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THE ANNALS “99

ree

"
Z
a

fa

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING
ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND
CHARLESWORTH'S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )

CONDUCTED BY

PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Esa., F.LS.,
CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esca., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
J. H. BALFOUR, M.D., Prof. Bot. Edinburgh,

AND

RICHARD TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S.
3074 —

——— —— eeeeEeeEeEeEeEeEeeeeaaes

VOL. XVIII.—SECOND SERIES.

~ LL — — eee

LONDON:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL,
AND CO.; PIPER AND CO.,; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:
LIZARS, AND MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH;

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1856.

‘‘Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentia testes, divitie felicitatis
humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;
ex economia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.
Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper estimata; a veré eruditis
et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”—
LINN2Us.

“ Quelque soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir
qu'elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent
toutes ses opérations.’,-—BRruCKNER, Théorie du Systeme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

pe. Sw oe eke 6 hol do LCP Y an nOWeXS
Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells
The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild
And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs
That press with nimble step the mountain thyme
And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,
But scatter round ten thousand forms minute
Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock
Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too
Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face
They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush
That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,
Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,
The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,
All, all to us unlock their secret stores
And pay their cheerful tribute.
J. TayiLor, Norwich, 1818.

FLAMMAM,.

CONTENTS OF VOL. XVIIL.

[SECOND SERIES.]

NUMBER CIII.

Page
I. Monograph of the genus Catops. By ANDREW MuRRay ......
II. On a second new species of Spherium from the Paddington
Suerte tir, J. Meaty aw BS Ree © ei io oc sece ogc some ps 25
III. On the Habits of the Orang-Utan of Borneo. By ALFRED
AMET 9 adc ev wan canecebendsncanocwpntnasatsiegsienaQvs varnesssddeveboa> == 26
IV. Polyzoa collected by Mr. M‘Andrew on the Coast of Norway
and Finmark in 1856. By Georce Busk, F.R.S.& L.S. (Witha
RT ae letieina yas denies aanlnnene sor iudnannangasauahs ¢ddpasasscagigivads ie 32
V. On the Evils of Increasing Synonyms. By S. P. Woopwarp,
F.G.S. SOS SEE EERE EERE EEE EHH EEE EEE eee 36

VI. Observations on the External Characters and Internal Ana-
tomy of a Bitentaculate Slug found at the Island of Aneiteum, New
Hebrides. By JouN DENIS Macpona.p, R.N. (With a Plate.)... 38

VII. On Vegetable Cell-formation. By Prof. ARTHUR HENFREY,
URE Sak nccin dan Mastin ssa nas aden decbtee dnaduhebdvataeddVesseouceds 42

VIII. On the Method of Paleontology. By Toomas H. Huxtey,
F.R.S., Lecturer on General Natural History at the Government
School of Mines, and Fullerian Professor of Physiology R.I. ......... 43

New Books:—The Ferns of Great Britain, illustrated by J. E. Sowerby;
the Deseriptions by C. Johnson.—The Ferns of Great Britain and
their Allies, by Anne Pratt.—The Fern-Allies, illustrated by J. E.
Sowerby ; the Descriptions by C. Johnson.—British Poisonous
RE PRs MEMANIES use pacbdonerves aces sees widorus cele ecsuncasesepane 54

Proceedings of the Zoological Society; Royal Institution of Great
Britain ; Botanical Society of Edinburgh ...............00eeeeees 56—73

Note on Edwardsia vestita (Forbes), by P. H. Gosse ; On Cyclas
lacustris, Draparnaud, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys ; Occurrence of Clau-

lV CONTENTS.

silia Mortilleti in Kent, by W. H. Benson; On the Siliceous
Sporangial Sheath of the Diatomacee, by J. W. Griffith, M.D. ;
Travels in Central America, by MM. Scherzer and Wagner ; On
the Non-existence of Polarizing Silica in the Organic King-
doms, by Prof. J. W. Bailey; Meteorological Observations and

Page

GING eeu ded dps ludvecidvldedasgceuth sudo cedste hate syvuat ee CCN . 73—80

NUMBER CIV.

IX. On the Development and Propagation of Spheroplea annulina.
By Dr, FERDINAND CON ...cecececusccccsesonncs ceuesbencsseese seen

X. New Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon, with a General List of the
Species inhabiting that Island. By W. H. Benson, Esq. .«........+..

XI. Notice of a curious Metamorphosis in a Polype-like Animal.
By C. W. Peacn, Member of the Royal Physical Society of Edin-
Burgh: (WIG D PIAL.) wiesscscecscnasnnanpenss os seseqnige here gue cae

XII. Brief Outline of the Anatomy of the genus Atlas (Lesueur).
By Joun Dents Macponatp, R.N. (With a Plate.) ............ ave

XIII. On the Development of Arenicola piscatorum ; with Remarks
upon that of other Branchiferous Annelides. By Dr. Max ScHuLrze,
Raia at P IREEY) MNCL. distaste Rebtesdatsbeesvedssesusyevcevesteeeeeene ha scuies

XIV. Notes on the Freshwater Infusoria of the Island of Bombay.
No. 1. Organization. By H. J. Carrer, Esq., Assistant-Surgeon
H.C.S., Bombay. (With three Plates.) ...... svccsescavenkbosbeesannennaeae

XV. Monograph of the genus Catops. By ANDREW MuRRay...

XVI. On a new British species of Skenea. By W. WEBsTER, Esq.
os gp Re Pe RR SRP rT ree rr om

XVII. Description of a New Species of Dolphin (Steno) from the
upper parts of the River Amazon. By J. E. Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S. &e.

New Books :—Manual of Geology, Practical and Theoretical, by John
Phillips, M.A., F.R.S. &e.—Tenby : a Sea-side Holiday, by Philip
Henry Gosse, A.L.S.—Manual of British Botany, containing the
Flowering Plants and Ferns arranged according to the Natural
Orders, by Charles Cardale Babington, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. &e.
Fourth Edition.—Trees and their Nature, or the Bud and its

81

94

99

105

115
133

157

Attributes, by Alex. Harvey, A.M., M.D. &. ....0.-sseseee. 159—166

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Botanical Society of Edin-

| i Pe emer 166—183

On the probable Origin of the Organized Beings now living in the
Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries, by M. Oswald Heer.—Note

CONTENTS.

on Clausilia plicatula and C. Mortilleti, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys,
Esq., F.R.S.; Note on Lernea branchialis, by W. P. Cocks ; On
two new species of Birds from Santa Fé di Bogota, by Philip
Lutley Sclater, M.A., F.Z.S8.; On the British Diastylide, by C.
Spence Bate, F.L.S.; Note on Helix Cantiana, Mont., by Wm.
Lonsdale, Esq., F.G.S.; Description of a Fossil Cranium of the
Musk-buffalo, from the Gravel at Maidenhead, Berks, by Prof.
Owen, F.R.S.; A last word on Scissurella, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys,
Esq., F.R.S.; New Mode of Cleaning Diatomaceous Deposits,
by Prof. J. W. Bailey ; New Method of Disintegrating masses of
Fossil Diatomacee, by Prof. J. W. Bailey ; Meteorological Obser-

Page

MAMIE ADIC ss tecaticer ete tartiaccedtececadnncariasceesucasele 183—192

NUMBER CV.

XVIII. Attempts at a Natural Arrangement of Birds. By ALFRED
RCH IML S| adeni ei daackec chiens cavvaixssnecetdodsiseisoeasteseaansears

XIX. Recent Discoveries in Vegetable Embryogeny. By ArTHUR
Henrrey, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College, London...

XX. On Edwardsia carnea, a new British Zoophyte. By PHtLip
fpaxonen, FES, ..€ With. Plate.) .2siiet ciidisctecesccekccus vecenesinenes

XXI. Notes on the Freshwater Infusoria of the Island of Bombay.
No. 1. Organization. By H. J. Carrer, Esq., Assistant Surgeon
REID V id ftyrincs cbacasven cases dsesen's cus avescascanecdeduesacnevsasayace

XXII. Descriptions of one Indian and nine new Burmese Helices ;
and Notes on two Burmese Cyclostomacea. By W. H. Benson, Esq.

XXIII. On an Abnormality in the Flowers of Salix Andersoniana.
REIN LOWE, PAG. a ccncvevoceiadenedaevesevsses ocd cherssiaegeadiechsa¥aeus

XXIV. Cardium exiguum ; —its Siphons and its Byssus. By PH1Lip
Re EM Thee: (VV TED PABLO.) vacpssieasaidonas snnusher-namaasinna banned

New Books :—An Introduction to Entomology, or Elements of the
Natural History of Insects, by William Kirby, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., and William Spence, F.R.S., F.L.S.—Ferny Combes: a
Ramble after Ferns in the Glens and Valleys of Devonshire, by

193

217

219

221

249

254

257

MO TIATMEIELE IMD ATIGETD woe occoe eae socked ive dee teeked soba ateeteeatee's 258—260

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ..........csseecsssseseseceeee 260—268

On the Vitality of the Anguillule of Mildewed Wheat, by C. Davaine ;
Notice of a new species of Nocturnal Lizard from Mexico, by
Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; On a new genus and species of Tro-
chilide from Ecuador, by John Gould, F.R.S. &e.; Meteoro-

logical Observations and Table ............cccseseeseeeseceeeecs 268—272

vi CONTENTS.

Page
NUMBER CVI.
XXV. Monograph of the British Umbilicarie. By the Rey. W.
A. Lercuron, B.A., F.B.S.E. (With a Plate.) ......00+ uscabont eveses 240
XXVI. On the Development of the Lampreys. By AucGust
ROEM iv vecvccuccccscvecnsennssctecnonscccccacssveonecenostseoesshNeNinnnnaa 298

XXVII. Monograph of the genus Catops. By ANDREW Murray. 302
XXVIII. Contributions to the Anatomy of the Infusoria. By

I, MiTAC A ak ee avons ccc ccsucacesescahhaniempnanna 319
XXIX. New British Arthonie. By the Rev. W. A. Le1cuTon,
B.A., F.B.S.E. (With a Plate.) .........ccccscsccccsccsssevcccsocsevcnsevess 330

Proceedings of the Royal Society ; Botanical Society of Edinburgh ;
Zoological Society ...ssceeerecssceeeseccecaeeensseeseesseseeensees 333—348

Obituary Notice—William Yarrell; Amphioxus lanceolatus, by W.
P. Cocks; Description of a newly discovered Tanager of the
genus Buarremon, by Philip Lutley Sclater, M.A. &c.; Meteo-
rological Observations and Table .ssceessscceseeeeeaeeeeesneees 348—352

NUMBER CVII.

XXX. A Notice of some New Genera and Species of British Hydroid
Zoophytes. By Josuvua ALDER, Esq. (With three Plates.) ...... 353

XXXI. The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. By
Dr. ALEXANDER Brawn, Professor of Botany in the University of
Berlin, &c. Translated by Cuas. FRANCIS STONE, B.A. .ssseeeeses 363

XXXII. On the young state of Ophiocoma rosula, and on the Form
and Development of the Spines of this species. By T. H. Stewart.
(Wath a Plate.) ..0.s.scsnasecsssscsnendahonbopsuenr oaxsitydonteelar tenn 387

XXXIII. Monograph of the genus Catops. By ANpRew Murray. 391

XXXIV. Elucidation of some Plants mentioned in Dr. Francis
Hamilton’s Account of the Kingdom of Nepal. By Lieut.-Colonel
Mavpen, F.R.S.E., President of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 404

XXXV. Notice of a New Subgenus of Helicinade. By Dr. J.
BAT, FRS. nso sccnsersvesconcoasnotpospdacsanscnnesness aerieennnnn 414

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ..ssssccscssesesseeeeeeeeees 415—424

On Clausilia Rolphii and Mortilleti, by W. H. Benson, Esq. ; On the
Origin of Greensand, and its Formation in the Oceans of the

CONTENTS. Vii

Page
present Epoch, by Prof. J. W. Bailey; On the Cume, by Prof. 7
Agassiz ; Note on Callitriche hamulata, by Frederick Townsend ;
Rare British Birds, by W. P. Cocks; Descriptions of two new
species of the genus Orthotomus, by Frederick Moore, Assist.
Mus. East India Company; Meteorological Observations and
Table ....... RSE asa N ane casas «anihsaywdavaiarinincidaims dassaxbign 424—432

NUMBER CVIII.
XXXVI. New Land Shells collected by E. L. Layarp, Esq., and

eee WY We F1 Be RON Biss) soc, sasonecdpssepeteranarays'ntagecst ders 433
XXXVII. Descriptions of three new British Zoophytes. By
BEBCA ALDER, Mag. (With a Plate.) <cineccssecoscosvovencssstecciees 439

XXXVIII. Elucidation of some Plants mentioned in Dr. Francis
Hamilton’s Account of the Kingdom of Nepal. By Lieut.-Colonel
Mappen, F.R.S.E., President of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 442

XXXIX. Monograph of the genus Catops. By ANDREW MurRAy. 457
XL. On the Abnormal Operculum of Polydonta elegans of New

Pomnmcoriey Des dg, Hh Guay, FORS) becl- 2.20 aictl cones 468
XLI. Note on Reticularia immersa and Halia pretenuis. By the

ee MtTIOMARPELINCK Ss I92A2 sscsscaesnsdcsesssicessnvesiese'dscesscde abeeaeees 469
XLII. Contribution to the Conchclogy of France. By J. Gwyn

MMe PS nae ccocscodscsdunsbaagamopaeensestechancesdlb=pssz 471

New Books :—Flora Vectensis : being a Systematic Description of the
Phznogamous or Flowering Plants and Ferns indigenous to the
Isle of Wight, by the late W. A. Bromfield, M.D. &c. Edited by
Sir W. J. Hooker and T. Bell Salter, M.D.— Sylloge Flore
Europe seu plantarum vascularium Europe indigenarum enu-
meratio, adjectis synonymis gravioribus et indicata singularum
distributione geographica, auctore C. F. Nyman ............ 473—475

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Royal Society............ 475—491

Observations on the Structure of the Retina in certain Animals, by
Hi. Miiller; Remarks on Nika edulis, Risso, by William Thomp-
son ; Naucrates ductor, by W. P. Cocks; On Peculiar and Quasi-
spontaneous Movements of the Plasmatie Cells of certain Ani-
mals, by Prof. Kolliker; Description of a new species of Actinia
from the Devonshire Coast, by E. W. H. Holdsworth; Meteoro-
logical Observations and Table .......-.cccescsscscccscsseceses 492—499

PLATES IN VOL. XVIII.

Piate I. Polyzoa from the Coast of Norway.
II. Development of Arenicola piscatorum.
III. Anatomy of a Bitentaculate Slug from Aneiteum.
IV. Anatomy of the genus Atlas.

ae } Organization of Freshwater Infusoria.

VIII. Metamorphosis of a Polype-like Animal.—New British species
of Skenea.

IX. Edwardsia carnea.—Cardium exiguum.
X. British Umbilicarie.
XI. British Arthoniz.

XII.

XIII. } New British Hydroid Zoophytes.
XIV.

XV. Young state of Ophiocoma rosula.
XVI. New British Zoophytes.

ERRATA.

Page 405, line 13 from bottom, for Zirhut read Tirhut.

407, line 22, for eundum read eundem.

» 9, line 11 from bottom, for hot-water courses ead hill water-courses.
420, line 20, for ponds read ghauts.

Vol. xvii. page 501, last line, for June read May.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

[SECOND SERIES. ]

SO cscussccsconessae per litora spargite muscum,
Naiades, et ciretm vitreos considite fontes :
Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :
Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.
At vos, o Nymph Craterides, ite sub undas ;
Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco
Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas
Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”’

N. Parthenii Giannetiasti Ecl. 1.

No. 103. JULY 1856.

1.— Monograph of the genus Catops.
By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh*.

NOTWITHSTANDING Mr. Spence’s able Monograph of the
British species of this genus, and the excellent works of Erichson,
Sturm, Redtenbacher, Kraatz and others, its study is still attended
with so much difficulty, that I imagine the following attempt to
clear up the synonymy, and to make the species more easily
recognizable, will be welcome, particularly to British entomo-
logists.

When I commenced my examination of the genus, with a
view to publishing the results, I applied to my entemological
friends for their assistance both in the way of information and
communication of specimens, an application which was cordially
responded to. I have thus had the advantage of carefully ex-
amining Mr. Waterhouse’s collection, which I believe to be the
best representative of the Spencian species extant ;—the deter-
mination having been submitted to and approved by Mr. Spence
himself, with this qualification, that he (Mr. Spence) had de-
scribed some of his species from specimens belonging to others,
to whom they had been returned, so that the type specimens

* Read before the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, Jan. 1856.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 1

2 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

were scattered, and the certainty of accuracy derivable from the
actual comparison of specimens with the types was in these
instances no longer attainable. It is on the faith of Mr. Water-
house’s collection therefore that I principally depend for the
identity of the names with the species described by Spence,
where the descriptions themselves have failed me.

