copper— Verdigris, 352.
Suhlimed sulphur, 3C0.
Submuriate of mercury— Calomel, 555.
Sulphate of antimony, 350.
Sulphate of copper— Blue vitriol, 353.
Sulphate of iron— Copperas, 354.
Sulphate of zinc— 'White vitriol, 301.
Sulphurated oil, 357.
Sulphuric acid— Oil of vitriol, 348.
Superacc'tate of lead— Sugar of lead, 358.
Kupcr-sulphate of alum and potash, 348.
Tar, 358.

Tartariscd antimony— Emetic, Tartar, 350.
Venice turpentine, 360.
Wax, 3(i0.

AVhite hellebore root, 360.
Yellow resin, 359.

DIVISION II.

THE DOG.

Of Dogs in Gexkral—

African, the, 3!)4.

Anecdotes of, 382.

Dingo, the, 392.

Dohle, the, 393.

Dub, the, 393.

Esquimaux, the, 395.

History of the, 379-

Mackenzie Kiver, the, 396.

Origin of the, 365.

Varieties of, 392.

Wild, the, 372.

Wold, the, 396.
Domestic, 397.

American, the, 402.

Bull, the, 403.

Collie, the, 399.

English Terrier, 401.

Harlequin, the, 4U2.

Lurcher, the, 403.

Maltese, the, 402.

Prairie, the, 402.

Skye Terrier, 400.

Turn-spit, 401.
Hounds, 403.

Beagle, the, 424.

Blood, the, 423.

Dalmatian, the, 436.

Deer, the, 410.

French, the, 436.

Irish, the, 405.

Italian, the, 436.

Newfoundland, the, 408.

Pointer, the, 432.

Portuguese, the, 435.

Retriever, the, 443.

Russian, the. 435.

Setter, the, 437.

Spaniel, Water, the, 441.

Spanish, the, 436.

Talbot, the, 422.
SiiooTiNO Dogs, 446.

Self-hunting dogs, 510.
Tkainino Docs, 447.

Barbct, the, 467.

Blenheim, the, 459.

Calabrian, the, 465.

Cocker, the, 459.

Esquimaux, the, 465.

Hare, Indian, the, 465.

King Charles, the, 460.

Labrador, the, 464.

Lion, the, 467.

Kewfoundland, the, 461.

Pomeranian, the, 465.

Poodle, the, 467.

Scilly, the, 467.

Springer, the, 459.

Water, the, 466.
Mastiffs, 467.

Alpine, the, 469.

Ban, the, 471.

British, the, 4G3,

British bull, the, 470.

Cuban, thr, 468.

Pug, the, 47).

Thibet, the, 469.

Diseases —

Canker in the ear, 480.
Costiveness, &c., 488.
Distemper, the, 483.
Madness, dumb, 479.
Mange, the, 487.
Rabies, 473.
Worms, the, 481.
Yellows, the, 482.

VETEEINAKT DiiPARTJIENT, 488.

DIVISION III.

SHOOTING, Etc.

Deer-stalking, 607.

Bustard, the, 564
Fen Birds, 505.

Bittern, the, 566.

Coot, the, 576.

Cormorant, 584.

Curlew, 577.

Godwit, 571.

Golden plover, 574.

Gray ,, 575.

Herons, 5G7. 568.

Knot, the, 570.

Landrail, 572.

Lapwing, 573.

Moor-hen, 575.

Plovers, 573. 574, 575.

Redshank, 570.

Reeve, 569.

Ruflf, 569.

Water-rail, 575.

Wheatear, 572.
Grouse, 533.

Black, 630.

Localities of grouse, 536.

Ptarmigan, 531.

Red, 533.

Wood, 530.

Gun, the, 490, 521.

I?reech-loadmg, 497.
Bursting of, 496.
Calibre of a, 495
Caps, 506.
Cleaning, 499.
Elevating, 494.
Gun-stock, 493
Length, 495.
Lock, the, 497.
Parts of a, 498.
Percussion, 495.
Powder, 501.
Range, 496.
Recoil, 496.
Remarks, general, 521.
Rifle, the, 507.
Shot, 501.
Target, 521.
Wadding, 506.
Weight, 49.5.
Moors, tiik, &c., 510.
Courtesies in, 510.
Hints rrspectiug, 516.
Manners in, 512.
Partridge, the, 541, 544.
Partridge-shooting, 542.
Pheasant, the, 546.
Pheasant-shooting, 549.
Summary, 511.
Pigeons, 595.

