BIOLOGY

. ORAHV

Issued August 31, 1916.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau.

SPECIAL REPORT

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

The
Tuberculin Test

Its Wonderful Accuracy

and Various Methods

of Conducting It.

98

A Symposium

Culled from the Most Competent
Authorities

9S

Published by

The Cutter Laboratory

BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA
(Operating under U. S. Governmenl License)

Eastern Agents and Distributors

THE CUTTER LABORATORY
OF ILLINOIS

180 N. Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111.

GH, HICKMAN, LAW,
, PEARSON,
OWER.

i^, 1916.

»jvj V iMviNjoE/iN 1 nvii-v iii<TG OFFICE.
1916.

XEW PRODUCTS —

Calf Scour Serum

Calf Scour Vaccine

Antl-Antlirax Serum

Anthrax Serum — Vaceine Method

B. Abortus Vaccine

Chicken Pox (Rouit) Vaccine

Write for literature and more extended in-
formation on these products.

Complete li!<t of pi'oduc'ts on page 1-.

Issued August 31, 1916.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau.

SPECIAL REPORT

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

"The Tuberculin Test"

Specificity of tlie Tubercalin Reaclion.

Concerning the use of tuberculin as a di-
agnostic agent. Dr. D. E. Salmon concludes:

(1) That the tuberculin test is a wonder-
fully accurate method of determining if an
animal is affected with tuberculosis.

(2) That by the use of tuberculin the
animals diseased with tuberculosis may be
detected and removed from the herd, there-
by eradicating the disease.

(3) That tuberculin has no injurious ef-
fect upon healthy cattle.

(4) That the comparativelj' small number
of cattle which have aborted, suffered in
health, or fallen off in condition after the
tuberculin test were either diseased before
the test was made or were affected by some
cause other than the tuberculin.

The most reliable means of diagnosis in
the living animal is by the use of tuberculin.
The subcutaneous method is the most cer-
tain method of using it, although other
methods, such as the conjunctival (ophthal-
mic) and the intradermal method have cer-
tain advantages.— (Moore.)

Concerning the reliability and efficiency of
the tuberculin test the following resolutions
were adopted by the A. V. M. A. of September
10, 1908:

"That the experience which has been ac-
cumulated in great amount since the dis-
covery of tuberculin shows conclusively and
novir more clearly than ever before, that it
affords an accurate and reliable means for
diagnosing tuberculosis in cattle. The per-
centage of errors from the use of tuberculin
when properly applied is so small as to be
of no moment when compared with the vast

GH, KiCKMAN, LAW,
, PEARSON,
;OWER.

N, 1916,

IjO- VE-niNivii^/iN X riviiN JL11->TG OFFICE.

1916.

oi- nipple. Tliis test is not usually employed
in veterinary practice.

(5) The intracutaneous or, as it is com-
monly called in veterinary practice, the in-
tradermal test (Moussu and Mantoux) con-
sists in the injection into the skin of suita-
bly diluted O. T. or purified tuberculin in
doses of 0.1 to 0.2 c.c. The intrapalpebral
test, as described by Mohler, consists of the
injection of tuberculin into the skin of the
lower eyelid and is a modification of the
usual intradermal method.

Relative Sensitiveness of Tesls.

According to Hamman and Wolman the in-
tracutaneous (intradermal) and subcutane-
ous local tests are the most delicate we have.
They reveal practically the full percentage
of tuberculous individuals.

The same authorities state that according
to their sensitiveness the tests are to bt
ranked as follows:

(1) Intracutaneous (intradermaH.

(2) Subcutaneous (local reaction'*,
(o) Cutaneous.

(4) Subcutaneous (.-systemic reaction').

(5) Percutaneous.

(6) Conjunctival.

Tuberoiilin.

Tuberculin is the liquid, usually glyceiin-
ated bouillon, on which tubercle bacilli liave
grown until it has become saturated with the
product of the organisms (Moore).

DosuKre of Tubereiilin. Subcutanc(ui.< tfst.
2-4 I'.c. of diluted tuberculin, each c.c. con-
taining 0.12.5 c.c. of O. T. tuberculin. M"hen
re-test.s are made within six months the
initial dose should be doubled. Horses same
as for cattle; goats and sheep, i/^ c.c. Swine,
1 c.c. Dogs, 0.1 c.c.

I

Issued August 31, 1916.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau.

SPECIAL REPORT

F CATTLE.

Conjunctival test (ophthalmic test) — O. T.
tul>ei-culin may be used but concentrated
precipitated tuberculin is preferred. Twen-
ty to 50 'r dilutions of tuberculin in pliysio-
logical salt solution are employed. The dried
puritied tuberculin (tablet form) is a con-
venieut form for use wlien conducting- this
test.

Intracutaneous (intradermal) tt-st — ii.l c.c.
to 0.2 c.c. of a solution nf ( ». T. (ir jiurified
tuberculin may be used.

GH, HICKMAN, LAW,
, PEARSON,
lOWER.

Ke.spouMe to the Iii.U-ct ion <>t" 'I'liiiemiiiii.

Siibc-utnueoiis Tiilieri-iiliu Uouotiuii — Char-
acterized by three features:

(1) Constitutional reaction, consisting of
fever wliich is the most pronounced symp-
tom in cattle and accompanying symptoms
of lassitude, anorexia and rapid pulse.

(2) A local reaction at the site of the in-
fection of varying intensity from sliglu red-
ness and tenderness to a severe inflammation
with adenitis.

(3) A focal reaction about the tubercu-
lous lesion.

These reactions do not run parallel and a
severe local reaction may occur with but
little or no constitutional disturbance and
particularly in the case of slight pulmonary
lesion.s symptoms of a focal reaction may not
be evidenced.

Teclinio of Subcutaneous Tuberculin Test —

For the subcutaneous test tuberculin may
be most conveniently administered subcutan-
eously in the prescribed dose by means of an
accurately graduated hvpodermic syringe,
just in front of or just back of the shoulder.
For the convenience and safety of the oper-
ator the elbows may be braced over the
withers of the animal and the injection made
on the side opposite to that on which the
operator is standing.

N, 1916.

\jyjV Cj IVIN .VI JC/ IN

1916.

NG OFFICE.

i

The syringe used for injecting the tuber-
culin should be first sterilized by boiling in
water for 15 ininutes. The syringe needle
should be disinfected after each injection.
At least two preinjection temperatures
should be taken and these temperature read-
ings should be made at an interval of not
less than two hours. The usual temperature
limits in normal cattle are from 101 to 103°
F., although both of these limits may be ex-
ceeded at times. It is best to exclude ani-
mals showing temperatures over 103° F.
from the test as well as those in advanced
stages of pregnancy. During the test all
animals sliould be given good care, be prop-
erly fed and comfortably stabled, at the
same time the usual course of their daily
routine disturbed as little as possible.

AA'liat Constitutes a Positive Reaction. Sub-
cutaneous Test. — A positive temperature re-
action consists of a rise in temperature of
1.5" F. or more (authorities differ) above
the normal temperature, as shown by prein-
jection temperatures, and this rise in tem-
perature should be maintained for from 2 to
6 hours before it drops to normal (tubercu-
lin curve). The rise in temperature is usually
more or less gradual and begins from the
6th to the 12th hour subsequent to the in-
jection of tuberculin (delayed reactions be-
ginning as late as the 20th hour have been
noted) and reaches its height from tlie li'th
to 21st hour, gradually returning to normal
at the 24th to the 40th hour. Accompanying
the temperature reaction a general organic
reaction may be shown by some of the re-
acting animals. Shivering, loss of appetite
and lessening of milk flow may be noted as
symptoms of an organic reaction.

A local reaction at the point of injection
(swelling and tenderness) of the tuberculin

1

Issued August 31, 1916.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE3

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau.

SPECIAL REPORT

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

may be noted in many of the reacting ani-
mals. Focal reactions are not often noted
in cattle.

Interpretation of a Tuberculin Reaction.

Hutyra ami Marek state that in animals over
six months of age a rise of 2.7° F. over the
highest normal temperature constitutes a
positive reaction or a rise of 0.9° F. or more
above normal w^hen the temperature exceeds
104° F. Also in cases where the tempera-
ture is elevated 1.8° F. to 2.5° F. above nor-
mal, Or w^hen it exceeds 103.1° F. and is ac-
companied by symptoms of an organic (sys-
temic) reaction.

Calves under six months of age must show
a temperature over 104.9° to indicate a posi-
tive reaction.

A negative reaction is indicated when the
post injection temperature does not exceed
103.1° F. and is not more than 2.7° F. above
normal and no local or organic (systemic)
reaction is shown. A careful and systematic
clinical examination should also reveal no
evidence or suspicion of tuberculosis.

According to these authors if the results
of temperature records and careful clinical
examinations are interpreted according to
the above principles they will be found to
agree with post mortem findings in about
98% of all cases.

Nocard believes that a positive reaction is
indicated when the post injection tempera-
ture exceeds the pre-injection temperature
by 2.7° F. and that an increase of 1.5° F.
to 2.5° F. indicates suspicion only. Sus-
picious cases should be re-tested after one
month, using a double dose of tuberculin.

The International Veterinary Congress
held at Budapest declared that cattle show-

GH, KiCKMAN, LAW,
, PEARSON,
;0WER.

N, 1916.

\jtKj \ n, is.i\ ivi rj iM J. rivij.>j xii.'^G OFFICE,

1916.

ing pre-injcition tenipei'ature.s not exceed-
ing 103.1° and post-injection temperatures
exceeding 104" F. must be regarded as tuber-
culous while post-injection temperatures
above 103.1° and not exceeding 104." must be
considered as doubtful, and considered indi-
vidually.

"It is the writer's belief, after tlie careful
examination of many tests and the making
of many post mortems following tuberculin
injection, tliat a slight rise may represent a
reaction. When the maximum temperature
ranges from 103.5° F. down to 103" F., or
even a few tenths of a degree less, the cases
are suspicious if the curve is well marked.
When animals with such temperatures are
slaughtered from 40 to 60% of them usually
i-eveal tuberculous lesions. AVItli our i»rc»ent
kno\vle«lKe «»iie osiiiuot be ho.siIIao of a re-
action with SI toiiuuTature oiir^ e having' Ji
iiiaxiiiiiini of less than 104" K., but in all
cases in wliifli tbe .siib.sequeut teiniieratiire
rang'es between KKt" and 104" should be con-
sidered Nuspiclous. There are a few cattle
owners who exclude from the herd animals
that give a temperature even lower than 103"
F. following the injection of tuberculin if
there is evidence of a gradual rise and de-
cline." (Moore.)

Iiniiiiiuitv From Previous Injections of Tn-
berenlin. In some cases repeated injections
of tuberculin result in immunity to its action
so that it is onl.v possible to judge a tuber-
culin test correc'tly when it is positively
known that the injected animal or animals
liave not been treated with tuberculin at any
time within the preceding four weeks and
some authorities extend this limit to six
months and even a year. Nocard's experi-
ments showed that of 24 reacting cows only
33% reacted to a test applied 24 to 48 hours

Issued August 31, 1916.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE^

BUREAU OF ANI>AAL INDUSTRY.
A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau.

SPECIAL REPORT

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

after receiving- an injection of tuberculin,
50% reacted after one week, 60% after two
weeks and nearly all of them after a period
of one month. Records of tlie Prussian sea-
quarantine stations show that tuberculous
cattle previously treated with tuberculin will
always react when five times the ordinary
dose of tuberculin is administered. Vallee's
experiments have shown that cattle will re-
act to double doses administered 36 to 4S
hours after a previous injection of tubercu-
lin. In these cases, however, reactions set
in earlier C4th to 9th hour) and are of
shorter duration so that temi^eratures should
be taken at 2 hourly intervals immediately
after the injection.

It is of interest to note that horses
(Bang), goats (Eichhorn), monkeys and
swine react to the tuberculin test. The test
in dogs seems somewhat less i-eliable.

Oplitlialiiiic Reaction (ophthalmo reaction,
conjunctival reaction). — This test in a modi-
fication of the ophthalmic test as devised by
Calmette and T\"olff-Eisner. A strong solu-
tion 20 to 50% tuberculin O. T. is emploj^ed.
(Hutyra and Marek recommended •"»0% O. T.
bovine.) Dry tuberculins are especially rec-
ommended.

Teohnif (ophthalmic reaction). — The head
of the animal is held by an assistant and the
tuberculin is applied to the conjunctival
sack and the closed eye gently massaged.

A positive reaction is denoted by a puru-
lent oonjunetiviti»i which appears after 12 to
24 hours and may persist for three to four
days. A repetition of the test after 24 hours
in doubtful cases accentuates the reaction in
positive case.«. This test has tlie advantage
<it° not aireotinK' milk flo^-, an<l a previous

GH, HICKMAN, LAW,
, PEARSON,
;OWER.

N, 1916.

1916.

.x>TG OFFICE.

subcutaneous injection of tuberculin does
not prevent the reaction. The test, however,
is not as sensitive as tlie subcutaneous or
intradermal tests and errors are consequent-
ly more frequent. (False negative reactions.;

The Intradermal (intracutaneous) Test—
This test, ranking as it does as one of tlie
most sensitive of the tuberculin tests, has
rapidly gained in favor among the veteri-
nary profession since its introduction by
Moussu and Mantoux, on account of its ac-
curacy and convenience, especially when ap-
plied to range cattle or swine.

Technic Intradermal Test (Haring and
Bell). — The tuberculin is injected in 1/20 to
Vi c.c. amounts into the deeper layers of the
skin of the subcaudal fold. A 1 or 2 c.c.
syringe graduated to tenths armed with a 25
to 26 gauge needle and having a point 3/16
to Vi of an inch in length is suitable for this
work. When properly injected the tubercu-
lin may be felt as a small lump in the skin
after tlie needle has been removed. A solu-
tion of precipitated tuberculin at least 5%
strength in doses of 1/10 to 1/5 c.c. is rec-
ommended, though Vz c.c. of a 25% solution
produces no liarmful results.

A Positive Intradermal Reaction — Is indi-
cated by a thickening of the subcaudal fold
or by the appearance at the point of injec-
tion of a characteristic sensitive swelling
varying in size from that of a small pea to
that of an orange. The swelling may be
either soft and edematous or hard and in-
flamed. A recognizable reaction may be
present on the sixth hour, but generally the
reaction is first clear about the 12th hour
and continues to increase in size until the
48th hour. In some instances we have ob-
served that the early local reactions disap-
pear before the 48th hour, while in others

avv3a2»«»w.y.="n -. / Jr.Tf.wci'swii^— » -

Issued August 31, 1916.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE^

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau.

SPECIAL REPORT

ON

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

delayed reactions have been noted which did
not appear until the 19th hour. In order to
be certain of every case observations must
be taken at least twice preferably about the
36th and 72nd hours. If only one observa-
tion can be made it sliould be on the 72nd
liour. Small iiiduration.s at the point of in-
oculation about tbe size of tlie head of a
parlor niati-Ii frequently occur in normal
non-reacting cattle, l>ut anytliing larger
than this ^vhich persists to the 72n<l hour
.should be considere*! a positive reaction."

Cattle recently injected with tuberculin
frequently do not respond to tliis test.

It is well to keep in mind the fact that
some tuberculous animals will react to the
subcutaneous test and not to the intrader-
mal, and some to the intradermal and not
to the subcutaneous test. By alternating
or combining these two tests and always
making a thorough physical examination the
maximum number of infected animals should
be detected.

GH, HICKMAN, LAW,
, PEARSON,
;OWER.

N, 1916.

•as*

The Cutter Laboratory

Berkeley, California Chicago, Illinois

V. S. Veterinary License Xo. ."li

\jyj V nt iv-LN -vi rj j.

1916.

.xx'^G OFFICE.

LIST OF VETERI\ARV BIOLOGICS.

VACCIXES —

Anthrax "Vaccine — Single

Anthrax Vaccine — Double

Anthrax Serum-Vaccine (Simultaneous

Method)
Blackleg Vaccine — Single
Blackleg Vaccine— Double

(Pill, powder and string form)

BACTERIDS — (Bacterial Vaccines)

Anti-Influenza Vaccine

Anti-Suppurine (a polyvalent vaccine for

treatment of suppurating conditions)
B. Abortus Vaccine
Calf-Scour Vaccine
Canine Distemper Vaccine
Canine Distemper, Prophylactic
Chicken Pox or Roup Vaccine
Pneumonia Vaccine, Mixed
Polyvalent Mixed Bacterin
Streptocine (Streptococcus Vaccine)

SERUMS —

Antistreptococcic Serum

Antitetanic Serum (Tetanus Antitoxin)

Anti-Anthrax Serum

Calf-Scour Serum

Distemper and Influenza Serum

Issued August 31, 1916.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau.

SPECIAL REPORT

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

TIBERCULIIV —

."Subcutaneous Test
Intradermal Test
Ophthalmic Test

MALLEIIV —

Subcutaneous Test
Ophthalmic Test

GH, HICKMAN, LAW,
, PEARSON,
lOWER.

m

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charges on all sliipments we make. Custom-
ers must prepay charges on old goods re-
turned.

Ijiterature descriptive of variou.s products
^vill be sent on application.

N, 1916.

The Cutter Laboratory

BERKELEY, CAL.

Operating under V. S. Gov. License.

THE CUTTER LABORATORY
OF ILLINOIS

Eastern Agent

180 N. Dearborn Street
CHICAGO, ILL.

\jyj V Hi X\.J.N -VJ. JZy 1

1916.

iNG OFFICE.

LIST OF VETERi: >—

VACCINES —

Anthrax Vaccine — !
Anthrax Vaccine —
Anthrax Serum-V

Method)
Blackleg Vaccine —
Blackleg Vaccine —
(Pill, powder ar

BACTERIXS — (Bacterii

Anti-Influenza Vac
Anti-Suppurine (a
treatment of su]
B. Abortus Vaccin<
Calf-Scour Vaccine
Canine Distemper
Canine Distemper,
Chicken Pox or R(
Pneumonia Vacciri'
Polyvalent Mixed
Streptocine (Strep

SERUMS —

Antistreptococcic I
Antitetanic Serum
Anti-Anthrax Seru
Calf-Scour Serum
Distemper and Inl

a:

H
D
U
tu

5£

c o

Issued August 31, 1916.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau.

SPECIAL REPORT

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Drs. ATKINSON, DICKSON, HARBAUGH, HiCKMAN, LAW,

LOWE, MOHLER, MURRAY, PEARSON,

RANSOM, and TRUMBOWER.

REVISED EDITION, 1916.

■i

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1916.

6

^^

\o

\

■ \

Department of Agriculture,

Wmhlnffton, March 21, 1916.
This volume is a revision of the Special Eeport on Diseases of
Cattle, prepared in compliance with House Concurrent Eesolution
No. 14, passed February 3, 1916, as follows :

Resolved hy the Hoxise of Representatives {the Senate concurring), Tliat
there be printed and bound in cloth one hundred thousand copies of tlie Special
Report on Diseases of Cattle, the same to be first revised and brought to date,
under the supervision of the Secretary of Agriculture, seventy tliousand copies
for the use of the House of Representatives and thirty thousand copies for use
of the Senate.

Since its original publication by the Department in 1892, several
editions have been authorized by Congress. It was reprinted in
1896, and revised and reprinted in 1904, 1908, and 1912. In accord-
ance with the above-mentioned resolution it again has been revised
so as to embody the latest practical development of knowledge of
the subject.

D. F. Houston,

Secretary.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Administration of medicines. By Leonard Pearsox 7

Diseases of the digestive organs. By A. J. ^Iurray 12

Poisons and poisoning. By V. T. Atkinson 51

Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics. By W. H. IIarbaugh. . 71
Noncontagious diseases of the organs of respiration. By William Herbert

Lowe 85

Diseases of the nervous system. By W. 11. Harbaxjgh 99

Diseases of the urinary organs. By James Law Ill

Diseases of the generative organs. By James Law 145

Diseases following parturition. By James Law 212

Diseases of young calves. By J.\mes Law 245

, Bones: Diseases and accidents. By V. T. Atkinson 262

Surgical operations. By William Dickson and AVilliam Herbert Lowe. . . . 287

Tumors affecting cattle. By John II. Mohler 301

Diseases of the skin. By M. R. Trumbower 318

Diseases of the foot. By M. R. Trumbower 333

Diseases of the eye and its appendages. By M. B. Trumbower 338

Diseases of the ear. By M. II. Trumbower 353

Infectious diseases of cattle. Revised by John R. Mohler 356

The animal parasites of cattle. By B. H. Ransom 510

Mycotic stomatitis of cattle. By John R. Mohler 537

Index 543

8

3429 : 5

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ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

Plate I. Position of the lirst stomacli (rumen or paunch) 48

II. Stomachs of ruminants • 48

III. Instruments used in treating diseases of digestive org-\ns 48

IV. Microscopic anatomy of the liver 48

V. Ergot in hay , 48

VI. Ergotism 48

VII . Diagram of the circulation of the blood 84

VIII. Position of the lung 88

IX. Kidney and male generative c~nd urinary organs 142

X. Microscopic anatomy of the kidney 142

XI. Calculi of kidney and bladder 142

XII. Fetal calf within its membranes 208

XIII. Pregnant uterus with cotyledons 208

XIV. Vessels of umbilical cord 208

XV. Normal position of calf in utero 208

XVI. Abnormal positions of calf in utero 208

XVII. Abnormal positions of calf in utero 208

XVIII. Abnoi-mal positions of calf in utero; sm:gical instruments and

sutm^es ^ 208

XIX. Monstrosities 208

XX. Instruments used in difficult labor 208

XXI. Instruments used in difficult labor 208

XXII. Supports for prolapsed uterus 244

XXIII. Supports for prolapsed uterus 244

XXIV. Instruments used in diseases following parturition 244

XXV. Skeleton of the cow 280

XXVI. Devices for casting cattle 300

XXVII. Siurgical instruments and sutures 300

XXVIII. Various bacteria which produce disease in cattle 358

XXIX . Upper or dorsal surface of the hmgs of the ox 368

XXX. Broncho-pneumonia 368

XXXI. Contagious pleuro-pneumonia 368

XXXII. Contagious pleuro-pneumonia 368

XXXIII. Foot-and-mouth disease 384

XXXIV. Tuberculosis of the lungs of cattle 416

XXXV. Tuberculosis of the liver 416

XXXVI. Tuberculosis of lymph gland and of omentum (caul) 416

XXXVII. Fig. 1. — Tuberculosis of sirloin and porterhouse cuts of beef. Fig.

2. — Tuberculosis of pleura of cow, so-called " pearly disease" . . . 416

XXXVIII. Tuberculosis of cow's udder 416

XXXIX. Actinomycosis 448

5

6 ILLUSTEATIONS.

Page,

Plate XL. Actinomycosis of the jaw 448

XLI. Actinomycosis of the lunga 448

XLII. Section of muscle from a blackleg swelling 464

XLIII. Necrotic stomatitis (calf diphtheria) 464

XLIV. Normal spleen and spleen affected by Texas fever 504

XLV. Texas fever 504

XLVI. The cattle tick {Margarojms annulatus), the carrier of Texas fever. 504

XLVII . The cattle tick ( Margaropus annulatus) 504

XLVIII. Portion of a steer's hide showing the Texas fever tick {Margarojms

annulatus) 504

XLIX. Fig. 1.— Tick-infested steer. Fig. 2.— Dipping rattle to kill ticks. 504
L. Map of the United States showing region infected with Texas fever

of cattle. 504

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1. Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation, requiring

four and one-half months 489

2. Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation, requiring

eight months 491

3. Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation, requiring

foiu' months, with new pasture ■ 492

4. Plan for freeing cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation, feed-lot or

soiling method 493

5. Pail spraying jjump for small herds 495

6. Hornfly {Hsematobia serrata) in resting position 512

7. Hornflies {Hsematobia serrata) on cow horn 513

8. Buffalo gnat 513

9. Screw worm (larva of Chrysomyia macellaria) 514

10. Screw-worm fly {Chrysomyia Tuacellaria) 514

11. The warble fly {Ilypoderma lineata) 515

12. Short-nosed blue louse {Hsematopinus eurystemus) of cattle 518

13. Long-nosed blue louse {Hsematopinus vituU) of cattle 518

14. Red louse ( Trichodectes scalaris) of cattle 519

15. Egg of short-nosed blue louse {Usematopinus eurystemus) attached to a

hair/. 519

16. Mite which causes psoroptic scab of sheep 520

17. Portion of the wall of the first stomach with conical flukes {Paramphis-

tomum cervi) attached 525

18. Twisted stomach worms {Ilxmonchus contortus) 525

19 . Twisted stomach worms {Ilsemonchus contortus) 526

20. Embryo of twisted stomach worm {Exmonchus contortus) coiled on tip

of grass blade 527

21. A drenching tube made from an ordinary tin funnel, a piece of rubber

hose, and a piece of brass pipe 527

22. Piece of lining of fourth stomach showing cysts of the encysted stomach

worm {Ostertagia ostertagi) 528

23. A tapeworm ( Moniezia planissima) which infests cattle 529

24. The common liver fluke {Fasciola hepatica) 531

25. The large American fluke {Fusciola magna) 531

26. Portion of grass stalk bearing three encysted cercari«e of the common

liver fluke ( Fasciola hepatica) 532

27. Hydatids (Echinococcus granulosus) in portion of hog's liver 533

28. Thin-necked bladder worm {Tsenia hydatigena) from abdominal cavity

of a steer 534

29. Lung worms {Dictyocaulus viviparus) of cattle 535

SPECIAL REPORT

ON

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES.

By Leonakd Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.

Medicines may be administered to cattle in many vrajs. The chan-
nel and method of administration depend on whether a general or
local effect is desired, the condition of the animal, and the nature of
the medicine that is to be given. The easiest method, and therefore
the most common, is to give ordinary remedies by the mouth with
the food, with di'ink, or separately. There are, however, some condi-
tions in which medicines administered in this way will not act
promptly enough, or wherein a desired effect of the medicine on a
distant part of the body is wholly lacking unless it is applied in some
other way.

The various methods of administering medicines to cattle will be
considered below.

By the mouth. — The simplest way to give medicines b}^ the mouth
is to mix them with the food or water. This can be done when the
medicine is in the form of a powder or fluid, if but a small quantity
is to be given, if it does not have a taste that is disagreeable to the
animal and is not so irritant as to injure the lining membranes of the
mouth and throat.

The usual method of administering bulky or unpalatable doses is to
mix them with a fluid vehicle, such as water, milk, molasses, or beer,
and give from a bottle. A dose given in this way is known as a
" drench.-' In administering a drench the head of the animal should
be elevated a little by an assistant. This is best accomplished when
standing on the left side of the cow's head and by grasping the nose
with the thumb and fingers of the right hand inserted in the nostrils ;
with the left hand beneath the chin the head is further raised and
supported. If the animal is unruly, it may be tied in a stall or placed
in a stanchion. The medicine can now be poured into the mouth by
inserting the neck of the bottle between the lips on the right side.
Care must be taken to avoid getting the bottle between the back teeth.

7

8 DISEASES OP CATTLE.

The mouth of the bottle should be inserted as far as the middle of
the tongue and the contents poured slowh-. If the cow coughs, the
head must at once be lowered to permit the fluid to escape from the
larynx. If medicine is given during coughing, some of the dose may-
pass down the windpipe to the lungs and cause a severe or a fatal
pneumonia. This is especially to be guarded against when the
throat is partly paralyzed or insensitive, as in parturient paresis
(milk fever). In this disease it has often happened that drenches
have been poured into the lungs, thus killing the cow.

The quantity of fluid to be given in a drench depends upon the
effect desired and the nature of the medicine. In impactions of
the stomach very large quantities of fluid may be given — as much as
a gallon or several gallons at a time. Usually, however, it is not
customary or desirable to give more than from 1 to 2 quarts at a dose,
and not more than a pint unless it is necessary on account of the
irritant quality of the drug that has to be shielded Avith a large
quantity of the vehicle.

Soluble medicines should be completely dissolved before they are
given; insoluble ones should be finely divided by powdering or by
shaking, and should be well agitated and mixed immediately before
they are given. In the latter case a menstruum with considerable
body, such as molasses or flaxseed tea or milk, wdll help to hold solids
or oils in suspension until swallowed.

Balls are large pills adapted for the larger animals. Powders or
gums are sometimes, mixed with an adhesive substance and rolled
into balls for the purpose of convenience of administration. Balls
are not used so much and are not so well adapted to the medication
of cattle as of horses. The process of solution is slower in the paunch
of a cow than in the stomach of a horse; if the cow is so sick as
to have stopped ruminating, a ball may get covered up and lost
in the mass of material in the paunch and so lie for days, producing
no effect whatever.

Capsules are shells or envelopes made of soluble gelatin in which
powders or liquids may be inclosed. Capsules and balls are adminis-
tered by being placed on the tongue Avell back in the mouth while
the tongue is drawn forward and the mouth is held open by a block
of wood between the back teeth. The ball should be dropped, the
tongue released, and the block removed as nearly simultaneously as
possible, so that the backward carriage of the tongue will throw the
ball into the throat and lead to its being swallowed. In introducing
the ball care must be taken to avoid having tlie hand cut or crushed.
After a little experience it is possible to do away with the block of
wood.

By the stomach. — Medicines are introduced directly into the first
stomach by the use of an esophageal tube or through the cannula of a

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES. 9

trocar passed into the paunch through the side. This method is used
in the treatment of diseases of digestion.

By the kectum. — Medicines are usually administered by the rec-
tum for the purj)ose of controlling the bowels and for the treatment
of local diseases. Sometimes, however, medicines that have a gen-
eral effect are given in this Avay when, for any reason, it is not possi-
ble or convenient to give them through the mouth. Only drugs that
are readily absorbed should be given per rectum for a general effect
and in somewhat larger dose or more frequently than when given by
the mouth. Such stimulants as ether, alcohol, or the aromatic spirits
of ammonia, diluted with from four to six times their bulk of warm
Avater, may be used in this way.

Kectal injections, or enemata, are used in the treatment of consti-
pation. If it is the purpose of the injection to soften hardened fecal
masses, the water should be comfortably warm and may have a
little clean soap in it. If it is the purpose of the injection to stimu-
late sluggish bowels to contraction, the water may be cold.

In giving rectal injections a rectal syringe may be used, or, better,
a piece of one-half to three-quarter inch rubber hose 5 feet long with
a tin funnel attached to one end. The hose is soaped or oiled and
introduced slowly and gently into the rectum 2 or 3 feet. The fluid
is then slov\'ly poured into the funnel and allowed to gravitate into
the rectum. The same apparatus may be used for feeding hy the
rectum.

By the vagina. — Medicines are inserted into the vagina, and
through the vagina into the womb, in a manner similar to that of
rectal administration. Most of the medication made use of in this
way is for the local treatment of these organs. Following calving,
during outbreaks of abortion, and in an infectious disease of the
vagina, such injections become necessary.

By the udder. — Injections into the udder are now regularly made
in the treatment of parturient paresis (milk fever). For this pur-
pose a 1 per cent solution of iodic! of potassium is commonly emplojxd,
although some other solutions and oxygen gas are also used. In mak-
ing this injection so many precautions are necessarj^ in relation to
the sterilization of the apparatus and the teats and skin that this
work should be left to a skilled veterinarian. The introduction of
even a minute quantity of infectious dirt may cause the loss of the
udder. For making this injection one may use one of the prepared
sets of apparatus or a milking tube and funnel connected by a piece
of small rubber hose. The apparatus should be boiled and kept
wrapped in a clean towel until needed. The udder and teats and
the hands of the operator must be well disinfected, and the solution
must be freshly made Avitli recently boiled water kept in a sterile
bottle. The udder should be emptied of milk before the injection is

10 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

made. After all these precautions have been observed the milking
tube may be inserted and through it one-half pint of solution intro-
duced by gravity air pressure or by syringe. There is practically
no danger in this mode of treatment if it is properly carried out.

Injections into the udder are sometimes made in the treatment of
garget, but so far with indifferent success.

By the nostrils. — An animal may be caused to inhale medicine
in the form of gas or vapor or to snuff up a fine powder. Sometimes,
for the purpose of local treatment, fluids are injected into the nose.

A medicine inhaled may have either a local or a general effect.

Medicated steam, carrying the volatile products of compound
cresol solution, carbolic acid, balsam of Peru, compound tincture of
benzoin, tincture of iodin, etc., may be liberated beneath the nostrils
of a cow so that she must inhale these soothing vapors; but such
treatment is not so common for cattle as for horses. In producing
general anesthesia, or insensibility to pain, the vapor of chloroform
or ether is administered by the nostrils. As a preliminary to this it
is necessary to cast and confine the animal. Great care is necessary
to avoid complete stoppage of the heart or breathing.

By the trachea. — Medicines are injected into the trachea, or wind-
pipe, in the treatment of some forms of diseases of the lungs, and
especially *in that form of bronchitis or pneumonia that is caused by
lungworms. For this injection a large hypodermic syringe, fitted
with a very thick, strong needle, is used. The needle is to be inserted
about the middle of the neck and between the cartilaginous rings of
the trachea.

By the skin. — Although a number of drugs, notably mercury, are
so readily absorbed by the skin of cattle as to render poisoning easy,
medicines are not given in this way for their general or constitutional
but only for their local effect.

Diseases of the skin and superficial parasites are treated or de-
stroyed by applications in the forms of washes, ointments, dips, and
powders. Liniments and lotions are applied to the skin for the relief
of some near-lying part, such as a muscle, tendon, or joint. Blisters
are applied to the skin for the purpose of obtaining the effect of
counterirritation upon a neighboring region or organ. Cold water
may be applied to the skin to reduce the temperature and to diminish
congestion or inflammation in a superficial area or to reduce the
temperature of the whole body. High fever and heat strokes are
treated in this way.

By the tissue beneath the skin. — Hypodermic or subcutaneous
injections are often made for the purpose of introducing a drug,
reagent, or vaccine directly into the connecting tissue beneath the
skin. Introduced in this way, the substance is quickly absorbed,

ADMINISTRATION" OF MEDICINES. 11

none of it is lost, and its whole effect is obtained, often Avitliin a few
minutes.

There are numerous precautions necessary in making a subcutane-
ous injection, most of which have to do with cleansing and steriliza-
tion. It is also important to select a proper site for the injection, so
that blood vessels, joints, and superficial nerves, organs, or cavities
may all be avoided. With due regard for the necessary precautions,
there is practically no danger in such an injection, but it should be
attempted only by those who are able to carry it through in a surgi-
cally clean way. Only certain drugs can be given subcutaneously,
and dosage must be accurately graduated.

By the veins. — Certain medicines act most promptly and surely
wdien introduced directl}^ into the blood by injecting them into a vein,
usually the jugular. Some vaccines and antitoxins are administered
in this way. Intravenous injection should be practiced only by
experienced veterinarians.

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

By A. J. MuEEAY, il. R. C. V. S.

[Revised by R. W. llrCKMAX, V. M. D.]

CHARACTER OF FEEDS AND FEEDING.

Diseases of the digestive organs are very coiiinion among cattle,
and may often be traced to defects in feeding. The first three stom-
achs of the larger ruminants hold the feed for a long time, during
>vhich period it is subjected to macerating, mixing, and straining
processes in preparation for entrance into the fourth or true stomach.
The straining is accomplished through the mediuin of the manyplies
or book, vrhile the paunch, or rumen, -u'ith its adjunct, the waterbag,
is concerned in the macerating, kneading, and mixing, as well as in
regurgitation for rumination or the chewing of the cud. The action
of the first three stomachs is merely preparatory to digestion. Thus!
it would seem that as a result of their complex anatomical and func-
tional arrangement the feed of the ox, Avhen of good equality and
wholesome, is in the most favorable condition possible for the diges-
tive process when it reaches the fourth stomach, where true diges-
tion first takes place. The location and arrangement of the stomachs
are shown in Plates I and II.

If the feed is of improper character, or is so given that it can not
be cared for by the animal in a normal way, false fermentations
arise, causing indigestion, and possibly, later, ' organic disease. In
feeding cattle there are a number of important considerations apart
from the economy of the ration, and some of these are noted below.

Feeds must not be damaged by exposure to the weather, by frost,
by molds, or by deleterious fermentations.

Damaged feeds retard or prevent digestion, and sometimes they
contain or cause to be generated substances that irritate the digestive
tract, or are distinctly poisonous to the animal. For example, hay
that Avas rained on severely during curing has not only lost a part of
its nutritive value through a washing-out process, but what renuiins
is not so readily available as in good hay. Eoots that have been
frozen are likely to irritate and injure the digestive tract. Grass
eaten with frost on it may cause severe indigestion. All moldy feeds
are not injurious, for some molds appear to have no influence on
the process of digestion, but those of other species may not only
retard digestion and cause local injury to the digestive organs, but
may cause general poisoning of a severe and fatal type.
12

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. 13

The following molds have been shown (Dammann) to be clangor-
ous in respect to the production of the morbid conditions enumer-
ated :

TiUetia caries grows chiefly in wheat and may be found with the
grain, thus appearing in the bran or meal. It causes paralysis of the
throat and spinal cord and irritation of the digestive tract. The
rusts, such as Puceinia graminis, P. strammis, P. CoroTiafa, and P.
amndinacea^ cause colic and diarrhea, and in some cases partial
paralj^sis of the throat. The rusts that occur on clovers, beans, and
peas cause very severe irritation of the lining membrane of the mouth
and throat, resulting sometimes in gangrene of this tissue.

Polijclesmus exitans grows on the leaves of rape and turnips, ap-
pearing in early summer. This fungus ■ is very irritating to the
mouths and feet of cattle, causing severe inflammation and the for-
mation of a false membrane. In some instances this condition has
been mistaken for foot-and-mouth disease, but it can be differentiated
by the absence of the blister that is characteristic of that disease
and by the further fact that it is nontransmissible.

Polytrinc-ium trifoVd^ which grows on clover, causing it to become
black, causes severe irritation of the stomach. and intestines of cattle
feeding upon it.

Feeds must not contain too large a proportion of woody fiber or
of indigestible substances. If the dry matter ingested or the bulk
of the feed is very great on account of the small proportion of
digestible matter, it is impossible for the great mass to be moistened
properly with and attacked by the digestive juices. In consequence
of this, abnormal fermentations arise, causing indigestion and irri-
tation of the digestive organs. On the other hand, a ration too con-
centrated, and especially too rich in protein, is not suitable, because,
after a meal, the animal must have a certain feeling of fullness in
order to be comfortable and quiet, and the digestive organs require a
relatively large volume of contents to fill them to the point where
secretion is properly stimulated and their activity is most efficient.
If too much protein is in the ration there is a waste of expensive
feed, and the tendency is for the animal to become thin. It is evi-
dent that a cow can not thrive on concentrated feeds alone, even
though these contain in assimilable form all the nutritive materials
needed for perfect support. It is because bulk is necessary that the
standard of about 25 pounds of dry matter per cow per day has
been reached by experimenters. There is no objection to feeding
grain or meal separately to a cow, provided enough bulky feed is
fed at another time in the day to keep the digestive tract sufficiently
distended.

In changing the ration, and especially in making radical changes,
as at the beginning and the end of the pasturing season, the change

14 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

should be made gradually, so that the digestive organs may accom-
modate themselves to it. After the digestive organs and juices have
from long practice become adjusted to the digestion of a certain feed,
which is then suddenly withheld and another of quite different char-
acter and properties is substituted, the second feed is not well di-
gested ; it may even irritate the digestive canal. It is often observed
that cattle lose from 25 to 100 pounds when turned on pasture from
dry stable feed. This loss can readily be prevented by not shocking
the digestive organs by a sudden change of diet.

Regularity in feeding has much to do Avith the utilization of the
ration, and gross irregularity may cause indigestion and serious
disease.

Water for live stock should be as free from contamination and as
nearly pure as that used for household purposes. When practicable
it is well to warm the water in the winter to about 50° F. and allow
cattle to drink often.

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH.

WOUNDS AND CONTUSIONS OF THE LIPS. AND SNAKE BITE.

The lips may become inflamed from contusions, which are some-
times produced by a blow from the horns of another animal, or, in the
case of working oxen, by a blow from the driver. "^^Hiile cattle are
grazing, more especially when they are in woods, they may be bitten
in the lips by insects or serpents.

Symptoms. — As a result of a contusion the lips become thick and
swollen, and if treatment is neglected the swelling may become hard
and indurated, or an abscess may form. This condition renders it
difficult for the animal to get food into its mouth, on account of the
lips having lost their natural flexibility. In such cases an ox will use
his tongue more in the prehension of food to make up for the inca-
pacity of the lips. In cases of snake bite the swelling is soft or puffy
and its limits are not well defined.

Treatment. — When we have to deal with a bruise, the affected part
should be bathed with hot water two or three times daily. In recent
cases no other treatment will be required, but if the swelling is not
recent and has become hard or indurated, then the swollen part
should be treated each day by painting it with tincture of iodin. In
snake bite a straight incision penetrating into the flesh or muscle
should be made across the center of the swelling and in the direction
of the long axis of the face. After this has been done a small wad of
cotton batting should be pressed against the wounds until the bleed-
ing has almost stopped. Afterwards the following lotion may be
applied to the wounds several times a day: Permanganate of potas-
sium, half a dram ; distilled water, 1 pint. As snake bites are usually

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGAN'S. 15

attended with considerable depression, Avhicli may terminate in stu-
por, it is advisable to give occasional doses of* whisky. Half a pint
of whisky mixed Avitli a pint of water should be given, and the dose
should be repeated in half an hour if the animal is sinking into a
stupefied and unconscious condition. The repetition of the dose
must depend on the symptoms which the animal shows. It must be
borne in mind that the object of treatment is to ward off the stupor,
which is one of the results of snake bite, and that in administering
whisky the object is to produce a stimulating and not an intoxicating
or stupefying effect. The swelling from an insect bite should be
bathed with ammonia Avater as soon as noticed and then treated with
frequent applications of hot water.

SALIVATION.

Salivation is a symptom of some general or local disorder. It may
be a symptom of a general disease, such as rabies or foot-and-mouth
disease, or it maj' be a purely local trouble, as when copious secretion
of the salivary glands is produced by the eating of irritating plants,
such as Avild mustard. AVlien saliva is observed to dribble from the
mouth, that part should be carefully examined by introducing into
the mouth an instrument like a balling iron, or, if one is not at hand,
by grasping the tongue and partially withdrawing it from the mouth,
and by placing a block of wood between the back teeth, while all
parts of the mouth are exposed to a good light, so that the presence
of any foreign substance may be detected. The cause is sometimes
found to be a short piece of wood becoming fixed on the palate, its
two ends resting on the upper molar teeth of each side ; or it may be
a needle, thorn, or splinter of Avood embedded in the tongue. Some-
times a sharp piece of tin or other metal may become partially em-
bedded in the inner surface of the cheek. Hay occasionally possesses
some quality, usually dependent upon its having heated in the mow
or having become moldy, Avhich produces salivation. Second-crop
clover and some irritant weeds in the pasture or forage maj?" cause
salivation. Cattle rubbed Avith mercurial ointment may swallow
enough mercury in licking themselves to bring about the same result.
(See "Mercury poisoning," p. 57.) Such cases, of course, arise from
the constitutional action of mercury, and. on account of the common
habit which the animals have of licking themselves, indicate the
danger of using such preparation externally. Mercury is also readily
absorbed through the skin, and as cattle are A'ery susceptible to its
action it is thus easy for them to be poisoned by it even Avithout lick-
ing it from the surface. Cases of mercurial poisoning sometimes
folloAv disinfection of cattle stables Avith the usual 1 to 1.000 solution
of mercuric chlorid.

16 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Treatment. — If salivation depends on the irritation and inflamma-
tion set np by the ingesfion of acrid phints. or forage pcG3essing some
peculiar stimulating property, the feed must be changed, and a lotion
composed of an ounce of poATdered alum dissolved in a quart of water
may be syringed into the mouth twice a day, using half a pint of the
solution each time. If, however, the salivation is due to the presence
cf a thorn, splinter of wood, or any other foreign substance em-
bedded in the cheek or tongue, the offending object should be re-
moved and the mouth washed occasionally with a weak solution (2
per cent) of carbolic acid and tepid water, AVhen salivation is pro-
duced by mercurial poisoning or by foot-and-mouth disease, the
treatment appropriate to those general conditions of the system, as
well as the local treatment should be applied. (For information
about foot-and-mouth disease see p. 3S1.)

IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH.

Irregularities of the teeth may be occasioned by the unequal wear-
ing of some of the teeth or b}^ some of the incisors being broken, which
may happen when cattle are pastured on sandy or gravelly soil. The
molar teeth ma}'' also sIioav irregular wear from similar causes, or
from a disease or malformation of the jaw. Their edges may become
sharp, or it ma}^ happen that a molar tooth has been accidentally
fractured. It may also occur that a supernumerary tooth has devel-
oped in an unusual position, and that it interferes with the natural
and regular mastication of the feed.

Treatment. — The mouth may be examined by grasping the animal's
tongue with one hand and partially withdrawing it from the mouth,
so as to expose the incisor and molar teeth to inspection. '\^lien it
is desired, however, to examine the molar teeth with the fingers, so as
to obtain a better idea of their condition, an instrument like the
balling iron which is used for the horse should be introduced into
the mouth, so as to separate the jav\-s and kefp them apart while the
examination is being made. Any sharp edges of the molars must be
removed hy the tooth rasp, such as is used for horses. Any super-
numerary tooth which interferes with mastication or am' tooth which
is fractured or loose should be extracted. In performing such opera-
tions it is desirable to throw, or cast, the animal, and to have its
head held securely, so as to enable the operator to do what is neces-
ii'XYj without difficulty.

CARIES OR DECAY OF THE TEETH.

The presence of caries may be suspected if the mouth exhales a bad
odor and if the animal during mastication occasionally stops as if it
were in pain. The existence of caries in a molar tooth may be ascer-
tained by examining the mouth in the manner already described. If

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. 17

one of the molars is found to be carious, it should be extracted.
When the crown of the tooth has been destroyed and only the stump
or root is left, extraction is impracticable. In case the animal has
special value the root stumps may be removed by a veterinarian by
the operation of trephining; otherwise, it is best to sell the animal to
the butcher.

ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE JAWBONES (BIG JAW OR LUMPY JAW).

[See Actinomycosis, p. 438.]

INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF MOUTH (STOMATITIS).

The membrane of the mouth majr become inflamed by eating some
irritating substance or plant, or little vesicles may form in the
mouths of calves when the}^ are affected with indigestion, constitu-
ting what is termed aphtha,

Syrnptoms. — The saliva dribbles from tlie mouth, and when the
mouth is examined the surface of the tongue and other parts appear
red and inflamed. When young animals are affected Avith the form
of disease termed aphtha, small red elevations are observed on the
tongue and other parts of the mouth, having little white points on
their centers, which consists of the epithelium of the mucous mem-
brane raised into vesicles. These Avhite patches are succeeded by
ulcerated surfaces, which are caused by the shedding of the white
patches of epithelium.

Treatment. — When there is merely a reddened and inflamed con-
dition of the mucous membrane of the mouth, it will suffice to syringe
it out several times a day with 4 ounces of the following solution:
Alum, 1 ounce; water, 2 pints. When the edges of the tongue and
other parts of the mouth are studded with ulcers, they should be
painted over once a day with the following solution until the affected
surface is healed: Permanganate of potassium, 20 grains; water, 1
ounce. When indigestion is associated with an ulcerated condition
of the mouth, separate treatment is required.

ULCERATIVE STOMATITIS (OR ULCERS IN THE MOUTHS OF YOUNG CALVES).

[See Necrotic stomatitis, p. 462.]

MYCOTIC STOMATITIS (SORE MOUTH).

[See p. 537.]

INDURATION OF THE TONGUE (ACTINOMYCOSIS).

[See Actinomycosis, p. 438.]

DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX AND GULLET.

PHARYNGITIS (SORE THROAT).

Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the
pharynx. It is frequently associated with inflammatory diseases of
the respiratory tract, such as laryngitis and bronchitis or pleurisy.
33071°— 16 — -2

18 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Synvptoiros. — The muzzle is dry and the saliva dribbles from the cor-
ners of the mouth : the animal swallows with difficulty or not at all,
and holds its neck in a stiff, straight position, moving it as little as
possible. The eyelids are half closed, the white of the eye is bloodshot,
and the animai occasionally grinds its teeth. After masticating the
feed the animal drops it out of its mouth as if to avoid the pain of
swallowing, and also evinces pain when pressure is applied externally
on the pharynx and tries to prevent the pressure from being applied.

Causes. — Pharyngitis may be produced by a sudden cooling of the
surface of the body, as when cattle are exposed to a cold wind or a
cold rain ; or by swallowing irritant substances.

Treatment. — The throat should be syringed three times a day with
an ounce of the following solution : Nitrate of silver, 1^ drams ; dis-
tilled water, 1 pint. Bland and soothing drinks, such as linseed tea
or oatmeal and water should occasionally be offered. Diet should
consist of soft food, such as bran mashes with a little linseed meal
mixed in them. Dry hay and fodder should not be given. Fresh,
green grass or sound ensilage may be fed in small quantities. The
upper part of the throat and the space between the jaws should be
well rubbed once a day with the following liniment: Liquor am-
monia fortior, 4 ounces; oil of turpentine, 4 ounces; olive oil, 4
ounces; mix. "V^Tien evidence of blistering appears the application
of the liniment should be stopped and the skin anointed with vase-
line. Under the treatment described above the inflammation of the
throat will gradually subside and the animal will be able to swallow
as usual in five or six days. "VVe need hardly say that during its
treatment the sick animal should be kept in a comfortable stable.

PAROTITIS.

Inflammation of the parotid gland may arise from the inflamma-
tion extending to it when an ox is affected with pharyngitis or laryn-
gitis, or the inflammation may commence in the salivary ducts and
may depend on some influence the nature of which is unknown.
Parotitis s^'metimes arises from a blow or contusion severe enough
to set up inflammation in the structure of the gland. Tuberculosis
and actinomycosis may infrequently be characterized by the lodg-
ment of their parasitic causes in the parotid glands, in which case
parotitis maj'^ be a symptom of either of these diseases.

Symptoms. — There is an elongated, painful swelling, beginning at
the base of the ear and passing downward along the posterior margin
of the lower jaw. The swelling is sometimes limited to one side, and
when both are swollen it is generally larger on one side than on the
other. The secretion of saliva is increased, the appetite is poor,
the neck is stiff, so that it is painful to raise the head, and feed is
swallowed with difficulty. In many cases the swelling of the glands.

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGAXS. 19

when submitted to jDroper treatment, disappears in a comparatively
short time. In other cases, however, they remain enlarged, even
after the animal recovers its appetite. In tuberculosis, lymphatic
glands beneath the parotid glands are sometimes enlarged, thus
causing the ajjpearance of enlarged parotid glands.

Treatment. — A warm bran poltice, made by mixing bran with a
hot 2 per cent compound cresol solution in water, should be applied
on the swollen gland and kept in place by means of a bandage.
Whenever the poultice has cooled it should be replaced by a new
one. This treatment should be continued until the pain is less and
the SAvelling is reduced or until there is evidence of pus formation,
which ma}' be ascertained by examining the surface of the gland with
the fingers; and when, on pressing any part of the surface, it is found
to fluctuate or " give," then we may conclude that there is a collection
of pus at that place. It is well not to open the abscess until the
fluctuation is well marked, as at this stage the pus or matter is near
the surface and there is less trouble in healing the wound than if the
pus is deep seated. The abscess should be opened with a clean, sharp
knife. The poulticing should then be continued for two or three
days, but the form of the poultice should be changed, by replacing
the bran with absoi'bent cotton and pouring the compound cresol
solution on the cotton. At all times the wound should be kept clean
and the cavity injected once or twice daily with a solution of 1 dram
of carbolic acid in 8 ounces of water. Under this treatment the pus
may cease and the wound heal without complications. Saliva may
issue from the orifice and result in the formation of a salivary fistula.
This requires operative treatment b}^ a qualified veterinarian. AMieii
poulticing fails to reduce the swelling or produce softening, the in-
flamed area may be rubbed once daily with camphorated oil, com-
pound iodin ointment, or painted twice daily with Lugol's solution
of iodin. The diet should be as recommended under Pharyngitis
(p. 18).

PHARYNGEAL POLYPI.

Tumors form not infrequently in the pharynx, and may give rise
to a train of symptoms varying according to their size and location.
The tumor may be so situated that by shifting its position a little it
may partiallj'^ obstruct the posterior nares (nostrils), when, of course,
it will render nasal breathing very noisy and labored. In another
situation its partial displacement may impede the entrance of air
into the larj^nx. In almost any part of the pharynx, but especially
near the entrance of the gullet, tumors interfere with the act of
swallowing. As they are frequently attached to the wall of the
pharynx by a pedicel or stalk, it will be seen that they may readily
be displaced in different directions so as to produce the symptoms

20 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

before described. Enlarged postpharyngeal l^nnphatic glands are
not rare in tuberculosis, and by pressing upon the wall of the pharynx
and restricting the lumen of this organ they cause difficulty in both
breathing and swallowing. Such enlarged glands may be differ-
entiated from tumors by passing the hand into the coav's throat after
the jaws are separated by a suitable speculum or gag.

Treatment. — The method of treatment in such cases is to sepa-
rate the animal's jaws with an instrument termed a gag, and then,
after drawing the tongue partiall}'^ forward, to pass the hand into the
pharynx and to twist the tumor gently from its attachment. One
veterinarian who has had considerable practice in treating this form
of disease scrapes through the attachment of the tumor gradmilly
with his thumb nail. When the attachment is too strong to be
severed in this way an instrument like a thimble, but possessing a
sharp edge at the end, may be used to effect the same purpose, or
the base of the tumor may be severed by the use of a crushing instru-
ment known as an ecraseur.

CHOKING.

Choking usually happens from attempting to swallow too large
an object, such as a turnip, potato, beet, apple^ or pear, though in
rare cases it may occur from bran, chaff, or some other finely divided
feed lodging in and filling up a portion of the gullet. This latter
form of the accident is most likely to occur in animals that are
greedy feeders.

Symptoms. — The sj^mptoms vary somewhat according to the part
of the gullet or throat in which the obstruction is. In most cases
there is a discharge of saliva from the mouth ; the animal coughs fre-
quently, and when it drinks the water is soon ejected. The cow
stops eating and stands back from the trough, the expression is
troubled, breathing is accelerated, and oftentimes there is bloating
as a result of the retention of gas in the paunch. These symptoms,
however, are not always present, for if the obstacle does not com-
pletely close the throat or gullet, gas and water may pass, thus
ameliorating the discomfort. If the obstruction is in the neck por-
tion of the gullet, it may be felt as a lump in the left jugular gutter.

Treatment. — If the object is in the throat, it is advisable to put a
gag in the animal's mouth, and, while the head is in a horizontal
direction by two assistants, to pass the hand into the pharynx, grasp
the foreign body, and withdraw it gradually and steadily. ^"Mien the
substance is lodged in the upper part of the gullet, pressure should
be made by an assistant in an upward direction against the object
while the oi)erator passes his hand into the pharynx, and if the assist-
ant can not by pressure dislodge the substance from the gullet, the
operator may by passing his middle finger above and partly behind

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 21

the substance gradually slide it into the pharynx and then withdraw
it by the month.

The presence of an obstructing substance in the cervical (neck)
portion of the gullet may be ascertained by passing the hand along
the left side of the neck, when a hard and painless swelling will be
found to indicate the presence of the foreign body. In such cases
we must endeavor by gentle and persevering pressure with the thumb
and next two fingers to slide the obstructing substance gradually up-
ward to the pharynx. To facilitate this it is well to give the animal
a half pint of raw linseed or olive oil before the manipulations de-
scribed are commenced. ^^Hien the substance has been brought into
or nearly into the pharynx, then the mouth gag should be used, the
tongue drawn partially forward with the left hand, and the right
should be passed backward into the pharynx to withdraw the ob-
struction.

When bran or chaff causes the trouble it is best to give a small
quantity of oil to lubricate the walls of the gullet, and then by gentle
and persevering pressure, to endeavor to separate and divide the mass
and to work it downward toward the stomach. This will be assisted
by pouring small quantities of oil and water down the animal's throat.
It is not advisable to use the probang to push down any soft material,
such as oats or chaff, as this generally condenses and renders firmer the
obstructing substance by pressing its particles or elements together,
so that it forms a solid, resisting mass which can not be moved.

In some cases the foreign body, either because it is in the chest
portion of the esophagus, and so beyond reach, or because too firmly
seated, can not be dislodged from the neck by pressing and manipu-
lating that part externally. In such event we must resort to the use
of the probang. (PI. Ill, figs. 2 and 3.) A probang is a flexible
instrument and adapts itself to the natural curvature of the gullet,
and if used cautiously there is not much risk of injury. Before
passing the probang, a gag which has an aperture at each end, from
which straps pass to be buckled at the back of the head below
the horns, is introduced into the mouth. (PI. III. fig. 4.) The pro-
bang should then be oiled, and. the head and neck being held in a
straight line by two assistants, the tongue must be partly drawn out
of the mouth, the probang cautiously passed along the roof of the
mouth into the pharynx and thence into the gullet, through Avhich
it is passed down. If resistance is met, gentle and continuous pressure
must be used, under the influence of which the object will generally
in a short time pass into the stomach. One must be careful not to
pass the probang into the larynx and thence into the windpipe, as
an animal may readily be killed in this way. This accident is indi-
cated by efforts to cough and by violently di-sturbed breathing. If
such symptoms arise the probang must be withdrawn at once. To

22 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

avoid a wrong passage, the end of the tube should be pressed very
slowl}^ through the throat until its presence in the esophagus is as-
sured. After it is once in the esophagus care is still necessary, be-
cause the walls of this tube may easily be torn.

Some writers have advised that v.hen the obstruction is lodged in
the cervical (neck) portion of the gullet it should be struck with a
mallet, to crush it and thus alter its shape, so that it may easily
slip down into the stomach. If the obstructing substance is hard,
this will be a dangerous operation, but if soft — as in the case of a
ripe pear, for example — this procedure may be safely adopted.

In all cases, if pressure applied on the neck fails to move the
obstruction and the probang also fails to move it, it may be divided
by a subcutaneous operation, or the gullet may be opened and the
obstructing substance removed through the wound. In such cases
the assistance of a veterinarian or a surgeon must be obtained.

WOUNDS AND INJURIES OF THE GULLET.

Sometimes the walls of the gullet may be more or less lacerated or
abraded by the rash and too forcible use of the probang, and the
animal consequently swallows with pain and difficulty. In such
cases dry feed must be withheld for five or six days, so as to allow the
injured parts to heal, and the diet must be limited to linseed tea, hay
tea, and thin oatmeal gruel and molasses. The same kind of diet
must be fed after the operation of cutting into the gullet has been
performed.

Sometimes the gullet is ruptured and lacerated to such an extent
that treatment of any kind is hopeless. This has been known to occur
when the handle of a pitchfork or buggy whip has been pushed down
a cow's throat to remove an obstruction. "When such treatment has
been applied it is best to slaughter the animal without delay, as the
flesh may be utilized so long as there is no fever or general disease,
and remedial treatment would be hopeless. In this connection it
may be mentioned that whatever substitute may be used for a pro-
bang, which sometimes is not at hand, it should be flexible and should
possess a smooth surface. A piece of new rope, with the end closely
wrapped and waxed and then oiled, or a piece of thin garden hose, or
a well-wrapped twisted wire may be used in emergencies.

DISEASES OF THE STOMACHS.

ACUTE TYMPANITES (HOVEN. OR BLOATING).

Tympanites is a distention of the rumen or paunch with gases of
fermentation, and is manifested outwardly by swelling in the region
of the left flank.

Causes. — Tympanites may be caused by any kind of feed which
produces indigestion. Wlien cattle are first tiuned into j'oung clover

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 23

they eat so greedily of it that tympanites frequently results. Tur-
nips, potatoes, cabbage, or the discarded pulp from sugar-beet fac-
tories may also cause it. ^Middlings and corn meal also frequently
give rise to it.

Care is necessary in turning animals into fields of clover or stub-
ble fields in which there is a strong growth of volunteer grain. It
is always better to keep them from such pasturage while it is wet
with dew, and they should be taken out when they have eaten a
moderate quantity. When cattle are fed upon pulp from sugar
beets, germinated malt, etc., they should be fed in moderate amounts
until they have become accustomed to it, as any of these feeds may
give rise to severe bloating.

An excessive quantity of any of the before-mentioned feeds may
bring on this disorder, or it may not be caused by excess, but to
eating too hastily. Sometimes the quality of the feed is at fault.
Grass or clover when wet by dew or rain frequently disorders di-
gestion and brings on tympanites; frozen roots or pastures covered
with hoar frost should also be regarded as dangerous. When feed
has been eaten too hastily, or when it is cold and wet, the digestive
process is imperfectly performed, and the feed contained in the
paunch ferments, during which process large quantities of gas are
formed. The same result may follow when a cow is choked, as the
obstruction in the gullet prevents the eructation or passing up of
gas from the stomach, so that the gas continues to accumulate until
tympanites results.

Syinpto77is. — The swelling of the left flank is very characteristic,
as in well-marked cases the flank at its upper part rises above the
level of the backbone, and Avhen struck with the tips of the fingers
emits a drum-like sound. The animal has an anxious expression,
moves uneasily, and is evidently distressed. If relief is not obtained
in time, it breathes with difficulty, reels in wallring or in standing,
and in a short time falls and dies from suffocation. The distention
of the stomach may become so great as to prevent the animal from
breathing, and in some instances the case may be complicated by
rupture of the stomach.

TreatTnent. — If the case is not extreme, it may be sufficient to
drive the animal at a walk for a quarter or half an hour; or cold
water by the bucketful may be thrown against the cow's sides. In
some cases the following simple treatment is successful: A rope or
a twisted straw band is coated with pine tar, wagon grease, or other
unsavory substance and is placed in the cow's mouth as a bit, being
secured by tying behind the horns. The efforts of the animal to dis-
lodge this object result in movements of the tongue, jaws, and throat
that stimulate the secretion of saliva and swallowing, thus opening

24 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the esophagus, which permits the exit of gas and at the same time
peristalsis is stimuhited reflexly.

In urgent cases the gas must be allowed to escape without delay,
and this is best accomplished by the use of the trocar. The trocar
is a sharp-pointed instrument incased in a cannula or sheath, which
leaves the sharp point of the trocar free. (See PI. Ill, figs. 5«. and
5h.) In selecting the point for using the trocar a spot on the left
side equally distant from the last rib, the hip bone, and the trans-
verse processes of the lumbar vertebrce must be chosen. Here an
incision about three- fourths of an inch long should be made with a
knife through the skin, and then the sharp point of the trocar, being
directed doAvnward, inward, and slightly forward, is thrust into the
paunch. (PI. I.) The cannula or sheath of the trocar should be
left in the paunch so long as any gas continues to issue from it. If
the cannula is removed while gas is still forming in the paunch and
the left flank becomes considerably swollen, it may be necessary
to insert it again. It is well, accordingly, to observe the cannula
closely, and if gas is found to be issuing from it it should not be
removed. When gas issues from it in considerable quantities the
sound accompanjdng its escape renders the exact condition obvious.
It is occasionally necessary to keep the cannula in the stomach for
several hours. When this is necessary a piece of stout cord should
be passed round the neck of the cannula immediately below the pro-
jecting rim and then be passed romid the animal's body and tied
in a secure knot, and a careful attendant must remain with the cow
during the entire period that the instrument is in place. The rim
surrounding the mouth of the cannula should be in contact ^vith the
skin. Whenever the person in charge of the cow is convinced that
gas has ceased to issue from the cannula the instrument should be
removed.

The trocar is to be used only in extreme or urgent cases, though
everyone who has had experience in treating indigestion in cattle
realizes that he has saved the lives of many animals by its prompt
application.

When the tympanitic animal is not distressed an<l the swelling
of the flank is not great, or when the most distressing condition has
been removed by the use of the trocar, it is best to use internal
medicine. Two ounces of aromatic spirits of ammonia should be
given every half hour in a quart of cold water; or half an ounce
of chlorid of lime may be dissolved in a pint of tepid water and
the dose repeated every half hour until the bloating has subsided;
or 1 ounce of creolin in 2 quarts of tepid water may be given at one
dose or carefully injected through the cannula directly into the
paunch to stop fermentation and the consequent formation of gas.
It is generally necessary to give a moderate dose of purgative medi-

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 25

cine after bloating lias subsided, as ailimals frequentl}^ show symp-
toms of constipation after attacks of indigestion. For this pm^pose
1 pound of Glauber's salt may be used.

The animal should be fed carefully upon easily digested food for
several days after the bloating has subsided, so that all fermenting
matter ma.y pass out of the stomach.

CHRONIC TYMPANITES.

Cattle, especially those that have been kept in the stable all
winter, are lialile to suffer from chronic tympanites. In this form
they bloat up after feeding, but seldom swell so much as to cause
any alarm. The chronic form of indigestion may also follow an
acute attack like that previously described. This is also a symptom
of tuberculosis when the lymphatic glands lying between the lungs
are so enlarged as to press upon and partly occlude the esophagus.
It may develop in cahes as a result of the formation of hair balls in
the stomach.

Treatment. — Treatment should be preceded b}^ a moderate dose of
purgative medicine: 1 pound of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt)
or sulphate of soda (Glauber's salt), half an ounce of powdered
Barbados aloes, 1 ounce of powdered ginger, 1 pint of molasses. The
salts and aloes should be dissolved by stirring for a few^ minutes in 2
quarts of lukewarm water, then the molasses should be added, and
after all the ingredients have been stirred together for about 10
minutes the dose should be administered. After the operation of
the purgatiA'e it is generally necessary to give some tonic and antacid
preparation to promote digestion, which is imperfectly performed in
such cases. The following may be used : Pow^lered gentian, 3 ounces ;
powdered bicarbonate of potash, 3 ounces; powdered ginger, 3 ounces ;
poAvdered capsicum, 1 ounce. Mix and divide into 12 powders, one
of which should be given three times a day before feeding, shaken
up with a pint and a half of water. It is also advantageous in such
cases to give tAvo heaped teaspoonsfuls of wood charcoal, mixed with
the animal's feed three times a day. The animal should also go out
during the day, as w^ant of exercise favors the continuance of this
form of indigestion. If the dung is hard, the constipation should be
overcome by feeding a little flaxseed twice daily or by giving a hand-
ful of Glauber's salt in the feed once or tAvice daily, as may be neces-
sary. Eoots, silage, and other succulent feeds are useful in this con-
nection. If tuberculosis is suspected as the cause of chronic bloating,
a skilled veterinarian should make a diagnosis, using the tuberculin
test if necessary. Until it is settled that the cow has not tuberculosis,
she should be kept apart from the other members of the herd.

26 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

DISTENTION OF RUMEN OR PAUNCH WITH FEED.

This form of indigestion is caused by the animal gorging itself
with feed, and arises more from tlie animal's voracious appetite than
from any defect in the quality of the feed supplied to it. The con-
dition is, however, more se\'ere if the feed consumed is especially con-
centrated or difficult of digestion. In cases of this kind there is
comparatively no great formation of gas, and the gas which is formed
is diffused through the stomach instead of accumulating in a layer
in its upper part. On pressing the flank with the closed fist the
indent of the hand remains for a short time in the flank, as if the
rumen Mere filled with a soft, dough}^ mass.

This form of indigestion should be treated b}^ stimulants, such as
aromatic spirits of ammonia.

If the formation of gas is not great and the distention with solid
material is somewhat limited, the animal may be drenched through
a piece of ordinary garden hose, one end inserted in the mouth,
and the other end fitted with a funnel, giving 1^ pounds of Epsom
salt or Glauber's salt dissolved in 2 gallons of water, at a single dose.
Immediately after this treatment the left side of the animal, extend-
ing below the median line of the abdomen, should be powerfully
kneaded with the fist, so that the impacted food mass will be broken,
allowing the water to separate it into small portions which can be
carried downward for the process of digestion. But if the treatment
fails and the impacted or overloaded condition of the rumen con-
tinues, it may become necessary to make an incision with a sharp,
long-bladed knife in the left flank, commencing at the point where
it is usual to puncture the stomach of an ox, and prolong the incision
in a downward direction until it is long enough to admit the hand.
When the point of the knife is thrust into the flank and the blade
cuts downward, the wall of the stomach, the muscle, and the skin
should all be cut through at the same time. Two assistants should
hold the edges of the wound together so as to prevent any food from
slipping between the flank and the wall of the stomach, and then the
operator should remove two-third of the contents of the rumen. This
having been done, the edges of the wound should be sponged with a
little carbolized warm water, and, the lips of the wound in the rumen
being turned inward, they should be brought together with catgut
stitches. The wound penetrating the muscle and the skin may then
be brought together by silk stitches, which should pass through the
entire thickness of the muscle and should be about 1 inch apart. The
wound should afterwards be dressed once a day with a lotion and
the animal covered with a tight linen sheet, to protect the wound
from insects and dirt. The lotion to be u.sed in such case is made up
as follows: Sulphate of zinc, 1 dram; carbolic acid, 2 drams; glycerin,

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 27

2 ounces; water, 14 ounces: mix. It is clear that this operation re-
quires special skill and it should be attempted only by those who are
competent.

IMAGINARY DISEASES (HOLLOW HORN; LOSS OF CUD; WOLF IN THE TAIL).

It would appear quite in place here, in connection with the diseases
of the stomach and bowels of cattle, to consider the three old fallacies
or superstitions known by the above names, since these names, when-
ever and wherever used, seem to be invariabl}^ applied to some form
of digestive derangement or disease having its origin in the stomach
and bowels.

Hollow hokis^. — In the first place it should be noted that the horns
of all animals of the ox tribe are hollow. The horn cores are elonga-
tions of the frontal bones of the skull, and the frontal sinuses, which
are the larger of the air spaces of the head, are prolonged into the
horn cores. When a cow is sick, if the horns are hot it is an evi-
dence of fever; if they are cold it indicates impaired circulation of
the blood ; but these manifestations of sickness are to be regarded as
symptoms of some constitutional disorder and do not in themselves
require treatment. The treatment should be applied to the disease
which causes the abnormal temperature of the horns. The usual
treatment for the supposed hollow horn, which consists in boring
the horns with a gimlet and pouring turpentine into the openings
thus made, is not only useless and cruel, but is liable to set up an
acute inflammation and result in an abscess of the sinus.

Loss OF CUD. — The so-called loss of cud is simply a cessation of
rumination, frequently one of the first indications of some form of
disease, since ruminants stop chewing the cud when they feel sick.
Loss of cud is a symptom of a great many diseases, and when it is
detected it should lead the observer to try to discover other symptoms
upon which to base a correct opinion as to the nature of the disease
from which the animal suffers. No local treatment is required.

Wolf in the tail. — This term also seems to be vaguely applied to
various disturbances of the digestive function, or to some disease
which is in reality in the stomach or bowels.

VOMITING.

Vomiting is not to be confounded with rumination, though some
writers have advanced the opinion that it is merely a disordered
and irregidar rumination. It is not of common occurrence in cattle.

Symptoms. — Animals which vomit are frequently in poor condition.
After having eaten tranquilly for some time the animal suddenly' be-
comes uneasy, arches the back, stretches the neck and head, and
then suddenly ejects 10 to 12 pounds of the contents of the rumen.

28 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

After having done this the uneasiness subsides and in a short time
the animal resumes eating as if nothing had happened.

Cause. — The cause of this disordered state of the digestive S5'^stem
in cattle is usually obscure, but has in some cases been traced to a
partial closure of the opening into the second stomach or to a disten-
tion of the esophagus. It has been found to occur ^vhen there was
cancerous disease of the fourth stomach, and experimentally it has
been shown that a suspension of digestion or great derangement of
this stomach produces considerable nervous disorder of the rumen
and sometimes vomiting or attempts to vomit.

Treatment. — Easily digested feed and plenty of water should be
given. Fear and excitement, chasing, or hurrying animals after
they have eaten heartily are liable to bring on this result. In order
to overcome irritation which may produce vomiting the folloAving
draft should be given: Hydrate of chloral, half an ounce; water, 1
pint. The dose must be repeated when the condition of the animal
seems to require it. As a rule, treatment is not successful.

DEPRAVED APPETITE (PICA).

Cattle suffering from this disease have a capricious and variable
appetite as regards their ordinary feed but evince a strong desire to
lick and eat substances for which healthy cattle show no inclination.
Alkaline and saline-tasting substances are especially attractive to
cattle having a depraved appetite and they frequently lick lime,
earth, coal, gravel, and even the dung of other cattle. Cows in calf
and young cattle are especially liable to develop these symptoms.
Animals affected in this way lose condition, their coat is staring, gait
sloAV, and small vesicles containing yellow liquid form under the
tongue; the milk given by such cows is thin and watery. Such ani-
mals become restless and uneasy, as is indicated by frequent bellow-
ing. The disease may last for months, the animal ultimately dying
emaciated and exhausted. Depraved appetite frequently precedes
the condition in which the bones of cattle become brittle and fracture
easih^, which is known as osteomalacia.

Cause. — From the fact that this disease is largely one of regions,
it is generally believed that some condition of the soil and water and
of the local vegetation is responsible for it. It is more prevalent
some years than others, and is most common in old countries, where
the soil is more or less depleted. Cattle pastured on low, swampy
land become predisposed to it. It occasionally happens, however,
that one individual in a herd suffei's though all are fed alike; in such
cases the disease must arise from the affected animal's imperfect
assimilation of the nutritive elements of the feed which is supplied
to it.

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGAKS. 29

Ti'^atment. — The aim in sucli cases must be to improve the process
of digestion and to supply the animal with a sufficiency of sound
and wholesome feed. The following* should be given to the cow
three times a day, a heaping tablespoonful constituting a dose:
Carbonate of iron, 4 ounces ; finely ground bone or " bone flour,"
1 pound; powdered gentian, 4 ounces; common salt, 8 ounces; pow-
dered fenugreek, 4 ounces; mix. In addition to this, 3 tablespoon-
fuls of powdered charcoal may be mixed with the feed three times
a day, and a piece of rock salt should be placed where the animal
can lick it at will. German veterinarians have had brilliant results
from the treatment of this disease with subcutaneous injections of
apomorphin in doses of l^- to 5 grains for three or four days.

HAIR CONCRETIONS.

Hair concretions, or hair balls, result from the habit which some
cattle have of licking themselves or other animals. As a result the
hairs which are swallowed are carried around by the contractions of
the stomach and gradually assume the form of a small pellet or
ball. This increases in size as fresh quantities of hair are intro-
duced into the stomach and adhere to the surface of the ball. These
balls are found most frequently in the reticulum or second stomach
(PI. II, B), though sometimes in the rumen. In calves hair balls
are generally found in the fourth stomach. There are no certain
symptoms by which we can determine the presence of hair balls in
the stomach, and therefore no treatment can be recommended for
such cases. In making post-mortem examinations of cattle we have
sometimes found the walls of the reticulum transfixed with nails
or pieces of ware, and yet the animal had not shown any symptoms
of indigestion, but had died from maladies not involving the second
stomach.

INDIGESTION (DYSPEPSIA, OR GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH).

Tympanites, already described, is a form of indigestion in which
the chief sj^nptom and most threatening condition is the collection
of gas in the paunch. This symptom does not always accompany
indigestion, so it is well here to consider other forms under a sepa-
rate head. If indigestion is long continued, the irritant abnormal
products developed cause catarrh of the stomach and intestines — •
gastrointestinal catarrh. On the other hand, however, irritant
substances ingested may cause gastrointestinal catarrh. Avhich, in
turn, will cause indigestion ; hence, it results that these several con-
ditions are usually found existing together.

Causes. — Irritant feed, damaged feed, overloading of the stomach,
or sudden changes of diet may cause this disease. "Want of exer-

30 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

cise predisposes to it, or feed which is coarse and indigestible may
after a time produce it. Feed which possesses astringent prop-
erties and tends to check secretion may also act as an exciting caiise.
Feed in excessive quantity may lead to disorder of digestion and
to this disease. It is very likely to appear toward the end of pro-
tracted seasons of drought; therefore a deficiency of water must be
regarded as one of the conditions which favor its development.

^ymptoins. — Diminished appetite, rumination irregular, tongue
coated, mouth slimy, dung passed apparently not well digested and
smelling badly, dullness, and fullness of the flanks. The disease
may in some cases assume a chronic character, and in addition to the
foregoing sj^mptoms slight bloating or tympanites of the left flank
may be observed; the animal breathes with effort and each respira-
tion mav be accompanied with a gi-unt, the ears and horns are alter-
natel}^ hot and cold, rumination ceases, the usual rumbling sound in
the stomach is not audible, the passage of dung is almost entirely
suspended, and the animal passes only a little mucus occasionally.
Sometimes there is alternating constipation and diarrhea. There is
low fever in many cases.

The disease continues a few daj^s or a week in the mild cases, while
the severe cases may last several weeks. In the latter form the ema-
ciation and loss of strength may be very great. There is no appe-
tite, no rumination, nor peristalsis. The mouth is hot and sticlrs', the
ej^es have receded in their sockets, and milk secretion has ceased. In
such cases the outlook for recovery is unfavorable. The patient falls
away in flesh and becomes weaker, as is shown by the fact that one
frequent!}^ finds it lying down.

On examining animals which have died of this disease it is found
that the lining membrane of the fourth stomach and the intestines,
particularly the small intestine, is red, swollen, streaked with deeper
red or bluish lines, or spotted. The lining of the first three stomachs
is more or less softened, and may easily be peeled off. The third
stomach (psalter) contains dry feed in hard masses closely adherent
to its walls.

In some cases the brain appears to become disordered, probably
from the pain and weakness and from the absorption of toxins gener-
ated in the digestive canal. In such cases there is weakness and an
unsteady gait, the animal does not appear to take notice of and will
consequently run against obstacles; after a time it falls and gives
up to violent and disordered movements. This delirious condi-
tion is succeeded by coma or stupor, and death ensues.

Treatment. — Small quantities of roots, sweet silage, or selected
grass or hay should be offered several times daily. Very little feed
should be allowed. Aromatic and demulcent drafts may be given to
produce a soothing effect on the mucous lining of the stomachs and

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 31

to promote digestion. Two ounces of camomile flowers should be
boiled for 20 minutes in a quart of water and the infusion on cooling
should be given to the affected animal. This may be repeated three
or four times a day. When constipation is present the following pur-
gative ma}^ be administered: One pound of Glauber's salt dissolved in
a quart of linseed tea and a pint of molasses. After this purgative
has acted, if there is a lack of appetite and the animal does not
ruminate regularly, the powder mentioned in remarks on the treat-
ment of chronic tympanites may be given according to directions.
The diet must be rather laxative and of an easily digestible character
after an attack of this form of indigestion. Feed should be given in
moderate quantities, as excess by overtaxing the digestive functions
may bring on a relapse. Ice-cold water should be avoided.

INDIGESTION FROM DRINKING COLD WATER (COLIC).

This disorder is produced by drinking copiously of cold water,
which arrests digestion and produces cramp of the fourth stomach,
probably of the other stomachs, and also of the bowels.

Causes. — It is not customary for the ox to drink much water at
once. In fact, he usually' drinks slowly and as if he were merely tast-
ing the water, letting some fall out at the corners of his mouth at
every mouthful. It would therefore seem to be contrary to the habits
of the ox to drink copiously: but we find that during hot weather,
when he has been working and is consequently very thirsty, if he
drinks a large quantity of cold water he may be immediately taken
with a very severe colic. Cows which are fed largely on dr}' hay
drink copiously, like the working ox, and become affected in precisely
the same manner. In such cases they are seized with a chill or fit of
trembling before the cramps come on.

Symptoms. — There is some distension of the abdomen, but no accu-
mulation of gas. As the distension and pain occur immediately after
the animal has drunk the water, there can be no doubt as to the
exciting cause.

Treatment. — Walk the animal about for 10 minutes before admin-
istering medicine, and this allows time for a portion of the contents
.of the stomach to pass into the bowel, and renders it safer to give
medicine. In many cases the walking exercise and the diarrhea bring
about a spontaneous cure of this disorder, but as in some instances
the cramps and pains of the stomachs persist, one may give 1 ounce
of sulphuric ether and 1 ounce of tincture of opium, shaken up with
a pint of warm water, and repeat the dose in half an hour if the ani-
mal is not relieved. In an emergency when the medicine is not to be
had, a tablespoonful of powdered ginger may be administered in a
pint of warm water.

32 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

INDIGESTION IN CALVES (GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH, DIARRHEA, OR SCOUR).

Sucking calves are subject to a form of diarrhea to which the fore-
going designations have been applied.

Causes. — Calves that suck their dams are not frequently affected
with this disease, though it may be occasioned by their sucking at
long intervals and thus overloading the stomach and bringing on
indigestion, or from improper feeding of the dam on soft, watery, or
damaged feeds. Suckling the calf at irregular times may also cause
it. Exposure to damp and cold is a potent predisposing cause.
Calves separated from their dams and fed considerable quantities
of cold milk at long intervals are liable to contract this form of
indigestion. Calves fed on artificial feed, used as a substitute for
milk, frequently contract it. Damaged feed, sour or rotten milk,
milk from dirty cans, skim milk from a dirty creamery skim-milk
vat, skim milk hauled warm, exposed to the sun and fed from un-
clean buckets may all cause this disease.

Symptoms. — The calf is depressed; appetite is poor; sometimes
there is fever ; the extremities are cold. The dung becomes gradually
softer and lighter in color until it is cream colored and little thicker
than milk. It has a most offensive odor and may contain clumps of
curd. Later it contains mucus and gas bubbles. It sticks to the
hair of the tail and buttocks, causing the hair to drop off and the sldn
to become irritated. There may be pain on passing dung and also
abdominal or colicky pain. The calf stands about with the back
arched and belly contracted. There may be tympanites. Great
Aveakness ensues in severe cases, and without prompt and successful
treatment death soon follows.

Treatment. — Eemove the cause. Give appropriate feed of best
quality in small quantities. Make sure that the cow furnishing the
milk is healthy and is properly fed. Clean all milk vessels. Clean
and disinfect the stalls. For the diarrhea give two raw eggs or a cup
of strong coffee or 2 ounces of blackberry brandy. If the case is
severe, give 1 ounce of castor oil with a teaspoonful of creolin and
20 grains of subnitrate of bismuth. Repeat the bismuth and creolin.
with blackberry brandy and flaxseed tea every four hours. Tannopin
may be used in dose of 15 to 30 grains.

Calves artificially fed on whole or skim milk should receive only
such milk as is sweet and has been handled in a sanitary manner.
Milk should ahvays be warmed to the temperature of the body
before feeding. When calves artificially milk-fed develop diarrhea,
the use of the following treatment has given excellent results in many
cases: Immediately after milking, or the separation of the skim milk
from the cream, formalin in the proportion of 1 to 4,000 should be
added to the milk Avhich is used for feeding; this may be closely
approximated by adding four drops of formalin to each quart of

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 33

milk. This medicated milk should be fed to the calf in the usual
quantity. When the diarrhea is not controlled in three or four days
by this treatment, the additional use of some of the agents recom-
mended above may assist in a recovery.

INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA; WHITE SCOUR.

[See chapter ou Disejiscs of voung calves, p. 245.]
GASTROENTERITIS.

This consists of an inflammation of the walls of the stomachs and
of the bowel.

Gastroenteritis, or inflammation of the walls of the stomachs and
intestines, folloAvs upon irritations more severe or longer continued
than those that produced gastrointestinal catarrh.

Causes. — Severe indigestion may be followed by gastroenteritis, or
it may be caused by swallowing irritant poisons, such as arsenic or
corrosive sublimate or irritant plants. Exposure to cold or inclement
weather may produce the disease, especially in debilitated animals
or animals fed improperly. It is asserted that if cattle feed on vege-
tation infested with some kinds of caterpillars this disease may result.

Symptoms. — Dullness; drooping of the ears; dryness of the muz-
zle ; drj^ skin ; staring coat ; loins morbidly sensitive to pressure ; full-
ness of the left flank, which is caused by the distention of the fourth
stomach by gas. The pulse is small, the gait is feeble and staggering;
each step taken is accompanied with a grunt, and this symptom is
especially marked if the animal walks in a downward direction.
There is loss of appetite, and rumination is suspended. The passages
at first are few in number, hard, and are sometimes coated with
mucus or with blood. Later a severe diarrhea sets in, when the pas-
sages contain mucus and blood and have an offensive odor. There is
evidence of colicky pain, and the abdomen is sensitive to pressure.
Pain may be continuous. There is fever and acceleration of pulse
rate and respirations. Mental depression and even insensibility occur
before death. The disease is always severe and often fatal.

Post-mortem appearances. — The mucous membrane of the fourth
stomach has a well-marked red color and sometimes presents ulcera-
tions. The wall is thickened and softened, and similar conditions
are found in the walls of the intestines. The red discoloration ex-
tends in spots or large areas quite through the wall, showing on the
outside.

Treatment. — Very small quantities of carefully selected feed must
be given and the appetite must not be forced. Protect the animal
well from cokl and dampness. Internally, give linseed tea, boiled
milk, boiled oatmeal gruel, or rice water. These protectives may
carry the medicine. Tannopin in doses of 30 to 60 grains is good.
33071°— 16 3

34 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Siibnitrate of bismuth in doses of 1 to 2 drams may be given. Pul-
verized opimn may be used, if the diarrhea is severe, in 1 to 2 dram
doses. If the bowel movements are not free, one may give from a
pint to a quart of castor or raw linseed oil.

TRAUMATIC INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH.

This disease results from the presence of a foreign body. This
condition is not rare in cattle, because these animals have the habit of
swallowing their feed without careful chewing, and so nails, screws,
hairpins, ends of wire, and other metal objects may be swallowed
unconsciously. Such objects gravitate to the second stomach, where
they may be caught in the folds of the lining mucous membrane,
and in some instances the wall of this organ is perforated. From this
accident, chronic indigestion results. The symptoms, more or less
characteristic, are pain when getting up or lying down: grunting and
pain upon sudden motion, espe<"ially downhill: coughing: pain on
pressure over the second stomach, which lies immediately above the
cartilaginous prolongation of the sternum. If the presence of such a
foreign body is recognized, it may be removed by a difficult surgical
operation, or, as is usually most economical, the animal may be killed
for beef, if there is no fever.

DISEASES OF THE BOWELS.

DIARRHEA AND DYSENTERY.

[See also Gastrointestinal catarrh, p. 32.]

The word " dysentery," as it is commonly used in relation to the
diseases of animals, signifies a severe form of diarrhea.

Causes. — Diarrhea is a symptom of irritation of the intestines,
resulting in increased secretion or increased muscular contractions,
or both. The irritation is sometimes the result of chilling from
exposure, improper feeding, irritant feeds, indigestion, organic dis-
eases of the intestines, or parasites.

Symptoms. — Passages from the bowels are frequent, at first con-
sisting of thin dung, but as the disease continues they become watery
and offensive smelling, and may be even streaked with blood. At
first the animal shows no constitutional disturbance, but later it
becomes weak and may exhibit evidence of abdominal pain by look-
ing around to the side, drawing the feet together, lying down, or
moving restlessly. Sometimes this malady is accompanied with
fever, great depression, loss of strength, rapid loss of flesh, and it
may terminate in death.

Treatment. — When the disease dej^ends on irritating ])roperties of
the feed which has been su])plied to the animal, it is advisable to give
a mild purgative, such as a pint of castor or linseed oil. When the

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 35

secretions of the bowels are irritating, an ounce of carbonate of mag-
nesia and half an ounce of tincture of opium should be shaken up in
a quart of linseed tea and given to the animal three times a day until
the passages present a natural appearance. When there is debility,
want of appetite, no fever, but a continuance of the watery discharges
from the bowels, then an astringent may be given. For such cases
the following is serviceable : Tannic acid, 1 ounce ; powdered gentian,
2 ounces; mix and divide into 12 powders, one powder to be given
three times a day until the passages present a natural appearance.
Each powder may be mixed with a pint and a half of water. Tanno-
pin is a new remedy that is most useful in such cases. The dose is
from 30 grains to 2 drams. Useful household remedies are raw
eggs, strong coffee, parched rye flour, or decoction of oak bark. In
all cases the food must be given sparingly, and it should be care-
fully selected to insure good quality. Complete rest in a box stall
is desirable. When diarrhea is a symptom of a malady characterized
by the presence of a blood poison, the treatment appropriate to such
disease must be applied.

SIMPLE ENTERITIS.

[See Gastroenteritis, p. 33.]
CROUPOUS ENTERITIS.

Under certain conditions, severe irritation of the digestive canal
may, in cattle, cause a form of inflammation of the intestines (enter-
itis) that is characterized by the formation of a false membrane upon
the surface of the lining membrane of the intestines, particularly
the large ones.

SyTTiptoms. — There is fever, depression, loss of appetite, diarrhea,
and in the fecal masses shreds of leathery false membrane may be
found. These shreds are sometimes mistaken for parasites or for
portions of the wall of the intestine.

Treatment. — Give a pound of Glauber's salt, followed by bicar-
bonate of soda in doses of 2 otmces four times dail5^

ENTERITIS (OBSTRUCTION RESULTING FROM INVAGINATION, OR INTUSSUSCEP-
TION, TWISTING, AND KNOTTING OF THE BOWELS).

Inflammation may arise from a knot forming on some part of the
small intestine from the portion of the bowel becoming twisted on
itself, or from one part of the bowel slipping into another, which is
termed invagination. This form of enteritis occurs occasionally in
animals of the bovine species.

Causes. — The small intestine, which in the ox rests on the right
side of the rumen, is, from the position which it occupies, predisposed
to this accident. It has been ascertained that animals which have
shown symptoms of this malady have trotted, galloped, or made other

36 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

violent exertions in coming from drinking, or that they have been
chased by dogs or by animals of their own species Avhile at pasture.
The accident is most likel}' to occur among cattle on very hilly pas-
tures. The danger of jumping or running is greatest when the rumen
is distended with food.

Symytomis. — This form of enteritis or obstruction is manifested by
severe colicky pains; the ox scrapes and strikes the gi"Ound with his
front and hind feet alternately; keeps lying down and getting up
again; he keeps his tail constantly raised and turns his nose fre-
quently^ to his right flank; he is frequently bloated, or tympanitic,
on that side. He refuses feed and does not ruminate, and for some
hours suffers severe pains. At first he frequently passes thin dung,
and also urinates frequently, but passes only a little urine at a time.
On the second day the pains have become less acute; the animal
remains lying down; moans occasionally; his pulse is small and
quick; he still refuses feed and does not ruminate. At this stage he
does not pass any dung, though sometimes a small quantity of bloody
mucus may be passed. The animal passes very little urine. This
condition may continue for a considerable time, as cattle so affected
may live for 15 or even 20 days.

Post-mortem appearance. — At death the bowels are found to be
misplaced or obstructed, as mentioned above, and inflamed, the in-
flammation always originating at the point where the intestine has
been invaginated, twisted, or laiotted. Sometimes the part is gan-
grenous, the compression of the blood vessels preventing circulation,
and thus causing the death of the tissues.

Treatment. — Purgatives, anodj'nes, and other remedies are of no
service in such cases, and bleeding also fails to produce any benefit.
Indeed, it is usually true that in such cases treatment is useless.
Some cases are recorded in which an incision has been made in the
flank, so as to enable the operator to restore the intestine to its normal
position or to remove the kink.

CONSTIPATION.

Constipation is to be regarded rather as a symptom of disease or of
faults in feeding than as a disease in itself. It occurs in almost all
general fevers unless the bowels are involved in local disease, in
obstructions of all kinds, from feeding on dry, bulky feed, etc. In
order to remove the constipation the treatment must be applied to
remove the causes which give rise to it. Calves sometimes suffer
from constipation immediately after birth when the meconium that
accumulates in the bowels before birth is not passed. In such cases,
give a rectal inpection of warm water and an ounce of castor oil
shaken up with an ounce of new milk. The mother's milk is the best

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 37

food to prevent constipation in the new-born calf, as it contains a
large amount of fatty matter which renders it laxative in its effects.
' It is usually better to treat habitual constipation by a change of
diet than by medicine. Flaxseed is a good feed laxative. If the
constipation has lasted long, repeated small doses of purgatives are
better than a single large dose.

INTESTINAL WORMS.

[See chapter on " The animal parasites of cattle," p. 510.]
RUPTURES (VENTRAL HERNIA).

Ventral hernia, or rupture, is an escape of some one of the abdom-
inal organs through a rupture in the abdominal muscles, the skin
remaining intact. The rumen, the small mtestine, or part of the
large intestine, and the fourth stomach are the parts which usually
form a ventral hernia in bovine animals.

Causes. — Hernia is frequently produced by blows of the horns,
kicks, and falls. In old cows hernia may sometimes occur without
any direct injury.

Hernia of the rumen. — Hernia of the rumen is generally situated
on the left side of the abdomen, on account of the situation of the
rumen. In exceptional cases it may take place on the right side,
and in such cases it also generally happens that some folds of the
intestine pass into the hernial sac. Hernias have been classified into
simple or complicated, recent or old, traumatic (from mechanical
injury) or spontaneous.

In recent traumatic hernia there is swelling on the left side of the
lower part of the abdomen. The swelling is greatest in the cases of
hernia which are situated on the lower part of the abdomen. Unless
an examination is made iimnediately after the injury has been in-
flicted it is difficult, and sometimes impossible, to ascertain the exact
extent of the rupture, owing tg the swelling which subsequently takes
place. Frequently there is no loss of appetite, fever, or other general
symptoms attending the injurj^ From the twelfth to the fifteenth
day the swelling has generally subsided to such an extent that it is
possible by an examination to determine the extent of the rupture.

In old cows what is termed spontaneous hernia may sometimes take
place without any direct injury. The occurrence of this form of
hernia is explained by the increase in the size of the abdomen, which
takes place in an advanced stage of pregnancy, causing a thinning
and stretching of the muscular fibers, which at last may rupture, or
give way. Such hernias frequently occur about the end of the period
of gestation, and in some instances have contained the right sac of
the rumen, the omentum, the small and large intestines, a portion of
the liver, and the pregnant uterus.

38 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

In old hernias the swelling is soft and elastic, and if they have not
contracted adhesions to the sides of the laceration, they can be made
to disappear by pressure carefully applied. Sometimes this accident
is complicated by a rupture of the rumen, constituting a complicated
hernia. If a portion of the contents of the rumen escape into the
abdomen, the case will be aggravated by the occurrence of peritonitis.

Hernia of the bowel. — When the intestines (PL III. fig. 6) form
the contents of the hernia, it will be situated at the right side of the
abdomen. In an intestinal hernia the swelling is usually not painful,
of a doughy consistence or elastic, according as the intestine does or
does not contain alimentary matter. This swelling can generally be
made to disappear h\ pressure, and when it has been reduced one
can easily recognize the direction and extent of the hernial opening.
Hernias of the bowel which are situated at the upper and right side
of the abdomen are usually formed by the small intestine. They are
less easily reduced than a hernia in a lower situation, but when
reduction has been effected they are less readily reproduced than
those occurring lower. In hernias of the small intestme, adhesion of
the protruding parts to the walls of the opening, or strangulation,
are complications M'hich sometimes take place. If adhesion has taken
place the hernia can not be reduced by pressure, and when strangu-
lation has occurred the animal shows symptoms of pain — ^^is restless,
turns its nose to the painful part, and shows those symptoms which
are usually collectively designated under the term colic. If relief is
not afforded, the animal will die.

Hernia or the rennet, or fourth stomach. — This disease occa-
sionally occurs in calves and is usually caused by a blow from a cow's
horn on the right flank of the calf. After such an accident a swell-
ing forms on the right flank near the last rib. This swellmg may be
neither hot nor painful, even at first, and is soft to the touch. It can
be made to disappear by careful pressure, when the sides of the aper-
ture through which it has passed can be felt. The application of
pressure so as to cause the disappearance of the hernia is best made
immediately after the occurrence of the accident, or when the edema
which accompanies the swelling has disappeared.

Treatment. — ^lien a hernia is reducible — that is. can be pushed
back into the abdomen — then, if it is of recent occurrence, it is advis-
able to maintain the natural position of the parts by bandaging and
to allow the walls of the laceration to grow together. The bowels
should be kept reasonably empty by avoiding the use of bulky feed,
and the aiiunal must be kept quiet.

The following method of bandaging is recommended by Bouley :

First prepare a bandage (must be of strong material), about 10 yards long
find between 3 and 4 inches broad, and a flexible and solid piece of pasteboard
adapted in size to the surface of the hernia. The protruding organ must then

DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 39

be replaced in the abdomen and maiutained in that position during the applica-
tion of the bandage. This being done, a layer of melted pitch and tuut)eutine
is quickly spread on the skin covering the seat of the hernia, so as to extend
somewhat beyond that space. This adhesive layer is then covered with a layer
of fine tow, then a new layer of pitch and turpentine is spread on the tow, and
the piece of pasteboard is applied on the layer of pitch, its outer surface being
covered with the same preparation. Lastly, the bandage, adhering to the piece
of pasteboard, to the skin, and to the dilferent turns which it makes around the
body, is carefully applied so as to form an immovable, rigid, and solid bandage,
which will retain the hernia long enough for the wound in the abdominal walls
to heal permanently.

If the hernia is old and small it -may be treated by injecting a
strong solution of common salt about the edges of the tear. This
causes swelling and inflammation, which, respectively, forces the pro-
truded organ back and closes the opening. There is some risk
attached to this method of treatment.

In small, old, ventral hernias the method of compressing and
sloughing off the skin has been used successfully. If the hernia is
large a radical operation will be necessary, and this is also true when
the symptoms indicate that a hernia is strangulated. This operation
is performed b}^ cutting down on the hernia, restoring the organ to
the abdominal cavity, and then closing the wound w^th two sets of
stitches; the inner stitches, in the muscular wall, should be made
with catgut and the outer stitches, in the skin, may be made with silk
or sih-^er wire. The strictest surgical cleanliness must be observed.
Bleeding vessels should be tied. Then a compress composed of ten
or twelve folds of cloth must be placed smoothly over the seat of
injury and a bandage applied around the body, the two ends being
fastened at the back. In the smaller kinds of hernia, nitric acid may
sometimes be applied with success. This treatment should not be
applied until the swelling and inflammation attending the appearance
of the hernia have subsided ; then, the contents of the hernia having
been returned, the surface of skin corresponding to it is sponged over
with a solution composed of 1 part of nitric acid to 2 of water.
This treatment acts by exciting considerable inflammation, which
has the effect of causing swelling, and thus frequently closing the
hernial opening and preventing the contents of the sac from return-
ing. A second apj)lication should not be made until the inflammation
excited by the first has subsided. In what is termed spontaneous
hernia it is useless to applj^ any kind of treatment.

Umbilical hernia. — The umbilicus, or naval, is the aperture
through which the blood vessels pass from the mouth to the fetus,
and naturally the sides of this aperture ought to adhere or unite after
birth. In very young animals, and sometimes in new-born calves,
this aperture in the abdominal muscles remains open and a part of
the bowel or a portion of the mesentery may slip through the open-

40 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ing, constituting what is called umbilical hernia. The Avail of the sac
is formed by the skin, which is covered on the inner siu-face by a
layer of cellular tissue, and within this there is sometimes, but not
always, a layer of peritoneum. The contents of the hernia may be
formed by a part of the bowel, by a portion of the peritoneum, or may
contain portions of both peritoneum and bowel. AVhen the sac con-
tains only the peritoneum it has a doughy feel, but when it is formed
b}'^ a portion of the bowel it is more elastic on pressue.

Causes. — In the new-born animal the opening of the naval is gen-
erally large, and may sometimes give Avay to the pressure of the
bowel on account of the weak and relaxed condition of the abdominal
muscles. This defective and abnormal condition of the umbilicus is
frequently hereditary. It may be occasioned by roughly pulling
away the umbilical cord; through kicks or blows on the belly;
through any severe straining by which the sides of the navel are
stretched apart. We may mention in this connection that it is best
in new-born calves to tie the umbilical cord tightly about 2 inches
from the navel, and then to leave it alone, Avhen in most cases it will
drop off in a few days, leaving the navel closed.

Treatment. — It is well to bear in mind that man}^ and especially
the smaller, umbilical hernias heal spontaneously; that is, nature
effects a cure. As the animal gets older the abdominal muscles get
stronger and possess more power of resistance to pressure, the bowels
become larger and do not pass so readily through a small opening, so
that from a combination of causes there is a gradual grooving to-
gether or adhesion of the sides of the navel. In cases of umbilical
hernia in which there are no indications that a spontaneous cure will
take place, the calf should be laid on its back, immediately on this
being done the hernia will often disappear into the abdomen. If
it does not, its reduction may be brought about b}' gentle handling,
endeavoring, if need be, to empty the organs forming the hernia
before returning them into the abdomen. After the hernia has been
returned, the hair should be clipped from the skin coA'ering it and a
compress composed of 10 or 12 folds of linen or cotton should be
applied, first smearing the skin with pitch and then a bandage about
3 inches wide should be passed round the bodj' so as to retain the
compress in position. The lower part of the compress should be
smeared with pitch, and also those portions of the bandage which
pass over it, so as to keep it solid and prevent it from shifting. In
some cases it will be found that the contents of the sac can not be
returned into the abdomen, and this generally arises from the fact
that some part of the contents of the sac has grown to or become
adherent to the edges of the umbilical opening. In such a case the
skin must be carefully laid open in the long direction, the adhesions
of the protruding organs carefully separated from the umbilicus, and

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OBGANS. 41-

after the protruding parts have been returned into the abdomen, the
sides of the umbilicus must be freshened if necessary by paring, and
then the edges of the opening brought together by catgut stitches;
the wound in the skin must then also be brought together by stitches.
The Avound must be carefully dressed every day and a bandage passed
round the body so as to cover and protect the part operated on.

In small hernias nitric acid has been used successfully in the same
manner as has been described in the treatment of ventral hernia.
Sulphuric acid has also been used for a similar purpose, diluting it
to the extent of 1 part of acid to 3 or 5 of water. In thin-skinned
animals the Aveaker preparations ought to be preferred, and caution
must be exercised in using such preparations so as not to destroy
the tissues on which they are applied.

Another method of treatment is, after the contents of the sac have
been returned into the abdomen, to tie a piece of strong waxed cord
round the pendulous portion which formed the outer covering of the
hernia. The string is apt to slacken after two or three days, when a
new piece of cord should be applied above the first one. The con-
striction of the skin sets up inflammation, which generally extends to
the umbilicus and causes the edges to adhere together, and by the
time the portion of skin below the ligature has lost its vitality and
dropped off, the umbilicus is closed and there is no danger of the
abdominal organs protruding through it. This is what takes place
when this method has a favorable result, though if the umlnlicus does
not become adherent and the skin sloughs, the bowels will protrude
through the opening.

Gut-tie (peritoneal hernia). — In peritoneal hernia of the ox a
loop or laiuckle of intestine enters from the abdomen into a rent in
that part of the peritoneum which is situated at the margin of the
hip bone or it passes under the remains of the spermatic cord, the
end of which may be grown fast to the inner inguinal ring. The
onward pressure of the bowel, as well as the occasional turning of the
latter round the spermatic cord, is the cause of the cord exercising
considerable pressure on the bowel, which occasions irritation, ob-
structs the passage of excrement, and excites inflammation, which
terminates in gangrene and death.

The rent in the peritoneum is situated at the upper and front part
of the pelvis, nearer to the sacrum than the pubis.

Causes. — Among the causes of peritoneal hernia considerable im-
portance is attached to a method of castration which is practiced in
certain districts, viz, the tearing or rupturing of the spermatic cord
by main force instead of dividing it at a proper distance above the
testicle in a surgical manner. After this violent and rough method
of operating, the cord retracts into the abdomen and its stump be-
comes adherent to some part of the peritoneum, or it may wind

42 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

around the bowel and then the stump becomes adherent, so that
strangulation of the bowel results. The rough dragging on the cord
may also cause a tear in the peritoneum, the result of which need not
be described. The severe exertion of ascending hills and mountains,
drawing heavy loads, or the straining which oxen undergo while
fighting each other may also give rise to peritoneal hernia.

Sy7)i2)toms. — The ox suddenly becomes very restless, stamps with
his feet, moves backward and forward, hurriedly lies down, rises,
moves his tail uneasily, and kicks at his belly with the foot of the
affected side. The pain evinced may diminish but soon returns
again. In the early stage there are frequent passages of dung, but
after the lapse of 18 or 24 hours this ceases, the bowel apparently
being emptied to the point of strangulation, and the passages now
consist only of a little mucus mixed with blood. When injections are
given at this time the water passes out of the bowel without even
being colored. The animal lies down on the side where the hernia
exists and stretches out his hind feet in a backward direction. These
two particular symptoms serve to distinguish this affection from en-
teritis and invagination of the bowel. As time passes the animal
becomes quieter, but this cessation of pain may indicate that gangrene
of the bowel has set in, and may. therefore, under certain circum-
stances, be considered a precursor of death. Gangrene may take
place in from four to six days, when perforation of the bowel may
occur and death result in a short time.

Treatinent. — In the first place the ox should be examined by pass-
ing the oiled hand and arm into the rectum; the hand should be
passed along the margin of the pelvis, beginning at the sacrum and
continuing downward toward the inguinal ring, when a soft, painful
swelling will be felt, which may vary from the size of an apple to that
of the two fists. This swelling will be felt to be tightly compressed
by the spermatic cord. It very rarely happens that there is any
similar swelling on the left side, though in such cases it is best to make
a thorough examination. The bowel has sometimes been released
from its position by driving the ox down a hill; by causing him to
jump from a height of 2 feet to the ground; the expedient of trot-
ting him also has been resorted to witli the hope that the jolting
movement might bring about a release of the bowel. If the simple ex-
pedients mentioned have been tried and failed, then the hand being
passed into the rectum should be pressed gently on the swelling in an
upward and forward direction, so as to endeavor to push the im-
prisoned portion of the bowel back into the abdomen. While this is
being done the ox's hind feet should stand on higher ground than the
front, so as to favor the slipping out of the bowel by its own weight,
and at the same time an assistant should squeeze the animal's loins,
so as to cause it to bend downward and so relax tlie band formed by

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. 43

the spermatic cord. If the imprisoned portion of gut is freed, which
may be ascertained by the disappearance of the swelling, the usual
sounds produced by the bowels moving in the abdomen will be heard,
and in a few hours the feces and urine will be passed as usual. If the
means mentioned fail to release the imprisoned portion of the gut,
then an incision about 4 inches long must be made in the right flank
in a downward direction, the hand introduced into the abdomen, the
situation and condition of swelling exactly ascertained, and then a
probe-pointed Imife inserted between the imprisoned bowel and band
compressing it, and turned outward against the band, the latter
being then cautiously divided and the imprisoned gut allowed to
escape, or, if necessar}^, the bowel should be drawn gently from its
position into the abdomen. The wound in the flank must be brought
together in the same way as in the case of the wound made in operat-
ing for impaction of the rumen.

WOUNDS OF THE ABDOMEN.

A wound of the abdomen may merely penetrate the skin; but as
such cases are not attended with much danger, nor their treatment
with much difficulty, we will consider here merely those wounds
which penetrate the entire thickness of the abdominal walls and
expose to a greater or less extent the organs contained in that cavity.

Causes. — Such accidents may be occasioned by falling on fragments
of broken glass or other sharp objects. A blow from the horn of
another animal ma}^ penetrate the abdomen. Exposure and pro-
trusion of some of the abdominal organs may also be occasioned by
the incautious use of caustics in the treatment of umbilical or ventral
hernia. The parts which generally escape through an abdominal
wound are the small intestine and floating colon.

Symptoms. — When the abdominal w^ound is small, the bowel ex-
posed presents the appearance of a small round tumor, but in a few
moments a loop of intestine may emerge from the opening. The ani-
mal then shows symptoms of severe pain by pawing with his feet,
which has the effect of accelerating the passage of new loops of in-
testine through the wound, so that the mass which they form may
even touch the ground. The pain becomes so great that the ox now
not only paws but lies down and rolls, thus tearing and crushing his
bowels. In such cases it is best to slaughter the animal at once ; but
in the case of a valuable animal in Avhich tearing and crushing of the
bowels has not taken place the bowels should be washed with freshly
boiled water reduced to the temperature of the body and returned
and the wounds in the muscle and skin brought together in a manner
somewhat similar to that described in speaking of ventral hernia.

44 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

DISEASES OF THE LIVER AND SPLEEN.

JAUNDICE (THE YELLOWS, OR CONGESTION OF THE LIVER).

When jaundice exists, there is a yellow appearance of the white of
the eyes and of the mucous membrane of the mouth. A similar aspect
of the skin may also be observed in animals which are either partly
or altogether covered with white hair. Jaundice is then merely a
sjanptom of disease and ought to direct attention to ascertaining, if
possible, the cause or causes which have given rise to it. A swollen
condition of the mucous membrane of that part of the bowel called
the duodenum may produce jaundice, as that mechanically closes the
orifice of the biliary duct. In constipation there is an inactive or tor-
pid condition of the bowel, and the bile which passes into the intes-
tine may be absorbed and cause the yellow staining of jaundice.
Jaundice is one of the symptom.s of Texas fever. It may also arise
from the presence of parasites or gallstones in the ducts, forming a
mechanical obstruction to the onward flow of bile. The conditions
under which jaundice most commonly calls for treatment are when
cattle have been highly fed and kept in a state of inactivity. At such
time there is an excess of nutritive elements carried into the blood,
which is associated with increased fullness of the portal vein and
hepatic artery. "^^Hien continued high feeding has produced this
congested state of the liver, the functions of that organ become dis-
ordered, so that a considerable portion of the bile, instead of being
excreted and passing into the intestine, is absorbed by the hepatic
veins.

The structui'e of the liver is shown in Plate IV.

^Symptoms. — This disease, although rare, occurs most frequently
among stall-fed cattle. Pressure along the margin of the short ribs
on the right side produces pain ; the appetite is poor and the animal
shows hardly any inclmation to drink ; the mucous membranes of the
eye and mouth are yellow, the urine has a ^^ellow or brown appear-
ance, the animal lies down much and moves with reluctance, moans
occasionally, and has a tottering gait. The ears and horns are alter-
nately hot and cold ; in cows the secretion of milk is much diminished,
and that which is secreted has a bitter taste; sometimes the animal
has a dry, painful cough and presents a dull, stupefied appearance.

Treatment. — In such cases it is advisable to produce 'a free action
of the bowels, so as to remove the usually congested condition of the
portal vein and liver. For this purpose the administration of the
following dose is recommended: Sulphate of soda, IG ounces;
molasses, 1 pint; warm water, 1 quart. The sulphate of soda is dis-
solved by stirring it up in tepid water. Following this the animal
should have a heaping tablespoonful of artificial Carlsbad salt in
the feed three times daily. This treatment may be assisted by giv-

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. 45

ing occasional injections of warm water and soap. The diet should
be laxative and moderate in quantity and may consist of coarse bran
mash, pulped roots, grass in the season, and hay in moderate
quantity.

HEPATITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER).

Hepatitis is an inflammation of the li^er and usually occurs as a
complication of some infectious disease. It may also occur as a
complication of gastrointestinal catarrh or in hot weather from
overheating or damaged (putrid or fermented) feeds.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are sometimes obscure and their real
significance is frequently overlooked. The most prominent symp-
toms are yellowness of the white of the eye and of the membrane
lining the mouth; the appetite is poor, the body presents an emaci-
ated appearance, the feces are light colored, while the urine is likely
to be unusually dark ; there is thirst, and pain is caused by pressing
over the liver. The gait is weak and the animal lies down more
than usual, and while doing so frequently rests its head on the side
of its chest.

Treatm,ent. — Give a purge of Glauber's salts and after it has oper-
ated give artificial Carlsbad salts in each feed, as advised under
" Jaundice." Give green feed and plenty of water. Oil of turpen-
tine should be rubbed in well once a day over the region of the liver.
The skin on which it should be applied extends from the false ribs
on the right side to 6 inches in front of the last one, and from the
backbone to 12 inches on the right side of it.

FLUKE DISEASE.

[See chapter on " The animal parasites? of cattle," p. 510.]
SPLENITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE SPLEEN).

This disease occurs almost solely as a result of the existence of
some infectious disease, and the symptoms caused by it merge with
the symptoms of the accompany causative disease. The spleen is
seriously involved and iDecomes enlarged and soft in Texas fever,
anthrax, and blood poisoning.

DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM.

PERITONITIS.

Peritonitis consists in an inflammation of the peritoneum, which is
the thin, delicate membrane that lines the abdomen and covers the
abdominal organs.

Causes. — Wounds are the usual cause in cattle. The wound may
be of the abdominal wall or of the intestines, stomach, or uterus ; or
inflammation may extend from one of the organs of the abdominal

46 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

cavity to the peritoneum ; so this disease may complicate enteritis or
inflamed womb. A sliarp metal body may i^erforate the second
stomach and allow the gastric contents to escape, irritating the peri-
toneum. This disease may follow castration or operation for hernia.

Symptoms. — A continuous or occasional shivering; the animal lies
down, but appears uneasy; it frequently turns its head toward its
belly and lows plaintively; pressure on the flanks produces pain; has
no appetite; muzzle is dry and no rumination; while standing, its legs
are placed well under its body ; pulse small and hard. The evacua-
tions from the bowels are dry and hard. If this disease is compli-
cated by the presence of inflammation of the bowels, the j)ain is more
severe and the animal is more restless. The skm is cold and dry in
the early stage of this disease, but in a more advanced stage this con-
dition may be succeeded by heat of the skin and quick breathing.
The fits of trembling, uneasiness, small and hard pulse, and tension of
the left flank are symptoms the presence of which would enable one
to reach the conclusion that peritonitis exists.

Post-mortem appearance. — The membrane lining the abdomen and
covering the surface of the bowels is reddened to a greater or less
extent, and there is usually considerable serous, or watery, fluid col-
lected in the abdomen.

Treatment. — When we have to do with the form of peritonitis re-
sulting from an injury, as when the horn of another animal has been
thrust tlirough the abdominal walls, this lesion must be treated in
accordance with directions before given, but the general treatment
must be similar to that which follows. Peritonitis resultmg from
castration or from parturient fever must also be treated in connec-
tion with the special conditions which give rise to it, as the general
treatment of this disease must be modified to some extent by the
exciting cause.

The aim must be to discover and remove the cause. The cause
must be treated according to its nature. Harms strongly recommends
borax in the treatment of peritonitis. He gives 6 ounces in the first
24 hours, divided into three doses, and afterwards he gives 6 drams
three times daily. Opium in doses of 2 to 3 drams may be given.
To bring on evacuations of the bowels it is better to give rectal injec-
tions than to administer purges. The strength may be sustained by
coffee, whisky, or camphor.

The body should be warmly clothed, and it is advisable, when prac-
ticable, to have a blanket which has been wrung out of hot water
placed over the abdomen, then covered by several dry blankets, which
are maintained in position by straps or ropes passing round the body.
The wet blanket must be changed as it cools — ^the object of treatment
being to Avarm the surface of the body and to determine as much
blood to the skin as possible. The diet should consist of laxative

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 47

food and drinks, such as linseed tea. If peritonitis assumes chronic
form the diet should be nutritions, such as selected clover hay, linseed
cake, grass, etc., and iodid of potassium should be given three times
a day in gram doses dissolved in a j)int of water.

DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN (ASCITES).

In this disease there is a serous, or watery, effusion in the cavity
of the abdomen.

Causes. — When old animals are fed on innutritions feed or when
reduced hy disease, they become anemic : in other words, their blood
becomes impoverished and drops}'^ may follow. An innutritions and
insufficient diet produces the same effect in J^oung animals. It is one
of the results of peritonitis, and may also arise from acute or chronic
inflammation of the liver, such as is of common occurrence when
flukes are present in the liver in large numbers. Heart disease and
chronic lung disease may be followed by ascites. It is sometimes, in
calves, a symptom of infestation with worms.

Syrivptoms. — A gradual increase in the size of the abdomen at its
lower part, AThile the flanks becomes hollow ; pallor of the mucous
membrane of the mouth and eye; weak and sluggish gait: want of
appetite, and irregularity in ruminating. On percussion or tapping
the surface of the abdomen with the fingers, a dull sound is produced.
If the hand and arm are oiled and passed into the rectum as far as
possible, on moving the hand from one side to the other the fluctua-
tion caused by the presence of fluid in the abdomen may be felt.

Treattnent, — :If possible the cause must be discovered and removed.
The diet should be nutritious, and in those cases in which we have
merelj'' to deal with anemia (the bloodless state) arising from insuffi-
cient diet, the use of tonics and diuretics, at the same time keeping
the skin warm, may bring about a gradual absorption of the fluid
contained in the abdomen. One of the following powders may be
mixed with the animal's feed three times a day; or, if there is any
uncertainty as to its being taken in that way, it should be mixed with
sirup, so as to form a paste, and smeared well back on the animal's
tongue with a flat wooden spoon: Carbonate of iron, 3 ounces; pow-
dered gentian. 3 ounces: poAvdered nitrate of potassium, 3 ounces ; mix
and divide into 12 powders. The administration of purgatives which
promote a watery discharge from the mucous surface of the bowels
also tends, by diminishing the serum of the blood, to bring about
absorption and a gradual removal of the fluid contained in the abdo-
men. Large doses should not be given, but moderate ones should
be administered morning and night, so as to produce a laxative effect
on the bowels for several days. To attain this end the following may
be used : Sulphate of soda, 8 ounces; powdered ginger, half an ounce;
to be mixed in 2 quarts of tepid water and given at one dose.

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

DKSCKIPTIOX OF PLATES.

Plate I. Position of the first stomach (rumen or paunch) on tlie left side.
Tlie area is inclosed by heavj' dotted lines I'epresents the rumen; the
elongated, shaded organ is the spleen resting upon it. The skin and
muscles have been removed from the ribs to show the position of the
lungs and their relation to the paunch.
Plate II. Stomach of ruminants.

Pig. 1. Stomach of a full-grown sheep, i natural size (after Thanhoffer,
from R. Meade Smith's Physiology of Domestic Animals) : a, rumen,
or first stomach ; b, reticulum, or second stomach ; c, omasum, or third
stomach ; d, abomasum, or foui'th stomach ; c, esophagus, or gullet,
opening into the first and second stomachs ; /, opening of fourth stomach
into small intestine ; ff, opening of second stomach into third ; 7(, open-
ing of third stomach into fourth.

The lines indicate the course of the food in the stomachs. The incom-
pletely masticated food passes down the esophagus, or gullet, into the
first and second stomachs, in which a claiming motion is kept up,
carrying the food from side to side and from stomach to stomach.
From the first stomach regurgitation takes place; that is, the food is
returned through the gullet to the mouth to be more thoroughly chewed,
and this constitutes what is known as " chewing the cud." From the
second stomach the food passes into the third, and from the third into
the fourth, or true, stomach, and from there into the intentines.

Fig. 2. Stomach of ox (after Colin, from R. Meade Smith's Physiology of
Domestic Animals) : a, rumen; h, reticulum; c, omasum; d, abomasum;
c, esophagus ; /, opening of fourth stomach into small intestine.

Fiirstenberg calculated that in an ox of 1.400 pounds weight the capacity of

the stomach is as follows :

Per cent.

Rmnen, 149.25 quarts, liquid measure 02. 4

Reticidum, 23.77 quarts 10

Omasum, 36.98 quarts 15

Abomasum, 29.05 quarts 12. 6

According to Colon — Quarts.

The capacity of a beef's stomach is 2CG. 81

Small intestine 69. 74

Cecum 9.51

Colon and rectum . 25. 58

Plate III. Instruments used in treating diseases of digestive organs.

Fig. 1. Clinical thermometer, ^ natural size. This is used to determine the
temperature of the animal body. Tlie thermometer is passed into the
rectum after having been moistened with a little saliva from the mouth,
or after having had a little oil or lard rubbed upon it to facilitate its
passage. There it is allowed to remain t^\•o or three minutes, then with-
48

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate II.

Stomach of Ruminants.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate III.

(j.«WMI«|«!Mta»«>»V!

5jfl:;-i7 P'j''''PI!'|'"f'll|'"H'l'lpl'f"f''l'illl|il'l|IM||i'l|llll|ni||ni)|iiii[iMi|i^ ■ A

» m^_im -m

Instruments Used in Treating Diseases of Digestive Organs.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate IV.

Microscopic Anatomy of the Liver.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate V.

Ergot in Hay.

Diseases of Cattle— U. S. Dept of Agr.

Plate VI.

Marx, from nature

4 ft CO BALTIMORE

Ergotism.

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 49

Plate III. — Instruments used in treating diseases of digestive organs — Contd.
drawn, and the temperature read as in any ordinary thermometer. The
clinical thermometer is made self-registering; that is, the mercury in
the stem remains at the height to which it was forced by the heat of
the body until it is shaken 'back into the bulb by taking hold of the
upper portion of the instrument and giving it a short, sharp swing.
The normal temperature of cattle varies from 100° to 103° F. In
young animals it is somewhat higher than in old. The thermometer
is a very useful instrument and frequently is the means by which
disease is detected before the appearance of any external sign.

Fig. 2. Simple probang, used to dislodge foreign bodies, like apples, pota-
toes, eggs, etc., which have become fastened or stuck in the esophagus
or gullet.

Fig. 3. Grasping or forceps probang. This instrument, also intended to
reiuove obstructions from the gullet, has a spring forceps at one end in
the place of the cup-like arrangement at the end of the simple probang.
The forceps are closed while the probang is being introduced ; their
blades are regulated by a screw in the handle of the instrument. This
probang is used to grasp and withdraw an article which may have
lodged in the gullet and can not be forced into the stomach by \ise of
the simple probang.

Fig. 4. Wooden gag, used when the probang is to be passed. The gag is a
piece of wood which fits in the animal's mouth ; a cord passes over the
head to hold it in place. The central opening in the wood is intended
for the passage of the probang.

Figs. 5a and 5b. Trocar and cannula ; 5ff shows the trocar covered by the
cannula ; 5b, the cannula from which the trocar has been withdrawn.
This instrument is used when the rumen or first stoiuach becomes
distend(Hl with gas. The trocar covered by the cannula is forced into
the rumen, the trocar withdrawn, and the cannula allowed to remain
untl! the gas has escaped.

Fig. 0. Section at right angles through the abdominal wall, showing a
hernia or rupture. (Taken from D'Arborval. Dictionnaire de M?(lecine,
de Chirurgie de Hygiene) : a a, The abdominal muscles ciit across; v,
opening in the abdominal wall permitting the intestines i i to pass
through and outward between the abdominal wall and the skin ; p p,
peritoneum, or membrane lining the abdominal cavity, carried through
the opening o by the loop of intestine and forming the sac S, the outer
walls of which are marked b f b.
Plate IV. Microscopic anatomy of the liver. The liver is composed of innu-
merable small lobules, from -j^-^ to tij inch in diameter. The lobules
are held together by a small amount of fibrous tissue, in which the
bile ducts and larger bloml vessels are lodged.

Fig. 1 illustrates the structure of a lobule ; v v, interlobular veins or the
veins between the lobules. These are branches of the portal vein,
which carries blootl from the stomach and intestines to the liver ; c c,
capillaries, or very fine blood vessels, extending as a very fine network
between the groups of liver cells from the interlobular vein to the
center of the lobule and emptying there into the intralobular vein to
the center of the lobule ; v c, intralobular vein, or the vein within the
lobule. This vessel passes out of the lobule and there becomes the
sublobular vein ; v s, sublobular vein. This joins other similar veins
and lielps to form the hepatic vein, through which the blood leaves
33071°— 16 4

50 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Plate IV. Microscopic anatomy of tlie liver — Continued.

tlie liver; d d, tlie position of the liver colls between the meshes of
the capillaries ; A A, branches of the hepatic artery to the interlobular
connective tissue and the walls of the large veins and large bile
ducts. These branches are seen at r r and form the vena vascularis ;
V V, vena vascularis; i i, branches of the hepatic artery entering the
substance of the lobule and connecting with capillaries from the inter-
lobular vein. The use of the hepatic artery is to nourish the liver,
while the other vessels carry blood to be modified by the liver cells in
certain important directions; g, branches of the bile ducts, carrying
bile from the various lobules into the gall bladder and into the intes-
tines ; X X, intralobular bile capillaries between the liver cells. These
form a network of very minute tubes surrounding each ultimate cell,
which receives the bile as it is formed by the liver cells and carried
outward as described.
Fig. 2. Isolated liver cells : c, blood capillary ; a, fine bile capillary channel.

Plate V. Ergot in hay: 1, bluegrass; 2, timothy; 3, wild rye; 4, red top.
Ergot is a fungus which may affect any member of the grass family.
The spore of the fungus, by some means brought in contact with the
undeveloped seed of the grass, grows, obliterates the seed, and prac-
tically takes its place. When hay affected with ergot is fed to animals
it is productive of a characteristic and serious affection or poisoning
known as ergotism.

Plate VI. Ergotism, or the effects of ergot. The lower part of the limb of a
cow, showing the loss of skin and flesh in a narrow ring around the
pastern bone and the exposure of the bone itself.

POISONS AND POISONING.

By V. T. Atkinson, V. S.
[Revised by C. Dwigbt Marsh, Ph. D.]

DEFINITION OF A POISON.

To define clearly the meaning of the word " poison " would be
somewhat difficult. Even in law the word has never been defined,
and when a definition is attempted we are apt to include either too
much or too little. The following definition given by Husemann is
perhaps the best : " Poisons are those unorganized substances, inor-
ganic or organic, existing in the organism or introduced from the
outside, produced artificially or formed as natural products, which,
through their chemical nature, under definite conditions, so affect
some organ of a living organism that the health or well-being of the
organism is temporarily or chronically injured." The common con-
ception of a poison is any substance which, in small quantity, will
destroy life, except such as act by purely mechanical means, as, for
example, powdered glass.

Some substances that are not usually looked upon as poisons may
destroy life if given in large doses, such as common salt. Other sub-
stances which are perfectly harmless when taken into the body in
the usual way are poisons if injected into the circulation, such as
distilled water, milk, or glycerin. Living organisms are not " chem-
ical substances," and are not considered in this connection.

SOURCES OF POISONING.

Poisoning insij come from many causes, among the chief of which
are the following :

(1) Errors in medication. — By using the wrong substance or too
large dose an animal may be poisoned.

(2) The ex'posure of poisons used for Twrticulturcd, technical., or
other legitimate purposes. — Poisons used for spraying plants, disin-
fecting, poisoning vermin, dipping cattle or sheep, painting, smelt-
ing, dyeing, or other purposes may be so handled as to come within
the reach of animals.

(3) DaTMLged food. — Food that has undergone putrefaction or cer-
tain kinds of fermentation or heating, may have become poisonous,
producing forage poisoning, meat poisoning, cheese poisoning, etc.

(4) Poisonous pJants in the pasture or forage.

(5) The bite or sting of a poisonous insect or the bite of an anim/il.

(6) Malicious poisoning.

51

'52 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

THE ACTION OF POISONS.

The action of poisons may be either local, and exerted directly on
the tissues with which they come in contact, or remote, acting through
the circulation or the nervous system ; or both local and remote action
may be exerted by the same drug. Poisons which act locally gener-
ally either destroy by corrosion the tissues with which they come in
contact or by inhalation set up acute inflammation. When any cor-
rosive agent is taken into the stomach in poisonous quantities, a group
of symptoms is developed which is common to all. The tissues with
which the agent comes in contact are destroyed, sloughing and acute
inflammation of the surrounding structures take place ; intense pain
in the abdomen and death ensue. In a like manner, but with less
rapidity, the same result is reached if the agent used be not of a suffi-
ciently corrosive nature to destroy the tissues, but sufficiently irritat-
ing to set up acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
digestive tract. If the poison exerts a remote influence alone, the
action is quite different, little or no local effect being produced upon
the digestive organs.

To produce an effect on some part of the body distant from the
channel of entrance, a poison must have been absorbed and carried
in the blood to the central nervous system or other region involved.
The poisonous effect of any substance is modified by the quantity
used ; by its chemical combinations ; by the part of the animal struc-
ture with which it comes in contact ; by the physical condition of the
subject ; and also by the rapidity with which the poison is excreted.
As an illustration, opium may be given with safety in much larger
doses to an animal suffering from acute pain than to one free from
pain, and to an adult animal with greater safety than to a young one.
The rapidity with which the poison is absorbed, owing to the part of
the body with which it is brought in contact, is also an important
factor. So marked is this quality that some agents which have the
power of destroying life with almost absolute certainty when inti'o-
duced beneath the skin, may be taken into the stomach without caus-
ing inconvenience, as curara, the arrow poisons, or the venomous
secretion of snakes. Other agents in chemical combination may
tend to intensify, lessen, or wholly neutralize the poisonous effect.
For example, arsenic in itself has well-marked poisonous properties,
but when brought in contact with dialyzed iron it forms an insoluble
compound and becomes innocuous. Idiosyncrasies are not go notice-
able in cattle practice as in practice among human beings, but the
uncertainty with which some drugs exert their influence would lead
us to believe that well-marked differences in susceptibility exist.
Even in some cases a tolerance for poison is engendered, so that in a

POISONS AND POISONING. 53

herd of animals equally exposed injurious or fatal effects do not
appear with uniformity. For example, among cattle that are com-
pelled to drink water holding in solution a salt of lead the effects of
the poisoning will be found varying all the way from fatality to
imperceptibility.

GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF POISONING.

It is not always easy to differentiate between poisoning and some
disease. Indeed, examination during the life of the animal is some-
times wholly inadequate to the formation of an opinion as to whether
the case is one of poisoning or, if it is, as to what the poison may be.
A chemical and physical examination after the death of the animal
may be necessary to clear up the doubt. On the other hand, the
symptoms may be of such a nature as to point unmistakably to poi-
soning with a certain agent. In general, the following classes of
symptoms may be regarded as indicative of poisoning : Sudden onset
of the disease without visible cause, a number of animals being simi-
larly affected at once, with severe gastrointestinal disorder or de-
rangement of the nervous system, or both ; sudden alteration of heart
action in relation to frequency, force, or rhythm; local irritation,
dyspnea, or change in the urine or urination.

After death, lesions of the greatest variety may be found, and it is
necessary for one to be skilled in anatomy and pathology in order
to determine their significance. Oftentimes the stomach and intes-
tines are red, have thick walls, and contain blood. This signifies a
severe irritant, such as arsenic or corrosive sublimate. Other altera-
tions sometimes found are inflammation of the kidneys or bladder,
points of hemorrhage in various organs, changes in the blood, con-
gestion of the lungs, and certain microscopic changes.

GENERAL TREATMENT.

The treatment of animals suffering from poison must vary accord-
ing to the nature of the toxic agent. There are a few general plans
of action, however, Avhich should be folloAved so far as possible. In
man and in some of the smaller animals it is possible to eliminate
unabsorbed poison by the use of the stomach pump or by causing
vomiting. These proceedings are impracticable in cattle. It is
well, therefore, in many cases to endeavor to expel the unabsorbed
poison by emptying the digestive tract, so far as may be, with a
nonirritating purge. Castor oil in doses of 1 pint to 2 quarts is
adapted to this purpose. If the poison is known to be nonirritant —
as a narcotic plant — from 10 to 20 drops of croton oil may be given
with a quart of castor oil. When poisons are somewhat prolonged in
their effect, Epsom salt in doses of 1 pound can be given advantage-

54 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ously. To protect the mucous membrane from the action of strong
irritants, one may give flaxseed tea, barley water, the whites of eggs,
milk, butter, olive oil, or fresh lard. Chemical antidotes may some-
times be used for special poisons, as advised below. In general, if
an acid has been taken it may be neutralized with an alkali, such as
chalk, magnesia, bicarbonate of soda (baking soda), ammonia
(diluted), or soap. If the poison is an alkali, such as caustic soda
or potash (lye), or ammonia, an acid, such as diluted (1 per cent)
sulphuric acid or vinegar, may be administered. Special treatments
and antidotes are considered below.

A poisonous agent may be so gradually introduced into the system
as to slowly develop the power of resistance against its own action.
In other cases where the poison is introduced slowly the poisonous
action becomes accumulative, and, although there is no increase in the
quantity taken, violent symptoms are suddenly developed, as if the
whole amount, the consumption of which may have extended over
a considerable period, had been given in one dose. Other agents,
poisonous in their nature, tend to deteriorate some of the important
organs, and, interfering with their natural functions, are productive
of conditions of ill health which, although not necessarily fatal, are
important. Such might properly be called chronic poisons. Poisons
of themselves dangerous when administered in large doses are
used medicinally for curative purposes, and a very large percentage
of the pharmaceutical preparations used in the practice of medicine
if given in excessive quantities may produce serious results. In the
administration of medicines, therefore, care should be exercised not
only that the animal is not poisoned by the administration of an
excessive dose but that injury is not done by continued treatment
with medicines the administration of which is not called for.

MINERAL POISONS.

ARSENIC POISONING.

Of the common irritant and corrosive poisons, arsenic, especially
one of its compounds (Paris green), is likely to be the most danger-
ous to our class of patients. The common practice of using Paris
green and other compounds of arsenic as insecticides for the destruc-
tion of potato beetle and other insect enemies of the farmer and fruit
grower has had the effect of introducing it into almost all farming
establishments. White arsenic is also a principal ingredient in many
of the popular sheep-dipping preparations, and poisoning from this
source occasionally takes place when, after dipping, the flock are
allowed to run in a yard in which there is loose fodder. The drip-

POISONS AND POISONING. 55

pings from the wool of the sheep falling on the fodder render it
poisonous and dangerous to animal life if eaten. Familiarity with
its use has in many instances tended to breed contempt for its
potency as a poison. Rat poisons often contain arsenic. The exces-
sive use of arsenic as a tonic, or of " condition powders " containing
arsenic, has been the means of poisoning many animals. This is the
common poison used by malicious persons with criminal intent. The
poison may also be absorbed through wounds or through the skin if
used as a dip or bath.

If a large dose is given, at once acute poisoning is produced: if
repeated small doses are given, chronic poisoning may result. The
poisonous dose for an ox is from 3 drams to 1 ounce.

SymjJtmns. — The symptoms of acute poisoning first appear as those
of colic; the animal is restless, stamping with the feet, lying down
and getting up. There is tenderness on pressure over the abdomen.
The acute symptoms increase; in a few hours violent diarrhea is
developed ; in many cases blood and shreds of detached mucous mem-
brane are mixed with the evacuations. There is irregular and feeble
pulse and respiration, and death is likely to supervene between the
eighteenth hour and the third day. If the latter period is passed,
there is a reasonable hope of recovery.

In chronic poisoning the symptoms are similar to those of chronic
gastrointestinal catarrh, with indigestion, diarrhea, and general
weakness and loss of condition.

Treatment. — The antidote for arsenic is a solution of hydrated
oxid of iron in water. It should be prepared fresh by mixing a solu-
tion of sulphate of iron, made by dissolving 4 ounces of sulphate of
iron in one-half pint water, with a suspension of 1 ounce of magnesia
in one-half pint water. This quantity is sufficient for one dose for a
cow and may be repeated in an hour, if much arsenic was taken. A
solution of calcined magnesia or powdered iron or iron filings or iron
scale from a blacksmith's forge may be given in the absence of other
remedies. Powdered sulphur is of some value as an antidote. One
must also administer protectives, such as linseed tea, barley water,
whites of eggs, etc.

LEAD POISONING.

Lead poisoning of cattle sometimes comes from their having licked
freshly painted surfaces and thus swallowed compounds containing
white lead. In several instances cattle have been poisoned by silage
from a silo painted inside with lead paint shortly before filling.
Sometimes cattle eat dried paint scrapings with apparent relish and
are poisoned. Cattle grazing on rifle ranges have been poisoned by
lead from the bullets. Sugar of lead has been administered by mis-

66 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

take for Glauber's salt. Lead poisoning may be acute or chronic.
The fatal dose of sugar of lead is from 1 to 4 ounces. AVater drawn
from lead pipes or held in a lead-lined tank may cause poisoning.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are generally dullness, lying down with
the head turned toward the flank, colic, rumbling in the abdomen, loss
of control of the limbs when walking, twitching, champing of the
jaws, moving in a circle, convulsions, delirium, violent belloAving, fol-
lowed by stupor and death. The symptoms generally extend over
considerable time but may end in death after 24 hours.

Treatment. — The treatment should first be directed toward remov-
ing the cause. A large dose of purgative medicine should be given,
and the brain symptoms be relieved by giving bromid of potas-
sium in half-ounce doses every 4 or 5 hours and by the application of
cold water to the head. Dilute sulphuric acid in half-ounce doses
should be given with the purgative medicine. In this case sulphate
of magnesia (Epsom salt) is the best purgative, and it may be given
in doses of from 1 to 2 pounds dissolved in warm water. After the
acute symptoms have abated, iodid of potassium may be given, in
doses of 2 drams each, three times a day for a week.

Chronic lead poisoning occasionally occurs in districts where lead
mining is the principal industry. The waste products of the mine
thrown into streams contaminate the water supply, so that the min-
eral is taken into the system gradually, and a very small per cent of
any of the salts taken into the system in this way is pernicious.
Water which contains any salt of lead to the extent of more than
one-tenth of a grain to the gallon is unfit to drink. Such water when
used continually is likely to produce colic from the resulting intesti-
nal irritation, and in aggravated cases paralysis more or less severe
is likely to be developed. A blue line on the margin of the gums,
the last symptom, is regarded as diagnostic and its presence as con-
clusive evidence of the nature of the disorder. The free use of pur-
gatives is indicated with iodid of potassium.

Treatment. — No treatment is likely to be of avail until the cause is
removed.

COPPER POISONING.

The soluble salts of copper, though used as a tonic in the medicinal
treatment of cattle, are poisonous when taken in large quantities.
Like lead and arsenic, they have an irritant effect upon the mucous
membrane with which they come in contact in a concentrated form.
Cattle are not very likely to be poisoned from this cause unless
through carelessness. Sulphate of copper, commonly called blue
vitriol, is occasionally used for disinfecting and cleansing stables,
where it might inadvertently be mixed with the feed. It is also used
largely for making the Bordeaux mixture used in spraying fruit

POISONS AND POISONING. 57

trees. The general symptoms produced are. those of intestinal irrita-
tion, short breathing, stamping, and tender abdomen.

Treatment. — Give powdered iron, or iron reduced by hydrogen, or
calcined magnesia. Sulphur may be used. This should be followed
by a liberal supply of demulcents, linseed infusion, boiled starch,
whites of eggs, etc.

ZINC POISONING.

Several of the soluble salts of zinc are irritant poisons. The
chlorid and sulphate are those in most common use. In animals
A.Iiich have power to vomit they are emetic in their action. In
others, when retained in the stomach, they set up more or less irri-
tation of the mucous membrane and abdominal pain, producing
symptoms already described in the action of other poisons which
produce the same result.

Treatment. — The treatment should be the same as for copper poi-
soning,

PHOSPHORUS POISONING.

Only one of the forms of phosphorus in common use-r-the ordinary
yellow — is poisonous. Phosphorus in this form is used for the
destruction of rats and mice and other vermin, and has been largely
used in the manufacture of matches.

SymptoTns. — The symptoms are loss of appetite, colic, diarrhea,
irritation of the mouth and throat, and paralysis of the throat.
Thei'e is also weakness, difficult breathing, and rapid pulse. The
course of the poisoning is usually rapid, terminating in either recov-
ery or death Avithin three days. The toxic dose for cattle is from
5 to 30 grains. If taken in large quantities the excreta are occa-
sionally noticed to be luminous when examined in the dark.

Treatment. — Turpentine is given in an emulsion with flaxseed tea in
a single dose of from 2 to 8 ounces. Permanganate of potassium may
be given in a one-fourth of 1 per cent solution. Stimulants, such
as alcohol and ether, should be administered. Oils and milk must
not be given.

MERCURY POISONING.

Mercury poisoning is not rare in cattle from the fact that these
animals have a specifvl susceptibility to the action of this substance.
Antiseptic washes or injections containing the bichlorid of mercury
(corrosive sublimate) must be used on cattle with gi*eat care. Mer-
curial disinfecting solutions or salves must be used cautiously.
Calomel can not be given freely to cattle.

SymptoTns. — The symptoms are salivation, sore mouth, indiges-
tion, diarrhea, skin eruption, paralysis of local groups of muscles,
and nephritis.

58 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Treatment. — The treatment consists in administering sulphur in
large doses (2 to 4 ounces) or iron powder. Both make insoluble
compounds with mercury. Follow with the whites of eggs mixed
with water and with linseed tea. If the case does not terminate
promptly, give iodid of potash in 1-dram doses twice daily.

POISONING BY ACIDS.

Mineral acids. — The mineral acids — nitric, sulphuric, hydrochlo-
ric, etc. — when used in a concentrated form destroy the animal
tissues with which they come in contact, and in this respect differ
from most of the poisons previously described. Wlien taken into
the stomach the mucous membrane of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
and stomach is apt to be more or less completely destroyed. If taken
in large quantities death is likely to result so speedily that nothing
can be done to relieve the patient, and even if time is allowed and the
action of the acid can be arrested it can not be done until consider-
able and, perhaps, irreparable damage has been done. The mucous
membrane with which the acid has come in contact in the esophagus
may be destroyed by its corrosive action and carried away, leaving
the muscular tissues exposed. The raw surface heals irregularly,
the cicatrice contracting causes stricture, and an animal so injured
is likely to die of starvation. In the stomach even greater damage
is likely to be done. The peristaltic action of the esophagus carries
the irritant along quickly, but here it remains quiet in contact with
one surface, destroying it. It is likely to perforate the organ and,
coming in contact with the abdominal lining or other organs of di-
gestion, soon sets up a condition that is beyond repair. In a less
concentrated form, when this is not sufficiently strong to be corrosive,
it exerts an irritant effect. In this form it may not do much harm
unless taken in considerable quantity. When thus the mucous
membrane of the stomach and intestines becomes inflamed- pain and
diarrhea are likely to result.

Treatment. — Any of the alkalies may be used as an antidote.
Most convenient of these are chalk, baking soda, marble dust, mag-
nesia, lime, soap, or plaster from a wall. Mucilaginous drinks
should be given in large quantities.

Vegetable acids. — Oxalic acid in particular is corrosive in its
action when taken in concentrated solution, losing its corrosive
effect and becoming irritant when more dilute. It also exerts a
specific effect on the heart, frequently causing death from syncope.
Taken in the form either of the crystals or solution it is likely to
cause death in a very short time. Failure of heart action and the
attendant small pulse, weakness, staggering, and convulsions are the
more noticeable symptoms. Acetic acid is irritant to the gastro-
intestinal tract, and may cause sudden paralysis of the heart.

POISONS AND POISONING. 59

Treatment. — The action of the acid, should be counteracted by the
use of alkalies, as advised above, by limewater or lime or plaster
given promptly, by protectives to the digestive tract, and by stimu-
lants.

POISONING BY ALKALIES.

The carbonates of potasli and soda and the alkalies themselves in
concentrated form cause symptoms of intestinal irritation similar to
those produced by mineral acids. Ammonia, caustic soda, and caus-
tic potash (lye) are those to which animals are most exposed. The
degree of their caustic irritant effects depends on their degree of
concentration. When they reach the stomach the symptoms are
nearlj'^ as well marked as in the case of the acids. The irritation is
even more noticeable, and purgation is likely to be a more prominent
symptom. If death is not caused soon, the irritation of the gastro-
intestinal tract and malnutrition will last for a long time.

Treatment. — Treatment consists in neutralizing the alkali by an
acid, such as dilute sulphuric acid. (1 per cent) or strong vinegar.
The administration of such an antidote and its action must be care-
fully watched during administration. In the chemical change which
takes place when the acid and alkali are combined, carbonic-acid gas
is liberated, which may be to an extent sufficient to cause considerable
distention of the abdomen, and even to produce asphyxia from pres-
sure forward on the diaphragm. Should this danger present itself,
it may be averted by opening the flank, permitting the gas to escape.
(See "Acute tympanites, or Bloating," p. 22.) Flaxseed or slippery-
elm decoction must be given to sooth the inflamed mucous surface.
Opium may be used to allay pain.

COAL-OIL POISONING.

Coal oil is sometimes administered empirically as a treatment for
intestinal parasites. If given in large doses it produces poisonous
effects, which are likely to be manifested some time after the adminis-
tration. It acts as an irritant to the digestive tract, causing drib-
bling of ropy saliva from the mouth, diarrhea, tenesmus, and loss
of appetite, with increased, temperature and cold extremities. Visible
mucous membranes are injected, pupils of the eyes are contracted,
and there is a watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils. Re-
motely it exerts a depressing influence on the functions of the brain
and slight coma, and occasionally convulsions, from which the animal
is easily aroused. The kidneys also suffer. The urine is dark
colored and has the characteristic odor of coal oil. Death may re-
sult from gastroenteritis or convulsions.

Treatment. — The patient's strength should be fostered by the fre-
quent administration of mild stimulants, of which aromatic spirits

60 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

of ammonia is perhaps the best. The animal should be encouraged
to eat soft feed and given mucilaginous drinks.

Crude coal oil is sometimes applied to the skin to kill parasites.
If too much is used, especially in hot weather, great weakness and
depression may be caused and in some cases death may result.

CARBOLIC-ACID POISONING.

Although one of the most valuable antiseptic remedies, carbolic
acid in a concentrated form, when taken internally or used over a
large surface externally, is likely to produce poisonous effects. It
causes whitening, shrinldng, and numbness of the structures with
which it comes in contact, and, besides its irritant effect, exerts a
powerful influence on the nervous system. Being readily absorbed,
it i^roduces its effect whether swallowed, injected into the rectum,
inhaled, or applied to wounds, or even to a large tract of unbroken
skin. Used extensively as a dressing, it may produce nausea, dizzi-
ness, and smoky or blackish colored urine. The last symptom is
nearly always noticeable where the poisonous effect is produced. In
more concentrated form, or used in larger quantities, convulsions,
followed by fatal coma, are likely to take place. Even in smaller
quantities, dullness, trembling, and disinclination for food often
continue for several days. In a tolerably concentrated solution it
coagulates albumen and acts as an astringent.

Treatment. — As an antidote internally, a solution of sulphate of
soda or sulphate of magnesia (Glauber's or Epsom salt) may be
given. The white of egg is also useful. Stimulants may be given if
needed. When the poisoning occurs through too extensive applica-
tions to wounds or the skin, as in treatment of mange, cold water
should be freely applied so as to wash off any of the acid that may
still remain unabsorbed. As a surgical dressing a 3 per cent solu-
tion is strong enough for ordinary purposes. Water will not hold
more than 5 per cent in permanent solution. No preparation
.stronger than the saturated solution should be used medicinally
under any circumstances.

SALTPETER POISONING.

Both nitrate of soda and nitrate of potassium are poisonous to cattle.
These substances are used for manure and for preserving meats.
They may be administered in a drench by error in place of Glauber's
salt, or they may be exposed within reach of cattle and thus be eaten.
The toxic dose depends upon the condition of fullness of the stomach.
If in solution and given on an empty stomach, as little as 3 ounces of
saltpeter (nitrate of potassium) may be fatal to a cow. More of the
Chile saltpeter (nitrate of soda) is required to cause serious trouble.

POISONS AND POISONING. 61

Symptoms. — Severe gastroenteritis, colic, tympanites, diarrhea,
excessive urination, wealaiess, trembling, convulsions, collapse.
Treatment. — Same as for poisoning by common salt.

POISONING BY COMMON SALT.

A few pounds (3 to 5) of common salt will produce well-marked
signs of poisoning in cattle. So much salt as this will not be taken
by cattle except under unusual conditions. If the feed is poor in
salt, and if no salt has been given for a long time, an intense " salt
hunger " may occur that may lead an animal to eat a poisonous
quantity if it is not restricted; or an overdose of salt may be given
by error as a drench.

Herring and mackerel brine and pork pickle are also poisonous,
and are especially dangerous for hogs. In these substances there
are, in addition to salt, certain products extracted from the fish or
meat which undergo change and add to the toxicity of the solution.
Sometimes saltpeter is present in such brines.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are gi-eat thirst, abdominal pain, diar-
rhea, poor appetite, redness and dryness of the mouth, increased
urination, paralysis of the hind legs, weak pulse, general paralysis,
coma, and death in from six to eight hours.

TreatTTient. — Allow as much warm water as the animal will drink ;
give j)rotectives, such as linseed tea, etc. Linseed or olive oil may
be given. To keep up the heart action give ether, alcohol, camphor,
digitalis, or coffee. To allay pain, give opium.

VEGETABLE POISONS.

Vegetable poisons may be divided into two classes — those that
are likely to be administered to the animal as medicine, and such
as may be taken in the feed, either in the shape of poisonous plants
or as plants or feeds of vegetable origin that have been damaged
by fungi or by bacteria which have produced fermentation or putre-
faction.

VEGETABLE POISONS USED AS MEDICINE.

OPIUM (MORPHIN. LAUDANUM) POISONING.

Opium and its alkaloid, morphia, are so commonly used in the
practice of medicine that the poisonous result of an overdose is not
uncommon. The common preparations are gum opium, the inspis-
sated juice of the poppy; powdered opium, made from the gimi;
tincture of opium, commonly called laudanum; and the alkaloid or
active principle, morphia. Laudanum has about one-eighth the
strength of the gum or powder. Morphia is present in good opium
to the extent of about 10 per cent. In medicine it is a most useful
agent in allaying pain. It first produces a stimulating action,

62 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

which is followed by drowsiness, a disposition to sleep or complete
anesthesia, depending on the quantitj'^ of the drug used. In poi-
sonous doses a state of exhilaration is well marked at first. This
is particularly noticeable in cattle and in horses. The animal be-
comes much excited, and this stage does not pass into insensibility
unless an enormous dose has been given. If the dose is large enough,
a second stage sometimes supervenes, in which the sjmiptoms are
those of congestion of the brain. The visible membranes have a
bluish tint (cyanotic) from interference with the air supply. The
breathing is slow, labored, and later stertorous; the pupils of the
eyes are very much contracted ; the skin dry and warm. Gas accu-
mulates in the stomach, so that tympanites is a prominent symptom.
The patient may be aroused by great noise or the infliction of sharp
pain, when the breathing becomes more natural. A lapse into the
comatose condition takes place when the excitement ceases. Later,
there is perfect coma and the patient can no longer be aroused from
the insensible condition. The contraction of the pupil becomes more
marked, the breathing intermittent and slower, there is perspiration,
the pulse more feeble and rapid, till death takes place. Poisoning of
cattle with opium or its products rarely goes beyond the stage of
excitement, because the quantity of the drug required for the later
effects is so great. Seventy-five grains of morphia administered sub-
cutaneously has sufficed merely to excite for 12 hours.

Treatment. — Give strong coffee, 1 to 4 quarts, aromatic spirits of
ammonia or carbonate of ammonia. Atropia is the physiological
antidote.

STRYCHNIN POISONING.

Strychnin is a very concentrated poison and produces its effect
very quickly, usually only a few minutes being necessary if given in
sufficient dose and in such a way that it will be at once absorbed.
When employed as a medicine, as a rule, minimum doses should be
used, as cattle are quite susceptible to its effects and may be killed
by the maximum doses given in the common manuals of veterinary
medicine. The first noticeable symptom is evidence of unrest or
mental excitement; at the same time the muscles over the shoulder
and croup may be seen to quiver or twitch, and later there occurs a
more or less well-marked convulsion; the head is jerked back, the
back arched and leg extended, the eyes drawn. The spasm continues
for only a few minutes, when it relaxes and another occurs in a short
time. The return is hastened by excitement and in a short time
again disappears, continuing to disappear and reappear until death
results. As the poisonous effect advances the intervals between the
spasms become shorter and less marked and the spasms more severe
until the animal dies in violent struggles.

POISONS AND POISONING. 63

Treatment. — The best method is to put the patient under the influ-
ence of chloral, chloroform, or ether, and keep it there continuously
until the effect of the poison has passed off. Alcohol may be given
in large doses.

ACONITE POISONING.

In recent years tincture of aconite has become a popular stable
remedy. If an animal is ailing, aconite is given whether indicated
or not. Fortunately the dose used is generally small, and for this
reason the damage done is much less than it would otherwise be.
Aconite is one of the most deadly poisons laiown. It produces
paralysis of motion and sensation, depresses the heart's action, and
causes death by paralysis of respiration. In large doses it causes
profuse salivation, champing of the jaws, and attempts at swallow-
ing. If not sufficient to cause death, there is impaired appetite with
more or less nausea for some time after. In poisonous doses it causes
the animal to tremble violently, to lose power to support itself, and
brings on slight convulsions, with perspiration. The pulse is de-
pressed, irregular, and afterwards intermittent.

Treatment. — The chemical antidote is tannic acid, which forms an
insoluble compound with the aconitin. The depressing effect on the
heart should be counterated by the use of ammonia, digitalis, alcohol,
camphor, or other diffusible stimulants, which have a physiological
effect opposite to aconite.

POISONOUS PLANTS.

An important group of poisons may be classed under this head.
In some cases it is poison naturally belonging to the plant; in other
cases the poisonous principle is developed in what would otherwise
be harmless plants as a plant disease, or as a fermentation or putre-
faction due to bacterial growth and observed in forage, grain, or
meat that has become heated, damaged, or " spoilt."

The subject of poisonous plants is an important one and is of
especial interest to those using the western stock ranges, for it is
probable that there is no other single cause producing so many fatali-
ties. In this article only a few of the more important plants are
treated in a brief way, for an extended treatise would be necessary
if the subject were to be handled adequately. Further information
should be sought in the more elaborate publications. Many of the
American poisonous plants have been treated in bulletins issued
from the United States Department of Agriculture.

Treatment for plant poisoning. — Remedies given by the mouth in
most cases fail to give relief to cattle affected by poisonous plants.
The material of the poisonous plant in the first stomach is not very
largely affected by a remedy given as a drench. If any beneficial

64 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

result is effected, it must be on the material which has already passed
into the fourth stomach, so that to get any re-al antidotal result the
remedy must be given repeatedly in order to meet the alkaloid poi-
sons as they are passing through the fourth stomach. While certain
substances like tannic acid and potassium permanganate are the
logical antidotes for plant poisons, in practical application they are
^ery disappointing in the treatment of ruminant animals. Reliance
must be mainly on prevention and upon such remedies as will in-
crease elimination. A laxative or purgative is always helpful, and
for this purpose Epsom salt may be given in pound doses, or linseed
oil in doses of 1 or 2 pints. In some few cases special remedies can
be given as is indicated below.

ACORNS.

Many cases of the poisoning of cattle by acorns have been reported
in England and Germany, and there have been some complaints in
the United States. Harmful results do not seem likely to occur
except as the acorns are eaten in a considerable quantity, and a
change of diet ordinarily leads to recovery. The most prominent
symptoms are depression and constipation, followed by diarrhea.

HORSE CHESTNUT— BUCKEYE.

All the species of ^sculus, popularly known as horse chestnut or
buckeye, are considered poisonous. The bark, leaves, and fruit are
injurious. It is said that if the fruit is. boiled or roasted and washed
out it becomes harmless and even is a desirable addition to the feed
of cattle. The Indians in time of scarcity of food have used the fruit
after preparing it in this way. The buckeyes are said to have a
specific effect in producing abortion in cattle and goats.

FLY POISON— CHROSPERMA.

This plant, belonging to the lily family, and sometimes kno^sTn as
" stagger grass," causes a considerable loss in the Southern States.
It grows earlier than the grasses, and on this account is more likely
to be eaten. It is very poisonous. It produces pronounced nausea,
resulting in vomiting and weakness, and in cases which recover the
effects may continue for several days. Apparently the injurious
effects are more common in the case of cattle than in other domestic
animals. There is no known way of treating these animals, though
doubtless purgatives would be beneficial.

YEW (TAXUS BACCATA).

The European yew has long been known as a very poisonous plant.
It is cultivated in America, and while cases of poisoning have not
been common, it is well to recognize its dangerous character. A

POISONS AND POISONING. 65

comparatively small dose is poisonous and ordinarily acts with great
rapidity. It causes respiratory paralysis and the animal dies in
convulsions.

LAUREL.

The laurels, including the broad-leafed laurel, Kalmia latifolia^
the narrow-leafed laurel, Kalmm angustifolia^ the rhododendrons,
and other closely related plants are poisonous and cause considerable
losses. It is dangerous to let cattle graze where these plants are
abundant at times when other forage is scarce. The symptoms are
salivation, nausea and vomiting, spasms, dizziness, stupor, and death.

FERN.

The common brake or bracken fern, Pteris aqwilina^ has been con-
sidered responsible for the poisoning of many hoi^ses and cattle.
Many cases have been reported in England and Germany, and some
well-authenticated cases in the United States. Very little has been
learned experimentally of fern poisoning, but there seems to be little
question that it has been the cause of many deaths. The symptoms
are said to be temperature higher than normal, loss of appetite,
bloody discharges from mouth, nose, and bowels, and great depres-
sion followed by coma and death. Some authors say that the urine
is colored by blood. It is thought by some that the disease known as
" red water " in the northwestern United States and Canada is
caused by eating ferns.

SORGHUM POISONING.

Under certain conditions sorghum contains enough hydrocyanic
acid to make it exceedingly dangerous to cattle. These cases of poi-
soning most commonly occur when cattle are pastured upon the
young plant or upon a field where the crop has been cut and is mak-
ing a second gi'owth. .Conditions of drought make the sorghum
especially dangerous. There is some reason to think that the frosted
second growth is particularly rich in hydrocyanic acid. The cases
of poisoning occur when animals are grazed upon the plant, but not
from the harvested crop or from silage. If cattle are grazed on
sorghum or sorghum stubble they should at first be under constant
observation and should be removed as soon as any signs of illness
appear. Similar precautions should be used in grazing kafir.

CORNSTALK DISEASE.

Considerable losses of cattle have occurred when they were turned

upon cornfields in the fall. Deaths come very suddenly and there

is no opportunity to apply remedies. It has been thought that these

fatalities, like those from sorghum, were caused by hydrocyanic acid,

33071°— 16 5

66 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

but there is good reason to think that this is not true, and at the
present time there is no accepted explanation of this disease, al-
though there seems to be no doubt that it is connected in some way
with the condition of the corn. Whether a given field is poisonous
or not can only be determined by experiment, and the wise farmer
will keep his cattle under close observation when they are first turned
into a cornfield.

WATER HEMLOCK (CICUTA).

This plant, growing in wet places by ditches and along creeks,
is the most poisonous of North American plants. The root is the
poisonous part, and cattle generally get it when it is plowed up or
washed out by high water. Sometimes they pull it up, for the plant
occasionally grows out into ditches so that the whole plant will be
taken in grazing. The most marked symptoms of Cicuta poisoning
are the violent convulsions, which remind one of the effect of
strychnin.

Treatment. — Little can be done in the way of treatment. The
logical thing is to attempt to control the convulsions by means of
morphia, but in view of the fact that the stomach can not be emptied,
the prognosis is not good, and most cases die.

LARKSPURS.

The larkspurs are a source of heavy loss to cattle owners in the
higher ranges of the West. There are a number of species, growing
at altitudes from 4,000 feet to timber line, and all are poisonous.
KSome few cases of poisoning by larkspurs have been reported in the
eastern United States, but most of the losses are confined to the
West, both because larkspurs grow there in greater profusion and
because cattle are grazed in that region on the open ranges. The
losses are confined to cattle, for sheep and horses can graze on lark-
spur with no resulting harm. Most of the larkspur losses occiu- in
the spring and early summer, as the plants lose their toxicity after
maturing.

SymptoTns. — Larkspur poisoning is accompanied by a definite line
of symptoms. In range animals the first symptom noted is generally
the sudden falling of the animal and consequent inability to rise.
After a while it may rise, only to fall again. This may happen re-
peatedly. In severe cases the animal lies prone and exhibits nausea,
accompanied by vomiting. It dies of respiratory paralysis, death
many times being hastened by the asphyxia following the vomiting.

Treatinent' — The animal, if found down, should be turned so that
its head is uphill in order to relieve the lungs. Many cases will
recover with no further treatment. Nearlv all cases will recover

POISONS AND POISONING. 67

if a hypodermic injection is given immediately of pliysostigmin
salicylate 1 grain, pilocarpin hydrochlorid 2 grains, strychnin sul-
phate ^ grain.

LOCO.