From Mr. Stephens’s collection now in the British Museum
I have in like manner endeavoured to identify the species de-
scribed by him, and as his specimens of Spence’s species in a
majority of instances correspond with Mr. Waterhouse’s, they so
far confirm the authority of that gentleman. I have further
had the advantage of examining the species in the Jardin des
Plantes ;—those of M. Lucas and of M. Chevrolat (who left the
whole of his large collection of Catops for months in my hands),
and those of M. Fairmaire, M. Javet, and other French entomolo-
gists. To M. Kraatz of Berlm, whose elaborate and admirable
revision of the European species of the genus shows the atten-
tion he has bestowed upon the subject, I owe especial thanks.
Besides favouring me with his opinion upon my ideas, he has
furnished me with a nearly complete series of his species, and
entrusted those he could not spare to me for examination, so
that I have in general the advantage, when speaking of any
view entertained by him, of knowing with certainty the iden-
tity of the species under discussion. In relation to the North
American species I beg particularly to record my obligations to
Dr. Leconte of Philadelphia, Dr. Asa Fitch of Salem, and Mr.
Calverly of New York. To our British entomologists, Dr.
Power, Mr. J.T. Syme, Mr. Hislop, Rev. W. Little, Rev. Hamlet
Clark, Mr. Guyon, Mr. Bates, Dr. Lowe and others, I also owe
many thanks. They have entrusted to me the whole of their
species for as long a period as I chose to retain them, and the
whole of the gentlemen I have named have liberally placed their
duplicates at my disposal. I take this opportunity to tender to
each of them individually my best thanks for their kindness.

With this acknowledgement of my obligations and expla-
nation of the sources of my information, I shall now in the first
place cast a rapid glance at what has been done by previous
authors, first in the European species and afterwards in the
exotic ; I shall then give detailed descriptions of all the different
species which have been described or have come under my notice
(among which will be found one or two new species), and lastly
conclude by giving a short dichotomous table of the characters
of the European species of the genus.

The species which compose this genus were scattered by
ancient authors among several other genera. DeGeer placed
one species under Dermestes, and Geoffroy another under Si/pha.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 3

Fourcroy placed the only one he knew under Peltis, Panzer
under Helops, Frohlich under Luperus, Fabricius under Cistela
and Hydrophilus, Marsham under Mordella, and Linnzus (pos-
sibly) under Chrysomela. Latreille was the first who in his
‘ Précis des Caractéres Génériques des Insectes,’ established the
genus under the name of Choleva. This was in 1802, and about
two years after it was also recognized first by Paykull, and after-
wards by Knoch, who each gave it another name—Knoch that
of Ptomaphagus which was adopted by Illiger, and Paykull that
of Catops which was adopted by Fabricius, and has been retained
by most subsequent authors. By the rule of priority therefore
the name should be Choleva, but I am glad that I have a suffi-
cient apology for not disturbing the almost universally adopted
name of Catops. Latreille himself appears at first only to have
applied his name to one section of the genus. This appears from
his ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés et des Insectes,’ where in
speaking of his constituting the genus, he says, “ Its appearance,
says Geoffroy, resembles that of the Mordella, that is to say, it
has long legs with which it walks as if it limped. It is from
that character that I have taken my generic denomination :
Cholevain Greek means ‘lame.’” The long legs here referred to
apply to the first section of the genus, which was subsequently
erected into a separate genus by Stephens, and may, I think, be
properly maintained as a subgenus, to which Latreille’s name
may be restricted.

. The number of species at first described was small. Latreille
in his ‘ Hist. Nat.’ only describes three, and in his ‘Genera
Crustaceorum et Insectorum,’ published in 1807, he describes
five. He there breaks the genus into two groups, one corre-
sponding to the subgenus Choleva, of which he describes the
species agilis and angustatus, auct., and the other including the
rest of the genus.

Gyllenhal in 1808 published six species in the first volume of
his ‘ Insecta Suecica.’

It is unnecessary to enter into any examination of the syno-
aymy of the species described by these authors. Their descrip-
tions are for the most part too vague and applicable to too many
species subsequently described to allow us to rely greatly upon
them. Gyllenhal in his 4th volume, which was not published
tall 1827, acknowledges that in his 1st volume he had included
five different species under one name.

Mr. Spence was the first author who brought the genus into
something like order.

In his Monograph (published in the Linnean Society’s
Transactions in 1815) he divided the genus into three main

1*

4 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

sections, dependent upon the antenne being filiform or clavate,
the posterior angles of the thorax obtuse or acute, and the
elytra striate or not striate; the dilatation or non-dilatation of
the first article of the middle tarsi in the males was also made
a subordinate character. Of these, the first and last are the
only ones which have been adopted as sectional characters by
subsequent authors; but the form of the hinder angles of the
thorax, although not a good sectional character by itself, will, I
think, if taken in conjunction with the base of the elytra, be
found to furnish good characters for natural subdivision. Mr.
Spence groups his species under the above sectional characters
(to each of which I shall attach the synonym now most in use)
as follows, viz. :—

* Antenne subjiliform ; posterior angles of thorax obtuse (= Sub-
gen. Choleva, Steph.).

C. oblonga=angustata, Fab., Erich.
C. agilis=agilis, Ill., Erich.

** Antenne clavate ; posterior angles of thorax acute ; elytra for
the most part striated (=Subgen. Catops, Steph.).
(Anterior thighs for the most part thickened at the apex in the
males, and first article of middle tarsi dilated.)

a. Basal margin of thorax excised near the angles.

C. nigricans = nigricans, Erich.
-C. sericea=fuscus, Panz., Erich.*

* Erichson, and after him Kraatz, give C. picipes, Fab., as the synonym
of Spence’s sericea, but I think this is a mistake. The deseription better
accords with fuscus, and I believe that picipes has not yet been found in
Britain. I recorded it in my ‘ Catalogue of Scottish Coleoptera’ as found
by myself in Scotland, but I am now satisfied that the specimen on which
I relied was only a large variety of nigricans. If Erichson formed his opi-
nion of the synonymy from not finding any other probable representative
of picipes among Spence’s species, the circumstance of its not being British
explains how this may be. If he judged from Spence’s deseription, he
may have been misled by the commencing words used by Spence, “ Body
broader and more convex than in its congeners,” which he might apply to
picipes, which is the largest species in the genus; and by Spence’s next
words, “shorter than the preceding,” viz. nigricans, he might have sup-
posed him to mean less elongate in form, which picipes is, although cer-
tainly not actually shorter—it being longer. The only other resemblance to
picipes is the black elytra; but Paykull’s description of his C. sericeus, to
which Spence refers as in all other respects identical with his, corrects this
incongruity, for Paykull states the elytra of his species to be obscure tes-
taceous. In Stephens’s collection sericea is represented by a pale variety
of chrysomeloides.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 5

C. tristis* = ——?
C. festinanst = ——? (possibly grandicollis, Erich.).

b. Thorax with the basal margin straight near the angles.

C. chrysomeloides = chrysomeloides, Panz., Lat., Sturm.
C. Leachiit =tristis, Erich.
_ C. Kirbii§=rotundicollis, Kellner.
C. Marshami\| = ? (either morio, Erich. or nigrila, Erich.)
C. dissimulator § = ——? (probably morio, Erich.)

**&* Antenne clavate ; posterior angles of thorax acute ; elytra not
striated.
(Anterior thighs alike in both sexes, the middle tarsi with the
first joint rarely dilated.)
C. villosa=sericeus, Fab. (villosa, Lat.) (Ptomaphagus trun-
catus, Steph.)
C. velox =veloz, Erich.
C. fumata** = ? (probably scitulus, Erich.)
C. Watsoni=fumatus, Erich.
C. anisotomoides = anisotomoides, Sturm.
C. Wilkiniti=precox, Erich.
C. brunneus= Colon (Mylachus) brunneus, auct.

* No species has puzzled British entomologists more to identify than
this. The prominence given by Spence and Stephens to the clavate form
of the antennz, and Spence describing it as bearing a close general resem-
blance to chrysomeloides, has had the effect of making most of them
attempt to find a representative for it out of narrow-clubbed and small
varieties of chrysomeloides—and accordingly it is generally so represented
in British collections—an error which I have seen continental entomo-
logists fall into in like manner. I cannot ascertain to my own satisfaction
what the species was which Spence had in view in describing this. Mr.
Waterhouse had adopted the usual British view, but Stephens has his
tristis wholly represented by fuscus, Erichs.

+ This species is stated by Erichson and Kraatz to be a synonym of
fuscus, but from what I have already said in the note upon sericea, it ap-
pears to me that that synonym is preoccupied. Mr. Waterhouse has not
this name represented in his collection. In Stephens’s it 1s represented by
two specimens of /ristis and one of grandicollis. Little can be made out
from Spence’s description.

t Represented wholly by ¢ristis in Mr. Waterhouse’s collection, and in
Stephens’s collection by two specimens of tristis and two of grandicollis.

__ § Represented by rotundicollis both in Waterhouse’s and Stephens’s col-
lections.

|| Mr. Waterhouse has this represented by morio; in Stephens’s col-
lection it is represented wholly by chrysomeloides.

§ Given as a synonym of morio by Erichson. Represented by tristis
in Waterhouse’s collection, and by three specimens of grandicollis and one
of nigrita in Stephens’s collection.

** This name (fumata) has been universally applied to the species com-
monly known as the fumatus of Erich. and other authors, but a comparison

6 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

The next author who went over the genus was Stephens. As
he finally left it in his Manual, it contains all Spence’s species,
besides five of his own, and three which had been deseribed by
Mr. Newman in the ‘Entomological Magazine,’ between the
commencement of the appearance of his ‘Illustrations’ and
the publication of his ‘ Manual.’

The following is the result of my examination of the species
standing named in his collection in the British Museum, viz. :—

Ptomaphagus truncatus = C. sericeus, Panz. (truncatus, Thg.)
velox =velox, Spence.

Jumatus = fumatus, Erich.

—— Watsoni=fumatus, Erich., and scttulus, Evich., mixed.
anisotomoides = anisotomoides, Spence.

Wilkinii=precox, Erich.

Catops nigricans = nigricans, Spence.

sericea=pale variety of chrysomeloides, Spence.

tristis = fusca, Erich.

festinans, represented by two specimens of grandicollis,
Erich., and two of ¢ristis, Erich.

affinis=nigrita, Erich.

chrysomeloides = chrysomeloides, Spence.

Leachii, represented by two specimens of grandicollis,
Erich., and two of tristis, Erich.
Kirbii=rotundicollis, Kellner.

of Spence’s deseription of it and his next species, Watson, shows that the
latter is what is now known as fumatus, and that the former is most pro-
bably scitulus, Erich. In his deseription of Watsoni Spence says, “ In
colour this species does not much differ from the preeeding, but is fur-
nished with other characters strikingly distinetive. The antenne are
shorter and thicker’ (which is the ease in the true fumatus). He also
gives the last joint as pale, while he says nothing of this distinctive cha-
racter in describing the preceding species. The rest of the description
also corresponds with the view I have taken. I am perhaps wrong in
using the expression “true fumatus.” The true fumatus should by the
rule of priority be what Spence had under his eye when he described it,
but I think we are getting out of all bounds in our stickling for priority.
If an author describes a species so loosely that it eannot be recognized
from his description, so that subsequent authors misapply or ignore his
name, while on their part they give a recognizable description, I cannot see
on what prineiple of justice or propriety we are to be called upon to hold
by the unreeognizable name instead of the recognizable, nor why an author
(be he living or dead, or great or small) should be allowed to supplement
his inadequate description by a reference to the typical specimens in his
cabinet from which the deseriptions were taken,—a practice now in vogue,
against which I take this opportunity to enter my protest. Notwith-
standing the claims of priority therefore, I do not propose to invert or
disturb the generally adopted names of fumatus and scitulus. I have
pointed out how the case obviously stands, and J leave to the advocates of
priority the responsibility of introducing the confusion to which I demur.

Mr. A, Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 7

Ptomaphagus Spencei=rotundicollis, Kellner.
fulvicollis=velox, Spence.
—— Marshami=chrysomeloides, Spence.
dissimulator, represented by three specimens of grandi-
collis and one of nigrita.

Choleva angustata=angustata, auct.
gomphoita= ditto.
agilis, represented by three specimens of agilis and two
of angustata.

The other species, or names of species, given in his Manual
are not represented in his collection.

I have not had an opportunity of seeing typical specimens of
Mr. Newman’s three species, frater, soror, and nubifer; but my
friend the Rev. Wm. Little has in his collection specimens which
had been named by Stephens as being the two latter, and if we
may take that as an indication, we find that soror=nigricans and
nubifer = velox.

Erichson’s ‘ Kafer der Mark Brandenburg’ followed m 1837.
His division differs from that of Spence. It is as follows, viz. :—

Characters of the first division :—

“ Mesosternum simple (without keel) ; body oblong; antenne and
legs long and thin, the former scarcely thickened at the point ;
legs slender ; tarsi of fore-feet dilated in the males, tarsi of
middle feet simple in both sexes.”

This division corresponds to Spence’s first section (Stephens’s
Choleva) ; and Erichson only records two species found in Mark
Brandenburg as belonging to it, viz. angustatus and agilis.

The characters of his second division are—

“ Mesosternum simple; tarsi slender, and anterior tarsi and first
joint of middle tarsi dilated in the males.”

These characters place the following species in this section,
viz. C. fuscus, umbrinus, picipes, nigricans, grandicollis, tristis,
nigrita, fuliginosus, morio, fumatus, and scitulus, of which gran-
dicollis, fuliginosus, and scitulus are given as new. uliginosus
is said by Kraatz to be a variety of nigricans (though, from the
description alone, I should not have supposed this), and scitulus,
as already mentioned, had been described by Spence under the
name of fumatus. Erichson does not record chrysomeloides as
found in Mark Brandenburg, but from the differences which he
points out between it and ¢ristis, 1 am not sure but some con-
fusion exists even in Erichson relating to trisfis.

His next division is characterized thus :—
“ Mesosternum simple ; body oval ; antenne somewna thickened at

8 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

the point ; tarsi slender ; anterior tarsi widened in the males ;
middle tarsi simple in both sexes.”
Velox and precoxw (Spence’s Wilkini?) ave Erichson’s only
species falling under this division.
The last division has the

“ Mesosternum keeled; tarsi strong; anterior tarsi in the males
very broad, widened in the middle in the females ; middle tarsi
of both sexes equal.”

The only species recorded by Erichs6n is sericeus (truncatus,
Illig. and Steph.).

The above list is instructive both negatively and positively,
both for what it does and for what it does not contain. Eriehson
was celebrated not only for his marvellous acumen in distin-
guishing species, but also for his success in collecting and
for the extent of his collection. Mark Brandenburg too may
be taken as fairly representing the rest of Northern Germany ;
and unless where the species are of a local character, we may
pretty safely assume that the same species which occur in Mark
Brandenburgwill be found inthe rest of Northern Germany. These
premises should teach us to use great caution in admitting any new
species from that district not described by Erichson, as they lead to
the probable conclusion, first, that such new species might have
been already found in Mark Brandenburg; secondly, that Erichson
might have seen them ; and lastly, might not have considered
them distinct. Of course I do not make any further use of the
great weight of his opinion, than to bespeak caution in deter-
mining upon such new German species as he has passed over.

Sturm next took up the group in his ‘ Deutschlands Fauna’ im
1839. He added two new species to the first group (Choleva)—
spadiceus, Dahl. in litt., and castaneus, Andersch. in hit.—both
of which have been adopted by subsequent authors, although, for
reasons which I shall afterwards give, I think the latter is only
a variety of angustatus. He also added the badius of Meg., the
brunneus of Knoch, and the anisotomoides of Spence to the list
of species found in Germany.

In 1841 Prof. Heer (in his ‘Fauna Helvetica’) described besides
most of those already known, two new species, montivagus and
ambiguus, and reproduced the alpinus, Gyll. The descriptions of
the two former are too short and vague to allow of their being
satisfactorily identified from the book, and I have not seen
authentic specimens. M. Kraatz in his revision also states, that
he has been unable to make them out, but holds that the alpinus
of Gyllenhal has been rightly revived.

Several detached descriptions of individual species also ap-
peared from time to time.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 9

In 1832 a species from the Morea was described by Brullé in
the ‘Expédition Scientifique de Morée’ under the name of C,
humeralis, which seems to belong to the subgenus Choleva.

Chaudoir (Bulletin de Moscou, 1845, i.) described two new
species as being found in the neighbourhood of Vienna, /ongi-
pennis and sericatus. M. Kraatz does not consider these to be
distinct species, but joims them respectively to nigricans and
sericeus.

Kellner in ‘ Stettin Ent. Zeit.’ 1846, No. 6, described four new
species, C. longulus, rotundicollis, coracinus, and subfuscus. As
already mentioned, rotundicollis is the Kirbit of Stephens. Kraatz.
observes that subfuscus is not distinguishable from alpinus, Gyll. ;
and from a specimen of /ongu/us submitted to me by M. Kraatz,
I am satisfied that it is only a variety of ¢rists.