Pigeon, Breeding, 599
„ Common, 595.
„ Passenger, 598.
,, Shooting, 599.
Quail, the, 552.
Rabbits, 606.
Ring-dove, 597.
Rook-shooting, 594.
Stock-dove, 596.
Turtle-dove, 598.
Sea-Fowl, 578.

Cormorant, the. 5S4.
Dun-bird, the, 588.
Gull family, 579.
Lake-shooting, 592.
Mute swan, .582.
Petrel, the, ,579.
Siberian goose, 533.
Swan family, 580.
Sw.an-goose, 582.
Teal, 590.
Widgeon, 589.
Smat.t, Birds, 600.

Common starling, the, 602.
Fieldfare, the, 603.
Lark, the, 604.
Missel thrush, 604.
Red-wing, 602.
Snipe, the, 560.
Snipe-shooting, 502.
Thrush, 603.
Woodcock, the, 5:*'

DIVISION IV.

CATTLE.

Cattle, Wild and Tame, 611.

Patriarchal ages, 613.

Urus, the, 611.

Zebu, 615.
Aurochs, the, 625.

Africa, of South, 632.

America, of, 626, 634.

Britain, of, 627.

Maremme, of, 628.

Moldavia, of, 631,

Ox, musk, 626.

Portuguese cattle. 629.

Russian cattle, 630,

Southern Pacific, of, 635.

Spanish cattle, 629.

Switzerland, of, 631.
Persian Oxen, 618.

Anoa, the, 622.

Arnee, the. 622.

Buffaloes, 622, 624.

Gazal, the, 618.

Gour, the, 620.

Gyall, the, 619.

Yak, the, 821.
British Breeds, 636.

Aberdeen, 048.

Alderney, 945.

Argyleshire, 647.

Ayrshire, 648.

Cheshire, 639.

Chillingham Park, 636.

Cow of Yorkshire, 644.

Devonshire, 640.

Dotiiestic cattle, 638.

Dorsetshire, 639,

Durham, 642.

Galloway, 648.

Gloucester, 641.
Hereford, 641.
Highland Scot, 647.
Kerry, 639.
Kyloe, 646.
Leicestershire, 638.
Milk-yielding breeds, 601.
Shropshire, 641.
Sussex, 642.
Breeds of France, 650.
Cattle, 652.

Breeding of, 652.
Feeding of, 603, 669.
Measurement of, 688.
Plague, the, 689.
Rearing, 672.
Dairy, the, 675.
Butter, 675.
Cheese, 675.
Milk, 083.
Milking, 681.
Agricultural Associations, 651.
Diseases, 684.

,, IN Calves, 686.
Kemediks, 684.

DIVISION V.

SHEEP.

Foreign Breeds, 691.

African, the, 695.

Alpacca, the, 697.

Argali, the, 691.

Corsican, 692.

Cretan, the, 694.

Iceland, the, 697.

Llama, the, 697.

Merino, the, 699.

Persian, the, 696.

Saxon, the, 700.

Sha, the, 092.
British Breeds, 702.

Bamborough, the, 711.

Berkshire, the, 712.

Black-faced, the, 712.

Cheviot, the, 717.

Cotswold, the, 709.

Dartmoor, the, 710.

Dorsetshire, the, 713.

Exmoor, the, 711.

Hardwick, the, 721.

Kentish, the, 705.

Leicester, the, 707.

Lincolnshire, the, 706.

Norfolk, the, 717.

^lycland, the, 719.

Shropshire, the, 720.

Southdown, 715.

Teeswater, 704.

Welsh, 720.

Wiltshire, 715.
Sheep, 728.

Breeding of, 728.

IMJliX.

1011

FalUnuiK ' f. '37.
Manaic'iix'ni '•(> 737.
Ki-ar:ii>; of, ;iS.
I. 741.

BUua. :4.'.

Coslruliuii, 746,
Kiiirrba'a, 74'J.
l)>M-merT. 749.
Kiiol-rot, 74b.
(iiirKet, 74i>.
Mi'diciiios, 750.
I'liiluriliiin, 744.
rueiin-nil fj'viT, 744,
Ufiiu-ilies, 744.
lloi, 74t>.
cab, 748.
hnccp-pox, 747.
Slurdy, 749,

DIVI.SION VI.

rui>.