The loco plants have caused especially heavy losses of cattle, horses,
and sheep. They grow in the semiarid regions of the West and some-
times in great luxuriance. The best known are the " woolly loco "
or "purple loco" and the "white loco" or "rattle weed." The
purple loco, Astragalus mollissimus^ is common in Texas and the
adjoining States and extends north as far as Nebraska and Colorado.
It is especially destructive to horses. The white loco, Oxytropis lam-
Ijerti^ is still more widely distributed, being found in the plains
region from Alaska to Mexico and west of the Eocky Mountains to
central Utah. The white loco is much more important than the
purple loco, for it affects not only horses but cattle and sheep. These
plants belong to the pea family, and there are a number of other
species of this family in Arizona, New Mexico, and California that
are loco plants and produce the same symptoms. Just how many of
these loco plants there are is not known, as definite experimental work
has been carried on only in the cases of the white loco and the purple
loco.

Syrrbftorris. — Loco poisoning is a chronic condition and symptoms
are shown only after somewhat prolonged feeding. The condition
is one of cumulative poisoning, and animals sometimes decline very
rapidly after the first symptoms appear. In many cases animals
acquire a habit of eating loco and prefer it to any other feed. The
poison affects the central nervous system. There is a lack of mus-
cular coordination and the animal performs very erratic movements.
In the later stages the animal becomes emaciated and eventually dies
of starvation.

Treatment. — Locoed animals are badly constipated, and it is im-
portant that this condition should be remedied at the start. Any
purgative can be used, but Epsom salt has been found especially
effective. If locoed animals can be turned into a field of alfalfa, a
large proportion of them will recover with no further treatment.
Recovery may be aided by giving cattle, hypodermically, daily doses
of three-twentieths to four-twentieths grain of strychnin. By this
treatment cattle can be cured and put in condition for market.

ERGOTISM.

The poisonous effects of ergot (Pis. V, VI) appear chiefly in the
winter and spring of the year and among cattle. It is developed
among grasses grown on rich soil in hot, damp seasons. Rye seems
more liable to ergot than any of our other crops. Of the grasses

68 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

which enter into the composition of haj^ bhiegrass is the most likely
to become affected. Ergot may also affect redtop, oats, grasses,
and grains. On the plant the fungus manifests itself on the seeds,
where it is easily recognized Avhen the hay is examined in the mow.
The ergotized seeds are several times larger than the natural seeds —
hard, black, and generally curved in shape.

The effect of the protracted use of ergot in the feed is pretty well
understood to be that of producing a degeneration and obstruction
of the smaller arterial branches. The result is to shut off the blood
supply to the distal parts of the body, where the circulation is weak-
est, and thus to produce a mummification or dry gangrene of the
extremities, as the ears, tail, feet, etc. Cattle seem to be more suscep-
tible than other animals to the influence of ergot, possibly on account
of the slowness of the heart's action. AA-lien the effect of the poison
has become sufficient to entirely arrest the circulation in any part, the
structures soon die. The disorder manifests itself as lameness in one
or more limbs; swelling about the ankle which may result in only
a small slough or the loss of a toe, but it may circumscribe the limb
at any point below the knee or hock by an indented ring, below
which the tissues become dead. The indentation soon changes to a
crack, which extends completely around the limb, forming the line
of separation between the dead and living structures. The crack
deepens till the parts below drop off without loss of blood, and fre-
quently with very little pus. Ergot may cause serious in-itation of
the digestive tract, or by acting upon the nervous system it may
cause lethargy or paralysis. It also operates to cause contraction of
the uterus, and may thus cause abortion.

Treatment. — Regarding the treatrnent, change of feed and local
antiseptics are, of course, indicated. The former may be useful as a
preventive, but when the symptoms have appeared the animal is nec-
essarily so completely saturated that recovery is likely to be tedious.
Tannin ma;'/ be given internally in doses of one-half dram twice
daily for a few days to neutralize the unabsorbed alkaloids of the
ergot. At the same time give castor oil. To dilate the blood vessels
give chloral hydrate. Bathe the affected parts with hot water. If
sloughing has gone far, amputation must be resorted to.

OTHER POISONOUS FUNGI.

Many other fungi poison herbivora. In some instances, however,
where fungi are blamed for causing disease their presence on the
feedstuff or herbage is but coincidental with some other and more
potent disease-producing factor. For example, if the conditions are
favorable to the growth of fungi they are also favorable to the
growth of bacteria, and bacteria may produce poisons in feeds. In
general it may be said that any feed that is moldy, musty, or putrid

POISONS AND POISONING. 69

is possibly dangei^ous. Silage, properly cured, does not belong to this
class, because the curing of silage is not a bacterial process. But
spoiled silage and silage matted with mold is dangerous and should

not be fed.

POISONING BY ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

SNAKE BITES.

The poison contained in the tooth glands of certain venomous rep-
tiles, particularly some of the snakes, which is injected into or mider
the skin of an animal bitten by the reptile, is a very powerful agent.
It is likely to produce a serious local irritation, and in the case of the
more poisonous snakes serious constitutional disturbances, even to
causing death, which it may do in either of two ways: First, Avhen
very strong, by exerting a narcotic influence similar to that of some of
the powerful poisons, checking heart action. Second, by diffused
inflammation of the areolar tissue, gangrene, and extensive sloughing.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of snake bite are a local swelling
caused by an intense local inflammation, pricks showing where the
fangs penetrated, depression, weakness, feeble pulse, difficult breath-
ing, bluish discoloration of the visible mucous membranes, stupor,
or convulsions. If the poison is not powerful or plentiful enough
to produce death, it is, at any rate, likely to cause severe local ab-
scesses or sloughs.

Treatment. — The treatment may be divided into local and general.
Locally every effort should be made to prevent absorption of the
poison. If discovered at once the bitten part had better be excised.
If that is impracticable and a ligature can be apj^lied, as in the case
of a bite to one of the limbs, no time should be lost in applying it
above the injury. It should be made sufficiently tight to so far as
possible arrest circulation in the bitten part. The wound should be
freely incised, so that it will bleed freely, and the poison should be
extracted by cupping, or pressed out by squeezing with the fingers.
Permanganate of potassium in 5 per cent solution should be applied to
and injected into the wound. The depressing effect of the poison on
the general system should be counteracted by hypodermic injections
of strychnin, or by liberal drenching with stimulants, such as alcohol,
coffee, digitalis, or the aromatic spirits or carbonate of ammonia.
In animal practice the alcoholic stimulants and local treatment
above described are likely to meet with best success. A special
antitoxin for use in treating snake bite is now prepared and may be
had from the leading druggists. It is quite effective if used promptly.

WASP AND BEE STINGS.

Wasps and bees secrete a poisonous substance which they are able
to insert through the skin of an animal by the aid of their sharp

70 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

stings. This poison is a severe local irritant and may even cause
local gangrene. It also has a depressing effect upon the central
nervous sj^stem and destroys the red-blood corpuscles. To produce
these general effects it must be introduced in very large quantities, as
when an animal is stung by a swarm of bees or wasps.

Treatment. — The treatment is to wash the parts with diluted am-
monia or permanganate of potassium solution and to give stimulants
internally. If there is so much swelling about the head and nostrils
as to interfere with breathing, tracheotomy may be necessary.

POISONING WITH SPANISH FLY.

Spanish fly, in the form of powdered cantharides, may be given in
an overdose, or when applied as a blister to too large a surface of
skin enough vc\^y be absorbed to poison. If given b}^ the mouth, it
causes severe irritation of the gastrointestinal tract, shown by saliva-
tion, sore throat, colic, bloody diarrhea, etc. It also produces, whether
given by the mouth or absorbed through the skin, irritation of the
urinary tract, as shown by frequent and painful urination. If death
results, it is due to respirator}'^ paralysis.

Treatment. — Give f)rotectives and the white of egg, with of)ium.
Do not give oils or alcohol.

DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND

LYMPHATICS.

By W. H. Habbaugh, V. S.
[Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.]

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

In cattle, as in human beings, the heart, blood vessels, and lym-
phatics may be described as the circulatory apparatus.

The heart is in the thoracic cavity (chest). It is conical in form,
with the base or large part uppermost, while the apex, or point,
rests just above the sternum (breastbone). It is situated between
the right and left lungs, the apex inclining to the left, and owing
to this the heart beats are best felt on the left side of the chest, behind
the elbow. The heart may be considered as a hollow muscle, contain-
ing four compartments, two on each side. The upper compartments
are called auricles and the lower ones ventricles. The right auricle
and ventricle are completely separated from the left auricle and
ventricle by a thick septum or wall, so that there is no communication
between the right and left sides of the organ.

At the bottom of each auricle is the auriculo-ventricular opening,
each provided with a valve to close it when the heart contracts to
force the blood into the arteries. In the interval between the con-
tractions these valves hang down into the ventricles.

The muscular tissue of the heart belongs to that class known as
involuntary, because its action is not controlled by the will.

The cavities of the heart are lined by serous membrane, called the
endocardium, which may be considered as a continuation of the veins
and the arteries, forming their internal lining. The walls of the
ventricles are thicker than those of the auricles, and the walls of the
left ventricle are much thicker than those of the right.

The heart is enveloped by a fibrous sac (or bag), called the pericar-
dium, which assumes much of the general shape of the outer surface
of the heart.

The action of the heart is similar to that of a pump and its function
is to keep the blood in circulation. The auricles may be considered as
the reservoirs or receivers of the blood and the ventricles as the pump
chambers. During the interval between contractions, the heart being
in momentary repose, the blood pours into the auricles from the

71

72 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

veins; the auriculo- ventricular orifices being Tvidely open, the ven-
tricles also receive blood ; the auricles contract and the ventricles are
filled; contraction of the ventricles follows; the auriculo- ventricular
valves are forced up by the pressure of the blood and close the auric-
ulo-ventricular openings and prevent the return of blood into the
auricles; the contraction of the ventricles forces the blood from the
right ventricle into the lungs through the pulmonary artery and its
branches, and from the left ventricle into the aorta, thence through
the arteries to all parts of the body. After the contraction of the
ventricles the heart is again in momentary repose and being filled
with blood, while the valves in the aorta and pulmonary artery close
to prevent the return of blood into the ventricles. (See PL VII.)

The average weight of the heart of an ox is said to be from 3^ to 5
pounds ; but, of course, owing to the many breeds and sizes of cattle,
it must vary in different animals.

The vessels that convey the blood from the heart to all parts of
the body are called arteries; those which return the blood to the
heart are called veins. The arteries divide and subdivide (like the
branches of a tree), become smaller and smaller, and ultimately
ramify into every part of the body. Between the ultimate ramifica-
tions of the arteries and the beginning of the veins there is an inters
mediate system of very minute vessels called capillaries, which con-
nect the arterial with the venous system of the circulation. The
walls of the arteries are possessed of a certain amount of rigidity,
sufficient to keep the tubes open when they are empty.

The blood leaves the left ventricle through a single vessel, the com-
mon aorta, consisting of the anterior and posterior aortas, which
give off the large arteries.

The veins take the blood from the capillaries in all parts of the
body. They begin in very small tubes, which unite to become larger
in size and less in number as they approach the heart.

In its course an artery is usually accompanied with a vein and in
many situations with a nerve. The more important arteries are
placed deep within the body; when they are superficial, however,
they are generally found where least exposed to injury, as, for exam-
ple, on the inner side of the legs. Arteries are le&s numerous than
veins, and their total capacity is much less than that of the veins
A great number of veins are in the tissue immediately beneath the
skin and do not generally accompany arteries.

The blood, throughout its course in the heart, arteries, capillaries,
and veins, is inclosed within these vessels. Except where the large
lymphatics empty into the venous blood, there is no opening into the
course of the blood.

All the arteries except the pulmonary and its branches carry
bright-red blood, and all the veins, except the puhnonary veins.

DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 73

carry dark-red blood. The impure dark-red blood is collected from
the capillary vessels and carried to the right auricle by the veins ; it
passes down into the right ventricle, and thence into the pulmonary
artery and through its branches to the capillaries of the lungs, where
the carbonic-acid gas and other impurities are given up to the air in
the air cells of the lungs (through the thin walls between the capilla-
ries and the air cells), and where it also absorbs from the air the
oxygen gas necessary to sustain life. This gas changes it to the
bright-red, pure blood. It passes from the capillaries to the branches
of the pulmonary veins, which convey it to the left auricle of the
heart; it then passes through the auriculo- ventricular opening into
the left ventricle, the contraction of which forces it through the
common aorta into the posterior and anterior aortas, and through all
the arteries of the body into the capillaries, where it parts with its
ox^'gen and nutritive elements and where it absorbs carbonic-acid
gas and becomes dark colored. (See theoretical diagram of the
circulation, PL VII.)

The branches of certain arteries in different parts unite again after
subdividing. This reuniting is called anastomosing, and assures a
quota of blood to a part if one of the anastomosing arteries should be
tied in case of hemorrhage, or should be destroyed by accident or
operation.

THE BLOOD.

The various kinds of food, after being digested in the alimentary
canal, are absorbed and carried into the blood by the lymphatics, and
by the blood to the places where nutrition is required. The blood
takes from all parts of the body all that is no longer required, and
carries it to the different organs through w^hich it is eliminated
from the body. It contains within itself all the elements which
nourish the body.

The blood may be considered as a fluid holding in solution certain
inorganic elements and having certain bodies suspended in it. To
facilitate description, the blood may be considered as made up of the
corpuscles and the liquor sanguinis. The corpuscles are of two kinds,
the red and the white, the red being the more numerous. The color
of the blood is caused by the coloring matter in the red corpuscles,
which are the oxygen carriers. Both kinds are very minute bodies,
which require the aid of the microscope to recognize them. The
liquor sanguinis is composed of water containing in solution salts,
albumen, and the elements of fibrin.

The lymphatics, or absorbents, are the vessels which carry the
lymph and chyle in the blood. Thej'^ begin as capillaries in all parts
of the body, gradually uniting to form larger trunks. Placed along
the course of the lymphatic vessels are glands, in some situations
collected into groups; for example, in the groin. These glands are

74 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

often involved in inflammation arising from the absorption of
deleterious matter.

Absorption is the function of the lymphatics. The liquor san-
guinis passes from the blood capillaries to supply nutrition to the
tissues. All of the liquor sanguinis that is not required is absorbed
by the lymphatic vessels and conveyed back to the blood by the h'm-
phatic ducts. The lymphatics which proceed from the intestines
convey the chyle into the blood during digestion. As a rule, the
lymphatic vessels follow the course of the veins. All the absorbent
vessels convey their contents to the thoracic duct and right great
lymphatic vein, which empty into the anterior vena cava, where
the lymph and chyle mix with the venous blood, and thus maintain
the supply of nutritive elements in the blood.

THE PULSE.

As fully explained, the heart pumps the blood throughout the
arterial system. The arteries are always full and each contraction of
the ventricle pumps more blood into them ; this distends their elastic
walls and sends along them a wave which graduall}^ becomes less
perceptible as it nears the very small arteries. This wave constitutes
the pulse, and is lost before the capillaries are reached. The sen-
sation or impression given to the finger when placed upon the artery
shows the force exerted by the heart and some important facts con-
cerning the condition of the circulation. In adult cattle the average
number of pulsations in a minute is from 50 to 60. The pulse is
faster than normal after exercise, excitement, on hot days, from
pain, and as a result of fullness of the stomach. In old animals it is
slower than in the young and in males slightly slower than in
females. In fevers and inflammations and in local diseases of the
heart the pulse rate is increased. If the rate is greater than 100 or
110 to the minute the outlook for recovery is not good.

Other variations of the pulse are known as infrequent pulse, which
means that the number of pulsations in a given time is less than nor-
mal. The irregular or the intermittent pulse is when the pulsations
do not follow in regular order. The large pulse and the small pulse
refer to the volume of the pulse, which may be larger or smaller
than usual. The strong pulse and the feeble pulse refer to the
strength or weakness of the pulsation. The pulse is said to be hard
when the vessel feels hard and incompressible, the soft pulse being
the opposite. By dicrotic pulse is meant that kind of pulsation
Avhich makes each beat seem double, and therefore it is generally
called the double pulse.

The venous or "jugular pulse" is the pulsation so frequently
observed in the jugular vein of cattle and is particularly noticeable
while they are ruminating — ^" chewing the cud." It is not always

DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 75

associated with disease, but may be a symptom of some disease of the
heart; in such cases the jugular pulse is continuous.

The place selected for feeling the pulse in cattle is where the
submaxillary artery winds around the low^er jawbones, just at the
lower edge of the flat muscle on the side of the cheek ; or, if the cow
is lying down, the metacarpal artery on the back part of the fore
fetlock is very convenient for the purpose.

THE EXAMINATION OF THE HEART.

Corresponding to the beats of the heart two sounds are emitted
which are of a definite type in healthy animals. The first is pro-
duced by the contraction of the heart and the flow of blood out of it ;
the second is caused by the rebound of blood in the aorta and the
closure of the valves that prevent it from flowing backward into the
heart, whence it came. The first sound is the longer and louder of
the two, though of low pitch. The second sound is sharper and
shorter, and is not always easy to hear. There is a brief interval
between them.

To distinguish these sounds, the ear is placed against the left side
of the chest, a little above the point where the elbow rests when the
animal is standing in a natural position, and about opposite the sixth
rib. Both heart sounds are reduced in intensity when the animal is
weak or when the heart is forced away from the chest wall by col-
lections of fluid or by tubercular or other gi'owths. Nonrhythmical
heart sound is often caused by pericarditis or by disease of the
valves. It may also be attributable to overfilling of the heart upon
the right side, as occurs in severe congestion of the lungs and in
some febrile diseases.

In pericarditis, sounds like scraping, rubbing, or splashing may be
heard, entirely apart from the two normal sounds above described.

The impulse of the heart, as felt by placing the hand against the
chest, is of some consequence in reaching a conclusion in respect to
disease of the heart; but it must be remembered that the impulse
may be very much increased by diseases other than those of the heart,
as, for example, inflammation of various organs, severe pains, etc.
The impulse may be increased also (when disease does not exist) by
work, exercise, fright, or any cause of excitement, or, in general, by
anything that causes acceleration of the pulse.

The impulse of the heart may be felt and the sounds may be heard
fairly well in lean cattle, but in fat ones it is difficult and often
impossible to detect either impulse or sound with any degree of
satisfaction.

PALPITATION.

"Wlien the impulse of the heart is excessive — that is, when it beats
more or less tumultuously — the familiar expression " palpitation of

76 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the heart " is applied; by many it is called " thumps." The hand 02
ear placed against the chest easily detects the unnatural beating. In
some cases it is so violent that the motion may be seen at a distance.
Palpitation is but a symptom, and in many instances not connected
"with disease of the structure of the heart or its membranes. A badly
frightened animal may haA'e palpitation. "Wlien it comes on sud-
denly and soon passes away, it depends on some cause other than
diseases of the heart; ^Yhen it is gradually manifested, however, and
becomes constant, although more pronounced at one time than an-
other, heart disease may be suspected, especially if other symptoms
of heart disease are present.

INJURY TO THE HEART BY FOREIGN BODIES.

Cattle are addicted to the habit of chewing and swallowing many
objects not intended as articles of food. Every veterinarian of ex-
perience has met with instances to remind him of this, and it is well
known to butchers. Among the great variety of things that have
thus found their way into the stomachs of cattle the following have
been noticed : Finger rings, knitting needles, old shoes, table knives,
wood, pieces of leather, pieces of wire, buttons, hairpins, brushes,
nails, coins etc. The more sharply-pointed objects sometimes pene-
trate the wall of the stomach during which they may or may not
cause gastric irritation enough to produce indigestion, gradually
work their way through the diaphragm toward the heart, pierce the
pericardium (bag inclosing the heart), wound the heart, and thus
prove fatal to the animal. Cases ai-e recorded in which the foreign
body has actually worked its way into one of the cavities of the heart.
Instances are known, however, in which the object took a different
course, and finally worked its way toward the surface and was ex-
tracted from the wall of the chest. While it is possible that the
foreign body may pierce the wall at different parts of the alimentary
canal, as it frequently does that of the rumen (paunch), it is thought
that in most cases it passes through the wall of the reticulum (smaller
hoiieycombed compartment, or second stomach) and is drawn toward
the heart by the suctionlike action of the chest. Post-mortem ex-
aminations have demonstrated the course it pursued, as adhesions
and other results of the inflammation it caused were plainly to be
seen. All manner of symptoms may precede those showing involve-
ment of the heart, depending upon the location of the foreign body
and the extent of inflammation caused by it. Severe indigestion
may occur; stiffness and difficulty in moving about owing to the prods
of the sharp body following muscular contraction; pain on pressure
over the front, lower, or right side of the abdomen; coughing and
difficult, quick breathing. In most cases the foreign body does not
penetrate to the heart, nor even to the pericardium.

DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 77

Symptoms. — The symptoms are as follows: The animal ]s disin-
clined to move actively, the step is restricted and cautious, sudden
motion causes grunting, the attitude is constrained, the feet are
drawn somewhat together, the back is arched, the face has an anxious
expression. If the disease is of several days' standing, there is likely to
be soft swelling (edema) beneath the neck, in the dewlap, and under
the chest, between the fore legs. Breathing is short and difficult; it
may clearly be painful. The pulse is rapid, 80 to 120 per minute.
The muscles quiver as though the animal were cold. Rumination and
appetite are depressed or checked. The dung is hard, and to void it
appears to cause pain. These symptoms usually develop gi-adually,
and, of course, they vary considerably in different animals, depending
upon the size and location of the foreign body and the irritation it
causes.

As a matter of course, in such cases treatment is useless, but when
it is possible to diagnose correctly the animal could be turned over
to the butcher before the flesh becomes unfit for use ; that is, before
there is more than a little suppuration and before there is fever.
Knowing that cattle are prone to swallow such objects, ordinary
care may be taken in keeping their surroundings as free of them as
possible.

PERICARDITIS.

Inflammation of the pericardium (heart bag) is often associated
with pneumonia and pleurisy, rheumatism, and other constitutional
diseases, or with an injury. It also occurs as an independent affec-
tion, owing to causes similar to those of other chest affections, as ex-
posure to cold or dampness and changes of the weather.

Symptoms. — It ma}^ be ushered in with a chill, followed by fever,
of more or less severity; the animal stands still and dull, with head
kanging low, and anxiety expressed, in its countenance. The pulse
may be large, perhaps hard ; there is also a venous pulse. The hand
against the chest will feel the beating of the heart, which is often
irregular, sometimes violent, and in other instances weak, depending
in part upon the quantity of fluid that has transuded into the pe«'i-
cardial sac. The legs are cold, the breathing quickened and usually
abdominal; if the left side of the chest is pressed on or stiiick, the
animal evinces pain. There may be spasms of the muscles in the
region of the breast, neck, or hind legs. After a time, which varies in
length, swelling may also appear in the legs and under the chest
and brisket.

In those animals in which the heart sounds may be heard somewhat
distinctly, the ear applied against the chest will detect a to-and-fro
friction sound, corresponding to the beats of the heart. This sound
is produced by the rubbing of the internal surface of the heart bag

78 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

against the external surface of the heart. During the first stages of
the inflammation these surfaces are dry, and the rubbing of one
against the other during the contraction and relaxation of the heart
produces this sound. The dry stage is followed by the exudation of
fluid into the heart sac, and the friction is not heard until the fluid
is absorbed sufficiently to allow the surfaces to come in contact again.
But during the time the friction sound is lost a sound which has been
called a " churning noise " may take its place.

The friction sound of pericarditis can not be mistaken for the fric-
tion sound of pleurisy if the examination is a careful one, because
in the heart affection the sound is made in connection with the heart
beats, while in the pleuritic affection the sound is synchronous with
each respiration or breath of air taken in and expelled from the
lungs.

Treatment. — ^^lien pericarditis is complicated with rheumatism or
other diseases the latter must be treated as directed in the description
of them. The animal must be kept in a quiet, comfortable place,
where it will be free from excitement. Warm clothing should be
applied to the body, and the legs should be hand-rubbed until the cir-
culation in them is reestablished, and then they should be snugly
bandaged. The food should be nutritive and in moderate quantity.
Bleeding should not be performed unless the case is in the hands of
an expert.

At the beginning give as a purgative Epsom salt — 1 pound to an
average-sized cow — dissolved in about a quart of warm water and
administered as a drench. Wlien there is much pain 2 ounces of
laudanum, diluted with a pint of water, may be given every three
hours until the animal is better. Do not give the laudanum unless
demanded by the severity of the pain, as it tends to constipate. Give
one-half ounce of nitrate of potassium (saltpeter) , dissolved in drink-
ing water, four or five times a day. After the attack has abated
mustard mixed with water may be rubbed well over the left side
of the chest to stimulate the absorption of the fluid within the
pericardium. The other medicines may be discontinued and the
following administered: Sulphate of iron, 2 ounces; powdered gen-
tian, 6 oimces; mix and make 8 powders. Give one powder every
day at noon, mixed with feed, if the animal will eat it, or shaken up
with water in a bottle as a drench. Also the following: lodid of
potassium, 2 ounces; nitrate of potassium, 8 ounces; mix and make
16 powders. Give one in drinking water or in drench every morning
and evening. The last two prescriptions may be continued for sev-
eral weeks if necessary.

If at any time during the attack much weakness is manifested,
give the following drench every three hours : Spirits of nitrous ether,

DISEASES OF THE HEABT, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 79

3 ounces ; rectified spirits, 4 ounces ; water, 1 pint ; mix and give as a
drench.

In extreme cases tapping the pericardium with a trocar and can-
nula to draw off the fluid is resorted to, but the operation requires
exact anatomical knowledge.

After death from pericarditis there is always more or less fluid
found in the pericardium ; the surfaces are rough and covered with a
yellow-colored exudate. There are also in many cases adhesions to
a greater or less extent between the heart and pericardium.

MYOCARDITIS.

Inflammation of the muscular structure of the heart occurs in
limited, circumscribed areas, as evidenced by post-mortem examina-
tion, and it is probably always somewhat involved in connection with
pericarditis and endocarditis. It may readily be inferred that if the
whole organ were inflamed death would ensue immediately. Usually
myocarditis results from the preexistence of blood poisoning or of
some infectious febrile disease.

SymiHoms. — The chief symptoms are those of heart weakness.
The heart beat is fast, weak, and often irregular. Respiration is
difficult and rapid. There is great general weakness and depression.
Death comes suddenly.

Treatment. — Treatment consists in supporting the animal by the
use of stimulants, such as alcohol, ammonia, coffee, digitalis, cam-
phor, etc. Complete quiet must be provided, and the general care
should be as in pericarditis.

ENDOCARDITIS.

When the membrane which lines the cavities of the heart — ^the
endocardium — suffers inflammation, the disease is called endocarditis.
The cause is another disease, during which substances that irritate
the lining of the heart are produced and admitted into the circula-
tion. These substances are usually living organisms, or it is possible
that in some cases they are chemical irritants. Endocarditis occurs
as a complication of or sequel to pneumonia, blood poisoning, inflam-
mation of the womb, rheumatism, or severe wounds or abscesses.
The symptoms are much the same as those of pericarditis, and it is
difficult to discriminate between the two affections. There is a
jugular pulse, the legs may become dropsical, and there is a tendency
to faint if the head is elevated suddenly. The bellowslike sound
is more distinct than it is in pericarditis. It is the most fatal of
heart diseases, because of the liability of the formation of clots,
which may adhere to the valves, change in the structure of the valves,
and often a complication with an abnormal condition of the blood.

80 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Clots may be formed in the heart, and, being carried to other parts,
prove fatal by interrupting the circulation in some vital organ.

Treatment similar to that advised for myocarditis may be followed
in this disease.

VALVES OF THE HEART.

The valves are subject to abnormal growths and structural changes
in chronic endocarditis or as a result of acute endocarditis. Some-
times valves are torn by sudden, extreme muscular effort or a con-
genital abnormality. Cases are also reported in which they have
been found ruptured.

Symptoms. — The general symptoms are those of heart weakness,
accompanied with edema and congestion of the lungs.

Treatment. — Relief is sometimes afforded, but usually only tempo-
rarily'^, by the use of stimulants, especially digitalis.

RUPTURE OF THE HEART.

Sudden effort, blows, or disease may lead to rupture of the heart of
the ox. The first cause does not operate so often in cattle as in horses.
Tuberculosis or ulceration from other causes, such as a foreign body,
is the most common source of this accident. Rupture is shown by
sudden fainting, followed very shortly by death.

HYPERTROPHY AND DILATATION OF THE HEART.

This is an enlargement of the heart, and may consist of the thick-
ening of the walls alone, or at the same time the cavities may be
either enlarged or diminished. Dilatation of the cavities has been
noticed as existing independently of thickened walls. In hyper-
trophy the sounds of the heart are loud and pronounced, may be
heard on both sides of the chest distinctly, and palpitation occurs
to a greater or less extent. Fortunately both conditions are very rare
in cattle.

ATROPHY.

Atrophy is the technical term for wasting of the muscular tissue.
Atrophy of the heart is very rare among cattle, and is usually a
result of other diseases.

FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART.

This condition of the heart is met with in some very fat cattle,
but it must be understood that the accumulation of fat around the
heart is not referred to by this designation. In fatty degenera-
tion the elements of the muscular tissue are replaced by fatty or oily
granules. The muscle becomes weak, the heart contractions are
insufficient, and heart weakness is shown by general weakness, short-
ness of breath, and weak, rapid pulse.

DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AXD LYMPHATICS. 81

CYANOSIS.

Owing to the most prominent symptoms, c3'anosis is also called
" blue disease," and is seen occasionally in new-born calves. It is
recognized by the blue color of the mucous membrane (easily seen by
looking Ayithin the mouth and nostrils), the coldness of the surface
of the body, and rapid, labored breathing. It is caused by non-
closure of the foramen ovale, connecting the right with the left side
of the heart, and the consequent mixing of the venous with the arte-
rial blood. Calves so affected live but a short time.

MISPLACEMENT OF THE HEART.

Cases are recorded in which the heart has been found out of its
natural position, sometimes even outside the chest. This is a con-
genital condition for which there is no remedy. A heifer calf with
the heart entirel}^ outside the thoracic cavity and beneath the skin
in the lower part of the neck was kept for two years at tlie veteri-
nary' hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, during which time
it grcAv to be a well-developed cow.

WOUNDS OF ARTERIES AND VEINS.

When a blood vessel is opened a glance will tell Avhether it is an
artery or a vein by simply remembering that bright-red blood comes
from arteries and dark-red from veins. When a Aein or a very small
artery is severed the blood flows from the vessel in a continuous and
even stream, but when one of the larger artenes is severed the blood
comes in intermitting jets or spurts corresponding to the beats of
the heart. It is well to call attention to the fact that the dark-red
blood which flows or oozes from a wound soon becomes bright red,
because it gives up its carbonic-acid gas to the air, and absorbs
oxygen gas from the air, which is exactly the change it undergoes
in the capillaries of the lungs.

The general treatment of w ounds will be found in another section ;
here it is necessary only to refer briefly to some of the most practical
methods used to arrest hemorrhages, as instances occur in which an
animal maj' lose much strength from the loss of blood, or even bleed
to death unless action is prompt.

BLEEDING (HE3IORRHAGE).

The severity' of a hemorrhage depends upon the size of the vessel
fi^om which the blood escapes, though it may be stated that it is more
serious when arteries are severed. If the wound in an artery is in the
direction of its lengih, the blood escapes more freely than if the vessel
is completely severed, because in the latter instance the severed ends
retract, curl in, and may aid very much in arresting the flow. When
33071°— 16 6

82 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the blood merely oozes from the Avoiind, and e\'en when it floAvs in a
small stream, the forming of the clot arrests the hemorrhage in a
comparatLvel.y short time.

Slight hemorrhages may be checked by the continuous application
of cold water, ice, or snow, to the wound, as cold causes contraction of
the small vessels. Water from a hose may be throw^n on a wound, or
dashed on it from the hand or a cup, or folds of cotton cloths may be
held on it and kept wet. Ice or snow may be held against the wound,
or they may be put into a bag and conveniently secured in position.

Hot water of an average temperature of 115° to 120° F. injected
into the vagina or womb is often efficient in arresting hemorrhages
from those organs. Tow, raw cotton, lint, or sponges may be forced
into a wound and held or bound there with bandages. This is an
excellent method of checking the flow of blood until the arrival of
an expert. If the flow persists, these articles may be saturated with
tincture of iron, but it is not advisable to use it unless necessary, as
it is a caustic and retards healing by causing a slough. In cases of
necessity, the articles may be saturated with vinegar, or tannic acid
or alum dissolved in water may be used instead. Whatever article is
used should be left in the wound sufficiently long to make sure that
its removal will not be followed by a renewal of the hemorrhage.
Sometimes it must remain there one or two days.

An iron heated white and then pressed on the bleeding vessel for
three or four seconds is occasionally used. It should not be applied
longer, or else the charred tissue will come aAvay with the iron and
thus defeat the purpose of its application.

Compression may be applied in different ways, but only the most
convenient will be mentioned. To many wounds bandages may easily
be applied. The bandages may be made of linen, muslin, etc., suffi-
ciently wdde and long, according to the nature of the wound and the
region to be bandaged. Bed sheets torn in strips the full length make
excellent bandages for this purpose. Cotton batting, tow, or a piece
of sponge may be placed on the wound and firmly bound there with
the bandages.

Many cases require ligating, which is almost entirely confined to
arteries. A ligature is a piece of thread or string tied around the
vessel. Veins are not ligated unless very large (and even then only
when other means are not available) on account of the danger of
causing phlebitis, or inflammation of a xe'm. The ligature is tied
around the end of the artery, but in some instances this is difficult and
it is necessary to include some of the adjacent tissue, although care
should be taken not to include a nerve. To apply a ligature, it is nec-
essary to have artery forceps (tweezers or small pincers may suffice)
by which to draw out the artery in order to tie the string around it.
To grasp the vessel it may be necessary to sponge the blood from the

DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. 83

wound SO that the end Avill be exposed. In case the end of the bleed-
ing artery has retracted, a sharp-pointed hook, called a tenaculum,
is used to draw it out far enough to tie. The ligature should be
drawn tightly, so that the middle and internal coats will be cut
through.

Another method of checking hemorrhage is called torsion. It con-
sists in catching the end of the bleeding vessel, drawing it out a little,
and then twisting it around a few times with the forceps, which lacer-
ates the internal coats so that a check is effected. This is very effec-
tual in small vessels, and is to be preferred to ligatures, because it
leaves no foreign body in the wound. A needle or pin may be stuck
through tlie edges of the wound and a string passed around between
the free ends and the skin (PL XXVII, fig, 10). or it may be passed
around in the form of a figure 8, as is often done in the operation of
bleeding from the jugular vein. ;

ANEURISM.

A circumscribed dilation of an artery, constituting a tumor which
pulsates synchronously with the beats of the heart, is called aneurism.
It is caused by disease and rupture of one or two of the arterial coats.
Tlie true aneurism communicates with the interior of the artery and
contains coagulated blood. It is so deeply seated in cattle that treat-
ment is out of the question. Such abnormalities are ascribable to
severe exertion, to old age, to fatty or calcareous degeneration, or to
parasites in the blood vessels. Death is sudden when caused by the
rupture of an aneurism of a large artery, owing to internal hemor-
rhage. Sometimes spontaneous recovery occurs. As a rule no symp-
toms are caused in cattle by the presence of deep-seated aneurisms,
and their presence is not known until after death.

A false aneurism results from blood escaping from a wounded
artery into the adjacent tissue, where it clots, and the wound, remain-
ing open in the artery, causes pulsation in the tmnor.

THROMBOSIS (OBSTRUCTION) OF THE ARTERIES.

Arteries become obstructed as a result of wounds and other injuries
to them, as those caused by the formation of an abscess or the ex-
tension of inflammation from surrounding structures to the coats
of an artery. Arteries are also obstructed by the breaking ojff of
particles of a plug or clot, partly obstructing the aorta or other large
arterj^ These small pieces (emboli) are floated to an artery that is
too small to permit them to pass and are there securely held, pro-
ducing obstruction. These obstructions are shown by loss of power
in the muscles supplied by the obstnicted artery and by excitation
of the heart and by respiration after exercise. The loss of power may
not come into evidence until after exercise.

84 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Symptoms. — "While standing still or Avlien -walking slo^Yly the .ani-
mal ma}" appear to be normal, but aft^r more acti^ e exercise a group
of muscles, a leg, or both hind legs, may be handled with difficulty,
causing lameness, and later there is practically a local paralysis.
These symptoms disappear with rest. In some cases the collateral
circulation develops in time, so that the parts receive sufficient lalood
and the symptoms disai^pear.

INFLAMMATION OF VEINS (PHLEBITIS).

When bleeding is performed Avithout proper care or with an un-
clean lancet, inflammation of the vein may result, or it may be
caused by the animal rubbing the wound against some object. When
inflammation follows the operation, the coats of the vein become so
much enlarged that the vessel maj^ be felt hard and knotted beneath
the skin, and pressure produces pain. A thin, watery discharge,
tinged with blood, issues from the wound. When the pin is taken
out it is found that the wound has not healed. The blood becomes
coagulated in the vessel. In inflammation of the jugular the coagu-
lation extends from the wound upward to the first large branch.
Abscesses may form along the course of the vein. The inflammation
is followed by obliteration of that part in which coagulation exists.
This is of small import, as cattle have an accessory jugular vein
which gradually enlarges and accommodates itself to the increased
quantity of blood it must carry.

Treatment. — The treatment for inflammation of the vein is to clip
the hair from along the course of the affected vessel and apply a
blister, the cerate of cantharides. Abscesses should be opened as
soon as they form, because there is a possibility of the pus getting
into the circulation.

In the operation of bleeding the instruments should be clean and
free from rust. If the skin is not sufficiently opened, or Avhen closing
the wound the skin is drawn out too much, blood may accumulate in
the tissue, and if it does it should be removed by pressing absorbent
cotton or a sponge on the part. Care should also be used in opening
the vein, so that the instrument may not pass entirely through both
sides of the vein and open the artery beneath it.

DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS.

DESCRIFI'ION OF PLATE.

Plate VII:

Diagram illustrating the circiilalioii of the blood. The arrows indicate the
direction in which the blood flows. The valves of the heart, eittiated
between the right auricle and ventricle, and left auricle and ventricle, and
between the ventricles and large arteries, are represented by curved lines.
These valves are intended to prevent the flow of blood in a direction con-
trary to that indicated by the arrows.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate VII.

NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF THE ORGANS
OF RESPIRATION.

By William Hp;rbeijt Lowe, D. V. S.

DIAGNOSIS.

In the determination of disease in the human being the physician,
in making his diagnosis, is aided by both subjective and objective
symptoms, but the veterinary physician, m a very large majoi'ity of
cases, is obliged to rely almost solely upon objective symptoms, and
perhaps in no class of diseases is this more true than in the explora-
tion of those under consideration. This condition of affairs has a
strong tendency to develop observation and discernment in the veter-
inarian, and not infrequently do we find that the successful veteri-
nary practitioner is a very accurate diagnostician. In order to
make a differential diagnosis, however, it is not only necessary to
know structure and functions of the organs in health, but to adopt a
rigid system of details of examination, without which successful
results can not be reached.

History. — The history of a case should always be ascertained so far
as possible. The information obtained is sometunes unsatisfactory
and not to be depended upon, but even when this is the case it is
advisable to weigh the evidence from every point of view.

In connection with the history of every case it is ahvays of pri-
mary importance to ascertain the cause of illness. A knowledge of
the origin and development of a disease is important, both in making
a diagnosis and in formulating the treatment. Exposure to cold and
dampness is frequently the exciting cause of affections of the organs
of respiration.

The experienced practitioner is always sure to ascertain wdiether
the particular animal he is called on to attend is the only one in the
stable or on the premises that is similarly affected. If several ani-
mals are similarly affected, the disease may have a common cause,
which may or ma}' not be of an infectious nature.

Another thing that the experienced practitioner ascertains is what
previous treatment, if any, the animal has had. Medicine given in
excessive doses sometimes produces symptoms resembling those of
disease.

The hj^gienic and sanitary conditions must always be considered
in connection with the cause as well as the treatment of disease.

86 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Much of the disease which occurs in large dairies and elsewhere
could be prevented if owners and those in charge of animals had
proper regard for the fundamental laws of animal hj'giene and
modern sanitation. Disregard for these laws is the cause of most of
the diseases under consideration in this chapter.

Attitude and general condition. — The feeling of pain in animals
suffering from serious affections of the organs of respiration is ex-
pressed to the close observer in no uncertain language — by their
flinching when the painful part is touched; by the care with which
they move or lie down; by walking or standing to " favor " the part;
by the general attitude and expression of the ej^e ; bj' the distress and
suffering apparent in the face; and by other evidences.

The general physical condition and attitude of the sick animal tell
the careful observer much that aids him in making a diagnosis and
prognosis. Cows suffering from affections of the organs of respira-
tion usually assume a position or attitude that is characteristic, well
known to experienced stockmen, as well as to veterinarians. When
an animal has a fever or is suffering from an inflammation, the skin
is one of the first parts to undergo a change that is apparent to the
average observer, for it soon loses its elasticity and tone, and the hair
becomes dry and staring.

From the general condition or state of nutrition one is able to
judge the effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and
to estimate the strength remaining available for its restoration to
health; from the degree of emaciation one can approximate the
length of time the animal has been ill. The age and breed of the
animal, as well as its constitution and temperament, are among the
things that have to be taken into account in making a diagnosis and
in overcoming the disease.

The mucous merribrane. — The mucous membrane should in all cases
be examined. It can be readily seen by everting the eyelids or by
an inspection of the lining membrane of the nostrils.

Paleness of the mucous membrane indicates weak circulation or
poor blood and may result from disease, hemorrhage, or from in-
appropriate feed.

In healthy animals increased redness of the mucous membrane
occurs from pain, excitement, or severe exertion, and in such in-
stances is always transitory. In certain pathological conditions, such
as fevers and inflammation, this condition of the mucous membrane
Avill also be found. The increased redness of the mucous membrane
lasts during the duration of the fever or inflanmiation.

A bluish or blue mucous membrane indicates that the blood is
imperfectly oxidized and contains an excess of carbon dioxid, and
is seen in serious diseases of the respiratory tract, such as pneumonia,
and in heart failure.

NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF RESPIRATOR 1' ORGANS. 87

The secretions. — The secretions may be diminished, increased, or
perverted. In the early stage of an inflammation of a secretory or-
gan its secretion is diminished. In the early stage of pleurisy the
serous membrane is dry, and as the disease advances the membrane
becomes unnatural!}^ moist. The products of secretion are sometimes
greatly changed in character from the secretion in health, becoming
excessively irritant and yielding evidence of chemical and other
alterations in the character of the secretion.

Cough. — Cough depends upon a reflex nervous action and may be
primary when the irritation exists in the lungs or air passages, or
secondary when caused by irritation of the stomach, intestines, or
other parts having nervous communications with the respiratory ap-
paratus. A cough is said to be dry, moist, harsh, hollow, difficult,
paroxysmal, suppressed, sympathetic, etc., according to its character.
It is a very important symptom, often being diagnostic in diseases of
the respiratory organs, but this is a subject, however, v.hich can be
more satisfactorily treated in connection with the special diseases of
the organs in question.

Respiration. — In making an examination of an animal observe the
depth, frequency, quickness, facility, and the nature of th^ respira-
tory movements. They may be quick or slow, frequent or infre-
quent, deep or imperfect, labored, unequal, irregular, etc., each of
which has its significance to the experienced veterinarian.

Sleep, rumination, pregnancy in cows, etc., modify the respiratory
movements even in health. Respiration consists of two acts — inspira-
tion and expiration. The function of respiration is to take in oxygen
from the atmospheric air. which is essential for the maintenance of
life, and to exhale the deleterious gas known as " carbon dioxid."

The frequency of the respiratory movements is determined by
observing the motions of the nostrils or of the flanks. The normal
rate of respiration for a healthy animal of the bovine species is
from 15 to 18 times a minute. The extent of the respiratory sys-
tem renders it liable to become affected by contiguity to many parts
and its nervous connections are very important.

Eapid, irregular, or difficult breathing is known as dyspnea, and
in all such cases the animal has difficulty in obtaining ps much oxygen
as it requires. Among the conditions that give rise to dyspnea may
be mentioned restricted area of active lung tissue, owing to the fill-
ing of portions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneu-
monia ; painful movements of the chest, as in rheumatism or pleurisy ;
fluid in the chest cavity, as in hydrothorax; adhesions between the
lungs and chest walls; compression of the lungs or loss of elasticity;
excess of carbon dioxid in the blood; weakness of the respiratory
passages; tumors of the nose and paralj^sis of the throat; swellings

88 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

of the throat; foreign bodies and constriction of the air passages
leading to the lungs; fevers, etc.

As already alluded to, it is only the careful and constant examina-
tion of animals in health that Avill enable one properly to appreciate
abnormal conditions. One must become familiar with the frequency
and character of the pulse and of the respirations, must know the
temperature of the animal in health, before changes in abnormal con-
ditions can be properlj^ appre'ciated.

Terrbperature. — The temperature should be taken in all cases of
sickness. Experienced practitioners can approximate the patient's
temperature with remarkable accuracy, but I strongly recommend
the use of the self-registering clinical thermometer, which is a most
valuable instrument in diagnosing diseases. (See PL III, fig. 1.)
It is advisable to get a tested instrument, as some thermometers in the
market are inaccurate and misleading. The proper place to in-
sert the thermometer is in the rectum, where the instrument should
be rested against the walls of the cavity for about three minutes.
The normal temperature of the bovine is 101° to 102° F., which
is higher than that of the horse. A cow breathes faster, her heart
beats faster, and her internal temperature is higher than that of the
horse. Ordinary physiological influences — such as exercise, diges-
tion, etc. — give rise to slight variations of internal temperature ; but
if the temperature rises two or three degi-ees above the standard
some diseased condition is indicated.

Pulse, — The pulse in a grown animal of the bovine species in a
state of good health beats from 45 to 55 times a minute. Exercise,
fright, fear, excitement, overfeeding, pregnancy, and other physi-
ological conditions, as well as disease, may affect the frequency and
character of the pulse. It assumes various characters according to
its rapidity of beat, frequency of occurrence, resistance to pressure,
regularity, and perceptibilit3\ Thus we have the (juick or slow,
frequent or infrequent, hard or soft, full or imperceptible, large
or small pulse, the character of each of which may be determined
from its name; also that known as the intermittent, either regular
or irregular. We may have a dicrotic, or double pulse ; a thready
pulse, which is extremely small and scarcely perceptible ; the venous,
or jugular, pulse ; the ' running down "^ pulse, and so o\\. (See p. 74.)

In cattle the pulse is conveniently felt over the submaxillary artery
where it winds around the lower jawbone, just at the lower edge of
the flat muscle on the side of the cheek. If the cow is lying down the
pulse may bo taken from the metacarpal artery on the back part of
the fore fetlock. Tlie pulsations can be felt from any superficial
artery, but in order to ascertain the peculiarities it is necessary to
select an artery that may be pressed against a bone. There is a

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate VIII.

f

NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF EESPIRATORY ORGANS. 89

marked difference in the normal or physiological pulse of the horse
and that of the cow, that of the hoi*se being full and rather tense,
while in the cow it is soft and rolling. The pulse is faster in young
or old cattle than it is in those of middle age.

Auscultation. — Auscidtation and percussion are the chief methods
used to determine the various pathological changes that occur in
the respiratory organs. Auscultation is the act of listening, and
may be either mediate or immediate. Mediate auscultation is accom-
plished by aid of an instrument known as the stethoscope, one ex-
tremity of which is applied to the ear and the other to the chest of
the animal. In immediate auscultation the ear is aplied directly to
the part. Immediate auscultation will answer in a large majority of
cases. Ausculation is resorted to in cardiac and certain abdominal
diseases, but it is mainly employed for determining the condition of
the lungs and air passages. Animals can not give the various phases
of respiration, as can the patients of the human practitioner. The
organs themselves are less accessible than in man, owing to the
greater bulk of tissue surrounding them and the pectoral position of
the fore extremities, all of which render it more difficult in deter-
mining pathological conditions. (See PL VIII.)

The air going in and out of the lungs makes a certain soft, rustling
sound, known as the vesicular murmur, which can be heard distinctly
in a healthy state of the animal, especially upon inspiration. Exer-
cise accelerates the rate of respiration and intensifies this sound.
The vesicular murmur is heard only where the lung contains air and
its function is active. The vesicular murmur is Aveakened as inflam-
matory infiltration takes place and. when the lungs are compressed by
fluids in the thoracic cavity, and disappears when the lung becomes
solidified in pneumonia or the chest cavity filled with fluid as in
hydrothorax. The bronchial murmur is a harsh, blowing sound,
heard in normal conditions by applying the ear over the lower part
of the trachea, and may be heard to a limited extent in the anterior
portions of the lungs after severe exercise. The bronchial murmur
when heard over other portions of the lungs generally signifies that
the lung tissue has become more or less solidified or that fluid has
collected in the chest cavit5\

Other sounds, known as mucous rales, are heard in the lungs in
pneumonia after the solidified parts begin to break down at the end
of the disease and in bronchitis where there is an excess of secretion,
as well as in other conditions. Mucous rales are of a gargling or
bubbling nature. They are caused by air rushing through tubes con-
taining secretions or pus. They are said to be large or small as they
are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the quantity of fluid that
is present and the size of the tubes in which the sound is produced.

90 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

According to their character they are divided into dry and moist.
The friction sound is produced by the rubbing together of roughened
surfaces and is characteristic of pleurisy.

Pei'cussion. — Percussion is that mode of examination by which we
elicit sounds by striking or tapping over the part. It may be direct
or indirect. If the middle finger of the left hand is placed firmly on
the chest and smartly tapped or struck with the ends of the first three
fingers of the right hand, the sound will be noticed to be more reso-
nant and clear than when the same procedure is practiced on a solid
part of the body. This is because the lungs are not solid, but are
alwaj^s. in health, well expanded with air. In certain pulmonary
diseases, however, as in pneumonia, they fill up and become solid,
when percussion produces a dull sound, like that on any other solid
part of the animal. When fluid has collected in the lower part of
the chest cavity the sound will also be dull on percussion. Where
there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, as in emphysema or in
pneumothorax, the percussion sound becomes abnormally loud and
clear. By practice on healthy animals the character and boundaries
of the sounds can be so well determined that any variation from
them will be readily detected, and will sometimes disclose the pres-
ence of a diseased condition when nothing else will.

Percussion is sometimes practiced with the aid of a special per-
cussion hammer and an object known as a pleximeter to strike upon.
A percussion hammer is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that
when the pleximeter, which is placed against the side of the animal,
is struck the impact will not be accompanied with a noise. A percus-
sion hammer and pleximeter may be purchased from any veterinary
instrument maker.

CATARRH (COLD IN THE HEAD).

Nasal catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the
nostrils and upper air passages. Simple catarrh is not a serious dis-
ease in itself, but if neglected is liable to be complicated with laryn-
gitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, plurisy, or other serious and sometimes
fatal diseases of the respiratory organs. Catarrh is a common
disease among cattle. It is often caused by sudden exposure to wet
and cold after they have been accustomed to shelter. It may arise
from inhalation of irritating gases. It is also sometimes produced
by certain specific atmospheric conditions, and may assume an
enzootic form. It is very debilitating, and requires prompt and
judicious treatment.

Symptoms. — Kedness of the mucous membranes of the nose and
redness and watering of the eyes are symptoms of nasal catarrh.
The mucous membrane first becomes dry; afterwards a watery dis-
charge appears, and later, in severe cases, the discharge becomes

NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 91

mucopurulent. In mild cases there is little or no fever, but in severe
ones it may run high. The animal becomes dull, languid, and is not
inclined to move about, and the appetite may become impaired ; there
is also variable temperature of the horns and ears. If in a cow
giving milk the secretion diminishes, the mucus from the eyes and
nose becomes thicker and yellower. Afterwards, as the symptoms
increase in severity, the discharge becomes mucopurulent.

Treatiment. — The animal should be housed in a well-ventilated
place, with good hygienic surroundings. In cold and damp w^eather
it should be kept warm with blanketing, and, in severe cases, hot,
medicated inhalations given. If the fever is high, it may be reduced
by giving nitrate of potassium, from 1 to 2 ounces, in the drinking
water, three times daily. Diffusible stimulants are beneficial in most
cases. Too much importance can not be attached to good nursing.
There is no necessity to resort to the old system of bleeding, purging,
or the use of powerful sedatives.

EPISTAXIS (BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE).

Bleeding from the nostrils is rather rare in cattle. It may arise
from any one of a variety of causes, but usually results from disease
or injury to the mucous membranes or to violent exertions in cough-
ing and sneezing. It is seldom serious. It generally occurs in drops
from one nostril only, accompanied with sneezing, and without
frothing. Bleeding from the lungs comes from both nostrils, is
bright red, frothy, and accompanied with a cough.

Treatment. — In many cases the bleeding will cease spontaneously
and all that is necessary is to keep the animal quiet and bathe the
head and nostrils with cold water. The cause of the bleeding should
be learned and governed accordingly in the treatment. In severe and
exceptional cases, when the hemorrhage is persistent and long con-
tinued, the animal's head should be tied to a high rack or beam and
cold water or ice applied, or recourse to styptic injections taken. If
the hemorrhage is profuse and persistent, either a drench composed
of 1^ drams of acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water or 1^
drams of gallic acid dissolved in a pint of water should be given.

LARYNGITIS (SORE THROAT).

An inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the larynx is
known as laryngitis. It may be either a primary or a secondary
disease, complicated or uncomplicated. In the majority of eases it
is attributable to some form of exposure, a sudden change from warm
to cold surroundings, or exposure to cold storms. It may also result
from inhaling irritating gases or from external violence. In an
acute attack of laryngitis there is an elevation of temperature, pain
on pressure over the region of the larynx, violent paroxysms of

92 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

coughing, difliciilt and noisy respiration. The nostrils are dihited,
the nose extended, and the animal has a frightened expression.
There is marked difficulty in swallowing.

Treatment. — Treatment consists of fomentations and hot applica-
tions over the throat. Stimulating liniments, mustard mixed with
cold water and well rubbed in with a stiff brush, or other forms of
counterirritation may be applied in severe cases. Hot inhalations
should be frequently resorted to, and often afford much relief to the
suffering animal. In this disease medicines should be given so far as
possible in the form of electuaries (soft solid) on account of the diffi-
culty of deglutition. Large drafts of medicines have a tendency to
produce violent spells of coughing, and in this way retard recovery.
The subjoined formula for an electuary will be found to answer the
purpose in ordinary cases: Chlorate of potassium, pulverized, 8
ounces; fluid extract of belladonna, 2 ounces; powdered opium, 1
ounce; pov>dered licorice root, 8 ounces; sirup," sufficient quantity;
mix. Place a small tablespoonful of the mixture frequently on the
tongue or back teeth. Or the following may be used instead : xMoes,
powdered opium, and gum camphor in equal parts; mix. Eub an
ounce on the molar teeth every four or five hours. The bowels should
be kept open and the diet should be such as the patient can easily
swallow. Warm, sloppy mashes, boiled oatmeal gruel, linseed tea,
and the like are the most suitable substances. If suffocation be
threatened during the course of the disease, tracheotomy should be
performed without delay. The details of the operation are fully
described under the head of " Surgical operations." (See p. 28T.)

"\'\^en the disease assumes a chronic form, strong counterirritation
is indicated. A cantharides blister may be applied, or the following
ointment used: Biniodid of mercury 1 part, lard 6 parts; mix. In
some cases it Avill be found necessary to repeat the application.

BRONCHITIS.

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
bronchial tubes. When a primary disease, it is generally the result
of what is commonly knoAvn as " catching cold." It may be sec-
ondary to or complicated with many of the diseases of the respiratory
system. It may also be caused by breathing irritating gases, or by
the introduction of foreign bodies into the bronchial tubes, which
sometimes results from injudicious and careless drenching when the
larynx is temporarily relaxed. It may be acute or chronic, and is
divided, according to the seat of the inflammation, into bronchitis
proper when the large tubes are affected, or capillary bronchitis when
the trouble is in the smaller ones.

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, elevation of temperature, generally
104° or 105° F. The inspiration is incomplete, short, and painful,

KONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF EESPIRATORY OEOAXS. 93

find the expiration is prolonged. Tlie pulse is increased in frequency
and is hard. A characteristic, painful cough is present, but it is par-
oxysmal and incomplete. Auscultation and percussion greatly aid
us in a diagnosis. A normal sound is given on percussion. On aus-
cultation, in the early stages, rhonchus rales are detected if the
larger tubes are affected, and sibilant rales if the smaller ones are
affected. Later jnucous rales are noted, and sometimes all sounds
in certain parts are absent, which is owing to the plugging up of the
tubes. This plugging, if extensiA-e enough, is sometimes the cause
of death, or death may result from extension of the disease to the
lungs or pleura. <^

TreatTTient. — The animal should be placed in a light, well-venti-
lated box, and the bowels kept in a soft condition by enemas, etc.
Violent purgatives should not be used. The body should be kept
warm by blanketing. In the early stages a draft composed as follows
should be given three times daily: Extract of belladonna, 2 drams;
solution of acetate of ammonium, 4 fluid ounces ; water, one-half pint.
In the later stage of the disease the following formula may be sub-
stituted and given twice daily: Carbonate of ammonium, 3 drams;
liquor hydrochlorate of strychnin, 2 fluid drams; spirits of nitrous
ether, 1 fluid ounce ; water, one-half pint.

In some cases the following is preferable to either of the above,
and may be given in a pint of linseed tea every four hours : Spirits of
nitrous ether, 1^ ounces; aromatic spirits of ammonia, 2 ounces;
powdered camphor, 2 drams. The feed should be light and nutri-
tious.

Bronchitis is liable to become chronic if not properly treated in
the earliest stage. In this case remedial treatment is of little value.

PLEURISY.

Pleurisy is an* inflammation of the serous membrane lining the
chest cavity and enveloping the lungs. It is somewhat rare as an
independent disease, but it often complicates pneumonia; indeed, it
is often caused by the same germ that causes pneumonia — pneumo-
coccus. It may arise from exposure to cold or wet or from external
violence, and is usually present in some degree in cases in which the
ribs have been fractured with or without a penetrated womid.

Symptoms. — In the first stage there is great pain aggravated by
movement, and the animal is usually stiff as though foundered, the
pulse is quick and hard, the breathing abdominal, the chest being
fixed so far as possible, the inspiration short and jerky, the expiration
longer. The pain is caused by the friction of the dry, inflamed
pleural surfaces of the lung and chest on eacli other. At this stage
the ear detects a dry friction murmur, resembling somewhat the
sound made by rubbing two pieces of sole leather together. Pres-

94: DISEASES OF CATTLE,

sure between the ribs gives pain and usually causes the animal to
flinch and grunt. The muzzle is hot and dry, the mouth slimy, and
the secretions scanty. After a day or two the severity of the symp-
toms is nmch lessened, the temperature, which during the first days
may have been as high as 106° F., falls to 108° or 101°, the pain
decreases, the stifl'ness disappears, and the patient eats a little. The
pulse softens, but remains quicker than normal. Now, day by day
the patient loses a little strength, the friction sound disappears as
the exudation moistens the pleural surfaces; percussion now shows
a horizontal line of dullness, which day by day rises higher in the
chest, the respiration grows more frequent and labored, the counte-
nance is anxious and haggard, the eyeg sink somewhat in their
sockets, and in unfavorable cases death occurs during the second
or third week, from either asphyxia or heart failure.

In pleurisy, as in pneumonia, the elbows are usually turned out-
ward. Care must be taken to diffei-entiate pleurisy from traumatic
pericarditis (which see). In the latter condition the area of dullness
of the heart is much increased, and usually a splashing sound is
heard at each beat of the heart. Another diagnostic symptom of
value is that in traumatic pericarditis respiration is painful, not
difficult, and the respiratory rate is very much increased on move-
ment. In both conditions a considerable swelling of the dewlap may
be noticed in the later stages.

Treatment. — Give the same general care as recommended in bron-
chitis or pneumonia. In the early stages give a febrifuge to reduce
the fever, as directed for pneumonia. For relief of the cough give
electuary formula, which will be found in the treatment of laryngitis.
The bowels must be kept relaxed and the kidneys secreting freely.
In the stage of effusion the following should be given three times
daily: Digitalis tincture, 1 ounce; iodid of potassium, 30 to 60
grains ; mix. Apply strong counterirritant to chest* and put seton in
dewlap. (See " Setoning," p. 291.) If collapse of the lung is threat-
ened, a surgical operation, termed paracentesis thoracis, is sometimes
performed ; this consists in puncturing the chest cavity and drawing
off a part of the fluid. The instruments used are a small trocar and
cannula, which are introduced between the eighth and ninth ribs.
The skin should be drawn forward so that the external woimd may
not correspond to the puncture of the chest, to prevent the entrance
of air. Only a portion of the fluid should be removed. The animal
gets immediate relief, but it is generally only temporary, as the
fluid has a tendency to accumulate again.

PNEUMONIA.

Pneumonia is an inflamnuition of the lung substance, and is divided
into three forms, viz, croupous, catarrhal, and interstitial. These

N'ONCOIN'TAGIOUS DISEASES OF EESPIRATOKY ORGANS. 95

various forms, however, can be cUtferentiated only by the expert, and it
is therefore deemed necessary for the purpose of the present work to
treat the subject under the general head of pneumonia.

The causes of pneumonia in general are the same as those of the
various other inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract. The
germ is called the pneumococcus. It mostly follows congestion of
the lungs, but may in rare cases have a parasitic origin,

Si/7nptoms. — In the first stage, that of congestion, the disease is
usually ushered in by a chill, although this may not always be
observed by the attendant. This is followed by an elevation of tem-
perature, usually 105° to 106° F., or it may be even higher. The
lospirations are cjuick and shallow; the nostrils are dilated: the pulse
is full and hard. Cough may or may not appear in this stage. The
r.ose is hot and dry; the tongue sometimes protrudes and is slimy;
the coat is staring, and the skin dry and harsh. The urine is usually
diminished in quantity, high colored, and the bowels constipated.
Tlie animal stands with the forelegs wide apart to facilitate respira-
tion. On auscultation crepitation will be observed over the portion
of the lung affected. The sounds eticted on percussion are practi-
cally normal in this stage.

In the second stage the temperature generally drops one or two
degrees, and respiration is performed with much difficulty. The
cough is frequent and painful. The animal still stands with the
forelegs wide apart and the elbows turned outward. If it assumes
the recuml)ent position it rests on the sternum. All secretions are
more or less suspended, particularly the milk in cows. The animal
has a haggard appearance, and the pulse becomes small and wiry at
this period. The extremities are hot and cold alternately; the crepi-
tation which was present in the first stage is now absent, and no
sound on auscultation is heard, unless it is a slight wheezing or
whistlin'g noise. On percussion dullness over the diseased lung is
manifested, indicating consolidation. The lung has now assumed a
characteristic liverlike appearance.

In the third stage, if the disease is to terminate favorably, the
cough becomes loose, the animal improves, the appetite returns, and
the symptoms above detailed rapidly subside; if, on the other hand,
resolution is not progressing, the lung substance is broken down, is
heavy, and sinks in water. In fatal cases the breath has a peculiar,
fetid, cadaverous odor, and is taken in short gasps; the horns, ears,
and extremities become cold and clammy, and the pulse is impercep-
tible. On ausculation, when suppuration is taking place and the
lung structure is breaking down, a bubbling or gurgling crepitation,
caused by the passage of air through pus, is heard.

Treatment. — Good hygienic surroundings and good nursing are
essential in connection with the medical treatment. The probability

96 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

of recovery depends largely on the extent of the lung tissue involved,
as well as on the intensity of the infiammator}^ process. In the early
stage, when the fever is high, febrifuges should be given. If the
l^ulse be strong and full, aconite (Fleming's tincture, 1 to 2 drams,
every four or five hours) may be given for a short time, but should
be discontinued as soon as the fever begins to abate. Aconite is a
valuable drug in the hands of the intelligent practitioner, but my
experience leads me to believe that not infrequentl}' animals are lost
by its injudicious use, for in manj' febrile conditions it is positively
contraindicated, owing to its action upon the heart. In a plethoric
animal, with a strong, bounding pulse, bleeding may be resorted to
instead of administering aconite. If the bowels are constipated,
calomel, 1 to 3 drams, Avhich acts as a cathartic and a febrifuge, is
advisable. In the second stage diffusible stimulants are required,
viz: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; aromatic spirits of ammonia,
1 ounce; mix, and give in gruel three times daily. If the above is
not at hand, an alcoholic stimulant should be used. Half a pint of
brandy or whisky may be given in a quart of gruel three times
daily. In some cases carbonate of ammonia, 2 to 5 drams, has been
found beneficial. Most practitioners apply counterirritants, such as
mustard plasters, turpentine, and ammonia liniment, or cantharides.

EMPHYSEMA (HEAVES).

Emphysema is a rupture of the minute air vescicles of the lung
substance, and may be either interlobular or vesicular. There is
an extreme interference w^ith respiration, inspiration being short
and expiration prolonged. It is a nonfebrile condition, in which the
appetite is not decreased and the milk secretion is kept up. It may
be caused by an attack of asthma or may result from chronic bron-
chitis. The disease can be diagnosed by the marked interference
-with respiration. The animal, as a rule, is emaciated, has a staring
coat, and is hidebound. If percussion is resorted to, the animal's
chest will give a tympanic, drumlike sound. The normal resonant
sound is exaggerated.

Treatuient. — The disease is incurable, and onl}^ a palliative form of
treatment can be carried out. The destruction of the animal is often
advisable, from a humane as well as from a financial point of view.

PULMONARY CONGESTION.

Cattle that are overdriven or overworked are liable to pulmonary
congestion in an acute form, and sometimes to pulmonary apoplexy.
In such cases they should be allowed to rest, and if the weather
is hot, they should be put in a shady place. Give stimulants inter-
nally, unlor.d the venous side of the heart by bleeding, and apply
stimulating applications to the legs, and bandage.

NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF RESPIEATORY ORGANS. 97

HEMOPTYSIS.

Hemoptysis is a term used to signify bleeding from the lungs. The
trouble may result from a previous congestion of the lungs or from
a breaking down of the lung substance, or from specific disorders.

Bleeding from the lungs comes from both nostrils and from the
mouth. The blood is bright red, frothy, and accompanied with a
cough, the flow being somewhat profuse and intermingled with mu-
cus. It may cease of its own accord. Internally hemostatics are in-
dicated, and locally over the sides cold applications have a tendency
to check the hemorrhage. A drench of 1^ drams of gallic acid dis-
solved in a pint of water should be given.

ABSCESS OF THE LUNG.

Abscesses of the lung sometimes form during the course of or sub-
sequent to tuberculosis or other diseases. An animal affected with
abscess of the lung usually has a protracted, feeble cough and a gen-
eral appearance of emaciation and anemia. The pulse is feeble and
the breath foul. An offensive discharge from the lungs frequently
occurs. Percussion and auscultation aid in making a diagnosis in
this condition. The appetite is poor. Such animals go from bad
to worse, and their prompt destruction would, as a rule, be to the
interest of the owner.

HYDROTHORAX.

Hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest, is not a disease in itself,
but is simply a condition in which an effusion takes place in the
chest cavity, and is the result or effect of some disease, mostly pleu-
risy. It can be easily diagnosed by physical signs. A loss of the res-
piratory murmur will be noticed on auscultation, and on percussion
dullness or flatness on a line as high as the effusion has taken place.
When a large amount of effusion is present, tapping with the trocar
and cannula is generally resorted to. The proper method of per-
forming this operation will be found under the head of " Pleurisy."

PNEUMOTHORAX.

An accumulation of gas in the pleural sac is known as pneumo-
thorax. The presence of air may result from either an injury of the
lung or a wound communicating from the exterior. The indications
for treatment are to remove any foreign body that may have pene-
trated, to exclude the further entrance of the air into the cavity by
the closure of the external opening, and to employ antiseptics and
adhesive dressings. The air already in the cavity will in most cases
be absorbed.

33071°— 16 7

98 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS.

This is a disease that sometimes attacks young cattle when pas-
tured in low-lying meadows near rivers subject to flood. It is caused
by a small worm, Strongijlus 7/ucTurus, which lodges in large num-
bers in the trachea and bronchial tubes, giving rise to considerable
irritation of the air passages and inflammation. Sometimes the
strongyles lodge in large numbers in the windpipe, forming them-
selves into a ball, and thus choke the animal to death.

SymjJtoms. — It is liable to attack a number of animals at once, and
the weakest are the first to give way. The animal has a remarkably
forcible cough, distressing, and of a special hacking and paroxysmal
character. A stringy mucus is sometimes expelled during the spells
of coughing. This mucus contains the Strongyliis tnlcmrus, which
can be detected, or their ova observed, under a low power of the
microscope. The attack has a subacute character and is very ex-
hausting. The parasites, by becoming entwined in balls, seriously
impede respiration, which is always remarkably labored in this
disease.

Treatment. — The affected calves should be placed in a dr^^ stable,
protected from dampness, and subjected to fumigations of sulphurous
anhydrid or chlorin gas. The liberation of chlorin gas is brought
about by the action of sulphuric acid, either on a mixture of chlorid
of sodium and black oxid of manganese or on bleaching powder.
Sulphurous anhydrid may be procured by burning sulphur. Some
practitioners prescribe small doses of spirits of turpentine in linseed
oil. The system requires good support, and the diet should therefore
be liberal and nutritious. Equal parts of sulphate of iron, gentian,
and ginger make an excellent tonic.

Prevention. — Avoid pastures notorious for generating verminous
bronchitis.

PLEURODYNIA.

Pleurodynia is a term applied to rheumatism of the intercostal
muscles, the apparent symptoms being very similar to those of
pleuris3\ The animal is stiff, is not inclined to turn around, and
the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as possible. Pleiu'odynia
may be distinguished from pleurisy by the coexistence of rheuma-
tism in other parts and by the comparative absence of fever, cough,
the friction sound, and the effusion into the chest. The treatment for
this affection is the same as that for rheumatism affecting other
parts.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

By W. H. Hakbaugh. V. S.
[Revised by John R. Mohler, V. M. D.]

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The nervous system is the distinguishing feature of animal life.
Without it there can be no intelligence, no instinct, no sensibilit}', no
perception; in fact, existence would be nothing more than vegetable
life.

The senses — touch, taste, sight, hearing, smell — all depend on the
nervous system. Motion depends on it. A muscle can not contract
without receiving the stimulus from the nervous system. For ex-
ample, if a nerve passing from a nerve center to a muscle is severed,
the particular muscle that is supplied by the cut nerve is paralyzed.

The nervous system is often studied in two divisions — the cerebro-
spinal division and the sympathetic division.

The cerebrospinal division consists of the brain and spinal cord,
nerves, and ganglia. The nerves of this division convey the impulses
of motion and sensation and supply all parts which are undei' the
control of the will. For example, the voluntary muscular tissue
includes all the muscles which act as the will directs. Another ex-
ample : If anything comes in contact with any part of the skin, the
impression is immediately perceived. All the special senses belong
to this division.

The sympathetic division consists of nerves and ganglia. The
muscular tissue, which acts independently of the will — as, for exam-
ple, the stomach, intestines, womb, blood vessels, ducts, etc. — is called
involuntary muscular tissue, and receives nervous stimulus from the
sj'mpathetic division.

The brain, spinal cord, and the ganglia are the central organs of
the nervous sj^stem. The nerves conduct the nervous influence. The
nerves terminate differently according to their function. The termi-
nations are called end organs. The terminal end organs in the skin
and other parts endowed with sensation receive the impressions, which
are conveyed to the brain, where they are appreciated. They are so
sensitive that the most gentle zephyr is perceived. They are so
abundant that the point of the finest needle can not pierce the skin
without coming in contact with them, and the sensation of pain is

99

100 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

instantly conveyed to the brain. The terminal end organs of the
nerves that supply the muscles are different, as they give the impulse
which is conveyed by the motor nerves to the elements which consti-
tute the muscle, and this impulse is the excitation which causes the
muscle to contract. The terminal end organs of the special senses
of taste, smell, etc., receive their special impressions, and their respec-
tive nerves carry the impressions to the brain.

There are two divisions of nerves, the afferent and efferent.

The afferent nerves are those which convey the impression to the
nerve centers. All the sensory nerves belong to this division.

The efferent nerves are those which convey the nervous impulse
outward from the nerve centers, and they are further classified ac-
cording to the function of their respective centers. For example:
Motor fibers carry the impulse from the nerve center to a muscle to
cause contraction. Vasomotor fibers carry the impulse to the muscu-
lar tissue in the blood vessels, which regulates their caliber. The
secretory fibers convey the impulse to the cells of the glands and
excite the activity of the gland, and its particular product is secreted
or evolved, as, for instance, milk in the mammary gland. Inhibitory
fibers control or inhibit the action of the organ to which they are
distributed, as, for instance, the heart.

Nerve centers may be considered as a collection or group of nerve
cells. Both the cerebrospinal and the sympathetic divisions have
nerve centers. The centers derive their special names from their
functions. The brain is the great center of the nervous system, as it
is the center of intelligence and perception. The centers of all the
special senses, as well as the centers of various functions, are located
in different parts of the brain. Nerve centers also exist in the spinal
cord and in connection with the sympathetic system.

A nerve is a cord consisting of a certain number of fibers of nerve
tissue, inclosed in a sheath of connective tissue. Nerves divide and
subdivide, sending off branches, which ramify in all parts of the
body, and, as they near their terminations, they contain but one or
two fibers.

The brain and spinal cord are contained within a bony canal,
which forms a protective covering for them.

The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, lodged within the spinal canal,
or hollow of the backbone, is continuous with the brain anteriorly,
and terminates in a point in the sacrum (that part of the spinal
column which immediately precedes the tail). The spinal cord gives
off branches at each of the spaces between the segments of the back-
bone. These branches form nerve trunks which carry both sensory
and motor impressions and impulses. The spinal cord is a grand
nerve trunk to carry messages to or from the brain and to and from
the reflex centers contained within itself.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS .SYSTEM. 101

The brain is contained within the cavity of the skUlI and is con-
tinuous with the spinal cord; there is nothing to mark the place
where one leaves off and the other begins. The brain is the seat of
reason and intelligence. Voluntary effort originates from the brain.
Coordination, or harmony of movement, is controlled by the rear
portion of the brain, known as the cerebellum.

The meninges are the membranes, three in number, which envelop
the brain and spinal cord, and separate them from the bones which
form the walls of the cranial cavity and spinal canal.

The sympathetic, also called the ganglionic, division of the nervous
system consists of two chains of ganglia, reaching from the head to
the tail, situated beneath the spinal column, one on either side. The
presence of the ganglia or enlargements on the cords give them their
chainlike appearance.

The sympathetic nerves are closely connected with the cerebro-
spinal nerves, but are not under the control of the will.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES (STAGGERS).

Inflammation of the brain is technically termed encephalitis and
of its membranes cerebral-meningitis, but as both conditions usually
occur together, and since it is practically impossible to distinguish
one from the other by the symptoms shown by the diseased animal,
they may as well be considered together here as varieties of the same
disease. Staggers, coma, frenzy, etc., are terms that are sometimes
applied to this disease in its different forms or stages.

Causes. — Severe blows on the head with a hard object, or the head
coming violently in contact with the ground or other hard substance
in a fall, may be followed by encephalitis. Irritation caused by
tumors in the brain may produce inflammation. Feed containing
deleterious matters — for example, ergot (see PL V) and other fungi
which contain a narcotic principle — is the most frequent cause of this
affection, and hence it is often called " grass staggers " and " stomach
staggers." Highly nitrogenous feeds are blamed for causing this dis-
ease. Parasites, mineral and narcotic poisons, hot weather, and
severe exertion or excessive excitement may cause this condition.
Inflammation of the brain may occur as a complication of some infec-
tious disease or may follow some forms of indigestion. In many
localities certain plants have the reputation of causing staggers.

Symptoms. — The sj^mptoms vary much, but a careful observer will
detect a trouble connected with the nervous system without much
uncertainty. The first signs may be those of frenzy, but generally
at the start the animal is dull and sleepy, with little or no inclination
to move about; the head may be pressed against the wall or fence
and the legs kept moving, as if the animal were endeavoring to walk
through the obstruction; the body, especially the hind part, may be

102 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

leaned against the side' of the stall or stable, as if for support. The
bowels are constipated; the urine, when passed, is small in quantity
and darker in color than natural. There may be trembling and even
spasms of muscles in different parts. In the dull stage the animal
may breathe less frequently than is natural, and each breath may be
accompanied with a snoring-like sound. The pulse may be large and
less frequent than normal. If suddenly aroused from the drowsy
state, the animal appears startled and stares wildly. When moving
about it may stagger, the hind quarters swaying from side to side.

If delirium ensues, the cow is commonly said to be mad. She may
bellow, stamp her feet, run about wildly, grate the teeth, froth at the
mouth. If she is confined in the stable, she rears and plunges; the
convulsions are so violent in many instances that it is really danger-
ous for one to attempt to render aid. The body may be covered with
perspiration. She may fall; the muscles twitch and jerk; often the
head is raised and then dashed against the ground until blood issues
from the nose and mouth ; the eyes may he bloodshot and sightless ;
the limbs stiff and outstretched, or they may be kicked about reck-
lessly ; the head may be drawn back and the tail drawn up ; the urine
may be squirted out in spurts; often the " washer" (membrane nicti-
tans) is forced over the eye. When the convulsions cease they may
be followed by a period of quiet unconsciousness (coma) which is
more or less prolonged, when the animal may gradually regain con-
sciousness, get up on its feet, and perhaps quietly partake of food, if
there be any within reach, while at other times it arises with much
difficulty and staggers blindly about the stall or field.

It must be remembered that all the foregoing symptoms are not
always seen in the same case. In those cases usually designated
" sleepy staggers " the general symptoms of drowsiness are presented,
while in other cases the symptoms of frenzy cause the affection to be
called '■' mad staggers." In other cases there are symptoms of paraly-
sis, swaying of the hind quarters, inability to rise, etc., and sometimes
these symptoms of paralysis are the most striking manifestations and
continue until death. Acute cases are accompanied by fever.

It is well to remark that when the disease follows injuries to the
head the symptoms may not be manifested until two or three days
(or longer) after the accident.

Treatinent. — Recoveries are rare in spite of careful attention. To
be of any service whatever the treatment must be prompt and begin
with the disease. In the early stage, when the pulse is large, most
cases will admit of bleeding. Eight or 9 quarts of blood should be
taken from the jugular vein. This should be followed immediately
by a purgative, the following for a cow of average size : Epsom salt,
24 ounces; pulverized gamboge, one-half ounce; croton oil, 20 drops;
warm water, 3 quarts; mix all together and give at once as a drench.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 103

About 2 quarts of warm water or warm soapsuds should be injected
with a syringe into the rectum every three or four hours. It is best
to keep the animal in a quiet, sheltered jjlace, where it w^ill be free
from noise or other cause of excitement. All the cold water the ani-
mal wuU drink should be allowed, but feed must be withheld, except
bran slops occasionally in small quantities, or grass, if in season,
which may be cut and carried fresh to the patient.

The skull must be examined, and if sign of injury is found, appro-
priate surgical treatment should be given.

During the convulsions all possible efforts should be made to pre-
vent the animal injuring itself. The head should be held dciwn on
the ground and straw kept under it. Cold water may be continu-
ously poured on the head, or bags filled with ice broken in small
pieces may be applied to the head. Different authors recommend
different remedies to allay the convulsions, but for two reasons it will
be found extremely difficult to administer medicines during the con-
vulsions: (1) While the animal is unconscious the power to swallow
is lost, and therefore the medicine is more liable to go down the wind-
pipe to the lungs than it is to go to the paunch; (2) the convulsions
are often so violent that it would be utterly useless to attempt to
drench the animal ; and furthermore it must be borne in mind that
during this stage the functions of digestion and absorption are sus-
pended, and as a consequence the medicine (provided it finds its way
to the paunch) is likely to remain there unabsorbed and therefore
useless.

A blistering compound, composed of mustard, 1 ounce; pulverized
cantharides, one-half ounce ; hot water, 4 ounces, well mixed together,
may be rubbed in over the loins, along the spine, and back of the
head on each side of the neck. This is occasionally attended with
beneficial effect, and especially so in those cases when paralysis is
present.

If the purgative acts and the animal shows signs of improvement
in the course of two or three days, 2 drams of iodid of potassium may
be given every night and morning, dissolved in a half bucketful of
drinking water, if the animal will drink it, or it may be dissolved in a
half pint of water and given as a drench. Great care must be ob-
served in regard to the food, which should be nutritive, but not coarse,
and at first in small quantities, gradually increased as the patient
improves. After some progress is made toward recovery 1^ drams
of pulverized nux vomica may be given twice a day, added to the
iodid of potassium drench. This should be administered so long as a
staggering gait continues.

In those rare cases when recovery takes place it is only partial as a
rule, as there is generally a sequel which remains, such as partial
paralysis. However, this is but a slight drawback in cattle, because

104 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

when it is seen to persist the medicine should be stopped and the ani-
mal fattened for butchering.

Post-mortem examinations discover congestion of the brain and its
membranes. In those cases which have exhibited much paralysis of
the hind legs before death the cord may be congested in the lumbar
region (loins). When the disease has been caused by injury to the
head, the congestion and extra vasated blood may be found inside of
the cavity in the location corresponding to the place Avhere the injury
was inflicted externally. In some cases pus is also discovered. It
remains to be said that in all animals that have died from this affec-
tion the limgs are found very much congested. This may lead the
superficial observer to suppose that the disease Avas a lung affection,
but in fact it is only a natural consequence when death ensues from
brain disease.

APOPLEXY.

That form of congestion of the brain known as parturient apo-
plexy, or parturient paresis, which is so frequently associated with
the period of calving is described in another part of this work. (See
"Milk fever,'' p. 224.)

Cerebral apoplexy, not connected with parturition, is a rare disease
among cattle. However, it may be due to degeneration and conse-
quent rupture of a blood vessel in the brain.

The attack is sudden, the animal in most cases falling as if it had
received a blow on the head. It may stagger and reel some time
before going down. After falling, there are convulsive movements
of the legs or the animal sinks into insensibility. There may be re-
missions in the severity of the symptoms, but the pressure from the
continued escape of blood soon causes death. Best, quiet, friction
to the legs and surface, frequent turning of the animal and cold to
the head are to be practiced, if treatment is attempted.

CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN.

There is a form of congestive apoplexy affecting cattle which are
in a plethoric condition. The congestion, or overfilling with blood,
causes pressure on the brain substance and disorganizes its function.
It occurs mostly in hot weather. In this disease the symptoms are
somewhat similar to those exhibited when the animal has enceph-
alitis, but the onset is more sudden, the duration is shorter, and
there is less fever. There may be frenzy or coma, or alternations one
with the other. The intelligence is diminished, staring eyes, bracing
with the logs, pressing against the stall partition or manger, red
mucous membranes. This condition usually terminates in recovery.

In such cases bleeding should be resorted to immediately, and
when the power of swallowing is not lost purgatives should be ad-

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 105

ministered. Cold applications to the head and the general treat-
ment recommended for encephalitis are indicated.

CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN.

Severe blows on the head, striking the head against some hard
object while running, or falling on the head may cause concussion
of the brain. The injury may fracture bones of the cranium and
produce compression of the brain.

SyTrhptoms and treatment. — The symptoms and the treatment that
is indicated differ very little from what has been said under conges-
tion of the brain and under encephalitis. In some cases it may be
necessary to operate to remove a piece of bone that is pressing on the
brain or to remove a clot of blood under the area which received the
blow.

EPILEPSY.

This affection is characterized by the occurrence of sudden con-
vulsions. The animal may appear to be in a fair state of health
usually, but at any time, in the stable or in the field, it may have a
convulsion in which it will fall and lose consciousness. Epilepsy
must not be confounded with vertigo — ^the fainting which is an effect
of heart troubles.

The exact cause of epilepsy in the majority of cases is unknown.
Post-mortem examinations in many instances have failed to discover
any lesion in connection with the brain or nervous system ; while in
other instances disease of the brain has been found in the form of
thickening of the membranes, abscesses, and tumors, and in some
cases the affection has been manifested in connection with a diseased
condition of the blood. The cause has also been traced to reflex
irritation, due to teething, worms, and chronic indigestion.

Treatment. — l^Tien the affection is due to the last-named causes
treatment may be successful if the cause is removed. If there are
symptoms of worms or of indigestion, follow the general treatment
advised for those troubles under their proper heads. If due to irrita-
tion caused by teething, the inflamed gums must be lanced. Exami-
nation of the mouth often develops the fact that one of the temporary
teeth causes much irritation by remaining unshed, and thereby inter-
fering with the growth of a permanent tooth. The offending tooth
should be extracted. When the cause of epilepsy can not be dis-
covered, it must be confessed that there is no prospect of a cure.
However, some benefit may be expected from the occasional admin-
istration of a purgative dose of medicine. A pound of Epsom salt
dissolved in a quart of warm water, for a cow of average size, may be
given as a drench once or twice a month. In addition to the purga-
tive, 4 drams of bromid of potassium, dissolved in the drinking
water, three times a day, has proved very beneficial in some cases.

106 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

SUNSTROKE (PROSTRATION FROM HEAT).

Owing to the fact that cattle are seldom put to work at which they
would have to undergo severe exertion, especially in collars, they are
not frequently prostrated by the extreme heat of the summer months.
When at pasture they select the coolest places in the shade of trees,
in water, etc., when the heat becomes oppressive, and thereby avoid,
as much as possible, the effects of it.

It does happen, however, that cattle that have been kept up for the
purpose of fattening, when driven some distance in very hot weather,
are sometimes prostrated, but it must be remembered that it is not
really necessary for the animal to be exposed to the rays of the sun, as
those confined in hot, close places may suffer. This often happens in
shipping, when they are crowded together in cars.

Symptoins. — The premonitory signs are those of exhaustion — dull-
ness, panting, frothing at the mouth, tongue hanging out, irregular
gait, uneasiness, palpitation — when, if the circumstances which tend
to the prostration are not mitigated, the animal staggers or sways
from side to side, falls, struggles for a while, and then gradually
becomes quiet, or the struggles may continue, with repeated but inef-
fectual efforts to regain a standing position. In serious cases the
attack may be very sudden, unconsciousness occurring without con-
tinued or distressing premonitory symptoms.

Treatment. — At first, when not very serious, removal to a quiet,
sheltered place, with a few days on a reduced diet, is all that need be
done. When the animal has fallen, apply cold water or ice to the
head ; rub the body and limbs with cloths or wisps of straw and continue
the rubbing for a considerable time. If the power of swallow-
ing is not lost (which may be ascertained by pouring a little cold
water into the mouth), give 3 drams of stronger liquor ammonia,
diluted with a quart of cold water. Be very careful in drenching the
animal when lying down. Repeat the drench in a half hour and an
hour after the first one has been given. Instead of the ammonia, a
drench composed of 3 ounces of spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of
water may be given, if more convenient, but the ammonia drench
is preferable. If unconsciousness continues, so that a drench can not
be administered, the same quantity of ammonia and water may be
injected with a syringe into the rectum. The popular aqua ammonia,
commonly called " hartshorn," will do as well as the stronger liquor
ammonia, but as it is weaker than the latter the dose for a cow is
about 1^ ounces, which should be diluted with a quart of water before
it is given to the animal, either as a drench or an enema. When
ammonia can not be obtained, a pint of w^hisky in a quart of water
or an ounce of tincture of digitalis may be given.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 107

As soon as the animal is able to rise it should be assisted and
moved to the nearest shelter. All the cold water it Avill drink should
be allowed. The ammonia or spirits of nitrous ether drench should
be administered every three hours so long as there is much failure
of strength. The diet should be limited for several days — bran slops
and a little grass. When signs of returning strength are presented,
12 ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in a quart of warm water may be
given in those cases which have been down and unconscious, but
do not give it while much weakness remains, which may be for
several days after the attack. The flesh of an animal that is suffer-
ing from heat stroke should not be prepared for use as food. On
account of the fever with which the animal suffers, the flesh contains
toxins that may render it poisonous to the consumer.

INJURIES TO THE SPINAL CORD.

The spinal cord is liable to concussion from blows and falls, and
paralysis, to a greater or less extent, may be the result. Fracture,
with displacement of the bones (vertebra?) which form the spinal
column, by compressing the spinal cord, produces paralysis, which
varies in its effect according to the part of the cord that is com-
pressed. If the fracture is above the middle of the neck, death soon
follows, as communication between the brain and diaphragm (the
essential muscle of inspiration) is stopped. When the fracture is
farther down in the neck, posterior to the origin of the phrenic nerve,
the breathing continues, but there is paralysis in all parts posterior
to the fracture, including the fore and hind legs. When the fracture
is in the region of the loins the hind legs are paralyzed, but the fore
legs are not. If the fracture is in the sacrum (the division of the
spinal column between the loins and the tail), the tail alone is
paralyzed.

As a matter of course, when the back is broken there is no remedy ;
the animal should be killed at once.

PARALYSIS.

Paralysis, or loss of motion in a part, may be due to a lesion of
the brain, of the spinal cord, or of a nerve. It may also be caused
by reflex irritation. When the paralysis affects both sides of the
body, posterior to a point, it is further designated by the name
paraplegia. When one side of the body (a lateral half) is para-
lyzed, the term hemiplegia is applied to the affection. When paral-
ysis is caused by a lesion of a nerve, the paralysis is confined to the
particular part supplied by the affected nerve.

As already pointed out, paralysis may be due to concussion of the
spine, fracture of a bone of the spinal column with consequent com-

108 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

pression of the spinal cord, concussion of the brain, or compression
of the brain. An injury to one side of the brain may jn-odiice
paralysis of the same side of the head and of the opposite side of the
body (hemiplegia). Paralysis may occur in connection with par-
turient apoplexy, lead poisoning, ergotism, etc.

CONGESTION OF THE SPINAL CORD.

Paraplegia, or paralysis of the rear part of the body, is the domi-
nant symptom in congestion or inflammation of the spinal cord. The
cause is not known, but the disease is probably due to chilling. It is
thought by some that some toxic influence (poison) may be responsi-
ble for its development.

Sijrrhptoms. — The symptoms usually appear suddenly and consist
in inability to stand. Sometimes this is preceded by a period of
excitement. The animal usually lies quietly, but sometimes it groans
and tosses its head about in a way that indicates pain. Cows heavy
with calf are sometimes affected with a form of paraplegia, which
usually attacks them from about a month to a few days before
calving. Apparently they are in good health in ever}^ respect ex-
cept the inability to stand up on account of the paralysis of the
hind quarters. This form is generally attributed to feeding on feeds
containing insufficient protein and ash. It is most likely to occur in
cows that are weak and thin. With good care and feed recovery
usually occurs.

Treatment. — The animal must be given a soft, dry bed under shel-
ter and in a quiet, airy place. It is well to apply mustard along the
spine. The action of the mustard may be intensified by nibbing
the skin with ammonia or turpentine. Internally give a purge of
Glauber's salt. Nux vomica or strychnia (1 to 2 grain doses) may
be given. Turn the cow two to four times daily and rub the legs
well each time.

There are instances when cows will persist in l5'ing down (in spit«
of all efforts that are made to compel them to stand up), when it can
not really be said that they are paralyzed. They have sensation in
all parts; they can move all their feet; they can change their posi-
tion; and in fact every function seems to be normally performed,
but they obstinately refuse to rise or even make an effort to do so.
Cases of this kind have been killed, as it was an utter impossibility
to get the animal on its feet. However, there are instances when a
cow, after refusing to rise when all other means had been tried,
quickly jumped to her feet and showed fright upon the appearance
of a dog or othei- terrifying object.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, 109

RABIES (HYDROPHOBIA).

[See discussion of tliis disease in cliapter on " Infectious diseases," p. 356.]

LIGHTNING STROKE (ASPHYXIA ELECTRICA).

When an animal is struck by lightning the shock is instantaneously
expended on the nervous system, and as a rule death occurs immedi-
ately; but when the shock is not fatal animation is suspended to a
greater or less extent, as evidenced by prostration, unconsciousness,
and paralysis.

Symptains. — When not fatal, the symptoms vary much, according
to the severity of the shock. The animal usually falls, as from an
apoplectic attack, and, as a matter of course, the symptoms are such
as are generally manifested in connection with concussion of the
brain. The muscular system may be completely relaxed; the legs
limber ; the muscles flabby and soft to the touch ; or there may be con-
vulsions, spasms, and twitching of the muscles. The breathing is
generally labored, irregular, or interrupted, and slower than normal.
In most instances the electrical fluid leaves its mark by singeing the
hair, or by inflicting wounds, burns, or blisters.

Treatment. — So long as the beating of the heart is perceptible the
endeavor to resuscitate the animal should be continued. Dash cold
water over the head and body; rub the body and legs; smartly whip
the body with wet towels or switches. Mustard, mixed with water,
should be well rubbed over the legs and back of the head on each side
of the neck. Inject into the rectum 4 drams of stronger liquor
ammonia, or 1^ ounces of hartshorn diluted with a quart of warm
Avuter. Cautiously hold an uncorked bottle of hartshorn to the nos-
trils, so that some of it is inhaled, but care should be taken that too
much is not suddenly inhaled. If the animal is unconscious, hypo-
dermic injections of stimulants are indicated, such as 6 drams of
camphorated oil in one dose, subcutaneously, or 20 grains of caffein
or I grain of strychnin, also subcutaneously.

When the animal revives sufficiently to be able to swallow, 4 drams
of the stronger liquor ammonia, diluted with a quart of cold water,
should be given as a drench, and the dose should be repeated in an
hour. One and one-half ounces of ordinary hartshorn may be used
instead of the stronger liquor ammonia, but. like the latter, it should
be diluted with a quart or more of water, and even then care should
be exercised in drenching.

In cases where the shock has not caused complete insensibility
recovery may be hastened by the ammonia and water drench, or 4
ounces of brandy diluted with a quart of water, or 8 ounces of whisky
diluted with a quart of water. These doses may be given every three
or four hours if necessary. After recovery from the more serious
symptoms 2 drams of sulphate of quinin should be given twice a

110 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

day until health is restored. If any paralysis remains 1^ drams of
pulverized nux vomica should be gi^■en twice a day with the quinin.
The foregoing treatment is also applicable when the electrical
shock is given by telephone, electric car, or electric-light wires, etc.
The wounds, burns, or blisters should be treated according to the
antiseptic method of treating wounds.

TUMORS IN THE BRAIN, ETC.

Tumors of diiferent kinds have been found within the cranial cav-
ity, and in many cases there have been no Avell-marked symptoms
exhibited during the life of the animal to lead one to suspect their
existence. Cases are recorded where bony tumors have been foimd
in the brain of cattle that died suddenly, but during life no signs of
disease were manifested. Post-mortem examinations have disclosed
tubercles in the membranes of the brain. (See "Tuberculosis," p.
405.) Abscesses, usually the result of inflammation of the brain,
have been found post-mortem. For the description of hydrocephalus,
or dropsy of the brain, of calves the reader is referred to the section
on parturition. (See "Water in the head," p. 177.)

Chorea, constant twitching and irregular spasmodic movements of
the muscles, has been noticed in connection with or as a sequel to
other affections, as, for example, parturient apoplexy.

Various diseases, the description of which will be found in other
sections of this work, affect the nervous system to a greater or less
extent — for example, ergotism, lead poisoning, uremia, parturient
apoplexy, colic, and other affections associated with cramps, or
spasms, etc. Disease of the ovaries or of the spinal cord, bj'^ reflex
irritation, may cause estromania (see " Excess of venereal desire,"
p. 110, constant desire for the bull).

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.

By James Law, F. II. C. V. S.,
Formerlij Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University.

Of the materials that have served their purpose in building up the
animal body or in sustaining the body temperature, and that are
now to be thrown out as waste, the greater part are expelled from the
system through the lungs and the kidneys, but the agents that pass
out b}^ either of these two channels differ in the main from those
passing by the other. Thus from the lungs in the form of dioxid
of carbon — the same gas that comes from burning of coal or oil —
there escapes most of the waste material resulting from the destruc-
tion in the system of fats, sugars, starch, and such other foods as are
wanting in the element nitrogen, and do not form fibrous tissues, but
go mainly to support animal heat or maintain functional activity.
From the kidneys, on the other hand, are thrown out the waste prod-
ucts resulting from the destruction of the foods and tissues contain-
ing nitrogen — of, for instance, albumin, fibrin, gluten, casein, gela-
tin, woody tissue, etc. While much of the waste material containing
nitrogen leaves the body by the bowels, this is virtually only such of
the albuminoid food as has failed to be fully digested and absorbed ;
this has never formed a true constituent part of the body itself or
of the blood, but is so much waste food, like that which has come
to the table and again carried away unused. If the albuminoid
food element has entered the blood, whether or not it has been built
up into a constituent part of the structure of the body, its waste
products, which contain nitrogen, are in the main expelled through
the kidneys, so that the latter become the principal channels for
the expulsion of all nitrogen-containing waste.

It would be an error, how^ever, to infer that all nitrogenous food,
when once digested and absorbed into the blood, must necessarily
leave the system in the urine. On the contrary, in the young and
growing animal, all increase of the fibrous structures of the body is
gained through the building up of those flesh-forming constituents
into their substance; in the pregnant animal the growth of the off-
spring and its envelopes has a similar origin, and in the dairy cow
the casein or curd of the milk is a means of constant elimination of
these nitrogen-containing agents. Thus, in the breeding cow and,
above all, in the milking cow, the womb or udder carries on a work
in one sense equivalent to that otherw^ise performed by the kidneys.

Ill

112 . DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Not only are these organs alike channels for the excretion of albu-
minous products, but they are also related to each other structurally
and by nervous sympathy, so that suffering in the one is liable to
induce some measure of disorder in the other.

As in the case of other mammals, this nitrogenous waste matter is
mainly present in the urine of cattle in the form of urea, but also, to
some extent, as hippuric acid, a derivative of vegetable food which, in
the herbivora, replaces the uric acid found in the urine of man and
carnivora. Uric acid is, however, found in the urine of sucking
calves which have practically an animal diet, and it may also appear
in the adult in case of absolute, prolonged starvation, and in diseases
attended with complete loss of appetite and rapid wasting of the
body. In such cases the animal lives on its own substance, and the
product is that of the wasting flesh.

The other products containing nitrogen are present in only small
quantities and need not be specially referred to. The urine of cattle
contains much less of carbonates than that of the horse, and effer-
vesces less on the addition of an acid. As the carbonates form
a large proportion of the solid deposits (gravel, stone) from the
horse's urine, the ox may thus be held less liable, yet even in the ox
the carbonates become abundant or scanty, according to the nature
of the feed, -and therefore gravel, formed by carbonate of lime, is not
infrequent in cattle. When fed on beets, clover hay, or bean straw
carbonates are present in large quantities, these aliments being rich
in organic acids and alkaline carbonates; whereas upon oat straw,
barley straw, and, above all, wheat straAv, they are in small amount.
In calves fed on milk alone no carbonates are found in the urine.

Phosphates, usually in combination wdth lime, are, as a rule, pres-
ent only in traces in the urine of cattle; however, on a dietary of
wheat, bran, or other aliment rich in phosphates, these may be pres-
ent in large amount, so that they render the liquid cloudy or are
deposited in solid crystals. The liquid is rendered transparent by
nitric acid.

The cow's urine, on a diet of hay and potatoes, contained :

Parts.

Urea 18. 5

Potassic liippurate 16. 5

Alkaline lactates 17. 2

Potassium bicarbonate 16. 1

Magnesium carbonate 4. 7

Lime carbonate 0. 6

Potassium sulphate 3. 6

Connnon salt 1. 5

Silica Trace

Phosphate.s ^ 0. 0

Water and undclcM-niiiicd substances 921.3

Total 1, 000. 0

DISEASES OF THE UEINAEY ORGANS.

113

The following table after Tereg ^ gives the different conditions of
the urine, and especially the amount of urea and hippuric acid under
different rations. The subjects were two oxen, weighing, respectively,
1,260 pounds and 1,060 pounds:

Feed per day (pounds).

■6

03

ft
<D

a

1

.1

3
13

1
"o

CO

■6

w
W

s

OS

g

1

d

o

EH

•V

£

Lbs.

Lbs.

P.ct.

p.ct.

p.ct.

P.ct.

Ozs.

46.46

7.40

1,036

8.41

2.66

1.33

0.83

0.94

1.63

61.10

15.26

1,039

6.93

2.09

0.84

0.55

0.49

2.2

71.76

12.36

1,043

8.05

0.95

1.85

0.93

0.94

3.83

80.54

12.46

1,044

8.29

8.07

2.41

1.19

1.11

5.8

78.96

17.62

1,043

8.41

0.74

3.12

1.45

1.24

9.17

110.12

25.86

1,038

7.00

0.31

2.49

1.19

1.25

10.9

101. 80

27.04

1,037

7.14

0.20

2.95

1.39

1.58

13.3

119.00
54.84

23.20
12.60

1,038
1,043

7.74
7.06

0.21
0.40

4.06
2.53

1.91
1.21

1.69
1.15

15.4
5.3

55.76

16.34

1,036

5.45

0.11

1.41

0.67

0.64

3.83

36.26

15.14

1,042

7.91

1.30

1.73

0.91

0.92

4.37

16.90 wheat straw, and 1.30 bean
meal

14.70 oat straw, and 2.30 bean meal. .

10.4 wheat straw, 10.4 clover hay,
0.6 bean meal, and 2.6 starch

10.4 wheat straw, 10.4 clover hay,
2.7 bean meal, 1.4 starch, and 0.8
sugar

10.4 wheat straw, 10.4 clover hay, 5
bean meal, and 0.8 sugar

10 wheat straw, 10 clover hay, 0.4
bean meal, 1.7 starch, 4 sugar, and
0.4 rape oil

10 wheat straw, 10 clover hay, 9.4
bean meal, 3.1 sugar, and 0.4 rape
oil

10 wheat straw, 10 clover hay, 11.7
bean meal, 2.8 starch, and 0.5 rape
oil

17.86 bean straw, and 1.6 bean meal

14.88 bean straw

16.90 meadow hay ,

Ozs.
3.23

5.3

1.96

2.1
2.17

1.33

0.9

0.8
0.83
0.3
3.3

The varying quantity of urea (from 1.6 to 15.4 ounces) is most sug-
gestive as to the action of the more or less nitrogenous feed and the
resulting concentration of the urine and blood. Hippuric acid, on
the other hand, is most abundant when the animal is fed on hay and
straw.

The specific gravity of the urine of cattle varies from 1,030 to 1,060
in health, water being 1,000. It is transparent, with a yellowish tinge,
and has a characteristic, musky smell. The chemical reaction is alka-
line, turning red litmus paper blue. The quantity passed in twenty-
four hours varies greatly, increasing not only with the water drunk,
but with the albuminoids taken in with the feed and the urea pro-
duced. If a solution of urea is injected into the veins the secretion
of urine is greatly augmented. Similarly the excess of salts like car-
bonate of potash in the feed, or of sugar, increases the action of the
kidneys. Only about 20 per cent of the water swallowed escapes in

33071°— 16-

1 Encyklop. der Thierheilk., Vol. IV, p. 208.
-8

114 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the urine, the remaining 80 per cent passing mostly from the lungs,
and to a slight extent by the bowels. The skin of the ox does not
perspire so readily nor so freely as that of the horse; hence the
kidneys and lungs are called upon for extra work. The influence
of an excess of water in the feed is most remarkable in swill-fed
distillery cattle, which urinate profusely and frequently, yet thrive
and fatten rapidly.

Among the other conditions that increase the flow of urine is over-
filling of (internal pressure in) the blood vessels of the kidneys;
hence the contraction of the blood vessels of the skin by cold drives
the blood inward, tends to dilate the blood vessels of the kidneys,
and to increase the secretion of urine. Nervous disorders, such as
excitement, fear, congestions, or structural injuries to the back j)art
of the base of the brain, have a similar result, hence, doubtless, the
action of certain fungi growing in musty hay or oats in producing
profuse flow of urine, whereas other forms of must}'^ fodder cause
stupor, delirium, or paralysis. Bacteria and their products are
mainly expelled by the kidneys, and become sources of local infection,
irritation, and disease.

The quantity of urine passed daily by an ox on dry feeding aver-
ages 7 to 12 pints, but this may be increased enormously on a Avatery
diet.

The mutual influence of the kidneys and other important organs
tends to explain the way in which disease in one part supervenes on
preexisting disorder in another. The introduction of albuminoids in
excess into the blood means the forniation of an excess of urea, and a
more profuse secretion of urine, of a higher specific gravity, and
with a greater tendency to deposit its solid constituents, as gravel, in
the kidneys or bladder. A torpid action of the liver, leaving the
albuminoids in transition forms, less soluble than the urea into which
they should have been changed, favors the onset of rheumatism or of
nervous disorder, the deposit of such albuminoid products in the kid-
neys, the formation of a deep-brown or reddish urine, and congestion
of the kidneys. Any abnormal activity of the liver in the production
of sugar — more than can be burned up in the circulation — over-
stimulates the kidneys and produces increased flow of a heavy urine
with a sweetish taste. This increased production of sugar may be
primarily due to disease of the brain, which, in its turn, determines
the disorder of the liver. Disease of the right side of the heart or of
the lungs, by obstructing the onward flow of blood from the veins,
increases the blood pressure in the kidneys and produces disorder
and excessive secretion. Inactivity of the kidneys determines an
increase in the blood of waste products, which become irritating to
difi'erent parts, producing skin eruptions, itching, dropsies, and nerv-
ous disorders. Sprains of the loins pi-oduce bleeding fi-om the kid-

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 115

neys and disease of the spinal cord, and sometimes determine albumi-
nous or milky looking urine.

The kidney of the ox (PI. IX, fig. 1) is a compound organ made up
of 15 to 25 separate lobules like so many separate kidneys, but all
pouring their secretion into one common pouch (pelvis) situated in
an excavation in the center of the lower surface. While the ox is the
only domesticated quadruped which maintains this divided condition
of the kidney after birth, this condition is common to all while at an
early stage of development in the womb. The cluster of lobules
making up a single kidney forms an ovoid mass flattened from above
downward, and extending from the last rib backward beneath the
loins and to one side of the solid chain of the backbone. The right
is more firmly attached to the loins and extends farther backward
than the left. Deeply covered in a mass of suet, each kidney has a
strong outer, white, fibrous covering, and inside this two successive
layers of kidney substance, of which the outer is that in which the
urine is mainly separated from the blood and poured into the fine,
microscopic urinary ducts. (PL X, fig. 1) These latter, together
with blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves, make up the second, or
internal, layer. The outer layer is mainly composed of minute glob-
ular clusters of microscopic, intercommunicating blood vessels (Mal-
pighian bodies), each of which is furnished with a fibrous capsule
that is nothing else than the dilated commencement of a urine tube.
These practicall}^ microscopic tubes follow at first a winding course
through the outer layer (Ferrein's tubes), then form a long loop
(doubling on itself) in the inner layer (Henle's loop), and finally
pass back through the inner layer (Bellini's tubes) to open through
a conical process into the common pouch (pelvis) on the lower surface
of the organ. (PL X, figs. 1, 2, 3.)

The tube that conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder is
like a white, round cord, about the size of a goose quill, prolonged
from the pouch on the lower surface of the kidney backward beneath
the loins, then inward, supported by a fold of thin membrane, to
open into- the bladder just in front of its neck. The canal passes first
through the middle (muscular) coat of the bladder, and then ad-
vances perceptibly between that and the internal (mucous) coat,
through which it finally opens. By this arrangement in overfilling
the bladder this opening is closed like a valve by the pressure of the
urine, and the return of liquid to the kidney is prevented. The. blad-
der (PL IX, fig. 2) is a dilatable, egg-shaped pouch, closed behind by
a strong ring of muscular fibers encircling its neck, and enveloped by
looped, muscular fibers extending on all sides around its body and
closed anterior end. Stimulated by the presence of urine, these last
contract and expel contents through the neck into the urethra.
This last is the tube leading backward along the floor of the pelvic

116 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

bones and downward through the penis. In the bull this canal of the
urethra is remarkable for its small caliber and for the S -shaped bend
which it describes in the space between the thighs and just above
the scrotum. This bend is attributable to the fact that the retractor
muscles are attached to the penis at this point, and in withdrawing
that organ within its sheath they double it upon itself. The small
size of the canal and this S-shaped bend are serious obstacles to the
passing of a catheter to draw the urine, yet by extending the penis
out of its sheath the bend is effaced, and a small, gum-elastic catheter,
not more than one-fourth of an inch in diameter, may with care be
passed into the bladder. In the coav the urethra is A'ery short, open-
ing in the median line on the floor of the vulva about 4 inches in front
of its external orifice. Even in her, however, the passing of a cathe-
ter is a matter of no little difficulty, the opening of the urethra being
very narrow and encircled by the projecting membranous and rigid
margins, and on each side of the opening is a blind pouch (canal of
Gartner) into which the catheter will almost invariably find its way.
In both male and female, therefore, the passing of a catheter is an
operation which demands special skill.

General symptoms of urinary disorders. — These are not so promi-
nent in cattle as in horses, yet they are of a similar kind. There is a
stiff or straddling gait with the hind limbs and some difficulty in
turning or in lying down and rising, the act causing a groan. The
frequent passage of urine in driblets, its continuous escape in drops,
the sudden arrest of the flow when in full stream, the rhythmic
contraction of the muscles under the anus without any flow resulting,
the swelling of the sheath, the collection of hard, gritty masses on
the hair surrounding the orifice of the sheath, the occurrence of drop-
sies in the limbs under the chest or belly, or in either of these cavi-
ties, and finally the appearance of nervous stupor, may indicate
serious disorder of the urinary organs. The condition of the urine
passed may likewise lead to suspicion. It may be white, from crystal-
lized carbonate of lime; brown, red, or even black, from the presence
of blood or blood-coloring matter ; yellow, from biliary coloring mat-
ter; frothy, from contained albumin; cloudy, from phosphates;
glairy, from pus; it may also show gritty masses from gravel. In
many cases of urinary disorder in the ox, hoAvever, the symptoms are
by no means prominent, and unless special examination is made of
the loins, the bladder, and the urine the true nature of the malady
may be overlooked.

DIURESIS (POLYURIA, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, EXCESSIVE SECRE-
TION OF URINE).

A secretion of urine in excess of the normal amount may be looked
on as disease, even if the result does not lead to immediate loss of
condition. Cattle fed on distillery swill are striking examples of such

DISEASES OF THE URINAEY ORGANS. 117

excess caused by the enormous consumption of a liquid feed, which
nourishes and fattens in spite of the diuresis; the condition is un-
wholesome, and cattle that have passed four or five months in a
swill stable have fatty livers and Iddneys, and never again do well on
ordinary feed. Diuresis may further occur from increase of blood
pressure in the kidneys (diseases of the heart or lungs which hinder
the onward passage of the blood, the eating of digitalis, English
broom, the contraction of the blood vessels on the surface of the body
in cold weather, etc.) ; also from acrid or diuretic plants taken with
the feed (dandelion, burdock, colchicum, digitalis, savin, resinous
shoots, etc.) ; from excess of sugar in the feed (beets, turnips, ripe
sorghum) ; also from the use of frozen feed (frosted turnip tops and
other vegetables), and from the growths of certain molds in fodder
(musty hay, mow-burnt hay, moldy oats, moldy bread, etc.) . Finally,
alkaline waters and alkaline incrustations on the soil may be active
causes. In some of these cases the result is beneficial rather than in-
jurious, as when cattle affected with gravel in the kidneys are en-
tirely freed from this condition by a run at grass, or by an exclusive
diet of roots or swill. In other cases, however, the health and condi-
tion suffer, and even inflammation of the kidneys may occur.

Treatment. — The treatment is mainly in the change of diet to a
more solid aliment destitute of the special, offensive ingredient.
Boiled flaxseed is often the best diet or addition to the wholesome
dry food, and, by waj^ of medicine, doses of 2 drams each of sulphate
of iron and iodid of potassium may be given twice daily. In obsti-
nate cases 2 drams ergot of rye or of catechu may be added.

BLOODY URINE (RED WATER, MOOR ILL, WOOD ILL, HEMATURIA,

HEMAGLOBINURIA).

This is a common affection among cattle in certain localities, above
all on damp, undrained lands and under a backward agriculture. It
is simply bloody urine or hematuria when the blood is found in clots,
or when under the microscope the blood globules can be detected as
distinctly rounded, flattened disks. It is smoky urine — hemaglobinu-
ria — when neither such distinct clots nor blood disks can be found, but
merely a general browning, reddening, or blackening of the urine by
the presence of dissolved, blood-coloring matter. The bloody urine is
the more direct result of structural disease of the kidneys or urinary
passages (inflammation, stone, gravel, tumors, hydatids, kidney
worms, sprains of the loins), while the stained urine (hemaglobinu-
ria) is usually the result of some general or more distinct disorder in
which the globules are destroyed in the circulating blood and the
coloring matter dissolved in and diffused through the whole mass of
the blood and of the urine secreted from it. As in the two forms,
blood and the elements of blood escape into the urine, albumin is

118 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

always present, so that there is albuminuria with blood-coloring mat-
ter superadded. If from stone or gravel, gritty particles are usually
passed, and may be detected in the bottom of a dish in which the
liquid is caught. If from fracture or severe sprain of the loins, it
is liable to be associated not only with some loss of control of the
hind limbs and with staggering behind but also with a more or less
perfect paralysis of the tail. The bloodstained urine without red
globules results from specific diseases — Texas fever (PI. XL VII,
fig. 3), anthrax, spirillosis, and from eating irritant plants (broom,
savin, mercury, hellebore, ranunculus, convolvulus, colchicum, oak
shoots, ash privet, hazel, hornbeam, and other astringent, acrid, or
resinous plants, etc.). The Maybug or Spanish fly taken with the
feed or spread over a great extent of skin as a blister has a similar
action. Frosted turnips or other roots will bring on the affection in
some subjects. Among conditions which act by the direct destruc-
tion of the globules in the circulating blood may be named an excess
of water in that fluid; the use of water from soils rich in decom-
posing vegetable matter and containing alkaline salts, particularly
nitrites; and the presence in the water and feed of the ptomaines of
bacteria growth ; hence the prevalence of " red water " in marshy
districts and on clayey and other impervious soils, and the occurrence
of bloody urine in the advanced stages of several contagious diseases.
Some mineral poisons — such as iodin, arsenic, and phosphorus taken
to excess — ^may cause hematuria, and finally the symptoms may be
merely the result of a constitutional predisposition of the individual
or family to bleeding. In some predisposed subjects, exposure of
the body to cold or wet will cause the affection.

The specific symptom of bloody or smolr^ water is a very patent
one. It may or may not be associated with fever, with the presence
or absence of abdominal tenderness on pressure, with a very frothy
state of the milk or even a reddish tinge, with or without marked
paleness of the mucous membranes, and general weakness. When
direct injury to the kidneys is the immediate cause of the disease the
urine Avill be passed often, in small quantity at a time, and with much
straining. When there is bloodlessness (a watery blood) from in-
sufficient nourishment, fever is absent and the red water is at first
the only symptom. When the active cause has been irritant plants,
abdominal tenderness, colics, and other signs of bowel inflammation
are marked features.

Treatment. — Treatment varies according as the cause has been a
direct irritant operating on a subject in vigorous health or a micro-
bian poison acting on an animal deficient in blood and vigor. In the
first form of red water a smart purgative (1 pound to 1^ pounds
Glauber's salt) will clear away the irritants from> the bowels and
allav the coexistent hic-h fever. It will also serve to divert to the

DISEASES OF THE URINAKY ORGANS. 119

bowels much of the irritant products ah'eady absorbed into the blood
and will thus protect the kidneys. In many such cases a liberal sup-
ply of wholesome, easily digestible feed will be all the additional
treatment required. In this connection demulcent feed (boiled flax-
seed, wheat bran) is especially good. If much blood has been lost,
bitters (gentian, one-half ounce) and iron (sulphate of iron, 2 drams)
should be given for a Aveek.

For cases in Avhich excess of diuretic plants has been taken, it may
be well to replace the salts by 1 to 2 pints of olive oil, adding 1 ounce
of laudanum and 2 drams of gum camphor; also to apply fomenta-
tions or a fresh sheepskin over the loins. Buttermilk or vinegar, one-
half pint, or sulphuric acid, 60 drops in a pint of water, may also be
used frequently as injections. In cases caused by sprained or frac-
tured loins, inflamed kidneys, stone or gravel, the treatment will be
as for the particular disease in question.

In hematuria from anemia (watery blood), whether from insuffi-
cient or badly adjusted rations or from the poisonous products of
fermentations in impervious or marshy soils, the treatment must be
essentially tonic and stimulating. Eich, abundant, and easily diges-
tible feed must be furnished. The different grains (oats, barley,
wheat, bran, rye) and seeds (rape, linseed, cotton seed) are especially
called for and may be given either ground or boiled. As a bitter,
sulphate of quinin, one-half dram, and tincture of chlorid of iron, 2
drams, may be given in a pint of water thrice a day. In some cases
1 or 2 teaspoonfuls of oil of turpentine twice daily in milk will act
favorably.

In this anemic variety prevention is the great need. The drainage
and cultivation of the dangerous soils is the main object. Until this
can be accomplished young and newly purchased cattle not yet inured
to the poisons must be kept from the dangerous fields and turned on
only those which are already drained naturally or artificially. Fur-
ther, they should have an abundant ration in which the local product
of grass, hay, etc., is supplemented by grain or other seeds. Another
point to be guarded against is the supply of water that has drained
from marshes or impervious soils, rich in organic matter, as such
water is charged with nitrites, ptomaines, etc., which directly conduce
to the disorder. Fence out from all such waters and supply from
living springs or deep wells only.

ALBUMIN IN THE URINE (ALBUMINURIA).

In bloody urine albumin is always present as an important con-
stituent of the blood, and in congested and inflamed kidneys it is
present as a part of the inflammatory exudate. Apart from these,
albumin in the urine represents in different cases a variety of dis-
eased conditions of the kidneys or of distant organs. Among the

120 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

additional causes of albuminiuia may be named: (1) An excess of
albumin in the blood (after easy calving with little loss of blood and
before the secretion of milk has been established, or in cases of sud-
den suppression of the secretion of milk) ; (2) under increase of
blood pressure (after deep drinking, after doses of digitalis or
broom, after transfusion of blood from one animal to another, or in
disease of the heart or lungs causing obstruction to the flow of blood
from the veins) ; (3) after cutting (or disease) of the motor nerves
of the vessels going to the kidneys, causing congestion of these
organs; (4) violent exertion, hence long drives; the same happens
with violent, muscular spasms, as from strychnia poisoning, lock-
jaw, epilepsy, and convulsions; (5) in most fevers and extensive in-
flammations of important organs, like the lungs or liver, the escape
of the albumin being variously attributed to the high temperature
of the body and disorder of the nerves, and to resulting congestion
and disorder of the secreting cells of the kidneys; (6) in burns and
some other congested states of the skin; (7) under the action of cer-
tain poisons (strong acids, phosphorous, arsenic, Spanish flies, car-
bolic acid, and those inducing bloody urine) ; (8) in certain con-
ditions of weakness or congestion of the secreting cells of the kidneys,
so that they allow this element of the blood to escape; (9) when the
feed is entirely wanting in common salt, albumin may appear in the
urine temporarily after a full meal containing an excess of albumin.
It can also be produced experimentally by puncturing the back part
of the base of the brain (the floor of the fourth ventricle close to
the point the injury to which causes sugary urine). In abscess,
tumor, or inflammation of the bladder, ureter, or urethra the urine
is albuminous.

It follows, therefore, that albumin in the urine does not indicate
the existence of any one specific disease, and except when from weak-
ness or loss of function of the kidney cells, it must be looked on as
an attendant on another disease, the true nature of which we must
try to find out. These affections we must exclude one by one until
we are left to assume the noninflammatory disorder of the secreting
cells of the kidney. It is especially important to exclude inflamma-
tion of the kidney, and to do tliis may require a microscopic exami-
nation of the sediment of the urine and the demonstration of the
entire absence of casts of the uriniferous tubes. (See "Nephritis,"

P-121.)

To detect albumin in the urine, the suspected and frothy liquid
must be rendered sour by adding a few drops of nitric acid and then
boiled in a test tube. If a solid precipitate forms, then a few more
drops of nitric acid should be added, and if the liquid does not clear
it up it is albumin. A precipitate thrown down by boiling and re-
dissolved by nitric acid is probably phosphate of lime.

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 121

Tteattnent. — Treatment is usually directed to the disease on which
it is dependent. In the absence of any other recognizable disease,
mucilaginous drinks of boiled flaxseed, slippery elm, or gum may be
given, tannic acid, one-half dram twice daily, and fomentations or
even mustard poultices over the loins. AVlien the disease is chronic
and there is no attendant fever (elevation of temperature), tonics
(hydrochloric acid, 6 drops in a pint of water; phosphate of iron, 2
drams, or sulphate of quinin, 2 drams, repeated twice daily) may
be used. In all cases the patient should be kept carefully from cold
and wet, a warm, dry shed, or in w^arra weather a dry, sunny yard
or pasture being especially desirable.

SUGAR IN URINE (DIABETES MELLITUS).

This is a frequent condition of the urine in parturition fever, but
as a specific disease, associated w^ith deranged liver or brain, it is
practically unknown in cattle. As a mere attendant on another dis-
ease it demands no special notice here.

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS (NEPHRITIS).

This has been divided according as it affects the different parts of
the kidneys, as: (1) Its fibrous covering (perinephritis); (2) the
secreting tissue of its outer portion (parenchymatous) ; (3) the con-
nective tissue (interstitial) ; (4) the lining membrane of its ducts
(catarrhal) ; and (5) its pelvis or sac receiving the urine (pyelitis).
It has also been distinguished according to the changes that take
place in the kidne}'^, especially as seen after death, according to the
quantity of albumin in the urine, and according as the affection is
acute or chronic. For the purpose of this w^ork it will be convenient
to consider these as one inflammatory disease, making a distinction
merely between the acute and the chronic or of long standing.

The causes are in the main like those causing bloody urine, such
as irritant and diuretic plants, Spanish flies applied as a blister on
otherwise, exposure to cold and wet, the presence of stone or gravel
in the kidnej^s, injuries to the back or loins, as by riding one another,
the drinking of alkaline or selenitious water, the use of putrid, stag-
nant water, of that containing bacteria and their products, the con-
sumption of musty fodder, etc. (See " Hematuria," p. 117.)

The length of the loins in cattle predisposes these parts to mechani-
cal injury, and in the lean and especially in the thin, working ox the
kidney is very liable to suffer. In the absence of an abundance
of loose, connective tissue and of fat, the kidneys lie in close contact
with the muscles of the loins, and any injury to them may tend to
stretch the kidney and its vessels, or to cause its inflammation by
direct extension of the disease from the injured muscle to the adja-
cent kidney. Thus, under unusually heavy draft, under slips or

122 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

falls on slippery ground, under sudden unexpected drooping or
twisting of the loins from missteps or from the feet sinking into
holes, under the loading and jarring of the loins when animals ride
one another in cases of " heat," the kidneys are subject to injury and
inflammation. A hard run, as when chased by a dog, may be the
occasion of such an attack. A fodder rich in nitrogenous or flesh-
forming elements (beans, peas, vetches (Vida satlva), and other
leguminous plants) has been charged with irritating the kidneys
through the excess of urea, hippuric acid, and allied products elimi-
nated through these organs and the tendency to the formation of
gravel. It seems, however, that these feeds are most dangerous when
partially ripened and yet not fully matured, a stage of growth at
which they are liable to contain ingredients irritating to the stomach
and poisonous to the brain, as seen in their inducing so-called " stom-
ach staggers." Even in the poisoning by the seeds of ripened
but only partially cured rye grass (Loliu7/i perenne), and darnel
{Lolium temMlentum) ^ the kidneys are found violently congested
with black blood ; also, in the indigestions that result from the eating
of partially ripened corn or millet some congestion of the kidneys
is an attendant phenomenon.

Cruzel says that the disease as occurring locally is usually not
alone from the acrid and resinous plants charged with inducing
hematuria, but also from stinking camomile {Antherrds cotula) and
field poppy when used in the fresh, succulent condition ; also from the
great prevalence of dead caterpillars on the pasture, or from dead
Spanish flies in the stagnant pools of water. The fresh plants are
believed to be injurious only by reason of a volatile oil which is dis-
sipated in drying. In the case of the stagnant water it may be ques-
tioned whether the chemical products of the contained ferments
(bacteria) are not more frequently the cause of the evil than the
alleged Spanish flies, though the latter are hurtful enough when
present.

Inflammation of the kidneys may further be a form or an exten-
sion of a sjjecific contagious disease, such as erysipelas, rinderpest,
septicemia, or even of poisoning by the spores of fungi. Rivolta
reports the case of a cow with spots of local congestion and blood
staining in the kidney, the affected parts being loaded with bac-
teria. Unfortunately he neither cultivated the bacteria nor inocu-
lated them, and thus the case stands without positive demonstration
that they were the cause of disease.

In certain cases the symptoms of nephritis are very manifest, and
in others so hidden that the existence of the affection can be certainly
recognized only by a microscopic examination of the urine. In vio-
lent cases there is high fever, increase of the body temperature to
103° F. and upward; hurried breathing, with a catching inspiration;

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 123

accelerated pulse ; dry, hot muzzle ; burning of the roots of the horns
and ears ; loss of appetite ; suspended rumination ; and indications of
extreme sensitiveness in the loins. The patient stands with back
arched and hind legs extended backward and outward, and passes
water frequently, in driblets, of a high color and specific gravity, con-
taining albumin and microscopic casts. (PI. XI, fig. 5). Wlien made
to move, the patient does so with hesitation and groaning, espe-
cially if turned in a narrow circle; when pinched on the flank just
beneath the lateral bony processes of the loins, especially on that
side on which the disease predominates, it flinches and groans. If
the examination is made with oiled hand introduced through the
last gut (rectum), the pressure upward on the kidneys gives rise to
great pain and to efforts to escape by moving away and by active
contractions of the rectum for the expulsion of the hand. Some-
times there is a distinct swelling over the loins or quarter on one or
both sides. In uncastrated males the testicle on the affected side is
drawn up, or is alternately raised and dropped. In all there is a
liability to tremors of the thigh on the side affected.

In some seA^ere cases colicky pains are as violent as in the worst
forms of indigestion and spasms of the bowels. The animal fre-
quently shifts from one hind foot to the other, stamps, kicks at the
belly, frequently looks anxiously at its flank, moans plaintively, lies
down and quickly gets up again, grinds its teeth, twists its tail, and
keeps the back habitually arched and rigid and the hind feet ad-
vanced under the belly. The bowels may be costive and the feces
glistening with a coat of mucus, or they may be loose and irritable,
and the paunch or even the bowels may become distended with gas
(bloating) as the result of indigestion and fermentation. In some
animals, male and female alike, the rigid, arched condition of the
back will give way to such undulating movements as are sometimes
seen in the act of coition.

The disease does not always appear in its full severity ; for a day,
or even two, however, there may be merely loss of appetite, impaired
rumination, a disposition to remain lying down, yet when the patient
is raised it manifests suffering by anxiously looking at the flanks,
shifting or stamping of the hind feet, shaking of the tail, and at-
tempts to urinate, which are either fruitless or lead to the discharge
of a small quantity of high-colored or perhaps bloody urine.

In some recent slight cases, and in many chronic ones, these symp-
toms may be absent or unobserved, and an examination of the urine
is necessary to reach a safe conclusion. The urine may contain
blood, or it may be cloudy from contained albumin, which coagulates
on heating with nitric acid (see "Albuminuria," p. 119) ; it may be
slightly glairy from pus, or gritty particles may be detected in it. In
seeking for casts of the uriniferous tubes, a drop may be taken with a

124 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

fine tube from the bottom of the liquid after standing, and examined
under a power magnif,ying 50 diameters. If the fine, cylindroid fila-
ments are seen they may then be examined with a power of 200 or
250 diameters. (PI. XI, fig. 5.) The appearance of the casts gives
some clue to the condition of the kidneys. If made up of large,
rounded or slightly columnar cells, with a single nucleus in each cell
(epithelial), they imply comparatively slight and recent disease of
the kidney tubes, the detachment of the epithelium being like what
is seen in any inflamed mucous surface. If made up largely of the
small, disk-shaped and nonnucleated red-blood globules, they imply
escape of blood, and usually a recent injury or congestion of the
kidney — it may be from sprains, blows, or the ingestion of acrid or
diuretic poisons. If the casts are made of a clear, waxy, homo-
geneous substance (hyaline), without any admixture of opaque par-
ticles, they imply an inflammation of longer standing, in which the
inflamed kidney tubules have been already stripped of their cellular
(epithelial) lining. If the casts are rendered opaque by the presence
of minute, spherical granular cells, like white-blood globules, it be-
tokens active suppuration of the kidney tubes. In other cases the
casts are rendered opaque by entangled earthy granules (carbonate of
lime), or crystals of some other urinary salts. In vStill other cases
the casts entangle clear, refrangent globules of oil or fat, which may
imply fatty degeneration of the kidneys or injury to the spinal cord.
The presence of free pus giving a glairy, flocculent appearance to the
urine is suggestive of inflammation of the urinary pouch at the com-
mencement of the excretory duct (pelvis of kidney) (PL IX, fig. 1),
especially if complicated with gritty particles of earthy salts. This
condition is known as pyelitis. In the chronic cases swelling of the
legs or along the lower surface of chest or abdomen, or within these
respective cavities, is a common symptom. So, also, stupor or coma,
or even convulsions, may supervene from the poisonous action of
urea and other waste or morbid products retained in the blood.

Treatment. — In the treatment of acute nephritis the first consid-
eration is the removal of the cause. Acrid or diuretic plants in the
feed must be removed, and what of this kind is present in the stom-
ach or bowels may be cleared away by a moderate dose of castor or
olive oil ; extensive surfaces of inflammation that have been blistered
by Spanish flies must be washed clean with soapsuds ; sprains of the
back or loins must be treated by soothing fomentations or poultices
or by a fresh sheepskin with its fleshy side applied on the loins, and
the patient must be kept in a narrow stall in which it can not turn
even its head. The patient must be kept in a warm, dry building,
so that the skin nuiy be kept active rather than the kidneys. Warm
blanketing is equally important, or even mustard poultices over the
loins will be useful. Blisters of Spanish flies, turpentine, or other

DISEASES OF THE UEINAEY OEGANS. 125

agent which may be absorbed and irritate the kidneys must be
avoided. The aetivei fever may be checked by 15 drops tincture of
aconite every four hours or by one-third ounce of acetanilid. If pain
is very acute, 1 ounce of laudanum or 2 drams of solid extract of
belladonna will serve to relieve. When the severity of the disease has
passed, a course of tonics (quinin, 2 drams, or gentian powder, 4
drams, daily) may be given. Diuretics, too, may be given cautiously
at this advanced stage to relieve dropsy and give tone to the kidneys
and general system (oil of turpentine, 2 teaspoonf uls ; bicarbonate
of soda, 1 teaspoonful, repeated twice a day). Pure water is essen-
tial, and it should not be given chilled ; warm drinks are preferable.

In the chronic forms of kidney inflammation the same protection
against cold and similar general treatment are demanded. Tonics,
however, are important to improve the general health (phosphate of
iron, 2 drams; powdered nux vomica, 20 grains; powdered gentian
root, 4 drams, dailj'^). In some instances the mineral acids (nitric
acid, 60 drops, or nitrohydrochloric acid, 60 drops, daily) may be
used with the bitters. Mustard applied to the loins in the form of
a thin pulp made with water and covered for an hour with paper or
other impervious envelope, or water hotter than the hand can bear, or
cupping, may be resorted to as a counterirritant. In cupping, shave
the loins, smear them with lard, then take a narrow-mouthed glass,
expand the air within by smearing its interior with a few drops of
alcohol, setting it on fire and instantly pressing the mouth of the
vessel to the oiled portion of the skin. As the air within the vessel
cools it contracts, tending to form a partial vacuum, and the skin,
charged with blood, is strongly drawn up within it. Several of these
being applied at once, a strong derivation from the affected kidneys
is obtained. In no case of inflamed or irritable kidney should Span-
ish flies or oil of turpentine be used upon the skin.

PARASITES OF THE KIDNEY.

As the kidney is the usual channel by which the bacteria leave the
system, this organ is liable to be implicated when microphytes exist
in the blood, and congestions and blood extravasions are produced.
In anthrax, southern cattle fever (Texas fever), and other such
affections bloody urine is the consequence. Of the larger parasites
attacking the kidney may be specially named the cystic form of the
echinococcus tapeworm of the dog, the cystic form of the unarmed or
beef tapeworm of man, the diving bladderworm — the cystic form of
the marginate tapeworm of the dog, and the giant strongyle — the
largest of the rounchvorms. These give rise to general symptoms of
kidney disease, but the true source of the trouble is likely to be de-
tected only if the heads or booklets of the tapeworm or the eggs of
the roundworm are found on microscopical examination of the urine.

126 . DISEASES OP CATTLE.

TUMORS OF THE KIDNEY (HYPERTROPHY OR ATROPHY).

The kidney may be the seat of cancerous or simple tumors, and it
may be unnaturally enlarged or reduced in size, but though there may
be signs of urinary disorder the true nature of the disease is seldom
manifest until after death. The passing of blood and of large multi-
nucleated cells in the urine (to be detected under the microscope)
may betray the existence of an ulcerated cancer of the kidne3\ The
presence of cancerous enlargement of (superficial) lymphatic glands
may further assist and confirm the decision.

RETENTION OF URINE.

Inability to pass urine may come from any one of three condi-
tions— first, spasm of the neck of the bladder; second, paralysis of
the body of the bladder; third, obstruction of the channel of outlet
by a stone (calculus) (see PI. XI) or other obstacle.

In spasm of the neck of the hladder the male animal may stand
with the tail slightly raised and making rhythmical contractions of
the muscle beneath the anus (accelerator urinse) (see PI. IX, fig. 2),
but without passing a drop of liquid. In the female the hind legs
are extended, widely parted, and the back is arched as if to urinate,
but the effort is vain. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum
or vagina in the early stages of the affection, the bladder may be felt
beneath partially filled, but not overdistended with liquid, and its
neck or mouth firm and rigid. In the more advanced stages of the
affection the organ is felt as a great, tense, elastic bag, extending
forward into the abdomen. In this condition the overdistended mus-
cular coat of the bladder has lost its power of contraction, so that
true paralysis has set in, the muscle closing the mouth of the sac
alone retaining its contractile power.

In faralysis of the body of the hladder attention is rarely drawn to
the urinary disorder until the bladder has been distended to full
repletion and is almost ready to give way by rupture and to allow
the escape of the contained liquid into the abdomen. Overdistention
is the most common cause of the paralysis, yet it may occur from in-
flammation of the muscular wall of the bladder, or even from injury
to the terminal part of the spinal marrow. In this last condition,
however, the tail is liable to be powerless, and the neck of the blad-
der may also be paralyzed, so that the urine dribbles aAvay continu-
ously.

Causes. — Among the causes of spasm of the neck of the bladder
may be named the lodgment of small stones or gravel, the feeding on
irritant diuretics (see " Bloody urine," p. 117, or " Nephritis," p. 121),
the enforced retention of urine while at work or during a jiainful or
difficult parturition. The irritation attendant on inflammation of the

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 127

mucous membrane of the bladder may be a further cause of spasms of
the neck, as may also be inflammation of the channel (urethra) back
of the neck. Extensive applications of Spanish flies to the skin, the
abuse of diuretics, and the occurrence of indigestion and spasms of
the bowels are further causes. So long as spasmodic colic is unre-
lieved, retention of water from spasm of the neck of the bladder
usually persists.

Treatment. — Treatment depends largely on the cause. In indi-
gestion the irritant contents of the bowels must be got rid of by
laxatives and injections of warm water ; Spanish-fly blisters must be
washed from the surface; a prolonged and too active exertion must
be intermitted. » The spasm may be relaxed by injecting one-half
ounce of solid extract of belladonna in water into the rectum or by a
solution of tobacco. Chloroform or ether may be given by inhalation,
or chloral hydrate (1 ounce) may be given in w^ater by the mouth.
Fomentations of warm water may be made over the loins and between
the thighs, and the oiled hand inserted into the rectum may press
moderately on the anterior part of the bladder, which can be felt as
an elastic fluctuating bag of an oval shape just beneath.

All other measures failing, the liquid must be drawn off through a
tube (catheter). This is, however, exceedingly difficult, alike in male
and female, and we can not expect an amateur to succeed in accom-
plishing it. In the cow the opening into the bladder is found in the
median line of the floor of the generative entrance, about 4 inches in
front of the external opening, but it is flanked on either side by a
blind pouch, into which the catheter will pass, in ninety-nine cases
out of a hundred, in the hands of any but the most skilled operator.
In the bull or steer the penis, when retracted into its sheath, is bent
upon itself like the letter S, just above the scrotum and testicles (see
PI. IX, fig. 2), and unless this bend is effaced by extending the organ
forward out of its sheath it is quite impossible to pass a catheter
beyond this point. When, however, by the presentation of a female,
the animal can be tempted to protrude the penis, so that it can be
seized and extended, or when it can be manipulated forward out of
the sheath, it becomes possible to pass a catheter of small caliber
(one-third inch or under) onward into the bladder. Youatt advised
laying open the sheath so as to reach and extend the penis, and others
have advocated opening the uretha in the space between the thighs
or just beneath the anus, but such formidable operations are beyond
the stock owner. The incision of the narrow uretha through the great
thickness of muscular and erectile bleeding tissue just beneath the
anus is especially an operation of extreme delicacy and difficulty.
Drawing the liquid through the tube of an aspirator is another
possible resort for the professional man. The delicate needle of the
aspirator is inserted in such cases through the floor of the vagina and

128 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

upper wall of the bladder in the female, or through the floor of the
rectum (last gut) and roof of the bladder in the male, or finally
through the lower and back part of the abdominal wall, just in front
of the bones of the pelvis (pubic bones), thence through the lower
and anterior part of the bladder near its blind anterior end. After
relief has been obtained the administration of belladonna in 2-dram
doses daily for several days will tend to prevent a recurrence of the
retention.

^Yhen the body of the bladder has become benumbed or paralyzed
by over distention, we may seek to restore its tone by doses of one-
half a dram of powdered mix vomica repeated daily, and by mus-
tard plaster applied over the loins, on the back piirt of the belly
inferiorly, or between the thighs. Small doses (2 drams) of balsam
of copaiba are sometimes useful in imparting tone to the partly
paralyzed organ.

INCONTINENCE OF URINE (PALSY OF THE NECK OF THE

BLADDER).

This may occur from disease or injury to the posterior part of the
spinal cord or from broken back, and in these cases the tail, and per-
haps the hind limbs, are liable to be paralyzed. In this case the urine
dribbles away constantly, and the oiled hand in the vagina or rectum
w^ill feel the half-filled and flaccid bladder beneath and may easily
empty it by pressure.

Ti^eatment. — Treatment is only successful when the cause of the
trouble can be remedied. After these (sprains of the back, etc.) have
recovered, blisters (mustard) on the loins, the lower part of the
abdomen, or between the thighs may be resorted to with success.
Two drams of copaiba or of solid extract of belladonna or 2 grains
Spanish flies daily may serve to restore the lost tone. These failing,
the use of electric currents may still prove successful.

URINARY CALCULI (STONE OR GRAVEL).

Stone or gravel consists of hard bodies mainly made up of the solid
earthy constituents of the urine which have crystallized out of that
liquid at some part of the urinary passage, and have remained as
small particles (gravel), or have concreted into large masses (stone,
calculus). (See PI. XI, figs. 1, 2, 3.) In cattle it is no uncommon
thing to find them distending the practically microscopic tubes in
the red substance of the kidney, having been deposited from the
urine in the solid form almost as soon as that liquid has been
separated from the blood. These stones appear as white objects
on the red ground formed by cutting sections of the kidney, and
are essentially products of the dry feed of winter, and are most

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 129

common in working oxen, which are called upon to exhale more
water from the lungs and skin than are the slop-fed and inactive
cows. Little water being introduced into the body with the feed
and considerable being expelled with the breath and perspiration
in connection with the active life, the urine becomes small in
amount, but having to carry out all waste material from the tissues
and the tissue-forming feed it becomes so charged with solids that
it is ready to deposit them on the slightest disturbance. If, there-
fore, a little of the water of such concentrated urine is reabsorbed at
any point of the urinary passages the remainder is no longer able
to hold the solids in solution, and they are at once precipitated in
the solid form as gravel or commencing stone. In cattle, on the
other hand, which are kept at pasture in summer, or which are fed
liberally on roots, potatoes, pumpkins, apples, or ensilage in winter,
this concentrated condition of the urine is not induced, and under
such circumstances, therefore, the formation of stone is practically
unknown. Nothing more need be said to show the controlling influ-
ence of dry feeding in producing gravel and of a watery ration in
preventing it. Calculus in cattle is essentially a disease of winter
and of such cattle as are denied succulent feed and are confined to
dry fodder as their exclusive ration. Wliile there are exceptions,
they are so rare that they do not invalidate this general rule. It
is true that stone in the kidney or bladder is often found in the
summer or in animals feeding at the time on a more or less succu-
lent ration, yet such masses usually date back to a former period
when the animals were restricted to a dry ration.

In this connection is should be noted that a great drain of water
from the system by any other channel than the kidneys predisposes
to the production of gravel or stone. In case of profuse diarrhea,
for example, or of excessive secretion of milk, there is a correspond-
ing diminution of the water of the blood, and as the whole quan-
tity of the blood is thus decreased and as the urine secreted is
largely influenced by the fullness of the blood vessels and the pres-
sure exerted upon their walls from within, it follows that with this
decrease of the mass of the blood and the lessening of its pressure
outward there will be a corresponding decrease of urine. The waste
of the tissues, however, goes on as before, and if the waste matter is
passed out through the kidnej's it must be in a more concentrated
solution, and the more concentrated the urine the greater the danger
that the solids will be deposited as small crystals or calculi.

Again, the concentrated condition of the urine which predisposes

to such deposits is favored by the quantity of lime salts that may be

present in the water drunk by the animal. Water that contains 20

or 30 grains of carbonate or sulphate of lime to the gallon must con-

33071°— 16 9

130 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

tribute a large addition of solids to the blood and urine as compared
with soft waters from which lime is absent. In this connection it is
a remarkable fact that stone and gravel in the domesticated herbivora
are notoriously prevalent on many limestone soils, as on the limestone
formations of central and western Xew York, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
and Michigan ; on the calcareous formations of Norfolk, Suffolk, Der-
byshire, Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England; in Landes in
France, and around Munich in Bavaria. It does not follow that the
abundance of lime in the water and fodder is the main cause of the
calculi, as other poisons which are operative in the same districts
in causing goiter in both man and animal probably contribute to the
trouble, jet the excess of earthy salts in the drinking water can
hardly fail to add to the saturation of both blood and urine, and
thereb}'^ to favor the preciptation of the urinary solids from their
state of solution.

The known results of feeding cattle a generous or forcing ration
in which phosphate of lime is present to excess adds additional force
to the view just advanced. In the writer's experience, the Second
Duke of Oneida, a magnificent product of his world-famed family,
died as the result of a too liberal allowance of wheat bran, fed with
the view of still further improving the bone and general form of
the Duchess strain of Shorthorns. Lithotomy was performed and
a number of stones removed from the bladder and urethra, but the
patient succumbed to an inflammation of the bowels, induced by the
violent purgatives given before the writer arrived, under the mis-
taken idea that the straining had been caused by intestinal impac-
tion. In this case not only the Second Duke of Oneida, but the other
males of the herd as well, had the tufts of hairs at the outlet of the
sheath encased in hard, cylindroid sheaths of urinary salts, pre-
cipitated from the liquid as it ran over them. The tufts were in
reality resolved into a series of hard, rollerlike bodies, more or less
constricted at intervals, as if beaded.

"When it is stated that the ash of the whole grain of wheat is but 3
per cent, while the ash of wheat bran is 7.3 per cent, and that in the
case of the former 46.38 per cent of the ash is phosphoric acid, and in
that of the latter 50 per cent, it can easily be understood how a too
liberal use of wheat bran should prove dangerous if fed dry. The
following table shows the relative proportion of ash and phosphoric
acid in Avheat bran and in some common farm seeds:

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 131

AsJi and phosphoric acid in bran and some common farm, seeds.

Kind of grain.

Ash.

Phosphoric
acid ia ash.

Phosphoric
acid in tlie
entire feed.

Wheat bran

Wheat, grain

Oats, grain

Barley, grain

Bean, grain

Peas, grain

Tare, grain

Indian com, grain
Rye, grain

Per cent.
7.3
3

2.50
3.10
3.10
2.75
3

1.5
1.6

Per cent.
50

46.38
26.5
39.6
31.9
34.8
36.2

Per cent.

3.65

1.3914
.6625

1. 2276
.9864
.957

1.0S6

.6384

Wheat bran, it will be observed, contains three times as much
phosphoric acid as is found in any of the other grains, and four
times as much as oats, beans, peas, or rye ; so that if fed in excess it
will readily overcharge the urine with phosphates.

There is another point to be considered, however, in estimating
this danger. Wlieat bran contains a far greater quantity of albu-
minoids and other nitrogen-containing constituents than the common
grains (these being made up mainly of starch, which contains no
nitrogen) ; and, all nitrogen-bearing products contained in the blood
and tissues being expelled from the body mainly through the kidnej's
in the form of urea and (in cattle) hippuric acid, it follows that the
excess of urea formed when such feed is consumed must load the
urine with solids and bring it constantly nearer to the point of satu-
ration, wdien such solids (or the least soluble of them) must be
deposited.

The following table will show the relative amounts of the nitrogen-
bearing products in wheat bran and some of our common grains :

Nitrogenous matter in toheat bran and some common farm grains.

Kind of grain.

Wheat bran .
Wheat, grain
Barley, grain
Oats, grain . .
Rye, grain . . ,
Indian com . ,

Albumi
noids (ni-
troge-
nous).

Per cent.
16.1
12.5
12.4
11.8
10.6
10.1

Woody fiber
(nitroge-
nous.)

Per cent.
8

1.8
2.7
9.5
1.7
1.7

Total nitrog-
enous-bear-
ing constit-
uents.

Per cent.

24.1
14.3
15.1
21.3
12.3
11.8

It will be observed that, with the exception of oats, none of the
grains contain more than two-thirds of the nitrogenous material

132 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

present in the wheat bran, while in the case of rye and maize there is
practically but one-half. Even in the case of oats the albuminoids,
which are the more digestible principles, and therefore those that
are the most easily and speedily converted, into urea, are present only
to the amount of two-thirds of that which exists in the wheat bran.
With such an excess of ash, of phosphates, and of nitrogenous (urea-
forming) constituents in wheat bran, its tendency to favor the forma-
tion of calculi is fully explained. It must not, however, be inferred
that wheat bran is not a valuable feedstuff. The inference is only
that it should be fed with an abundance of water, as a sloppy mash,
or in combination with an abundance of roots, potatoes, pumpkins,
or other succulent aliment.

In this connection the presence of magnesia in the feed or water
must be named as favoring calculous formations in the urinary pas-
sages. The explanation is that while the phosphate of magnesia
thrown out in the urine is soluble in Avater, the compound phosphate
of ammonia and magnesia is insoluble, and, accordingly, if at any
time ammonia is introduced into urine containing the phosphate of
magnesia there is instantly formed the ammonio-magnesium phos-
phate, which is as promptly deposited in the solid form. The com-
mon source of ammonia in such cases is from decomposition of the
urea in fermenting urine. In order to produce this a ferment is nec-
essary, however, and therefore, as an additional prerequisite, the
presence of bacteria, or fungi, in the urine is essential. These fer-
ments may make their way from without along the urinary passage
(urethra ) , and their propagation in the bladder is greatly favored by
the prolonged retention of urine, as in case of spasm of the neck of
the bladder or obstruction by an already existing stone. Another
mode of entrance of the ferment is an unclean catheter used to draw
the urine. Still another is the elimination through the kidneys of
the bacteria of infectious diseases, or of such as, without producing
a general infection, yet determine fermentation in the urine. The
precipitation is favored not only by the production of ammonia, but
also by the formation of viscid (colloid) products of fermentation.
In this sense bacteria are most important factors in causing gritty
deposits in the urine.

Another insoluble salt which enters largely into the composition of
many urinary calculi of the ox is carbonate of lime. This is derived
mainlj^ from the lime in the feed and water and from the carbon
dioxid formed by the oxidation of the organic acids in the fodder.
These organic acids, being composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
(without nitrogen), are resolved by the addition of oxygen into
carbon dioxid (COo) and water (H^^O). The carbon dioxid unites
with the lime in the blood to form carbonate of lime, and in this
state passes into the urine. Now, carbonate of lime is soluble in

DISEASES OF THE URINAEY ORGANS.

133

water containing free or uncombined carbon dioxid,but is precipitated
whenever the latter is withdrawn. It is only necessary, therefore,
to have in the urine sufficient lime or other available base to unite
with all the free carbon dioxid in order to bring about the precipi-
tation of the dissolved carbonate of lime in the solid, crystallized
form; hence it is that, of all sediments in the urine of herbivora,
this is the most frequent and usually the most abundant.

A less common constituent of urinary calculi is the insoluble oxalate
of lime. In this case the lime is derived as before from the feed or
water, or both, while the oxalic acid is a product of the oxidation of
organic acids of the feed, less oxygen having been used than in the
formation of carbon dioxid. The final product of the complete
oxidation of these acids is carbon dioxid, but when less oxygen is
furnished, owing to some disease of the lungs or a disease of the nerve
centers, which lessens the activity of the breathing, then oxalic acid
may be produced. If this oxalic acid comes into contact with lime,
it is instantly precipitated as crystals of oxalate of lime.

Another inorganic substance at times found in urinary calculi is
silica (SiOa). This contributes largely to giving stiffness to the
stems of growing plants, and in most of our cereals and grasses makes
up a large proportion of the ashes of the burned plant. It is found in
the soluble form in combination as silicate of potash, but at times is
displaced by oxalic or other acid and then appears as gritty, sandy
particles in the stem. This gritty, insoluble silica is especially notice-
able among the horsetails {E quisetcecece) ^ bamboos, and sedges. The
per cent of silica in the ash of several common fodder plants is given
below :

Silica in asJi of various fodder plants.

Ash of-

Silica.

Ash of —

Si'aca.

Wheat straw. .
Oats and husk

Oat straw

Barley straw. .
Eye straw

Per cent.
67.6
38.6
35.4
73.1
64.4

Rye-grass hay
Wheat chalT.,

Oat chaff

Barley awn. .

Per cent.
64.57
81.2
59.9

70.7

It is only soluble silica that is taken up into the system, and it
is in this form (usually as silicate of potash or soda) that it enters
the urine, but all that is wanted to precipitate it in crystalline form
as a gritty sand is the presence of oxalic or other acid having a
stronger affinity for its base (potash or soda).

Other conditions, however, enter largely into the causation of
stone, or gravel. A high density of urine resulting from a highly
saturated condition is often present for a length of time without

134 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

uny precipitation of solid materials. Urea and carbonates may be
I^resent in excess, the feed may be given dry, and di'inking water
may be deficient in quantity without any deposition of stone or
gravel. In such cases, the presence of noncrystalline organic matter
in the urine becomes an exciting cause. Eainey and Ord have
shown experimentally that colloid (noncrystallizable) bodies like
mucus, epithelial cells, albumin, pus, blood, hyaline casts of the
kidney tubes, etc., not only determine the precipitation of crystal-
lizable salts from a strong solution, but they determine the precipi-
tation in the form of globular masses, or minute spheres, which,
by further similar accessions, become stones, or calculi, of various
sizes. The salts that are deposited by mere chemical reaction with-
out the intervention of colloids appear in the form of sharply defined
angular crystals, and hence the rough, jagged crystals of oxalate of
lime or ammonia-magnesium phosphate. Heat intensifies the action
of the colloids in causing precipitation of the dissolved salts, so that
the temperature of the kidneys and bladder constitute favorable
conditions. Colloids that are undergoing decomposition are also
specially powerful, so that the presence of bacteria or fungi causing
fermentation is an important factor.

In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of urinary calculi
we must accord a high place to all those conditions which determine
the presence of excess of mucus, albumin, pus, blood, kidney casts,
blood-coloring matter, etc., in the urine. A catarrhal inflammation
of the pelvis of the kidney, of the ureter, or of the bladder, generat-
ing excess of mucus or pus; inflammation of the kidnej^s, causing
the discharge of blood, albumin, or hyaline casts into the urinary
passages; inflammation of the liver, lungs, or other distant organ,
resulting in the escape of albumin in the urine; disorders of the
liver or of the blood-forming functions, resulting in hematuria or
hemoglobinuria; sprains or other injuries to the back, or disease
of the spinal marrow, which cause the escape of blood with the
urine; the presence in the bladder of a bacterial ferment, which
determines the decomposition of the mucus and urea, the evolution
of ammonia and the consequent destruction of the protecting cel-
lular (epithelia) lining of the bladder, or the irritation caused by
the presence of an already formed calculus, may produce the colloid
or uncrystallizable body that proves so effective in the precipitation
of stone or gravel. It has long been known that calculi almost in-
variably form around any foreign body introduced into the kidney
or bladder, and I have seen a large, calculous mass surrounding a
splinter of an arrow that had penetrated and broken off in the body
of a deer. The explanation is now satisfactory — the foreign body
carries in with it bacteria, which act as ferments upon the urine

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 135

and mucus in addition to the mechanical injury caused by its pres-
ence. If such a body has been introduced through the solid tissues,
there is, in addition, the presence of the blood and lymph derived
from the wounded structures,

CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI.

Urinary calculi are most conveniently divided according to the
locality in which they are found. Thus we find first renal calculi,
formed in the kidney (PI. XI, fig. 1), and which for cattle must be
again divided into calculi of the uriniferous tubes and calculi of the
pelvis. The second class are named ureteral calculi because they are
found in the duct leading from the kidney to the bladder (ureter).
The third class are the vesical calculi, from the bladder or vesicle in
which they are found. The fourth class are the urethral calculi, and
are found in the duct leading outward from the bladder through
the penis (urethra). The fifth and last class are the preputial cal-
culi, since they are found within the sheath of the penis (prepuce).

Calculi may also be classed according to their chemical composition
and this has the advantage of suggesting the special cause of each as
found in the feed, water, soil, or general conditions of health. This
classification affords no guide to their location or symptoms, as cal-
culi of the same chemical composition may be formed at any part of
the urinary passages, as those formed in the kidney may pass on
through all the various passages outward, unless it is found at any
point of their progress that they have grown so large that the passage
will not admit them. The following are among the concretions found
in the various parts :

(1) Coralline calculi. — These are of a dull- white color ajid irregu-
lar surface, like coral. They are made up of hard and resistant lay-
ers evenly deposited around a central nucleus. (PI. XI, fig. 3.)
Their specific gravity is 1,760, water being 1,000, and they contain
74 per cent of carbonate of lime with some carbonate of magnesia,
organic matter, and a trace of carbonate of iron. Yellowish-white,
smooth, round calculi of the same chemical composition are met with.

(2) Pearly calculi. — These are more frequent than the first-named
variety. They are very hard and smooth on the surface, reflecting a
play of various colors after the fashion of a pearl. This peculiarity
appears to be caused by the thinness and semitransparency of the
supposed layers. They have a specific gravity of 2,109 to 2,351, and
nearly the same chemical composition as the coralline variety. Gold-
ing Bird found a specimen of this kind formed of carbonate of lime
and organic matter only.

(3) Green calculi {metalloid calculi). — These are usually small and
numerous, as they are exceedingly common. They are of a very hard

136 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

consistency, and have a clear-polished, greenish surface of almost
metallic brilliancy. They have a specific gi-avity of 2.301 and a com-
position almost identical with the second variety.

(4) White calculi. — Pure white, smooth, lustrous calculi are rare.
They have a specific gravity of 2.307, and contain as much as 92 per
cent of carbonate of lime with carbonate of magnesia and organic
matter.

(5) Ammonio-rndgnesium calculi. — These are of a grayish color
and a very rough, crj^stalline surface, which proves very irritating to
the mucous membrane. They have a specific gravity of 1.109 to
1.637, and are composed chiefly of ammonio-magnesium phosphate,
oxalate of lime, and organic matter, with a little carbonate of lime
and magnesia.

(6) Siliceous calculi. — These are clear, smooth, and hard, and usu-
ally spherical. They have a specific gravity of 1.265 to 1.376, and
contain 57 per cent of silica with carbonates of iron and magnesia,
organic matter, and traces of iron. In other specimens of siliceous
calculi there was a specific gravity of 3.122, and there was 79 to 85
per cent of carbonate of lime together with carbonate of magnesia,
and iron, silica, and organic matter. Others are almost exclusively
made of silica.

(7) Oxalate of lime calculi {?nulberry calculi) (PI. XI, fig. 2). —
These are characterized by their extremely rough, angular surface,
formed by the octahedral crystals of oxalate of lime. Their specific
gravity may be 3.441, and they contain oxalate of lime to the extent of
81 per cent, together with carbonates of lime and magnesia and
organic matter.

(8) Gravel {pultaceous deposits). — Simple crystals may be met
with at any point from the kidneys to the external opening at the
end of the prepuce (sheath), and they may appear singly, as crys-
tals, or they may accumulate in masses of fine spherical crystals
almost like dirty powdered chalk suspended in water. In the ox
this is especially common as a collection in the sheath, distending
that into a soft, doughy swelling.

FORMS OF CALCULI IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS.

Apart from the rough crystalline surfaces of the calculi of oxalate
of lime and ammonio-magnesium phosphate, the general tendency is
to a smooth, round outline. At times, however, they show more or
less flattening w^ith rounded angular edges, caused by the contact
and mutual friction of two calculi. Sometimes two or more stones
lying together become united into one by a new external deposit,
and the resulting mass then shows rounded swellings on opposite
sides. The large calculi occupying the pelvis of the kidneys usually
show a central part having the outline of the main cavity of the

DISEASES OF THE URINAEY OEGANS. 137

pelvis and two or more projections that have been molded into the
corresponding branches or channels which lead to corresponding
lobes of the kidney. In winter and spring small concretions in the
form of plates are often met with in the branches of the pelvis, hav-
ing been formed and molded in the confined space between the pro-
jecting papilla and the surrounding cuplike branch of the pelvis.
Finally, the pulplike deposits in the sheath and elsewhere are made
up of globular masses, individually so small as to be often practically
microscopic.

STONE IN THE KIDNEY (RENAL CALCULI).

[PI. XI, fig. 1.]

In an animal leading the quiet, uneventful life of the ox, stones of
large size may be present in the kidney without producing any dis-
order appreciable to the people about him. In cattle fattened on dry
feed in winter, on the magnesian limestone of New York, it is excep-
tional to find the substance of the kidney free from calculi about the
size of a grain of wheat or less, and standing out as white objects in
the general red of the cut surface of the organ. Similarly around
the papillse in the cuplike arms of the pelvis we find minute, flat-
tened or more or less rounded, yellowish-white concretions. Even
the large concretions may prove apparently harmless. I have a
calculus several ounces in weight which filled the entire pelvis of the
kidney, that was found by accident in a fat carcass while being
dressed. In work oxen, however, such concretions may give rise to
symptoms of kidney disease, such as stiffness of the loins, shown
especially in the acts of rising or turning, weakness of the hind parts
when set to pull a heavy load, an irritability of the kidneys, shown
by the frequent passage of urine in small quantity, tenderness of the
loins, shown when they are pinched or lightly struck, and it may be
the passage of blood or minute gritty masses with the urine. If the
attack is severe, what is called "renal colic" (kidney colic) may be
shown by frequent uneasy shifting of the hind limbs, shaking or
twisting of the tail, looking around at the flanks, and lying down and
rising again at short intervals without apparent cause. The fre-
quent passage of urine, the blood or gritty masses contained in it,
and perhaps the hard, stony cylinders around the tufts of hair of the
sheath, show that the source of the suffering is the urinary organs.
In bad cases active inflammation of the kidneys may set in. (See
"Nephritis," p. 121.)

URETERAL CALCULL

These are small stones which have passed from the pelvis of the
Sidney into the canal (ureter) leading from the kidney to the blad-
der, but, being too large to pass on easily, have blocked that canal and

138 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

forced the urine back upon the kidney. The result is the production
of symptoms more violent than in renal calculi, though not varying,
save in intensity, from those of renal colic. In case of complete and
unrelieved obstruction, the secretion of the kidney on that side is
entirely abolished, and it becomes the seat of passive congestion, and
it may even be absorbed in greater part or as a vrhole, leaving only a
fibrous sac containing fluid with a urinous odor. In small cattle, in
which the oiled hand introduced into the last gut may reach the
affected part, the distended ureter may be felt as a tense, elastic cord,
extending forward from the jjoint of obstruction on the lateral wall
of the pelvis and beneath the loins toward the kidney. If relief is
obtained by the onward passage of the stone a free flow of unne
usually follows, in the midst of which may often be found gritty
masses. If the outlets from both kidneys are similarly blocked the
animal becomes poisoned by the retention in the blood of the elements
of the urine, and by their reabsorption after secretion.