Rosenhauer (Beitrage zur Insectfauna Europas) in 1847 de-
scribed C. abdominalis (considered by Kraatz to be a variety of
tristis) and C. varicornis, which, although very close to sericeus,
appears to be a good species.

Redtenbacher in his ‘ Fauna Austriaca’ (1849) gives a synopsis
of the species of the genus, but without adding any new species.
Dr. Aubé in 1850 added C. meridionalis and quadraticollis, besides
Catopsimorphus orientalis, to the list. All three appear to be
good species.

The only works remaining to be noticed are M. Kraatz’s revi-
sion of the genus published in parts in the ‘ Stettin Ent. Zeitung’
im 1852, and the ‘Faune Entomologique Francaise’ now in
course of publication by MM. Fairmaire and Laboulbéne.
Although the latter work is subsequent in date, I shall notice it
first ; partly because none of M. Kraatz’s new species are to be
found in it, and partly because M. Kraatz’s revision contains a
full summary of all the European-species hitherto described, and
is therefore well suited for closing this part of my paper.

The authors of the ‘ Faune Ent. Frang.’ adopt the name Cho-
leva, Lat., in deference to priority, instead of Catops. They do not
introduce any new species. They adopt the four subdivisions
laid down by Erichson, and in addition attempt to break up the
second subdivision into smaller sections. These subdivisions are—

1. “ Posterior angles of corselet obtuse,” in which they place _
C. picipes, grandicollis, and alpina.

2. “ Posterior angles of corselet right-angled, more or less
pointed,” containing C. fusca, morio, nigrita, quadraticollis, tristis,
chrysomeloides, rotundicoliis, and fumata.

3. “ Posterior angles of corselet pointed, a little produced behind,”
which contains umbrina, nigricans, and scitula.

These divisions appear to me to group the species in too un-
natural a manner to be of service even as an artificial mode of

10 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

arrangement in facilitating the determination of species. |For
instance, picipes in the first section has most affinity with nigri-
cans in the third, grandicollis in the first with ¢ristis in the
second (indeed I propose to show presently that they are the
same species) ; and a/pina in the first has very close affinity with
fumata in the second, and seituda in the third should join them.
Umbrina undoubtedly ought to go beside velox, which is not in
this section at all ;—Erichson’s character of the dilatation of the
first joint of the middle tarsi in the males separating them.
Their affinity otherwise however is so great, that I think that
character must be disregarded to allow these species to take their
proper place beside each other.

I now come to Kraatz’s revision, in favour of which I cannot
speak too highly. I differ from him in opinion in one or two
instances, but wherever I do so I must beg the reader to take
my opinion with caution and examine it with suspicion, as the
well-known acumen and accuracy of that gentleman stamp his
views with a primd-facie authenticity which only yery strong
evidence can overthrow.

He divides the genus into five sections, the first three and the
last of which are Hrichson’s ; the fourth is new.

In the first section he has spadiceus, a new species which he
calls intermedius, angustatus, castaneus (or cisteloides, Frohl.), and
agilis. In speaking of Sturm I have already expressed my
opinion that castaneus and angustatus were varieties of the same
species, and I cannot come to a different opinion as regards
intermedius. When I go over the species seriatim, I shall give
my reasons for this as well as for any similar views I may have
adopted regarding other species.

In the second section he includes acicularis (a new species,
which from the description seems distinct, but which I have not
seen in nature), umbrinus, fuscus, picipes, meridionalis, nigricans,
coracinus, morio, nigrita, grandicollis, chrysomeloides, longulus,
Kelln. (which, as already mentioned, I think only a variety of
tristis), tristis, rotundicollis, neylectus (a new species nearly allied
to tristis), alpinus, fumatus, brevicollis (a new species which I have
not seen, but which appears from the description to be good),
and scitulus.

The third section is confined to velox, badius, precox, brun-
neus, and anisotomotdes,

The fourth section is characterized as follows, viz. :—

“ Mesosternum feebly keeled; body oblong, smooth and shining ;
antenne strong, scarcely thickened towards the point ; differ-
ence of sexes unknown.”

This section is erected by Kraatz to receive a single species

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. ll

named by him /ucidus, and described from a single specimen
found in Dalmatia.

The fifth section has received the greatest increase. Hitherto
it had only contained the two species sericeus and varicornis, but
Kraatz has added three new species, strigosus, validus, and colo-
noides. I have not seen validus, but the others appear to me good
and distinct species.

Catopsimorphus orientalis he retams as forming a separate
genus.

The number of exotic species which have been described is
not great.

Three species from Algeria, C. marginicollis, C. celer and C.
rufipennis have been described in 1849 by M. Lucas in the ‘ Ex-
ploration de l’ Algérie.’

M. Motschoulsky described a species from Georgia, C. pusillus,
in the Bulletins of the Imperial Society of Moscow for 1840,

Kolenati described in the ‘ Meletemata Ent.’ a species, C. fun-
gicola, from the Russian Province of Elisabethopoleos.

Menetries described a species (C. pallidus) from Bakon in the
Caucasus in his ‘ Catalogue raisonné des Objets de Zoologie re-
cueillis dans un voyage au Caucase,’ &c. He also described in
the Mem. Acad. Imp. Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, 6 sér. vi. 1849,
two species, C. lateritius and C. fuscipes, found at Novaia Alex-
androyskaia.

One species, C. australis, from Van Diemen’s Land, has been
described by Erichson in Wiegmann’s ‘ Archiv fiir Naturge-
schichte,’ 1842.

The North American species hitherto Jestdibud are C. basi-
laris, C. opacus and C. simplex, described by Say in the Journal
of the Academy of Philadelphia, vols. 11. & v. ; C. Spenciana de-
scribed by Kirby in the ‘ Fauna Bor. Americ.’ ; C. cadaverinus,
C. Frankenhauseri, C. cryptophagoides, C. brunnipennis, and C.,
luridipennis described by Mannerheim in the ‘ Bull. of the Imp.
Soc. of Mose.’ in 1843, 1852 & 1853; C. terminans described
by Leconte in Agassiz’s ‘ Lake Superior,’ and C. clavicornis, C. ca-
lifornicus, C. strigosus, C. consobrinus, C. oblitus and C. parasitus,
described by the same author in the ‘ Proceedings of the Aca-
demy of Philadelphia,’ 1853.

So much for the past history of the genus. We shall now
proceed to the examination of the different species seriatim.

In doing so I shall first take the European species of each
section, and then give the descriptions of the exotic species. I
shall not attempt to intercalate the latter among the European
species, because there are a number which I have not seen. I
shall content myself with classing them according to their
geographical distribution.

12 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

Genus Cators.

Mentum square, transverse, a little narrowed in front, Ligula
of the breadth of the mentum at its base, widened and deeply
emarginate in front. The internal lobe of the maxille terminated
by a corneous nail or hook. The mazillary palpi decidedly larger
than the labial ; ¢heir third article formed like a reversed cone, the
fourth much more slender, conic and acuminated, The third article
of the labial palpi oval, a little longer than the second. Man-
dibles short, furnished with a molar tooth at their base, arched,
sharp at the end and unidentate before their summit. Labrum
short, rounded, and a little sinuated in the middle in front.
Head declining, obtuse in front. Eyes nearly rounded, moderate
in size and not prominent. Antenne at least of the length of
the thorax ; their first six articles of variable length, subcylindrie,
the last five forming a club, which is sometimes so elongated and
slender as to be scarcely observable, and sometimes very distinct ;
the eighth joint shorter than the seventh and ninth. Prothorax
of variable form. Elytra oblong or oval, arched above. Legs
long and slender, the first four joints (and more especially the
first two) of the anterior tarsi, and sometimes the first joint of
the intermediate tarsi, dilated in the males and provided with
brushes of hair below. Mesosternum sometimes keeled. Body
oblong or oval, clothed with a very fine silky pubescence*,

The first division which I shall adopt is the same as Erichson’s,
and I preserye Latreille’s name Choleva for it as a subgenus;
but I shall drop the dilatation of the anterior tarsi and the first
joint of the middle tarsi in the males as a character.

It is a detraction from any character that it requires an exa-
mination of both male and female to recognize it ; and although
the character is perfectly true in this group, it cannot be used in
contrast to the subsequent divisions which I am going to pro-
pose, as in them exceptions to such a rule occur. I think the
following short characters sufficient.

Group I. (Subgenus Cuoxeya.)

Mesosternum not keeled ; body oblong ; antenne almost filiform ;
legs long and thin, posterior trochanters more or less developed in
the males.

1. C. angustatus, Fab.

Cistela angustata, Fab. Syst. EL. ii. 20, 23.
agilis, Fab. Syst. El. ii. 20. 27.

* This description of the characters of the genus is copied with some
modifications from that given by Prof. Lacordaire in his admirable work
the ‘ Genera des Coléopteres.”

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 13

Catops elongatus, Payk. Faun. Suee. i. 345. 3; Gyll. Ins. 1. 281. 6.

Ptomaphagus rufescens, lllig. Kaf. Pr. 87.1.

Catops rufescens, Duft. Faun. Aust. ii. 72. 1?

Choleva oblonga, Lat. Gen. Crust. et Ins. ii. 27. 1; Spence, Linn. Trans.
xi. 138. 1.

Catops angustatus, Erich.’ Kaf. d. Mark Brand. 1. 233. 1; Sturm, Deutschl.
Faun. xiv. 5. |. taf. 272. M. m; Heer, Faun. Helv. i. 578.1; Redtenb.
Faun. Aust. 143.4; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Frane. i. 299.

Oblongus, fuseus vel nigro-piceus ; thorace postice non latiore ;
elytris substriatis ; antennis pedibusque ferrugineis.
Long. 23 lin.

A long thin species. The head dark, the parts of the mouth
and the antennz ferruginous ; the latter about the length of the
elytra, the eighth joint a little smaller than the ninth, the last
jomt long and acuminate. The thorax is variable in form,
sometimes widest at the middle, as in fig. 1, sometimes widest a
little before the middle, as in fig. 2, and sometimes widest at the
very front, as in fig. 3, but never widest behind; sometimes a little

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

broader than long, and sometimes about equal in length and
breadth. The sides are rounded. In some examples they are
semitransparent or paler than the centre (and are then known as
the var. angustatus). In others the edges are firm and con-
colorous (the variety castaneus). The posterior angles are nearly
right-angled, more or less obtuse. The upper side is very
densely and finely punctate in the males, less so in the females,
and in both covered with a thin pubescence. The elytra are
feebly striated, finely and densely punctate, with a fine pubes-
cence, sometimes rounded, sometimes acuminate at the apex,
sometimes wholly ferruginous, sometimes dark chestnut, paler
round the borders. The under side is brown, the edges of the
abdominal segments and sometimes the apex of the abdomen
reddish. The legs ferruginous.

The trochanters and thighs of the hind legs are liable to con-
siderable variation in form in the males. The following varieties
are met with.

1. The trochanters are simple, and the thighs have a fine
tooth below. ‘

2. The thighs are simple, and the trochanters are armed with
a sharp spike.

14 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

3. The thighs are simple, and the trochanters lengthened,
formed like a gouge-chisel, convex outwards, concave inwards,
but with the edge turned inwards at the point.

4. Both thighs and trochanters simple.

It will be seen from the above that I consider this a variable
species, and that the variations I have above indicated are nothing
more than different forms of the same species. Erichson was of
the same opinion, for it was he who first observed and recorded
the variations in the form of the trochanters of the hind legs,
and in noticing them he remarks— Of the males I have the
following variations before me. These, one cannot with propriety
refer to different species, when in all other respects the perfect
examples agree.’ Other authors however have come to a dif-
ferent opinion, and have made distinct species of these different
varieties, and as these authors are of high standing and their
species have been very generally adopted, it will be right, I think,
to give a copy of their descriptions, so that the reader may have
before him the means of judging for himself.

I shall therefore quote the descriptions of them given by
Kraatz, as being both the most recent and the most ample; but,
in accordance with my own opinion, J shall rank them here only
as varieties.

Var. C. angustatus, Kraatz.
Catops angustatus, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 401.

“ Oblongus, piceus; ¢horace minus dense et subtiliter punctato, ante
medium latiore, angulis posticis obtusiusculis, marginibus et
angulis posticis dilutioribus; elytris substriatis, rufo-ferru-
gineis, versus suturam postice interdum infuscatis.

“ Long. 2} lin.

“ Mas, trochanteribus posticis plerumque scalpiformibus.

“ Fem.? elytris apice acuminatis.

“The longest and narrowest species in this group. The an-
tennz are very slender, longer than the half of the body, always
entirely of a clear ferruginous colour. First jomt somewhat
stronger and as long as the second; third nearly twice as long as
the joints on each side of it (second and fourth) ; eighth only a.
little shorter than the seventh and ninth, which are equal in
length ; the last joint longer than the preceding, long, cylindrical,
and acuminate. ‘The head is blackish brown; the parts of the.
mouth ferruginous, abundantly and finely punctate. The thorax
is a Jittle broader than long, gently rounded at the sides, broadest
before the middle, gradually narrowed towards the base, the pos-
terior angles more or less feebly obtuse-angled ; the basal mar-
gins are depressed for a moderate breadth, and somewhat bent

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 15

up, so that there is the commencement of a deepened line on each
side. The upper side is covered with a moderately dense golden-
yellow pubescence, and tolerably abundantly and finely punctured,
pitchy black, the outer edges and the posterior angles reddish brown,
with a more or less distinctly marked dorsal line, slightly im-
pressed on both sides near the base. The elytra are only very
feebly expanded, sometimes not wider than the base, pressed flat
at the suture, slightly striated, finely and densely punctate, with
a fine silken pubescence, ferrugmous. The darker individuals
are somewhat darker towards the apex near the suture. The
legs are ferruginous red.

“ Note I—A not unimportant sexual distinction in this and
the kindred species is afforded by the formation of the posterior
trochanters. I have already (Stett. Ent. Zeit. xi. p. 284 ff.) ex-
pressed my opinion upon them, but by persevering investigations
I am now able to add something to what has been already said,
by way of completion. Male examples both of C. angustatus,
Fab., and C. cistelotdes, Frohl. (castaneus, Sturm), occur with
slightly developed simple acuminate posterior trochanters, with
the difference however, that the trochanters in C. angustatus are
narrower and longer than in C. cisteloides, and their point is far
more acuminate. But there are moreover in both species males
with very different, strongly developed trochanters. Nevertheless
the principle of development is wholly different in the two spe-
cies. The highest step of the development of the trochanters
in the C. cisteloides, is that they are armed at the inner side with
a projecting tooth more or less curved, and in the angustatus,
that they are widened and lengthened into a gouge-chisel form ;
thus it is clear that a male of the angustatus can never come
before us with a tooth at the inner side of the trochanter, it
being impossible to form a transition-step to the gouge-chisel
form.

“ Note I1.—I think I have found a second interesting sexual
distinction of the females of the C. angustatus, F., in the single
sharp acuminate posterior angles of the elytra. The specimens
of Erichson (to be found in the Royal collection of this place
(Berlin)) are represented as females of C. angustatus; in the
same way a collection of females here agree perfectly with the
males, but the latter have rounded elytra. One female taken at
Cassels (alas, somewhat injured), which has been kindly sur-
rendered to me by Herr Richl, has likewise acuminate elytra. A
larger series of this generally rare species would be required to
allow us to decide without doubt whether perhaps one of the
species very similar to C. angustatus exists, of which the male
likewise may have acuminate elytra. However, I consider this

highly improbable.

16 Mr. A. Marray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

* Note 111.—From the near affinity of this species with the fol-
lowing species more minutely described by Sturm (castaneus, St.),
is it surprising that I yet refer to this species the greatest
part of those placed by Erichson under the C. angustatus,
of the authors referred to by him, without subjecting to a
more particular examination the descriptions given by them, and
knowing whether or not they had the work of Sturm on Catops
before them while engaged on their descriptions? Such an ex-
amination has been made as far as possible, and leads to the
result that those authors who entered upon a more detailed
description, such as Gyllenhal, Latreille, Spence, had mostly
both species before them, as Gyllenhal without doubt appears to
have had.” ;

Var. C. intermedius, Kraatz.
C. intermedius, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 401.

“ Oblongus, fuscus; thorace postice angustiore, ante medium
latiore, angulis posticis obtusiusculis ; elytris substriatis eon-
coloribus ; antennis pedibusque ferrugineis.

« Long. 2} ln.

“ Mas, trochanteribus posticis scalpiformibus.