KoRKioM Varirtik* of, 7o9.

CQinese, the, 701.

Domcsiic. origin of, 7.')^, 753.

Ftoiich, 7C0.

Ni-ii|)olituii, 760.

\V.>sit)hiilian, 759.
Uuii sii Brkkds, 752.

Ueiifordshirc, the, 767.

Herk.<hirc, the, 7' 5.

t ni'^hirc, 767.

Cumberland, 769.

Eni;lish hog, orijjinal of, 769.

E>sex hog, 769.

I'.xiiiict nice. 771.

Gloucestershire. 7r>8.

Hampshire, 764.

Herefordshire, 7fi'<.

Leier,<tershire. 768,

Lincolnshire, 768.

Norfolk, 768.

Korihampionshire, 768,

Old Iri.h hosr, 771.

Orkney breed, 770.

Shropshire breed, 769,

Suffolk, 766.

8u5se.x, 769.

Uil;.shire, 7r8.

YorKshire, 706.
Manaokmknt of the Hoo, 755.

Breeding, 775.

FaUeiiing, 775.

Feedwijf, 775.

Piggeries, 774.

Po.nts of a nig, 772.

R-aring, 775.

Sliuffhtering, 787.
Cum.NO, 737.

Bdcua, Hampshire, 790.
„ Yorkshire, 789.

Hams, Westiihalian, 789.

Irish modes, 791.

Scotch modes, 790,
DisKASF.j, 793.

Apoplexy, 793.

Castration. 794.

Catarrh, 794.

Colic, 794.

Creaking?, 794.

Di.irrhfloa, 795,

KpilepsT, 795.

Fever. 7',i5.

Foul skin, 798.

Heavings, 798.

Intiamraation. 798.

Jaunc'.i'O, 79^.

Leprosy, 79S.

Lethargy, 799.
.Mange, 799.
.\I.-..>Uv;, 800.
Murrain, 800,
Parturition, 800.
Quinsv, 801.
Ribie«, 801.
Sr>a\ing, 802.
Spleen, 803.
Staggers, 802.
Surfeit, 802.
Tetanus, 902.
Tumours, 803.
Ubuici.nes, S03.

Cochin, SIS.
iMrn.Huc duck, 873.
I> Mil. .tie fowl, oiitfin of, sol
11 I 1 i-.tii! grvrr. ST4.
lliirking, thr, H|n
Kowli>, vurioua, ivtS.
(iame fowl, h.'O.
<iuinea hin, f>70.
H.»nhurgh. HI4.
Malay fowl, 833.
MuRcovrdiick, 873.
IVa-fow'l, 871.
n,.i-.,,m, li.e. R7I.
r ■! - 1 \\\i: h.'J.
S .•• I f.iwU, H40.
Sp iii;.-h, 8:l.
TotiloukV KooKp, 874.
Turkey, the, b68.
Stock. S43.

(liMo^mg of, 843.
Ktfgs MM.
Fattening, 895.
Feeding, fris.
ILitehing. 8,^3.
}Iousing, 866.
liiler-breedine, 8.^3.
Po .Itry-houM-', 878, 879.
Sellii p of eggs, 857.

DiSKASKS, 8^0.

Aecident.H, 880.

Asthma, 880.

Consumption, 880.

Corns. 880.

Costiveni S.S. 980.

Diarrhoea, 880.

Fever, 8H0.

Gout, 880.

Indigestion, 880.

Inflammations, &c , 800.

Moultimr. soo.

Parasite, 832.

Pip. 8S3.

Treatment of diseases, S80.

Ulcers, 883.

DIVISION VIII.
MODr.R.N ENGLISH F.\RMIXG.

Agricultural education, 888.
Agricultural Society, Royal, "^94.
Artificial fattening,'893.
Chemists, 897.
Drain I ge, 895.
Fecuniiitv of weeds, 886.
Geologists, 898.
Green crops, 899.
Labour, its necessity, 88,5.
Leicester, Earl of, 892.
Lines of communicati'm, h«i.
Port.ible manures, 897.
Rotation of crops, 8i)l.
Smithtield Club. 889.
Turnip crops, S;>9.
Young, Arthur, 891.