Treatment of rencil and ureteral calculi. — Treatment is not very
successful, as only the smallest calculi can pass through the ureter
and enter the bladder, and even if they should do so they are liable to
a progressive increase there, so that later they may cause the symp-
toms of stone in the bladder. Fortunately, ordinary dairy, growing,
or fattening cattle rarely show evident symptoms of illness, and even
though they do so they can usually be fattened and slaughtered before
the health is seriously impaired. In work oxen the case is different,
and acute symptoms may develop, but even then the animal may often
be fitted for the butcher. When treatment is demanded it is pri-
marily soothing and antispasmodic. Fomentations with warm water
over the loins should be persisted in without intermission until relief
has been secured. The soothing effect on the kidney will often relieve
inflammation and irritation, should the stone be in that situation,
while if in the ureter the warm fomentations will at once soothe irri-
tation, relax spasm of the muscular coat of the canal, and favor an
abundant secretion from the kidney, which, pressing on the obstruct-
ing stone, may slowly push it on into the bladder. Large doses of
laudanum (2 ounces) or of solid extract of belladonna (2 drams) will
not only soothe the pain but relax the spasm and favor the onward
passage of the calculus. The animal should be encouraged to drink
large quantities of cool water to favor the free secretion of a very
watery urine, which will not only serve to obviate irritation and con-
tinued deposit caused by a highly concentrated urine, but will press
the stone onward toward the bladder, and even in certain cases will
tend to disintegrate it by solution of some of its elements, and thus
to favor its crumbling and expulsion. This is a principle which must
never be lost sight of in the treatment of calculi. The immersion of
the stone in a liquid of a lower specific gi*avity than thnt in which it

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 139

has formed and grown tends to dissolve out the more soluble of its
component parts, and thus to destroy its density and cohesion at all
points, and thereby to favor its complete disintegration and expul-
sion. This explains why cattle taken from a herd on magnesian
limestone in spring, after the long, dry feeding of winter, usually
have renal calculi, while cattle from the same herd in the fall, after
a summer's run on a succulent pasture, are almost always free from
concretions. The abundance of liquid taken in the green feed and ex-
pelled through the kidneys and the low density or watery nature of
the urine have so opened the texture and destroyed the density of
the smaller stones and gravel that they have all been disintegrated
and removed. This, too, is the main reason why benefit is derived
from a prolonged stay at mineral springs by the human victims of
gravel. If they had swallowed the same number of quarts of pure
water at home and distributed it at suitable times each day, they
would have benefited largely without a visit to the springs.

It follows from what has been just said that a succulent diet, in-
cluding a large quantity of water (gruels, sloppy mashes, turnips,
beets, potatoes, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses), is an
important factor in the relief of the milder forms of stone and gravel.

Prevention. — Prevention of calculus especially demands this sup-
ply of w^ater and watery rations on all soils and in all conditions in
which there is a predisposition to the disease. It must also be sought
by attempts to obviate all those conditions mentioned above as causa-
tive of the malady. Sometimes good rain water canine furnished in
limestone districts, but i:)utrid or bad-smelling rain water is to be
avoided as probably more injurious than that from the limestone.
Unsuccessful attempts have been made to dissolve calculi by alkaline
salts and mineral acids, respectively, but their failure as a remedy
does not .necessarily condemn them as preventives. One dram of
caustic potash or of hydrochloric acid may be given daily in the
drinking water. In diametrically opposite ways these attack and
decompose the less soluble salts and form new ones which are more
soluble and therefore little disposed to precipitate in the solid form.
Both are beneficial as increasing the secretion of urine. In cases in
which the diet has been too highly charged with phosphates (wheat
bran, etc.), these aliments must be restricted and water allowed ad
libitum. If the crystals passed with the urine are the sharp an-
gular (octahedral) ones of oxalate of lime, then the breathing
should be made more active by exercise, and any disease of the lungs
subjected to appropriate treatment. If the crystals are triangular
prisms of ammonia-magnesium phosphate or starlike forms with
feathery rays, the indications are to withhold the feed or water that
abounds in magnesia and check the fermentation in the urine by
attempts to destroy its bacteria. In the latter direction plenty of

140 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

pure-water diuretics, and a daily dose of oil of turpentine in milk, or
a dose thi'ice a day of a solution containing one-tenth grain each of
biniodid of mercury and iodid of potassium would be indicated.

In considering the subject of prevention, it must never be forgotten
that any disease of a distant organ which determines the passage
from the blood into the urine of albumin or any other colloid (un-
crystallizable) body is strongly provocative of calculus, and should,
if possible, be corrected. Apart from cases from geological forma-
tion, faulty feeding, and other causes, the gi'and preventive of cal-
culus is a long, summer's pasturage of succulent grasses, or in winter
a diet of ensilage or other succulent feed.

The calculi formed in part of silica demand special notice. This
agent is secreted in the urine in the form of silicate of potash and is
thrown down as insoluble silica when a stronger acid displaces it by
combining with the potash to its exclusion. In cases of siliceous
calculi, accordingly, the appropriate chemical prevention is caustic
potash, which being present in the free state would attract to itself
any free acid and leave the silica in its soluble condition as silicate of
l^otash.

STONE IN THE BLADDER (VESICAL CALCULUS, OR URETHRAL CALCULUS).

Stone in the bladder may be of any size, but in the ox does not
usually exceed half an inch in diameter. There may, however, be a
number of small calculi; indeed, they are sometimes so small and
numerous as to form a small, pulpy magma by which the bladder is
considerably distended.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of stone in the bladder may be absent
until one of the masses escapes into the urethra, but when this occurs
the escape of urine is prevented, or it is allowed to pass in drops or
driblets only, and the effect of such obstruction becomes manifest.
The point of obstruction is not always the same, but it is most fre-
quently at the S-shaped curve of the penis, just above the testicles or
scrotum. In cows and heifers the urethra is so short and becomes so
widely dilated during the urination that the calculi easily escape in
the flow of liquid and dangerous symptoms practically never appear.

Even in the male the signs of illness are at first ver^^ slight. A
close observer may notice the cylinders of hard, earthy materials
encircling the tufts of hair at the opening of the prepuce. It may
further be observed that the stall remains dry and that the animal
has not been seen to pass water when out of doors. The tail may at
times be gently raised and contractions of the muscle (accelerator
urina^) beneath the anus (PI. IX, fig. 2) may take place in a rhyth-
mical or pulsating manner. As a rule, however, no symptom is no--
ticed for two days, only the animal is lacking in his usual spirits. By
this time the constantly accumulating urine has distended the blad-

DISEASES OF THE URINAEY ORGANS. 141

der beyond its power of resistance and a rupture occurs, allowing the
urine to escape into the cavity of the abdomen. Then dullness in-
creases; the animal lies down most of his time : he becomes stupid and
sometimes drowsy, with reddish-brown congestion of the lining mem-
brane of the eyelids ; pressure on the abdomen causes pain, flinching,
and perhaps groaning, and the lowest part of the belly fluctuates more
and more as the escaping urine accumulates in greater and greater
amount. If at this stage the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum
(last gnt), the animal flinches when pressure is made downward on
the floor of the pelvis, and no round, distended bladder is felt. If
the same examination is made prior to the rupture, the rounded,
tense, elastic bladder is felt extending forward into the abdomen,
containing one or two gallons of liquid. There may be uneasy shift-
ing of the hind limbs and twisting of the tail, also frequent lying
down and rising, but these symptoms are exceptional.

"Wlien the obstruction is low down between the thighs (at the S-
shaped flexure), the line of the pulsating urethra from the anus
downward may be felt distended with liquid, and though, by the
hard swelling of the urethra, it is seldom easy to distinguish the exact
seat of the stone, yet there is usually tenderness at the point of ob-
struction, and from this it may be accurately located.

Treatment. — The treatment of stone in the bladder or urethra con-
sists in the removal of the stone by incision and the use of forceps.
(PI. XI, fig. 4.) ^ATien the stone has been arrested at the S-shaped
flexure just above the scrotum, the patient being lean, the thickened
tender pai-t of the penis may be seized between the fingers and thumb
of the left hand, while the calculus is exposed by a free incision with
the knife held in the right. If there is no other obstruction between
this point and the bladder, and if the latter has not yet ruptured, a
flow of urine should take place from the opening. If there is no
escape of liquid, a catheter or sound, one-fourth of an inch in diame-
ter, must be passed up through the canal (urethra) until it is arrested
by the next stone, on which a similar incision should then be made
to effect its extraction. In case the stone has been arrested in the por-
tion of the urethra which is in front of the arch of the hip bone and
inside the pelvis, it can be reached only by making an opening into
the urethra beneath the anus and over the arch of the hip bone, and
from this orifice exploring the urethra with fine forceps to the neck
of the bladder or until the stone has been reached and extracted.
Owing to the small size of the canal (urethra) to be opened and the
great thickness of erectile tissue to be cut through, the operation re-
quires a very accurate knowledge of the parts, while the free flow of
blood is blinding to the operator. A staff should always be passed up
through the urethra from the lower wound, if such has been made, or,
in case of its absence, through the whole length of the penis, that

142 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

organ having been drawn out of its sheath until the S-shaped curve
has been effaced and the course of the canal rendered straight. Upon
the end of this staff the incision can be made with far more confi-
dence and certainty. The operation can be undertaken only by a
skilled veterinary anatomist, but the hints given above may be valu-
able in showing the stock owner when he is being properly served in
such a case.

In outlying districts, where no skilled operator can be had, a trans-
verse incision may be made with a clean, sharp knife through^the root
of the penis, just over the arch of the hip bone, when the urine will
flow out in a full stream. The attendant bleeding may be ignored, or
if profuse it may be checked by packing the wound firmly with cotton
wool for several hours. The urine will continue to escape by the
wound, and the ox should be fattened for the butcher.

The immediate relief is not to be looked upon as a permanent cure,
as the calculi in the affected ox are usually numerous, and later attacks
are therefore to be looked for. Hence it is desirable to fatten and
kill such cases after a successful operation. If a breeding animal is
too valuable to be killed, he should be subjected to preventive meas-
ares, as laid down under " Stone in the kidney," page 137.

It should be added that when the bladder is filled with a soft
magma a catheter may be introduced through the whole length of the
urethra to be used in pumping water into the bladder. This water
is extracted through the same channel when it has been charged w-ith
the suspended solids by manipulations of the bladder with the oiled
hand introduced through the rectum.

CALCULI, OR GRAVEL. IN THE PREPUCE, OR SHEATH.

This is usually a collection of gravel, or a soft, puttylike material
which causes distinct swelling of the sheath and gives it a soft,
doughy feeling when handled. It may be removed in part by the
oiled fingers introduced into the cavity, assisted by manipulation
from without, or a tube may be inserted until the end extends behind
the collection and water pumped in until the whole mass has been
evacuated. Should even this fail of success, the sheath may be slit
open from its orifice back in the median line below until the offending
matter can be reached and removed. In all such cases the interior
of the sheath should be finally lubricated with sweet oil or vaseline.
It is unnecessary to stitch up the wound made in the sheath. (See
^'Inflammation of the sheath,'" p. 153.)

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate IX.

Kidney and Male Generative and Urinary Organs.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate X.

Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XI.

Calculi of Kidney and Bladder.

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate IX. Kidney and male generative and urinary organs.

Fig. 1. Kidney of the ox. (From Handbuch des Vergleichenden Anatomie
des Haus Saugethiere, vol. 7, 1890.) A, renal artery carrying blood
into the kidney ; Y, renal vein carrying blood from the kidney back to
the heart; H, ureter, the tube carrying the urine from kidney to
bladder. It is formed by the union of a number of branches which
begin as cups (calices), each inclosing the tip of a conical mass of
tissue from which the urine excludes.

Fig. 2. Genital and urinary orgai;^ of the bull. (From Leisering, Mueller,
and Ellenberger, Handbuch des Verg. Anat. des Haus Saugethiere.)
the serous membrane enveloping the testicles ; 3, the right testicle,
outer view; 3', left testicle, inner view; 4, epididymis, or the beginning
of the excretory canal of the testicle ; 4', globus major, or the head of
the epididymis; 4", globus minor, or the tail of the epididymis; 5,
vas deferens, the duct through which the seminal fluid reaches the
ejaculatory ducts; 5', pelvic dilation of the vas deferens; 6, vesic-
ula seminalis. The vesiculre seminalis are two oval pouches, which,
in addition to their own secretions, receive the semen conveyed by
the seminal ducts and hold it in reserve until copulation; 7, mem-
branous or intrapelvic portion of the urethral canal covered by Wil-
son's muscle; 8, part of the prostate gland, covered by Wilson's
muscle; 9, Cowper's gland. This gland, like the prostate gland,
secretes a fluid which is thrown into the urethal canal in abundance
immediately before ejaculation; by this means the expulsion of the
semen is facilitated ; 10, ejaculator seminis, or accelerator urinse
muscle; 11, penis; 11', cut portion of same; 12, cut suspensory liga-
ments of penis ; 13, sheath, or prepuce laid open ; 14, retractor muscles
of sheath ; 15, cremaster muscle cut at superior extremity ; 16, dupli-
cature of peritoneum; 17, ureters carrying urine from the kidneys
to the bladder.
Plate X. Microscopic anatomy of the kidney.

Fig. 1. In this figure the minute apparatus for the secretion, collection,
and discharge of the urine into the pelvis of the kidney (see preced-
ing plate) is shown. The course is as follows: The urine is secreted
from the blood vessels in the little round bodies called glomeruli (12),
and by the minute cells in the curved tubes (11, 9, 10, 8), and passes
through the convoluted and straight tubes (7, 6) into the larger tube
(1), and then out into tlie pelvis, thence through the ureters into the
bladder. The fluid and salts dissolved in the urine are taken from
the blood, and the minute blood vessels are therefore very abundant
in the kidneys, as is shown by the branches and network on the left
of the figure. The blood passes into the kidney in the artery (13),
which then divides into branches which pass into the glomeruli (12) and
also forms network around the secreting tubules (11, 9). The urine

143

144 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Plate X. Microscopic anatomy of tlie Ividney — Continued.

and salts pass from these vessels tlirougli tlie cells lining the tubules

into the latter, and are discharged as described above. The blood is

again collected in veins drawn black in the figure.
Fig. 2 illustrates the manner in which the blood is distributed in the

glomerulus (/),'and also to the secreting tubules (e).
Fig. 3 shows the relation between the blood vessel in the glomerulus (e)

the tubule which conducts the urine therein secreted from the blood

vessel; (c) represents a glomerulus from which the urinary tubule

has been removed.
Plate XI. Calculi of kidney and bladder.

Fig. 1. Calculus, or stone, from the kidney. These are in the pelvis or

portion of the ureter receiving the urine. The prolongations are casts

of the branches of the pelvis. See the plates of the kidney for further

description.
Fig. 2. Calculus made up of oxalate of lime magnified 215 times.
Fig. 3. Phosphatic calculus containing a nucleus of uric acid, sawed through

to show concentric layers.
Fig. 4. Straight forceps used in removing stones from the bladder.
Fig. 5. Casts of the minute tubules of the kidney found in the urine in

various kinds of kidney disease. Highly magnified.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.

By James Law, F. 11. C. V. S.,

Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University.

[Revised by Adolph Kichhorn, D. V. S.]

GENERAL DISCUSSION.

Diseases of the generative organs are practically confined to ani-
mals which are kept for reproduction and the dairy. The castration
of the bull condemns these organs to inactivity and protects them
from the many causes of injury attendant on the engorged blood
vessels in the frequent periods of sexual excitement, on the exposure
to mechanical violence, and on the exposure to infective inoculation.
In three respects the castrated male is especially subject to disease:
(1) To inflammation and tumefaction of the cut end of the cord that
supported the testicle and of the loose connective tissue of the scro-
tum; (2) to inflammation of the sheath and penis from the accumu-
lation of gravel in the former, from which the penis is not usually
protruded in passing water; and (3) to bruising, abrasion, and
inflammation of the sheath and penis during suspension in the stocks
for the purpose of shoeing. Apart from these the ox is practically
almost exempt from the inflammations and injuries of the genital
organs. The same applies to the castrated heifer. Inflammation
may occur in the broad ligament of the womb whence the ovary has
been removed or infective inflammation in the abdominal cavity
(peritonitis) in case the operation has been performed through the
flank, as it usually is in the young heifer. Apart from these, the cas-
trated heifer is practically immune from any trouble of the genera-
tive apparatus. Even the virgin heifer is little subject to such
troubles, though she is not exempt from inflammations, and above all,
from morbid growths in the ovaries which are well developed and
functionally very active after the first year, or in precocious animals
after the first few months of life. The breeding cow, on the other
hand, is subjected to all the disturbances attendant on the gradual en-
largement of the womb, the diversion of a large mass of blood to its
walls, the constant drain of nutrient materials of all kinds for the
nourishment of the fetus, the risks attendant and consequent on abor-
tion and parturition, the dangers of infection from the bull, the risks
of sympathetic disturbance in case of serious diseases of other organs,
33071°— 10 10 145

146 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

but preeminently of the urinary organs and the udder, and finally
the sudden extreme derangements of the circulation and of the nerv-
ous functions which attend on the sudden revulsion of a great mass
of blood from the walls of the contracting womb into the body at
large immediately after calving.

In reviewing this class of diseases, therefore, we have to note, first,
that they are almost exclusively restricted to breeding animals, and
secondly that in -keeping with the absolute difference of the organs
in the male and female we find tAvo essentially distinct lists of dis-
eases affecting the two sexes.

EXCESS OF VENEREAL DESIRE (SATYRIASIS IN MALE, OR NYM-
PHOMANIA IN FEMALE).

This may occur in the male from too frequent sexual intercourse,
or from injury and congestion of the base of the brain (vasodilator
center in the medulla), or of the posterior end of the spinal cord, or
it may be kept up by congestion or inflammation of the testicles or of
the mucous membrane covering the penis. It ma}^ be manifested by
a constant or frequent erection, by attempts at sexual connection,
and sometimes by the discharge of semen without connection. In
bad cases the feverishness and restlessness lead to loss of flesh,
emaciation, and physical weakness.

It is, however, in the female especially that this morbid desire is
most noticeable and injurious. It may be excited by the stimulating
quality of the blood in cows fed to excess on highly nitrogenous feed,
as the seeds of the bean, pea, vetch, and tare, and as wheat bran,
middlings, cotton seed, gluten meal, etc., especially in the case of
such as have no free exercise in the fields, and are subject to constant
association with a vigorous young bull. A more frequent cause is the
excitation or congestion of some part of the genital organs. Disease
of the ovaries is preeminentl}^ the cause, and this may be by the for-
mation of cysts (sacs containing liquid) or of solid tumors or de-
generations, or, more commonly than all, the formation of tubercle.
Indeed, in case of tuberculosis {Stacking the abdominal organs of
cows, the ovaries or the serous membranes that support and cover
them (the broad ligaments of the womb) are peculiarly subject to
attack, and the animal has constant sexual excitement, incessantly
riding or being ridden by other cattle, having no leisure to eat or
chew tlie cud, but moving restlessly, wearing the flesh off its bones,
and gradually wasting. In some localities these coavs are known as
" bullers," because they are nearly always disposed to take the bull,
but they do not conceive, or, if they do, they are subject to early
abortions. They are, therefore, useless alike for the dairy and for
the feeder, unless the removal of the ovaries subdues the sexual ex-

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 147

citement, when, in the absence of tuberculous disease elsewhere, they
may be fattened for the butcher.

Among the other sources of irritation charged with causing nym-
phomania are tumors and cancers of the womb, rigid closure of the
neck of the womb so that conception can not occur and the frequent
services by the male which stimulate the unsatisfied appetite, inflam-
mation, and a purulent discharge from the womb or vagina.

Treatment. — The treatment in each case will vary with the cause
and is most satisfactory when that cause is a removable one. Over-
feeding on richly nitrogenous feed can be stopped, exercise in the
open field given, diseased ovaries may be removed (see " Castra-
tion," p. 297), catarrhs of the womb and passages overcome by anti-
sex)tic, astringent injections (see Leucorrhea," p. 222), and tumors
of the womb may often be detached and extracted, the mouth of that
organ having been first dilated by sponge tents or otherwise. The
rubber dilator (impregnator), sometimes helpful in the mare^ is
rarely available for the cow, owing to the different condition of the
mouth of the womb.

DIMINUTION OR LOSS OF VENEREAL DESIRE (ANAPHRODISIA).

This occurs in either sex from low condition and ill health. Long-
standing, chronic diseases of important internal organs, leading to
emaciation and weakness, or a prolonged semistarvation in winter
may be sufficient cause. It is, however, much more common as the
result of -degeneration or extensive and destructive disease of the
secreting organs (testicles, ovaries) which elaborate the male and
female sexual products, respectively. Such diseases are, therefore, a
common cause of sterility in both sexes. The old bull, fat and lazy,
becomes sluggish and unreliable in serving, and finally gets to be use-
less for breeding purposes. This is not attributable to his weight and
clumsiness alone, but largely to the fatty degeneration of his testicles
and their excretory ducts, which prevents the due formation and
maturation of the semen. If he has been kept in extra high condi-
tion for exhibition in the show ring, this disqualification comes upon
him sooner and becomes more irremediable.

Similarly the overfed, inactive cow, and above all the show cow,
fails to come in heat at the usual times, shows little disposition to
take the bull, and fails to conceive w^hen served. Her trouble is the
same in kind, namel}^, fatty degeneration of the ovaries and of their
excretory ducts (Fallopian tubes), which prevents the formation or
maturation of the ovum, or, when it has formed, hinders its passage
into the womb. Another common defect in such old, fat cows is a
rigid closure of the mouth of the womb, which prevents conception,
even if the ovum reaches the interior of that organ and even if the
semen is dischargfed into the vagrina.

148 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Preventive. — The true preventive of such conditions is to be found
in a sound hygiene. The breeding animal should be of adult age,
neither overfed nor underfed, but well fed and moderately exercised ;
in other words, the most vigorous health should be sought, not only
that a strong i^ce may be propagated, but that the whole herd, or
nearly so, may breed with certainty. Fleming gives 79 per cent as
the general average of cows that are found to breed in one year.
Here more than a fifth of the progeny is sacrificed and a fifth of the
product of the dairy. With careful management the proportion of
breeders should approach 100 per cent. The various local and gen-
eral obstacles to conception should be carefully investigated and
removed. The vigorous health which comes from a sufficiently lib-
eral diet and abundant exercise should be solicited, and the compara-
tive bloodlessness and weakness which advance with undue fattening
should be sedulously avoided. In bull or cow which is becoming
unduly fat and showing indications of sexual indifference, the treat-
ment must be active. Turning out on a short pasture where it must
work hard for a living will often suffice. The bull which can not be
turned out to pasture may sometimes be utilized in the yoke or tread
power, or he may be kept a part of his time in a field or paddock
chained by the ring in his nose to a strong wire extending from one
side of the lot to the other and attached securely to two trees or
posts. The wire should be higher than the back of the bull, which
will move frequently from end to end. If he is indisposed to take
sufficient exercise in this way he may be safely driven. An instance
of the value of the exercise in these incipient cases of fatty degenera-
tion is often quoted. The cow Dodona, condemned as barren at
Earl Spencers', was sold clieap to Jonas Webb, who had her driven
by a road a distance of 120 miles to his farm at Wilbraham, soon after
which she became pregnant. In advanced cases, however, in which
the fatty degeneration is complete, recovery is impossible.

In case of rigid closure of the mouth of the womb the only resort is
dilatation. This is far more difficult and uncertain in the cow than
in the mare. The neck of the Avomb is longer, is often tortuous in its
course, and its walls so approximated to each other and so rigid that
it may be all but impossible to follow it, and there is always danger
of perforating its walls and opening into the cavity of the abdomen,
or, short of that, of causing inflammation and a new, rigid, fibrous
formation which on healing leaves matters worse than before. The
opening must be carefully made with the finger, and when that has
entered the womb further dilatation may be effected by inserting a
sponge tent or by careful stretching with a mechanical dilator.
(PI. XX, fig. 6.)

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 149

STERILITY FROM OTHER CAUSES.

The questions as to whether a bull is a sure stock getter and
whether a cow is a breeder are so important that it would be wrong
to pass over other prominent causes of sterility. Breeding at too
early an age is a common source of increasing weakness of consti-
tution which has existed in certain breeds. Jerseys have especially
been made the victims of this mistake, the object being to establish
the highest milking powers in the smallest obtainable bod}^ which
will demand the least material and outlay for its constant repair of
Avaste. With success in this line there has been the counterbalancing
disadvantage of impaired vigor, with too often lessened fertility as
well as increased predisposition to disease. "Wlien the heifers of the
race have for generation after generation been bred under a year old,
the demand for the nourishment of the fetus is too great a drain on
the immature animal, which accordingly remains small and stunted.
As it fails to develop in size, so every organ fails to be nourished to
perfection. Similarly with the immature bull put to too many cows ;
he fails to develop his full size, vigor, or stamina, and transfers his
acquired weakness to his progeny. An increasing number of barren
females and an increasing proclivity to abortions are the necessary
results of both courses. WTien this early breeding has occurred acci-
dentally it is well to dry up the dam just after cahdng, and to avoid
having her served again until full grown.

Some highly fed and plethoric females seem to escape conception
by the very intensity of the generative ardor. The frequent passage
of urine, accompanied by contractions of the womb and vagina and
a profuse secretion from their surfaces, leads to the expulsion of the
semen after it has been lodged in the genitial passages. This may be
remedied somewhat by bleedirfg the cow shortly before putting to
the bull, so as to diminish the richness and stimulating quality of
the blood ; or better, by giving 1^ poimds of Epsom salt a day or two
before she comes in heat, and subjecting her at the same time to a
spare diet. Should the excessive ardor of the cow not be controllable
in this way, she may be shut up for a day or two, until the heat is
passing off, when under the lessened excitement the semen is more
likely to be retained.

The various diseases of the ovaries, their tubes, the womb, the
testicles and their excretory ducts, as i-eferred to under " Excess of
renereal desire," are causes of barrenness. In this connection it
may be said that the discharges consequent on calving are fatal to
the vitality of semen introduced before these have ceased to flow;
hence service too soon after calving, or that of a cow which has
had the womb or genital passages injured so as to keep up a muco-
purulent flow until the animal comes in heat, is liable to fail of

150 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

conception. Anj^ such discharge should be first arrested by repeated
injections as for leucorrhea, after which the male may be admitted.

Feeding on a very saccharine diet, which greatly favors the deposi-
tion of fat, seems to have an even more direct effect in preventing
conception during such regimen. Among other causes of barrenness
are all those that favor abortion, ergoted grasses, smutty wheat or
corn, laxative or diuretic drinking water, and any improper or
musty feed that causes indigestions, colics, and diseases of the urinary
organs, notably gravel; also savin, rue, cantharides, and all other
irritants of the bowels or kidneys.

Hermaphrodites are barren, of course, as their sexual organs are
not distinctively either male or female. The heifer born as a twin
with a bull is usually hermaphrodite and barren, but the animals
of either sex in which development of the organs is arrested before
they are fully matured remain as in the male or female prior to
puberty, and are barren. Bulls with both testicles retained within
the abdomen may go through the form of seiwing a cow, but the
service is unfruitful ; the spermatozoa are not fully elaborated. So
I have examined a heifer with a properly formed but very small
womb and an extremely narrow vagina and vulva, the walls of which
were very muscular, that could never be made to conceive. A post-
mortem examination would probably have disclosed an imperfectly
formed ovary incapable of bringing ova to maturity.

A bull and cow that have been too closely inbred in the same line
for generations may prove sexually incompatible and unable to gen-
erate together, though both are abundantly prolific when coupled with
animals of other strains.

Finally, a bull may prove unable to get stock, not from any lack of
sexual development, but from disease of other organs (back, loins,
hind limbs), which renders him unable to mount with the energy
requisite to the perfect service.

CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES (ORCHITIS).

This usuall}^ results from blows or other direct injuries, but may
be the result of excessive service or of the formation of some new
growth (tumor) in the gland tissue. The bull moves stiffly, with strad-
dling gait, and the right or left half of the scrotum in which the
affected testicle lies is swollen, red, and tender, and the gland is drawn
up within the sac and dropped again at frequent intervals. It may
be treated by rest; by 1^ pounds Epsom salt given in 4 quarts of
water; by a restricted diet of some succulent feed; by continued
fomentations with warm water by means of sponges or rags sustained
by a sling passed around the loins and back between the hind legs.
The i)ain may be allayed by smearing with a solution of opium or of

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 151

extract of belladonna. Should a soft point appear, indicating the
formation of matter, it may be opened with a sharp lancet and the
wound treated daily with a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid
in a half pint of water. Usually, however, when the inflammation
has proceeded to this extent, the gland will be ruined for purposes
of procreation and must be cut out. (See " Castration," p, 297.)

INFLAMMATION OF THE SHEATH.

While this may occur in bulls from infection dui-ing copulation and
from bruises, blows, and other mechanical injuries, the condition is
more common in the ox in connection with the comparative inactivity
of the parts. The sheath has a very small external opening, the
mucous membrane of which is studded with sebaceous glands secret-
ing a thick, unctuous matter of a strong, heavy odor. Behind this
orifice is a distinct pouch, in which this unctuous matter is liable to
accumulate when the penis is habitually drawn back. Moreover, the
sheath has two muscles (protractors) which lengthen it, passing into
it from the region of the navel, and two (retractors) that shorten it,
passing into it from the lower surface of the pelvic bones above.
(PI. IX, fig. 2.) The protractors keep the sheath stretched, so that
it habitually covers the penis, while the retractors shorten it up in
the act of service, so that the penis can project to its full extent. In
stud bulls the frequent protrusion of the erect and enlarged penis
and the retraction and dilation of the opening of the sheath serve to
empty the pouch and prevent any accumulation of sebaceous matter
or urine. In the ox, on the other hand, the undeveloped and inactive
penis is usually drawn back so as to leave the anterior preputial
pouch empty, so that the sebaceous matter has space to accumulate
and is never expelled by the active retraction of the sheath and
protrusion of the erect penis in service. Again, the ox rarely pro-
trudes the tip of the penis in urination, the urine is discharged into
the preputial pouch and lodges and decomposes there, so that there
is a great liability to the precipitation of its earthy salts in the form
of gravel. The decomposing ammoniacal urine, the gritty crystals
precipitated from it, and the fetid, rancid, sebaceous matter set up
inflammation in the delicate mucous membrane lining the passage.
The membrane is thickened, reddened, rendered friable, and ulti-
mately ulcerated, and the now narrowed sheath is blocked by the
increasing mass of sebaceous and urinous material and the decom-
posing mucus and pus. The penis can no longer be protruded, the
urine escapes in a small stream through the narrowing sheath, and
finally the outlet is completely blocked and the urine distends the
back part of the sheath. This will fluctuate on being handled, and
soon the unhealthy inflammation extends on each side of it, causing

152 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

a thick, doughy, tender swelling under the belly and between the
thighs. The next step in the morbid course is overdistention of the
bladder, with the occurrence of colicky pains, looking at the flanks,
uneasy movements of the hind limbs, raising or twisting of the tail,
pulsatory contractions of the urethra under the anus, and finally a
false appearance of relief, which is caused by rupture of the bladder.
Before rupture takes place the distended bladder may press on the
rectum and obstruct the passage of the bowel dejections. Two mis-
takes are therefore probable — first, that the bowels alone are to
be relieved, and, second, that the trouble is obstruction of the urethra
by a stone. Hence the need of examining the sheath and pushing
the finger into its opening to see that there is no obstruction there,
in all cases of retention of urine, overdistended bladder, or blocked
rectum in the ox. The disease may be acute or chronic — the first by
reason of acute, adhesive inflammation blocking the outlet, the second
by gradual thickening and ulceration of the sheath and blocking by
the sebaceous and calculous accretion.

Treatment. — The treatment of this affection depends on the stage.
If recent and no instant danger of ruj^ture of the bladder, the
narrow opening of the sheath should be freely cut open in the median
line below, and the sac emptied out with a finger or spoon, after
which it should be thoroughly washed with tepid water. To make
the cleansing more thorough a catheter or a small, rubber tube may
be inserted well back into the sheath, and water may be forced
through it from a syringe or a funnel inserted into the other end of
the tube and considerably elevated. A fountain syringe, which
should be in every house, answers admirably. The sheath may be
daily washed out with tepid water, with a suds made with Castile
soap, or with a weak solution of sulphate of zinc (one-half dram to
a quart of water). If these attentions are impossible, most cases,
after cleansing, will do well if merely driven through clean water up
to the belly once a day.

In case the disease has progressed to absolute obstruction, with the
bladder ready to rupture any moment, no time must be lost in open-
ing into the urethra with a sharp knife over the bony arch under the
anus, where the pulsations are seen in urinating. This incision is
best made in the median line from above downward, but in the
absence of a skillful operator a transverse incision with a sharp knife
over the bone in the median line until the urine flows with a gush is
better than to let the patient die. Considerable blood will be lost
and the wound will heal tardily, but the ox will be preserved. Then
the slitting and cleansing of the sheath can be done at leisure, as
described above. If the bladder is ruptured, the case is hopeless.

DISEASES OF THE GENEEATIVE ORGANS. 153

INFLAMMATION OF THE SHEATH AND PENIS FROM BRUISING.

This also is an affection of work oxen, caused by the pressure and
friction of the sling Avhen the animals are held in stocks for shoe-
ing. This crushing of both sheath and penis for half an hour or more
leads to the development, some hours later, of a hard, hot, and pain-
ful swelling, extending from the scrotum as far as the opening of the
sheath. Fever sets in, with dry muzzle, red eyes, hard, full, rapid
pulse, accelerated breathing, and elevated temperature. The ox
stands obstinately with his hind legs drawn apart and urine falling
drop by drop from the sheath. Appetite and rumination are sus-
pended. In twenty-four hours there may be indications of advancing
gangrene (mortification), the swelling becomes cold, soft, and
doughy; it may even crack slightly from the presence of gas; a red-
dish brown, fetid liquid oozes from the swelling, especially around the
edges, and if the animal survives it is only with a great loss of sub-
stance of the sheath and penis.

Prevention. — The prevention of such an injury is easy. It is only
necessary to see that the slings do not press upon the posterior part
of the abdomen. They must be kept in front of the sheath.

Treatment. — Treatment, to be effective, must be prompt and judi-
cious. Put around the patient a strap with soft pads in contact with
the affected parts, constantly soaked in cold water for at least 2-1
hours. A pound or two of Epsom salt in 4 quarts of hot water
should also be given. The second day the parts may be washed witli
1 quart of witch-hazel (extract), 2 drams sugar of lead, and 1 ounce
laudanum, or the cold-water irrigations may be continued if the ac-
tive inflammation persists. In case the swelling continues hard and
resistant, it may be pricked at the most prominent points to the depth
of one-third of an inch with a lancet first dipped in dilute carbolic
acid, and the whole surface should be washed frequently with chlorin
water or other antiseptic.

When softening occurs in the center of a hard mass and fluctuation
can be felt between two fingers pressed on different parts of such soft-
ening, it should be freely opened to let out the putrid pus, and the
cavity should be syringed often with chlorin water.

In bad cases extensive sloughs of dead skin, of the whole wall of
the sheath, and even of the penis, may take place, which will require
careful antiseptic treatment. The soaking of the urine into the in-
flamed and softened tissue and the setting up of putrefactive action
not only endanger great destruction of the tissues from putrid in-
flammation, but even threaten life itself from a general blood poison-
ing (septicemia). Every case should have skillful treatment to meet
its various phases, but in the severe ones this is most urgently de-
manded.

154 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA (GONORRHEA).

Like other males, the bull sometimes suffers from inflammation of
the canal which conveys the urine through the penis, and a whitish
mucopurulent discharge forms in consequence. It may have origi-
nated in gravel, the excitement- of too frequent service, infection
from a cow with leucorrhea, or from extension of inflammation from
the sheath. Besides the oozing of the whitish liquid from the end of
the penis and sheath, there is tenderness and pain when handled,
and while there is no actual arrest of the urine, its flow is subject to
frequent voluntary checks, as the scalding liquid irritates the tender
surface.

Treatment. — If recognized before the discharge sets in, a dose of 1^
pounds of Epsom salts and local, warm fomentations would be appro-
priate. After the onset of the whitish discharge a daily injection
of a solution of 20 grains of permanganate of potassium in a pint of
water into the penis will be beneficial.

WARTS AND PAPILLARY GROWTHS ON THE PENIS.

These are not frequent in bull or ox. They may interfere with the
protrusion of the organ from its sheath or with service, and always
give rise to a bad-smelling discharge.

Treatment. — They may be twisted off with a pair of small tweezers
or cut off with a pair of scissors, and the seat burned with a pencil
of lunar caustic. To get hold of the penis in the bull, bring him up
to a cow. In the ox it will be necessary to push it out by manipula-
tion through the sheath. In difficult cases the narrow opening of
the sheath may be slit open.

WOUNDS OF THE PENIS.

The most common wounds are those sustained by blows of horns,
sticks, etc. The blood vessels and sacs are ruptured to a greater or
less extent and considerable swellings filled with coagidated blood
and inflammatory products occur, leading to distortion of the organ,
and it may be to the impossibility of protruding it.

Treatment. — A lotion of a dram of alum in a quart ot water may
be applied (injected into the sheath, if necessary), and a large
sponge constantly irrigated by a stream of cold water may be kept
applied by means of a surcingle to the outer side of the sheath.
Incisions are rarely applicable to an organ of this kind, but in case
of the existence of an extensive clot which is unlikely to be ab-
sorbed the lancet may be resorted to. If the injury leads to paralysis
of the penis and hanging out of its sheath, it should be supported
in a sling and astringents used freely until inflammation subsides.
Then the restoration of power may be sought by a blister between

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 155

the thighs, by the use of electricity, or by the careful use of nerve
stimulants, such as strychnia, 1 grain tAvice daily.

ULCERS ON THE PENIS.

Sores on the penis of the bull may result from gravel or sebaceous
masses in the sheath or from having served a cow having leucorrhea.

TreatTnent. — These may be treated by frequent injections into the
sheath of a lotion made with 1 dram sugar of lead, 60 drops carbolic
acid, and 1 quart water.

POLYPUS OF THE VAGINA OR UTERUS.

A polypus is a tumor growing from the mucous membrane, and
often connected to it by a narrow neck. A definite cause can not
always be assigned. If growing in the vagina, a polypus may
project as a reddish, rounded tumor from the vulva, especially dur-
ing the act of passing water. It can be distinguished from descent
of the w^omb by the absence of the orifice of that cavity, which can
be felt by the oiled hand beyond the tumor in the depth of the
vagina. From a vaginal hernia caused by the protrusion of some
abdominal organ enveloped by the relaxed wall of the vagina it
may be distinguished by its persistence, its firm substance, and the
impossibility of returning it into the abdomen by pressure. A her-
nia containing a portion of bowel gurgles when handled and can
be completely effaced by pressure, the gut passing into the abdomen.

A polypus in the womb is less easily recognized. At the time of
calving it may be felt through the open mouth of the womb and
recognized by the educated touch (it must be carefully distinguished
from the mushroom-formed cotyledons (PL XIII, fig. 2), to which
in ruminants the fetal membranes are attached). At other times,
unless the womb is opened in the effort to expel it, the polypus can
be detected only by exa:mining the womb with the oiled hand intro-
duced through the rectum.

Polypi may cause a mucopurulent discharge or they may only be
suspected when they prove an obstacle to parturition. The best way
to remove them is to put the chain of an eraseur around the neck,
or pedicle, of the tumor and tear it through; or the narrow neck
may be torn through by the emasculator, or in an emergency it
may be twisted through by rotating the tumor on its axis. The
removal of the tumor will allow calving to proceed; after this the
sore may be treated by a daily injection of one-half dram sulphate
of zinc, 1 dram carbolic acid, and 1 quart milk-Avarm water.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY.

If a cow remains for three or four weeks after service without
showing signs of heat (bulling), she is probably pregnant. There

156 DISEASES OF CATTLE, »

are very exceptional cases in which the well-fed cow will accept the
bull weeks or months after actual conception, and others equally
exceptional in which the well-thriven but unimpregnated female will
refuse the male persistently, but these in no way invalidate the gen-
eral rule.

The bull, no matter how vigorous or how ardent his sexual instinct,
can not be made to pay any attention to a cow which is not in heat ;
hence indications of pregnancy can be had from both the male and
female side. When she has conceived, the cow usually becomes more
quiet and docile, and lays on flesh and fat more rapidly, especially
during the first four months of gestation. The stimulus to digestion
and nutrition created by the demands of the growing fetus, added to
the quieter and more uneventful life, contributes to this result. Some
feeders avail themselves of this disposition to prepare heifers and
cows speedily for the butcher.

The enlargement of the abdomen, and its dropping so that it bulges
below and to each side, while it falls in at the flank, between the outer
angle of the hip bone and the last rib, are significant features which,
though they may be caused by abdominal tumor or dropsy, are
usually marks of pregnancy. From the same increasing weight of
the abdomen the spine in the region of the loins sinks so that the
bones of the croup seem to rise, especially back toward the root of
the tail. In the early stages of pregnancy the udder develops slowly,
and toward its completion quite rapidly. For a long time there is
merely a sense of greater fullness when handled ; the wrinkles in the
skin become shallower and are effaced, and the teats are materially
enlarged. Beginning a few weeks after conception, this tends to a
steady development, though slight alternations in the sense of suc-
cessive growth and shrinkage are not uncommon. In milking cows
this does not hold, as the milk usually tends to a steady diminution
and the udder shrinks slowly until near the completion of the period,
when it undergoes its sudden, remarkable development, and yields at
first a serous liquid and then the yellow colostrum, which coagulates
when heated. As pregnancy advances the mucous membrane lining
the vulva becomes swollen and of a darker, bluish-red hue; the
mucous secretion also increases, becoming very abundant just before
calving. When the feeding has not been altered or restricted, a steady
diminution of the salts of lime excreted in the urine is an attendant
on pregnancy, the lime being demanded for the growing body of the
fetus.

After the fifth month the movements of the calf may often be
observed in the right flank, nearly in front of the stifle, when the cow
is drinking cold water. The sensation of cold on the side of the first
stomach, which lies to the left and directly below the womb (PI. T),
stimulates the calf to active movements, wliich are detected on the

DISEASES OF THE GEITERATIVE ORGANS. 157

sudden jerking outward of the abdominal wall as if from blows
delivered from within. In a loose, pendent abdomen in the latter
months of gestation the skin may often be seen pushed out at a
sharp angle, irrespective of the period of drinking.

Another mode of examination through the flank is by touch. The
pahn of the hand is pressed strongly inward, about 8 inches in front
of the stifle and a little below^, several times in succession, and is then
brought to rest with the pressure maintained. Presently there are
felt distinct and characteristic movements of the fetus, which has
been disturbed and roused to action. Another mode is to press the
closed fist strongly inward in the same situation and hold it so, form-
ing a deep indentation in the abdominal wall. Presently the knuckles
are felt to be struck by a solid body, which is no other than the fetus
that has been displaced to the left by the push of the hand, and now
floats back in its liquid covering (amniotic fluid; see PI. XII) down-
ward and to the right.

Of all the modes of examination by touch, that done through the
rectum gives the earliest satisfactory indications. The hand and
arm, well oiled, are introduced, and the excrement having been
removed if necessary, the palm of the hand is turned downward and
the floor of the pelvis carefully examined. There will be felt in the
median line the pear-shaped outline of the bladder, more or less full,
rounded or tense, according to the quantity of urine it contains.
Between this and the hand will be felt a soft, somewhat rounded
tubular body, which divides in front into two smaller tubes or
branches, extending to the right and left into the abdomen. This
is the womb, which in its virgin, or unimpregnated, condition is of
nearly uniform size from before backward, the main part or body
being from 1^ to 2 inches across, and the two anterior branches or
horns being individually little over an inch wide. Immediately after
conception the body and one of the horns begin to enlarge, the vacant
horn remaining disproportionately small, and the enlargement will
be most marked at one point, where a solid, rounded mass indicates
the presence of the growing embryo. In case of twins, both horns
are enlarged. At a more advanced stage, when the embryo begins
to assume the form of the future animal, the rounded form gives
place to a more or less irregidar nodular mass, while later still the
head, limbs, and body of the fetus may be distinctly made out. The
chief source of fallacy is found in the very pendent abdomen of cer-
tain cows, into which in advanced gestation the fetus has dropped
so low that it can not be felt by the hand in the rectum. The absence
of the distinct outline of the vacant womb, however, and the clear
indications obtained on external examination through the right flank
will serve to prevent any mistake. The fetus may still be felt through

158 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the rectum if the abdomen is raised by a sheet passed from side to
side beneath it.

Still another sign is the beating of the fetal heart, which may be
heard in the latter half of pregnancy when the ear is pressed on the
flank in front of the right stifle or from that downward to the udder.
The beats, which are best heard in the absence of rumbling, are
about 120 a minute and easily distinguished from any bowel sounds
by their perfect regularity.

DURATION OF PREGNANCY.

From extended statistics it is found that the average duration of
pregnancy in the cow is 285 days. A calf born at the two hundred
and fortieth day may live, and Dietrichs reported a case of a calf
born on the three hundred and thirty-fifth day, and another was
reported by the American Journal of Medical Science as having been
born on the three hundred and thirty-sixth day. It is the general
observation that in most cases of prolonged pregnancies the offspring
are males. Lord Spencer found a preponderance of males between
the tAvo hundred and ninetieth and the three hundredth days, but
strangely enough all born after the three hundredth day under his
observation were females. It may be reasonably inferred that while
the prevailing tendenc}^ is to carrj'^ the males overtime, yet that the
smaller and comparatively much less developed female sometimes
fails to stimulate the womb to contraction until very far beyond the
regular date.

HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT COW.

Among domestic animals considerations of hygiene must be made
subservient to profit, and therefore the first consideration is not to
obtain the most robust health, but such a measure of vigor and
stamina as is compatible with the most profitable utilization of the
animal. The breeding cow must carry a calf every year, and this
notwithstanding that she is at the same time suckling another large,
growing calf. The dairy cow must breed every year, and at the same
time must furnish a generous flow of milk from nine to eleven
months yearly. If her health is lowered thereby or her life short-
ened, the question of profit must still hold sway, and, when dis-
qualified, she must yield her place to another. There are exceptions,
of course, but this rule generally holds.

There are certain points, however, in which the interests of hygiene
may be considered. The pregnant cow should have exercise, and as
regards both exercise and feed, nothing is better than a run on a
smooth pasture. She should be withheld from all violent excitement,
hunting with dogs, riding or being ridden by cows in heat, driving in

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 159

herd rapidl}' through narrow gateways, causing to jump ditches or
fences, subjecting to blows with the horns of pugnacious cattle, driv-
ing on icy or otherwise slippery ground, carrying in railroad cars,
kicking by vicious attendants, and fastening or throwing down for
operations. The diet should be good, not of a kind to fatten, but with
a generous quantity of nitrogenous constituents which will favor
both the yield of milk and the nourishment of the fetus. Aliments
like wheat bran, middlings, etc., which are rich in lime and phos-
phates, can be used to advantage, as there is a constant drain of
earthy salts for the building of the body of the calf, and thereby
the danger of undue concentration of the urine is lessened. Hard,
innutritions, and indigestible aliments, musty grain or hay, par-
tially ripened rye grass, millet, Hungarian grass, vetches, peas,
or maize are objectionable, as they are liable to cause indiges-
tion or even paralysis ; and corn or hay affected by smut or ergot, or
that have been spoiled by wet, overripened, and rendered fibrous and
innutritions, are equally objectionable. In the main the feed should
be laxative, as costiveness and straining are liable to cause abortion.
Eoots and green feed that have been frosted are objectionable, as
being liable to cause indigestion, though in their fresh condition most
wholesome and desirable. Ice-cold water should be avoided, as cal-
culated to check the flow of milk, to derange digestion, and to cause
abortion. A good temperature for the drink of the dairy cow is
55° F.

In the case of plethoric and heavy-milking cows of mature age and
in the prime of life, the hitherto liberal diet must be changed at the
last week for the scantiest possible fare, and the bowels must be kept
open by laxatives, if need be, if the owner would avoid milk fever.
The pregnant cow should be kept away from the sight and odor of
dead carcasses, from the smell of decomposing animal matter, and
from stagnant and corrupting water. Her stall should not incline
downward from shoulder to croup, lest the pressure of the abdominal
organs should produce protrusion or abortion. She should be kept
aloof from all causes of acute diseases, and all existing diseases should
be remedied speedily and with as little excitement of the abdominal
organs as possible. Strong purgatives and diuretics are to be espe-
cially avoided, unless it is in the very last days of gestation in very
plethoric cows.

Finally, in the case of pure breeds, close association with animals
of other breeds or crosses, or with animals of other colors, forms, or
with defects, is to be carefully guarded against. The effects shown
in the progeny may be exceptional, yet they are none the less sources
of preventable loss.

160 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

PROTRUSION OF THE VAGINA (PROLAPSUS VAGINA).

During pregnancy this is common from chronic relaxation of the
vaginal walls and from lying in stalls that are lower behind than in
front. The protusion is of a rounded form and smooth, and if it
embraces both sides of the canal it is double, with a passage between.
It may sometimes be remedied by raising the hind part of the stall
higher than the front part. This failing, a truss may be applied as
for eversion of the womb, and worn until the period of calving
approaches. (Pis. XXII, XXIII.)

HERNIA (BREACH) OF THE UTERUS.

In advanced pregnancy this occurs usually from a gradual relaxa-
tion and distention of the lower wall of the abdomen in the region of
the udder, so that the latter is displaced downward, and in the sac
above and in fi'ont of it may be felt the form and movements of the
fetus. In other cases the womb escapes through a great laceration of
the abdominal muscles to one side of the udder, and the hernial mass
extends down to one side of that organ. However unsightly, this
often allows the animal to complete its pregnancy naturally, and a
broad, supporting bandage placed around the abdomen is about all
that can be recommended. After calving it is best to fatten the cow.

CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS.

The compression of the nerves by the womb and fetus passing
through the pelvis sometimes causes cramp and inability to move the
limb, but it disappears under friction and motion and is never seen
after calving.

DROPSY OF THE HIND LIMBS AND BETWEEN THE THIGHS.

In the latter months of pregnancy the hind legs ma}'^ swell beneath
the hocks, or a soft swelling which pits on pressure with the finger
appears from the vulva down between the thighs to the udder and in
front. It is mainly ascribable to the pressure of the enlarged womb
on the blood vessels, is not dangerous, and disappears after calving.

DROPSY OF THE MEMBRANES OF THE FETUS (DROPSY OF THE

WOMB).

The imimpregnated womb may be filled with a dropsical fluid, but
the pregnant womb is more liable to become overdistended by an
excess of fluid in the inner water bag in which the fetus floats. (PI.
XII.) From an unhealthy state of this membrane or of blood of
the fetus (water blood) this liquid may go on accumulating until
the cow seems almost as broad as she is long. If the trouble has not
originated in the ill health of the cow, the result is still to draw on
her system, overtax her strength, and derange her digestion, so that

DISEASES OF THE GENEEATIVE ORGANS. 161

the result may prove fatal to both mother and offspring. On the
other hand, I have known extreme cases that came to the natural term
without help and produced a living calf, after wdiich the dam did
well. The natural resort is to draw off a portion of the fluid through
a hollow needle passed through the neck of the womb or through its
tense wall adjacent. This may be repeated several times, as de-
manded, to relieve the cow from the injurious distention.

PARALYSIS OF THE HIND PARTS.

In ill-fed, weak, unthrifty cows palsy of the hind limbs and tail
may appear in the last weeks of pregnancy. The anus and rectum
may participate in the palsy so far as to prevent defecation, and the
rectum is more or less completely impacted. Exposure to wet and
cold are often accessory causes, though the low condition, general
weakness, and the pressure on the nerves going to the hind limbs are
not to be forgotten. Something may be done for these cases by a
warm, dry bed, an abundant diet fed warm, frictions with straw
wisps or with a liniment of equal parts of oil of turpentine and sweet
oil on the loins, croup, and limbs, by the daily use of ginger and gen-
tian, by the cautious administration of strychnia (1 grain twice
daily), and by sending a current of electricity daily from the loins
through the various groups of muscles in the hind limbs. The case
becomes increasingly hopeful after calving, though some days may
still elapse before the animal can support herself upon her limbs.

EXTRAUTERINE GESTATION (FETUS DEVELOPING OUTSIDE THE

WOMB).

These curious cases are rare and are usually divided into three
types: (1) That in which the fetus is formed in or on the ovary
(ovarian gestation) ; (2) that in which it is lodged in the Fallopian
tube, or canal between the ovary and womb (tubal gestation) ; and
(3) that in which it is lodged in the abdominal cavity and attached
to one or more of its contents from which it draws its nourishment
(abdominal gestation). Undoubted cases of the first and last varie-
ties are recorded as occurring in the cow. The explanation of such
cases is to be found in the fact that the activel)^ moving sperm cells
(spermatozoa) thrown into the womb have made their way through
the Fallopian tubes to the ovary. If they met and impregnated an
ovum in the tube, and if the consequent growth of that ovum pre-
vented its descent and caused its imprisonment within the tube, it
developed there, getting attached to and drawing nourishment from
the mucous walls. Such product has its development arrested by
compression by the undilatable tube, or, bursting through the walls
33071°— 16 11

162 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

of the tube, it escapes into the abdomen and perishes. If, on the
contrary, the spermatozoa only meet and impregnate the ovum on or
in the ovary, the development may take place in the substance of the
ovary, from which the fetus draws its nourishment, or the impreg-
nated ovum, escaping between the ovary and the open end of the
tube, falls into the abdominal cavity and becomes adherent to and
draws nourishment from some of the abdominal organs (womb,
bowel, liver, stomach, etc.)

Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of pregnancy, which may
be suddenly complicated by inflammation (peritonitis), owing to
rupture of the sac containing the fetus; or at full term signs of
calving appear, but no progress is made; an examination with the
oiled hand in the vagina or rectum finds the womb empty and its
mouth closed. Further examination will disclose the fetal sac at-
tached in some part of the abdominal cavity and containing the
more or less perfectly developed body of a calf. In the most hope-
ful cases the fetus perishes at an early stage of gestation, becomes
inclosed in a fibrous sac, and is slowly absorbed, its soft parts becom-
ing liquefied and removed and the bones remaining encysted. In
some cases the bones have finally sloughed into the rectum or through
an artificial opening in the side of the belly.

Treatment. — Little can be done in such cases except to quiet pain
and excitement by anodynes (opium, chloral, etc.) and leave the rest
to nature. A fistula discharging bones may be dilated and the bones
extracted, the sac being then washed out with a solution of 10 grains
bichlorid of mercury in a quart of water. In certain cases with a
live calf a skillful operator may be justified in cutting into the abdo-
men and extracting the calf with its membranes, using the lotion just
named as an antiseptic.

PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FETUS.

Even when the fetus has developed within the womb it may fail to
be delivered at the proper time; labor pains have quickly subsided
and the cow resumed her usual health. In such cases the calf dies,
and its soft parts are gradually liquefied and absorbed, while its bones
remain for years in the womb inclosed in the remains of the fetal
membranes. These may be expelled at any time through the natural
channels, or they may remain indefinitely in the womb, not interfer-
ing with the general health, but preventing conception.

If the true condition of things is recognized at the time of the sub-
sidence of the labor pains, the mouth of the womb may be dilated by
the fingers, by the insertion of sponge tents, or by a mechanical
dilator (PI. XX, fig. 6), the fetal membranes may be ruptured and
the calf extracted. After the removal of the calf and its membranes

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 163

the danger of putrid poisoning may be obviated by injecting the
antiseptic solution advised in the paragraph above.

ABORTION (SLINKING THE CALF).

Technically, abortion is the term used for the expulsion of the off-
spring before it can live out of the womb. Its expulsion before the
normal time, but after it is capable of an independent existence, is
premature parturition. In the cow this may be after seven and one-
half months of pregnancy. Earl Spencer failed to raise any calf born
before the two hundred and forty-second day. Dairymen use the
term abortion for the expulsion of the product of conception at any
time before the completion of the full period of a normal pregnancy,
and in this sense it will be used in this article.

Abortion in cows is either contagious or noncontagious. It does
not follow that the contagium is the sole cause in every case in which
it is present. We know that the organized germs (microbes) of
contagion vary much in potency at different times, and that the ani-
mal system also varies in susceptibility to their attack. The germ
may therefore be present in a herd without any manifest injury, its
disease-producing power having for the time abated considerably,
or the whole herd being in a condition of comparative insuscepti-
bility. At other times the same germ may have become so virulent
that almost all pregnant cows succumb to its force, or the herd may
have been subjected to other causes of abortion which, though of
themselves powerless to actually cause abortion, may yet so predis-
pose the animals that even the weaker germ will operate with de-
structive effect. In dealing with this disease, therefore, it is the part
of wisdom not to rest satisfied with the discovery and removal of
one specific cause, but rather to try to find every existent cause and
to obtain a remedy by correcting all the harmful conditions.

NONCONTAGIOUS ABORTION.

As abortion most frequently occurs at those three-week intervals
at which the cow would have been in heat if nonpregnant, we may
assume a predisposition at such times owing to a periodicity in the
nervous system and functions. Poor condition, weakness, and a too
watery state of the blood is often a predisposing cause. This in its
turn may result from poor or insufficient feed, from the excessive
drain upon the udder while bearing the calf, from the use of feed
deficient in certain essential elements, like the nitrogenous constitu-
ents or albuminoids, from chronic, wasting diseases, from round-
worms or tapeworms in the bowels, from flatworms (flukes, trema-
todes) in the liver, from worms in the lungs, from dark, damp, un-
healthful buildings, etc. In some such cases the nourishment is so

164 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

deficient that the fetus dies in the womb and is expelled in conse-
quence. Excessive loss of blood, attended as it usually is with shock,
becomes a direct cause of abortion.

Acute inflammations of important organs are notorious causes of
abortion, and in most contagious fevers (lung plague, rinderpest,
foot-and-mouth disease) it is a common result. xVffections of the
chest which prevent due aeration of the blood induce contractions of
the womb, as shown experimentally by Brown-Sequard. Pregnant
women suffocated in smoke aborted in many cases. (Retoul.)

Ergoted grasses have long been known as a cause of widespread
abortion in cows. The ergot is familiar as the dark purple or black,
hard, spurlike growths which protrude from the seeds of the grasses
at the period of their ripening. (PL V.) It is especially common
in damp localities and cloudy seasons on meadows shaded by trees
and protected against the free sweep of the winds. The same is to
a large extent true of smut; hence, wet years have been often re-
markable for the great prevalence of abortions. Abortions have
greatly increased in New Zealand among cows since the introduction
of rye grass, which is specially subject to ergot. As abortion is more
prevalent in old dairying districts, the ergot may not be the sole
cause in this instance.

The riding of one another by cows is attended by such severe mus-
cular exertion, jars, jolts, mental excitement, and gravitation of the
womb and abdominal organs backward that it may easily cause
abortion in a predisposed animal.

Keeping in stalls that slope too much behind (more than 2 inches)
acts in the same way, the compression from lying and the gravita-
tion backward proving more than a predisposed cow can safely bear.

Deep gutters behind the stalls, into w^hich one or both hind limbs
slip unexpectedly, strain the loins and jar the body and womb most
injuriously. Slippery stalls in which the flooring boards are laid
longitudinally in place of transversely, and on which there is no
device to give a firm foothold, are almost equally dangerous. Driv-
ing on icy ground, or through a narrow doorway where the abdomen
is liable to be jammed, are other common causes. Aborting cows
often fail to expel the afterbirth, and if this remains hanging in a
putrid condition it is most injurious to pregnant cows in the near
vicinity. So with retained afterbirth in other cows after calving.
That some cow^s kept in filthy stables or with slaughterhouses near by
may become inured to the odors and escape the evil results is no
disproof of the injurious effects so often seen in such cases.

The excitement, jarring, and jolting of a railroad journey often
cause abortion, especially as the cow nears the period of calving, and
the terror or injury of railway or other accidents prove incom-
parably worse.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 165

All irritant poisons cause abortions by the disorder and inflamma-
tion of the digestive organs, and if such agents act also on the kidneys
or womb, the effect is materially enhanced. Powerful purgatives or
diuretics should never be administered to the pregnant cow.

Among other causes of abortion must be named the death or the
various illnesses of the fetus, which are about as numerous as those
of the adult; the slipping of a young fetus through a loop in the
navel string so as to tie a knot which will tighten later and interrupt
the flow of blood with fatal effect, and the twisting of the navel
string by the turning of the fetus until little or no blood can flow
through the contorted cord. There is in addition a series of diseases
of the mucous membrane of the womb, and of the fetal membranes
(inflammation, effusion of blood, detachment of the membranes from
the womb, fatty or other degenerations, etc.), which interfere with
the supply of blood to the fetus or change its quality so that death
is the natural result, followed by abortion.

Treatment. — Although the first symptoms of abortion have ap-
p'^ared, it does not follow that it will go on to completion. So long
as the fetus has not perished, if the waters have not been discharged,
nor the water bags presented, attempts should be made to check its
progress. Every appreciable and removable cause should be done
aAvay with, the cow should be placed in a quiet stall alone, and agents
given to check the excitement of the labor pains. Laudanum in
doses of 1 ounce for a small cow or 2 ounces for a large one should
be promptly administered, and repeated in three or four hours
should the labor pains recur. This may be kept up for days or even
weeks if necessary, though that is rarely required, as the trouble
either subsides or abortion occurs. If the laudanum seems to lack
permanency of action, use bromid of potassium, or, better, extract
of Viburnum prunif oliumj (black haw), 40 grains, at intervals of
two or three hours until five or six doses have been given

CONTAGIOUS ABORTION.

Contagious abortion (also known as epizootic abortion, enzootic
abortion, and slinking of calves) is a disease affecting chiefly cattle
and to a lesser degree other domestic animals, and characterized by
an inflammatory condition of the female reproductive organs, which
results in the expulsion of the immature young.

History. — This disease has been known in England and continental
Europe for many years, and descriptions of it are mentioned in the
writings of Mascal, Lafoose, Skellet, Lawrence, St. Cyr, Ziindel, and
Youatt. In the early part of the eighteenth century British veter-
inarians recognized its contagiousness, but it remained for Franck
(1876), Lehnert (1878), and Brauer (1880) to produce the disease in

166 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

healthy, pregnant cows by the introduction of exudate and material
from aborting animals. Nocard (1888) isolated from the exudate
between the mucous membrane of the uterus and fetal membranes
a micrococcus and a short bacillus which were found continually
in contagious abortion, but he failed to reproduce the disease by
inoculations of pure cultures of these organisms into healthy, preg-
nant animals. In 1897 Bang, assisted by Stribolt, published their
findings regarding infectious abortion of cattle, in which they in-
criminated Bang's bacillus of abortion as the causative agent. With
pure cultures of this bacillus they were able to produce the disease
artificially and to recover the same organism from the experimental
cases. Since that time many noted investigators, both in this country
and in Europe, have confirmed these findings.

Cause. — The Bacillus abortus of Bang is now generally recognized
as the causative agent of the disease of cattle. Formerly it was
thought that abortion was due to injury, such as blows, horn thrusts,
falls, etc., or the eating of spoiled feed and certain plants, and while
this may be true in a limited number of cases, careful investigations
have demonstrated these claims to be largely unfounded. It is now
generally recognized that when abortion occurs in herds from time
to time, it is safe to assume that the disorder is of an infectious
nature and should be so treated.

Natural mode of infection. — This phase of the disease is of greatest
importance for a clear understanding of the methods of prevention.
Many investigators claim to have demonstrated that the infection is
transmitted through the digestive tract, by consuming contaminated
feed and water. The germs are taken up by the body from the in-
testines with the liquid nourishment, reach the blood, and are carried
to the genital organs, where they find conditions best suited to their
development. Some assert that calves are infected in this manner
by suckling infected mothers, the germs being present in the milk,
or the teats having been contaminated by coming in contact with in-
fective discharges. It is claimed that infection contracted in this
■manner remains dormant in the body of the calf until pregnancy
begins, and then the organism, finding conditions suitable for its de-
velopment, produces the disease.

Abortion may be transmitted from cow to cow by direct contact.
The discharges from diseased cows, swarming with the germs, soil
the external genitals, tail, and hind, quarters, and then a susceptible
animal, by contact, gets the infective material upon the vulva, the
infection traveling up the genital canal and directly infecting the
uterus.

The most important and most frequent mode of infection, however,
is that occurring through the act of copulation. The bull, having
become infected by serving an infected cow, carries the infection

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 167

directly into the uterus of the susceptible animal at the time of
service. Cows of all ages are more or less susceptible, but young
ones in first or second pregnancy most frequently abort. A second
abortion is not unusual, and a third may occasionally occur, after
which the cow usually becomes immune and thereafter carries her
calf to maturity. Heifers from aborting mothers sometimes seem to
be less susceptible than others.

Symptoms. — Contagious abortion is a very insidious disease, de-
veloping very slowly through several months of the gestation period,
and resulting finally in the expulsion of the immature young, this act
being simply an indication of the presence of the disease and not the
disease itself. Because of, this slow development and the fact that
the health of the animal is not noticeably influenced, the presence
of the disease may not be suspected until it has gained a firm foot-
hold in the herd. The symptoms of approaching abortion are those
preceding normal calving. In addition, there may be observed, a
few days previous to abortion, a sticky, sometimes purulent, rusty,
and odorless discharge. Abortion occurs most frequently from the
third to the seventh month, according to the number of abortions,
occurring early in first abortion, and later in each succeeding abor-
tion until the calf is carried full term and the mother has become
immune. It happens frequently that calves are carried almost to
full term, and are born alive, but are sickly, and soon die. Following
abortion there is a dirty, yellowish-gray mucopurulent discharge
which persists for two or more weeks. If abortion occurs early, the
fetus is passed surrounded by its membranes, but if late in the period
of pregnancy, the membranes are retained, decomposition sets in and
blood poisoning, which may cause the death of the animal, or
sterility may result.

Lesions. — The most characteristic change is found in the uterus
where a dark-brown fluid, purulent or even gluey in consistency,
and containing grayish-white flakes separates the material mem-
branes from those of the fetus, preventing that intimate contact
between the two which is so necessary for the interchange of fluids
and gases by which the fetus is nourished and by which it obtains
its oxygen. These being cut off, the fetus must of course die. The
germs producing the disease are found in greatest numbers at this
point. In addition there may be inflammatory changes, first in the
walls of the uterus and then in the tissues of the fetus. These in-
flammatory changes seem most intense in the cotyledons and result
in the destruction of the minute structure of those bodies, and they
appear swollen, pale, and soft. The membrane of the uterus between
the cotyledons also may show inflamed and necrotic patches.

Complications. — Serious results sometimes follow abortion, and
this is particularly the case when there is retained afterbirth. The

168 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

retained membranes decompose, the poisonous products of decompo-
sition and the organisms of decomposition themselves are absorbed,
blood poisoning results, and the animal dies. Sometimes, Tvhen the
animal is able to resist the effects of this decomposition, the uterus
becomes the. seat of such severe changes that sterility results. The
walls of that organ become thickened and hard, the lining mem-
branes become eroded, and conception can not take place. At other
times the ovaries, where the reppilductive cells originate, become
affected and lose their function. Abortion does not invariably fol-
low infection, but the calf is carried to full term. In these cases,
however, retained afterbirth is a common occurrence, even to the
extent that frequent retention of afterbirth in a herd may be taken
as an indication of the presence of the disease. Very often sup-
purative processes persist for a long time, preventing conception, or
sterility may result without apparent cause. A sterile cow is value-
less, of course, for any purpose except for beef. Such animals are
a source of infection for the others and should not be allowed to
remain in the herd.

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of infectious abortion is made from
the changes occurring in the fetal membranes and in the expelled
fetus. This, however, is substantiatecTwith certainty only by micro-
scopic demonstration of the germ of abortion. The fact that re-
peated abortions are observed in a herd is also evidence of the
presence of the disease. In consideration, however, of the fact that
animals may be affected with the disease and disseminate the germs,
even though they carry the fetus to full time, a diagnosis in such
instances is only possible by laboratory methods. For this purpose
the agglutination and also the complement-fixation tests are being
used with splendid results, and by the aid of these biological tests
it is possible to determine all infected animals in a herd. The tests
are carried out with the serum from animals to be examined, only
a teaspoonful of serum being necessary for the execution of both of
these tests. It, however, has to be confined to laboratories which are
properly equipped for such work.

Treatment and 'prevention. — It may be said in general that treat-
ment is without aA^ail and all efforts should be directed toward pre-
vention. Various medicinal agents, such as carbolic acid adminis-
tered subcutaneously and methylene blue fed in large quantities,
have been recommended, but have failed to stand the tests of scien-
tific investigation and practical use. Serums and vaccines have
also been prepared and sold as cures and preventives, but the work
is still considered in the experimental stage.

Bacterial vaccines are at present extensively used in the control
of this disease, and while numerous reports indicate beneficial re-

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 169

suits from their administration, in other instances total failures have
been recorded. It appears that the experiments in this line have not
progressed sufficiently to justify definite conclusions.

Prevention consists largely in sanitary measures directed toward
the disinfection of premises and animals. For a method for disinfec-
tion of premises see page 361.

The following procedure is advised for the disinfection of animals :
To prevent the bull from carrying the infection from a diseased cow
to a healthy one, first clip the tuft of long hair from the opening of
the sheath, then disinfect the penis and sheath with a solution of 0.5
per cent of compound cresol solution, lysol, or trikresol, or 1 per
cent carbolic acid, or 1 to 1,000 potassium permanganate in warm
water. The only apparatus necessary is a soft-rubber tube with a
large funnel attached to one end, or an ordinary fountain syringe
and tube would serve the purpose. The tube should be inserted into
the sheath and the foreskin held with the hand to prevent the
immediate escape of the fluid. Elevate the funnel as much as possible
and pour the fluid in until the preputial sac is filled. In addition
to this the hair of the belly and inner sides of the thigh should be
sponged Avith the antiseptic. This disinfection should invariably pre-
cede and follow every service."

An aborting cow should receive immediate attention, and the ani-
mal should be removed to separate quarters where she can receive
appropriate treatment. The fetus, membranes, and discharges are
particularly dangerous and should be gathered- up and destroyed
immediately by burning or by burial in some safe place, followed by
thoroughly disinfecting the stall. The uterus should be irrigated
daily with one of the antiseptics mentioned for the bull, using the
same apparatus, and irrigation should be continued until discharge
ceases. In addition, the external genitals, root of tail, escutcheon,
etc., should be sponged daily with a solution twice as strong as that
used for irrigation; this latter treatment should be given the non-
aborters as well. Should the preliminary symptoms of abortion be
detected, the animal should be removed from the herd and treated
us above.

After abortion, breeding should not again be attempted within two
months, or until the discharge shall have ceased, as the uterus would
not be normal, and the animal either would not conceive or would
abort again in a short time.

. Great care should be used in purchasing cattle, and cows not
known to be free from the disease should be kept in separate quarters
until this point is determmed. If a herd bull is not kept, then great
care should be taken to know that the animal used is free of disease
and to see that he is properly treated both before and after service.

170 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Whenever it becomes necessary to separate diseased and healthy
animals, it is especially imjiortant that different attendants and
utensils be provided for the two groups.

GRANULAR VENEREAL DISEASE (INFECTIOUS GRANULAR

VAGINITIS).

The affection to which the foregoing names have been given is a
chronic, mild, and apparently contagious disease of cattle, character-
ized by an inflammatory condition of the mucous membrane of the
vagina and the development of nodules upon its surface. At the
present time the causative agent is said to be an encapsulated strep-
tococcus.

This disease is very widely spread, but from an economic point of
view it does not appear to have great significance. Williams, who
investigated it, asserts that it is difficult to find a single herd in this
country which is free of this disease. He considers it of great im-
portance, claiming that granular vaginitis has a vital relation to
abortion. This view, however, is not substantiated by other investi-
gators, it being now generally accepted that the disease is only rarely
responsible for abortion, and further, that it exerts no apparent ill
effects on the health of the animal and that it has no effect on the
milk yield.

Symptoins. — Natural infection may take place either by direct
contact of animals or at the time of service. Most of the cows in the
affected herd contract the disease, but the bulls are rarely or very
mildly affected. The inflamed condition of the membranes of the
vagina results in a catarrhal exudate, and this discharge, which soils
the external genitals and the tail, and the uneasiness and sometimes
the straining of the animal, are the first and most prominent symp-
toms observed. Upon examination, small, hard, grayish nodules can
be seen and felt upon the inflamed membranes. This acute stage
may last for three or four weeks, then it gradually subsides and
assumes the chronic form, only to flare up again as the animal comes
in heat.

These nodules are sometimes found upon the membranes of the
uterus, and some investigators have argued from this fact that it
was responsible for abortion and sterility. Others, however, deny
this and point out that the bacillus of abortion can be demonstrated
in nearly every case. The importance of the disease is therefore in
dispute and the decision must be left to future investigation.

Treatment. — The exaggerated importance which has been attached
to this disease resulted in the exploitation of the most varied kinds
of remedies for its treatment. It is true that with a protracted and
laborious treatment it is possible to effect cures in from one to three
months, but with our present knowledge of this disorder it is ad-

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 171

visable to limit the treatment to animals which show an acute in-
flammatory condition of the vagina and vulva with a discharge as a
result of the granular affection. The treatment should be local and
confined to the application of antiseptic washes in the form of irri-
gations. For this purpose a 0.5 per cent solution of cresol com-
pound, lysol, or Lugol's solution has been found satisfactory.

PARTURITION (CALVING).

SYMPTOMS OF CALVING.

In the cow the premonitions of calving are the enlargement of the
udder, which becomes firm and resistant to the touch, with more or
less swelling in front, and yields a serous, milky fluid; the enlarge-
ment and swelling of the vulva, which discharges an abundant, stringy
mucus ; the drooping of the belly, and the falling in of the muscles at
each side of the root of the tail, so as to leave deep hollows. AMien
this last symptom is seen, calving may be counted on in 24 hours
or in 2 or 3 days. When the act is imminent, the cow becomes
uneasy, moves restlessly, leaves off eating, in the field leaves the
herd, lies down and rises again as if in pain, shifts upon her hind
feet, moves the tail, and may bellow or moan. When labor pains
come on the back is arched, the croup drooped, the belly is drawn
up, and straining is more or less violent and continuous. Meanwhile
blood may have appeared on the vulva and tail, and soon the clear
water bags protrude between the lips of the vulva. They increase
rapidly, hanging down toward the hocks, and the fore or hind feet
can be detected within them. With the rupture of the bags and
escape of the waters the womb contracts on the solid, angular body of
the fetus and is at once stimulated to more violent contractions, so
that the work proceeds with redoubled energy to the complete expul-
sion. This is why it is wrong to rupture the water bags if the pre-
sentation is normal, as they furnish a soft, uniform pressure for
the preliminary dilation of the mouth of the womb and passages,
in anticipation of the severe strain put upon them as the solid body
of the calf passes.

The cow^ often calves standing, in which case the navel string is
broken as the calf falls to the ground. If, however, she is recumbent,
this cord is torn through as she rises. The afterpains come on 3 or
4 hours later and expel the membranes, which should never be left
longer than 24 hours.

NATURAL PRESENTATION.

When there is but one calf the natural presentation is that of the
fore feet with the front of the hoofs and knees turned upward to-
ward the tail of the dam and the nose lying between the knees. (PI.
XV.) If there are twins the natural position of the second is that of

172 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the hind feet, the heels and hocks turned upward toward the cow's
tail. (PI. XVIII, fig. 1.) In both of these natural positions the
curvature of the body of the calf — the back arched upward — is the
same with the curvature of the passages, which descend anteriorly
into the womb, ascend over the brim of the pelvis, and descend again
toward the external opening (vulva). Any presentation differing
from the above is abnormal.

OBSTACLES TO PARTURITION.

With a well-formed cow and calf and a natural presentation as
above, calving is usually prompt and easy. Obstacles may, however,
come from failure of the mouth of the womb to dilate ; from twisting
of the neck of the womb ; from tumors in the vagina ; from dropsy in
the womb or abdomen; from overdistension of the rectum or bladder;
from undue narroAving of the passages; from excess of fat in the
walls of the pelvis; from the disturbance of a nervous cow by noises;
from stone or urine in the bladder ; from wrong presentation of the
calf, its back being turned downward or to one side in place of up-
ward toward the spine of the dam; from the bending baclnvard of
one or more limbs or of the head into the body of the womb ; from
presentation of the back, shoulder, or croup, all four limbs being
turned back; from presentation of all four feet at once; from ob-
struction caused by an extra head or extra limbs, or double body on
the part of the offspring (PI. XIX) ; from dropsy or other disease
of the calf; from excessive or imperfect development of the calf;
from the impaction of twins into the passages at the same time; or
at times it may be from the mere excessive volume of the fetus.

GENERAL MAXIMS FOR THE ASSISTANT CONCERNING DIFFICULT PARTURITION.

Do not interfere too soon. " Meddlesome midwifery is bad " with
animals as with women. After labor pains set in, give a reasonable
time for the water bags to protrude and burst spontaneously, and
only interfere when delay suggests some mechanical obstruction. If
there is no mechanical obstruction, let the calf be expelled slowly
by the unaided efforts of the cow. Bruises and lacerations of the
passages and flooding from the uncontracted womb may come from
the too speedy extraction of the calf. When assistance is necessary,
the operator should dress in a thick flannel shirt from which the
sleeves have been cut off clear to the shoulders. This avoids danger
of exposure and yet leaves the whole arm free and untrammeled.
Before inserting the hand it and the arm should be smeared with oil,
lard, or vaseline, care being taken that the oil or lard is fresh, neither
salted nor rancid; and that it has been purified by boiling or rendered
antiseptic by the addition of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid to the

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE OEGANS. 173

pound. This is a valuable precaution against infecting the cow by
introducing putrid ferments into the passages and against poisoning
of the arm by decomposing discharges in case the calving is unduly
protracted. When labor pains have lasted some time without any
signs of the water bags, the dropping in at the sides of the rump,
and the other preparations for calving being accomplished, the hand
should be introduced to examine. When the water bags have burst
and neither feet nor head appear for some time, examination should
be made. When one fore foot only and the head appear, or both
fore feet without the head, or the head without the fore feet, exam-
ine. If one hind foot appears without the other, make examination.
The presenting limb or head should be secured by a rope with a run-
ning noose, so that it may not pass back into the womb and get lost
during the subsequent manipulations, but may be retained in the
vagina or brought up again easily. In searching for a missing mem-
ber it is usually better to turn the head of the cow downhill, so that
the gravitation of the fetus and abdominal organs forward into the
belly of the cow may give more room in which to bring up the miss-
ing limb or head. If the cow is lying down, turn her on the side
opposite to that on which the limb is missing, so that there may be
more room for bringing the latter up. Eyen if a missing limb is
reached, it is vain to attempt to bring it up during a labor pain.
Wait until the pain has ceased and attempt to straighten out the
limb before the next pain comes on. If the pains are violent and
continuous, they may be checked by pinching the back or by putting
a tight surcingle aroung the body in front of the udder. These fail-
ing, 1 ounce or 1^ ounces of chloral hydrate in a quart of water may
be given to check the pains. If the passages have dried up or lost
their natural, lubricating liquid, smear the interior of the passages
and womb and the surface of the calf, so far as it can be reached,
with pure fresh lard; or pure sweet oil may be run into the womb
through a rubber tube (fountain syringe). In dragging upon the
fetus apply strong traction only while the mother is straining and
drag downward toward the hocks as well as backward. The natural
curvature of both fetus and passages is thus followed and the extrac-
tion rendered easier.

LABOR PAINS BEFORE RELAXATION OF THE PASSAGES.

Any of the various causes of abortion may bring on labor pains
before the time. Straining comes on days or weeks before the time,
and there is not the usual enlargement, swelling, and mucous dis-
charge from the vulva. There is little or no falling in by the sides
of the root of the tail; the abdomen has not dropped to the usual
extent, and the udder is less developed and yields little or no milk.
In spite of the pains no water bags appear, and the oiled hand cau-

174 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

tiously introduced into the vagina finds the neck of the womb firmly
closed, rigid, and undilatable. If it is known that the cow has not
reached her proper time of calving, the examination through the
vagina should be omitted and the animal should be placed in a dark,
quiet place by herself, and be given 1 to 2 ounces laudanum. Vibur-
nwm prunifolium (black haw), 1 ounce, may be added, if necessary,
and repeated in three hours. The pains will usually subside.

In some instances the external parts are relaxed and duly prepared,
but the neck of the womb remains rigidly closed. In such case the
solid extract of belladonna should be smeared around the constricted
opening and the animal left quiet until it relaxes.

DISEASED INDURATION OF THE MOUTH OF THE WOMB.

From previous lacerations or other injuries the neck of the womb
may have become the seat of fibrous hardening and constriction, so as
to prevent its dilatation, when all other parts are fully prepared for
calving. The enlarged, flabby vulva, the sinking at each side of the
rump, the full udder, and drooping abdomen indicate the proper time
for calving, but the labor pains effect no progress in the dilatation of
the mouth of the womb, and the oiled hand introduced detects the
rigid, hard, and, in some cases, nodular feeling of the margins of the
closed orifice which no application of belladonna or other antispas-
modic suffices to relax. Sponge tents may be inserted or the mechan-
ical dilator (PI. XX, fig. 6) may be used if there is opening enough to
admit it, and if not, a narrow-bladed, probe-pointed knife (PI.
XXIV, fig. 2) may be passed through the orifice and turned upward,
downward, and to each side, cutting to a depth not exceeding a
quarter of an inch in each case. This done, a finger may be inserted,
then two, three, and four, and finally all four fingers and thumb
brought together in the form of a cone and made to push in with
rotary motion until the whole hand can be introduced. After this
the labor pains will induce further dilation, and finally the present-
ing members of the calf will complete the process.

TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB.

This is not very uncommon in the cow, the length of the body of
the womb and the looseness of the broad ligaments that attach it to
the walls of the pelvis favoring the twisting. It is as if one were to
take a long sack rather loosely filled at the neck and turn over its
closed end, so that its twisting should occur in the neck. The twist
may be one-quarter round, so that the upper surface would come to
look to one side, or it may be half round, so that what was the upper
surface becomes the lower. The relation of the womb of the cow to
the upper and right side of the paunch favors the twisting. The

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 175

paunch occupies the whole left side of the abdomen and extends
across its floor to the right side. Its upper surface thus forms an
inclined plane, sloping from the left downward and to the right, and
on this sloping surface lies the pregnant womb.

It is easy to see how, in the constant movements of the paunch
upon its contents and the frequent changes of position of the growing
fetus within the womb, to say nothing of the contractions of the adja-
cent bowels and the more or less active movements of the cow, the
womb should roll downward to the right. Yet in many cases the
twist is toward the left, showing that it is not the result of a simple
rolling downward over the paunch, but rather of other disturbances.
The condition may be suspected when labor pains have continued
for some time without any sign of the water bags, and it is con-
firmed when the oiled hand, introduced through the vagina, finds the
mouth of the womb soft and yielding, but furnished with internal
folds running forward in a spiral manner. If the folds on the upper
wall of the orifice run toward the right, the womb is twisted to the
right ; if, on the contrary, they turn toward the left, it indicates that
the womb is turned over in that direction. The direction of the twist
must be known before treatment can be undertaken. Then, if the
twist is toward the right, the cow is laid upon her right side with her
head downhill, the hand of the operator is introduced through the
spirally constricted neck of the womb, and a limb or other portion of
the body of the calf is seized and pressed firmly against the wall of
the womb. Meanwhile two or three assistants roll the cow from her
right side over on her back to her left side. The object is to hold the
womb and calf still while the body of the cow rolls over. If success-
ful, the twist is undone, its grasp on the wrist is slackened, and the
water bags and calf press into the now open passage. If the first
attempt does not succeed, it is to be repeated until success has been
attained. If the spiral folds on the upper wall of the opening turn
toward the left, the cow is laid on her left side and rolled over on
her back and on to the right side, the hand being, as before, within
the womb and holding the fetus, so that all may not rotate with the
cow. In introducing the hand it will usually be found needful to
perforate the membranes, so that a limb of the calf may be seized
direct and firmly held. Among my occasional causes of failure with
these cases have been, first, the previous death and decomposition
of the fetus, leading to such overdistention of the womb that it could
not be made to rotate within the abdomen, and, second, the occur-
rence of inflammation and an exudate on the twisted neck of the
womb, which hindered it from untwisting.

In obstinate cases, in which the hand can be made to pass through
the neck of the womb easily, additional help may be had from the use
of the instrument shown in Plate XX, figure 5. Two cords, with run-

176 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ning nooses, are successively introduced and made fast on two limbs
of the calf; the cords are then passed through the two rings on the
end of the instrument, which is passed into the womb and the cords
drawn tight and fixed round the handle. Then, using the handle as a
lever, it is turned in the direction opposite to the twist. The hand
should meanwhile be introduced into the womb and the snared limbs
seized and pressed against its walls so as to secure the rotation of the
uterus along with the body of the fetus. The relaxation of the con-
striction and the effacement of the spiral folds will show when suc-
cess has been gained, and the different members at one end of the body
should then be brought up so as to secure a natural presentation.

NARROW PELVIS FROM FRACTURE OR DISEASE.

In a small cow the pelvis may be too narrow to pass a calf sired by
a bull of a large breed, but this is exceptional, as the fetus usually
accommodates itself to the size of the dam and makes its extra growth
after birth. IVlien the pelvic bones have been fractured repair takes
place with the formation of a large permanent callus, which, project-
ing internally, may be a serious obstacle to calving. Worse still, if
the edge of the broken bone projects internally as a sharp spike or
ridge, the vaginal walls are cut upon it during the passage of the
calf, with serious or fatal result. In other cases, where the cow has
suffered from fragility of bone (fragilitas ossium) the thickening of
the bone causes narrowing of the long passage of the pelvis and the
crumbling fractures poorly repaired, with an excess of brittle new
material, may form an insuperable obstacle to parturition. Cows
affected in any of these ways should never again be bred, but if they
do get pregnant and reach full time a careful examination will be
necessary to determine whether natural parturition can take place
or if the calf must be extracted in pieces. (See "Embryotomy," p.
200.)

OBSTRUCTION BY MASSES OF FAT.

This is not unknown in old cows of the beef breeds, the enormous
masses of fat upon and within the pelvis being associated with weak-
ness or fatty degeneration of the muscles. If the presentation is
natural, little more is wanted than a judicious traction upon the
fetus to compress and overcome the soft resisting masses.

OBSTRUCTION BY A FULL BLADDER OR RECTUM OR BY STONE.

In all cases of delayed or tardy parturition the evacuation of
rectum and bladder is important, and it is no less so in all difficult
parturitions. Stone in the bladder is fortunately rare in the cow,
but when present it should be removed to obviate crushing and
perhaps perforation of the organ during calving.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 177

CALVING RETARDED BY NERVOUSNESS.

In a public fair ground I have seen labor pains begin early in the
day and keep up in a weak and insufficient manner for many hours,
until the stall was thoroughly closed in and the cow secluded from
the constant stream of visitors and the incessant noise, when at once
the pains became strong and effective and the calf was soon born.

COAGULATED BLOOD UNDER THE VAGINAL WALLS.

This is common after calving, but sometimes occurs before, as
the result of accidental injury. The mass may be recognized by its
dark hue and the doughy sensation to the touch. It may be cut into
and the mass turned out with the fingers, after which it should be
washed frequently with an antiseptic lotion (carbolic acid 1 dram in
1 quart of water).

CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING.

In early fetal life the winding of the navel string around a limb may
cause the latter to be slowly cut off by absorption under the constrict-
ing cord. So at calving the cord wound round a presenting member
may retard progress somewhat, and though the calf may still be born
tardily by the unaided efforts of the mother, it is liable to come still-
born, because the circulation in the cord is interrupted by compres-
sion before the offspring can reach the open air and commence to
breathe. If, therefore, it is possible to anticipate and prevent this
displacement and compression of the navel string it should be done,
but if this is no longer possible, then the extraction of the calf should
be effected as rapidlj^^ as possible, and if breathing is not at once
attempted it should be started by artificial means.

WATER IN THE HEAD OF THE CALF (HYDROCEPHALUS).

This is an enormous distention of the cavity holding the brain, by
reason of the accumulation of liquid in the internal cavities (ventri-
cles) of the brain substance. The head back of the eyes rises into a
great rounded ball (PI. XIX, figs. 4 and 5), which proves an insuper-
able obstacle to parturition. The fore feet and nose being the parts
presented, no progress can be made, and even if the feet are pulled
upon the nose can not by any means be made to appear. The oiled
hand introduced into the passages will feel the nose presenting be-
tween the fore limbs, and on passing the hand back over the face the
hard rounded mass of the cranium is met with. A sharp-pointed
knife or a cannula and trocar should be introduced in the palm of the
hand and pushed into the center of the rounded mass so as to evacu-
ate the water. The hand is now used to press together the hitherto
distended but thin and fragile walls, and the calf may be delivered
33071°— 16 12

178 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

in the natural way. If the enhirged head is turned backward it must
still be reached and punctured, after which it must be brought up
into position and the calf delivered.

If the hind feet present first, all may go well until the body and
shoulders have passed out, when further progress is suddenly ar-
rested by the great bulk of the head. If possible, the hand, armed
with a knife or trocar, must be passed along the side of the shoulder
or neck so as to reach and puncture the distended head. Failing in
this, the body may be skinned up from the belly and cut in two at the
shoulder or neck, after which the head can easily be reached and
punctured. If in such case the fore limbs have been left in the
womb, they may now be brought up into the passage, and when
dragged upon the collapsed head will follow.

If the distention is not sufficient to have rendered the bony walls of
the cranium thin and fragile, so that they can be compressed with the
hand after puncture, a special method may be necessary. A long
incision should be made from behind forward in the median line of
the cranium with an embryotomy knife (PL XXI, fig. 1) or with a
long embryotome (PL XX, fig. 3). By this means the bones on the
one side are completely separated from those on the other and may
be made to overlap and perhaps to flatten down. If this fails they
may be cut from the head all around the base of the rounded cranial
swelling by means of a guarded chisel (PL XX, fig. 8) and mallet,
after which there will be no difficulty in causing them to collapse.

DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN OF THE CALF (ASCITES).

This is less frequent than hydrocephalus, but no less difficult to
deal with. With an anterior presentation the fore limbs and head
may come away easily enough, but no effort will advance the calf
beyond the shoulders. The first thought should be dropsy of the
belly, and the oiled hand introduced by the side of the chest will
detect the soft and fluctuating yet tense sac of the abdomen. If there
is space to allow of the introduction of an embryotomy loiife, the
abdomen may be freely cut with this, when the fluid will escape into
the womb and parturition may proceed naturally. If this can not
be effected, a long trocar and cannula may be passed between the first
two ribs and straight on beneath the spine until it punctures the
abdomen. (PL XVIII, fig. 2.) Then the trocar is to be withdrawn
and the liquid will flow through the cannula and will be hastened by
traction on the fore limbs. In the absence of the trocar and cannula,
two or three of the first ribs may be cut from the breastbone, so that
the hand may be introduced through the chest to puncture the dia-
phragm with an embryotomy knife and allow an escape of the water.
In some slighter cases a tardy delivery may take place without punc-
ture, the liquid bulging forward into the chest as the abdomen is

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 179

compressed in the pelvic passages. With a posterior presentation the
abdomen may be punctured more easily either in the flank or with
a trocar and cannula through the anus.

GENERAL DROPSY OF THE CALF.

, This occurs from watery blood or disease of some internal organ,
like the liver or kidney, and is recognized by the general puffed-up
and rounded condition of the body, which pits everywhere on pres-
sure but without crackling. If not too extreme a case, the calf may
be extracted after it has been very generally punctured over the
body, but usually the only resort is to extract it in pieces. (See
"Embryotomy," p. 200.)

SWELLING OF THE CALF WITH GAS.

This is usually the result of the death and decomposition of the
fetus when extraction has been delayed for a day or more after the
escape of the waters. It is impossible to extract it whole, owing to
its large size and the dry state of the skin of the calf, the membranes,
and the wall of the womb. These dry surfaces stick with such tenac-
ity that no attempt at traction leads to any advance of the calf out of
the womb or into the passages. When the fetus is advanced the
adherent womb advances with it, and when the strain is relaxed both
recede to where they were at first. The condition may be helped
somewhat by the free injection of oil into the womb, but it remains
impossible to extract the enormously bloated body, and the only
resort is to cut it in pieces and extract it by degrees. (See " Embryo-
tomy," p. 200.)

RIGID CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES.

In the development of the calf, as in after life, the muscles are
subject to cramps, and in certain cases given groups of muscles re-
main unnaturally short, so that even the bonps grow in a twisted and
distorted way. In one case the head and neck are drawn round to
one side and can not be straightened out, even the bones of the face
and the nose being curved around to that side. In other cases the
flexor muscles of the fore legs are so shortened that the knees are
kept constantly bent and can not be extended by force. The bent
neck may sometimes be sufficiently straightened for extraction by
cutting across the muscles on the side to which it is turned, and the
bent knees by' cutting the cords on the back of the shank bones just
below the knees. If this fails, there remains the resort of cutting
off the distorted limbs or head. (See " Embryotomy," p. 200.)

TUMORS OF THE CALF (INCLOSED OVUM).

Tumors or new growths grow on the unborn calf as on the mature
animal, and by increasing the diameter of the body render its prog-

180 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ress through the passage of the pelvis impossible. In my experience
with large, fleshy tumors of the abdomen, I have cut open the chest,
removed the lungs and heart, cut through the diaphragm with the
knife, and removed the timior piecemeal by alternate tearing and
cutting until the volume of the body was sufficiently reduced to pass
through. Where this failed it would remain to cut off the anterior
part of the body, removing as much of the chest as possible, and cut-
ting freely through the diaphragm; then, pushing back the remainder
of the body, the hind limbs may be seized and brought into the pas-
sages and the residue thus extracted. The tumor, unless very large,
will get displaced backward so as not to prove an insuperable obstacle.
In many cases the apparent tumor is a blighted ovum which has
failed to develop, but has grafted itself on its more fortunate twin
and from it has drawn its nourishment. These are usually sacs con-
taining hair, skin, muscle, bone, or other natural tissues, and only
exceptionally do they show the distinct outline of the animal.

MONSTROSITY IN THE CALF.

As a monstrous development in the calf may hinder calving, it is
well to consider shortly the different directions in which these devi-
ations from the natural form appear. Their origin and significance
will be rendered clearer if Ave divide them according to the fault of
development in individual cases. Monsters are such —

(1) From absence of parts — absence of head, limb, or other or-
gan— arrested development.

(2) From some organ being unnaturally small, as a dwarfed head,
limb, trunk, etc. — arrested development.

(3) From unnatural division of parts — cleft lips, palate, head,
trunk, limbs, etc. — abnormal growth.

(4) From the absence of natural divisions — absence of mouth, nose,
eye, anus ; the cloven foot of ox or pig becomes solid, like that of the
horse, etc. — confluence of parts which are rightfully separate.

(5) From the fusion of parts — both eyes replaced by central one,
both nostrils merged into one central opening, etc. — confluence of
parts.

(6) From unnatural position or form of parts — curved nose, neck,
back, limbs, etc. — lack of balance in the growth of muscles during
development.

(7) From excessive growth of one or more organs — ^enormous size
of head, double penis, superfluous digits, etc. — redundancy of growth
at given points.

(8) From imperfect differentiation of the sexual organs — her-
maphordites (organs intermediate betAveen nuile and female), male
organs with certain feminine characters, female organs with certain
well-marked male characters.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 181

(9) From the doubling of parts or of the entire body — double
monsters, doubled heads, doubled bodies, extra limbs, etc. — redundant
development. (PI. XIX, figs. 1, 2, 3.)

Causes. — The causes of monstrosities are varied. Some, like extra
digits, lack of horns, etc., run in families, which produce them with
absolute certainty when bred in the direct line, although they were
originally acquired peculiarities which have merely been fixed by
long habit in successive generations. The earliest horse had five toes,
and even the most recent fossil horse had three toes, of which the
two lateral ones are still represented in the modern animal by the two
splint bones. Yet if our horse develops an extra toe it is pronounced
a monstrosity. A more genuine monstrosity is the solid-hoofed pig,
in which two toes have been merged into one. Another of the same
kind is the solid shank bone of the ox, which consists of two bones
united into one, but Avhich are still found apart in the early fetus.
Though originally acquired peculiarities, they now breed as invari-
ably as color or form.

Other monstrosities seem to have begim in too close breeding, by
which the powers of syrrimetrical development are impaired, just as
the procreative power weakens under continuous breeding from the
closest blood relations. A monstrosity consisting in the absence of
an organ often depends on a simple lack of development, the result
of disease or injury, as a young bone is permanently shortened by
being broken across the soft' part between the shaft and the end, the
only part where increase in length can take place. As the result of
the injury the soft, growing layer becomes prematurely hard and
all increase in length at that end of the bone ceases. This will ac-
count for some cases of absence of ej'e, limb, or other organ.

Sometimes a monstrosity is owing to the inclosure of one ovum in
another while the latter is still but a soft mass of cells and can easily
close around the first. Here each ovum has an independent life;
they develop simultaneously, only the outer one having direct con-
nection with the womb and being furnished with abundant nourish-
ment advances most rapidly and perfectly, while the inclosed and
starved ovum is dwarfed and imperfect often to the last degree.

In many cases of excess of parts the extra part or member is mani-
festly derived from the same ovum, and even the same part of the
ovum, being merel}^ the effect of a redundancy and vagary of groAvth.
Such cases include most instances of extra digits or other organs, and
even of double monsters, as manifested by the fact that such extra
organs grow from the normal identical organs. Hence the extra
digit is attached to the normal digit, the extra head to the one neck,
the extra tail to the croup, extra teeth to the existing teeth, and
even two similarly formed bodies are attached by some point com-
mon to both, as the navels, breastbones, back, etc. (PI. XIX, figs.

182 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

1, 2, 3.) This shows that both have been derived from the same
primitive laj^er of the embryo, which possessed the plastic power of
building up a given structure or set of organs. An inclosed ovum,
on the other hand, has no such identity or similaritj'^ of structure to
the part with which it is connected, showing an evident primary
independence of both life and the power of building tissues and
organs. The power of determining extra growth along a given
natural line is very highly developed in the early embryo and is
equally manifest in the mature examples of some of the lower forms
of animal life. Thus a newt will grow a new tail when that member
has been cut off, and a starfish will develop as many new starfishes
as the pieces made by cutting up the original one. This power of
growth in the embryo and in the lower form of animals is compa-
rable to the branching out again of a tree at the places from which
branches have been lopped. The presence of this vegetablelike
power of growth in the embryo accounts for most double monsters.

The influence of disease in modifying growth in the early embryo,
increasing, decreasing, distorting, etc., is well illustrated in the
experiments of St. Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, or
otherwise disturbing the connections of eggs and thereby producing
monstrosities. One can easily understand how inflammations and
other causes of disturbed circulation in the womb, fetal membranes,
or fetus would cause similar distortions and variations in the gi'ow-
ing offspring. It is doubtless largely in the same way that certain
mental disturbances of a very susceptible dam affect the appearance
of the progeny. The monstrosities which seriously interfere with
calving are mainly such as consist in extra members or head, which
can not be admitted into the passages at the same time, where some
organ of the body has attained extra size, w^here a blighted ovum
has been inclosed in the body of a more perfect one, or where the
body or limbs are so contracted or twisted that the calf must enter
the passages doubled up.

Treatment. — Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the
distorted members by the force of traction ; in other cases the muscles
or tendons must be cut across on the side to which the body or limbs
are bent to allow of such straightening. Thus, the muscles on the
concave side of a wry neck or the cords behind the shank bones of a
contracted limb may be cut to allow of these parts being brought
into the passages, and there will still be wanting the methods de-
manded for bringing up missing limbs or head, for which see para-
graphs below. In most cases of monstrosity by excess of overgrowth
it becomes necessary to cut off the supernumerary or overdeveloped
parts, and in this same general principles must be followed as laid
down in " Embryotomy " (p. 200).

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.
WRONG PRESENTATIONS OF THE CALF.

The following is a list of abnormal presentations of the calf:

Simultaneous presentation of twins.

Limbs curved at the knee

183

Fore limbs.

Head.

Ph qj

Flexor tendons shortened.

Limb crossed over the back of the neck.

Limb bent back at the knee.

Limb bent back from the shoulder.

Head bent downward on the neck.

Head and neck turned downward beneath the breast.

Head turned to one side upon the side of the neck.

Head and neck turned back on the side of the chest and
abdomen.

Head turned upward and backward on the back.

Hind imbs rotated outward. Toes and stifles turned out-
ward.

[Hind limbs bent forward, their feet resting in the pelvis.

Transverse Back of the calf turned to the right or left side.

Inverted Back of the calf turned to the floor of the pelvis and udder.

I Hind limb bent on itself at the hock. Hock and buttocks
present.
Hind limb bent at the hips. Buttocks present.

Transverse Back of calf turned to the right or left side.

Inverted Back of calf turned to the floor of the pelvis and udder.

Head up toward the spine,

Hind limbs.

Back and loins
presented.

Position of calf vertical.

Position of calf transverse . . .

Breast and abdo-] . . . ,

^Position of calf transverse
men presented. J

croup toward udder.
Head down toward udder,

croup toward spine.
Head toward the right side,

croup toward the left.
Head toward the left side,

croup toward the right.
Head toward right side,

croup toward left.
Head toward left side, croup

toward right.

These include all general presentations, yet other subsidiary ones
will at once occur to the attentive reader. Thus, in each anterior or
posterior presentation, with the back of the calf turned downward or
to one side, the case may be complicated by the bending back of one
or more members as a whole or at the joint just above the shank
bones (knee or hock). So also in such anterior presentation the head
may be turned back.

184 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Head and fore feet presented, — Bach tinmed to one side. — The calf
has a greater diameter from abov^ down (spine to breastbone) than
it has from side to side, and the same is true of the passage of the
pelvis of the cow, which measures, on an average, SjV inches from
above downward and 1^^ inches from side to side. Hence the calf
passes most easily with its back upward, and when turned with its
back to one side calving is always tardy and may be difficult or im-
possible. The obvious remedy is to rotate the calf on its own axis
until its spine turns toward the spine of the cow. The operation is
not difficult if the body of the calf is not yet fixed in the passages.
The presenting feet are twisted over each other in the direction
desired, and this is continued until the head and spine have assumed
their proper place. If the body is firmly engaged in the passages the
skin of the whole engaged portion should be freely lubricated with
lard, and the limbs and head twisted over each other as above. The
limbs may be twisted by an assistant when the head is manipulated
by the operator, who drags on the rope turned halfway round the
limbs and assists in the rotation with his other hand in the passages.

Head and fore feet presented — Bach turned down toward the
udder. — This position (PL XVI, fig. 6) is unnatural, and the parturi-
tion is difficult for two reasons: First, the natural curvature of the
fetus is opposed to the natural curvature of the passages; and, second,
the thickest part of the body of the calf (the upper) is engaged in
the narrowest part of the passage of the pelvis (the lower). Yet
unless the calf is especially large and the pelvis of the cow narrow,
parturition may usually be accomplished in this way spontaneously
or with very little assistance in the way of traction on the limbs. If
this can not be accomplished, tAvo courses are open: First, to rotate
the calf as when the back is turned to one side ; second, to push back
the presenting fore limbs and head and search for and bring up the
hind limbs, when the presentation will be a natural, posterior one.

Presentation of the hind feet with the hach turned to one side or
downward. — These are the exact counterparts of the two conditions
last described, are beset with similar drawbacks, and are to be dealt
with on the same general principles. (PI. XVII, fig. 4.) With the
back turned to one side the body should be rotated until the back
turns toward the spine of the dam, and with the back turned down
it must be extracted in that position (care being taken that the feet
do not perforate the roof of the vagina) or it must be rotated on its
own axis until the back turns upward, or the hind limbs must be
pushed back and the fore limbs and head advanced, when the pres-
entation will be a natural anterior one.

Impaction of twins in the passage. — It is very rare to have twins
enter the passages together so as to become firmly impacted. As a
rule, each of the twins has its own separate membranes, and as the

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 185

water bags of one will naturally first enter and be the first to burst,
so the calf which occupied those membranes will be the first to enter
the passage and the other will be thereby excluded. When the
membranes of both have burst without either calf having become
engaged in the pelvis, it becomes possible for the fore legs of one
and the hind legs of the other to enter at one time, and if the strain-
ing is very violent they may become firmly impacted. (PL XVIII,
fig. 1.) The condition may be recognized by the fact that two of the
presenting feet have their fronts turned forward, while the two
others have their fronts turned backward. If the four feet belonged
to one natural calf, they would all have the same direction. By means
of this difference in direction we can easily select the two feet of one
calf, place running nooses upon them just above the hoofs or fet-
locks, and have an assistant drag upon the ropes while the feet of the
other calf are pushed back. In selecting one of the twins to come
first several considerations should have weight. The one that is most
advanced in the passage is, of course, the first choice. Though the
fore feet of one are presented, yet if the head is not in place the calf
presenting by its hind feet is to be chosen as being less liable to
obstruct. Again, if for either calf one limb only is presented and
the other missing, the one presenting two feet should be selected
to come first. As soon as one calf has been advanced so as to occupy
the pelvis the other will be crowded back so that it will not seriously
obstruct.

Fore limbs curved at the knee — Limbs sprawling outward. — In
this case not only are the knees somewhat bent in a curve, but the
calf has a position as if it rested on its breastbone, while the legs
were drawn apart and directed to the right and left. The shoulder
blades being drawn outward from the chest and the elbows turned
out, the muscles extending from the trunk to the limb are unduly
stretched and keep the knees bent and the feet directed outward so
as to press on the sides of the passages. They become retarded in
their progress as compared with the more rapidly advancing head,
and may bruise or even lacerate the walls of the vagina. It would
seem easy to rectify this by extending the legs, but the already tense
and overstretched muscles operate against extension in the present
position, and it is not easy to rotate the limbs so as to apply the
shoulder flat against the side of the chest. Under these circumstances
a repeller (PI. XX, fig. 7) may be planted in the breast and the body
of the calf pushed backward into the womb, when the limbs will
extend easily under traction and the presentation becomes at once
natural.

Fore limbs curved at knee — Flexor tendons shortening. — In this
case the feet will press against the floor of the pelvis though the
limb has no outward direction, and the shoulder meanwhile presses

186 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

against the roof of the same passage. Unless the knees can be suffi-
ciently straightened by force a knife must be used to cut across the
cords behind the knee, when the limbs may be straightened suffi-
ciently.

Fore limbs flexed at knee — Flexor tendons unshortened. — This is
mostly seen in cases in which the body of the calf is in the proper
position, its back being turned up toward the back of the dam, and in
coAvs with a drooping abdomen. The feet have been supposed to
catch beneath the brim of the pelvis, and being retarded while the
head advances into the passages, they get bent at the knee and the
nose and knees present. (PL XVI, fig. 2.) The calf, however, is not
an inanimate body advanced by the mere contraction of the womb,
but it moves its limbs freely under the stimulus of the unwonted com-
pression, and in moving the feet as they are advanced they slip down
over the pelvic brim and finding no other firm support they bend
back until, under the impulsion, they can no longer straighten out
again. The knees, therefore, advance with the neck and head, but the
feet remain bent back. The result is that the upper part of the limb
is also flexed, and the shoulder blade and arm bone with their masses
of investing muscles are carried backward and applied on the side of
the chest, greatly increasing the bulk of this already bulky part. As
the elbow is carried back on the side of the chest, the forearm from
elbow to knee further increases the superadded masses of the shoulder
and renders it difficult or impossible to drag the mass through the
passages. When the fore limbs are fully extended, on the contrarv,
the shoulder blade. is extended forward on the smallest and narrowest
part of the chest, the arm bone with its muscles is in great part ap-
plied against the side of the back part of the neck, and the forearm is
continued forward by the side of the head so that the nose lies be-
tween the knees. In this natural presentation the presenting body
of the calf forms a long wedge or cone, the increase of which is slow
and gradual until it reaches the middle of the chest.

The difficulty of extending the fore limbs will be in proportion to
the advance of the head through the pelvic cavity. In the early stage
all that is necessary may be to introduce the oiled hand, the left one
for the right leg or the right one for the left, and passing the hand
from the knee on to the foot to seize the foot in the palm, bend it
forcibly on the fetlock, and lift it up over the brim of the pelvis, the
knee being, of course, pressed upward against the spine. As soon as
the foot has been raised above the brim of the pelvis (into the pas-
sage) the limb can be straightened out with the greatest ease.

When, however, the shoulders are already engaging in the pelvis
the feet can not thus be lifted up, and to gain room a repeller (PI.
XX, fig. 7) must be used to push back the body of the calf. This is

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 187

an instrument with a long, straight stem, divided at the end into two
short branches (2 to 3 inches long) united to the stem by hinges so
that they can be brought into a line with the stem for introduction
into the womb and then spread to be implanted in the breast. In the
absence of a repeller a smooth, round, fork handle may be used, the
prongs having been removed from the other end. A third device is
to have an assistant strip his arm to the shoulder and, standing back
to back with the operator, to introduce his right arm into the passages
along with the operator's left (or vice versa) and push back the body
of the calf while the operator seeks to bring up a limb. The repeller
or staff having been planted safely in the breast of the calf, an assist-
ant pushes upon it in a direction either forward or slightly upw^ard,
so as not only to follow the natural curve of the body and favor its
turning in the line of that curve within the womb, but also to carry
the shoulders upward toward the spine and obtain more room for
bringing up the missing feet. It is good policy, first, to put a halter
(PI. XXI, figs. 4a and 45) on the head or a noose (PI. XXI, fig 3)
on the lower jaw and a rope round each limb at the knee, so as to
provide against the loss of any of these parts when the body is pushed
back into the womb. This offers the further advantage that by drag-
ging upon these ropes the body can be advanced in the passage until
the foot is reached, when the rope must be slackened and the repeller
used to get room for bringing up the foot. If the cow is lying,
the operator should first secure the foot on the upper side and then, if
necessary, turn the cow on its opposite side so as to bring up the other.

In using the instruments some precautions are demanded. They
must be invariably warmed before they are introduced, and they
should be smeared with lard or oil to make them pass easily and with-
out friction. The assistant who is pushing on the instrument must
be warned to stop if at any time resistance gives way. This may
mean the turning of the fetus, in which case the object of repulsion
has been accomplished, but much more probably it implies the dis-
placement of the instrument from the body of the fetus, and un-
guarded pressure may drive it through the walls of the womb.

When the calf enters the passage with its back turned down toward
the belly and udder, the bending back of the fore limbs is rare, prob-
ably because the feet can find a straighter and more nearly uniform
surface of resistance in the upper wall of the womb and the backbone,
and do not slide over a crest into an open cavity, as they do over the
brim of the pelvis. The weight o fthe calf, too, gravitating down-
ward, leaves more room for the straightening of the bent limbs, so
that the desired relief is much more easily secured. The manipula-
tion is the same in principle, only one must add the precaution of a
steady traction on the feet in extraction, lest, owing to the adverse

188 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

curvature of the fetus, the hoofs are suddenly forced through the
roof of the vagina, and, perhaps, the rectum as well, during a spe-
cially powerful labor pain.

When the back of the calf is turned to the right side or the left the
main difference is that in addition to straightening the limbs the fetus
must be rotated to turn its back upward before extraction is at-
tempted. In this case, too, it ma}'^ be difficult to bring up and
straighten the lower of the two limbs until the body has been rotated
into its proper position. Cord the upper straightened limb and head,
then rotate the body and search for the second missing limb.

Fore limhs hent hack from the shoulders. — This is an exaggeration
of the condition just named, and is much more difficult to remedy,
owing to the distance and inaccessibility of the missing limb. It
usually happens with the proper position of the body, the back of the
calf being turned toward the back of the mother. The head presents
in the passage and may even protrude from the vulva during an
active labor pain, but it starts back like a spring when the straining
ceases. Examination with the oiled hands in the intervals between
the pains fails to detect the missing limbs. (PL XVI, fig. 1.) If,
however, the hand can be introduced during a pain it may be possible
to reach the elbow or upper part of the forearm. In the absence of a
pain a halter or noose on the head may be used to advance the whole
body until the forearm can be seized just below the elbow. This
being firmly held and the head or body pushed back into the womb,
room may be obtained for bringing up the knee. The forearm is
used as a lever, its upper part being strongly forced back while its
lower part is pressed forward. If a pain supervenes the hold must
be retained, and whatever gain has been made must be held if pos-
sible. Then during the next pain, by pushing back the body and con-
tinuing to operate the forearm as a lever, a still further advance may
be made. As the knee is brought up in this way, the hand is slid
down from the elbow toward the knee, which is finally brought up
over the brim of the pelvis and into the passage. It is now corded
at the knee, and the subsequent procedure is as described in the last
article. In a large, roomy cow with a small calf the latter may pass
with one or both forelegs bent back, but this is a very exceptional
case, and, as early assistance is the most successful, there should never
be delay in hope of such a result.

One fore limh crossed over the hack of the neck. — This is a rare
obstacle to calving, but one that not altogether unknown. The hand
introduced into the passage feels the head and one forefoot, and
farther back on the same side of the other foot, from which the womb
can be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. (PI. XVI,
fig. 3.) This foot, projecting transversely, is liable to bruise or tear
the vagina. If still deeply engaged in the vagina, it may be seized

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE OEGANS. 189

and pushed across to the opposite side of the neck, when the presenta-
tion will be natural.

Head hent doion heneath the neck. — In this case, with drooping
belly and womb allowing the brim of the pelvis to form a ridge,
the advancing calf, having unduly depressed its nose, strikes it on
the brim of the pelvis, and the neck advancing, the head is bent back
and the poll and ears either enter the pelvis or strike against its
brim. The two forefeet present, but they make no progress, and the
oiled hand introduced can detect no head until the poll is felt at the
entrance of the pelvis, between the forearms. The two forefeet
must be fixed with running nooses and dragged on moderately while
the oiled hand seeks to bring up the head. The hand is slid down
over the forehead and brim of the pelvis until the nose is reached,
when it is passed into the mouth, the muzzle resting in the palm of
the hand. The legs are now pushed upon, and in the space thus
gained the muzzle is drawn up so as to enter it into the pelvis. In
doing this the operator must carefully see that the mouth does not
drop open so that the sharp, front teeth cut through the floor of
the womb. Should this danger threaten, the hand should be made
to cover the lower jaw as well. The lessened security of the hold
is more than compensated by the safety of the procedure. With
the nose in the pelvis, it has only to be drawn forward and the par-
turition is natural.

Head hent down heneath the hreast. — This is an exaggerated con-
dition of that last named. The head, arrested by the brim of the
pelvis and already bent back on the neck, is pressed farther with
each successive throe until it has passed between the forelegs and
lodges beneath the breast bone. (PL XVI, fig. 4.) On examina-
tion, the narrow upper border of the neck is felt between the fore-
arms, but as a rule the head is out of reach below. Keeping the
hand on the neck and dragging on the feet by the aid of ropes, the
hand may come to touch and seize the ear, or, still better, one or two
fingers may be inserted into the orbit of the eye.

Then in pushing back upon the limbs, with or without the aid of
a repeller applied against the shoulder, space may be obtained to
draw the head into a vertical position, and even to slip the hand
down so as to seize the nose. Should it prove impossible to draw the
head up with the unassisted fingers, a blunt hook (PL XXI, fig. 6)
may be inserted into the orbit, on which an assistant may drag while
another pushes upon the limbs or repeller. Meanwhile the operator
may secure an opportunity of reaching and seizing the nose or of
passing a blunt hook into the angle of the mouth. Success will be
better assured if two hooks (PL XXI, fig. 7) are inserted in the two
orbits, so as to draw up the head more evenly. In other cases a noose
may be placed on the upper jaw, or even around both jaws, and trac-

190 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

tion made upon this and on the hooks in the orbits while the legs are
pushed back, and while the operator pushes back on the poll or fore-
head. In still more difficult cases, in which even the orbits can not
be reached, a sharp hook on the end of a straight iron rod (PI. XX,
fig. 2) may be inserted over the lower jaw as far forward as it can be
reached, and by dragging upon this while the body is pushed back
the head will be brought up sufficiently to allow the operator to reach
the orbit or nose. If even the jaw can not be reached, the hook may
be inserted in the neck as near to the head as possible and traction
employed so as to bring the head within reach.

In all such cases the cow's head should be turned downhill, and in
case of special difficulty she should be turned on her back and held
there until the head is secured. In old-standing cases, with the womb
closely clasping the body of the calf, relaxation may be sought by the
use of chloroform or a full dose of chloral hydrate — 2 ounces; the
free injection of warm Avater into the womb will also be useful.

Head turned hack on the shoulder. — With a natural, anterior pre-
sentation this may happen because of the imperfect dilation of the
mouth of the womb. Under the throes of the mother the forefeet
pass through the narrow opening into the vagina, while the nose,
striking against it and unable to enter, is pressed backward into the
womb and turns aside on the right or left shoulder. The broad
muzzle of the calf forms an especial obstacle to entrance and favors
this deviation of the head. The worst form of this deviation is the
old standing one with shortening of the muscles of the neck on that
side, and oftentimes distortion of the face and neck bones, as noticed
under "Monstrosities" (p. 180).

When the head is bent on the shoulder the feet appear in the natural
way, but no progress is made, and examination reveals the absence of
the nose from between the knees, and farther back, from above and
between the elbows, a smooth rounded mass is felt extending to the
right or left, which further examination will identify with the neck.
Following the upper border of this the hand reaches the crown of
the head with the ears, and still further the eyes, or even, in a small
calf, the nose.

As the bulky head of the calf can not be extracted along with the
shoulders, it becomes necessary to push the body of the fetus back and
straighten out the head and neck. The cow should be laid with her
head downhill and with that side up toward which the head is turned.
If the throes are very violent, or the womb strongly contracted on the
calf, it may be best to seek relaxation by giving chloroform, or 2
ounces of laudanum, or 2 ounces of chloral hydrate. If the calf or
the passages are dry, sweet oil may be injected, or the whole may be
liberally smeared with fresh lard. In the absence of these, warm
water rendered slightly slippery by Castile soap may be injected into

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 191

the womb in quantity. Ropes with running nooses are placed on the
presenting feet and the oiled hand introduced to find the head. If,
now, the fingers can be passed inside the lower jawbone, and drag the
head upward and toward the passage, it unwinds the spiral turn given
to the neck in bending back, and greatly improves the chances of
bringing forward the nose. If, at first, or if now, the lower jaw can
be reached, a noose should be placed around it behind the incisor
teeth and traction made upon this, so that the head may continue to
be turned, forehead up, toward the spine and jaws down, thereby
continuing to undo the screw-like curve of the neck. If, on the con-
trary, the nose is dragged upon by a cord passing over the upper
border of the neck, the screwlike twist is increased and the resistance
of the bones and joints of the neck prevents any straightening of the
head. As soon as the lower jaw has been seized by the hand or
noose, a repeller (PL XX, fig. 7), planted on the inside of the elbow
or shoulder most distant from the head, should be used to push back
the body and turn it in the womb, so that the head may be brought
nearer to the outlet. In this way the head can usually be brought
into position and the further course of delivery will be natural.

Sometimes, however, the lower jaw can not be reached with the
hand, and then the orbit or, less desirably, the ear, may be availed of.
The ear may be pulled by the hand, and by the aid of the repeller on
the other shoulder the calf may be so turned that the lower jaw may
be reached and availed of. Better still, a clamp (PI. XVIII, figs. 3
and 4) is firmly fixed on the ear and pulled by a rope, while the re-
peller is used on the opposite shoulder, and the hand of the operator
pulls on the lower border of the neck and lifts it toward the other
side. To pull on the upper border of the neck is to increase the spiral
twist, while to raise the lower border is to undo it. If the outer
orbit can be reached, the fingers may be inserted into it so as to em-
ploy traction, or a blunt finger hook (PI. XXI, fig. 8) may be used,
or a hook with a rope attached, or, finally, a hook on the end of a
long staff. Then, with the assistance of the repeller, the body may
be so turned and the head advanced that the lower jaw may be
reached and availed of.

In case neither the ears nor the orbit can be reached, a cord should
be passed around the neck of the calf as near the head as possible,
and traction made upon that while the opposite shoulder is pushed
toward the opposite side by the repeller, assisted bv the hand drag-
ging on the lower border of the neck. To aid the hand in passing a
rope around the neck a cord carrier (PI. XXI, fig. 5) is in use. It
fails, however, to help us in the most difficult part of the operation —
the passing of the cord down on the deep or farthest side of the
neck — and to remedy this I have devised a cord carrier, furnished
with a ring at the end, a joint 6 or 8 inches from the end, and another

192 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ring on the handle, close to this joint. (PL XX, fig. 4.) A cord is
passed through both rings and a knot tied on its end, just back of the
terminal ring. The instrument, straightened out, is inserted until it
reaches just bej^ond the upper border of the neck, when, by dragging
on the cord, the movable segment is bent down on the farther side of
the neck, and is pushed on until it can be felt at its lower border.
The hand noAv seizes the knotted end of the cord beneath the lower
border of the neck and pulls it through while the carrier is with-
drawn, the cord sliding through its rings. The cord, pushed up as
near to the head as possible, is furnished with a running noose by
tying the knotted end round the other, or, better, the two ends are
twisted around each other so as to give a firm hold on the neck with-
out dangerously compressing the blood vessels. By pushing on the
opposite shoulder with the repeller, and assisting with the hand on
shoulder, breastbone, or lower border of the neck, such a change of
position will be secured as will speedily bring the head within reach.
Afterwards proceed as described above.

These cases are always trying, but it is very rarely necessary to
resort to embryotomy. When absolutely required, first remove one
fore limb, and then, if still unsuccessful, the other, after which the
head can easily be secured. (See " Embryotomy," p. 200.)

Head turned upward and hachward. — In this case the face rests
upon the spine ; the forefeet appear alone in the passage, but fail to
advance, and on examination the rounded, inferior border of the
neck can be felt, extending upward and backward beneath the spine
of the dam, and if the calf is not too large the hand may reach the
lower jaw or even the muzzle. (PI. XVI, fig. 5.) A repeller is
planted in the breast and the body of the calf pushed backward and
downward so as to make room and bring the head nearer to the
passage; or in some cases the body may be pushed back sufficiently
by the use of the forelimbs alone. Meanwhile the head is seized by
the ear or the eye socket, or, if it can be reached, by the lower jaw,
and pulled downward into position as space is obtained for it. If
the hand alone is insufficient, the blunt hooks may be inserted in the
orbits or in the angle of the mouth, or a noose may be placed on the
lower jaw, "and by traction the head will be easily advanced. In case
of a large fetus, the head of which is beyond reach, even when trac-
tion is made on the limbs, a rope may be passed around the neck and
pulled, while the breastbone is pressed downward and backward by
the repeller, and soon the change of position will bring the orbit or
lower jaw within reach. With the above described position the
standing position is most favorable for success, but if the calf is
placed with its back down toward the udder, and if the head is bent
down under the brim of the pelvis, the best position for the cow is
on her back, with her head downhill.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 193

In neglected cases, with death and putrefaction of the fetus and
dryness of the passages, it may be necessary to extract in pieces. (See
" Embryotomy," p. 200.)

Outward direction of the stifles — Abduction of hind limhs. — As an
obstacle to parturition, this is rare in cows. It is most liable to
take place in coavs with narrow hip bones, and when the service has
been made by a bull having great breadth across the quarter. The
calf, taking after the sire, presents an obstacle to calving in the
breadth of its quarters, and if at the same time the toes and stifles
are turned excessively outward and the hocks inward the combined
breadth of the hip bones above and the stifles below may be so great
that the pelvis will not easily admit them. After the forefeet, head,
and shoulders have all passed out through the vulva, further progress
suddenly and unaccountably ceases, and some dragging on the parts
already delivered does not serve to bring away the hind parts. The
oiled hand introduced along the side of the calf will discover the
obstacle in the stifle joints turned directly outward and projecting
on each side bej^ond the bones which circumscribe laterally the front
entrance of the pelvis. The evident need is to turn the stifles in-
ward ; this may be attempted by the hand introduced by the side of
the calf, which is meanwhile rotated gently on its own axis to favor
the change of position. To correct the deviation of the hind limb is,
however, very difficult, as the limbs themselves are out of reach and
can not be used as levers to assist. If nothing can be done by push-
ing the body of the calf back and rotating it and by pressure by the
hand in the passages, the only resort appears to be to skin the calf
from the shoulder back, cut it in two as far back as can be reached,
then push the buttocks well forward into the womb, bring up the
hind feet, and so deliver.

Hind limhs excessively hent on the hody and engaged in the pel-
vis.— In this case the presentation is apparently a normal, anterior
one; forelimbs and head advance naturally and the parturition pro-
ceeds until half the chest has passed through the external passages,
when suddenly progress ceases and no force will effect farther ad-
vance. An examination with the oiled hand detects the presence, in
the passages, of the hind feet and usually the hind legs up to above
the hocks. (PI. XVII, fig. 1.)

The indications for treatment are to return the hind limbs into
the body of the womb. If they have not advanced too far into the
pelvis, this may be done as follows : A rope with running noose is
passed over each hind foot and drawn tight around the lower part of
the hock : the ropes are then passed through the two rings in the small
end of the rotating instrument (PI. XX, fig. 5) which is slid into the
passages until it reaches the hocks, when the ropes, drawn tight, are
33071°— 16 13

194 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

tied around the handle of the instrument. Then in the intervals
between the pains the hocks are pushed forcibly back into the womb.
If by this means flexion can be effected in hocks and stifles, success
will follow ; the hind feet will pass into the womb and clear of the
brim of the pelvis and the body may now be advanced without
hindrance, the hind limbs falling into place when the hip joints are
extended. At the same time the pressure upon hind limbs must not
be relaxed until the buttocks are engaged in the pelvis, as otherwise
the feet may again get over the brim and arrest the progress of
delivery.

Wlien the hind limbs are already so jammed into the pelvis that
it is impossible to return them, the calf must be sacrificed to save the
mother. Cords with running nooses are first put on the two hind
feet. The body must be skinned from the shoulders back as far as
can be reached, and is to be then cut in two, if possible, back of the
last rib. The remainder of the trunk is now pushed back into the
body of the womb and by traction upon the cords the hind feet are
brought up into the passages and the extraction will be compara-
tively easy.

Hind presentation with one or hoth legs bent at the hock. — After
the bursting of the water bags, though labor pains continue, no part
of the fetus appears at the vulva unless it be the end of the tail.
On examination the buttocks are felt wedged against the spine at
the entrance of the pelvis and beneath them the bent hock joints
resting on the brim of the pelvis below. (PI. XVII, fig. 3.) The
calf has been caught by the labor pains while the limb was bent
beneath it and has been jammed into or against the rim of the pelvis,
so that extension of the limb became impossible. With the thigh
bent on the flank, the leg on the thigh, and the shank on the leg, and
all at once wedged into the passage, delivery is practically impos-
sible.

The obvious remedy is to push the croup upward and forward and
extend the hind legs, and in the early stages this can usually be ac-
complished in the cow. A repeller (PI. XX, fig. 7) is planted across
the thighs and pointed upward toward the spine of the cow and
pushed forcibly in this direction during the intervals between labor
jDains. Meanwhile the oiled hand seizes the shank just below the
hock and uses it as a lever, pushing the body back and drawing the
foot forward, thus effectually seconding the action of the repeller.
Soon a distinct gain is manifest, and as soon as the foot can be
reached it is bent back strongly at the fetlock, held in the palm of
the hand, and pulled up, while the repeller, pressing on the buttocks,
assists to make room for it. In this way the foot may be brought
safely and easily over the brim of the pelvis without any risk of lac-
eration of the womb of the foot. After the foot has been lifted over

DISEASES OF THE GEISTERATIVE ORGANS. 195

the brim, the whole limb can be promptly and easily extended. In
cases presenting special difficulty in raising the foot over the brim,
help may be had by traction on a rope passed around in front of the
hock, and later still b}^ a rope with a noose fastened to the pastern.
In the worst cases, with the buttocks and hocks wedged deeply into
the passages, it may prove difficult or impossible to push the buttocks
back into the abdomen, and in such case the extension of the hind
limb is practically impossible without mutilation. In some roomy
cows a calf may be dragged through the passages by ropes attached
to the bent hocks, but even when this is possible there is great risk of
laceration of the floor of the vagina by the feet. The next resort is
to cut the hamstring just above the point of the hock and the tendon
on the front of the limb (flexor metatarsi) just above the hock, and
even the sinews behind the shank bone just below the hock. This
allows the stifle and hock to move independently of each other, the
one undergoing extension without entailing the extension of the
other; it also allows both joints to flex completely, so that the im-
pacted mass can pass through a narrower channel. If now, by drag-
ging on the hocks and operating with the repeller on the buttocks,
the latter can be tilted forward sufficiently to allow of the extension
of the stifle, the jam will be at once overcome, and the calf may be
extracted with the hock bent, but the stifle extended. If even this
can not be accomplished, it may now be possible to extract the whole
mass with both hocks and stifles fully bent. To attempt this, trac-
tion may be made on the rope around the hocks and on a sharp hook
(PL XX, fig. 2) passed forward between the thighs and hooked on to
the brim of the pelvis. Everything else failing, the offending limb
or limbs may be cut off at the hip joint and extracted, after which
extraction may proceed by dragging on the remaining limb, or by
hooks on the hip bones. Very little is to be gained by cutting off the
limb at the hock, and the stifle is less accessible than the hip, and
amputation of the stifle gives much poorer results.

Hind limhs hent forward from the hip — Breech 'presentation. —
This is an exaggeration of the condition last described, only the
hocks and stifles are fully extended and the whole limb carried for-
ward beneath the belly. (PI. XVII, fig. 2.) The water bags appear
and burst, but nothing presents unless it may be the tail. Examina-
tion in this case detects the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and
anus at its upper part.

The remedy, as in the case last described, consists in pushing the
buttock upward and forward with a repeller, the cow being kept
standing and headed downhill until the thigh bone can be reached
and used as a lever. Its upper end is pushed forward and its lower
end raised until, the joints becoming fully flexed, the point of the
hock can be raised above the brim of the pelvis. If necessary a noose

196 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

may be passed around the leg as far down toward the hock as possible
and pulled on forcibly, while the hand presses forward strongly on
the back of the leg above. When both hocks have been lodged above
the brim of the pelvis the further procedure is as described under the
last heading.

If, however, the case is advanced and the buttocks wedged firmly
into the passages, it may be impossible safely to push the fetus back
into the womb, and the calf must either be dragged through the pas-
sage as it is or the limbs or the pelvis must be cut off. To extract
successfully with a breech presentation the cow must be large and
roomy and the calf not too large. The first step in this case is to
separate the pelvic bones on the two sides by cutting from before
backward, exactly in the median line below and where the thighs
come together above. This may be done with a strong embryotomy
knife, but is most easily accomplished with the long embryotome
(PL XX, fig. 3). The form which I have designed (PI. XX, fig. 1),
with a short cutting branch jointed to the main stem, is to be pre-
ferred, as the short cutting piece may be folded on the main stem so
that its cutting edge will be covered, and it can be introduced and
extracted without danger. This is pushed forward beneath the calf's
belly, and the cutting arm opened, inserted in front of the brim of
the pelvis and pulled forcibly back through the whole length of the
pelvic bones. The divided edges are now made to overlap each other
and the breadth of the haunch is materially reduced. One end of the
cord may then be passed forward by means of a cord carrier (PI.
XXI, fig. 5) on the inner side of one thigh until it can be seized at
the stifle by the hand passed forward on the outer side of that thigh.
This end is now pulled back through the vagina, the other end
passed through the cord carrier and passed forward on the inner side
of the other thigh until it can be seized at the stifle by the hand
passed forward outside that thigh. This end is drawn back through
the vagina like the first, and is tied around the other so as to form a
running noose. The rope is now drawn through the ring until it
forms a tight loop, encircling the belly just in front of the hind
limbs. On this strong traction can be made Avithout interfering
with the full flexion of the limbs on the body, and if the case is a
suitable one, and the body of the fetus and the passages are both
well lubricated with oil or lard, a successful parturition may be ac-
complished. A less desirable method is to put a rope around one
thigh or a rope around each and drag upon these, but manifestly
the strain is not so directly on the spine, and the limbs may be
somewhat hampered in flexion.

This metliod being inapplicable, the next resort is to cut off one or
both hind limbs at the hip joint. Free incisions are made on the side

DISEASES OF THE GENEEATIVE ORGANS. 197

of the haunch so as to expose the hip joint, and the muscles are cut
away from the head of the thigh bone down to its narrow neck,
around which a rope is passed and firmly fixed with a running noose.
The joint is now cut into all around, and while traction is made on
the cord the knife is inserted into the inner side of the joint and the
round ligament severed. The cord may now be dragged upon forci-
bly, and the muscles and other parts cut through as they are drawn
tense, until finally the whole member has been extracted. Traction
on the rope round the other thigh will now suffice to extract, in most
cases, but if it should fail the other limb may be cut off in the
same manner, and then hooks inserted in front of the brim of the
pelvis or in the openings in the bones of its floor (obturator fora-
mina) will give sufficient purchase for extraction. Another method
is to insert a Imife between the bone of the rump (sacrum) and the
hip bone and sever their connections; then cut through the joint
(symphysis) between the two hip bones in the median line of the
floor of the pelvis, and then with a hook in the opening on the
pelvic bones (obturator foramen) drag upon the limb and cut the
tense soft parts until the limb is freed and extracted.

Presentation of the hack. — In this presentation straining may be
active, but after the rupture of the water bags no progress is made,
and the hand introduced will recognize the back with its row of
spinous processes and the springing ribs at each side pressed against
the entrance to the pelvis. (PI. XVII, fig. 6.) The presence or
absence of the ribs will show whether it is the region of the chest
or the loins. By feeling along the line of spines until the ribs are
met with we shall learn that the head lies in that direction. If, on
the contrary, we follow the ribs until they disappear, and a blank
space is succeeded by hip bones, it shows that we are approaching
the tail. The head may be turned upward, downward, to the right
side, or to the left.

The object must be to turn the fetus so that one extremity or the
other can enter the passage, and the choice of which end to bring for-
ward will depend on various considerations. If one end is much
nearer the outlet than the other, that would naturally be selected for
extraction, but if they are equidistant the choice would fall on the
hind end, as having only the two limbs to deal with without any risk
of complication from the head. When the head is turned upward
and forward it will usually be preferable to bring up the hind limb,
as, owing to the drooping of the womb into the abdomen, rotation of
the fetus will usually be easier in that direction, and if successful the
resulting position will be a natural posterior presentation, with the
back of the calf turned toward the rump of the cow. Similarly with
the croup turned upward and forward, that should be pushed on for-

198 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Tvara, and if the forefeet and head can be secured it ■will be a natural
anterior presentation, with the back of the calf turned upward
toward the rump of the cow.

The womb should be injected with warm water or oil, and the turn-
ing of the calf will demand the combined action of the repeller and
the hand, but in all such cases the operator has an advantage that the
body of the fetus is wholly within the body of the womb, and there-
fore movable with comparative ease. No part is wedged into the-
pelvic passages as a complication. The general principles are the
same as in faulty presentation fore and hind, and no time should be
lost in making the manipulations necessary to bring the feet into the
pelvis, lest they get in bent or otherwise displaced and add unneces-
sary complications.

With a traverse direction of the calf, the head being turned to
(me side, the pressure must be directed laterally, so that the body
will glide around on one side of the womb, and the extremities when
reached must be promptly seized and brought into the passages.
Sometimes a fortunate struggle of a live fetus will greatly aid in rec-
tifying the position.

Breast and aibdoTtien presented — All four feet in the passages. — In
this form the calf lies across the womb with its roached back turned
forward and its belly toward the pelvis. All four feet may be ex-
tended and engaged in the passages, or one or more may be bent on
themselves so as to lie in front of the pelvis. The head, too, may
usually be felt on the right side or the left, and if detected it serves to
identify the exact position of the fetus. The position may further be
decided upon by examination of the feet and limbs. With the limbs
extended the front of the hoofs and the convex aspect of the bent
pasterns and fetlocks will look toward that flank in which lie the
head and shoulders. On examination still higher the smooth, even
outline of the knee and its bend, looking toward the hind parts,
characterize the fore limb, while the sharp prominence of the point
of the hock and the bend on the opposite side of the joint, looking
toward the head, indicate the hind limb. (PI. XVII, fig. 5.)

The remedy of this condition is to be sought in repelling into the
w^omb those limbs that are least eligible for extraction, and bringing
into the passages the most eligible extremities. The most eligible will
usually be those which project farthest into the passages, indicating
the nearer proximity of that end of the calf. An exception may,
however, be made in favor of that extremity which will give the most
natural presentation. Thus if, owing to obliquity in the position of
the fetus, the hind extremities promised a presentation with the back
of the fetus turned down toward the udder, and the anterior extremi-
ties one with the back turned up toward the spine, the latter should
be selected. Again, if the choice for the two extremities is evenly

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 199

balanced, the hind may be chosen as offering less risk of complication,
there being no head to get displaced.

The first step in the treatment is to place a running noose on each
of the four feet, marking those of the fore limbs to distinguish them
from those of the hind ones. In case it is proposed to bring the
anterior extremities into the passage, a noose should also be placed
on the lower jaw. Then run the ropes attached to the two feet that
are to be pushed back through the ring of a cord carrier (PI. XXI,
fig. 5 ) , passing the rings down to the feet, and by the aid of the car-
rier push them well back into the womb and hold them there. Mean-
while drag upon the ropes attached to the two other feet so as to
bring them into the passage (or, in case of the anterior extremity, on
the two foot ropes and the head one) . The other feet must be pushed
back into the womb until the body of the calf is fully engaged in the
passages. After this they can no longer find an entrance, but must
follow as the body escapes.

NEGLECTED AND AGGRAVATED CASES.

In laying down the foregoing rules for giving assistance in critical
cases of calving it is not intimated that all cases and stages can be
successfully dealt with. Too often assistance is not sought for many
hours or even days after labor pains, and the escape of the waters
intimate the danger of delay. Not seldom the long delay has been
filled up with unintelligent and injurious attempts at rendering as-
sistance, violent pulling when resistance is insurmountable without
change of position, injuries to the vagina and womb by ill-considered
but too forcibly executed attempts to change the position, the repeated
and long-continued contact with rough hands and rougher ropes and
hooks, the gashes with knives and lacerations with instruments in
ignorant hands, the infecting material introduced on filthy hands and
instruments, and the septic inflammations started in the now dry
and tender passages and womb. Not infrequently the death, putre-
faction, and bloating of the calf in the womb render the case ex-
tremely unpromising and make it impossible to apply successfully
many of the measures above recommended. The labor pains of the
cow may have practically ceased from exhaustion; the passages of
the A^agina may be so dry, tender, friable, red, and swollen that it
requires considerable effort even to pass the oiled hand through them,
and the extraction of the calf or any portion of it through such a
channel seems a hopeless task; the womb maj'' be equally dry, in-
flamed and swollen, so that its lining membrane or even its entire
thickness is easily torn ; the fetal membranes have lost their natural,
unctuous and slippery character, and cling firmly to the dry walls
of the womb, to the dry skin of the calf, or to the hands of the op-
erator; the dead and putrefying calf may be so bloated with gases

200 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

that the womb has been overdistended by its presence, and the two
adhere so closely that the motion of the one on the other is practically
impossible. In other cases reckless attempts to cut the calf in pieces
have left raw surfaces with projecting bones which dangerously
scratch and tear the womb and passages.

In many cases the extreme resort must be had of cutting the fetus
to pieces (embryotomy), or the still more redoubtable one of Ca^sar-
ean section (extraction through the flank).

DISSECTION OF THE UNBORN CALF (EMBRYOTOMY).

In some cases the dissection of the calf is the only feasible means
of delivering it through the natural passages; and while it is espe-
cially applicable to the dead calf, it is also on occasion called for in
the case of the living. As a rule, the living calf should be preserved,
if possible, but if this threatens to entail the death of the cow it is
only in the case of offspring of rare value that its preservation is to
be preferred. To those acquainted with the toil, fatigue, and discom-
fort of embryotomy, no discussion is necessary so long as there is a
prospect of success from the simple and generally easier method of
rectifying the faulty position of the calf. When the correction of
the position is manifestly impossible, however, when distortions and
monstrosities of the fetus successfully obstruct delivery, when the
pelvic passages are seriously contracted by fractures and bony
growths, when the passages are virtually almost closed by swelling,
or when the calf is dead and excessively swollen, no other resort may
be available. In many cases of distortion and displacement the dis-
memberment of the entire calf is unnecessary, the removal of the
offending member being all that is required. It will be convenient,
therefore, to describe the various suboperations one by one and in the
order in which they are usually demanded.

Amputation of the fore liirib. — In cutting off a fore limb it is the
one presenting that should be selected, since it is much more easily
operated on, and its complete removal from the side of the chest
affords so much more space for manipulation that it often makes it
easy to bring the other missing limb or the head into position. The
first consideration is to skin the limb from the fetlock up and leave
the skin attached to the body. The reasons for this are : {a) That the
skin is the most resistant structure of the limb, and when it has been
removed the entire limb can be easily detached ; ( 5 ) the tough skin
left from the amputated limb may be used as a cord in subsequent
traction on the body of the calf; (c) the dissection and separation
of the limb are far more safely accomplished under the protection
of the enveloping skin than if the operator's hands and instruments
were in direct contact with the walls of the passages or womb; {d)

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE OEGANS. 201

the dissection can be much more easily effected while the skin is
stretched by the left hand, so as to form a comparatively firmer re-
sistant point for the knife, than when it is attempted to cut the soft,
yielding, and elastic tissues which naturally offer little solid resist-
ance, but constantly recede before the cutting edge of the instrument.
The preservation of the skin is therefore a cardinal principle in the
amputation of all parts in which it is at all feasible.

The presenting foot is inclosed in a noose and drawn well out of
the passages. Then a circular incision through the skin is made
around the limb just above the fetlock. From this the skin is slit
up on the inner side of the limb to the breast. Then the projecting
part of the limb is skinned up to the vulva, traction being made on
the foot by an assistant so as to expose as much as possible. The
embryotomy knife may now be taken (PI. XXI, fig. 2), and a small
hole having been cut in the free end of the detached portion of skin,
that is seized by the left hand and extended while its firm connec-
tions with the deeper structures are cut through. The looser con-
nections can be more quickly torn through with the closed fist or
the tips of the four fingers held firmly together in a line or with the
spud, of which there are several kinds. Much of the upper part of
the limb can be skinned more speedily without the knife, but that
must be resorted to to cut across tough bands whenever these inter-
rupt the progress. The skinning should be carried upward on the
outer side of the shoulder blade to the spine or nearly so. Then with
the knife the muscles attaching the elbow and shoulder to the breast-
bone are cut across, together with those on the inner side of the shoul-
der joint and in front and behind it as far as these can be reached.
Steady traction is now made upon the foot, the remaining muscles
attaching the shoulder blade to the trunk are torn through with a
cracking noise, and the whole limb, including the shoulder blade and
its investing muscles, comes away. If the shoulder blade is left the
bulk of the chest is not diminished, and nothing has been gained.
Before going further it is well to see whether the great additional
space thus secured in the passages will allow of the missing limb or
head to be brought into position. If not, the other presenting part,
limb or head, is to be amputated and extracted. For the limb the
procedure is a repetition of that just described.

Amputation of the head. — The head is first seized and drawn well
forward, or even outside the vulva, by a rope with a running noose
placed around the lower jaw just behind the incisor teeth, by a sharp
hook inserted in the arch of the lower jaw behind the union of its
two branches and back of the incisor teeth, or by hooks inserted in
the orbits, or, finally, in case the whole head protrudes, by a halter.
(PI. XXI, figs 4« and 46.)

202 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

In case the whole head protrudes, a circular incision through the
skin is made just back of the ear, and the cut edge being held firmly
by the left hand, the neck is skinned as far as it can be reached.
Then the great ligamentous cord above the spine is cut across at the
farthest available jDoint, together with the muscles above and below
the spine. Strong traction on the head will then detach it at this
point and bring it away, but should there still be too much resistance
the knife is inserted between the bodies of two vertebrae just behind
one of the prominent points felt in the median line below, and their
connecting fibrous cartilage is cut through, after which compara-
tively moderate pulling will bring it away. The detached neck and
body at once slip back into the womb, and if the fore limbs are now
brought up and pulled they are advanced so far upon the chest that
the transverse diameter of that is greatly diminished and delivery
correspondingly facilitated.

If the head is still inclosed in the vagina two methods are avail-
able : (1) The removal of the lower jaw and subsequent separation of
the head from the neck; (2) the skinning of the whole head and its
separation from the neck.

To remove the lower jaw the skin is dissected away from it until
the throat is reached. Then the muscles of the cheeks and side of
the jaw (masseters) are cut through and those connecting the jaw
with the neck. When traction is made on the rope around the lower
jaw it will usually come away with little trouble. Should it resist,
its posterior extremity on each side (behind the grinding teeth) may
be cut through with bone forceps or with a guarded bone chisel.
(PI. XX, fig. 8.) After the removal of the lower jaw the way will
be open to separate the head from the neck, the knife being used to
cut into the first or second joint from below, or the bone forceps or
chisel being employed to cut through the bones of the neck. Then
traction is made on the head by means of hooks in the orbits, and the
hand, armed with an embryotomy knife, is introduced to cut through
<lie tense resisting ligament and muscles above the bones. The skin
and the strong ligamentous cord attached to the poll are the essential
things to cut, as the muscles can easily be torn across. Unless there
are great difficulties in the way it is well to skin the head from the
eyes back, and on reaching the poll to cut through the ligament and
then bring the head away by pulling.

If it is decided to remove the entire head at once, it may be skinned
from the front of the eyes back to behind the lower jaw below and
the poll above, then cut through the muscles and ligaments around
the first joint and pull the head away, assisting, if need be, in the
separation of the head by using the knife on the ligament of the
joint.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 203

If the calf is a double-headed monster, the skinning of the head
must be carried backward until the point has been reached where
both heads branch from the single neck, and the separation must be
made at that point. The muscles and ligaments are first to be cut
through; and if the part can not then be detached by pulling, the
bodies of the vertebrae may be separated by passing the knife through
the joint. The second head may now be secured by a noose around
the lower jaw or hooks in the orbits and brought up into place, the
body being pushed back toward the other side by a repeller, so as to
make room.

It should be added that, except in the case of a double-headed
monster, or in case of the head protruding or nearly so, and one or
both fore limbs presenting, it is rarely desirable to undertake ampu-
tation of the head. The space desirable in the passages can usually
be obtained by the much simpler and easier procedure of removing
one or both fore limbs.

Amputation of the hind limhs. — This is sometimes demanded on
the one extended limb when the other can not be brought up and de-
livery can not be effected; also in case of monsters having extra
hind limbs ; when the calf is dead, putrid, and bloated with gas ; and
in some cases of breech presentation, as described under that head.

When the limb is extended the guiding principles are as in the case
of the fore limbs. The skin is cut through circularly above the fet-
lock and slit up to beneath the pelvic bones on the inner side of the
thigh. It is then dissected from the other parts as high as it has been
slit on the inner side and to above the prominence ( trochanter major)
on the upper end of the thigh bone on the outer side of the joint. In
this procedure the hands and spud can do much, but owing to the
firmer connections the knife will be more frequently required than in
the case of the fore limb. The muscles are now cut through all
around the hip joint, and strong traction is made by two or three men
on the limb. If there is still too much resistance, a knife is inserted
into the joint on the inner side and its round ligament cut through,
after which extraction will be comparatively easy. This accom-
plished, it will often be possible to extract the fetus with the other
leg turned forward into the womb. If the calf is bloated with gas, it
may be necessary to remove the other leg in the same way, and even
to cut open the chest and abdomen and remove their contents before
extraction can be effected. In the case of extra limbs it may be pos-
sible to bring them up into the passages after the presenting hind
limbs have been removed. If this is not practicable, they may be de-
tached by cutting them through at the hip joint, as described under
" Breech presentation," page 195.

Another method of removing the hind limb is, after having
skinned it over the quarter, to cut through the pelvic bones from

204 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

before backward, in the median line below, by knife, saw, or long
embryotome (PL XX, fig. 1), and then disjoint the bones of the
spine (sacrum) and the hip bone (iliimi) on that side with embryo-
tome, knife, or saw, and then drag away the entire limb, along with
all the hip bones on that side. This has the advantage of securing
more room and thereby facilitating subsequent operations. Both
limbs may be removed in this way, but on the removal of the second
the operator is without any solid point to drag upon in bringing away
the remainder of the fetus.

Division across the middle of the hody. — In cases of extra size,
inonstrosity, or distortion of one end of the body it may be requisite
to cut the body in two and return the half from the passages into
womb, even after one-half has been born. The presenting members
are dragged upon forcibly by assistants to bring as much of the
body as possible outside. Then cut through the skin around the
body at some distance from the vulva, and with hand, knife, and spud
detach it from the trunk as far back into the passages as can be
reached. Next cut across the body at the point reached, beginning
at the lower part (breast, belly) and proceeding up toward the spine.
This greatly favors the separation of the backbone when reached, and
further allows of its being extended so that it can be divided higher
up. AVlien the backbone is reached, the knife is passed between the
two bones, the prominent ridges across their ends acting as guides,
and by dragging and twisting the one is easily detached from the
(.ther. With an anterior presentation the separation should, if possi-
ble, be made behind the last rib, while with a posterior presentation
as many of the ribs should be brought away as can be accomplished.
Having removed one half of the bocl}^, the remaining half is to be
pushed back into the womb, the feet sought and secured with nooses,
and the second half removed in one piece if possible ; and if not, then
after the removal of the extra limb or other cause of obstruction.

Removed of the contents of chest or ahdomen. — If the body of the
calf sticks fast in the passages by reason of the mere dryness of its
skin and of the passages, the obstacle may be removed by injecting
sweet oil past the fetus into the Avomb through a rubber or other
tube, and smearing the passages freely with lard. "Wlien the obstruc-
tion depends on excess of size of the chest or abdomen or thickening
of the body from distorted spine, much advantage may be derived
from the removal of the contents of these great cavities of the trunk.
We have already seen how the haunches may be narrowed by cutting
the bones apart in the median line below and causing their free edges
to overlap each other. The abdomen can be cut open by the em-
bryotomy knife or the long embryotome in the median line, or at
any point, and the contents pulled out with the hand, the knife being
used in any case when especial resistance is encountered. If the

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 205

abdomen is so firmly impacted that it can not be dealt within this
way, one hind limb and the hip bone on the same side may be re-
moved as described under "Amputation of the hind limbs," page 203.
This will allow" the introduction of the hand into the abdomen from
behind, so as to pull out the contents. By introducing an embryot-
omy knife in the palm of the hand and cutting through the muscle
of the diaphragm the interior of the chest can be reached in the
same way and the heart and lungs removed.

When, in dealing with an anterior presentation, it becomes neces-
sary to remove the contents of the chest, the usual course is to cut
through the connections of the ribs with the breastbone (the costal
cartilages) close to the breastbbne on each side, and from the abdo-
men forward to the neck. Then cut through the muscles connecting
the front of the breastbone w^ith the neck and its hinder end with the
belly, and pull out the entire breastbone. Having torn out the heart
and lungs with the hand, make the rib cartilages on the one side over-
lap those on the other, so as to lessen the thickness of the chest, and
proceed to extract the body. If it seems needful to empty the abdo-
men as well, it is easy to reach it by cutting through the diaphragm,
which separates it from the chest.

Delivery through the fank {Ccesarean section^ or laparotomy). —
This is sometimes demanded, when the distortion and narrowing of
the hip bones are such as to forbid the passage of the calf, or when
inflammation has practically closed the natural passages and the
progeny is more valuable and worthy of being saved than the dam ;
also in cases in which the cow has been fatally injured, or is ill beyond
possibility of recovery and yet carries a living calf. It is too often a
last resort after long and fruitless efforts to deliver by the natural
channels, and in such cases the saving of the calf is all that can be
expected, the exhausted cow^, already the subject of active inflamma-
tion and too often also of putrid poisoning, is virtually beyond hope.
The hope of saving the dam is greatest if she is in good health and
not fatigued, in cases, for example, in which the operation is resorted
to on account of broken hip bones or abnormally narrow passages.

The stock owner will not attempt such a serious operation as this.
Yet, if the mother has just died or is to be immediately sacrificed,
no one should hesitate to resort to it in order to save the calf. If
alive, it is important to have the cow perfectly still. Her left fore leg
being bent at the knee by one person, another may seize the left horn
and nose and turn the head to the right until the nose rests on the
spine just above the shoulder. The cow will sink down gently on her
left side without shock or struggle. One may now hold the head
firmly to the ground, while a second, carrying the end of the tail from
behind forward on the inside of the right thigh, pulls upon it so as to
keep the right hind limb well raised from the ground. If time presses

206 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

she may be operated on in this position, or if the cow is to be sacri-
ficed a blow on the head with an ax will produce quietude. Then
the prompt cutting into the abdomen and womb and the extraction of
the calf requires no skill. If, however, the cow is to be preserved, her
two forefeet and the lower hind one should be safely fastened to-
gether and the upper hind one drawn back. Two ounces chloral
hydrate, given by injection, should induce sleep in 20 minutes, and
the operation may proceed. In case the cow is to be preserved, wash
the right flank and apply a solution of 4 grains of corrosive sublimate
in a pint of water.

Then, with an ordinary scalpel or knife, dipped in the above-men-
tioned solution, make an incision from 2 inches below and in front
of the outer angle of the hip bone in a direction downward and
slightly forward to a distance of 12 inches. Cut through the muscles,
and more carefully through the transparent lining membrane of the
abdomen (peritoneum) , letting the point of the knife lie in the groove
between the first two fingers of the left hand as they are slid down
inside the membrane and with their back to the intestines. An as-
sistant, whose hands, like those of the operator, have been dipped in
the sublimate solution, may press his hands on the wound behind
the knife to prevent the protrusion of the intestines. The operator
now feels for and brings up to the wound the gravid womb, allowing
it to bulge well through the abdominal wound, so as to keep back the
bowels and prevent any escape of water into the abdomen. This is
seconded by two assistants, who press the lips of the wound against
the womb. Then an incision 12 inches long is made into the womb at
its most prominent point, deep enough to penetrate its walls, but
not so as to cut into the water bags. In cutting, carefully avoid
the cotyledons, which may be felt as hard masses inside. By pressure
the water bags may be made to bulge out as in natural parturition,
and this projecting portion may be torn or cut so as to let the liquid
flow down outside of the belly. The operator now plunges his hand
into the womb, seizes the fore or hind limbs, and quickly extracts the
calf and gives it to an attendant to convey to a safe place. The wojnb
may be drawn out, but not until all the liquid has flowed out, and the
fetal membranes must be separated from the natural cotyledons, one
by one, and the membranes removed. The womb is noAv emptied with
a sponge, which has been boiled or squeezed out of a sublimate solu-
tion, and if any liquid has fallen into the abdomen it may be removed
in the same way. A few stitches are now placed in the wound in the
womb, using carbolized catgut. They need not be very close to-
gether, as the w^ound will diminish greatly when the womb con-
tracts. Should the womb not contract at once it may have applied
against it a sponge squeezed out of a cold sublimate solution, or it
may be drawn out of the abdominal wound and exposed to the cold

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 207

air until it contracts. Its contraction is necessary to prevent bleed-
ing from its enormous network of veins. When contracted, the womb
is returned into the abdomen and the abdominal wound sewed up.
One set of stitches, to be placed at intervals of 2 inches, is passed
through the entire thickness of skin and muscles and tied around
two quills or little rollers resting on the skin. (PI. XXVII, fig. 7.)
These should be of silver, and may be cut at one end and pulled out
after the wound has healed. The superficial stitches are put in every
half inch and passed through the skin only. They, too, may be of sil-
ver, or pins may be inserted through the lips and a fine cord twisted
round their ends like a figure 8. (PI. XXVII, fig. 9.) The points
of the pins may be snipped off with pliers. The edges may be still
further held together by the application of Venice turpentine, melted
so as to become firmly adherent, and covered with a layer of sterilized
cotton wool. Then the whole should be supported by a bandage fixed
around the loins and abdomen.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.

UEscraPTioN of plates.

Plate XII. Fetal calf within its membranes (at mid term). The uteriTS is
opened on the left side. In the uterus the fetus is surrounded by
several membranes which are known as the amnion or inner layer, the
allantois or central layer, and the chorion or outer layer. The amnion
is nearest the fetus and forms a closed sac around it filled with a
fluid known as liquor amnii, in which the fetus floats. The allantoia
is composed of two layers, which form a closed sac in connection with
the urachus, or the tube which extends from the fetal bladder through
the umbilical cord. The one layer of the allantois is spread over the
outer surface of the amnion and the other over the inner surface of
chorion. The allantois also contains a fluid which is known as the
allantoid liquid. The chorion is the outer envelope or membrane of
the fetus, completely inclosing the fetus with its other membranes.
On the outer surface of this membrane are found the fetal placentulfe,
or cotyledons, which, through their attachment to the maternal cotyle-
dons, furnish the fetus with the means of sustaining life. The relation
of the fetal and maternal cotyledons to each other is illustrated on the
following plate.

Plate XIII. Pregnant uterus with cotyledons.

Fig. 1. Uterus of the cow during pregnancy, laid open to show the coty-
ledons (d) on the internal surface of uterus (c). The ovary (a) is
shown cut across, and the two halves are laid open to show the position
of the discharged ovum at a'.
Fig. 2 illustrates the relation of the fetal and maternal parts of a coty-
ledon. A portion of the uterus (A) is shown with the maternal coty-
ledon (BB) attached to it. The fetal portion (/)) consists of a mass
of very minute hairlike processes on the chorion (E), which fit into
corresponding depressions or pits of the maternal portion. Each por-
tion is abundantly supplied with blood vessels, so tliat a ready inter-
change of nutritive fluid may take place between mother and fetus.

Plate XIV. Vessels of umbilical cord.

Fig. 1. Fetal calf Avith a portion of the wall of the abdominal cavity of
the right side and the stomach and intestines removed to illustrate
the nature of the umbilical or navel cord. It consists of a tube (1-1')
into which pass the two umbilical arteries (3) carrying blood to the
placenta in the uterus or womb and the umbilical vein (4) bringing
the blood back and carrying it into the liver. The cord also con-
tains the urachus (2') which carries urine from the bladder (2)
through the cord. These vessels are all obliterated at birth. 5, liver ;
5', lobe of same, known as the lobus Spiegelii ; 5", gall bladder; 6,
right kidney; 6', left kidney; 6", ureters, or the tubes conducting
the urine from the kidneys to the bladder ; 7, rectum, where it has
ben severed in removing the intestines ; 8, uterus of the fetus, cut off at
the anterior extremity; 9, aorta; 10, posterior vena cava. (Fi'om
Fiirstenberg-Leisering, Anatomic tmd Physiologic des Rindes.)
208

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XII,

Fetal Calf within Its Membranes.

Diseases cf Cattle.

Plate XIII

Pregnant Uterus with Cotyledons.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XIV.

Vessels of Umbilical Cord.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XV.

Diseases of CattlE.

Plate XVi

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XVII

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XVII

Abnormal Position of Calf in Utero.
Surgical Instruments and Sutures.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XIX.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XX.

°-*"*tr'T**wr I ■Miiiairr-'-'^****'^^''"' ■ ■'■<i.M<>^--»»Mfc***^«***Jtefc»*>*iaM«.»4«rtirrn*afi»«-i

~:s:

3.

4.\

^^

JV

J

K^

\J

w

tfrVitTMtmibmtt»amai*Mtm»

Instruments Used in Difficult Labor,

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XXI.

.-s^w^.t^c,i^rr«rTyctvrrcgaassL

^"S^^^

Instruments Used in Difficult Labor.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 209

Plate XIV. Vessels of umbilical cord — Continued.