“Tn form this species occupies the middle place between
C. spadiceus, Dahl., and angustatus, Fab.,—shorter and broader
than the latter, Jess robust than the former ; well distinguished
however by its breadth. It is distinguished at the first glance
from C. spadiceus, Dahl., by the thorax not being deeply and
strongly punctured, as well as by its lighter colour. From C. an-
gustatus it differs in the following pomts :—

“‘q, The whole beetle is shorter, more compressed, less equally
broad than the C. angustatus, Fab.; the elytra in the middle
somewhat bellied out.

«‘b. The antenne are likewise uniform in colour, clear ferru-
ginous red, but somewhat shorter and stronger, the eighth joint
relatively shorter than in C. angustatus.

“ec, The margin of the thorax is somewhat broader, and
more bent upwards than in the C. angustatus, Fab.; it is also
to be distinguished by the deepened lines on each side of the
thorax. The upper side is moderately finely and densely (coarsely-
shagreen) punctured, ferruginous brown, occasionally somewhat
darker in the middle.

“d. The elytra are less equally broad than in the C. angus-
tatus, Fab., in the middle somewhat bellied out, entirely of one
colour, ferruginous brown.

“T have at least half-a-dozen females, but only one male.
before me, which with greater probability belongs to this species,

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 17

It has gouge-chisel-shaped lengthened trochanters in the hinder
legs. )

“ This species has up to this time been collected in the island
of Rugen (Erichson!), KGnigsberg (Hargen !), Leipzig (v. Kiesen-
wetter !), S. Wehlen (Markel !), and Diisseldorf (Hildebrand !).
It has also been taken in Austria. For the most part it is
found under leaves. C. angustatus, Fab., is not rarely found
under stones.”

Var. C. cisteloides, Frohl.
“ Luperus cisteloides, Frohl. Naturf. 28, 25. 3. t. 2. f. 50.

* Catops castaneus, Sturm, Ins. xiv. 9. 3. t. 273. a. A; Heer, Fn. Helv. 1.
378.2; Redt. Fn. Aust. 143.4; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 284. 4.
* cisteloides, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 404; Fairm. & Laboulb.

Faun. Ent. Frang. i. 299.

“ Oblongus, nigro-piceus ; thorace nigro-piceo, ante medium vix
latiore, angulis posticis obtusiusculis ; elytris substriatis, piceis
seu castaneis.

* Long. 24 lin.

“ Mas, trochanteribus posticis acuminatis seu latere inferiore
dente magis minusve curvato extante.

“This is readily distinguished from the C. angustatus, Fab.,
by the darker colour and the form of the thorax. The antenne
are nearly as long as the body*, reddish brown, always darker
towards the point. First joint strong, third distinctly longer
than the contiguous joints, the fourth somewhat shorter than the
third ; fifth, sixth and seventh equal in length, eighth nearly half
as long as the seventh, ninth somewhat shorter than the seventh,
tenth somewhat shorter than the ninth; the last jomt almost
twice as long as the preceding, sharply acuminate. The head is
black-brown, extremely finely and closely punctate. The thorax
is formed like that of C. angustatus, Fab., but the sides both
before and behind are nearly equally strongly rounded, so that
the greatest breadth is not before the middle ; the margin is by
far less raised up, less broadly spread out, so that the line on
each side of the thorax is both shorter and less deeply marked ;
the upper side is as a rule entirely pitchy black, extremely deeply and
finely ( fine-shagreen) punctured ; the deep middle line is frequently
wanting. The elytra are moderately arched, lightly striated,
pitchy black, more rarely pitchy brown. The legs are ferruginous
brown.

“It is spread over the whole of middle and southern Europe,
and not rare. In France (according to Latreille) ; in Lombardy

* This is not correctly expressed. The antenne are longer than the half
of the body, but cannot be said to be “ nearly as long as the body.” They
are in no degree longer than the antenne of the other varieties.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 2

18 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

(according to Villa); im Italy (according to Sturm) ; in Sardinia
(Géné, Berlin Mus.) ; in Sicily (Berlin Mus.).’’*

A consideration of the differences here given as characterizing
these three species will not, I think, warrant us in looking upon
them as more than varieties.

The differences consist in the form and colour of the thorax,
the punctuation of the thorax and elytra, the form and colour of
the body, the colour of the antennz, the proportions of the
joints of the antenna, and the form of the posterior trochanters.

Of these, the difference most readily recognizable is that in the
form and colour of the thorax; the form of the thorax in the
typical specimens of C, castaneus, Sturm, being that shown in
fig. 1, while C. angustatus, Fab., is that shown in fig. 2, and
C. intermedius, Kr., somewhat between them, but nearest to
fig. 2, M. Kraatz’s description might lead us to suppose that
fig. 3 would best represent C. angustatus, F., but having had
under my eyes typical examples of all three, sent to me by
M. Kraatz, | find that none of them have the thorax widened
more in front than fig. 2, which, indeed, fairly represents the
thorax of M. Kraatz’s specimens of C. angustatus, F. But I
know that there ave examples which have their thorax widened
as much in front as fig. 3. I possess one myself, and Sturm
gives that form in his figure of his C. angustatus. We must
therefore either make a fourth species to receive fig. 3, or else
admit that this subgroup is variable in the form of its thorax ;
and there need be no hesitation in adopting the latter course, as,
although I have not met with any specimen exactly filling up the
gap between fig. 2 and fig. 3, I have seen all grades of transition
between fig. 1 and fig. 2. Another point of difference, where we
constantly see a gradual passage between the one and the other, is
the colour of the thorax. In the typical C. castaneus, St., it is dark
pitchy black throughout, and the margins are not paler than the
centre, nor semitransparent. In both C. angustatus, F., and C, in-
termedius, Kr., the margins are paler, or semitransparent ; but I
have seen transition specimens where it is almost impossible to
say whether the margins are paler or not, in one view looking
paler, and in another quite dark and opake. Again, specimens
occur very slightly paler on the margins, and so on. The punc-
tuation and depressions, and the spreading out and raising up
of the margins of the thorax also vary. I admit that I have
neyer seen the normal or perfect examples of C. castaneus, St.,
with the spread-out and slightly bent-up edges of the C. angus-
tatus, F., or intermedius, Kr.; but if, as I imagine, the latter are
less mature individuals, and castaneus, St., the more mature fully-

* Kraatz in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 19

coloured and more solidified form, such a circumstance will suf-
ficiently account for the differences to which I have been alluding,
whether in punctuation, depression, or colour. Indeed, such a
supposition accounts for more; for it is not only in the thorax
that these differences exist, but also in the whole of the rest of
the body. C. castaneus, St., is darker and more deeply punc-
tate on the elytra also, and the deeper colour extends to the
antennze, which are slightly darker at the point ; and this is only
what might be expected: we always find that where a greater
infusion of colour has penetrated through an individual, it is not
confined to one part, but pervades the whole system. I also
look upon the acuminate sutural apex of the elytra (referred to
by Kraatz as being possibly a sexual distinction of C. angus-
tatus, ¥.) as another indication of immaturity. I have never
seen this in C. castaneus, St., but I have found it indifferently
both in the males and females of C. angustatus, F. As to
the differences in the form of the joints of the antenne of
C. angustatus, F., and castaneus, St., these are too slight, even
adopting absolutely M. Kraatz’s own description, to allow us to
use them as characters for a species ; but I cannot entirely adopt
his descriptions without reservation, as, notwithstanding a very
eareful examination of the specimens he sent me, I have scarcely
been able to detect the differences he alludes to. Turning back
to his description, it will be seen that the only differences given
are the following :—In C. angustatus, F., he says, the third joint
is nearly twice as long as either the second or fourth. In
C. castaneus, he says, the third is distinctly longer than either the
second or fourth. In angustatus the seventh and ninth are said
to be equal in length. In castaneus the ninth is somewhat
shorter than the seventh. In angustatus the last joint is said to
be “longer than the preceding, long cylindric and acuminate.”
In castaneus it is “ almost twice as long as the preceding, sharply
acuminate.” The differences here given are thus exceedingly
minute, so much so as to be inappreciable by an ordinary ob-
server. Now I know that in undisputed species in this genus
considerable differences are to be perceived in different indivi-
duals in the relative thickness, &c. of the joints of the antenne ;
so much so as to make the antenne appear decidedly more
clubbed in the one than the other. This minute measuring of
the joints appears to me therefore an unsafe character, not to be
adopted. There only remains the difference in the form of the
posterior trochanters in C. angustatus, ¥., and castaneus, St. On
this I shall only observe, that M. Kraatz admits that there is
great variation in the development of these parts, but seems to
think there is an impossibility in a transition taking place
between a trochanter having a projecting curved tooth at the
Oo

20 Mr, A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

inner side, and a trochanter itself of a gouge-chisel-shaped form
without a tooth on the inner side. My readers must judge for
themselyes as to this ; but L agree with Erichson in thinking that
the development of that part is variable, and I cannot agree with
M. Kraatz in putting bounds to the variation.

The differences we have been considering are almost entirely
those between C. angustatus, Fab., and intermedius, Kr., on the
one part, and C. castaneus, St., on the other. It is much
more difficult to point out those between C. angustatus, F., and
intermedius, Kr.: as to these, I shall confine myself to referring
the reader to the distinctions pointed out by M. Kraatz himself
in his description of C. intermedius above quoted, merely ob-
serving that if I am right in joining together the much more
dissimilar forms of C. angustatus, F., and castaneus, St., we can
have no hesitation in refusing to make another species on the
strength of the almost imperceptible differences relied on by
M. Kraatz, a decision which a careful examination of the speci-
mens of intermedius so kindly furnished to me by that gentleman
has given me no reason to alter. If any of the varieties are to
be exalted into separate species, castaneus, St., is obviously the
one best entitled to this.

Referring back then to my general comprehensive description
of this species above given (p. 13), I have only to add, that the
extreme examples of the foregoing varieties may be known with-
out much difficulty by the following characters. The less decided
examples form intermediate steps, and it will often be found
scarcely possible to say to which of the nearest varieties they
belong.

1. Pale ferruginous varieties.

Var. A. Thorax widest at front, as shown in fig. 3; margins
paler than centre.

Var. B. C. angustatus, Kraatz. Thorax widest not at the very
front, but a little before the middle, as in fig. 2; margins
paler than centre ; depressions on thorax not deep. Elytra
nearly parallel, darker at suture towards apex.

Var. C. C. intermedius, Kraatz. Thorax a little broader than in

var. B; margins paler than centre, with deeper depressions

on thorax. Elytra slightly widened in middle, entirely red
ferruginous.

2. Dark chestnut variety.

Var. ). C.castaneus, Sturm. Thorax widest in middle, as shown
in fig. 1, of a more solid consistence than the pale varieties ;
margins not paler than centre.

This species is found over the whole of Europe, and Gebler

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 21

mentions it as having been taken in the south-west of Siberia.
The whole of the above varieties are found in England and Scot-
land, but var. D is the commonest and var. A the rarest—(of it
I have only seen one example).

2. C. spadiceus, Sturm.

Catops spadiceus, Dahl. in lit. ; Sturm, Ins. xiv. 11. taf. 273. fiz. 6B; Redt.
Fn. Aust. 771; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 399.

Oblongus, nigro-piceus ; thorace fortius punctato, Z
postice angustiore, ante medium latiore, angulis (
posticis obtusis ; elytris castaneis, parum yen- \°\_ //
tricatis, apice obscurioribus, substriatis; an- (c 4
tennis ferrugineis, apicem versus obscurioribus. |

Long. 24-2! lin.

Mas, trochanteribus posticis scalpiformibus.

The most robust species in this group. Head, thorax and
under-side in the fully-coloured individuals pitehy black, the
elytra fine chestnut-brown. The examples not fully coloured are
dirty yellowish brown. The antenne are tolerably long, scarcely
half as long as the body, reddish brown, in the es state the
last five joints darker; the first somewhat stronger, third some-
what longer than the adjoining joints ; second, fourth and fifth of
equal length ; sixth somewhat shorter than the fifth, and as long
as the seventh and ninth; eighth somewhat shorter than the
tenth ; tenth somewhat shorter than the ninth; the last joint is
somewhat shorter than the foregoing, strongly acuminate. The
head is pitchy black, the parts of the mouth ferruginous red;
the top of the head finely and sparingly, the front more deeply
and strongly punctured. The thorax is distinctly narrower
than the elytra, a little arched, somewhat broader than long; the
sides rounded, and somewhat more so in front than behind,
so that the greatest breadth of the thorax is rather before the
middle; the posterior angles are obtuse and rounded off, the
basal margin straight-truncate ; the margin in the posterior half
is broadly expanded and a little bent up, so that a somewhat
bent and deep line arises on each side, particularly when seen
from above. The upper side is strongly and deeply punctate*, mo-
derately densely covered with a golden-yellow pubescence, with
a distinctly impressed line along the middle, about one-third of

* Sturm says, “finely and densely” punctate, but Kraatz properly cor-
reets this ; the deep coarse punctuation being one of the most characteristi
features of the species.

22 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

the thorax in length. The scutellum is triangular, punctate,
brown. The elytra are moderately arched, chestnut-brown, and
a little darker towards the apex; immediately behind the shoulders
and a Jittle further back somewhat bellied out, but not so that
the greatest breadth lies before the middle. The striz are mode-
rately shallow, but very distinct, and their punctuation is pro-
portionately strong and somewhat wrinkled. The pubescence on
the elytra is long, and not so close or adpressed as in the allied spe-
cies. The legs are ferruginous brown.

Kraatz records the male as having chisel-formed posterior tro-
chanters, but in strongly developed specimens there might easily
occur gouge-formed trochanters. Sturm only knew the female.
I have also only seen the female.’

This species is to be distinguished from the preceding by its
more robust form, deeper punctuation, more bellied elytra, and
by the longer pubescence on the elytra. For a considerable time
I was disposed to look upon it as merely another variety of
C. angustatus, F., but I am now satisfied that it may justly take
its place as a distinct species. The stronger punctuation taken
by itself might only indicate a variety, but the bellied form of the
elytra and the difference in the pubescence are more essential
characters ; the latter is particularly well seen on the edges of
the elytra.

It was first recorded by Sturm as having been found in
Austria and Hungary. Chaudoir found it at Kiew. Kraatz
records it as having been taken at Halle, Bautzen, Erlangen,
Darmstadt, &c. It has been taken by M. Chevrolat in France,
and I have one specimen taken in Scotland. Kraatz says, it is
generally found under leaves.

3. C. humeralis, Brullé.
Choleva humeralis, Br. Exped. Se. de Morée, i. p. 162. no. 255.

“ Nigricans, punctatus, rufo-villosus ; ore, antennis, elytrorum
macula humerali, abdominis segmentorum marginibus pedi-
busque ferrugineis; antennis apice fuscis; elytris profunde
punctato-striatis.

“ Long. 24 lin., lat. 14.

“Head black, finely punctate, with the whole of the mouth
and the half of the antenne ferruginous; the latter slightly
pubescent, their five last articles brown. Thorax a little less
long than broad, rounded on the sides, raised at the posterior
angles, truncate behind, finely punctate, of a blackish brown,
lighter on the lateral margins, and covered with a short reddish
pubescence. Scutellum triangular, blackish and pubescent lke

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 23

the thorax. Elytra oval, a little broader than the thorax, marked
with deep longitudinal striz formed by large deep punctures,
and tolerably strongly punctate in the intervals between the
strie ; their colour is of a deep brown, marked with a large fer-
ruginous blotch at each of the anterior angles ; they are covered
by a reddish adpressed and tolerably dense pubescence. Under
side of the body finely punctate, blackish, with the edges of the
abdominal segments ferrugmous. Legs of this latter colour ;
posterior thighs partly brown.

“Upon flowers in the month of June. Arcadia*.”

This appears to be the proper place to take in this species.
I have not seen it. Brullé did not give a figure of it in his
work, and on inquiry at Paris I find that his specimens must
have been eaten by the larvee of the Anthreni so destructive to
collections on the continent. The only trace or record of the
species, therefore, so far as I know, is his description, of which
the above is a translation, and which seems to me to show con-
siderable affinity to the preceding species (spadiceus, St.).

4. C. agilis, Illig.

Ptomaphagus agilis, Illig. Kaf. Pr. 882.

Choleva agilis, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 1402.

Catops fuscus, Gyll. Ins. Suec. 1. 28]. 5.

Choleva testacea, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. xi. 28. 2.

Catops agilis, Erich. Kaf. d. Mark Brand. i. 234. 2; Sturm, Ins. xiv. 7.
2. tab. 272. n. N ; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 379. 3; Redt. Fn. Aust. 133. 3;
Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 405 ; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Franc.
i. 300.

Oblongo-ovatus ; nigro-piceus, vel testaceo-piceus; _— Fig. 5.

thorace transverso, postice latiore ; elytris sub-
striatis, antennis pedibusque ferrugineis.

Long. 24 lin. ,
Mas, tibiis mediis curvatis ; trochanteribus posticis | “i
inferiore dente curvato acuminato armatis.