DIVISION VII.

POULTRY.
▼*ai»:TTR» or Fowr,, 814.
Bantam, the, 83'J.
Black, East India duck, 89S.
Call-duck. 873.
Chinese, 375.

DIVISION IX.

MACHINERY OF THE FARM.

Agricultural progress, 900.
Asphalting apparatus, 902.
Axles, 902.

Barley hummeller, 902.
Carts, 903.
Chaff-cutters, 994.
Cheese-presses, 90*.
Chums, 905.
Clod-crusher. 905.
Com screens, 906.
Cultivators, 906.
Drills, 908.
Elevators, 908.
Farm railways, 908.
Grubbers, 909.
Harrows, 909.
Horse-hoes, 911,
Horse-rakes, 912.
Manure distributors, 919.
Mills, 913.
Ploughs, 914.
Potato-diggers, 916.
Rollers, 919.
Root-washer, 919.
Back-barrows, 919.
Sacrifices, 909.
Steaming apparatus, 920.
Steam cultivator, 920.
Steam-engines, 921.
Tumip-cutt'Ts, 922.
Waggons, 9113.
Weed extirpators 021,
Wheels, 902.

Ma

('tiimE'

, 902.

|lr.-..k

.nif. Wi.

(■..rn-

ii.i.s:

iJU, '.»o7.

ih,-

.,u-. MU

M .\,

■\'>.

.M ... ;
1; .;■

• k', '.114.

h .1. 1

,•. wo.

w.u-i

iiik', 'jji.

Wlniii

>»iiig, u:3.

DIVISION X.

HORTlCL'LTIMJfc

Alclnoiit, of. 927,
4'\rui, of. 927.
EiiM. of the, U.S.
Eden, of, U.'O.
Greece, of, 928.
lle^perldes. of, 929.
I aiTt<9, of, 927.
Niiinuch, of, 930.
HomJM. of, 9. '9.
V..:.'eiable gardens, 02tt
Windsor, of. 932.
Fruit Gakhkm —

Ageit (if plants. 9.50.

Almond-tree, '.'''.2.

Apple*, 9)6, 9.)N.

Apricot, the, 9.'<4.

Area, disliibution of, 940.

Ulo-Kom, tlie, 952.

BudilinK. 944.

Bulbs, propagating by, 943.

Cherrv-tree, 950.

Chcsnut, 962.

Cranbcrrv, 901.

Currant, 9.0.

Cuttings, propngatine br, 947.

Distances in pluuimi;, 95U.

Espaliers, '.'.IJ.

Fig-tree, '-'H.

Forcme. 903.

Form of a garden, 935.

(iarden, points and plan of, 934.

Gnoseberrv, the, 9C0.

(iraftinir, 944.

Grape-vine. 953.

Hazel-nut. the. 9G2.

Hot-houses, 939.

In-arthing, propagating by, 947.

Instruments, scic-ntiHc, 967

l.ayeis, propagating by, 944.

Leaves, propair.ilinij by, 948.

Medlar, the, 9.19.

MeU.n-ground, 9)0.

Mulberry, the 9^;o.

Observaiions, pieliminarr, 930.

Ort"^<-ls, prop :ii;a'.ing by, yi3.

Peach, the, 955.

Pears, storini: of, 956.

Pear, the, njti.

Planting, 941, 951.

Plants, sorts of, 950.

Plum, the, 955.

Quince, the, 960.

Raspberry, the, 961.

Runners, propagating bv, 943.

Seeds, propagating by, 942.

Service-tree, the, 900.

Shelter of a garden, 938.

Situation of a garden, 936.

Size of a garden, 935.

Slips of a garden, 938.

Siips, propagating by, 943.

Soil of a g.irdcn, 9.''.ii.

Strawberry, the, 901.

Structures, vegetable, 912.

Subk'ct, treatment of, 94:'.

Suckers, prcpagating by, 913.

Training, 951.

Walls of a garden, 937.

Walnut, the, 9i'2.

Waste supply, 935.