Fig. 2. Blood vessels passing through the umbilical cord in a human fetus.
(From Quain's Anatomy, vol. 2.) L, liver; K, kidney; /, intestines;
U C, umbilical cord ; Ua, umbilical arteries. The posterior aorta com-
ing from the heart passes backward and gives rise to the internal iliac
arteries, and of these the umbilical arteries are branches. Uv, um-
bilical vein; this joins the portal vein, passes onward to the liver,
breaks up into smaller vessels, which reunite in the hepatic vein-; this
empties into the posterior vena cava, which carries the blood back
to the heart.
Plate XV. Normal position of calf in utero. This is the most favorable position
of the calf or fetus in the womb at birth, and the position in which
it is most frequently found. This is known as the normal anterior
position. The back of the fetus is directly toward that of the mother,
the forelegs are extended back toward the vulva of the mother, and
the head rests between them. The birth of the calf in this position
usually takes place without artificial assistance.
Plate XVI. Abnormal positions of calf in utero. (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 5 from
Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics; fig. 4 after St. Cyr, from Hill's
Bovine Medicine and Surgery ; fig. 6 from D'Arboval, Dictionaire de
M4decine et de Chirurgie.)

Fig. 1. Anterior presentation ; one fore limb completely retained. The
retained limb must be reached if possible and brought forward joint by
joint and the fetus then extracted.

Fig. 2. Anterior presentation ; fore limbs bent at knee. The limbs must
be extended before delivery can be accomplished.

Fig. 3. Anterior presentation ; fore limb crossed over neck. The leg should
be grasped a little above the fetlock, raised, drawn to its proper side,
and extended in genital canal.

Fig. 4. Anterior presentation ; downward deviation of head. The head must
be brought into position seen in Plate XV before delivery can take
place.

Fig. 5. Anterior presentation; deviation of the head upward and back-
ward. Retropulsion is the first indication, and will often bring the
head into its normal position.

Fig. 6. Anterior presentation ; head presented with back down. The fetus
should be turned by pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the
hind so as to make a posterior presentation.
Plate XVII. Abnormal positions of calf in utero. (Figs. 2 and 3 from Flem-
ing; figs. 4, 5, and 6 from D'Arboval.)

Fig. 1. Anterior presentation, with hind feet engaged in pelvis. A very
serious malpresentation, in which it is generally impossible to save the
fetus if delivery is far advanced. The indications are to force back the
hind feet.

Fig. 2. Thigh and croup presentation, showing the fetus corded. The cord
has a ring or noose at one end. The two ends of the cord are passed
between the thighs, brought out at the flanks, and the plain end passed
through the noose at the top of the back and brought outside the vulva.
The fetus must be pushed back and an attempt made to bring the
limbs properly into the genital passage.

Fig. 3. Croup and hock presentation. The indications in this abnormal
presentation are the same as described for Fig. 2,

Fig. 4. Posterior presentation ; the fetus on its back. Turn the fetus so as
to make a normal anterior presentation.
33071°— 16 14

210 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Plate XVII. Abnormal positions of calf in utero — Continued.

Fig. 5. Sterno-abdominal presentation. Tlie fetus is on its side with limbs
crossing and presenting. The limbs least eligible for extraction should
be forced back into the uterus.

Fig. 6. Dorso-lunibar presentation ; the back presenting. The fetus must
be turned so that one or the other extremity can enter the passage.
Plate XVIII. Abnormal positions of the calf in utero. Surgical instruments
' and sutures.

Fig. 1. Twin pregnancy, showing the normal anterior and posterior presenta-
tions. (From Fleming.)

Fig. 2. Abdominal dropsy of the fetus ; normal presentation ; fore limbs
corded. (After Armatage.) The drawing illustrates the method of
puncturing the abdomen through the cliest with a long trocar and
cannula. The fluid is represented escaping from the cannula after the
withdrawal of the trocar.

Fig. 3. Tallich's short, bent, crotchet forceps. The forceps have bent and
toothed jaws, which are intended to take hold of the fetus where
neither cords nor hooks can be applied, as the ear, nose, or skin of
cheek.

Fig. 4. Clamp for ear, skin, etc. : 1-1, blades with hooks and corresponding
holes ; 2, ring to close the blades ; 3, stem with female screw for handle ;
4 handle, which may be either straight or jointed and flexible.
Plate XIX. Monstrosities. This plate illustrates various malformations and
diseases of the fetus which act as the cause of difficult parturition.

Figs. 1, 2, 3. Fetuses with portions of their bodies double. Fig. 1 (from
Fleming), double head, neck, and fore limbs. Fig. 2 (from Encyclop.
der Gesam. Thierheilkunde, 1886), double head, neck, fore limbs, and
body. Fig. 3 (from Fleming), double faced.

Fig. 4. Fetus with head very much enlarged. (From Fleming.) This
affection is known as hydrocephalus, or dropsy of the brain, and is due
to a more or less considerable quantity of fluid in the cranial cavity
of the fetus.

Fig. 5. Skull of the calf represented in Fig. 4. The roof of the skull is
absent. (From Fleming.)
Plate XX. Instruments used in difficult labor.

Fig. 1. Long embryotome with joint.

Fig. 2. Long sharp liook. This instrument is about 3 feet in length, includ-
ing the handle. Hooks of this kind, both blunt and sharp, are applied
directly to the fetus to assist in delivery.

Fig. 3. Giinther's long-handled embryotome. This instrument and that rep-
resented in Fig. 1 are of special value in cutting through muscular
tissue and in separating the limbs from the trunk when the fetus can
not be removed entire. These embryotomes are usually 30 inches long,
but may be made either longer or .shorter.

Fig. 4. Jointed cord-carrier, used in difficult parturition to carry a cord into
regions which can not be reached by the ai-m.

Fig. 5. Instrument used to rotate or turn the fetus, known as a rotator.

Fig. 6. Dilator of the neck of the womb, used when conception can not take
place owing to a contracted condition of the neck of the womb.

Fig. 7. Repeller. An instrument from 2 to 3 feet long, used to force the
fetus forward into the womb. This operation is generally necessary
when the presentation is abnormal and the fetus has advanced too far
into the narrow inlet to the uterus to be moved.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 211

Plate XX. Instruments used in difficult labor — Continued.

Fig. 8. Cartwright's bone chisel. Including the handle, this instruments is
about 32 inches in length ; the chisel portion is a little more than 2
inches long and 1 to 1* broad. Only the middle portion is sharp, the
projecting corners are blunt, and the sides rounded. This instrument
is used for slitting up the skin of a limb and as a bone chisel when it is
necessary to mutilate the fetus in order to effect delivery.
Plate XXI. Instruments used in difficult labor.

Fig. 1. Embryotome, an instrument used when it is necessary to reduce the
size of the fetus by cutting away certain parts before birth can be
etfected. This instrument may be long or short, straight or curved.

Fig. 2. Also an embryotome. The blade can be made to slide out of or into
the handle. The instrument can thus be introduced into or withdrawn
from the genital passage without risk of injury to the mother.

Fig. 3. Schaack's traction cord. Tliis is merely a cord with a running noose
at one end and a piece of wood at the other, to offer a better hold for
the hand.

Figs. 4ffi and 4&. Reuff's head collar for securing the head of the fetus.

Fig. 5. Curved cord-carrier, used in difficult parturition to carry a cord into
regions which can not be ref&ched by the arm.

Fig. 6. Blunt hook, used in difficult parturition.

Fig. 7. Short hook forceps, used in difficult parturition.

Fig. 8. Blunt finger hook.

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION.

By James Law. F. R. C. V. S.,
Formerly Professor Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University.

FLOODING (BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB).

Though not so common in the cow as in the human female, flooding
is sufficiently frequent to demand attention. It may depend on a too
rapid calving and a consequent failure of the womb to contract when
the calf has been removed. The pregnant womb is extraordinarily
rich in blood vessels, especially in large and tortuous veins, which
become compressed and almost obliterated under contraction, but
remain overfilled and often bleed into the cavity of the womb should
no contraction take place. Cox records cases in which the labor
pains had detached and expelled the fetal membranes, while the
calf, owing to large size or wrong presentation, was detained in the
womb, and the continued dilatation of the womb in the absence of
the fetal membranes led to a flow of blood which accumulated in
clots around the calf. Other causes are laceration of the cotyledons
of the womb, or from an antecedent inflammation of the placenta,
and the unnatural adhesion of the membranes to the womb, which
bleeds when the two are torn apart. Weakness of the womb from
overdistention, as in dropsy, twins, etc., is not without its influence.
Finally, eversion of the womb (casting the withers) is an occasional
cause of flooding. The trouble is only too evident when the blood
flows from the external passages in drops or in a fine stream. When
it is retained in the cavity of the womb, however, it may remain
unsuspected until it has rendered the animal almost bloodless. The
symptoms in such case are paleness of the eyes, nose, mouth, and of
the lips of the vulva, a weak, rapid pulse, violent and perhaps loud
beating of the heart (palpitations), sunken, staring eyes, coldness
of the skin, ears, horns, and limbs, perspiration, weakness in stand-
ing, staggering gait, and, finally, inability to rise, and death in con-
vulsions. If these symptoms are seen, the oiled hand should be in-
troduced into the womb, which will be found open and flaccid and
containing large blood clots.

Treatment. — Treatment consists in the removal of the fetal mem-
branes and blood clots from the womb (which will not contract while
they are present), the dashing of cold water on the loins, right flank,
and vulva, and if these measures fail, the injection of cold water into
the womb through a rubber tube furnished with a funnel. In obsti-

212

DISEASES FOLLOWING PABTTJEITION. 213

nate cases a good-sized sponge soaked in tincture of muriate of iron
should be introduced into the womb and firmly squeezed, so as to
bring the iron into contact with the bleeding surface. This is at once
an astringent and a coagulant for the blood, besides stimulating the
womb to contraction. In the absence of this agent astringents (solu-
tion of copperas, alum, tannic acid, or acetq,te of lead) may be
thrown into the womb, and one-half-dram doses of acetate of lead
may be given by the mouth, or 1 ounce powdered ergot of rye may be
given in gruel. When nothing else is at hand, an injection of oil of
turpentine will sometimes promptly check the bleeding.

EVERSION OF THE WOMB (CASTING THE WITHERS).

Like flooding, this is the result of failure of the womb to contract
after calving. If that organ contracts naturally, the afterbirth is
expelled, the internal cavity of the womb is nearly closed, and the
mouth of the organ becomes so narrow that the hand can not be
forced through, much less the whole mass of the matrix. When,
however, it fails to contract, the closed end of one of the horns may
fall into its open internal cavity, and under the compression of the
adjacent intestines, and the straining and contraction of the abdomi-
nal walls, it is forced farther and farther, until the whole organ is
turned outside in, slides back through the vagina, and hangs from
the vulva. The womb can be instantly distinguished from the pro-
truding vagina or bladder by the presence, over its whole surface, of
50 to 100 mushroomlike bodies (cotyledons), each 2 to 3 inches
in diameter, and attached by a narrow neck. (Pis. XII, XIII.)
When fully everted, it is further recognizable by a large, undivided
body hanging from the vulva, and two horns or divisions which
hang down toward the hocks. In the imperfect eversions the body
of the womb may be present with two depressions leading into the
two horns. In the cases of some standing the organ has become
inflamed and gorged with blood until it is as large as a bushel
basket, its surface has a dark-red, bloodlike hue, and tears and
bleeds on the slightest touch. Still later lacerations, raw sores, and
even gangrene are shown in the mass. At the moment of protrusion
the general health is not altered, but soon the inflammation and fever
with the violent and continued straining induce exhaustion, and the
cow lies down, making no attempt to rise.

Treatment. — Treatment varies somewhat, according to the degree
of the eversion. In partial eversion, with the womb protruding
only slightly from the vulva and the cow standing, let an assistant
pinch the back to prevent straining while the operator pushes his
closed fist into the center of the mass and carries it back through the
vagina, assisting in returning the surrounding parts by the other

214 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

hand. In more complete eversion, but with the womb as yet of its
natural bulk and consistency and the cow standing, straining being
checked by pinching the back, a sheet is held by two men so as to
sustain the everted womb and raise it to the level of the vulva. It
is now sponged clean with cold water, the cold being useful in driving
out the blood and reducing the bulk, and finally it may be sponged
over with laudanum or with a weak solution of carbolic acid (1 dram
to 1 quart water).

The closed fist may now^ be planted in the rounded end of the
largest horn and pushed on so as to turn it back within itself and
carry it on through the vagina, the other hand being used meanwhile
to assist in the inversion and in pushing the different masses in suc-
cession within the lips of the vulva. In case of failure, resort should
be had at once to a plan which I have successfully followed for many
years. Take a long linen or cotton bandage, 5 or 6 inches wide, and
wind it around the protruding womb as tightly as it can be drawn,
beginning at the free end and gradually covering the entire mass up
to the vulva. By this means the greater part of the blood Avill be
forced out of the organ and its bulk greatly reduced, so that its reduc-
tion is much facilitated. An additional advantage is found in the
protection given to the womb by its investing bandage while it is
being pushed forward into the vagina and abdomen. In manipulat-
ing the exposed womb there is always danger of laceration, but when
the organ is covered with a sheet it is next to impossible to tear it.
The subsequent manipulation is as in the other case, by pushing the
blind end forward within itself with the closed fist and carrying this
on through the vagina into the abdomen with the constant assistance
of the other hand. Often it will be found convenient to use the edge
of the left hand to push the outer part of the protruding mass inside
the lips of the vulva, while the right hand and arm are carrying the
central portions forward through the vagina. An intelligent assist-
ant, pushing with the palms of both hands on the outer portion of
the mass, will also afford material assistance. As the womb is turned
within itself the wrapping bandage wdll gradually loosen, but once
the great mass has entered the passages it is easy to compel the rest
to follow, and the compression by the bandage is no longer so im-
portant. When the womb is fully replaced the bandage is left in its
interior in a series of loose folds, and can be easily withdrawn. It
is well to move the hand from side to side to insure that the two
horns of the womb are fully extended and on about the same level
before withdrawing the arm and applying a truss.

When the womb has been long everted and is gorged with blood,
inflamed, and friable there is often the additional disadvantage that
the animal is unable or unwilling to rise. When lying down the
straining can not be controlled so effectually, and, even in the absence

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 215

of straining, the compression of the belly is so great as to prove a
serious obstacle to reduction. The straining may be checked by 2 or 3
ounces of laudanum or 2 ounces of chloral hydrate, or by inhalation
of chloroform to insensibility, and then by raising the hind parts on
straw bundles the gravitation of the abdominal organs forward may
be made to lessen the resistance. If not successful in this way, the
cow may be further turned on her back, and if return is still impos-
sible, the hind limbs may be tied together and drawn up to a beam
overhead by the aid of a pulley. In this position, in place of the
pressure backward of the bowels proving a hindrance, their gravi-
tation forward proves a most material help to reduction. In seek-
ing to return the womb the sponging with ice-cold water, raising
on. a sheet, and wrapping in a tight bandage should be resorted
to. Another method which is especially commendable in these in-
flamed conditions of the womb is to bring a piece of linen sheet, 30
by 36 inches, under the womb, with its anterior border close up to
the vulva, then turn the posterior border upward and forward over
the organ, and cross the two ends over this and ov^r each other above.
The ends of the sheet are steadily drawn, so as to tighten its hold on
the womb, which is thus held on the level of the vulva or above, and
cold water is constantly poured upon the mass. The reduction is
further sought by compression of the mass with the palms applied
outside the sheet. Fifteen or twenty minutes are usually sufficient to
cause the return of the womb, provided straining is prevented by
pinching the back, or otherwise.

In old and aggravated cases, with the womb torn, bruised, or even
gangrenous, the only resort is to amputate the entire mass. This is
done by tying a strong, waxed cord around the protruding mass close
to the vulva, winding the cord around pieces of wood, so as to draw
it as ^tightly as possible, cutting off the organ below this ligature,
tying a thread on any artery that may still bleed, and returning the
stump well into the vagina.

Retention of the returned womb is the next point, and is most
easily accomplished by a rope truss. Take two ropes, each about 18
feet long and an inch in thickness. Double each rope at its middle,
and lay the one above the other at the bend, so as to form an ovoid of
about 8 inches in its long diameter. Twist each end of the one rope
twice around the other, so that this ovoid will remain when they are
drawn tight. (Pis. XXII and XXIII.) Tie a strap or rope around
the back part of the neck and a surcingle around the body. Place
the rope truss on the animal so that the ovoid ring will surround the
vulva, the two ascending ropes on the right and left of the tail and
the two descending ones down inside the thighs on the right and left
of the udder. These descending ropes are carried forward on the
sides of the body and tied to the surcingle and to the neck collar.

216 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

The ascending ropes proceed forAvard on the middle of the back,
twisting over each other, and are tied to the surcingle and collar.
The upper and lower ropes are drawn so tightly that the rope ring
is made to press firmly all around the vulva Avithout risk of displace-
ment. This should be worn for several days, until the womb shall
have closed and all risk of further eA^ersion is at an end. Variations
of this device are found in the use of a narrow triangle of iron ap-
plied around the vulva and fixed by a similar arrangement of ropes,
surcingle, and collar (PL XXIII, fig. 3), a common crupper simi-
larly held around the vulva (PI. XXII, fig. 1), stitches through the
vulva, and wire inserted through the skin on the two hips (PI.
XXIII, fig. 2), so that they will cross behind the vulva; also pes-
saries of various kinds should be inserted into the vagina. Xone of
these devices, however, present any advantage over the simple and
comparatively painless rope truss described above. Such additional
precautions as keeping the cow in a stall higher behind than in front,
and seeing that the diet is slightly laxative and nonstimulating may
be named. If straining is persistent, ounce doses of laudanum may
be used twice a day, and the same may be injected into the vagina.
If the womb has been cut off, injections of a solution of a tea-
spoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water should be used daily, or
more frequently, until the discharge ceases.

EVERSION OF THE BLADDER.

A genuine eversion of the bladder is almost unknown in the cow,
owing to the extreme narrowness of its mouth. The protrusion of
the bladder, however, through a laceration sustained in calving, in
the floor of the vagina and its subsequent protrusion through the
vulva, is sometimes met with. In this case the protruding bladder
contains urine; this can never be the case in a real eversion, in
which the inner surface of the bladder and the openings of the
ureters are both exposed outside the vulva. The presence of a bag
containing water, which is connected with the floor of the vagina,
will serve to identify this condition. If the position of the bladder
in the vulva renders it impracticable to pass a catheter to draw off
the urine, pierce the organ with the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe,
or even a very small trocar and cannula, and draw off the Avater,
Avhen it Avill be found an easj' matter to return the bladder to its
place. The rent in the vagina can be stitched up, but as there would
be risk in any subsequent calving it is best to prepare the coav for the
butcher.

RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER.

This has been knoAvn to occur in protracted parturition Avhen the
fetus finally passed Avhile the bladder Avas full. The symptoms are

DISEASES FOLLOWING PAETUEITION. 217

those of complete suppression of urine and tenderness of the abdo-
men, with a steady accumulation of liquid, and fluctuation on han-
dling its lower part. If the hand is introduced into the vagina it
is felt to be hot and tender, and perhaps slightly swollen along its
floor. As a final test, if the lower, fluctuating part of the abdomen
is punctured with a hypodermic needle, a straw-colored liquid of a
urinous odor flows out. The condition has been considered as past
hope. The only chance for recovery would be in opening the abdo-
men, evacuating the liquid, and stitching up the rent in the bladder,
but at such a season, and with inflammation already started, there
would be little to hope for.

RUPTURE OF THE WOMB.

When the womb has been rendered friable by disease rupture may
occur in the course of the labor, but much more frequently it occurs
from violence sustained in attempting assistance in difficult parturi-
tion. It is also liable to occur during eversion of the organ through
efforts to replace it.

If it happens while the calf is still in the womb, it will usually
bleed freely and continuously until the fetus has been extracted, so
that the womb can contract on itself and expel its excess of blood.
Another danger is that in case of a large rent the calf may escape
into the cavity of the abdomen and parturition become impossible.
Still another danger is that of the introduction of septic germs and
the setting up of a fatal inflammation of the lining membrane of the
belly (peritoneum). Still another is the escape of the small intes-
tine through the rent and on through the vagina and vulva, so as to
protrude externally and receive perhaps fatal injuries. In case of
rupture before calving, that act should be completed as rapidly and
carefully as possible, the fetal membranes removed, and the contrac-
tion of the womb sought by dashing cold water on the loins, the right
flank, or the vulva. If the calf has escaped into the abdomen and can
not be brought through the natural channels, it may be permissible
to fix the animal and extract it through the side, as in the Caesarian
section. If the laceration has happened during eversion of the womb
it is usually less redoubtable, because the womb contracts more
readily under the stimulus of the cold air so recently applied. In
case the abdomen has been laid open it is well to stitch up th( rent,
but if not, it should be left to nature, and will often heal satisfac-
torily, the cow even breeding successfully in after years.

Rupture of the floor of the vagina has been already referred to as
allowing the protrusion of the bladder. Laceration of the roof of
this passage is also met with as the result of deviations of the hind
limbs and feet upward when the calf lies on its back. In some such
cases the opening passes clear into the rectum, or the foot may even

218 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

pass out through the anus, so that that opening and the vulva are
laid open into one.

Simple, superficial lacerations of the vaginal walls are not usually
serious, and heal readily unless septic inflammation sets in, in which
case the cow is liable to perish. They may be treated with soothing
and antiseptic injections, such as carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 1
quart.

The more serious injuries depend on the complications. Eupture
of the anterior part of the canal, close to the mouth of the womb, may
lead to the introduction of infecting germs into the cavity of the ab-
domen, or -protrusion of the bowel through the rent and externally,
either of which may prove fatal. If both these conditions are es-
caped the wound may heal spontaneously. Rupture into the bladder
may lead to nothing worse than a constant dribbling of the urine
from the vulva. The cow should be fattened if she survives. Eup-
ture into the rectum will entail a constant escape of feces through
the vulva, and, of course, the same condition exists when the anus
as well has been torn open. I have successfully sewed up an opening
of this kind in the mare, but in the case of the cow it is probably
better to prepare her for the butcher.

CLOTS OF BLOOD IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA.

During calving the vagina may be bruised so as to cause escape of
blood beneath the mucous membrance and its coagulation into large
bulging clots. The vulva may appear swollen, and on separating its
lips the mucous membrane of the vagina is seen to be raised into
irregular rounded swellings of a dark-blue or black color, and which
pit on pressure of the finger. If the accumulation of blood is not
extensive it may be reabsorbed, but if abundant it may lead to irri-
tation and dangerous inflammation, and should be incised with a
lancet and the clots cleared out. The wounds may then be sponged
twice a day with a lotion made with 1 dram sulphate of zinc, 1 dram
carbolic acid, and 1 quart water.

RETAINED AFTERBIRTH.

The cow, of all oui domestic animals, is especially subject to this
accident. This may be partly accounted for by the firm connections
established through the fifty to one hundred cotyledons (PI. XIII,
fig. 2) in which the fetal membranes dovetail with the follicles of the
womb. It is also most liable to occur after abortion, in which prepa-
ration has not been made by fatty degeneration for the severence of
these close connections. In the occurrence of inflamation, causing
the formation of nev.' tissue between the membranes and the womb,
we find the occasion of unnaturally firm adhesions which prevent the
spontaneous detachment of the membranes. Again, in low conditions

DISEASES FOLLOWIISTG PARTURITION. 219

of health and an imperfect power of contraction we find a potent
cause of retention, the general debility showing particularly in the
indisposition of the womb to contract, after calving, with sufficient
energy to expel the afterbirth. Hence we find the condition common
with insufficient or innutrious feed, and in years or localities in
which the fodder has suffered from weather. Ergoted, smutty, or
musty fodder (PL V), by causing abortion, is a frequent cause of
retention. Old cows are more subject than young ones, probably
because of diminishing vigor. A temporary retention is sometimes
owing to a too rapid closure of the neck of the womb after calving,
causing strangulation and imprisonment of the membranes. Con-
ditions favoring this are the drinking of cold (iced) water, the eat-
ing of cold feed (frosted roots), and (through sympathy between
udder and womb) a too prompt sucking by the calf or milking by
the attendant.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of retention of the afterbirth are usu-
ally only too evident, as the membranes hang from the vulva and rot
away gradually, causing the most offensive odor throughout the
building. When retained within the womb by closure of its mouth
and similarly in cases in which the protruded part has rotted off, the
decomposition continues and the fetid products escaping by the vulva
appear in offensively smelling pools on the floor and mat together the
hairs near the root of the tail. The septic materials retained in the
womb cause inflammation of its lining membrane, and this, together
with the absorption into the blood of the products of putrefaction,
leads to ill health, emaciation, and drying up of the milk.

Treatment. — Treatment varies according to the conditions. TVTien
the cow is in low condition, or when retention is connected with
drinking iced water or eating frozen feed, hot drinks and hot mashes
of wheat bran or other aliment may be sufficient. If along with
the above conditions, the bowels are somewhat confined, an ounce
of ground ginger, or half an ounce of black pepper, given with
a quart of sweet oil, or \\ pounds of Glauber's salt in at least 4
quarts of warm water, will often prove effectual. A bottle or
two of flaxseed tea, made by prolonged boiling, should also be
given at frequent intervals. Other stimulants, like rue, savin, laurel,
and carminatives like anise, cumin, and coriander, are preferred by
some, but with very questionable reason, the more so that the first
three are not without danger. Ergot of rye, 1 ounce, or its extract,
1 dram, may be resorted to to induce contraction of the womb.j The
mechanical extraction of the membranes is, however, often called
for; of this there are several methods. The simplest is to hang a
weight of 1 or 2 pounds to the hanging portion, and allow this, by
its constant dragging and by its jerking effect when the cow moves,
to pull the membranes from their attachments and to stimulate the

220 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

womb to expulsive contractions. In the neglected cases, however,
when the dependent mass is already badly decomposed, it is liable
to tear across under the added weight, leaving a portion of the
offensive material imprisoned in the womb. Again, this uncontrolled
dragging upon a relaxed womb will (in exceptional cases only, it is
true) cause it to become everted and to protrude in this condition
from the vulva.

A second resort is to seize the dependent part of the afterbirth
between two sticks, and roll it up on them until they lie against the
vulva ; then, by careful traction, accompanied with slight jerking
movements from side to side, the womb is stimulated to expulsive
contractions and the afterbirth is wound up more and more on the
sticks until finally its last connections with the womb are severed and
the remainder is expelled suddenly en masse. It is quite evident that
neglected cases with putrid membranes are poor subjects for this
method, as the afterbirth is liable to tear across, leaving a mass in
the womb. During the progress of the work any indication of tear-
ing is the signal to stop and proceed with greater caution or alto-
gether abandon the attempt in this way.

The third method (that with the skilled hand) is the most
promptly and certainly successful. For this the operator had better
dress as for a parturition case. Again, the operation should be under-
taken within twenty-four hours after calving, since later the mouth
of the womb may be so closed that it becomes difficult to introduce
the hand. The operator should smear his arms with carbolized lard
or vaseline to protect them against infection, and particularly in
delayed cases with putrid membranes. An assistant holds the tail to
one side, the operator seizes the hanging afterbirth with the left
hand, while he introduces the other along the right side of the vagina
and womb, letting the membranes slide through his palm until he
reaches the first cotyledon to which they remain adherent. In case
no such connection is within reach, with the left hand gentle traction
is made on the membranes until the deeper parts of the womb are
brought within reach and the attachments to the cotyledons can be
reached. Then the soft projection of the membrane, which is attached
to the firm fungus-shaped cotyledon on the inner surface of the womb,
is seized by the little finger, and the other fingers and thumb are
closed on it so as to tear it out from its connections. To explain this,
it is necessary only to say that the projection from the membrane is
covered by soft, conical processes, which are received into cavities
of a corresponding size on the summit of the firm, mushroom-shaped
cotyledon growing from the inner surface of the womb. To draw
upon the former, therefore, is to extract its soft, villous processes
from within the follicles or cavities of the other. (PI. XIII, fig. 2.)

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 221

If at times it is difficult to start this extraction it may be necessary
to get the finger nail inserted between the two, and once started the
finger may be pushed on, lifting all the villi, in turn, out of their
cavities. This process of separating the cotyledons must be carefully
conducted, one after another, until the last has been detached and the
afterbirth comes freely out of the passages. I have never found any
evil result from the removal of the whole mass at one operation, but
Shaack mentions the eversion of the womb as the possible result of
the necessary traction, and in cases in which those in the most distant
part of the horn of the womb can not be easily reached, he advises
to attach a cord to the membranes inside the vulva, letting it hang
out behind, and to cut off the membranes below the cord. Then, after
two or three days' delay, he extracts the remainder, now softened and
easily detached. If carefully conducted, so as not to tear the cotyle-
dons of the womb, the operation is eminently successful; the cow
suffers little, and the straining roused by the manipulations soon sub-
sides. Keeping in a quiet, dark place, or driving a short distance at
a walking pace, will serve to quiet these. When the membranes
have been withdrawn, the hand, half closed, may be used to draw
out of the womb the offensive liquid that has collected. If the case
is a neglected one, and the discharge is very offensive, the womb must
be injected as for leucorrhea.

INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA (VAGINITIS).

This may occur independently of inflammation of the womb, and
usually as the result of bruises, lacerations, or other injuries sustained
during calving. It will be shown by swelling of the lips of the vulva,
which, together with their lining membrane, become of a dark-red or
leaden hue, and the mucous discharge increases and becomes whitish
or purulent, and it may be fetid. Slight cases recover spontaneously,
or under warm fomentations or mild astringent injections (a tea-
spoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water) , but severe cases may go
on to the formation of large sores (ulcers) , or considerable portions
of the mucous membrane may die and slough off. Baumeister re-
cords two cases of diphtheritic vaginitis, the second case in a cow four
weeks calved, contracted from the first in a newly calved cow. Both
proved fatal, with formation of false membranes as far as the interior
of the womb. In all severe cases the antiseptic injections must be
applied most assiduously. The carbolic acid may be increased to
one-half ounce to a quart, or chlorin water, or peroxid of hydrogen
solution may be injected at least three times a day. Hyposulphite of
soda, 1 ounce to a quart of water, is an excellent application, and the
same amount may be given by the mouth.

222 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

LEUCORRHEA (MUCOPURULENT DISCHARGE FROM THE

PASSAGES).

This is from a continued or chronic inflammation of the womb, or
the vagina, or both. It usually results from injuries sustained in
calving or from irritation by putrid matters in connection with re-
tained afterbirth, or from the use of some object in the vagina
(pessary) to prevent eversion of the womb. Exposure to cold or
other cause of disturbance of the health may affect an organ so sus-
ceptible as this at the time of parturition so as to cause inflammation.

Symptoms. — The main symptom is the glairy, white discharge
flowing constantly or intermittently (when the cow lies down),
soiling the tail and matting its hairs and those of the vulva. When
the lips of the vulva are drawn apart the mucous membrane is seen
to be red, with minute elevations, or pale and smooth. The health
may not suffer at first, but if the discharge continues and is putrid
the health fails, the milk shrinks, and flesh is lost. If the womb is
involved the hand introduced into the vagina may detect the mouth
of the womb slightly open and the liquid collected within its cavity.
Examination with the oiled hand in the rectum may detect the out-
line of the womb beneath, somewhat enlarged, and fluctuating under
the touch from contained fluid. In some cases heat is more frequent
or intense than natural, but the animal rarely conceives when served,
and, if she does, is liable to abort.

TreatTTient. — Treatment with the injections advised for vaginitis is
successful in mild or recent cases. In obstinate ones stronger solu-
tions may be used after the womb has been washed out by a stream
of tepid water until it comes clear. A rubber tube is inserted into
the womb, a funnel placed in its raised end, and the water, and after-
wards the solution, poured slowly through it. If the neck of the
womb is so close that the liquid can not escape, a second tube may
be inserted to drain it off. As injections may be used chlorid of
zinc, one-half dram to the quart of water, or sulphate of iron, 1 dram
to the quart. Three drams of sulphate of iron and one-half ounce
groimd ginger may also be given in the feed daily.

INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB (METRITIS, INFLAMMATION OF
WOMB AND ABDOMEN, OR METROPERITONITIS).

Inflammation of the womb may be slight or violent, simple or asso-
ciated with putrefaction of its liquid contents and general poisoning,
or it may extend so that the inflammation affects the lining membrane
of the whole abdominal cavity. In the last two cases the malady is a
very grave one.

Causes. — The causes are largely the same as those causing inflam-
mation of the vagina. Greater importance must, however, be at-
tached to exposure to cold and wet and to septic infection.

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 223

Symptoms. — The symptoms appear two or three days after calving,
when the cow may be seen to shiver, or the hair stands erect, espe-
cially along the spine, and the horns, ears, and limbs are cold. The
temperature in the rectum is elevated by one or two degrees, the pulse
is small, hard, and rapid (70 to 100), appetite is lost, rumination
ceases, and the milk shrinks in quantity or is entirely arrested, and
the breathing is hurried. The hind limbs may shift uneasily, the tail
be twisted, the head and eyes turn to the right flank, and the teeth
are ground. With the flush of heat to the horns and other extremi-
ties, there is redness of the eyes, nose, and mouth, and usually a dark
redness about the vulva. Pressure on the right flank gives manifest
pain, causing moaning or grunting, and the hind limbs are moved
stiffly, extremely so if the general lining of the abdomen is involved.
In severe cases the cow lies down and can not be made to rise. There
is usually marked thirst, the bowels are costive, and dung is passed
with pain and effort. The hand inserted into the vagina perceives
the increased heat, and when the neck of the womb is touched the
cow winces. Examination through the rectum detects enlargement
and tenderness of the womb. The discharge from the vulva is at
first watery, but becomes thick, yellow, and finally red or brown, with
a heavy or fetid odor. Some cases recover speedily and may be al-
most well in two days ; a large proportion perish within two days of
the attack, and some merge into the chronic form, terminating in
leucorrhea. In the worst cases there is local septic infection and
ulceration, or even gangrene of the parts, or there is general septi-
cemia, or the inflammation involving the A^eins of the womb causes
coagulation of the blood contained in them, and the washing out of
the clots to the right heart and lung leads to the blocking of the ves-
sels in the latter and complicating pneumonia. Inflammation of the
womb and passages after calving are always liable to these complica-
tions, and consequently to a fatal issue. Franck records three in-
stances of rapidly fatal metritis in cows, all of which had been
poisoned from an adjacent cow with retained and putrid afterbirth.
Others have had similar cases.

Treatment. — Treatment in the slight cases of simple inflammation
does not differ much from that adopted for vaginitis, only care must
be taken that the astringent and antiseptic injections are made to
penetrate into the womb. After having washed out the womb a solu-
tion of chlorid of lime or permanganate of potassium (one-half ounce
to 1 quart of water) , with an ounce each of glycerin and laudanum to
render it more soothing, will often answer every purpose. It is
usually desirable to open the bowels with 1^ pounds of Glauber's salt
and 1 ounce of ginger in 4 quarts of warm water, and to apply
fomentation of warm water or even mustard poultices or turpentine
to the right flank.

224 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

In the violent attacks with high temperature and much prostration,
besides the salts agents must be given to lower the temperature and
counteract septic poisoning. Salicylate of soda one-half ounce, or
quinia 2 drams every four hours will help in both ways, or ounce
doses of hyposulphite of soda or dram doses of carbolic acid may
be given as often until six doses haA^e been taken. Tincture of
aconite has often been used in 20-drop doses every six hours. If
the temperature rises to 106° or 107° F., it must be met by the
direct application of cold or iced water to the surface. The animal
may be covered with wet sheets and cold water poured on them
frequently until the temperature in the rectum is lowered to 102° F.
In summer the cow may be allowed to dry spontaneously, while
in winter it should be rubbed dry and blanketed. Even in the
absence of high temperature much good may be obtained from the
soothing influence of a wet sheet covering the loins and flanks and
well covered at all points by a dry one. This may be followed next
day by a free application of mustard and oil of turpentine. When
the animal shows extreme prostration, alcohol (1 pint) or carbonate
of ammonia (1 ounce) may be given to tide over the danger, but
such cases usually perish.

In this disease, even more than in difficult and protracted parturi-
tion or retained placenta, the attendants must carefully guard against
the infection of their hands and arms from the diseased parts. The
hand and arm before entering the passages should always be well
smeared with lard impregnated with carbolic acid.

MILK FEVER (PARTURITION FEVER, PARTURIENT APOPLEXY, OR
PARTURIENT COLLAPSE).

This disease is not only peculiar to the cow, but it may be said to
be virtually confined to the improved and plethoric cow. It further
occurs only at or near the time of calving. Indeed, these two factors,
calving and plethora, may be set apart as preeminently the causes of
this disease. It is the disease of cows that have been improved in
the direction of early maturity, power of rapid fattening, or a heavy
yield of milk, and hence it is characteristic of those having great
appetites and extraordinary power of digestion. The heavy milking
breeds are especially its victims, as in them the demand for the daily
jdeld of 50 to 100 pounds of milk means even more than a daily in-
crease of 2 to 3 pounds of body weight, mainly fat. The victims are
not always fat when attacked, but they are cows having enormous
powers of digestion, and which have been fed heavily at the time.
Hence the stall-fed, city-dairy cow, and the farm cow on a rich clover
pasture in June or July are especially subject. The condition of the
blood globules in the suffering coav attests the extreme riclmess and
density of (he blood, yet this peculiarity appears to have entirely

DISEASES FOLLOWING PAETUEITION. 225

escaped the notice of veterinary writers. I have never examined the
blood of a victim of this disease without finding the red-blood
globules reduced to little more than one-half their usual size. Now,
these globules expand or contract according to the density of the
liquid in which they float. If we dilute the blood with water they
will expand until they burst, whereas if solids, such as salt or albu-
min, are added they shrink to a large extent. Their small size, there-
fore, in parturition fever indicates the extreme richness of the blood,
or, in other words, plethora.

Confinement in the stall is an accessory cause, partly because sta-
bled cattle are highly fed, partly because the air is hotter and fouler,
and partly because there is no expenditure by exercise of the rich
products of digestion.

High temperature is conducive to the malady, though the extreme
colds of winter are no protection against it. Heat, however, con-
duces to fever, and fever means lessened secretion, which means a
plethoric state of the circulation. The heats of summer are, how-
ever, often only a coincidence of the real cause, the mature rich
pastures, and especially the clover ones, being the greater.

Electrical disturbances have an influence of a similar kind, dis-
turbing the functions of the body and favoring sudden variations in
the circulation. A succession of cases of the malady often accom-
pany or precede a change of weather from dry to wet, from a low
to a high barometric pressure.

Costiveness, which is the usual concomitant of fever, may in a case
■of this kind become an accessory cause, the retention in the blood of
what should have passed off by the bowels tending to increase the
fullness of the blood vessels and the density of the blood.

Mature age is a very strong accessory cause. The disease never
occurs with the first parturition, and rarely with the second. It
appears with the third, fourth, fifth, or sixth — after the growth of
the cow has ceased and when all her powers are devoted to the pro-
duction of milk.

Calving is an essential condition, as the disturbance of the circula-
tion consequent on the contraction of the womb and the expulsion
into the general circulation of the enormous mass of blood hitherto
circulating in the walls of the womb fills to repletion the vessels of
the rest of the body and very greatly intensifies the already existing
plethora. If this is not speedily counterbalanced by a free secretion
from the udder, kidneys, bowels, and other excretory organs, the
most dire results may ensue. Calving may thus be held to be an
exciting cause, and yet the labor and fatigue of the act are not
active factors. It is after the easy calving, when there has been
little expenditure of muscular or nervous energy and no loss of
blood, that the malady is seen. Difficult parturitions may be fol-
33071°— 16 15

226 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

lowed by metritis, but they are rarely connected with parturition
fever.

All these factors coincide in intensifying the one condition of
plethora and point to that as a most essential cause of the affection.
It is needless to enter here into the much-debated question as to the
mode in which the plethora brings about the characteristic symptoms
and results. As the results show disorder or suspension of the
nervous functions mainly, it may suffice to say that this condition of
the blood and blood vessels 'is incompatible with the normal func-
tional activity of the nerve centers. How much is due to congestion
of the brain and how much to bloodlessness may well be debated,
yet in a closed box like the cranium, in which the absolute contents
can not be appreciably increased or diminished, it is evident that,
apart from dropsical effusion or inflammatory exudation, there can
be only a given amount of blood; therefore, if one portion of the
brain is congested, another must be proportionately bloodless; and
as congestion of the eyes and head generally and great heat of the
head are most prominent features of the disease, congestion of the
brain must be accepted. This, of course, implies a lack of blood in
certain other parts or blood vessels.

The latest developments of treatment indicate very clearly that the
main cause is the production of poisonous, metabolic products
(leucomains and toxins) by secreting cells of the follicles of the
udder, acting on the susceptible nerve centers of the plethoric,
calving cow\ Less fatal examples of udder poisons are found in the
first milk (colostrum), which is distinctly irritant and purgative,
and in the toxic qualities of the first milk drawn from an animal
which has been subjected to violent overexertion or excitement.
Still more conclusive as to the production of such poisons is the
fact that the full distention of the milk ducts and follicles, and the
consequent driving of the blood out of the udder and arrest of
the formation of depraved products, determines a speedy and com-
plete recovery from the disease. This does not exclude the other
causes above named, nor the influence of a reflex nervous derange-
ment proceeding from the udder to the brain.

SymptoTris. — It may be said that there are two extreme types of
this disease, with intervening grades. In both forms there is the
characteristic plethora and more or less sudden loss of voluntary
movement and sensation, indicating a sudden collapse of nervous
powder ; in one, however, there is such prominent evidence of conges-
tion of head and brain that it may be called the congestive form
par excellence, without thereby intimating that the torpid form is
independent of congestion.

In the congestive form there is sudden dullness, languor, hanging
back in the stall, or drooping the head, uneasy movements of the hind

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 227

limbs or tail ; if the cow is moved, she steps unsteadily, or even stag-
gers ; she no longer notices her calf or her feed ; the eyes appear red
and their pupils dilated; the weakness increases and the cow lies
down or falls and after that is unable to rise. At this time the
l^ulse is usually full, bounding, and the temperature raised, though
not invariably so, the head, horns, and ears being especially hot and
the veins of the head full, while the visible mucous membranes of
nose and eyes are deeply congested.

The cow may lie on her breastbone with her feet beneath the body
and her head turned sleepily round, with the nose resting on the right
flank; or, if worse, she may be stretched full on her side, with even
the head extended, though at times it is suddenly raised and again
dashed back on the ground. At such times the legs, fore and hind,
struggle convulsively, e\'idently through unconscious nervous spasm.
By this time the unconsciousness is usually complete; the eyes are
glazed, their pupils widely dilated, and their lids are not moved when
the ball of the eye is touched with the finger. Pricking the skin with
a pin also fails to bring any wincing or other response. The pulse,
at first from 50 to 70 a minute, becomes weaker and more accelerated
as the disease advances. The breathing is quickened, becoming
more and more so with the violence of the symptoms, and at first
associated with moaning (in exceptional cases, bellowing), it may,
before death, become slow, deep, sighing, or rattling (stertorous).
The temperature, at first usually raised, tends to become lower as
stupor and utter insensibility and coma supervene. The bowels,
which may have moved at the onset of the attack, become torpid or
completely paralyzed, and, unless in case of improvement, they are
not likely to operate again. Yet this is the result of paralysis and
not of induration of the feces, as often shown by the semiliquid,
pultaceous condition of the contents after death. The bladder, too,
is paralyzed and fails to expel its contents. A free action of either
bladder or bowels, or of both, is always a favorable symptom. The
urine contains sugar, in quantity proportionate to the severity of
the attack.

In nearly all cases the torpor of the digestive organs results in gas-
tric disorder; the j)aunch becomes the seat of fermentation, produc-
ing gas, which causes it to bloat like a drum. There are frequent
eructations of gas and liquid and solid feed, which, reaching the par-
alyzed throat, pass in part into the windpipe and cause inflammations
of the air passages and lungs.

In the torpid form of the disease there is much less indication of
fever or violence. There may be no special heat about the horns,
ears, or forehead, nor any marked redness or congestion of the eyes
or nose, nor engorgement of the veins of the head. The attack
comes on more slowly, with apparent weakness of the hind limbs,

228 DISEASES OF CATTLE,

dullness, drowsiness, suspension of rumination and appetite, and a
general indifference to surrounding objects. Soon the cow lies down,
or falls and is unable to rise, but for one or two days she may rest on
the breastbone and hold the head in the flank without showing any
disorderly movements. Meanwhile there is not only loss of muscular
power and inability to stand, but also considerable dullness of sensa-
tion, pricking the skin producing no quick response, and even touch-
ing the edge of the eyelids causing no very prompt winking. Unless
she gets relief, however, the case develops all the advanced symptoms
of the more violent form, and the animal perishes.

In advanced and fatal cases of either form the insensibility becomes
complete; no irritation of skin or eye meets any response; the eye
becomes more dull and glassy ; the head rests on the ground or other
object ; unless prevented the cow lies stretched fully on her side ; the
pulse is small, rapid, and finally imperceptible ; the breathing is slow,
deep, stertorous,- and the expirations accompanied with puffing is slow,
the cheeks, and death comes quietly or with accompanying struggles.

Prevention. — For such fatal disease prevention is of far more con-
sequence than treatment. Among the most efficient preventives
may be named a spare diet (amounting to actual starvation in very
plethoric, heavy-milking cows) for a week before calving and at least
four days after. A free access to salt and water is most important,
as the salt favors drinking and the water serves to dilute the rich
and dense blood. Iced water, however, is undesirable, as a chill may
favor the onset of fever. A dose of Epsom salt (1 to 2 pounds)
should be given 12 to 24 hours before calving is due, so that it may
operate at or just before that act. In case calving has occurred unex-
pectedly in the heavy milker, no time should be lost in giving the
purgative thereafter. A most important precaution in the fleshy,
plethoric cow, or in one that has been attacked at a previous calving,
is to avoid drawing any milk from the bag for 12 or 24 hours after
calving. Breeders on the island of Jersey have found that this
alone has almost abolished the mortality from milk fever. If Epsom
salt is not at hand, saltpeter (1 ounce) should be used for several
days. Daily exercise is also of importance, and, excepting in mid-
summer, when the heat of the sun may be injurious, the value of
open air is unquestionable. Even in summer an open shed or shady
grove is incomparably better than a close, stuffy stall. A rich pas-
ture (clover especially), in May, June, or July, when at its best, is
to be carefully avoided. It is better to keep the cow indoors on dry
straw with plenty of salt and water than to have access to such
pastures.

Treatment. — Treatment of milk fever has been completely revolu-
tionized, with the result that a former mortality of 50 to 70 per cent
has been practically abolished. Formerly the most vigorous treat-

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 229

ment was practiced by bleeding, purging, the increase of peristalsis
by eserin or pilocarpin, enemas, cold in the head, coiinterirritants,
aconite, tartar emetic, sponging, wet-sheet packing, etc. The gross
mortality, however, was not materially reduced, and nearly all that
were attacked within the first two days after calving perished.

The first step in the modern treatment was made in 1897, when
J. Schmidt published his successful treatment by the injection of the
teats and milk ducts with a solution of iodid of potassium (1^ drams
to 1 quart of water). This reduced the mortality to 17 per cent.
Others followed this lead by the injection of other antiseptics (lysol,
creolin, creosol, chinosol, common salt, etherized air, oxygen).
These succeeded as well as the iodid solution. With the injection
of gases, however, a fuller distention of the udder was usually
secured, and virtually every case recovered. This suggested the full
distention of the udder with common atmospheric air filtered and
sterilized, and this with the most perfect success. With sterile air
Schmidt-Kolding claimed 96.7 per cent recoveries in 914 cases.

In America the full distention of the udder, whether with oxygen
or filtered air, has proved invariably successful in all kinds of cases,
including the violent ones that set in within a few hours after calving.
In 1 or 2 hours after the injection the cow has got up, had free
passages from the bowels and bladder, bright expression of counte-
nance, and some return of appetite. In my cases wdiich had made no
response for 8 hours to the iodid injection, the injection of the
udder to full repletion with the gas (oxygen or air) has had im-
mediately beneficial results. A similar full distention of the bag with
a common-salt solution (0.5 to 100), or even with well-boiled water,
is equally effective, but in these cases the weight of the liquid causes
dragging upon the udder and a measure of discomfort which is
escaped under the treatment with gas.

The value of each method depends on the fullness of dis-
tention of the udder and the arrest in larger part of the circulation
and chemical changes in its tissues. This distention acts like magic,
and seems hardly to admit of failure in securing a successful out-
come.

It can not, however, be recommended as absolutely devoid of
dangers and serious complications. To get the best results it should
be applied only by one who has been trained in the careful antiseptic
methods of the bacteriological laboratory. Some readers will recall
the case of the injection of the udders of show cows at Toronto to
impose upon the judges. The cows treated in this way had the
udders infected and ruined, and several lost their lives. There is no
better culture medium for septic and other germs than the first
milk (colostrum) charged with albumin and retained in the warm
udder. Already in the hands of veterinarians even the Schmidt

230 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

treatment has produced a small proj)ortion of cases of infective
mammitis. How many more such cases will develop if this treat-
ment becomes a popular domestic resort, applied by the dairyman
himself in all sorts of surroundings arid with little or no antiseptic
precautions? Even then, however, the losses will by no means
approach the past mortality of 50 to 70 per cent, so that the economy
will be immeasurable under even the worst conditions. A fair test
and judgment of this treatment, however, can be obtained only when
the administrator is trustworthy and painstaking, well acquainted
with bateriological antisepsis and with the general and special path-
ology of the bovine animal.

The necessary precautions may be summarized as follows:

( 1 ) Provide an elastic rubber ball and tubes furnished with valves
to direct the current of air, as in a common Davidson syringe.

(2) Fill the delivery tube for a short distance with cotton steril-
ized by prolonged heating in a water bath.

(3) In the free end of the delivery tube fit a milking tube to be
inserted into the teat.

(4) Sterilize the entire apparatus by boiling for 30 minutes,
and, without touching the milking tube, wrap it in a towel that has
been sterilized in a water bath or in live steam and dried.

(5) Avoid drawing any milk from the teats; wash them and the
udder thoroughly with warm soapsuds; rinse off with well-boiled
and cooled water, and apply to the teats, and especially to their tips,
a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid or lysol, taking care that the
teats are not allowed to touch any other body from the time they are
cleansed until the teat tube is inserted. It is well to rest the cleansed
and disinfected udder on a sterilized pad of cotton or a boiled towel.

(6) The injecting apparatus is unwrapped ; the teat tube, seized by
its attached end and kept from contact with any other body, is in-
serted into the teat, while an assistant working the rubber pump fills
the quarter as full as it will hold. The tube is now^ withdrawn and a
broad tape is tied around the free end of the teat to j)revent escape of
the air.

(7) The teat tube, wdiich has been carefully preserved from pos-
sible contact with other bodies, is dipped in the carbolic acid solution
and inserted in a second teat, and the second quarter is inflated, and
so with the third and fourth.

(8) The recumbent cow is kept resting on her breastbone, with the
head elevated, even if it should be necessary to pack around her with
straw bundles or to suspend the head by a halter. When lying on her
side she is liable to develop fatal bloating and to have belching of gas
and liquids, which, passing down the windpipe, cause fatal broncho-
pneumonia.

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 231

(9) If in 2 hours the cow is not on her feet, if there is no brighter
or more intelligent expression, if she has passed no manure or urine,
and if the air has become absorbed, leaving the udder less tense, the
injection of the bag may be repeated, under the same scrupulous and
rigid precautions as at first. In all cases, but especially in severe
ones, it is "well to keep watch of the patient, and to repeat the dis-
tention on the first indication of relapse. Should there not be a
free discharge of feces and urine after rising, indicating a natural
resumption of the nervous functions, the case should be all the more
carefully watched, so that the treatment may be repeated if necessary.

Accessory treatment may still be used, but is rarely necessary. A
dose of purgative medicine (1| pounds of Epsom salt) in warm water
may be given in the early stages, while as yet there is no danger
of its passing into the lungs through paralysis of the throat. Eserin
or pilocarpin (1^ grains) may be given under the skin to stimulate
the movements of the bowels. Sponging the skin, and especially the
udder, with cool water, may be resorted to in hot weather.

Bloating may demand puncture of the paunch, in the left flank,
with a cannula and trocar, the evacuation of the gas, and the intro-
duction through the tube of a tablespoonful of strong liquid ammonia
in a quart of cold water or other antiferment.

The economic value of the new treatment of milk fever is enor-
mous. The United States has nearly 22,000,000 milch cows. If we
could raise their quality by preserving and breeding from the largest
producers of both milk and butter fat, in place of losing the best by
milk fever, as in the past, and if we could thus obtain an average
increase of 2 quarts a day, the proceeds at 3 cents a quart would
amount to $130,000,000 a year.

PALSY AFTER CALVING (DROPPING AFTER CALVING).

This consists in a more or less complete loss of control of the hind
limbs occurring after calving, and caused by low condition, weak-
ness, and exposure to cold or to injurious compression of the nerves
of the hind limbs by a large calf passing through the pelvis. Its
symptoms do not differ from those of palsy of the hind limbs, occur-
ring at other times, and it may be treated in the same way, except so
far as bruises of the vagina may demand special smoothing treat-
ment.

CONGESTION OF THE UDDER (GARGET).

In heavy milkers, before and just after calving, it is the rule that
the mammary gland is enlarged, hot, tense, and tender, and that a
slight exudation or pasty swelling extends forward from the gland
on the lower surface of the abdomen. This physiological congestion
is looked upon as a matter of course, and disappears in two or three
days when the secretion of milk has been fully established. This

232 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

breaking up of the bag may be greatly hastened by the sucking of a
hungry calf and the Imeading it gives the udder with its nose, by
stripping the glands clean thrice daily, and by active rubbing at each
milking with the palm of the hand, with or without lard or, better,
with camphorated ointment.

The congestion may be at times aggravated by standing in a draft
of cold air or by neglect to milk for an entire day or more (over-
stocking, hefting) with the view of making a great show of udder
for purposes of sale. In such cases the surface of the bag pits on
pressure, and the milk has a reddish tinge or even streaks of blood,
or it is partially or fully clotted and is drawn with difficulty, mixed,
it may be, with a yellowish serum (whey) which has separated from
the casein. This should be treated like the above, though it may
sometimes demand fomentations with warm water to ward off in-
flammation, and it may be a week before the natural condition of the
gland is restored.

INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER (SIMPLE MAMMITIS).

Congestion may merge into active inflammation, or it may arise
direct, in connection with exposure to cold or wet, with standing in a
cold draft, with blows on the udder with clubs, stones, horns, or feet,
with injury from a sharp or cold stone, or the projecting edge of a
board or end of a nail in the floor, with sudden and extreme changes
of weather, with overfeeding on rich albuminous feed like cotton
seed, beans, or peas, with indigestions, with sores on the teats, or
with insufficient stripping of the udder in milking. In the period
of full milk the organ is so susceptible that any serious disturbance
of the general health is liable to fall upon the udder.

Symptoms. — The symptoms and mode of onset vary in different
cases. When following exposure there is usually a violent shivering
fit, with cold horns, ears, tail, and limbs, and general erection of the
hair. This is succeeded by a flush of heat (reaction) in which the
horns, ears, and limbs become unnaturally warm and the gland swells
up and becomes firm and solid in one, tAvo, three, or all four quarters.
There is hot dry muzzle, elevated temperature, full, accelerated pulse,
and excited breathing, impaired or suspended appetite and rumina-
tion, with more or less costiveness, suppression of urine, and a lessened
yield of milk, which may be entirely suppressed in the affected
quarter.

In other cases the shivering escapes notice, the general disorder of
the system is little marked or comes on late, and the first observed
sign of illness is the firm swelling, heat, and tenderness of the bag.
As the inflammation increases and extends, the hot, tender udder
causes the animal to straddle with its hind limbs, and, when walking,
to halt on the limb on that side. If the cow lies down it is on the

DISEASES FOLLOWING PAETUEITION. 233

unaffected side. With tlie increase in intensity and the extension of
the inflammation the general fever manifests itself more prominently.
In some instances the connective tissue beneath the skin and be-
tween the lobules of the gland is affected, then the swelling is uni-
formly rounded and of nearly the same consistency, pitting every-
where on pressure. In other cases it primarily attacks the secreting
tissue of the gland, then the swelling is more localized and appears
as hard, nodular masses in the interior of the gland. This last is
the usual form of inflammation occurring from infection entering by
the teats.

In all cases, but especially in the last-named form, the milk is sup-
pressed and replaced by a watery fluid colored with blood (some-
times deeply) and mingled with masses of clotted casein. Later it
becomes white and purulent, and in many cases of an offensive odor.

The course of the disease is sometimes so rapid and at others so
slow that no definite rule can be laid down. In two or three days, or
from that to the end of the week, the bag may soften, lose its heat and
tenderness, and subside into the healthy condition, even resuming the
secretion of milk. The longer the inflammatory hardness continues
the greater the probability that its complete restoration will not be
effected. When a portion of the gland fails to be restored in this
way, and has its secretion arrested, it usually shrinks to a smaller
size. More commonly a greater quantity of the inflammatory prod-
uct remains in the gland and develops into a solid, fibrous mass, caus-
ing permanent hardening (induration). In other cases, in place of
the product of inflammation developing into a fibrous mass, it softens
and breaks down into white, creamy, liquid pus (abscess). This ab-
scess may make its way to the surface and escape externally, or it may
burst into a milk duct and discharge through the teat. It may break
into both and establish a channel for the escape of milk (fistula). In
the worst types of the disease gangrene may ensue, a quarter or half
or even the whole udder, losing its vitality, and sloughing off if the
cow can bear up against the depressing influence. These gangi-enous
cases are probably always the result of infection and sometimes run
a very rapidly fatal course. I remember one to which I was called
as soon as the owner noticed it, yet I found one-quarter dark blue,
cold, and showing a tendency to the formation of blebs containing
a bloody secretion. The cow, which had waded through a depth of
semiliquid manure to reach her stall, died within 24 hours.

Treatment. — Treatment varies with the type and the stage of the
disease. If the case is seen in the shivering fit, every effort should
be made to cut it short, as the inflammation may be thereby gTeatly
moderated, if not checked. Copious drinks of warm water thrown in
from horn or bottle; equally copious warm injections; the applica-
tion of heat in some form to the surface of the body (by a rug wrung

234 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

out of hot water; b}^ hanging over the back and loins bags loosely
filled with bran, sand, salt, chaff, or other agent previously heated
in a stove ; by the use of a flatiron or the warming of the surface by
a hot-air bath), or by active friction with straw wisps by two or
more persons; the administration of a pint of strong alcoholic
liquor, or of 1 ounce of ground ginger, may serve to shorten the
attack. After half an hour's sweat the animal should be rubbed
and covered with a dry blanket.

If, on the other hand, there is little or no fever, and only a slight
inflanmiation, rub well with camphorated ointment or a weak iodin
ointment, and milk three, four, or six times a day, rubbing the bag
thoroughly each time. Milking must be done with great gentleness,
squeezing the teat in place of pulling and stripping it, and if this
causes too much pain, the teat tube (PL XXIV, fig. 4) or the spring
teat dilator (PI. XXIV, fig. 3) may be employed. Antiseptic injec-
tions of the teats and udder are often useful, and iodoform in water
has been especially recommended. It ma}^ be replaced by one of the
injections advised for parturition fever, used with the same careful
precautions.

In cases in which the fever has set in and the inflammation is more
advanced, a dose of laxative medicine is desirable (Epsom salt, 1 to
2 pounds; ginger, 1 ounce), which may be followed, after the purg-
ing has ceased, by daily doses of saltpeter, 1 ounce. Many rely on
cooling and astringent applications to the inflamed quarter (vinegar,
sugar-of-lead lotion, cold water, ice, etc.), but a safer and better
resort is continued fomentation with warm water. A bucket of
warm water, replenished as it cools, may be set beneath the udder,
and two persons can raise a rug out of this and hold it against the
udder, dipping it anew whenever the temperature is somewhat
lowered. A sheet may be passed around the body, with holes cut for
the teats, soft rags packed between it and the udder, and kept warm
by pouring water on every 10 or 15 minutes, as warm as the hand
can bear. When this has been kept up for an hour or two, the bag
may be dried, well rubbed with soap, and left thus with a soapy
coating. If the pain is great, extract of belladonna may be applied
along with the soap, and a dry suspensory bandage with holes for
the teats may be applied. Strong, mercurial ointment is very useful
in relieving pain and softening the bag. This is especially valuable
when the disease is protracted and induration threatens. It may be
mixed with an equal quantity of soap and half as much extract of
belladonna. In cases of threatened induration excellent results are
sometimes obtained from a weak-induction current of electricity
sent through the gland daily for 10 minutes.

If abscess threatens, it may be favored by fomentation and opened
as soon as fluctuation from finger to finger shows the formation of

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 235

matter at a point formerly hard. The wound may bleed freely, and
there is a risk of opening a milk duct, yet relief will be obtained ; also
a dressing twice daily with a lotion of carbolic acid 1 part, water 20
parts, and glycerin 1 part will suffice to keep the wound clean and
healthy.

Gangrene of the affected part is often fatal. It demands antisep-
tics (chlorid of zinc, 1 dram to 1 quart water) applied frequently to
the part, or, if the case can not be attended, smear the affected quar-
ter with Venice turpentine, melted, or even wood tar. Antiseptic
tonics (tincture of chlorid of iron, 4 drams) may also be given four
times daily in a quart of water.

CONTAGIOUS MAMMITIS (CONTAGIOUS INFLAMMATION OF THE

UDDER).

As stated in the last article, that form of inflammation of the udder
which attacks the gland ducts and follicles, causing deep-seated, hard,
nodular swellings, is often contagious. Franck has demonstrated
this by injecting into the milk ducts in different cows (milking and
dry) the pus from the bags of cows affected with mammitis, or the
liquids of putrid flesh, or putrid blood, and in every case he produced
acute inflammation of the gland tissue within twenty-four hours.
He thinks that in ordinary conditions the septic germ gains access by
propagating itself through the milk, filling the milk canal and oozing
from the external orifice. He points to this as a reason why dry cows
escape tlie malady, though mingling freely with the sufferers, and
why such dry cows do not suffer from inflammation of the gland tis-
sue when attacked with foot-and-mouth disease. In this last case it is
evident that it is not simply the inoculation with the milker's hand
that is lacking, for the skin of the bag is attacked, but not its secret-
ing, glandular parts. Now that in any case of abscess we look for the
cause in the chain forms of globular bacteria {Streptococcus pyog-
enes)^ in the cluster form of white, globular bacteria {Staphylococ-
cus pyogenes albus)^ and in the golden and citron-yellow forms of
clustered globular bacteria {Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus and
Staphylococcus pyogenes citreus), the formation of pus gives pre-
sumptive evidence of the action of one or more of these germs. So in
cases of mortification of the bag ; in the very occurrence there is fair
circumstantial evidence of the presence of erysipelas micrococcus or
other germ which kills the local tissues. Again, in tuberculosis
affecting the bag (a not uncommon condition), the active local cause
is without doubt the tubercle bacillus.

It has been found that false membranes have formed in certain
cases of mammitis in the cow, and Klein, after inoculating the diph-
theria of man on the cow, found an ulcerous sore in the seat of inoc-
ulation and blisters on the teats and udder, in which he found what

236 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

he believed to be the bacilhis of diphtheria. The results are doubt-
ful, even in the absence of false membranes. Loffler, too, in the
diphtheria of calves, found that the germ was longer and more deli-
cate than that of man, and that its pathogenesis for rodents was
less, guinea pigs having only a nonfatal abscess. The presence of
false membranes in one form of mammitis in cows does not neces-
sarily imply its communicability to man.

It has been asserted that scarlet fever has been transmitted from
the cow to man, and it can not be denied that in many cases the infec-
tion has been spread by means of the milk. The facts, however, when
brought out fully have shown that in almost every case the milk
had first come into contact with a person suffering or recovering
from scarlet fever, so that the milk was infected after it left the cow.
The alleged exceptional cases at Hendon and Dover, England, are
not conclusive. In the Hendon outbreak inoculations were made on
calves from the slight eruption on the cow's teats, and they had a
slight eruption on the lips and a form of inflammation of the kidneys,
which Dr. Klein thought resembled that of scarlatina. The cows that
had brought the disease to the Hendon dairies were traced back to
Wiltshire, where cows were found suffering from a similar malady,
but no sign of scarlet fever resulted. In the Dover outbreak the
dairyman first denied any disease in his cows, and brought a certifi-
cate of a veterinarian to prove that they were sound at the time of the
investigation; then later he confessed that the cows had had foot-
and-mouth disease some time before, and consequent eruption on the
teats. So the question remains whether the man who denied sickness
in the cows to begin with, and adduced professional evidence of it,
did not later acknowledge the foot-and-mouth disease as a blind to
hide the real source of the trouble in scarlatina in his own family or
in the family of an employee.

In America Dr. Stickler said that he had produced scarlatina
in children by inoculation with imported virus of foot-and-mouth dis-
ease, but his contention is negatived by the facts that with foot-and-
mouth disease constantly present in Europe scarlatina does not ac-
company it, and that in America, with scarlatina constantly prevail-
ing at some point, foot-and-mouth disease is unknown locally except
at long intervals and as the result of the importation of infected ani-
mals or their products. Man is susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease,
but it never appears during the frequent epidemics of scarlatina.

Among other contagious forms of mammitis I may name one v»'hich
I have encountered in large dairies, starting as a sore and slight
swelling at the opening of the teat and extending up along the milk
duct to the gland structure in the bag, all of which become indurated,
nodular, and painful. The milk is entirely suppressed in that quarter

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 237

of the bag, and from that it may extend to the others as it does from
COW to cow through the milker's hands.

Another form almost universally prevalent in this district of cen-
tral New York in 1889 broke out on the teats and udders as blisters
strongly resembling cowpox, but which were not propagated when
inoculated on calves. It was only exceptionally that this extended
through the teat to the gland tissue, yet in some instances the bag
was lost from this cause. Scarlatina in man was very prevalent at
the time (many schools Avere closed in consequence), but no definite
connection seemed to exist between this and the cow disease, and on
different dairy farms there were families of young children that had
never had scarlet fever and who did not at that time contract it.

The most common cause of contagious mammitis in cattle is a
spherical bacterium in chain form {Streptococcus) (Moore, Ward).
Yet it is clear that contagious mammitis is not a single affection, but
a group of diseases which have this in common, that they attack the
udder.

Prevention. — Prevention is to be especially sought in all such cases.
In purchasing new cows see that they come from a herd where the
teats and udder are sound. If a new cow with unknown antecedents
comes from a public market, let her be milked for a week by a person
who does not milk any other cows. Keep her in a separate stall from
others, so that there may be no infection from litter or flooring.
Wash the udder with soap and water, and wet with a solution of two
teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid in a pint of water before letting the
regular milker of the other cows take her. If any cow in the herd
shows the indurated end of the teat or the inflammation and nodular
tender character of the gland, sequestrate her at once and give her a
separate milker. If another cow is to be put into the stall she occu-
pied, first clean and scrape it, and wet it with a strong solution of
bluestone, 5 ounces in a gallon of water. The milk may be drawn off
with a teat tube, or spring teat dilator (PL XXIV, figs. 3 and 4), and
the milk ducts injected frequently with a solution of peroxid of
hydrogen or iodoform. I have had little success in checking the up-
ward progress of the disease through the teat with carbolic acid or
boric-acid solutions. Used on the outside of the other teats, how-
ever, they may serve to prevent them from becoming infected. In the
absence of peroxid of hydrogen the affected teat may be injected
with a solution of 1 grain corrosive sublimate in a pint of water,
and the same may be used on the other teats, provided it is washed
off every time before milking.

As additional precautions, no cow with a retained afterbirth or
unhealthy discharge from the womb should be left with the other
cows. Such cows doubtless infect their own udders and those of the

238 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

COWS next them by lashing with the soiled tail. If milkers handle
retained afterbirth or vaginal discharge, or vmhealthy wounds, or
assist in a difficult and protracted parturition, they should wash the
hands and arms thoroughly with soap and warm water and then rub
them with the corrosive sublimate solution, or if not, at least with
one of carbolic acid. Clothes stained with such offensive products
should be thoroughly washed.

The general treatment of contagious mammitis does not differ from
that of the simple form, except that antiseptics should be given by
the mouth as well as applied locally (hyposulphite of soda, one-half
ounce daily).

COWPOX.

This is another form of contagious inflammation of the udder which
does not spread readily from animal to animal except by the hands
of the milker. It is held to occur spontaneously in the cow, but this
is altogether improbable, and so-called spontaneous cases are rather
to be looked on as instances in which the germs have been preserved
dry in the buildings or introduced in some unknown manner. It is
not uncommon in the horse, attacking the heels, the lips, or some
other inoculated part of the body, and is then easily transferred to
the cow, if the same man grooms and dresses the horse and milks the
cow. It may also appear in the cow by infection, more or less direct,
from a person who has been successfully vaccinated. Many believe
that it is only a form of the smallpox of man modified by passing
through the system of cow or horse. It is, however, unreasonable to
suppose that this alleged modified smallpox could have been trans-
mitted from child to child (the most susceptible of the human race)
for 90 years, under all possible conditions, without once reverting
to its original type of smallpox. Chauveau's experiments on both
cattle and horses with the virus of smallpox and its inoculation back
on the human subject go far to show that in the climate of western
Europe, at least, no such transformation takes jDlace. Smallpox
remains smallpox and cowpox, cowpox. xVgain, smallpox is com-
municable to a person who visits the patient in his room but avoids
touching him, while cowpox is never thus transferred through the air
unless deliberately diffused in the form of spray. The demonstration
of a protozoan germ in smallpox implies a similar microbe in cowpox.

The disease in the cow is ushered in by a slight fever, which, how-
ever, is usually overlooked, and the first sign is tenderness of the
teats. Examined, these may be redder and hotter than normal, and
at the end of two days there appear little nodules, like small peas, of
a pale-red color, and increasing so that by the seventh day they
may measure three-fourths of an inch to 1 inch in diameter. The
yield of milk diminishes, and when heated it coagulates slightly.

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 239

From the seventh to the tenth day the eruption forms into a blister,
with raised margins and a depression in the center, and from which
the whole of the liquid can not be drawn by a single puncture. The
blister, in other words, is chambered, and each chamber must be
opened to evacuate the whole of the contents. If the pock forms on
a surface where there is thick hair it does not rise as a blister, but
oozes out a straw-colored fluid which concretes on the hairs in an
amber-colored mass. In one or two days after the pock is full it
becomes yellow from contained pus and then dries into a brownish-
yellow scab, which finally falls, leaving one or more distinct pits in
the skin. Upon the teats, however, this regular course is rarely seen;
the vesicles are burst by the hands of the milker as soon as liquid
is formed, and as they continue to suffer at each milking they form
raw, angry sores, scabbing more or less at intervals, but are slow to
undergo healing.

The only treatment required is to heal the sores. As milking is
the main cause of their persistence, that must be done as gently as
possible, or even with the teat tube or dilator. (PL XXIY, figs. 3
and 4.) It is essential to check the propagation of the germ, and
for this purpose the sore teats may be washed frequently with a
solution of half an ounce hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water.
This will usually check the inflammation and cut short the malady.

SUPPRESSION OF MILK.

The absence of milk in the udder may result from ill health, debil-
ity, emaciation, chronic disease of the bag, wasting of the gland
from j3revious disease, or insufficient feed, but sometimes it will
occur suddenly without any appreciable cause. The treatment con-
sists in removing the cause of the disease, giving rich albuminoid
feed made into warm mashes, and administering ounce doses of
aromatic carminatives, like anise seed, fennel seed, etc. Rubbing
and stripping the udder are useful; the application of oil of laven-
der or of turpentine, or even a blister of Spanish flies, will some-
times succeed.

BLOODY MILK.

Blood may escape with the milk when the udder has been injured
by blows ; also when it is congested or inflamed, when the circulation
through it has been suddenly increased by richer and more abundant
feed, or when the cow is under the excitement of heat. The milk
frothing up and assuming a pink tinge is often the first sign of red
water, and it may result from eating acrid or irritant plants, like the
Ranunculacea?, resinous plants, etc. Deposits of tubercle or tumors
in the udder, or induration of the gland, may be efficient causes, the
irritation caused by milking contributing to draw the blood. Finally,

240 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

there may be a reddish tmge or sediment when madder or logwood
has been eaten.

In milk which becomes red after it is drawn it may be from the
presence in it of the MicTOcocaas prodigiosus. This also grows on
bread, and is the explanation of the supposed miracle of the " bleed-
ing host."

The treatment will vary with the cause. In congested glands give

1 pound of Epsom salt, and daily thereafter one-half ounce salt-
peter, with a dram of chlorate of potassium ; the bag should be bathed
with hot or cold water, and rubbed with camphorated lard. If the
feed is too rich or abundant it must be reduced. If from acrid
plants, they must be removed from pasture or fodder. Induration
of the udder may be met by rubbing with a combination of iodin
ointment 1 part, soft soap 2 parts; mercurial ointment and soap also
may be used. Careful milking is imperative.

BLUE MILK.

Watery milk is blue, but the presence of a germ {Bacillus c^Or
nogenes) causes a distinct blue shade even in rich milk and cream.
It may reach the milk after it has been drawn, or it may find its way
into the opening of the milk ducts and enter the milk as it is drawn.
In the latter case frequent milking and the injection of a solution of

2 drams of hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water into the teats will
serve to destroy the germs.

STRINGY MILK.

This may be caused by fungi developing in the liquid, and that the
spores are present in the system of the cow may be safely inferred
from the fact that in a large herd two or three cows only will yield
such milk at a time, and that after a run of 10 days or a fortnight
they will recover and others will be attacked. I have found that
.such affected cows had the temperature raised one or two degrees
above the others. Like most other fungi this does not grow out into
filaments within the body of the cow, but in five or six hours after
milking the surface layers are found to be one dense network of fila-
ments. If a needle is dipped in this and lifted the liquid is drawn
out into a long thread. In one case which I investigated near
Ithaca, N. Y., the contamination was manifestly from a spring
which oozed out of a bank of black-muck soil and stood in pools
mixed with the dejections of the animals. Inoculation of pure milk
with the water as it flowed out of this bank developed in it the
fungus and the stringy characters. By fencing the spring in and
giving the affected cows each 2 drams bisulphite of soda daily, the
trouble was arrested promptly and permanently.

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 241

CHAPPED TEATS.

These may be caused by anything which irritates them. The
powerful sucking of the calf ; the sudden chilling of the teat in winter
after the calf has just let it go or after the completion of milking
with a wet hand; contact with cold water or stagnant, putrid water,
or with filth or irritants when lying down ; slight congestions of the
skin in connection with overstocking; indeed, any source of local
irritation may cause chapping. This may be slight or extend into
great, gaping sores and induce retention of milk or even mammitis.
Soothing applications of vaseline or a combination of equal parts of
spermaceti and oil of sweet almonds may be applied. If healing is
tardy, add 10 grains balsam of Peru to the ounce of ointment. If
the irritation is very great, wash first with a solution of 1 dram sugar
of lead in 1 pint of water and then apply benzoated zinc-oxid oint-
ment.

WARTS ON THE TEATS.

These are often very troublesome, yet they may be greatly bene-
fited or entirely removed by smearing them thickly with pure olive
oil after each milking. If they persist they may be cut off with a pair
of sharp scissors and the sore touched with a stick of lunar caustic.
They may now be oiled and the caustic repeated as demanded to pre-
vent their renewed growth.

Scahhy teats may be smeared with vaseline containing carbolic acid
enough to give it an odor.

TEAT BLOCKED BY CONCRETION OF CASEIN.

Under unhealthy conditions of the gland or milk ducts clots of
casein form which, pressed clear of most of their liquid and rolled
into rounded masses, may block the passage. They can be moved up
and down by manipulation of the teat, and if they can not be pressed
out they may be extracted by using the spring teat dilator (PI. XXIV,
fig. 3 ) , being held surrounded by its three limbs. Before extraction
is attempted an ounce of almond oil, boiled, should be injected into
the teat.

TEAT BLOCKED BY CALCULUS.

When the calcareous matter of the milk has been precipitated in
the form of a smooth, rounded stone, a rough, conglomerated concre-
tion, or a fine, sandlike debris, it may cause obstruction and irrita-
tion. These bodies are felt to be much harder than those formed by
casein, and the milk usually contains gritty particles. Extraction
may be attempted, in the case of the finely divided gritty matter, by
simple milking or with the spring dilator (PI. XXIV, fig. 3) in the
case of the larger masses. Should this fail the teat may be laid open
3307] °— 16 16

242 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

with the knife and sewed up again or closed with collodion, but such
an operation is best deferred until the cow is dry.

TEAT BLOCKED BY A WARTY OR OTHER GROWTH INSIDE.

In this case the obstruction may be near the orifice of the teat or
farther up, and the solid mass is not movable up and down with the
same freedom as are concretions and calculi. The movement is lim-
ited by the elasticity of the inner membrane of the teat from which it
grows, and is somewhat freer in certain cases because the growth has
become loose and hangs by a narrow neck. In the case of the looser
growths they may be snared by a fine, spring wire passed as a loop
through a fine tube (like a teat tube open at each end) and introduced
into the teat. AVhen this can not be done, the only resort is to cut
in and excise it while the cow is dry.

THICKENING OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE AND CLOSURE OF THE

MILK DUCT.

As a result of inflammation extending from without inward, a
gradual narrowing of the milk duct may occur from thickening and
narrowing of its lining membrane. This may be limited to a small
area near the lower end, or it may extend through the whole length
of the teat. The stream of milk becomes finer and jEiner until it
finally ceases altogether, and a firm cord is felt running through the
teat. If the constriction is only at the outlet, the teat may be seized
and distended bv pressing the milk down into it from above, and an
incision may be made with a sharp penknife in two directions at right
angles to each other and directly in the original opening. The knife
should be first cleansed in boiling water. The opening may be kept
from closing by a dumb-bell shaped bougie of gutta-percha (PI.
XXIV, fig. 5) or by the spring dilator. If the obstruction is more
extended it may be perforated by Liithi's perforating sound. (PI.
XXIV, fig. 1a and 1b.) This is a steel wire with a ring at one end,
and at the other is screwed on to the wire a conical cap with sharp
cutting edges at the base, which scrapes away the thickened masses
of cells as it is drawn back. This may be passed again and again to
enlarge the passages sufficiently, and then the passage may be kept
open by wearing a long, dumb-bell bougie, a thick piece of carbolized
catgut, or a spring dilator. If the passage can not be sufficiently
opened with the sound it may be incised by the hidden bistoury. (PI.
XXIV, fig. 2.) This is a knife lying alongside a flattened protector
with smooth, rounded edges, but which can be projected to an}' re-
quired distance by a lever on the handle. The incisions are made in
four directions, as deep as may be necessary, and the walls then
can be held apart by the spring dilator until they heal. In case the

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 243

constriction and thickening of the canal extend the whole length of
the teat, it is practically beyond remedy, as the gland is usually in-
volved so as to render it useless.

CLOSURE OF THE MILK DUCT BY A MEMBRANE.

In this form the duct of the teat is closed by the constriction of its
lining membrane at one point, usually without thickening. The clos-
ure usually takes place while the cow is dry ; otherwise its progress is
gradual, and for a time the milk may still be pressed through slowly.
In such case, if left at rest, the lower part of the teat fills up and
the milk flows in a full stream at the first pressure, but after this it
will not fill up again without sufficient time for it to filter through.
This is to be cut open by the hidden bistoury (PL XXIV, fig. 2),
which may be first passed through the opening of the membrane, if
such exists. If not it ma}^ be bored through, or it may be pressed up
against the membrane at one side of the teat and opened toward the
center, so as to cut its way through. Incisions should be made in at
least two opposite directions, and the edges then may be held apart
by wearing the spring dilator until healing has been completed.

In all cases of operations on the teats the instruments must be
thoroughly disinfected with hot water, or by dipping in carbolic acid
and then in water that has been boiled.

OPENING IN THE SIDE OF THE TEAT (MILK FISTULA).

This may occur from wounds penetrating the milk duct and failing
to close, or it may be congenital, and then very often it leads to a dis-
tinct milk duct and an independent portion of the gland. In the first
form it is necessary only to dissect away the skin leading into the
opening for some distance down, to close the orifice Mdth stitches, and
to cover the whole with collodion. A teat tube or spring dilator may
be worn to drain the milk off and prevent distention and reopening
of the orifice. In case of an independent milk duct and gland one of
two courses may be selected — to open the one duct into the other by
incision and then close the offending opening, or to inject the super-
fluous gland through its duct with a caustic solution, so as to destroy
its secreting power. In both cases it is desirable to wait until the
cow goes dry.

DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plates XXII, XXIII. Supports for prolapsed uterus. These illustrations show
various appliances used in prolapse or inversion of the uterus. Th^
uterus should first be returned to its proper situation and then some
apparatus applied to prevent a recurrence of the inversion or pro-
trusion.
Plate XXII :

Fig. 1. Crupper, strap truss. (From Hill's Bovine Medicine and Surgery.)

Fig. 2. Renault's rope truss. The rope for this truss should be from 25
to 30 feet long and about the thickness of the little finger.
Plate XXIII :

Fig. 1. Cow to which Delwart's rope truss has been applied.

Fig. la shows the loop of Delwart's truss.

Fig. 2. Zundel's labial sutures. These consist of two wires passed through
the lips of the vulva in a horizontal direction, and two additional wires
passed through the loops at the ends of the horizontal wires in order
to hold them in place.

Fig. 3.. Iron truss for holding the vagina or uterus in place after calving.
The cords are passed through the ej'es at the corners of the triangular
iron; the base of the triangle fits under the tail. The truss is from
5 to 7 inches long and about 2* inches wide.
Plate XXIV, Instruments used in diseases following parturition.

Fig. 1. Liithi's perforating sound, for opening the milk canal through the
teat when this has become occluded ; A, the sound one-half the natural
size; B, section of head of sound, natural size, showing cutting edge.

Fig. 2. Bistouri cach§. A blade hidden in its sheath which by pressure
of the finger may be made to protrude a certain distance. This dis-
tance is regulated by the screw near the handle. The instrument is
used to open the milk canal when closed up. It is introduced into the
milk canal with its blade in the sheath and withdrawn with the blade
protruding.

Fig. 3. Spring teat dilator, about one-half natural size, for dilating the
milk canal.

Fig. 4. Ring teat syphon, for withdrawing milk when the teat is sore or
injured.

Fig. 5. Gutta-percha bougie, for dilating the opening of the teat.

Fig. 6. Truss applied to calf for umbilical or navel hernia. (From Flem-
ing's Veterinary Obstetrics.)

Fig. 7. Armatage's iron clamp for umbilical or navel hernia. When this
clamp is applied care must be taken not to include a portion of the
bowel.
244

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XXII.

Supports for Prolapsed Uterus.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XXIII.

Supports for Prolapsed Uterus.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XXIV.

Instruments Used in Diseases Following Parturition.

DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES.

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S.,
Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University.

SUSPENDED BREATHING.

The moment the circulation through the naval string is stopped
the blood of the calf begins to become overcharged with carbon dioxid
(CO,), and unless breathing is speedily established death promptly
follows. Fortunately the desire to breathe, roused by the circulation
of the venous blood and the reflex action from the wet and chilling
skin, usually starts the contractions of the diaphragm at once and
life is insured. Among the obstacles to breathing may be named
suffocation before or during birth from compression of the navel
cord and the arrest of its circulation; the detachment of the fetal
membranes from the womb before the calf is born; a too free com-
munication between the two auricles (foramen ovale) of the heart
by which the nonaerated blood has mixed too abundantly with the
aerated and induced debility and profound weakness; a condition of
ill health and debility of the calf as a result of semistarvation, over-
work, or disease of the cow; fainting in the debilitated calf when
calving has been difficult and prolonged; the birth of the calf w^ith
its head enveloped in the fetal membranes, so that it has been unable
to breathe, and the presence of tenacious phlegm in the mouth and
nose, acting in the same manner.

Besides the importance of proper care and feeding of the cow as
a preventive measure, attention should be given at once to relieve the
newborn calf of its investing membrane and of any mucus that has
collected in mouth or nostrils. Wiping out the nose deeply with a
finger or feather excites to sneezing, hence to breathing. Blowing
into the nose has a similar effect. Sucking the nostril through a tube
applied to it is even more effective. Slapping the chest with the palm
of the hand or with a towel dipped in cold water, compression and
relaxation alternately of the walls of the chest, may start the action,
and ammonia or even tobacco smoke blown into the nose may suffice.
Every second is precious, however, and if possible the lungs should
be dilated by forcibly introducing air from a bellows or from the
human lungs. As the air is blown in through bellows or a tube the
upper end of the windpipe must be pressed back against the gullet,
as otherwise the air will go to the stomach. In a large dairy a piece

245

246 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

of elastic tubing one-third of an inch in bore should be kept at hand
for sucking and blowing in such cases.

BLEEDING FROM THE NAVEL.

This may occur in two conditions — when the cord is cut off too
close to the navel and left untied and when it tears off at the navel.
(PI. XIV.) It may also bleed when torn across naturally, if it is
sucked by the dam or another calf. In an animal with little plasticity
to its blood it will flow under almost any circumstances. When
any cord is left it is always safe to tie it, and it is only when it is
swollen and may possibly contain a loop of the bowel that there is
danger in doing so. By pressing upward any bulky contents such
danger is avoided. If torn or cut too close to be tied the bleeding
may be checked by applying alum, copperas, or for a fraction of a
second the end of an iron rod at a dull-red heat. If much blood has
been lost it may be requisite to transfuse several ounces of blood or
of a weak, common-salt solution into the open, umbilical vein.

URINE DISCHARGED THROUGH THE NAVEL (PERSISTENT

URACHUS).

Before birth the urine passes from the bladder by a special tube
through the navel and navel string into the outer water bag (allan-
tois). (PI. XII.) This closes at birth, and the tube shrinks into a
fine cord up to the bladder. It is only in the bull calf that it is liable
to remain open, doubtless because of the long, narrow channel through
which the urine must otherwise escape. The urethra, too, is some-
times abnormally narrow, or even closed, in the male. If part of the
cord remains, it should be tied and the whole allowed to wither up
naturally. If the cord has been removed and the tube (urachus)
protrudes, discharging the urine, that alone must be tied. If there is
nothing pendent the urachus must be seized, covered by the skin,
and a curved needle being passed through the skin and above the
duct, it may be tied along with this skin. A blister of Spanish flies,
causing swelling of the skin, will often close the orifice — so with the
hot iron. If the urethra of the male is impervious it can rarely be
remedied.

INFLAMMATION OF THE URACHUS (NAVEL URINE DUCT).

This may originate in direct, mechanical injury to the navel in
calving, or shortly after, with or without the lodgment of irritant or
septic matter on its lacerated or cut end. The mere contact with
healthy urine, hitherto harmless, can now be looked on as becoming
suddenly irritating. The affection is usually marked by the presence
of redness and swelling at the posterior part of the navel and the

DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 247

escape of urine and a few drops of whitish, serous pus from the ori-
fice of the urachus. In those cases in which urine is not discharged
a tender swelling, like a thick cord extending upward and backward
from the navel into the abdomen, may be identified. The navel
enlargement may be considerable, but it is solid, does not gurgle on
handling, and can not be done away with by pressing it back into the
abdomen, as in a case of hernia.

In cases at first closed the pus may burst out later, coming from
the back part of the navel and the swelling extending backward. In
other cases wdiitish pus may pass with the urine by the ordinary chan-
nel, showing that it has opened back into the bladder. In other cases
the umbilical veins become involved, in w^hich case the swelling ex-
tends forward as well as backward. Thus the disease may result in
destructive disorders of the liver, lungs, and, above all, of the joints.

The disease may usually be warded off or rendered simple and com-
paratively harmless by applying antiseptics to the navel string at
birth (carbolic acid 1 part, water and glycerin 5 parts each, or w^ood
tar). Later, antiseptics may be freely used (hyposulphite of soda 4
drams, water 1 quart) as an application to the surface and as an
injection into the urachus, or even into the bladder if the two still
communicate. If they no longer communicate, a stronger injection
may be used (tincture of chlorid of iron 60 drops, alcohol 1 ounce).
Several weeks will be required for complete recovery.

ABSCESS OF THE NAVEL.

As the result of irritation at calving or by the withered cord, or by
licking witn the rough tongue of the cow, inflammation may attack
the loose connective tissue of the navel to the exclusion of the urachus
and veins, and go on to the formation of matter. In this case a firm
swelling appears as large as the fist, which softens in the center and
may finally burst and discharge. The opening, however, is usually
small and may close prematurely, so that abscess after abscess is
formed. It is distinguished from hernia by the fact that it can not
be returned into the abdomen, and from inflammations of the veins
and urachus by the absence of swellings forward and backward along
the lines of these canals.

Treatment consists in an early opening of the abscess by a free
incision and the injection twice a da}'' of an astringent antiseptic
(chlorid of zinc one-half dram, water 1 pint).

INFLAMMATION OF THE NAVEL VEINS (UMBILICAL PHLEBITIS).

In this affection of the navel the inflammation may start directly
from mechanical injury, as in either of the two forms just described,
but on this are inoculated infective microbes, derived from a retained
and putrefying afterbirth, an abortion, a metritis, a fetid discharge

248 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

from the womb, an unhealthy open sore, a case of erysipelas, from
overcrowding, from filthy floor or bedding, or from an offensive
accumulation of manure, solid or liquid. As the microbes vary in
different cases, given outbreaks will differ materially in their nature.
One is erysipelatoid ; another purulent infection with the tendency to
secondary abscesses in the joints, liver, lungs, etc. ; another is from
a septic germ and is associated with fetid discharge from the navel
and general putrid blood poisoning. In estimating the causes of the
disease we must not omit debility of the calf when the mother has
been underfed or badly housed or when either she or the fetus has
been diseased.

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary. With the chain-form germs
(streptococci) the navel becomes intensely red, with a very firm,
painful swelling, ending abruptly at the edges in sound skin and
extending forward along the umbilical veins. The secondary dis-
eases are circumscribed, black engorgements (infarctions) or ab-
scesses of the liver, lungs, kidneys, bowels, or other internal organs,
and sometimes disease of the joints.

With the ordinary pus-producing germs {Staphylococcus pyog-
enes aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes) the local inflammation in
the navel causes a hot, painful swelling, which rapidly advances to
the formation of matter (pus), and the raw, exposed surface, at first
bright red, becomes dark red or black, soft, friable, and pultaceous.
If the pus is white, creamy, and comparatively inoffensive in odor,
the secondary formations in internal organs- and joints are mainly
of the same purulent character (secondary abscesses).

If, on the other hand, the discharge is very offensive and the pus
more serous, watery, or bloody, there is reason to suspect the pres-
ence of some of the septic bacteria, and the results on the general
system are a high fever and softening of the liver and spleen and no
tendency to abscesses of the internal organs. Diarrhea is a common
symptom, and death ensues early, the blood after death being found
unclotted.

Complicated cases are common, and in all alike the umbilical veins
usually remain open and can be explored by a probe passed at first
upward and then forward toward the liver.

Prevention is sought by applying a lotion of carbolic acid or iodin
solution to the navel string at birth, or it may be smeared with com-
mon wood tar, which is at once antiseptic and a protective coA^ering
against germs. In the absence of either a strong decoction of oak
bark may be used.

Local treatment consists in the application of antiseptic to the sur-
face and their injection into the vein. As a lotion carbolic acid, 1
ounce in a quart of strong decoction of oak bark, should be used, or
salicylic acid or salol may be sprinkled on the surface. The interior

DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 249

of the vein should be swabbed out with a probe wrapped around
with cotton wool and dipped in boracic salicylic acid.

If complications have extended to the liver or other internal
organs, or the joints, other treatment will be demanded. In acute
cases of general infection an early fatal result is to be expected.

PYEMIC AND SEPTICEMIC INFLAMMATION OF JOINTS IN CALVES

(JOINT ILL).

This occurs in young calves within the first month after birth. It
persists in the joints when once attacked, and is usually connected
with disease of the navel. Rheumatism, on the other hand, rarely
occurs in a calf under a month old. It tends to shift from joint to
joint, and is independent of any navel disease. Again, it affects the
fibrous structures of the joints, and rarely results in the formation
of white matter, while the affection before named attacks the struc-
tures outside as well as inside the joints and, above all, the ends of
the bones, and tends to the destruction and crumbling of their
tissue, and even to the formation of open sores, through which the
fragile bones are exposed. The microbes from the unhealthy and
infected wound in the navel pass into the system through the veins,
or lymphatics, and form colonies and local inflammations and ab-
scesses in and around the joints.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are the swelling of one or more joints,
which are very hot and tender. The calf is stiff and lame, lies down
constantly, and does not care to suck. There is very high fever,
accelerated breathing and pulse, and there is swelling and purulent
discharge (often fetid) from the navel. There may be added
symptoms of disease of the liver, lungs, heart, or bowels, on which
we need not here delay. The important point is to determine the
condition of the navel in all such cases of diseased and swollen
joints beginning in the first month of life, and in all cases of general
stiffness, for besides the diseases of the internal organs there may be
abscesses formed among the muscles of the trunk, though the joints
appear sound. Cases of this kind, if they do not speedily die, tend
to become emaciated and perish later in a state of weakness and
exhaustion.

Prevention. — Prevention must begin with the purity of the build-
ings and the navel, as noted in the last article.

Treatment, — Treatment is in the main antiseptic. The slighter
forms may be painted daily with tincture of iodin, or an ointment of
biniodid of mercury (1 dram) and lard (2 ounces) may be rubbed on
the affected joints daily until they are blistered. In case of swellings
containing matter, this may be drawn through the nozzle of a hypo-
dermic syringe and the following solution injected : Compound tinc-
ture of iodin, 1 dram; distilled (or boiled) water, 2 ounces. Inter-

250 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

nally the calf may take 5 grains qiiinin twice daily and 15 grains
hyposulphite of soda, or 20 grains salicylate of soda three times
a day.

UMBILICAL HERNIA (BREACH AT THE NAVEL).

This may exist at birth from imperfect closure of the muscles
around the opening; it may even extend backward for a distance,
from the two sides failing to come together. Apart from this, the
trouble rarely appears after the calf has been some time on solid
feed, as the paunch then extends down to the right immediately
OA^er the navel, and thus forms an internal pad, preventing the
protrusion of intestine.

Symptoins. — The symptoms of umbilical hernia are a soft swelling
at the navel, with contents that usually gurgle on handling, and can
be entirely returned into the abdomen by pressure. The diseases of
the navel hitherto considered have not gurgling contents and can
not be completely returned into the abdomen. The only exception
in the case of the hernia is when the walls of the sac have become
greatly thickened. These will, of course, remain as a swelling after
the bowel has been returned; and when the protruding bowel has
contracted permanent adhesion to the sac, it is impossible to return
it fully without first severing that connection.

Treatment. — Treatment is not always necessary. A small hernia,
like an ^gg., in a new-born calf, usually recovers of itself as the
animal changes its diet to solid feed and has the paunch fully
developed as an internal pad.

In other cases apply a leather pad 8 inches square attached around
the body by two elastic bands connected w^ith its four corners, and
an elastic band passing from its front border to a collar encircling
the neck, and two other elastic bands from the neck collar along the
two sides of the body to the two bands passing up over the back.
(PI. XXIV, fig. 6.)

For small hernias nitric acid may be used to destroy the skin and
cause such swelling as to close the orifice before the skin is sepa-
rated. For a mass like a large goose egg one-half ounce of the acid
may be rubbed in for three minutes. No more must be applied for
15 days. For large masses this is inapplicable, and wdth too much
loss of skin the orifice may fail to close and the bowels may escape.

The application of a clamp like those used in castration is a most
effective method, but great care must be taken to see that all the
contents of the sac are returned so that none may be inclosed in the
clamp. (PI. XXIV, fig. 7.)

Another most effective resort is to mak-e a saturated solution of com-
mon salt, filter and boil it, and when cool inject under the skin (not
into the sac) on each side of the hernia a dram of the fluid. A band-

DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 251

age may then be put around the body. In 10 hours an enormous
swelling will have taken place, pressing back the bowel into the abdo-
men. When this subsides the wound will have closed.

DROPSY OF THE NAVEL.

A sac formed at the navel, by contained liquid accumulated by rea-
son of sucking by other calves, is unsightly and sometimes injurious.
After making sure that it is simply a dropsical collection it may be
deeply punctured at A'arious points with a large-sized lancet or knife,
fomented with hot water, and then daily treated with a strong decoc-
tion of white-oak bark.

BLUE DISEASE (CYANOSIS).

This appearing in the calf at birth is due to the orifice between the
two auricles of the heart ( foramen ovale ) remaining too open, allow-
ing the nonaerated (venous) blood to mix with the aerated (arterial)
blood, and it is beyond the reach of treatment. It is recognized by
the blueness of the eyes, nose, mouth, and other mucous membranes,
the coldness of the surface, and the extreme sensitiveness to cold.

CONSTIPATION.

At birth the bowels of the calf contain the meconium, a tenacious,
gluey, brownish-yellow material largely derived from the liver, which
must be expelled before they can start their functions normally.
The first milk of the cow (colostrum, beestings), rich in albumin and
salts, is nature's laxative to expel this now offensive material and
should never be withheld from the calf. If, for lack of this, from the
dry feeding of the cow, or from any other cause, the calf is costive,
straining violently without passage, lying down and rising as in colic,
and failing in appetite, no time should be lost in giving relief by an
ounce dose of castor oil, assisting its action by injections of soapsuds
or oil. Whatever meconium is within reach of the finger should be
carefully removed. It is also important to give the cow a sloppy,
laxative diet.

INDIGESTION.

This may occur from many different causes, as costiveness; a too
liberal supply of milk ; milk too rich ; the furnishing of the milk of a
cow long after calving to a very young calf ; allowing a calf to suck
the first milk of a cow that has been hunted, driven by road, shipped
by rail, or otherwise violently excited ; allowing the calf too long time
between meals, so that impelled by hunger it quickly overloads and
clogs the stomach ; feedmg from the pail milk that has been held over
in unwashed (unscalded) buckets, so that it is fermented and spoiled;
feeding the milk of cows kept on unwholesome feed; keeping the

252 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

calves in cold, damp, dark, filthy, or bad-smelling pens; feeding the
calves on artificial mixtures containing too much starchy matter ; or
overfeeding the calves on artificial feed that may be appropriate
enough in smaller quantity. The licking of hair from themselves or
others and its formation into balls in the stomach will cause obstinate
indigestion in the calf.

Symptoms. — The symptoms are dullness, indisposition to move,
uneasiness, eructations of gas from the stomach, sour breath, entire
loss of appetite, lying down and rising as if in pain, fullness of the
abdomen, which gives out a drumlike sound when tapped with the
fingers.

The costiveness may be marked at first, but soon it gives place to
diarrhea, by which the offensive matters may be carried off and health
restored. In other cases it becomes aggravated, merges into inflam-
mation of the bowels, fever sets in, and the calf gradually sinks.

Prevention. — Prevention consists in avoiding the causes enumer-
ated above or any others that may be detected.

Treatmenf. — Treatment consists in first clearing away the irritant
present in the bowels. For this purpose 1 or 2 ounces of castor oil
with 20 drops of laudanum may be given, and if the sour eructa-
tions are marked a tablespoonful of limewater or one-fourth ounce
calcined magnesia may be given and repeated two or three times a
day. If the disorder continues after the removal of the irritant, a
large tablespoonful of rennet, or 30 grains of pepsin, may be given
at each meal along with a teaspoonful of tincture of gentian. Any
return of constipation must be treated by injections of warm water
and soap, while the persistence of diarrhea must be met as advised
under the article following this. In case of the formation of loose
hair balls inclosing milk undergoing putrid fermentation, temporary
benefit may be obtained by giving a tablespoonful of vegetable char-
coal three or four times a day, but the only real remedy is to cut
the paunch open and extract them. At this early age they may be
found in the third or even the fourth stomach ; in the adult they are
confined to the first two and are comparatively harmless.

DIARRHEA (SCOURING) IN CALVES (SIMPLE AND CONTAGIOUS).

Ar stated in the last article, scouring is a common result of indi-
gestion, and at first may be nothing more than an attempt of nature
to relieve the stomach and bowels of offensive and irritating contents.
As the indigestion persists, however, the fermentations going on in
the imdigested masses become steadily more complex and active, and
what was at first the mere result of irritation or suspended digestion
comes to be a genuine contagious disease, in which the organized fer-
ments (bacteria) propagate the affection from animal to animal and

DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 253

from herd to herd. More than once I have seen such epizootic diar-
rhea start on the headwaters of a creek and, traveling along that
stream, follow the watershed and attack the herds supplied with
water from the contaminated channel. In the same way the disease,
once started in a cow stable, is liable to persist for years, or until
the building has been thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. It may
be carried into a healthy stable by the introduction of a cow brought
from an infected stable when she is closely approaching calving.
Another method of its introduction is by the purchase of a calf from
a herd where the infection exists.

In enumerating the other causes of this disease we may refer to
those noted above as inducing indigestion. As a primary considera-
tion any condition which lowers the vitality or vigor of the calf must
be accorded a prominent place among factors which, apart from con-
tagion, contribute to start the disease de novo. Other things being
equal, the strong, vigorous races are the least predisposed to the
malady, and in this respect the compact form, the healthy coat, the
clear eye, and the bold, active carriage are desirable. Even the color
of the hair is not unimportant, as in the same herd I have found a
far greater number of victims among the light colors (light yellow,
light brown) than among those of a darker tint. This constitutional
predisposition to indigestion and diarrhea is sometimes fostered by
too close breeding, without taking due account of the maintenance
of a robust constitution; hence animals that are very much inbred
need to be especially observed and cared for unless their inherent
vigor has been thoroughly attested.

The surroundings of the calf are powerful influences. Calves kept
indoors suffer to a greater extent than those running in the open air
and having the invigorating influences of sunshine, pure air, and
exercise ; close, crowded, filthy, bad-smelling buildings are especially
causative of the complaint. The presence in the air of carbon dioxid,
the product of breathing, and of the fetid, gaseous products of decom-
posing dung and urine diminish by about one- fourth of their volume
the life-giving oxygen and in the same ratio hinder the aeration of
the blood and the maintenance of vigorous health. Worse than this,
such fetid gases are usually direct poisons to the animal breathing
them; for example, sulphureted hydrogen (hydrogen sulphid 2 SHj)
and various alkaloids (ptomaines) and toxins (neutral poisonous
principles) produced in the filth fermentations. These lower the
general health and stamina, impair digestion, and by leading to the
accumulation in stomach and bowels of undigested materials they
lay the foundation for offensive fermentations within these organs
and consequent irritation, poisoning, and diarrhea. They further
weaken the system so that it can no longer resist and overcome the
trouble.

254

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

The condition of the nursing cow and her milk is another potent
cause of trouble. The feed of the cow is important. The influence
of this is shown in the f ollowinff tables :

Influence of feed on milk. {From Becquerel and Vernois.)

Casein

Character of feed.

Water.

and ex-
tractive
matter.

Milk

sugar.

Butter.

Salts.

Cows on winter feed:

Parts in

Parts in

Parts in

Parts in

Parts in

Trefoil or lucem, 12-13 pounds; oat straw, 9-10

1,000.

1,000.

1,000.

1,000.

1,000.

pounds; beets, 7 pounds; water, 2 buckets

871.26

47.81

33.47

42.07

5.34

Cows on summer feed:

Green trefoil, lucem, maize, barley, grass, 2 buckets
water

859.56

54.70

36.38

42.76

6.80

Goat's milk on different feed:

858.68
888.77
844.90

47.38
33.81
35.14

35.47
38.02
36.90

52.54
33.68
56.87

5.93

5.72

Normal mean

6.18

In these examples the deterioration of the milk in casein on the less
nutritious winter feeding is very marked, although the relative
quantity of butter remains almost unchanged. In the case of the goat
the result is even more striking, the beet diet giving a very large
decrease of both casein and butter and an increase of milk sugar.

The second table following, condensed from the Iowa Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin, giA'es the results in butter and total
solids when the same cows were fed on different rations in succession.
Each cow was fed a daily ration of 12 pounds corn fodder and 4 pounds
clover hay, besides the test diet of (1) 12^ pounds corn-and-cob meal,
and (2) 10 pounds sugar meal — a product of the glocuse manufac-
ture. This special feed was given seven days before the commence-
ment of each test period to obviate the effects of transition. The
analyses of the special rations are given below :

Analyses of special rations.

Constituents.

Moisture

Sails

Fat

Carbohydrates (heat formers)

Woody fiber

Proteids (flesh formers)

Corn-and-
cob meal.

Sugar
meal.

Per cent.

Per cent.

13.37

6.10

1.43

1.17

2.81

11.16

65.99

52.60

8.03

8.64

8.37

20.27

The great excess of fat and nitrogenous or flesh-forming principles
in the sugar meal is very evident.

DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES.
Infliietwe of feed on milk. (Iowa station.)

255

Animal.

Milk.

Fat.

Solids.

Fat.

Solids.

■Ratio of fat
to solids not

fat.

Grade Shorthorn cow:

Pounds.

P.cf.

Per ct.

Pounds.

Pounds.

First period, 21 days, corn-and-cob meal

631. 25

3.43

11.57

21.67

73.02

422.0:1,000

Second period, 21 days, sugar meal

641. 50

4.04

12. 53

25.93

83.38

476.2:1,000

Thiid period, 21 days, cora-and-cob meal...

559. 00

3.22

11. 86

17.97

66.32

371.7:1,000

Grade Shorthorn cow:

First period, 21 days, corn-and-cob meal

604.75

3.57

11.95

21.56

72.28

425.1:1,000

Second period, 21 days, sugar meal

582.00

3.91

12.37

22.74

72.57

456.3:1,000

Third period, 21 days, corn-and-cob meal...

527. 00

3.37

12.05

17.78

63.48

389.1:1,000

Grade Shorthorn cow:

First period, 21 days, sugar meal

753. 50

3.97

12.43

29.94

93.67

469.8:1,000
380.0:1,000

Second period, 21 days, corn-and-cob meal..

601.50

3.15

11.45

18.97

68.89

Third period, 21 days, sugar meal

5G0. 50

3.85

12.16

21.58

68.16

463.3:1,000

Grade Holstein cow:

First period, 21 days, sugar meal

487. 50

4.15

13.27

20.25

64.69

455.6:1,000

Second period, 21 days, corn-and-cob meal..

379.00

3.51

12.69

13.30

48.09

382.3:1,000

Third period, 21 days, sugar meal

374. 50

3.72

13. 01

13.95

48.74

401.0:1,000

Here we see in every instance a marked relative increase of the but-
ter, and to a less extent of the other milk solids whenever the sugar
meal — rich in fat and albuminoids^was furnished. The opposite
theory having been largely taught, it becomes needful thus to sustain
the old and well-founded belief of the dairymen.

Not only does the richness of the milk vary with the nature of the
food, but it varies also according to the time of the day when it is
drawn, the morning milk giving 7^ per cent of cream and the evening
milk 9^ per cent (Hassall). Boedecker found that the morning
milk had 10 per cent of solids, while the evening milk had 13 per cent.
Again, the milk first drawn at any milking is always poorer than the
last, drawn. The first may have only one-half, or in extreme cases
one-fourth, the cream of the last. Once more, when the cow is in heat
the milk becomes richer in solids (casein and butter), and contains
granular and white blood cells like the colostrum, and often disagrees
with the young animal living on it. Now, while these various modifi-
cations in the amount of solid matters may prove harmless to a strong
and vigorous calf, they can easily be the occasion of intestinal dis-
order in a weaker one, or in one with health already somewhat im-
paired by sickness, exposure, or unwholesome buildings. The casein
of the cow's milk coagulates in one solid mass, and is much less easily
penetrated by the digesting fluids than the fine, flaky coagula of
woman's or mare's milk. An excess of casein, therefore, thrown on
an already overtaxed stomach can all the more readily induce dis-
order. So it is with butter fat. "While a most important element in
nutrition, it may be present in the stomach in such quantity as to
interfere with the action of the gastric juice on the casein, and with

256 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the interruption of the natural stomach digestion the fats themselves
undergo decomposition with the production of offensive and irritat-
ing fatty acids.

The milk of the very young ccw is usually more watery than that of
the mature animal, and that of the old cow has a greater liability to
become acid. It varies much with the breed, the Channel Island
cattle being notorious for the relatively large quantity of cream,
while the Holsteins, Ayrshires, and Shorthorns are remarkable rather
for the quantity of casein. The milk of cows fed on potatoes and grass
is very poor and watery ; that from cows fed on cabbage or Swedish
turnips has a disagreeable taste and odor (from the former an offen-
sive liquid has been distilled).

Cows fed on overkept, fermen ed, and soured rations have acid
milk, which readily turns and coagulates. Thus old, long-kept brew-
er's grains, swill, the refuse of glucose factories, and ensilage which
has been put up too green all act in this way. The same may come
from disease in the cow's udder, or any general disease of the cow
with attendant fever, and in all such cases the tendency is to rapid
change and unwholesomeness. If the milk is drawn and fed from
a pail, there is the added danger of all sorts of poisonous ferments
getting into it and multiplying; it may be from the imperfect cleans-
ing and scalding of the pail ; from rinsing the pails with water that
is impure; from the entrance of bacterial ferments floating in the
filthy atmosphere of the stable, or from the entrance of the volatile
chemical products of fermentation.

In addition to the dangers coming through the milk, the calf suf-
fers in its digestive powers from any temporary illness, and among
others from the excitement attendant on the cutting of teeth, and
impaired digestion means fermentations in the undigested masses
and the excessive production of poisonous ptomaines and toxins.

Whatever may be the starting or predisposing cause of this malady,
when once established it is liable to perpetuate itself by contagion
and to prove a veritable plague in a herd or a district.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of a diarrhea may ajopear so promptly
after birth as to lead to the idea that the cause already existed in the
body of the calf, and it usually shows itself before the end of the
second week. It may be preceded by constipation, as in retained
meconium, or by fetid eructations and colicky pains, as in acute indi-
gestion. The tail is stained by the liquid dejections, which are at
first simply soft and mixed with mucus with a sour odor, accom-
panied with a peculiar and characteristic fetor (suggesting rotten
cheese), which continually grows worse. The quantity of water and
mucus steadily increases, the normal predominance of fatty matters
becoming modified by the presence of considerable undigested casein,
which is not present in the normal feces, and in acute cases death

DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 257

may result in one or two da3^s from the combined drain on the sys-
tem and the poisoning by the absorbed products of the decomposi-
tion in the stomach and bowels. When the case is prolonged the
passages, at first 5 or 6 a day, increase to 15 or 20, and pass with
more and more straining, so that they are projected from the animal
in a liquid stream. The color of the feces, at first yellow, becomes a
lighter gra^ash yellow or a dirty white (hence the name white scour),
and the fetor becomes intolerable.

At first the calf retains its appetite, but as the severity of the
disease increases the animals shows less and less disposition to suck,
and has lost all vivacity, lying dull and listless, and, when raised,
walking weakly and unsteadily. Flesh is lost rapidly, the hair stands
erect, the skin gets dry and scurfy, the nose is dry and hot, or this
condition alternates with a moist and cool one. By this time the
mouth and skin, as well as the breath and dung, exhale the peculiar,
penetrating, sour, offensive odor, and the poor calf has become an
object of disgust to all that approach it. At first, and unless inflam-
mation of the stomach and bowels supervene (and unless the affec-
tion has started in indigestion and colic), the belly is not bloated or
painful on pressure, symptoms of acute colicky pains are absent, and
the bowels do not rumble ; neither are bubbles of gas mingled with
the feces. The irritant products of the intestinal fermentations may,
hoAvever, irritate and excoriate the skin around the anus, which
becomes red, raw, and broken out in sores for some distance. Simi-
larly the rectum, exposed by reason of the relaxed condition of the
anus, or temporarily in straining to pass the liquid dejection, is of
a more or less deep red, and it may be ulcerated. Fever, with rapid
pulse and increased breathing and temperature, usually comes on
with the very fetid character of the feces and is more pronounced
as the bowels become inflamed, the abdomen sore to the touch and
tucked up, and the feces more watery and even mixed with blood.

Prevention. — The prevention of these cases is the prevention of
constipation and indigestion, with all their varied causes as above
enumerated, the selection of a strong, vigorous stock, and, above all,
the combating of contagion, especially in the separation of the sick
from the healthy, and in the thorough purification and disinfection
of the buildings. The cleansing and sweetening of all drains, the
removal of dung heaps, and the washing and scraping of floors and
W' alls, followed by a liberal application of chlorid of lime (bleaching
powder), 4 ounces to the gallon, are indicated. Great care must be
exercised in the feeding of the cow to have sound and wholesome
feed and water, so apportioned as to make the milk neither too rich
nor too poor, and to her health, so that the calf may be saved from
the evil consequences of poisonous principles that may be produced
33071°— 16 17

258 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

in the body of the cow. The calves should be carefully kept apart
from all calving cows and their discharges. Similarly each calf
must have special attention to see that its nurse gives milk which
agrees with it, and that this is furnished at suitable times. If allowed
to suck, it should either be left with the cow or be fed three times a
day. If it becomes hungry twice a day, it is more liable to overload
and derange the stomach, and if left too long hungry it is tempted
to take in unsuitable and unwholesome feed, for which its stomach
is as yet unprepared. So, if fed from the pail, it is safer to do so
three times daily than twice. There should be the utmost cleanliness
of feeding dishes, and the feeder must be ever on the alert to prevent
the strong and hungry from drinking the milk of the weaker in
addition to their own. In case the cow nurse has been subjected
to any great excitement by reason of travel, hunting, or carrying,
the first milk she yields thereafter should be used for some other
purpose and only the second allowed to the calf. Indeed, one and
all of the conditions indicated above as causes should be judiciously
guarded against.

Treatment. — Treatment varies according to the nature and stage
of the disease. When the disease is not widespread, but isolated
cases only occur, it may be assumed to be a simple diarrhea and is
easily dealt with. The first object is to remove the irritant matter
from stomach and bowels, and for this 1 or 2 ounces of castor oil
may be given, according to the size of the calf. Reduce the milk b}'
one-half or two-thirds. If the stools smell particularly sour, the milk
may be replaced by 1 ounce calcined magnesia, and in any case a
tablespoonful or two of limewater must be given with each meal.
Great harm is often done by giving opium and astringents at the
outset. These serve merely to bind up the bowels and retain the irri-
tant source of the trouble ; literally, " to shut up the wolf in the sheep-
fold." When the offending agents have been expelled in this way,
carminatives and demulcent agents may be given — 1 dram of anise
water, 1 dram nitrate of bismuth, and 1 dram of gum arable, three
times a day. Under such course the consistency of the stools should
increase until in a day or two they become natural.

If, however, the outbreak is more general and evidently the result
of contagion, the first consideration is to remove all sources of such
contamination. Test the milk of the cow with blue litmus paper;
if it reddens, reject the milk until by sound, dry feeding, with per-
haps a course of hyposulphite of soda and gentian root, the milk is
made alkaline. The castor oil or magnesia will be demanded to clear
away the (now infecting) irritants, but they should be combined with
antiseptics, and, while the limewater and the carminative mixture
may still be used, a most valuable addition will be found in the

DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 259

following: Calomel, 10 grains; prepared chalk, 1 ounce; creosote, 1
teaspoonf ul ; mix, divide into 10 parts, and give one four times a day.
Or the following may be given four times a day : One dram Dover's
powder, 6 grains powdered ipecacuanha ; mix, divide into 10 equal
parts. Injections of solutions of gum arable are often useful, and if
the anus is red and excoriated, one-half dram of copperas may be
added to each pint of the gummy solution. All the milk given must
be boiled, and if that does not agree, eggs made into an emulsion
with barley water may be substituted. Small doses (tablespoonful)
of port wine are often useful from the first, and as the feces lose
their watery character and become more consistent, tincture of gen-
tian in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls may be given three or four times a
day. Counterirritants, such as mustard, ammonia, or oil of turpen-
tine, may be rubbed on the abdomen when it becomes tender to the
touch.

ACUTE CONTAGIOUS SCOURING IN THE NEWBORN.

The most violent and deadly form of diarrhea in the newborn calf
deserves a special mention. This may appear immediately after
birth, and shows itself almost invariably within the first or second
day. The most intense symptoms of white scour are complicated by
great dullness, weakness, and prostration, sunken eyes, retracted
belly, short, hurried breathing, and very low temperature, the calf
lying on its side, with the head resting on the ground, lethargic and
unconscious or regardless of all around it. The bowel discharges
are profuse, yellowish white, and very ojffensive. As a rule death
ensues within 24 to 36 hours.

A marked characteristic of this form of illness is that it attacks
almost every calf born in the herd, or in the building, rather, and if
the calf escapes an attack in the first two or three days of its life it
usually survives. Those that recover from an attack, however, are
liable one or tw^o weeks later to suffer from an infective inflammation
of the lungs. The infection clings to a stable for years, in many
cases rendering it impossible to preserve and raise the calves. It
has frequently coincided with abortions and failures to conceive in
the same herd, so that it has been thought that the same infective
germ produces one type of abortion. On the other hand, the removal
of the calving cow from the herd to calve in a separate building,
hitherto unused and therefore uninfected, usually effects the escape
and survival of the offspring.

The disease has been traced by Nocard and Lignieres to a small
bacillus having the general characters of those that produce hemor-
rhagic septicemia, which is usually combined with a variety of
others, but is in some cases alone and in pure culture, especially in

260 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the joints. The theon^ of Lignieres is that this bacillus is the pri-
mary offender, and that once introduced it so depresses the vital
powers of the system and tissue cells that the healthy resistance to
other bacteria is impaired or suspended, and hence the general and
deadly invasion of the latter.

Inoculations with this bacillus killed guinea pigs or rabbits in 6
to 18 hours, and calves in 30 hours, with symptoms and lesions of
hemorrhagic septicemia, including profuse fetid diarrhea.

The predominance of the early and deadly lesions in the alimen-
tary tract would seem to imply infection through the feed, and the
promptitude of the attack after birth, together with the frequent
coincidence of contagious abortion in the herd, suggest the presence
of the germ in the cow; yet the escape of tlie calf when the cow
calves in a fresh building is equally suggestive of the infection
through germs laid up in the building. This conclusion is further
sustained by the observation that the bacillus evidently enters by
the raw, unhealed navel, that it is diffused in the blood, and that a
very careful preservation of the navel against infection gives im-
munity from attack.

Prevention. — The disease is so certainly and speedily fatal that it
is hopeless to expect recovery, and therefore prevention is the ra-
tional resort.

"Vivien a herd is small, the removal of the dam to a clean, unused
stable a few days before calving and her retention there for a week
usually succeeds. It is in the large herd that the disease is mainly
to be dreaded, however, and in this it is impossible to furnish new
and pure stables for each successive group of two or three calving
cows. The thorough disinfection of the general stable ought to suc-
ceed, yet I have seen the cleanest and purest stable repeatedly dis-
infected with corrosive sublimate without stopping the malady. It
would appear as if the germ lodged on the surface or in the bowels
of the cow and tided the infection over the period of stable disinfec-
tion. Though insufficient of themselves, the supply of separate
calving boxes and the frequent thorough cleaning and disinfection
of both these and the stables should not be neglected. The most
important measure, however, is the disinfection of the navel.

The cow should be furnished with abundance of dry, clean bed-
ding, sprinkled with a solution of carbolic acid. As soon as calving
sets in the tail and hips and anus and vulva should be sponged with
a carbolic-acid solution (one-half ounce to the quart), and the vagina
injected with a weaker solution (2 drams to the quart). Fresh car-
bolized bedding should be constantly supplied, so that the calf may
be dropped on that and not on soaked litter nor manure. The navel
string should be at once tied with a cord that has been taken from a

DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 261

strong solution of carbolic acid. The stump of the cord and the
adjacent skin should then be washed with the following solution:
lodin, one-half dram ; iodid of potassium, one-half dram ; water, 1
quart. When dry it may be covered with a coating of collodion or
tar, each containing 1 per cent of iodin.

Whenever a calf shows any sign of scouring it should be instantly
removed to another pen and building, and the vacated one should
be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Different attendants should
take care of the sound calves and the infected ones, and all utensils,
litter, etc., kept scrupulously apart.

After one week the healthy calves may usually be safely herded
together, or they may be safely placed in the cow stable.

OTHER AILMENTS OF THE CALF.

Among these may be named several congenital imperfections, such
as imperforate anus, vulva, or prepuce, which are to be recognized by
the inability to pass dung or urine, in spite of straining, and the
formation of swellings in the anus, vulva, or sheath. Each must be
carefully incised with the knife, taking care not to injure the muscles
which circumscribe the respective openings; also tongue-tie, in
which the thin, flaccid, mucous membrane passing from the median
line of the lower surface of the tongue binds the latter too closely
to the floor of the mouth and renders the tongue unfit for gathering
in the food in after life. This must be cut with knife or scissors,
so as to give the tongue a reasonable degree of liberty.

Aphtha, or thrush, is another trouble of the sucking calf , showing
itself as a white, curdy elevation on the tongue, lips, cheeks, or gums,
and when detached leaving a raw, red, angry surface. It is due to
the growth of a vegetable parasite long recognized as the O'idium
albicans {Saccharom/yces albicans). It is easily removed by rubbing
with powdered borax, but inasmuch as other colonies are liable to
start either in the mouth or in the pharynx, gullet, or stomach, it is
well to give a dose of one-half dram of hyposulphite of soda in
water daj'^ by day for several days.

Rickets is not a common disease in calves, and comes on, if at all,
later than those we have been considering. It consists in softening
and friability of the bones from a deficiency of lime salts, and ap-
pears to be mainly connected with an inherited weakness of consti-
tution, unsuitable feeding, cold, close, damp buildings, microbian
infection, and other conditions inimical to health. The prevention
and treatment of rickets consists essentially in the improvement of
the digestion and general health ; hence sunshine, open air, exercise,
nourishing food, and tonics are indicated. (See p. 265.)

BONES: DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS.

By V. T. Atkinson, V. S.
[Revised by John R. Mohler, V. M. D.]

Some knowledge of the skeleton is advisable to facilitate the study
of diseases of bones and the accidental injuries to which they are
exposed. The skeleton of the adult ox is made up of the following
number of bones:

Spinal column ^ 45

Head ■- 28

Chest^ 27

Shoulder 2 — 1 on each side.

Arm 2 — 1 on each side.

Foreai'm 4 — 2 on each side.

Forefoot 40 — 20 on each side.

Pelvis 2 — Ion each side.

Thigh 2 — 1 on each sida

Leg 6 — 3 on each side.

Hind foot 38 — 19 on each side.

Total 196

Without attempting to burden the reader with the technical names
and a scientific classification of each, it appears desirable to describe
some of the characteristics of forms in general and of a few classes
into which they may be divided, leaving the special study of in-
dividual bones to the illustrations of the skeleton (PL XXV), which
will serve better than a great deal of Avriting to fix in the mind of the
reader the location, relation, and function of each one. In early fetal
life the place of bone is supplied by temporary cartilage, which
gradually changes to bone. For convenience of study, bones may be
said to be composed of a form of dense connective tissue impregnated
with lime salts and to contain two elementary constituents — the
organic or animal and the inorganic or earthy. In young animals
the former predominates ; with increasing years the relative propor-
tions of the two change, so that when advanced age is reached the
proportion of inorganic far exceeds the organic. The gradual change
with advancing years from organic to inorganic has the effect of
rendering the bone harder and more brittle, and though it is stronger,
the reparative process is slower when injury does occur.

The bones are nourished in two ways: First, from the outside
through their covering, called the periosteum — the thin, strong mem-
262

bones: diseases and accidents. 263

brane that covers every part of the bone except the articular surface
of the joints; and, secondly, from within through the minute
branches of blood vessels which pass into the bones through holes
(foramina) on their surface and are distributed in the soft structure
(medulla) of the inside. The structure of the bone is divided into
two parts — the compact or hard material of the outside, which gives
strength and is more abundant in the shafts of long bones, and the
cancellated, softer tissue of the inside, which affords accommodation
to the blood vessels necessary for the nourishment of that part of
the structure.

In shape, bones are divided into three classes — -long, flat, and short.
The long bones are the ribs and those mostly found in the limbs; the
flat bones are found in the head, the shoulder, and the pelvis; the
short bones in the spinal column and in the lower portions of the
limbs.

With this little introduction, which seems almost indispensable, we
will proceed at once to the consideration of diseases of bones, for they
undergo diseased processes like any other living tissue.

OSTEITIS.

Inflammation of the compact structure of bones (osteitis) may be
either acute or chronic, and may involve the whole extent of the bone
affected or may be confined to only a portion of it. This inflamma-
tion results from injury, such as concussion, laceration, or a crushing
bruise; also from specific influences, as in actinomycosis (lumpy jaw)
or cases of foul foot. The latter affection frequently involves the
bones, and for this reason the pastern is the most frequent seat of
osteitis. There is dull pain on pressure and a painful swelling of
bone when pus is present. Suppuration may involve the overlying
soft tissues, causing an abscess, which may finally break through the
skin. The inflammatory condition sometimes assumes an ulcerated
form (caries) or from interrupted nutrition of the part deprived of
the blood necessary to its nourishment may cause death of a large
section of bone (necrosis) ; this dead fragment (sequestrum), becom-
ing separated from the main portion of bone, acts as a foreign body.

Treatment. — This consists in resting the affected part and in giving
vent at the earliest possible moment to whatever pus may be present.
Free drainage should then be maintained. Apply dressings of lactic
acid or inject with 5 per cent zinc-chlorid solution and pack with
tampons of cotton soaked in antiseptic solutions. A laxative to keep
the bowels moving freely is the only internal treatment necessary.

PERIOSTITIS.

This disease is an inflammation of the external covering of bone
(periosteum) and is usually produced by wounds, pressure, or crush-

264 DJSEASES OF CATTLE.

ing the part. The periosteum is well supplied with sensitive nerve
endings and when inflamed is verj'^ sensitive to pressure and may
cause lameness. This condition is often difficult to determine, and
even an acute observer may fail to locate the point of its existence.
There are three forms of periostitis — aseptic, purulent, and fibrous.

Aseptic periostitis when it becomes chronic causes such a bony
enlargement (exostosis) as is seen in the callous formation following
the fracture of a bone. The formation of such a tumor or enlarge-
ment on the surface of a bone is liable to occur in any part of the
bone covered with periosteum, and when found near a joint involv-
ing two or more bones it is liable to result in their union (anchylosis).

Treatment. — Applications of cold water to check the inflammatory
processes is indicated for the first few days in aseptic periostitis,
followed by hot fomentations to hurry resorption of fluids. Mas-
.sage should then be given with camphor ointment, mercurial oint-
ment, soap liniment, or Lugol's solution. In the chronic forjn point
firing or a biniodid-of -mercury blister will be found beneficial.

Purulent periostitis follows wounds which reach the periosteum
and become infected, as observed in compound fractures, or it may
result from advancing purulent conditions in neighboring structures,
as in foul foot. It may also occur in the course of an infectious dis-
ease, when small abscesses are formed under the periosteum (sub-
periosteal abscess) . It may lead to necrosis of the bone or a fistulous
track from the bone to the surface. There is usually much pain and
fever, and the odor from the wound is offensive.

Treatment. — In this form of periostitis the periosteum should be
freely incised, followed either by continuous irrigation or frequent
injection of the wound with antiseptic solutions.

Fibrous periostitis. — This form of the disease consists in the
thickening of the outer layer of the periosteum from the inflamma-
tion reaching it from neighboring structures. This newly formed
fibrous tissue may become ossified or may transmit the inflammation
to the deeper bony structures. It is frequently seen in cases in which
there has been an intense inflammation of the skin close to an
underlying bone.

Treatm/int. — The treatment should be the same as that recom-
mended for aseptic periostitis.

OSTEOMYELITIS.

This term refers to an inflammation of the bone marrow, which is
most commonly seen following the bacterial infection of a compound
fracture and usually results in pus formation. The bone is melted
away and pus escapes from the bone under the periosteum, involving
the soft tissues. It is principally confined to the Ibng bones and sel-
dom affects more than one.

BONES : DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 265

Treatment. — The bone should be opened for the purpose of curet-
ting out the diseased portion of the marrow cavity and removing all
the necrotic pieces of bone. This should be undertaken only by a
competent veterinarian. The after treatment consists in tamponing
the wound with pledgets of iodoform gauze or injecting a 2 per cent
solution of sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid of similar strength or
pure lactic acid or a mixture of iodoform 1 part and glycerin 4 parts.
The wound in the soft tissue should be kept open until the cavity in
the bone has filled with' granulation tissue.

RICKETS.

This disease, also called " rachitis," is an inflammatory affection of
young, growing bones, and mostly involves the ribs and long bones of
the legs. It consists in a failure of the organism to deposit lime
salts in bone, and for this reason the bones do not ossify so rapidly as
they should. The cartilaginous ends of the bones grow rapidly, but
ossification does not keep pace with it. The bones become long and
their ends bend at the joints, the legs become crooked, and the joints
are large and irregular. All the bones affected with this disease are
thicker than normal, and the gait of the animal is stiff and painful.
A row of bony enlargements may be found where the ribs articulate
with the cartilages connecting them with the breastbone and is called
the "beaded line." A catarrhal condition of the digestive tract is
usually observed. The disease may result from an inherited weak-
ness of constitution, poor hygienic surroundings, or improper diet.
Calves and foals are less frequently affected with rickets than dogs
and pigs.

Treatment. — The affected animal should have nourishing feed
containing a proper quantity of lime salts. Outdoor exercise and
plenty of fresh air are indispensable. Limewater shpuld be given
once daily for drinking purposes and ground bone meal mixed with
the food. Phosphorus, one-fortieth of a grain, and calcium phos-
phate, 1 dram, given twice daily to a 2-month-old calf, and propor-
tionally increased for older animals, has proved efficacious in this
disease. In some cases the long bones of the limbs are too weak at
birth to support the Aveight of the animal, and temporary splints,
carefully padded and wrapped on with some soft bandages, become
necessary.

OSTEOMALACIA (CREEPS).

This is a condition of bone brittleness or softening of bone found
usually in adult life. It consists in the decalcification of mature
bone, with the advancing diminution of the compact portion of bone
by absorption. The periosteum strips very easily from the bone.
This disease is seen in milch cows during the period of heavy lacta-

266 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

tion or in the later stages of j^regnancy, and the greater the yield of
milk the more rapid the progress of the disease. Heifers with their
first calves are frequently affected, as these animals require a consid-
erable quantity of animal salts for their own growth and for the
nourishment of their offspring.

Symptotns. — In marked cases there is a gradual emaciation and
symptoms of gastrointestinal catarrh, with depraved appetite, the
animal eating manure, decayed wood, dirt, leather, etc. Muscular
"vyeakness is prominent, together with muscle* tremors, which simulate
chills, but are not accompanied with any rise of temperature. The
animal has a stiff, laborious gait; there is pain and swelling of the
joints, and constant shifting of the weight from one leg to another.
The restricted movements of the joints are frequently accompanied
with a crackling sound, which has caused the name of " creeps " to be
applied to the disease. The coat is dull and rough and the skin dry
and hidebound. The animal is subject to frequent sprains or fracture
of bones without apparent cause, as in lying down or turning around,
and when such fractures occur they are difficult to unite. The bones
principally involved are the upper bones of the legs, the haunch bone,
and the middle bones of the spinal column. The disease in this
country is confined to localized areas in the Southwest, known as the
" alkali districts," and in the old dairy sections of New York State.
The cause of this affection is the insufficiency or total absence of
lime salts in the food, also to feeding ha}^ of low, damp pastures,
kitchen slops, and potatoes, or to overstocking lands. It occurs on
old, worn-out soil devoid of lime salts, and has also been observed to
follow a dry season.

Treatment. — This should consist in a change of feed and the artifi-
cial feeding of lime salts, such as magnesium and sodium phosphate.
Feed containing mineral salts may be given, such as beans, cowpeas,
oats, cottonseed meal, or wheat bran. Cottonseed meal is one of the
best feeds for this purpose, but it should be fed carefully, as too large
quantities of it are injurious to cows. Phosphorus may also be given
in one-fourth gi*ain doses twice daily, together with a tablespoonful
of powdered bone meal or crude calcium phosphate at each meal.
Ordinary lime dissolved in drinking water (limewater) will also be
found efficacious in combating this disease, and can be provided at
slight expense. A change of pasture to a locality where the disease is
unknown and a free sujjply of common salt and bone meal will be the
most convenient method of treating range cattle.

SPRAINS.

The most common accident occurring to bones and joints is a
sprain of the ligaments miiting the bones, or the tendons uniting the
muscles and bones. A sprain is the result of a sudden forcing of a

BON-ES: DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 267

joint in an unnatural direction, or, if in a natural direction, beyond
the power of the ligament or tendon to restrain it properly, so that
part of the fibers of either are ruptured. When such an accident
occurs pain is immediately inflicted, varying in degree with the
extent of the injury, which is soon followed by swelling, with more
or less heat and tenderness. If the seat of the injury be in any of
the limbs, lameness is likely to result. Of the causes of sprain, slip-
ping on ice or a wet floor, playing, or fighting with another animal
are the most common.

Sprain or the shoulder joint. — This is liable to occur from any
of the causes mentioned above or from the animal slipping suddenly
into a rut or hole. When such an accident occurs, sudden lameness
will attract attention. The animal will be noticed to drag the leg:
when walking and to carry it in a circular direction, outward and
forward, at each step. The leg should be carefully examined, pres-
sure over the joint causing the animal to evince pain. If the person
making the examination is in doubt, it is well to make a comparison
between the shoulders by pressing first on one and then the other.
After such an accident the animal should be tied up so as to limit so
far as possible the use of the injured joint.

Soft feed should be given with a view of keeping the bowels acting
freely. •

Treatment. — During the first three daj' s the treatment should con-
sist of cold-water irrigation to check the inflammation and relieve the
pain. Hot fomentations may then be applied to hasten the absorp-
tion of the inflammatory fluids. Wlien the pain has somewhat
abated, equal parts of mercurial ointment and green soap may be
rubl>ed into the swollen tissue. Should lameness continue after the
tenth day, good results will be obtained from the application of a
blister. This may be done by carefully clipping off the hair over
the joint, including a surface of 4 or 5 inches in circumference, and
rubbing in the following preparation:

Powdered cantharides '. dram 1

Biniodid of mercury do 1

Vaseline ounce 1

The animal's head should be carefully tied until the third day, to
prevent its licking the blister. The blistered surface should then be
smeared with lard or vaseline every other day until the scabs fall off.
Gentle exercise should be allowed after the fourth or fifth day from
the application of the blister. If the lameness still remains the
blister may be repeated in three weeks or a month.

Sprain of the fetlock. — This may occur from misstep when the
animal is moving rapidly, and the twisting or wrenching of the foot
is sufficient to rupture partially the ligaments which bind the bones

268 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

together at that part. Such an accident also frequentlj^ occurs by
the foot in getting fastened in a hole in the floor; the wrenching is
the result of the animal's attempt to liberate it. Lameness, followed
by swelling of the joint and pain when it is handled, or when the
animal moves the joint, and heat, are the more noticeable symptoms.
If the sprain is very severe, the animal occasionally does not bear
its weight on the limb.

Treatment. — The most important consideration in the treatment
of this affection is rest, which is best enforced by keeping the ani-
mal in the stall and placing strong, muslin bandages about the in-
flamed joint. As in the sprain of the shoulder, cold water in the
form of douches, continuous irrigation with hose or soaking tub, or
finely chopped ice poultices is indicated for the first three days.
Following this apply a Priessnitz bandage^ moderately tight about
the joint, which not only conduces to rest, but also favors absorption.
Massage with stimulating liniments, such as soap or camphor, may
later be applied to the affected parts.

If the lameness has not disappeared by the tenth day, the blister
advised for the sprain of the shoulder should be applied and the
same precautions observed as to tying the animal's head and subse-
quent smearing with vaseline. ^^Hien a blister is applied in this
locality, the back part of the heel should be first filled with lard or
vaseline, and care taken to prevent any of the blistering preparation
from coming in contact with the skin of that part. If this precaution
is not observed, scratches may ensue and prove troublesome.

Sprain of the hip. — This is liable to result from the animal's
slipping in such way as to spread the hind feet wide apart. The
patient goes stiff in the hind legs, or lame in one hind leg, walking
with a straddling gait and swinging the leg outward as it is carried
forward. Tenderness may occasionally be detected on pressure, but
owing to the heavy covering of muscles outside the joint this test is
not always reliable.

In the acute cases give rest and cold local applications. After the
fourth or fifth day the blister mentioned for sprain of the shoulder
may be applied with advantage, and if this proves insufficient, as a
last resort we may fire in points over the joint.

Sprain or the back. — Sprain of the back, particularly in the
region of the loins, is not an uncommon accident among cattle. It
is liable to occur from the animals slipping with both hind feet side-

1 A Preissnitz bandage is a dressing which combines the three properties of keeping a
part warm, moist, and subjecting it to uniform pressure. It consists of three layers of
material. The inner layer is composed of absorbent cotton or some other material which
is capable of holding moisture. This is soaked in water and wrapped around the part.
The second layer consists of a substance which is impervious to moisture, as oiled silk
or oiled paper, and is applied abo\it the inner layer to prevent evaporation. The third or
outside layer is composed of a flannel or woolen bandage to prevent the radiation of beat
and thus keep the moist inner layer at the temperature of the body.

bones: diseases and accidents. 269

wise so as to twist the back, or from slipping violently backward so
that great stress is throAvn on the loins. The patient moA'es with
difficulty, using the hind parts in a guarded manner, as if afraid of
causing severe pain. Occasionally, if the sprain is severe, the animal
will rise with difficulty. Pressure on the back in the immediate region
of the loins causes pain. Such cases may be mistaken for paralysis,
and, in fact, in severe cases, during the early stages of the injury,
although the nerve supply is not interfered with, the injury to the
muscles and resulting pain is so great that the condition is almost
equal to paralysis, although liable to be att€nded with more favorable
results. Hot applications, such as blankets w^rung out of hot water
and changed often, will be likely to afford relief during the earlier
stages. Afterward the blister mentioned for sprain of the shoulder
may be applied with advantage.

FRACTURES (BROKEN BONES).

Bones may be accidentally broken in many ways and from differ-
ent causes. Fractures in general are liable to be produced by ex-
ternal force suddenly and violently applied, either directly to the
part or at a distance, the force being transmitted through the
stronger bones until it expends itself by breaking a weaker one re-
mote from the seat of the injury. Occasionally violent contraction
of muscles is sufficient to break a bone. Certain bones, those of the
limbs in particular, owing to their exposed position, are more liable
to fracture than others. Owing to certain predisposing causes, such
as age, habit, or heriditary constitutional weakness, the bones of
some animals are more easily fractured than those of others. The
bones of an animal advanced in years are more subject to fracture
because of the preponderance of inorganic matter rendering them
more brittle. They are also occasionally rendered liable to fracture
by a previously existing diseased condition. Fractures are diAdded
into four classes — partial, simple, compound, and comminuted.

Partial feactures. — Partial fractures are those which are liable
to occur in a yoimg animal in which the preponderance of animal
matter or the semicartilaginous condition of the bone renders it
tough, so that even when considerable force is applied the bone
bends, breaking on the side opposite that to which the force was
applied, after the manner in which a green stick bends and breaks.

Simple fractures. — Simple fracture is one in which the bone is
severed in two parts, transversely, longitudinally, or obliquely, with-
out serious injury to the adjoining structures.

Compound fractures. — Compound fracture is one in which there
is an open wound permitting the air to communicate with the ends
of the broken bones.

270 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Comminuted fractures. — Comminuted fracture is one in which
the bone is shattered or divided into a number of fragments.

Complicated fractures.— Complicated fracture is one in which
other structures surrounding the bones are injured.

General symptoms of fracture. — When a fracture of one or more
of the large bones of a limb occurs, symptoms are sure to be well
marked. After the accident the animal refuses to touch the foot to
the ground and, if compelled to move, does so with great pain and
reluctance. There is more or less shortening of the limb, w^ith trem-
bling of the muscles in the vicinity of the injury; deformity, and in-
creased mobility, so that, instead of the natural joints of the limb
and the natural, muscular control of their motion, a new joint, over
which the animal has no control, is formed where the fracture oc-
curred. As the leg, shortened by the ends of the bones being forced
past one another from the muscular contraction which invariably
takes place, hangs dependent from the body it swings in an awkward
and unnatural manner, permitting the toe and foot to assume posi-
tions in their relations to other parts of the body which otherwise
would be impossible. If the fractured bone is so situated that the
parts may be moved one upon another, a grating sound, known as
crepitus, will be heard.

General treatment of fractures. — When a fracture occurs, the
advisability of attempting treatment must first be determined. If
the animal is young, valuable, and of reasonably quiet temperament,
and the fracture is not too great in extent, the chances of recovery
are fair. On the other hand, if the animal should be of little value,
irritable, advanced in years, and the fracture is a serious compound
cr comminuted one, the wiser course would generally be to put the
creature out of its misery.

Having determined to attempt treatment, no time should be lost
in restoring the parts as nearly as possible to their natural position
and retaining them there. If the ends of the bones have been drawn
one past the other, they should be drawn out by firm and continuous
tension, until they again assume the position in which they were
before the accident. All this can better be done before the swelling
(which is sure to result) takes place. If the swelling has occurred
before the injury is noticed, do not attempt to treat it, but proceed at
once to treat the fracture as though the swelling were not present,
for no step can be taken toAvard recovery until the ends of the bone
have been restored to their proper position. When that is done and
proper appliances have been used to prevent them from being again
misplaced, the swelling, which is the result of irritation, will be re-
lieved. In selecting the appliances to be used in the treatment of
fracture the judgment and ingenuity of the operator are of much im-
portance. Splints, made of wood shaped to fit the limb and padded

bones: diseases and accidents. 271

with soft material where they come in contact with bony promi-
nences, and held in position by means of bandages, are the oldest
method, and with some are still most popular. The fracture pads
used in human surgery, and for sale in surgical depots, are very con-
venient. After being dipped in water they may be molded to fit the
limb and be retained by means of bandages. Heav}^ sole leather is
also used after being soaked in warm water- and molded to the shape
of the limb and holes cut in it to fit over any sharp irregularities in
the natural shape of the bones. Gutta-percha sheets are also used
and answer well. They are prepared and used in the same way as
the leather.

Another and perhaps the simpl^t of all methods is the application
of a plaster-of -Paris bandage, which is made as follows: Strips of
thin cheesecloth 3 inches wide and 8 or 9 feet long are laid flat on
a board and on them is spread a layer of plaster of Paris about one-
eighth of an inch thick ; then, starting at one end, roll carefully so as
to gather the plaster in between the layers of the bandage. It is of
course important that the cloth be thin and the plaster of Paris fresh
and active. After preparing four or five of such bandages the op-
erator is ready to dress the fracture, which, after the parts have been
brought into position, should be done by covering all that part of
the limb to which the plaster-of -Paris bandage is to be applied with
a single layer of the dry bandage, letting it extend both above and
below the part to which the plaster bandage is to be applied and
including under the folds of the dry bandage at each end a layer of
absorbent cotton, which is intended to form a -pad to prevent the
ends of the plaster bandage from chafing the skin beneath. When
this is done one of the plaster bandages should be placed in a vessel
of water and allowed to remain till the air bubbles have ceased to
rise from it, which will generally indicate that it is soaked through.
Then, taking it in the hand, wind it carefully around and around the
limb, unrolling the bandage as it is wound around the limb, occasion-
ally smoothing down the plaster of Paris. Should it form roughly
or in ridges the hand may be dipped in water to impart increased
moisture to it. When about finished with one bandage, place another
one in the water, so that the winding operation may be continued
without delay. The bandages should be applied till the cast is from
one-half to thriee-quarters of an inch thick, then gently restrain the
animal for one-half or three-quarters of an hour till the plaster is
hardened. Any of the appliances used should be so manipulated as
to prevent absolutely any motion of the detached parts. If the
fracture is near a joint, it is generally best to include the joint in the
appliance. The part of the limb below the bandage should be care-
fully and firmly wrapped with an ordinary cotton bandage all the
way from the plaster bandage down to the hoof. This last bandage

272 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

will tend to prevent swelling, which is liable to occur, the result of
the dependent position in which the aniniid is forced by nature to
keep the injured limb.

"Wlien plaster-of-Paris bandages are applied to a compound frac-
ture the injured part may be previously dressed with a small,' thick
pad of cotton immediately over the woimd. In applying the band-
age the operator may with a little care so arrange it as to keep the
folds of the bandages off the cotton, or have only a thin layer over
it, which may be easily cut out and the cotton removed, leaving a con-
venient opening through which to dress the wound without removing
the bandage. The ends of the bandage or other appliance should be
carefully watched to see that the'skin does not become chafed, par-
ticularly at the lower end. If the bandage should become weak or
broken at any part, it may be strengthened without removal by
applying other bandages immediately over it. If swelling has taken
place before the bandage has been applied, there is liable to be some
loosening as it disappears, and even without the swelling there
may be a tendency of the bandage to slide downward. This may
be overcome by fastening it to a suspender attached to a surcingle
or passed over the body and attached to the opposite leg. If the
looseness can not be overcome in this way, the space may be filled by
pouring in a thin paste of plaster of Paris. A better method, how-
ever, is to remove the bandage and apply another. Owing to the
hardness of the bandage it will be removed with some difficulty. A
deep groove should be cut down completely through it on the oppo-
site sides. This niay be done with a chisel and a small hammer if
the bandage is carefully held by an assistant so that the concussion
of the blows is not transmitted to the injured bones. The patient
should have a roomy stall, and should be tied by the head to prevent
any attempts to move around. In some cases slings have been used.
Ordinarily, however, they are not satisfactory in cattle practice, and
if applied should be for only a few days at a time, and with a view to
lessen the animal's disposition to lie down, rather than to prevent it.
When they are used continuously the pressure on the abdomen may
interfere with digestion and the general health of the animal.

Modes of union. — The animal should bo kept as quiet as possible
and given such feed as will have a tendency to keep the bowels
slightly relaxed. The success of the operation depends chiefly on
the skill of the operator, but not alone in the selection and use of the
appliances, for as much attention must be given to subsequent man-
agement. The patients arc unreasonable, and a single awkward
motion may undo the work of weeks so far as the union of the parts
of the bone is concerned. Union takes place after the same process
and, if the conditions are favorable, with greater rapidity than in the
human being. The injury that caused the fracture is almost sure to

bones: diseases and accidents. 273

have extended to some of the adjacent tissues, and even though the
fracture may be of the simplest type there is ahnost sure to be con-
siderable hemorrhage around the ends of the broken bone. This,
however, is unimportant if the skin remains intact, unless a very
large vessel should be injured, or the fracture should open some of
the important cavities of the body, in which case a fatal hemorrhage
may result. If, on the other hand, the fracture is compound the
external opening furnishes a fertile field for the lodgment of disease-
producing germs.

Unless great care is taken in such cases, a suppurative process is
liable to be established which will seriously interfere with, if not
entirely arrest, the process of union between the bones; or it may
become so serious as to endanger the general health of the animal
and even be attended with fatal results. This last danger is greater
if the injury has occurred to the bones of the arm or thigh. In
such cases, owing to the dense covering of fascia which ensheathes
the muscular covering pus is liable to be imprisoned, and, burrowing
downward, saturate the whole structure, not only endangering the
limb, but, by absorption, may set up blood poisoning and seriously
interfere with the general health of the patient, even to causing
death. In order so far as possible to prevent such an unfortunate
complication, the wound should be carefully cleansed with a mild
solution of carbolic acid, then" dusted over with iodoform before the
bandages are applied, and cleansed and dressed daily in the same
way. After dressing, always cover with absorbent cotton. In the
early process of union an exudation of lymph takes place, which is
at first fluid, gradually becoming thicker and firmer till it forms a
callus, loiown as the external or ensheathing callus, in the shape of
a ring or ferrule surrounding the detached portions of the bone. It
occasionally happens that this callus forms only at the ends of the
bones, filling the spaces that exist between them, when it is known
as the intermediate callus. The process of union may be divided into
five stages. In the first stage, including the first eight days, the de-
tached portions of the bone and the sharp projections that are not
sufficiently nourished are absorbed; the blood which escaped into the
surrounding tissues, the result of the injury, is gradually absorbed,
and the effused lymph, which is ultimately to constitute the tem-
porary cartilage, takes it place. In the second stage, from the tenth
to the twentieth clay, the tumor or callus is formed and fibrocartilago
is developed inside and around the exposed end of the bone. In the
third stage, extending from the twentieth to the fortieth or fiftieth
day, according to the age and strength of the animal, the fibrocar-
tilaginous structure undergoes a change and is gradually converted
into bone, forming a ferrule on the outside and a plug on the inside,
33071°— 16 18

274 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

which serve to hold the part m position. In the fourth stage, ex-
tending to about the sixth month, the whole of the new structure is
converted into bone. In the fifth stage, extending to the end of the
first year, the callus is absorbed, being no longer necessary, and
the connection between the cavities of the two bones is again
established.

Common complications. — The process of union just described is
healthy and normal. Diseased conditions may at any time supervene
during the treatment and render the operation unsuccessful. In the
case of compound fracture, the open wound communicating with the
ends of the bones, a septic condition is liable to arise which may be-
come so serious as to endanger the animal's life and bring about con-
ditions which in human surgery would indicate amputation.
Although that operation is not a general one in veterinary practice,
there is no reason why it should not be attempted as a last resort,
particularly if the animal is valuable or is one whose existence is
necessary in order to perpetuate some valuable strain. Even in the
simplest form of fracture, if the splints or bandages are improperly
applied and the fractured bone left so loosely guarded that the
broken ends move one upon another, the formation of the calluses
previously described is liable to be interfered witli, and in place of
a strong, rigid, and healthy union a formation of elastic cartilage is
the result. This false structure unites the broken ends of the bones
in such way that they move one upon another, depriving the bone of
its stability and usefuln«^ss. When once the healthy process of union
is interrupted in the manner just described, it is again established
with great difficulty. It no longer does any good to continue the
restraining power; in fact, the change of the temporary cartilage into
bone is more liable to be reestablished if the parts move violently upon
oach other for a short time so as to set up and renew the process of
inflammation. Then if the restraint is again applied there is some
chance of union. In order so far as possible to avoid this danger,
care should be taken to see that the bandage fits closely and that it
is kept on till there is no longer any danger but that a perfect union
has taken place. It is impossible to say at just what time the splints
or bandages can safely be removed. In a young and healthy animal
of quiet temperament, if the parts have been firmly held in position
throughout the whole time, from 30 to 40 days may be regarded as
reasonably safe. Under more unfavorable conditions as to age,
vitality, and restraint, the period would better be extended to 60 days,
if the general condition of the animal is such as to permit of so long
a continuance. After the appliance has been removed the animal
should be allowed to stand quiet for a few days, then be given very
gentle exercise, gradually increased for a week or 10 days, by which
time the patient will be so far recovered as to be placed in pasture.

bones: diseases and accidents. 275

It should, however, be alone for a time, so as not to take any chance
of injury from fighting or other accidents that association with other
animals might involve.

SPECIAL fractures.

Fracture or the horns. — Of the special fractures liable to occur,
that of the horn is perhaps the most common. It is always the result
of violent mechanical means, such as blows, injury occurring while
fighting, or from the animal getting its head locked in some manner
while feeding from a rack. When it occurs there are two ways in
which the injury may affect the animal. First and most common,
the horny crust is liable to be stripped from the bony projection
which it covers. Second, the crust and bone may both be broken or
bent down, the fracture occurring in that case at the root of the horn
and involving part of the bones of the head in the immediate vicinity.
In the first case, if the horny covering is knocked off, little atten-
tion is necessary. The animal may be relieved from suffering if
the stump is smeared with pine tar and wrapped in cloth. If the
core is much lacerated, perhaps it would be better to amputate.
The necessity for such operation must be determined by the condi-
tion of the injury, influenced to some extent by the owner's ideas
on the subject. When the operation is performed, it should be
done with a sharp, fine-toothed saw, and by sawing the horn off close
enough to include a little of the skin and hair around its base. The
practice of dehorning has grown popular in many parts of the coun-
try. It is a simple operation, and, although attended with some
immediate suffering, does not produce serious constitutional disturb-
ance. The advisability of performing the operation on all cattle is a
question of expediency and must be justified by the expectation of
benefit on the part of the feeder. If the horn should be broken so
that the core and crust are bent out of shape without the detachment
of one from the other, it may be restored to its normal position and
retained there by means of a splint made to fit across the back of the
head, so as to be laced to both horns, the sound horn serving to hold
the broken one in position. Such a splint may be fastened on by
means of either a wire or cord and allowed to remain six weeks or two
months.

If both the horn and core have been broken off, bleeding is usually
severe and should be checked by astringents, such as alum, or by
pressure. After the liemorrhage has ceased the exposed portion of
the fracture should be covered with pine tar, with or without a ban-
dage. An imperfect growth of horn will in due time cover the
exposed bone.

Fractures or the bones or the face. — These occasionally occur,
and when over the cavities of the nose produce depression, disfigure-

276 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ment, and impeded respiration, owing to the lessening of the caliber
of the nasal passages.

"Wlien such accident occurs, the depressed bone should be gently
forced back to i^lace by introducing the finger in the nostril, or if
the fracture is too far up for this, a probe may be passed and the
parts retained by placing immediately over it a plaster of thin leather
or strong canvas smeared with tar, extending out to the sound sur-
roundings, taking care to embed the hair over the fractured portion
in the tar of the plaster, so that it will be firmly held and prevented
from again becoming depressed. If only one nostril is involved,
the depressed portion may be held in position by packing that
nostril with absorbent cotton. This practice, however, has the
objection of giving the animal great discomfort and in some cases
a disposition to aggravate the injury.

Fracture of the skull ( cranium). — Fractures of the bones form-
ing the cavity in wdiicli the brain is situated are, owing to their
strength, comparatively rare among cattle. Such an accident can
only be the result of external violence, and it is hardly possible that
it could occur without some fragment of the broken bone pressing
upon the brain so as to cause coma or other severe nervous derange-
ment, or even death.

If the animal survives the first shock, the efforts should be directed
toward relieving the pressure, which may be done by making an
opening in the bone (trephining), and wath a hook drawing the
depressed part outward. Interference is not so liable to be attended
with good results as to be warranted in all cases. The effects of a
very severe shock wdiich may not have produced a fracture, although
the symptoms were alarming, will in many cases pass off, leaving
the animal in a better condition than if an operation had been per-
formed.

Fracture of the lower jaw. — This occasionally occurs, and is
more liable to result from the kick of a horse than from any other
cause. The front part of the jaw may be split or shattered in any
direction in wdiich the force may have been applied. Bloody dis-
charges from the mouth and failure to eat or ruminate are symp-
toms most likely to attract attention.

The treatment is simple and consists in first removing detached
pieces of bone, then draAving the parts together and retaining them
by means of pieces of copper wire fastened around the teeth, and
feeding the animal on sloppy feed until recovery takes place. The
wound should be dressed once or twice a day wdth a 3 per cent solu-
tion of cai'bolic acid, for-ced gently in with a syi-inge, so as to remove
any feed which may have become impacted and interfere w^ith the
healing process.

bones: diseases and accidents. 277

Fracture or the vertebra (spinal column). — This is not so
common among cattle as other animals. If the fracture should be
through the body of the bone, there may be pressure on or laceration
of the spinal cord, causing paralysis of all parts posterior to the
seat of injury. Fractures of the prominences on the vertebra occa-
sionally occur M'ithout interfering with the canal in which the spinal
cord is situated. Such accidents are liable to pass unnoticed, for,
although the animal may suffer considerable pain, it may not be
manifested in such way as to attract attention, and the deep covering
of muscles serves effectually to conceal the injury. When the frac-
ture occurs in the upper part of the neck, paralysis of the muscles
used in respiration must result, and death from asphyxia very
shortly ensues. The more common accident is to the loins, and
when a fracture of the body of the vertebra occurs in this region
so as to produce pressure on the spinal cord, paralysis of the hind
legs and quarters is the result. Diagnosis of such an accident is
more difficult than in the case of any other fracture. The parts can
not be moved one upon another so that crepitus is noticeable. The
heavy coating of muscles conceals irregularities of shape, which
otherwise may attract attention. About the only reliable symptom
is paralysis or loss of use and sensation of the parts posterior to the
injury. Careful examination may reveal the seat of the injury. If
it was the result of a blow, there may be some abrasion of the skin.
The diagnosis is only important as an aid in determining the proper
course to pursue.

If paralysis is present and a depression or irregularity of the
spinal column is so apparent as to leave no doubt of the existence
of a fracture, the only alternative is to destroy the animal, for of
recovery there can be no hope. If, on the other hand, the paralysis
is incomplete and there is no depression or irregidarity of the spinal
column or other evidence of fracture, the patient should be made as
comfortable as possible by being placed in a well-bedded box stall
and a few days permitted to elapse before the case is abandoned.
The symptoms last described may possibly be the result of a severe
strain of the muscles of the loins, in which case an improvement will
soon be noticeable.

Fractures of the pelvis. — The pelvis, or bony framework which
gives shape to the posterior part of the body, is liable to fracture in
many ways. A common one is by a separation of the two bones
which constitute the whole pelvis along the bottom and center line
(symphysis pubis). In early life the two bones are separate and
distinct. The union between them, which is at first cartilaginous,
undergoes a change and is converted into bone, so that in adult life
the whole pelvis is practically one bone. The point on which the

278 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

two bones are united is weaker than the adjoining parts of the bone.
When an animal slips violently, spreading the legs wide apart, the
weaker materials give way and the bones are divided. If the acci-
dent is noticed w^hen it occurs, it is likely to throw light on the
nature of the injury. The animal will immediately go stiff behind,
the legs being spread apart. Further examination may be made by
introducing the hand, previously carefully oiled, into the rectum or
vagina and pressing down along the central line, which will cause
the patient to evince acute pain. In this case no appliance can be
used to advantage. The animal should be tied in a stall until the
parts become reunited and the lameness disappears.

Fracture of the posterior parts of the bone (ischium), which forms
the point of the buttocks occasionally occurs. The buttock on the
injured side will be less prominent than the other. Careful manipu-
lation will generally move the parts so that crepitus may be recog-
nized. If the fracture is through the posterior part of the bone, it is
unimportant and deserving of no more attention than placing the
animal in such position as to insure it against subsequent injury until
the bones are united. Some distortion may result, but not sufficient
to warrant interference.

.Fracture through the body of the bone on a line with the hip joint
(acetabulum) occasionally, though rarely, occurs, and is nearh^ al-
ways associated with dislocation of the hip joint and the forcing of
the head of the upper bone of the leg (femur) upward, far out of
its place. The violent contraction of the powerful muscles of the hip
renders it impossible to reduce the dislocation, and even if it were
possible the fractured pelvis could not be held in position, so that
the case becomes at once hopeless. It may be recognized by the
animal's standing on three legs, the leg on the injured side seeming
shorter than its fellow and hanging pendulous, the muscles of the
hip violently contracted and hard to the touch. The animal evinces
great pain when the limb is moved. There is liable to be some
apparent distortion in the relations between the point of the hip and
the point of the buttock. This Avill be more readily noticed by com-
paring the injured side with the other. The parts may be moved so
as to produce crepitus. The examination may^be completed by intro-
ducing the oiled hand into the vagina or rectum, when the two sides
of the pelvis will reveal well-marked differences.

Fracture of the point or the hip. — The anterior and external
part of the pelvis (ilium), commonly known as the point of the hip,
is liable to fracture, which stock owners describe as " hipping," or
being " hipped," or having the hip " knocked down." This accident
may be the result of crowding while passing through a narrow door,
of falling violently on the point of the hip, or from a violent blow
directed downward and forward against it. The lesion generally

bones: diseases and accidents. 279

extends across the flat surface of the bone from its outer and poste-
rior edge forward and inward. Distortion is liable to be the only
noticeable symptom. The detached portion varies in size in different
cases and with it the resulting deformity. The animal is noticed to
be slightly lame, but this symptom soon disappears. The detached
portion of the bone is drawn downward and away from the main
part by the action of the muscles below, which are so powerful as to
render return impossible. The bones therefore remain permanently
separated, union taking place by fibrous callus. The animal suffers
very little inconvenience, and for practical use may be as serviceable
as before the accident, though the distorted appearance depreciates
its value.