Shorter and somewhat broader than C. angustatus, Fab., not
very constant in colour, the darkest examples ferruginous brown
with lighter antennz. The antenne are scarcely half so long as
the body; the third joint almost twice as long as the second ;
the fourth, fifth and sixth are nearly equally long, the remainder
(seven to eleven) are somewhat stronger than the preceding ;
the eighth is half as long as the ninth; the ninth equal to the
tenth; the last joint is a half longer than the preceding joint,
obtusely acuminate. The head is brown, extremely fine and
tolerably sparingly punctured. The thorax is almost twice as

* Brullé in Joc. cit.

24 Mr, A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

broad as long, nearly of the breadth of the elytra, narrower in
front than behind, the broadest part being decidedly behind the mid-
dle; the posterior angles are obtuse and rounded, and the sides are
neither spread out nor bent up, so that the moderately dense and
very finely punctate upper side is entirely smooth. The colour of
the thorax is dark ferruginous brown, darker in the middle.
Individuals with the thorax entirely blackish occur rarely. The
elytra are generally ferruginous or testaceous, sometimes chestnut
and sometimes pitchy brown ; they are finely and densely punc-
tate ; at the base very feebly, towards the apex more distmetly
finely punctate striate. The legs are ferruginous brown, the
middle tibie of the males are bent strongly inwards, the posterior
trochanters are not distant at the base, and are armed on the
inner side with a short strong pointed tooth.

This species is readily distinguished by the form of the thorax,
narrowest in front and widest behind. The other particulars
which I have printed in italics are characters also easily seized.

It is spread over the most part of Europe, in Prussia, Austria,
Saxony, Switzerland, France, Sweden, and Britain, but is every-
where scarce.

The only exotic species belonging to this group which I know
of is C. lateritius, Menet. C. Frankenhaueseri, Mann., would also
fall into this group, if it is retained in the genus at all, but its
pectinate antenne seem to me to require us to create a separate
genus to receive it.

C. lateritius, Men.

Catops lateritius, Menetries, Mem. Acad. Imp. Sciences, St. Petersburg,
6 sér. vi. (1849), p. 52.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, pallide rufo-ferrugineus, breviter griseo-pubes-
cens ; antennis tenuibus longitudine dimidii corporis ; thorace
transverso subdepresso postice latiore angulis obtusis, late-
ribus subreflexis ; elytris creberrime punctulatis, substriatis,
stria suturali profunde exarata.

“Long. 2 lin., lat. 2 lin.

“ Near C. agilis, Illig., but proportionately narrower, the thorax
is much less broad and flatter, and the antennz are much longer,

“Described from two individuals taken at Novaia Alexan-
drovskaia*.””

[To be continued. |

* Menetries in loc. cit.

Dr. J. E. Gray on a new species of Spherium. 25

Il.—On a second new species of Spherium from the Paddington
Canal. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

In company with the Spherium pallidum described in the last
Number of the ‘ Annals,’ Mr. Rowse finds another species of the
genus which is very distinct from the well-known and generally
distributed Spherium corneum in being subtriangular, which
gives it much the external appearance of a species of Pisidium.

I cannot identify it with any of the species in the British
Museum collection, nor can I find any description or figure re-
presenting it in any of the works on European freshwater Mol-
lusea ; | therefore indicate it as new.

It most resembles some specimens which we have received as
Cyclas tumida of Pfeiffer, but I do not find any species under
that name in Dr. Pfeiffer’s work. The Paddington Canal spe-
cimens are more inequilatera], longer, and more triangular, having
a very distinct hinder slope.

M. Deshayes considers C. tumida as only a variety of S. cor-
neum.

SpH#R1IUM PIsIpIOIDEs.

Shell ovate, subtrigonal, mvolucres olive, pale edged, slightly
concentrically wrinkled, rather rounded in front, somewhat pro-
duced, with a broad subangular slope behind ; the umbones sub-
anterior, regularly convex. Siphons united nearly to the end,
the upper shorter, subconic ; apertures circular, simple, the lower
rather larger, about twice the length of the upper when expanded,
cylindrical; the opening circular, simple.

Hab. Paddington Canal.

The adult shells are 6 lines long, 5 high, and 4 thick. They
have much the appearance of a large swollen Piszdium, but have
the two distinct siphons of the genus Spherium.

The young shells which were deposited in the glass of water
during the night were much compressed and nearly regularly
oblong ; they varied in size, some being twice as large as the
others; the largest were about 1} line long.

When the siphons are very much extended the difference in
length between the two is not so great as above, as it is the
basal part of the siphons which appears to be the most extensile,
the apical parts keeping the same relative length to each other
that they did in the less extended state.

I am informed that some British conchologists consider Sp.
pallidum to be the C. lacustris of Draparnaud: it is very unlike
the specimens I have received from France and the rest of Europe
under that name.

26 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan.

I11.—On the Habits of the Orang-Utan of Borneo.
By Arrrep R. Waviace.

Tue two species of Pithecus which it is believed have now been
proved to exist in Borneo, appear to have habits so similar that
we shall not attempt to divide them, but shall speak of the
genus in the following observations, in which we shall for brevity
use the native name “ Mias”’ as applied to both species.

There seems little reason to doubt that the Sumatran Orang
is identical with the larger Bornean species, or that possessing
the lateral cheek-ridges. All these animals confine themselves
strictly to the low, level and swampy districts which occupy
so large a portion of the surface of both these islands ; and this
circumstance sufficiently accounts for the peculiarity of their
distribution. It seems at first sight surprising, that though
they are abundant on almost all the north-west coast of Borneo,
and in the south and south-west districts as far north as Sambas,
yet in the territory of Sarawak they are quite unknown. But
when we know the habits of the animal, we see a sufficient
reason for this in the peculiar physical features of the Sarawak
district. The Mias frequents those districts only which are so
low and level as to be marshy, and are at the same time covered
with a lofty virgin forest. In the midst of these plaims are
isolated mountains, on many of which the Dyaks have settled
and planted numerous fruit-trees, which are much sought after
by the Mias, which traverses these hills in all directions, but
always retires to the swamp at night. Wherever the country
becomes slightly elevated, and therefore dry, the Mias is no
longer found. Thus, in the lower part of the Sadong River’the
Mias is abundant; but immediately above the limit of the tides,
where the country, though still flat, is just high enough to be
dry, it disappears. Now the Sarawak valley has this peculiarity,
that the lower portion, though swampy, is not covered with con-
tinuous lofty forest, but is principally occupied by the Nipa palm,
while at a short distance above the town of Sarawak the country
becomes dry and covered with low undulations, the greater
portion of which is second-growth jungle, having been at dif-
ferent times cultivated by the Malays and Dyaks. It is probably
the vast extent of unbroken and equally lofty forest which is the
principal attraction to the Mias. These forests are its open
country, the place best adapted to its mode of life, where it can
roam in every direction with as much facility as the Indian in
the prairie or the Arab in the desert. The dry grounds are
more frequented by man, more cut up by clearings and by low
second-growth jungle, in which progression is more difficult,

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan. 27

where it is more exposed to danger, and where probably its
favourite food is less abundant.

It is a singular and most interesting sight to watch a Mias
making his way leisurely through the forest. He walks delibe-
rately along the branches, in the semi-erect attitude which the
great length of his arms and the shortness of his legs give him:
choosing a place where the boughs of an adjacent tree inter-
mingle, he seizes the smaller twigs, pulls them towards him,
grasps them, together with those of the tree he is on, and thus,
forming a kind of bridge, swmgs himself onward, and seizing
hold of a thick branch with his long arms, is in an instant
walking along to the opposite side of the tree. He never jumps
or springs, or even appears to hurry himself, and yet moves as
quickly as a man can run along the ground beneath. When
pursued or attacked, his object is to get to the loftiest tree
near; he then climbs rapidly to the higher branches, breaking
off quantities of the smaller boughs, apparently for the purpose
of frightening his pursuers. Temminck denies that the Orang
breaks the branches to throw down when pursued ; but I have
myself several times observed it. It is true he does not throw
them af a person, but casts them down vertically ; for it is
evident that a bough cannot be thrown to any distance from the
top of a lofty tree. In one case, a female Mias, on a durian
tree, kept up for at least ten minutes a continuous shower of
branches and of the heavy spined fruits, as large as 32-pounders,
which most effectually kept us clear of the tree she was on. She
could be seen breaking them off and throwing them down with
every appearance of rage, uttering at intervals a loud pumping
grunt, and evidently meaning mischief.

When a Mias is once up a lofty tree, there is no danger of
his gettimg away, as he will not descend to the lower branches,
which he must do to pass to another tree. As soon as he feels
himself badly wounded he makes a nest, which, if he completes,
is so secure that he will never fall from it. I lost two Miases that
way, both dying on their nest, when I could not get any one to
climb up or cut down the tree till the next day, when putrefac-
tion had commenced. They choose a horizontal forked branch,
and breaking off all the branches in its neighbourhood, lay them
across one another till a complete leafy bed is made, which quite
hides them from below, and from which they will not move
afterwards. Their tenacity of life is very great,—from six to a
dozen bullets in the body being required to kill them, or make
them fall.

Every night the Mias sleeps on a nest similar to that above
described, but smaller, and generally placed on a small tree, not
more than 50 or 60 feet from the ground. The same animal

28 Mr. A.R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan.

appears seldom to use these nests more than once or twice, and
they are accordingly very abundant in places frequented by the
Mias. They feed all through the middle of the day, but seldom
return to the same tree two days running. They seem not mueh
alarmed at man, often staring down upon me for several minutes,
and then moving away slowly to a short distance. After seeing
one, I have often had to go a mile or more to fetch my gun, and
in almost every case have found it on my return within a hundred
yards of the place. I have never seen two adult animals together;
but both males and females are sometimes accompanied by half-
grown young ones, or two or three of the latter go in company.
They very rarely descend to the ground,—probably only in search
of water.

The.females have but one young, which clings by the long
hair of its mother’s flanks, and so little impedes her motions,
that in two cases I was not aware of its presence till both fell
together. The food of the Mias consists exclusively of fruits,
with occasionally, when these are scarce, tender shoots and
leaves. They seem to prefer them unripe, and many are in-
tensely bitter, particularly the large red fleshy arillus of one
fruit, which seems an especial favourite. In another case, they
eat only the small seed of a large fruit, of which they destroy
immense quantities. The durian (Durio zibethinus) is also a great
favourite, and the Mias destroys large quantities of this delicious
fruit, in places where it grows surrounded by lofty jungle, but
will not pass over clearings to get at them. It seems wonderful
how the animal can tear open this fruit, the outer covering of
which is so thick and tough, and densely covered with strong
conical spines. It probably bites a few of these off first, and
then, making a small hole, tears the fruit open with its powerful
fingers.

It has been said, that the huge canine teeth of the Orang are
for the purpose of defending himself against the tigers, bears,
and other carnivorous animals of the Eastern forests, Our ob-
servations and inquiries as to the habits of the animal convince
us, however, that no such explanation of this part of the animal’s
structure is at all satisfactory. In the first place, neither the
tiger nor any other of the large carnivora are found in Borneo,
where the Orang is most abundant ; though in Sumatra the tiger
and the Mias are found together. In the second place, the tiger
cannot climb trees, and is therefore quite unable to attack the
Orang, which never need descend to the ground, and very
rarely does so. The Malayan Bear (Helarctos Malayanus) 1s
the only animal which would have any chance whatever in
attacking him ; but as it is not carnivorous (or but slightly so),
it could haye no object in commencing an attack in which it

‘

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan. 29

would probably be beaten. The Dyaks are unanimous in their
statements that the Mias never either attacks or is attacked by
any animal, with one exception, which is highly curious, and
would hardly be credible were it not confirmed by the testimony
of several independent parties, who have been eye-witnesses of
the circumstance. The only animal the Mias measures his
strength with is the Crocodile of these regions (Crocodilus bypor-
catus?). The account of the natives is as follows :—“ When
there is little fruit in the jungle, the Mias goes to the river-side to

~ eat the fruits that grow there, and also the young shoots of some

palm-trees which are found at the water’s edge. The crocodile
then sometimes tries to seize him, but he gets on the reptile’s
back, beats it with his hands and feet on the head and neck, and
pulls open its jaws till he rips up the throat. The Mias always
kills the crocodile, for he is very strong. There is no animal in
the jungle so strong as he.”

Now it is very important to observe, that in this, the only
case in which the Mias has to defend himself against a formidable
attack, he never uses his teeth at all! He depends solely upon
the immense strength of his arms. But even if we suppose that
in Sumatra he is sometimes exposed to the attacks of the tiger,
does any one imagine for a moment that his teeth would be of
the slightest use to him? The tiger always attacks unawares,
and almost always from behind. Let us imagine, then, a tiger
springing upon the back of an Orang who was walking upon the
ground ; what could the animal possibly do, with those fearful
claws deep in his back and shoulders, and those tremendous
teeth firmly fastened in his neck? The vertebra would probably
be broken, and the Mias would fall dead on the spot, as almost
every animal does under such an attack; more especially as the
tiger, knowing the strength of its prey, would be sure to strike
at a mortal part, or obtain such a hold as could not be shaken
off. But there is yet another consideration, which shows that
the canines of the Orang can hardly have been given it for the
purpose of enabling it to defend itself against its enemies. The
females have very small canines, and comparatively weak Jaws ;
and as they, when suckling young ones, require defence far more
than the males, who are so much more powerful, the same
weapons would hardly have been denied them. It may be
objected, that they would be guarded by the males; but this
cannot be the case, because the females with young are always
found alone, and the adult males also by themselves, as is the
ease with many other animals.

Here then we have an animal which lives solely and exclusively
on fruits or other soft vegetable food, and yet has huge canine
teeth. It never attacks other animals, and is rarely attacked

30 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan.

itself; but when it is, it uses, not these powerful teeth, but its
arms and legs to defend itself. And, lastly, the female, which
is weaker, which is encumbered by its young, and which would
therefore afford a much easier prey, and a more tempting object
of attack, is quite unprovided with these supposed means of
defence. Do you mean to assert, then, some of my readers will
indignantly ask, that this animal, or any animal, is provided with
organs which are of no use to it? Yes, we reply, we do mean
to assert that many animals are provided with organs and ap-
pendages which serve no material or physical purpose. The
extraordinary excrescences of many insects, the fantastic and
many-coloured plumes which adorn certain birds, the excessively
developed horns in some of the antelopes, the colours and in-
finitely modified forms of many flower-petals, are all cases, for
an explanation of which we must look to some general principle
far more recondite than a simple relation to the necessities of
the individual. We conceive it to be a most erroneous, a most
contracted view of the organic world, to believe that every part
of an animal or of a plant exists solely for some material and
physical use to the individual,—to believe that all the beauty, all
the infinite combinations and changes of form and structure
should have the sole purpose and end of enabling each animal
to support its existence,—to believe, in fact, that we know the
one sole end and purpose of every modification that exists in
organic beings, and to refuse to recognize the possibility of there
being any other. Naturalists are too apt to imagine, when they
cannot discover, a use for everything in nature: they are not
even content to let “beauty” be a sufficient use, but hunt after
some purpose to which even that can be applied by the animal
itself, as if one of the noblest and most refining parts of man’s
nature, the love of beauty for its own sake, would not be per-
ceptible also in the works of a Supreme Creator*.

* The talented author of the ‘ Plurality of Worlds’ has some admirable
remarks on this subject. He says, “ In the structure of animals, especially
that large class best known to us, vertebrate animals, there is a general
plan, which, so far as we can see, goes beyond the circuit of the special
adaptation of each animal to its mode of living; and is a rule of creative
action, in addition to the rule that the parts shall be subservient to an
intelligible purpose of animal life. We have noticed several phenomena
in the animal kmgdom, where parts and features appear rudimentary and
inert, discharging no office in their ceconomy, and speaking to us not of
purpose, but of law.” Again: “ And do we not, in innumerable cases, see
beauties of colour and form, texture and lustre, which suggest to us irre-
sistibly the belief that beauty and regular form are rules of the creative

ency, even when they seem to us, looking at the creation for uses only,
idle and wanton expenditure of beauty and regularity? To what purpose
are the host of splendid circles which decorate the tail of the peacock, more
beautiful, each of them, than Saturn and his rings? To what purpose the

Mr, A. R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan. 31

The separate species of which the organic world consists being
parts of a whole, we must suppose some dependence of each upon
all; some general design which has determined the details, quite
independently of individual necessities. We look upon the
anomalies, the eccentricities, the exaggerated or diminished de-
velopment of certain parts, as indications of a general system of
nature, by a careful study of which we may learn much that is
at present hidden from us; and we believe that the constant
practice of imputing, right or wrong, some use to the individual,
of every part of its structure, and even of inculeating the doctrine
that every modification exists solely for some such use, is an
error fatal to our complete appreciation of all the variety, the
beauty, and the harmony of the organic world.