FOKCINO (iMtOk.N —

Air, 908.
Boiler, the, 966.
Cherry-house, the, 971.
Cucumbers, 972.
i ig-hou.se, 971.
Heat, Rrtitlcial, 965.
Heat, solar, 968.
Ileatin?, niode^ of, '<6,
Hot-houses, 961.
Liitht, 903.
Mcioiiry, 072.
Resting, 903.
Vinery, 971.
VEOKTAni.K GAwnwt—
Angelica, 973.
Artichokes, 973.
Asparaens. 973.
Bean-s, 974.

1010

Beet, 974.
Broccoli, 974.
Brussels sprouts, 975.
Cabbage, 975.
Cardoons, 975.
Carrot, 975.
Cauliflower, 975.
Celeriac, 979.
Celery, 976.
Chervil, 976.
Cress, 976.
Parsley, 979.
Parsnep, 979.
Peas, 978.
Potatoes, 979.
Rhubarb, 979.
Savoy, 979.
Sea-kale, 980.
Spinach, 980.
Tuinips, 980.
Vegetable marrow, 980.
Flowkr Gardkx—
Anemone, the, 985.
Annual plants, 984.
Biennial plants, 984.
British flower garden, the, 981.
Calendar, 986.
Dahlia, the, 985.
Gravel-walk;), 982.

I^'DEX.

Hvaeinth, the, 984.
Lily, the, 985.
Narcissus, the, 985.
Perennial plants, 9S4.
Propagation, modes of, 984.
Ranunculus, the, 985.
Shrubbery, the, 983.
Soil, 982.
Tulip, Uie, 984.

DIVISION XI.

THE BEE, AND THE MANAGEMENT
OF THE APIARY.

Apiary, the, 1000, 1002.
Bee, interest attached to, 994.
Construction of combs, 999.
Destruction of, 1002.
Formation of swarms, 999.
Functions of the, 995.
Hives, numbers, -996, 1001.
Pasturage of, 998.
Products of, 993.
Queen-bee, attachment to, 996,

DIVISION XII. .

ANGLING.

Ang-ling apparatus, 1003.

Artificial flies, 1004.

Baits, 1005.

Hooks, 1004.

Lines, 1004.

Rods, lOOJ.

Fish—

Barbel, the, 1000.

Bleak, the, 1010.

Bream, the, 1008.

Carp, common, 1007.

Carp fam.lv, 1007.

(hub, the, "1009.

Dace, the, 1009.

Eel, common, 1010.

Eel family, 1010.

Grayling, the, 1007.

Gudgeon, 1010.

Loach, 1010.

Minnow, 1010.

Perch, the, 1011.

Pike family, 1007.

Roach, 1009.

Salmon, 1005.

Tench, 1008.

Trout, common, and Great Lake, 1006.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

THOROUGH-BREDS (Frontispiece).

THE DOG.

TILE REST IN THE GLEN (Vignette).

THE GAMEKEEPER'S FIRESIDE

PAGB

366

THE HORSE.

PAOB

46
51

THE WARRENER

FOX BREAKING COVER

382
414

THE RACE (DONKEYS)

MARE AND FOAL

GREYHOUND AND HARE

EXERCISING HOUNDS

430

450

RACE-HORSE

65

THE NURSERY

THE STRUGGLE

71

SETTER AND GROUSE

456

THE WINNING-POST

.... ,,

SPANIEL AND PHEASANT

460

MASTER OF THE HOUNDS (THE HUNTER) ..
GOING TO MARKET

90
101

SHOOTING.

IMPROVED STABLE FITTINGS

IN THE PADDOCK

IN THE STABLE

CLEARING THE FENCE

OSTEOLOGY

MUSCLES OF THE HORSE

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

104
120
,>
154
156
158
164

THE SHOOTING PARTY

THE LUNCHEON

GROUSE SHOOTING

„ „ (SECOND VIEW)

ROOK SHOOTING

THE HERONRY

490

510

530

594
i»

DENTITION

AGE OF THE HORSE

170
172

FARMING.

SKELETON OF THE HORSE

... 174

HARROWING WITH OXEN

884

FRACTURES

180

THE COW-HOUSE

n

THE VISCERA, Etc

298

THE HOOF AND RINGBONE

314

ANGLING.

FEET AND SHOE"

320

TROUT-FISHING

lOOS

N. Y.

Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine
Cummings Schoo! of V;..; ;;r:iry Medicine at
Tuits University
200 VVsstboro Road
North GraftonJvlA 01 535

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