Fracture of the ribs. — Such an occurrence can take place only
as the result of a direct injury, as from blows or crowding. The pos-
terior ribs, being more exposed, are more liable to fracture. Pain in
moving, slight swelling over the seat of injury, and difficult breathing
are obvious symptoms. If the fracture is complete, crepitation may
be occasionally noticed by placing the hand flat over the injured
part, carefully observing the motion as the chest contracts and ex-
pands during respiration. This symptom is more noticeable when the
animal coughs. Unless the point of the broken bone penetrates the
cavity of the chest the fracture is usually unimportant and calls for
no treatment other than quiet. If the breathing is very labored and
attended with much pain, motion may be limited by applying a wide
bandage firmly around the chest. The animal should be restricted
in the amount of feed and water for a few days, the stomach being
kept as nearly empty as possible. Sloppy feed should be given to
encourage, as much as possible, free action of the diaphragm in
breathing.

Fracture or bones of the limbs. — On this subject much has been
said in the preceding remarks on general fractures. As a rule,
fracture through one of the large bones of the shoulder (scapula) or
thigh (femur) is very difficult to manage. The powerful contraction
of the muscles and the changing shape of the limb resulting from
their action renders it impossible to retain the detached parts of the
bone in proper position. Therefore, though the union should take
place, there is almost sure to be considerable deformity and more or
less lameness. Fracture of the arm (humerus) or leg (tibia) is
likely to be attended with better results. The muscular covering is
not so thick, the sheath in which they are held is more tense, and the
change in the shape of the limb from muscular action not so notice-
able, the muscular force not so great, all of which facilitate replac-
ing the dislodged ends and retaining them.

Fracture of the knee (carpus) and hock (tarsus). — This sel-
dom occurs unless it is the result of a very violent injury, and is gen-

280 DISEASES OF CATTEE.

erally associated M'ith other injury and serious complications. Dis-
placement does not generally occur to any considerable extent. The
treatment, of course, consists in holding the limb perfectly quiet
in a natural position, which may be done by the application of long,
wooden splints retained by bandages, or a plaster-of-Paris bandage.

Fractures below the knee. — Fracture of the long bone below the
knee (metacarpus) and hock (metatarsus) is more common. In
young animals of quiet temperament the treatment of simple frac-
tures here is likely to be attended with good results. On the other
hand, a compound fracture in this region becomes a serious matter.
The structures which surround the bones are so thin that a very small
degree of sloughing will expose parts of the bones and be liable to
lead to serious complications and probably fatal results.

Fractures or bones below the fetlock. — These fractures are com-
paratively unimportant unless associated with other serious injury.
The parts can generally be held in position without much difficulty,
and union generally takes place quite rapidly.

Appliances. — Of the appliances used in the treatment of the frac-
ture of limbs above the knee, splints made of wood or iron strips and
bandages are likely to serve best. Below the knee plaster-of-Paris
bandages are preferable. The writer is well aware that many of
the standard authors deprecate the use of the latter, but an extensive
experience leads me to believe that they have many advantages over
any of the other appliances when used alone, and in many ways they
may be used with advantage in combination with others.

DISLOCATIONS.

Luxation, or displacement without fracture of the bones form-
ing a joint, is comparatively rare among cattle. It most frequently
occurs in the stifle joint, where dislocation of the kneepan (patella)
takes place. A glance at the skeleton (PI. XXV) will show the rela-
tions better than they can be described. It Avill be observed that
the small, irregularly shaped bone (patella) plays on the anterior
rounded part of the lower edge of the thigh bone (femur) and be-
tween it and the upper end of the shank bone (tibia). The outer
ridge on the lower end of the thigh bone is less prominent than the
inner one, so that displacement, when it does take place, is by slip-
])ing outward. Such an accident may occur from direct injury or
external force, as a blow, or from slipping. When it does occur
the symptoms produced are somewhat alarming. The animal is
imable to draw the leg forward, and either stands with it thrown
back with the toe pointing downward, or, if it should succeed in
getting its weight upon it, holds it firmly on the ground, fearing to
move it. Examination of the outside of the joint will disclose the
situation of the patella outside its proper place. If the operator

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XXV.

BONES: DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 281

is not familiar with the normal appearance of the joint, it is well
to make a comparison between the injured and the sound one. If
compelled to move, the animal does so with great difficulty, jerking
the leg which it is unable to bring forward, hopping with the other,
and partially dragging the injured one.

Treatment. — The treatment is simple. A rope 20 feet long should
be applied around the fetlock of the affected leg, passed forward be-
tween the front legs and up over the opposite side of the neck, back
over the withers, and wrapped once behind the elbow around that
portion of the rope which passes between the front legs. The leg is
then drawn away from the body and forcibly pushed forward by
an assistant, while another person tightens up the slack in the rope
until the affected leg is off the ground in front of the supporting leg.
The rope is then drawn taut and the assistant grasps the tail and
pulls the cow toward the affected side. The animal makes a lurch
to keep from falling, contracts the muscles, and the patella slips
into place with a sharp click, and the animal walks off as if nothing
had happened. If the animal resists this method of handling, it
may suffice to manipulate the dislocated kneepan by shoving it in-
ward and forward with the heel of the hand while the affected leg
is drawn well forward. Unless some precaution is taken the acci-
dent is liable to recur, as the ligaments have been stretched by the
dislocation till they no longer hold the bone with that firmness neces-
sary to retain it. The animal should be tied and the foot fastened
forward, so that the patient can just stand on it comfortably, by
means of a rope or strap around the fetlock carried forward between
the front legs, around the neck, and tied on the breast.

Should this accident occur more than once it is a good practice to
apply a blister around the joint, as in the formula recommended for
sprain of shoulder, and observe the precautions as to restraint and
subsequent treatment there recommended. With this one exception
dislocations in the ox occurring independently of other complications
are rare.

Dislocation with fracture may occur in any of the joints, and if
one is suspected or discovered, examination should always be made
for the other before treatment is applied. When a fracture occurs
near a joint the force sufficient to rend the bone is liable to be partly
exerted on the immediate tissues, and when the bone gives way the
structures of the joints may be seriously injured. It occasionally
happens that the injury to the joint becomes the most important com-
plication in the treatment of a fracture. In order clearly to under-
stand the reason for this a few words are necessary'' in relation to the
structure of joints. -

The different pieces constituting the skeleton of the animal body
are united in such manner as to admit of more or less motion one

282 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

upon another. In some of the more simple joints the bones fitting
one into another are held together by the dense structures around
them, admitting of very little or no movement at all, as the bones of
the head. In other joints the bones are bound together by dense, car-
tilaginous structures, admitting of only limited motion, such as the
union of the small bones at the back part of the knee and hock (meta-
carpal and metatarsal) . In the more nearly perfect form of joint the
power of motion becomes complete and the structures are more com-
plex. The substance of the bone on its articular surface is not cov-
ered with periosteum, but is sheathed in a dense, thin layer of carti-
lage, shaped to fit the other surfaces with which it comes in contact
(articular). This layer is thickest toward its center when covering
bony eminences, and is elastic, of a pearly whiteness, and resisting,
though soft enough to be easily cut. The bones forming an articula-
tion are bound together by numerous ligaments attached to bony
prominences. The whole joint is sealed in by a band or ribbonlike
ligament (capsular ligament) extending around the joint and at-
tached at the outer edge of the articular surface, uniting the bones
and hermetically sealing the cavities of the articulation. This struc-
ture and the articular surface of the bone is covered by a thin, deli-
cate membrane, known as the " synovial membrane," which secretes
the joint oil (synovia). This fluid is viscid and colorless, or slightly
yellow, and although it does not possess a large quantity of fat, its
character somewhat resembles oil, and it serves the same purpose in
lubricating the joints that oil does to the friction surface of an
engine. Although the tissues of the joint when used in a natural
way are able to withstand the effect of great exertion, when un-
naturally used, as they are very delicate and complex, they are liable
to inflammatory and other changes of a very serious nature. The
synovial membrane, and in fact the whole structure of the joint,
is susceptible to injury and serious inflammatory derangement, and
the capsular ligament is liable to be distended from excessive secre-
tion of synovia. The latter process may be almost noninflammatory,
and attended with little inconvenience or importance other than a
blemish to the animal, which in cattle is not serious. It may occur
on the back part of the leg above the fetlock or on the inner and fore
part of the hock, corresponding in its location to windgalls and bog
spavin of the horse. Continuous support by bandages will generally
force reabsorption, and as the limb is not subjected to violent action,
as in the case of the horse, the affection is not so liable to recur.

SPAVIN.

Occasionally working oxen that are used in the lumber woods and
made to pull heavily, with bad footing, are afflicted with this con-
dition. When it occurs lameness is the first symptom. During the

bones: diseases and accidents. 283

early stages of the disease the himeness is most severe in the morning,
and disappears after the animal is exercised; it gradually becomes
more severe as the disease advances, so that when the disease is vt^ell
established the animal is lame continuously. Shortly after the lame-
ness appears a bunch (exostosis) will be noticed on the inner and fore
part of the affected joint. This bunch differs from bog spavin in that
it is hard, while bog spavin is soft. It increases in size as the disease
advances till the animal is too lame to be used for labor. As the dis-
ease is always attended with considerable pain there is more or less
loss of flesh. In the most advanced stage the animal will step with
difficulty, frequently holding the foot from the ground, or, if forced
to take a few steps, stands with it elevated, twitching with pain. In
the earlier stages of the disease only a small portion of the fore part
of the lower, or second, articulation is involved, but the inflammatory
process gradually extends over the whole surface of the lower joints
of the hock. The structures of the joint are broken down and the
bones are united (anchylosis). This process may include any or all
of the three lower joints of the hock. The joint of motion which is
situated on the lower end of the leg bone is seldom involved.

Treatment. — Treatment of spavin in the ox, as in the horse, is
likely to be tedious, and not always resulting in perfect cure. Usu-
ally it is best to fatten the animal for slaughter. If, however, treat-
ment is decided upon, it should consist of complete rest and counter-
irritation of the part either by sharp blisters or the firing iron. It
is advisable to try the effect of blistering first, and for this purpose
the following mixture is recommended :

Powdered cantharides drams 2

Biniodid of mercury do 2

Vaseline ounces 1*

Clip the hair off and apply over the inner and fore part of the joint,
covering the surface an inch and a half in every direction from the
enlargement, or over an area 3 to 4 inches across. Fasten the ani-
mal's head so that it can not reach the part to lick it ; after the third
day grease with lard every other day until the scabs come off. This
blister may be repeated three or four times at intervals of three
weeks. The lameness will generally begin to disappear about the
third or fourth month if the above-described treatment proves bene-
ficial. Should lameness persist, firing in points by a qualified veteri-
narian may effect the desired result and should be tried as a last
resort.

In a case of spavin the cure is not effected by restoring the diseased
parts to their natural condition, but by uniting the bones and obliter-
ating the joints. If this union extends over the whole articular sur-
face of the joints affected and is sufficiently strong to prevent any
motion of the bones, the animal will again go sound. The joints

284 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

that are obliterated, not being those of motion, are not important, so
that the animal suffers no inconvenience in their loss.

RHEUMATISM.

Rhemnatism is a constitutional disease from a specific condition
of the blood and characterized by inflammation of the fibrous struc-
tures of the body. It is usually accompanied with stiffness, lameness,
and fever. The parts affected are usually SAVollen, but swelling may
be lacking. The inflammation may be transitory ; that is, it changes
from place to place. The parts usually affected are the fibrous struc-
tures of the joints, tendons, ligaments, and muscles. The serous
membranes and heart may also be affected. According to its loca-
tion, rheumatism is specified as articular or muscular. According
to its course, it is designated as acute or chronic.

Cause. — Among the factors which are actively causative of rheuma-
tism may be mentioned exposure to- dampness and cold, especially
while the animal is perspiring or fatigued after severe physical exer-
tion. Among other causes often mentioned are acidity of the blood,
nervous derangement, microbes, and injufies. It occasionally follows
another disease, such as pleurisy. The influence of age and heredity
may be considered as secondary or predisposing causes. Sometimes
the disease appears without any apparent cause. On the whole, it
may be said that any of the above-mentioned factors may have more
or less influence on the production of rheumatism, but the specific
cause is as yet unknown.

Symptoms of articular rheumatism,. — The symptoms appear sud-
denly and with varying degrees of severity. The animal presents a
downcast appearance, with staring coat, horns and ears cold, and the
mouth and muzzle hot and dry. Appetite and rumination may be
impaired and followed later or be accompanied at the same time by
constipation. Constipation may be followed by impaction of the
stomach or bowels. Thirst is increased, but the amount of urine
voided is scanty. Respiration and pulse are accelerated, and there is
usually a fever, rising sometimes as high as 108° F. The animal pre-
fers to lie down, and when forced to rise stands with its back arched.
The movements are stiff and lame and cause great pain. The disease
may attack one or more joints at the same time; in fact, it is often
symmetrical. One joint may improve while another becomes af-
fected, thus showing the shifting tendency of the inflammation. The
affected joints, including tlieir tendons, ligaments, and synovial mem-
branes, may be swollen, hot, and distended with liquid. They are
very tender, and, if treated carelessly or injured, may become in-
fected, thus leading to suppuration. While rheumatism attacks per-
haps more frequently the knees and fetlocks, it has no special affinity

bones: diseases and accidents. 285

for any joint and may attack the stifle, liip, shoulder, or elbow joint.
In mild cases of articular rheumatism, the animal may fully recover
in a few days.

In chronic articular rheumatism there is less tendency of the dis-
ease to shift about, but there is a greater liability of structural change
in the affected joints. This change may consist of induration, exos-
tosis, or even anchylosis. These structural changes about the joints
may lead to permanent deformity, such as the bending of the neck.
Fever is not so constant in the chronic form as in the acute, and the
latter may lapse into the former.

SymptoTtis of muscular rhev/matisTn. — This form of rheumatistn
may appear under the same general conditions as the articular form.
The general appearance of the animal is the same in both forms. The
cow usually assumes a recumbent position, and all the movements
made are stiff' and lame. The method of rising or of locomotion indi-
cates pain in certain muscles or groups of muscles, as of the croup,
shoulder, or neck. As in the case of articular rheumatism, the
tendons, ligaments, and synovial membranes may become involved.
The constitutional symptoms in both articular and muscular rheu-
matism are similar, so that it is often perplexing to differentiate be-
tween the two forms.

Prevention. — It is somewhat difficult to procure preventive treat-
ment for cattle, especially when there are large numbers with little
or no shelter. In general, it is advisable to protect the animals so far
as possible from inclement weather conditions, such as cold rains,
heavy dews, and frosts. This is more particularly necessary for ani-
mals in poor condition, or those which are perspiring or fatigued
after long physical exertion. Careful feeding is also essential.

Treatment. — In attempting to treat cattle for rheumatism the first
step is to procure proper shelter and environment. The animal
should be quartered in a large, clean, dry stall, with plenty of light
and fresh air, but protected from strong drafts. There should be an
abundance of clean, dry bedding. The feed should be soft, easily
digestible, and slightly laxative, and the animal should have access to
clean, pure, cool water.

For general or constitutional treatment of acute rheumatism,
sodium salicylate is indicated. In order to gain the best results from
this drug, it should be administered with the idea of rapidly saturat-
ing the sj^stem. To cattle it may be given in doses of one-half ounce
every two hours for ten hours or until immediate relief is obtained.
This drug should not be continued indefinitely, but may be given
once a day after immediate relief has been obtained, and this single
dose continued daily until permanent relief ensues, when it should
be stopped. The use of sodium salicylate in chronic rheumatism is
not advisable on account of the danger of depressing the heart, whose

286 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

action is already somewhat impaired hj the lesions which have at-
tacked it. In this case one-half ounce doses of potassium nitrate or
bicarbonate may be given three times a- day. Besides the constitu-
tional treatment, it may be necessary to give special attention to the
bowels in order to relieve constipation. Cattle may be given saline
laxatives at the outset, such as 1 pound of Epsom salt for an ordi-
nary-sized cow, and the bowels kept regular by an occasional smaller
dose.

In chronic rheumatism the best course of treatment is to give tonics
and local treatment. Local treatment may also be advisable in acute
rheumatism in addition to the constitutional treatment already pre-
scribed.

External treatment depends solely on the local conditions and
should be applied judiciously. Among the various remedies may be
mentioned hot or cold moist packs, hot air and vapor baths, friction,
etc. Anodynes are often applied locally with good results. Blisters
are occasionally indicated. As anodynes may be mentioned liniments
and ointments containing salicylic acid or sodium salicylate in com-
bination with laudanum, aconite, or chloral hydrate. Camphorated
spirit, soap liniment, and essential oils also afford some relief when
applied locally. Of blisters, those containing cantharides are most
effective.

SURGICAL OPERATIONS.

By William Dickson and William Hekbkrt Lowe, D. V. S.
[Revised by B. T. Woodward, V. M. D.]

Surgery is both a science and an art. The success of surgical
operations depends on the judgment, skill, and dexterity, as well
as upon the knowledge of the operator. The same fundamental
principles underlie and govern animal and human surgery, although
their applications have a wide range and are very different in many
essential particulars. We must not lose sight of the fact that hygiene
and sanitation are essential to the best results in veterinary as well
as in human surgery.

Asepsis is an ideal condition which, although not always possible
in animal surgery, is highly important in connection with the me-
chanical details of all surgical operations in proportion to the nature
and seriousness of the same.

Aseptic surgery is considered to be the performance of operations
with sterile instruments with the hands of the operator and the site
of operation being rendered as nearly sterile as possible, and the
wound treated during operation with sterile solutions and protected
following the operation with sterile bandage material. In other
words, it is the preservation of the highest degree of cleanliness in
connection with operations.

Local or general anesthesia should be resorted to in painful and
serious surgical operations, as operations upon all living creatures
should be humanely performed and all unnecessary pain and suffer-
ing avoided. Anesthesia is necessary where absolute immobility of
the patient is essential and where entire muscular relaxation is
indispensable. The anesthetic condition is also favorable for the
adjustment of displaced organs.

Large animals have to be cast and secured before an anesthetic is
administered. For complete anesthesia inhalations of chloroform
are generally employed; sometimes of both ether and chloroform.
The quantity of chloroform required to produce insensibility to ex-
ternal impressions varies much in different cases and must be reg-
ulated, as well as the admixture of air, by a competent assistant.

If the probability of the success of an operation is remote and the
animal is in healthy physical condition, so that its flesh is good for
human food, it is more advisable to butcher the animal than to

287

288 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

attempt a surgical operation that offers little encouragement to the
owner. The best judgment has to be exercised in determining a
matter of this kind, for no animal suffering from inflammation or
that is in a feverish condition is fit for human food.

All cases of major operative surgery require the skill and dexterity
of the experienced veterinary surgeon, and no one else should attempt
such an operation, for unnecessary suffering must be prevented.
NeA^ertheless, the more knowledge and understanding an owner of
animals has of the principles of surgical operations and manipula-
tions, the better for all concerned. In the fii-st place, such an owner
Avill appreciate more fully the skill of the qualified veterinarian, and,
in the second place, he will be the better prepared and equipped to
render assistance to his suffering dumb dependents where no prac-
titioner is accessible and in cases of emergency. There are, moreover,
some minor operations upon cattle, some of which can hardly be
classed as surgical, that the stockman and famier should be able to
perform himself.

In the performance of any operation upon an animal of the size
and strength of the bull or cow, the first consideration is to secure
the animal in such a manner as to preclude the possibility of its
injuring either itself or those taking any part in the operation. The
nature and time likely to be occupied by an operation must, of course,
largely determine the method to be adopted.

The majority of operations with which the present chapter is con-
cerned are usually performed on the animal in a standing position.
A bull should always be held by a staff attached to the ring in his
nose. To secure the cow in a standing position, grasp the nose, the
finger and thumb being introduced into the nostrils, and press against
the cartilage which makes a division between them. If she has horns,
grasp one of them with the disengaged hand. If this is insufficient
the animal should be secured to a post, along the side of a fence, or
put into a stanchion. An excellent method of restraint is to tie a long
rope in a slip noose over the horns, pass it around the chest just
behind the forelegs, taking a half hitch on itself, taking another half
hitch in front of the hind limbs, passing the free end under the tail,
bringing it forward and making it fast either to the head or one of
the hitches. The head should be raised to the level of the back before
the final knot is tied, so as to render it too serious and painful a
matter for her to repeat the first attempt she makes to lower it.
Should the nature or extent of the operation be likely to take up
considerable time, it is invariably the best plan to throw the animal.
In the Ciise of the ox this is very easily done, either by use of horse
hobbles, should they be at hand, or by the application of a simple
rope. If the horse hobbles are used, they should be fastened on the

SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 289

leg just aboA'e the fetlocks (ankle joints), as in that position they are
less liable to come off than if placed around the pastern.

Of the many Avays of applying the rope for this purpose we will
describe only two, which we consider the best and simplest :

First. Take a long, strong rope (one which has been used a few
times is more flexible), double it, and at 2 or 3 feet from the doubled
end, according to the size of the animal, make a knot and pass the
collar thus formed over the animal's head, allowing it to rest on what
would be the collar place in a horse, Now, pass the ends of the rope
between the forelegs, carry one around each hind leg just aboAe the
fetlock joint, from outside in, under itself once, and bring the free
ends forward, passing each through the collar loop on its own side
and bringing the slack back toAvard and bej^ond the hind quarters.
(PI. XXVI, fig. 2.) Two or three men should then take hold of
each rope and at a giA^en signal pull. The animal's hind legs being
draAvn forward, the balance is lost, and if the animal does not fall
or lie down he can be readily pushed OA'er on his side and secured
in the desired position.

Second. The three half hitches. Take a rope 30 or more feet long,
make a slip noose at the end and pass it OA^er the animal's horns,
leaAing the knot in the loop between the horns; then pass the rope
backward along the neck to the withers, just in front of which take a
half hitch on it, passing it along the back, take one half hitch just
behind the forelegs and a second in front of the hind limbs round the
flank. (PI. XXVI, fig. 1.) The free end of the rope is taken hold
of by one or two assistants while another holds the animal's head.
By pulling firmly on the rope, or inducing the animal to make a step
or two forward while steady traction is made on the rope, the beast
will lie down, when his feet can be secured in the way most con-
venient for the operator.

There are numerous other methods, inA'olving more or less com-
plete restraint, which may be equally efficacious, but one or other of
the ways indicated will doubtless be found to meet fully all ordinary
cases.

RINGING THE BULL.

This is usually and ought always to be done before the calf has
attained sufficient Aveight or strength to make his restraint a matter
of serious difficulty. An ordinary halter is usually all that is re-
quired, the strap being secured to a tree or post. A jointed steel or
copper ring is ordinarily used. Those made of the latter metal are
preferable.

The common method of punching a round piece out of the nasal
septum for the introduction of the ring is, I think, open to objection,
as portions of the fine nervous filaments are destroyed. The sensi-
33071°— 16 19

290 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

bility of the parts is thus lessened and the object of ringing to some
extent defeated. The insertion of the ring by means of a trocar and
cannula is preferable, as the method is not open to this objection.

For some years we have used a little instrument, which can be
made by any worker in metal, consisting of a steel point riveted into
a short cannula made to fit on one end of the ring while open.
(PI. XXVII, fig. 11.) When attached to the ring it is easily and
quickly passed through the septum, the half of the ring following
as a matter of course. It can then be removed and the ends of the
ring brought together and fastened by means of the screw for that
purpose.

DEHORNING.

In the wild state the utilit}' of the horns of cattle as weapons of
offense and defense is apparent, but with domestication of cattle
and their confinement the presence of horns constitutes a menace
to the safety of their companions. Horned cattle frequently inflict
with their horns painful and serious injuries to others. Deaths as a
result of such injuries are not unusual. The operation of dehorning
would therefore be indicated as a matter of general safety.

On farms where breeding is conducted, the most desirable method
is to prevent the horns from growing on the young calves. This
action results in a more symmetrical appearance of the poll and elim-
inates the dangers which would result from the presence of horns on
the young cattle prior to their operative removal at a later age. A
calf should be treated not later than one week after it is born — pref-
erably when it is from 3 to 5 days old. The agent to be used may be
either caustic soda or potash in the form of sticks about the thickness
of an ordinary lead pencil. These caustics must be handled with care,
as they dissolve the cuticle and may make the hands or fingers sore.
The preparation of the calf first consists in clipping the hair from
the parts, washing clean Avith soap or warm water, and thoroughly
drying with a cloth or towel. The stick of caustic should be wrapped
in a piece of paper to protect the hands and fingers, leaving one
end of the stick uncovered. Moisten the uncovered end slightly and
rub it on the horn buttons or little points which may be felt on the
calf's head — first on one, then on the other — two or three times,
allowing the caustic to dry after each application. Be careful to
apply the caustic to the horn button only, for if it is brought in con-
tact with the surrounding skin it will cause pain. Too much mois-
ture on the stick of caustic will allow the application to spread to
the surrounding skin. After treatment keep the calf protected from
rain, as water on the head after application of the caustic will cause
it to run down over the face.

RUEGICAL OPERATIONS. 291

Dehorning of adult animals is usually performed after the age of
2 years, as after that age there is less probability of the horns again
growing. The horns should be severed from the head from a quar-
ter to a half -inch below where the skin joins the base of the horn,
cutting from the back toward the front if a saw is used. If the
horn is not cut close enough to the head, an irregular, gnarly
growth of horn is liable to follow.

Before attempting to dehorn the animal, it should be securely
controlled by ropes in a stanchion or by casting. Upon the range
the cattle are usually controlled by casting or by placing them in a
" squeezer " connected with a corral. A clean, sharp meat saw or a
miter saw with a rigid back may be used. ^ arious types of dehorn-
ing shears or clippers are in general use. One type of dehorner
has a stationar}^ knife edge with its cutting edge shaped like a very
wide V, and opposing this, another knife of similar shape moving
in a slide, so that the cutting edges act upon the horn from all four
sides at once, all the edges passing the center at the same time. An-
other type has a movable knife, with one oblique or one curved edge,
and the cutting is done in one direction only. The power for cut-
ting with these instruments is supplied by pulling together two long
handles which, in order to transmit a greater force, are generally
so constructed that they act through the medium of a series of cogs.
In dehorning with these instruments the cutting edges should be
slipped down over the horn and the knives closed, so that their edges
set firmly against the horn in such position that the cut will be made
in the right place and in the right direction. The handles should
then be drawn together with a quick, firm, strong pull so that the
horn will be completely severed by the first act and without twisting.

Dehorning should, when possible, be performed in cool weather
when the flies are not plentiful. The loss of blood from the opera-
tion is not sufficient, as a rule, to be of consequence, and after care
being taken to prevent substances from getting into the openings
left after the removal of the horns it is not usual to apply any
dressing. Pine tar or a mixture of pine tar and tannic acid may be
applied, particularly if the weather is warm.

SETONING.

The ordinary use of a seton is to keep up constant drainage from
a cavity containing matter or to act as a stimulant or counterirritant.
To insert a seton, the place of entrance and exit having been decided
on, with the finger and thumb make a small fold of the skin trans-
versely to the direction the seton is to be inserted, and cut it through,
either with a sharp knife or a pair of scissors (this should be done at
both the entrance and exit) ; then with a steady pressure and slight

292 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

lateral movement insert the seton by means of a seton needle. (PI.
XXVII, figs. 1 and 2.) The seton should consist of a piece of strong
tape, varying in breadth according to circumstances, and should be
kept in place either by a knot on each end or by tying the ends to-
gether.

Setons should be gently moved once a day after suppuration is set
up, and they should not be allowed to remain in over three weeks, or
a month at the outside.

TRACHEOTOMY.

This operation consists in making an opening in the trachea, or
windpipe. It is indicated whenever there is an obstruction from any
cause in the upper part of the respiratory tract which threatens the
death of the animal by asphyxia (suilocation). The mode of pro-
cedure is as follows : Have an assistant extend the animal's head as
far as possible to make the trachea tense and prominent; make a
longitudinal incision about 2 to 2^ inches long through the skin and
deeper tissues and trachea at the most prominent part of the trachea,
which is about the middle or upper third, and then insert the trache-
otomy tube. The latter should be removed once or twice daily and
cleansed, and the wound dressed antiseptically. To ascertain when
it is time to discontinue the use of the tube and to allow the wound
to close, the hand should be held over the opening, which will require
the animal to use its natural passages in breathing. Observe whether
it is performed in a natural manner, and if so, remove the tube and
alloAv the wound to close. Often the operation has to be performed
in great haste without the proper instruments and under great dis-
advantages, the operator having to cut down quickly, open the
trachea and spread the parts, using some instrument improvised by
him at the time. This operation only gives the animal relief in
breathing, and therefore the proper remedial treatment shoukl be
adopted at the onset of the attack and continued until the cause (the
disease) has been overcome.

RUMENOTOMY.

The opening of the paunch, or rumen, in cattle and the removal
of a part or the whole of the ingesta through said opening is termed
rumenotomy. The operation should be performed in severe cases
only, where the rumen is excessively overloaded and distended. The
animal is placed with its right side against a wall and firmly held in
position by strong assistants. The incision is made in the same place
that the trocar is inserted for puncturing that organ in cases of
hoven. The opening is increased in size until the operator's hand can
be inserted into the rumen. Before any of the contents are removed

SUEGICAL OPEEATIONS. 293

from that organ a linen cloth should be placed from the outer wound
into the rumen in order to prevent any of the ingesta from getting
into the abdominal cavity. Some practitioners, after removing a
portion of the contents of the rumen, introduce such medicine as
may be indicated before closing the wound. Clean the wound and
close the opening in the rumen with uninterrupted (PI. XXVII,
fig. 8) carbolized catgut sutures. Next close the external wound,
consisting of the integument, muscle, and peritoneum, with stout,
interrupted (PI. XXVII, fig. 6) metallic sutures. No feed should
be given for several hours after the operation, and then gruels only.
(See "Distension of rumen or paunch with feed," p. 26.)

TREATMENT OF ABSCESSES.

An abscess may be detected, if situated externally, by heat, pain,
redness, and sAvelling in the early stages, and, if further developed,
by the fluctuation which is present. When any of these symptoms
are absent, the suppuration should be encouraged by the means of hot
fomentations and poultices. Care must be taken that the abscess is
not opened too soon, or to some extent it may cause it to scatter, and
the escape of pus will be lessened. The time to open an abscess is
just before it is ready to break, and should be done with a sharp
lance, a crucial incision sometimes being necessary. The cavity
should be syringed out Avith an antiseptic solution. Care should be
taken not to allow the wound to close too rapidly, to prevent which
a tent of lint or oakum should be introduced.

WOUNDS.

For the purposes of the present work wounds may be divided into
three classes : (1) Incised; (2) punctured; (3) lacerated or contused.
In any wound all that the most suitable applications can accomplish
is, in the first place, to prevent the access of those poisonous germs
which exist in the animal's surroundings, such as the soil and the
manure, and, in the second place, when the process of repair is for
some reason temporarily inactive or altogether arresied, to incite
that curative inflammation that is the invariable method by which
the cure is effected.

Incised wound. — This is one with clean-cut edges, and may be
either superficial or deep. In wounds of all descriptions there is
necessarily more or less bleeding, and this is especially liable to be
the case in incised wounds, particularly when they penetrate to a
considerable depth, or when inflicted on a part where blood vessels
of any considerable size approach the surface. To arrest the hemor-
rhage must therefore be the first consideration. If slight, a generous
use of cold water is all that is necessary, but if one or more vessels

294 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

of any size have been wounded or entirely severed, they should be
taken up and ligated. If the blood flows continuously and is dark
in color, it proceeds from a vein, but if bright-colored and jerky in
its flow, it is arterial.

The taking up of an artery simply means the tying up of the bleeding
vessel, which should be accomplished as follows: To discover the
bleeding artery take a piece of clean absorbent cotton, dip it in cold
water, and by gentle pressure on the wound clear it of the accumu-
lated blood. The jet of fresh blood reveals the end of the vessel,
which is readily recognized by its whitish-yellow or bufl: color. It
should be seized with a forceps or pincers and slightly drawn clear
of the surrounding tissues. Now take the thread and place the mid-
dle of it under the artery, take up the ends, tie one simple knot
tightly, pressing the thread down with the forefinger so as not to
include the forceps, then a second one over it and cut off the ends.
The bleeding being arrested, the operator can now carefully clean
and inspect the wound, taking care to remove all blood and foreign
matters and clip the hair around the edges before proceeding to
stitch it up. If the wound is superficial, the lips may be brought
together by a series of independent stitches (PI. XXVII, fig. 6)
about one-half of an inch to three-fourths o£ an inch apart. The
stitches should not be drawn tightly; it is sufficient to bring the
edges of the wound in apposition.

If the wound is deep, the needle should be introduced perpendicu-
larly at as great a distance from the lip of the wound as the depth
it is to be inserted, so as to give the thread sufficient hold. All the
stitches should be as nearly as possible at equal distances from the
border of the wound, to prevent unequal strain, and the knots should
be made at the side, not over the wound. (PI. XXVII, fig. 6.)
AVhen the wound is large and deep, care should be taken to have an
opening in the lowest part to allow for the escape of the discharges.

In deep wounds which run crosswise of a limb or muscle it is often
advisable to use what is technically known as the " quilled suture,"
which is most readily understood by reference to Plate XXVII,
figure 7. To accomplish this method a curved needle with an eye in
the point and a strong double thread should be used. The needle thus
threaded is introduced perpendicularly at least an inch from the
wound on one side, carried across below and brought out the same
distance from the border of the cut on the opposite side, the thread
being seized and held in position while the needle is withdrawn, leav-
ing a loop of thread protruding on one side and two loose ends on
the other side of each stitch. ^Yhen enough stitches have been made,
take a light piece of wood about the size of a lead pencil, correspond-
ing in length to the size of the wound or slightly longer, and insert it
tlu'ough each of the loops, drawing up the free ends of the threads,

SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 295

which should in turn be tied securely on a similar piece of wood on
that side.

Punctured wounds. — Owing to the uncertainty of their depth and
the structures they may involve, punctured wounds are by far the
most dangerous and difficult to treat. Not only is the extent of the
damage hidden from view, but the very character of the injury, as
can be readily understood, implies at least the possibility of deep-
seated inflammation and consequent discharge of pus (matter),
which, when formed, is kept pent up until it has accumulated to such
an extent that it burrows by simple gravity, as no other exit is pos-
sible. In this way foreign matters, such as a broken piece of the
stake or snag, or whatever caused the wound, may be carried to an
indefinite depth, or the cavity of a joint may be invaded and very
serious, if not fatal, consequences occur.

The danger is especially marked when the injury is inflicted on
parts liable to frequent and extensive motion, but all cases of punc-
tured wounds should receive unusual care, as no judgment can be
accurately formed from the external appearance of the wound. ^Vliile
a probe can ascertain the depth, it throws but little light on the
extent or exact ^nature of the internal injur3^ For this reason all
punctured wounds should invariably be carefully searched by means
of a probe or some substitute devised for the occasion, such as a piece
of wire with a smooth blunt end, or a i^iece of hard wood shaped for
the purpose. Stitching is not admissible in the case of punctured
wounds. After thoroughly cleansing the opening of the wound and
its surroundings, tincture of iodin should be injected directly into
the wound.

If a punctured wound is not very deep, and when the bruising and
laceration are slight, it is possible for healing to take place b}'^ adhe-
sion, and this should always be encouraged, as the process of repair
by this method is far superior to that by granulation, which will be
referred to later. With this object in view, the animal should be kept
as quiet as possible. A dose of physic, such as a pound of Glauber's
or Epsom salt, should be administered, and warm antiseptic fomenta-
tions or poultices, when this is practicable, applied frequently to the
surface of the wound.

In wounds of this description the process of repair may be com-
plicated by the appearance of exuberant granulations, popularly
known as " proud flesh," which is really an overgrowth of new tis-
sue— granulation tissue; but these should not be interfered with
unless they continue after the acute stage of inflammation has been
subdued. If, after this, they persist, they may be treated with a
solution of sulphate of copper (bluestone) or nitrate of silver (lunar
caustic) and water.

296 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Contused or lacerated avounds. — These are usually caused by a
blow with some blunt instrument or falls. The seriousness depends
largely on the depth of the injury, and treatment should be directed
to allaying the inflammation and preventing the consequent tendency
to sloughing. To this end soothing applications, such as antiseptic
fomentations and poultices, are plainly indicated.

Methods or healing. — Technically these may be divided into a
number of distinct processes, but practically we may speak of them,
as two only, namely, by primary union, or adhesion, and by granu-
lation. As suppuration is not so liable to occur in cattle as in horses,
healing by the former and more speedy process is much more com-
mon in the first-named species, more particularly in clean-cut or
incised wounds, provided they have been stitched within 12 hours
from the time the injury which caused them was inflicted, that they
have been kept antiseptically clean, and that the patient by some
means has been kept fairly still. This latter stipulation is probably
hardest to comply with. Quiet is an important factor in the proc-
ess of repair among the lower animals.

The second method of healing, namely, by granulation, which is,
however, the manner in which most wounds in animals heal, takes
much longer. In punctured wounds of any depth healing neces-
sarily takes place in this way only, and the treatment should be di-
rected largely to alleviating pain and moderating inflammation.

After-treatment and dressing of w^ounds. — The dressing of
wounds is one of the most important branches of veterinary surgery,
and one of the most constant difficulties that the practicing veterina^
rian has to contend with lies in the lack of cooperation on the part of
owners in the care and attention in the after-treatment of wounds.

In summarizing the treatment of wounds, the following recom-
mendations should be observed: wounds must be cleansed and kept
clean, using antiseptic solutions which do not produce irritation, and
applying the solutions with a syringe or with clean pieces of ab-
sorbent cotton. Bleeding should be stopped before the closing of
the Avound by sutures or bandages. An opening at the bottom of all
wounds except small superficial wounds should be provided as a
drainage outlet for the escape of wound secretions or pus if it should
form. The edges of wounds and the muscles involved in the wound
should be kept as quiet as possible during the process of healing.
Every wound should be protected by a sterile or antiseptic dressing
Avhenever it is possible to retain a dressing in place. Dressings
should be changed when it is apparent that they have become
drenched with wound secretions or pus, or have become disarranged
or too loose, permitting dirt to enter between them and the skin. If
sAvelling appears beyond the edges of a bandage, it is an indication
that it is too tight and it should then be removed and again applied.

SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 297

The hands of the operator and all instruments and dressings com-
ing in contact with a wound at any time should be made as clean as
possible by the use of antiseptics.

Barbed-wire cuts. — We have specified these simply because in
some sections of the country there is a fixed idea that there is a
specific poison in barbed wire, causing injuries which require treat-
ment differing from that which is applicable to ordinary wounds.
Barbed-wire cuts differ from ordinary wounds only in the parts
being often lacerated and torn, and the treatment already indicated
for wounds of that description is applicable to them.

CASTRATION.

Castration consists in the removal of the essential organs of gener-
ation, and is performed upon both the male and the female. In the
male the organs removed are the testicles and in the female the
ovaries.

CASTRATION OF THE MALE.

Castration in the male is performed for several different purposes.
It may be necessary, as is the case in certain diseased conditions of
the testicles and in strangulated hernia, but the usual object of the
operation is to enhance the general value of the animal. For ex-
ample, if the animal is intended for burden, the operation will better
fit him for his work by so modifying his temperament and physical
condition that he may easily be controlled by his master. Again, if
he is merely to be used for beef purposes, the operation will improve
the quality of the flesh and cause an added development of the most
valuable portions of the dressed carcass.

The operation upon the female may be performed on account of
diseased conditions, but we may say that the chief object of the
operation is to make the animal one of more profit to its owner by
lessening the lacteal secretion and also improving the physical con-
dition from the point of view of beef production. When the cow is
spayed, it does away with all trouble attending estrum, or heat, ges-
tation, and parturition with its accidents and ailments. The flesh
of the spayed cow is more tender and juicy than that of the natural
animal.

The operation upon the male may be either the uncovered or tlie
covered. In the former the incision is made down to the testicle
proper, and in the latter the cut is made through the scrotum or the
outside covering and through the dartos, or the next coat, care being
taken to cut no deeper tissues or coats. The age at which the opera-
tion is performed varies, but usually it is performed between the
second and third month. If done in early life, there is less danger of
complications, the organs being in a latent condition and not fully
developed. There are many different methods of operating, the prin-
cipal ones of which we shall mention. In the uncovered operation a

/

298 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

good free incision should be liiade, exposing the testicle completely.
Now it may be removed by simply cutting it off. The only danger
of doing this is that hemorrhage is liable to follow. To obviate this,
before the division of the spermatic cord it should be twisted several
times in the following manner : Take hold of the cord with the left
hand, having it between the thumb and the index finger. Now twist
the free portion several times with the right hand, all the time being
careful to push with the left hand toward the body of the animal.
In this way the danger of injury to the cord during the animal's
struggles will be overcome. There will be no hemorrhage, or very
little, if it has been done properly. This is the most simple manner
of torsion. There are forceps and other instruments made to per-
form the operation in this manner. The actual cautery is an old
method, but we shall not describe it, as we consider that we have bet-
ter methods now. The next method with the clamps, although ex-
tensively used ujDon the horse, is not practiced to so great an extent
upon the bovine at the present time. It is a very old method, and is
considered very safe. Clamps are used in the covered and uncovered
operations.

More modern methods are by the use of special instruments known
as the emasculator and the ecraseur.

The operation of " mulling " or crushing the spermatic cord is an
unscientific and barbarous procedure, causing unnecessary pain and
suffering.

The methods described above apply only to the animal in a normal
condition. Before operating everything should be examined to see
that it is as it should be. If otherwise, a special operative procedure
will be necessary. Whichever mode of operation is adopted from a
practical standpoint, the principal precautions to be taken in order
to attain success are as follows: First, thorough cleanliness under
strict aseptic and antiseptic precautions; second, a free and boldly
made incision ; third, the avoidance of undue pulling or tension upon
the spermatic cord ; fourth, free drainage, which can be maintained,
provided the original incision has been properly made.

The operation of castration of the male is by no means a serious
one, and when properl}'^ performed there is little danger from com-
plications. Although the danger is trifling, the complications which
may arise are sometimes of a serious nature. Hemorrhage, either
primary or secondary, tetanus (or lockjaw), abscesses, hernia (or
rupture) , gangrene, and peritonitis are the most serious complications
that follow castration. Whichever complication arises will require
its own special treatment, which we will not go into here, as it will
be fully dealt with under another heading. We would add, howeVer,
that, generally speaking, the animal, after being castrated, should
either be regularlv exercised or be allowed freedom so that it can

SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 299

exercise itself. Sudden changes of the temperature are dangerous.
The animal should be fed moderately, but of a diet easily digestible.

CASTRATION OF THE FEMALE.

The operation of ovariotomy (spaying) should be performed when
the heifer is in her prime and in moderate condition not too plethoric
and not in heat or pregnant. This operation may be performed in
one of two ways — namely, by the flank or by the vagina — each oper-
ation having its special advantages. In the flank operation the
animal may be operated upon either while standing or while in the
recumbent position. If standing, she should be placed against a
wall or a partition and her head held by a strong assistant. The legs
also must be secured to prevent the animal from kicking. A ver-
tical incision should be made in the left flank, about the middle of
the upper portion, care being taken not to make the opening too
far down, in order to avoid the division of the circumflex artery
which traverses that region. The operator should now make an
opening through the peritoneum, which is best done with the fingers.
\Next the hand and arm should be introduced into the abdominal
cavity and the hand directed backward toward the pelvis, searching
for the horns of the uterus ; if followed up the ovaries will easily be
found. They should then be drawn outward and may be removed
either by the ecraseur or by torsion. Closing and suturing the wound
will complete the operation. An adhesive plaster bandage can be
beneficially applied.

The operation by the vagina is more complicated and requires
special and expensive instruments. The mode of procedure in brief
is as follows: A speculum is introduced into the vagina, and an
incision is made into the superior wall of that passage about 2 inches
from the neck of the uterus, cutting from below upward and from
before backward. An incision which should not exceed 3^ inches
in length should be made. The next step is to get possession of the
ovaries. They are situated in a fold of the broad ligament and
should be drawn carefully through the incision into the vagina.
Now take the long-handled scissors, specially made for this purpose,
with which the thick border of the broad ligament is divided. The
torsion forceps are introduced and applied to the broad ligament
above the ovary. The left hand is then introduced, and the thumb
and the index finger grasp hold of the broad ligament above the
forceps. With the right hand torsion is applied and the ovary re-
moved. The other ovary may be removed in the same manner.

What has been said with regard to complications and aftertreat-
ment in the case of the male also applies to the female.

OTHER SURGICAL OPERATIONS.

Descriptions of other surgical operations not given in this chapter
may be found in other parts of this work by reference to the index.

SURGICAL OPERATIONS.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate XXVI. Devices for ca.sting cattle. (From Fleming.)
Fig. 1. Reuff's method of throwing or casting the ox.
Fig. 2. Miles's method of throwing or casting the ox.
Plate XXVII. Sm'gical instruments and sutures. (After Reynders and
Fleming. )

Figs. 1 and 2. Seton needles. These may be either long or short, straight

or curved, according to the locality in which a seton is to be inserted.
Fig. 3. Various forms of surgical needles.
Fig. 4. Suture forceps or needle holder, for passing needles through thick

and dense tissues.
Fig. r>. Knot properly tied.

Figs, r., 7, 8, 9, 10. Various forms of sutures. Fig. 6, interrupted suture;
7, quilled suture ; 8, uninterrupted suture ; 9, twisted suture, made by
jtassing suture pins through the parts to be held together and wind-
ing the thi'ead about them so as to represent the figure 8; 10, single-
pin suture.
Fig. 11. Appliance for ringing the bull, one-fourth, natural size.
Fig. 12. Nose clamp, with spring and keeper.
SCO

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XXVI.

Devices FOR Casting Cattle.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XXVIl.

Surgical Instruments and Sutures.

TUMORS AFFECTING CATTLE.

By John R. Mohler, V. M. D.,
Assistant Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry.

[Synonyms: New growth, neoplasm, neoformatiou, pseudoplasm, swelling, anci
hyperplasia.]

Deflnitimi. — Tumors ^ are abnormal masses of tissue, noninflamma-
tory and independent in character, arising, without obvious cause,
from cells of preexistent tissue, possessing no physiologic function,
and characteristically unrestrained in growth and structure.

Tumors are abnormal masses of tissue. The application of the
term " tumor " is directly connected with the fact that they produce
local enlargement.

They are noninflammatory ; that is, the process of inflammation is
not directly the cause or accompaniment of them. An inflammatory
new gi^owth tends to disappear upon the subsidence of the inflamma-
tory process, while spontaneous disappearance of a tumor is compar-
atively rare.

Tumors are independent. For instance, their nutrition bears no
relation to the nutrition of the body. A lipoma, or fatty tumor, in
the subcutaneous tissue, may go on increasing to huge bulk while the
body is steadily emaciating. Again, the tissues of the aged gradually
undergo atrophy, yet cancers arise at this time and grow" rapidly.

Tumors are unrestrained in growth and structure. In the develop-
ment of an animal we know at what period of its existence the mass
of tissue called liver will develop — what its site, structure, and size
will be. We know that it will remain only in that locality, and not,
as it were, colonize throughout the system. With tumors it is diifer-
ent; there are no laws by which we can forecast the time, place,
nature, or size of development of them. There is no cartilage in the
kidney or parotid gland, yet a chondroma, or cartilage tumor, may
develop in either. Even when a new growth of tissue is started by

1 The term " tumor " literally me.ins a swelling, and thus has been applied to the promi-
nence caused by an overdistended bladder, to the enlargement of pregnancy, to the swell-
ing produced by an abscess, to the overgrowth of tissue (hyperplasia) associated with
injury and consequent inflammation, and to numerous other phases of tissue enlargement
directly connected with recognized disease processes. For this reason it is becoming more
common for scientists to apply the word " neoplasm " to the new growths described in
this chapter. Because of the still popular use of the word " tumor," it is retained in this
chapter for the designation of those new growths to which the sevenfold characterization
of our descriptive definition applies.

301

302 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

an injury and consequent inflammation — as, for instance, proud
flesh — there is a limitation of its size, but the controlling influences
which govern the size of an organ or normal mass of tissue and limit
the extent of an inflammatory overgrowth are all absent in the case
of tumors. They are unrestrained, lawless.

Metastasis expresses the lawlessness of tumors as regards being
limited to the original site of development. Small particles of tu-
mors enter the blood vessels or lymph streams and are carried to
distant parts of the body, where they lodge and start new tumor
formations. Expansion by colonization in this manner is a rule with
many tumors, and, since they exercise no function of use to the organ-
ism, this dissemination of actively growing particles becomes a
menace to the system by numerically increasing the body's burden,
opening new channels of drain upon the system and adding new
centers for the absorption of putrefactive materials when the sec-
ondary tumors shall have degenerated. It is this which makes me-
tastasis such an important element in the malignancy of tumors.

Tumors possess no physiological function. They are absolutely
useless. Fibrous tumors bind no parts of the organism together;
bony tumors add nothing to the supporting framework of the body ;
the tissue of fatty tumors never serves as a storehouse of feed and
energy; the cells of an adenoma, or gland tumor, furnish no secre-
tion ; a tumor composed of muscle tissue produces no increase to the
strength of the individual — its muscle cells are not contractile.

Tumors arise from cells of preexistent tissue. Tumor tissue is not
a new variety. Whatever the structure of a tumor, its counter-
part is found among the tissues of the body, the lawlessness of
the tumor, however, showing itself in more or less departure from
the normal type. This departure is usually a reversion to a more
elementary or embryonic stage, so that the tumor tissues may be said
to be structurally immature.

Tumors arise without obvious causfe. Concerning the ultimate
cause of tumor formation we are absolutely ignorant. Various
theories have been advanced from time to time, but none of them
have been applicable to more than a limited number of cases. The
most important theories may be briefly mentioned.

(1) The theory of tumnor diathesis. — Bilroth taught that tumors
are caused by a peculiar predisposition consisting of a diseased state
of the fluids of the body. 'This constitutional taint might be acquired,
but, having been acquired, is also hereditary. This theory is known
also as the heredity hypothesis, but, while it is true that heredity
appears to play some role in the causation of certain neoplasms, its
application is too limited to make it of value.

(2) The Tnechamcal or irntant theory/. — Virchow assumed that
tumors arise as the result of previous irritation of the part. This

TUMORS AFFECTING CATTLE. 303

has been noticed particularly in the case of certain cancers. They
frequently develoi^ on the edges of old ulcers, thus being dependent
apparently on chronic irritation. Cancer of the lip in pipe smokers
is a case in point. Cancerous tumors of the skin often develop on
the arms of workers in paraffin, tar, or soot, the chemical irritation
of these substances being the cause. On the contrary, the proportion
of those thus affected among the exposed is very small and forces
the conclusion that if the real cause were in the irritation vastly more
cases would occur.

(3) The theory of nervous influence. — That is based upon {a) the
observed fact that tumors occur more frequently in man and the
higher animals than in those lower in the scale, among which the
nervous system is less highly developed; (5) that certain formations
seem to be directly connected with nerve distribution, while others
have been associated with alternations in neighboring nerve trunks.

(4) The embryonal theory. — This is known also as Cohnheim's
hypothesis. In early fetal life there occurs a production of cells in
excess of those required for the construction of the various parts of
the body, so that a certain number of them are left over in the fully
developed tissue or become misplaced during the sorting of cells for
future development of tissues and organs. These cells lie dormant
until favorable conditions arise or until some sufficient stimulus is
applied, when, released from their inactivity, they begin to repro-
duce and grow. Not being normally related to their site, they lack
the controlling and limiting influences of the part, and, their embry-
onic character enduing them with a most potent proliferating
power, they develop in a lawless and unrestrained manner. There
are tumors whose existence can be explained only on these grounds.
Still, this theory falls far short of answering the question as to the
origin of tumors.

(5) The parasitic theory. — This is not only one of the latest, but,
merely as a hypothesis, it is the most attractive and plausible of all.
The serious objections to it, however, are the almost uniform failure
that has met the attempts to transplant these tumors from one animal
to another and the absence of any constant variety of organism in
them. Several forms of parasites have been found in certain tumors,
but nothing definite has been shown with reference to the relation
they bear to the causation of the neoplasm.

CLASSIFICATION OF TUMORS.

In Senn's work on tumors occurs the following: "A uniform sys-
tem of classification of tumors is one of the great wants of modern
pathology, and all attempts in this direction have proved failures."
It would be folly, therefore, to burden the pages of a Tvork of this
kind with one or several of the proposed systems which have,

304 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

admittedly, at some important point, failed of their purpose. Since
the value of this chapter depends chiefly upon its practical character,
which in turn is measured by its aid in diagnosis, prognosis, and
treatment, the old but important clinical division is here adopted.

Tumors are either malignant or benign. The essential difference
between the two classes is that while benign tumors depend for
their ill effects entirely upon their situation^ malignant neoplasms
wherever located inevitably destroy life. The clinical features of
each group are in many cases sufficiently marked to distinguish
them.

MALIGNANT TUMORS.

(1) These are invariably pernicious, and from the beginning tend
to destroy life.

(2) The cellular element predominates; therefore they grow
rapidly,

(3) Possessing no capsule, they infiltrate surrounding tissues.

(4) They infect adjacent lymph glands,

(5) They recur even after complete removal.

(6) They give metastasis; that is, they become dfeseminated in
different organs.

(7) Their presence develops a progressive emaciation.

BENIGN TUMORS.

(1) These in and of themselves do not tend to produce death.

(2) As the cellular element is not liable to predominate, they grow
slowly.

(3) They are encapsulated, and when diffuse do not infiltrate sur-
rounding tissues.

(4) They do not infect adjacent lymph glands.

(5) They do not recur after complete removal.

(6) They do not manifest metastasis.

Benign tumors, though harmless, may, by the accident of their
location, indirectly produce death. Mere pressure on the brain
substance of an otherwise innocent tumor, compression of the blood
supply for vital organs, growth in such manner as to cause obstruc-
tion in the alimentary tract or pressure upon nerves, may cause
death, or, prior to death, so combine the effects of anemia (deficiency
of blood), starvation, and pain, with its consequent restlessness, as
to produce a veritable cachexia (condition of general ill health).

On the other hand, a malignant tumor in its primary growth may
£0 implicate a vital organ as to destroy life before metastasis can
occur or even before cachexia can develop. Thus, to the untrained
observer, environment may so operate as to cause these two classes
of new growths to simulate each other. The boundary lines may

TUMORS AFFECTING CATTLE. 305

seem to overlap. It is here that the microscope, as the court of last
appeal, adjudicates positively in the diagnosis between these two
clearly marked divisions.

It may almost be asserted that a true classification of tumors can
not be made until we know more about the cause of them. The
arrangement here presented is offered to meet the practical needs of
the veterinarian, student, and farmer rather than of the pathologist.

We may roughly divide the tissues of the body into structural and
lining tissues. The structural tissues are composed of the tissues of
special function and simple connective tissues. The lining or cover-
ing tissues, both internal and external, are known as epithelium.

Section A of the table below contains the true tumors or proper
neoplasms.

Section B includes the cysts, some of which are true tumors, while
others are false ones, but the latter are added because of their gross
resemblance to the true and the consequent necessity of considering
them at the same time.

TUMORS AND CYSTS.
A. — Tumors.

BENIGN.

I. — Tumors composed of tissues reseinNing those of special function.

1. Type of muscle tissue Myoma.

2. Type of nerve tissue Neuroma.

3. Type of vascular tissue Angioma.

4. Type of gland tissue Adenoma.

II. — Tumors composed of fully developed connective tissue.

:l. Type of fibrous tissue Fibroma.

2. Type of adipose, or fat, tissue Lipoma.

3. Type of cartilage tissue Chondroma.

4. Type of osseous, or bone, tissue < Osteoma.

5. Type of neuroglia, or nerve, sheath Glioma.

G. Type of mucoid, or mucous, tissue Myxoma.

MALIGNANT.

III. — Tumors composed of cmhnjonic or immature connective tissues.

1. Type of immature connective tissue Sarcoma.

2. Type of endothelial tissue Endothelioma.

IV. — Tu)nors in which epithelial elements predominate.

1. Type of various epithelial cells and associated tissues Carcinoma.

33071°— 16 20

306 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

B. — Cysts.

I. — Cysts which develop in preexisting cavities.

1 Retention cysts.

2 Proliferation cysts.

II. — Cysts which arc of congenital origin and are true tumors.

1 Dermoid cysts.

III. — Cysts tchicli originate independently as the resnlt of pathological changes

and are nofitumorous.

1. Cysts formed by the softening and disintegration of lesions — Softening cysts.

2. Cysts formed around parasites Parasitic cysts.

3. Cysts formed by an outpouring of blood and lymph into the tissue spaces with

subsequent encapsulation of the fluid Extravasation cysts.

Terminology. — The principle of naming tumors is quite simple.
The Greek word " oma " (plural " omata ") means tumor. This word
" oma " is added to the stem of the word ordinarily used to designate
the kind of tissue of which the tumor is composed. Thus a tumor
formed after the type of fibrous tissue is a fibroma. The only excep-
tion to this is in the naming of the two large classes of malignant
neoplasms. There the names were formed from the fieshlike appear-
ance of the one and the crablike proliferations of the other — ^namely,
Sarcoma (sarks = flesh), carcinoma (karkinos= crab).

Diagnosis. — In the diagnosis of timiors note is taken of (1) clinical
history and (2) examination of the tumor.

(1) Clinical histary. — Circumstances connected with the origin of
the tumor and its rapidity of growth may point to an inflammatory
swelling rather than a tumor. The location of the tumor at its com-
mencement is important, as, for instance, in diagnosing between
lipoma and carcinoma, the former being more or less movable under
the skin, while a carcinoma develops in the skin. While tenderness
on pressure may be caused by compression of a sensitive nerve by a
tumor or by tumors of the nerve or nerve sheaths, as a rule this
symptom is indicative of inflammatory swelling rather than of the
existence of a tumor.

(2) Direct examination of the tumor. — In the application of this
diagnosis the trained observer will note color, size, shape, and surface
structure, transmission of light, movableness, consistence, resistance,
pulsation, and crepitation. Percussion, auscultation, and exploration
are also available methods. Finally, microscopic examination of the
growing portions of the tumor by a pathologist will be found most
satisfactory.

TUMORS AFFECTING CATTLE. 307

GENERAL TREATMENT OF TUMORS.

For benign tumors treatment is required only when it damages the
animal's value or when merely for sake of appearance. When it is
possible, the removal of the tumor by an operation is indicated. If
the tumor has a small, constricted base, remove by torsion, ligation, or
with an ecraseur. Ligation following the incision of the skin with a
knife avoids the pain of pressing on the sensitive nerves of the skin
and is suitable for tumors of broad base and small bodies. A firing
iron, such as is used in line or feather firing, may also be used in
removing tumors with small attachments. This not only stops the
bleeding but forms a firm scab, under which healing may occur rap-
idly. Those tumors that can not be removed by the above methods
may be treated with caustics or acids, such as sulphuric acid, hydro-
chloric acid, caustic potash, arsenic, silver nitrate, or chromic acid,
but it is difficult to limit the action of these drugs. The injection,
into the tumor, of such chemicals as anilin dyes, alcohol, acetic
acid, citric acid, or ergotin, is of doubtful value, as is also the in-
jection of the germs of erysipelas — thought by some to be a specific.
Certain specific tumors, such as actinomycosis and botryomycosis,
may be successfully treated by the internal administration of potas-
sium iodid, together with the injection into the tumor or the painting
of its surface with either Lugol's solution or the tincture of iodin.
The most reliable means of treating tumors is by extirpation with
cutting instruments. Dissect the tumor from the surrounding tissue,
ligating all the larger blood vessels, and tearing the tissues with the
fingers rather than cutting with a knife. The bleeding may be
stopped with a hot iron. The after treatment is the same as for any
ordinary wound of similar size.

DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL TUMORS.

Although a full list of the tumors that may be found in bovines has
been given above, thei^ are a number that warrant a detailed descrip-
tion, and the following mention will be made of the most important
of them:

MYOMA.

These tumors are after the type of muscle. They are sharply cir-
cumscribed and, as a rule, are very hard, a condition owing usually to
combination with fibroma and are then known as fibromyoma. In
fact, the clinical differentiation between myoma and fibroma is almost
impossible. Myomas are found in the uterus, vagina, stomach, intes-
tines, gullet, and bladder of a bovine animal. They grow very large,
but, as a rule, are benign. Treatment should consist of their removal.

308 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

NEUROFIBROMA.

A true neuroma built up of nerve fibers and nerve cells is infre-
quent, if it ever occurs, in cattle. False neuromas, or neurofibromas,
are knotty, spreading tumors of the size of a large potato, which are
developed within the nerve sheaths and composed of nerve fibers and
connective tissue bands interlaced. The commingling of these varied
fibers is often so intricate that separation is practically impossible.
This tumor is most frequently found upon the shoulder of cattle.
Treatment is surgical.

ANGIOMA.

The angiomas are tumors composed mainly of blood vessels or
blood spaces and are observed on the skin of man, where they are
called " birthmarks " or " mother marks." Cavernous angiomas are
seen in cattle, affecting the liver and the mucous membrane of the
nasal septum. In the liver they appear as smooth, flat, nonprojecting
tumors of a dark-red or purple color and of about the size of a silver
10-cent piece. They are somewhat softer in consistency than the
adjoining liver substance into which they are gradually fused.
These tumors are frequently observed by meat inspectors in livers
of slaughtered cattle. Treatment of angioma is unnecessary.

ADENOMA.

The structure of this tumor is after the type of gland tissue. It is
rarely seen in cattle except in combination with cancer or sarcoma.
A growth which occurs more frequently in bovines, especially calves,
and which in some instances bears a striking resemblance to an
adenoma is the so-called goiter.

GOITER (STRUMA).

This is a noninflammatory enlargement or a hyperplasia of the thy-
roid gland. While it can not be definitely classed among tumors,
yet, owing to its resemblance to the latter, it will be discussed at this
time. The cause of goiter has never been definitely ascertained.
Among the most probable causes may be mentioned heredity, insuffi-
cient and improper diet, close confinement, unhygienic surroundings,
and an unknown toxic substance which is supposed to obtain in those
localities rich in magnesium and lime salts. Certain organisms found
in goiter have been suspected of producing this trouble, but their
relation to the disease has not been satisfactorily proved. A goiter
may consist of (1) simple enlargement of the follicles which are filled
with albuminous matter (follicular goiter) ; (2) an increase of con-
nective tissues between the follicles, causing the swelling to be dense
and resistant (fibrous goiter) ; (3) a great increase in size of one or
more follicles, forming a cyst (cystic goiter) ; (4) great dihitation of

TUMORS AFFECTING CATTLE. 309

the blood vessels in the gland accompanied with pulsation with each
heart beat (vascular goiter).

Symptoms. — Goiter may be observed at the side of the throat,
reaching the size of a fist or even larger, or it may hang down below
the windpipe. In cattle the two thyroid glands are close together,
and when the disease affects both there may be but one uniform swell-
ing placed in front of the windpipe below the angle of the jaw. This
swelling may be hard, soft, or doughy in consistence, and with each
beat of the heart it may pulsate like an artery. It may cause labored
breathing by pressure on the windpipe, and death may result from
pressure on this structure, on the gullet, or on the adjoining large
vessels.

Treatment. — In young animals the treatment is usually satisfac-
tory, and consists in giving the animal a complete change of feed and
plenty of exercise in the open air. If the condition appears enzootic
in the district, remove the animal to another location when possible,
lodin, either in the form of ointment or the tincture, should be ap-
plied to the swelling. Injections of iodin solution, 5 grains of iodin
in 1 dram of 25 per cent alcohol, may also be made into the substance
of the gland. When the swelling which follows this injection has
subsided it may be repeated. Potassium iodid should be giA'en
internally in 1^-dram doses twice daily for a cow, or in 20-grain doses
twice a day for a calf. Extirpation of all but a small section of the
swelling may be successfully accomplished by a qualified veterinarian,
but if it should be entirely removed, myxedema and death follow.

FIBROMA.

Fibromas are tumors made up chiefly of connective tissue and are
usually confined to the skin and subcutaneous tissue. Indurative
fibromas of the skin appear as tumors of gelatinous connective tissue
or as firm, white vascular connective tissue growths, wdiich are more
or less sharply outlined, move readily over the underlying tissues in
company with the skin, and owe their origin to mechanical injuries,
perforating wounds, repeated abrasions, or the invasion of pus cocci
or botryomyces into the tissues.

These tumors in cattle are frequently found upon the dewlap as
solid lumps, hard as stone to the touch, lying loosely between the
layers of skin, and gradually losing themselves in the softer tissues of
the neck above, or as smooth, hard tumors of glistening white sub-
stance with interlacing lines of softer tissue. They may also be found
in the region of the knee or at the elbow. The skin over the growths,
in accordance with the originating cause, will be found chafed, cov-
ered with scabs, or even ulcerated and accompanied with collateral
edema.

310 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

These connective tissue tumors grow slowly biit reach enormous
size. They sometimes follow injuries to the region of the throat and
form there as hard, firm growth, even reaching the size of a child's
head.

A fibroma upon the larynx is not an infrequent occurrence in the
ox. These tumors are always sharply outlined and have a roughened
surface. They may be differentiated from actinomycotic tumors (see
chapter on " Infectious diseases of cattle," p. 356) in the same location
by their firm, fibrous structure and by the absence of pus from the
interior.

A tumor is sometimes seen upoii the muzzle of cattle, which assumes
a diameter equaling the width of the muzzle. It is a voluminous con-
nective tissue formation known by the name of " fibroma diffusum."

Another form is sometimes observed upon the tongue. It grows
upon a broad, spreading base, becoming very hard. It is almost
lacking in blood vessels, although the few that are present are plainly
in view, and in consequence is poorly supplied with fluids. It is of
a smooth contour, white or whitish yellow in color, is sharply limited
from the normal substance of the tongue, may be covered with mucous
membrane, on which prominent papillae are located, or only by a thin,
delicate layer of epithelium, and is usually found in the middle part
"of the tongue, where it may reach the size of two fists.

Pedunculate or stemmed fibrous tumors are frequently noticed
growing upon or near the extremity of the tails of cows. They are
apparently of traumatic origin, such as tying the tail fast while milk-
ing or shaving it too closely while trimming for show purposes, and
usually contain bloody or gelatinous material within, or, again, they
may be strongly edematous throughout.

Treatmerit. — The treatment of large fibromas is surgical and con-
sists of the operative removal of the tumor, followed by suturing of
the wound. Small external tumors may be painted with zinc chlorid,
chromic acid, or a concentrated solution of bichlorid of mercury.

PAPILLOMA (WART).

When fibromas develop from the lining or covering tissues they
frequently form papillary growths, more or less thickly covered
with epithelium, and are then called papillomas, or warts.

Papillomas consist of villouslike projections, resulting from a
proliferation of the outer layer (epithelium) of the skin or mucous
membrane. These growths are also called " angle berries," and
may assume a variety of forms. Sometimes there is a preponderance
of epidermis in the formation, and the tumor then appears as a hard,
dense, insensitive, clublike growth, or wart. Again the swelling is
chiefly in the derm, or true skin, and we have what is known as a
flesh wart (verucca carnea). In other cases the growth of papillar

TUMORS AFFECTING CATTLE. " 311

bodies projects in great cauliflowerlike tumors with deeply furrowed
and lobulated surface, over which a covering of epidermis may or
may not be present. These are usually much softer and are well
supplied with blood vessels. It is not uncommon for them to be
pedunculate or stemmed, and in this case considerable rotary motion
or twisting is possible. Their color is cloudy gray or grayish red,
with white bands of connective tissue radiating from the center.
Their consistence varies. Upon their surfaces and within their clefts
and fissures they undergo retrogressive changes, softening, bleeding,
or ulcerations.

A favorite location for the papilloma in cattle is the udder and
teats, where they may develop in such numbers as to cover the entire
surface and make the animal troublesome to milk. The sides of the
head, neck, and shoulders also afford satisfactory conditions for
their growth, and are frequently seen to be affected by them.

Treatment. — Warts may be removed with the scissors, twisted off
with the fingers, or ligatured by means of a rubber band or horse-
hair. The roots should then be cauterized with tincture of iron,
glacial acetic acid, or lunar caustic. Acids should never be used in
removing warts about the eyes or in the mouth. Papillomas of the
eyelids sometimes change to cancers and should be removed by taking
out a wedge-shaped section of the eyelid. Young cattle should be
given arsenic internally in the form of Fowler's solution, 1 table-
spoonful twice a day for a 6-months-old calf.

POLYPS.

Polyps are usually fibromas or myxomas, occurring on the mucous
membrane of the nasal passages or genital tract. They grow upon
a narrow stem, bleed readily when injured, and often contain a
center of thin, limpid fluid. A bloody discharge is sometimes seen
coming from the affected nostril, but this is not always easy of
detection in cattle, owing to the pliancy of their tongues and to their
habit of licking an irritated nostril. Usually these tumors grow
downward and may project from the nostril, causing snoring sounds
and uneasy breathing. They may occasionally force themselves back-
ward into the throat, where they interfere seriously with respiration,
the patient being obliged to breathe with an effort, and even forced
to cough in order to dislodge temporarily the obstruction from the
larynx. Such tumors, when near the nostril, may easily be removed
by the use of forceps or a loop made of bailing wire. Serious bleed-
ing is not liable to follow their removal, but an astringent wash, such
as a solution of the perchlorid of iron, if applied to the cut surface,
will be found very beneficial. In case the tumor is not within easy
reach, the services of a qualified veterinarian should be obtained to
perform the necessary operation.

312 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

LIPOMA.

This is a tumor consisting chiefly of fat cells. The growth is
irregularly rounded and distinctly lobulated, very soft, and almost
fluctuating. It is insensitive, grows slowly, and is always inclosed
in a distinct fibrous capsule, from which it can be easily shelled out.
It may become very large and often hangs pendulous from a long,
elastic pedicle. In cattle this tumor may be found in the subcu-
taneous tissues, especially of the back and shoulders, uterus, and
intestines, and in the latter position it may cause strangulation, or
" gut tie," by winding around a loop of the intestine.

Treatment. — When found on the skin the tumor may be readily
removed with a knife or by a ligature. Caustics and the cautery
produce wounds that heal slowly and can not be recommended in the
treatment of this tumor.

CHONDROMA.

This tumor formation is composed of cartilage cells. It is a
rounded and very often unevenly nodular and sharply described
tumor. It is very hard, dense, elastic, and painless and develops
principally where we find normal cartilage cells. It is rare in cattle,
but has been found in the subcutaneous tissues and nasal cavities.

Treatment. — Extirpation.

OSTEOMA (BONY TUMOR).

Bones may occasionally grov in. such a profuse and irregular
manner that the product, or osteophyte, assumes the character of a
tumor. The bone tissue may possess either spongy or compact prop-
erties and grow either from the periphery of the bone or within its
interior. These tumors most frequently appear about the head of
the animal, either upon the jawbones, within the nasal passages, or
in connection with the horns. They are usually of bony hardness,
painless, benign, and sharply outlined.

TreaPment. — The treatment consists in either removing them with
a saw, chisel, or trephine, or preventing their further development
by counterirritation with blisters or firing iron.

MYXOMA.

Characteristic myxomas are mucoid tumors which chiefly originate
from the mucous membrane and are especially to be found within
the nasal passages and uterus of cattle. They can reach a size of
three fists, are smooth or velvetlike, or may be lobulated, broad at the
base, and consist of a glassy-looking mass of connective tissue, which
usually shows a distinctive yellowish color. Being homogeneous and
elastic, the moist, jelly like tissue composing the tumor muv be easily

TUMOES AFFECTING CATTLE. 313

destroyed or crushed. When cut through, these tumors soon collapse
from the loss of their fluids. They sometimes inclose elliptical cavi-
ties filled with slimy, gelatinous masses.
TreatTnent. — Extirpation.

SARCOMA.

This is a malignant tumor after the type of embryonal tissue, and
consists of several varieties, such as the round cell, spindle cell,
giant cell, alveolar, and melanosarcoma. They grow by preference
in connective tissue and are quite vascular. Sarcomas appear either
as single or multiple nodules, A'arying in size from a hempseed to a
hazelnut, or else as a moderate number of tumors of the size of hen
eggs. Their surface, at first smooth, later becomes lumpy and tuber-
ous from internal degeneration. Secondary nodules may appear
near the primary tumor. The outer skin is not involved so soon as
in cancer, nor does ulceration follow so rapidly. Sarcoma is about
the most frequent and dangerous tumor that is found in cattle. It
occurs in young animals, and is found on the serous membranes, in
the glandular organs, and on the outer skin, especially of the neck
and shoulders — in fact, in nearly every tissue and in almost every
part of the body. This tumor is often found in places exposed to
traumatisms and at seats of scars, or of irritations from pressure and
inflammation.

Treatment. — Treatment should consist in early and complete re-
moval by the knife, including one-half or three-quarters of an inch
of the sound tissue adjoining the tumor. If there is a possibility
that sarcomatous tissue still remains, either cauterize the wound with
a hot iron or powder the walls of the cavity with arsenious acid.

CANCER (CARCINOMA).

Cancers are tumors of epithelial tissues and are malignant. There
are several varieties of cancers, such as hard, soft, and colloid, but
only those growing on the surface will be mentioned here. These
malignant tumors of the superficial organs develop primarily from
the epidermis or from the glands of the skin. They appear second-
arily as spreading infections from milk glands, thryoids, anal glands,
or as embolisms. In such cases their sole character depends wholly
upon the kind of cancer from which they have sprung. The infil-
trating cancer begins as an elevation of the skin, which progresses
until it becomes rough and nodular. The surface later becomes
attacked, and an ulcer results whose edges are outlined by a hard,
firm zone.

The ulcerations may remain limited by cicatricial tissue, but it is
more likely that the infiltration and destruction of tissue will spread
out wider and deeper until a rodent ulcer (so called) is formed.
One of the most frequent sites of cancer in cattle is in the e3^e, where

314 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

they are called fungus hematodes, but they also occur on the skin,
on the genitals, in the stomach, and within the organs.

Fungus hematodes. — This starts at the inner corner of the eye as
a papillary elevation or as small nodules which become fused. They
grow larger and become papillomatous, with superficial ulcerations
and a tendency toward hemorrhage. In some cases the eye is dis-
placed by the growing tumor or is attacked by the cancer cells and
entirely destroyed.

Cancerous growths upon the external genitals and the anus usually
present a rough, irregular surface from which there is a constant
sloughing of decomposed tissue accompanied with a penetrating dis-
agreeable odor.

The diagnosis of cancer may be made clinically by noting the
simultaneous infection of the lymph glands which surround the pri-
mary lesion. Deeply burrowing and infiltrating forms which ap-
pear as lumps and ulcerations cause marked disfiguration of the
affected part. The surface becomes a soft, greasy mass; later it
cracks open and from the fissures blood-colored pus exudes, being
continually formed by the moist degeneration of the tissues beneath.
At first the general health of the animal does not appear affected,
but later the cancer nodules spread to important organs and give
rise to marasmus and progressive emaciation. Cancer is not a fre-
quent tumor of cows. Frohner states that of 75 cases of tumors in
cattle which came under his observation 2, or 2.6 per cent, were
found to be cancers, while 20, or 26.6 per cent, were sarcomas.

Treatment. — Treatment consists in the early and complete removal
of the tumor, taking care to include a wide border of healthy tissue.
This has been most successful in such superficial cancers as those of
the eye, penis, anus, testicle, vulva, and sheath. If the disease has
advanced too far, this treatment may not prove efficacious, owing to
the great malignancy of the cancer and its tendency to recur. In
such cases the animal may be slaughtered, but the flesh should be
used for food only after inspection by a competent veterinarian.

CYSTS.

Cysts may be true or false tumors and consist of a capsule contain-
ing a fluid or semisolid content. Among the most important cysts,
which have been briefly referred to in a previous table, the following
are probably the most noteworthy, owing to the frequency with which
they are found in bovines :

SOFTENING CYSTS.

Softening cysts, which result from the degenerative liquefaction of
normal or diseased tissues, especially of tumors of different kinds,
followed by the encapsulation of the fluid.

TUMORS AFFECTING CATTLE. 315

PARASITIC CYSTS.

Parasitic "or foreign-body cysts, from the inflammatory reaction
induced by such parasites as the echinococcus (hydatid cyst) or by
the presence of various kinds of foreign bodies.

EXTRAVASATION CYSTS.

Extravasation cysts, caused by injuries which rupture blood ves-
sels, followed by an increase of fibrous tissue which forms a capsule
about the fluid. The hygromata in front of the knee in cattle, so-
called tumor of the knee, and serous cysts belong to this variety.

Hygromata, or tumors of the knee. — These consist in the
simplest form of a collection of serous fluid mixed with fibrin within
a distended bursa. The walls surrounding the fluid become firm,
smooth, and dense.

Outwardly the tumor appears fluctuating, though tense, while the
skjn which covers it may be normal, denuded of hair, or covered
with hard epidermal scales, possibly half an inch in thickness, form-
ing a hard, horny plate. The cavity which contains the fluid may
have the dimensions of a hen's egg, an apple, or a child's head. Its
walls are formed by the diseased secreting membrane of the bursal
sac, and are readily detachable from the subcutis of the skin. Their
internal surfaces are often uneven or supplied with projections or
tufted growths which support a fibrous network within the tumor.

Tumors of the knee may also assume a granular type, as the result
of chronic inflammation or following operative or spontaneous evac-
uation of pus from the part. They are either firmly connected with
the skin or are detachable from it, and when laid open disclose a
whitish-red, porklike tissue surrounding a central nucleus of pus, or
a fistulous tract leading to the outer surface. They are caused by the
chronic inflammation which follows the bruises received by cattle in
lying down and in rising, or they may be due to falls on uneven, hard
ground.

Treatrnjent for hygromata. — When the swelling first appears cold
water should be applied, followed later by bandaging with cloths
wrung out of warm water. If the swelling is soft, it should be punc-
tured at the lowest point, and afterwards the cavity should be
syringed with Lugol's solution. If the tumor is hard and nonfluctu-
ating, a mercurial blister may cause absorption and at the same time
prevent further injury to the part by making it more painful, thus
sparing it.

Serous cysts. — These swellings are another variety of extravasa-
tion cysts, and are caused by such injuries as butting, running
against hard objects, and shipping ])juises, which are folloAved by an
outpouring of blood and lymph into the tissue spaces. These cysts

316 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

develop rapidly and may reach the size of a man's head or even
larger. They are soft, edematous, and hot at first and contain a
serous or blood-tinged fluid. Later, partially organized clots and
shreds of a fibrinous nature and of a gelatinous consistence are
formed within, and the temperature of the swelling is reduced.
They appear on the surface of the body, especially on the belly and
flank of cattle.

Treatment of serous cysts. — Treatment consists in opening the cyst
at the most dependent point with a sharp knife. The cavity should
be washed out twice daily with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid,
and drainage encouraged by keeping the incision open.

DERMOID CYSTS.

These cysts have a wall which is almost an exact duplicate of the
structure of the skin, and frequently contain epidermal structures,
such as hair and teeth, which, in the development of the embryo, have
been misplaced. Thus we may find in an ovary or testicle a dermoid
cyst, containing a tooth or a ball of hair. Dental cysts are included
in the class above.

Dental cysts. — It happens occasionally that the teeth of cattle, in-
stead of developing normally within strong supporting alveolae, re-
main inclosed within a cystic membrane, which assumes a tumorlike
character. One tooth may be included alone in the cyst or a number
may be inclosed together. However this may be, the malformation
progresses, especially if confined to the incisor teeth, until the remain-
ing teeth that began to develop normally are crowded out of posi-
tion and rendered useless. The tumor may reach the size of a man's
fist. It appears to be fleshy and dents upon pressure, but it may also
appear on closer examination as though it contained irregular sec-
tions of thin bone. The outer surface is always smooth, and no
indication of purulence, softening, or scab formation is ever ex-
hibited. Upon being laid open with the knife the tumor is seen to be
surrounded by a firm, smooth membrane which limits it completely
from the adjoining tissues. It is filled with material which possesses
partly edematous, partly fleshy, and partly bony properties. It is
supposed that this mass is composed of rudiments of the jaAvbone or
of the alveolar walls which, becoming spongy, lose themselves in the
soft, fleshy mass contained within the capsule of the tumor. It oc-
casionally happens that the tumor is hollow and that the cavity ex-
tends back into the body of the lower jaw for a considerable distance.

Tumors of this kind, being of congential origin, are very naturally
observed most frequently in young cattle, but they may continue to
expand for a period of several months after the birth of the calf,
even until they become troublesome and unsightly.

TUMORS AFFECTING CATTLE. 317

Treatment for dental cysts. — Treatment consists in the complete
extirpation of the cyst and the destruction of the lining pouch by
curetting.

RETENTION CYSTS.

Retention cysts arise from the retention of normal secretions,
owing to obstruction of a duct leading from a gland. The mucous
cysts found in the mouth, udder, and vestibule of cows are samples
of this form.

Mucous CYSTS. — Saclike dependent tvunors, caused by retention of
the secretions from the mucous glands, sometimes develop in the
mouth, nose, pharynx, and vulva of cattle. They are called " mucous
cysts." These are of sizes varying from peas to pigeon eggs, are
roundish and translucent, and surrounded by a delicate, vascular mem-
brane. They contain a siruplike substance more or less thick and
transparent and whitish yellow in color.

Treatment consists in the puncturing of the swelling, if accessible,
and the destruction of the cyst walls by the injection of Lugol's
solution.

PROLIFERATION CYSTS.

These are found especially in the ovaries of cows, called " cystic
ovaries," and may produce nymphomania (chronic bulling).

The treatment indicated in this case is the removal of the diseased
ovaries.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN.

By M. It. Tkumbowek, D. V. S.
[Revised by John R. Moliler, V. M. D.]

GENERAL DISCUSSION.

The skin consists of two parts — a superficial layer, the epidermis,
or cuticle, and the deep, or true, skin, the dermis, cutis vera, or
corium.

The epidermis, cuticle, or scarf skin, is an epithelial structure,
forming a protective covering to the corium. It varies in thickness,
is quite insensible and nonvascular, and consists of a sheet of cells.

The epidermis is divided into a firm and transparent superficial
and a deep, soft layer. The latter is the rete mucosum, whose cells
contain the pigment which giA^es color to the skin.- The deep sur-
face of the epidermis is accurately molded on the papillary layer of
the true skin, and, when removed by maceration, presents depres-
sions which correspond to the elevations on the dermis. From the
cuticle tubular prolongations pass into the sebaceous and sudorific
glands ; thus the entire surface of the body is inclosed by the cuticle.

The dermis, or true skin, is vascular and highly sensitive, contain-
ing the tactile ends of the nerves of touch. It is covered by epi-
dermis and attached to the underlying parts by a layer of areolar
tissue, which usually contains fat. The cutis consists of a fibro-
areolar tissue and vessels of supply. It is divided into two layers,
the deep, or true, corium and the upper, or papillary. The corium
consists of strong interlacing fibrous bands, chiefly white ; its meshes
are larger and more open toward the attached surface, giving lodg-
ment to the sweat glands and fat. The papillary, or superficial,
layer is formed of a series of small conical eminences or papilla?,
which are highly sensitive, and consists of a homogenous, transparent
tissue. The blood vessels form dense capillary plexuses in the
corium, terminating by loops in the papillae. The papillary nerves
run in a waving manner, usually terminating in loops.

Hair is an appendage of the skin and forms its external covering.
It is a special modification of epidermis, having the same essential
structure, and consists of a root, shaft, and point. The root has a
bulbous extremity, is lighter and softer than the stem, and is lodged
in a recess or hair follicle, which may either be in the corium or sub-
cutaneous areolae. The follicle is dilated at the bottom to correspond
318

DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 319-

to the root bulb, and the ducts of one or more sebaceous glands open
mto it. At the bottom of each follicle is a concial, vascular papilla,
similar in every respect to those on the surface of the dermis; this
papilla fits into a corresponding depression in the root of the hair.
The shaft consists of a center, or medulla, a surrounding fibrous
portion, and an external coating, or cortex. The medulla consists
of cells containing pigment or fat, is opaque, and deeply colored.
All kinds of hair do not have this medulla. The fibrous portion
occupies the bulk of the stem, and the cortex is merely a single
la3^er of thin, flat, imbricated (shinglelike) scales.

The sebaceous glands, lodged in the corium, are most abundant in
parts exposed to friction. They generally open into the hair follicles,
occasionally on the surface of the body. Each gland consists of a
small duct which terminates in a lobulated recess. These lobules
vary, and are, as is the duct, lined with epithelium. They are filled
with sebaceous matter which, as it is secreted, is detached into the
sacs. They are very plentiful between the claws of cattle.

The sudorific glands, or sAveat glands, are situated in the subcuta-
neous areolar tissue, surrounded by a quantity of fat. They are
small, round, reddish bodies, each of which consists of one or more
fine tubes coiled into a ball, the free end of the tube being continued
up through the true skin and cuticle, and opening on the surface.
Each sweat gland is supplied with a cluster of capillary blood ves-
sels which vary in size, being very large when perspiration is exces-
sive. The contents of the smaller ones are fluid, and of the larger,
semifluid.

The skin may be regarded as an organ supplementary in its action
to the lungs and kidneys, since by its secretion it is capable of remov-
ing a considerable quantity of water from the blood ; it also removes
small quantities of carbon dioxid of salts, and in certain instances
during suppression of the renal secretions a small quantity of urea.
The skin is also the chief organ for the regulation of animal heat,
by or through conduction, radiation, and evaporation of water, per-
mitting of loss of heat, while it also, through other mechanisms, is
able to regulate the heat lost. The hair furnishes protection against
extreme and sudden variations of temperature by reason of the fact
that hairs are poor conductors of heat, and inclose between them a
still layer of air, itself a nonconductor. The hairs are also furnished
with an apparatus by which the loss of heat may be regulated ; thus,
in cold weather, through the contraction of unstriped muscidar fibers
of the skin, the hairs become erect and the external coat becomes
thicker. Cold, too, acts as a stimulus to the growth of hair, and we
find, in consequence, a thicker coat in winter than in summer. The
hairs also furnish protection against wet, as they are always more
or less oily from the secretion of sebaceous glands, and thus shed

320 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

water. Through their elasticity they furnish mechanical protection,
and through the thickness of the coat, to a certain degi'ee, resist the
attacks of insects. Finally, the hairs assist the sense of touch.

The sweat glands are constantly discharging a watery secretion in
the form of insensible perspiration, and by their influence act as
regulators of the temperature of the body : hence, in warm weather,
the secretion of the skin is increased, which tends to prevent over-
heating. Sweating, in addition to regulating heat, is also an active
agent in removing effete material from the blood; therefore this
secretion can not be checked without danger. If the skin is covered
with an impermeable coating of grease or tar, death results from
blood poisoning, owing to the retention of materials destined to be
excreted by the skin.

All secretion poured out by the skin is not only modified by the
condition of the atmosphere but also by the character and quantity
of the food, by the amount of exercise, and especially by the quantity
of fluid taken.

The sebaceous secretion isintended to lubricate the skin and hairs.
It consists of soft, fatty material suspended in water, and is charac-
terized by an odor peculiar to the animal by which it is secreted.

I will not attempt to classify the various diseases of the skin, for
in a work of this kind it would serve only to confuse the reader.

We shall first consider a class of diseases which are of an inflamma-
tory type; next, those caused by faulty secretion and abnormal
growth; then, diseases of parasitic origin; lastly, local injuries of
the skin.

PRURITIS (ITCHING).

We shall consider pruritis first as a distinct subject. It is not a
disease, only a sensation, and therefore a symptom. It is one of the
symptoms accompanjdng the majority of the diseases which we will
consider in this chapter. It is, then, a functional affection produced
by slight irritation from without or by an internal cause acting
upon the sensory nerves of the skin. Nothing characteristic is seen
except the secondary lesions, produced mechanically by scratching or
rubbing.

There are various forms of itching, the result of specific skin dis-
eases, where the pruritis is a secondary symptom. In such cases it
should not be regarded as an independent affection.

Causes. — Many causes may induce the condition which we recog-
nize here as pruritis. The most common one is dirt on the skin,
resulting from insufficient care. If the ceiling of the stable is open,
so that dust and straw may fall, the skin is irritated and pruritis
results. It also occurs in some forms of indigestion.

The parts of the body most exposed to this condition are the croup,
the back, the top of the neck, and the root of the tail.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 321

. Another cause is found in affections of tlie liver and of the kidneys,
when an increase of effete material has to be thrown off by the skin.
Morbid materials circulating in the blood nvAj produce a tickling or
smarting sensation of the skin in their passage from the blood to the
free surface of the skin. Certain irritating substances when eaten
may be excreted by the skin, and coming thus in direct contact with
the sensory nerves produce itching, or may go further and cause dis-
tinct inflammation of the skin. In another class of cases the j)ruritis
may be ascribable to an atrophj^, contraction, or hardening of the
skin, when the nerves become irritated by the pressure. These con-
ditions may be so slightly marked in a thick skin like that of the ox
that they can not be recognized. It is frequently noticed that cattle
rub themselves as soon as the}'' pass from the stable into the open
air — changing from a warm to a cold atmosphere. Again, we may
find one that does all its rubbing in the stall. We may look for lice,
but fail to find them. These conditions are generally attributable to
high feeding and to too close confinement. They may be associated
with inflammatory irritation or not ; certainly we fail to discoA^er any
morbid changes in the skin. There is to some extent a delightful
sensation produced by rubbing, and it m.ay partly become a habit
of pleasure.

Treatment. — We must place our chief reliance upon a change of
food, plenty of exercise, and in most cases the administration of an
active cathartic — 1 to 1^ pounds of Epsom salt, a handful of com-
mon salt, a tablespoonful of ginger or pepper, mixed with 2 quarts
of water, all of which is to be given at one dose. Afterwards half
an ounce of hyposulphite of soda mixed with the feed may be given
twice a day for a week. For an external application, when the skin
is abraded or thickened from rubbing, a solution of borax, 4 ounces
to the quart of water, ma}'' be used. Carbolic acid, -| ounce to a
quart of water, will give relief in some cases.

INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE SKIN

ERYTHEMA.

This is the simplest form of inflammation of the skin. It consists
of an increased redness, which \\\^j occur in patches or involve con-
siderable surface. The red coloration disappears when pressed by
the finger, but soon returns after the pressure is removed. There is
seldom much swelling of the affected part, "though often there is a
glutinous discharge which dries and mats the hair or forms a thin
scale upon the skin. In simple erythema the epidermis alone is
affected ; when it becomes chronic, fissures form and extend into the
corium, or true skin.

Causes. — Simple erythema, consisting of an inflammatory irrita-
tion, is seen in very j^oung calves, in which the navels leak. The dis-
33071°— 16 ^21

322 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

charge being' urine, it causes an irritation of the surrounding skin.
Chafing, which is another form of erythema, is occasionally seen
on the udder of cows from rubbing by the legs; chafing between
the legs is not uncommon among fat steers. Chronic erythema is
found in the form of chapped teats of cows and chapped lips in
sucking calves. It frequently occurs in cows when they are turned
out in winter directly after milking, and in others from chafing by
the sucking calf. Some cows are peculiarly subject to sore teats.
The fissures when neglected in the early stage of formation become
deep, A^ery painful, often l)leeding at the slightest touch, and when
milked in that condition cause the animal to become a kicker. Occa-
sionally the lower portions of the legs become irritated and chapped
when cattle are fed in a muddy or wet yard in winter, or if they are
compelled to wade through water in frosty weather. Another form
of erythema occurs in young cattle highly fed and closely stabled for
a long winter. The erythema appears in patches, and as it is most
common near the end of the winter it is known as the " spring erup-
tion " or " spring itch."

Treatment. — In ordinary cases of erythema the removal of the
cause and the application of benzoated oxid of zinc ointment, car-
bolized cosmoline, or ichthyol ointment applied a few times, will
restore the skin to a healthy condition.

When there are fissures the zinc ointment is the best. If at the
teats, a milk siphon (PI. XXIV, fig. 4) should be used instead of
milking by hand, and the calf, if one is suckled, should be taken away.
The calf should be fed by hand if its mouth is affected. ^V^len the
legs are irritated or chapped, dry stabling for a few days and the
application of tar ointment will soon heal them.

URTICARIA (NETTLE RASH, OR SURFEIT).

This is a mild, inflammatory affection of the skin, characterized by
sudden development of patches of various sizes, from that of a nickel
to one as large as the hand. The patches of raised skin are marked
by an abrupt border and are irregular in form. All the swelling may
disappear in a few hours, or it may go away in one place and reap-
pear on another part of the body. It is always accompanied with
a great desire to rub the affected part. In its simplest type, as just
described, it is never followed by any serous exudation or eruptions,
unless the surface of the skin becomes abraded from scratching or
rubbing.

Causes. — Digestive derangements caused by overloading the stom-
ach when the animal is turned out to graze in the spring, certain
feed constituents, high feeding of fattening stock, functional de-
rangement of the kidneys, spinal and other nervous affections, are
the most common sources of nettle rash.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 32 S

The disease consists in paralysis of the nerve ends that control the
volume of the capillary vessels in certain areas of skin, thus permit-
ting the vessels to expand, their contents in part to exude, and thus
produce a soft, circumscribed swelling.

Treatment. — Administer a full dose of Epsom salt. Give soft,
easily' digested feed, and wash the affected parts with a solution of
bicarbonate of soda (common baking soda), 8 ounces to the gallon of
water twice a day, or diluted glycerin may be applied to the skin.
If it assumes a persistent tendency, give a tablespoonful of the
follovv'ing powder in the feed three times a day: Cream of tartar,
sulphur, and nitrate of potassium, equal parts by weight; mix.

ECZEMA.

Eczema is a noncontagious inflammation of the skin, characterized
by any or all of the results of inflammation at once or in succession,
such as erj^thema, vesicles, or pustules, accompanied with more or
less infiltration and itching, terminating in a watery discharge, with
the formation of crusts or in scaling off. The disease may run an
acute course and then disappear, or it may become chronic ; therefore
two varieties are recognized, vesicular (or pustular) and chronic
eczema.

Causes. — Eczema is not so common among cattle as in horses and
in dogs, in Avhich it is the most common of all skin diseases. Among
cattle it is occasionally observed under systems of bad hj'^giene, filthi-
ness, lousiness, overcrowding, overfeeding, excessively damp or too
warm stables. It is found to develop now and then in cattle that are
fed upon sour substances, distillery swill, house or garden garbage,
etc. Localized eczema may be caused by irritant substances applied
to the skin — turpentine, ammonia, the essential oils, mustard, Span-
ish-fly ointment, etc. Occasionally an eruption with vesiculation of
the skin has been induced by the excessive use of mercurial prepara-
tions for the destruction of lice. It is evident that eczema may arise
from local irritation to the skin or from an autointoxication. Cattle,
fed on the refuse from potato-starch factories develop a most obsti-
nate and widespread eczema, beginning on the legs.

Symptoms. — In accordance with the variety of symptoms during
the progress of the disease we may divide it into different stages or
periods: (1) Swelling and increased heat of the skin; the formation
of vesicles, which are circumscribed, rounded elevations of the epider-
mis, varying in size from a pinhead to a split pea, containing a clear,
watery fluid; (2) exudation of a watery, glutinous fluid, formation
of crusts, and sometimes suppuration, or the formation of vesicles
containing pus '(pustules) ; (3) scaling off (desquamation), with
redness, and thickening of the skin. From the very beginning of

324 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the disease the animal commences to rub the affected parts; hence
the various stages may not always be easily recognized, as the rub-
bing produces more or less abrasion, thus leaving the skin raw —
sometimes bleeding. Neither do these symptoms always occur in
regular succession, for in some cases the exudation is most prominent,
being very profuse, and serve to spread the disorder over a large
surface. In other cases the formation of incrustations, or rawness
of the skin, is the most striking feature. The disease may be limited
to certain small areas, or it may be diffused over the greater part of
the body ; the vesicles, or pustules, may be scattered in small clusters,
or a large number run together. The chronic form is really only a
prolongation of the disease, successive crops of pustules appearing
on various portions of the body, frequentl}^ invading fresh sections
of the skin, while the older surfaces form scabs, or crusis, upon the
raw, indurated skin.

In old, standing cases the skin breaks, forming fissures, espe-
cially on portions of the body that bend — the neck and limbs. Thus
the disease may be prolonged indefinitel5\ When eczema reaches its
latest period, either acute or chronic, desquamation of the affected
parts is the most prominent feature. The formation and shedding of
these successive crops of scales constitute the character of the disease
frequently denominated psoriasis.

Treatment. — The treatment of eczema is often anything but a pleas-
ant task. There is no one method of treatment which always proves
successful, no matter how early it is begun or how small an area is
involved. We must endeavor to remove the cause by giving atten-
tion to the general health of the animal and to its environment.
Feeding should be moderate in quantity and not too stimulating in
character — green feed, bran mashes, ground oats, clean hay, plenty
of salt. If the animal has been fed too high, give an active purga-
tive— Epsom salt preferred — once a Aveek, if necessary, and half an
ounce of acetate or nitrate of potassium ma}^ be given in the feed twice
a day. If the animal is in poor condition and debilitated, give a table-
spoonful of the following mixture in feed twice a day : Powdered
copperas, gentian, sulphur, and sassafras bark, equal parts by weight.
If the animal is lousy, the parasite must be destroyed before the
eczema can be cured. The external treatment must vary Avith the
character of the lesions; no irritating application is to be made while
the disease is in its acute vesicular, or pustular, stage, and, in the
chronic stage, active stimulants must be used. Much washing is
harmful, yet crusts and scales must be removed in order to obtain
satisfactory results from the external applications. Both objects,
however, can be attained by judiciousl}'^ combining the curative
agents with such substances as will at the same time cleanse the
parts.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 325

In the vesicular stage, vvlien the skin is feverish and the epidermis
peeling off, thus exposing the exuding dermis, an application of
boric-acid solution, 2 drams of the acid to 8 ounces of water, often
relieves the smarting or itching, and also served to check the exuda-
tion and dry the surface. If this fails to have the desired effect
compound cresol, 1 ounce to 2 quarts of "water, sho\dd be used as a
wash. Either of these Avashes may be used several times a day until
incrustation is well established. Then compound cresol, 1 ounce to
2 quarts of sweet oil, or the benzoated oxid of zinc ointment, giving
the affected surfaces a thorough application once a day, will be effi-
cacious. When the eczema is not the result of an external irritant,
it takes usually from one to two weeks to heal.

In chronic eczema, when there is a succession of scabs, or scales,
indolent sores or fissures, the white precipitate ointment, nitrate of
mercury ointment, or blue ointment, mixed with equal parts of cos-
moline or fresh lard, may be applied every second da}^, taking care to
protect the parts so that the animal can not lick it off.

In some cases the use of the following mixture w^ill do well : Oil of
tar one-half ounce, glycerin 1 ounce, alcohol 1 pint. This is to be
rubbed in after cleansing the parts with warm water and soap. The
internal administration of arsenic often 3'ields excellent results in
chronic eczema. Dissolve 1 dram of arsenic and 1 dram of carbonate
of potassium in 1 pint of boiling wat^r, and give 1 ounce of this twice
a day in water, after feeding. An alkali internally may be of service.
As such, one may give 2 ounces of bicarbonate of soda twice daily.
Sublimed sulphur may also be tried in ounce doses twice daily.

PUSTULES (IMPETIGO).

Impetigo is an inflammatory disease of the skin, characterized by
the formation of distinct pustules, about the size of a pea or a bean,
without itching. The pustules develop from the papular la3^er of
the skin, and contain a yellowish-white pus. Afer reaching maturity
they remain stationary for a few days, then they disappear by
absorption and diy up into crusts, which later drop off, leaving
upon the skin a red spot that soon disappears. Occasionally the
crusts remain firmlj'' adherent for a long time, or they may be raised
and loosened by the formation of matter underneath. The dry
crusts usually' have a brown or black appearance.

Causes. — Impetigo affects sucking calves, in which the disease
appears upon the lips, nostrils, and face. It is attributed to some
irritant substance contained in the mother's milk. Impetigo is also
witnessed among grazing animals, regardless of age, and it especially
attacks animals with white hair and skin. The mouth, face, and
limbs become covered with pustules, which may rupture in a few
hours, followed by rapid and successive incrustations; the scabs fre-

326 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

quently coalesce, covering a large surface; pus may form under them,
and thus the whole thickness of the skin become involved in the
morbid process. This form of the disease is attributed to the local
irritant properties of such plants in the pasture as St. John's wort
{Hyperk'um perforatum), smartweed {Polygonum hydroinper)^
vetches, honeydew, etc. Buckwheat, at the time the seeds become
ripe, is said to have caused it ; also bedding with buckwheat straw.
Treatment. — Sucking calves should be removed from the mother,
and a purgative given to the latter to divert the poisonous substance
secreted with the milk. When the more formidable disease among
grazing cattle appears, the pasturagp should be changed and the
affected parts of the animal thoroughly anointed once a day with
sweet oil containing 2 drams of carbolic acid to the pint. This should
be continued until the crusts soften and begin to drop off, then the
parts may be cleansed thoroughly with warm water and soap. Sub-
sequently the white precipitate ointment or carbolized cosmoline
should be applied daily until the parts are healed.

PEMPHIGUS (WATER BLISTERS).

This is an inflammatory disease of the skin, characterized by suc-
cessive formations of rounded, irregularly shaped water blisters,
varying in size from a pea to a hen's egg.

Causes. — Obscure.

Symptoms. — The formation of a blister is preceded by a conges-
tion or swelling of the skin. Yellowish-colored water collects be-
neath the cuticle, which raises the latter from its bed in the form of
a blister. The blisters appear in a succession of crops; as soon as
one crop disappears another forms. They usually occur in clusters,
each one being distinct, or they may coalesce. Each crop usually
runs its course in a week. The disease is attended with itching or
burning sensations which cause the animal to rub. thereby fre-
quently producing excoriations and formation of crust on the
affected region.

Treatment. — Give a tablespoonful of the following-described mix-
ture in feed twice a day: Saltpeter, cream of tartar, and sulphur,
equal parts by weight. The blisters should be opened as soon as
formed, to allow the escape of the serum, followed by a wash com-
posed of chlorid of zinc. 1 dram to 15 ounces of water. When there
is any formation of crusts, carbolized cosmoline should be applied.

FURUNCULUS (BOILS).

This is an acute affection of the skin, usually involving its whole
thickness, characterized by the formation of one or more abscesses,
originating generally in a sebaceous gland, sweat gland, or hair

DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 327

follicle. They usually terminate by absorption, or by the formation
of a central core, which sloughs out, leaving a deep, round cavity
that soon heals.

Causes. — ^Impoverished state of blood, the result of kidney dis-
eases or of local friction or contusions.

Symptoms. — Boils in cattle usually appear singly, not in clusters;
they may attain the size of a hen's egg. The abscess begins as a
small round nodule, painful on pressure, gradually increases in size
until death of the central portion takes place, then the surface of the
skin gives way to internal pressure and the core is released and ex-
pelled. Constitutional symptoms are generally absent, unless the
boils occur in considerable numbers, or by their size involve a great
deal of tissue.

Treatment. — Poulticing to ripen the abscess. If this can not be
done, apply camphorated oil two or three times a day until the core
is formed. As soon as the central or most prominent part becomes
soft, the abscess should be opened to release the core. Then use car-
bolized cosmoline once a day until the healing is completed. If the
animal is in poor condition, give tonics — coj^peras, gentian, ginger,
and sulphur, equal parts by weight, 1 tablespoonful twice a day. If
the animal manifests a feverish condition of the system, give half an
ounce of saltpeter twice a day, continuing it several days or a week.

FAULTY SECRETIONS AND ABNORMAL GROWTHS OF THE SKIN.

PITYRIASIS (SEBORRHEA, DANDRUFF, OR SCURF).

This is a condition characterized by an excessive secretion of seba-
ceouh matter, forming upon the skin in small crusts or scales.

Causes. — ^It is ascribable to a functional derangement of the seba-
ceous glands, usually' accompanied with dryness and loss of pliancy
of the skin. The animal is hidebound, as is commonly termed, thin
in flesh, inclined to rub, and very frequently lousy. The condition is
observed most often toward the spring of the 3'ear. Animals that
are continually housed, and the skins of which receive no cleaning,
generally present a coat filled with fine scales, composed of epi-
thelium from the epidermis and dried sebaceous matter. This, how-
ever, is a physiologicall^ondition and compatible with perfect health.

Symi)to7ns. — Pityriasis may affect the greater portion of the body,
though usually only certain parts are affected — the ears, neck, rump,
etc. The skin becomes scurf}'^, tlie haiiy coat filled with branlike
gray or whitish scales.

Treatment. — Nutritious feed, such as oil-cake meal, bran, ground
oats, and clean hay. In the spring the disease generally disappears
after the animal is turned out to pasture. When lice are present they
should be destroyed.

328 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ELEPHANTIASIS (SCLERODERMA).

This condition consists in a chronic thickening of the skin, which
may effect one or more limbs or involve the whole integument. It is
characterized by recurrent attacks of swelling of the skin and sub-
cutaneous areolar tissue. After each attack the affected parts remain
infiltrated to a larger extent than before, mitil finally the skin may
attain a thickness of an inch, becoming wrinkled and fissured. In
cattle this disease is confined to hot climates. The predisposing
cause is unknown.

EDEMA (ANASARCA OF THE SKIN).

This is a dropsical condition of the skin and snbcutanetms areolar
tissue, characterized by pitting under pressure, the fingers leaving a
dent which remains a short time.

Causes. — Edema generally results from a weakened state of the sys-
tem arising from previous disease. It wvAy also be dependent upon
a functional derangement of the kidneys, upon weak circulation, or
obstruction to the flow of blood through the lungs. In debilitated
animals and in some animals highly infested with parasites there is
swelling of the dewlap or of the fold of the skin between the jaws.

Symptoms. — Painless sAvelling of a limb, udder, loAA-er surface of
abdomen, or lower jaAv becomes apparent. This may increase in
dimensions for several days or may attain its maximum in less than
24 hours. Unless complicated with some acute disease of a specific
character, there is not much, if any, constitutional disturbance. The
deep layer of the sldn is infiltrated with serum, which gives it the
characteristic condition of pitting under pressure.

Treatment. — When the cause can be ascertained and removed we
may expect to see the edema disappear. "^^Tien no direct specific
cause can be discoA'ered and the animal is debilitated, give general
tonic. If, on the contrary, it is in good flesh, give a purgative, fol-
lowed by half an ounce of acetate of potassium twice a da}^ Ex-
ternal applications are useless.

Edema may be distinguished from erysi})elas or anthrax l)y the
absence of pain and fever.

DERMOID AND SEBACEOUS CYSTS (WENS).

A dermoid cyst is formed by an involution of the skin with a
growth of hair on the inner wall of the sac. It may become embedded
deeply in the subcutaneous tissues or may just penetrate the thickness
of the skin, where it is movable and painless. They are generally
found within the ear or at its base, although they may form on any
part of the body. Usually they have a small opening, from which a
thick, cheesy matter can be squeezed out. The rational treatment is
to dissect them out.

DISEASES OP THE SKIN. 329

Sebaceous cysts appear not unlike the former. They are formed
by a clihitation of the hair foUick^ and sebaceous -duct Avithin the
sldn, and contain a gray or yellowish sebaceous mass. The tumor
ma}'^ attain the size of a cherry stone or a walnut. Generally they
are round, movable, and painless, soft or doughy in consistency, and
covered with skin and hair. They develop slowly. The best treat-
ment is to dissect out the sac with contents entire.

VERRUCA (WARTS).

Cattle are affected with tAvo varieties of warts. One, the verruca
vulgaris, is composed of a cluster of enlarged papillae, covered with
a thickened epidermis, the number of papillae determining the breadth
and their length its height. They are generally circular in figure,
slightly roughened on the surface, and spring from the skin by a
broad base. Occasionally large numbers of very thin, long, peduncu-
lated Avarts groAv from the skin of the ear, lips, about the eyes, and
vulva. Another variety, the verruca acuminata, sometimes errone-
ously denominated epithelial cancers, are irregularly shaped eleva-
tions, tufted or club shaped, occasionally existing as thick, short,
flesh}" excrescences, giving the growth the appearance of granulation
tissue. Their color is red or purplish, and oftentimes by friction
they become raw and bleeding, emitting then a very offensive odor.
They usually grow in clusters and their development is rapid.

Causes. — An abnormal nutrition of the skin, determined by in-
creased energy of growth operating upon a healthy skin; at other
times, upon a weak or impoverished skin.

Treatment. — When the}^ are small and pedunculated, they may be
snipped off with shears and the stump touched with nitrate of silver.
When they are broad and flattened, they niaj^ be dissected out and the
wound cauterized if necessary. If they are large and very vascular,
they may be ligated, one by one, by taking a strong cord and tying it
as firmly around the base as possible. They will then shrivel, die,
and drop off. If there is a tendency to grow again, apply a red-hot
iron or nitric acid with a glass rod. Very often warts quickly dis-
appear if they are kept soft b}^ daily applicatiojis of sweet or
olive oil.

KELIS.

Kelis is an irregularW shaped flat tumor of the skin, resulting
from hypertrophy — increased growth of the fibrous tissue of the
cqrium, producing absorption of the papillary layer.

Causes. — It may arise spontaneously or follow a scar after an
injury.

Symptoms:. — Kelis generally appears below the knee or hock, and
may occur singly or in numbers. There are no constitutional sj^mp-

330 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

toms. Its gro'^N'th is very slow and seldom causes any inconvenience.
It appears as a fattened, irregular, or spreading growth within the
substance of the skin, is hard to the touch, and is especially charac-
terized by divergent branches or roots, resembling the claws of a
crab: hence the name. Occasionally some part of it may soften and
result in an abscess. It may grow several inches in length and en-
circle the whole limb.

Treatment: — So long as it causes the animal no inconvenience it is
best not to meddle with it : when it does the animal ought to be fat-
tened for beef, the meat being perfectly ha unless to the consumer.

PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN.

RINGWORM (TINEA TONSURANS AND TINEA FAVOSA).

Ringworm is an affection of the skin, caused by a vegetable para-
site.

The form known as tinea tonsurans is produced by the presence
of a minute or microscopic fungus — the Trichophyton tons'urcms^
wiiioii affects the hair and the epidermic layer of the skin, and is
highly contagious, being readily transmitted from one animal to
another. This fungus consists of spores and filaments. The spores,
being the most numerous, are round, nucleated, and seldom vary
much in size. They are very abundant in the hair follicle. The fila-
ments are articulated, waving, and contain granules. This disease is
productive of changes in the root and shaft of the hair, rendering it
brittle and easily broken off.

This disease becomes manifest by the formation of circular patches
on the skin, which soon becomes denuded of hair. The cuticular layer
of the skin in slightly inflamed, and vesication with exudation
occurs, followed by the formation of scaly, brittle crusts. The
patches appear silvery gray when incrusted. and are mostly confined
to the head and neck. It is a common disease among young cattle
in the winter and spring. Very early in the development of the
patches the hairs split, twist, and break off close to the skin. This
disease is attended with more or less itching. It is communicable
to man.

Tinea favosa comes from another fungus, the Achorioii schdnlemti.
This enters the hair follicle and involves the cuticle surrounding it,
small crusts form which increase in diameter and thickness and then
become elevated at their margin, forming a cup-shaped scab, the
favus cup, which gives the disease its distinctive character. The
number of these cups varies from a few to many hundreds. The
hairs involved become brittle and broken, fall off with the crusts,
leaving small bald patches. The crusts are of a pale or sulphur-
yellow color at first ; as they grow older they turn darker, or to a

DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 331

brown color. This form of ringworm has a peculiar odor, resembling
that of mice or musty straw. It is occasionally commimicatocl to
cattle by man, mice, cats, etc., all being subject to it.

Treatment. — Eemove all crusts by washing with soap and water,
then apply acetic acid, sulphur ointment, tincture of iodin or nitrate
of mercury ointment once a day. Cleanse the stable and whitewash
it to destroy the spores scattered by the crusts.

OTHER PARASITES AND PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN.

For discussion of mange, itch, scab, lousiness, warbles (grub in
the skin), buffalo gnats, hornfly {Hcematohia serrata), ticks, flies,
etc., see the chapter on " The animal parasites of cattle," page 510.

WOUNDS OF THE SKIN.

SNAKE BITES AND VENOMOUS STINGS.

[See discussion of these subjects in chapter on " Poisons and poisoning."]
BURNS AND SCALDS.

This is a rare accident among cattle, yet in cases of fire it may
occur. The application of heat, whether dry or moist, unless suffi-
cient instantly to destroy the life of a part, is always followed by
the development of vesicles or blisters, which contain a thin, watery
fluid. The blisters may be isolated and not very large, or one blister
may cover a very large surface. When the burn is very severe the
skin may be wholly devitalized, or the injury may extend into the
deeper structures of the skin. Then sloughs will occur, followed
by a contraction of the parts in healing; if on a limb, this may render
the animal stiff. When the burn or scald has been a severe one, the
resulting pain is great and the constitutional disturbance very
marked.

Treatm£nt. — For a superficial burn use a mixture of equal parts of
limewater and linseed oil, or common white paint — white lead ground
in oil — to exclude the atmosphere and protect the inflamed skin.
If it is not convenient to get anything else, chimney soot, flour, or
starch may be spread on the wound (dry), and covered with cotton
batting and light bandage. The blisters should be opened to let the
contained fluid escape, but do not pull off the thin cuticle which has
been raised bj^ the blister. When the burn is extensive and deep
sloughing occurs, the parts should be treated, like other deep wounds,
by poulticing, astringent washes, etc. When the sj'stem has sus-
tained much shock, the animal may require internal stimulants,
such as 4 ounces of whisky or 2 drams of carbonate of ammonia
every hour until it rallies. When the pain is very great, hypo-
dermic injections of G grains of morphia may be administered every
six hours.

332 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Frostbite on any portion of the l)ody may be treated as recom-
mended in the article on diseases of the ears.

EMPHYSEMA (AIR OR GAS UNDER THE SKIN).

Emphysema of the skin is not a true disease of the skin, but it is
mentioned as a pathological condition. It is characterized by a
distention of the skin with air or gas contained in the snbcutaneons
areolar tissue. It may depend npon a septic condition of the blood,
as in anthrax or blackleg, or air may be forced under the skin about
the head, neck, and shoulders, as a result of rupture of the windpipe-
It occurs in the region of the chest and shoulders from penetrating
wounds of the chest and lung, and occasionally follows puncture of
the rumen when the escaping gas is retained under the skin.

Symptoms. — The skin is enormously distended over a greater or
less portion of the bodj'^; thus any region of the body may lose its
natural contour and appear like a monstrosity. There is a peculiar
crackling beneath the skin when the hand is passed over it, and on
tapping it with the fingers a resonant, drumlike sound is elicited.

Treattnent. — Puncture the distended skin with a clean, broad-
bladed knife and press the air out. Further treatment must be
directed with a view to the removal of the cause.

DISEASES OF THE FOOT.

By M. R. TitUMBowEK, D. V. S.
[Revised by Leonard Pearson, 13. S., 'N'. M. D.]

LAMINITIS (FOUNDER).

Laminitis denotes an active inflammation of the sensitive struc-
tures within the wall of the hoof, which in severe cases may result
in suppuration and the loss of one or more claws. Owing to the sim-
plicity of the structure of the foot of an ox compared with that of
the horse, this disease is rarely seen in an acute form, but a mild
form, commonly called " foot soreness," is not of infrequent occur-
rence.

Causes. — Laminitis in cattle may be caused by overfeeding, over-
heating, continued standing without exercise on a stone or cement
floor without sufficient bedding, or by driving long distances over
rough or stony soil.

Symptoins. — An unwillingness to maintain the standing position;
the animal persists in lying down. The feet will be found unnatu-
rally hot, and frequently some swelling may be noticed above the
hoof. Pressure upon the hoof with blacksmith's hoof pincers causes
pain and flinching. The general body temperature is increased and
the breathing accelerated. Ordinarily the animal eats and drinks
as usual. When it is made to move excessive tenderness of the feet
becomes manifest, as is shown by reluctance to walk and bj^ the very
short, hesitating step. Founder affects the hind as well as the fore
feet, although the front feet are more often exposed.

Treatment. — Cold packs to the feet, or if the animal can be made
to stand in a stream of water, having a soft bottom, the inflammation
is often relieved without the necessity of any additional treatment.
It may be well, however, to give a full dose of Epsom salt, 1 to \\
pounds, followed by half-ounce doses of saltpeter two or three times
a day.

SORENESS (FOOT SORENESS).

Cattle that have been stabled or pastured on soft gromid and are
driven over stony roads soon wear down the soles of their feet and
become lame from foot soreness. Draft oxen, for this reason, require
to be shod. When the soreness is excessive it may develop into an
active inflammation of all the sensitive structures of the foot — •
laminitis, or into a local bruise commonly called a " corn."

333

334 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Treatment. — Rest, poulticing the feet with moistened chiy, fol-
lowed by astringent washes — strong white-oak bark or alum water.

If the pain and heat last several days, it is probable that pus has
formed beneath the wall of the hoof. In this case it is necessary
to cut through the wall, usualh^ at the most prominent part of the
sole, to allow the accumulation to drain out. The animal should
then stand for several hours daily in a tub containing creolin
solution (3 per cent). When not in the creolin solution the foot
should be dressed with pine tar and cotton and bandaged with
bagging.

LOSS OF HOOF.

Cattle sometimes become fastened between planks or otherwise
and pull off the wall of one or both claws in the effort to extricate
themselves. The claws of one or more feet may be shed as the result
of acute laminitis.

Treatment. — Wash the bleeding surface with an antiseptic and
then with an astringent, such as a weak solution of alum, then apply a
thick coating of pine tar; cover this with a layer of oalmm or ab-
sorbent cotton; apply another coat of tar over this, and then bandage
closely and firmly. This may remain without disturbance until the
new growing wall becomes sufficienth' strong to sustain the pressure
and weight of the animal. If, however, at any time oozing or bad
smell indicate that pus is forming under this dressing, the bandage
should be removed and the suppurating surface freshly cleaned and
dressed. This may have to be repeated every few days and should
be continued so long as there is an}' pus formation. If the loss
of hoof is owing to suppurative laminitis, the parts denuded of the
horny covering must be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected with
carbolic acid, lysol, or other antiseptic. Then apply a moderately
thick layer of absorbent cotton and over this apply the tar and
bandage. After this the antiseptic solution may be poured in daily
at the top of the dressing. It will thus soak in and saturate the
dressing and inflamed tissue. It may become necessary to remove
all the dressing at daily or longer intervals to give the parts a fresh
cleaning, and then to reapplv it.

FOUL IN FOOT (FOOT ROT).

A variety of causes may produce inflammation of the foot between
tlie claws or toes. It may be on account of overgrowth of the claws
and inward pressure, as in ingrowing nail of man. or it may be
caused by the irritation of stable filth by impaction and hardening of
soil between the claws, or by other foreign substances becoming
wedged in, causing inflammation and softening or ulceration of the
skin in the interdigital space. Under some conditions several cattle

DISEASES OF THE FOOT. ' 335

in the same herd become affected, which has led some to think that
the disease may be contagious. Occurrences have been reported in
which foot rot of cattle has appeared within a short time among
a large proportion of the cattle in a farming district. This disease
is most frequently seen in the hind feet, though all four feet may
become affected.

Symptoms. — The animal is observed to limp. On examination of
the foot Ave discover heat and sw^elling above the hoof and of the
soft parts between the claws AA'hich frequently spreads the claws apart
to a considerable extent, or the inflammation may have advanced to
softening and sloughing of the interdigital membrane. If the disease
is neglected at this stage, deep abscesses may form and the pus bur-
row under the horny wall, or the joint Avithin the hoof may become
inflamed and the articular attachments destroyed, in which case the
treatment will be difficult and recovery Avill be very tedious.

Treatment. — In the earlier stages of the disease, before pus burrows
beneath the horn, a thorough cleansing and an application of a car-
bolic-acid solution — 1 ounce to a pint of water — clean stabling, and
laxative food Avill usually remedy the evil. Cresol compound is an
excellent reuiedy at this stage. It should be applied, in its pure or
undiluted state, to the suppurating and putrefying tissue between
the claAvs. It is best applied by means of a cotton swab on a thin
stick. Care must be taken to keep it from contact w'ith the skin
about the coronary band or heels. (Jf deep sloughing has taken place
the carbolic solution should be used, and a wad of oakum or cot-
ton smeared with pine tar should be secured firmly in the cleft. This
can be done by taking a strip of strong cloth, 2 inches wide, passing
the middle betAveen the claAvs, then tying the ends after winding them
in opposite directions aboA^e the hoof. Sometimes Avarm poulticing
Avith flaxseed meal or bran is necessary to relieA'e excessiA^e fever and
pain. If the pus burroAvs under the horn, its channel must be fol-
loAA'ed by paring aAA'ay the horn until the bottom is reached. The
aftertreatment is the same as that already recommended. If the
joint becomes diseased an amputation of that toe is the quickest and
surest method to relieA^e the suffering of the animal, and offers the
best chance for an early recovery.

ULCERATION OF THE HEEL.

Occasionally we find ulcers at the junction of the hair with the
hoof at the heel, wdiich present an elevated, raw, or ragged surface,
and cause considerable lameness. This is generally caused by a bruise
of the fibrous cushion of the back part of the foot. Subsequent
sloughing or necrosis may occur, or pus may form deep within the
wall and gain an exit at the margin of the heel. Sometimes, from
no visible cause, large pieces of skin slough from the heel and pastern.

336 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

This condition is caused by an infection witli certain microorganisms
(streptococci, necrosis bacilli) and may be contagions.

Treatment. — If there is a deep opening, inject carbolic solution once
a day until it closes. If the ulcer is only superficial, AAash with car-
bolic solution and apph^ a mixture of equal parts of blue A'itriol and
alum in dry powder.

FISSURE OF THE WALL (SPLIT HOOF).

This is rarelj^ seen among cattle. It may occur in weak walls, in
heavily-bodied cattle, caused by stepping on an uneven surface, espe-
cially when the point of the toe is grown out long. One may find the
point of the toe broken and the wall split almost up to the hair.

Treatment. — The divided sections may be brought into approxima-
tion and held in place by drilling a small hole from one side into and
through the other, commencing half an inch back of the fissure on
each side; then drive a light horseshoe nail through the hole and
clinch it. Pare the injured claw^ as short as it will bear.

INTERDIGITAL FIBROMA.

• Hard, nodular, fibrous tumors sometimes grow in the cleft of the
foot, and cause inconvenience, lameness, absorption, or idceration of
the contiguous parts.

Treatment. — They should be dissected out and the wound dressed
with carbolic-acid lotion and pine tar once a day until healing is
completed.

DEFORMITIES.

Deformities in the feet of cattle usualh^ consist in overgrowth of
horn,, generally from Avant of wear in animals which are stabled.
The hoof may turn inward, outward, or upward, and may give rise to
lameness, inability to walk, foul foot, etc. Bulls which are continu-
ally stabled and dairy cows very frequently have misshapen feet from
want of an occasional trimming, and this deformity may eventually
lead to permanent injury.

Treatment. — Cut the superabundant growth of horn down with
saw, knife, or rasp, until the foot assumes its natural form.

PRICKS AND WOUNDS.

If an animal suffers with a penetrating wound from prick of fork
or nail, the orifice of the wound should be enlarged to permit a free
discharge of pus ; then the foot should be soaked in a cresol compound
solution (3 per cent) in a tub, or a flaxseed poultice applied, changing
it three times a day until the fever has abated. The foot should be
kept bandaged and dressed w^ith pine tar and oakmn; the animal

DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 337

must also be kept on a clean floor until the wound is closed and all or
nearly all lameness has disappeared.

If an animal is cut in the foot with barbed wire, piece of glass, or
any other substance, the wound, after proper cleansing, should be
dressed with carbolic-acid solution, 1 ounce of the acid to 20 of
water. If any uneven edges of horn, skin, or lacerated flesh project,
trim them ofi^, and in all cases when it can be done a tarred bandage
should be applied. This will serve to sustain the cut surfaces in
their place, exclude dirt, and protect against flies, maggots, etc.

When the wound has extended into a joint, surgical treatment,
which will require the services of an educated veterinarian, may
be necessary.

Occasionally an animal gets caught by the foot in a crevice and
sustains severe bruising, wrenching, or fracture of some part of the
foot. In such cases cold-water packs to the injured member are of
service until the fever and swelling disappear. Afterwards the
animal should rest until the usefulness of the foot is restored. Some-
times such an accident, causing fracture, renders necessary plaster
bandages or amputation.
33071°— 16 22

DISEASES OF THE EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES.

By M. R. Trumbowek, D. V. S.
[Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.]

DESCRIPTION.

For the sake of gaining a clear comprehension of the diseases of
the eye it becomes necessary to review the anatomy of this important
organ. The essential organ of vision, or globe of the eye, will be first
described, then its receptacle or orbital cavity, the muscles that move
it, the protective membranes, or eyelids, the membrana nictitans, or
accessory eyelids, and, lastly, the lachrymal apparatus.

The globe or ball of the eye is almost spherical in form. On
closer inspection, however, it appears to be made up of two com-
bined portions from spheres of different sizes. The posterior portion,
forming about five-sixths of the ball, is a sphere of comparatively
lai'ge size with a small segment cut off it in front, and at this point
there is applied to it the anterior portion, which, being a segment of
a smaller sphere, projects at the front of the ball with a greater con-
vexity than the posterior portion.

The eyeball consists of concentrically arranged coats and of re-
fracting media inclosed in them. The coats are three in number,
namely, (1) an external protective tunic made up of the sclerotic
and cornea ; (2) a middle vascular and pigmentary tunic, the choroid ;
(3) an internal nervous layer, the retina. The sclerotic is the white,
opaque part of the outer tunic, of which it forms about the posterior
five-sixths, being coextensi>'e with the larger sphere already men-
tioned. The cornea forms the remaining one-sixth of the outer tunic,
being coextensive with the segment of the smaller sphere. It is dis-
tinguished from the sclerotic by being colorless and transparent. The
choroid coat will be recognized as the black layer lying subjacent
to the sclerotic. It does not line the cornea, but terminates behind
the line of junction of that coat with the sclerotic by a thickened
edge — the ciliary processes. At the line of junction of the sclerotic
and cornea the iris passes across the interior of the eye. This (which
may be viewed as a dependency of the choroid) is a nniscular curtain
perforated by an apeture termed the pupil. The retina will be
recognized as a delicate, glassy layer, lining the greater part of the
choroid.
338

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 339

The refracting media of the eye are three in number, namely (1)
the aqueous humor, a watery fluid inclosed in a chamber behind the
cornea; (2) the crystalline lens and its capsule, a transparent, soft
solid of a biconvex form, and placed behind the iris; (3) the vitreous
humor, a transparent material with a consistence like thin jelly, and
occupying as much of the interior of the eye as is subjacent to the
choroid.

The sclerotic is a strong, opaque, fibrous membrane, which, in a
great measure, maintains the form of the eyeball and protects the
more delicate structures within it. Its interior portion, which is
covered by the ocular conjunctiva, is commonly known as the " white
of the eye." In form it is bell-shaped, and the optic nerve pierces it
behind like a handle, the perforation being a little to its inner side.
In front, the rim of the bell becomes continuous with the cornea.
The outer surface of the membrane receives the insertion of the mus-
cles of the eyeball. The coat is thickest over the posterior part of
the eyeball, and is thinnest a little behind its junction with the
cornea.

The cornea is the anterior transparent portion of the outer coat of
the eyeball. It may be viewed as a part of the sclerotic specially
modified to permit the passage of light into the interior of the eye.
Its outline is elliptical, nearly circular, and its greatest diameter is
transvei^se. At its periphery it joins the sclerotic by continuity of
tissue, and as the edge of the cornea is slightly beveled and has the
fibrous sclerotic carried for a little distance forward on its outward
surface, the cornea is generally said to be fitted into the sclerotic like
a watch glass into its rim. The venous canal of Schlemm runs cir-
cularly around the eyeball at the line of junction of the sclerotic and
cornea. The anterior surface of the cornea is exquisitely smooth,
and is kept moist by the lacrimal secretions. Its posterior surface
forms the anterior boundary of the chamber in which the aqueous
humor is contained. The cornea is of uniform thickness and is of
a dense, almost horny, consistence. Save a few capillary loops of
blood vessels at its margin the cornea is without vessels. Its struct-
ure is comprised of five distinct layers.

The aqueous humor occupies a chamber which is bounded in front
by the posterior surface of the cornea and behind by the capsule and
suspensory ligament of the lens and by the ends of the ciliary proc-
esses. It is across this chamber that the iris extends. The aqueous
humor is composed of water, with a small proportion of common salt
in solution.

The iris is a muscular, pigmented curtain extending across the inte-
rior of the eye and having about its center an aperture termed the
pupil. By variations in the size of this aperture the amount of light
transmitted to the retina is regulated. It varies somewhat in color,

340 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

but is most frequently of a yellowish-brown tint. Its anterior face is
bathed by the aqueous humor. The greater part of the posterior sur-
face is in contact with the capsule of the lens and glides on it during
the movements of the curtain. The circumferential border is at-
tached Avithin the junction of the sclerotic cornea. The inner border
circumscribes the pupil, which varies in outline according to its size.
When much contracted the pupil is a very elongated ellipse, the long
axis of which is in the line joining the nasal and temporal angles of
the eyelids. It contains muscular tissue, which, by contracting or
relaxing, lessens or dilates the pupillary opening.

The choroid coat is a bell-shaped, dark membrane which lines the
sclerotic. Its outer surface has a shaggy appearance, caused by the
tunica fusca, which unites the two coats. Between the two the ciliary
vessels and nerves pass forward. Behind it is pierced by the optic
nerve; in front it is continued as the ciliary processes, which form,
as it were, the rim of the bell. The ciliary processes form a fringe
around the slightly inverted rim of the choroid.

The retina is the most delicate of the coats of the eyeball. It is
formed by the expansion of the optic nerve on the inner surface of
the choroid, and, like that coat, it is bell-shaped. Its inner surface
is molded on the vitreous humor. The nervous structures of the
retina terminate at a wavy line, the ora serrata, behind the ciliary
processes. Ten distinct layers are described as composing the thick-
ness of the retina.

The lens is situated behind the pupil and is contained within a
capsule of its own.

The capsule is a close-fitting, firm, transparent membrane. The
anterior surface forms the posterior boundary of the cavity contain-
ing the aqueous humor, and the iris in its movement glides on it.
The posterior surface is in contact with the vitreous humor.

The vitreous humor occupies four-fifths of the interior of the eye-
ball. It is globular in form, with a depression in front for the lodg-
ment of the lens. It is colorless, transparent, and of a consistency
like thin jelly. It is enveloped by a delicate capsule — ^the hyaloid
membrane — which is connected in front with the suspensory ligament
of the lens, and ends by joining the capsule behind the lens. '

The orbital cavity, at the side of the head, is circumscribed by a
bony margin ; posteriorly, however, there are no bony Avails, and the
cavity is often confounded Avith the depression aboA'e and behind the
orbit — the temporal fossa. A fibrous membrane completes this cavity
and keeps it distinct from temporal fossa. This membrane — the
ocular sheath or periorbita — is attached posteriorly around the open-
ing in the back part of the orbital cavity (the orbital hiatus) and
anteriorly to its inner face; then it becomes prolonged beyond the

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 341

margin to form the fibrous membrane of the eyelids. When complete
the orbital cavity has the form of a regular hollow cone, open at
its base and closed at the apex. The opening of this cone is directed
forward, downward, and outward. Independently of the globe of
the eye, this cavity lodges the muscles that move it, the membrana
nictitans, and the lacrimal gland.

The muscles of the eye are seven in number — one retractor, four
straight, and two oblique. The retractor oculi envelops the optic
nerve between the brain and the ball of the eye and becomes attached
upon the external face of the sclerotic tunic. When this muscle con-
tracts, it draws the globe back into the orbit, away from the light.
The superior, inferior, external, and internal recti or straight muscles
are attached to the back part of the orbital sheath and spread for-
ward in four bundles over the globe of the eye, where they are in-
serted by a fibrous expansion into the sclerotic at the margin of the
cornea. When they act singly, they turn the globe either upward,
downward, inward, or outward. The great oblique, by its action,
pivots the eye inward and upward in the orbit. The small oblique
turns the eye outward and downward.

The eyelids are two movable curtains, superior and inferior, which
cover and protect the eye in front. They are attached to the circum-
ference of the orbit and have a convex external face formed by the
skin and a concave internal face molded on the anterior surface of
the eye and are lined by the conjunctiva, which is reflected above and
below on the eyeball. The border of each lid is slightly beveled on
the inner side and shows the openings of the Meibomian glands.
These glands secrete an unctuous fluid, which is thrown out on the
border of the lids, tlxe function of which is to facilitate their move-
ments and enable them to retain the tears in the ocular cavity. The
eyelid is composed of a fibrous inner membrane ending in a stiff arch
near the border, a muscle to close the lid, another to open it, the
skin externally, and the conjunctival mucous membrane internally.
The border of each lid is covered and protected by long hairs to pre-
vent floating particles of matter in the atmosphere gaining entrance
to the eye.

The membrana nictitans, which is also named the third eyelid,
winking eyelid, haw, etc., is placed at the inner angle of the eye,
whence it extends over the eyeball to relieve it from foreign bodies
which may fall upon it. It has for its framework a fibro-cartilage,
irregidar in shape, thick, nearly prismatic at its base, and thin
anteriorly where it is covered by the conjunctiva ; behind, it is loosely
attached to a fatty cushion.

The lacrimal gland is situated between the orbital process and the
upper part of the eyeball. It secretes the tears destined to lubricate

342 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the anterior surface of the eye. This fluid escapes upon the organ
at the outer angle of the lids and is carried between them and the
eyeball toward the inner angle.

The caruncula lacrimalis is a small round body, frequently entirely
or partially black, situated in the inner angle of the eye, and is de-
signed to direct the tears toward the puncta lacrimalia.

The puncta lacrimalia are two little openings, situated one in each
eyelid, a short distance from the inner corner, which admit the tears
into the lacrimal ducts leading to the lacrimal canal, whence they are
emptied into the nasal passages.

CONJUNCTIVITIS (SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA).

This is an inflammation of the conjunctival mucous membrane of
the eyeball and lids ; in severe cases the deeper coats of the eye are
involved, seriously complicating the attack.

Causes. — It may result from a bruise of the eyelid ; from the intro-
duction of foreign matters into the eye, as chaff, hayseed, dust, gnats,
etc.; from exposure to cold; poisonous or irritating vapors arising
from filthiness of stable. Dust, cinders, or sand blown into the eyes
during transportation frequently cause conjunctivitis.

Symptoms. — A profuse flow of tears, closure of the eyelids from
intolerance of light, retraction of the eyeball and corresponding pro-
trusion of the haw, disinclination to move, diminution of milk secre-
tion, etc. On parting the lids the lining membrane is found injected
with an excess of blood, giving it a red and swollen appearance ; the
sclerotic, or white of the eye, is bloodshot and the cornea may be
cloudy. If the disease advances, keratitis results, with its train of
unfavorable symptoms.

Treatment. — Careful examination should be made to discover par-
ticles of chuff, etc., which may have lodged in the eye, and upon the
discovery of such a cause prompt removal is indicated. This may
be accomplished by flushing the eye with warm water by means of a
syringe, or, if the foreign substance is adherent to the eyeball or lid,
it may be scooped out with the handle of a teaspoon or some other
blunt instrument. To relieve the congestion and local irritation, a
wash composed of boracic acid in freshly boiled water, 20 grains to
the ounce, or acetate of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of pure soft
water, may be used, to which may be added 20 drops of laudanum.
A few drops of this should be placed in the eye with a camel's-hair
pencil or soft feather three or four times daily. The animal should
be placed in a cool, darkened stable; then a cloth folded into several
thicknesses should be fastened to the horns in such manner as to
reach below the eyes. This should be kept wet with cold water
during the day and removed at night. If there is much fever and

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 343

constitutional disturbance, it becomes advisable to administer 1
pound of Epsom salt dissolved in 1 quart of water.

INFECTIOUS CATARRHAL CONJUNCTIVITIS (SPECIFIC
OPHTHALMIA).

This generally appears in an enzootic or epizootic form and affects
a considerable number in the herd. It is distinctly a contagious
disease and may be brought into a previously healthy herd by one
infected animal. It may continue in a herd for a season or for
several years, affecting all newly purchased animals. It is seldom
seen in the winter months. It affects old and young animals alike.

Symptoms. — This form of catarrh conjunctivitis is characterized
chiefly by a mucopurulent discharge from the eyes, an intense degree
of inflammation of the mucous membrane, accompanied with swell-
ing of the eyelids and an early opacity of the cornea. The flow of
tears is mixed with pus, sometimes streaked with blood, and the skin
of the face is kept moist and soiled. The eyes are kept continually
closed. The implication of the cornea in the disease frequently
blinds the animal for a time, and occasionally suppurative keratitis,
ulcers of the cornea, or staphyloma supervene. The attack is marked
from the onset by fever, partial loss of appetite, partial loss of milk,
suspended rumination, and separation from the herd.

Treatment. — The animal should be housed in a cool, dark stable,
supplied with plenty of fresh water to drink and soft, succulent feed.
Administer 1 pound of Epsom salt — if a very large animal, use 1^
pounds — dissolved in 2 or 3 pints of water. For an eyewash, take
boracic acid, 1 dram, and pour 4 ounces of boiling water over it.
Use this as often as is convenient, applying it directly to the eye. In
the majority of cases improvement becomes manifest in a few days,
and the eye becomes clear and free from inflammation in 10 days
or 2 weeks. 'VMiere the disease develops ulceration of the cornea, or
well-marked, deep-seated keratitis, the treatment recommended for
those conditions should be adopted.

Prevention. — Whenever this affection appears in a herd all the
unaffected animals should be moved to fields which possess a different
character of soil and feed. The water should also be changed, espe-
cially if they have been obtaining it from a stagnant pond.

KERATITIS (CORNEITIS).

This is an inflammation of the cornea proper, although the sclerotic
at the corneal border becomes invohed to some extent. It may be
divided into diffuse and suppurative.

Causes. — The cornea 'constitutes the most prominent portion of the
eyeball, hence it is subject to a variety of injuries — scratches, pricks,

344 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

contusions, lacerations, etc. Inflammation of the cornea may also be
due to the extension of catarrhal conjunctivitis or intraocular dis-
ease, and it may occasionally occur without any perceptible cause.

Symptoms. — Diffuse keratitis is characterized by an exudation into
and an opacity of the cornea. The SAvelling of the anterior part of
the eyeball may be of an irregular form, in points resembling small
bladders, or it may commence at the periphery of the cornea by an
abrupt thickening, which gradually diminishes as it approaches the
center. If the whole cornea is affected, it has a uniform gray or
grayish-white appearance. . The flow of tears is not so marked as in
conjunctivitis, nor is the suffering so acute, though both conditions
often exist together. Both eyes usually become affected, unless it is
caused by an external injury.

In favorable cases the exudate within the cornea begins to disap-
pear within a week or 10 days, the eye becomes clearer and regains
its transparency, until it eventually is fully restored. In unfavor-
able cases blood vessels form and are seen to traverse the affected part
from periphery to center, vision becomes entirelj^ lost, and permanent
opacity (albugo or leucoma) remains. When it arises from constitu-
tional causes recurrence is frequent, leaving the corneal membrane
more cloudy after each attack, until the sight is permanently lost.

Suppurative keratitis may be a sequel of diffuse keratitis; more
commonly, however, it abruptly becomes manifest by a raised swell-
ing on or near the center of the cornea that very soon assumes a yel-
loAv, turbid color, while the periphery of the swelling fades into an
opaque ring. Suppurative keratitis is seldom noticed for the first
day or two — not until distinct pus formation has occurred. When
it is the result of diffuse keratitis, ulceration and the escape of the
contained pus is inevitable; otherwise the pus may be absorbed.
When the deeper membranes covering the anterior chamber of the ej^e
become involved, the contents of this chamber may be evacuated and
the sight permanently lost.

Treatment, — Place the animal in a darkened stable, give green or
sloppy feed, and administer 4 ounces of Glauber's salt (sulphate of
soda) dissolved in a quart of water once a day. If the aninuil is
debilitated a tablespoonful of tonic powder should be mixed with the
feed three times a day. This may be composed of equal parts by
weight of powdered copperas (sulphate of iron), gentian, and ginger.
As an application for the eye, nitrate of silver, 3 grains to the ounce
of soft water, with the addition of 1 grain sulphate of morphia, may
be used several times a day. If ulceration occurs, it is well to dust
powdered calomel into the eye twice daily, or apply to the eyelids a
salve of yellow oxid of mercury, 5 per cei^t in lanolin. Some of
this may go on to the cornea and beneath the lids. Apply twice daily.
(See "Ulcers of the cornea.")

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 345

To remove opacity, after the inflammation has subsided, apply a
few drops of the following solution twice a day: lodid of potas-
sium, 15 grains; tincture sanguinaria, 20 drops; distilled water, 2
ounces; mix.

Sometimes keratitis exists in a herd as a transmissible disease,
spreading like infectious conjunctivitis. Calomel, applied to the eye,
is especially useful in such cases.

ULCERS OF THE CORNEA.

An ulcer comes from erosion or is the consequence of the bursting
of a small abscess, which may have formed beneath the delicate layer
of the conjunctiva, continued over the cornea ; or, in the very sub-
stance of the cornea itself, after violent keratitis, or catarrhal con-
junctivitis. At other times it is produced by bruises, scratches, or
other direct injury of the cornea.

Symptoms. — The ulcer is generally at first of a pale gray color,
with its edges high and irregular, discharges instead of pus an acrid,
watery substance, and has a tendency to spread widely and deeply.
If it spreads superficially upon the cornea, the transparency of this
membrane is lost; if it proceeds deeply and penetrates the anterior
chamber of the aqueous humor, this fluid escapes, the iris may pro-
lapse, and the lens and the vitreous humor become expelled, thus
producing destruction of the whole organ.

Treatment. — It is of the greatest importance, as soon as an ulcer
appears upon the cornea, to prevent its growing larger. The corrod-
ing process must be converted into a healthy one. For this purpose
nothing is more reliable than the use of solid nitrate of silver. A
stick of this medicine should be scraped to a point; the animal's
head should be firmly secured; an assistant should part the lids; if
necessary, the haw must be secured within the corner of the eye and
then all parts of the ulcer should be lightly touched with the silver.
After waiting a few minutes the eye should be thoroughly washed
out with a very weak solution of common salt. This operation gen-
erally has to be repeated at the end of three or four days. If healthy
action succeeds, the ulcer assumes a delicate fleshy tint, and the
former redness around the ulcer disappears in proportion as the ulcer
heals. "

In superficial abrasions of the cornea, where there is no distinct
excavation, this caustic treatment is not needed. The eye should be
bathed several times a dav with sulphate of zinc, 30 grains to half a
pint of soft water, and protected against exposure to cold air and
sunlight. Excessive ulceration sometimes assumes the form of fun-
gous excrescence upon the cornea, appearing to derive its nourish-
ment from loops of blood vessels of the conjunctiva. Under these

346 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

circumstances the fungoid mass must be cut away and the wound
cauterized with the nitrate of silver, or else the eye will soon be
destroyed. Wlien ulcers of the cornea appear indolent, with a tend-
ency to slough, in addition to the treatment already prescribed, tonic
powders of copperas, gentian, and ginger, equal parts by weight,
should be given twice a day, mixed w4th the feed; dose, one table-
spoonful.

STAPHYLOMA.

This is a disease of the eyeball, in which the cornea loses its trans-
parency, rises above the level of the eye, and even projects beyond the
eyelids in the form of an elongated, whitish, or pearl-colored tumor,
which is sometimes smooth, at other times uneven.

Causes. — Inflammation is the only known cause, although it may
not occur immediately; it frequently follows catarrhal conjunctivitis
and keratitis as a sequela.

Treatment. — In a few cases restoration of sight may be effected by
puncturing the projecting tumor and treating it afterwards with
nitrate of silver in the same manner as prescribed for ulceration of
the cornea. In some cases spontaneous rupture has occurred, and
healing without any treatment at all.

CATARACT.

In cataract the crystalline lens becomes opaque and loses its trans-
parency, the power of refraction is lost — the animal can not see.

Causes. — Cataract generally arises from a diminution (atrophy)
or other change in the nutrition of the lens ; it may occur as a result
of inflammation of the deep structures of the eye. Cataract may be
simple, or complicated with amaurosis, adhesions, etc.

Symjjtoms. — It is known by the whiteness or loss of transparency
of the lens, although the pupil dilates and contracts. Sight ma}' be
totally lost; however, evidence is usually manifested that the animal
distinguishes light when brought out of a darkened stable. For the
most part the formation of cataract takes place sloAvly, the cases in
which it originates very quickly being but few.

Treatment. — There is only one method for the treatment of cata-
ract— a surgical operation for the removal of the lens; but this is not
advisable, for the sight can not be perfectly restored, and objects
would be seen imperfectly without the aid of glasses.

AMAUROSIS.

This is a paralysis of the nerve of sight or the expansion of the
retini.

Causes. — This is the result of concussion from a blow upon the
forehead, fracture of bone over the eye (causing downward pressure),

DISEASES OF THE EYE, 347

rheumatic inflammation of the optic nerve, or from extension of deep
inflammation of the eye involving the retina. It sometimes occurs
as the result of excessive loss of blood or of great debility.

SymptOTns. — In this disease observation is seldom made until the
animal in its gait and by its action indicates blindness. Generally
both eyes are affected. The eyeball remains clear, and the pupil is
permanently dilated. No response to light is manifested.

Treatment. — If caused by debility, loss of blood, or associated with
rheumatism, general blood tonics may be given in the feed, namely,
powdered sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian, 2 drams; nux vomica,
one-half dram; to be given twice a day. In cases of rheumatism,
one-half ounce of saltpeter may be added.

FILARIA OCULI (WORM IN THE EYE).

Filaria oculi (provisionally taken as the larva of F. cervina) is a
small white worm, found swimming in the aqueous fluid in the ante-
rior chamber. It may be apparently harmless for a long time, but
will eventually induce keratitis with inflammatory exudations.

Treatment. — The cornea may be punctured at its upper and outer
margin, and the worm squeezed out with the aqueous humor. The
latter will be formed again. This operation results disastrously
unless the greatest care and skill are employed.

CORNEAL DERMATOMA (HAIRY TUMOR ON THE EYEBALL).

In a few instances this has been seen as a congenital growth. The
tumor arises from the cornea or the sclerotic, covered by its respective
membrane, with a growth of hair upon its surface. These tumors
may be quite prominent or flattened, and are dark in color; the hair
may protrude between the eyelids, giving the animal the appearance
of having a double eyelid.

Treatment. — A surgical operation becomes necessary for their re-
moval— one requiring a skilled operator.

STRABISMUS (SQUINTING).

This is a very rare affection among cattle. Strabismus may be
either single or double — affecting one eye or both. It is caused by a
paralysis, or a weakening of one of the straight muscles of the eye-
ball. Generally it is a congenital defect, and the squinting is toward
the nose — strabismus convergens. It is best not to attempt to remedy
the defect, as the risk in an operation is greater than the chances of
success warrant.

PTERYGIUM.

This term is applied to a flesh-colored membrane, triangular in
form, which most frequently grows from the inner angle of the eye

348 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

sind extends over the cornea, thus interfering with vision. It may
groAV from the outer angle, or even from either the superior or in-
ferior hemisphere of the eyeball. The figure is invariably that of a
triangle, with its base on the white of the eye and its apex more or
less advanced oA'er the cornea toward its center.

The distinguishing characteristics are the constancy of the tri-
angular form, and the facility with which the whole of it may be
taken hold of with a pair of forceps and raised into a fold on the
cornea. Every other kind of excrescence attached to this membrane
continues firmly adherent to it, and can not be folded and raised from
the surface of the cornea in any manner whatever.

Treatment. — Eaise the fold and dissect it away from all points of
attachment.

TRICHIASIS (INVERSION OF THE EYELASHES).

In the simplest form the eyelashes bend inwardly, touching the
eyeball, causing irritation and simple conjunctivitis. It may be also
associated with entropion.

Treatment. — The offending eyelashes should be cvit off or pulled
out. In case the natural growth of the eyelashes is directed inward,
an operation similar to that for entropion becomes necessary.

ENTROPION (INVERSION OF THE EYELID).

In inversion of the eyelid the eyelashes soon irritate the anterior
face of the cornea and produce more or less inflammation and opacity.
The inversion may be due to the growth of a tumor within or with-
out the lid, to abscess, laceration, or injury, causing the lid to lose its
natural conformity to the eyeball, ulcerations, etc. Surgical inter-
ference in either case becomes necessary to restore the lid to its
natural direction.

ECTROPION (EVERSION OF THE EYELID).

This serves to injure the eye by permitting dust or other foreign
substances to enter the eye and interferes with the natural removal
of them.

Treatment. — A delicate surgical operation — ^the removal of an
elliptic section of the palpebral conjunctiva — may remedy the defect.

TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS.

Occasionally tumors form upon or within the substance of the eye-
lid. They may be of a fibroid nature and arise from the follicles
of the hair as sebaceous tumors or may be in the form of an abscess.
In debilitating diseases the lids sometimes become swollen and puffy,
a condition which may possibly be taken for the growth of a tumor.
This generally disappears with the improvement of the health of the

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 349

animal. Warts not uncommonly appear on or about the eyelids of
cattle.

Treatment. — The removal of a tumor in the vicinity of so delicate
an organ as the eye should not be attempted by anyone not qualified
to perform the operation.

LACERATION OF THE EYELID.

This accident is not uncommon where cattle are fenced in by
barbed wire ; an animal may be caught under the eyelid by the horn
of another, or the laceration may otcur in the stable by means of a
projecting nail or splinter of wood.

Treatment. — The edges of the wound should be brought together
closely and correctly, by means of pins pushed through very nearly
the whole thickness of the lid, extending through each lip of the
torn part ; then a waxed silk or linen thread must be wound over
each end of the pin, crossing the torn line in the form of the figure
8 (PI. XXVII, fig. 9) ; the pins should be placed about three-eighths
of an inch apart. The projecting ends of the pins should be cut
off close to the ligature, and the parts kept anointed with vaseline,
to w^hich 2 per cent of compound cresol has been added. In place
of a pin suture, silver wire, catgut, or strong linen thread may be
used in the way of an ordinary suture.

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYE.

Splinters of wood, hedge thorns, pieces of cornstalk or leaves, stems
of hay or straw, twigs of trees, or weeds may penetrate into the eye,
break off, and remain, causing inflammation, blindness, abscess, etc.
These substances may penetrate the eyeball, but more frequently
they glide off and enter between the eye and the ocular sheath.

Treatment. — Their removal becomes often a very difficult task,
from the fact that the organ is so extremely sensitive, and the re-
tracting power so strong as to necessitate casting the animal, or even
the administration of sufficient chloroform to render it completely
insensible. The removal, however, is of paramount importance,
and the after treatment depends upon the extent and location of the
injury — cold water compress over the injured eye, the application of
mild astringent and cooling washes, such as acetate or sulphate of
zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of Avater. When there is extreme suffer-
ing from pain a solution of atropia or morphia, 5 grains to the
ounce of water, may be dropped into the eye, alternating with the
cooling wash several times a day. When abscesses form within
the orbit a free opening must be maintained for the discharge of pus.
In deep penetrating wounds of the eye there is a great tendency
to the formation of a fungous growth, which often necessitates the
enucleation of the whole eyeball.

350 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ORBITAL AND PERIORBITAL ABSCESS.

Orbital abscess may form outside the globe and within the orbital
sheath, as the result of a previous wound of the parts or from
fracture of the bony orbit, etc. Periorbital abscess commences out-
side the ocular sheath, beneath the periosteal membrane covering
the bone, and is usually the result of a disease or fractured bone
which enters into the formation of the orbital cavity.

SymjJtoms. — Orbital abscess is manifested by a pushing forward
of the eyeball (exophthalmos), a swelling of the conjunctiva and
eyelids. The bulging out of the eye is in proportion to the size of
the abscess; the movement of the eye is fixed, due to the painful-
ness of any voluntary movement of the eyeball. Periorbital abscess
generally pushes the eye to one side; otherwise the symptoms are
similar to the foregoing. The pain generally is very great ; paralysis
of the nerve of sight may occur, and death may be caused by the
abscess extending to the brain.

Treatment. — The treatment for either orbital or periorbital abscess
is the same as that for abscess occurring in any other part of the
body — a free opening for the escape of imprisoned pus. This should
be made as soon as the true nature of the disease is recognized.
Afterwards antiseptic injections may be needed to stimulate healthy
granulation and to prevent septic infection of the ocular membranes.
For this purpose a saturated solution of boric acid or listerine 1 part
to 10 of water may be used. When the fever runs high, Glauber's
salt (sulphate of soda) may be given in l-ounce doses once a day.
The animal should be kept in a darkened stable, on soft or green feed.

FRACTURE OF THE ORBIT.

This accident occasionally occurs among belligerent animals, or as
the result of blows delivered by brutal attendants. The orbital proc-
ess above the eye may be entirely crushed in, pressing down upon the
eyeball. In such an event the depressed bone should be elevated into
its proper place, and if it fails to unite it may have to be removed
with saw or chisel. The margin of the orbit may be crushed at any
point and cause periorbital abscess, or necrosis may result from the
presence of a splinter of bone or the excessive destruction of bone.
In all cases of fracture the animal should be kept by itself until the
injured part heals.

NECROSIS OF THE BONY ORBIT.

As the result of fracture of the margin of the orbit a part of the
injured bone may become necrosed (dead), and periostitis and perior-
bital abscess will follow as a consequence. The discovery of this dis-
ease will at first resemble abscess, but on making an examination with

DISEASES OF THE EYE. 351

a probe after the abscess is open we find the bone rough and brittle
at the point of disease. The discharge has a peculiar fetid odor,
and is often mixed with blood.

Treatment. — The aflPected bone must be laid bare and all diseased
portions removed by scraping or, if necessary, with saw or chisel,
disregarding the extent of the injury or the size of the wound neces-
sary to be inflicted. A large portion of the bony orbit may be re-
moved without serious danger to the eye, provided the eyeball itself
has not been previously affected by the disease or involved in the
original injury.

TUMORS OF THE ORBIT.

A fungous tumor of the eyeball or orbit occasionally appears, which
is designated fungus hsematodes. This may arise without any appre-
ciable cause, or as the result of a wound. It frequently commences
within the eyeball as a small, red mass, eventually bursts through,
and pushes its way outside the orbit as a large, dark-red mass, bleed-
ing at the slightest touch. It has a peculiar, fetid odor, and early in
its appearance destroys sight, involving all the contents of the orbit,
not infrequently the bony wall itself.

Unless the tumor is totally removed in its early stage of growth,
together with the eyeball, the disease will eventually cause emaciation
and death of the animal. The enucleation of the eyeball should not be
undertaken by anyone unacquainted with the anatomical structures
involved in such an operation. When the operation is performed
early enough the result is generally satisfactory.

Bony tumors of the orbit, the result of bruises, fractures, etc., are
occasionally present in cattle. They may encroach upon the contents
of the orbit, causing paralj^sis of the optic nerve — the condition
known as amaurosis — or by pressure upon the posterior surface of the
eyeball force it forward, or produce atrophy (shrinking). They may
displace the eye in any direction, with or without disturbing vision.

Fibrous tumors growing within the orbit will produce symptoms
similar to those of bony tumors.

Treatment. — When the outlines of the tumor, whether fungoid,
bony, or fibrous, can be detected, an operation for its removal should
be undertaken as soon as the sight of the eye is in any manner dis-
turbed.

DISLOCATION OF THE EYEBALL.

The eyeball may be torn out of its socket by the horns of another
animal, or it may be crowded out with the blunt end of a club, cane,
or probe in the hands of a brutal attendant.

Treatment. — When the optic nei^^e is not lacerated and the retrac-
tor muscles at the back of the eye are intact, an attempt at reduction

352 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

is advisable. This, however, must follow very soon after the in-
jury— before swelling takes place. Divide the outer corner of the
eyelid to enlarge the orifice, then by pressure with the fingers of both
hands placed upon the sides of the eye the ball may be put into its
place. Apply a firm compress over the injured eye and keep it
constantly wet with cold water containing 1 dram of sugar of lead to
each quart.

If the attempt at reduction proves unsuccessful the artery at the
back of the eye should be ligated, and then the whole mass cut off as
deep within the orbit as possible. The orbital cavity, after washing
it out with a 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid or compound cresol,
should be packed daily with fresh absorbent cotton.

INFLAMMATION AND ENLARGEMENT OF THE HAW.

The haw, or membrana nictitans, is subject to inflammation and
swelling from the extension of conjunctivitis, or direct injury by for-
eign substances. It presents a red, swollen appearance, accompanied
with considerable pain and a profuse flow of tears. A slight scari-
fication with a sharp knife and the application of a cooling lotion,
such as is recommended for conjunctivitis, will soon reduce the swell-
ing and restore it to its normal function.

There is, however, a tendency for an inflammation of this mem-
bi-ane to take on a chronic character, which may eventually result in
a permanent enlargement, resembling a tumor. When it attains
sufficient size to protrude itself permanently over the eye, or project
between the lids so as to obstruct the sight, its removal may become
necessary. A threaded needle is passed through the body of the en-
larged mass, by which the membrane is drawn out as far as possible,
then with a blunt pair of scissors it may be dissected away from its
attachments. The eye is afterwards treated with simple cooling
lotions.

DISEASES OF THE EAR.

By M. R. Trumboweh, D. V. S.
[Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.]

Diseases of the ears of cattle are not very common, for the reasons
probably that they are not subjected to the brutality of drivers so
much as horses and that the horns to a great extent protect them
against external violence.

OTITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE INTERNAL EAR).

Inflamjnation of the deep part of the ear is often difficult to recog-
nize in cattle. It may be caused by disease of bone in that region,
from blows inflicted by drivers, or from injury by other cattle.
Occasionally the ear becomes involved in actinomycosis (lumpy jaw),
or the inflammation may be the result of a tuberculous affection.

Symptoms. — The animal will hold its head to one side, or shake it,
Avhile the ear itself is held immovable. The movement of the jaws in
eating usually gives rise to a manifestation of pain ; the base of the
ear may be feverish and swollen, and very sensitive to the touch. If
the inflammation has advanced to a suppurative stage, offensive mat-
ter will flow from the ear.

Treatment. — At first, hot fomentations to reduce pain and fever,
followed by a sharp blister below the ear. Laudanum, 1 part to 10
of sweet oil, may be injected into the, ear to relieve pain and to
soften the secretions. If there is a discharge from the ear, it should
be thoroughly washed out by injecting warm soapsuds until all the
matter has been washed away; then inject the following mixture
twice a day: Sulphate of morphia, 20 grains; water, 1 pint; glycerin,
4 ounces.

ABSCESS.

Abscesses, caused by contusions, sometimes form about the base of
the ear, either inside or outside. A serous cyst is found occasionally
between the cartilage and the skin on the base of the ear, which may
be from a similar cause.

Treatm^ent. — With the laiife make a free incision • into the most
prominent part of the abscess or cyst, then, with a syringe, wash out
the sac with carbolized water. If the abscess recurs, open it again,
wash it out, and inject tincture of iodin, or fill it with iodoform.

FUNGOID GROWTHS.

As a result of laceration or wound of any kind, fungous growths,
characterized by a raw, bleeding, granulating surface, with a tend-
ency to become pendulous, may develop on the ear.

33071°— 16 23 353

354 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Treatment. — The whole tumor or diseased structure should be cut
away, and the wound treated daily with a dressing of carbolized
cosmoline or turpentine and sweet oil, 1 part of the former to 4 of
the latter.

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EAR.

Bugs have been known to gain entrance into the ears of animals.
I once removed an acorn from the ear of a cow that had been roam-
ing in the woods; also pieces of wood from a stanchion may be
lodged accidentally in the ear.

Symi?toms. — There is usually a continuous uneasiness or frequent
shaking of the head, occasionally the manifestation of exceeding
great pain. The animal may rub the head and ear against trees or
other objects in an endeavor to dislodge the offending body.

Treatment. — A careful examination reveals the cause, which may
be removed with a pair of forceps or scraped out with a hairpin or
piece of wire bent at one end. If much inflammation exists, the ear
may be swollen so that the foreign substance is hidden from sight;
then a probe may be inserted to feel for the object, which, when
found, should be removed, even if it becomes necessary to split the
ear at the base. Afterwards treat the ear with frequent warm water
fomentations and the injection of soapy water or oil and water.

SCURFY EARS.