It is a remarkable circumstance, that an animal so large, so
peculiar, and of such a high type of form as the Orang-Utan,
should yet be confined to such a limited district,—to two islands,
and those almost at the limits of the range of the higher mam-
malia ; for, eastward of Borneo and Celebes, the Quadrumana and
most of the higher mammalia almost disappear. One cannot
help speculating on a former condition of this part of the world
which should give a wider range to these strange creatures,
which at once resemble and mock the “ human form divine,’”’—
which so closely approach us in structure, and yet differ so
widely from us in many points of their external form. And
when we consider that almost all other animals have in previous
ages been represented by allied, yet distinct forms,—that the
bears and tigers, the deer, the horses, and the cattle of the
tertiary period were distinct from those which now exist, with
what intense interest, with what anxious expectation must we
look forward to the time when the progress of civilization in
those hitherto wild countries may lay open the monuments of a
former world, and enable us to ascertain approximately the
period when the present species of Orangs first made their ap-
pearance, and perhaps prove the former existence of allied species
still more gigantic in their dimensions, and more or less human
in their form and structure! Some such discoveries we may

. exquisite textures of microscopic objects, more curiously regular than any-
thing which the telescope discloses ? To what purpose the gorgeous colours
of tropical birds and insects, that live and die where human eye never
approaches to admire them? To what purpose the thousands of species
of butterflies, with the gay and varied embroidery of their microscopic
plumage, of which one in millions, if seen at all, only draws the admiration
of the wandering schoolboy? To what purpose the delicate and brilliant
markings of shells which live generation after generation in the sightless
depths of ocean? Do not all these examples, to which we might add
countless others, prove that beauty and regularity are universal features of
the work of Creation in all its parts, great and small?”

32 Mr. G. Busk on Polyzoa collected on the Coast

not unreasonably anticipate, after the wonders that geology has
already made known to us. Animals the most isolated in ex-
isting nature have been shown to be but the last of a series of
allied species which have lived and died upon the earth. mi
class and every order has furnished some examples, from whi
we may conclude, that all isolations in nature are apparent only,
and that whether we discover their remains or no, every animal
now existing has had its representatives in past geological
epochs.

I1V.—Polyzoa collected by Mr. M‘Andrew on the Coast of
Norway and Finmark in 1856. By Gzorcer Busk, F.R.S. &

L.S.*
[With a Plate. |

MOLLUSCA.
Class POLYZOA.
Order I. P. Inrunpisuata.
Suborder I. Cheilostomata.
1. Fam. Casnereapa, Busk (B. M. Cat. p. 37).
1. Caberea, Lamx. (B. M. Cat. p. 37).

1. C. Hookeri, Fleming (B. M. Cat. p. 39. pl. 38. fig. 2).

2. Fam. CeLterorapa#, Busk (B. M. Cat. p. 85).
1. Cellepora, O. Fabricius (B. M. Cat. p. 85).

1. C. cervicornis, auctor. (pars); Couch, Cornish Fauna, p. 111,
pl.19. (Pl. L. fig. 1.)

Much confusion exists with respect to this species, which I
have no doubt more properly belongs to Eschara. The form
here intended, however, which is plainly identical with Mr.
Couch’s, and therefore most probably with Borlase’s, is quite
distinct from the Eschara cervicornis of the B. M. Cat., and I
believe also from that of M.-Edwards (Sur les Eschares, p. 15. —
pl. 1. fig. 1), though perhaps not from the form represented in
his pl. 2. fig. 1. The genus Eschara requires careful revision, as
does also Cellepora.

* The list is arranged according to the artificial classification adopted in
my Catalogue of Marine Polyzoa published by the British Museum, in
which, so far as that Catalogue at present extends, the synonymy will be
found.

of Norway and Finmark. 35
3. Fam. Escuarav”, Busk (B. M. Cat. p. 88).

1, Eschara, Ray (B. M. Cat. p. 89).
1. E. teres, nob. (n. sp.). Pl. I. fig. 2.

Polyzoary composed of distant, cylindrical, terete branches.
Cells ovate, immersed, their outline being indicated by a single
row of minute punctures. Mouth arcuate above, with a simple
straight lower lip, within which is an avicularium with an orbi-
cular mandible.

2. H. Skenei (var. tridens), nob. (n. sp.). Pl. I. fig. 3.

Polyzoary composed of short, flattened, expanding branches
dilated at the ends. Cells distinct, elongated. Mouth subor-
bieular, horizontal, protected in front by a trifid process con-
sisting of a central (unarmed ?) rostrum and an elevated avicu-
larium on either side (PI. I. fig. 3 e).

3. E. saccata, nob. (n. sp.). PI. I. fig. 5.

Polyzoary composed of elongated flattened branches dilated at
the ends. Cells (in the growmg portions) furnished with a
strongly projecting avicularium, in the form of an elongated sac
or pouch which covers nearly the whole front of the cell (PI. I.
fig. 5 b). Mandible rounded.

4. E. rosacea, nob. (un. sp.). Pb. I. fig. 4.

Polyzoary composed of short, somewhat undulating or con-
torted, expanding lobes. Cells deeply immersed, broadly ovate,
surface granulated. Mouth rounded or arcuate above, with a
sinus in the middle of the lower lip. An avicularium placed
obliquely on one side close to and slightly projecting over the
margin of the mouth.

In the younger cells the avicularium is seen distinctly pro-
jecting above the surface of the cell, but in the older and thick-
ened parts of the polyzoary its extremity only is seen within the
depression leading to the mouth of the cell (Pl. I. fig. 4 c).
Young specimens (b, 4) are of a delicate rose-colour and simple
form.

2. Retepora, Imperato (B. M. Cat. p. 93).

1. R. cellulosa, Linn. (B. M. Cat. p. 95. pl. 121. figs. 3-8; pl.123.
figs. 5, 6).
A small fragment only occurs.
2. R. beaniana, King (B. M. Cat. p. 94. pl. 123. figs. 1-5).

Apparently very abundant.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 3

34 Mr. G. Busk on Polyzoa collected on the Coast

Suborder Ll. Cyclostomata.
1. Fam. Ipmoneap%, Busk (English Cyclopedia, Art. Polyzoa’’).

1. Jdmonea, Lamx.
1. J. atlantica, Ed. Forbes. PI. I. fig. 6.

I. atlantica, Johnst. Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. vol. i. p. 278. pl. 48.
I. radians, Van Beneden, Bull. de l’ Acad. de Bruxelles, t. xvi.
p- 647. pl. 1. figs. 4-6.

In external habit J, aélantica very closely approaches some
forms of the Australian J. radians, Lamk., figured and described
by M.-Edwards (Sur les Crisies, &c., p. 25. pl. 12. figs. 4, 4a
& 45), but the figure has been taken from an imperfectly
grown specimen. In all essential characters, however, the two
forms are perfectly distinct. In J. radians the mouth of the
tubes is distinctly bilabiate, in J. atlantica simple or merely
sinuated ; in J. radians the surface of the branches is perforated
like a sieve with numerous closely contiguous pores, whilst in
I. atlantica it is quite smooth and merely dotted with minute
white spots. The branches also in J. atlantica are not nearly
so much compressed as they are in J. radians, in which, as in
the apparently closely allied /. coronopus, Defrance, a fossil form
found at Grignon (M.-Ed. J. c. p. 23. pl. 12. fig. 3), the anterior
side of the branches rises in the middle into an acute ridge.
Taking also into consideration the wide difference of locality, it
would appear guite certain that J. atlantica and J. radians, not-
withstanding their striking outward resemblance under certain
conditions of growth, are perfectly distinct species.

2. Hornera, Lamx.
1. H. frondiculata, Lamx. PI. I. fig. 7 a.

H. frondiculata, Lamx. Exp. Méth. p. 41. pl. 26. fig. 1, & pl. 74.
figs. 7, 9; M.-Edwards, Sur les Crisies, p. 17. pl. 10. fig. 1 ;
Blainville, Man. d’Actin. p. 419.

Retepora frondiculata, Lamarck, Hist. d. An, s. V. 2de édit.
p- 277.

Millepora tubipora, Ellis & Soland. p. 139. pl. 26. fig. 1.

M. lichenoides, Linn.; Pallas, Elenchus, p. 245; Esper, Mill.

pl. 3. figs. 1-4.

Madrepore rameux, Marsigli, Hist. de la Mer, p. 49. pl. 33.
figs. 162-164.

Var. a. H. affinis? M.-Edwards, l. ec. pl. 10. figs. 1, la. Pl. I.
fig. 7 5.

The localities assigned to this species by Lamouroux are
Kamtschatka, the Indian and Australian Oceans, and the

of Norway and Finmark. 35

Mediterranean. But comparison of the specimens collected by
Mr. M‘Andrew, and of others in my possession collected by
Capt. Beaufort in lat. 61° 35! N., long. 90° 42! W., with nume-
rous and excellent specimens collected on the coast of Patagonia
_ by Mr. Darwin, and of Australia by Mr. M‘Gillivray, has fully
satisfied me that the northern and southern forms are perfectly
distinct. I suspect also that it will be found that the Mediter-
ranean locality belongs to a third, distinct species, should the
latter retain a place in the genus Hornera at all.

2. Fam. Discoporap#, Busk (Engl. Cyclopedia, Art.“ Polyzoa’’).
1. Diastopora (simplex), M.-Ed. (Sur les Crisies, &c.).

1. D. obelia, Johnst. Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. vol. i. p. 276. pl. 47.
figs. 7, 8.
Tubulipora obelia, Couch, Corn. Faun. p. 108; Johnst. Brit.
Zooph. p. 269. pl. 30. figs. 7,8; Thompson, Ann. Nat. Hist.
v. 252.

I have preferred the affix of M.-Edwards’s name to the genus,
although the term Diastopora was first employed by Lamouroux.
The clear definition of the genus by the former plainly entitles
him to the preference. The Berenicea of Lamouroux, as observed
by M.- Edwards, should certainly be referred to the same genus.

2. Tubulipora, Lamarck.
1. 7. hispida, Fleming.
T. hispida, Johust. Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. vol.1. p. 268. pl. 47.
figs. 9, 10, 11.
Discopora hispida, Fleming, Brit. Anim. 530 ; Couch, Corn. Faun,
109. pl. 19. fig. 1? (very bad).

3. Defrancia, Bronn (1825). Defranceia (1846), Reuss, Fossil.
Polypar. d. W. Tertiarb.

Pelagia, Lamx.

Lichenopora, Michelin.

Tubulipora (pars), M.-Ed.

Ceriopora (pars), auctor.

Of this genus numerous fossil forms exist in the cretaceous
and tertiary formations, and several living species appear to have
been noticed. Of the two here described, one is already known
as living, and the other only as fossil in the marl (Mergelgrund)

oP)
of Essen, and in the tertiary beds of Vienna.

a. Interstices of coste porous.

1. D. truncata, Jameson. PI. I. fig. 8.
- Polyzoary fungiform, simple; centre of upper surface of disk
3*

36 Mr. 8. P. Woodward on the Evils of Increasing Synonyms.

cupped ; surface of stem and back of disk covered with small,
oblong, rather distant pores (fig. 8 c).

Millepora truncata, James. Wern. Mem. i. 560. ;
Tubulipora truncata, Fleming, Brit. Anim. 529; Johnst. Brit.
Zooph. 271. pl. 33. figs. 8-10.

8. Interstices of costa smooth.
2. D. stellata, Goldfuss. PI. I. fig. 9.

Polyzoary fungiform, proliferous, flattened above ; costae nu-
merous, slender ; surface of stem covered with large, hexagonal,
closely contiguous pits (fig. 9 c).

Ceriopora stellata, Goldfuss, Petrefact. i. p. 39. t. 30. fig. 12;
Philippi, Die ‘Tertidrverst. der Nordwestl. Deutschlands,
p. 36, 37.

Defranceia stellata, Reuss, Die fossil. Polyparien des Wiener
Tertiairbeckens, p. 37. pl. 6. fig. a.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Cellepora cervicornis, auctor.: a, nat. size; b, portion of surface
towards the end of a branch magnified 25 diam. ; ¢, cells mag-
nified.

Fig. 2. Eschara teres (u. sp.): a, natural size; 6, portion magnified ;
c, transverse section of a small branch magnified.

Fig. 3. Eschara Skenei (vay. tridens): a, nat. size; 6, portion magnified ;
ce, front of cell magnified.

Fig. 4. Eschara rosacea (n. sp.): a, a, a, nat. size; 6, portion magnified ;
c, portion magnified (older state of cells); d, portion magnified —
(young state of cells).

Fig. 5. Eschara saccata (n.sp.): a, nat. size; 6, portion magnified (young
state of cells); c, portion of surface in older parts magnified.

Fig. 6. Idmonea atlantica, 1. Forbes: a, nat. size ; b, front view of branch

magnified ; c, side view of branch magnified; d, front of young

branch magnified ; e, back of branch magnified.

Fig. 7. Hornera frondiculata, Lamx.: a, nat. size; 6, var. affinis? nat.
size; ¢, front view of branch magnified ; d, back view of branch
magnified.

Fig. 8. Defrancia truncata (n. sp.): a, nat. size; 5, portion of coste
magnified ; c, surface of stem magnified.

Fig. 9. Defrancia stellata?, Goldfuss: a, nat. size; 6, portion of edge of
disk magnified ; c, surface of stem magnified.

V.— On the Evils of Increasing Synonyms.
By S. P. Woopwarp, F.G.S.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

In the May Number of the ‘ Annals’ I showed that “ the type of
Mr. Jeffreys’ new genus (Schismope) was a typical Scissurella.”

Mr. 8. P. Woodward on the Evils of Increasing Synonyms. 37

This was a simple matter of fact, admitting of no reply; but
Mr. Jeffreys has thought proper to raise a number of points,
wholly irrelevant to the subject, and most unpleasant to enter
upon. The inaccuracy of his statements can only be accounted
for by great haste and a very bad memory.

He says he had the pleasure of giving me the specimens on
which my observations were made—although I had distinctly
stated, in print, that I received them from Mr. Damon. This
makes it necessary to add that when I applied to Mr. Jeffreys for
specimens, he informed me he had sent them all to Mr. Damon ;
and he may perhaps remember that when—after I had shown
him the specimens obtained from Mr. Damon—he brought out
a boxful of these tiny shells, I asked him “ how he could have
told me he had none?” He then offered me some more speci-
mens, expressing a wish (as I understood) that, in justice to
Mr. Damon, nothing should be said about them.

Further on, Mr. Jeffreys makes me say I had previously seen
no other Scissurelle, &c. Forgetting that I showed him the
finest species he had ever seen—S. angulata, Lovén ; that I told
him I had found Scissurella in sand from New Zealand ; and
that in the British Museum (to go no further) there is the
type of S. Bertheloti, D’Orb., in a collection we had both lately
been examining. Besides, the question was not about species:
the specific identity of Mr. Jeffreys’ shell with S. elegans, D’Orb.,
was known and admitted by himself, from the first.

A third statement is to the effect that he consulted D’Orbigny’s
memoir at the time 1 showed him Philippi’s and Sowerby’s ob-
servations. I can only say, that more than a month afterwards
(when the paper on “ Schismope”’ was gone to the ‘ Annals,’
though not printed) he informed me he had not seen the memoir
in question.

There are several other assertions which it is unnecessary to
follow, as they have neither personal nor scientific interest.
Perhaps Mr. Jeffreys thinks he is letting himself down easily,
and I should be sorry to dispel the illusion.

I will only add a few words of an accomplished botanist, lately
quoted by Dr. Carpenter :—“ The naturalist who has the true
interest of science at heart, not only feels that the thrusting of
an uncalled-for synonym into the nomenclature of science is
an exposure of his own ignorance and deserves censure, but that
a wider range of knowledge and a greater depth of study are
required, to prove those dissimilar forms to be identical, which
any superficial observer can separate by words and a name.”

1 am, Gentlemen, your obedient Servant,
S. P. Woopwarp.
Barnsbury, June 1856.

38 Mr. J. D. Macdonald on a Bitentaculate Slug

VI.— Observations on the External Characters and Internal
Anatomy of a Bitentaculate Slug found at the Island of
Aneiteum, New Hebrides. By Joun Denis Macpvonaxp, R.N.,
Assistant-Surgeon of H.M.S.V. “Torch,” Tender to H.M.S.
“ Herald,” Capt. Denham, K.N., F.R.S., Commanding the
Exploring Expedition in the South Seas.

[With a Plate. |

Ar the Island of Aneiteum, in the New Hebrides group, we
obtained the only naked terrestrial Gasteropod with which we
met during our late cruises amongst the South Sea Islands.

At first sight the animal appeared to be simply a moderately
large species of Limaz, but on closely examining two specimens
which Mr. Macgillivray very kindly reserved for me, I noticed
that they possessed but the two tentacula that supported the
eyes. This character made the further study of their anatomy
an object of some interest to me, and I have been induced to
draw up the following account of it with the view of determining
whether the species may be with propriety retained in, or sepa-
rated from, the genus Limaz.