Cattle are subject to scurfy ears, which may be owing to a generally
morbid condition of the skin, or may be confined to the ears alone.
The affected animal shows an inclination to rub the ear ; thick scales,
which sometimes have the appearance of hard, dry, horny scales,
of scurf collect on it. This condition is chiefly caused by a faulty
secretion of the sebaceous glands of the ear. Thoroughly clean the
ear with a stiff brush, then anoint it, so far as affected, with vaseline
4 parts to 1 part of white precipitate ointment. If the scurfy ears
are only a part of a general scurfiness of the skin, the condition of
the animal needs attention. (See " Pityriasis," p. 327.)

FROSTBITE.

It is not uncommon among young cattle which are poorly nour-
ished and exposed outdoors to storms and extreme cold to suffer
frostbite of the ear, which may constitute actual freezing of the
part.

Symptoms. — Frostbite presents naturally every degree of severity
from the mere chilling of the tip of the ear to positive freezing and
death of a portion. In a day or two after the freezing has occurred
the ear becomes swollen and very j^ainful ; the dead part remains
cold and begins to shrivel ; a line of separation then forms between

DISEASES OF THE EAR, 355

the inflamed and the dead or dying portion, and finally the piece
destroyed drops off, leaving a raw healing surface. When the ear
is only slightly affected by the cold, an excoriation or peeling off of
superficial skin takes place, accompanied with some pain and itching.
Treatment. — A good liniment for frozen ears is a mixture of tur-
pentine, ammonia, and chloroform, of each 1 part, added to G parts
of sweet oil. Kub this on the ear several times a day. It will relieve
pain and stimulate the circulation, thus favoring a recovery of the
injured structures.

LACERATIONS OF THE EAR.

Aggressive dogs are the most frequent cause of lacerated ear, gen-
erally leaving a torn, ragged edge and bruised cartilage.

If the wound is extensive, a trimming of the ragged edges becomes
necessary; then the edges should be fastened together with silver
wire, catgut, or strong, thick, linen thread, taking a deep hold, and
pine tar applied.

DISEASE OF THE CARTILAGE AND NECROSIS.

Occasionally the cartilages of the ear become affected, usually the
result of a deep bruise ; pus forms, burrows under the skin, and may
find a discharge from any part of the ear more or less distant from
the seat of the disease. When the cartilage has been extensively
injured, pieces of it may become dead (necrosed) and dissolve, to be
carried away with the pus, or it may lead to extensive sloughing and
the formation of numerous running sores. In the disease of the car-
tilage there is seldom much swelling or great pain. The discharge is
usually very offensive, and occasionally streaked with blood. When-
ever there is a long-continued, persistent discharge from one or more
openings in the ear, disease of the cartilage may be suspected.

Treatment. — The sinus formed by the passage of matter should be
probed and searched to the bottom for the presence of a foreign sub-
stance or the evidence of decaying cartilage. When the probe touches
necrosed cartilage it will feel like a piece of dry leather or partially
softened wood. A counter opening must then be made at this place,
and all diseased cartilage cut away with the knife. The subsequent
treatment consists in keeping the artificial wound open for the dis-
charge of pus, and the injection of chlorid of zinc, 5 grains to the
ounce of water, once or twice a day, until the wound is healed.

ENCHONDROMA OF THE EAR.

This is an excessive growth of cartilage, found at the base of the
ear in the form of a hard, painless tumor, firmly attached to the
movable ear. The only recourse for its removal is the knife in the
hands of one acquainted with the anatomy of the part involved in
the operation.

INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Revised by John R. Mohler, A. :M., V. M. D.,
Assistant Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

The importance, to the farmer and stock raiser, of a general knowl-
edge of the nature of infectious diseases need not be insisted on, as
it must be evident to all who have charge of farm animals. The
growing facilities for intercourse between one section of a country
and another, and betAveen different countries, cause a wide distribu-
tion of the infectious diseases once restricted to a definite locality.
Not only the animals themselves, but the cars, vessels, or other con-
veyances in which they are carried may become agents for the dis-
semination of disease. The growing tendency of specialization in
agriculture, which leads to the maintenance of large herds of cattle,
sheep, and hogs, makes infectious diseases more common and more
dangerous. Fresh animals are being continually introduced which
may be the carriers of disease from other herds, and when disease is
once brought into a large herd the losses become very high, because
it is difficult, if not impossible, to check it after it has once obtained
a foothold.

These considerations make it plain that only by the most careful
supervision by intelligent men who understand the nature of infec-
tious diseases and their causes in a general way can these be kept
away. We must likewise consider how incomplete our knowledge
concerning many diseases is, and probably will be for some time to
come. The suggestions and recommendations offered by investi-
gators, therefore, may not always be correct, and may require fre-
quent modification as our information grows more comprehensive
and exact.

An infectious disease may be defined as any malady caused by the
introduction, into the body, of minute organisms of a vegetable or
animal nature which have the power of indefinite multiplication and
of setting free certain peculiar poisons which are chiefly responsible
for the morbid changes.

This definition might include diseases caused by certain animal
parasites, such as trichinae, for example, which multiply in the diges-
tive tract, but whose progeny is limited to a single generation. By
common consent the term " infectious " is restricted to those diseases
356

DISCUSSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 357

caused by the invasion and multiplication of certain very minute
unicellular organisms included under the general classes of bacteria
and protozoa. Nearly all the diseases of cattle for which a definite
cause has been traced are from bacteria. Among these are tubercu-
losis, anthrax, blackleg, and tetanus (or lockjaw). Some diseases,
such as Texas fever and nagana, are traceable to protozoa, while
others, like actinomycosis and aspergillosis, are caused by fungi.
Those diseases of which the cause is unknown or imperfectly worked
out are pleuropneumonia, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease, rabies,
cowpox, malignant catarrh, and dysentery.

Bacteria may be defined as very minute, unicellular organisms of a
plantlike character. Their form is very simple, as may be seen from
an inspection of the various species depicted on Plate XXVIII.
The description of these figures wdll be found on page 358. The
magnification there given will furnish the reader some idea of their
very minute size. They multiply in two ways. The bacterium elon-
gates and then divides in the middle to form 2 daughter cells. These
go through the same process at once, and thus -i cells are produced.
The division of these leads to 8, the division of 8 to 16, and so
on indefinitely. The rapidity with which this multiplication takes
place depends upon the nature of the bacterium. The bacillus of
tuberculosis multiplies very slowly, while that of anthrax does so
wath great rapidity, provided both are in the most favorable condi-
tion. Another mode of reproduction, limited to certain classes of
bacteria, consists in the formation of a spore within the body of the
bacterium. Spore formation usually takes place when the conditions
pertaining to the growth of the bacteria become unfavorable. The
spores are much more resistant to destructive agents than the bacteria
which produced them. The anthrax spore may live several years in
a dried state, but the anthrax bacillus perishes in a few days under
like conditions. This matter will be referred to again wlien we come
to discuss the subject of disinfection.

Of the protozoa which cause disease very little is at present
known. One which produces Texas fever is pictured on Plate
XLV, in figs. 4 and 5. These parasites have a more complex life
histor}^ than bacteria ; and as they can not be grown in artificial
media, their thorough investigation is at present hampered with
great difficulties.

The differences in the symptoms and lesions of the various infec-
tious diseases are due to differences in the respective organisms caus-
ing them. Similarly the great differences observed in the sources
from which animals become infected and the manner in which infec-
tion takes place are due to differences in the life history of these
minute organisms. Much discussion has taken place of late years
concerning the precise meaning of the words " infection " and " con-

VARIOUS BACTERIA WHICH PRODUCE DISEASE IN CATTLE.

DESCKIPTION OF PLATE XXVIII.

The bacteria on this plate are partly from tissues, partly from cultures, and
stained artificially with aniline colors (fuchsin or methylene blue). Figs 6 and
7 are copied from Friinkel and Pfeiffer's atlas. All but fig. 7 are magnified
1,000 times; fig. 7, 500 times.

Fig. 1. Bacteria from pneumonia in cattle. These are also the cause of
hemorrhagic septicemia and are closely related to swine-plague bac-
teria. These bacteria were drawn from a piece of spleen pulp (rabbit).

Fig. 2. Micrococci (streptococcus) which produce inflammation of the lining
membranes of the abdomen, thorax, heart, brain, and joints. Fre-
quently associated with the preceding bacteria in abscesses.

Fig. 3. Micrococci (staphylococcus) which produce inflammation and sup-
puration ; also pyemia.

Fig. 4. Bacilli of blackleg. The pale oval bodies as well as the light spots
in one end of the bacilli represent spores.

Fig. 5. Bacilli which produce tetanus or lockjaw. The light spot in the en-
larged end of each rod represents a spore.

Fig. 6. Bacilli of tuberculosis. Microscopic sections of a pearly nodule from
the lining membrane of the chest cavity. The bacilli are stained red
and appear as small straight rods within the cells of the nodule or
tubercle.

Fig. 7. Bacilli of anthrax. Bacilli from the spleen of a mouse inoculated
with a culture. The bacilli were obtained from the blood of a cow
which died of anthrax in Mississippi. The bacilli appear as rods
stained blue. The round bodies are blood corpuscles, also stained
artificially.
358

Diseases of Cattle — U. S. Dept. of Agr.

Plate XXVIII

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig 3.

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

^

;>4

'^j

. *!'

/'X^:

^:5i^ N

■Kvo^^

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

4 aCO BALTIMORE.

Various Bacteria which Produce Disease in Cattle.

DISCUSSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 359

tagion." These words, however, are now wholly inadequate to
express the complex processes of infection, and it may be said that
each species of bacterium or protozoon has its own peculiar way of
inA'ading the animal body, differing more or less from all the rest.
There are, however, a few broad distinctions which may be expressed
with the help of these old terms. Infection, as laid down above,
refers at present in a comprehensive way to all microorganisms
capable of setting up disease in the body. Some microorganisms are
transmitted directly from one animal to another, and the diseases
produced may be called contagious. Among these are included
pleuropneumonia, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease, rabies, cowpox,
and tuberculosis. Again, certain organisms are perhaps never trans-
mitted from one animal to another, but may come from the soil.
Among these are tetanus, blackleg, anthrax to a large extent, and
perhaps actinomycosis in part. These diseases, according to some
authorities, may be called miasmatic. There is a third class of infec-
tious diseases, the specific bacteria of which are transmitted from
one animal to another, as with the contagious diseases, but the bac-
teria may, under certain favorable conditions, find food enough in
the soil and in the surroundings of animals to multiply to some ex-
tent after they have left the sick animal and before they gain entrance
into a healthy one.

This general classification is subject to change if we take other
characteristics into consideration. Thus tuberculosis, because of its
insidious beginning and slow course, would not by many be consid-
ered contagious in the sense that foot-and-mouth disease is; yet, in
either case, the bacillus must come from preexisting disease. The
disease of rabies, or hydrophobia, is not contagious in the sense that
rinderpest is, because the virus of rabies must be inoculated into a
wound before it can take effect; yet, in both cases, the virus passes
without modification from one animal to another, though in different
ways.

Again, all the diseases under the second group, which seem to come
from the soil and from pastures, are in one sense contagious in that
the virus may be taken from a sick animal and inoculated directly,
with positive results, into a healthy animal. Other illustrations may
be cited which show that these old terms are not in themselves satis-
factory. There are so many conditions which enter into the process
of infection that no single classification will give a sufficiently correct
or comprehensive idea of it. These statements will be easily under-
stood if the different infectious diseases in the following pages are
studied wdth reference to the way or ways in which each disease may
be contracted. Enough has been said, therefore, to show that if we
wish to make ourselves acquainted with the dangers of any given

360 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

disease, we must study it and not rely upon any single work to tell
the whole story.

Infectious diseases have, as a general rule, a period of incubation,
which comprises the time elapsing between the exposure to the infec-
tion and the actual appearance of the disease. This period varies
with the malady. The most common s3^mptom of this class of dis-
eases is fever. The severity of the fever is measured by the tempera-
ture of the animal ; this is readily and accurately ascertainable by
the clinical thermometer. (See PL III, fig. 1.) The other symp-
toms are variable and depend upon the particular organ or organs
most implicated. Loss of appetite, cessation of rumination and milk
secretion, and general dullness are symptoms quite invariably pres-
ent in most infectious diseases.

During the course of infectious diseases secondary diseases or com-
plications may arise which are largely caused by bacteria other than
those producing the original malady. These complications are often
so severe as to become fatal. In general it may be stated that they
are due to filthy surroundings, and hence cleanliness may become an
important aid to recovery.

The treatment of infectious diseases is given under each malady so
far as this is allovv^able or advisable. These diseases are not, as a rule,
amenable to treatment. When the symptoms have once appeared the
disease is liable to run its course in spite of treatment, and if it is one
from which animals usually recover, all that can be done is to put
them into the most favorable surroundings. Many infectious dis-
eases lead sooner or later to death, treatment is useless so far as the
pick are concerned, and it may be worse than useless for those not
yet infected. All animals suffering with infectious diseases are more
or less directly a menace to all others. They represent for the time
being manufactories of disease germs, and they are giving them
off more or less abundantly during the period of disease. They may
infect others directly or they may scatter the virus about, and the
surroundings may become a future source of infection for healthy
animals. This leads us to the subject of prevention as the most im-
portant of all which claim our attention. In this place only a few
general remarks will suffice to bring the subject before the reader.

The most important thing is to keep disease away from a herd or
farm. To do this all sick or suspicious animals should be avoided.
A grave form of disease may be introduced by apparently mild or
trivial cases brought in from without. It is generally conceded that
continual change and movement of animals are the most potent means
by which infectious diseases are disseminated.

With some cattle diseases, such as anthrax, rinderpest, and pleuro-
pneumonia, preventive inoculation is resorted to in some countries.
This may be desirable when certain diseases have become established

DISINFECTION FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 361

in any locality so that eradication is impossible. It should not be
practiced in territories where a given disease nnxj still be extirpated
by ordinary precautions. Preventive inoculation is applicable to
only a few maladies, and therefore its aid in the control of diseases
is limited.

When an infectious disease has gained foothold in a herd the course
to be pursued will depend upon the nature of the malady. A good
rule is to kill diseased animals, especially when the disease is liable
to run a chronic course, as in tuberculosis. The next important step
is to separate the well from the sick by placing the former on fresh
ground. This is rarely possible; hence the destruction or removal
of the sick, with thorough disinfection of the infected locality, is the
next thing to be done. As to the disinfectants to be used, special
directions are given under the various diseases, to which the reader
is referred. Here we will simply call attention briefly to the gen-
eral subject.

DISINFECTION AND DISINFECTANTS.

Disinfection consists in the use of certain substances which possess
the power to destroy bacteria or their spores, or both. Those which
are cheapest and most available for animal diseases are ordinary
freshly slaked lime or unslaked in powder, chlorid of lime, crude car-
bolic acid, corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde gas, formalin, and
compound cresol solution.

(1) Slaked lime is perhaps the most easily procured, but its disin-
fecting power is limited. Wliile it is capable of destroying all bac-
teria in their vegetative state, it is unable to destroy such spores as
those of anthrax and blackleg. It is probable, however, that in
incrusting spores it may destroy their vitality sooner or later. It is
regarded as safe practice to use only spore-destiwing substances for
the virus of those diseases of which we have no definite knowledge.
Nevertheless, in the absence of other disinfectants, lime is very useful.
It may be employed as a whitewash on wood and stone and sprinkled
as a dilute wash or in powder over yards, manure heaps, and over
carcasses before they are buried, and over the ground on which they
have lain to prevent other animals from carrying the infection away.

(2) Chlorid of lime is more efficient than simple slaked or unslaked
lime, as it destroys spores. It is the ordinary bleaching pow^der
of commerce and is quite unstable, hence old preparations, unless
sealed, are of little value. A 5 per cent solution is sufficiently strong
for all spore-bearing bacteria (3 ounces in 2 quarts of water) . It may
be efficiently applied to the walls and floor of an infected stable by
mixing with limewash in the proportion of 6 ounces of the lime to
each gallon of limewash. The ceilings and those portions of the
walls which can not be reached should be disinfected by means of

362 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

chlorin gas liberated from the chlorid of lime by crude carbolic
acid. This is accomplished by making a cone of 5 or 6 pounds of
chlorid of lime, in the top of Avhich a deep crater is made for the
placement of from 1 to 2 pints of crude acid. The edge of the crater
is thereupon pushed into the fluid, when a lively reaction follows.
The fumes of chlorin are strongly irritating to the respiratory tract
and therefore all live stock should be removed before the work is
started. Owing to the heat generated, it is advisable to place the
lime in an iron crucible and to have nothing inflammable within a
radius of 2 feet. The number and location of these cones of chlorid
of lime depend on the size and structure of the building to be dis-
infected. As a rule, it may be stated that chlorin gas liberated from
the above-sized cone will be sufficient for disinfecting 5,200 cubic feet
of air space.

(3) Crude carbolic acid. The ordinary purified carbolic acid is too
expensive to be used on a large scale, and the crude produce is a very
good substitute. This is made more powerful by mixing with it an
equal volume of commercial sulphuric acid. While the sulphuric acid
is being added to the crude carbolic acid much heat is evolved, and if
the glass jar in which the two are mixed is placed in cold water
the resulting product is said to have a higher disinfecting power.
The mixture is added to water enough to make a 5 per cent solution
(about 7 ounces to 4 quarts of water). This is strong enough for
all purposes. It may be kept in wood or glass, but not in metal,
owing to the corroding action of the acid. It should be used freely
on woodwork and on infected flooi^, and a force pump of the kind
used by orchardists is very convenient as a means of applying the
disinfectant. If the solution is warm when applied, it will pene-
trate the woodwork better than when cold, especially if the spraying
is done during cold weather. The addition of air-slaked lime in any
quantity that will dissolve in water to the above solution (say 1|
pounds of lime to 7 ounces of crude carbolic acid to each gallon of
Avater) is preferred by many, as it makes any neglected places at once
■visible and leaves cleaner and better air within the buildings. In
most cases in which its application becomes desirable — and this rule
should apply to all disinfections — the disinfected stables, stalls, etc.,
should remain vacant as long as possible before cattle are again
stabled therein.

(4) Mercuric chlorid, or corrosive sublimate, is a powerful disin-
fectant, but it is likewise very poisonous ; hence its uses are limited.
Cattle are especially susceptible to its action and caution must be
used in its application. A solution of one-tenth of 1 per cent is
usually sufficient (1 ounce to 8 gallons of water). It should not be
placed in Avooden jiails, which would form the tannate of mercury,
a weak antiseptic; nor, owing to its corrosive action, should expen-

DISINFECTION FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 363

sive metal pails be used. Agate vessels or tin pails are to be pre-
ferred. All solutions should be labeled "poison," and to avoid
accidents none should be kept on hand.

(5) Formalin and formaldehyde gas have been found very effica-
cious as sanitary agents. Formalin is the commercial name for the
40 per cent solution of formaldehyde gas in water, and is one of the
most powerful antiseptic and disinfectants that we possess. Solu-
tions of this strength are manufactured by different commercial
houses and sold by the drug trade under the name of " f ormalose "
and " formal." In this connection it should be mentioned that while
the 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde gas and formalin are ex-
actly the same thing, the former can be purchased at 33 J to 64 per
cent less than the latter. Formalin, diluted with water in the pro-
portion of 1 pint to 30 parts of water, or 4 ounces to each gallon of
water, may be applied, and it may thus be used as a wash or as
a spray on all paints, metals, and woodwork, as well as on clothing
and other fabrics, without injuring them. It may also be applied
to floors, walls, and woodwork in whitewash by mixing 1 part to
30 parts of limewash, or 4 ounces to each gallon of limewash.
Formalin has the appearance of water and in the strong solu-
tion is poisonous, but when diluted as recommended above it is not
dangerous. The fumes given off by it, however, are very disagree-
able and irritating to the eyes and nasal mucous membranes. One
and one-half ounces of formalin added to 1 gallon of water is a valu-
able agent for the disinfection of the skin or septic wounds, but is
somewhat painful and irritating to raw surfaces.

Formaldehyde, is a gas whicii is soluble in 2| parts of water (40
parts of formaldehyde gas to 100 parts of water) ; this solution
constitutes the formalin of commerce. The use of formaldehyde gas
is in most cases impracticable for stable disinfection. In case the
stable is not too large and can be made almost air-tight the genera-
tion of formaldehyde gas, after removing all the animals, will be
found very serviceable. It penetrates all parts of the stable^ — the
walls, crevices, floors, ceiling — and is f)robably the best fumigating
disinfectant that we have.

Probably one of the most simple and practical methods of liber-
ating this gas is by means of the chemical reaction which takes place
when formalin is poured upon permanganate of potassium. For
each 1,000 cubic feet of air space, 16f ounces of crystallized or
powdered permanganate of potassium is placed in a wide-surfaced
pan; 20 ounces of formalin is then poured upon it, and the stable
immediately closed for a period of 12 hours or longer. This method
is efficient only when it is possible to seal tightly the place to be
disinfected, and should be used only by experienced persons.

364 DISEASES OF CATTLE,

(6) Some coal-tar products are cheap, effective, and easily applied
disinfectants, their action being due to the carbolic acid and creosote
in their composition. They may be used in 3 to 5 per cent solution.
As a rule they form a milky solution in water,

(7) Compound solution of cresol (liquor cresolis compositus),
now recognized as an official preparation, is composed of- equal parts
of cresol and linseed-oil-potash soap. The mixture is a thick, dark,
amber-colored fluid which mixes readily with water in all propor-
tions to form a clear, soap solution. It is an efficient disinfectant in
a 3 or 4 per cent solution, and in this strength it may be applied in
the same manner as a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid.

When it is desired to apply one of these above-mentioned agents to
the stable or barnyard, a preliminary cleaning up of all debris and
litter is advisable, together with the scraping of the floor, mangers,
and walls of the stable with hoes; also the removal of all dust and
filth. This should be folloAved by the burning of all such accumula-
tions, inasmuch as this material likewise contains the infectious prin-
ciple and is best destroyed by heat. Heat may be applied to the
surface of the affected pen, byre, or barnyard by means of a cyclone
burner, which consists of a tank, pump, hose, and cyclone nozzle for
spraying with paraffin (gas oil). The latter is ejected in the form of
spray, which when ignited gives a very hot and effective flame to be
applied to the infected ground. Where such burning is impracticable
the surface soil of the yard and surroundings should be removed to a
depth of 5 or 6 inches and then placed in a heap and thoroughly
mixed with air-slaked lime. The fresh surface of the soil thus ex-
posed may then be sprinkled with the disinfectant.

In addition to these artificial substances there are several natural
sanitary agents of great importance as destroyers of virus. These
are cleanliness, ventilation, drying, and sunshine. All virus, ex-
cepting such as may live in the soil, is killed sooner or later by drying
and sunshine, and the importance of these factors in the daily life of
animals need not be insisted on here. Finally, all sanitary measures
which contribute to the healthfulness of animal surroundings are
directly or indirectly inimical to disease germs, and all carelessness
in the keeping of animals may be regarded as an ally of these de-
structive organisms.

CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA.

iris, xxix-xxxii.]

De-finitiori and history. — This disease has been eradicated from the
United States, and it is not probable that it will ever be seen in this
country again. As, however, much interest was manifested in regard

CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA. 365

to it for a number of years, and as our cattle are still prohibited from
some foreign markets on account of its previous existence here, the
subject is treated at greater length than would otherwise be necessary.

The contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle is a specific, epizootic
disease which affects bovine animals, and from which other species
are exempt. It is characterized, when the disease results from ex-
posure in the usual manner, by an inflammation of the lungs and
pleurae, which is generally extensive, and which has a tendency tc
invade portions of these organs not primarily affected and to cause
death of the die-eased portion of the lung. This disease is frequently
called the lung plague, which corresponds with its German name
of Lungenseuche. In French it is spoken of as the peripneumonie
contagieuse.

The history of the contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle can not be
traced with any certainty to a period earlier than the beginning of
the eighteenth centur3\ No doubt it existed and ravaged the herds of
Europe for many years and perhaps centuries before that time, but
veterinaj-y knowledge was so limited that the descriptions of the
symptoms and post-mortem appearance are too vague and too limited
to admit of the identification of the maladies to which they refer. It
has been supposed b}' some writers that certain passages in the writ-
ings of Aristotle, Liv}?^, and Virgil show the existence of pleuro-
pneumonia at the time that their works were composed, but their
references are too indefinite to be seriously accepted as indicating
this rather than some other disease.

It seems quite plain that as early as 1713 and 171-1 pleuropneu-
monia existed in Suabia and several Cantons of Switzerland. There
are even clearer accounts of its prevalence in Switzerland in 1732,
1743, and 1765. In 1769 a disease called murie was investigated in
Franche-Comte by Bourgelat which undoubtedly was identical with
the pleuropneumonia of to-da3\ From that period we have frequent
and well-authenticated accounts of its existence in various parts of
Europe. During the period from 1790 to 1812 it was spread through-
out a large portion of the Continent of Europe by the cattle driven
for the subsistence of the armies, which marched and countermarched
in all directions. It was generally prevalent in Italy in 1800. It
appears to have been unknown, however, in the Department of the
Nord, France, until 1826, but during the years from 1820 to 1840 it
penetrated into most parts of that country. During the same period
it w^as introduced into and allowed to spread over Belgium and
Holland.

This contagion is said to have been carried to Ireland from Hol-
land in 1839, and is reported as existing in England in 1842. The
disease was brought to the United States at several different times.
Probablv its first introduction was with a diseased cow sold in Brook-

366 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

lyn, N. Y., in 1843. It came to New Jersey by importing affected
animals in 1847. Massachusetts was infected in the same way in 1859.

South Africa was infected by a bull brought from Holland in 1854,
and Australia likewise received the contagion with an English cow in
1858. It is also reported as existing in various parts of the Continent
of Asia, but the time of its first appearance and the extent of its dis-
tribution are very uncertain.

Some countries, such as Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, which had
been infected for only a short time, have succeeded in eradicating the
disease without much difficulty by slaughtering all affected and ex-
posed animals. Other countries long infected and in which the con-
tagion was thoroughly established, like Australia, South Africa,
Italy, France, Belgium, and parts of Germany, have labored long,
in some cases making no progress and in others being only partially
successful. Holland was one of the first of the thoroughly infected
countries to free itself from the contagion.

In the United States, Massachusetts eradicated pleuropneumonia
during the period from 1860 to 1866. New York and New Jersey
made an attempt to eradicate it in 1879, but were not successful.
Late in 1883 the contagion was carried to Ohio, probably by Jersey
cattle purchased in the vicinity of Baltimore, Md., to which place it
had extended before 1868. From the herd then infected it was
spread by the sale of cattle during 1884 to a limited number of herds
in Illinois, to one herd in Missouri, and to two in Kentucky. The
alarm caused among the stock owners of the United States by this
widespread dissemination of a disease so much dreaded led to the
adoption of active measures for its control and eradication. By co-
operation between the United States Department of Agriculture and
the authorities of the affected States it was found possible to prevent
the further spread of the contagion and to eradicate it after a few
months' delay.

In 1886 pleuropneumonia was discovered in some of the large dis-
tillery stables of Chicago and among cows on neighboring lots. This
led to renewed efforts for the complete extirpation of this disease
from the country. Congress in 1887 enlarged the appropriation
available for this purpose and gave more extended authority. Dur-
ing the same year the disease was stamped out of Chicago, and has
not since appeared in any district west of the Allegheny Mountains.

The work of eradication was at the same time commenced in all
the infected States. Before the end of the year 1889 Pennsylvania,
Delawiire, Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Virginia had been
freed from the disease. More difficulties, however, were encountered
in the States of New York and New Jersey, on account of the larger
territory infected and the density of the population. The long strug-
gle was successful, however, and the last animal in which the disease

CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA. 367

appeared in the State of New York was slaughtered early in 1891,
and the last one affected in New Jersey met the same fate early in
the spring of 1892.

During these same years a supreme effort had been made to stamp
out this lung plague from Great Britain. From the official reports
it appears that the number of infected districts and of diseased ani-
mals had rapidly diminished, but it was not until 1898 that the in-
fection was finally eradicated.

The other infected European countries, though they maintain a
veterinary sanitary service, are not making satisfactory progress in
eradicating the disease. This is owing partly to delays in carrying
out the provisions of the laws and partly to mistaken ideas as to the
measures which are necessary to accomplish the object. The United
States was the last of the countries having old infected districts
which undertook to stamp out this contagion, and, except Holland,
it was the first to reach success.

The cause {etiology) of pleuropneimionia. — This is a contagious
disease, and arises only by contagion from a previously affected
animal ; consequently it can never be seen here except as the result of
importing affected animals from the Old World. When thoroughly
stamped out it does'not reappear; and if imported animals continue
to be properly inspected and quarantined, we have every reason to
believe that pleuropneumonia will never again be seen in this
country.

The exact nature of the virus or contagion of lung plague has
never been determined. Various investigators have from time to
time claimed the discovery of the specific organism of the disease,
but it was not until 1898 that Nocard and Roux, by an ingenious
method of cultivation, succeeded in obtaining a very feeble growth
of an exceedingly minute microorganism. With these cultures the
disease was produced in cattle.

Some investigators and writers are of the opinion that the disease
can be contracted only by an animal coming near enough to a living
diseased one to receive the contagion directly from it. They hold
that the contagion is expired with the air from the affected lungs.
and that it must be almost immediately inspired by another animal
in order to produce the disease. Some experimental attempts to
infect animals by placing them in stables where diseased animals
have been, and by placing the diseased lungs of slaughtered animals
in their feeding troughs have failed, and, consequently, apparently
confirm this view.

On the other hand, it is known that the serum from affected lungs
retains its virulence and may be used successfully for inoculation
weeks or months after the death of the animal from which it was
taken. This is particularly the case when this liquid is hermetically

CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA.

DESCBIPTIOX OF PLATES.

Plate XXIX. Upper or dorsal surface of the lungs of the ox, reduced to one-
twelfth of the natural size: a, a', the right and left principal lobes.
These are the largest and are situated posteriorly, resting upon the
diaphragm; b, b', the ventral lobes, situated between the principal
lobes; and c, c', c" the most anterior, or cephalic, lobes. The right
anterior is divided into two lobes (c, c'), the left is single (c") ;
(J, trachea, or A\'indpipe.

In the majority of the lungs examined in the laboratory of the
bureau which were affected with contagious pleuropneumonia the prin-
cipal lobes (a, a') were primarily affected.

Plate XXX. Bronchopnumonia. The ventral or middle lobe of the right lung
affected with collapse and beginning bronchopneumonia. The light
yellowish portions represent healthy lung tissue ; the red represents
the disease. It will be noticed that the lines between the lobules are
quite faint, indicating little or no inflammation of the connective tissue
between the lobules. The healthy lung tissue is seen to be raised above
the level of the diseased portion. In contagious pleuropneumonia the
exact reverse is the case, the diseased portions being very much larger
than the healthy.

Plate XXXI. Contagious pleuropneumonia. Appearance of a cow's lung af-
fected with contagious pleuropneumonia when sections or slices are
made of it and cut surfaces examined.
Fig. 1. Transverse section through the right principal lobe in a case of
acute pleuropneumonia. The area drawn includes the air tubes, veins,
and arteries, and illustrates the great thickening of the interlobular
connective tissue into broad whitish bands and of the walls of the air
tubes, veins, and arteries : «, air tube cut obliquely ; a', air tube cut
directly across ; h, arteries cut across ; c, large vein completely occluded
by a thrombus or plug formed during life. The great thickening of
the walls of the artery and vein in this disease is especially brought
out by stating that in the healthy lung they are so thin as to be easily
overlooked.
Fig. 2. Transverse section of the principal lobe in a case of acute pleuro-
pneumonia, illustrating the different kinds of hepatization or consolida-
tion of the lung. These are indicated by the different colors from
dark red to reddish yellow. This variation of color is regarded by
some as the real marbling characteristic of pleuropneumonia, w^hile the
whitish bands penetrating the lung tissue in all directions constitute
the true marbling according to other observers.

Plate XXXII. Contagious pleuropneumonia. This illustrates what are called
infarctions. The right half of the figure shows neariy normal lung
tissue. The left represents a blackish mass, in which the lung tissue
is filled with blood and solidified. This is caused by the plugging of
the vein carrying away the blood from this portion. The heart forces
the blood through the artery into the ti.ssue at considerable pressure,
but owing to the fact that its return is prevented, the minute blood
vessels rupture and the air vesicles become distended with blood, which
coagulates and causes the firmness of the tissue.
368

Diseases of Cattle — U. S. Dept. of Agr.

Plate XXIX.

AhOENatCO BALTIMORE.

Upper or Dorsal Surface of the Lungs of the Ox.

(rj NATURAL SIZE.)

Diseases of Cattle — U. S. Dept of Agr.

Plate XXX.

t.HOeNftCO BALTIMORE,

BRONCHO-PNeUMONIA.

Diseases of Cattle— U. S. Dept. of Agr.

Plate XXXI

'/X

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia.

Diseases of Cattle— U S. Dept. of Agr

Plate XXXII.

CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA. 369

sealed in glass tubes. Other investigators state that they have suc-
cessfully infected cattle by placing, in the nostrils, sponges or pledg-
ets of cotton saturated with such serum. Cattle have also, accord-
ing to the best evidence obtainable, been infected from the clothing
of attendants, from horns used in drenching, and from smelling
about Avagons which have been used to transport affected carcasses.
In the Avork of eradicating pleuropneumonia from the United States
many stables were found in which the disease would appear and
reappear after the slaughter of affected herds, and in spite of any
precautions which Avere adopted. These Avere ahvays old stables,
with woodwork in a decaying condition and Avith flooi^s underlaid
Avith filth Avhich could not be thoroughly removed or disinfected.
In every one of these cases the destruction of the stable, the burning
of the lumber of Avhich it Avas constructed, the removal of the ac-
cumulations beneath the floors, and thorough disinfection, prevented
the recurrence of the plague in neAV stables built upon the same
premises. This experience conclusively shoAvs that under certain
conditions, at least, stables may retain the infection for a consider-
able time, and that when restocked the disease may break out again
from such infection.

As a rule, how^cA^er, the disease is acquired by a healthy animal
being near an affected one and receiving the contagion direct.
Affected animals may giA'e off the contagion in the early stages of the
disease before the symptoms are apparent to the obserA'er ; also, they
may retain this infectious character, if they survive the attack, for
six months and probably for a year after all symptoms of the dis-
ease haA^e disappeared.

Incuhation. — The time Avhich elapses between exposure to the con-
tagion of pleuropnemnonia and the first appearance of the symptoms
of this disease varies greatly with different individuals and with dif-
ferent outbreaks of the disease. Ordinarily the symptoms of disease
make their appearance Avithin three to six weeks after exposure;
they may be observed, hoAvever, Avithin tAvo weeks or they may not
become apparent until nearly or quite three months. It is this long
period of incubation and the great length of time that an animal
ma}^ disseminate the contagion after apparent recoA^ery Avhich give
the plague that insidious character so often spoken of, and which
greatly increase the difficulties of eradication.

Syrnqytoms. — The symptoms are such as w^ould be expected Avith
inflammation of the lungs and pleurae, but they vary considerably,
according to the type Avhich the disease manifests. If the attack is
an acute one, as is frequently seen in hot Aveather, the symptoms
appear suddenly; the breathing becomes rapid and difficult, the ani-
mal grunts or moans Avith each expiration, the shoulders stand out
from the chest, the head is extended on the neck, the back is arched,
33071°— 16 24

370 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the temperature is 104° to 107° F., the milk secretion is suspended,
there is no appetite, rumination is stopped, the animal may bloat and
later be affected with a severe diarrhea. Such cases are .generally
fatal in 7 to 20 days.

Yery often the attack comes on slowly and the symptoms are much
less clear. In the mildest cases there is a cough for a week or two,
but no appreciable loss of appetite or elevation of temperature. The
lungs are but slightly affected and recovery soon follows. Such
animals may disseminate the contagion for a long time without being
suspected, and for that reason are the most dangerous of all.

A more severe type of the plague is the most frequently seen. In
these cases the cough is frequent, more or less painful, the back
somewhat arched, and the milk secretion diminished. The promi-
nence of these symptoms increases, the appetite is affected, the ani-
mal loses flesh, the breathing becomes more rapid, the cough more
painful, pressure of the fingers between the ribs shows tenderness, the
hair loses its gloss and stands erect, the skin becomes adherent, little,
if any, milk is secreted, and the temperature rises, varying in differ-
ent animals from 103° to 107° F. Animals thus affected may con-
tinue to grow worse and die in from three to eight weeks, or they may
after a time begin to improve and make an apparent recovery. The
inflammation of the lung does not, as a rule, subside and the organ
return to its normal condition, as is the case in ordinary pneumonia,
but with this dise&se the life of the affected portion of the lung is
destroyed, the tissue dies, and a fibrous wall is formed around it to
shut it away from the living parts. The tissue, thus encysted, gradu-
ally softens, becomes disintegrated, and breaks down into pus. The
recovery, therefore, is not complete; it is only apparent and partial.

To those accustomed to examining the lungs of cattle, other and
extremely important symptoms may be apparent during the course of
the disease. By applying the ear over the walls of the chest an area
of a certain extent may be found in which the natural breathing
sound is diminished or entirely lost. This represents the diseased
portion of the lungs. In other cases a loud blowing sound ma}' be
heard, quite different from any sound produced when the lung is in
a healthy condition. In some cases crepitation is heard near the
border line of the diseased area and friction sounds produced by the
roughened pleura ; these can be appreciated, however, only by those
whose ears have been trained to distinguish between the different
sounds which reach the ear when applied to the chest wall. By per-
cussion— that is, by pressing the fingers of the left hand firmly against
the wall of the chest and tapping uj^on the middle finger with the
ends of the fingers of the right hand — an area of dullness may be
discovered corresponding to the portion from which the respiratory
murmur has disappeared. This loss of respiration detected by auscul-

CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA. 371

tation, and the dullness brought out by percussion, are the most im-
portant evidences of an inflamed or consolidated lung.

Seriously affected animals remain standing if they have sufficient
strength, but those which lie down always lie on the affected side.

The proportion of animals which become affected after being ex-
posed varies according to the virulence of the outbreak, the sus-
ceptibility of the animals, and the length of time during which ex-
posure is continued. Sometimes not more than 15, 20, or 30 per cent
will contract the disease when a large herd is exposed ; on the other
hand, however, 80 or 90 per cent may be affected. The proportion of
cases in which the disease proves fatal also varies greatly — it may not
exceed 10 and it may reach 50 per cent. In general, it may be said
that about 40 per cent of the exposed animals will contract the dis-
ease and about one-half of these cases will prove fatal.

P ost-TTiortenth appearances. — Owing to the complexity of the struc-
ture of the lung tissue, its ramifications of bronchial tubes and blood
vessels, and its abundant supply of lymphatics, the pathological
changes in pleuropneumonia are interpreted with great difficulty.
Furthermore, there are certain kinds of pneumonia which present
some resemblances to pleuropneumonia and which may therefore be
confused with it in some of its phases.

If Ave kill an animal affected with acute pleuropneumonia and ex-
amine the cavity of the chest and lungs, the following appearances
will be noted :

The thorax may contain more or less serum, which may be clear or
clouded. There may be firm adhesions of different parts of the lungs
to the chest wall, the extent of which depends on the stage and
severity of the disease. The diseased lobes are unusually large and
exceedingly firm to the touch. The weight of a single large lobe may
reach 40 pounds. Usually only one side is affected, often but a single
lobe, and this most commonly the large or principle lobe. The pleura
may be covered with one or more layers of a firm, elastic, grayish
membrane, which varies in thickness and which sometimes may be
pulled away entirely. Sometimes it is absent. The pleura, however,
is opaque and apparently very much thickened. This is owing to the
diseased condition of the connective tissue beneath the pleura, as
will be explained later. When an affected lobe is cut through at
right angles to its long diameter, the cut surface presents a variety
of interesting changes. In the first place the spaces between the
small subdiA^sions of the lung (the lobules), which in the healthy
lung are barely visible, are distended with a j^ellowish- white, usually
quite firm, substance, which is coagulated fibrin. The cut surface
thus appears divided into small fields by yellowish-white bands of
varying thickness running in various directions through the lung tis-
sue and beneath the pleura. (PL XXXI.) These bands may appear

372 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

honeycombed and the spaces filled v.ith yellowish fluid (serum) or
they may be uniformly solid. It will also be noticed that the space
immediately outside of and around the artery, vein, and air tube is
similarly broadened by fibrinous deposits. Some authorities look
ui^on these bands as constituting the so-called " marbling " of j^leuro-
pneumonia.

In addition to these changes which have taken place in the connec-
tive tissue between the lobules, the lung tissue itself may be mark-
edly altered. Certain areas of the cut surface may be very firm in
texture and of a brownish-red color. The cut surface is granular or
roughened, not smooth to the eye. Other areas equally firm may be
more grayish yellow and still others may be blackish. (PI.
XXXII.) Besides these areas which represent solidified (hepatized)
lung tissue there may be others which approach the normal lung tis-
sue in color, are soft, and float in water. From these a milky,
purulent fluid may often be expressed. These different shades are
represented in Plate XXXI, fig. 2, within a small compass. Some
authorities are inclined to consider these variations in color on the
same cut surface as the co-called marbling of pleuropneumonia. It
matters not whether we regard the bands between the lobules or the
varying shades of the lobules themselves as the marbling, provided
either or both are peculiar to contagious pleuropneumonia. If we
examine the blood A'essels appearing on such cut surface they will
usually be found plugged Avithin the firmly hepatized regions. The
artery contains a dark, soft, removable clot, the vein a grayish-pink,
granular, fragile plug (thrombus), which adheres firmly to the wall
of the vein, and if this is slit open, indications of a diseased condition
of the inner coat will be readily detected. When large regions of the
lung tissues are hepatized, the main air tube and its branches are
usually filled Avith grayish, cylindrical branched masses of fibrin that
are easily removed, as they do not adhere to the mucous membrane.

The views of pathologists differ as to the nature of the earliest
changes in pleuropneumonia, and it is not within the scope of this
work to present controverted or imperfectly developed theories. In
the foregoing description we have taken as a type the acute pleuro-
pneumonia in its fully developed phase, which can scarcely be mis-
taken for any other disease. We have seen that there is an inflam-
matory condition of the connective tissue between the lobules, result-
ing in the exudation of coagulable lymph. This inflammation is
equally marked around the blood vessels and air tubes. It leads to
inflammatory changes in the inner Avail of the veins, and these cause
the deposition of thrombi or plugs in the vessels, Avhich prevent the
return of the blood. The blood pumped into the lung tissue through
the artery, but unable to get out by Avay of the vein, leaves the mesh-
Avork of capillaries around the air vesicles, enters the latter, and pro-

CONTAGIOUS. PLEUROPNEUMONIA. 373

(luces the firm, hepatized condition so characteristic of this disease.
If we bear in mind that the veins in different parts of the lung tissue
are plugged at different times, and that, therefore, the affected re-
gions are in different stages of disease, it will be easily understood
how the different shades of color from dark red to grayish or
yellowish red are produced.

The complete plugging of tlie veins may lead to the death of cir-
cumscribed masses of lung tissue. A line of separation forms between
the living and the dead tissue and a thick cyst wall of fibrous tissue
forms around the latter. The dead tissue for a time preserves the
appearance of lung tissue, then undergoes disintegration and lique-
faction. The softened mass is finally absorbed, and the walls of the
cyst, Or capsule around it, gradually collapse and form a cicatrix.
This favorable termination takes place only when the dead mass is
not too large. It may, however, involve over half of one of the
large lobes. Under such circumstances recovery is improbable. A
more favorable termination is the abundant growth of fibrous tissue
around and into the hepatized masses. The formation of fibrous
tissue may extend to the pleura, or lung covering, and cause firm
adhesion of the lungs to the chest wall and to the pericardium, or
heart case.

The same peculiar, inflammatory changes which take place between
the lobules of the lung and around the bronchi and vessels may invade
the pleural cavity, cause extensive membranous and spongy deposits
on the pleura and firm deposits around the heart and large arteries,
the gullet, and windpipe.

These are the main features of the lung disease caused by con-
tagious pleuropneumonia. In the typical, acute cases there are a
a sufficient number of peculiarities to enable us to make a positive
diagnosis. There are, however, many cases in which the disease is
restricted to small areas, or to the interlobular tissue, or in which
the changes are still imperfectly developed, or else so far advanced
that doubts may arise as to the true nature of the affection. In
such cases all obtainable facts, including the historj^ of the case, the
symptoms during life, and the pathological changes observed on
post-mortem examination must be taken into consideration. Only
one who has made a careful stud}^ of the disease is fitted to decide
in such cases.

Other kinds of lung disease, because of certain features common
to most lung diseases of cattle, may be confounded with pleuro-
pneumonia. The inflammation of the connective tissue between the
lobules is not infrequently observed in so-called interstitial pneu-
monia and may lead to the formation of whitish bands intersecting
the lung tissues in various directions. On the cut surface these
bands may give rise to a decidedly marbled appearance. Again, in

374 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

traumatic pneumonia, caused, as its name implies, by the entrance
of foreign bodies into the lung tissue, generally from the paunch,
the connective tissue around the place of disease becomes inflamed
and thickened, and the disease itself may simulate pleuropneumonia
in its retrogressiA'e stages Avhen it is confined to a small portion of
lung tissue. The filling up of the interlobular spaces with fibrin
and connective tissue of inflammatory origin is not thus limited to
pleuropneumonia, but may appear in a marked degree in other lung
diseases. It must not be inferred from this statement that these
interlobular changes are necessarily the same as those in pleuro-
pneumonia, although to the naked eye they may appear the same.
We simply note their presence without discussing their nature.

In general, the distinction betAveen pleuropneumonia and broncho-
pneumonia is not difficult to make. In the latter disease the pneu-
monia generally invades certain lobes. The disease attacks the smaller
lobes in their lowest portions first and gradually extends upward, i. e.,
toward the root of the lung or the back of the animal and backward
into the large principal lobes. Again, both lungs in advanced cases
are often symmetrically affected. In contagious pleuropneumonia
the large principal lobe of one side is most frequently affected, and a
symmetrical disease of both lungs is very rare, if, in fact, it has ever
been observed. The lung tissue in bronchopneumonia is not enlarged,
but rather more contracted than the normal tissue around it. This is
well illustrated in Plate XXX. Normal, air-containing lobules may
be scattered among and around the hepatized portion in an irregular
manner. In pleuropneumonia the diseased and healthy portions are
either sharply divided off, one from the other, or else they shade into
each other by intermediate stages.

The hepatized lung tissue in bronchopneumonia when the cut sur-
face is examined is usually of a more or less dark flesh color with
paler grayish-yellow dots regularly interspersed, giving it a peculiar,
mottled appearance. In the more advanced stages it becomes more
firm, and may contain nodular and firmer masses disseminated
through it. The air tubes usually contain more or less soft, creamy,
or cheesy pus or a turbid fluid quite different from the loose, fibrin-
ous casts of acute pleuroi^neumonia. The interlobular tissue may or
may not be affected. It sometimes contains loose, fibrinous plugs, or
it may be greatly distended w^ith air, especially in the still normal
portions of the lung. The pleura is seldom seriously diseased. If
we contrast with these features the firm dark-red hepatizations, the
plugging of the veins, the extensive interlobular dejjosits, and the
well-marked pleuritis in pleuropneumonia, there is little chance for
confusion between well-developed cases of these two lung diseases.

It should not be forgotten, however, that the lesions of the disease
known as contagious pleuropneumonia nuiy be confined to the serous

CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA. 375

membranes of the thorax, or they may be confined to the parenchyma
of the lungs ; they may affect a whole lobe, or only a small portion of
it; they may or may not cause the so-called marbled appearance.
In the same Avay bronchopneumonia may vary as to the parts of the
lung affected, the extent of the lesions, the degree and kind of
pathological changes in the interlobular tissue, the color of the lung
on cross section and the amount of hepatization. In individual cases,
therefore, it is often necessary to take into account the history of the
animal, the course of the disease, and the,communicability of the
affection before a diagnosis can be made between the two diseases.

Prevention and treatment. — The prevention of pleuropneumonia,
as of other contagious diseases, consists in keeping animals so that
they will not be exposed to the contagion. As the disease arises only
by contagion, there is no possibility of an animal becoming affected
with it unless it has been exposed. If, therefore, pleuropneumonia
exists in a locality the owner of healthy cattle should make every
effort to keep his animals from coming near affected ones or which
have been exposed. He should be equallj'^ particular not to allow
persons w^ho have been on the infected premises to visit his own
pastures, stables, or cattle.

If pleuropneumonia breaks out in a herd, every animal in it should
be slaughtered, the stables thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, and
no other cattle allowed on the premises until a period of 90 days has
elapsed.

Medical treatment of affected animals is unavailing and should not
be attempted. No matter how valuable the diseased animals may
have been before they contracted the disease, they should at once be
destroyed and the contagion eradicated. This is the best policy for
the individual as well as for the community.

The eradication of this disease by local or National Governments
can be successful only when the same principles are adopted and
carried out as here recommended for individual stables. It is then a
difficult undertaking, simply because the contagion is generally
widely disseminated before any measures are adopted, and because
a great majority of cattle owners will never report the existence of
the disease. Kegulations must therefore be enforced which will in-
sure the prompt discovery of every herd in which the disease ap-
pears, as well as the destruction of all diseased and exposed animals
and the thorough disinfection of the premises.

To discover pleuropneumonia sufficiently early for this purpose,
the district supposed to be infected should be clearly defined and
inspectors should be constantly employed to inspect every herd in it
at least once in two weeks, or, better, once a week. No bovine animal
should be allowed to go out of the defined district alive, and all
which enter it should be carefully inspected to insure their freedom

376 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

from disease. As an assistance to the discovery of diseased herds,
every animal which, from any cause, dies in the infected district
and every animal which is slaughtered, even if apparently in good
health, should be the subject of a careful post-mortem examination.
Many affected herds will be found in this way.

In addition to these measures it is also necessary to guard against
the removal of animals from one stable to another and the mixing of
herds upon common pastures or in the public highways. The object
must be to isolate every individual's cattle as completely as possible,
or otherwise a single affected* animal may infect a dozen or more
herds. To prevent surreptitious sale or trading of cattle, each animal
must in some way be numbered and recorded in the books kept by the
official in charge of the district. In the work of the United States
Department of Agriculture a numbered metal tag was fastened to
each animal's ear and index books were so arranged that with a
number given the owner could be at once ascertained, or from the
owner's name the cattle for which he was responsible could be at once
learned. In this way, if an animal was missing from a stable, the fact
became apparent at once, or if one too many was found in a stable
the number in its ear would indicate where it came from.

When pleuropneumonia is discovered by these means, the entire
herd should be slaughtered as soon as the formalities of appraisement
can be arranged. In country districts the carcasses should be buried,
as it is generally impracticable to dispose of them in any other way.
In city districts the animals may be taken to a slaughterhouse, with
such precautions as are possible to prevent dissemination of the con-
tagion. The animals should be slaughtered under the supervision of
an inspector. The healthy carcasses may be utilized for food, but the
blood, entrails, and all diseased carcasses should be heated to a tem-
perature equal to that of boiling water or above, and then used for
the manufacture of fertilizers.

The disinfection of j)remises should be thorough and should be car-
ried out by a trained corps of men employed for the purpose. The
floors of stables should be removed, the accumulations removed from
beneath them, the contents of haylofts should be destroyed, and the
woodwork and soil beneath the stables should be thoroughly drenched
with a solution of bichlorid of mercury, 1 part to 2,000 of water.
After the flooring is replaced the woodwork should be coated with
limewash, containing one-fourth pound of chlorid of lime to the gal-
lon of mixture.

Usually in these cases the owners are dependent upon tlieir herd of
cows for a living, and consequently it is difficult or impossible to
hold the stables vacant for any considerable period. In a majority of
instances cattle may be admitted at once to stables so disinfected,
without the reappearance of the disease. Occasionally, however, it

RINDERPEST. 377

will reappear without apparent cause. For this reason the inspection
and other measures must be maintained in the infected district for
six months or a year after the last case of disease has been disposed of.

Many people have objected to the slaughter of diseased and ex-
posed animals as an unscientific and expensive method of eradicating
the disease. To these it may be answered that it is the only method
which has e^er proved successful, and that in the end it is much
more economical than temporizing measures.

Inoculation has been adopted in many countries, and has undoubt-
edly lessened the death rate, but where this practice is allowed the
disease is kept up and spreads. For this reason it should be prohib-
ited wherever there is a possibility and disposition to eradicate the
contagion.

RINDERPEST.

Rinderpest, also known as cattle plague, is an acute, infectious dis-
ease of cattle, in which the digestive organs are mainly involved.
Though unknown in this country, the importance of having near at
hand a few definite facts concerning this disease, should it ever
reach our shores, will be at once appreciated. A knowledge of such
facts may aid in an early recognition of the disease. It must not be
forgotten, on the other hand, that a superficial knowledge of dis-
eases, such as the layman may gain through reading, not infrequently
leads to confounding comparatively harmless, noninfectious mala-
dies with such as are truly dangerous (foot-and-mouth disease,
rinderpest, etc), and causes temporary panics among stock owners.

According to some authorities, rinderpest has its home in the ter-
ritory around the Black Sea and the Volga Eiver in Russia ; accord-
ing to others, in Central Asia. Thence it has been conveyed at
various times by cattle to nearly every country of Europe and Asia,
where it has proved to be a veritable bovine scourge. It probably
visited Europe as early as the beginning of the Christian era, and
since then the migrations of the people from the Far East have from
time to time introduced the disease. Especially dviring the eight-
eenth century it was more or less prevalent in Europe, owing to the
frequent wars, during which herds of cattle were brought from east-
ern Europe and Asia to supply the demands of the armies. It pre-
vailed in Europe during the Franco-Prussian War. At present it
exists in Russia, South Africa, and the Philippines.

The virus is conveyed from one country to another chiefly by means
of infected cattle, although infected hides, wool, and feed may play
an important part in its dissemination. The railroad facilities of the
present, which furnish the means of such rapid communication, are
particularly liable to aid in the spread of the disease.

378 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

In the past rinderpest has been supposed to be identical with vari-
ous human diseases, among them smallpox and typhoid fever. These
suppositions are unfounded, and the view of authorities to-day is
that it is a disease of a peculiar kind, not identical with any other
known infectious disease.

The contagion of rinderpest. — The cause of rinderpest must be
looked for among microorganisms — most likely bacteria. The inves-
tigations made thus far for this causal factor have been fruitless.
However, certain recent experiments would indicate that the unseen
microbe is of such dimensions that it is withheld by the dense
bacterial filters, but passes through the more porous ones. For-
merly it was supposed by various authorities that rinderpest virus
appeared spontaneously under the influence of deteriorated feed and
long and exhausting drives ; also during unusual meteorological con-
ditions. This view, however, is no longer maintained. It is probable
that in its home in Asia the disease is perpetuated by continual infec-
tion of fresh animals, and some authorities go even so far as to believe
that the disease would be entirely stamped out, even in its native
haunts, by a destruction of all sick and infected herds. However this
mav be, the success of such an undertaking would largely depend on
the nature of the cause. If a strictly parasitic organism, like the con-
tagion of pleuropneumonia, it might be completely extirpated in this
way. If, however, the germs or bacteria may live and multiply out-
side of the bovine body, in the soil, water, or in some other animal,
extirpation would be impossible.

The virus may be transmitted in a variety of ways, both direct
and indirect, from sick to healthy animals. It is said to be present
in the various excreta, such as the discharges from the nose, and the
saliva, the urine, and the manure, of the diseased. For months it
retains its vitality in a moist state outside the body, and the disease
is reported to have developed after feeding hay a year after it had
lain in an infected stable; hence manure and the fodder and bedding
soiled with discharges may convey it. Persons may carry the virus
on their shoes, clothing, or implements. Even small animals, such
as cats and rats, which frequent barns and stables, have been looked
upon as carriers of the virus.

Cattle are very susceptible to the disease, and in its virulent type
all those exposed are said to become infected. Buffaloes, sheep, and
goats are likewise susceptible, but in a less degree.

It is also claimed that animals after having passed through one
attack successfully resist future attacks. Inoculation with virus is
said to produce immunity, but in manj'^ cases the process of inocula-
tion itself is followed by death.

Sy7nptonfi8. — The symptoms of rinderpest are not \'ery character-
istic, and hence the diagnosis of a suspected case in the beginning of

RINDERPEST. 379

an invasion is attended with difficulties. Certain appearances whicii
are characteristic of one epizootic may be absent in another. Dif-
ferent observers are not quite agreed as to the most constant and
important.

The period of incubation, i. e., the time between the exposure to
infection and the earliest outward symptoms, varies from three to
nine davs. The first sign is a very high fever, which may reach
107° F. The heat of the skin varies in different parts of the body,
and may be felt at the base of the eare and horns. Repeated chills
are frequently observed. The pulse reaches 50 to 60 beats a minute,
and in very severe attacks may rise to 90 or 100.

The animal manifests great debility. The head droops and rests
on some object of support. One or both ears may droop. The coat
is staring and the muzzle dry. The secretion of milk diminishes
very rapidly. Within twelve to twenty hours the usual quantity
may have become reduced one-half or two-thirds. The back is
arched, and the four limbs are brought together under the body.

As the disease progresses, symptoms with reference to the diges-
tive and respiratory organs become prominent. The mucous mem-
brane of the mouth and the nose, as well as that of the rectum and
vagina, becomes reddened, either in patches or diffusely, and assumes
a scarlet hue. The discharges, at first firm, become softer, and soon
diarrhea sets in. This is said to be one of the most constant symp-
toms. The rectum may become everted and paralyzed, and the
bowels move spontaneously. The discharges become fetid, viscid,
and streaked with blood. Coughing is a common symptom, and
by some is considered characteristic. It is associated with dis-
charges from the nose and vagina and dribbling of saliva from the
mouth. The eyes also are affected. There is an increased forma-
tion of a viscid secretion which flows down the face.

Another series of changes prominent in some epizootics and mild
or absent in others are the ulcers, or so-called " erosions," in the
mouth. These begin as red patches and streaks. The mucous mem-
brane in such localities is converted into a grayish-white slough,
which, when shed, leaves a small erosion, or ulcer. At the same
time similar changes may go on in the skin of the thighs, the udder,
or the scrotum, or about the vagina, which lead to small sloughs.

In severe cases, which are the most common in the susceptible
cattle of western Europe, death ensues four to seven days after
the first appearance of the disease, and is preceded by great ema-
ciation and debility, fetid, purulent discharges from the nose and
mouth, and the relaxed rectum and vagina.

After death, if the animal is opened and the organs carefully
examined, the chief changes are found in the digestive organs. The
lining membrane of the mouth and pharynx is covered with mucus,

380 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

is reddened in spots, and shows superficial, yellowish-gray, cheesy
patches, which represent dead tissue, and when removed expose
ulcerated depressions. The same reddening in spots and the yellow-
ish-gray, cheesy deposits or patches are found in the fourth stomach,
the small intestines, and more rarely in the cecum, while the third
stomach, or manyplies, is more or less impacted with dry, hard feed.
Similar changes may be found on the mucous membrane of the nasal
cavity, larynx, trachea, the uterus, vagina, and rectum. The lungs
may be injected, edematous, or pneumonic. The heart muscle is pale
and flabby, and frequently hemorrhages are observed in its internal
membrane. The liver may be pale or injected with blood, and at
times shoW'S h<jjnorrhages beneath its capsule. The bile is thin and
watery in consistence. The kidneys may be inflamed or contain
small hemorrhages w ithin their substance or under the capsule. The
lymphatic glands may be swollen and injected or even hemorrhagic.

Treatment. — On account of the danger of spreading the infection,
neither medicinal treatment nor inoculation is permitted in European
countries, with the exception of Eussia, where the disease is more
generally diffused. The most efl'ective method of exterminating rin-
derpest in those districts in which the disease is not indigenous has
been found to be the slaughter of all afi^ected and exposed animals.
Where the disease is general, successful efforts adopted for its con-
trol have followed the immunization by inoculation of the exposed
animals and a strict application of appropriate sanitary measures.
This protective inoculation has been practiced with very gratifying
results in Russia, South Africa, and in the Philippine Islands. An
active immunity is thus induced in susceptible animals which lasts
until the danger from exposure to the disease is over. This immu-
nity may be attained (1) by the inoculation of pure bile from an ani-
mal w^hich recentl}^ died of rinderpest, (2) by the inoculation of
glycerinated bile, followed by pure bile or virulent blood, or (3)
by the simultaneous inoculation of strong standardized serum and
virulent blood.

The latter method has been adopted by the United States Govern-
ment in its endeavor to exterminate the disease in the Philippines,
and to protect the cattle and carabaos against rinderpest after their
importation into those islands. Owing to the existence of this and
other infectious diseases in the Philippine Islands, an order has been
issued by the Department of Agriculture prohibiting the landing of
any live stock or animals of any kind from the Philippines at any of
the ports of the United States or the dependencies thereof. This pro-
hibition removes the greatest source of danger to which the United
States is exposed as the result of its intercourse with the islands.
The introduction of rinderpest from those countries from which
we import animals is rendered extremely improbable, especially in

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. 381

live animals, owing to its short period of incubation and to the
90-day quarantine for cattle (counting from date of shipment) and
15-day (counting from date of landing) quarantine for sheep and
other ruminants and swine which are at present enforced in the
United States at all ports of entry.

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.

[PI. XXXIII.]

Foot-and-mouth disease, also known as aphthous fever, epizootic
aphtha, and eczema contagiosa, is an acute, highly communicable
disease chiefly confined to cloven-footed animals and characterized
by an eruption of vesicles or blisters on the mucous membrane of the
mouth and on the skin between the toes and above the hoofs. The
vesicles rupture, forming erosions and ulcerations; there are also
salivation, tenderness of the affected parts, loss of appetite, lameness,
emaciation, and diminution in the quantity of milk secreted.

The tremendous ravages of the disease are seen in the number and
variety of the species attacked. While it may be regarded as essen-
tially a disease of cattle, hogs would seem to be as easy a prey.
Almost in the same grade of receptivity are sheep and goats. Next
in order of susceptibility come the buffalo, American bison, camel,
chamois, llama, giraffe, and antelope. Horses, dogs, cats, and even
poultry may occasionally become infected with the disease, the last
three being particularly dangerous as carriers of the contagion.
Man himself is not immune, and the frequency of his infection by
coming in contact with diseased animals is established by numerous
observations.

As with other communicable diseases, the source and origin of
foot-and-mouth disease have given rise to much speculation. The
disease had been known in Europe for centuries, but it was not
until comparatively recent years that the erroneous conceptions of
its spontaneous origin as a result of climatic and meteorological
conditions, exhausting journeys, etc., were abandoned. It is now
conceded that foot-and-mouth disease is propagated by a specific
virus and that every outbreak starts from some preexisting outbreak.

So far investigators have been unable to identify or isolate the
specific organism causing the disease, although numerous attempts
have been made to cultivate and stain it by laboratory methods.
Experiments have shown that the virus will pass through standard
germ-proof filters, thus indicating its minute size and the reason it
has not been detected by the staining methods. The contagion may
be found in the serum of the vesicles on the mouth, feet, and udder ;
in the saliva, milk, and various secretions and excretions; also in the
blood during the rise of temperature.

382 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

A Avide distribution of the virus and a rapid infection of a herd is
the result. Animals may be infected directly, as by licking, and in
calves hj sucking, or indirectly by such things as infected manure,
hay, utensils, drinking troughs, railway cars, animal markets, barn-
yards, and pastures. Human beings may carry the virus on their
shoes and clothing and transmit it on their hands Avhen milking, since
the udder is occasionally the seat of the eruption. It may also be
carried by dogs, cats, rats, chickens, pigeons, etc. Milk in a raw
state ma}'^ also transmit the disease to animals fed with it.

The observations made by some veterinarians would lead us to
suppose that the virus is quite readily destroyed. It is claimed that
stables thoroughly cleaned become safe after drying for a short time ;
hence, litter of all kinds, such as manure or soiled hay and straw, may
remain infective for a longer time because they do not dry out.
Other authorities maintain that the virus is quite tenacious and may
live in stables even so long as a year. They also state that animals
which have passed through the disease may be a source of infection
for several months after recovery.

Unlike most other infectious diseases, foot-and-mouth disease
may repeatedly attack the same animals. The immunity conferred
by an attack is of limited duration.

The period of incubation (that is, the time between the exposure
of an animal to infection and the development of the disease) is
variable, usually from three to six days. The disease maj ajjpear
in '24: hours, or, in exceptional cases, not for 18 days or even longer.

Losses. — The highly contagious character of foot-and-mouth dis-
ease and its rapid spread to practically all exposed susceptible ani-
mals lead to heavy losses. Since the mortality is comparatively low,
ranging from only 3 per cent or less in mild forms to 30 or 40 per cent
in malignant cases, the havoc caused by the pestilence is sometimes
underestimated. But there are other sources of loss which are much
more important than the actual mortality. The fever and the
difficult}^ of eating cause a rapid and extreme loss in flesh and a
lessening or cessation of the milk secretion. The udders often
become inflamed and ruined by the formation of abscesses, and cows
affected in this way are sometimes rendered permanently valueless for
milk production. The inflammation of the feet may cause the horn
to drop from the toes, producing great lameness and lasting injury.
Abortion is frequent, and typical lesions have been observed in the
newly born at birth. Altogether these losses may amount to 20 or
30 per cent of the value of the affected animals.

In addition there are indirect losses of a commercial nature.
Dairy farmers are put out of business for a time. Necessary quar-
antine restrictions greatly interfere with the movement of live stock
and such commodities as hay, straw, hides, and farm produce. The

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. 383

business of the stockyards and slaughtering centers is greatly inter-
fered with. Sometimes it is necessary to close stockyards for disin-
fection. The whole business of marketing, transporting, feeding, and
slaughtering is interrupted and deranged. Losses of this character
may reach enormous proportions.

The disease in other countries. — Foot-and-mouth disease has pre-
Aailed in Europe for a great many j^ears and has occasioned tre-
mendous economic losses there.

In Italy, France, Switzerland, Germany, and Eussia the plague has
existed so long and has gained such a foothold that it is economically
impossible to fight it with the American methods of slaughter and
disinfection, for to do so would kill a large percentage of the live
stock of those countries. In consequence, little or no progress toward
eradication has been made by the authorities, though the severity of
the disease in France appears to have abated somewhat in recent
months.

The outbreak which appeared in Germany in 1888 increased stead-
ily until 1892, when it diminished gradually for a few years, but the
disease again reached great proportions in 1899. Thereafter it
continued to exist to a greater or less extent until in 1911 it attained
a virulence unequaled before. In that year 3,366,369 cattle, 1,602,927
sheep, 2,-555,371 hogs, and 53,674: goats were affected. At that time
the total number of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats in Germany was
only 51,319,000, while there were in the United States 172,572,000,
or between three and four times as many. It can readily be imagined,
therefore, what it would mean to the United States if the disease were
to gain the foothold here that it had in Germany, where, as these
figures show, approximately one out of seven of the animals sus-
ceptible to the disease was affected.

The German Government, of course, has not left the disease to
itself. It attempted to control recent outbreaks by the method of
slaughter, but the pestilence had gained too much headway and was
too firmly established in too many portions of the country for this
method to succeed, and the slaughter of the infected herds had to
be abandoned. It now appears that there is no hope of getting rid
of it until the virus has worn itself out. As soon as the animals'
period of acquired immunity is over and favorable conditions present
themselves, the contagion breaks out with renewed virulence. It
has been impossible to control it by means of quarantines. One
scientist has asserted that unless all the infected farms were abso-
lutely isolated and the movement, not only of live stock but of per-
sons, absolutely prohibited, the disease could not be stamped out.
Such a quarantine is, of course, utterly impossible to enforce. In
portions of Germany the farmers, realizing that the disease is inevi-
table, make haste to be done with it by exposing their stock deliber-

384 DISEASES OF CATTLE,

ately to mild cases in the hope that this will result in an immediate,
mild attack and immunity for several years thereafter. Such
immunity, however, is very uncertain.

Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, on account of their
comparatively isolated positions, have been more successful in keep-
ing out the disease. The outbreaks in those countries have been
more sporadic, and by resorting to immediate slaughter the authori-
ties have been able to stamp them out. Great Britain has applied
both quarantine and slaughter for many years, and in an outbreak
near Dublin in 1912 measures were adopted Avhich were even more
stringent than any that have been used in the United States. A
British official (Cope) asserted in 1899 that after his country's ex-
perience with this disease it was " more dreaded by the farmers and
stock raisers of Great Britain than cattle plague or pleuropneumonia,
and they are now willing and ready to put up with any restrictions,
of however drastic a character, considered necessary by the central
department to stamp it out." The British authorities have suc-
ceeded in suppressing each outbreak, but reinfection often occurs
from the neighboring continent. Great Britain has been reported
as free of the disease for a few months up to the time this is written.
Sweden is now reported as affected.

In November, 1906, the disease reached Belgium from France,
Avhere it was quite prevalent, and by the end of the year every
Province in Belgium was aifected, and the Netherlands as well.
Efforts to eradicate it from Belgium were unavailing. The Nether-
lands apparently succeeded in stamping it out for about six months,
but it has reappeared there.

The disease is also more or less prevalent in Austria-Hungary,
Spain, and in the Balkan countries.

Australia and New Zealand have remained free from it.

We have less accurate information regarding Asia and Africa, but
the disease is known to prevail in Japan and China and in the Philip-
pine Islands, and it is doubtful whether any considerable part of the
Orient is free from it.

In South America it is reported as common in Brazil, Argentina,
and Uruguay, and it probably exists in other countries.

Canada and Mexico are fortunately free from the disease.

Outbreaks in the United States. — Foot-and-mouth disease has ap-
peared in the ITnited States on six different occasions — 1870, 1880,
1884, 1902, 1908, and 1914.

An extensive outbreak in 1870 was introduced by way of Canada,
Avhere the infection was brought by an importation of cattle from
Scotland. It spread into the New England States and Ncav York
and appears to have been arrested within a few months. Its failure
to spread more extensively and its early disappearance have been

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XXXIII.

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FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. 385

ascribed to favorable conditions, such as the movement of live stock
from west to east, the limited trading at that period as compared
with the present time, the restriction of traffic by winter weather, and
the infreqiiency of travel which obtained at that time among people.

About 1880 two or three lots of animals affected by this disease
were brought to the United States, but there was no extension from
the animals originally affected.

In 1884, at Portland, Me., there was a small outbreak caused by
imported cattle, and the disease spread to a few herds outside the
quarantine station. Owing to the small number of animals affected
and the limited area of territory covered by the disease, it was easily
controlled by the ordinary measures of quarantine and disinfection.

It will be observed that in all these early outbreaks the contagion
was introduced with imported animals. Since the development of a
stringent system of inspection and quarantine of imported live stock,
no instance of that kind has occurred. On subsequent occasions the
infection has evidently been brought in with contaminated products
or materials and not by means of live animals.

In November, 1902, the disease was discovered in Massachusetts
and Khode Island. The earliest cases were traced to Chelsea, Mass.,
near the docks, and it was suspected for a time that the infection
was brought in with foreign shipping, by some such means as hay,
straw, halters, ropes, hides, hair, wool, etc. Later developments,
however, and especially investigations into the cause of the 1908
outbreak, led to the belief that a more probable source of the infec-
tion was cowpox vaccine virus imported from a country (probably
Japan) where foot-and-mouth disease existed, the vaccine virus being
contaminated with the virus of foot-and-mouth disease.

A Federal quarantine was declared by the Secretary of Agriculture
on November 27, 1902, as soon as the nature of the disease was
established, and steps for eradication were at once taken by the
Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of
Agriculture in cooperation with authorities of the affected States.
The methods folloAved consisted of inspection to trace and detect the
disease, quarantine of infected premises and territory, slaughter and
burial or burning of diseased and exposed animals, and disinfection
of premises.

This outbreak involved Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont,
and Rhode Island, and was eradicated in about six months. Two
hundred and forty-four herds, including 4,712 cattle, were found
infected. Of these, 205 herds with 3,872 cattle, as well as 360 hogs
and 220 sheep and goats, were slaughtered. The cattle infected but
not slaughtered were those that either died or completely recovered
before slaughtering could be carried out. The animals slaughtered
were valued at $184,155.10, and the Federal Government reimbursed
33071°— 16 25

386 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

owners to the extent of 70 per cent, or $178,908.57. It is understood
that the States paid the remainder. The total cost to the Depart-
ment of Agriculture of stamping out the disease was about $300,000.

The next appearance of the foot-and-mouth disease was early in
Xovember, 1908, when it was observed in cattle near Danville, Pa.
A Federal quarantine was issued November 12. The infection was
traced back to the stockyards at East Buifalo, X. Y., and to Detroit,
Mich. The disease appeared in the States of Michigan, New York,
Pennsylvania, and Maryland. A careful and thorough investigation
made by Mohler of the Bureau of Animal Industrj" and Rosenau of
the Public Health Service demonstrated that the outbreak started
from calves used to propagate vaccine virus at an establishment near
Detroit, and that the source of the infection was contaminated
Japanese vaccine virus.

Vigorous measures of eradication similar to those employed in
1902-3 were at once put into effect and the disease was stamped out
in about five months at an expense of about $300,000 to the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and of about $113,000 to the States. The in-
spectors made 108,683 visits to farms, stockyards, etc., and inspected
more than 1,500,000 animals (including reinspections). One hun-
dred and fifty-seven premises were found infected, and 3,636 animals
(2,025 cattle, 1,329 hogs, and 282 sheep and goats), valued at
$90,033.18, were slaughtered. Owners were reimbursed for the value
of their animals and property destroyed, one-third being paid bj'' the
States and two-thirds by the Federal Government.

The latest invasion was discovered in the vicinity of Niles. Mich.,
in October, 1914, after it had evidently been under way since August
of the same year. This is the most serious and extensive outbreak
ever known in this country. The disease extended to 22 States and
the District of Columbia, at places ranging from the Atlantic to the
Pacific coasts. The work of eradication was not completed for
more than a year. The affected States were Connecticut, Delaware,
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts,
Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New
York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Ehode Island, Virginia, "Wfishington,
West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Illinois had the largest infected
area and the largest number of animals affected. The Union Stock
Yards at Chicago became infected and were a source of dissemina-
tion of the contagion north, east, south, and west. These and other
yards found infected were closed temporarily and disinfected.

The first Federal quarantine was issued October 19, 1914. A cam-
paign to check the spread of the disease and to stamp it out was
immediately begun by the United States Department of Agriculture
in cooperation with the State authorities. Quarantines against the
movement of animals and certain materials from the infected areas

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. 387

were declared, shipments were traced, rumors investigated, and
thorough inspections made in an effort to discover all infected stock.
As measures of eradication, diseased herds were slaughtered and
buried and the premises disinfected. The owners of live stock and
other property destroyed on account of the disease were reimbursed
to the extent of the appraised value, half of which is paid by the
Federal Government and half by the State. There were slaughtered
172,593 animals (76,575 cattle, 86,492 swine, 9,511 sheep, 133 goats,
and 9 deer), in 3,482 herds. The total appraised value of these
animals was more than $5,800,000. The expense to the Federal Gov-
ernment of eradicating this outbreak was about $4,540,000.

Symptoms: — In three to six clays, or even longer, after the exposure
of the animal to the infection the disease makes its appearance. It is
usually first indicated by the animal suffering from a chill, quickly
followed b}^ an invasion of fever, which may cause the temperature to
rise as high as 106° F. These symptoms are not always present, or
may be in so slight a form as to escape notice. Following this in one
or two days it will be noticed that small vesicles or blisters about the
size of hemp seeds or a pea are making their appearance upon the
mucous membrances of the mouth at the border and upper surface
of the tongue near the tip, the inside of the cheeks, on the gums and
the inner surface of the lips, or on the, margin of the dental pad.
These little blisters contain a yellowish, watery fluid and gradually
become more extensive as the disease advances. Soon after the erup-
tions have appeared in the mouth of the animal considerable swelling,
redness, and tenderness will be noticed about the feet, at the coronet,
and between the digits of each foot. A day or two later eruptions
similar to those within the mouth make their appearance upon these
swollen regions of the foot, and at this stage it is usual to find that
like lesions have made their appearance upon the perineum of the
victim. In the case of milch cows the udder, and more particularly
the teats, show the same vesicular eruption, but the latter as the
result of milking soon become covered with reddened spots deprived
of the superficial layer of skin and may develop deep, obstinate
fissures. "N

As soon as the disease has become well established the patient
evinces pain when attempting to eat; in fact, the appetite is often
so seriousW affected that all feed is refused, and the animal uneasily
opens and shuts its mouth with a characteristic smacking sound,
Avhile strings of cohesiA'e, v^y saliva hang suspended from the
lips. With the advance of the disease the A'esicles widen and extend
until they may reach a diameter ranging from that of a dime to that
of a silver dollar. These rupture soon after their appearance, some-
times on the first day, more rarely on the second or third day. After
they have ruptured, the grayish-white membrane forming the blister

388 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

may remain attached for a day or more, or disappear speedily and
leave deeply reddened, sensitive spots or erosions, both within the
mouth and upon the coronet and betAveen the claws of the feet.
Similar erosions, which quickly form scabs, as a rule, may be noticed
in cases in which the teats of milch cows have become affected, and
instances are reported in which sloughing of the tegument imme-
diately around the lesions upon the udder has occurred. Owing to
the tough, fibrous nature of the bovine skin, it is exceedingly rare
for sloughing to occur upon any part of the body other than those
mentioned.

The attack upon the feet of an animal is frequently manifested in
all four feet at once, but one or more of the feet may entirely escape
and remain unaffected throughout the course of the disease. The
ulceration of the interdigital tissue may extend to the ligaments
of the fetlock or produce disease of the joint or bone. As the feet
become sensitive and sore the animal persistently lies down, and it
has been found that bedsores develop with amazing rapidity in all
such cases and wholly baffle all attempts at treatment until after the
patient has regained its feet.

The disease may attack some of the internal organs before it ap-
pears upon any of the external tissues. These cases are verj^ liable
to prove quickly fatal. The animal dies from paralysis of the heart,
due to the formation of poisonous principles within the sj^stem; it
may suffocate by reason of the action of these same poisons upon the
tissues of the lungs, or it may choke to death as a result of paralysis
of the throat.

In cases of serious affection of the udder the erosions Avill often be
found within the passages of the teats, resulting in a " caked " udder,
and the same toxic poisoning Avhich is the cause of death in the
apoplectiform types just mentioned may arise from this source. In
any event the milk from such cases is dangerous for use, causing
fatal diarrhea in sucking calves or young pigs and serious illness in
human consumers. The milk obtained from cows suffering with
foot-and-mouth disease is not readily converted into either butter or
cheese, but remains thick, slimy, and inert in spite of churning and
attempts at curdling. Pregnant animals may abort. In pigs, sheep,
and goats the lesions in the foot are most connnon, but both forms
may be observed or only the mouth lesions.

When the disease has become fully established it will be found that
the duration of the attack will vary greatly with different animals.
From 10 to 20 days are usually required for the recovery of the
normal appetite and spirits in mild outbreaks, while the return to a
full ilow of milk, in the case of milch cows, seldom occurs before
the arrival of the following season.

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. 389

In the malignant type of the disease it requires from three months
to a 3'ear for an animal to recover. The mortality, as already stated,
is usually low. The disease is more fatal in young animals that have
been fed on infected milk, and produces death in from 60 to 80 per
cent of these cases as a result of gastroenteritis. In the 1914 outbreak
numerous new centers of infection started among hogs and calves
which were fed on unpasteurized, infected milk from creameries.

Diagnosis. — The recognition of this a flection should not, as a rule,
be difficult, especially when the disease is known to be in the vicinity ;
in fact, the group of symptoms form a clinical picture too decided to
be doubted. The combination of high fever, vesicular inflammation
of the mouth, and hot, painful, swollen condition of the feet, followed
24 to 48 hours later by the appearance of numerous blisters varying
in size from that of a pea to that of a walnut on the udder and feet
and in the mouth should prevent any serious or long-continued error
in the diagnosis ; however, in the inoculation of calves we have a cer-
tain and final test. In 24 to 96 hours after inoculation the calves
present the characteristic blisters. Such inoculation should be prac-
ticed, however, only by officials properly authorized to deal with
contagious diseases.

Di-lferential diagnosis. — The lesions of no other disease of cattle
closely simulate the vesicular eruption of foot-and-mouth disease on
the lining membrane of the mouth. When the blisters have ruptured,
however, and the resulting lesions have become contaminated by
numerous secondary forms of microorganisms, the correct recogni-
tion of the disease may be involved in considerable difficulty.

Cowpox or horsepox may be accidentally transmitted by inocula-
tion. But the eruption of the " pox " goes on to the development of
a pustule, while in foot-and-mouth disease the eruption is never
more than a vesicle, even though the contained fluid may become
turbid. The inoculation test in the case of cowpox does not respond
with fever and eruption for at least 10 days, and often longer.

Necrotic stomatitis (sore mouth due to a germ) may be distin-
guished from foot-and-mouth disease by the fact that in the latter
there is a rapid infection of the entire herd, including the adult
cattle, as well as the infection of hogs and sheep. The characteristic
lesion of foot-and-mouth disease is the appearance of blisters con-
taining a serous fluid upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and
upon the udder, teats, and feet of the affected animals. In necrotic
stomatitis blisters are never formed, destruction of the tissues oc-
curring from the beginning and l)eing followed by the formation of
3^ellowish, cheesy patches, principally found involving the lining
membrane of the mouth, especially the tongue and cheeks.

In mycotic stomatitis (sore mouth due to a fungus or mold), por-
tions of the lining membrane become inflamed and in a few days it

390 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

changes to a croupous membrane which peels off, leaving a raw sur-
face, while the thin skin between the toes may also be inflamed. The
previous history of the case ; the failure of the blisters, if any appear,
to spread extensively; the absence of vesicular eruptions on other
portions of the body, notably the udder and teats, and, characteris-
tically, the hoof, together with the absence of rapid spread to prac-
tically all cattle in the herd and the complete negative character of
inoculation of calves, distinguishes between the local disease named
and foot-and-mouth disease. Mycotic stomatitis occurs in only from
10 to 50 per cent of the animals in a herd, usually in the late summer
or early fall after a dry spell, and it does not run a regular course.

The lesion resulting from ergotism may be distinguished from
those of foot-and-mouth disease by the lack of eruptions in the mouth
and by the location of the disease at the tips of the ears, end of the
tail, or upon the lower part of the legs, usually below the knees or
hocks. The lesion of ergotism does not take the form of pustules or
blisters, but manifests itself first as a swelling about the ankle, which
later may slough and circumscribe the limb, forming a deep crack,
extending entirely around the limb and forming a distinct line of
demarcation between the healthy skin above and the diseased below.
The absence of ulcerous sores on the coronet and between the claws,
together with the healthy condition of the membranes of the mouth
and the knowledge that the lesion upon the limb in question extends
uninterruptedly around it, should point conclusively to a diagnosis of
ergotism and to the exclusion of all fears of foot-and-mouth disease.

In foul foot or ground itch of cattle, the inflammation of the skin
and toes is general and not in certain spots, as in foot-and-mouth
disease. The mouth remains unaffected, and the presence of the dis-
ease may be traced to filth and poor drainage.

The severer forms of the disease might be confounded with certain
general diseases. If gastrointestinal symptoms predominate, acute
gastric catarrh or inflammation of the intestines might be thought
of. Involvement of the lungs may lead to a diagnosis of acute con-
gestion of the lungs or pneumonia. The distinction is apparent in
these diseases by the lack of vesicular eruption on the mucous mem-
brane or skin, and also by lack of evidences of infection in the herd
or neighboring animals.

Prevention and eradication, — The measures to be adopted to pre-
vent the spread of the affection must take into consideration the
highly infectious nature of the disease, its ease of dissemination,
and the liability of the virus to live for long periods outside the body
of an animal. Great care should therefore be observed in keojung
healthy animals unexposed to the contagion. When an outbreak
occurs in a community the owner should make every effort to keep
othei' animals from comine; in contact with his diseased cattle. This

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. 391

especially applies to dogs, cats, goats, and poultry, which usually
have access to the stables and barnyards and in this way furnish
excellent means for disseminating the infectious principle. He
should be equally particular in prohibiting any person from coming
onto his premises, especially an attendant or owner or other person
in any way connected with cattle. Such a herd may be placed under
quarantine, with an inspector appointed to keep the premises under
constant surveillance.

This method of quarantine alone, while very satisfactory in many
instances, is rather tardy in obtaining the desired result. The
experience of European Governments already mentioned shows that
eradication by this method alone, when the disease has obtained a
foothold, is practically impossible. For this reason, when the disease
breaks out in a country like the United States, where the contagion
is likel}^ to spread rapidly by means of infected cars, manure, hay,
and other feed, and where the results of its obtaining a firm foothold
would be so disastrous, it seems that this method of temporizing is
rather tedious, and more radical steps are required in order to sup-
press and eradicate completely the infection in the quickest and most
thorough manner possible.

It would therefore appear better, after judicious appraisement,
to concentrate the expense incident to the extermination of foot-
and-mouth disease by purchasing and slaughtering all affected and
exposed cattle. The carcasses of these animals should be totally
destroyed, preferably by cremation, or otherwise by burying them
in a hole 6 feet deep and covering them with air-slaked lime. The
infected stable should be disinfected by thoroughly cleaning it,
scrubbing the floor with hot water, brushing down all loose dust
from the walls, and tearing off all woodwork which is partly de-
cayed. Then the whole interior of the stable should be disinfected
with one of the following substances:

A 5 per cent solution of pure carbolic acid.

Chlorid of lime, U. S. P. strength (30 per cent available chlorin),
1 pound to 3 gallons of water.

Formaldehyde, 1 quart 40 per cent solution to 5 gallons of water.

A 3 per cent solution of cresol compound, U. S. P., or accepted
substitute therefor, containing at least 50 per cent cresylic acid.

All stable utensils should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
by the application of a solution of one of the above-named dis-
infectants. The manure should be burned or disinfected and spread
over ground (other than meadow land) that is to be turned under.
No other cattle should be purchased for at least sixty days after
the complete disinfection of the premises.

The success in eradicating the disease by combined quarantine,
slaughter, and disinfection, as practiced in the United States, Den-

392 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

mark, Great Britain, and a few other countries, demonstrates in a
striking manner the efficacy of slaughtering and the futility of rely-
ing upon quarantine alone to stamp out the disease.

Inoculation has been adopted in some countries in order to have
the disease spread quickly through the herds, and while this practice
has undoubted value where the disease is indigenous, it is not de-
sirable in this country and should not be adopted.

As a rule medicinal treatment with a view of curing affected ani-
mals is not to be recommended under conditions prevailing in the
United States, where the disease has not become established, and the
first object is to stamp it out as quickly as possible. Even though
most animals would recover, with or without treatment, it would be
practically impossible, while they were being held for recovery, to
prevent the spread of the infection to others. The disease would
be liable to spread faster than it could be cured. As already pointed
out, it has been found impossible to prevent absolutely the spread
of the contagion by the strictest quarantine alone, under the usual
farm conditions. In addition, the affected animals that have passed
through the disease may become a source of further infection as
virus carriers for weeks and months after they have apparently re-
covered, and are susceptible of reinfection, as one attack does not
confer permanent immunit3^ <^^

F oot-and-mouth disease in Ttmn. — Foot-and-mouth disease is pri-
marily and principally a disease of cattle ; secondarily and casually,
a disease of man. It is transmissible to man through the eating or
drinking of raw milk, buttermilk, butter, cheese, and whey from
animals suffering from foot-and-mouth disease. It is also trans-
mitted directly, though more rarely, from the salivary secretions or
other infected material which may gain entrance through the mucous
membrane of the mouth. It is doubtful whether the disease can be
transmitted to man by cutaneous or subcutaneous inoculation, though
it is probable that the infection may be communicated if the virus
directly enters the blood through wounds of any kind. Children
are not infrequently infected by drinking unboiled milk during the
periods in which the disease is prevalent in the neighborhood, while
persons in charge of diseased animals may become infected through
contact with the diseased parts or by milking, slaughtering, or caring
for the animals.

The symptoms in man resemble those observed in animals. There
is fever, sometimes vomiting, painful swallowing, heat and dryness
of the mouth, followed by an eruption of vesicles on the mucous
membrane of the mouth, and very rarely by similar ones on the
fingers. The vesicles appear on the lips, gums, cheek, and edge of
the tongue, and are about the size of a pea. The vesicles soon rup-
ture, leaving a small erosion which is soon covered by a thin crust

SEPTICEMIA AND PYEMIA. 393

under which the ncAV formation of epithelium proceeds rapidly.
The skin eruption mostly appears on the hands, tips of the fingers,
base of the nails, and more seldom on the toes and other parts of the
body. Besides these local changes, during the course of the disease
headache, pain in the limbs, vertigo, abdominal cramps, vomiting,
diarrhea, and weakness are occasionally observed. The disease is
seldom fatal, usually appearing in a very mild form except in weak-
ened children, in whom an accompanying intestinal catarrh may
lead to a fatal termination.

Veterinarians w^ho have had considerable experience with the dis-
ease among animals regard the human affection as by no means un-
common in countries where foot-and-mouth disease prevails, but
the disturbance of health is usually too slight to come to the notice
of the family physician.

But few outbreaks of the disease in man have occurred in the
United States, and therefore cases of its transmission to man in
this country are rather rare. Dr. James Law reports having ob-
served the disease in man from drinking infected milk during the
epizootic of 1870 in the Eastern States, but the outbreaks of 1880
and 1884 affected such a small number of animals and were so
quickly suppressed that no kj^tance of its transmission to man was
recorded. A few cases have been reported by Brush accompanying
the New England outbreak of 1902. Similar reports have been like-
wise received concerning the appearance of vesicular eruptions in
the mouths of children during the 1908 and 1914 outbreaks, and the
history of these cases incriminates the milk supply.

Experiments by Loeffler and Froesch, as well as recent experiments
which have been made in Denmark and Germany, indicate that the
infection is comparatively easy to destroy by heat or the usual anti-
septics. Milk pasteurized at a temperature of 60° C. for 20 minutes
is safe so far as infection by foot-and-mouth disease is concerned.

SEPTICEMIA AND PYEMIA.

These two names are applied to diseased conditions Avhich are so
nearly alike in their symptoms that it is sometimes difficult to distin-
guish the one from the other. Indeed, the name pyosepticemia, or
septicopyemia, is often applied when it is impossible to make a dis-
tinction between septicemia and pyemia or where each is equally
responsible for the diseased condition. The name septicemia is de-
rived from two Greek w^ords meaning " poison " and " blood," and
signifies that the germ lives in the blood, hence the use of the term
" blood poisoning " for this disease. Pyemia is likewise derived from
two Greek words, meaning " pus " and " blood," and is that form of
septicemia caused by pus-producing organisms and characterized by
secondarv abscesses.

394 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Causes. — Neither of these diseases is brought about, strictly speak-
ing, by any specific organism ; hence neither can be looked upon as a
specific disease. The organisms most frequently found in cases of
septicemia are, on the whole, the same as those of pyemia, and may
be pus cocci, the bacillus coli, or other pus-producing organisms.
These organisms are often found as secondary invaders in other dis-
eases, such as advanced cases of tuberculosis, in which cases they are
responsible for the formation of pus.

Aside from the causative organism, or, in other words, the active
cause, there are many secondary causes. The most important of these
in pyemia is a break in continuity of the protective covering, as a
wound, which affords an entrance into the tissues for the organisms.
Among the different varieties of wounds may be mentioned cuts,
bruises, punctures, bums, chemical or frozen wounds, and compound
fractures of bones. Injuries received during parturition, stoppage
of the milk ducts, and infection of the umbilicus in the newly born
are also frequent causes of pyemia. Septicemia usually follows sur-
gical wounds, local suppuration, enteritis, bronchitis — in fact, wher-
ever there is a local lesion of any kind permitting germs to enter the
blood. Septicemia was formerly applied to designate the condition
in which the organisms were localized, but in which their toxins were
diffused in the blood. Pyemia was made to represent that condition
when the organisms were localized, but in which the pus was trans-
ported by the blood. These terms now are applied to conditions in
which both the organisms and their toxins, or the pus, are present
in the blood. The term septicemia is indicated when intoxication
is the more pronounced symptom and pyemia if pus formation and
metastatic or secondary abscess formation are observed.

/SyTnptoTrhS. — The symptoms of both diseases include primarily a
high fever (104° to 107° F.). Coupled with this there is disinclina-
tion to move, the animal is depressed and not cognizant of its sur-
roundings. The pulse is rapid, small, and feeble, respiration in-
creased, mucous membrane injected, swollen, and of a yellowish
tinge. Appetite is lost and death follows in the case of septicemia in
from tvro to four days. In pyemia the symptoms come on more
slowly and are not so intense as in septicemia, while the course of the
disease is longer, lasting from six days to four weeks. The mortality
is not so great as in septicemia, but the period of convalescence is
always long.

Lesio7is. — Septicemia is characterized by the destructive changes
in the blood, which is chocolate colored, noncoagulable, and swarms
with bacteria. The lining membranes of the heart are studded with
red spits, often running together to form a largo hemorrliagic area.
The lungs, liver, and kidneys may also show these hemorrhages.
The spleen is enlarged and f\dl of black blood. The cadaver do-

HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA. 395

composes very rapidly and in some cases forms great quantities of
fetid gas. In pyemia, in addition to these lesions, abscesses are
formed in the various organs throughout the body. If the disease
develops slowly a post-mortem examination shows the abscesses to be
the chief alterations. The pus content is usually greenish, stained
with blood, and contains strings of fibrous tissue and necrosed matter.
Treatment. — Treatment is almost futile in advanced cases of either
disease. Septicemia is usually fatal and pyemia frequently so. Pre-
vention and the immediate treatment of local infections are the
surest means of combating them. For local treatment of wounds
the usual antiseptics are indicated, such as 3 per cent compound
cresol or carbolic acid, or one one-thousandth bichlovid-of-mercury
solution. For pyemia, where the abscesses are near the skin, they
should be opened and treated antiseptically by injecting any of the
previously mentioned germicides. General and heart stimulants are
indicated, such as a drench containing digitalis 2 drams and alcohol
2 ounces. Quinin and calomel in repeated small doses of one-half
dram each three times a day are sometimes beneficial. Camphor in
the form of oil of camphor (camphor dissolved in 10 parts of sweet
oil) is a good stimulant and has some antiseptic properties, which
make it a valuable drug in combating these diseases when it is given
in doses of 2 drams three times daily.

HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA.

Hemorrhagic septicemia is a name applied to a highly fatal, infec-
tious disease existing in various species of domestic and wild animals,
from a microorganism having definite biological characters and
possessing the properties of producing clearly defined and charac-
teristic lesions.

This causal agent. Bacterium hovisepticum, belongs to the same
group of cocco-bacilli as those causing chicken cholera, swine plague,
and rabbit septicemia, and may be described as an ovoid, nonmotile,
polar-staining bacterium with rounded ends, ^g^^p of an inch wide by
-^0^00 of an inch long, sometimes seen in pairs and sometimes in
chains.

Various names have been applied to this disease, and though the
causatiA'e agent and the distinctive lesions are well known, it is more
than likely that the affection is seldom recognized. It Avas described
by Bollinger in 1878, and named Wild und Rinderseuche, from its
having affected deer, wild boars, cattle, and horses in an epizootic
which swept over Germany at that time. Before this, however, sev-
eral epizootics of what was evidently the same disease had been well
described, notably that which occurred in England in 1854. Since
then it has occurred in epizootic and enzootic forms in many sections

396 . DISEASES OF CaITLE.

of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. In this countrj'^ the disease
has been observed in Texas, Tennessee, New York, Minnesota, Penn-
sylvania, District of Columbia, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. Other
names given to it are game and cattle disease, buffalo disease, bar-
bone, pasteurellosis bovina, ghotwa, and infectious pneumoenteritis.

In earlier times it was evidently confounded with gloss anthrax,
and even now it is probably mistaken in a great many instances for
anthrax, blackleg, cornstalk disease, and cerebrospinal meningitis.

The disease is essentially a septicemia, or blood poisoning, and the
niicrobic invasion occurs from inoculation proljably either through
abrasions of the skin or by injury to the mucous membranes from
coarse fodder^ etc. Moore and Smith have found in the mouths and
nasal cavities of health}^ animals, including cattle, bacteria belong-
ing to this group; but these organisms proved to be nonpathogenic.
As is well known, however, many pathogenic germs at times exist in
a saprophytic state, and it is not hard to conceive how a microbe may
cease such existence and assume parasitic or pathogenic properties
when the surroundings are eminently favorable. This may be a
connecting link in the etiology of sporadic outbreaks of the disease
in which all other hypotheses as to its genesis seem untenable. The
disease seems to occur most frequently in swampy or mucky locali-
ties or in pastures receiving the overflow from infected fields. It is
said to occur usually in the spring of the year, when the melting
snows and rains bring to the surface the subterranean waters from
rich soils containing nitrogenous materials in which the bacteria
have been existing. In a great many instances there does not seem
to be any plausible explanation for an outbreak of the disease and
one can only surmise as to its origin.

Sy)nptom.s. — Three forms of the disease are recognized, based upon
the distribution of the lesions — the superficial, or cutaneous, the pec-
toral, or thoracic, and the intestinal form. The latter is a usual
accompaniment of the other two and may be mild or severe. Natu-
rally the symptoms vary according to the A'iolence of the attack and
to the particular form of disease with which the animal is affected.
In the superficial, or cutaneous, form the presence of a swollen tongue,
throat, and dewlap, or even of the lower portion of the legs, gives us
a clew to the trouble. An entire loss of appetite occurs, and in milch
cows there is a diminution of the milk secretion. The temperature
may be only slightly elevated, but it is usually very high. Salivation
is set up by the inflammation of the mouth and pharynx. Unsuc-
cessful efforts at eating and swallowing are made. There may be
difficulty in breathing, depending on the amoimt of involvement of
the larynx, trachea, bronclii, or lungs. There may be a blood-stained
discharge from the nostrils, and the mucous membrane thereof will
often show punctiform hemorrhages. The pulmonary form shows

HEMOBRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA. 397

the same symptoms as croupous pneumonia, with a frequent suffo-
cative cough and oppressed breathing, or dyspnea. When the in-
testines are involved the patient strains to defecate, and passes shreds
of intestinal mucus along with blood-stained feces. The urine also
may be tinged with blood. Finally a severe diarrhea takes place, the
animal becomes correspondingh'^ weak, and death takes place in 24
to 30 hours. Cases may die in as short a period as six to eight hours,
while in the pectoral form of the disease the animal ma}^ linger six
or eight days. Cases have been reported which became chronic and
in which death did not take place for a month or more. In some of
the cases running an acute course, symptoms of toxemia are present;
there is a lack of sensation of the skin, staggering gait, trembling,
eyes fixed, neck at times bent to one side, and the eyes showing a wild
expression. At times the animals appear as if in pain and look
around at the flanks. In the pectoral form they may stand with the
forelegs wide apart in evident effort to breathe more freely. Some-
times there is a champing of the jaws and a very free flow of glairy
saliva dropping from the mouth.

The prognosis is decidedly unfavorable and 80 to 90 per cent of
the cases result fatally.

Lesions. — The characteristic lesions of hemorrhagic septicemia con-
sist of hemorrhagic areas in the subcutaneous, subserous, and muscu-
lar tissues, the lymph glands, and the viscera; in fact, they are
distributed more or less widely throughout the body and vary in size
from a mere speck to the diameter of a half dollar or even larger.
The superficial form presents itself first as a doughy tumefaction of
the skin about the region of the throat, neck, dewlap, or legs, which
pits on pressure. This tiunefaction consists essentially of a cero-
gelatinous exudate into the subcutaneous and intermuscular tissues.

Bloody extravasations may take place in subcutaneous tissues in
various places, but they are usually seen about the lower portion
of the neck. The mucous membranes and submucous tissues of the
mouth, tongue, pharynx, and larynx become involved in the process
and are greatly thickened, inflamed, and infiltrated with serum. The
mucous membrane becomes reddish purple, and that of the nostrils
may in addition show hemorrhagic spots on its surface. The lym-
phatic glands in this region are also swollen and infiltrated with
bloody serum. The salivary glands are pale and dry. The pectoral
type, though at times existing alone, may coexist with the cutaneous
form. The inflammatory edema of the mouth extends to the mucous
membrane of the trachea and bronchi, producing an extensive thick-
ening and a yellow^ish infiltration. The lung shows interstitial thick-
ening from the outpouring of serum into its meshes. It may become
pneumonic.

398 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

The diaphragm, heart sac, and heart walls show numerous hemor-
rhagic points and larger bloody extravasations. Sometimes there is
a serous pleurisy, with more or less fibrinous exudate. In the intes-
tinal form the submucous and subperitoneal tissues show alterations
from a few hemorrhagic spots to large bloody suffusions, or even
gelatinous infiltrations. This latter is seen about the region of the
pancreas and in the folds of the mesentery. There is a severe hemor-
rhagic inflammation of the intestines and a staining of the intestinal
contents with blood. The muscular system throughout shows hemor-
rhagic areas. The abdominal viscera, liver, spleen, and kidneys often
present hemorrhagic lesions.

Differential diagnosis. — Anthrax, which presents superficial swell-
ings, like hemorrhagic septicemia, may be distinguished from that
affection on post-mortem examination by the enlargement and en-
gorgement of the spleen, the contents of which are soft and tarry.
The blood of anthrax animals is very dark, and does not become light
red on exposure to air, nor does it coagulate, while in hemorrhagic
septicemia the blood is normal in appearance and coagulates. The
detection of the anthrax bacillus in the blood would be final.

In blackleg the animals affected are usually under 2 years of age.
The swellings are quite evident, and usually occur on the legs, above
the knees or hocks, and are distended with gas, which crackles, or
crepitates, when pressed upon. If one of these tumors is opened,
a bloody serum will exude, and the gas gives off the odor, of rancid
butter. The internal hemorrhages are not general, although they
may occur. A microscopic examination of the juices from the tume-
faction will show the blackleg bacillus.

In cerebrospinal meningitis the causative agent is unknown, but
probably exists in the feed. It may occur in any locality and at any
season of the year. There are no local swellings, and cattle are not
frequently affected.

Cornstalk disease may be differentiated from this affection from
the fact that it always occurs after the cattle are turned into a corn-
stalk field, by its sudden onset, the absence of any characteristic
symptoms or post-mortem lesions, and the failure to find the causative
agent in the blood.

In making a post-mortem examination of animals affected with
hemorrhagic septicemia, it would be well to examine the articular
surfaces of the long bones, as it has been reported that they are fre-
quently ulcerated. This should apply especially to those cases that
have shown lameness.

Treatment. — Treatment is absolutely useless, so far as we know at
present, and for all practical purposes prophylaxis alone should be
relied upon. The same sanitary precautions, such as isolation, dis-
infection, and burial or burning of all dead carcasses, should be

VESICULAR ERUPTIOlsr OF THE GEIsriTAL ORGANS. 399

observed as for anthrax and other highly infectious diseases. All
the premises, barns, stalls, litter, and stable utensils should be
thoroughly disinfected. Separate the apparently well animals from
the sick by placing them in a separate lot.

Experiments by the Bureau of Animal Industry toward protective
inoculation of the exposed cattle on infected premises have been made
and the results have been so satisfactory that commercial houses
handling biological products are now manufacturing a vaccine for
hemorrhagic septicemia in accordance with the Government's experi-
ments on this subject. The method of preparing the vaccine is simi-
lar to that recommended by Lignieres. It consists in growing the
cultures of the organism of the disease at 42 to 43° C. and preparing
from them growing at this temperature two different strengths of
vaccine. The weaker vaccine, which is used for the first injection,
is grown for five days at this temperature, whereas the stronger
vaccine, for the second injection, is grown for only two days. These
vaccines are used with an interval of 10 days between the injections,
the dose being 1 cubic centimeter at each injection. The effect of
this vaccine in abating outbreaks already in progress has been highly
satisfactory and it is plain that the general introduction of preventive
vaccination for hemorrhagic septicemia must be of material benefit
to the cattle raisers in the infected districts.

VESICULAR ERUPTION OF THE GENITAL ORGANS.

This contagious disease is called coital exanthema or vesicular
exanthema, and is more or less prevalent on the Continent. It has
also been observed in the breeding districts of the United States It
is the subject of legislation in Germany, and governmental statistics
are published annually concerning its distribution in the Empire.
According to the reports from Hungary 492 head of cattle were
attacked during 1898, 587 in 1899, and 207 in 1900.

A similar or perhaps identical disease of horses has the same dis-
tribution and is transmissible from horses to cattle and vice versa.

The disease may be defined as a highly contagious eruption situated
upon the external genital organs of both sexes and accompanied with
little or no general disturbance of health. The contagion, the nature
of which remains still unknown, is transmitted mainly during copula-
tion. The bull may have the disease and convey it to all the cows
with which he comes in contact, or he may become infected by one
coAv, and, although not showing the disease, he may, during copula-
tion, transmit it for several days after to all other cows. Simple
contact between one cow and another may convey the disease, or the
sponges used in cleaning the diseased may carry the virus to the
healthy. It has also been conveyed to healthy cows by these animals
lying with their hind quarters against infected wooden troughs.

400 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Symptoms. — The period between the infection and the appearance
of symptoms is somewhat variable. It is usually given as three to
six days. It may be briefer or much longer. In cows the mucous
membrane of the vagina and the vulva become swollen, inflamed,
very tender, and covered with dark-red spots. The secretion is very
abundant and consists at first largely of serum and mucus resem-
bling the white of an egg. Small vesicles then appear, which rapidly
burst and are converted into excoriations or deeper ulcerations.
The secretion becomes more purulent and is apt to dry in crusts
about the root of the tail. The eruption is accompanied with much
itching and difficulty in urinating. The Avalk may be stiff and awk-
ward. In bulls the eruption is situated on the prepuce and the end
of the penis, and consists of pimples, vesicles, and ulcers, as in
cows. It is accompanied with a little purulent discharge from the
prepuce, itching, and difficulty in urinating. In severe cases the
inflammation and swelling may extend backward to the scrotum and
forward upon the abdomen.

The disease lasts from one to four weeks and alwaj'^s terminates in
recovery. The acute stage lasts only four or five days, while the
complete healing of the inflammation is slow. The eruption is usu-
ally accompanied with very little general disturbance. If the pain
and irritation are severe, there may be some light loss of appetite and
diminished milk secretion in cows. The disease rarely causes abor-
tion. Chronic catarrh of the vagina and permanent sterility fre-
quently follow as sequelfe.

Treatraent need not be resorted to excepting in severe cases. The
secretion and exudation should be washed off and a mild antiseptic
applied, such as a 1 per cent solution of carbolic acid (1 ounce to 3
quarts of water) or 2 per cent solution of cresol compound in water.
Care must be taken not to carry the disease from the sick to the well
by sponges, etc., AThich have come in contact with the affected organs.
These should be destroyed. To prevent the spread of the disease the
infected animals should be kept isolated until they have recovered.

RABIES OF CATTLE.

Rabies is a disease preeminently affecting the canine race, although
all warm-blooded animals, including man, are susceptible to the mal-
ady, which is always communicated through bites from a preceding
case. It has required many years of patient, scientific research to
lead the ablest investigators to a clear comprehension of the cause,
nature, and characteristics of this affection. It was known and de-
scribed several centuries prior to the beginning of the Christian era,
and from the earliest dawn of history it has been feared and dreaded.
Its terrible manifestations have always been surrounded with an

RABIES. 401

atmosphere of awe and mystery, and it is not surprising that myths,
fallacies, and misconceptions in regard to it have been common and
widely accepted. As the investigations by which we have come to
a tolerably clear understanding of the facts concerning rabies have
been comparatively recent, and for the most part, have appeared in
scientific periodicals, fallacies in regard to the disease continue to
have a strong hold upon the public mind. For instance, it is still a
widely prevalent belief that if persons or animals are bitten by a
dog they are liable to become rabid if the dog should contract the
disease at any future time. There is no foundation for this impres-
sion, and it would be a great comfort to many people who are now
and then bitten by animals if the fallacy of this idea were known.
All experience, both scientific and practical, goes to show that rabies
is transmitted only by animals that are actually diseased at the time
the bite is inflicted. Rabies is an infectious disease involving the
nervous system and characterized by extreme excitability and other
nervous disorders and always terminating in death. The contagion
of this disease has never been isolated, but the fact that it is caused
by a specific organism principally found in the nervous system is
indisputable. For instance, if an emulsion of the brain of a rabid
animal is filtered through a germ-proof filter, the filtrate will be
harmless. This fact indicates that the infectious principle is not
in solution, but is an organism withheld from the filtrate by the
filter. This contagion can be propagated only in the body of an
animal. It is transmitted naturally from one animal to another
solely by bites, and the old idea of spontaneous appearance of the
disease is absolutely fallacious. It may be produced artificially by
inoculating susceptible animals with an emulsion of the brain or
spinal cord, as well as the saliva, milk, and other secretions of the
affected animal. The blood, on the contrary, seems to be free from
the infectious principle. The saliva contains the virus, which, under
natural conditions, is introduced into or under the skin on the tooth
of the rabid animal. The disease is widespread, being found in
many countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and in certain sections
of the United States.

Owing to the rigid quarantine regulations enforced against dogs
imported into Australia, that country remains absolutely free from
the disease. Following the canine race, cattle seem to be the most
frequently affected, probably because rabid dogs, next to their mor-
bid desire to attack other members of their own race, have a better
opportunity to bite grazing cattle than any other species of animal.
The relative frequency of rabies* in these two species of animals is
indicated by the carefully compiled statistics of the German Empire,
which shows that 904 dogs and 223 cows died of rabies in 1898, while
33071°— 16 26

402 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

in 1899 there were 911 cases in dogs and 171 in cattle. The latter
receive bites most frequentl}^ on the hind legs and in the hips and
about the lower jaw. These places are most accessible to dogs, owing
to the habit of cattle to drive their tormentors away by lowering
their heads and using their horns. Every animal bitten does not
necessarily develop the disease, but the per cent of fatalities has
been variously estimated, and averages from 25 to 30. This, how-
ever, depends on the location and size of the wound as well as the
amount of hemorrhage produced, and various other conditions. In
general, the nearer the bite is located to the central nervous system
and the deeper the wound inflicted, the greater the danger of a fatal
result. In cases in which the hemorrhage resulting from the bite is
profuse, there is a possibility that the virus wdll be w^ashed out of
the wound and thus obviate the danger of subsequent appearance of
the disease.

The virus after being deposited in the wound remains latent for an
extremely variable period of time, which also depends on the size
and depth of the wound as well as its location and the amount of
the virulent saliva introduced. Experiments have proved that the
virus follows the course of the nerves to the spinal cord and along
the latter to the brain before the symptoms appear. Gerlach, ha^dng
collected the statistics from 133 cases, has found this time, known
as the period of incubation, to vary from 14 to 285 da3^s. The great
majority of cases, however, contract the disease in one to three
months after the bite has been inflicted.

Symjytoms. — As in dogs, both furious and dumb rabies are met
with, the former being more common in cattle. A sharp line of
distinction, however, can not be drawn between these two forms
of the disease, as the furious form usually merges into the dumb,
from the paralysis which appears prior to death. The typical cases
of dumb rabies are those in which the paralysis appears at the begin-
ning of the attack and remains until death. The disease first mani-
fests itself by a loss of appetite and rumination, stopping of the
secretion of milk, great restlessness, anxiety, manifestation of fear,
and change in the disposition of the animal. This preliminary
stage is followed in a day or two by the stage of excitation, or
madness, which is indicated by increasing restlessness, loud roar-
ing at times with a peculiar change in the sound of the voice, vio-
lent butting with the horns and pawdng the ground with the feet,
Avith an insane tendency to attack other animals, although the
desire to bite is not so marked in cattle as in the canine race. A
constant symptom is the increased secretion of saliva with a con-
sequent frothing at the mouth, or the secretion may hang from
tlie lips in long strings. Constipation is marked, and there is mani-
fested a continual, although unsuccessful, desire to defecate.

RABIES. 403

Spasms of the muscles in different parts of the body are also seen
at intervals. About the fourth day the animal usually becomes
quieter and the walk is stiff, unsteady, and swaying, showing that
the final paralysis is coming on. This is called the paralytic stage.
The loss of flesh is extremely rapid, and even during the short
course of the disease the animal becomes exceedingly emaciated.
The temperature is never elevated, it usually i-emaining about nor-
mal or even subnormal. Finally, there is complete paralysis of
the hind quarters, the animal being unable to rise, and but for
irregular convulsive movements lies in a comatose condition and
dies usualh^ from the fourth to the sixth day after the appearance
of the first symptom.

Anatomy. — If animals which have succumbed to rabies are ex-
amined post mortem, very slight evidence of disease will be found
in any of the organs, and, indeed, the absence of any specific lesions
may be considered as characteristic. The blood is dark and imper-
fectly coagulated. The throat is frequently reddened, and there
may be small spots of extravasated blood in the intestines. The
stomachs are usually empty. In the spleen there may be hemor-
rhagic enlargements (infarcts). The cadavers rapidly undergo
decomposition.

Different'ml diagnosis. — It is not an easy matter to decide definitely
that a given animal has rabies, since the symptoms given above be-
long in part to a variety of other diseases, among which may be men-
tioned the excitement seen in young animals following close confine-
ment, certain vegetable and mineral poisons, acute enteritis, and
alterations of the central nervous system in cattle, the most common
of which is tuberculosis of the brain and its covering membranes.
The post-mortem lesions, however, should assist in making a correct
diagnosis. Tetanus may readily be differentiated from rabies by the
persistence of muscular cramps, especially of the face and abdomen,
which cause these muscles to become set and as hard as wood. In
tetanus there is also an absence of a depraved appetite or of a willful
propensity to hurt other animals or to damage the surroundings.
The cow remains quiet and the general muscular contraction gives
her a rigid appearance. There is an absence of paralysis which
marks the advanced stage of rabies. The form of dumb rabies in
dogs is characterized by the paralysis and pendency of the lower
jaw, while in tetanus the jaws are locked. This locking of the jaws
in cattle renders the animal incapable of bellowing, as in rabies.
Finally, tetanus may be distinguished from rabies by the fact that
the central nervous system does not contain the infectious principle,
while in rabies the inoculation of test rabbits with the brain or cord
of a rabid animal will produce the disease with characteristc symp-
toms after an interval of 15 to 20 days. This period of incubation

404 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

is much longer than in tetanus, since the inoculation of rabbits with
' ^tetanus cultures invariably results in death after a short period and
usually within three days. The positive evidence that a rabid dog
has been near cattle would greatly assist in making a decision in
doubtful cases.

The disease in dogs is pretty well recognized by most people, but in
case a suspected dog is killed it is desirable to open the animal and
examine the contents of the stomach. ^^Tiile feed is absent, a variety
of odd things may be present which the abnormally changed appetite
of the rabid dog has induced it to swallow. Among such things may
be straws, sticks, glass, rags, earth, pieces of leather, and whatever
the animal may have encountered small enough to be swallowed.
This miscellaneous collection in the stomach of dogs, together with
absence of feed, is regarded by authorities as a very valuable sign,
and in case of doubt may be made use of by laymen. In important
cases, however, the head of the dog, cow, or other suspected animal
should be removed and sent to the nearest biological laboratory,
where a positive diagnosis can be made within 36 hours by the histo-
logical examination of the plexiform nerve ganglia, and within two
^ or three weeks by the intracerebral inoculation of rabbits with an
emulsion of the brain of the suspected animal. /

Treatment. — This is useless aft^r the first appearance of symptoms.'r''
When, however, a wound inflicted by a rabid animal can be discov*
ered, it should be immediately cauterized or even completely extir-
pated, care being taken to cut entirely around the wound in the
healthy tissues. For cauterizing the wound, fuming nitric acid, the
hot iron, and 10 per cent solution of zinc chlorid are the most effica-
cious. To afford an absolute protection, this should be done within
a few moments after the bite has been inflicted, although even as late
as a few hours it has been known to thwart the development of the
disease.

Pasteur originated and perfected a system of preventive inocula-
tion against this disease which has greatly reduced the mortality in
human subjects. Its application to animals, however, is more diffi-
cult, requiring considerable time and expense, and is therefore only
economically applicable in cases in which very valuable animals are
bitten by dogs known to be mad. Sanitary regulations which seek to
control effectively the disease by exterminating it among dogs are
most likely to prove successful. The measures which are adopted to
this end can not be discussed in this place, but it is a striking fact
that where the muzzling of all dogs has been rigidly enforced, as in
England and in certain German districts, the disease has been prac-
'^..tically stamped out.

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 405

TUBERCULOSIS.

[Pis. XXXIV-XXXVIII.]

Tuberculosis is an infectious and communicable disease charac-
terized by the formation, in various organs of the body, of minute
nodules or tubercles, which contain the Baaillus tuberculosis^ the
cause of the disease.

The disease, in its various manifestations, has been known for
many centuries, and legislative enactments having reference to the
destruction of affected animals and forbidding the use of the flesh
date far back into the Middle Ages. The opinions entertained re-
garding the nature and the cause of the malady varied much in dif-
ferent periods and very markedly influenced the laws and regula-
tions in vogue. Thus, in the sixteenth century, the disease was con-
sidered identical with syphilis in man. In consequence of this belief
very stringent laws ,were enacted, which made the destruction of
tuberculous cattle compulsory. In the eighteenth century this
erroneous conception of the nature of the disease was abandoned
and all restrictions against the use of meat were removed. Since
that time, however, its communicable nature has been established by
many investigators, and the tide of opinion has again turned in
favor of repressing the disease and prohibiting the sale of con-
taminated products.

Occun^ence. — The statistics concerning tuberculosis show that it is
a disease prevalent in all civilized countries. In some countries, such
as the northern part of Norway and Sweden, on the steppes of east-
ern Europe and Russia, in Sicily and Iceland, and in Algiers, it is
said to be quite rare.

The returns from testing British cattle with tuberculin, supplied
by the Eoyal Veterinarj'' College, as stated in March, 1900, showed
that among 15,392 animals tested 4,105, or 26 per cent, reacted.

During the slaughter of cattle for pleuropneumonia careful exami-
nations of the carcasses were made for tuberculosis. Of 300 head
killed near Edinburgh 120, or 40 per cent, were tuberculous. Of
4,160 killed in England 20 per cent were tuberculous. Of one of
these lots of cattle (451 animals) the president of the Lancashire
Farmers' Association testified that they were fairly representative
cattle — cows, heifers, and growing stock — a thoroughly mixed lot;
20 per cent of them had tuberculosis.

Of 398 bovine animals taken haphazard in the city of Manchester,
120, or 30 per cent, were tuberculous. Among them were 168 cows,
69, or 41 per cent, being tuberculous, and 2 having diseased udders.

The result of testing the Queen's herd at Windsor was that 36 out
of 40, or 90 per cent, were found tuberculous.

406 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

The investigations made by the British Dairy Farmers' Association
deserve particular attention, coming as they do directly from a cattle
owners' organization. The council of this association " resolved to
submit the general consideration of the question to a committee, with
a view to some more definite understanding as to the possible extent
to which tuberculosis exists in dairy cattle." The secretary was
instructed to write to a number of dairy farmers being members of
the association, asking their cooperation and the use of their herds
for the application of the tests. Of the herds offered, 9 were selected,
containing 461 cows and 12 bulls, and 188 of these animals reacted,
being 40.8 per cent. There were among these cattle 335 Shorthorns,
of which 119, or 35 per cent, reacted; 67 crossbreds, of which 28, or
42 per cent, reacted ; 47 Ayrshires, of which 37, or 80 per cent, reacted.

Another experiment of much interest is that of the Cheshire
County Council. The technical instruction committee set aside £250
to be used by a joint committee from the agricultural and horticul-
tural schools and Worleson Dairy Institute for applying the tuber-
culin test to their herds. The tests were made February 15, 1899.
The results were : Worleson herd of 54 animals, 16 diseased, or 29.6
per cent; agricultural school herd of 17 animals, 4 diseased, or 23.5
per cent. The Worleson herd consisted of Shorthorn cows. In each
herd the purebred Shorthorn bull was tuberculous. The results of
the tuberculin test were confirmed by the slaughter of the animals
and examination of the carcasses.

Sir T. D. G. Carmichael, member of Parliament for Midlothian,
gave evidence before the royal commission that his Polled Angus
herd was tested in the spring of 1895. " The results of the test were
fearfully unexpected and alarming." Of 30 tested 13 showed de-
cided reaction — 43 per cent. Again, he speaks of having 41 animals
tested the same spring and 16 reacted — 39.5 per cent.

Of 80 Shorthorn cattle intended for export which were tested 34
reacted, or 42 per cent.

Of a herd of 25 British Shorthorns recently tested in quarantine
40 per cent were found tuberculous.

The addition of these animals above referred to gives 20,930 head
examined and 5,441, or 26 per cent, pronounced tuberculous. And
these herds were not selected because they were supposed to be tuber-
culous, but represent the general cattle stock of the country. These
animals included at least 470 head of Shorthorns, of which 170, or 34
per cent, were tuberculous.

To these facts may be added the evidence of Prof. Bang that
in the first half of the nineteenth century tuberculosis was brought
to Denmark by cattle from Switzerland,. Schleswig, and England,
and that the same thing is now going on in Sweden and Norway,
particularly through English cattle. Also the evidence of M. Sivori,

TUBERCULOSIS. 407

chief of section at the ministry of agriculture, Argentina, who has
investigated tuberculosis in that country and who says that " 30 or
40 years ago tuberculosis was unknown in Argentine cattle, and it is
still unknown among the native (crioUo) cattle. Its appearance
dates from the introduction of pure breeding animals. Statistics
prove that tuberculosis is observed among the grades — above all
among those of the Durham and less among the Hereford."

Moreover, the reports of the royal commission of Victoria, Aus-
tralia, and of the New Zealand department of Agi-iculture show a
large proportion of tuberculous cattle in those colonies, where the
disease was almost certainly carried by British cattle.

In the same manner that tuberculosis has been carried from Great
Britain to Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Argentina, and Australia, it
has also been taken to Canada. In one herd of imported cattle
slaughtered in the Canadian quarantine station, 13 of the 14 animals
were found tuberculous. One of the largest Shorthorn herds in
Canada was sometime ago tested because an animal from it was
condemned when offered for shipment to the United States. This
herd was found to be very badly affected, and an effort is being made
to eradicate the disease by the Bang method. A Canadian official
publication says of another Shorthorn herd, which at one time had a
very high reputation, that when an investigation in regard to tuber-
culosis was recently made the disease was found among ordinary
cattle wherever animals from this herd had been introduced, and that
this herd, which had been looked upon as one of the greatest benefits
to the farming community, was really a danger, because it dissemi-
nated tuberculosis among the farmers' herds. Still another well-
known herd recently attracted attention because four animals from
it offered for export to the United States were all tuberculous.

From December 23, 1900, to February 19, 1901, the period that the
department inspector tested all Canadian cattle intended for ship-
ment to the United States, 140 purebred Shorthorns and 3 Shorthorn
grades were tested, and of the total number 26, or 18 per cent
reacted. During the first month that this inspection was enforced,
and when it may be assumed that the condition of the cattle most
nearly represented what it had previously been, 74 cattle were offered
for importation, and 18, or 24.3 per cent, were found tuberculous.

In justice to Shorthorn cattle it should be said in this connection
that they are probably no more susceptible to tuberculosis than are
other breeds, but the disease has been allowed to spread in certain
herds and families to such an extent as to give a wrong impression
concerning the breed as a whole.

The slaughterhouse statistics of Prussia show 14.G per cent of the
cattle and 2.14 per cent of the hogs to be tuberculous. In Saxony
the percentage is 29.13 with cattle and 3.10 with hogs. In the city

408

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

of Leipzig the figures are 36.4 for cattle and 2.17 for hogs. (Siedam-
grotzky.) Of 20,850 animals in Belgium tested with tuberculin in
1896, 48.88 per cent reacted. (Stubbe.) Of 25,439 tested in Den-
mark from 1893 to 1895, 49.3 per cent reacted ; and of 67,263 tested
from 1896 to 1898, 32.8 per cent reacted. (Bang.)

Figures available in the United States do not cover a sufficient area
of our territory to allow us to make a reliable estimate of the extent
of tuberculosis with milch cows. There is little doubt, however, but
that the disease has been increasing both with dairy cattle and hogs.
From a review by Russell and Hastings, of the Wisconsin Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, of tests of cattle for tuberculosis which
have been made in the United States, the following summary is
presented :

Statistics of tests for tuberculosis in the United States.

State.

Number
tested.

Number
tubercu-
lous.

Per cent
tubercu-
lous.

Vermont

Massachusetts

Massachusetts, entire herds.

Connecticut

New York, 1894

New York, 1897-98

Pennsylvania

New Jersey.

Illinois, 1897-98

lUinois, 1899

Michigan

Minnesota

Iowa

CO, 000
24,685

4,093

6,300
947

1,200
34,000

2,500
929

3,655

2,390

12,443

1,080

66

163

4,800

Wisconsin;

Experiment Station tests —

Susjjected herds •

Nonsuspected herds

State veterinarian's tests —

Suspected herds

Tests of local veterinarians under State veterinarian, cattle in-
tended for shipment to States requiring tuberculin certificate..

3,430
873

323
935

588
3,421

115
84

191
76

3.9
50.0
26.4
14.2

6.9
18.4
14.1
21.4
12.0
15.32
13.0
11.1
13.8

35.6
9.0

32.5
2.2

Reports of tuberculin tests made on 400.000 cattle in the United
States during the years 1893 to 1908 by Federal, State, and other
officers with tuberculin prepared by the Bureau of Animal Industry
show 37,008 reactions, or 9.25 per cent. These were mostly dairy
cattle, and in some cases herds were suspected of being diseased.

All cattle in the District of Columbia, numbering 1,701, were tested
with tuberculin in 1909-10, and 18.87 per cent reacted. In 1909-11
herds in Maryland and Virginia supplying milk to the District of
Columbia were tested, with 19.03 and 15.38 per cent of reactions,
respectively, among 4,501 cattle.

TUBEECULOSIS. 409

The beef cattle of the United States show a much smaller propor-
tion of the disease than dairy cattle, though the percentage of cattle
found tuberculous in the Government meat-inspection service has
increased considerably in recent years. This increase is due partly,
but not wholly, to more stringent inspection. Of 7,781,030 adult
cattle slaughtered under Federal inspection during the fiscal year
ended June 30, 1911, 76,448 were found tuberculous, a percentage
of 0.98.

It has been observed that tuberculosis increases in frequency with
the age of the animals. If we take as the unit of comparison the
number of cases of animals of a year and under affected with tuber-
culosis, animals from 1 to 3 years old furnish 10 times, those 3 to 6
years old 30 times, and those more than 6 years 40 times the number
of cases.

From the statistics above referred to, and other data, it appears
that in the more densely populated areas of Europe and America
from 5 to 50 per cent of the dairy cattle are more or less affected with
tuberculosis, while the proportion of beef cattle affected is distinctly
less, ranging from 0.14 to 30 per cent. This difference is due to a
number of causes. Beef cattle average younger when slaughtered.
They are not so frequently stabled, and are for that reason less liable
to infection, and as the males constitute a large proportion of this
class of animals the effect of milk secretion in lowering the vital
forces is not so apparent. In the United States it has been estimated
that about 10 per cent of the dairy cattle are tuberculous, while only
about 2 per cent of the beef cattle are so infected.

Cause and nature of the disease. — The cause of tuberculosis is the
tubercle bacillus, which gains entrance to the body, lodges somewhere
in the tissues, and begins to grow and multiply at that point. As this
bacillus vegetates and increases in numbers it excretes substances
Avhich act as irritants and poisons and which lead to the formation of
a small nodule, called a tubercle, at the point of irritation. As the
bacilli are disseminated through the animal body they affect many
points and cause the formation of an enormous number of tubercles.
By the union of such tubercles masses of tubercular material are
formed, which in some cases are of great size. The disease is called
tuberculosis, because it is characterized by the formation of these
peculiar nodules, and the bacillus which causes the disease is for the
same reason Iniown technically as the Bacillus tuherculosis.

There are undoubtedly predisposing conditions which contribute
toward the development of the disease ; some of these are found in
the animal body and others in the environment. An enfeebled condi-
tion caused by insufficient feed, exposure to great extremes of atmos-
pheric temperature and insanitary surroundings, or the drain occa-
sioned by heavy production of milk, appear to aid the development

410 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

of the bacillus, and there is also a special individual susceptibility
in some cases which may be otherwise described as an inability of the
animal tissues to resist and destroy the bacilli when they have pene-
trated to the inner recesses of the body.

Among the conditions of environment which aid the development
of tuberculosis may be mentioned stabling with lack of ventilation,
damp buildings, the keeping of many animals together, drafts of air
which cause colds and catarrhs, and, in general, everything which
prevents the animals from developing and maintaining the highest
condition of health. None of these conditions of body or environ-
ment are sufficient to cause the disease, however, unless the animals
are exposed to the Bacillus tuherculosis and it penetrates the tissues
of their bodies.

The ways in which the tubercle bacilli find their way into the body
may be considered under four heads: (1) By inhalation into the
lungs; (2) by taking into the digestive tract in the milk of tuber-
culous cows or with other contaminated feed; (3) during coition
when the sexual organs are tuberculous; (4) from the tuberculous
mother to the fetus in the uterus. The bacilli can reach the lungs
by inhalation only when the bacilli are thoroughly dried and pulver-
ized and in condition to be carried by currents of air.

It is well known that the bacilli withstand drying for months
before they lose their power of producing disease. They leave the
body of diseased animals in several ways. There may be a little dis-
charge occasionally coughed up as a spray from the diseased lungs,
or this material may be swallowed and the bacilli carried off with
the excrement, or milk may be spilt, or there may be a discharge
from the vagina when the genital organs are tuberculous. There
may also be ulcers of the intestines, from which many bacilli escape
with the feces. The bacilli from these sources may become dried
and pulverized and carried in the air of the stable and into the lungs
of still healthy cattle, where the disease then develops.

The disease of the stomach, intestines, and mesenteric glands is
very probably the result of feed infection. Tubercle bacilli may
have been scattered upon the feed by diseased animals, but the most
common source of such infection is the milk of tuberculous cows.
Calves may become infected in this way. The disease may remain
latent until the animal becomes older. The not infrequent occur-
rence of tuberculosis of the uterus and ovaries makes it probable
that the disease may be transmitted by a diseased bull or carried by
a healthy one from a diseased cow to a number of healthy cows.

The source of infection is always some previous case of the disease,
for the latter can never rise spontaneously; hence, in those stables
in which there is frequent change of cattle the introduction of tuber-
culosis by cattle coming from other infected stables is the most fre-

TUBEECULOSIS. 411

qiient source of infection. Since the bacilli when dried can be car-
ried by the air, it is not necessary that healthy animals come in
direct contact with cases of disease to become infected. In general
the greatest number of cases occur in the immediate environment of
cities, where there are not only abundant opportunities for infection,,
owing to the frequent introduction of new animals into herds, but
where the sanitary conditions may be regarded as the poorest.

The bacillus of tuberculosis was discovered by Robert Koch in
1882. It is a slender, rod-like body (see PL XXVIII, fig. 6) from
one-third to two-thirds the diameter of a red blood corpuscle in
length. As already explained, when the bacillus has become lodged
in any organ or tissue it begins to multiply, and thereby causes an
irritation in the tissue around it, which leads to the formation of
the so-called tubercle. The tubercle, when it has reached its full
growth, is a little nodule about the size of a millet seed. It is com-
posed of several kinds of tissue cells. Soon a change takes place
within the tubercle. Disintegration begins, and a soft, cheesy sub-
stance is formed in the center, which may contain particles of lime
salts. When these tubercles continue to form in large numbers they
run together, forming masses of various sizes. The disintegration
which attacks them leads to the formation of large cheesy masses
of a yellowish color, containing more or less of lime salts in the
form of gritty particles. These large tuberculous masses are sur-
rounded by or embedded in laj'^ers of fibrous tissue, which in some
cases becomes very dense and thick.

The disease is thus a development of these tubercles in one or
more organs of the body. The distribution and number of the
tubercles determine the course of the disease.

In a large number of cases the changes are limited to the lungs and
the serous membranes ^ of the thorax and abdomen. Pathologists
have been in the habit of calling the lung disease tuberculosis and
the disease of the serous membranes "pearly disease." Statistics
have shown that in about one-half of the cases both lungs and serous
membranes are diseased, in one-third only the lungs, and in one-fifth
only the serous membranes. At the same time the lymphatic glands
near the diseased organs are usually involved. Other organs, such as
the liver, not infrequently contain tubercles. Though the disease
may remain restricted to a single organ, it now and then is found
generalized, affecting all organs of the body.

In the lungs (PL XXXIV) the changes observed vary according
to the age and intensity of the disease process. They usually begin

1 These membranes comprise the smooth, very delicate, glistening lining of the large
body cavities. In the thorax the serous membrane (pleura) covers tlie ribs and dia-
phragm as well as the whole lung surface. In the abdomen a similar membrane (perito-
neum) lines the interior of the cavity and covers the bowels, liver, spleen, etc.

412 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

with the appearance of very minute tubercles. These may appear in
large numbers on the surface of the lungs or within the lung tissue.
Later the contents become cheesy and partly calcified. When these
tubercles are sufficiently numerous to become confluent, large masses
may be formed, which undergo the same retrogressive changes of
caseation and calcification. In addition to the formation of tubercles
in the lung tissue, certain other changes take place. There is usually
bronchitis with abundant catarrhal secretion; this plugs up the
smaller air tubes, and the lung tissue supplied with air by the tubes
collapses. Subsequently it becomes filled with yellowish, cheesy
matter, which greatly distends the small air tubes and air vesicles
(bronchopneumonia). The connective tissue between the lung
lobules, around the tubercles, and around the air tubes, becomes
thickened and indurated. In the larynx and the bronchi tubercles
may vegetate upon the mucous membrane, and ulcers may result
from their breaking down. The inflammatory irritation which the
growth of the tubercles on the surface of the lungs arouses gives rise
to adhesion of the lungs to the ribs and diaphragm. This adhesion
is sometimes so firm and extensive that the lungs appear grown to
the chest wall.

When, therefore, the lungs in advanced stages of the disease are
cut open we observe large yellowish masses, from one-quarter to
three-quarters of an inch in diameter, of a cheesy texture, in which
calcified, gritty particles are embedded and which are surrounded by
very firm connective tissue. The neighboring lung tissue, when col-
lapsed and involved in bronchopneumonia, has the color and con-
sistency of pale-red flesh. The air tubes, large and small, stand out
prominently on the cut surface. They are distended with a pasty,
yellowish, cheesy mass, surrounded and enveloped in thick mucus,
and their walls greatly thickened. The larger bronchi may be sac-
culated, owing to the distention produced by the cheesy contents.

The disease usually attacks the bronchial glands, which are situated
on the trachea and bronchial tubes at the bifurcation. The changes
in the glands are the same as those going on in the lung tissue, and
they frequently reach an enormous size.

The tubercle formation on the serous membranes covering the lungs
and chest wall (PI. XXXVII, fig. 2), which may go on at the same
time with the lung disease or independent of it, has been called
" pearly disease," on account of the peculiar appearance of the tu-
bercles. These begin as very minute, grayish nodules, which give
the originally smooth, lustrous membrane a roughened appearance.
These minute tubercles enlarge, become confluent, and project above
the surface of the membrane as wartlike masses, attaining the size
of peas. In this stage their attachment to the membrane is by means
of delicate fibers. The attachment is loose, so that the tubercle hangs

TUBERCULOSIS. 413

by a short pedicle or neck and may be moved slightly to and fro.
Large masses are frequently formed by a coalescence of many tuber-
cles and the secondary formation of the same. These may be found
on the lungs, the ribs, and the diaphragm. These tubercles likewise
undergo degenerative changes. The center partly softens and partly
calcifies into a grayish mortarlike mass, and is gritty. Associated
with the formation of tubercles on the pleura, those glands situated
back of the center of the lungs between the two main lobes (posterior
mediastinal) become greatly enlarged and the center cheesy. (PI.
XXXVI, fig. 1.) They may compress the esophagus and interfere
with swallowing. The size attained by these tumors and new
growths is well illustrated by the fact that, taken together, they not
infrequently weigh from 60 to 80 pounds. The bronchial glands,
which in the healthy state are not so large as horse-chestnuts, have
been found to attain a weight of more than 10 pounds.

In the abdominal cavity tubercles may be found, both in the
organs and on the serous membranes covering them. They are
situated preferably on the omentum, or caul (see PI. XXXVI, fig. 2),
the diaphragm, and the walls of the abdomen. In the liver large
and small tubercular masses are occasionally encountered. (See
PL XXXV.) The mesenteric glands are occasionally enlarged and
tuberculous; likewise the glands near the liver. Tubercles may also
develop in the spleen, the kidneys, the uterus and ovaries, and the
testicles.

Tubercular affection of the intestines seems to be quite rare,
although ulcers of the large intestines have been observed. Nodules
may also form under the serous covering of the intestines.

The brain and spinal cord are occasionally found tuberculous. Of
40 cases, Semmer found tuberculosis of the brain in 4. It is not
improbable that, owing to the infrequency of exposing the brain and
spinal cord, tuberculosis may have escaped the attention of patholo-
gists, and it may be that it is not so uncommon as is generally, sup-
posed. The tubercles occur on the membranes of the brain as well as
in the substance of the brain itself. They project into the ventricles
as masses, varying in size from a pinhead to a hen's egg. They
finally lead to various inflammatory changes. Johne has observed
numerous small tubercles on the membranes of the spinal cord.

Very rarely tuberculous lesions have been observed in the bones
and muscles of the hodj. Not so rare, however, is the affection of the
lymphatic glands embedded in the muscular tissue, and those which
can be felt beneath the skin. These are situated at the joints, under
the jaw, and along the neck.

Of late tubercular disease of the udder in cows (PI. XXXVIII)
has received considerable attention from sanitarians, owing to the
infection of the milk with the virus of tuberculosis. Accordino; to

414 • DISEASES OF CATTLE.

those who have given this subject special attention, the udder be-
comes swollen uniformly and quite firm. This swelling, which is
painless, frequently attacks but one quarter, more rarely two, these
being usually the hind quarters. The larger milk ducts contain yel-
lowish, cheesy particles, in which are many tubercle bacilli. Later
larger nodules can be felt within the udder, which undergo the
various changes to which tubercles are subject. The udder may grow
very hard to the touch and become very large, weighing in some cases
up to 40 pounds. The milk, at first normal, becomes thin and watery
after a month or so, and is mixed with flakes and tubercle bacilli.

As regards the frequency of the tuberculous processes in the dif-
ferent organs, the following carefully compiled statistics of the
disease in Bavaria and Baden may serve as a guide :

Bavaria : Per cent.

Tuberculosis of lungs and serous membranes 41

Tuberculosis of lungs alone 33

Tuberculosis of serous membranes alone (pearly disease) 17

Tuberculosis of other organs 8

Baden :

Tuberculosis of lungs alone 21

Tuberculosis of serous membranes alone _ 28

Both combined 39

Generalized tuberculosis 9

Tuberculosis of the sexual organs alone 3

Symptoms. — The beginning of the disease usually passes unnoticed,
inasmuch as it is very slow and insidious and rarely accompanied with
fever. When the lungs are involved a dull, short cough is noticed,
which may later on become prolonged, convulsive, and very trouble-
some to the animal. The cough is more frequent in the morning
after movement and drinking. The breathing varies. Only when
much of the lung tissue is diseased is it labored and accompanied
with active movements of the chest and nostrils. Discharge from the
nose is rare or absent. At times, however, when the tubercles have
broken down and cavities containing cheesy masses have formed in
the lung tissue, or when the air tubes have become filled with cheesy
and mucous masses, coughing will dislodge them and cause their dis-
charge. In advanced stages the breath may have a disagreeable odor.
Pressure on the chest wall may give rise to pain.

The general effect on the body is at first slight. In fact, animals
may remain in good flesh for a considerable time. Invariably as the
disease progresses loss of flesh and appetite and paleness of the
mucous membranes become manifest. These sj^mptoms are accom-
panied with a gradual diminution of the milk secretion. The de-
bilitated condition of the animal is also manifested by a staring coat
and a tough, dry, harsh skin (hidebound). Digestive disturbances
are indicated by tympanites, or distention of the rumen by gas, colic,

TUBERCULOSIS. 415

and diarrhea, alternating with constipation. The animal generally
dies from exhaustion after a period of sickness which may last
months or even years.

Tuberculosis in the abdominal organs is often signalized by abor-
tion and by abnormal sexual manifestations. When the brain is in-
volved, the disease may cause convulsions, unconsciousness, i^aralysis,
as well as peculiar movements in a circle, oblique position of the head,
etc. Lydtin quotes the following description of the disease as taken
from a Swiss sanitary order :

A dry, short, interrupted, hoarse cough, which tlie sicli animals manifest,
especially in the morning at feeding time, still more after somewhat violent
exertion. At first these animals may be full blooded and lay on a considerable
amount of fat when well fed. As the disease progresses they grow thin and
show more and more those appearances which indicate diseased nutrition, such
as a staring, lusterless, disheveled coat ; dirty, tense skin, which appears very
pale in those regions free from hair. The temperature of the skin is below
normal. The loss of fat causes sinking of the eyes in their sockets. They
appear swimming in water, and their expression is weak. The cough is more
frequent, but never or very rarely accompanied with discharge. The body con-
tinues to emaciate, even with plenty of food and a good appetite, so that the
quantity of milk is small. At times in the early stages of the disease, still
more in the later stages, the diseased animals manifest considerable tenderness
when pressure is applied to the front or the sides of the chest by coughing,
moaning, etc. Often symptoms are wanting in spite of the existence of the
disease.

Lydtin also quotes at length a description of the abnormal sexual
desire occasionally observed among cows when affected with this
disease.

Diagnosis. — A disease so varied in its attack upon the different
organs of the body and in the extent of the disease process must nec-
essarily lead to mistakes when diagnosis is attempted by ordinary
means of examination. It has been confounded with the later stages
of pleuropneumonia, with parasitic diseases of the brain, the lungs,
the intestines, and with actinomycosis. A careful examination of the
lungs by ausculation and percussion enables the expert to locate large
tuberculous masses, owing to dullness, loss of respiratory murmur, and
abnormal sounds, such as blowing, whistling, and creaking. The
majority of cases of tuberculosis in cattle, however, including many
in which the lungs are quite seriously involved, can not be detected
in this manner.

THE TUBERCULIN TEST.

The tuberculin test, which is marvelously accurate in its indica-
tions, has been almost universally adopted for the detection of tuber-
culosis. Tuberculin is a drug prepared by sterilizing, filtering, and
concentrating the liquids in which the tubercle bacillus has been
allowed to vegetate. It contains the cooked products of the growth

TUBERCULOSIS.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate XXXIV. Tuberculosis of the lungs of cattle. The upper figure represents
a large cheesy mass, surrouudetl by a capsule of connective tissue, the
whole embedded in healthy lung tissue. The lower figure illustrates in
section a mass of tubercles which have undergone cheesy degeneration,
and some of which are surrounded by dense connective tissue.

Plats XXXV. Tuberculosis of the liver. A large portion of the lobe repre-
sented in the plate has undergone tuberculous changes. Numerous
nodules are shown in various stages of the disease, the majority of
which, however, contain the yellowish, partly cheesy, partly gritty
areas characteristic of advanced tuberculous degeneration. This large
mass involves the surface of the liver, and also extends into the liver
substance.

Plate XXXVI. Tuberculosis of lymph gland and of omentum (caul).

Fig. 1. A lymph gland from the region of the thorax behind or above the
esophagus, or gullet (posterior, or dorsal, mediastinum). The gland is
shown cut through and laid open. It is very much enlargetl, and the
yellowish cheesy masses which represent tissue undergoing tuberculous
changes are well shown on the cut surface.
Fig. 2. Omentum, or caul, resting upon the paunch. The reddish 'nodules
with which the membrane is beset are tubercles, the product of the
disease.

Plate XXXVII. Fig. 1. Tuberculosis of the sirloin and porterhouse cuts of
beef. The grapelike tuberculous growths are mainly restricted to the
lining membrane of the abdomen.
Fig. 2. Tuberculosis of the pleura of a cow, so-called " pearly disease."
Notice the grapelike clusters of tubercular nodules scattered over the
lining membrane of the chest (pleura).

Plate XXXVIII. Tuberculosis of cow's udder. The udder was uniformly
swollen and quite firm. Small cheesy foci and yellowish lines of
tuberculous material follow the course of the milk ducts. The mucous
membrane of the milk cistern (a) is ulcerated and covered witli
yellowish cheesy particles. The supramammary lymphatic gland (b)
is greatly enlarged and contains many miliary tubercular foci.
416

Diteases of Cattle — U S. Dept. of Agr.

Plate XXXiv.

J &C0 BAITIMORE.

Tuberculosis of the Lungs of Cattle.

Diseases of Cattle — U. S. Dept of Agr

Plate XXXV.

OEN &CO BAITJMORE.

Tuberculosis of the Liver.

Diieaaes of Cattle — U. S. Dept. of Agr

Plate xxxvi.

'i^ffii

rig. 1

Fig. 2

A.HOEN aCO. BALTIMORE.

Tuberculosis of Lymph Gland and of Omentum (Caul).

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate xXXVII.

Fig. 1.— Tuberculosis of Sirloin and Porterhouse Cuts of
Beef.

Fig. 2.— Tuberculosis of Pleura of a Cow, So-called
Disease."

' Pearly

Di$e«ses of Cattle— U. S. Dept of Agr

Plate XXXVII

i aCO BALTIMORE,

Tuberculosis of Cows Udder.

TUBERCULOSIS. 417

of these bacilli, but not the bacilli themselves, consequently, when
this substance is injected under the skin of an animal it is absolutely
unable to produce the disease, cause abortion, or otherwise injure the
animal. In case the injected animal is normal there is no more effect
upon the system than would be expected from the injection of sterile
water; however, if the animal is tuberculous, a decided rise of tem-
perature w411 follow the use of tuberculin. This substance, discov-
ered by Koch, has the effect, when injected into the tissues of a
tuberculous animal, of causing a decided rise of temperature, while it
has no such effect upon animals free from the disease. The value of
tuberculin for this purpose was tested during the years 1890 and 1891
by Guttman, Eoeckl and Schiitz, Bang and Salomonsen, Lydtin,
Johne and Siedamgrotzky, Nocard, and many others. It was at once
recognized as a most remarkable and accurate method of detecting
tuberculosis even in the early stages and when the disease had yet
made but little progress.

The tuberculin test came into existence through the most careful
and thorough scientific experimentation. In practice it is applied by
first taking the temperature of the animal to be tested, at intervals
of about two hours, a sufficient number of times to establish the nor-
mal temperature of the body under the ordinary conditions of life.
The proper dose of tuberculin is then injected under the skin with a
hypodermic syringe between 8 and 10 p. m. on the day of taking the
preliminary temperatures. On the following day the temperatures
are taken every two hours, beginning at 6 a. m. and continuing until
20 hours following the injection, if the fullest information is desired.^
From average temperatures, calculated by De Schweinitz in 1896,
of about 1,600 tests of tuberculous cows, it appears that in general
the rise of temperature begins from five and one-half to six hours
after the tuberculin is injected, reaches its greatest height from the
sixteenth to the twentieth hours, and then gradually declines, reach-
ing the normal again by the twenty-eighth hour.

As a result of this method an accurate diagnosis may be estab-
lished in more than 97 per cent of the cases tested. The relatively
few failures in diagnoses are included among two classes of cattle.
The first class contains those that are tuberculous, but which do
not react either because of the slight effect of an ordinary-sized
dose of tuberculin on an advanced case of the disease w^th so much
natural tuberculin already in the system, or on account of a recent
previous test with tuberculin which produces a tolerance to this
material, lasting for about six weeks. The second class includes

iThe ophthalmic-tuberculin test and the intradermal-tuberculin test, as their names
imply, consist in the application of the tuberculin to the eye and to the deep layer of the
skin of the animal to be tested. These methods will not be discussed at present, as they
are still in the experimental stage.

33071°— IG 27

418 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

those that are not tuberculous, but which show an elevation of tem-
perature as a result of (a) advanced pregnancy, (h) the excite-
ment of oestrum, (c) concurrent diseases, as inflammation of the
lungs, intestines, uterus, udder, or other parts, abortion, retention
of afterbirth, indigestion, etc., (d) inclosure in a hot, stuffy stable,
especially in summer, or exposure to cold drafts or rains, (e) any
change in the method of feeding, watering, or stabling of the animal
during the test. Notwithstanding all these possibilities of error,
the results of thousands of tests show that in less than 3 per cent
of the cases tested do these failures actually occur. In the first class
the chances of error are decidedly reduced by the skilled veterinarian
by making careful physical examination and diagnosing clinically
these advanced cases, and by the injection of double or triple doses
into all recently tested cattle, with the taking of the after temper-
ature, beginning twQ hours following the injection and continuing
hourly for 20 hours.

It is therefore apparent that tuberculin should be applied only
by or under the direction of a competent veterinarian, capable not
only of injecting the tuberculin but also of interpreting the results,
and particularly of picking out all clinical cases by physical exami-
nation. The latter observation is extremely important and should
always be made on every animal tested.

In the second class errors are avoided by eliminating from the
test those cases that are nearing parturition or are in heat or show
evidence of the previously mentioned diseases or exhibit tempera-
tures sufficiently high to make them unreliable for use as normal.
Then, in reading after temperatures it is advisable not to recognize
as a reaction an elevation of temperature less than 2° F. and which
at the same time must go above 103.8° F., and the temperature reac-
tion must likewise have the characteristic rainbow curve. (Those
cases which approximate but do not reach this standard should be
considered as suspicious and held for a retest six weeks later.) In
addition, a satisfactory tuberculin must be used; also an accurate
thermometer and a reliable syringe, in order that a sufficient dose of
tuberculin may be given. Finally, the number of apparent errors of
the tuberculin test will be greatly diminished if a careful post-
mortem examination is made, giving especial attention to the lymph
glands. This low percentage of failures being the case, cattle owners
should welcome the tuberculin test, not only for their own interest
but for the welfare of the public as well. Where this method of
diagnosing the disease has beeen adopted tuberculosis is gradually
being eradicated, while it is spreading rapidly and becoming widely
disseminated in those districts in which the tuberculin test has not
been used. Without its use the disease can not be controlled and
the owner is confronted with serious and continuous losses; with

TUBERCULOSIS. 419

its use the disease can be eradicated from the herd, a clean herd
established in a few years without very serious loss or hardship, and
the danger of its spread to man removed. Tuberculin may therefore
be considered a most beneficial discovery for the stock raiser.
Strange to say, many of these men have been incredulous, antago-
nistic, or prejudiced against the tuberculin test by misinterpreting
published statements, by incorrect, unsubstantiated, or exaggerated
reports, and by alleged injurious effects to healthy cattle.
Law has clearly stated the question when he says —

Many stock owners still entertain an ignorant and unwarranted dread of the
tuberculin test. It is true that when recklessly used by ignorant and careless
people it may be made a root of evil, yet as employed by the intelligent and
careful expert it is not only perfectly safe, but it is the only known means of
ascertaining approximately the actual number affected in a given herd. In
most infected herds living under what are in other respects good hygienic condi-
tions two-thirds or three-fourths are not to be detected without its aid, so that in
clearing a herd from tuberculosis and placing both herd and products above
suspicion the test becomes essential. * * * jq skilled hands the tuberculin
test will show at least nine-tenths of all cases of tuberculosis when other
methods of diagnosis will not detect one-tenth.

Objection to its use among those who are not acquainted with its
method of preparation or its properties is perfectly natural, but it
is difficult to explain the antagonism of farmers who are familiar
with the facts connected with the manufacture and use of tuberculin.
Probably the most popular objection to tuberculin is that it is too
searching, since it discovers cases in which the lesions are small and
obscure. While this fact is admitted, it should also be remembered
that such a small lesion to-daj'' mnj break down and become widely
disseminated in a relatively short period. Therefore any cow
affected with tuberculosis, even to a slight degree, must be considered
as dangerous not only to the other animals in the herd but also to
the consumer of her products.

In 1898, Bang, of Copenhagen, one of the highest European
authorities, in his paper presented to the Congress for the Study
of Human and Animal Tuberculosis, at Paris, said :

Numerous tests made in almost every civilized country have demonstrated
that in the majority of cases tuberculin is an excellent means for diagnosing
the existence or nonexistence of the disease, but giving us no positive infor-
mation as to the extent to which the disease has progressed. When tuberculin
produces a typical reaction we may be almost sure that there exists in the body
of the animal a tubercular process. The cases in which a careful examiner has
not succeeded in finding it are very rare, and I am led to believe that when,
notwithstanding all the pains taken, it has escaped discovery, the reason is
that it is located in a portion of the body that is particularly inaccessible.
Nevertheless, it is not to be denied that a fever, entirely accidental and of
short duration, may in some rare cases have simulated a reaction. However
this may be, the error committed in wrongly condemning an occasional animal
for tuberculosis is of no practical consequence.

420 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

A worse aspect of the case is that there are some diseased animals in which
tuberculin fails to discover the existence of tuberculosis. In most of these, no
doubt, the deposits are old, insignificant, and generally calcified, or they are
cases where the disease is arrested and perhaps in process of recovery, and
which are possibly incapable of disseminating the contagion. But it is known
that there are cases, not altogether rare, where tuberculin fails to cause a
reaction in a highly tuberculous animal, and consequently one in which the
disease exists in an extremely contagious form. For this reason a clinical
examination should always be made of an animal Avhich does not give a reac-
tion but which shows symptoms indicating that, notwithstanding the test, it
may suffer from tuberculosis.

Nocard, of Paris, wrote also in 1898 as follows :

The degree of certainty of the indications furnished may be stared in precise
terms. The observation of a clear reaction to tuberculin is unequivocal ; the
animal is tuberculous. The pretended errors imputed to the method are ex-
plained by the extreme sensitiveness of the reagent, which is capable of detect-
ing the smallest lesion. It often requires prolonged and minute researches in
the depths of all the tissues to discover the few miliary centers, the presence
of which has been revealed. The reaction is absolutely specific. In those cases
where it is observed with animals which show lesions of another disease (acti-
nomycosis, hydatid disease, verminous bronchitis, distomatosis), it may be
affirmed that there exists, in addition to these conspicuous changes, a tubercu-
lous center which alone has provoked the reaction.

The failure to react does not necessarily imply absence of tubcrc%ilosis. Such
failures of tuberculin are very exceptional. They are seen most frequently with
animals affected with tuberculosis in a very advanced stage and made evident
by plain external signs. Sometimes, also, there are found at the post-mortem
examination of animals which have not reacted small fibrous or calcified lesions
in such a condition that one is tempted to believe them cured. "Whether sterile
or not, these legions have no tendency to increase, and they are not very danger-
ous from the point of view of contagion.

These opinions of two eminent authorities, living in different
countries, after long experience of their own and after studying the
results of the many tests made in different parts of the world, should
have great weight. They are essentially the same throughout.

In 1897 Voges compiled statistics of tuberculin tests, the accuracy
of which had been determined by post-mortem examination. Of
7,327 animals tested, it appeared that errors had been made with 204,
or 2.78 per cent. In the work of the Pennsylvania Live Stock Sani-
tary Board post-mortem examinations were made on about 4.400
reacting cattle and the disease was found in all but 8 of those which
had given characteristic reactions.

The results of a much larger number of tests might be compiled
at this time, but they would not materially change the average of
those already mentioned. It is plain that tuberculin is a remarkably
accurate test of tuberculosis, that the animals which react may be
safely considered as tuberculous, and that when a careful clinical
examination is practiced in addition to the test there are few animals
in a dangerous condition which escape detection.

TUBERCULOSIS. 421

The first questions asked by those who oppose the adoption of the
tuberculin tests are: Is this test infallible? and, if it is not infallible,
why should it be forced upon the cattle owners of the country?

In answer to these questions it may be said that tuberculin is not
absolutely infallible, and yet it is by far the best method of diagnos-
ing tuberculosis that has been discovered. It is much better than any
test known for pleuropneumonia when that disease was eradicated.

Practically all the animals that react are affected with tuberculosis
and should be separated from the herd, not only in the interest of
the public, but in the interest of the owner of the herd. The best
authorities admit, after studying many thousands of tests, that there
are feWj if any, mistakes made in condemning cattle which show a
tj'pical tuberculin reaction. The errors are principally in the other
direction — that is, some tuberculous animals are not discovered by
the tuberculin test, but as the most dangerous of these may be
picked out by ordinary clinical examination this fault of tuberculin
is not so serious as it at first sight appears. This being the case, it
should not be necessary to force the tuberculin test upon owners.
They should be anxious to adopt it in their own interests and for
the protection of their patrons. There is to-day no greater danger
to the cattle and hog industries than that which confronts them in
the form of tuberculosis, a disease already widespread and rapidly
extending. Furthermore, in view of the results revealed by numer-
ous tests covering vast numbers of animals, tuberculin must be con-
sidered as harmless for healthy animals. It has also been clearly
demonstrated that tuberculin interferes in no way with the milking
function in healthy cattle; neither in the quantity of milk nor in
butter- fat value has any variation been detected. The conclusions
of some of the best authorities on the subject of its harmlessness to
healthy animals are given below.

Nocard and Leclainche state:

Direct experiments and observations collected by thousands show that the
tuberculin injections have no unfavorable effect. With healthy animals the
system is Indifferent to the inoculation ; with tuberculous animals it causes
slight changes which are not at all serious.

Bang has written as follows on this question :

We will now consider the following question, a very important one, in the
application of tuberculin, viz : Can the reaction produce a worse condition in
tuberculous animals than before existed? Hess emphatically states that it can,
and on this account he earnestly warns against its application. My attention
has been directed to this question from the beginning. In my first publication
on tuberculin injection I reported two cases in which acute miliary tuberculosis
was proved in two high-grade tuberculous cows several weeks after the tuber-
culin injection. I then stated my suspicion that perhaps the tuberculin injec-
tion had some connection with this, just as is often supposed to be the case
in human practice With my present very large amount of material for obser-

422 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

vation at hand I may express the following opinion : Such an acute develop-
ment of tuberculosis as a result of tuberculin injection is to be feared only
exceptionally, and then in cases of advanced tuberculosis. It must not be for-
gotten that acute miliary tuberculosis by no means rarely accompanies an
advanced tuberculosis of long standing. It is therefore impossible to offer
strict proof of the causal connection with the injection, and only oft-repeate<l
observation could make this probable. In support of my view I offer the
following : In the course of the last three years I have made careful post-
mortem examinations of 83 tuberculous animals, which have been removed
from my experiment farm, Thurebylille. Among these were 18 (or, strictly
speaking, 23) high-grade tuberculous animals. I have been able to prove
miliary tuberculosis in only 4 of these. Among the others, which showed less
developed tuberculosis, I have never found miliary tuberculosis, and with
very many I have never found any sign of a more rapid development of the
pi'ocess. On the contrary, it has been proved that the disease was restricted
locally, often for years, in spite of yearly repeated injections. Dissections were
made at very different periods after the injections — in 17 cases from 4 to 12
days after the last test. In all of these cases earlier tests had been made
months or years before. In 28 cases the injection took place from 19 days
to 2 months before the butchering; in 3 of these cases earlier injections had
been made. In 38 cases from two and one-half months to one year intervened
between the last injection and the dissection. Dissection gives the best expla-
nation of this question, but a clinical observation, continued for years, of a herd
tested with tuberculin can render very essential aid. If Hess's opinion is cor-
rect, it is to be assumed that tuberculosis must take an unusually vicious
course in such herds, but this I have been unable to prove. At Thurebylille
there has existed for three years a reacting division, consisting originally of
131 head and now 69. Although these animals are yearly tested, and although
most of them react every year, the division certainly appears to be made
up of healthy animals, and the farm inspector has expressed the decided opin-
ion that the tuberculosis m this division is no more develoi>ed than at the
beginning of the experiment. The testimony of many o\yners of large herds
of cattle which have long ago been injected is to the same effect. I will ad-
duce statements from several. A farm tenant whose cattle were injected 20
months previously, when 82 per cent of the grown animals reacted, wrote me
recently as follows : " Only 2 cows from the division of 100 head had been
sold as decidedly tuberculous. The majority appeared afterwards, just as
before, entirely healthy. The fat animals which had been slaughtered had
been pronounced healthy by the butchers." Another farm tenant with a herd
injected in 1894 had not been obliged to remove a single animal from the tuber-
culosis division, numbering 70 head. A large farm owner in Jutland stated
in September that he had traced no imdesirable result from the injection. His
herd of 350 had been injected in February and about 75 per cent reacted.
Similar answers have been given by other owners and veterinarians.

A veterinarian who had injected 600 animals, among them a herd of a large
farm, 18 months previously, expi'essed the belief that the injection had pro-
duced in no single case an unusually rapid or vicious course of tuberculosis.
In spite of a demand made months ago, I have received thus far no report from
any veterinarian of an undesirable result.

On a large farm, on which before the injection tuberculosis had appeared
in a vicious form, the owner liad the impression that the severe cases had after-
wards become more numerous. He had, however, not suffered severe losses,
and 8 months later the large reacting division by no means made a bad
impression. Finally, it is to be noticed that tuberculin has been employed on

TUBERCULOSIS. 423

a large scale in Denmark for years, and still the demand from farmers con-
stantly increases. This could certainly not be the case if the injections were
generally followed by bad results.

Paige said, after the tests of the herd of the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural College, that " its use is not followed by any ill effects of a
serious or permanent nature."

Lamson, of the New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment
Station, said : " There is abundant testimony that its use is not in
any way injurious to a healthy animal."

Conn, who made a special study of the present attitude of Euro-
pean science toward tuberculosis in cattle, reached the following
conclusions :

It has been, from the first, thought by some that the use of tuberculin pro-
duces a direct injury upon the inoculated animals. This, however, is un-
doubtedly a mistake, and there is no longer any belief anywhere on the part
of scientists that the injury thus produced is worthy of note. In the first place,
the idea that it may produce the disease in a perfectly healthy animal by the
inoculation is absolutely fallacious. The tuberculin does not contain the
tubercle bacillus, and it is absolutely certain that it is impossible to produce a
case of tuberculosis in an animal unless the tubercle bacilli are present. The
use of tuberculin, therefore, certainly can never produce the disease in the
inoculated animal.

It has been more widely believed, however, that the inoculation of an animal
with this material has a tendency to stimulate an incipient case of tuberculosis.
It has been thought that an animal with a very slight case of the disease may,
after inoculation, show a very rapid extension of this disease and be speedily
brought to a condition where it is beyond any use. The reasons given for this
have been the apparent activity of the tuberculosis infection in animals that
have been slaughtered shortly after inoculation. This has been claimed, not
only by agriculturists who have not understood the subject well, but also by
veterinarians and bacteriologists. But here, too, we must recognize that the
claim has been disproved, and that there is now a practical unanimity of
opinion on the part of all who are best calculated to judge that such an in-
jurious effect does not occur. Even those who have been most pronoimced in
the claim that there is injury thus resulting from tuberculin have, little by
little, modified their claim, until at the present time they say either that the
injury which they formerly claimed does not occur or that the stimulus of the
disease is so slight that it should be absolutely neglected in view of the great
\alue which may arise from the use of tuberculin. Apart from two or three
who hold this vei'y moderate opinion, all bacteriologists and veterinarians unite
in agreeing that there is no evidence for believing that any injury results. In
Denmark, especially, many hundreds of thousands of animals have been inocu-
lated, and the veterinarians say there is absolutely no season in all their
experience for believing that the tuberculin inoculation is followed by any
injurious results.

In 1898 tuberculosis was found in the large Shorthorn herd belong-
ing to W. C. Edwards, of Canada, who with commendable prompt-
ness and public spirit had his animals tested, and at once proceeded
to separate the diseased from the healthy animals. They were all
finely bred animals, and of the very class which we have been told

424 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

are most susceptible to the injurious effects of tuberculin. After
using this test regularly for two years, Mr. Edwards wrote as fol-
lows:

I have seen nothing to lead me to believe that the tuberculin test had any
injurious influence on the course of the disease. It is by no means our opinion
that the disease has been stimulated or aggravated by the application of the
tuberculin test. All animals that we have tested two or three times continue
as hale and hearty as they were previously, and not one animal in our herds
has broken down or failed in any way since we began testing.

Mr. Edwards, in December, 1901, verbally stated that his views
as to the harmlessness of tuberculin remained unchanged, and that
he had not seen the least ill effect in an}^ of his cattle from its use.

Those who have had most experience with tuberculin have failed
to observe any injurious effects following its use upon healthy cattle.
With tuberculous cattle it produces a fever of short duration, and in
the great majority of cases all derangement of the system which it
causes disappears within 48 hours after the tuberculin is adminis-
tered. There appear to have been a very few cases in which the dis-
ease was aggravated, and a greater number in which it was benefited
by the injection of tuberculin. The cases of abortion following the
tuberculin test have not been numerous, even when cows were tested
within a few weeks of the normal time of calving. The few cases of
this kind which have occurred may be explained by the fact that
abortion in cattle is a very common occurrence, and that it would
inevitably happen sometimes after the tuberculin test as a mere coin-
cidence and without any relation between the test and the loss of
the calf. The cases of abortion which have been cited appear to be
no more numerous than might be expected to have occurred among
the same number of cattle within the same period if the test had
not been applied.

Most of the objections to tuberculin would probably be removed
if some method of compensation for the reacting animals could be
devised. Thus, in Pennsylvania, where tuberculosis is being eradi-
cated with more success than in any other State, and where there are
usually three times as many voluntary requests on file for the appli-
cation of the test as can be made, all reacting animals are paid for
by the State. As the suppression of tuberculosis is a public-health
measure it would appear perfectly logical for the State governments
to reimburse cattle owners for animals condemned and slaughtered.

Provision could be made to pay 70 per cent of the appraised value
of the condemned animals, not to exceed $50 per head for common
stock or $150 for registered stock. Such legislation sliould also in-
clude a requirement for the testing of all cattle coming into the State.

All tuberculous animals should be slaughtered in abattoirs having
Federal inspection, and the money obtained from carcasses which are

TUBERCULOSIS. 425

inspected and passed for food, and from the hide and offal of those
carcasses condemned as unfit for food, should be applied as part pay-
ment on the indemnity for their respective owners. The payment of
indemnity for tuberculous animals is a good business policy and
would do more toward making the tuberculin test popular with cattle
owners than any other possible action; also, as a corollary of the
latter, more testing would be performed and more tuberculous cattle
would be discovered at the start, but the gradual suppression of the
disease would soon be manifest, as has been noted in Pennsylvania
and Denmark. Furthermore, as Stiles has mentioned, if tuberculosis
can be eradicated from dairy herds with but slight loss to the owner,
the increase in the price of milk would naturally be inhibited, and,
consequently, the children of poor families would be in less danger
of a decrease in this very important article of their diet.

From the investigations and observations that have been men-
tioned, it may be safely concluded —

1. That the tuberculin test is a wonderfully accurate method of
determining whether an animal is affected with tuberculosis.

2. That by its use the animals diseased with tuberculosis may be
detected and removed from the herd, thereby eradicating the disease.

3. That it has no injurious effect upon healthy cattle.

4. That the comparatively small number of cattle which have
aborted, suffered in health, or fallen off in condition after the test
were either diseased before it was made or were affected by some
cause other than the tuberculin.

SUMMaEY of directions for making the TrBERCL'LIN TEST.

1. Stable cattle under usual conditions and among usual surround-
ings, feed and water in the customary manner.

2. Make a physical examination of each animal, and give to each
one some designation by which the animal will be known throughout
the test.

3. Take each animal's temperature at least three times at two or
three hour intervals on the day of injection; for instance, at 2, 5,
and 8 p. m.

4. At 8 or 10 p. m. inject a dose of tuberculin under the skin in the
region of the shoulder, using a sterile hypodermic syringe after dis-
infecting the skin at the seat of injection with a 5 per cent solution
of carbolic acid or a similar antiseptic solution. /

5. Tuberculin is not always concentrated to the same degree and
therefore the dose, which should always appear on the label, varies
considerabh?^. The dose of imported tuberculin is 0,25 cubic centi-
meter for an adult cow, and before injection is diluted with sterile
water to 2 cubic centimeters. The tuberculin made by the Bureau

426 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

of Animal Industry is prepared so that it will not be necessary to
dilute it. and tlie dose is 2 cubic centimeters for an adult animal.
Yearlings and 2-year-olds, according to size, should receive from
1 to 1^ cubic centimeters, while bulls and very large animals may
receive 3 cubic centimeters.

6. The next day, at 6 a. m., commence taking temperatures, and
continue every two or three hours until the twentieth hour after
injection, at which time, if there is no tendency for the temperature
to rise, the test may cease.

7. A rise of two or more degrees Fahrenheit above the maximum
temperature observed on the previous day, provided the temperature
exceeds 103.8° F., should be regarded as an indication of tuberculosis.
Those cases which approximate but do not reach this standard should
be considered as suspicious and held for a retest six weeks later, giv-
ing double the original dose.

TREATMENT OF TUBERCULOSIS.

Treatment of the disease is not seriously considere'd by any author-
ities at the present time.

The measures to be adopted to prevent the spreading of the disease
must take into consideration not only the tubercle bacillus, but like-
wise all those circumstances that make cattle more susceptible to the
disease, and which have already been dwelt upon. It would be useless
to repeat here all that has been said above on the transmission of
tubercle bacilli from one animal to another, and on the dangers of
certain debilitating influences. A careful study of these influences
will show how tuberculosis may, at least in some cases, be prevented.
Great care should be bestowed upon the breeding, the surroundings,
and the feed of the animal, so that the latter may be put into a condi-
tion to resist irfection even when exposed to it. A tuberculin test
should be applied to all strange cattle before they are introduced into
the herd, and those which show a reaction should be refused.

A rigid exclusion of tuberculous animals is all that is necessary to
prevent the appearance of the disease, provided cattle are not infected
by consumptive persons and animals, though it is probably unusual,
because the bacilli from man are, in most cases, attenuated and harm-
less to cattle.

Tuberculosis in cattle must also be considered as bearing upon
tuberculosis of other domesticated animals, particularly hogs. In
Europe and the T"''nited States this disease is not uncommon among
hogs, and appears to be on the increase. The reason for its existence
may be looked for in the feeding of pigs with skim milk, buttermilk,
and whey from creameries, with the otfal of tlie abattoirs, with the
household refuse generally, and behind tuberculous cattle. If tuber-

TUBERCULOSIS. 427

culosis is common among cattle, it is likely to be transmitted to hogs
kept in this way.

The carcasses of animals which have died of tuberculosis should be
buried deeply so that they can not be eaten by other animals. This
is likewise true of all organs or tissues of slaughtered animals con-
taining tubercles. These should never be fed to other animals, such
as hogs, dogs, and cats, and should either be destroyed by fire or
deeph' buried.

When any of the animals in a herd of cattle show evident symp-
toms of tuberculosis, or when the tuberculin test proves that they
are affected with this disease, the best method of procedure in most
cases is to have the affected animals slaughtered and the stables dis-
infected. A large proportion of the animals which are slightly
affected yield carcasses which are perfectly wholesome and fit for
human food, but in all such cases there should be an inspection by an
expert at the time of slaughter to determine which carcasses may be
used and which should be destroyed.

The disinfection of stables may be accomplished by thoroughly
cleaning them, scrubbing the floors with hot water, brushing down
all loose dust from the walls, and tearing off all woodwork which is
partly decayed. Then the whole interior of the stable should be
covered with a good coat oi limewash containing 1 part of formalin
(which is a 40 per cent watery solution of formaldehyde) to 30 parts
of the lime wash, or 4 ounces of formalin to each gallon of lime wash.

Similar precautions should be observed in removing the manure of
the infected herd from the barnyard and other places accessible to
cattle, since it is known that tuberculous cattle frequently eliminate
large numbers of tubercle bacilli through the feces. The ground
under the manure pile should then be disinfected, either by the
above-mentioned formalin solution or by unslaked lime thickly
sprinkled over the soil.

If all the animals which react are destroyed and the stables dis-
infected in this manner, the herd should remain free from the disease
unless other affected animals are added to it. The introduction of
the disease in this manner may be avoided by requiring a tuberculin
test of all new animals admitted on the premises.

Unfortunately it is a fact that tuberculous animals which have
been tested several times may become so accustomed to tuberculin
that they will no longer react; consequently it is always advisable
to purchase cattle from some one who is known to be reliable, as
otherwise animals of this kind may be treated with tuberculin for
the purpose of hiding the disease.

In the case of very valuable thoroughbred animals, it may be more
advantageous to retain the reacting animals which are in good con-
dition in order to breed from them and in that manner avoid the

428 DISEASES OP CATTLE.

excessive loss which would follow from their immediate slaughter.
This may be done safely if proper precautions are adopted. Tho
healthy animals should be separated from the diseased ones, and the
stable in which the diseased animals have been should be frequently
disinfected. When calves are dropped by the tuberculous cows they
should be immediately removed, or at least not allowed to drink the
mother's milk more than once or twice, and after that fed upon the
milk of healthy cows. The milk from the animals which have
reacted should not be used until after it has been boiled and the
tubercle bacilli thus destroyed. The younger animals which are
raised from tuberculous dams should be tested when they are about
6 months old, and all those which react should be immediately
slaughtered. It has been found that by following the i)lan sug-
gested above not more than 1 or 2 per cent of the calves develop
tuberculosis. It is, of course, some trouble to follow this method,
but it enables the owner of a pure-bred herd to retain the strains
of blood which he has been breeding and gradually to eliminate the
disease. At the end of six or eight j^ears he should have a herd of
cattle free from tuberculosis and be prepared to destroy all those
which have reacted.

BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS AND THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

The increasing amount of evidence pointing to the identity of
human and animal tuberculosis, combined with the extraordinary
mortality of human beings from this disease, often amounting to 10
to 14 per cent, has raised the question in all civilized countries as
to how far animal, and especially bovine, tuberculosis is to blame
for this high mortality. The medical and veterinary professions
have approached this problem with equal zeal, and much has come to
light within recent years which enables us to come to some conclu-
sion. If this disease is transmitted from animals to man, how does
the transmission take place? As comparatively few people come in
direct contact with tuberculous cattle, it must be either through the
meat, the milk, the butter, the cheese, or through all these products
that the virus enters the human body. The question has thus nar-
rowed itself down to the food products furnished by cattle.

It has become a very urgent question, especially in the poorer coun-
ti-ies of Europe, whether all flesh from tuberculous animals is unfit
for human food. It is argued there that if it can be shown that in
the majority of cases of tuberculosis the bones and the muscular
system are free from infection, there is no reason why the meat
should not be put on sale under certain restrictions. The question
may be resolved into two divisions: (1) How frequently does the
disease invade those parts of the body which are used as food?
(2) When the disease process is manifestly restricted to the internal

TUBERCULOSIS. 429

organs, do tubercle bacilli circulate in the blood and lymph and can
they be detected in the muscular tissue?

(1) Disease of the bones is not unknown, although very rare.
According to Walley, it appears chiefly in the spongy bones of the
head and backbone and in the long bones of the limbs. Occasionally
the ends of the. bones, where they are coA'^ered by the synovial mem-
brane of the joints, are dotted with tubercles. The muscular system
itself is very rarely the seat of tuberculous deposits, although the
lymphatic glands lying near and among the muscles may be not
infrequently diseased.

(2) Whether tubercle bacilli are found in muscle juice independent
of any tuberculous deposits is a question which must be approached
experimentally. There is on record a great variety of opinions on
this matter, some authorities considering all flesh from tuberculous
animals unfit for food, while others hold a contrary view. Experi-
ments have shown that in rare cases the flesh of tuberculous cattle
contains a small number of tubercle bacilli. In Germany the flesh
or animals in which the disease is just beginning, or in which it is
restricted to one or more related organs, is not rejected. When,
however, the disease has affected the muscles or bones, or lymphatic
glands situated on or between them, the flesh is condemned as unfit
and dangerous. Animals are also rejected in which it is evident,
from the general distribution of tubercles throughout the various
organs, that the bacilli have been distributed by the blood and may
have been carried into the muscular system (generalized tuberculosis).

Concerning the infectious nature of milk secreted by tuberculous
cows, authorities have universally agreed that when the udder itself
is in the slightest degree involved the milk possesses infectious prop-
erties, and is therefore dangerous. Tubercle bacilli in large numbers
have been found in the milk and the udder under such circumstances.-
Unlike other affections of the udder, tuberculosis of this organ does
not at once change the appearance and the quality of the milk
secreted. Bang states that for at least a month after the disease has
appeared the milk is normal in appearance and may be consumed
and sold without arousing the suspicion of the owner. Considerable
danger is, therefore, involved in this disease, and the necessity for
the careful inspection of dairy cows seems more urgent than ever.

Authorities are, however, not fully agreed as to whether the milk
from tuberculous cows in which the udder is apparently not invaded
by the disease should be considered dangerous or not. Some incline
to the belief that the milk secreted by healthy udders is never infec-
tious, even when the lungs or other organs are affected ; that, in other
words, the tubercle bacilli are rarely, if ever, separated from the
lesions which they produce, and that the udder itself must be diseased
before tubercle bacilli can appear in the milk. Experiments made

430 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

with the milk of tuberculous cows in which there were no indications
of udder disease do not bear out this theory, since tubercle bacilli
have been found in their milk. Some authorities still believe that
the udder is diseased when the milk is infected, but that the disease
escapes observation. However this may be, the fact that the udder
may be diseased and the disease not recognizable simply casts sus-
picion upon all milk from tuberculous animals. We know that the
milk of tuberculous cattle may or may not contain tubercle bacilli
when the udder is apparently free from disease, but we have no rapid
method of determining whether in any given case the milk contains
tubercle bacilli or not. Moreover, the bacilli may be absent at one
time and present at another in milk from the same cow. When we
consider, therefore, the extent of tuberculosis and the hidden charac-
ter of the disease, a certain degree of suspicion rests upon all milk.
Fortunately, tubercle bacilli are readily destroyed by the tempera-
ture of boiling water, and hence both meat and milk are made entirely
safe, the former by the various processes of cooking, the latter by
boiling for a few moments. Until better means of diagnosis are at
hand it is incumbent upon all communities to have dairy cows exam-
ined or inspected, at least to the extent of finding out whether the
udder shows any signs of disease. If this is detected, the aiffected
animal should be killed at once or else all opportunity for the sale of
such milk removed by appropriate measures. The dangers from
infected milk may by these means be very materially lessened.

Recently there has been much discussion of the question as to
whether human and animal tuberculosis are identical diseases and
as to the possibility of the tuberculosis of animals being transmitted
to man or that of man being transmitted to animals.

The fact that tuberculous material from human subjects often
failed to produce serious disease in cattle was observed by a number
of the earlier investigators who experimented with such virus. It
was the experiments and comparative studies of Theobald Smith,
however, which attracted special attention to the difference in viru-
lence shown by tubercle bacilli from human and bovine sources when
inoculated upon cattle. Smith mentioned also certain morphological
and cultural differences in bacilli from these two sources, and in the
location and histology of the lesions in cattle produced by such
bacilli. He did not conclude, however, that bovine bacilli could not
produce disease in the human subject, but said :

It seems to me tliat, accepting the clinical evidence on hand, bovine tubercu-
losis may be transmitted to children when the body is overpowered by larjre
numbers of bacilli, as in udder tuberculosis, or when certain unknown favorable
conditions exist.

Koch, however, in his address at the British Congress on Tubercu-
losis, went far bevond this and maintained that " human tubercu-

TUBERCULOSIS. 431

losis differs from bovine and can not be transmitted to cattle." As
to the susceptibility of man to bovine tuberculosis, he said it was not
yet absolutely decided, but one was " nevertheless already at liberty
to say that, if such a susceptibility really exists, the infection of
human beings is but a very rare occurrence." He emphasizes this
view in the following language :

I should estimate the extent of infection by the millv and flesh of tubercular
cattle and the butter made of their milk as hardly greater than that of heredi-
tary transmission, and I therefore do not deem it advisable to take any
measures against it.

This conclusion was so radically different from the views of most
experimenters and so out of harmony with facts which had ap-
parently been demonstrated by others that it at once aroused opposi-
tion in the congress, followed by the adoption of dissenting resolu-
tions, and led to numerous investigations in various countries.
Kock's conclusions were based upon his failure to produce tubercu-
losis in cattle and other animals by inoculating them with tuberculous
material of human origin and his success in causing progressive and
fatal tuberculosis in the same kinds of animals when inoculated with
tuberculous material of bovine origin. With such positiveness did
he hold to the constant and specific difference between the human and
bovine bacillus that he promulgated an experimental method of dis-
criminating between them. Speaking of the etiology of intestinal
tuberculosis in man, he said :

Hitherto nobody could decide with certainty in such a case whether the
tuberculosis of the intestine was of human or of animal origin. Now we can
diagnose them. All that is necessary is to cultivate in pure culture the
tubercle bacilli found in the tubercular material, and to ascertain whether they
belong to bovine tuberculosis by inoculating cattle with them. For this pur-
pose I recommend subcutaneous injection, which yields quite specially charac-
teristic and convincing results.

These important and comprehensive conclusions followed from a
comparatively few experiments upon animals, and apparently no
effort had been made to learn to what extent human tubercle bacilli
may differ in their virulence for cattle or what grades of virulence
there might be among bacilli of bovine origin. Vagedes had already
shown that bacilli were sometimes present in human lesions which
were as virulent as bovine bacilli, but his work was wholl}' ignored
by Koch.

A considerable number of investigators, including Chauveau,
A^agedes, Eavenel, De Schweinitz, Mohler, De Jong, Delepine, Orth,
Stenstrom, Fibiger and Jensen, Max Wolff, Nocard, Arloing, Behr-
ing, Dean and Todd, Hamilton and Young, the German Tuberculosis
Commission, and Theobald Smith, have found tubercle bacilli in the
bodies of human beings who died of tuberculosis which proved to

432 . DISEASES OP CATTLE.

have about the same virulence for cattle as had the bacilli from
bovine animals affected by the disease.

Kossel, in a preliminary report, stated that the German commission
had tested 7 cultures of tuberculosis from cattle and hogs — 4 from
cattle and 3 from hogs. Two proved acutely fatal in cattle after
eight to nine weeks; 4 likewise produced a generalized tuberculosis,
but which certainly had a more chronic course, while 1 of the cul-
tures caused only an infiltration at the point of inoculation, w'ith
some caseous foci in the adjoining prescapular gland and in one of
the mediastinal glands, and there was lacking the spreading of the
tuberculosis over the entire body which they were accustomed to see
after the injection of cultures of bovine tuberculosis. " Hence," sayg
Kossel, " among bovine tuberculosis bacilli there can also occur differ-
ences with regard to the virulence."

The German commission also tested 39 different freshly made cul-
tures from tuberculous disease in man. Nineteen did not produce the
slightest symptoms in cattle; with 9 others the cattle exhibited after
four months very minute foci in the prescapular glands, which were
mostly encapsuled and showed no inclination to progress; with 7
other cases there was somewhat more marked disease of the prescap-
ular glands, but it did not go so far as a material spreading of the
process to the adjoining glands. There were 4 cultures, however,
which were more virulent and caused generalized tuberculosis in the
cattle inoculated with them.

It would appear, therefore, that hereafter everyone must admit
that it is impossible always to tell the source of a culture of the
tubercle bacillus by its effect w^hen it is inoculated upon cattle. One
of the bovine cultures failed to produce generalized tuberculosis in
cattle, and some of the human cultures did produce it in such ani-
mals. Moreover, while some of the human cultures caused no disease
at all, others led to the development of minute foci in the prescapular
glands, and still others to somewhat more marked disease of the
glands. There were, consequently, four degrees of virulence noted
in these 39 cultures of bacilli from human sources and three degrees
of virulence in the 7 cultures from animal.

Now, if we accept the views of Koch as to the specific difference
between human and bovine tubercle bacilli, and that the human bacilli
produce only localized lesions in cattle, while bovine bacilli produce
generalized lesions in them, must we not conclude that the one non-
virulent bovine culture was in reality of human origin, and that
the animal from which it was obtained had been infected from
man? This is a logical deduction, but reverses the dictum laid down
at London that human tuberculosis is not transmissible to cattle.
Again, how are we to explain the human cultures of medium viru-
lence? Are they human bacilli which, for some unknown reason, are

TUBEBCULOSIS. 433

increasing in virulence and approaching the activity of the bovine
bacillus, or are they really bovine bacilli which have multiplied in
the human body until their virulence has become attenuated? In
whatever manner these questions are decided it would se«m that the
findings of the German commission, instead of supporting Koch's
views that we can decide with certainty by the inoculation of cattle
as to the source of any given bacillus, really show that this method
of diagnosis is extremely uncertain in the present condition of our
knowledge.

It is definitely admitted that 4 of the human cultures caused gen-\
eralized tuberculosis in cattle ; Kossel suggest, however, that it may be
possible that the bacilli in cases of human tuberculosis under certain
circumstances can likewise attain a very high pathogenic activity
for cattle without being for that reason bovine bacilli. Undoubtedly
the German commission is confronting the two horns of a dilemma,
either one of Avhich is fatal to the views of Koch as stated with such
positiveness at London. If we accept this suggestion thrown out by
Kossel, we must conclude that Koch was wrong in his claim that
human tuberculosis can not be transmitted to cattle, and thus with
one blow we destroy the entire experimental support which he had
for his argument before the British Congi^ess on Tuberculosis. If,
on the other hand, we accept the conclusion which follows from
the principle laid down by Koch for the discrimination between
human and bovine bacilli, and which appears to be favored by Kossel,
we must admit that bovine tuberculosis is an extremely important
factor in the etiology of human tuberculosis. Of the 39 cases of
human tuberculosis tested, 4, or more than 10 per cent, were virulent
for cattle and would be classified as of bovine origin ; however, these
4 cases, were all found among the 16 cases of tuberculosis in children
which the commission investigated ; hence it is plain that 25 per cent
of the cases tested of tuberculosis in children would by Koch's method
be classified as of bovine origin.

In the Bureau of Animal Industry two distinct lines of experi-
ments have been carried on, in order that one might serve as a
check against the other. There has been, however, no discrepancy
in the results. De Schweinitz, in the Biochemic Division, Bureau
of Animal Industry, isolated 9 cultures from human tuberculosis.
Two were derived from human sputum, 3 from cases of generalized
tuberculosis in adults, and 4 from cases of generalized tuberculosis
in children. By comparing these cultures with a newly isolated
virulent culture of bovine tuberculosis, there were found among
them 2 cultures from children which were identical in their cul-
tural and morphological characters with the bovine bacillus. These
cultures also killed rabbits and guinea pigs in as short a time as
did the bovine bacillus. Hogs which Avere inoculated subcutane-
33071°— 16 28

434 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ously with these 2 cultures from children died of generalized tuber-
culosis. Two calves weighing more than 300 pounds each were
inoculated subcutaneously with these virulent human cultures, and
as a result developed generalized tuberculosis. A yearling heifer
inoculated with 1 of the cultures showed generalized tuberculosis
when killed three months after inoculation. Both the cattle and
the hogs had been tested with tuberculin and found to be free from
tuberculosis before the inoculations were made. It is important
to observe in this connection that 2 out of 4, or 50 per cent, of the
cultures obtained from cases of generalized tuberculosis in children
proved virulent for cattle.

Mohler, working in the Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal
Industry, has obtained 3 very virulent cultures of tubercle bacilli
from the human subject. A goat inoculated subcutaneously with
1 of these cultures died in 37 days with miliary tuberculosis of the
lungs involving the axillary and prescapular glands. This bacillus
was obtained from the mesenteric gland of a boy. Of still greater
interest is a bacillus isolated by Mohler from human sputum. A
goat inoculated subcutaneously with a culture of this germ died in
95 days of pulmonary tuberculosis. A cat inoculated in the same
manner died in 23 days of generalized tuberculosis. A rabbit simi-
larly inoculated died in 59 days of jDulmonary tuberculosis. An-
other rabbit inoculated with a bovine culture for comparison lived
10 days longer than the one inoculated with this sputum germ.
Mohler also inoculated subcutaneously a 1-year-old heifer with a
culture derived from the tuberculosis mesenteric gland of a boy 4
years of age. This culture was always refractory in its growth under
artificial conditions, and the bacilli were short, stubby rods, corre-
sponding in appearance with the bovine type. At the autopsy, held
127 days after the inoculation, the general condition was seen to be
poor and unthrifty, and large, hard tumors were found at the points
of inoculation. On the right side the swelling measured 3^ by 5
inches, and the corresponding lympth gland was 2'^ inches long by
If inches in diameter. This gland contained numerous calcareous
foci; one at the apex was an inch in diameter. The lesions on the
left shoulder of the animal were very similar to those found on the
right side, but the dimensions of the tumor were slightly less. The
lungs presented an irregular mass of tuberculous nodules, and 7
or 8 grapelike nodules were seen on the parietal pleura. Bronchial
and mediastinal lymph glands contained ninnerous tuberculous foci,
and the pericardium, peritoneum, spleen, and liver also were affected.

In order to throw some light, if possible, upon the morphological
constancy of the different types of tubercle bacilli, Mohler has made
comparative studies of bacilli from various sources, and which had
been passed through various species of animals, by making the cul-

TUBERCULOSIS. 435

tures upon dog serum after the method described by Theobald Smith.
Some important results have been obtained. One culture of human
bacilli which had morphological and cultural peculiarities similar to
those of the bovine bacillus, and which produced only local lesions in
cattle, was passed through a series of five cats. It was then found to
be completely changed in its morphological charactres, the rods being
elongated, slender, more or less beaded, and entirely of the human
type. Far from decreasing in virulence, however, as might be ex-
pected from its morphological appearance, this bacillus had so in-
creased in its pathogenic activity that it produced generalized tuber-
culosis in a cow. This cow was inoculated subcutaneously in front
of each shoulder with 2 cubic centimeters of a salt-solution emulsion
of the tuberculous omentum of the last cat of the series. The cow
rapidly lost flesh, had a temperature of 104° F., with the point of in-
oculation and adjacent glands greatly swollen. The autopsy re-
vealed generalized tuberculosis, involving the lungs, mediastinal
glands, spleen, liver, and kidneys. Tubercle bacilli of the bovine
type obtained from the mesenteric glands of a sheep, hog, and cow
were similarly transformed in their morphological appearance after
being passed through a series of cats and recovered on dog serum.
These bacilli also increased in virulence, as the last cat in the series
invariably succumbed in a shorter time than the first of the series.

These experiments and observations indicate that the types of
tubercle bacilli are very inconstant, and that under suitable condi-
tions they readily change both in morphology and in virulence. A
similar conclusion was reached by other investigators in working
with the avian and piscine types of tubercle bacilli several years ago,
and was reasonably to have been expected with the human and bovine
types.

It must be plain to all, from these recent developments, that too
much has been made of the slight differences in cultural character-
istics, in morphology, and in virulence which have been observed in
some cases in comparing the human and the bovine bacilli. The
observations were interesting, and it was important that they be
followed up until their significance was made entirely clear, but it
was an almost unpardonable error, from a sanitary point of view,
to promulgate sweeping generalizations calculated to arrest and
abolish important measures for preventing human tuberculosis before
the soundness of these generalizations had been established by a
thorough course of experimentation.

When Koch said in the British Congress on Tuberculosis that he
should estimate the extent of infection by the milk and flesh of tuber-
culous cattle and the butter made of their milk as hardly greater than
that of hereditary transmission, and that he therefore did not deem
it advisable to take any measures against it, he went far beyond what

436 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

was justified by any experiments or observations which he reported,
and he did a great deal of harm, which will be manifested for years
to come, to those who endeavor to guard the human race from the
dangers, of animal tuberculosis. The researches which have been
alluded to make these dangers more definite and certain than they
have appeared before, and sanitarians should therefore most ear-
nestly endeavor to counteract the erroneous and harmful impression
which was made by Koch's address at London and his subsequent
address at the International Conference on Tuberculosis at Berlin.

VARIOLA.

Variola of cattle, commonly known as " cowpox," is a contagious
disease of cattle which manifests its presence through an elevation of
temperature, a shrinkage in milk production, and by the appearance
of characteristic, pustular eruptions, especially upon the teats and
udders of dairy cows. Although this is a contagious disease, strictly
speaking, it is so universally harmless and benign in its course that
it is robbed of the terrors which usually accompany all spreading
diseases, and is allowed to enter a herd of cattle, run its course, and
disappear without exciting any particular notice.

The contagion of cowpox does not travel through the air from
animal to animal, but is transfused only by actual contact of the
contagious principle with the skin of some susceptible animal. It
may be carried in this manner, not alone from cattle to cattle, but
horses, sheep, goats, and man may readily contract the disease when-
ever suitable conditions attend their inoculation.

An identical disease frequently appears upon horses, attacking
their heels, and thence extending upward along the leg, producing, as
it progresses, inflammation and swelling of the skin, followed later
by pustules, which soon rupture, discharging a sticky, disagreeable
secretion. Other parts of the body are frequently affected in like
manner, especially in the region of the head, where the eruptions may
appear upon lips and nostrils, or upon the mucous surfaces of the
nasal cavities, mouth, or eyes.

Variola of the horse is readily transmitted to cattle, if both are
cared for by the same attendant, and, conversely, variola of cattle
may be carried from the cow to the hoi"se on the hands of a person
who has been milking a cow affected with the disease.

The method of vaccination with material derived from the erup-
tions of cowpox as a safeguard against the ravages of smallpox in
members of the human family is well known. The immunity which
such vaccination confers upon the human subject has led many
writers to assert that cowpox is simply a modified form of smallpox,
whose harmless attack upon the human system is owing to a certain
attenuation derived during its passages through the system of the

VARIOLA. 437

COW or horse. The results of numerous experiments which have been
carried out for the purpose of determining the reL^tionship existing
between variohi of the human and bovine families seem to show,
however, that although possessing many similar characteristics, they
are nevertheless distinct, and that in spite of repeated inoculations
from cattle to man, and vice versa, no transformation in the real
character of the disease ever takes place.

Symptcxms. — The disease appears in four to seven days after
natural infection, or may evince itself in two or three days as the
result of artificial inoculation. Young milch cows are most sus-
ceptible to an attack, but older coavs, bulls, or young cattle are by no
means immune. The attack causes a slight rise in temperature, which
is soon followed by the appearance of reddened, inflamed areas, prin-
cipally upon the teats and udder, and at times on the abdominal skin
or the skin of the inner surface of the thighs. In a few cases the
fkin of the throat and jaws has been found similarly involved. If
the affected parts are examined on the second day after the establish-
ment of the inflammation numerous pale-red nodules will be found,
Avhich gi'adually expand until, within a few days, they reach a diam-
eter of one-half inch or even larger. At this period the tops of the
nodules become transformed into vesicles which are depressed in the
center and contain a pale, serous fluid. They usually reach their
maturity by the tenth day of the course of the disease and are then
the size of a bean. From this time the contents of the vesicles become
purulent, which requires about three days, when the typical pox
pustule is present, consisting of a swelling with broad, reddened base,
within which is an elevated, conical abscess varying from the size of
a pea to that of a hazlenut.

The course of the disease after the full maturity of the pustule is
rapid if outside interference has not caused a premature rupture of
the small abscess at the apex of the swelling. The pustules gradu-
ally become darker colored and drier until nothing remains but a
thick scab, which at last falls off, leaving only a slight, whitish scar
behind. The total duration of the disease covers some 20 days in
each animal, and owing to the slow spread of the infection from
animal to animal, many weeks may elapse before a stable can be fully
freed from it. The fallen scabs and crusts may retain their conta-
gious properties for several days when mixed with litter and bedding
upon the floor of the stable, and at any time during this period they
are capable of producing new outbreaks should fresh cattle be brought
into the stalls and thus come into actual contact with them. Again,
the pustules may appear, one after another, on a single animal, in
which case the duration of the disease is materially lengthened.

Treatment. — In herds of cattle that regularly receive careful han-
dling, no special treatment will be found necessary beyond the appli-

438 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

cation of softening and disinfecting agents to such vesicles upon the
teats as may have become ruptured by the hands of the milker. Car-
bolized vaseline or iodoform ointment will be found well suited to
this work. In more persistent cases it may be found desirable to use
a milking tube in order to prevent the repeated opening of the pus-
tules during the operation of milking. Washing the sores twice
daily with a weak solution of zinc chlorid (2^ per cent solution) has
been found to assist in checking the inflammation and to cleanse and
heal the parts by its germicidal action. When the udder is hard,
swollen, and painful, support it by a bandage and foment frequently
with hot water. If calves are allowed to suckle the cows the pustules
become confluent, and the ulcerations may extend up into the teat,
causing garget and ruining the whole quarter of the udder.

As young cows are most susceptible to variola, the milker must
exercise constant patience with these affected animals so long as their
teats or udders are sore and tender, else the patient may contract
vicious habits while resisting painful handling. The flow of milk is
usually lessened as soon as the fever becomes established, but is again
normal with the return of perfect health.

The practice of thorough cleanliness in handling or milking
affected cattle may, in many instances, prevent the dissemination
of the trouble among the healthy portion of the herd, but even the
greatest care may prove insufficient to check the spread until it has
attacked each animal of the herd in turn.

ACTINOMYCOSIS (LUMPY JAW).

[Pis. XXXIX-XLI.]

Actinomycosis, also known as lumpy jaw, big jaw, wooden tongue,
etc., is a chronic infectious disease characterized by the formation
of peculiar tumors in various regions of the body, more particularly
the head, and is due to the specific action of a certain fungus (acti-
nomyces). This fungus is an organism which occurs in the tissues
in the form of rosettes, and it has therefore been termed the "ray
fungus." The disease is not directly transmitted from one animal
to another, but it seems apparent that the fungus is conveyed into
the tissues by various feedstuffs through slight wounds of the
mucous membrane of the mouth, decayed teeth, or during the shed-
ding of milk teeth. The ray fungus is found in nature vegetated on
grasses, on the awns of barley, the spears of oats, and on other
grains. Quantities of the fungi have been found between the vege-
table fibers of barley which had penetrated the gums of cattle and on
the awns of grain embedded in the tongues of cows.

Although actinomycotic tumors on cattle had been the object of
study for many years, it was not until 1877 that the constant presence
of actinomyces was pointed out by Bollinger, of Munich, and since

ACTINOMYCOSIS. 439

that time considered the cause. This fungus was observed in these
tumors as early as 1860 by Rivolta, and by others subsequently, with-
out havdng been suspected as causing them.

Since Bollinger's publication much work has been done, many
observations made, and many hitherto obscure disease processes
brought into relation with this fungus. Furthermore, a similar dis-
ease in man was first definitely shown to be associated with the same
fungus in 1878 by Israel, and in the following year Ponfick pointed
out that the disease described by Bollinger in animals and that
found by Israel in man were due to the same cause ; that is, that the
fungi described by these observers were one and the same.

The tumors and abscesses wherever they may be are all found to
be the same in origin by the presence of the actinomyces fungus.
When they are incised, a very close scrutiny with the naked eye, or,
at most, a hand lens, will reveal the presence of minute grains which
vary from a pale-yellow to a sulphur-yellow color. They may be
very abundant or so few as to be overlooked. They are embedded
in the soft tissue composing the tumor or in the pus of the abscess.
With a needle they are easily lifted out from the tissue, and then they
appear as roundish masses about one-half millimeter (5^ inch) in
diameter. To anyone familiar with the use of a microscope the
recognition of these grains or particles without any previous prepa-
ration is a comparatively easy task.

When examined in the fresh condition under a microscope magni-
fying up to 250 diameters the general structure is made out without
much difficulty. These grains consist of collections of minute, round-
ish masses. Their outer surface is made up of club-shaped bodies all
radiating from the center of the mass (see PI. XXXIX, fig. 2), some-
what like a rosette. If the fungus is crushed, the interior is found
made up of bundles of very fine filaments, which are probably con-
tinuous into the club-shaped bodies. The addition of a dilute solution
of caustic soda or potash greatly aids the examination, as it re-
moves the layer of cells adhering to the fungus, which obscures the
structure. Now and then these grains are found to be in a calcified
condition. The exterior is incrusted in lime salts, which are dis-
solved by adding some weak dilute acid, like acetic acid. Only by
this procedure can the fungus be definitely recognized when in a
mummified condition.

These are the bodies whose presence causes sufficient irritation in
the tissues into which they find their way to set up inflammatory
growths. These growths increase as the fungus continues to multiply
until they reach enormous dimensions, if the affected animal is per-
mitted to live long enough. The true nature of this parasite is not
yet definitely settled, although many excellent observers have occu-
pied themselves with it. According to earlier observers, it is a true

440 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

fungus. Later ones are inclined to place it among the higher bac-
teria. Further investigations will be necessary to clear up this
subject.

Whatever the situation of the disease caused by actinomyces may
be, its nature is fundamentally the same and peculiar to the fungus.
The pathological details which make this statement clear can not be
entered upon in this place, nor would they be of any practical value
to the farmer. We will simply dwell upon a few obvious characters.

The consistency of the tumor varies in different situations accord-
ing to the quantity of fibrous or connective tissue present. When
very little of this is present the tumor is of a very soft consistency.
As the quantity of connective tissue is increased the tumor is firmer
and of a more honeycombed appearance. The individual actino-
myces colonies are lodged in the spaces or interstices formed by the
mesh work of the connective tissue. There they are surrounded by
a mantle of cellular elements which fill up the spaces. By scraping
the cut surface of such a tumor these cell masses inclosing the fungi
come away, and the latter may be seen as pale-yellow or sulphur-
yellow specks, as described above.

Location of the disease. — In cattle the disease process may be
located both externally, where it is readily detected, and in internal
organs. Its preferred seat is on the bones of the lower and upper
jaw, in the parotid salivary gland in the angle of the jaw, and in the
region of the throat. It may also appear under the skin in different
parts of the body. Internally it may attack the tongue and appear
in the form of a tumor in the mouth, pharynx, or larynx. It may
cause extensive disease of the lungs, more rarely of the digestive tract.

It appears, furthermore, that in certain districts or countries the
disease seems by preference to attack certain parts. Thus in Eng-
land actinomycosis of the tongue is most prevalent. In Denmark
the soft parts of the head are most prone to disease, while in Russia
the lips are the usual seat. In certain parts of Germany actinomy-
cotic tumors of the throat (pharynx), in other diseases of the jaw-
bones, are most frequently encountered.

A description of actinomycosis of the jaw (lumpy jaw) and of the
tongue has already been given in a previous chapter, and hence they
will be dealt with here only very briefly. When the disease attacks
the soft parts of the head a rather firm swelling appears, in which
are formed one or more smaller projecting tumors, varying from
the size of a nut to that of an egg. These push their way outward
and finally break through the skin as small, reddish, funguslike
bodies covered with thin sloughs. Or the original swelling, in place
of enlarging in the manner described, may become transformed into
an abscess which finally bursts to discharge creamy pus. The abscess

ACTINOMYCOSIS. 441

cavity, however, does not disappear, but is soon filled with fungus-
like growths, which force their way outward through the opening.

When the tumors are situated within the cavity of the pharynx
they have broken through from some gland, perhaps beneath the
mucous membrane, where the disease first appeared, and hang or
project into the cavity of the pharynx, either as pendulous masses
with slender stems or as tumors with broad bases. Their position
may be such as to interfere with swallowing and with breathing.
In either case serious symptoms will soon appear.

The invasion of the bones of the jaws by actinomycosis must be
regarded as one of the most serious forms of the disease. (Pis.
XXXIX, XL.) It may start in the marrow of the bone and by a
slow extension gradually undermine the entire thickness of the bone
itself. The growth may continue outward, and after working its
way through muscle and skin finally break through and appear ex-
ternally as stinking fungoid growths. The growth may at the same
time work its way inward and appear in the mouth. The disease
may also begin in the periosteum, or covering of the bone, and de-
stroy the bone from without inward.

Actinomycosis of the lungs is occasionally observed, and it is not
improbable that at times it has been mistaken for tuberculosis. The
actinomyces grains are, however, easily observed if the diseased tissue
is carefully examined. The changes in the lungs as they appear to
the naked eye vary considerably from case to case. Thus in one
animal the lungs were affected as in ordinary bronchopneumonia as
to the location, extent, and appearance of the disease process. The
affected lobes had a dark-red flesh appearance, with yellowish areas
sprinkled in here and there. (See PL XLI, figs. 1, 2.) These latter
areas were the seat of multiplication of the actinomyces fungus. In
another case, of which only a small portion of the lungs was sent
to the laboratory, they were completely transformed into a uni-
formly grayish mass, very soft and pulpy to the touch, and appear-
ing like very soft and moist dough. (PI. XLI, fig. 3.) The ac-
tinomyces grains were exceedingly abundant in this tissue, and
appeared when the tissue was incised as minute sulphur-yellow grains,
densely sprinkled through the tissue, which readily came away and
adhered to the knife blade. In still another case a portion of the
lung tissue was converted into large, soft masses from 1 to 3 inches
in diameter, each partly inclosed in very dense connective tissue.
These soft, grayish-yellow masses likewise resembled moist dough in
their consistency, and the actinomyces grains, though neither very
distinct nor at all abundant, were easily fished out and indentified as
such. A portion of this growth, which was as large as a child's head,
was converted into an abscess filled with creamy semiliquid pus.

442 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

This case differed from the preceding in that all appearance of
lung tissue had disappeared from the diseased mass. Only on the
exterior the lung tissue could be recognized, although even there it
had been largely converted into very dense, whitish connective tissue
inclosing the fungoid growth. In the other case the external form
of the lung and the shape and outline of the lobules were preserved,
but the lung tissue itself was not recognizable as such. In the case
first mentioned the changes were still less marked, and actinomycosis
would not have been suspected by a simple inspection. These few
illustrations suffice to show that antinomycosis of the lungs may
appear under quite different forms, and that the nature of the disease
can be accurately determined only by finding the fungus itself.
Rarely actinomycosis attacks the body externally in places other
than the head and neck. Crookshank describes the case of a bull
in which the flank was attacked and subsequently the scrotum became
diseased. A large portion of the skin of the flank was destroyed
and covered with a leathery crust. When this was pulled away the
pus beneath it showed the actinomyces grains to the naked eye.

Actinomycosis may also involve the udder, the spermatic cord of
castrated animals, the vagina, and, when it becomes generalized, the
brain, liver, spleen, and muscular tissue.

Actinomycosis may in some cases be confounded with tuberculosis.
The diagnosis does not offer any difficulties, since the presence of the
actinomyces fungus at once removes any existing doubts. As has
already been intimated, these grains, simulating sulphur balls, are
visible to the naked eye, and their nature is readily determined with
the aid of a microscope.

The course of the disease is quite slow. As the tumors grow they
may interfere with the natural functions of the body. According to
their situation, mastication, rumination, or breathing may be inter-
fered with, and in this Avay the animal may become emaciated. Acti-
nomycosis of the jawbones leads to destruction of the teeth and
impedes the movements necessary to chewing the feed. Similarly,
when the disease attacks the soft parts of the head obstructions may
arise in the mouth by an inward growth of the tumor. If tumors
exist in the pharynx they may partially obstruct the movements
necessary to breathing, or close the air passages and cause partial
suffocation. Actinomycosis of the tongue, in interfering with the
many and varied movements of this important organ, is also a serious
matter. There is no reason to suppose that the localized disease
interferes with the general health in any other way than indirectly
until internal organs, such as the lungs, become involved.

A very small proportion of the cases may recover spontaneously,
the tumors being encysted or undergoing calcification. In most cases

ACTINOMYCOSIS. 443

the disease yields readily to proper treatment, and about 75 per cent
of the affected animals may be cured.

Prevention. — The question as to how and where animals take this
disease is one concerning which we are still in the stage of conjecture,
because so far we possess very little information concerning the life
history of the actinomyces itself. The quite unanimous view of all
observers is that animals become infected from the feed. The fungus
is lodged upon the plants and in some way enters the tissues of the
head, the lungs, and the digestive tract, where it sets up its peculiar
activity. It is likewise generally believed that the fungus is, as it
were, inoculated into the affected part. This inoculation is per-
formed by the sharp and pointed parts of plants which penetrate
the mucous membrane and carry the fungus with them. The disease
is therefore inoculable rather than contagious. The mere presence
of the diseased animal will not give rise to disease in healthy animals
unless the actinomyces grains pass directly from the diseased into
some wound or abrasion of the healthy or else drop upon the feed
which is consumed by the healthy. Not only are these views deduci-
ble from clinical observation, but they have been proved by the posi-
tive inoculation of calves and smaller animals with actinomyces.
The danger therefore of the presence of actinomyces for healthy
animals is a limited one. Nevertheless an animal affected with this
disease should not be allowed to go at large or run with other ani-
mals. If the fungus is being scattered by discharging gi'owths we
certainly can not state at this stage of our knowledge that other
animals may not be infected by such distribution, and we must
assume, until more positive information is at hand, that this actually
occurs.

It is, howeA^er, the opinion of the majority of authorities that when
actinomycosis appears among a large number of animals they all
contract it in the same way from the feed. Much speculation has
therefore arisen whether any particular plant or group of plants is
the source of the infection and whether any special condition of the
soil favors it. Very little positive information is at hand on these
questions. It would be very desirable for those who live in localities
where this disease is prevalent to make statistical and other observa-
tions on the occurrence of the disease with reference to the season of
the year, the kind of feed, the nature of the soil (whether swampy or
dry, recently reclaimed, or cultivated for a longtime) upon which the
animals are pastured or upon which the feed is grown.

It is highly probable that such investigations will lead to an under-
standing of the source of the fungus and the means for checking
the spread of the disease itself. Veterinarian Jensen, of Denmark,
made some observations upon an extensive outbreak of actinomycosis

444 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

a number of years ago which led him to infer that the animals were
inoculated by eating barley straw harvested from pieces of ground
just reclaimed from the sea. While the animals remained unaffected
so long as they pastured on this ground or ate the hay obtained from
it, they became diseased after eating the straw of cereals from the
same territory. Others have found that cattle grazing upon low
pastures along the banks of streams and subject to inundations are
more prone to the disease. It has also been observed that feed
gathered from such grounds, even after prolonged drying, may give
rise to the disease. Actinomycosis is not infrequent in cattle in the
southwest and is generally supposed to be the result of eating the
prickly fruit of the cactus plant, causing wounds of the mucous
membrane and subsequent infection with the parasite. Much addi-
tional information of a similar kind must be forthcoming before the
source and manner of infection in this disease and its dependence
upon external conditions will be known. It is not at all improbable
that they may vary considerably from place to place.

Treatment. — Until recently this has been almost entirely surgical.
When the tumors are external and attached to soft parts only, an
early removal may lead to recovery. This, of course, can be under-
taken only by a trained veterinarian, especially as the various parts
of the head and neck contain important vessels, nerves, and ducts
which should be injured as little as possible in any operation. Unless
the tumor is completely removed it will reappear. Disease of the
jawbones is at best a very serious matter and treatment is liable to
be of no avail.

In March, 1892, an important contribution to our knoweldge of
this subject was made by Nocard, of the Alfort Veterinary School,
in a communication to the French Central Society of Veterinary
Medicine. He showed clearly that the actinomycosis of the tongue,
a disease which appears to be quite common in Germany, and is there
known as " wooden tongue," could be quickly and permanently cured
by the administration of iodid of potassium. Nocard calls attention
to the success of Thomassen, of Utrecht, w^io recommended this treat-
ment so long ago as 1885, and who has since treated more than 80
cases, all of which have been cured. A French veterinarian, God-
bille, has used the same remedy in a number of cases of actinomy-
cosis in the tongue, all of which have been cured. Nocard also gives
details of a case which was cured by himself.

All the cases referred to were of actinomycosis of the tongue, and
no one appears to have attempted the cure of actinomycosis of the
jaw until it was undertaken by Norgaard, of the Bureau of Animal
Industry. In April, 1892, he selected a young steer in fair condition
which had a tumor on the ja vv measuring 15^ inches in circumference
and from which a discharge had already been established. This

ACTINOMYCOSIS. 445

animal was treated with ioclid of potassium, and the result was a
complete cure.

The iodid of potassium is given in doses of 1-| and 2| drams once
a day, dissolved in water, and administered as a drench. The dose
should vary somewhat with the size of the animal and with the
effects that are produced. If the dose is sufficiently large signs of
iodism appear in the course of a week or 10 days. The skin becomes
scurfy, there is weeping from the eyes, catarrh of the nose, and loss
of appetite. When these symptoms appear the medicine may be
suspended for a few days and afterward resumed in the same dose.
The cure requires from three to six weeks' treatment. Some animals,
generally the ones which show no signs of iodism, do not improve
under treatment with iodid of potassium.

If there is no sign of improvement after the animals have been
treated four or five weeks, and the medicine has been given in as
large doses as appear desirable, it is an indication that the particular
animal is not susceptible to the curative effects of the drug, and the
treatment may therefore be abandoned.

It is not, however, advisable to administer iodid of potassium to
milch cows, as it will considerably reduce the milk secretion or stop
it altogether. Furthermore, a great part of the drug is excreted
through the milk, making the milk unfit for use. It should not be
given to animals in advanced pregnancy, as there is danger of pro-
ducing abortion.

The best results are obtained by pushing the drug until its effect
is seen. The many tests to which this treatment has been subjected
have proved, with few exceptions, its specific curative value. In
addition to this the tumor should be painted externally with either
the tincture of iodin or Lugol's solution, or the drug should be
injected subcutaneously into the tumor.

Godbille has given as much as 4 drams of potassium iodid in one
day to a steer, decreasing the dose one-fourth dram each day until
the dose was 1^ drams, which was maintained until the tAvelfth day
of treatment, when the animal appeared to be entirely cured.

Nocard gave the first day 1^ drams in one dose to a cow ; the sec-
ond and succeeding days a dose of 1 dram in the morning and
evening, in each case before feeding. This treatment was continued
for 10 days, when the animal was cured.

Actinomycosis and the public health. — The interest which is shown
concerning this cattle disease is largely due to the fact that the same
disease attacks human beings. Its slow progress, its tendency to
remain restricted to certain localities, and the absence of any directly
contagious properties have thus far not aroused any anxiety in other
countries as to its influence on the cattle industry, not even to the
point of placing it among the infectious diseases of which statistics

446 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

are annually published. Its possible bearing on public health has,
however, given the disease a place in the public mind which it hardly
deserves.

It has already been stated that the actinomyces fungus found in
human disease is considered by authorities the same as that occurring
in bovine affections. It is therefore of interest to conclude this
article with a brief discussion of the disease in man and its relation
to actinomycosis in cattle.

In man the location of the disease process corresponds fairly well
to that in cattle. The majority of cases which have been reported
in different parts of the world — and they are now rather numerous —
indicate disease of the face. The skin, tongue, or the jawbones may
become affected, and by a very slow process it may extend downward
upon the neck and even into the cavity of the chest. In many cases
the teeth have been found in a state of more or less advanced decay
and ulceration. In a few cases disease of the lungs was observed
Avithout coexisting disease of the bones or soft parts of the head. In
such cases the fungus must have been inhaled. The disease of the
lungs after a time extends upon the chest wall, where it may corrode
the ribs and work its way through the muscles and the skin. An
abscess is thus formed discharging pus containing actinomyces grains.
Disease of the digestive organs caused by this fungus has also been
cbserved in a few instances.

Granting the identity of the disease in man and cattle, the question
has been raised whether cattle are responsible for its occurrence in
man. Any transmission of the infectious agent may be conceived of
as taking place during the life of the animal and from the meat after
slaughter. That human beings have contracted actinomycosis by
coming in contact with diseased cattle is not shown by the cases that
have been reported, for the occupations of most of the patients did
not bring them into any relation whatever with cattle. Wliile the
possibility of such direct transmission is not denied, nevertheless it
must be considered as extremely rare. Practically the same position
is maintained at present by most authorities as regards the trans-
mission of the disease to man by eating meat. Israel, who has studied
this question carefully, found the disease in Jews who never ate pork,^
and who likewise were protected from bovine actinomycosis by the
rigorous meat inspection practiced by that race. Furthermore, it
must be borne in mind that actinomycosis is a local disease, causing
great destruction of tissue where the fungus multiplies, but which
very rarely becomes generally disseminated over the body from the
original disease focus. The fungus is found only in places where the
disease process is manifest to the eye or becomes so in a very short
time after the lodgment of the fungus. Only the greatest negligence

1 Hogs are subject to actinomycosis.

ANTHRAX. 447

would allow the actually diseased parts to be sold and consumed.
Finally, this parasite, like all others, would be destroyed in the proc-
ess of cooking. Most authorities thus do not believe that actinomy-
cosis in man is directl}'^ traceable to the disease in animals, but are of
the opinion that both man and animals are infected from a third
source, which has already been discussed above. How fai these views
may be modified by further and more telling investigations of the
parasite fungus itself no one can predict. There are still wide gaps
in our knowledge, and the presentation above simply summarizes the
prevailing views, from which there are dissenters, of course. An
attempt to give the views of both sides on this question would neces-
sitate the summarizing and impartial discussion of all the experi-
ments thus far made — a task entirely beyond the scope of the present
work.

Whether an animal affected with actinomycosis should be used for
human food after all diseased organs and tissues have been thoroughly
removed is a question the answer to which depends on. a variety of
circumstances. Among these may be mentioned the thoroughness of
the meat inspection itself, the extent of the disease, and the general
condition of the animal affected.

The Federal meat-inspection regulations require that carcasses of
animals showing generalized actinomycosis shall be condemned.
If carcasses are in a well-nourished condition, showing uncompli-
cated localized lesions of actinomycosis, they may be passed after
the infected organs or parts have been removed and condemned.
When the disease of the jaw is slight, strictly localized, and without
pus formation, fistulous tracts, or lymph-gland involvement, the
tongue, if free from disease, may be passed. The heads affected
with actinomycosis (lumpy jaw), including the tongue, shall be
condemned, except that when the lesions in the jaw are strictly local-
ized and slight in extent, the tongue may be iDassed, if free from
disease.

ANTHRAX.

Anthrax or charbon may be defined as an infectious disease which
is caused by specific bacteria, known as anthrax bacilli, and which is
more or less restricted by conditions of soil and moisture to definite
geographical localities. A^^iile it is chiefly limited to cattle and sheep,
it may be transmitted to goats, horses, cats, and certain kinds of
game. Smaller animals, such as mice, rabbits, and guinea pigs,
speedily succumb to inoculation. Dogs and hogs are slightl}^ sus-
ceptible, while fowls are practically immune. The variety of domes-
ticated animals which it may attack renders it one of the most
dreaded scourges of animal life. It may even attack man. Of this
more will be stated further on.

ACTINOMYCOSIS (LUMPY JAW).

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate XXXIX. Actinomycosis. (From Joline's Encyklopadie d. gesammt.
Tliierheilkunde. )

Fig. 1. Actinomycosis of the jaw. The lower jawbone has been extensively
eaten away by the disease.

Fig. 2. Actinomyces fungus from a tumor of the jawbone in cattle, magni-
fied 550 times.
Plate XL. Actinomycosis of the jaw. (Rediiced one-half. From Johne's
Encyklopadie d. gesammt. Thierheilkunde.) The lower jaw is sawn
through transversely, i. e., from right to left, and shows the disease
within the jawbone itself ; a, within the mouth, showing the papillae on
the mucous membrane of the cheek ; b, front view of a molar tooth ;
c, the skin covering the lower surface of the jawbone ; d, the jawbone
hollowed out and enlarged by the formation of cavities within it, which
are filled with the soft growth of the actinomycotic tumor. The section
makes it appear as if the bone were broken into fragments and these
forced apart ; e, a portion of the tumor which has broken through the
bone and the skin and appears as a tumor on the cheek. The little
roundish masses represent the granulomata (minute tumors) in which
the fungus vegetates.
Plate XLI. Actinomycosis of the lungs.

Fig. 1. Transverse section of the ventral lobe of the right lung, from a case
studied in the laboratory. The yellowish dots represent the places
where the actinomyces fungus is lodged. The larger yellowish patches
are produced by the confluence of a nimiber of isolated centers. The
entire lobe is of a darlc flesh-red color, due to collapse and broncho-
pneumonia.

Fig. 2. The cut surface of a portion of the principal lobe of the same lung,
showing the recent invasion of antinomycosis from the other lobe : a,
large air tube ; I), artery ; c, a pneumatic lobule ; d, lobule containing
minute yellowish dots. In these the actinomyces fungus is lodged.

Fig. 3. Cut surface of a small portion of anotlier lung, showing a few
lobules, fl. The fungus is sprinlcled tliroughout the lung tissue in the
form of yellowish grains, as shown in the illustration. The pleural
covering of the lung tissue is shown in profile above.
448

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XXXIX.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XL.

Actinomycosis of the Jaw,

Diseases of Cattle— U. S. Dept. of Agr

Plate XLI.

L.HOEN &C0 BALTIMORE.

ANTHRAX. 449

Cause. — The cause of anthrax is a microscopic organism known as
the anthrax bacilhis, (See PI. XXVIII, fig. 7.) In form it is
cylindrical or rodlike, measuring -swir to -jwo inch in length and
^TUTJTT iiich in diameter. Like all bacteria, these rotllike bodies
have the power of indefinite multiplication, and in the bodies of
infected animals they produce death hj rapidly increasing in num-
bers and producing substances which poison the body. In the blood
they multiply in number by becoming elongated and then dividing
into two, each new organism continuing the same process indefinitely.
Outside the body, however, they multiply in a different way when
under conditions unfavorable to growth. Oval bodies, which are
called spores, appear within the rods, and remain alive and capable
of germination after years of drying. They also resist heat to a
remarkable degree, so that boiling water is necessary to destroy them.
The bacilli themselves, on the other hand, show only very little re-
sistance to heat and drying. It has long been known that the anthrax
virus thrives best under certain conditions of the soil and on terri-
tories subject to floods and inundations. The particular kinds of
soil upon which the disease is observed are black, loose, warm, humous
soils; also those containing lime, marl, and clay, finally peaty, swampy
soils resting upon strata which hold the water, or, in other words, are
impervious. Hence fields containing stagnant pools may be the source
of infection. The infection may be limited to certain farms, or even
to restricted areas on such farms. Even in the Alps, more than 3,000
feet above sea level, where such conditions prevail in secluded valleys,
anthrax persists among herds.

Aside from these limitations to specific conditions of the soil,
anthrax is a disease of world-wide distribution. It exists in most
countries of Euroj^e, in Asia, Africa, Australia, and in our own
country in the lower Mississippi Valley, the Gulf States, and in some
of the Eastern and Western States. It seems to be gradually spread-
ing in this country and every year occurs in new districts.

Meteorological conditions also have an important share in deter-
mining the severity of the disease. On those tracts subject to inun-
dations in spring a very hot, dry summer is liable to cause a severe
outbreak. The relation which the bacillus bears to these conditions
is not positively known. It may be that during and immediately
after inundations or in stagnant water the bacilli find nourishment
enough in the water here and there to multiply and produce an
abundant crop of spores, which are subsequently canned, in a dry
condition, by the winds during the period of drought and dissemi-
nated over the vegetation. Animals feeding upon this vegetation
may contract the disease if the spores germinate in the body.

Another source of the virus, and one regarded by many authorities
as perhaps the most important, is the body of an animal which has
33071°— 16 29

450 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

died of anthrax. It will be remembered that in such bodies the
anthrax bacilli are present in great numbers, and wherever blood
or other body fluids are exposed to the air on the surface of the carcass
there the formation of spores will go on with great rapidity in the
warm season of the year. It will thus be readily understood how this
disease may become stationary in a given locality and appear year
after year and even grow in severity if the carcasses of animals which
have succumbed to it are not properly disposed of. These carcasses
should be buried deeply, so that spore formation may be prevented
and no animal have access to them. By exercising this precaution
the disease will not be disseminated by flies and other insect pests.

We have thus two agents at work in maintaining the disease in any
locality — ^the soil and meteorological conditions, and the carcasses of
animals that have died of the disease. Besides these dangers, which
are of immediate consequence to cattle on pastures, the virus may be
carried from place to place in hides, hair, wool, hoofs, and horns,
and it may be stored in the hay or other fodder from the infected
fields and cause an outbreak among stabled animals feeding upon it
in winter. In this manner the affection has been introduced into
far-distant localities.

How cattle are infected. — We have seen above that the spores of
the anthrax bacilli, which in their functions correspond to the seeds
of higher plants and which are the elements that longest resist the
unfavorable conditions in the soil, air, and water, are the chief agents
of infection. They may be taken into the body with the feed and
produce disease which begins in the intestinal tract, or they may
come in contact with scratches, bites, or other wounds of the skin,
mouth, and tongue, and produce in these situations swellings or
carbuncles. From such swellings the bacilli penetrate into the blood
and produce a general disease.

It has likewise been asserted that the disease may be transmitted by
various kinds of insects which carry the bacilli from the sick and
inoculate the healthy as they pierce the skin. When infection of the
blood takes place from the intestines the carbuncles may be absent.
It has already been stated that since anthrax spores live for sev-
eral years, the disease may be contracted in winter from feed gathered
on permanently infected fields.

The disease may appear sporadically, i. e., only one or several
animals may be infected while the rest of the herd remain well, or it
may appear as an epizootic attacking a large number at about the
same time.

Symptoms. — The symptoms in cattle vary considerably, according
as the disease begins in the skin, in the lungs, or in the intestines.
They depend also on the severity of the attack. Thus we may have
what is called anthrax peracutus or apoplectiform, when the animal

ANTHRAX. 451

dies very suddenly as if from apoplexy. Such eases usually occur in
the beginning of an outbreak. The animal, without having shown
any signs of disease, suddenly drops in the pasture and dies in
convulsions, or one apparently well at night is found dead in the
morning.

The second type (anthrax acutis), without any external swellings,
is the one most commonly observed in cattle. The disease begins
with a high fever. The temperature may reach 106^^ to 107° F. The
pulse beats from 80 to 100 a minute. Feeding and rumination are
v'-uspended. Chills and muscular tremors may appear and the skin
show uneven temperature. The ears and base of the horns are cold,
the coat staring. The animals are dull and stupid and manifest
great weakness.

To these symptoms others are added in the course of the disease.
The dullness may give way to great uneasiness, champing of the
jaws, spasms of the limbs, kicking and pawing the ground. The
breathing may become labored. The nostrils then dilate, the mouth
is open, the head raised, and all muscles of the chest are strained
during breathing, while the visible mucous membranes (nose, mouth,
rectum, and vagina) become bluish. If the disease has started in
the bowels, there is much pain, as shown by the moaning of the
animal ; the discharges, at first firm, become softer and covered with
serum, mucus, and blood.

As the disease approaches the fatal termination the weakness of
the animal increases. It leans against supports or lies down. Blood
vessels may rupture and give rise" to spots of blood on the various
mucous membranes and bloody discharges from nose, mouth, rectum,
and vagina. The urine not infrequently contains blood (red water),
and death ensues within one or two days.

A third type of the disease (anthrax subacutas), which is rarely
observed, includes those cases in which the disease is more prolonged.
It may last from three to seven days and terminate fatally or end in
recovery. In this type, the symptoms are practically as described in
the acute form, only less marked.

In connection w^th these types of intestinal anthrax, swellings may
appear in different parts of the body under the skin, or the disease
may start from such a swelling, caused by the inoculation of anthrax
spores in one of the several different ways already described. If the
disease begins in the skin, it agrees in general with the subacute form
in prolonged duration, and it may occasionally terminate in recovery
if the swellings are thoroughly incised and treated.

Lesions. — These swellings appear as edemas and carbuncles. The
former are doughy tumors of a more or less flattish form passing
gradually into the surrounding healthy tissue. As a rule, they are
situated beneath the skin in the fatty layer, and the skin itself is at

452 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

first of healthy appearance, so that they are often overlooked, espe-
cially when covered with a good coat of hair. AVhen they are cut
open they are found to consist of a peculiar, jellylike mass of a yel-
lowish color and more or less stained with blood. The carbuncles are
firm, hot, tender swellings, which later become cool and painless and
undergo mortification. The edemas and carbuncles may also appear
in the mouth, pharynx, larynx, in the tongue, and in the rectum.

The bodies of cattle which have died of anthrax soon lose their
rigidity and become bloated, because decomposition sets in very
rapidly. From the mouth, nose, and anus blood-strained fluid flows
in small quantities. "WTien such carcasses are opened and examined
it is found that nearly all organs are sprinkled with spots of blood
or extravasations of various sizes. The spleen is enlarged from two
to five times, the pulp blackish and soft and occasionally disinte-
grated. The blood is of tarry consistency, not firmly coagulated, and
blackish in color. In the abdomen, the thoracic cavity, and in the
pericardium, or bag surrounding the heart, more or less blood-stained
fluid is present. In addition to these characteristic signs, the car-
buncles and swellings under the skin, already described, will aid in
determining the true nature of the disease. The most reliable method
of diagnosis is the examination of the blood and tissues for anthrax
bacilli, which requires a trained bacteriologist. The cases of fatal
anthrax number from 70 to 90 per cent, and are usually more numer-
ous at the first outbreak of the disease.

Differential diagnosis. — The diagnosis from blackleg may be made
by noting the subcutaneous swellings which appear upon the patient.
Those of blackleg are found to crackle under pressure with the finger,
owing to the presence of gas within the tissues, while the tumors of
anthrax, being caused by the pressure of serum, are entirely free from
this quality and have a somewhat doughy consistence. The tumors
of blackleg are usually on the shoulder or thigh and are not found
so frequently about the neck and side of the body as are the swellings
of anthrax. The blood of animals dead of blackleg is normal, and
the spleen does not appear swollen or darkened, as in those affected
with anthrax. The chief differences between anthrax and Texas
fever are that the course of the former is more acute and the blood of
the animal is dark and of a tarlike consistence, while in the latter
it is thinner than normal. The presence of Texas-fever ticks on the
cattle would also lead one to suspect that disease in regions where -
cattle are not immune from it.

TreatTnenf. — In cases which originate from external wounds, the
swellings should be opened freely by long incisions with a sharp knife
and washed several times daily with carbolic-acid solution (1 ounce to
a quart of water). Care should be taken to disinfect thoroughly any
fiuid discharge that may follow the incision. When suppuration

ANTHRAX. 453

has set in the treatment recommended in the chapter on wounds
should be carried out.

In the treatment of animals showing symptoms of anthrax, the
serum recommended under the next heading of " Prevention " should
be administered in large doses. Animals showing only a high tem-
perature with no other symptoms of the disease should be given
from 30 to 50 cubic centimeters of the serum, but if the gravity of
the disease is pronounced 100 cubic centimeters should be adminis-
tered. In most instances a drop in temperature may be observed and
a diminishing of the severity of the symptoms. At times, however,
a relapse occurs about the second or third day following the serum
injection, when it becomes necessary to administer another dose of
serum. It has been proved that animals affected with anthrax may
recover after injections of potent serum.

Prevention. — In this disease prevention is the most important
subject demanding consideration. The various means to be sug-
gested may be brought under two heads: (1) The surroundings of
the animal, and (2) preventive inoculation.

(1) Surroundings.^ — Wliat has already been stated of those con-
ditions of the pastures which are favorable to anthrax, after a little
thought, will suggest to most minds some of the preventive measures
which may be of service in reducing losses in anthrax localities. All
that conduces to a better state of the soil should be attempted. The
State or Nation, by appropriate engineering, should do its share in
preventing frequent inundations. If pools of stagnant water exist
in the pastures, or if any particular portions are known by experience
to give rise to anthrax, they should be fenced off. Efforts should
likewise be made toward the proper draining, of swamp lands fre-
quented by cattle. Sometimes it has been found desirable to abandon
for a season any infected or dangerous pastures. This remedy
can not be carried out by most farmers, and it is liable to ex-
tend the infected territory. In some instances withdrawal of cattle
from pastures entirely and feeding them in stables is said to have
reduced the losses.

It is of the utmost importance that carcasses of animals which have
died of anthrax be properly disposed of, as every portion of such
animal contains the bacilli, ready to form spores when exposed to the
air. Perhaps the simplest means is to bury the carcasses deep,
where they can not be exposed by dogs or wild animals. It may be
necessary to bury them on the pasture, but it is better to remove
them to places not frequented by susceptible animals and to a point
where drainage from the graves can not infect any water supply.

If they are moved some distance it miist be borne in mind that the
ground and all objects which have come in contact with the carcass
should be disinfected. This is best accomplished with chlorid of

454 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

lime. For washing utensils, etc., a 5 per cent solution may be pre-
pared by adding 3 ounces to 2 quarts of water. This should be
prepared fresh from the powder, and it is but little trouble to have a
small tin measure of known capacity to dip out the powder, to be
added to the water whenever necessary. The carcass and the ground
should be sprinkled with powdered chlorid, or, if this is not at hand,
an abundance of ordinary, unslaked lime should be used in its place.

The removal of carcasses to rendering establishments is always
fraught with danger, unless those who handle them are thoroughly
aware of the danger of scattering the virus by careless handling in
wagons that are not tight. As a rule, the persons in charge of such
transfer have no training for this important work, so that deep burial
is to be preferred. Burning large carcasses is not always feasible ;
it is, however, the most certain means of destroying infectious mate-
rial of any kind, and should be resorted to whenever practicable and
economical. All carcasses, whether buried, rendered, or burned,
should be disposed of unopened. When stables have become in-
fected they should be thoroughly cleaned out, and the solution of
chlorid of lime freely applied on floors and woodwork. The feed
should be carefully protected from contamination with the manure
or other discharges from the sick.

(2) Preventive inoculation. — One of the most important discov-
eries in connection with the disease was made by Louis Pasteur
in 1881, and consisted in the new principle of producing immunity
by the inoculation of weakened cultures of the bacillus causing the
disease. This method has been quite extensively adopted in France,
and to some extent in other European countries, and in the United
States. The fluid used for inoculation consists of bouillon in which
modified anthrax bacilli have multiplied and are present in large
numbers. The bacilli have been modified by heat so that to a certain
degree they have lost their original virulence. Two vaccines are
prepared. The first or weaker, for the first inoculation, is obtained
by subjecting the bacilli to the attenuating effects of heat for a longer
period of time than in the case of the second, or stronger vaccine, for
a second inoculation some 12 days later.

There are several difficulties inherent in the practical application
of Pasteur's vaccine. Among them may be mentioned the variable
degree of attenuation of different tubes of the vaccine and the vary-
ing susceptibility of the animals to be inoculated. The use of this
vaccine is increasing, nevertheless, and has reduced the mortality in
the affected districts from an average of 10 per cent in the case of-
sheep, to less than 1 per cent, and from 5 per cent with cattle, to less
than one-half of 1 per cent.

It is very imj^ortant to call attention to the possibility of dis-
tributing anthrax by this method of protective inoculation, as the

ANTHRAX. 455

bacilli themselves are present in the culture liquid. It is true that
they have been modified and weakened by the process adopted by
Pasteur, but it is not impossible for such modified virus to regain
its original virulence after it has been scattered broadcast by the
inoculation of large herds. It is obviously unsafe to have such
vaccine injected by a layman ; instead, it should be handled only by
a competent veterinarian.

There are other disadvantages in this method of vaccination, and
they all must be given due consideration. The unstable keeping
quality of the Pasteur vaccine is a very important factor to be consid-
ered. Experience in this line has proved that Pasteur vaccine may
deteriorate within a very short time after its preparation, and in re-
peated instances it has proved inert within three months of its
preparation. When exposed to warm temperature and light, it
deteriorates verj?^ rapidly ; and when it is considered that the products
of manufacturers may be stored under unfavorable conditions in
branch houses and on the shelves of rural drug stores, the loss of
potency can be readily explained. These deficiencies have been rec-
ognized by many investigators, and because of the superior keeping
qualities particular attention has been directed toward the prepara-
tion of a spore vaccine by Zenkowsky of Russia, Detre of Hungarj^,
and Nitta of Japan. For the purpose of producing a spore vaccine
it is desirable to use a peptone-free agar medium, and after inocula-
tion with an attenuated culture of the anthrax bacillus, it is allowed
to grow at a temperature of 37° C. for 4 to 7 days. By this time an
abundance of spores will have formed. The growth is then collected
in sterile flasks and heated to a temperature of 60° C. for one-half
hour to destroy the vegetative forms of the organism. If it is desired
to use for vaccination one million spores, it is advisable to dilute the
vaccine to a quantity of which 1 cubic centimeter would contain this
number. Of such a vaccine 1 cubic centimeter would constitute the
dose for cattle and horses. In all forms of vaccination against an-
thrax in sheep the greatest care must be exercised, as these animals
are very susceptible to the disease, and at times vaccines which have
no ill effects on cattle will prove fatal to sheep. Therefore the dose
of the spore vaccine for sheep should not be more than one-fourth
of that given to cattle.

Sclavo, Sobernheim, and others have established that injections
of increasing quantities of virulent cultures into immune animals
produced a serum which has great protective value against anthrax.
Such protective serum may be produced in the various susceptible
animals.

For immunization purposes it is advisable to use the simultaneous
method; that is, both the spore vaccine and the anthrax serum should
be injected. It is desirable to divide the herd to be treated into

456 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

groups of ten or twelve and inject, first, each animal of the group
with the serum, following this with the injection of the spore vaccine.
The serum should be injected on one side, either :: the neck or back
of the shoulder, and the spore vaccine on the Other side, injections
being made subcutaneously. In herds in which the disease has
already made its appearance it is necessary to take the temperatures
of all the animals and to subject to the simultaneous vaccination only
those that show no rise in temperature. All others should be given
the serum-alone treatment in doses varying in accordance with the
severity of the symptoms manifested by the individual animals. If
the examination reveals a considerable number of infections, it is
advisable to use the serum alone for all the animals, and in three or
four weeks to revaccinate by the simultaneous method. The dosage
should depend on the potency of the serum, serum of a high potency
naturally being most desirable. Thus serum in 10 cubic centimeter
doses for large animals, and 3 to 5 cubic centimeter doses for smaller
ones, has been found to be effective in producing a temporary
immunit3^

As anthrax is entirely different from blackleg, vaccine for the latter
does not act as a preventive against the former.

ANTHRAX IN MAN (MALIGNANT PUSTULE, OR CARBUNCLE).

Anthrax may be transmitted to man in handling the carcasses and
hides of animals which have succumbed to the disease. The infec-
tion usually takes place through some abrasion or slight wound of
the skin into which the anthrax spores, or bacilli, find their way.
The point of inoculation appears at first as a dark point or patch,
compared by some writers to the sting of a flea. After a few hours
this is changed into a reddened pimple, which bears on its summit,
usually around a hair, a yellowish blister, or vesicle, which later on
becomes red or bluish in color. The burning sensation in this stage
is very great. Later this pimple enlarges, its center becomes dry,
gangrenous, and is surrounded by an elevated, discolored swelling.
The center becomes drier and more leatherlike, and sinks in as the
Avhole increases in size. The skiii around this swelling or carbuncle
is stained yellow or bluish, and is not infrequently swollen and
doughy to the touch. The carbuncle itself rarely grows larger than
a pea or a small nut, and is but slightly painful.

Anthrax swellings or edemas, already described as occurring in
cattle, may also be found in man, and they are at times so extensive
as to produce distortion in the appearance of the part of the body
on which they are found. The color of the skin over these swellings
varies according to the situation and thickness of the skin and the
stage of the disease, and may be white, rod. bluish, or blackish.

BLACKLEG. 457

As sooner or later these carbuncles and swellings may lead to an
infection of the entire body, and thus be fatal, surgical assistance
should at once be called if there is well-grounded suspicion that any
swellings resembling those described above have been caused by in-
oculation with anthrax virus. Inasmuch as physicians differ as to
medicinal treatment of such accidents in man, it would be out of
place to make any suggestions in this connection.

Extensive data are available, however, on the effectiveness of an-
thrax serum for the treatment of the disease in man. It is recom-
mended that from 30 to 40 cubic centimeters of serum be injected in
three or four different places. Should no improvement follow in
24 hours additional injections of 20 to 30 cubic centimeters should be
administered.

In most instances the results are favorable, and this treatment is
acknowledged to be superior to any other mode of treatment known
for the disease.

To show that the transmission of anthrax to man is not so very
uncommon, we take the following figures from the 1890 report of
the German GoA^ernment: The attention of the authorities was
brought to 111 cases, of which 11 terminated fatally. The largest
number of inoculations Avere caused by the slaughtering, opening,
and skinning of animals affected with anthrax; hence, the butchers
suffered most extensively. Of the 111 thus affected, 36 belonged to
this craft.

In addition to anthrax of the skin (known as malignant pustule),
human beings are subject, though very rarely, to the disease of the
lungs and the digestive organs. In the former case the spores are
inhaled by workmen in establishments in which wool, hides, and rags
are worked over, and it is therefore known as woolsorter's disease.
In the latter case the disease is contracted by eating the flesh of dis-
eased animals which has not been thoroughly cooked. These forms
of the disease are more fatal than those in which the disease starts
from the skin.

BLACKLEG.'

[PI. XLIL]

Blackleg, black quarter, quarter ill. symptomatic anthrax, charbon
symptomatique of the French, Eauschbrand of the Germans, is a
rapidly fatal, infectious disease of young cattle, associated with ex-
ternal swellings Avhich emit a crackling soimd when handled. This
disease was formerly regarded identical with anthrax, but investiga-
tions by various scientists in recent times have definitely proved the
entire dissimilarity of the two affections, both from a clinical and a

1 For detailod information regarding blackleg and the free distribution of blackleg
vaccine, write to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C.

458 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

causal standpoint. The disease is produced by a specific bacillus,
readily distinguishable from that causing anthrax. (PI. XXVIII,
fig. 4.) Cattle between 6 months and 2 years of age are the most
susceptible. Sucking calves under 6 months are rarely attacked, nor
are they so susceptible to inoculation as older animals. Cattle more
than 2 years of age may become affected, but such cases are infre-
quent. Sheep and goats may also contract the disease, but man,
horses, hogs, dogs, cats, and fowls appear to be immune.

Like anthrax, blackleg is more or less restricted to definite local-
ities. There are certain pastures upon which the disease regularly
appears in the summer and fall of the year. As to any peculiarities
of the soil nothing is definitely known. Some authors are inclined
to regard moist, undrained, and swampy pastures favorable to this
disease, but these theories will hardly hold, as it is found in all kinds
of soil, in all altitudes, at all seasons of the year, and under various
climatic conditions. It occurs in this country from the Atlantic to
the Pacific and from Mexico to Canada, but it is more prevalent in
the Western and Southwestern States. In Europe it exists in France,
various parts of Germany, in Belgium, Norway, Denmark, Italy,
and in the Alps of Switzerland. In Africa it occurs in Algeria
and to some extent in Natal and bordering countries. In South
America it prevails quite extensively throughout Argentina. Cattle-
in Cuba and Australia also suffer.

Cause, — The cause of the disease is a bacillus resembling in some
minor respects the anthrax bacillus and differing but little from it
in size. It also possesses the power of forming within itself a spore.
In Plate XXVIII, figure 4, this is represented as an uncolored spot
located in one end of the rod, which is enlarged so that the rod
itself appears more or less club-shaped. What has already been
stated concerning the .significance of the spore of the anthrax bacillus
applies equally well to these bodies. They resist destructive agents
for a considerable time, and may still produce disease when inocu-
lated after several years of drying. This fact may account for the
occasional aj^pearance of blackleg in stables. In order to meet the
requirements for the development of the spores, which takes place
only in the absence of the atmosphere, it is necessary that the wound
be very small and deep enough to penetrate the subcutaneous tissue.

Several observers have found this organism in the mud of swamps.
By placing a little of the mud under the skin, the disease has been
produced.

Since the disease may be produced by placing under the slrin
material containing the specific bacilli and spores, it has been
assumed that cattle contract the disease through wounds, principally
of the skin, or very rarely of the mouth, tongue, and throat. Slight
wounds into which the virus may find access may be caused by

BLACKLEG. 459

barbed wire, stubbles, thorns, briers, grass burs, and sharp or pointed
parts of feed.

Symjytorm and lesions. — The symptoms of blackleg may be either
of a general or of a local nature, though more frequently of the
latter. The general symptoms are very much like those belonging
to other acute infectious or bacterial diseases. They begin, from one
to three days after the infection has taken place, with loss of appe-
tite and of rumination, with dullness and debility, and a high fever.
The temperature may rise to 107° F. To these may be added lame-
ness or stiffness of one or more limbs, due to the tumor or swelling
quite invariably accompanying the disease. After a period of dis-
ease lasting from one to three days the affected animal almost always
succumbs. Death is preceded by increasing weakness, difficult
breathing, and occasional attacks of violent convulsions.

The most important characteristic of this disease is the appear-
ance of a tumor or swelling under the skin a few hours after the
setting in of the constitutional symptoms described above. In some
cases it may appear first. This tumor may be on the thighs (hence
"blackleg," "black quarter"), the neck, the shoulder, the breast,
the flanks, or the rump; never below the carpal (or knee) and the
hock joint. It more rarely appears in the throat and at the base
of the tongue. The tumor, at first small and painful, spreads very
rapidly both in depth and extent. When it is stroked or handled
a peculiar crackling sound is heard under the skin. ; this is due to
a collection of gas formed by the bacilli as they multiply. At this
stage the skin becomes dry, parchment-like, and cool to the touch
in the center of the tumor. If the swelling is cut into, a frothy,
dark-red, rather disagreeably smelling fluid is discharged. The ani-
mal manifests little or no pain during the operation.

As it is frequently desirable to know whether the disease is anthrax
or blackleg, a few of the most obvious post-mortem changes may
here be cited. The characteristic tumor with its crackling sound
when stroked has already been described. If after the death of the
animal it is more thoroughly examined, it will be noted that the
tissues under the skin are infiltrated with blood and yellowish, jelly-
like material and gas bubbles. The muscular tissue beneath the
swelling may be brownish or black, shading into dark red. (PI.
XLII.) It is soft, easily torn and broken up. The muscle tissue
is distended with numerous smaller or larger gas-filled cavities,
often to such extent as to produce a resemblance to lung tissue.
Upon incision it does not collapse perceptibly, as the gas cavities are
not connected with one another.

In the abdomen and the thorax bloodstained fluid is not infre-
quently found, together with bloodstaining of the lining membrane
of these cavities. Blood spots (or ecchymoses) are also found on

460 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the heart and hings. The liver is congested, but the spleen is always
normal.

Differential diagnosis. — Among the features of this disease which
distinguish it from anthrax may be mentioned the unchanged spleen
and the ready clotting of the blood. It will be remembered that in
anthrax the spleen (milt) is very much enlarged, the blood tarry,
coagulating feebly. The anthrax carbuncles and swellings differ
from the blackleg swellings in not containing gas, in being hard and
solid, and in causing death less rapidly.

It is difficult to distinguish between the swellings of blackleg and
maligant edema, as the}'^ resemble each other very closely and both
are distended with gas. Malignant edema, however, generally starts
from a wound of considerable size ; it usually follows surgical opera-
tions, and does not result from the small abrasions and pricks to
which animals are subjected in pastures. Inoculation experiments
on guinea pigs, rabbits, and chickens will also disclose the differences
between the three diseases above, as all these species are killed by
the germ of malignant edema, only the first two species by the
anthrax bacillus, while the guniea pigs alone will succumb to the
Ijlackleg infection. Hemorrhagic septicemia may be differentiated
from blackleg by its affecting cattle of all ages, bj^ the location of the
swelling usually about the region of the throat, neck, and dewlap,
by the soft, doughy character of the swellings without the presence
of gas bubbles, and finally by the characteristic hemorrhages widely
distributed throughout the body. Other means of diagnosis, which
have reference to the specific bacilli, to the inoculable character of
the virus upon small animals, and which are of decisive and final
importance, can be utilized only by the trained bacteriologist and
veterinarian.

Treatment. — In this disease remedies have thus far proved unavail-
ing. Some writers recommend the use of certain drugs, which seem
to have been beneficial in a few cases, but a thorough trial has
shown them to be valueless. Others advise that the swelling be
opened by deep and long incisions and a strong disinfectant, such
as a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, applied to the exposed parts,
but this procedure can not be too strongly condenmed. As nearly
all those attacked die, in spite of every kind of treatment, and in
view of the fact that when these tumors are opened the germs of the
disease are scattered over the stables or pastures, thus becoming a
source of danger to other cattle, it is obvious that such measures do
more harm than good and should be put aside as dangerous. Bleed-
ing, nerving, roweling, or setoning have likewise some adherents,
but the evidence indicates that they have neither curative nor pre-
ventive value and therefore should be discarded for the method of

BLACKLEG. 461

vaccination which has been thoroughly tried and proved to be
efficacious.

Prevention. — The various means suggested under "Anthrax " to
prevent the spread or i-ecurrence of this disease are equally applicable
to blackleg, and hence do not need to be repeated here in full. They
consist in the removal of the animals from the infected pasture to a
noninfected field, the draining of the swampy ground, the burial or
burning of the carcasses to prevent the dissemination of the germs
over vast areas through the agency of dogs, wolves, buzzards, or
crows, the disinfection of the stables and the gi'ound where the ani-
mals lay at the time of death, and, if possible, the destruction of the
germs on the infected pastures. One of the most effective methods
for freeing an infected pasture from blackleg is to allow the grass
to grow high, and when sufficiently dry to burn it off. One burn-
ing off is not sufficient to redeem an infected pasture, but the process
should be repeated several years in succession. This method, how-
ever, is in many instances impracticable, as few cattle owners can
afford to do it, and the only means left for the protection of the
animals is vaccination.

I nirminisation hy vaccination. — Three French veterinarians^ Arlo-
ing, Cornevin, and Thomas, were the first to discover that cattle may
be protected against blackleg by inoculation with virulent material
obtained from animals which have died of this disease. Later they
devised a method of inoculation with the attenuated or weakened
blackleg spores which produced immunity from natural or artificial
inoculation of \drulent blackleg germs. Their method has undergone
various modifications both in regard to the manufacture of the vac-
cine and in the mode of its application. Kitt, a German scientist,
modified the method so that but one inoculation of the vaccine was
required instead of two, as was the case with that made by the French
investigators. The vaccine prepared and distributed by the Bureau
of Animal Industry combines the principle of Arloing, Cornevin, and
Thomas, and the modification of Kitt.

By vaccination we understand the injection of a minute amount of
attenuate — that is, artificially weakened — blackleg virus into the
system. This virus is obtained from animals which have died from
blackleg, by securing the affected muscles, cutting them into strips,
and drying them in the air. When they are perfectly dry they
are pulverized and mixed with water to form a paste, smeared in a
thin layer on flat dishes, placed in an oven, and heated for six hours
at a temperature close to that of boiling water. The paste is then
transformed into a hard crust, which is pulverized and sifted and
.distributed in packages containing either 10 or 25 doses. This con-
stitutes the vaccine, the strength of which is thoroughly tested on
experiment animals before it is distributed among the cattle owners.

462 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

This vaccine, which is in the form of a brownish, dry powder, is
mixed with definite quantities of sterile water, filtered, and by means
of a hypodermic syringe the filtrate injected under the skin in front
of the shoulder of the animal. The inoculation is usually followed by
insignificant symptoms. In a few cases there is a slight rise of tem-
perature, and by close observation a minute swelling may be noted at
the point of inoculation. The immunity conferred in this way m^y
last for 18 months, but animals vaccinated before they are 6 months
old and those in badly infected districts should be re vaccinated before
the following blackleg season.

The effect of the vaccine prepared by this bureau in preventing
outbreaks of the disease and in immediately abating outbreaks
already in progress has been highly satisfactory, and it is not to
be doubted that thousands of young cattle have been saved to the
stock owners during the eighteen and a half years in which the
vaccine has been distributed. More than 25,000,000 doses have been
sent out during this period, and from reports received it is safe to
conclude that more than 20,000,000 have actually been injected,
whereby the percentage of loss from blackleg has been reduced from
10 per cent, which annually occurred before using, to less than one-
half of 1 per cent per annum. With these figures before us it is
plain that the general introduction of preventive vaccination must be
of material benefit to the cattle raisers in the infected districts.
Moreover, there is every reason to believe that with the continued
use of blackleg vaccine in all districts where the disease is known to
occur, and an earnest effort on the part of the stock owners to prevent
the reinfection of their pastures by following the directions given,
blackleg may be kept in check and gradually eradicated.

NECROTIC STOMATITIS (CALF DIPHTHERIA).

[PI. XLIII.]

Necrotic stomatitis is an acute, specific, highly contagious inflam-
mation of the mouth occurring in young cattle, and characterized
locally by the formation of ulcers and caseo-necrotic patches and by
constitutional symptoms, chiefly toxic.

This disease has also been termed calf diphtheria, gangrenous
stomatitis, ulcerative stomatitis, malignant stomatitis, tubercular
stomatitis, and diphtheritic patches of the oral mucous membrane.

History. — During the last few years farmers and cattlemen in this
countiy, especially in Colorado, Texas, and South Dakota, have
increasingly noted the occurrence of enzootics of " sore mouth "
among the young animals of their herds. Instead of healing, like the
usual forms, of themselves, these cases, if untreated, die. Careful
study of some of them has resulted in their identification with cases

NECROTIC STOMATITIS. 463

reported in 1877 by Dammann, from the shore of the Baltic ; in 1878
by Blazekowic, in Slavonia; in 1879 by Yollers, in Holstein; in
1880 by Lenglen, in France; in 1881 by Macgillivray, in England;
and in 1884 by Loffler, who isolated and described the microorgan-
ism which produces the disease. Bang obtained this organism from
the diphtheritic lesions of calves in 1890, and Kitt likewise recov-
ered the bacillus from similar lesions of the larynx and pharynx of
calves and pigs in 1893.

Etiology. — The cause of necrotic stomatitis, as demonstrated by
Loffler and since confirmed by other investigators, is Bacillus necroph-
orus, often spoken of as the bacillus of necrosis. This organism varies
in form from a coccoid rod to long, wavy filaments, which may reach
a length of 100 [l; the width varies from 0.75 (jl to 1 [i. Hence it is
described as polymorphic. It does not stain by Gram, but takes the
ordinary anilin dyes, often presenting, especially the longer forms, a
beaded appearance. A characteristic of the organism, of great mo-
ment when we come to treatment, is that it grows only in the absence
of oxygen, from which fact it is described as an obligate anaerobe.

Very few organisms exhibit a wider range of pathogenesis. Ac-
cording to clinical observation to the present time. Bacillus nscroph-
oi'us is pathogenic for cattle, horses, hogs, sheep, reindeer, kanga-
roos, antelope, and rabbits. Experimentally it has been proved patho-
genic for rabbits and white mice. The dog, cat, guinea pig, pigeon,
and chicken appear to be absolutely immune. It is not pathogenic
for man.

The importance of this bacillus is far beyond even its relation to
necrotic stomatitis. Besides this disease it has been demonstrated as
the causative factor in foot rot, multiple liver abscesses, disseminated
liver necrosis, embolic necrosis of the lungs, necrosis of the heart, in
cattle; gangrenous pox of the teats, diphtheria of the uterus and
vagina, in cows; diphtheritic inflammation of the small intestine of
calves. Among horses it is the agent in the production of necrotic
malanders, quittor, and diphtheritic inflammation of the large intes-
tine. In hogs it has caused necrotic or diphtheritic processes in the
mucous membrane of the mouth, necrosis of the anterior wall of the
nasal septum, and pulmonary and intestinal necrosis, accompanying
hog cholera. Abscesses of the liver, gangrenous processes of the lips
and nose, and gangrenous affections of the hoof have all been caused
in sheef) by this organism.

Pathology. — The principal lesions in necrotic stomatitis occur in
the mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx. The alterations
may extend to the nasal cavities, the larynx, the trachea, the lung, the
esophagus, the intestines, and to the hoof. The oral surfaces affected
are, in the order of frequency, tongue, cheeks, hard palate, gmns,

464 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

lips, and pharynx. In the majority of cases the primary infection
seems to occur in the tongue. (PI. XLIII.)

Infection takes place by inoculation. Some abrasion or break in
the continuity of the mucous membrane of the mouth occurs. Very
likely the origin may be connected with the eruption of the first teeth
after birth, or, in animals somewhat older, the entrance of a sharp-
pointed particle of feed. Gaining an entrance at this point, the
bacilli begin to multiply. During their development they elaborate
a toxin, or poisonous substance, which causes the death, or necrosis,
of the epithelial, or superficial, layer of the mucous membrane and
also of the white blood cells which have sallied forth through the
vessel walls to the defense of the tissues against the bacillary attack.
This destruction of the surface epithelium seems to be the essential
factor in the production of the caseous patch, often called the false
membrane. From the connective-tissue framework below is poured
forth an inflammatory exudate highly albuminous or rich in fibrin-
forming elements. When this exudate and the necrosed cellular
elements come in contact, the latter furnish a fibrin ferment which
transforms the exduate into a fibrinous mass. This process is known
as coagulation necrosis, and the resulting fibroid mass, containing in
its meshes the necrosed and degenerated epithelium and leucocytes,
constitutes the diphtheritic or false membrane. Did the process cease
at this point it would be properly called a diphtheritic inflammation,
but it does not. A caseating ferment is supplied by the bacilli, and
this, acting upon the fibroid patch, transforms it into a dry, finely
granular, yellowish mass of tissue detritus resembling cheese.

Frequently this caseous inflammation results in the formation of
one or more ulcers with thickened, slightly reddened borders, sur-
mounted by several layers of this necrosed tissue. The floor of the
ulcer is formed by a grayish-yellow, corroded surface, under which
the tissue is transformed into a dry, friable, or firm cheesy mass. In
the tongue this may progress to two fingere' thickness into the mus-
cular portion; in the cheek it may form an external opening, per-
mitting fluids to escape from the mouth; upon the palate it fre-
quently reaches and includes the bone in its destructive course ; upon
the gums it has produced necrosis of the tooth sockets, causing loss
of the teeth. In the advanced forms, caseous foci may be seen in the
lung and in the liver and necrotic patches observed on the mucous
membrane of the gastrointestinal tract.

SymptoTTis. — Necrotic stomatitis is bath a local and a systemic
affection. Primarily it is local. The local lesion is the caseo-necrotic
patch or ulcer developed as a result of the multiplication of the
bacilli at the point of inoculation. The general affection is an intoxi-
cation, or poisoning, of tlie whole system produced by a soluble toxin
elaborated by the bacilli.

Diseases of Cattle— U. S. Dept. of Agr

Plate XLI

tro BALTIMORE.

Section of Muscle from a Blackleg Swelling.

a, Gas Bubbles.

b. Cavities due to Gas formation.

Diseases of Cattle — U. S. Dept of Agr.

Plate XLIII.

iMOENaCO BALTIMORE.

Necrotic Stomatitis (Calf Diphtheria).

XECKOTIC STOMATITIS. 465

The stage of incubation is from three to five days. The first sN'nip-
toms noted are a disinclination to take nourishment, some drooling
from the mouth, and an examination of the mouth will show on some
portion of its nmcous membrane a circumscribed area of infiltration
and redness, possibly an erosion. The latter graduall}^ extends in
size and depth, forming a sharply circumscribed area of necrotic
inflammation. It may measure anywhere from the size of a 5-cent
piece ta that of a silver dollar or even larger. It has the appearance
of a corroded surface, under which the mucous membrane or muscular
tissue seems transformed into a dry, friable, or firm cheesy mass. It
is gra3dsh yellow in color and is bordered b}^ a zone of thickened
tissue slightly reddened and somewhat granulated. The necrotic
tissue is ver}^ adherent and can be only partially peeled off. It is
homogeneous, cheesy, and may extend two fingers' depth into the
tissues beneath. The general sj'mptoms are languor, weakness, and
slight fever. In spite of plenty of good feed the calf is seen to be
failing. It stops sucking, or, if older, altogether refuses to eat. The
temperature at this time may be from 10J:° to 107° F. The slobber
becomes profuse, swallowing very difficult, opening of the mouth
quite painful, and a most offensive odor is exhaled. The tongue is
swollen and its motion greath?- impaired. Sometimes the mouth is
kept open, permitting the tumefied tongue to protrude. One or more
of the above symptoms direct the attention to the mouth as the seat
of disease ; or, having noticed the debility and disinclination to eat,
an examination of the animal may show a lump under the neck or
swelling of the throat or head. The following extract from a letter
is characteristic:

I noticed my calves beginning to fail about the first week in December, but
could not account for it, as tliej^ were getting plently of grain and hay. My
attention was first attracted liy a swelling under the neck of one of the calves.
I cast the animal and fo\nid that it was feed that had collected and the animal
couldn't swallow it. I removed it, and in so doing noticed a large ulcer on the
tongue and a very offensive odor. This was the first knowledge I had of
anything being wrong with the calves' moiiths. They may have been sick for
some time before this.

Out of a herd of 100 belonging to this man, TO were affected, and
the letter emphasizes the insidious character of the onset.

The general affection at this time manifests itself by dejectedness,
extreme weakness, and emaciation, constant h'ing down, with stiffness
and marked difficulty in standing.

The disease frequenth' extends to the nasal cavities, producing a
thin, yellowish, or greenish-yellow, sticky discharge which adheres
closely to the borders of the nostrils. Their edges also show caseous
patches similar to those in the mouth. "Sometimes the nasal passage
is obstructed by great masses of the necrosed exudate, thus causing
extreme difficulty in breathing. When the caseous process involves
33071°— IG 80

466 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the larynx and trachea there result cough, "svheezing, and dyspnea,
together with a yellowish mucopurulent expectoration.

When life is prolonged three or four weeks, caseous foci may be
established in the lung, giving rise to all the signs of a bronchopneu-
monia. Man}' of these cases are associated with a fibrinous pleurisy.
The invasion of the gastrointestinal tract is announced by diarrheal
symptoms. Tliis disease principally attacks sucklings not more than
6. weeks of age, but calves 8 and 10 months old are frequently affected,
and seA'eral cases in adult cattle have been reported to this office.

In its very acute form many of the cases run their course in from
five to eight days. In these the local lesions are not strongly marked,
and death seems due to acute intoxication. In other enzootics
the majority of the affected animals live from three to five weeks.
These are cases that occasionally present the pulmonary and intes-
tinal sj'mptoms, and sometimes develop also caseo-necrotic lesions in
the liver.

Ordinarily cases show no tendency to spontaneous cure. Left to
themselves they die. On the contrary, if taken in hand early, the
disease is readily amenable to treatment. In the latter event the
prospects of recoAery are excellent.

Dlfferentml diagnosis. — Xecrotic stomatitis may be differentiated
from foot-and-mouth disease by the fact that in the latter there is
a rapid infection of the entire herd, including the adult cattle, as
well as the infection of hogs and sheep. The characteristic lesion
of foot-and-mouth disease is the appearance of vesicles containing a
serous fluid upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and ui)on the
udder, teats, and feet of the affected animals. In necrotic stomatitis
vesicles are never formed, necrosis occurring from the beginning and
followed by the formation of yellowish, cheesy patches, principally
found in the mouth. Mycotic stomatitis occurs in only a few animals
of the herd, chiefly the adult cattle, and the lesions produced consist
of an inflammation of the mouth and lips and of the skin between
the toes, followed in a few days by small irregular ulcers in the
mouth. This disease appears sporadically, usually in the early fall
after a dry summer, does not run a regular course, and can not be
inoculated.

Prevention. — Prophylaxis should be carried out along three lines:

(1) Separation of the sick from the healthy animals.

(2) Close scrutiny and thorough disinfection once or twice daily
for fiA'e days of the mouths and nasal passages of those animals that
have been exposed.

(3) Complete disinfection of all stalls and sheds.

The disease appears to break out in winter and hold over to spring.
It is conceivable that exposure to cold might so disturb the normal
circulation of the oral tissues as to make the mucous membrane an

MALIGNANT CATARRH. 467

excellent location for the causative factor of the disease. There is
another possibility, however, which bears on the third line of prophy-
laxis. The so-called diphtheritic inflammations of the vagina and
uterus in cows are caused by the same organism that induces necrotic
stomatitis. A European writer has recently pointed out the almost
constant relation of such attacks to previous occurrences of foul foot
or foot rot in the same or other cattle on the place.

In all likelihood, in such cases, the stalls and sheds are the harbor-
ers of this germ. It is possible that many of these outbreaks have
some relation to preceding cases of the above-mentioned diseases and
the greater use in winter of the stalls and sheds, thus harboring the
Bacillus necrophonis.

Treatment. — The treatment consists almost solely in careful and
extensive cleansing and disinfection of the mouth and other affected
surfaces. The mucous membrane of the mouth should be copiously
irrigated with a 4 per cent solution of boracic acid in warm water at
least twice daily. As exposure to oxygen kills the bacilli, one need
have no fear about disturbing or tearing off the caseous patches or
necrotic tissue during irrigation. The irrigation of the sores should
then be followed by the application with a brush or rag on a stick
of a paste made with 1 part of salicylic acid and 10 parts of water,
or the affected areas may be painted with Lugol's solution of iodin
(iodin, 1; potassium iodid, 5; water, 200). Frequent injections of
1 per cent carbolic-acid solution into the mouth make an excellent
treatment. The internal administration of 2 grams of salicylic acid
and 3 grams of chlorate of potassium three times a dav has also
proved to be very beneficial when accompanied with local antiseptic
treatment.

MALIGNANT CATARRH.

Malignant catarrh, or infectious catarrhal fever, is an acute infec-
tious disease of cattle preeminently involving the respiratory and
digestive tracts, although the sinuses of the head, the eyes, and the
urinary and sexual organs are very frequently affected. It is rela-
tively rare in this country, being more common on the continent of
Europe. Outbreaks have occurred, however, in Minnesota, New
York, and Xew Jersey. So far the causal agent of the disease has
never been isolated, and inoculation experiments with the view of
artificially reproducing the disease have proved negative in every
case. In spite of the foregoing statements the consensus of opinion
of eminent investigators points to malignant catarrh as being of
specific origin; that is, due to some form of microorganism the con-
tagious character of which is poorly developed. This accounts for
the slow transmissibility of the disease from one animal to another.
In fact, malignant catarrh is a type of that class of affections scien-

4G8 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

tificalh^ knoAvn as miasmatic diseases; that is, they remain stationary
in stables with damp floors, low ceilings, poor ventilation, and bad
sanitary conditions in general. Snch places furnish a favorable seat
of propagation for the infective material, and it Avill remain active
for a long time, causing the loss of a few animals each year. One
European veterinarian reports an instance in which the disease re-
mained for 25 years on the same farm, attacking in all 225 animals,
with a mortality of about 98 per cent.

The disease is most common in late winter and early spring, at all
altitudes, and has a special preference for young, well-nourished
cattle, although older animals are not immune. The time between
the entrance of the infective principle into the body of the animal
and the appearance of the first symptoms is relatively very long,
averaging, according to German investigators, from 20 to 30 da3's.
Fortunately, it is not a disease Avhich spreads to any gi'eat extent
or which causes severe losses, and hence legislative enactments do
not seem to be necessary for its restriction.

Symptoms. — These are extremely variable according to the point
of localization of the lesions. It is usually ushered in with a chill,
followed by a marked rise of temperature (104° to 107° F.). The
head droops, the skin is hot and dry, and the coat staring. Quiv-
ering of the muscles in various parts of the body is frequently
observed. Marked dullness of the animal, passing, according to
some observers, into an almost stupefied condition later on, is quite
common. The secretion of milk stops in the beginning of the dis-
ease, and loss of flesh, invariably associated with the disease, is
extremely marked and rapid. The lesions of the eyes may best be
likened to moon blindness (periodic ophthalmia) in horses.

There is first an abundant secretion of tears, which run down the
face. The lids are swollen and inflamed, and indeed this may be so
marked as to cause involuntary eversion, exposing the reddenetl
conjunctiva to view. Sunlight is painful, as is shoAvn by the fact
that the animal keeps the eyes continuously closed. This inflamma-
tion may extend to the cornea, causing it to assume a slightly
clouded ai^pearance in mild cases or a chalky whiteness in more
severe affection. Cases of ulceration of the cornea followed by
perforation and subsequent escape of the aqueous humor, leading to
shrinking of the eyeball and permanent loss of sight, have been i-e-
corded, but these are relatively rare, although slight inflammation of
the deeper structures of the eye (iris) are more frequent. In mihl
cases this inflammation may undergo complete resolution, but more
frequently permanent cloudliness of the cornea, either diffuse or in
spots (leucoma), is the result. The mucous membrane of the moutli,
nose, sinuses of the head, throatj and lower respiratory passages are

MALIGIS^ANT CATAEEH. 469

also involved. It is first catarrhal in character, but soon a false or
diphtheritic membrane is formed, with the production of shallow
ulcers. There is dribbling of saliva from the mouth and discharge
from the nose, at first watery, becoming thicker and mixed with blood
and small masses of cast-off croupous membrane, causing a ver}^ fetid
odor. These croupous areas when they form in the throat, larynx, or
windpipe, may lead to narrowing of the passages, with consequent
difficult breathing and even suffocation. Various respiratory mur-
murs may also be heard, caused by the to-and-fro movement of mucus
and inflammatory deposits along the air passages. There is also
inflammation of the horn core with consequent loosening of the horn
shell, and the horns are thus readily knocked off by the uneas}^, blind
sufferer. The animal may refuse all feed from the time of the initial
rise of temperature, or in less severe cases, and especially when the
lesions of the digestive tract are not so marked, the appetite may
remain until the disease is well advanced. Constipation is quite
common at the commencement of the attack, followed by diarrhea
and severe straining, the evacuations becoming very soft, fetid, and
streaked with blood. Cases of the evacuation uf desquamated patches
of diphtheritic membrane from the intestinal mucosa 6 to 9 feet in
length have been reported. The kidneys and bladder are usually
inflamed, the urine being voided with difficulty and the animal
evincing signs of pain. Inflammatory elements, as albumen, casts,
etc., may be seen on examination of the urine. In cows the mucous
membrane of the vestibule is congested, swollen, and inay contain
ulcers and an excessive quantity of mucus. Abortion during ad-
vanced pregnancy is not infrequent, following a severe attack. In
connection with these various symptoms there may be much uneasi-
ness on the part of the animal, leading in some cases to madness and
furious delirium, in others to spasms and convulsions or paralysis.
A A'esicular eruption of the skin may occur, seen principally between
the toes and en the inside of the flanlc and in the armpits, with suId-
sequent less of hair and epidermis.

Like other infectious diseases, malignant catarrh pursues a longer
or shorter course in accordance with the severity of the attack. In
acute cases death is said to take place three to seven days after the
appearance of symptoms. Recover}^, if it occurs, may take three or
four Aveeks. According to statistics, from 50 to 90 per cent of the
affected animals die.

If animals which have died of this disease are examined, in addi-
tion to the changes of the mucous membrane of mouth and nasal cavi-
ties referred to above, shallow ulcers in these situations will be found
occasionally. These necrotic processes may pass beneath the mucous
membrane and even involve the underlvins: bonv structure. In severe

470 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

cases membranous (croupous) deposits are found in the throat.
Similar deposits have been found upon the mucous membrane of the
fourth stomach and intestine, which is always inflamed. There is
more or less inflammation of the membranes of the brain, kidneys,
and liver, and some fatty degeneration of the Aoluntary muscles. In
countries where rinderpest occasionally appears it may be difficult
to distingl^ish between it and malignant catarrh, owing to a general
similarity of the symptoms. The principal points to be observed in
differentiating between the two are the very slight transmissibility
of the latter as compared with the intense contagiousness of the
former, and the tendency of malignant catarrh to run a more chronic
course than rinderpest, which usually results fatally in a very few
days. Only a trained veterinarian who takes into consideration all
the different symptoms and lesions of both diseases should decide
in such cases.

Treatment. — There is no specific treatment for this affection.
Copious blood letting in the earliest stages has been highly recom-
mended, howeA'er, as this has a tendency to deplete the system and
lessen the exudation of inflammatory products. Antiseptic washes,
as creoline, 2 to 4 per cent solution, or lysol, 5 per cent solution, ap-
plied to the nose, eyes, and mouth with ice poultices over the crest
of the head and frontal region, have also proved efficacious. Calomel
should also be given in 1-dram doses twice a day for three days, and
in severe cases, involving the respiratory tract, a powder containing
ferrous sulphate, quinin, and subnitrate of bismuth, given twice a
dav, will be found beneficial. At the same time it must be remem-
bered that much greater success is to be looked for in the preventive
treatment. This consists in the removal of the healthy from the
infected animals (not vice versa) and thorough cleaning and disin-
fecting of the contaminated stables. If the floors are low and damp,
they should be raised and made dry. If this can not be done, place
a layer of cement under the stable floor to prevent water from enter-
ing from below. The stable should be well ventilated and the soil in
the pastures thoroughly drained. If this is carefully carried out, tlie
contagion should be destroyed and the danger of the reappearance of
the disease in a great measure lessened.

MALIGNANT EDEMA.

Malignant edema, also termed gangrenous septicemia, is an acute,
inflammatory disease of domestic and wild animals, resulting from
the introduction of a specific organism into the deep connective tissues
of a susceptible animal and proving fatal in many instances within
24 to 48 hours. The disease may be inoculated from one animal to
another, but only by inserting the virus deeply below the skin. It

MALIONAiS^T EDEMA. 471

is infrequently met with in cattle, but may follow operating wounds,
as roweling, castration, and phlebotomy, which have become infected
■\Aith septic matter, soil, or unclean instruments. In the patho-
logical laboratory of the Bureau of Animal Industry the organ-
ism has also been obtained from the infected muscles of a calf
that was supposed to have died of blackleg, and, as a result, all
blackleg virus is thoroughly tested before it is made into blackleg
vaccine in order to exclude the malignant-edema organism. The
essential cause of malignant edema is a long, slender, motile, spore-
bearing bacillus, resembling the bacillus of blackleg, and which can
develop only in the absence of the atmosphere. Unlike the bacilli of
anthrax and blackleg, which are confined to certain districts, this
organism is widely distributed and found in oi'dinary garden soil,
foul water, and in the normal intestinal tract of the herbivora. It
may be brought to the surface of the soil by growing plants, rains,
winds, or burrowing insects and rodents. In animals that haA^e suc-
cumbed to the disease the germ is confined to the seat of infection, but
a few houi-s after death it may migrate through the blood channels
to other parts of the bod5\ The bacillus may attack man, horses,
asses, goats, sheep, pigs, cats, dogs, and poultry. Adult cattle, al-
though refractory to experimental inoculation, suffer from natural
infection, while calves are susceptible to both these methods of ex-
posure. (Kitt.) The introduction of the bacillus into abrasions of
the skin and superficial sores rarely does any harm, because the germ
is quickly destroyed by contact with air. If, however, the organ-
isms are inserted deeply into the subcutaneous tissues of susceptible
animals, they quickly develop, producing a soluble poison, which is
the fatal agent.

In lamb-shearing season, or after docking or castration, the mor-
tality is higher among these animals because of wounds inflicted at
such times. The application of antiseptics to wounds thus made will
reduce the percentage of deaths to a minimum.

Symptoms. — Usually the first symptoms are overlooked. In the
early stages the animal appears listless, disinclined to move about,
and lies down in shady and quiet places. If forced to move about,
the hind legs are drawn forward with a peculiar, stiff, dragging
movement, and there may be slight muscular trembling over all the
body, which becomes more intense as the disease progresses. Wlien
driven, the animal shows signs of fatigue, ultimately dropping to
the ground completely exhausted. Breathing becomes fast and
painful, with frequent spasmodic jerks.

The pulse is quick and weak and the temperature is 106° to 107° F.
An edematous, doughy, and painful swelling appears at the point of
infection. This tumefaction spreads more and more, and crackles
on pressure. In case of an open wound, a fetid liquid and frothy

472 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

discharge is observed. The center of the swelling may appear soft
and jellylike, while the margin is tense, hot, and painful. The symp-
toms increase rapidly, resulting in coma and death.

Lesions. — After death the fat and subcutaneous tissues surround-
ing the infected area are infiltrated with a yellow gelatinous material
containing an orange-colored foam, due to the presence of gas
bubbles.

The muscles at this point are friable, spongy, and of a uniform
brownish tint, dissociated by gas and w^th a blood-tinged exudate.
This gangrenous tissue, when present before death, can be removed
without pain to the animal. The intestines are generally normal,
but, together with the peritoneum, they may be inflamed, and the
lungs are usually the seat of an edema. The spleen, liver, and kid-
neys retain their normal appearance, in marked contrast with anthrax.

Differential diagnosis. — Unlike blackleg, this disease never appears
as an epizootic but in isolated cases. It may also be differentiated
from the former by the history of a recent parturition or surgical
operation, by the presence of an external injury at the site of the
swelling accompanied w-ith a fetid liquid discharge, and the gan-
grenous appearance of the tumefaction. Man is susceptible to malig-
nant edema, but not to blackleg. Malignant edema may also be easily
diiferentiated from anthrax in that the blood and spleen are normal in
appearance, while in the latter disease the blood is dark and of a
tarlike consistency, and the spleen appears sw^ollen, injected, and
softened. The local tumor in malignant edema contains gas bul)bles,
Avhich are absent in anthrax swellings. Inoculation experiments of
guinea pigs, rabbits, and chickens w^ill also disclose the differences
among the above-mentioned three diseases, since all these species are
Icilled by the germ of malignant edema, only the first two species
by the anthrax bacillus, while the guinea pig alone will succumb to
the blackleg infection.

Treat'nwu.t. — Treatment is chielly surgical and consists in laying
the infected areas wide open by free incision, followed by a liberal
application of a 30 per cent solution of hydrogen dioxid and subse-
quently a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Usually the disease
when observed has advanced to such an extent that medicinal inter-
ference is without avail. Preventi^•e ti-eatnient is l)y far the most
desirable, and consists, essentially, in a thorough disinfection of all
accidental and surgical wounds, the cleansing of the skin, and the
exclusion of soil, filth, and bacteria during surgical operations of any
nature. Sheds, barns, and .stables should receive a thorough applica-
tion of quicklime or crude carbolic acid Avash after all rul)l)ish has
been removed and burned. All dead animals should be buiiied or
deepl}^ buried and covered well Avith quicklime.

TEXAS FEVER. 473

SOUTHERN CATTLE FEVER (TEXAS FEVER, TICK FEVER).

[I'ls. XLIV-XLIX.]

This disease, Avhicli is more commonly known as Texas fever, and
sometimes as splenetic fever, is a specific fever communicated by cattle
Avhicli have recently been moved northward from the infected dis-
trict; it is also contracted l)y cattle taken into the infected district
from other parts of the world. It is characterized by the peculiarity
,imong animal diseases that the animals which disseminate the in-
fection are apparently in good health, while those which sicken and
die from it do not, as a rule, infect others.

It is accompanied with high fever, greatly enlarged spleen, destruc-
tion of the red blood corpuscles, escape of the coloring matter of the
blood through the kidneys, giving the urine a deep-red color, with a
yellowness of the mucous membranes and fat, which is seen more
especially in fat cattle, by a rapid loss of strength, and with fatal
results in a large proportion of cases.

This disease has A'arious names in different sections of the country
where it frequenth^ appears. It is often called Spanish fcA'er, accli-
mation fever, red water, black water, distemper, murrain, dry mur-
rain, yellow murrain, bloody murrain, Australian tick fever, and
tiisteza of South America.

The earliest accounts we have of this disease date bsu-k to 181-1,
when it is was stated by Dr. James Mease, before the Philadelphia
Scjciety for Promoting Agriculture, tliat the cattle from a certain
district in South Carolina so certainly disease all othei's with which
they mix in their progi-ess to the North that they are prohibited by
the ]:)eo]D]e of Virginia from passing through the State ; tiiat these
cattle infect others while they themselves are in perfect health, and
that cattle from Euiope (;r the interior taken to the vicinity of the
sea are attacked by a disease that generally proves fatal. Similar
observations have been made in regard to a district in the southern
part of the United States indicated by the shaded area on the map,
Phite L. The northern limits of this area are changed yearly as a
result of the dissemination or eradication of the cattle tick along
the border, but the infected area has gradually decreased, owing to
the successful endeavors pushed forward to eliminate the ticks.

It was the frequent and severe losses following the driving of cattle
from the infected district in Texas into and across the Western States
and Territories which led to the disease being denominated Texas
fever. It is now known, however, that the infection is not peculiar
to Texas or even to the United States, but that it also exists in
southern Europe, Central and South America, Australia, South
Africa, and tlie West Indies.

474 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

'When cattle from other -sections of the country are taken into the
infected district they contract this disease usually during the first
summer, and if they are adult animals, particularly milch cows or fat
cattle, nearl}' all die. Calves are much more likely to survive. The
disease is one from which immunity is acquired, and therefore calves
which recover are not again attacked, as a rule, even after they be-
come adult.

"When the infection i- disseminated beyond the permanently in-
fected district, the roads, pastures, pens, and other inclosures are
dangerous for susceptible animals until freezing weather. The infec-
tion then disappears, and cattle may be driven over the grounds or
kept in the inclosures the succeeding summer and the disease will not
reappear. There are some exceptions to this rule in the section just
north of the boundary line of the infected district. In this locality
the infection sometimes resists the winters, especially if they are
mild.

In regard to the manner in which the disease is communicated,
experience shows that this does not occur by animals coming near or
in contact with one another. It is an indirect infection. The cattle
from the infected district first infect the pastures, roads, pens, cars,
etc., whence the susceptible cattle obtain the virus secondhand.
Usually animals do not contract the disease when separated from in-
fected pastures by a fence. If, however, there is any drainage or
washing by rains across the line of fence this rule does not hold good.

The investigations made by the Bureau of Animal Industry demon-
strate that the ticks v.hich adhere to cattle from the infected district
are the only known means of conveying the infection to susceptible
cattle. The infection is not spread by the saliva, the urine, or the
manure of cattle from the infected district. In studying the causa-
tion and prevention of this disease, attention must therefore be
largely given to the tick, and it now seems apparent that if cattle
could be freed from this parasite when leaving the infected district
they would not be able to spread the malady. The discovery of the
connection of the ticks with the production of the disease has played
a very important part in determining the methods that should be
adopted in preventing its spread. It established an essential point
and indicated many lines of investigation which have yielded and are
still likely to yield very important results.

Nature of the disease. — Texas fever is caused by an organism which
lives within the red blood corpuscles and breaks them up. It is there-
fore simply a blood disease. The organism does not belong to the
bacteria but to the protozoa. It is not, in other words, a microscopic
plant, but it belongs to the lowest forms of the animal kingdom.
This very minute organism multiplies very rapidly in the body of the
infected animal, and in acute cases causes an enormous destruction

TEXAS FEVER. 475

of red corpuscles in a few days. How it gets into the red corpuscle
it is not possible to state, but it appears that it enters as an exceed-
ingly minute body, probably endowed with motion, and only after it
has succeeded in entering the corpuscle does it begin to enlarge.
Plate XLV. figure 4, illustrates an early stage of this blood para-
site. The red corpuscle contains a very minute, roundish body which
is stained blue to bring it into view. The body is, as a rule, situated
near the edge of the corpuscle. Figure 5 illustrates an older stage in
the growth of the parasite, in fact the largest which has thus far been
detected. It will be noticed that there are usually two bodies in a
corpuscle. These bodies are in general pear-shaped. The narrow
ends are always toward each other when two are present in the same
corpuscle. If we bear in mind that the average diameter of the red
blood corpuscles of cattle is from 4 (^\ ^ to -g-oViJ inch, the size of the
contained parasite may be at once appreciated by a glance at the
figures referred to.

The various disease processes which go on in Texas fever, and
which we may observe by examining the organs after death, all result
from the destruction of the red corpuscles ; this destruction may be
extremely rapid or slow. When it is rapid we have the acute, usually
fatal, type of Texas fever, which is always w^itnessed in the height
of the Texas-fever season; that is, during the latter w^eeks of August
and the early weeks of September. When the destruction of corpus-
cles is slower, a mild, usually nonfatal, type of the disease is called
forth, which is onh' witnessed late in autumn or more rarely in July
and the earh' part of August. Cases of the mild type occurring thus
early usually become acute later and terminate fatally.

The acute disease is fatal in most cases, and the fatality is due not
so much to the loss of blood corpuscles as to the difficulty which the
organs have in getting rid of the waste products arising from this
wholesale destruction. Plow great this may be a simple calculation
will serve to illustrate. In a steer weighing 1,C00 pounds, the blood
in its body weighs about 50 pounds, if we assume that the blood
represents one-twentieth of the weight of the body, Avhich is a rather
low^ estimate. According to experimental determination at the
bureau station, which consists in counting the number of blood
corpuscles in a given quantitv of blood from day to day in such an
animal, the corpuscles contained in from 5 to 10 pounds of blood
may be destroyed within 24 hours. The remains of these corpuscles
and the coloring matter in them must be either converted into bile
or excreted unchanged. The result of this effort on the part of the
liver causes extensive disease of this organ. The bile secreted by the
liver cells contains so much solid material that it stagnates in the
finest bile canals and chokes these up completely. This in turn inter-
feres with the nutrition of the liver cells and they undergo fatty de-

476 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

generation and perish. The functions of the liver are thereby com-
pletely suspended and death is the result. This enormous destruc-
tion of corpuscles takes place to a large extent in the kidneys, ^vhere
a great number of corpuscles containing the parasites are always
found in acute cases. T]iis accounts largely for the blood-colored
urine, or red Avater, which is such a characteristic feature of Texas
fever. The corpuscles themselves are not found in the urine; it is
the red coloring matter, or hemoglobin, which leaves them when they
break up and pass into the urine.

Symptoms. — After a period of exposure to infected soil, which
may vary from 13 to 90 days, and which will be more fully discussed
under the subject of cattle ticks as bearers of the Texas-fever para-
site, the disease first shows itself in dullness, loss of appetite, and a
tendency to leave the herd and stand or lie down alone. A fcAv days
before these symptoms appear the presence of a high fever may be
detected by the clinical thermometer. The temperature rises from
a normal of 101° to 103° F. to 106° and 107° F. There seems to be
little or no change in temperature until recovery or death ensues.
The period of high temperature or fever varies considerably. As it
indicates the intensity of the disease process going on within, the
higher it is the more rapid the fatal end. When it does not rise
above 101° F. the disease is milder and more prolonged.

The bowels are niosth' constipated during the fever; toward the
end the feces may become softer and rather deeply tinged with bile.
The urine shows nothing abnormal during the course of the disease
until near the fatal termination, when it may be deeply stained with
the coloring matter cf the blood. (Hemoglobinuria; see PI. XLV,
fig. 3.) Although this symptom is occasionally observed in animals
which recover, yet it may generally be regarded as an indication of
approaching death. The pulse and respiration are usually unich
more rapid than during health.

Other symptoms in addition to those mentioned have been de-
scribed by observers, but they do not seem to be constant, and only
those described above ai-e nearly always present. As the end ap-
proaches emaciation becomes very marked, the blood is very thin
and watery, and the closing of any wound of the skin by clots is re-
tarded. The animal manifests increasing stupor and may lie down
much of the time. Signs of delirium have been observed in some
cases. Death occurs most frequently in the night.

The duration of the disease is very variable. Death may ensue
in from three da3^s to several weeks after the beginning of the fe\ er.
Those that recover ultimately do so very slowly, owing to the
great povei'ty of the blood in red coi'puscles. The fltv^h is regained
but vei-y gi-adually, and the animal may be subjected to a second.

TEXAS FEVER. 477

though mild, attack hiter on in the autumn, which pushes the full
recovery onward to the beginning of winter.

In the mild type of the disease, which occurs in October and Xo-
vember, sj^mptoms of disease are well-nigh absent. There is little
if any fever, and if it were not for loss of flesh and more or less dull-
ness the disease may pass unnoticed, as it undoubtedly does in a
majority of cases. If, however, the blood corpuscles are counted from
time to time a gradually diminishing number will be found, and
after several weeks only about one-fifth or one-sixth of the normal
number are present. It is indeed surprising how little impression
upon the animal this very impoverished condition of the blood ap-
pears to make. It is probable, however, that if two animals kept
under the same conditions, one healthy and the other at the end of
one of these mild attacks,. are weighed, the difference would be plainly
.shown.

Pathological changes_ ohservahle after death. — In the preceding
pages some of these have already been referred to in describing the
nature of the disease. It is very important at times to determine
whether a certain disease is Texas fever or some other disease, like
anthrax, for example. This fact can, as a rule, be determined at
once by a thorough microscopic examination of the blood. The
necessary apparatus and the requisite qualifications for this task
leave this method entirely in the hands of experts. There are, how-
ever, a considerable number of changes caused by this disease vrhich
may be detected by the naked eye when the body has been opened.
Put together they make a mistake quite impossible. The presence of
small ticks on the skin of the escutcheon, the thighs, and the udder
is a very important sign in herds north of the Texas- fever line, as it
indicates that they have been brought in some manner from the South
and have carried the disease with them, as will be explained later.
Another very important sign is the thin, watery condition of the
blood, either just before death or when the fever has been present for
four or five days. A little incision into the skin will enable any one
to determine this point. Frequently the skin is so poor in blood that
it may require several incisions to draw a drop or more.

The changes in the internal organs, as found on post-mortem ex-
aminations, are briefly as follows : The spleen, or milt, is much larger
than in healthy animals. It may weigh three or four times as much.
When it is incised the contents or pulp is blackish (see PI. XLIV,
fig. 1), and may even well out as a disintegrated mass. The mark-
ings of the healthy spleen (fig. 2) are all effaced by the enormous
number of blood corpuscles which have collected in it, and to
which the enlargement is attributable. Next to the spleen the liver
will arouse our attention. (See PI. XLV, fig. 2.) It is larger than

478 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

in the healthy state, has lost its natural brownish color (fig. 1), and
now has on the surface a paler, yellowish hue. When it is incised'
this yellowish tinge, or mahogany color, as it has been called by
some, is still more prominent. This is owing to the large quantity of
bile in the finest bile capillaries, and as these are not uniformly filled
with it the cut surface has a more or less mottled appearance. This
bile injection causes in many cases a fatty degeneration of the liver
cells, which makes the organ appear still lighter in color.

In all cases the gall bladder should be examined. This is dis-
tended with bile, which holds in suspension a large number of
yellow flakes, so that when it is poured into a tall bottle to settle
fully one-half or more of the column of fluid will be occupied by a
layer of flakes. If mucus is present at the same time, the bile may
become so viscid that when it is poured from one glass to another it
forms long bands. The bile in health is a limpid fluid, containing
no solid particles.

If the animal during life has not been observed to pass urine
colored with blood or red water, the bladder should be opened. This
quite invariably, in acute cases, contains urine which varies in color
from a deep port wine to a light claret. In many cases the color is
so dense that light will not pass through e^en a thin layer. (PI.
XLV, fig. 3.) The kidneys are always found congested in the acute
attack. The disease exerts but little effect on the stomach and
intestines beyond more or less reddening of the mucous membrane;
hence an examination of them may be safely omitted. The lungs
are, as a rule, not diseased. The heart usually shows patches of
blood extravasation on the inside (left ventricle) and less markedly
on the outer surface.

We have observed jaundice of the various tissues but very rarely.
It has been observed by some quite regularly, however.

During the hot season about 90 per cent of the susceptible mature
animals from a noninfected district die, but later, in the cool weather,
the disease assumes a milder type, with a consequent decrease in the
number of deaths.

The cattle tick, Margaropus annulatus, as the carrier of Texas
fever. (Pis. XLVI, XL^^I, and XL VIII.)— The cattle tick is, as
its name indicates, a parasite of cattle in the southern ixirt of the
United States. It belongs to the group of Arthropoda and to the
genus Margaropus (or Boophilus), which is included in the order
Acarina. Its life history is quite simple and easily traced from one
generation to another. It is essentially a parasite, attaching itself to
the skin (PL XL VIII) and drawing the blood of its host. It is
unable to come to maturity and reproduce its kind unless it becomes
attached to the skin of cattle, whence it may obtain its food.

TEXAS FEVER. 479

The eggs laid on. the ground after the female has dropped from,
the hoet begin to develop at once. When the embryo is fully formed
within the shell it ruptures this and gains its freedom. The time
required from the laying of the eggs to their hatching varies consid-
erably, according to the temperature. In the laboratory in the heat
of midsummer this was accomjjlished in about 13 days. In the late
fall, under the same conditions, it required from four to six weeks.
The larva after emerging from the egg is very minute, six-legged,
and is just visible to the naked eye. (PI. XL VI, fig. 3.) If these
larvae are kept on a layer of moist sand or earth in a covered dish,
they may remain alive for months, but there is no appreciable in-
crease in size. So soon, however, as they are placed upon cattle
growth begins.

On pastures these little creatures soon find their waj^ on to cattle.
They attach themselves by preference to the tender skin on the
escutcheon, the inside of the thighs, and on the base of the udder.
Yet when they are very numerous they may he found in small num-
bers on various parts of the body, such as the neck, the chest, and
the ears. (PI. XLYIII and PL XLIX, fig. 1.)

The changes which they undergo during their parasitic existence
were first studied by Dr. Cooper Curtice, of the Bureau of Animal
Industry, in 1889. The young tick molts within a week, and the sec-
ond or nymphal stage of the parasite's life is thus ushered in. After
this change it has four pairs of legs. Within another week another
molt takes place by which the tick passes from the nymphal to the
sexual, or adult, stage. Impregnation now takes place, and, with the
development of the ova in the body, the tick takes an increased quan-
tity of blood, so that in a few days it becomes very much larger.
That the rapid growth is due to the blood taken in may be easily
proved by crushing one. The intestine is distended with a thick,
tarry mass composed of partly digested blood. When the female has
reached a certain stage of maturity she drops to the ground and
begins to lay a large number of eggs, which hatch in the time given
above.

The life of the cattle tick is thus spent largely on cattle, and
although the young, or larvje, may live for a long time on the
ground in the summer season, they can not mature except as para-
sites on cattle and horses. We have purposely omitted various details
of the life history, including that of the male, as they are not neces-
sary to an understanding of our present subject — Texas fever. How
this is transmitted we will proceed to consider. Before the enforce-
ment of the Federal quarantine southern cattle sent north during the
spring and summer months carried on their bodies large numbers of
the cattle ticks, which, when matured, would drop off and lay their

480 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

eggs in the northern pastures. After hatching, the young ticks would
soon get upon any northern cattle which happened to be on the pas-
ture. So soon as they attached themselves to the skin they inocu-
lated the cattle, and Texas fcAer would break out a Aveek or more
thereafter. For many years there had been a growing suspicion that
the cattle tick was in some way concerned in the spread of Texas
fever, and the facts which supported this supposition finally became
so numerous and convincing that a series of experiments Avas inaugu-
rated by the Bureau of Animal Industry wdiich served to show that
the tick is abundantly able to carry the disease to a herd of healthy
cattle, and, in fact, is probably the only agent concerned in the trans-
mission of the disease from southern cattle to susceptible northern
animals.

Injurious ejfecU of cattle tkl^s. — Unfortunately many cattle owners
who have always been accustomed to see both ticks and ticlr^ cattle
on their farms are not inclined to attach much importance to these
parasites, and, as a rule, through lack of appreciation of their dam-
aging effects, placidly consider them as of little consequence. That
ticks may be detrimental to their hosts in several ways has probably
not suggested itself to these stockmen, who are most vitally affected,
and it therefore seems necessary to emphasize the fact that, in ad-
dition to their relation to Texas fever, they may also be injurious
to cattle as external parasites. While the power of transmitting
Texas fever is undoubtedly the most dangerous property possessed
by the cattle tick and is the principal cause for adopting stringent
measures looking to its complete eradication, nevertheless there still
remain other good reasons for the accomplishment of this achieve-
ment. These secondary objections to tlie presence,of ticks on cattle
consists in the physical harm they do to the host aside from the pro-
duction of the specific disease of Texas fever. True, a few parasites
may remain on cattle indefinitely Avithout causing any noticeable
effect, but it is not uncommon to notice bovine animals on pastures
with their hides heavily infested with these pests. In such cases it
can readily be seen that the continuous sucking of blood causes more
or less impoverishment of the circulation. The animal must there-
fore be fed more in order to meet the demands of the parasites in
addition to the ordinary needs of the host. If the ticks are removed
from the body, the bites inflicted are often distingiiished by small,
inflamed or reddened areas somewhat swollen, with perforations of
the skin which may allow the entrance of various kinds of disease
germs, and showing that more or less irritation of the hide is pro-
duced by these parasites. This condition, together with the loss of
blood, frequently induces an irritable state and evidence of uneasiness
commonly known as " tick worry," whidi results in the loss of energy
and other derangements of the animal's healtli. It may in some cases,

TEXAS FEVER. 481

especially in liot weather, become so pronoimced that the animal will
lose flesh in spite of good pasturing, thereby reducing the vitality
and rendering it more susceptible to the inroads of disease. More-
over, if the infestation of ticks is not controlled, the cattle may be so
reduced in condition that growth is retarded, and, in the case of
young animals, they may never become fully developed, but remain
thin, w^eak, and stunted — a condition that has been termed " tick pov-
erty"— and easily succumb to other diseases as a result of lowered
vitality. In milch cows this debilitating influence of the numerous
ticks is shown in a greatly reduced milk supply. This should not
appear strange when it is considered that some animals harbor several
thousand of the bloodsucking parasites. If these parasites are
crushed, it will be found that their intestines are completely filled
with a dark, thick mass of blood abstracted from the animal host
and containing nutriment that should go to the formation of milk,
flesh, and the laying on of fat. In some rare cases the large number
of bites on a limited area of skin may be followed by infection with
pus-producing organisms, giving rise to small abscesses which may
terminate in ulcers. The discharge from these sores, or in some cases
the mere oozing of blood serum through the incision made by the
mouth parts of the ticks, keeps the hair moist and matted together,
and the laying and hatching of fly eggs in these areas give rise to
infestation with destructive maggots, causing ulcers and other com-
plications that require medical treatment. These statements regard-
ing the secondary injurious effects of cattle ticks also apply to those
ticks which have been previously spoken of as harmless so far as
Texas fever is concerned, and, in fact, to all external parasites. There-
fore, it is just as important to eradicate the cattle ticks for reasons
other than those associated with Texas fever as it is to exterminate
lice, fleas, and other vermin. Furthermore, cattle ticks, aside from
the losses sustained by their purely parasitic effects, are the greatest
menace to the profitable raising and feeding of cattle in the South,
because they are an obstacle to cattle traffic between the infected and
noninfected districts.

Loss occasioned hy cattle ticks. — The economic aspect of the tick
problem is unquestionably of the greatest practical interest, since
the fundamental importance of all the other questions which sur-
round it depends upon the actual money value involved. It would
therefore seem advisable to furnish a few statistics showing the
financial loss sustained by the country as a result of the presence of
this parasite. It is well known that those animals coming from an
infected district and sold in the " southern pens " of northern stock-
yards bring about one-half a cent less per pound than the quoted
market price. The handicap that is placed on the southern cattle
raiser as a result of this decrease in value of his stock will average
33071°— 16 31

482 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

at this figure $3 per head, allowing an individual weight of 600
pounds for all classes of animals, so that the loss on approximately
2,000,000 southern cattle from the quarantined area, including stock,
beef, and dairy animals, marketed yearly under these conditions
will sum up a loss of $6,000,000 per annum. Carrying this estimate
still further, it will be found that this decreased value reacts and
fixes the valuation of all cattle which remain in the infected territory,
thereby reducing the assets of the cattle industry of that section by this
ratio per head for the 11,000,000 cattle which are at this time (Janu-
ary, 1916) estimated to be below the quarantine line; or, altogether,
the enormous shrinkage in value of $33,000,000 directly chargeable
to the cattle tick. This last sum, however, should not be considered in
determining the yearly devastation caused by the cattle tick, but
rather as an unnecessary reduction in the assets of the infected
country. This loss does not include the decrease in flesh and lack of
development of southern cattle occasioned by the parasitic life of
the ticks from without and by the blood-destroj'ing and enervating
properties of the protozoan parasites from within, an additional loss
which is so very great that a conservative estimate would place it
at not less than $20,000,000 for the cattle annually marketed.

The presence of the tick among the cattle of the South not only
lessens the value of the cattle on the hoof but causes the gradings of
hides that have been infested with ticks as No. 4 quality. The same
hide, if free from tick marks, would grade No. 2. The difference
in price between these two grades of hides is 3 cents a pound. As
the hide of a southern steer weighs about 42 pounds, the presence of
the tick in the hide causes a loss in the hide alone of more than $1.26
a hide. It has been shown that the cost of tick eradication is only
about 50 cents a head, so that if the counties make a systematic cam-
paign to eradicate the tick, the increase in value of the hide alone
would pay for the cost of tick eradication and leave the farmer a
net profit of about 76 cents a hide.

The shrinkage in the milk production of cattle harboring many
ticks will average 1 quart a day, and the loss occasioned thereby at
3 cents a quart for the 875,000 ticky dairy cattle out of more than
3,000,000 dairy cattle below the quarantine line would amount to
$26,250 a day, or, counting 300 milking days for each cow to the
year, $7,875,000 per annum. The damage resulting to the soutliern
purchaser of northern pure-bred or high-grade cattle is another item
of no small moment. About 10 per cent of all such cattle taken into
the South die of Texas fever, even after they are immunized by
blood inoculations, and about 60 per cent of them succumb to Texas
fever when not so treated. As they are usually very expensive ani-
mals and of a highly valued strain of blood, the loss in certain
cases is excessive and in othere almost irreparable, owing to the

TEXAS FEVER. 483

possible extinction of some particular type especially selected for
the improvement of the herd.

Another instance in which it is difficult to figure the injury done
by the ticks is in the case of death of nonimmune cattle in the tick-
free pastures of the South. Such animals are as susceptible to Texas
fever as nonimmune northern cattle, and inasmuch as there is in
many States only one out of every four farms infested with ticks, the
cattle on the remaining farms will in many cases contract Texas
fever when exposed to the fever tick. These losses can scarcely be
computed, as the death rate depends so much on the season of the
year when exposure occurs and on the age of the animal affected.
However, the deaths among such cattle are considerable, although
this fact is little appreciated or understood by many outside the in-
fected area. Thus, if we consider one-tenth of the cattle below the
line as nonimmunes which contract the disease on exposure to ticks,
and if we figure on the death rate of 25 per cent of these animals —
a conservative estimate — the loss would amount to 275,000 animals,
which, at an estimated value of $20 a head, would amount to a loss
of $5,500,000 per annum. This sum, excessive as it may seem, rep-
resents a smaller percentage of loss on the total valuation of neat
cattle than has been determined by several of the infected States.

On rare occasions a small outbreak of Texas fever occurs north
of the quarantine line as a result of improperly disinfected cars, of
unscrupulous dealers breaking the quarantine regulations, or of
some accidental condition. Such damage, however, is slight, but
should be considered in summing up the loss occasioned by the fever
tick.

The advertisement which a breeder obtains and the sales which are
made by having his stock in the show ring are usually lost to the
southern cattle raiser who aspires to display his animals in the
North, as they are barred from most of these exhibitions. On the
other hand, the southern farmer is not given an opportunity to see
and be stimulated by the fine specimens of northern cattle which
might be shown at southern stock exhibits, for the reason that the
danger of contracting Texas fever is too patent to warrant such
exposure. The expense incurred by the Government and the States
in enforcing the regulations that apply to the quarantine line reaches
about $65,000 per annum.

Another loss which is indirectly sustained by the southern cattle
industry through increased freight rates is the cost, to the railroad
companies, of cleaning and disinfecting the cars that carry cattle
and in providing separate pens for them at various places. This
sum may be calculated at not less than $29,000 per annum.

If all the above-mentioned losses are added it will be found that the
Texas-fever tick is responsible for about $40,000,000 of loss annually

484 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

to the people of the infected coimtrj", and that it also lowers the
assets of the South by an additional $33,000,000. These figures
are not given as accurate in any particular, but they are sufficiently
close to indicate that the loss to the quarantined section from the
cattle tick is something enormous. Such a series of encumbrances as
those recorded could be carried by the cattle industry of no other
section of the country than the South, whose excellent pastures,
rich soil, and salubrious climate are the only reasons for its ability
to overcome such obstacles in meeting the competition of the West;
and it is the inherent capacity of the South for greatly increasing its
herds and enlarging its pasture lands that makes the actual loss
even secondary to the potential loss from restrictions necessitated by
the presence of the cattle tick. This potential loss may be described
as the difference between the value of the cattle industry of the South
to-day and the extent to which this industry would be increased if
farmers and ranchmen were assured that their lands and cattle would
not become infested with fever ticks. Could this assurance be given,
the beneficial effects would extend over the entire country, because
the market of the northern breeder Avould thereby become greatly
extended.

These appalling losses and annual sacrifices of the cattle raisers of
the infected district can be entirely effaced, and this at a small pro-
portionate cost; for, with enthusiastic stockmen, satisfactory State
legislation, sufficient money, and a corps of trained inspectors, the
cattle tick may be exterminated, and every dollar expended in this
work will be returned many fold during each succeeding year.

The so-called period of incubation. — After the young ticks have
attached themselves to cattle the fever appears about 10 days there-
after, in midsummer. When the weather is cool, as in autumji, this
period may be a little longer. The actual period of incubation may
be shorter, for if blood from a case of Texas fever is injected into
the blood vessels of healthy cattle the fever may appear within five
days. When cattle graze upon pastures over which southern cattle
have passed, the time when the disease appears varies within wide
limits. Wh^n the animals have been put upon pastures immediately
after southern cattle have infected them with ticks, it may take from
30 to 60 days, or even longer, before the disease appears. This will
be readily understood when we recall the life history of ticks. The
southern cattle leave only matured ticks which haA^e dropped from
them. These must lay their eggs and the latter must be hatched
before any ticks can get upon native cattle. The shortest period is
thus not less than 30 days if we include 10 days for the period of
incubation after the young ticks have attached themseh'es to native
cattle. When the infection of pastures with ticks has taken place

TEXAS FEVEK. 485

early in the season, or when it is cold, the period is much longer,
because it takes longer for the eggs to hatch.

If native cattle are placed upon pastures which have been infected
with ticks some time before, the disease will appear so much sooner,
because the young ticks may be already hatched and attack the cattle
at once. It will be evident, therefore, that the length of time between
the exposure of native cattle on infected fields and the appearance
of the disease depends on the date of original infection, and on the
weather, whether cold or hot. AVhen native cattle are placed upon
fields on which young ticks are already present, they will show the
fever in 13 to 15 days if the season is hot.

The fever appears before the ticks have matured. In fact, the}' are
still small enough to be overlooked. In any case very careful search
should be made for them in those places which they prefer — the
thighs, escutcheon, and udder. After the acute stage of the fever has
passed the ticks begin to swell up and show very plainly. (PI. XLYI,
figs. 6 and 7.)

Prevention. — It is generally accepted that if southern cattle are
entirely free from that species of tick known as Mm^garopus annu-
latus they can be allowed to mingle with the most susceptible animals
without danger. Furthermore, it has been learned from the study
of the life history of the cattle tick and from that fact that this tick
infests pastures only transiently, never permanently, and will not
mature except upon cattle or equines, that its extermination is
possible, and that the disease it causes may be prevented. Therefore
the various methods with these results in view should be directed
toward the destruction of ticks on cattle as well as their eradication
from the pastures.

The details of these methods of eradication will not be discussed
here, as this subject is fully treated in Farmers' Bulletin 498,
" Methods of Exterminating the Texas-fever Tick," which may be
obtained free upon application to the Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

METHODS OF ERADICATING THE TICKS.

In undertaking measures for eradicating the tick it is evident that
the pest may be attacked in two locations, namely, on the pastiu-e
and on the cattle.

In freeing pastures the method followed may be either a direct or
an indirect one. The former consists in excluding all cattle, horses,
and mules from pastures until all the ticks have died from starvation.
The latter consists in permitting the cattle and other animals'to con-
tinue on the infested pasture and treating them at regular intervals
with agents destructive to ticks and thus preventing engorged females
from dropping and reinfesting the pasture. The larva? on the pas-

486

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ture, or those which hatch from eggs laid by females already there,
will all eventually meet death. Such of these as get upon the cattle
from time to time will be destroyed by the treatment, while those
which fail to find a host will starve in the pasture.

Animals may be freed of ticks in two ways. They may be treated
with an agent that will destroy all the ticks present, or they may be
rotated at proper intervals on tick-free fields until all the ticks have
dropped.

PASTUEE ROTATION, ETC.

Time required to hill ticks hy starvation. — The time required for
the ticks to die out after all animals have been removed from infested
fields and pastures varies considerably, depending principally on
climatic and weather conditions. The dates when pastures will be
free of ticks, beginning during each month of the year, are given in
the following table :

T'nnr required to free pastures from ticks hy starvation.

Dale of removal of all animals
from pasture.

Julyl

Aug.l

Sept.l

Oct. 1 to Nov. 1, inclusive
Dec. 1

Date when pas-
ture will be free
from ticks.

Mar. 1.
May 1.
July 1.
Aug. 1.
Aug. 15.

Date of removal of all animals
from pasture.

Dec. 15 to Mar. 15, inclusive

Apr. 1

Apr. 15

May 1 to June 15, inclusive.

Date when pas-
ture will be free
from ticks.

Sept. 1.
Sept. 15.
Oct. 15.
Nov. 1.

The table above is based on investigations b}'' Hunter and Hooker ^
at Dallas, Tex., and by Graybill ^ at Auburn, Ala. All the periods
obtained bj^ Newell and Dougherty (1906)^ in work carried on at
Baton Rouge, La., which is much farther south, are shorter. The
periods above should be found ample for all localities lying no far-
ther north than Dallas, Tex., or Auburn, Ala. For many localities
in the southern part of the infested region the periods necessary to
starve out an infestation are no doubt somewhat shorter than those
gi^'en above. In general, moisture and cold prolong and dryness and
heat shorten the duration of an infestation. If various portions of
the same pasture differ with regard to temperature and moisture, as is
frequenth'^ the case, some parts become free of ticks before others do.
Other things being equal, high, dry, unshaded land becomes tick
free sooner than low, damp, shady land.

The simplest and safest plan in most cases, however, is to follow
the foregoing table in the region indicated for it. It is probable that

^Bulletin 72, Bureau of EntomoloKy, TJ. S. Department of A{;iicnlture.
'Bulletin l.TO, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
' Circular 10, State Crop Pest Commission of Louisiana.

TEXAS FEVER.

487

the periods given in the table should be lengthened a little for the
northern part of the infested region. The experiments conducted
thus far in various places indicate this, and it will place the eradica-
tion work in that region on the safe side. For example, E. C.
Cotton^ obtained at Knoxville, Tenn., records for September and
April somewhat longer than those given above. They are as follows :

Cattle removed April 15; pasture free of ticks November 13.
Cattle removed September 15 ; pasture free of ticks July IS.

In localities with temperature and other conditions similar to those
at Knoxville, Tenn., these periods should l)e followed.

Time required to render cattle free of ticks 'ichen placed on unin-
fested fields. — Before discussing plans for rendering farms tick free,
involving the use of the information given in the foregoing table, it
will be necessary to indicate how animals may be entirely freed from
ticks by placing them on uninfested fields. This is based on the fact
that the female tick must drop from the host to the groimd before
eggs can be laid and before young ticks will develop.

The shortest time in which seed ticks Avill appear after engorged
females have been dropped is 20 days. Consequently cattle placed
on a tick-free field during the warmer part of the year are not in
danger of becoming infested again with yoimg ticks until 20 days
have elapsed. The time required for all the ticks to drop after cattle
have been placed on uninfested land varies with the temperature,
being much longer during the Avinter than during the summer. The
time required, beginning at various times of the 3'ear, is given in the
following table :

Tune requirerJ for all ficl-s to ciroi) fro)>i cattle placed on tick-free land.

When tickv cattle are pl!ice<1. oa
tick-free land during —

All ticks will
have dropped

August Six weeks.

September Do.

October ! Eight weeks.

November j Nine weeks.

January Ten weeks.

February \ Seven weeks.

M'hen ticky cattle are placed on
tick-free land during —

i March.
I April..
I May...
I June. .
i July...

All ticks will

have dropped

in—

Seven weeks.
Six weeks.

Do.

Do.
Fi\e weeks.

Freeing cattle of ticks hy rotation on tick-free land. — The plan of
freeing cattle of ticks by rotating them from one lot or field to an-
other is as follows: Beginning at any time from Februar}'^ to Sep-
tember, inclusive, the cattle are removed from the tick-infested pas-
ture to a tick-free lot or field and kept there for not more than 20
days. During this time a considerable number of ticks will drop.
In order to prevent the cattle from becoming reinfested (by seed

* Bulletin 81, AgricuUiiral Experiment Station of the University of Tennessee.

488 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

ticks resulting from eggs laid by females that have dropped), the
herd is then changed to a second tick-free inclosure for 20 days
longer, and if they are not free of ticks by that time they are placed
in a third tick-free inclosure for 20 days more. Should the two
changes after intervals of 20 days have been made. 60 days will have
elapsed, which is ample time for all ticks to have dropped during
the portion of the year indicated, and the animals are then ready
to be i^laced on a tick-free pasture or field without danger of be-
coming reinfested. The periods to free cattle (given in the above
table) are believed to be ample. It will, however, be a wise precau-
tion to make a careful examination of the cattle for ticks before
placing them in the noninfested field they are to occup)^

During the part of the year from October to February, inclusiA-e,
the time required for seed ticks to appear after females have dropped
is much longer than the time necessary for all the ticks to drop from
cattle; consequently, if it is desired, the herd ma}^ be continued on
the same field for the required length of time without danger of
becoming reinfested.

Freeing hoth cattle and pastures of tkhs hy the rotation method. —
The particular scheme of rotation to be followed on a farm depends
much on the conditions which have to be met. In figures 1 to 4 four
plans of rotation are represented. In these diagrams no attempt,
except in a very rough way, has been made to indicate the relative
size of the fields, as this depends on the number of cattle and on
various conditions of a more or less local nature. It rests with the
farmer to select his fields with regard to location and size so as to
carry out properly and successfully the plan which he adopts.

The matter of the dissemination of ticks deserves particular atten-
tion in considering rotation methods. The engorged females which
drop on a pasture will crawl at most oiAy a few feet. The same may
be said of the larva? or seed ticks. It is possible, however, for seed
ticks to be passively carried considerable distances at times. Dogs,
cats, and other animals which ordinarily pass unhindered over farms
may become covered with seed ticks while going through one field,
and later some of them maA' be brushed off the animal while passing
through the herbage of an adjoining field. Even though the danger
of ticks being spread in this manner is not great, it will be Avell, when
p]-acticable, to take precautions against it.

Again, engorged females, eggs, and seed ticks may be carried by
running water from a pasture Avithout injury in any way. The dan-
ger from this source is probably greatest where there are many small
streams subject to frequent floods of short duration and on hillsides
Avhere the Avater runs off Avith groat force during lieavy rains. This
will, no doubt, in some localities present a rather serious probk^n in
tick eradication.

TEXAS FEVER.

489

Ticks may crawl from the edge of one pasture into an adjoining
pasture, or engorged females may drop from the heads of animals
reaching through a dividing fence. These difficulties are best over-
come by consti-ucting a double fence with an intervening space of

FIELD N0.2B.
OCT. 12. MOVE THE HERD.
TO FIELD N0.3.

OATSrOiLOWED BY

FOR/1 ce.

fHEM

FIELD NO. 2 /I.
SEPT22.M0VETHE
HEFtD TO FIELD
NO 2 B.

FIELD NO. 3.
CORN.

COlVPE/fS.

NO I/. I. MOVE THE HERD TO
FIELD NO. I A

FIELD NO. 4-.
COTTON.
HYE OR CRIMSON

CLOVE n

HOUSE

P/ISrURE: BERMUO/1 ,VET,CH,flND BUR CLOVER

FIELD NO.I B.
SETFT 2. MOVE THE HERD TO FIELD
NO. 2/1. KEEP OUT ALL RNIM/iLS
UNTIL JULY I, WHEN THIS FIELD
WILL BE FREE OFTICt^iS AND THE
TEMPOnmY DOUBLE FENCE MfiV BE
REMO\yEO.

FIELD NO. I /?.
JUNE 15. MOVE THE HERD TO FIELD
NO.IB. KEEP OUT ^LLflNIMffLS
FROM THISD/)TE UNTIL NOV.I.I^HEN
THI^ FIELD UJILL BE FHEE OFTWn^.

Fn:. 1. — I'lan for freeini^ cattlt> and pasturos from ticks by rotation, r<■(lvlirin^' four and

one-lialf months.

15 feet. Such a fence, if the land does not slope greatly, also greatly
reduces the danger of ticks being washed by rain from one pasture to
the other.

Plan requiring four and one-half months. — The plan of rotation
represented in figure 1 requires four and a half months for its com-

490 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

pletion. Some time during the spring the pasture is divided in the
middle by two lines of temporary fence 15 feet apart. The herd is
first confined in field No. lA. On June 15 it is moved from this por-
tion of the pasture to the other portion, designated field No. IB, and
on September 2 is moved to field No. 2A. The cattle are permitted
to remain 20 days on each of the fields designated 2A, 2B, and 3.
At the end of this time (Nov. 1) all the ticks on the cattle have
dropped, and the herd is returned to field No. lA, which in the
meantime has become free of ticks. Later, if it is desired, the cattle
may be placed in field No. 4. Tliey should not, however, be returned
to any of the other fields or driven across them, as these are infested
with ticks. Field No. IB will be free from ticks July 1 of the fol-
lowing year, at which time the temporary double fence may be re-
moved and the cattle allowed to graze over the entire pasture. The
rest of the farm will be free of ticks by August 1. If found desirable,
the herd may be continued longer in field No. 3, even as late as Feb-
ruarj^ 15, the only objection to this being that it will break the crop
rotation by preventing the sowing of oats in the fall.

It is well, when practicable, to have double fences with an inter-
vening space of 15 feet between the difi^erent fields in order to pre-
vent the ticks from getting from one field to another. If this is not
possible on account of the expense and time required to build the
extra line of fence, the next best thing is to plow several furrows on
each side of the dividing fences.

When there are streams running through the farm or the slope of
the land is considerable, so that ticks maj^ be washed from one field
to the other during rains, the fields should be so arranged or selected
that the drainage is from field No. lA to No. IB, and from field No.
3 toward fields Nos. 2A and 2B.

Plan requiring eight tnonths. — The plan indicated in figure 2 Is
begun fifteen days later than the preceding one and requires eight
months for its completion. The pasture is divided as before. The
herd is moved July 1 from field No. lA to No. IB, and on October
15 is moved from there to field No. 2. The herd may be continued
on fields Nos. 2 and 3 until February 15 in any way found most
convenient, as there is no danger of young ticks hatching during
that time. The herd is moved not later than February 15 to field
No. 4. All the ticks on the cattle will have dropped by December
20, consequently the herd may be moved to field No. 4 as early as
that date, if found desirable.

By March 1 the original pasture is free and the cattle are returned
there. Field No. IB will be free of ticks by August 1, at which time
the double fence separating the two parts of the pasture may be
removed. The re.st of the farm will not be certainlv free of ticks

TEXAS FEVEB.

491

until September 1. The drainage in general should be from field No.
lA toward No. IB, and from field No. 4 toward field No. 2.

Plan requiring four months^ with a new pasture. — The plan of
rotation represented in figure 3 involves changing the location of the

HELD NO. 2.

0/fT3.

COU/PEAS AND
ei/RCLOV/ER.

FIELD N0.3.

CORN.

FIELD NO.^.

COTTON.
HYE flNO
h/INTEFt LEGUMEo.

MOVE HffiO TO FietO
NO. 3.

C/iULC l^tLLBE FREE
OFTICK^S BY DEC. 20
BETWEEN THIS DATE
AND FEBR.I5 MOVE THE
HERO TO FIELD NO.'h

nflR.I. MOVE THE HERD
TO FIELQ NO. IB.

IMMIM

1

I

• — ■- 1 r ■-
PEFiMfiNENT I 1 P/iSTURE.
1 «

OCT. 15. MC

FIELD NO.I

?l/£ THE HERl

NO. 2..

:> TO FIELD ' \iJUlYl.MQ\JEH

\ \KEEP ALL A

1 FIELD UNTIL

1 FFiEE or TIC

1

1 1

FIELD NO. 1 /?.
ERD TO PASTURE NO.I
NIMflLS OUT OnHIS
NRR.I.IrJUEN IT.MLL
AS.

B.
BE

Fig.

-Plan for frepinr catlle and pastures from ticks by rotation, roqiiirinsc eight
months.

pasture. The oat field (field No. 4) after the grain has been har-
vested is reserved for this purpose. It should be sown in cowpeas,
Bermuda grass, and bur clover. The herd is moved October 15
from the original pasture, field No. 1, to field No. 2. where it may be

492

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

kept for a month or two, or until the feed becomes short, then moved
to field No. 3, where it is kept until February 15, when it is moved
to the new pasture, field No. 4. The old pasture may be planted in
oats. The drainage should be from field No. 4 toward field No. 2.

FIELD N0.2.

CORN.

COt^PEflS.

MOVE THE HERD FROM

THI6 FIELD TO FIELD

N0.3.

FIELD N0.3.

COTTON FOLLOWED
0y CRIMSON CLOVEH, VETCH,
BUR CLOVER OR R^E.