The animal having the power of extending its body consi-
derably, or of drawing it up in the longitudinal direction, and
spreading it out laterally so as to assume a great variety of
shapes, it would be rather difficult to state its proportions with
any degree of certainty, but it appears to average about
2¥ inches in length, by $ths of an inch in breadth. It is of a pale
yellowish-brown colour, varying in depth in different individuals,
and often sparingly mottled with a reddish-brown or black pig-
ment over the dorsal region.

Along the middle line of the back a narrow groove extends
from the nape to the obtusely pointed extremity of the tail, and
from this primary groove, on either side, a number of smaller
channels arise, which take a parallel course obliquely outwards
and backwards to the thin margin of the foot, and communicate
with each other laterally by the transverse interspaces between
the soft mammillary elevations of the skin.

The mantle is of small superficial extent, lying on the right
side of the body somewhat in advance of the centre, and cireum-
scribed by a triangular sunken outline, with the angles gently
rounded off. The base of the figure thus formed corresponds
with the above-mentioned median groove, which is here slightly
deflected to the left, while the outer rather obtuse angle is so
deeply notched as to appear to be perforated by the respiratory
opening. From the upper and anterior angle two depressed
lines pass forwards, diverging so as to include the roots of the
tentacula, on the outer side of which they are lost.

found at Aneiteum, New Hebrides. 39

A remarkably stout scutellum with smoothly rounded extre-
mities, presenting little of the scale-like character of the same
organ in other Slugs, is enclosed between the layers of the
mantle.

The tentacula arise directly from the head, having no con-
nexion whatever with the mantle. They gradually diminish in
size towards the free extremity, which is slightly dilated and of
an oval form, containing the visual organs.

The roof of the mouth is furnished with a quadrilateral horny
tooth, having a crescentic inferior or cutting edge, and from its
intimate connexion with the buccal mass, rather than with the
upper lip, 1t would remind one more of the upper mandible of
Cephalopods than of its representative in the veritable members
of the genus Limaz.

The lingual sac and dental plates and tubercles very closely
resemble those of Limaz, Helix, and Bulimus. Thus, the sac
itself is short and moderately wide, with a rounded fundus pro-
truding a little from the buccal mass posteriorly. The lingual
plates are subquadrilateral in figure, the outer and posterior
borders being somewhat concave, and the anterior and imternal
slightly convex ; and each plate supports a simple conical dental
process inclining a little inwards, and having a small angular
projection on either side of the base. The plates of the central
series are quite rudimentary, each presenting a bifid anterior
portion and a small and pointed posterior extremity. The latter
characters, if they do not prove to be generic, may at least
serve to distinguish the species.

The generative system is remarkable for the compactness of
all its parts.

The ovarium (PI. III. fig. 6 7) and testis (4) le in contact with
each other at about the middle of the dorsal region. The former,
on the left side, gives origin to the small or primary oviduct (/),
and the latter, on the right, is wrapped up, as it were, with the
tortuous commencement of the larger oviduct or uterus (m), but
both testis and ovarium are separated from the liver by the in-
terposition of the stomach.

The vas deferens emerges from the smaller or anterior portion
of the testis (0), winds in a dextral manner round the uterus,
and having reached the union of the organs of both sexes, it
crosses over to the left side and retrogrades upon the under sur-
face of the retracted male organ so as to terminate near the in-
sertion of the short retractor muscle (p), which arises from a
point corresponding to the union of the foot with the dorsal
integument on the left side.

The spermatheca (q) is of considerable size and filled with a
purplish-brown secretion; but its duct, which arises from the

40 Mr. J. D. Macdonald on a Bitentaculate Slug

uterus, is so short, that the sac itself lies in contact with that
tube. Now, in the common Slugs of England, the duct of the
spermatheca has no immediate communication with the oviduct,
but opens externally by a distinct orifice in the generative pit.

Near the commencement of the uterus there is a much smaller
sac-like appendage (m), which may be a rudiment of the mul-
tifid vesicles; organs which, although peculiar to the genus
Helix, | have never seen in any of the numerous Helices which
I have dissected in the Southern hemispbere.

The external respiratory opening leads into a small cavity
with stout areolated walls, and a few little fenestrations im a
small cribriform space establish a communication between this
cavity and the pericardium; a condition which also most di-
stinctly exists in Nautilus Pompilius.

The heart (7) holds a central position ; a small auricle receives
the return-blood from the respiratory surface on the right side,
and the ventricle gives off its principal arterial trunk inferiorly,
a tubular process of the pericardium encircling the vessel at its
origin.

A large glandular body (s) arches over the viscera from the
left to the right side immediately behind the heart, and pours
forth its mucous secretion through the respiratory orifice. This
gland is furnished with compressor muscles from the circular
fasciculi of the integument. It is doubtless the homologue of
what might be termed the renal gland of Paludina for example,
or the renal follicles of Nautilus; and indeed the close rela-
tionship of the Gasteropoda with the Cephalopoda through the
latter genus is well illustrated in many particulars in the little
mollusk, the principal details of whose anatomy have just been
given *.

The only mollusk with which this may be confounded is the
Janella antipodarum of Dr. Gray. The primd-facie probability
of their identity was first suggested to me by Mr. Maegillivray
in the following memorandum, which expresses the state of the
question so concisely that I cannot refrain from inserting it,
with that gentleman’s permission :—

“ Lima bitentaculatus, Quoy & Gaim. Voy. Astrolabe, t. 13.
f.1,2,3. From this description Gray formed a temporary genus
under the name of Janedla, in vol. iv. of ‘ Mrs. Gray’s Mollusca.’
He has since, from receiving one in spirits, published the cha-
racters of the genus (in Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. for Dec.

* | have since ascertained that a bitentaculate Slug, answering in every
respect to that above described, is indigenous to Port Sierihens, New South
Wales. Both unquestionably belong to the same genus, but not haying
the opportunity of comparing specimens, I cannot determine if any specific
differences exist between them,

found at Aneiteum, New Hebrides. 41

1853), describing the only species known to him as ‘ J. antipo-
darum.—N. Zealand.’ Now it strikes me that the (only) two-
tentacled Slug got during last cruise, and believed by you to be
the type of a new genus, will fall into this one—and I make this
memorandum for the purpose of inducing you to peruse the
December Number of the ‘ Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ now on
the table at the reading-room of the Library, in case I should
forget to mention it to you verbally.”

I have only to add to this, that I have studied the characters
of the genus Janella given by Dr. Gray, in the Number of the
‘Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ referred to, and I find that the
three followmg items are quite sufficient in themselves to show
that Janella antipodarum can have but little affinity to the mol-
lusk above described.

Janella (Gray).
lst. Shell none, or at least

there is no appearance of any
through the skin.

Aneiteum Slug.
lst. Shell internal, elon-
gated in form, of considerable
thicknessand smoothly rounded
off at the extremities.

2ndly. The tentacles instead
of being placed on the head, as
in Philomycus and all the other
Arionide and Helicide, are
placed in the front part of the
mantle.

3rdly. Mantle covering the
whole of the back with a slightly
raised margin, leaving a rather
broad space between the edge
and the edge of the foot.

2ndly. Tentacula distinctly
arismg from the head, as in

Philomycus, &e.

3rdly. Mantle of small su-
perficial extent, lying on the
right side of the body some-
what in advance of the centre,
but not extending all over the

back.

As it is yet possible that a shell may exist in Janella, although
there is no external appearance of any, too much importance
must not be attached to its apparent absence as a distinctive cha-
racter, but the remaining items need no further comment.

The internal ceconomy of the Aneitewm Slug is similar in all
essential particulars to that of imax. There are however in the
former many peculiarities, which will be noticed, as they present
themselves, in the explanation of the figures.

Port Curtis, February 13, 1855.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.

Fig. \. The animal as it appeared in motion.

Fig. 2. Ditto at rest.
Fig. 3. The seutellum.

42 Mr. A. Henfrey on Vegetable Cell-formation.

Fig. 4. The horny cutting tooth: a, somewhat enlarged to show its cha-
racter more distinctly ; 4, natural size.

Fig. 5. a. Seven lingual plates taken from the middle portion of a trans-
verse series. The rudimentary and bifid central tooth presents a
remarkable contrast to the others. 4. shows the curvatures of the
transverse rows of teeth, the longitudinal series in every case
being rectilinear.

Fig. 6. A simple dissection, in which the internal organs are merely unra-
velled as it were, so as to afford a tout ensemble of the digestive
and generative systems in particular: a, the retracted tentacula ;
b, buecal mass, with the commencement of the cesophagus, and
the tortuous ducts of the salivary glands; c, a kind of crop or

roventriculus, to the exterior of which a loop of intestine is
cee down by areolar tissue; d, stomach; e, a small sacculus,
which is probably the rudiment of a pancreas. It is the homo-
logue of the sacculated and internally plaited organ of Nautilus
Pompilius, represented by a more highly developed glandular ap-
paratus in Sepia. f, the liver, which is divisible into four distinct
lobes, each giving rise to a biliary duct opening separately into
the alimentary canal near the glandular sacculus, e. The intestinal
canal, g, is rather lengthy, wmding round the liver, passing first
forwards and then backwards upon the stomach, forming a loop
upon the proventriculus as above noticed, and, finally, termina-
ting in the anus at A, near the respiratory orifice.

VII.—On Vegetable Cell-formation.
By Prof. ArtrHur Henrrey, F.R.S.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

Your Number for this month (June) contains some remarks by
Dr. Carpenter relating to my letter which appeared in the pre-
ceding Number (2nd Ser. xvii. p. 417). I am obliged to trouble
you with a few lines more on this subject, as Dr. Carpenter ap-
pears to have misconceived the purport of my communication.
With me it was no question of “ general ideas of the process of
cell-formation ;” although IT humbly submit that my ‘ general
ideas ’ form as good materials for argument as references to un-
published investigations. General and long experience in obser-
vations of the process did indeed render Mr. Wenham’s account
quite incredible in my eyes: but if Dr. Carpenter reads my letter
carefully, he will see that I founded my criticism on a repetition
of the observations, and that the main feature of my letter was
a denial of the correctness of the statements and of the accuracy
of the drawings.
I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,

ARTHUR HENFREY.

Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology. 43

VIII.—On the Method of Paleontology. By Tuomas H. Hvux-
LEY, F.R.S., Lecturer on General Natural History at the
Government School of Mines, and Fullerian Professor of Phy-
siology R.I.

Tuere are two perfectly distinct aspects under which Living
Beings may be studied—the Physiological and the Morpholo-
gical. On the one hand, every living being exerts certain forces
and performs certain acts or functions. It is the object of the
physiologist to ascertain the precise mode in which these acts
are performed, to refer them as far as possible to the ordinary
laws of physics and chemistry, and when, as in many cases, the
functions are highly complex, to analyse them into their ele-
mentary acts, and to determine by what part of the frame, by
what special organs, these are performed. With the form of
these parts, with their connexion other than that which is in-
volved in their coadjustment towards a common effect, the pure
physiologist has no concern.

On the other hand, every living being has a definite form,
and in all the higher living beings this form is complex ; it is
made up of a greater or smaller number of lesser parts, each of
which has its own definite and appropriate figure. Now it is
with these forms, with their mutual relations, with the laws
which govern their association, that morphology is alone con-
cerned. Although in practice the two branches of biological
science are commonly more or less united, yet it would be quite
possible to write a complete system of pure physiology without
reference to morphology, and of morphology without reference
to physiology. They are as distinct as in the mineral world are
crystallography and chemistry. To put the case in another way.
The different parts of every living being are all mutually related,
they are subject to definite laws of correlation, but these laws
of correlation are of two kinds essentially independent of one
another: there are physiological correlations and there are mor-
phological correlations. Thus the teeth and the stomach are
physiologically correlated, contributing as they do to the com-
mon end of alimentation; and inasmuch as this coadaptation
towards a common end is the very essence of physiological cor-

-relation, the latter has sometimes received the name of rational
correlation ; for when the result to which a combination tends is
obvious, we commonly imagine we can see the reason for that
combination.

Since the validity of nine-tenths of the science of animal phy-
siology involves the admission, that multitudes of the parts of
animals are organs working towards a common end, I do not

Ad Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology.

suppose that it ever has entered, or ever will enter, into the
mind of any person conversant with the rudiments of that sei-
ence to question the existence of physiological correlation be-
tween the different parts of animals. But how far that corre-
lation is in any case to be called necessary ; that is, how far in
order to the due performance of a given function in any case it is
impossible that the organs performing that function should be
different from what we find them to be, is quite another question.
Thus the teeth of a lion and the stomach of the animal are in
such relation that the one is fitted to digest the food which the
others can tear ; they are physiologically correlated, but we have
no reason for affirming this to be a necessary physiological corre-
lation, in the sense that no other could equally fit its possessor
for living on recent flesh. The number and form of the teeth
might have been quite different from that which we know it to
be, and the construction of the stomach might have been greatly
altered, and yet the function of these organs might have been
equally well performed. Nothing can be more uniform than the
physiological ends which have to be attained by living beings ;
nothing more various than the modes in which they are attained ;
and it would, I think, in the face of these well-known facts, be
the height of presumption to affirm that the function which we
see in any case performed in a particular way could not possibly
have been performed in any other mode.

If physiological correlations are however not necessary ; if, so far
as physiology is concerned, we have no right to say with Cuvier,
that “‘ Every organized being constitutes a whole, a single, and
complete system, whose parts s mutually correspond and concur by
their reciprocal reaction to the same definite end. None of these
parts can be changed without affecting the others, and conse-
quently each taken separately indicates and gives all the rest ;”—
then a very important consequence follows, viz. that it is quite
impossible to reason conclusively on physiological grounds alone
from any part of a living being to the whole.

I by no means assert that Cuvier, in enunciating the propo-
sition quoted above, meant to exclude all but physiological con-
siderations so completely as the words appear to indicate. On
the contrary, his practice, no less than other passages of the re-
markable essay from which that citation is taken, shows clearly
that no man more fully understood the value of morphology.
Nevertheless the words of the proposition are distinct enough to
justify those who, guided more by authority than by right reason,
have denominated it Cuvier’s law of correlation, and, ambiguously
supported by Cuvier’s phraseology elsewhere, have imagined the
principle which it involves to have been his guide in paleonto-
logical research.

Mr. T, H,. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology. 45

A simple illustration or two, however, will show that the laws
of physiological correlation alone are wholly incompetent to fur-
nish such guidance. Suppose I find the jaw of a vertebrate ani-
mal with sharp cutting teeth imbedded in it, how far will phy-
siology help me to determine the precise nature of the animal to
which it belonged? The sharpness of the teeth may lead me to
guess that they were used for cutting some soft substance. The
shape of the articular condyle and that of the processes for mus-
cular attachment may equally render probable the direction and
force of its ordinary movements ; but as to the rest of the or-
ganism, whether the teeth were for cutting up fish, flesh, fowl,
or carrion, whether the creature itself was piscine or reptilian or
mammalian,—on all these points no amount of mere physiological
reasoning will help me. Nay, how do I know it is a vertebrate
jaw at all? that it is vertebrate bone and tooth substance? For
anything physiology teaches me to the contrary, Invertebrate
animals might develope osseous and dentinal tissue, and might
possess appendages having the form of vertebrate jaws. ,

Every naturalist knows that Invertebrate animals do not thus
mimic the Vertebrata, and he believes that they never have and
never will do so; but his confidence is based, not on any physiolo-
gical reasoning as to the impossibility of such a proceeding, but
on his simple experience that it never does occur. He rests not on
a deduction from the laws of physiological correlation, but on the
morphological law that no Invertebrate animal ever possesses an
organ having the form and structure displayed by the jaw in
question. And this law is an empirical one ; no further reason
for it can be given than for the law of gravitation. The
whole object of morphology is to ascertain what structural pecu-
liarities variably coexist with one another: why these struc-
tural peculiarities coexist is a question with which it does not
necessarily concern itself, and so far as the mere restorations of
the palzontologist are concerned, it is a wholly irrelevant question.
The empirical laws of morphology supply all that the paleon-
tologist requires for this object.

Let us imagine that all existing animals had perished, but that
their dead forms were gathered together and submitted to the
investigation of some intelligent being from whom the know-
ledge that they had ever lived was concealed. He would of
course remain entirely ignorant of physiology and all its laws.
Life, if he were acquainted before only with physical and chemical
phznomena, would be an inconceivability, and the conception of
adaptation to purpose, of physiological correlation, would fail to
suggest itself where nothing was known of actions or functions.

Nevertheless, by the careful comparison of one form with
another, he would see that in one set of specimens certain struc-

46 Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology.

tural peculiarities were invariably associated, in another set
others, and he would thus arrive at precisely the same laws
of morphological correlation*, and at the same classification of
these dead forms as that which we have reached from our
study of the living ones. He would not term Lions and Tigers
and Wolves “ Carnivora,” for he would not even know that they
eat anything, but he would assuredly form a group with pretty
nearly the same limits as the Carnivora, simply because all these
animals resemble one another, and differ from the rest in certain
peculiarities of dentition, &e. So again, he would group Oxen
and Sheep and Deer together, because they present correspond-
ing coexistences of structure, though, knowing nothing of their
digestive processes, he would not call them “ Rumimantia.”