FEBFI. I5.M0VETHCHERD
TO FIEUD NO. 4-.

FIELD NO.^.

ORT^.,

COU/PE/IS,
BERMUD/I,

BUR cLoi/en.

BECOMES THE NEW
P/ISTU8E.

FIELD NO. I.
P/ISTUnE.
OCT I5:M01/£ HERD TO FIELD NO.Z.
PL/INT IN O/IT'5 fiNO FOLLOW l^/ITH COl^PEfl^.

Fi.;.

-Plan for fi-p(':i)s cattle and pastures from ticks by rotation, requiring' four
luonths, witli aew pasture.

The feed-lot or so'dhuj m-etlwdy requb-inr/ fom- and oiie-h(df
months. — In the plan given in figure 4 the feed-lot or soiling method
is made use of to free the cattle of ticks. In the spring fi<dd No. '^B,
located near the farmyard, is sown in corn for a soiling crop. The
area devoted to corn should be sufficient to supply feed for the herd

TEXAS FEVER.

493

for five or six Aveeks. Field No. 3A, after the oats are harvested,
should be sown in sorghum and cowpeas or millet and cowpeas, and
should be large enough to furnish feed for the herd until November
1. These fields should not have had cattle on them for at least 10
months.

FIELD N0.4r
COFfN.

FIELD NO.3/1. ,

O^T^S. r

SOPGHUM AND COh^PEJIS. I

OR '

MILLET /I ND COl^P£/IS.

NOULnETUBN HERD TO PASTURE

FIELD N0.3B.
DRILLED CORN FOR SOILING CROP.

FIELD NO. 2.
COTTON.
COWPEfld.

HOUSE

FIELD NO. I.
^ P/JSTURE.

JUNE 15. MOI/E HERD TO LO T NO. I.
KEEP /ILL /INIM/ILS OUT OF THI6 FIELD UNTI L NOL^. I,IVHEN IT IVILL
BE FREE OF TICK^.

Fig. 4.-

-I'lan for freeing cattle and pasluros from ticks by rotation; feed-lot or soillnj

method.

Prior to June 15 three lots, each large enough to accommodate
the herd, are fenced off in field No. 3B. These lots should not be
on a stream, and the drainage should be from field Xo. 3A toward
field No. 3B. There should be a space of 15 feet or more between
the lots. On June 15 the herd is moved to lot No. 1, and afterwards

494 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

to lots Nos. 2 and 3 at intervals of 20 days. After the cattle have
spent the required time in lots Nos. 1 and 2, if it is found after a
careful examination made bj'' some one familiar with such work that
the cattle are free of ticks, they may be turned directly into field
No. 3A. If they are not free they should be placed in lot No. 3
until they are free, or, if this can not be determined with certainty,
until 15 or 20 days more have elapsed, which will be much longer
than ncessary for all ticks to drop during July and August.

If desirable, the corn in each lot may be cut and removed before
the cattle are placed in it. As soon as possible after the cattle are
removed from a lot the female ticks and eggs present on the ground
should be plowed under and the ground along the fence sprayed
with crude petroleum or some other disinfectant to prevent any seed
ticks which may hatch from getting beyond the area of the lot.
Another valuable precaution will be to use for feed, so far as pos-
sible, the corn opposite or in advance of the lot in which the cattle
are located, as this is less liable to harbor seed ticks.

The pasture will be free of ticks by November 1, and the cattle
may then be returned there if desired. The herd may, however, be
kept on field No. 3A as long after that date as the forage lasts, or,
in case of a shortage of feed before November 1, it ma)'' be moved
to either field No. 2 or 4, provided one of them is ready for pastur-
age. These fields may be used for fall and winter pasturage in any
way that may be found desirable.

DIPPING, SPRAYING, AND HAND DRESSING.

Ticlvs upon cattle may be destroyed by using various " tickicides,"
such as oils, arsenic, etc. These may be applied in three ways,
namely, by hand, by the use of spray pumps, and by means of the
dipping vat.

Hand application is practicable only when a few animals are to be
treated. The substances of value in this method are a mixture of
lard and kerosene, cotonseed oil, or a half-and-half mixture of
cottonseed oil and kerosene, and finally, crude petroleum. Any of
these may be applied with a mop or a good-sized paint brush, but
unless great pains are taken this method of treatment is not thor-
ough, and even at the best some portions of the body where ticks
may be located will be missed. If crude petroleum is used, care must
be observed in its application, as cattle are liable to be injured by it,
particularly in hot weather.

Spraying is advisable only in cases in which there are but a few
animals to be treated, and when impossible to obtain facilities for
dipping them. The arsenical mixture or the crude petroleum or

TEXAS FEVER. 495

emulsions of the same may be applied by means of an ordinary pail
spraying pump. (Fig. 5.)

Dipping in a vat is on the whole the best and cheapest method of
treating cattle for the destruction of ticks.

Dipping in a vat. — Farms and pastures may be freed of ticks by
treating all cattle regularly every two to three weeks with an effective

Fig. 5. — Pail spraying pump for small herds.

tick-destroj'ing agent. If the treatment is applied with such suc-
cess as to destroy all ticks that reach the cattle from time to time,
thus preventing any engorged females from dropping on the pasture
after the beginning of the treatment, the pasture will become free
of ticks after the same period of time has elapsed as would have been
required if all animals had been excluded, beginning on the same
date; that is, a perfectly successful treatment would be practically

496 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the same as the complete exchision of the herd. The dates on which
the starving out of an infestation will be effected when begun at
various times of the year have already been given in the table on
page 486. In actual practice, however, as some ticks may escape
and reinfest the pasture, the time necessary to accomplish eradication
may be somewhat prolonged beyond the periods indicated in the
table. This method offers the advantage that the pasture may be
used continuously, and is the one usually followed.

Many efforts have been made to discover a practical method for
dipping cattle to destroy ticks without injury to the cattle, and the
bureau has experimented for years with this object in view. Numer-
ous kinds of dips have been used, and many failures have been
recorded, but finally a very satisfactory dip has been discovered in
an arsenical solution, and arsenical dips, in fact, are now the only
kind used in tick eradication.

Preparation and vse of arsenical dips} — The formula commonly
used in making an arsenical dip is as follows :

Sodium carbonate (sal soda) pounds__ 24

Arsenic trioxid (wliite arsenic) do — 8

Pine tar sallon__ 1

Water sufficient to make 500 gallons.

Put 25 gallons of water into a kettle or tank of 40 to 50 gallons
capacity, heat to boiling, and add the sal soda. When this has dis-
solved add the white arsenic, then boil and stir for 15 minutes or
longer, until the white arsenic has entirely disappeared. Cool to
140° F. (by the addition of cold water if desired), then pour in the
pine tar in a thin stream while constantly and vigorousl}' stirring the
.solution. Immediately empty the liquid into the dipping vat, which
has already been three-fourths filled with water, and stir thoroughly.

A by-product of the action of sodium carbonate on white arsenic
is the gas carbon dioxid. The escape of this gas is attended with con-
siderable foaming of the solution, so the kettle must be generously
large, and the operation of boiling must liaA'e constant watching to
prevent the liquid from frothing over the edge of the kettle.

The kettle or tank, utensils, and materials must be perfectly free
from all greasy or oily substances, as a small quantity of such matter
is sufficient to form a coating OA^er the arsenic, and thus to prevent
or delay its solution.

The boiled dip may be made perfectly well with very hard water,
but in that case some residue of a fine white or gray powder will be
left undissolved after boiling. This residue carries no arsenic, but
arises from the action of the sodium carbonate upon compounds,
chiefly of lime, in the water. Examination of the liquid after boil-

1 Tor fuller information relative to tlio proparation of arsonie dips, soo Farmers'
Bulletin 603.

TEXAS FEVEK. 497

ing for a few minutes with the soda before the arsenic has been added
will show how much residue may be expected from this source.

In order that dipping in arsenic may be both efficacious in destroy-
ing ticks and also harmless to the cattle at all times, it is of the
greatest importance that the dij) be of the proper strength, and that
so far as practicable it be maintained at that strength. Due care in
making the dip and in calculating the capacity of the vat will, of
course, assure the correct initial strength of the dip. Providing the
vat with a waterproof cover will do much to maintain the dip at its
proper strength by preventing, on the one hand, concentration by
evaporation, and, on the other hand, dilution by rains. A cover will
also reduce the risk of cattle being poisoned between dippings, espe-
cially when the vat is not protected by a fence. During rains the
water from the draining pen and chute should not be permitted to
run into the vat and dilute the dip.

Precautions in the use of arsenic. — Because of the fact that arsenic
is a poison, great care should be observed in caring for it after it is
purchased from the druggist, in order that persons and animals may
not be accidentally poisoned. The dip at the time it is being made
a^d also after it is diluted should be handled and protected as a
poison. Unless such precautions are observed accidents are very
liable to occur. When, however, arsenic is handled with the proper
care, there is no more danger in its use on the farm than in the use
of a number of other poisons that are commonly and regularly used
by farmers for destroying insect pests of plants and obnoxious
rodents.

Persons using the dip, especially with the spray pump, should not
subject their hands and other portions of the body (by permitting
their clothing to become wet) to the action of the dip any more than
is necessary, and it is well to wash the hands thoroughly after each
spraying, especially when they are frequently exposed to the dip.
At the time the dip is being prepared, care should be observed not to
inhale the vapor arising from the caldron or kettle, and during
spraying the same precaution should be exercised against the inhala-
tion of the spray.

In making the dip, weights and measures should not be guessed at,
and the arsenic especially should be weighed with the greatest care.

Cattle should always be watered a short time before they are
dipped. After they emerge from the vat they should be kept on a
draining floor until the dip ceases to run from their bodies ; then they
should be left in a yard free of vegetation until they are entirely
dry. If cattle are allowed to drain in places where pools of dip
collect, from which they may drink, or if they are turned at once on
the pasture, where the dip will run from their bodies on the grass
and other vegetation, losses are liable to result. Crowding the ani-
33071°— 16 32

498 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

mals before they are dry should also be prevented, and they should
not be driven any considerable distance within a week after dipping,
especially in hot weather. If many repeated treatments are given,
the cattle should not be treated of tener than every two weeks.

In addition to properly protecting vats containing arsenical dip
when not in use, caution must also be observed when vats are to be
emptied for cleaning. The dip should not be poured or allowed to
flow on land and vegetation to which cattle or other animals have
access. The best plan is to run the dip into a pit properly protected
by fences. The dip should also not be deposited where it may be
carried by seepage into wells or springs which supply water used on
the farm.

Crude petroleuTn. — Various kinds of crude petroleum and emulsions
of it have been used with more or less success in destroying ticks, but
on account of the difficulty of obtaining suitable grades of oil and the
liability of injury to cattle, their use has been practically abandoned.

Method of dipping. — The method usually adopted in dipping cattle
is to construct a narrow swimming tank with a chute at one end for
the entrance of the cattle, and a sloping exit at the other end when
the cattle emerge after passing through the vat. (SeePl. XLIX,fig.
2. ) A drip chute, or floor, is connected with the exit, Avhere the excess
of dip is allowed to drip off the animals and to drain into the vat.
Plans and specifications for installing dipping plants are published
in Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 207, which may be obtained
from this department.

IMMUNIZATION OF SUSCEPTIBLE CATTLE.

By hlood inocyZation. — It is often desirable to ship well-bred cattle
into infested districts that they may be used to improve the quality
of the native cattle already there. Prior to the discovery of the cause
of Texas fever it was found to be well-nigh impossible to introduce
purebred cattle from the North into any of the infected regions
without suffering great loss — sometimes as high as 90 per cent —
within a few months of their arrival at their southern destination.
At first it was thought that the fatalities were due to climatic
changes, but later the discovery was made that Texas fever was caus-
ing these numerous deaths.

It has now been found practicable to immunize this class of cattle
so perfectly that the losses which follow their transportation to a
tick-infested region are reduced to a minimum. So far as possible,
young animals 6 to 15 months old should be selected for this pur-
pose, as they are more readily immunized than adults, are more easily
handled, and the dangers which may arise from pregnancy while
undergoing the immunizing treatment are thus avoided.

TEXAS FEVER. 499

Immunity in these cattle is obtained by introducing the micro-
parasite of the blood into their systems. It may be done by direct
artificial inoculation or by placing virulent young ticks upon the
nnimals and allowing them to perform the inoculation in the natural
manner. The subcutaneous injection of a small quantity of defibri-
nated virulent blood has been found, by means of prolonged experi-
ment, the preferable method, as the number of microorganisms in-
troduced can be more accurately gaged from the syringe than by
allowing the infection to be produced by bites of ticks. Two or three
inoculations, if repeated after proper intervals, are accomplished
with greater safety to the animal than would be possible by means of
a single inoculation. The quantity first injected should be small and
then gradually increased in the succeeding treatments.

The inoculation always results in a more or less serious attack of
Texas fever. Besides having a fever, there is great diminution of
red blood corpuscles, and in about 3 per cent of the cases a fatal
termination ; but the proportion of deaths resulting from the inocu-
lation is small when compared with the fatalities among untreated
animals taken into infested districts. To this number should be
added those animals (less than 7 per cent) that do not receive sufficient
immunity by this method and which succumb when exposed to in-
fested pastures. Combining these failures it will be seen that by this
method of immunization, instead of a loss of 90 per cent among
breeding stock taken South more than 90 per cent can be saved. The
animals should be carefully nursed through the attack and their
symptoms treated as indicated on page 502,

Immunizing inoculations are now being made by the veterinarians
of most of the agricultural experiment stations of the Southern
States without cost for the services rendered, a charge being made
merely for the actual value of food consumed and attendants' wages.
These veterinarians have also issued station bulletins which describe
fully the necessary steps to be taken in obtaining the blood and in-
jecting it into the animals to be immunized, so that the stock owner
may follow the instructions with prospects of getting good results.

This operation is not a difficult one, and excellent results will fol-
low when absolute cleanliness and ordinary care have been used, but
undoubtedly the best results will be obtained by those who have
thoroughly familiarized themselves with the nature of the disease
and are experienced in extracting blood from animals. Two methods
are in use and will be described separately. One consists in drawing
the blood from the jugular vein of an immune animal and immedi-
ately injecting it into the cattle to be immunized. It is compara-
tively simple, requires few instruments, and can be satisfactorily
carried out when a small number of animals are to be immunized
and if a suitable immune animal is close at hand. First, select an

500 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

immune animal which is in good health and which is infested with
fever ticks or had them the preceding year. Fasten the animal se-
curely, either by tying, throwing, or by placing in a chute. Clip the
hair from a space about 4 inches in diameter over the jugular vein
on the upper third of the neck, wash the skin thoroughly with a. 5
per cent solution of carbolic acid, and then fasten a strap or rope
around the neck below the hairless area and draw it tight in order
that the blood in the vein may be stopped, causing distension. With
a large, hypodermic-syringe needle, previously sterilized in a 5 per
cent carbolic-acid solution, puncture the vein at a slight angle, direct-
ing the point forward. When the needle enters the vein the point
can be rotated freely in contrast to the restricted movements if still
in the tissues, and the blood will either drop or flow from the opening
in the needle. Attach the disinfected syringe to the needle with
piston in and gradually draw out the piston until the chamber of
the syringe is full of blood, when the needle is withdrawn. The
blood, before it has had time to clot, is immediately injected into the
animals to be immunized and which have been previously tied or
restrained, the hair clipped, and the skin disinfected at the seat of
injection in the region of the shoulder. From a yearling in fair con-
dition a pint of blood may be taken without harm, while double this
quantity may be taken from a 2-year-old, and four or five times as
much from a 3-year-old or upward. Inject then from 1 to 3 cubic
centimeters, according to the age of the animal, under the skin of
each animal until the blood is exhausted. When more animals are
to be inoculated than one syringeful will inject, the operation may be
repeated in the same manner. The only objection to this method is
the possibility of the blood clotting in the sja-inge, but with practice
and promptness this can easily be prevented.

The second method is better suited for the inoculation of a large
number of cattle or where the immune animal is at a distance from
the cattle to be immunized.

The preliminar}'' steps — the clipping of the hair, disinfection of
the skin, placing the rope around the neck to distend the jugular
vein, and restraining the animal — are the same as for the first method.
In puncturing the vein it is advisable to use a small trocar and can-
nula after sterilizing in a 5 per cent carbolic-acid solution, and, when
the vein has been entered, to draw out the trocar, allowing the blood
to flow through the cannula attached to a rubber tube into a perfectly
clean and sterile vessel containing a 5 per cent solution of citrate of
potassium or sodium, to prevent the coagulation of the blood. The
quantity of citrate solution in the container should be one-twentieth
of the quantity of blood which it is desired to collect. After sufficient
blood has been drawn for the animals to be injected, a cork is phu^ed
in the top of the bottle through which passes a long rubber tubing.

TEXAS FEVER. 501

At the other end of this tubing is a needle and in the middle is a T
joint with a syringe at the stem, of the T. By the use of valves at
this joint the withdrawal of the syringe piston pulls the blood from
the bottle, and the insertion of the piston with closure of the opposite
valve ejects the blood from the needle. The citrated blood is inocu-
lated under the disinfected skin of the animals to be immunized, as
in the first method. This blood may be kept in a dark, cool place
for one or more months without deteriorating and may be shipped to
other points for use.

The i^lace where this injection is made is immaterial, but for con-
venience a point just behind the shoulder is usually chosen. The dose
and number of injections vary with the individual animals. "When
a large number of cattle are to be inoculated a special form of syringe
devised by Pound, of Queensland, may be used. The syringe is so
arranged by means of tubes and valves, that by simply pulling out
the piston of the syringe and pushing it in again the correct amount
of blood is drawn up from the bottle and injected through the needle
into the animal, thus obviating the necessity of continually filling the
syringe and measuring out the dose.

As a rule it maybe stated that 1 cubic centimeter should be injected
into an old animal coming into the infested district, 2 cubic centi-
meters for a 2-year-old, and 3 cubic centimeters for an animal 9 to
15 months old. It will be observed that, unlike the usual custom of
applying treatment, the older animals take less than the young ones,
owing to their greater susceptibility to the disease. When an animal
has reacted well to a first injection and shows a very high tempera-
ture, great reduction of red blood cells, or other symptoms indicative
of reaction, it will not be necessary to repeat the injection, but in those
cases in which the reaction is slight, a second injection should follow
after an interval of 40 days, and, if need be, a third injection after
a similar lapse of time, always increasing the size of dose 50 per
cent. A thermometer, to indicate the course and severity of the
disease, is indispensable in this work. Usually, after 3 to 10 days,
sometimes longer, the inoculated animals show a mild type of Texas
fever, which runs a course of from 6 to 8 days and is followed in
about 30 days after the injection with a second attack of a milder
character than the first. After 40 days, when the animal has entirely
recovered from the inoculation, a second injection may be given
to increase its immunity. In some cases a very severe type of fever
follows the first inoculation, requiring careful nursing and treatment,
as suggested above. A second, milder attack follows usually in about
30 to 40 days, after which the animal need have no further inocula-
tions. It is advisable to prevent any ticks from getting on the cattle
until 60 days after their inoculation or until they have fully recov-
ered, at which time a few ticks may be placed upon them in order to

502 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

reenforce their immunity. Naturally this time varies according to
the type of the attack. As the best results with these immunizing
experiments have been obtained in cool weather and with young
cattle, it is recommended that animals from 6 to 15 months old be
selected for inoculation, and that they be immunized late in the fall
or winter, in order that they may enter tick-infested pastures in the
spring without danger.

By infesting with ticks. — Immunity may also be induced in suscep-
tible animals by placing limited number of fever ticks upon their
bodies in order to produce the disease naturally. For this purf)ose
only animals less than 1 year of age should be used, as the method is
not applicable for older and more susceptible animals. Upon the
bodies of these young cattle from 25 to 50 seed ticks should be
placed, which in the course of about 10 days will occasion a rise
of temperature and a mild form of Texas fever. When the animal
has entirely recovered from this attack, a second crop— double the
number first used — should be applied to the animal in order to in-
crease its power of resistance when pastured on infested soil. In
order to carry out this method successfully, a constant supply of seed
ticks must be at hand. This can be accomplished by placing the
mature females in a Mason fruit jar among some dirt and leaves and
keeping them in a warm place. In a few weeks the eggs will have
been laid and hatched, and a number of seed ticks will be present for
use in infesting the cattle to be immunized. By placing a few adult
females in the jar every two months there will always be a supply of
these young ticks. This method of producing immunity by controlled
tick infestation is not so safe as blood inoculation, as the number of
germs injected can be more accurately regulated by means of a
syringe.

TREATMENT.

When Texas fever has broken out, all animals, the sick as well as
the healthy, should at once be removed to a noninfected pasture.
While this may not cut short the disease, it may save the lives of
some by removing them from the possibility of attack by more young
ticks. Removal from infected pastures likewise prevents a second
attack, in October or early in November, which is caused by another
generation of ticks. It is true that sick natives infect with a new
generation of ticks the pasture to which they are removed, but these
usually appear so late that they have but little opportunity to do any
damage; hence, sick natives do not, as a rule, cause visible disease
in other natives.

It is of importance to remove all ticks, so far as this is possible,
from sick animals, since they abstract a considerable quantity of
blood and thereby retard the final recovery.

TEXAS FEVER. 503

Medical treatment of the sick has generally been unsatisfactory,
although in chronic cases and those occurring late in the fall bene-
ficial results have followed. If the animal is constipated, a drench
containing 1 pound of Epsom salts dissolved in 1 quart of water
should be administered, followed by sulphate of quinin in doses
of 30 to 90 grains, according to the size of the animal, four times a
day until the system is well saturated with it. Tincture of digitalis
one-half ounce and whisky or alcohol 2 ounces may be combined with
the quinin, according to indications of individual cases. An iron
tonic containing reduced iron 2 ounces, pow^dered gentian 4 ounces,
powdered nux vomica 2 ounces, powdered rhubarb 2 ounces, and
potassium nitrate 6 ounces will be found beneficial in the convales-
cent stage when the fever has run its course. This tonic should be
given in heaping teaspoonful doses three times a day in the feed.
Good nursing is essential in treating these cases, and the animal
should be given a nutritious, laxative diet with j)lenty of clean and
cool drinking "water and allowed to rest in a quiet place. If the
stable or pasture is infested with ticks, the animal should be placed
in a tick-free inclosure to prevent additional infestation w^ith these
parasites and the introduction of fresh infection into the blood.
Furthermore, all ticks that can be seen should be removed from the
sick cattle, as they keep weakening the animal by withdrawing a
considerable quantity of blood, and thereby retard recovery.

QUARANTINE REGULATIONS.

The sanitary regulations issued by the Department of Agriculture
for the control of cattle shipments from the infected districts have
for their initial purpose the prevention of the transportation of
ticks from infected regions to those that are not infected, either
upon cattle or in stock cars or other conveyer. They are based upon
the fact that Texas fever is carried north only by the cattle tick,
and the exclusion of this parasite from the noninfected territory has
in every instance been found a certain method of excluding Texas
fever. The regulations governing the movement of cattle from
below the quarantine line are made yearly by the Secretary of Agri-
culture, and they define the boundary of infected districts. The
infected area as now determined includes the territory south of an
imaginary line which commences on the Atlantic coast on the Vir-
ginia-North Carolina boundary and passes in a westerly direction
through Virginia, Xorth Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi,
Arkansas, Oklahoma, and the western part of Texas to the Rio
Grande and the Mexican border, whence it passes along the southern
boundary of New Mexico and Arizona and across a portion of
San Diego, County, California, to the Pacific slope. (See PI. L.)

SOUTHERN CATTLE FEVER (TEXAS FEVER, TICK FEVER).

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate XLIV. Normal spleen and spleen affected by Texas fever.

Fig. 1. Spleen of an acute, fatal case of Texas fever. The narrow end of
the spleen is here represented.

Fig. 2. Spleen of healthy steer. Though the latter animal weighed one-half
more than the former, the weight of the diseased spleen (6| pounds)
was nearly three times that of the healthy spleen (2§ pounds).
Plate XLV. Texas fever.

Fig. 1, The cut surface of a healthy liver taken from a steer slaughtered
for beef.

Fig. 2. The cut surface of the liver in Texas fever.

Fig. 3. Appearance of the urine in an acute, fatal case of Texas fever.

Fig. 4. Red corpuscles, magnified 1,000 diameters, containing the parasite of
Texas fever. This appears as a blue point a near the edge of the
corpuscle. The blood was taken from a skin incision. The case was
nonfatal and occurred late in the fall.

Fig. 5. Red corpuscles from the blood of an acute, fatal case, 20 hours be-
fore death. The Texas fever microbes a are shown as pear-shaped
bodies, stained with methylene blue, within the red corpuscles. The
larger body on the right ft is a white blood corpuscle, also stained with
methylene blue. (Magnified 1,000 diameters.)
Plate XLYI. The cattle tick (Margaropus anmilatus) , the carrier of Texas
fever.

Fig, 1. A series of ticks, natural size, from the smallest, just hatched from
the egg, to the mature female, ready to drop off and lay eggs.

Fig. 2. Eggs, magnified 5 times.

Fig. 3. The young tick just hatched (magnified 40 times).

Fig. 4. The male after the last molt (magnified 10 times).

Fig. 5. The female after the last molt (magnified 10 times).

Fig. 6, A portion of the skin of the udder, showing the small ticks. From
a fatal case of Texas fever produced by placing young ticks on the
animal. (Natural size.)

Fig. 7. A portion of the ear of the same animal, sliowing same full-grown
ticks ready to drop off. (Natural size.)
Plate XLVII. The cattle tick {Margaropus annulatus).

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of male. (Greatly enlarged. Original.)

Fig. 2. Ventral view of male. (Greatly enlarged. Original.)

Fig. 3. Dorsal view of replete female. (Greatly enlarged. Original.)

Fig. 4, Ventral view of same,
Plate XLVIII, Portion of a steer's hide, showing the Texas fever tick {^[ar^

garopus annulatus) . (Natural size. Original.)
Plate XLIX. Fig. 1, Tick-infested steer.

Fig. 2. Dipping cattle to kill ticks.
Plate L. Map of the United States, showing region infected with Texas
fever of cattle. The heavy line shows the boundary of the tick-infested
area at the beginning of the work of tick eradication in 1906. White
areas below the line show territory that has been freed from ticks and
released from quarantine. Shaded areas remain tick infested and
imder quarantine (April 1, 1916)! As a general rule, cattle may not be
shipped interstate from the shaded area except for immediate slaughter.
As the quarantined area is subject to change at any time, this map
should be compared with the latest regulations, which may be obtained
at any- time on application to the Secretary of Agriculture.
504

Diseasei of Cattle — U. S. Dept of Agr

Plate XLIV.

C/5 O) I"

;5 ? CO

Diseases of Cattle — U. S. Dept. of Agr

Plate XLV.

yis. 1

Fig. 3

Fig. 2

Fig. 4

(%

Texas Fever.

^P

€t Fig. 5

J ftCO BALTIMORE.

Diseases of Cattle — U. S. Dept. of Agr.

Plate XLVI.

« a 4 $

<i ^ ^

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

The Cattle Tick (Margaropus annulatus), the Carrier of Texas Fever.

AHOEN&CO BALTIMORE.

Oiteates of Cattle — U. S. Dept. of Agr.

Plate XLVII.

hOENacO BALTIMORE.

The Cattle Tick cMargaropus Annulatus).

Figs. 1 and 2 Dorsal and ventral views of Male.

Figs. 3 aud -1 Dorsal and ventral views of replete Female,
(greatly enlarged.)

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XLVIII.

Portion of a Steer's Hide, Showing the Texas-Fever Tick (Marqaropus annulatus)
OF the United States. Natural Size. Original.

Diseases of Cattle.

Plate XLIX.

Fig. 1.— Tick-Infested Steer.

FlQ. 2.— Dipping Cattle to Kill Ticks.

Diseases or Cattle.

Plate L.

TEXAS FEVEE. 505

In consequence of the enforcement of these quarantine regulations,
Texas fever has been practically prevented in the noninfected dis-
tricts for several years, and little or no hardship has been caused to
stockmen handling cattle from the infected areas. Prior to the
adoption of these regulations the tick-infested district was rapidly
extending northward, but since the quarantine line was established
and rational regulations enforced it has gradually been moved farther
south. This problem of still further reducing the infested area is of
the greatest importance to the cattlemen of the South — in fact, to
those on both sides of the line — and one which is receiving special
consideration by this department as well as by many of the interested
States.

TICK ERADICATION.

Systematic cooperative work by the Federal Government and the
affected States for the eradication of the cattle ticks which transmit
Texas fever was begun in the summer of 1906 under authority given
by Congress in the appropriation act for the Department of Agricul-
ture. The first Federal appropriation for the fiscal year ended June
30, 1907, was $82,500, and for the fiscal year 1908 an appropriation
of $150,000 was made, then for several years $250,000, and this has
been increased to $388,800 for 1916. Funds have also been provided
by States and counties.

The original infected area amounted to 728,543 square miles. Of
this territory there has been released from quarantine as a result of
the work above mentioned 284,521 square miles (up to April 1, 1916).
In other words, 38 per cent of the area has been freed from ticks
in a little over nine years.

Great improvement has already resulted from this work in the
released territory. More cattle are being raised, and a better grade
of breeding stock is being introduced ; calves grow faster, and cattle
put on flesh more rapidly during the grazing season and go into the
winter in better condition because of the absence of the ticks; they
can be marketed without quarantine restrictions, and higher prices
are being obtained; dairy cows give a larger yield of milk; and
yalues of farm lands are enhanced.

The difference between the prices realized for cattle from the tick-
infested region and the prices of cattle of similar grades from above
the quarantine line ranges from $2.25 to $5 a head at the principal
northern live-stock markets, without taking into account the im-
provement in quality and weight of cattle because of the eradication
of the ticks. As from 800,000 to 1,000,000 cattle from the quarantined
area are annually sold in these markets, it can easily be seen that the
extermination of the ticks means an annual increase of at least
$3,000,000 in the prices obtained for southern cattle sold in northern

506 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

markets. In addition to this, the increase in prices of cattle sold
locally in the South would represent a large sum. This local increase
has already been found to amount to from $3 to $15 a head in tlie
territory recently freed from ticks. An agricultural official of one
of the Southern States reports that calves in the tick- free area bring
just double the prices that can be obtained for similar calves in the
tick-infested region.

Heretofore it has been impracticable to improve the quality of
southern cattle by introducing fine breeding animals from other sec-
tions, because such animals were liable to contract Texas fever and
die unless protected by inoculation. Furthermore, it is impossible
for animals to attain good growth and to thrive when they are
heavily infested with ticks. With the eradication of the ticks, how-
ever, the southern farmers are enabled to introduce good breeding
animals and to improve the grade of their stock.

There is no longer any doubt that it is entirely practicable to
exterminate the ticks throughout the entire region, and the accom-
plishment of this result will be of tremendous economic advantage
not only to the South but to the whole country. The rate of progress
depends mainly on two factors — the amounts appropriated by the
Federal and State Governments, and the cooperation of the people.

CHRONIC BACTERIAL DYSENTERY.

Chronic bacterial dysentery is a chronic infectious disease of
bovines caused by an acid-fast bacillus simulating the tubercle
bacillus and characterized by marked diarrhea, anemia, and emacia-
tion, terminating in death.

Eecently this disease has been observed in the United States for
the first time by Pearson in Pennsylvania cattle, and later by Mohler
in Virginia cattle, and in an imported heifer from the island of
Jersey at the Athenia quarantine station of the Bureau of Animal
Industry.

The former has proposed the name chronic bacterial dysentery for
this affection, and it has also been termed Johne's disease, chronic
bacterial enteritis, chronic hypertrophic enteritis, and chronic bovine
pseudotuberculosis enteritis by various European investigators. The
disease w^as first studied in 1895 by Johne and Frothingham in Dres-
den, but they were inclined to attribute to the avian tubercle bacillus
the cause of the peculiar lesions of enteritis which they observed. In
1904 Markus reported this disease in Holland, and subsequently it
was observed in Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark, and Great Britain.

Cause. — The bacillus, which has been invariably demonstrated in
the intestinal lesions and mesenteric lymph glands in this disease, is
a rod about 2 to 3 microns long and 0.5 micron wide. It stains more
or less irregularly, like the tubercle bacillus, and moreover the simi-

CHRONIC BACTERIAL DYSENTERY. 507

larity goes further, in that the organism is also strongly acid-fast,
which facts led Johne and P^rothingham to surmise that the disease
was caused by avian tubercle bacilli. However, it has now been
plainly demonstrated that the bacillus of chronic bacterial dysentery
is readily distinguished from the latter organisms, for while it resem-
bles the tubercle bacillus in form and staining qualities, no one has
succeeded in growing it in culture media or in reproducing the dis-
ease by injecting experiment animals.

Symptoms. — Probably the first symptom noticed is that the animal
is losing condition despite the fact that its appetite is good and the
food nourishing. This is soon followed by a diarrhea which, while
moderate at first, soon becomes excessive and may be either irregular
or persistent, the feces being of the consistency of molasses and passed
frequently. In the meantime the hair becomes dry and harsh and
the animal falls off considerably in weight. The temperature, how-
ever, remains about normal. The appetite does not seem to be greatly
impaired until the last few weeks of life, but nevertheless emaciation
continues, the animal becomes more and more anemic, great mus-
cular weakness and exhaustion are manifested, and death follows,
apparently as the result of the persistent diarrhea and great emacia-
tion. The disease may continue for four or five weeks or may last
for a year, or even longer, before death intervenes.

Lesions. — The lesions observed on post-mortem are remarkably
slight and are out of all proportion to the severity of the symptoms
manifested. The disease appears to start in the small intestines, es-
pecially in the lower portion, where the lesions are usually the most
marked, but it also involves the large intestines, including the rectum.
The mucous membrane may alone be affected, although usually in the
long-standing cases the submucosa is also invaded and the entire
intestinal wall is then much thicker than normal and the tissue
infiltrated with an inflammatory exudate. The mucous membrane
or inside lining membrane is markedly wrinkled or corrugated,
showing large, coarse folds with more or less reddening or hemor-
rhagic patches or spots on the summits of the ridges, especially
noticeable in the large intestines. The mesenteric lymph glands are
usually somewhat enlarged and appear watery on section. The other
organs do not appear to be affected except from the anemia present
in the later stages of the disease.

Di-fferential diagnosis. — The principal disease with which bacterial
dysentery* may be confused is tuberculosis, but the application of the
tuberculin test will readily diagnose the latter disease, while no reac-
tion will be noted in case the injected animal is suffering with the
former affection. The disease may also be mistaken for the parasitic
affections resulting from stomach worms (verminous gastritis) and
intestinal parasites, especially uncinariasis, but a microscopic exami-

508 DISEASES OP CATTLE.

nation of the feces is necessary in order to establish definitely the
diagnosis.

Treatment. — As with all other forms of infectious disease, it is
advisable to separate immediately the diseased and suspected cattle
from the healthy animals. The feces passed by the former animals
should be placed on cultivated soil where healthy cattle will not
be exposed to them, as the bacilli producing the disease are readily
found in such manure. The stalls, stables, and barnyards should
also be thoroughly disinfected, as has been described under " Tuber-
culosis," in this chapter, special attention being given to those places
which have been soiled by feces. The administration of medicines
has thus far been quite unsatisfactory, although treatment should be
directed toward disinfecting the intestines with intestinal antisep-
tics, such as creolin in 2 teaspoonful doses twice daily or tannopin in
1 dram doses twice daily, and strengthening the animal by the use
of stimulants such as strychnin in half-gi'ain doses given twice daily
hypodermically. Salol, turpentine, or subnitrate of bismuth in a
starch or wheat-flour gruel may also give temporary relief, but the
diarrhea is likely to reappear and cause the death of the animal. In
all cases the feed must be carefully selected to assure good quality,
and should consist preferably of nutritious dry feed.

NAGANA.

Nagana, also called tsetse-fly disease, is an infectious fever occur-
ring chiefly in horses and cattle, characterized by alternating par-
oxysims and intermissions and produced by a specific flagellate proto-
zoan {Trypanosoma hrucei) in the blood. It is probably transmitted
from animal to animal solely by the bites of the tsetse fly. This
insect is something like a large house fly, and when it settles on a
diseased animal, sucks the blood and infects its proboscis, it is enabled
on biting a second animal to infect the latter by direct inoculation.
This disease is found throughout a large portion of central and
southern Africa, along the low-lying and swampy valleys. It has
never occurred in the United States, nor is it known to be present in
the Philippines, but its relation to surra and the possibility of its
appearance in one of our island dependencies are the reasons for
including a few remarks at this time.

SymjytoTns. — The chief symptoms in addition to the fever, which is
usually about 104° to 105° F., are the muscular wasting, progi-essive
anemia, and loss of power, together with the edema most marked
about the head, legs, abdomen, and genital organs. The urine is
yellow and tubid, and occasionally contains albumin and blood.
There is paralysis of one or both of the hind legs, difficult urination
and defecation, labored breathing, discharge fi'om the eyes and nose,
extreme thirst, and gradual extension of paralysis to other parts of

NAGANA CATTLE FAECY. 509

the body. The disease runs a chronic course, lasting from three to
six weeks in horses, and from one to six months in cattle. Besides
these animals, the mule, ass, buffalo, antelope, hyena, camel, and
dog contract the disease naturally, and sheep, goats, cats, and small
laboratory animals succumb to artificial inoculation.

Lesions. — The spleen and lymphatic glands are enlarged. There
are sero-fibrinous exudates in the body cavities, the liver is enlarged
and engorged, heart flabby, and a catarrhal condition is present in
the respiratory passages. Pathological changes occur in the spinal
cord. The finding of the trypanosoma by microscopic examination
of the blood will be conclusive evidence for diagnosis.

Treatment. — Treatment has not proved satisfactory. Quinin,
arsenic, methylene blue, and other drugs have been used, but with-
out success. Endeavors thus far made to produce immunity from
this disease have likewise been unavailing.

CATTLE FARCY.

This is a chronic disease of cattle occurring in France and the
island of Guadeloupe, West Indies. It is characterized by caseating
nodular swellings, first of the skin and afterwards of the superficial
lymphatic vessels and glands, finally proving fatal within a year by
extension to the viscera. The swellings rupture and discharge a
purulent yellowish fluid, which contains the causative organism.
This affection, called farcin du bceuf by the French, resembles cuta-
neous glanders or farcy of horses, but is caused by an entirely
different organism, the streptothrix of Nocard. Moreover, cattle are
immune from glanders, and for this reason the name, unfortunately
applied to this disease, should not lead to any confusion with the
cutaneous glanders or farcy of horses. Although the disease has been
described as occurring only in Guadeloupe and France, the pos-
sibility of its occurrence in American possessions warrants its men-
tion in this chapter.

Treatnfient. — Treatment consists in making incisions into the swell-
ings and syringing them out with 2 per cent compound cresol solution.
The cavities may then be packed with cotton, soaked in 5 per cent
zinc chlorid solution. The swollen lymphatics may also be bathed or
covered with cloths wrung out in this solution.

OTHER INFECTIOUS DISEASES.

The following are also infectious diseases of cattle, a discussion of
which will be found in previous chapters :

Page.

Contagious abortion 165

White scour of calves 259

Infectious ophthalmia (pink eye) 343

THE ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE.

By B. H. Ransom, Ph. D.,
Chief of Zoological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry.

The animal parasites of cattle comprise more than a hundred
different species, belonging to various groups of the animal Idng-
dom. Fortunately not all these parasites occur in this country —
many are uncommon, and many are comparatively harmless. Some
forms, however, occur frequently, and some are of distinct impor-
tance to the American stockman on account of the damage for which
they are responsible. It is these parasites particularly which will
be referred to in the present article, and although some forms are
discussed which are rare or apparently of little economic importance,
most of the minor and unusual parasites and species not found in
this country have been omitted from consideration.

FLIES.'

Of the various species of flies which infest cattle some are inju-
rious on account of the annoyance, pain, and loss of blood due to
their bites, and sometimes also on account of diseases or parasites
which are thus transmitted from the blood of diseased animals to
that of healthy cattle, while others, which in the winged adult state
do not bite, are injurious because they live parasitic on cattle during
their larval stages.

Remedies for flies.^ — Most remedies used for protecting cattle
from the attacks of flies have to be applied frequently, and few, if
any, will keep flies away for more than a day or two following their
application. The numerous proprietary fly repellents to be found
on the market are usually more expensive, and often less efficacious
than homemade mixtures.

At the Minnesota experiment station rancid lard 1 pound and
kerosene one-half pint, mixed thoroughly until a creamy mass forms,
was found to give excellent results as a fly repellent, lasting for two
or three days, when rubbed not too thickly with a cloth or with the
bare hand over the backs of cows. Mixtures of cottonseed oil and

'^ Further information may be found in a very full report on " Insects Affecting
Domestic Animals," issued as Bulletin 5, new series, of the Bureau of Entomology of this
department.

2 Further informatiou on fly repellents may be found in Bulletin 131 of the l>epartment
of Agriculture.

510

ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE. 511

pine tar containing from 10 to 50 per cent of the latter substance
were found by investigations in the Bureau of Animal Industry to
have a marked repellent action against flies when applied lightly
every day. A too free application of tar mixtures and other prepara-
tions containing phenols is liable to cause poisoning; hence care
should be observed in this regard.

Jensen (1909) recommends the following formula, which is said
to protect cows for a week :

Common laundry soap 1 pound.

Water 4 gallons.

Crude petroleum 1 gallon.

Powdered naphthalin 4 ounces.

Cut the soap into thin shavings and dissolve in water by the aid of
heat ; dissolve the naphthalin in the crude oil, mix the two solutions,
put them into an old dasher churn, and mix thoroughly for 15
minutes. The mixture should be applied once or twice a week with
a brush. It must be stirred well before being used.

THE STABLE FLY (STOMOXYS CALCITRANS).i

This fly very closely resembles the house fly, but, unlike the latter,
it is a biting fly. It is common about stables and often enters
dwellings, especially in cloudy weather. According to Noe, it is the
agent of transmission of a parasitic roundworm of cattle {Setaria
labiato-papillosa^ see p. 531). This fl}^ has been shown capable
of transmitting anthrax from diseased to healthy animals, and under
some conditions it may transmit surra, a disease caused by a blood
parasite which affect's horses, cattle, and other live stock.

The annoyance suffered by cattle and horses from stable flies is
much lessened if the stables are darkened.

The screening of doors and windows, however, is preferable, as
ventilation is not interfered with as it is in darkening stables. For
milch cows coverings made from burlap (double thickness), includ-
ing trouserlike coverings for the legs, may be used when the flies are
very numerous and troublesome. One of the fly repellents men-
tioned above may be applied to cattle to protect them from stable
flies. The Hodge flytrap fitted to the windows of dairy barns is a
useful means of destroying stable flies.

The stable fly breeds in moist accumulations of straw, chaff, cow
or horse manure, and various fermenting vegetable substances. The
debris collecting in and under outdoor feed troughs, and the remains
of straw stacks are favorable breeding places for the stable fly.
Under the most favorable conditions about three weeks are required
for development from the Qgg, to the adult stage.

1 For further information consult Farmers' Bulletin 540.

512

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

THE HORNFLY (LYPEROSIA IRRITANS).i

This fly, now found nearly everywhere in the United States, was
introduced into this country from Europe about the year 1885.
Hornflies have the habit of clustering about the base of the horn
(fig. 7) , whence the name by which they are popularly known. They
do not damage the horn, and congregate there only to rest.

In view of the general practice of dehorning cattle, the name horn-
fly is less distinctive than it once was. Moreover, hornflies rest on
other parts of the body as well as the horns.

When resting, their wings are held down close to the body (fig. 6) ;
when feeding, their wings are held out nearly at right angles, ready
for flight. They puncture the skin and suck blood, usually attacking

the upper parts of the body,
particularly those which
are out of reach of the ani-
mal's head ot tail. Unlike
most flies, they remain on
the animal more or less con-
stantly, day and night. Ow-
ing probably to the irrita-
tion and annoyance caused
by these flies, cattle often
do not thrive as they should
during seasons when the
flies are numerous. The
hornfly has also been
charged with transmitting
diseases, such as anthrax.
The fly lays its eggs in
freshly dropped cow ma-
nure. They hatch in about
21 hours, and the larviie or
maggots in four or five days develop to the pupal stage, which lasts
a week or 10 days. From the pupal stage the mature fly emerges.
The entire process of development from the deposition of the egg to
the appearance of the mature fly therefore may be completed in tAvo
Aveeks, or even in a shorter time. To protect cattle from attacks
of the hornfly they may be treated Avith one of the remedies men-
tioned above (p. 510). Dipping cattle in a vat provided Avith splash-
boards set at the proper angle destroys most of the hornflies present
on the animals. Unless the splashboards arc used all but a fcAV of the
flies succeed in escaping as the cattle plunge into the bath and Inter

Pio. 6
tion,

-Hornfly (Lifperosia irritans) in resting posi
Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)

1 For fnrtlier information consult Circular 115 of tlic Bureau of Entomology.

ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE,

513

return to them. Scattering the droppings of cattle with a shovel, or
with brush dragged over pastures, in order to insure the rapid drying

Fig. 7. — Hornflies (Lyperosia irritans) on cow horn. (From Bureau of Entomology.)

of the manure and consequent destruction of the larvse, is, when
practicable, an efficient means of reducing the number of these flies.

BUFFALO GNATS.

These small flies, also known as black flies, are about one-eighth of
an inch long and have a characteristic "humped" back (fig. 8).
They breed in running water and
appear in swarms during spring and
summer, often in enormous numbers,
causing great annoyance to stock and
human beings, on account of their
bites and their entrance into the eyes,
nose, mouth, and other openings of
the body. Their bites appear to be
poisonous and in seasons especially
favorable to the gnats heavy losses of
horses and cattle often occur.

Buffalo gnats are more trouble-
some in bright, sunny weather than
when it is cloudy, and animals which
have not shed their winter coats suf-
fer more from their attacks than
those with smooth coats. Cattle kept
in darkened stables are not molested.
The application of one of the fly re-
pellents already mentioned (p. 510)
will help to protect animals from buffalo gnats. The burning of
smudges is also a useful means of protecting stock from the attacks of
these flies.

Fig. 8.

-Buffalo guat. Enlarged. (From
Bureau of Entomology.)

33071°— IG-

-33

514

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

SCREW WORMS.

back (thorax).

Fig. 9. — Screw worm (larva of Cluy-
somyia maceUaria). Enlarged.
(From Bureau of Entomology.)

Screw worms (fig. 9) are the maggots of a fly {Chrysom/yia mdcel-
laria) , so called from their fancied resemblance to a screw. The adult
fly (fig. 10) is about one-third of an inch long, with a bluish-green
body, red eyes, and with three dark longitudinal stripes on the
Attracted by odors of decay it deposits its eggs,
300 to 400 at a time, in cuts, sores,
castration wounds, etc. The crush-
ing of a tick on the skin commonly
results in screw-worm infection at
that point. The eggs hatch in a
few hours and the larvae or mag-
gots, or so-called screw worms, be-
gin to burrow into the flesh and continue burrowing and feeding
from three to six days, after which they leave the wound and crawl
into the earth, there transforming into the quiescent pupal stage.
After this stage has lasted for one to two weeks, the mature fly
appears. From two to three weeks are therefore required for the
entire life cycle, although under certain conditions it is possible
for the fly to undergo its full de-
velopment in as short a time as
nine days.

Besides cattle, the screw-worm
fly attacks sheep, horses, dogs, and
man. In the case of hogs it is gen-
erally the ears which are affected.
The fly also breeds in dead ani-
mals, and all carcasses should
therefore be buried deeply or
burned.

Treatment for screw wonns. —
For proper treatment an animal
suffering from screw worms should
be caught and thrown. Chloro-
form should be poured into the
wound, taking care that it pene-
trates thoroughly into all the burrows of the screw worm, if necessary
using a slender stick or a small bunch of twisted hay as a probe. The
animal should be held for several minutes in order to insure the con-
tinued action of the chloroform. Instead of chloroform, gasoline may
be used. Finally the wound should be dressed with a carbolic or
cresylic ointment to promote healing and thus prevent further infec-
tion, or the wound may be painted with pine tar. Dipping in the
arsenical dips used for destroying cattle ticks is a convenient method
of treatment if many animals are involved.

Fig. 10. — Scrcw-worm fly (Chrysomyia
maceUaria). Enlarged. (From lUiroau
of Entomology.)

ANIMAI. PARASITES OF CATTLE.
GRUBS, WARBLES, BOTS.

515

The common parasites known as grubs, warbles, bots, etc. (fig 11),
found under the skin of the backs of cattle, where they form more or
less conspicuous lumps during the latter part of w^inter and spring,
are the larvae of a fly known as the heel fly or warble fly. This fly
{Tlypoderma lineatum) is about one-half inch long, very hairy, and
somewhat resembles a small black bee. The flies appear early in the

Fig. 11. — The warble fly (Hypodcrma lineatum) : a, adult female; t, eggs attached to a
hair, X 25 ; c^ larva as seen in egg ; d, larva from esophagus of au ox ; e, next stage of
larva from beneath the skin of the back ; f, larva at the stage when it leaves the back
of cattle and falls to the ground — all enlarged (after Riley).

summer and are more or less prevalent until the beginning of cold
weather. They deposit their eggs on the skin of cattle, fastening
them to the hairs. The eggs are often deposited on the heels above
the hoofs, hence the name " heel fly."

Although the flies are unable to bite, cattle seem to be much afraid
of them, and often at their approach make violent efforts to escape,
sometimes falling over precipices or becoming mired in water holes
in the course of their headlong flight.

516 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

As a result of recent studies by various investigators it appears
that the tiny grubs, newly hatched from the eggs, may gain entrance
to the body by penetrating directly tlirough the skin. Many ob-
servers, however, have held that the eggs or newly-hatched larvie
are taken into the mouth by the cattle licking themselves. It is
possible, as in the case of several other parasites, that both modes of
infection may occur and that the larvae may gain entrance to the
body either by penetrating the skin or by being swallowed. From
the evidence at present available it seems likely that the usual mode
of entrance is through the skin. Irrespective of the mode of infec-
tion, the larvae evidently wander extensively through the tissues of
the body, developmental stages being found in considerable numbers
in the wall of the esophagus during the fall of the year. They have
also been found in the spinal canal and in various other locations.
Finally, about January they appear beneath the skin of the back,
forming the well-known swellings. The posterior end of the grub is
near the small opening in the hide, through which the grub breathes
and discharges its excrement, and through which, when its develop-
ment is complete, it finally escapes. The anterior end of the grub is
at the bottom of the tumor, where the mucus collects upon which it
feeds. By spring or early svimmer the grub is full grown and forces
its way out of the skin, falling to the ground, into which it burrows
for a short distance and transforms into the pupal stage. In about a
month the mature fly emerges.

It has lately been discovered that a second species of warble fly
{Uypoderma hovis) common in Europe is of not uncommon occur-
rence in Canada and the northern part of the United States, whereas
it was formerly supposed that the ox warbles of this country were
all of the one kind. The general appearance, life history, and effects
( f the European species are much the same as those of the American
form.

Grubs weaken cattle, cause them to fall off in flesh and milk, and
decrease the value of the hide. The beef in the immediate vicinity
rf a grub becomes slimy and of a greenish color, and is known to the
butchers as " licked beef."

The total loss to this country on account of the warble fly is esti-
mated at $35,000,000 to $50,000,000 a year, at the least, and may
amount to considerably more.

Treatment for warhles. — During the winter and spring examine
the cattle for the presence of warbles. By passing the hand over the
backs of the animals the swellings marking the location of the grubs
may be readily found. Pressure properly applied to the swellings
will cause the grubs to " pop out " if they have reached a late stage
of development. They may be more easily removed by means of

ANIMAL TARASITES OF CATTLE. 517

slender forceps inserted into the opening of the warbles, and a still
more certain method of removing them, particularly if the lumps are
still very small, is to cut into the swellings with a sharp knife or
bistoury, after which they may be pressed out. Care should be taken
to crush all gTubs removed, so as to prevent the possibility cf their
further development and transformation into flies. In order that
none may escape it is advisable to examine the cattle every two
weeks during the late winter and spring, at each examination remov-
ing the grubs which have developed sufficiently to cause perceptible
swellings.

Another method of treatment is to force grease or oil into the open-
ings of the warbles, which kills the grubs. This method is less cer-
tain than that of removing the grubs, and has the further objection
that the dead grubs remain beneath the skin.

Cattle may be treated during the summer with fly repellents (p.
610) to keep off warble flies. The efficacy of repellents against these
flies is probably, however, not very gi^eat.

In localities where the character of the cattle industry is such as
to render practicable the systematic examination of cattle and the
removal of the grubs — that is, where the herds are comparatively
small and subject to the close supervision of the owners — it is pos-
sible, by the exercise of a little care and with very little effort on the
part of the cattle owners, provided they work together, each doing
his share by seeing to the removal of grubs from his own cattle, so
that as few as possible survive to transform into flies, to reduce the
number of grubs within one or two seasons almost, if not entirely, to
the point of extinction.

Investigations not yet completed indicate that grub eradication
may be accomplished by the use of arsenical dips, which are exten-
sively used at the present time for destroying cattle ticks. (See
page 473.) It is not unlikely that the destructive action of arsenical
dips upon w^arbles is more or less dependent upon the fact that
arsenic is stored up in small quantities in and upon the skin of cattle
that are repeatedly dipped in arsenical dips. The arsenical dip ap-
pears to act, not upon the well-developed grub beneath the skin, but
upon the eggs or the newly-hatched larvte, probably the latter. Ac-
cordingly the dipping of cattle to destroy grubs should be carried
out during the fly season and repeated treatments should be given
every tAvo or three weeks, as in dipping cattle to eradicate ticks.

LICE.^

Cattle are affected by three species of lice, two of them sucking
lice {Ilaviatojnmis eurysternus, the short-nosed cattle louse, and
Linognathu^ vituU, the long-nosed cattle louse), commonly known

1 For further information see Bulletin 5, new series, Bureau of Entomolo.^y.

518

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

as blue lice, and one biting louse {Tnchodectes scalaris), commonly
known as the red louse.

The blue lice (figs. 12 and 13) suck the blood of cattle and are more
injurious than the red lice (fig. 14). Unless very abundant the latter
cause little injury. If numerous they irritate
and worry their host probably more by their
sharp claws than by their bites, as their food
seems to consist entirely of particles of hair and
dead skin.

Cattle lice reproduce by means of eggs or nits
(fig. 15) which they fasten to the hair. The blue
lice infest chiefly the neck and shoulders ; red lice,
when present, may be found almost anywhere on
the body, but are usually most numerous on neck,
shoulders, and at the ro(!t of the tail.

On account of the itching caused by the lice,
infested cattle rub against posts, trees, etc., and
lick themselves, the hair sometimes coming out
and the skin becoming thickened so that mange
may be suspected.

Treatment for lice. — Cattle infested with lice
should be dipped in the spring and again in the fall, using a cresol or
nicotin dip (see p. 521), or Beaumont oil emulsion (see p. 522). The
arsenical dip (see p. 473) is also another remedy which may be effect-
ively used against lice. Wlien possible a
second dipping should be given after the
lapse of 10 to 11 days, and in some cases
several treatments may be necessary before
the lice are brought under control. The
dips mentioned are, as a rule, more effica-
cious against lice than lime-sulphur dip.
Though lime-sulphur is an excellent mange
remedy, it is less .satisfactory for lice, espe-
cially blue lice. If only a few cattle are to
be treated the dip may be applied with a
brush or cloth, or with a small spray pump,
or a mixture of kerosene one-half pint and
lard 1 pound may be smeared on the body.

Fig. 12. — Short-nosed
blue louse (Ilwma-
top inus eury stern us )
of ciittle. Enlarged.
( From Bureau of
Entomology.)

/■f

Fig. 1.1. — Long - nosed lihio
louse (Linoijnathits viiuli)
of cattle. Enlarged. (From
Bureau of Entomology.)

MANGE, ITCH, SCAB.*

Cattle are subject to four kinds of mange, of which common mange
or psoroptic mange is the most important.

1 For a fuller discussion see Farmers' Bulletin 152, issuocl by tlic TTnlted States De-
IKirtnii'ut of Agriculture.

ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE.

519

PSOROPTIC MANGE.

Psoroptic mange of cattle is caused by small mites (fig. 16) which
multiply rapidly and are spread from diseased to healthy cattle
by bodily contact, or by pens, stables, railroad cars, etc., recently
occupied by mangy cattle. Tlie mites attack
the skin and cause it to become thickened and
covered with crusts and scabs, with a conse-
quent loss of hair. Intense itching accom-
panies the disease, and affected cattle are
more or less constantly rubbing and licking
themselves. Psoroptic mange commences at
the root of the tail, or on the neck, or withers,
and gradually extends over the back up to
the head, over the sides, and may finally af-
fect nearly the entire body except the legs.
In serious cases the skin may become ulcer-
ated; the animals are greatly weakened and
emaciated, and finally die. By taking scrap-
ings from the edges of scabby patches and
placing them on a piece of black paper in a
warm place the mites may be seen as tiny
white objects crawling over the paper, more
distinctly if a magnifying glass is used.
Mange may be confused with lousiness, ring-
worm, or with any condition in which there

is itching or loss of hair, but if mites are found there is no question
of the diagnosis. The disease is worse during cold, w^et weather.
Mangy cattle, when on good pasture during the summer often seem

to recover, but in the fall the disease again
appears in a severe form.

Treatment. — The most generally used and
most satisfactory method of treating cattle
mange consists in dipping the animals in a
^at filled w^ith a liquid of such nature that
it will kill the parasites without injuring
the cattle. Yats for dipping cattle are built
of wood, stone, or concrete, and vary in
length from 30 to 100 feet or more. They
vary in width from 3 to 7 feet at the top,
and 1^- to 3 feet at the bottom, and the depth
may be from 7 to 10 feet. A narrow chute
through which the cattle are driven leads
to one end of the vat, where a steep slide pitches the cattle into the
dipping fluid, through which they swim, and climb out of the vat at
the other end, which is built sloping and provided with cross cleats to

Fig. 14. — Red louse (Tric7w-
dectes scalat-ls) of cattle.
Enl.nrged. (From Bureau
of Entomology.)

Fig. 15. — Egg of short-
nosed blue louse (Hwma-
topinus eurystermis) at-
tached to a hair. Enlarged.
(Prom Bureau of Ento-
mology.)

£20

DISEASES OP CATTLE.

give the animals a foothold. A draining pen with floor sloping back
toward the vat is generally provided. The dip should be used warm,
100° to 105° F., and the cattle should be held in the vat for two
minutes to insure thorough action of the dip. The head of each
animal should be ducked at least once. Care should be taken that
the vat contains a sufficient depth of fluid to swim the animals to

be dipped. The dip-
ping fluid may be
heated from a steam
boiler by pipes or
hose, or water heated
in large iron caul-
drons or tanks may
be used for charging
the vat, and hot
water with a proper
quantity of dip
added from time to
time as the dipping
fluid becomes cool.
The vat for use in
tick eradication (de-
scribed in Bureau of
Animal Industry
Circular 207) if sup-
plied with heating
facilities may be used
in treating cattle for
mange, but should
be of greater length
if many cattle are to
be treated.

If Beaumont oil
emulsion is used, one
treatment will be sufficient and the dip may be used cold. Beaumont
oil and similar crude petroleums, however, are difficidt to obtain and
are rarely used. With ether dips two treatments are required, the
second treatment being given 10 days after the first. The second
treatment is necessary to kill the few parasites which sometimes escape
at the first treatment, either in the egg stage or as fecundated females.

Fig 16. — Mite which causes psoroptic scab of sheep —
enlarged about 100 times. The mite of psoroptic cattle
mauge is almost identical in appearance.

LIME-STTLPHUK DIP.

The lime-sulphur dip is made in the proportion of 12 pwinds of
unslaked lime (or 16 pounds oi commercial hvdrnted lime — not air-

ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE. 521

slaked lime), 24 pounds of floAvers of sulphur, and 100 gallons of
water.

DirectioTis for preparing 100 gallons of dip. — Weigh out the lime,
12 pounds (or hydrated lime, 16 pounds), and sulphur, 24 pounds.
Place the unslaked lime in a shallow, water-tight box similar to a
mortar box, or some other suitable vessel, and add water enough to
slake the lime and form a lime paste or lime putty. Sift into this
paste the flowers of sulphur and stir well ; then place the lime-sulphur
paste in a kettle, boiler, or tank containing 30 gallons of water, the
water being first heated nearly to the boiling point. Boil the mixture
for two hours at least, stirring frequently; add water occasionally
to maintain the original quantity. AIIoav the mixture to settle in the
tank or draw the entire contents of the kettle or boiling tanlc into a
large tub or barrel placed near the dipping vat and provided with a
bunghole about 4 inches from the bottom, and then allow ample time
to settle — from two to three hours or more if necessary. When fully
settled, draw off the clear liquid into the dipping vat, taking care
not to allow any of the sediment to accompany it, as the sediment is
liable to render the dip unnecessarily caustic. The clear liquid thus
obtained only requires the addition of sufficient clear warm water to
bring the total up to 100 gallons. Flowers of sulphur must be used,
and the lime must be of good quality.

The dipping bath should be used at a temperature of 100° to 105°
F., and for official dippings must be maintained at all times at a
strength of not less than 2 per cent of " sulphid sulphur " as indi-
cated by the Bureau of Animal Industry field test for lime-sulphur
baths.

NICOTIN DIP.

The nicotin dip is made with sufficient extract of tobacco, or
nicotin solution, to give a mixture containing not less than five
one-hundredths of 1 per cent nicotin and 2 per cent flowers of sul-
phur. Sufficient nicotin would therefore be furnished for 96 gallons
(about 800 pounds) of dip by 1 pound of a 40 per cent solution of
nicotin. The formula for this dip would be: Nicotin, four-tenths of
a pound ; flowers of sulphur, 16 pounds ; water, 96 gallons.

To calculate how much nicotin solution or extract of tobacco
should be used for 96 gallons of water, divide the quantity of nicotin
required in the dip by the proportion of nicotin in the extract. For
example, suppose the nicotin solution contains 25 per cent nicotin,
we have 0.40^-0.25=1.6. Therefore in this case it would require 1.6
pounds of nicotin solution for the 96 gallons of dip. Or, if a tobacco
extract is used, having for example 2.4 per c«nt of nicotin, the for-
mula would be as follows: 0.40-^-0.024=16.66, and therefore 16.66
pounds would be required for 96 gallons of dip. Do not use any

522 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

preparation the strength of which is not given on the outside of the
package.

In preparing these dips the nicotin solution and sulphur should
be mixed together with water before adding them to the water in the
dipping vat. On no account should the dip be heated above 110^ F.
after the nicotin solution is added, as heat is liable to evaporate the
nicotin and weaken the dip.

For ojSicial dippings the dipping bath should be used at a tem-
perature of 100° to 105° F. and at all times must be maintained at
a strength of not less than five one-hundredths of 1 per cent nicotin
as indicated by a field test approved by the Bureau of Animal In-
dustry.

A homemade nicotin dip may be prepared as follows :

For each 100 gallons of dip desired, take 21 pounds of good, pre-
pared tobacco leaves; soak the leaves in cold or lukewarm water
for 24 hours in a covered pot or kettle; then bring the water to near
the boiling point for a moment, and, if in the morning, allow the
infusion to draw^ for an hour; if in the evening, allow it to draw
overnight; the liquid is next strained (pressure being used to extract
as much nicotin as possible from the wet leaves) and diluted to 100
gallons per 21 pounds of tobacco. This dip should be used as fresh
as possible, as it contains a large amount of organic material which
will soon decompose.

BEAUMONT OIL EMULSION.

Directions for Tnaking 100 gallons. — ^Dissolve with the aid of heat
5 pounds of hard soap (ordinary laundry soaps are satisfactory) in
5 gallons of soft water ; to this solution add 20 gallons of Beaumont
crude petroleum or a similar oil, mixing with a spray pump, or
otherwise, in a thorough manner. TVlien properly prepared the con-
centrated emulsion will stand indefinitely without any tendency
toward a separation of the oil and water, and can be diluted in any
proportion with cold soft water. To make a 20 per cent emulsion
add to the concentrated emulsion sufficient soft water to bring the
total up to 100 gallons, keeping the whole mass thoroughly agitated.

Oil emulsions are no longer permitted for official dippings of
cattle. In view of the difficulty in obtaining suitable oils, and the
occasionally severe effects upon cattle, particularly in very cold or
very warm weather, their use is not advisable except under excep-
tional circumstances.

CHORIOPTIC MANGE.

Chorioptic mange, due to a species of mite different from that caus-
ing common cattle mange, is confined almost entirely to the region at

ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE. 523

the root of the tail and if not treated may persist for years. Tlie
treatment is the same as for psoroptic mange.

SARCOPTIC MANGE.

Sarcoptic mange is caused by a mite very similar to that which
causes itch in human beings. It commonly affects the head and neck,
but may also occur on various other parts of the body. Bulls are
particularly liable to be affected with this form of mange. Cattle
may become infected not only from other cattle, but also from horses,
goats, dogs, sheep, and hogs.

The treatment is the same as for psoroptic mange.

DEMODECTIC MANGE.

Demodectic mange, which is caused by a small parasite that lives
in the hair follicles, causing pustules, especially on the neck and
shoulders, occurs occasionally among cattle in this country and is of
importance on account of the injury to the hide. When tanned, hidas
infested by this parasite are pitted, the pits, in some cases, being
so deep that they form holes. No practicable treatment is laiown
for this disease.

TICKS.*

About 10 species of ticks have been reported as parasites of cattle
in the United States. The most common and most important is
the species known as Margaropus annulatus^ which transmits Texas
fever. Information concerning this tick and Texas fever has been
given elsewhere in this volume (p. 473).

The spinose ear tick {Otohius megnini or Ornithodaros megnim)
is frequently found in the ears of cattle in the western part of the
United States, and is of common occurrence also in the ears of horses,
dogs, cats, etc.

When its parasitic stage of development is completed the ear tick
leaves its host. Mating between the sexes occurs after the ticks have
cast their skins following the abandonment of their host. They
usually crawl up some distance from the ground and secrete them-
selves in cracks and crevices in trees, walls of buildings, etc., wdiere
the females deposit their eggs.

After the eggs hatch, the larval ticks, which emerge from them,
when they succeed in finding a host, enter the ears and gradually
develop to the stage at which they are ready to leave the host animal.
The females may live several months, or even years, if they do not
find mates. After mating they may deposit their eggs intermit-

1 For a more complete discussion consult Farmers' Bulletins 569 and 498, Bulletins
130 and 152 of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and Bulletins 15, technical series, 72
and 106 of the Bureau of Entomology, all issued by the United States Department of
Agriculture.

524 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

tently. Hatching of the eggs may occur as earl}' as 10 days after
deposition. The larva? may live for 80 days without a host. The
parasitic period has been observed to vary from about two to about
seven months.

Treatment. — On account of their protected location, ear ticks are
not likely to be affected by dipping or spraying. Ear ticks are very
difficult to kill, and remedies efficacious against them are liable to
injure the cattle. The parasites may sometimes be expelled by pour-
ing into the ear noninjurious substances, such as cottonseed oil, lin-
seed oil, 20 per cent emulsion of crude petroleum, or almost any
stock dip diluted as for use in dipping, but usually the results of
treatment are unsatisfactory. Some stock owners report favorable
results from arsenical dip (p. 496) poured into the ears.

BLOODSUCKERS OR LEECHES.

These worms are sometimes taken up by cattle when drinking from
ponds. They may attach themselves to the inner surface of the
mouth or nose, and sometimes reach the upper part of the windpipe
or of the gullet. Bleeding at the mouth or nose may be noticed, the
membranes where the leech is attached are liable to be swollen and
congested, and as a result of the loss of blood a condition of anemia
may result.

Treatment. — If the worm can be reached it may be destroyed by
cutting it in two with a pair of scissors, or it may be removed with
forceps or with the fingers after wrapping a towel around the hand
so that the worm can be held without slipping. Fumigation with
tobacco or tar may cause the worm to release its hold if it can not be
removed by other means. Ponds may be rid of infestation with
bloodsuckers by the introduction of eels.

PARASITES OF THE STOMACH.

The stomach of cattle consists of four compartments, of which the
first and fourth are most likely to be the seat of parasitic infestation.
The first stomach, or paunch, contains large numbers of minute para-
sites known as protozoa, which are too small to be seen with the
naked eye. These small organisms aparently are m no way injuri-
ous. A species of fluke [ParamphistomuTn eerin or a closely related
s})ecies) is occasionally found in North American cattle, especially
grass-fed cattle, attached to the inner surface of the first stomach
(fig. 17). This worm is about one-half inch long, and somewhat
conical in shape; hence the name, conical fluke, by which it is some-
times known. Although this parasite has been accused of producing
serious ejffects, it is generally considered harmless.

ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE.

525

Several species of loundworms may occur in the fourth stomach.
Two of these are of special importance.

Fig. 17. — Portion of the wall
of the first stomach with
conical flukes attached.

THE TWISTED STOMACH WORM (H^MONCHUS CONTORTUS).

The twisted stomach worm {HceTnonchus contortus^ figs. 18, 19,
20) is sometimes found in enormous numbers in the fourth stomach
of cattle. Sheep, goats, and other ruminants may also be infested
with it. Among the symptoms caused by
this parasite may be mentioned anemia, loss
of flesh, general weakness, dullness, capri-
cious appetite, excessive thirst, and diar-
rhea. The anemic condition is seen in the
paleness of the slrin and mucous membranes
of the mouth and eye, and in the watery
swellings which often develop under the
lower jaw (" poverty jaw "). If the fourth
stomach of a dead animal is cut open and
the contents carefully examined, the para-
sites, which are from \ inch to 1^ inches in
length and about as thick as an ordinary pin, may be seen, if present
in any considerable number, actively wriggling about like little
snakes.

Cattle become infected with these .parasites by grazing on pastures
on which infested cattle, sheep, or goats have grazed and scattered
their droppings. The worais in the stomach produce a multitude of
eggs (fig. 19<7) of microscopic size, which pass out of the body in
the feces. In warm weather these eggs hatch in a few hours. If
the temperature is below 40° F., they remain
dormant, and if below freezing, they soon die.
The eggs are also killed by dryness; moisture,
on the other hand, favoring their development.
The larva? which hatch from the eggs are mi-
croscopic in size, and, like the eggs, are, at first
and until they have developed to a certain
stage, very susceptible to freezing and drying.
In ver}'- warm weather the larvae complete their
development, so far as they are able to develop outside the body, in
two or three days. In cooler weather the time required for this devel-
opment is longer, and at temperatures below 70° F. 10 days to several
weeks may be necessary. The larvae are then ready to be taken into
the body. The eggs and early stages of the larva? apparently do not
develop if swallowed, and only the completed larval stage seems to
be infectious. In this stage the larvse migrate up grass stalks (fig.
20) or other objects, showing activity whenever the air is saturated

Fio. 18. — Twisted stom-
ach worm (Hwmonchus
conlortus) . Outlines
showing natural size
of male (above) and
female.

526

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Avith moisture ; that is, during rains, fogs, and dews. When the air
becomes dry and the moisture evaporates from the grass the young
vrorms cease their activity, resuming their migrations when the air

again becomes overladen with
moisture. Larvae which have
developed to the infectious
stage, unlike the eggs and
early larval stages, are able
to survive long periods of
freezing and dryness. In two
weeks to a month after the
embryos are swallowed the}'^
reach maturity and begin
producing eggs.

Preventive treatment. —
Preventive measures are im-
portant. As moisture favors
the development of the em-
bryos, high sloping ground is
preferable for pastures. If
low ground is used, it should
be properly drained. The
pasture sliould not be over-
stocked. Burning over the
pasture will destroy most of
the young worms on the grass
and on the ground, and this
means of disinfection under
certain circumstances may be
very advantageously used.
The herd should be changed
to fresh pasture as often as
possible. Cattle should be
supplied with water from
wells, springs, or flowing
streams, preferably in tanks
or troughs raised above the
ground. To u slight degree
salt serves to protect cattle
iigainst infection with internal parasites, and plenty of it should
therefore be kept accessible.

Affected animals should be isolated from the rest of the herd in
hospital pens or pastures. A plentiful supply of nourishing feed is
an ini})()rtant factor in enabling cattle to withstand the attacks of
stomach worms and other intestinal parasites. Tlie stabling of cattle,

<?

6

Fifi. 19. — Twisted stomach worms (Hwmonchus
contortus) . Male (o), female (h), and egg (c).
Enlai'ired.

ANIMAL PARASITES OP CATTLE.

527

with the maintenance of clean and sanitary surroundings and lib-
eral feeding, will often stop losses from internal parasites, even
though no medicinal treatment is given.

Medicinal treatment. — In dosing animals
for stomach worms it is advisable to treat
not only the animals which are seriously
affected, but the rest of the herd as well,
since the parasites with which they are in-
fested will remain as a source of reinfection
to the others. The cattle should be removed
to fresh pasture after treatmei:^;, if possible.
The animals to be treated should be de-
prived of feed for 12 to 16, or even 21, hours
before they are dosed, and if the bluestone
treatment is used should receive no water on
the day they are dosed until several hours
after dosing. In drenching, a long-necked
bottle or a drenching tube may be used. In
case the former is used the dose to be given
may be first measured off, poured into the
bottle, and the point marked on the outside
with a file, so that subsequent doses may be
measured in the bottle itself. A simple form
of drenching tube (fig. 21) consists of a piece
of rubber tubing about 3 feet long and one-
half inch in diameter, with an ordinary tin
funnel inserted in one
end and a piece of

brass or iron tubing 4 to 6 inches long, of suit-
able diameter, inserted in the other end. In
use the metal tube is placed in the animal's
mouth between the back teeth, and the dose is
poured into the funnel, which is either held by
an assistant or fastened to a post. The flow
of liquid through the tube is controlled b}'
pinching the rubber tubing near the point of
union with the metal tube. It is important
not to raise the animal's head too high on ac-

FiG. 20.-

0.1 nun..

Larva of twisted
stomach worm (Hwinon-
chus contoitus) coiled on
tip of grass blade. En-
larged.

Fig. 21. — A drenching tube made from an ordinary tin funnel, a piece of rubber
hose, and a piece of brass pipe.

count of the danger of the dose entering the lungs. The nose should
not be raised higher than the level of the eyes. The animal may be
dosed either standing on all fours or lying on the side.

528 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

The position on all fours is preferred by some authorities, who be-
lieve that more of the remedy is likely to reach the fourth stomach
when the animal is dosed standing than when dosed in other posi-
tions.

Great care should be used in dosing to prevent the entrance of the
liquid into the lungs, and in the preparation and administration of the
remedy to avoid getting the solution too strong or the dose too large.

Bluestone, or copper sulphate, has been extensively used in South
Africa in the treatment of sheep and cattle for stomach worms and
is recommended by the colonial veterinary surgeon of the Cape Col-
ony as the best and safest remedy. To prepare the solution take 1
pound (avoirdupois) of pure bluestone, powder it fine and dissolve
in 9 J gallons of warm water. It is better first to dissolve the blue-
stone in 2 or 3 quarts of boiling water, then add the remaining quan-
tity of cold water, and mix thoroughly. This solution may be given
to cattle in the following-sized doses :

Calves 3i to 4 ounces.

Yearlings 6 ounces.

Two-year-olds and over 12 to 16 ounces.

The doses for sheep are as follows :

Lambs 3 months old I ounce.

Lambs 6 months old li ounces.

Sheep 12 months old 2i ounces.

Sheep 18 months old 3 ounces.

Sheep 24 months old 3* ounces.

In making up the solution only clear blue crystals of bluestone
ithould be used. Bluestone with white patches or crusts should be

, , rejected. It is especially important

0 ^ ^ ' ^O p. 0 (3^ that the bluestone and water be accu-

"}'(? ^ Q ^Q %®* ^ ' rately weighed and measured, and

''^ n ' ^ '^'^^ > ^^^^^ *^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^® ^^^^ ^® graduated

^^ ^^ ^^0^3;^^^^"' according to the age of the animal.

-® 0^L ^ 0 ^o% Q- The special value of medicated salts

» ^a^Q ^ tD ^ 0 0: advertised under various trade names

^^ '^ C^>^^^ n\^ ^ ^^ preventives against Avorms is prob-

Q^Q c5®^-&^^ o'^<D (9 lematical. Commonly they contain

* u KT'^ ^^■'.(y.: little else than ordinary salt, the other

I K. 22 —Piece of hning of fourth g^bstances being in such small quan-

stom ich showins cvsts of the en- ,i . ,i • ,i ,- ir j. •

cystod stomach worm (Ostertagia tity that their therapeutic eiiect is
ostcrtaai). practically negligible. Definite evi-

dence that they are more efficacious than plain salt is not yet avail-
able and their use is not recommended.

THE ENCYSTED STOMACH WORM (OSTERTAGIA OSTERTAGI).

This parasite is as thick as a fine hair and less than half an inch in
length. It lives in small cysts in the Avail of the fourth stomach
(fig. 22) and is also found free in the cavity of the stomach. When

ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE.

529

numerous, these parasites cause a thickening of the stomach wall and
disturb its digestive functions. The symptoms caused by this para-
site are very similar to those produced by the twisted stomach worm.
The life history of the encysted stomach worm is not known in detail,
but it is undoubtedly very much the same as that of the twisted
stomach worm. The same
measures as recommended
above for preventing in-
fection with the twisted
stomach worm should be
used. Medicinal treat-
ment would seem to be of
little use, owing to the
protected position in
which the parasite occurs.

INTESTINAL PARASITES.

TAPEWORMS.

Two species of tape-
worms (fig. 23) are known
to occur in the small in-
testine of American cattle.
They sometimes grow to a
length of several yards
and to a breadth of three-
fourths of an inch. Small
portions of tapeworms,
consisting of one or more
segments, are occasionally
seen in the droppings of
infested cattle. The life
history is not known, but
the infectious stage is un-
doubtedly taken in with
the feed or water, infec-
tion being spread by the eggs of the parasite contained in the feces
of infested animals. The eggs are perhaps swallowed by some small
creature (an insect, worm, or snail) which acts as an intermediate
host, and which when accidentally swallowed by a cow while grazing
or drinking carries with it into her stomach the infectious stage of
the tapeworm.

Adult cattle do not seem to suffer much from infestation with
tapeworms, but in calves these parasites may cause scouring and
emaciation.

33071°— 16 84

Fig. 23. — A tapeworm {Moniezia planissima) which
infests cattle.

530 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment for tapeworms in cattle is usually
unsatisfactory, but the bluestone treatment used for stomach worms
and mentioned above (p. 528) may be tried. Arsenic in doses of 1^ to
3 grains has been claimed to give good results in the treatment of
calves for tapeworms.

ROUNDWORMS.

A large roundworm (Ascaris vitidormm) measuring 6 to 12 inches
in length, sometimes found in the intestines of cattle, especially
calves, may cause inflammation and occasionally rupture of the
intestine. Infection occurs through the swallowing of the eggs of the
parasite in feed or water which has been contaminated with the feces
of infested cattle.

A number of species of small roundworms, varying in size from an
eighth of an inch to an inch or more in length, occur in the intestines.
Of these may be mentioned the hookworm {Bunostomum phZeboto-
muTn) and the nodular worm {(Esophagostomum radmtum). The
former is about an inch long and is found in the small intestine. The
latter are somewhat smaller and are found in the cecum and large
intestine. Hookworms, when numerous, may cause anemia and
other symptoms similar to those caused by stomach worms (see p.
525) . The injury to the mucous lining of the intestine from the bites
of hookworms may cause severe inflammation, and affords an avenue
of infection with the germs of various diseases. The adult nodular
worms apparently do not attack the wall of the intestine, but derive
their nourishment from the intestinal contents. Several species of
small, very slender roundworms {Tr'wJwstrongijlus)^ less than a
quarter of an inch in length, sometimes occur in the small intestine
and fourth stomach, and a severe gastroenteritis, or inflammation of
the stomach and intestines, has been attributed to them.

Nodular disease of the intestine, due to young nodular worms
which burrow in the intestinal wall during a certain stage in their
life history, sometimes apparently produces serious effects, particu-
larly in young cattle, but commonly has little or no perceptible influ-
ence on the general health. It, however, often renders the intestine
unfit for use as sausage casings, and as it is widely prevalent among
cattle the loss from this source is considerable. The gi-eenish or
yellowish nodules with cheesy contents are frequently mistaken by
the inexperienced for lesions of tuberculosis.

The life histories of the various small roundworms occurring in
the intestines of cattle, so far as they have been worked out, are
very similar to that of the twisted stomach worm as described on
page 525.

ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE.

531

Treatment for intestinal roundworms. — The preventive measures
are similar to those recommended in the case of the twisted stomach
worm (p. 526). Medical treatment is generally not very satisfac-
tory. Powdered thymol, in doses of 200 grains or more, has been
recommended, but it often fails to have the desired result. It is
asserted by one author that 2 or 3 drams of rectified empyreumatic
oil in a mucilaginous emulsion, followed the next morning with a
purgative of 1 to 1| pounds of sulphate of soda, will expel the large
roundworms {Ascarls vitulorum).

PROTOZOA.

A number of species of protozoa have been reported as parasites of
the intestines of cattle. To one species has been attributed a serious
disease of cattle in Switzerland known as red dysentery, but so far
no cases of this disease in American cattle have been reported.

Fig. 24. — The com-
mon liver fluke
(Fasciola hepat-
ica).

FLUKES IN LIVER AND LUNGS.

Two species of flukes occurring in the liver and lungs are known
to affect cattle in the United States. These parasites are flat, leaf-
like worms; one of them, the common liver fluke
{Fasciola hepatica, fig. 24), is less than an inch in
length, while the other, the large American fluke
(Fasciola magna, fig. 25) , is considerably larger when
full grown. In their life history these flukes depend
on snails as intermediate hosts. At a certain stage
of development the young flukes leave the snails,
become encysted on stalks of grass (fig, 26), or fall into drinking
water, and finally may be swallowed by cattle. Stiles writes as
follows :

Flukes may produce a serious, often fatal, disease, more especially in younger
animals. The symptoms are somewhat similar to those produced by worms in

tlie stomach. The first symp-

'"•.^'y&l^^^ "^^Jf^si^ toms are generally overlooked,

the disease not attracting at-
tention until the appetite is
diminished ; rumination be-
comes irregular, the animals
become hidebound, and the
coat dull and staring. The
staring coat is due to the
contraction of the muscles of
the hair follicles. The visible mucous membranes become pale, eyes become
dull, there is running at the eyes, and the animal gradually becomes emaciated.
As the disease advances the milk supply is lessened, fever appears, there is
generally great thirst, but the appetite almost ceases ; edematous swellings
appear on the belly, breast, etc. ; diarrhea at first alternates with constipation.

Fig. 25. — The large American fluke (Fasciola magna).

532

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

but finally becomes continuous. The disease lusts from two to five months,
when the most extreme cases succumb.

Most of the German cattle are said to be infested with liver flukes, but even
when a large number are present the nourishment of the cattle is not dis-
turbed. Thickening of the gall ducts, so that a so-called " Medusa's head "
forms on the surface of the liver toward the stomach, appears in even well-
nourished animals ; even in cases of a cirrhosis of the liver it is seldom that
any effect upon the cattle's health can be noticed, and so long as a portion of
the liver tissue about twice the size of the fist remains intact, the nourish-
ment of the animal may be comparatively good. It is rare that one sees a
generalized edema in slaughtered cattle as a result of fluke invasion, and even
in the heaviest infections of young cattle only emaciation is noticed.

Treatment. — Medicinal treatment is unsatisfactory. The disease may be
]irevented to a considerable extent by giving animals plenty of salt, and by

introducing carp, frogs, and
toads into infected dis-
tricts ; these animals de-
stroy the young stages of
the parasite and feed upon
the snails which serve as
intermediate hosts.

The drainage of wet
pastures and the avoid-
ance of swampy lands
for grazing purposes
are important measures
in the prevention of
fluke diseases.

Railliet and others
have recently recom-
mended the application
of lime to fluky pas-
tures, having discovered that very weak solutions are destructive not
only to fluke embryos but to snails. This application is to be made
during the summer months at the rate of about 500 to 1,000 pounds
of lime per acre. The same authors also recommend for the treat-
ment of fluke disease extract of male fern in doses of 5 gi-ams to
each 30 kilograms of body weight. Apparently, however, satisfac-
tory results from this treatment are not always obtained.

TAPEWORM CYSTS OF LIVER AND OTHER VISCERA.

Three kinds of tapeworm cysts are found in the viscera of cattle.
One of these (Multiceps muUiceps, or Ccermrus cerebralis) will be
further referred to in the discussion of gid (p. 533). All these are
the intermediate stages of tapeworms, which live when mature in the
intestines of dogs, wolves, and other canines. The eggs of the tape-
worms lire scattered over the fields in the droppings of infested dogs
or wolves, niul when swallowed in food or water by cattle hatch out

Fig. 26. — Portion of grass stalk bearing three encysted
cercarise of the common liver flulce (Fasciola hepatica) .
Enlarged.

ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE.

533

and the embryos migrate to the liver, mesentery, hings, brain, or
other organs, where they develop into cysts, variously known as
hydatids, bladder w^orms, water balls, etc. When organs of cattle
thus infested are eaten by dogs or wolves the cystic worms are also
liable to be swallowed and then develop into mature tapeworms. To
prevent cattle from infection with these parasites stray dogs, wolves,
and coyotes should be killed wherever found, and dogs too valuable to
kill should be kept free from tapeworms. As a precaution against
infection with tapeworms, the viscera of cattle, sheep, or hogs should
not be fed to dogs unless cooked.

Hydatids {Echinococcus granulosus) form tumors (fig. 27) of
varying size (sometimes as large as 6 inches in diameter) in the

Fig. 27. — Hydatids {Echinococcus granulosus) in portion of hog's liver.

liver, lungs, and other organs. Their contents are liquid, resembling
water. The presence of these parasites can not be detected in the
living animal and there is no medicinal treatment for them. Or-
gans containing hydatids should be destroyed by burning in order to
prevent their being e^ten by dogs. This is especially important, as
dogs infested with the tapeworm stage of this parasite are a menace
to human beings on account of the danger of infecting them with
hydatids, which develop in man if the eggs of the hydatid tapeworm
are swallowed.

Thin-necked bladder worms {Taenia hydatigena^ fig. 28) are most
commonly found attached to the mesentery and omentum. There is
no medicinal treatment.

GiD. — Bladder worms {MuUiceps m/uUiceps, or Cmnurus cerehralis) ,
which are occasionally found in the brain of cattle and cause gid.

534 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

" turnsick," or " staggers,'' deserve mention, as they are rather com-
mon among sheep in the northwest. As already alhided to, these
worms are the intermediate stage of a tapeworm found in dogs, and
their life history and the means of preventing infection have been
briefly discussed above (see p. 532).

Cattle harboring this parasite show symptoms indicating an affec-
tion of the brain, walking or turning in circles, dizziness, uneven
gait, impaired vision, etc.

Treatment consists in trephining the skull and removing the para-
site, an operation which requires a skillful operator and is frequently
unsuccessful. Unless the parasite is removed affected cattle almost
invariably die.

TAPEWORM CYSTS IN THE MUSCLES, BEEF MEASLES.*

Small tapeworm cysts (Tcenia saginata)^ about the size of a pea,
found in the muscles of cattle are the larvae of the common tapeworm
of man. Cattle become infected from feed or
water which has been contaminated by the feces
of persons harboring the adult tapeworms, and
human beings in turn become infected by eating
raw or rare beef infested with the larval stage
(measly beef).

To prevent cattle from becoming infested with
this parasite care should be taken that human
feces are not placed Avhere they wall contaminate
^'^i 28.-Thin-necked ^j f ^ drinking Water.

bladder worm (Twma _ _ =>

hydattgena) trom Bh- This parasite is very common in cattle in the
^ZT^ '^''''' ^"^ ^ United States, at least 1 per cent being infested.
x\s a result considerable loss is entailed through
condemnations of beef carcasses by meat inspectors, because of the
presence of tapeworm cysts. All this loss could be avoided and
the danger of tapeworm infestation in human beings from this
source could be removed by the observance of proper precautions in
disposing of human excreta. At the same time much sickness and
many deaths from diseases (hookworm, typhoid fever, etc.) caused by
soil pollution would be prevented, and farm life would be rendered
much safer than under the poor sanitary conditions which are re-
sponsible for the high percentage of tapeworm cysts among cattle
in the United States.

THREAD WORMS IN THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY.

Thread worms {Setaria lahiato-papillosa) 2 to 4 inches long are
frequently found in the abdominal cavity. They seem to cause little
or no trouble. The embryos produced by these worms enter the

1 For further information consult Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 214.

ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE. 535

blood vessels. According to Noe, they are spread from one animal
to another by stable flies (see p. 511). The roundworms found oc-
casionally in the anterior chamber of the eye (see p. 536) are per-
haps immature forms of this species which have reached this location
during their migration.

LUNG WORMS.

Lung worms {Dictyocaulus viviparus, fig. 29) in cattle are thread-
like worms 2 to 4 inches long, found in the bronchial tubes and
producing a condition known as verminous bronchitis. The life
history of the parasite is not fully known, but infection is evidently
derived through the medium of pastures where infested cattle have
grazed. In the later stages of the disease the cattle cough, especially
at night. Young cattle are more seriously affected than old animals.

Treatment for lung worms. — Various treatments have been advo-
cated for lung worms, including fumigating with different substances
and injections of remedies into the
trachea by means of a large hypo-
dermic syringe or by a special
spraying apparatus, but none has
been very successful from a prac-
tical standpoint. About all that

can be done is to feed affected ani- Fig. 29. — Lung worm (Dictyocaulus vivi-
Tnilq wpll nnd nrnfprt thpni frnm Parus) of cattle. Outlines showing nat-

mais wen ana protect inem rrom ^^.^j ^j^^ ^^ ^^^j^ (above) and female.
exposure, removing them from the

pasture and keeping them in dry yards or stables maintained in a
cleanly, sanitary condition.

The methods of prevention in general are similar to those described
under the discussion of the twisted stomach worm (p. 526).

PARASITES OF THE BLOOD.

Certain flukes (Schistosoma bovis and related species) which live
in the blood vessels (the large veins) of cattle in tropical and sub-
tropical countries cause bloody urine and diarrhea, the feces being
mixed with blood. These parasites have not yet been discovered in
the United States, although the natural conditions are such in some
parts of the country that they are liable to become established if
introduced.

The embryos of Setaria labiato-papHlosa (p. 534) which occur in
the blood may be found by microscopical examination. They ap-
parently cause no trouble.

The organism which causes Texas fever is a protozoan parasite
{Piroplasma higeminum) of microscopic size, which lives in the blood

536 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

and attacks the red blood corpuscles. For a discussion of this para-
site and the disease which it produces see page 473 of this volume.

Other parasites which live in the blood cause serious diseases known
as surra and nagana (p. 508) , but as yet neither of these diseases has
gained a foothold in the United States.

PARASITES OF THE EYE.

Small roundworms, one-third to four-fifths of an inch in length,
may occur in the ducts of the lacrimal glands. Several species all
belonging to the same genus {Thelazia) are known. They some-
times escape from their usual location and may be found on the sur-
face of the eyeball beneath the lids, or even in the eyeball. It has
been supposed by some writers that the worms seen in the interior
of the eyeball ("snakes in the eye") are immature stages of Setaria
lahiato-papillosa (see p. 534) which have gone astray from the normal
course of their migration, but the correctness of this supposition is
uncertain.

Worms in the eyes and lacrimal ducts may cause inflammation, in
which case the eyes may be syringed with an antiseptic, such as a
weak solution of coal-tar stock dip, and iodoform ointment applied
if the condition is severe.

When worms are present in the eyeball itself, their removal de-
pends upon surgical treatment, usually not advisable, as the worms in
that location either cause but little trouble or disappear withorit
treatment.

MYCOTIC STOMATITIS OF CATTLE.

By John R. Mohler, V. M. D.,
Assistant Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry.

INTRODUCTION.

Niimeroiis letters have been received by this bureau in recent years
relative to the existence of a disease affecting the mouths and feet of
cattle in certain Eastern and Central Western States. Later reports
indicate that the malady has made its appearance in the Southwest,
where it has caused much alarm among the stockmen owing to its
similarity to the foot-and-mouth disease of Europe. The disease,
which is to be discussed under the name of mycotic stomatitis, has
been carefully investigated by this department on various occasions,
and it is with the view of giving the results of these clinical investi-
gations as well as to assert its noninfectiousness and to differentiate
it from the virulent foot-and-mouth disease, which it so closely simu-
lates, that this article is prepared.

NAME AND SYNONYMS.

The name stomatitis signifies that there is present in the affected
animals an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth.
This inflammation, which quickly develops into ulcers, is one of the
principal and most frequently observed lesions. Mycotic stomatitis
refers to that form of stomatitis which results from eating food con-
taining irritant fungi. Thus the name hot only suggests the cause of
the disease, but also indicates the location of the earliest and most
prominent symptoms. Other names which have been applied to this
disease by different writers are sporadic aphthae; aphthous stoma-
titis; sore mouth of cattle; sore tongue; benign, simple, or noninfec-
tious foot-and-mouth disease; mycotic aphthous stomatitis; and
sporadic stomatitis aphthosa.

CHARACTER OF THE DISEASE.

Mycotic stomatitis is a sporadic, or noninfectious, disease which
affects cattle of all ages that are on pasture, but more especially
milch cows. It is characterized by inflammation and ulceration of
the mucous membrane of the mouth, producing salivation and in-
appetence, and secondarily affecting the feet, which become sore and
swollen. Superficial erosions of the skin, particularly of the muzzle

537

538 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

and of the teats and udders of cows, may also be present, with some
elevation of temperature and emaciation.

CAUSE.

This disease, as its name indicates, results from the eating of forage
containing fungi or molds. It is probable that more than one fungus
is involved in the production of this disease, but no particular species
has been definitely proved to be the causative factor. Several at-
tempts have been made by the writer to determine the exact cause
and also to transmit the disease to other animals by direct inocula-
tion, but with negative results. Suspicion, however, has been directed
by various observers to the Uromyces and the red and black rusts
that occur on clovers. These fungi cause very severe irritation of the
lining membrane of the mouth, producing sometimes a catarrhal, at
other times an aphthous, and occasionally an ulcerous stomatitis.
The fungus of rape, etc. {Polydesirms excitiosus), is very irritating to
the mouths and feet of cattle, causing severe inflammation and in
some instances producing symptoms that have been mistaken for
foot-and-mouth disease. The fungi (Penicillium and Puccinia)
found on grasses have also been credited with the production of
stomatitis. The fact that this disease disappears from a locality at
a certain time and reappears at irregular intervals would suggest the
probability that certain climatic conditions were essential for the
propagation of the causative fungi, since it is well known that the
malady becomes prevalent after a hot, dry period has been followed
by rain, thus furnishing the requirements necessary for the luxuriant
development of molds and fungi. Owing to this fact the disease is
observed in one locality during one season and in an entirely dif-
ferent section another year, but reappears in the former center when
favorable conditions prevail. In this way the affection has occurred
at irregular intervals in certain sections of both the United States
and Canada.

SYMPTOMS AND LESIONS.

Among the first symptoms observed in mycotic stomatitis are
inability to eat, suspension of rumination, frequent movements of
the lips with the formation of froth on their margins, and in some
cases a dribbling of saliva from the mouth. There is a desire to eat,
and frequent attempts to take food are made, but prehension is verj''
difficult. If, however, feed is placed on the back of the tongue, it is
readily masticated and swallowed. If the mouth is examined at this
time, it will be found red and hot, and exceptionally small blisters
will be seen, which, however, quickly become eroded and develop into
active ulcers varying in size from one-eighth to 1 inch in diameter.
Where several ulcers have coalesced a large and irregularly indented

MYCOTIC STOMATITIS. 539

patch is formed. These erosions are most frequently found on the
gums around the incisor teeth, on the dental pad, inside the lips,
and on the tip of the tongue, but they also occur on the cheeks, inter-
dental space, and dorsum of the tongue. The ulcers have a hemor-
rhagic border, a depressed suppurating surface, and contain a brown-
ish or yellowish colored debris, w^hich is soon replaced by granulation
tissue. As a result of this sloughing of the tissues and the retention
of food in the mouth, a very offensive odor is exhaled. The muzzle
becomes dry and parched in appearance, which condition is shortly
followed by erosions and exfoliations of the superficial layer of the
skin. Adherent brownish crusts and scabs form over the parts, and
similar lesions are seen around the nostrils and external surface of
the lips.

In some cases there are associated with these alterations a slight
swelling and painfulness in the region of the pasterns, at times
affecting the forefeet, at other times the hind feet, and occasionally
all four feet. In a few cases the swelling may extend above the fet-
lock, but it has never been observed above the knee or hock. The
skin around the coronet may occasionally become fissured and the
thin skin in the cleft of the foot eroded and suppurated, but without
the formation of vesicles. As a result of these feet lesions, the
affected animal may assume a position w^ith its back arched and the
limbs propped under the body as in a case of founder, and will
manifest much pain and lameness in walking. If it lies down, the
animal shows reluctance in getting up, and although manifesting no
inclination to move about, when forced to do so there is more or
less stiffness and a tendency to kick or shake the foot as if to dislodge
a foreign body from between the claws.

In some outbreaks the milch cows have slight superficial erosions
on the teats which at times extend to the udder. The cracks in the
skin are filled with serum and form brownish-colored scabs. The
teats become tender and the milk secretion diminishes ; in some cases
it disappears. A similar tendency toward the formation of fissures
and scabs on the skin of the neck and shoulders has manifested itself
in a recent outbreak in Texas, and this feature was likewise notice-
able in the disease when it occurred in Maryland and Virginia in
1889.

In mild cases only the mouth lesions may be observed, or these
alterations may be associated wdth one or more of the other above-
described symptoms, but in severe cases, where there is a generalized
mycotic intoxication, one animal may show all these alterations.
When the disease is well developed the general appearance of the
animal is one of great lassitude, and it either stands off by itself
with hind feet drawn under the body and its forefeet extended, or it
assumes a recumbent position. Owing to the inability to eat and to

540 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

the general systematic disturbance present, the animal loses flesh very
rapidly and becomes greatly emaciated in the latter stages of the dis-
ease. The temperature and pulse are somewhat increased, the former
2 or 3 degrees, the latter to from 75 to 90 beats per minute. The
fever is not lasting, and these symptoms are soon modified. The
animal has an anxious look, and in a few cases there is a gastrointes-
tinal irritation, the feces being thin, of a dark color, and of an oflFen-
sive odor,

PROGNOSIS AND MORTALITY.

Mycotic stomatitis is not a serious disease, and in uncomplicated
cases recoveries soon follow the removal of the cause and the appli-
cation of the indicated remedies. In such cases complete restoration
may take place within one week. In mild outbreaks a large percent-
age of the animals will recover without treatment, but that the dis-
ease is fatal is shown by the fact that animals w^hich develop an
aggravated form of the affection succumb if not treated. In such
animals death occurs in 6 or 8 days, but the mortality in the serious
outbreaks thus far investigated has been less than 0.5 per cent. The
course of this disease is irregular and runs from 7 to 15 days, the
average case covering a period of about 10 days.

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS.
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.

In examining a case of mycotic stomatitis it is important not to
mistake it for foot-and-mouth disease, which has appeared in this
country on six occasions only. This may be easily accomplished by
taking into consideration the fact that in the contagious foot-and-
mouth disease there is a rapid infection of the entire herd, as well as
of any hogs and sheep that may be on the premises. It is also readily
transmitted to neighboring herds by the spread of the infection from
diseased animals, but it never occurs spontaneously. The character-
istic lesion of foot-and-mouth disease is the appearance of vesicles
containing serous fluid in the mouth and upon the udder, teats, heels,
and coronary bands of the affected animals. Drooling is profuse,
and there is a peculiar smacking sound made by sucking the affected
lips.

Mycotic stomatitis occurs sporadically on widely separated farms,
affecting only a few animals in each herd, and the lesions produced
consist of erosions without the typical vesicular formations of foot-
and-mouth disease. The failure of the vesicles, if any appear, to
spread extensively in the mouth, the absence of these blisters on
other portions of the body — notably the teats and udder, and char-
acteristically the feet — together with the absence of infection in the
herd, and the inability to transmit the disease to calves by inocula-

MYCOTIC STOMATITIS. 541

tion, distinguish between this affection and foot-and-mouth disease.
The erosions of the mouth are not so extensive and they heal more
rapidly in mycotic stomatitis. The swelling of the feet and stiffness
of the animal are also more marked in mycotic stomatitis.

ERGOTISM.

The lesions resulting from ergotism may be differentiated from
those of mycotic stomatitis by the lack of ulcerative eruptions in the
mouth and by the location of the lesions at the tips of the ears, end of
the tail, or upon the lower part of the legs, usually below the knees or
hocks. The lesions of ergotism do not take the form of ulcers or
festers, but the end of the limb affected is diseased " in toto " and the
eruption extends entirely around the limbs, followed soon afterwards
by a distinct line of demarcation between the healthy skin above and
the diseased below. The absence of suppurating sores between the
claws and on the mucous membrane of the mouth, the knowledge that
the lesion upon the limb in question extends uninterruptedly around
it, and the presence of ergotized seeds in the hay or grain fed the
animals should point conclusively to a diag-nosis of ergotism.

FOUL FOOT.

In foul foot, or ground itch, of cattle, the inflammation of the skin
and toes usually affects but one foot. It begins as a superficial
inflammation followed by sloughing, ulceration, and the formation of
fistulous tracts which may involve the tendons, bones, and joints.
The mouth remains unaffected, and the presence of the disease may
be traced to filth and poor drainage.

NECROTIC STOMATITIS.

In necrotic stomatitis (calf diphtheria) there is a formation of
yellowish cheesy patches in the mouth without any lesions of the
feet or udder. It affects sucking calves chiefly, and is caused by the
Bacillus necroyhoTus.

TREATMENT.

The treatment of mycotic stomatitis should consist in first remov-
ing the herd of cattle from the pasture in which they have been
running. The affected animals should, if it is possible, be brought
to the barn or corral and fed on soft, nutritious food, such as bran
mashes, ground feed, and gruels. A bucket of clear, cool water should
be kept constantly in the manger, so that the animal may drink
or rinse the mouth at its pleasure; and it will be found beneficial
to dissolve 2 heaping tablespoonfuls of borax or 1 tablespoonful of
potassium chlorate in each of the first two buckets of water taken

542 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

during the day. If the animals are gentle enough to be handled,
the mouth should be swabbed out daily with antiseptic washes, such
as a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid or a 1 per cent solution
of lysol or of permanganate of potassium, or 1 part of hydrogen
peroxid to 2 parts of water. This should be followed by astringents,
such as one-half tablespoonf ul of alum, borax, or chlorate of potassium
placed on the tongue. Probably a more satisfactory method of ad-
ministering the antiseptic treatment to a large number of animals
would be to mix thoroughly 2 teaspoonfuls of pure carbolic acid
every morning in a quart of bran mash and give to each affected
animal for a period of five days. Range cattle may be more readily
treated by the use of medicated salt placed in troughs accessible to
the animals. This salt may be prepared by pouring 4 ounces of
crude carbolic acid upon 12 quarts of ordinary barrel salt, after
which they are thoroughly mixed. The lesions of the feet should
be treated with a 2 j)er cent solution of carbolic acid, while the
fissures and other lesions of the skin will be benefited by the
application of carbolized vaseline or zinc ointment. If the ani-
mals are treated in this manner and carefully fed, the disease will
rapidly disappear.

INDEX.

Abdomen — Page.

dropsy affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment 47

inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 222

of calf, dropsy, description, and treatment 178-179

wounds, causes, symptoms, and treatment 43

Abdominal cavity, kinds of parasites affecting 533

Abortion —

contagious —

description and causes 165

prevention and treatment 168

noncontagious —

causes 163

treatment 165

Abscess —

bacteria causing 235

ear, treatment 353

lung, description 97

navel, cause and treatment 247

orbital and periorbital, symptoms and treatment 350

Abscesses —

danger in castration of cattle 298

tresatmeut 293

Absorbents, description 73

Achorion sclwnleinii, fungus causing Tinea favosa 330

Acids —

mineral, poisoning, description and treatment 58

poisoning, description and treatment 58

vegetable, poisonous, description and treatment 58

Aconite poisoning, description and treatment 63

Actinomycosis —

description and symptoms 438-447

jawbone, description and treatment 441

lung^ 441

prevention and treatment 443-447

relation to public health 445

Adenoma, description 308

Administration of medicines, chapter by Leonard Pearson 7-11

Afterbirth, retention, causes, symptoms, and treatment 218

Air tubes, lung, parasites aifecting, description and treatment 535

Air under the sliin, description, symptoms, and treatment 332

Albumin, urine, description and treatment 119

Albuminuria, description and treatment 119

Alkalies, poisoning, description and treatment 59

Amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 346

Anaphrodisia, cause, prevention, and treatment 147

Anasarca of the skin, causes, symptoms, and treatment 328

Anesthesia, uses in operations 287

Aneurism, description 83

Angioma tumor, description 308

Animal Industry Bureau, experiments against hemorrhagic septicemia.- 399

Animal parasites of cattle, chapter by B. H. Ransom 510-536

Animal products, poisonous, description and treatment 69

Anthrax —

cause, symptoms, treatment, etc 447-456

human, description 456

serum, relation to blackleg 456

symptomatic, description, cause, treatment, etc 457-462

treatment by use of serum 453

543

544 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Page.

Aphtha, calf, description and treatment 261

Aphtha parasite (Saccharomyces albicans), cause 261

Aplithous fever. See Foot-and-mouth disease.

Aphthous stomatitis, reference ."»37

Apoplexy — •

cerebral, description and treatment 104

parturient, description, symptoms, and treatment 224

Appetite —

depraved, description, causes and treatment 28

loss, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease 381

Aqueous humor of eye, description 339

Argentina, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Arsenic poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment 54

Arsenical dips —

for destroying cattle ticlis 496

use against screw worms 514

Arsenical vapor, danger of inhalation in maliing cattle dip_ 497

Arteries —

and veins, wounds, description and treatment 81

obstruction, description and treatment 83

Ascaris vitulorum, intestinal roundworm, description and treatment 530

Ascites —

causes, symptoms, and treatment 47

description and treatment 178

Asepsis in surgical operations 287

Aseptic periostitis, description and treatment 264

Asphyxia electrica, sji-mptoms and treatment 109

Atkinson, V. T. —

chapter on " Bones : Diseases and accidents " 262-286

chapter on " Poisons and poisoning " 51-70

Atrophy, description 80, 126

Auscultation, definition 89

Austria-Hungary, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Bacillus —

cyanogenes, causing blue milk 240

tuberculosis, causing tuberculosis 405

Back, sprain, causes and treatment 268

Bacteria —

causing abscess 235

definition 357

Bacterium bovis septicuin, causing hemorrhagic septicemia 395

Balkan countries, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Ball-
eye, description 338

hair, in stomach, description 29

Balls, use in administering medicines 8

Bee stings, description and treatment 69

Beef measles, discussion and management 534

Belgium, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Benign tumors, description 304

Big .jaw. See Actinomycosis.
Black quarter. See Blackleg.
Blackleg-
description, cause and treatment 457, 462

serum, relation to anthrax 456

vaccine, note on distribution by Animal Industry Bureau 461

Bladder —

eversion, description, and treatment 216

or rectum, full, as obstruction to parturition 17(5

palsy of neck, cause and treatment 128

paralysis, causes and treatment 126

rupture, symptoms 216

spasms, description and treatment 12(i

stone, symptoms and treatment • 140

INDEX. 545

Bladderworms — ^*^*'

affecting brain, description and treatment 533

thin-neclied, description and treatment 533

Bleeding —

description and treatment 81

lungs, description and treatment 97

navel, cause and treatment 246

nose, cause and treatment 91

womb, description, symptoms, and treatment 212

Blisters, water, symptoms and treatment 326

Bloating, causes, symptoms, and treatment 22

Blood-
clots on walls of vagina, description and treatment . 218

coagulated, under vaginal walls after calving, treatment 177

description and influence of food on 73

flukes (Schistosoma bovis), note 535

parasites affecting, different kinds 535

protozoa affecting 510-536

vessels —

functions . — 72.

heart, lymphatics, diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh 71-84

Bloodsuckers affecting cattle, description and treatment 524

Bloody milk, cause and treatment 239

Bloody urine —

caused by blood flukes 535

description, symptoms, and treatment 117

Blue disease, cause 251

Blue lice {Haetnatopinus eurysternus and H. vitali), description 517

Blue milk, cause and treatment 240

Boils, causes, symptoms, and treatment 326

Bones —

broken, description of kinds and treatment 269-280

diseases and accidents, chapter by V. T. Atkinson 262-286

dislocations, description and treatment 280

face, fracture, description, and treatment.

275

luxations, description and treatment 280

manner of nourishment 262

number and description 262

shape, classes 263

Bony tumor, description and treatment 312

Boophilus anriulatiis, Texas fever tick. See Margaropus atmulatus.

Bots affecting cattle, description and treatment 515

Bovine tuberculosis and public health 428

Bowel hernia, description and treatment 38

Bowels nA An

diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment 34-43

obstruction resulting from invagination, symptoms and treatment 35

twisting and knotting, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and

treatment ^^

Brain — , ^ ^ ^^^

and its membranes, inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment- 101

bladderworms affecting, treatment 533

coenurus cerebralis (MuUiceps vmlticeps) affecting, treatment 583

concussion, cause, symptoms, and treatment 105

congestion, description and treatment 104

description 99

tumors, description l^O

Brazil, foot-and-mouth disease ^^4

navel, symptoms and treatment 250

uterus, cause and treatment loO

Breathing, suspended in young calves, discussion ^4o

Bronchial tubes, parasites affecting 535

33071°— 16 35

546 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Bronchitis — Page.

description, symptoms, and treatment 92

verminous —

description, symptoms, treatment, and prevention 98

parasite {Strongylus mici'urus) , cause 98

Brush, report of foot-and-mouth disease in man 393

Buftalo gnats, description and remedy 513

Bull, ringing, method 289

Bulls, susceptibility to sarcoptic mange 523

Burns and scalds, causes and treatment 331

Calculi —

classification 135

forms in different situations 13G

in prepuce or sheath, treatment 142

renal, description and treatment 137

urethral, description and treatment 137

urinary —

classification 135

description and causes 128

effect of different feeds 129

Calculus —

blocking teats, treatment 241

prevention 139

vesical or urethral, symptoms and treatment 140

Calf-
attention necessary at birth 245

diphtheria, description, symptoms, and treatment 462-467

dropsy —

general, cause and treatment 17S

of abdomen, description and treatment 178

monstrosities, descriptions, causes, and treatment 180-182

muscles, rigid contraction, cause and treatment 179

slinking, description 163

swelling, caused by gas, treatment 179

tumors affecting, description and treatment 179

Calves —

congenital imperfections, kinds 261

indigestion affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment 32

newborn, acute scouring, description, prevention, and treatment 259

pyemic and septicemic inflammation, symptoms and treatment 249

young —

aphtha, or thrush, affecting, description and treatment 231

constipation affecting, cause and treatment 251

diseases affecting, chapter by James Law 245-261

rickets affecting, description and treatment 261

ulcers in mouth, causes, symptoms, and ti'eatmeut 462

Calving —

dropping and palsy following, description and treatment 231

retarded by nervousness 177

symptoms 171

Canada, source of foot-and-mouth infection 384

Cancer, description and treatment 313

Capsule, eye, description 340

Capsules, use in administering medicines 8

Carbolic-acid poisoning, description and treatment 60

Carbon dioxid, formation in preparing cattle dip 496

Carbuncle, description 456

Carcinoma, description and treatment 313

Caries, teeth, description 16

Carpus, fracture, description and treatment 279

Cartilage, ear, necrosis affecting 355

Caruncula lacrimalis of eye, description 342

Casein concretions blocking teats, cause and treatment 241

Casting the withers, cause and treatment 213

INDEX. 547

Castration — Page.

dangers and care 298-299

of female, description of operation 299

of male, description of operation 297

Cataract, causes, symptoms, and treatment 346

Catarrh —

description, symptoms, and treatment 90, 91

gastro-intestinal, causes, symptoms, and treatment 29, 32

malignant, description, symptoms, and treatment 467-470

nasal, description, symptoms, and treatment 90

Catarrhal fever, infectious, description, symptoms, and treatment 467-470

Cats, ear ticks on, note 523

Cattle-
animal parasites affecting, chapter by B. H. Ransom 510-.536

dip, preparation and use 49(>-497

dose of vaccine against anthrax 455

drenching, care of lungs 528

farcy, description and treatment 509

infected with anthrax, description 450

infection with sarcoptic mange 523

infectious diseases, chapter by John R. Mohler 35(>-.509

infestation with tapeworm 534

injury by use of petroleum against ticks 494

loss of blood by inoculations, limits of safety 500

northern, immunization against Texas fever, manner 498

parasitic diseases, prevention 510

plague. See Rinderpest.

protection from flies, formulas for mixtures 510-511

rabies affecting, description, symptoms, etc 400-404

southern, injury by ticks 482

tick, Margaropus armulatus, as carrier of Texas fever 478

ticks —

injurious effects of and losses caused by 479-484

methods of ridding cattle of 484-498

tumors affecting, chapter by John R. Mohler 301-318

Cerebral apoplexy, description and treatment 104

Cerebrospinal division, description-.^ ■ 99

Chapped teats, cause and treatment 241

Charbon. See Anthrax.

Chest, dropsy affecting, description and treatment 97

Children, infection with foot-and-mouth disease 392

China, foot-and-mouth disease 884

Choking, symptoms and treatment 20

Ghorioptic mange, location and treatment 522

Choroid coat of the eye, description 340

Chrondroma tumor, description and treatment 312

Chronic tympanities, cause and treatment 25

Coal-oil poisoning, description and treatment 59

Coemirus cerehralis (Multiceps multiccps) affecting brain, treatment 5.33

Coital exanthema, description, symptoms, and treatment 399

Cold in the head, description, symptoms, and treatment 90

Colic, causes, symptoms, and treatment 31

Concussion of the brain, cause, symptoms, and treatment 105

Congenital imperfections in calves, kinds 261

Congestion —

and inflammation of testicles, description and treatment 150

brain, description and treatment 104

liver, description, symptoms, and treatment 44

spinal cord, description, symptoms, and treatment 108

udder, description and treatment 231

Conjunctivitis —

causes, symptoms, and treatment 342

infectious catarrhal, symptoms, treatment and prevention 343

Connecticut, foot-and-mouth dLsease 386

548 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Constipation — Page.

cause and treatment 36

young calves, cause and treatment 251

Contagious —
abortion —

causes 163-170

prevention and treatment 168

diseases, disinfection of premises 361

inflammation of the udder, description, prevention, and treatment — 235

mammitis, description, prevention, and treatment 235

pleuropneumonia —

cause, incubation, and symptoms 367

definition and history 364

post-mortem appearance 371

prevention and treatment 375

scouring, acute, in newborn calves, description, prevention, and treat-
ment 259

Contused or lacerated wounds, description and treatment 296

Contusion of lips, wounds, and snake bites of mouth, symptoms and treat-
ment 14

Copper poisoning, description and treatment 56

Cornea —

eye, description 339

ulcers, cause, symptoms, and treatment 345

Corneal dermatoma, description and treatment 347

Corneitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343

Cough, examination 87

Cow, pregnant, hygiene 158

Cowpox, description, symptoms, and treatment 238, 436

Cows, milch, protection from flies 511

Cramps of hind limbs during pregnancy, cause 160

Cranium, fracture, description and treatment 276

Creeps, description, symptoms, and treatment 265

Cresol —

compound solution, composition and use 364

use in foot-and-mouth disease 391

Croupous enteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment 35

Crude petroleum —

danger to cattle in use against ticks 494

dip for destroying cattle ticks 498

Cud, loss, description 27

Cuts, barbed-wire, description and treatment 297

Cyanosis, cause 81> 251

Cysts —

dental, description and treatment 316

dermoid —

and sebaceous, description and treatment 328

description and treatment 316

description 305

extravasation, description 315

mucous, description and treatment 317

parasitic, description 315

proliferation, description and treatment 317

serous, description and treatment 316

Dairy business, injury by foot-and-mouth disease 382

Dandruff, causes, symptoms, and treatment 327

Deformities, hoof, causes and treatment 336

Dehorning, description 290

Delaware, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Demodectic mange, description and treatment 523

Denmark, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Dental cysts, description and treatment 316

Dermis, description 318

Dermoid cysts, description and treatment 316, 328

Diabetes —

insipidus, cause and treatment 116

mellitus, description 121

INDEX. 549

Diarrhea — Page,

arid dysentery, causes, symptoms, and treatment 34

calf, causes, symptoms, and treatment 32

causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 252-259

See also Gastro-intestinal catarrh.
Dickson, Wllliam, and William H. Lowe, chapter on " Surgical opera-
tions " 2S7-300

Digestive organs, diseases affecting, chapter by A. J. Murray 12-50

Dilatation and hypertrophy of heart, description 80

Diphtheria, calf, description, cause, treatment, etc 4G2-467

Dipping —

bath, cattle, temperature 521

remedy for screwworms 514

Dips —

arsenical, protection of hands in use 497

cattle, for ticks 494-498

mange and scab 520, 521

Disinfection, house, methods 361

Dislocation, eyeball, treatment 351

Dislocations, bones, description and treatment 280

Diuresis, causes and treatment 116

Dogs, ear tick 523

Drainage, usefulness in prevention of fluke diseases 532

Drenching tube, use in eradicating worms 527

Dropping, following calving, description and treatment 231

Dropsy —

abdomen, causes, symptoms, and treatment 47

abdomen of calf, description and treatment 178

chest, description and treatment 97

general, of calf, cause and treatment 178

hind limbs and between thighs, during pregnancy, cause 160

membranes of fetus, description and treatment 160

navel, description and treatment 251

womb, description and treatment 160

Dysentery —

and diarrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment 34

chronic bacterial, description, treatment, etc 506

red, note 531

See also Gastro-intestinal catarrh.

Dyspepsia, causes, symptoms, and treatment 29

Ear tick, spinose, presence in cattle, horses, dogs, etc 523

Ears —

abscess affecting, treatment 353

cartilage, necrosis affecting 3.55

diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower 35.3-3.55

enchondroma, description and treatment 3.55

foreign bodies lodging in, symptoms and treatment 3.54

frostbite, symptoms and treatment 3.55

fungoid growths, cause and treatment 3.54

internal inflammation, symptoms and treatment 3.53

lacerations, cause and treatment 355

scurfy, cause and treatment 3.54

ticks affecting, treatment .523

Ecldnococcus {/ranulosus, hydatid, description 533

Ectropion of the eyelid, description and treatment 348

Eczema —

description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 323

epizootic, reference 381

Edema —

causes, symptoms, and treatment 328

malignant, description, symptoms, and treatment 470-472

Elephantiasis, description 328

Emaciation, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease 381

Emphysema, description and treatment 90, 3.32

Enchondroma, ear, description and treatment 355

Encysted stomach worm, description and treatment 528

Endocarditis, description and treatment 79

550 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Page.

Enemata, uses and methods . 9

Enteritis —

causes, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and treatment 33

croupous, description, symptoms, and treatment 33

simple. See Gastro-enteritis.

Entropion, eyelid, description and treatment 348

Epidermis, description 318

Epilepsy, description, cause, and treatment 105

Epistaxis, cause and treatment 91

Epizootic aphtha, reference 381

Ergotism —

and mycotic stomatitis, differentiation 541

description and treatment 67

Eruption, vesicular, of genital organs, description, symptoms, and treat-
ment 399

Erythema, description, causes, and treatment 321

Eversion —

bladder, description and treatment 210

eyelid, description and treatment 348

womb, cause and treatment 213

Extra-uterine gestation, description and treatment 161

Extravasation cysts, description 315

Eye —

and its appendages, diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trum-

bower 338-352

aqueous humor, description 339

capsule, description 340

caruncula, lacrimalis affecting 342

choroid coat, description 340

cornea —

description 339

ulcers affecting, cause, symptoms, and treatment 345

description 338

foreign bodies penetrating, treatment 349

lens, description 340

muscles, description 341

parasites affecting, treament 347, 535

puncta lacrimalia, description 342

retina, description 340

roundworms affecting, treatment 535

sclerotic membrane, description 339

vitreous humor, description 340

Eyeball —

description 338

dislocation, cause and treatment 351

hairy tumor affecting, description and treatment 347

Eyelashes, inversion, treatment 348

Eyelids —

description 341

ectropion affecting, description and treatment- 348

entropion, description and treatment 348

eversion, description and treatment 348

inversion, description and treatment 348

laceration, cause and treatment 349

tumors affecting, description and treatment 348

Face bones, fracture, description and treatment 275

Farcy, cattle, description and treatment 509

Fasciola hepatica, description 531

Faseiola mafina, description 531

Fatty degeneration, heart, description 80

Feed, character, analyses, effect on milk 254-256

Feeding —

character, effect on digestive organs 12

value as remedy for stomach worms 526-527

INDEX. 551

Page.

" Feed-lot " method of freeing cattle and pastures from ticks 492-495

Fetlock-
fracture below, treatment 280

sprain, causes and treatment 267

Fetus — •

developing outside womb, description and treatment 161

membranes, dropsy affecting, description and treatment 160

prolonged retention, description and treatment 162

Fever —

milk, description, symptoms, and treatment 224-235

parturition, description, symptoms, and treatment 224

southern, splenetic, or Texas. See Texas fever.
Fibroma —

interdigital, description and treatment 336

tumor, description and treatment 309

Fibrous periostitis, description and treatment 264

Filaria cervina, worm found in the eye 347

Filaria labiato-papiUosa, parasitic roundworm of cattle 535

Filaria oeuli, description and treatment 347

Fissure of the wall of hoof, description and treatment 336

Fistula, milk, description and treatment 243

Flies —

injurious to cattle 510-513

larval, note 512

Flooding from womb, description and treatment 212

Fluke disease, control by use of lime 532

Flukes, prevention by drainage 5.32

Fly-
Spanish, poison, description and treatment 70

stable, breeding places 511

Fly preventives, injury to cattle by poisoning 511

Flytrap, use against stable flies ' 511

Fluke, disease of cattle 531

Flukes, liver and lungs, description 531

Foods, character, effect on digestive organs 12

Foot-
diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower 333-337

foul, causes, symptoms, and treatment 334

soreness, description and treatment 333

Foot rot, causes, symptoms, and treatment 334

Foot-and-mouth disease —

benign, simple, or noninfectious 537

danger to man 392-393

description, cause, symptoms, etc 381-393

diagnosis 389-390

eradication by slaughter, efficacy 392

incubation period 382

losses other than by death of animal 382

mortality 382, 389

occurrence in various countries of world 383-384

prevention and eradication 390-392

similarity to mycotic stomatitis . 540

symptoms 381,387-389

symptoms in man 692

United States, outbreaks 384-387

Forage, insects on, description of poisonous effect 70

Formaldehyde gas, liberation by use of permanganate 363

Foul in foot, cau.ses, symptoms, and treatment 334

Founder, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 333

Fractures —

below hock and fetlock, description and treatment 280

compound, comminuted, and complicated 269

description of different kinds, and treatment 269-280

face bones, description and treatment 275

general symptoms and treatment 270, 271

hip point, causes and treatment 278

552 DISEASES or cattle.

Fractures — Continued. Page.

horns, description and treatment 275

limbs, description and appliances for treatment 279-280

lower jaw, cause and treatment 276

metacarpus and metatarsus, description and treatment 280

pelvis, description and treatment 176, 277

ribs, cause and treatment 279

special, descriptions and treatment 275

spinal column, description and treatment 277

verterbra, description and treatment 277

France, foot-and-mouth disease 383

Froesch, note on destruction of foot-and-mouth infection 393

Frostbites —

ears, symptoms and treatment 355

treatment 332

Fungi, poisonous, description of poisonini; 68

Fungoid growth of the ear, cause and treatment 354

Fungus hematodes —

cause and treatment 351

description 314

Furunculus, causes, symptoms, and treatment _ 326

Ganglionic division of the nervous system 101

Gangrene, danger in castration of cattle 298

Gangrenous septicemia, symptoms and treatment 470

Garget, description and treatment 231

Gas-
cause of swelling in calf, treatment 179

under the skin, symptoms and treatment 332

Gastro-enteritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 33

Gastro-intestinal catarrh, causes, symptoms, and treatment 29,32

Generative organs —

diseases, chapter by James Law 145-212

discussion 145

Genital organs, vesicular eruption affecting, description, symptoms, and

treatment 399

Germany, foot-and-mouth disease 383-384

Gestation, extra-uterine, description and treatment 361

Gid, parasite of sheep and cattle 533

Glands, skin, location and use 319

Gnats, buffalo, description and remedy 513

Goiter, cause, description, symptoms, and treatment 308

Gonorrhea, description and treatment 154

Gravel —

description and cause J-8

effect of different feeds 130

in prepuce or sheath, treatment 142

Great Britain, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Grubs, cattle, description 515

Gullet-
diseases affecting, description, symptoms, and treatment l<-22

wounds and injuries, cause and treatment 22

Gut tie, desci-iption, causes, symptoms, and treatment 41

Haematopinus euryiitei-mis and H. vituli, description and treatment 517

Haemonchus contortus, description and treatment 525

Hair balls, cause '^^

Hair, description ^^°

Harbaugh, W. H. — ,., o.

chapter on "Diseases of the lieart, blood vessels, and lymphatics _ .1-84

chapter on " Diseases of the nervous system " 99-110

Haw, inflammation and enlargement, description and treatment 352

Health, public, relation of actinomycosis 445

blood vessels and lymphatics, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh 71-84

description ^1

dilation and hypertrophy, description 80

INDEX. 553

Heart — Continued. Page-
examination of 75

fatty degeneration, description 80

injury by foreign bodies, description, symptoms, and treatment 76

misplacement, description 81

palpitation, description 76

rupture, description 80

valves, diseases affecting, symptoms and treatment 80

Heat prostration, symptoms and treatment 106

Heaves, description and treatment 96

Heel, ulcerations, causes and treatment 835

Hemaglobinuria or hematuria, description, symptoms, and treatment 117

Heniatodes, fungus, description 314

Hemoptysis, description and treatment 97

Hemorrhage —

danger in castration of cattle 298

treatment 81

Hemorrhagic septicemia, causes, symptoms, etc 395-899

Hepatitis, symptoms and treatment 45

Hernia —

bowel, description and treatment 38

danger in castration of cattle 298

peritoneal, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 41

rennet, description and treatment 38

rumen, description and cause 37

stomach, description and treatment - — 38

umbilical, description, causes, and treatment 39, 250

uterus, cause and treatment 160

ventral, description and causes 37

Hides, injury by cattle ticks 482

Hip point, fracture, causes and treatment 278

Hip sprain, cause and treatment 268

Hock-
fracture below, description and treatment 280

fracture, treatment 279

Hollow horn, imaginary disease 27

Hoof-
deformities, causes and treatment 336

loss, causes and treatment 334

split, description and treatment 336

wall, fissure affecting, description and treatment 336

wounds and pricks, treatment 336

Horns, fracture, description and treatment 275

Horses —

dose of vaccine against anthrax 455

ear tick, note 523

Hoven, causes, symptoms, and treatment 22

Hydatids —

and flukes affecting the lungs of animals 531

description and treatment 531

Hydrocephalus, description and treatment 177

Hydrophobia. See Rabies.

Hydrothorax, description and treatment 97

Hygiene, pregnant cow 158

Hygromata, description and treatment 315

Hyperplasia, reference 301

Hypertrophy —

description 126

heart, with dilation, description 80

Hypoderma bovis, new warble fly 516

Hypodcrnia Imeata, warble fly, description 515

Illinois, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Immunization, northern cattle against Texas fever, manner 498

Impetigo, description, causes, and treatment 325

Incised wounds, description and treatment 293

Incontinence, urine, cause and treatment 128

554 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Page.

Incubation period of infectious diseases 360

Indiana, foot-and-moutli disease 386

Indigestion —

calves, causes, symptoms, and treatment 32, 251

causes, symptoms, and treatment 26, 29, 31

Induration —

tongue. See Actinomycosis.

womb moutli, description and treatment 174

Infectious aplitha. See Foot-and-mouth disease.

Infectious catarrhal conjunctivitis, symptoms, treatment, and prevention. 343

Infectious catarrhal fever, description, symptoms, and treatment 467-470

Infectious diseases —

cattle, chapter by John R. Mohler 356-509

classification of symptoms and lesions 357

general discussion 356

incubation periods 360

treatment, discussion 360

Infectious ophthalmia, or infectious catarrhal conjunctivitis 343

Inflammation —

brain and its membranes, causes, symptoms, and treatment 101

contagious, of the udder, description, prevention, and treatment 235

ear, symptoms and treatment 353

haw, description and treatment 352

kidneys, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 121

liver, symptoms and treatment 45

mucous membrane of mouth, symptoms and ti-eatment 17

navel veins, description, symptoms, and treatment 247

parotid gland, symptoms and treatment 18

pyemic and septicemic, of joints of calves, symptoms and treatment 249

sheath and penis from bruising, prevention and treatment 153

sheath, causes and treatment 151

spleen, description 45

testicles, description and treatment 150

traumatic, of the stomach, cause, symptoms, and treatment 34

udder, description, symptoms, and treatment 232

urachus, causes and treatment 246

urethra, description and treatment 154

vagina, causes and treatment 221

veins, description and treatment 84

womb, causes, symptoms, and treatment 222

Inflammatory diseases, skin, description, symptoms, and treatment 318-332

Inhalation of medicines, manner 10

Inoculation, use against hemorrhagic septicemia 399

Intercostal muscles, rheumatism affecting, description and treatment — 98

Interdigital fibroma, description and treatment 336

Intestinal parasites, description and treatment 529

Intestines, roundworms affecting, kind and treatment 530

Intussusception, causes, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and treat-
ment 35

Invagination, cause of obstruction of bowels, symptoms, and treatment — 35
Inversion — •

eyelashes, treatment 348

eyelid, description and treatment 348

lodin, tincture, use in punctured wounds 295

Iowa, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Iris, description 339

Italy, foot-and-mouth disease 383

Itch, scab, mites, and mange, description and treatment 518

Itching, cause and treatment 320

Japan, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Jaundice, description, symptoms, and treatment 44

Jaw —

big, lump, or lumpy. See Actinomycosis.

lower, fracture, cause and treatment 276

poverty, caused by twisted wireworms 525

INDEX. 555

Page.

Jawbones, actinomycosis affecting, description and treatment 438-447

Jensen, formula for protection of cattle from flies 511

Joint-ill, description, symptoms, and treatment 249

Kansas, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Kelis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 329

Kentucky, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Keratitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343

Kidney —

ox, description 115

parasites affecting, discussion 125

stone in, description and treatment 137

Kidneys —

inflammation, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 121

tumors affecting, description 126

Knee —

fracture below, description and treatment 280

fracture, description and treatment 279

tumors, description and treatment 315

Knotting and twisting of bowels, causes, symptoms and treatment 35

Labor pains before relaxation of passages 178

Lacerated wounds, description and treatment 296

Laceration, eyelid, cause and treatment 349

Lacerations —

and ruptures- of the vagina, description and treatment 217

ear, cause and treatment 355

Lacrimal gland of the eye, description 341

Lameness, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease 381

Laminitis, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 333

Laryngitis, cause and treatment 91

Laurel poisoning, description and treatment 65

Law, James —

chapter on " Diseases following parturition " 212-244

chapter on *' Diseases of the generative organs " 145-212

chapter on " Diseases of the urinary organs " 111-144

chapter on " Diseases of young calves " 245-261

observation of foot-and-mouth disease in man 393

Lead poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment 55

Leeches in cattle, description and treatment 524

Lens of the eye, description 340

Leucorrhea, symptoms and treatment 222

Lice —

blue (Haematopiniis eurysternus and H. vituli), description and

treatment 517

red, description and treatment 518

Lightning stroke, symptoms and treatment 109

Limbs, fracture of bones, description . 279

Lime, use in fluke control 532

Lipoma tumor, description and treatment 312

Lips, contusions, wounds, and snake bites, symptoms and treatment 14

Live stock, immunization against anthrax 455-456

Liver —

congestion, description, symptoms, and treatment 44

diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment 44-45

flukes, description and treatment 531

inflammation affecting, symptoms and treatment 45

Lockjaw —

danger in castration of cattle 298

reference 298

Loco weed poisoning, description and treatment 67

Loeffler, note on description of foot-and-mouth infection 393

Louse, red (Trichodectes scalaris), description and treatment 518

Lowe, William H. —

and William Dickson, chapter on " Surgical operations " 287-300

chapter on " Noncontagious diseases of organs of respiration " 85-98

Lump, or lumpy jaw. See Actinomycosis.

556 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Lung — Page.

abscess, description 97

tissue, parasites affecting 531

Lungs —

actinomycosis affecting 441

bleeding from, description and treatment 97

bronchial tubes, parasites affecting, description and treatment nSo

parasites affecting, note 531

worms of cattle, description and treatment 535

Luxations of bones, description and treatment 280

Lymphatics —

description 73

heart, and blood vessels, diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh 71-84

Malignant —

catarrh, description, symptoms, and treatment 467^70

edema, description, symptoms, and treatment 470-472

pustule, description 456

tumors, description 304

Mammitis —

contagious, description, prevention, and treatment 235

simple, description, symptoms, and treatment 232

Man —

relation to beef measles in cattle 534

symptoms of foot-and-mouth disease 392

treatment with anthrax serum 457

Mange —

common, description and treatment 518

itch, scab, mites, description and treatment 518

psoroptic, description and treatment 519

sarcoptic, cause and treatment 523

Manure, breeding place for flies 511

Margaropiis annulatus, Texas fever tick 478

Maryland, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Massachusetts, foot-and-mouth disease 385, 386

Measles, beef, discussion and management 534

Measly beef, description and prevention 534

Medicines, methods of administration, chapter by Leonard Pearson 7-11

Membrana nictitans of eye, description 341

Meninges, number and functions 101

Mercury poisoning, symptoms and treatment . 57

Metacarpus, fracture, description and treatment 280

Metatarsus, fracture, description, treatment 280

Metritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 222

Metroperitonitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 222

Michigan, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Micrococcus prodigiosus, cause of bloody milk 240

Microorganisms, transmission 359

Milk-
absence, cause and treatment 239

bloody and blue, cause and treatment 239, 240

diminution, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease 381

duct —

closure and thickening of mucous membrane, cause and treat-
ment 242

closure by membrane, description and treatment 243

effect of different feeds, analyses 254-256

~^^ fever, description, symptoms, and treatment 224-235

fistula, description and treatment 243

pasteurization as guard against foot-and-mouth infection 393

source of foot-and-mouth disease infection 392

stringy, cause and treatment 240

Mineral —

acid poisoning, description and treatment 58

poisons, description and kinds 54

Minnesota, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Misplacement, heart, description 81

INDEX. 557

Mites — Page.

description 519

mange, itch, scab, description and treatment 518

MoHLER, John R. —

chapter on " Infectious diseases of cattle " 356-509

chapter on " Mycotic stomatitis of cattle " 537-542

chapter on " Tumors affecting cattle " 301-318

Monstrosities, calf, descriptions, causes, and treatment 180-182

Montana, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Moor-ill, description, symptoms, and treatment 117

Morphia, poisoning, description and treatment 61

Mouth —

diseases affecting, symptoms and treatment 14-17

inflammation of the mucous membrane, cause, symptoms, and treat-
ment 17

sore, characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease 389-390

ulcers affecting, in young calves. See Necrotic stomatitis.

Mucopurulent discharge from passages, symptoms and treatment 222

Mucous cysts, description and treatment 317

Mucous membrane —

of mouth, inflammation, cause, symptoms, and treatment 17

thickening and closure of milk duct, cause and treatment .- 242

Multiceps multiceps (bladderworm), parasite of brain 533

MxjKRAT, A. J., chapter on " Diseases of digestive organs " 12-50

Muscles —

calf, rigid contraction, cause, and treatment 179

eye, description 341

intercostal, rheumatism affecting, description and treatment 98

Mycotic stomatitis —

cattle, chapter by John R. Mohler 537-.542

character, cause, symptoms, lesions, etc 538

characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease 389-390

differential diagnosis and treatment 540

prevalence 537

synonyms 537

Myocarditis, description, symptoms, and treatment 79

Myoma tumor, description and treatment 307

Myxoma tumor, description and treatment 312

Nagana, description, symptoms, and treatment 508

Nasal catarrh, description, symptoms, and treatment 90

Navels

abscess affecting, causes and treatment 97

bleeding, cause, and treatment ' 246

breach, symptoms, and treatment 250

dropsy, description and treatment 251

string, constricting member of fetus, description 177

urine discharged through, description and treatment 246

urine duct, inflammation, cause, and treatment 246

veins, inflammation, description, causes, and treatment 247

Necrosis —

and diseases of cartilage of the ear, cause and treatment 355

bony orbit, cause and treatment 350

Necrotic stomatitis —

characteristic difl'ei-ences from foot-and-mouth disease 389

description, symptoms, and treatment 462—467

differentiation from foot-and-mouth disease 389

Neoformation and neoplasm. See Tumors.

Nephritis, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 121

Nerves, description 99-101

Nervous system, diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh 99-110

Nervousness, cause of i-etarding calving 177

Netherlands, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Nettle rash, description, causes, and treatment 322

Neurofibroma tumor, description and treatment 308

New Hampshire, foot-and-mouth disease 385,386

New Jersey, foot-and-mouth disease 386

558 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Page.

New York, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Nicotiu dip, directions for maliing 521

Nodular disease of intestines due to hook worms, note 530

Noncontagious —
abortion —

causes 1G3

treatment 165

diseases of organs of respiration, chapter by William H. Lowe 85-98

foot-and-mouth disease, reference 537

Norway, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Nose bleeding, cause and treatment 91

Nymphomania in female, cause and treatment 146

Obstruction —

arteries, description and treatment 83

bowels, resulting from invagination, causes, symptoms, etc 35

parturition by full bladder or rectum 176

parturition by masses of fat, cause 176

Oesophagostoma radiatum, parasite causing nodular disease, treatment 530

Ohio, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Oidirum albicans, parasite causing aphtha, or thrush 261

Operations —

asepsis, importance of 287

surgical —

chapter by William Dickson, William H. Lowe 287-300

manner of securing the animals 287

uses of anesthesia 287

Jphthalmia —

simple, causes, symptoms, and treatment 342

specific, symptoms, treatment, and prevention 343

Opium poisoning, description and treatment 61

Orbit-
bony, necrosis affecting, cause and treatment 350

fracture, cause and treatment 350

tumors, cause and treatment 351

Orbital—

and periorbital abscess, symptoms and treatment 350

cavity of the eye, description 340

Orchitis, description and treatment 150

Ornitliodoros megnmi, ear tick of cattle 523

Osteitis, description and treatment 263

Osteoma, description and treatment 312

Osteomalachi, description, symptoms, and treatment 265

Osteomyelitis, description and treatment 264

Ostertagia ostertagi, encysted stomach worm of cattle 528

Otitis, symptoms and treatment 353

Otobiiis magnini, ear tick 523

Ovariotomy, description of the operation 299

Ovum, inclosed, description and treatment 179

Ox warbles and grubs, treatment 516

Pains, labor, before relaxation of passages 173

Palpitation of heart, description 76

Palsy —

following calving, description and treatment 231

of neck of bladder, cause and treatment 128

Papillary growths and warts on the penis, treatment 154

Papilloma, description and treatment 310

Paralysis —

bladder, causes and treatment 128

description 107

hind parts during pregnancy, cause and treatment 161

rear parts of body, cause 107

raramphistonum cervi, parasite affecting cattle 524

Paraplegia, symptoms and treatment 108

INDEX. 559

Parasites — I'age.

animal, of cattle, chapter by B. H. Ransom 510-536

blood, kinds 535

bronchial tubes, description and treatment 535

ear, kinds and treatment 523

eye, kinds and treatment 536

intestinal tract, kinds and treatment 529

kidney, discussion 125

luug, kinds 535

stomach, kinds and treatment 524

Parasitic —

cysts, description 315

diseases of the skin, description and treatment 330

Parotid gland, inflammation, cause, symptoms, and treatment 18

Parotitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 18

Parturient —

apoplexy, description, symptoms, and treatment 224

collapse, description, symptoms, and treatment 224

fever, description, symptoms, and treatment 224

Parturition —

difficult, suggestions for assisting 172

diseases following, chapter by James Law 212-244

obstacles, causes 172

Pasteurization, value in check of foot-and-mouth infection 393

Pastures, how to free from ticks 488

Paunch, distention with food, description and treatment 26

Pearson, Leonard, chapter on " Administration of medicines " 7-11

Pelvis —

fracture, description and treatment 277

narrow, fracture, cause of difficult parturition 176

Pemphigus, symptoms and treatment 326

Penis —

inflammation from bruising, prevention and treatment 153

ulcers affecting, cause and treatment 155

warts and papillary growths, treatment 154

wounds, cause and treatment 154

Pennsylvania, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Percussion method of examination 90

Pericarditis, symptoms and treatment 77

Periorbital and orbital abscess, symptoms and treatment 350

Periostitis, aseptic, purulent, and fibrous, description and treatment 263

Peritoneal hernia, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 41

Peritoneum, diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment 45-47

Peritonitis —

causes, symptoms, and treatment 45, 46

danger in castration of cattle 298

Permanganate, use in production of formaldehyde gas 363

Persistent urachus, description and treatment 246

Pharyngeal polypi, description and treatment 19

Pharyngitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment 17

Pharynx —

diseases, description, symptoms, and treatment 19-22

tumors affecting, description and treatment 19

Philippine Islands, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Phlebitis-
description and treatment 84

umbilical, description, symptoms, and treatment 247

Phosphorus poisoning, symptoms and treatment 57

Pica, description, causes, and treatment 28

Pink eye. See Ophthalmia.

riroplasma higeminum, protozoan causing Texas fever 535

Pityriasis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 327

Plants, poisonous, description of poisoning 63-69

Pleurisy, description, symptoms, and treatment 93

Pleurodynia, description and treatment 98

560 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Pleuropneumonia — Page

cause, incubation, and symptoms 367

definition and history 3G4

post-mortem appearance 371

prevention and treatment 375

Pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment 94

Pneumotliorax, description and treatment 97

Poison, definition 51

Poisoning —

acid, description and treatment _ 58

aconite, description and treatment 63

alkali, description and treatment 59

animal products, description and treatment 69

arsenic, description, symptoms, and treatment 54

carbolic acid, description and treatment 60

chapter by V. T. Atkinson 51--70

coal oil, description and treatment 59

copper, description and treatment 56

fungi, description 68

laurel, description and treatment 65

lead, description, symptoms, and treatment 55

loco weed, description and treatment 67

mercury, description, symptoms, and treatment 57

phosphorus, symptoms and treatment 57

plant, description 63

salt and saltpeter, description, symptoms, and treatment 60-61

sources 51

strychnin, description and treatment 62

symptoms and treatment 53

Poisonous —

fungi, description 68

plants, description 63-69

Poisons —

chapter by V. T. Atkinson 51-70

description of action 52

mineral, descriptions 54-58

vegetable, uses as medicine 61-69

Polydesmns excitans, effect on cattle 13

Polypi —

description and treatment 311

pharyngeal, description and treatment 19

vagina or uterus, description and treatment 155

Polytrincinm trifoldii, effect on cattle 13

Polyuria, causes and treatment 116

Pork measles, note 534

Potash, permanganate, use in production of formaldehyde gas 363

Poverty jaw and scours, caused by twisted wireworm, treatment 525

Pregnancy —

crtimps of hind limbs during, cause 160

duration 158

signs 155

Pregnant cow, hygiene 158

Prepuce, calculi affecting, treatment 142

Presentation of fetus, natural : 171

Pricks, hoof, treatment 336

Probang, use in prevention of choking 21

Prolapsus vaginje, description and treatment 160

Proliferation cysts, description and treatment 317

I'rostratlon, heat, symptoms and treatment 106

Protozoa —

as intestinal parasites, note 531

definition 357

Protrusion, vagina, description and treatment 160

Pruritis, causes and treatment 320

pRondoplasm. /See Tumors.

Psoroptic mange, description and treatment 519

INDEX. 561

Page.
Pucinma arundinacea, P. coronata, P. graminis, P. straminis, effect on

cattle 13

Pulmouary congestion, treatment 96

Pulse —

description 74

examination 8S

Puncta lacrimalia of the eye, description 342

Purulent periostitis, description and treatment 264

Pustule —

description, causes, and treatment 325

malignant, in man, description 456

Pterygium, description and treatment 347

Pyemia, causes, symptoms, and treatment 893

Pyemic inliammation of joints in calves, description, symptoms, and

treatment 249

Quarter-ill. See Blackleg.

Rabies, cattlo, description, symptoms, etc 400-404

Rachitis. See Rickets.

Ransom, B. H., chapter on " Animal parasites of cattle " 510-536

Rauschbrand. See Blackleg.

Rectal injections, uses and methods 9

Rectum —

full, obstruction to parturition 176

method of administering medicines 9

Red dysentery, note 531

Red water, description, symptoms, and treatment 117

Regulations, sanitary, for controlling Texas fever 503

Renal calculi, description and treatment 137

Rennet, hernia affecting, description and treatment 38

Respiration —

examination 87

organs, methods of diagnosis 85

organs, noncontagious diseases affecting, chapter by William H.

Lowe _ 85-918

Retina, eye, description 34Q

Rheumatism —

articular and muscular, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 285, 286

intercostal muscles, description and treatment 99

Rhode Island, foot-and-mouth disease 385, 386

Ribs, fracture, cause and treatment 279

Rickets —

description and treatment 265

in young calves, description and treatment 261

Rinderpest, description, cause, symptoms, etc 377-381

Ringing, bull, method 289

Ringworm, description, symptoms, and treatment 330

Roundworms —

description 530

eye, treatment • 536

intestine, kinds and treatment 530

stomach, description 525

Rumen —

distention with food, description and treatment 22

hernia, description and cause 37

Rumenotomy, description 292

Rupture —

bladder, symptoms 216

danger in castration of cattle 298

heart, description 80

womb, cause and treatment 217

Ruptures —

and lacerations of the vagina, description and treatment 217-218

description and cause 37

33071°— 16 36

562 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Page.

Russia, foot-and-mouth disease 383

SaccMromyces albicans, parasite of aphtha, or thrusli 2G1

Salivation —

cause, symptoms, and treatment 15

symptoms of foot-and-mouth disease 381

Salt, common, poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment 61

Saltpeter poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment 60

Salts, medicated, doubtful value against worms 528

Sarcoma tumor, description and treatment 313

Satyriasis in male, cause and treatment 146

Scab, mange, itch, description of kinds and treatment 518

Scabby teats, treatment 241

Scalds, causes and treatment 331

Schistosoma bovis, cause of bloody urine 53.">

Scleroderma, description 328

Sclerotic membrane of eye, description 339

Scouring —

acute contagious, in newborn calves, description, prevention, and

ti-eatment 259

causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 252-261

Scours — ^^_

and poverty jaw, caused by twisted wireworm, treatment 52o

causes, symptoms, and treatment 32

Screens, use against flies, remarks 511

Screwworms —

affecting animals, description and remedy 514

control by dipping 514

Scurf, causes, symptoms, and treatment 327

Scurfy ears, cause and treatment 354

Sebaceous cysts, description and treatment 328

Sebaceous glands, location 319

Seborrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment 327

Septicemia —

causes, symptoms, and treatment—. 393

gangrenous, description, symptoms, and treatment _ 470

hemorrhagic, causes, symptoms, etc 395-399

hemorrhagic, control by vaccination, etc 399

Septicemic inflammation of joints in calves, description, symptoms, and

treatment 249

Serous cysts, description and treatment 316

Serum, use against anthrax 453

Setaria labiate papillosa, embroyo in blood, note 535

Setoning, description and use 291

Sheath-
calculi affecting, treatment 142

inflammation, causes and treatment lol

penis, inflammation from bruising, prevention and treatment 153

Sheep, dose of vaccine against anthrax 453

Shoulder joint, sprain, causes and treatment 267

Skeleton, number of bones 262

Skin— *

description ^i«

diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower 318-332

gas or air under, symptoms and treatment 332

glands, location and use 319

inflammatory diseases, causes and treatment 321

parasites affecting, description and treatment 515-522

secretions and growths, description, causes, and treatment 327-830

wounds, kinds, description, and treatment 331-332

Skull, fracture, description and treatment 276

Slinking, calf, description 163

Snake bites, description, symptoms, and treatment 14,69

Sore mouth —

characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease 389-390

reference 537

INDEX. 563

Page.

Sore throat, cause and treatment 17,91

Sore tongue, reference 537

Soreness, foot, description and treatment 333

Southern cattle fever. See Texas fever.

Spanisli-fly poisoning, description and treatment 70

Spasm of the neck of the bladder, description and treatment 126

Spavin, description and treatment ^ 282

Spaying, description of operation 299

Spinal column, fracture, description and treatment 277

Spinal cord —

congestion, description, symptom, and treatment 108

description 100

injuries, description 107

Spleen —

diseases, causes, symptoms, and treatment 44-45

inflammation, description 45

Splenetic fever. See Texas fever.

Splenitis, description 45

Split hoof, description and treatment 336

Sporadic —

aphthae, reference 537

stomatitis aphthosa, reference 537

Sprain —

fetlock, causes and treatment 267

hip, cause and treatment 268

shoulder joint, causes and treatment 267

Sprains, description and treatment 266

Squinting, description 347

Stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrcms) , affecting cattle 511

Stabling, value against stomach worms 526-527

Staggers, causes, symptoms, and treatment 101, 534

Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus and S. pyogenes citreus, bacteria of ab-
scess 235

Staphyloma, description, symptoms, and treatment 346

Sterility, causes 149

Stings —

venomous. See Snake bites.

wasps and bees, description and treatment 69

Stomach —

diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment 22-34

fourth, affected with hernia, description and treatment 38

hair balls in 29

parasites affecting, treatment 524-529

roundworms affecting 525

traumatic inflammation, cause, symptoms, and treatment 34

worm —

encysted, description and treatment 528

sanitary measures for suppression 526-527

worms, different kinds affecting cattle 525

Stomatitis —

cause, symptoms, and treatment 17

characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth dis,ease 389-390

mycotic. See Mycotic stomatitis.

necrotic, description, symptoms, treatment, etc 462-467

Stomoxys calcitrans affecting cattle 511

Stone-
bladder, obstruction to parturition 176

bladder, symptoms and treatment 140

description and causes 128

effect of different feeds 130-132

kidney, description and treatment 137

Strabismus, description 347

Straw, breeding place of stable fly 511

Streptococcus pyogenes, bacteria of abscess 235

String, navel, constricting member of fetus, description 177

664 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Page.

Stringj'^ milk, cause and treatment 240

Strongylus micrurus, parasite of verminous bronchitis 98

Struma, cause, description, symptoms, and ti-eatment 308

Stryclinin poisoning, description and treatment 62

Sudorific glands, location and use .319

Sugar in urine, description 121

Sunstroke, symptoms and treatment 106

Suppression, milk, cause and treatment 239

Surfeit, description, causes, and treatment 322

Surgery, discussion 287

Surgical operations —

asepsis, importance 287

chapter by William Dickson and William H. Lowe 287-300

manner of securing the animals during 288

uses of anethesia 287

Swamp lands, drainage as measure against fluke disease 5.32

Sweat glands, location and use 320

Sweden, foot-and-mouth disease .384

Swelling of calf with gas, cause and treatment 179

Switzerland, foot-and-mouth disease 383

Symptomatic anthrax. See Blackleg.

Taenia saginata, tapeworm cysts, presence in cattle ii34

Tail, wolf in, imaginary disease 27

Tapeworm cysts, source of injury to cattle .534

Tapeworms —

adult, of small intestine, species and remedy 529

cysts in muscles of cattle .534

cysts of liver 532

Tarsus, fracture, description and treatment 279

Teats —

blocked by calculus, treatment 241

blocked by concretion of casein, cause and treatment 241

blocked by warty and other growth inside, description and treatment- 242

chapped, cause and treatment 241

opening in the side, description and treatment 243

scabby, treatment 241

warts affecting, treatment 241

Teeth-
caries, description ^ 16

irregularities, cause and treatment 16

Temperature —

how to examine 88

limits for dipping bath 521

Test, tuberculin. See Tuberculin test.

Testicles, congestion and inflammation, description and treatment 150

Tetanus —

danger in castration of cattle 298

reference 403

Texas fever —

description, symptoms, prevention, etc 473-506

immunization of northern cattle 498

infection carried by the cattle tick (Margaropus annulatus) 478

injurious effect of ticks — 480

loss occasioned by cattle ticks 481

methods of eradication 485-498

nature of the disease 474

period of incubation of ticks 484

prevention 48,5

quarantine regulations 503

symptoms and pathological changes after death 476-478

tick eradication, plan of work 505

Threadworms in abdominal cavity of cattle 534

Throat, sore, symptoms, causes, and treatment 17

Thrombosis, description and symptoms 83

INDEX. 565

Thrush — Page.

calf, description and treatment 261

parasite (Saccharomyces albicans), cause 261

Ticks-
cattle, time required to kill 486

ear 523

injury to cattle hides 482

parasites of cattle, note 523

See also Cattle tick ; Texas fever.

Tilletia caries in wheat, effect on cattle 13

Tinea favosa, description, symptoms, and treatment 330

Tinea tonsurans, description, symptoms, and treatment 330

Tracheotomy, description 292

Traumatic inflammation of the stomach, cause, symptoms, and treatment 34

Trichiasis, treatment 348

Trichodectes scalaris (red louse), description and treatment 518

Trichoplyton tonsurans, fungus causing Tinea tonsurans 330

Trumbower, M. R. —

chapter on " Diseases of the ear " 3.53-355

chapter on " Diseases of the eye and its appendages " 338-352

chapter on " Diseases of the foot " 3.33-337

chapter on " Diseases of the skin " 318-332

Trypanosoma brucei, cause of nagana, or tsetse-fly disease 508

Tsetse-fly disease, description, symptoms, and treatment 508

Tuberculin test —

description and history 415

harmless to healthy animals 424

summary of directions for making 425

Tuberculosis —

bovine, and public health 428

cause and nature of disease 409

occurrence 405

statistics of tests in United States 408

symptoms and diagnosis 414—415

transmissibility of human and bovine 430

treatment 426

Tumor —

bony, description and treatment 312

chrondroma, description and treatment 312

fibroma, description and treatment 309

hairy, on eyeball, description and treatment 347

lipoma, description and treatment 312

sarcoma, description and treatment 313

Tumors —

brain, description 110

calf, description and treatment 179

cattle, chapter by John R. Mohler 301-317

definition and description 301

description 301, 303, 305

description of kinds 307

diagnosis 306

eyelid, description and treatment 348

general treatment 307

kidney, description 126

malignant and benign, description 304

orbit, cause and treatment 351

pharynx, description and treatment 19

Twisted stomach worms, description and treatment 525-526

Twisting — •

and knotting of the bowels, causes, symptoms, post-mortem appear-
ance, and treatment 35

of the neck of the womb, description and treatment 174

Tympanites —

acute, causes, symptoms, and treatment 22

chronic, causes and treatment 25

566 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Udder— . I*age.

congestion, description and treatment 231

contagious inflammation affecting, description, prevention, and treat-
ment 235

inflammation, description, symptoms, and treatment 232

Ulceration, heel, causes and treatment 335

Ulcerative stomatitis. See Necrotic stomatitis.

Ulcers —

calves. See Necrotic stomatitis.

cornea, cause, symptoms, and treatment 345

penis, cause and treatment 155

Umbilical hernia —

description, causes, and treatment 39

symptoms and treatment 250

Umbilical phlebitis, description, causes, and treatment 247

Urachus —

inflammation, causes and treatment 246

persistent, description and treatment 246

Ureteral calculi, description and treatment 137

Urethra, inflammation affecting, description and treatment 154

Urethral calculus, symptoms and treatment 140

Urinary calculi —

classification 136

description and causes 128, 135

effect of different feeds 131

Urinary disorders, symptoms 116

Urinary organs —

diseases, chapter by James Law 111-144

functions 111

Urine —

albumin in, de.scription and treatment 119

amount passed daily 113

analyses under different rations 112

bloody, caused by blood flukes 535

bloody, description, symptoms, and treatment 117

cow, analysis 112

discharged through navel, description and treatment 246

excessive secretion, cause and treatment 116

incontinence, cause and treatment 128

ox, analysis 113

retention, effect, cause, and treatment 126

sugar in, description 121

Urticaria, description, causes and treatment 322

Uruguay, foot-and-mouth disease 384

Uterus —

hernia affecting, cause and treatment 160

polypus affecting, description and treatment 155

Vaccination, disadvantages in use against anthrax 455

Vaccine —

anthrax, care and use 455

blackleg, free distribution, note 461

preparation and use against hemorrhagic septicemia 303

Vagina —

clots of blood on walls, description and treatment 218

inflammation, causes and treatment 221

lacerations and rupture, description and treatment 217

polypus affecting, description and treatment 155

Yagina;' prolapsus, description and treatment 160

Vaginal walls, affected with coagulated blood after calving, treatment— 177

Vaginitis, causes and treatment 221

Valves, heart, diseases affecting, symptoms and treatment 80

Variola, description, symptoms, and treatment 436

Vegetable — ^

acids, poisonous, description and treatment -^8

poisons —

note ^'1

uses as medicine, description, symptoms, and treatment 61-69

INDEX. 567

Veins — Page.

inflammation, description and treatment 84

wounds, description and treatment 81

"Venereal desire, diminution or loss, cause, prevention, and treatment 147

Venereal excess, cause and treatment 146

Venomous stings. See Snake bites.

Ventral hernia, description and causes 37

Verminous bronchitis —

description, symptoms, and prevention 98

parasites causing .53.5

Vermont, foot-and-mouth disease 38.5

Verruca, description, cause, and treatment 329

Vertebra, fracture, description and treatment 277

Vesical calculus, symptoms and treatment 140

Vesicular eruption of genital organs, description, symptoms, and treat-
ment^ 399

Vesicular exanthema, symptoms and treatment 399

Veterinarians, views on foot-and-mouth disease in man 393

Vi'-ginia, foot-and-mouth disease 386

A'^itreous humor of the eye, description 340

Vomiting, symptoms, cause, and treatment 27

Wall, hoof, fissure, description and treatment 3.36

Warble fly-
damages, estimate , 516

European species, appearance in United States 516

Warbles —

description and treatment 515

penetration of skins of cattle 516

reference 331

Warts —

description, causes, and treatment 310, 329

penis, treatment 154

teats, treatment 241

Washington, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Wasp stings, description and treatment 69

Water —

blisters, symptoms and treatment 320

cold, drinking, a cause of indigestion, symptoms and treatment 31

head of calf, description and treatment 177

Weather, relation to occurrence of mycotic stomatitis 390

Wens, description and treatment 328

West Virginia, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Wisconsin, foot-and-mouth disease 386

Withers, casting, cause and treatment 213

Wolf in the tail, imaginary disease 27

Womb —

bleeding from, description, symptoms, and treatment 212

dropsy, description and treatment 160

eversion, cause and treatment 213

fetus developing outside, description and treatment 161

inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 222

mouth, induration, description and treatment 174

rupture, cause and treatment 217

twisting of neck, description and treatment 174

Wooden tongue. See Actinomycosis.

Wood-ill, description, symptoms, and treatment 117

Worm —

encysted stomach, description and treatment 528

eye, description and treatment 347

Worms —

bladder, description 533

lung, of cattle, description and treatment 535

screw, description and remedies : 514

thread, in abdominal cavity of cattle 534

twisted stomach, description and treatment 525-526

568 DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Wounds— I'age.

abdomen, causes, symptoms, and treatment 43

arteries and veins, description and treatment 81

contused and lacerated, description and treatment 296

contusions of tlie lips and snake bites of mouth, description and

treatment 14

danger of infection from foot-and-mouth disease 392

drainage, necessity 296

gullet, description and treatment 22

healing, treatment and dressing, description 296

hoof, treatment 336

incised —

description and treatment 293

punctured, and lacerated, description and treatment 293-297

mouth, snake bites and contusions of lips, treatment 14

penis, cause and treatment 154

skin, kinds, description, and treatment 331-332

treatment, summary of care after dressing 296

Yellows, description, symptoms, and treatment 44

Zinc poisoning, description and treatment 57

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