And now, after our imaginary being had made himself ac-
quainted with the whole series of forms before him, and had
established his great laws of morphological correlation and his
classification, suppose that a mass of fragments of other crea-
tures, more or less similar to those which he had first familiarized
himself with, were placed before him, and he were desired to put
these fragments together, and to reconstruct these dismembered
forms, how would he proceed? Suppose the first bone which
came to hand yery closely resembled the jaw of a Deer, would he
not naturally conclude—could he logically escape the conclusion
—that in all probability the skull and limbs which belonged
to this jaw were like those of a Deer also? And finally, sup-
posing that, guided by this strong probability, he had selected a
complete deer skeleton from the mass, all of whose parts were in
such proportion to one another and to the jaw first discovered,
~ as to accord perfectly with his already ascertained laws of corre-
lation of form in the Deer species, could the validity of his resto-
ration be questioned, because he knew nothing about the pur-
poses of all these parts or their physiological correlation ?

What additional certainty would he gain by now learning
that the Deer had once lived—that it was herbivorous—that its
teeth and internal organs were all exquisitely adjusted to its
mode of life? He would say, That is all very beautiful, and [
am very glad to know it; but such considerations did not in
the least help me to pick out the bones which belonged to the
jaw, nor do they add a grain of certainty to that which I already
feel as to the justice of my restoration. Indeed, my method
tells me a great deal that yours is quite silent about. I knew
empirically that the kind of tooth and jaw placed before me was

* Except so far as he would be deprived of the advantage of the study
of development. This, however, obviously by no means interferes with the
validity of the general argument.

Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology. 47

always associated with horns, with slender limbs, and with cleft
hooves; but I could never have divined these things from
knowing that the jaw and tooth were specially adapted to a
herbivorous diet.

Surely all this is so obvious as to need no great amount of
demonstration, and no less clear is its application to the ques-
tion, What is the method of paleontology? How is it that we
are able to restore an extinct animal from some fragments of its
skeleton? It is by deduction from those empirical laws of
morphology which express the invariable coexistences of structure,
so far as observation has yet made them known to us, and it is
by this method only. When once the general nature of an
extinct animal has been ascertained, the laws of physiology may
help us to very useful hints and guesses; but the fundamental
steps towards the determination of the nature of any unknown
fragment, whether recent or fossil, are purely morphological,
and, so far as they are concerned, physiology might be non-
existent.

The truth of what has just been asserted must long have been
familiar to every thinking botanical paleontologist ; and I have
never met with any indication, either in their works or in con-
versation, that the botanists imagined they were guided in their
determinations of extinct plants by any reference to physiological
correlation, or by any other method than deduction from purely
empirical morphological laws. Nor does the paleontologist, who
concerns himself with invertebrate forms, often seek for help from
physiology. In fact, the total absence of any acquaintance with
physiology which many excellent palzontologists manifest, is a
curious illustration of the justice of my line of argument, as it
nowise interferes with the soundness of their work,—so long as
they confine themselves to such purely morphological questions
as are involved in the restoration of extinct forms.

Nor ean I find that in practice those paleontologists who
have studied the Vertebrata trouble themselyes much about phy-
siological correlations or adaptations to purpose. The reader of
Cuvier’s ‘ Ossemens fossiles” might begin at the tenth volume
and read on to the second, and while he would be astounded at the
enormous knowledge of the laws of morphology—of the observed
coexistence of parts which it displays—he would find himself
very rarely troubled with any remarks upon physiological corre-
lations or adaptations; and any which might offer themselves
would be entirely subordinate to the great “object of the work,
which is, to apply the purely empirical laws of morphological
correlation, which have been ascertained to obtain among living
beings, to the elucidation of fossil remains.

48 Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology.

It is with no httle surprise, therefore, that in the first volunte
he finds, or seems to find, the principle of physiological correla-
tion brought prominently forward, in the celebrated * Discours
sw’ les Révolutions,’ as the guide in paleontology, as the
especial means by which the determination of mammalian fos-
sils, at any rate, is effected. I say, seems to find; for, after all,
if the master’s words be studied. car efully, it will ‘be discovered
that his followers are more Cuvierian than Cuvier.

In fact, as | have already particularly pointed out, ina Lectoiae
which I recently delivered before the members of the Royal
Institution, Cuvier gives up the principle of physiological eor-
relation, both explicitly in words and implicitly im _ practice,
as an exclusive guide in paleontological research ; and he ex-
pressly admits the necessity of a reference to the laws of ‘more
phological correlation.

But while admitting the importance of both methods, the
physiological and the morphological, he gives to the former by
his words a prominence which it by no means has in his practice ;
or perhaps I may more justly say, that his phraseology is am-
bignous, from his having confounded the two methods together;
under the one term of “ principe de la corrélation des formes
dans les étres organisés.” Those who will read carefully from
p. 178 to p. 189 (ed. 4, 1834) of the ‘ Discours,’ will find that
this confusion exists throughout. Thus, if we take one of the
opening passages already cited (p. 178) :—

“Every organized being constitutes a whole, a single, and
complete system, whose parts mutually correspond and concur
by their reciprocal reaction to the same definitive end. None
of these parts can be changed without affecting the others ; and,
consequently, each taken separately mdicates and gives all the
rest.”

The first paragraph here embodies the principles of both
physiological and morphological correlation. The second para-
graph, however, regards physiological correlation only, and the
statement which it contaims is not true. We have no evidence
to justify us in asserting that no one part can be changed with-
out affecting all the others. On the contrary, we have abundant
evidence to show that allied species, for instance, differ in only
a single character ; which would be an impossibility if a change
in one part sensibly affected all the rest.

Cuvier then goes on to show, in a very beautiful manner, the
physiological correlation which exists between the parts of a
Carnivore, concluding with the well-known phrase, “ in the
same way the claw, the scapula, the condyle, the femur, and alk
the other bones taken separately, will give the tooth, or one

Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology. 49

another; and by commencing with any one, he who had a
rational conception of the laws of the organic economy could
reconstruct the whole animal.”

If Cuvier means by “the laws of the organie ceconomy,” (and
the context would indicate that he does,) its physiological laws
merely, then I must venture to say, that I believe this assertion
to beincorrect. I do not believe that the problem — given a tooth
or a bone, the mode of life of an animal, and the laws of physi-
ology, to find the structure of other parts of the body of that
animal,—is a soluble one.

In fact, Cuvier himself, in the very next paragraph (p. 182),
almost gives up his own principle. 1 give his own words :—

“Ce principe est assez évident en lui-méme dans cette accep-
tation générale pour n’avoir pas besoin d’une plus ample démon-
stration ; mais quand il s’agit de V appliquer, il est un grand nombre
de cas ou notre connaissance théorique des rapports des formes ne
suffirait point si elle w était appuyée sur Pobservation.”

And again, in coneluding, at p. 187 Cuvier says :—

“ Et, en adoptant ainsi /a méthode de Pobservation comme un
moyen supplémentaire quand la théorie nous abandonne, on arrive
ades détails faits pour étonner. La moindre facette d’os, la
moindre apophyse, ont un caractére déterminé relatif a la classe,
& Pordre, au genre et A l’espéce auxqueis elles appartiennent, au
point que toutes les fois que l’on a seulement une extrémité d’os
bien conservée on peut avec de V’application, et en s’aidant avee
un peu d’adresse de Vanalogie et de la comparaison effective,
determiner toutes ces choses aussi stirement que si Von possé-
dait Panimal entier.”

Finally, at p. 184, after speaking of those invariably coexist-
ent peculiarities of organization among the Ruminants, which
have no apparent physiological connexion, Cuvier says :—

“Cependant puisque ces rapports sont constans il faut bien
quwils aient une cause suffisante; mais comme nous ne Ja con-
naissons pas, nous devons supplier au détaut de la théorie par le
moyen de |’observation ; elle nous sert a établir des lois empi-
riques qui deviennent presque aussi certaines que les lois ratio-
nelles, quand elles reposent sur des observations assez répetées :
en sorte qu’aujourdhui quelqwun qui voit seulement la piste d’un
pied fourchu, peut en conclure que l’animal qui a laissé cette
empreinte ruminait, et cette conclusion est tout aussi certaine
qu’aucune autre en physique ou en morale.”

I confess that, considering the Pig has a cloven foot, and does
not ruminate, the last assertion appears to me to be a little
strong. But my object is not to criticise Cuvier, but simply to
show that nothing could be more marked than his appreciation
of the value of the merely empirical laws of morphology, as

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii.

50 Mr, T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology.

applied to paleontology, nothing more erroneous than the
popular notion, too mueh favoured by his own language, that his
method essentially consisted in reasoning from supposed physio-
logical necessities. In the lecture above referred to, I not only
maintained this view, but I further asserted, and endeavoured
to prove, that not only are popular and other writers thus
mistaken in interpreting Cuvier, but that Cuvier himself was
in error in ascribing to the laws of physiological correlation
that primary importance in paleontology which he undoubtedly
does give them. I brought forward, in fact, the doctrine which
I have argued at greater length in the preceding pages, yiz. that
paleontology, so far as it consists in the restoration of extinct
forms, is entirely based upon deductions from the empirical laws
of morphology ; that its conclusions, so far, would be as valid if

the whole science of physiology were non-extant, and if we knew

nothing of final causes or adaptations to purposes.

The publication of the abstract of the lecture has elicited a
brusque attack from Dr. Falconer, which, coming as it did from
the pen of a palontologist of high repute, caused me at first, I
must confess, no slight alarm; the more so as Dr. Falconer, in
his laudable desire at once to extinguish heresy, had, I found,
taken the somewhat unusual course of widely circulating his
little pamphlet. ts

The perusal of Dr. Falconer’s essay, however, soon relieved
me from my only real source of uneasiness, by demonstrating
very clearly that Dr. Falconer had been far too much in a hurry
either to master the real question in dispute, to read what I had
written with attention, or to quote me with common accuracy
and fairness. In fact, I have not the good fortune to be among
the “ ¢antis viris” de quibus “modeste tamen et cireum-
specto judicio pronuntiandum est,” and it is clearly in Dr.
Falconer’s opinion not worth while to use much cireumspection
in dealing with the opinions of mere ordinary “ viri.””

The first evidence of Dr. Falconer’s entire misconception of
the point at issue meets one in the title-page—“ On Prof.
Huxley’s attempted refutation of Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation
in the reconstruction of extinct Vertebrate Forms.” It is
repeated at page 477. “ Nearly three-fourths of Mr. Huxley’s
abstract are devoted to the first head, viz. Natural History, re-
garded as knowledge, the leading feature of which is an attempt
to refute the principle propounded by Cuvier, that the laws of
correlation which preside over the organization of animals, guided
him in his reconstruction of extinct Forms.” Nothing can be
more entirely incorrect than the assertion contained in the latter
part of this paragraph. I did not attempt to refute any one of
Cuyier’s laws of correlation. There is not a passage in my

a

Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology. 51

lecture which can be justly so interpreted. I merely endeavoured
to prove, and [ can find nothing in Dr. Falconer’s essay to
show that I did not prove, first, that the physiological laws of
correlation which Cuvier laid down are not as universally and
necessarily applicable as he seems to have imagined; secondly,
that his physiological laws of correlation are of wholly subordi-
nate importance in paleontology, if not absolutely unimportant,
the really important laws by which he worked being those mor-
phological laws, those empirical laws of coexistence which, as I
have said, no man lays down more clearly, but to which he
nevertheless ascribes in words, though not m practice, a subor-
dinate place. This entire misunderstanding of the real point
under discussion vitiates the whole of Dr. Falconer’s paper. It
is again repeated at p. 481, just after Dr. Falconer has gravely
warned us how necessary are “precision of thought and expres-
sion in disquisitions of this kind.”

So again, at p. 487, Dr. Falconer says :—

“The argument drawn by Mr. Huxley from instances of em-
pirical relation in the vegetable kingdom against there being
necessary or reciprocal relation in the high classes of the animal
kingdom is exactly of this character.”

I assert that no one who carefully reads my abstract will find
the slightest ground for the assertion that I have ever made use
of any such argument as that imputed to me by Dr. Falconer.
What I say in regard to plants is :—

“ And if we turn to the botanist and inquire how he restores
fossil plants from their fragments, he will say at once that he
knows nothing of physiological necessities and correlations.”

To any unprejudiced reader of ordinary intelligence it will be
quite obvious that the question of the existence of physiological
correlation between the parts of plants is here utterly untouched.
The question is whether the physiological or the morphological
laws of correlation guide the botanical paleontologist. I affirm
the latter, and I am supported by every botanist with whom I
have spoken on the subject.

Dr. Falconer writes at p. 487 :—

“Nature has formed living beings upon certain types which
constitute the basis of methodical nomenclature, and the corre-
lation of part to part and organ to organ is adjusted in subor-
dination to these types.”

Now what is this but an admission of all that I have contended
for, namely, that the physiological correlation of organs is wholly
subordinate to their morphological or, in other words, typical
correlation? What is it that Dr. Falconer attacks, after all?
And this question becomes all the more bewildering, when we
- find at p. 480 :—

“ Our first remark is, where and by whom has the principle of
4

52 Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology.

the ‘utilitarian adaptation to purpose’ been used as an instru-
ment of research ? Mr. Huxley avers that its value as such has
been enormously overrated. If so, by whom has it been ever
used? From the prevalence of adaptations and mechanisms
in nature suited to the production of certain ends we reason up
to the agency of an all-wise, powerful and benevolent Designer.
But the inference is a product not an instrument of the research,
and to call it the latter is simply a misuse of terms.”

Surely Dr. Falconer can understand that adaptation to pur-
pose is adaptation to use, and that therefore adaptation to
purpose may well be said to be ‘ utilitarian,

In answer to the next part of his inquiry, I must refer him to
Dr. Whewell* ; and with regard to the last part, the misuse of
words is Dr. Falconer’s. I am not speaking of any inference
from the principle, but of the principle itself.

But the most curious proof that Dr. Falconer has not taken
the trouble to read with attention or think over carefully the
statements contained in my abstract is yielded by the passage at
p- 480, beginning, “ Mr. Huxley contrasts the two as opposite
dogmas.” Dr. Falconer here takes two parts of the same argu-
ment, thrusts them into opposition, and is then excessively
puzzled to discover that he can find no “opposition or incom-
patibility” between them. However glad I may be to have Dr.
Falconer’s testimony to the connexion of the two parts of my
argument, even malgré lui, I think he would have done well to
have read the passage twice before entangling himself in it.

Dr. Falconer writes at p. 490 :—

“ This invariable coincidence may be, as has been shown above,
either empirical or necessary. Cuvier, like a true interpreter of
nature, employed both indifferently in his restorations, accord-
ingly as they were presented to him, and professed it. This
important fact is nowhere recognized by Mr. Huxley, who argues
the case throughout as if Cuvier had excluded the empirical and
admitted only of necessary correlations.”

This is in the teeth of the passage of my abstract, which Dr.
Falconer himself quotes at p. 487: “ Andif it were necessary to
appeal to any authority save facts and reason, our first witness
would be Cuvier himself, who in a very remarkable passage, two
or three pages further on (Discours, pp. 184, 185), implicitly
surrenders his own principle.” Surely this amount of careless
incorrectness is hardly venial. Surely I may quote to Dr. Fal-
coner his own courteous words, “rarely in the history of science
has confident assertion been put forward in so grave a case upon
a more erroneous and unsubstantial foundation.”

* Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, vol. ii. pp. 87, 88; and again,
p.78:—* This idea of a final cause is an essential condition in order to the
pursuing our researches respecting organized bodies,”

OE

Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Palaeontology. 53

Just after reproaching me at p. 482, as I conceive unjustifiably,
with affirming a case to be one of Cuvier’s selection, which is
not so, Dr. Falconer falls into the precise error which he wrong-
fully attributes to me.

* Let us now take the case as put by Mr. Huxley, and suppose
that the Brown and White Bears were only met with in the fossil
state ; but with the proviso of the other living species being
known to us as at present.”

What I say is, “If Bears were only known to us in the fossil
state.” Dr. Falconer’s proviso, in fact, is the precise nullifi-
cation of my argument, and yet he still ventures to quote it as
mine. So again at p. 483, after discussing the Bear question, Dr.
Falconer states, “ Mr. Huxley next takes in hand the opposite
ease of the Ungulate Herbivora, as put by Cuvier.” Dr. Falconer’s
assertion is inaccurate; I do no¢ next take in hand the Ungulate
Herbivora; any one who will read my abstract may see that the
discussion as to the Bears, comes at the end of the argument
about the Ungulata, forming not a separate question or opposite
case, but part of the same.

But here as elsewhere, Dr. Falconer seems to forget the im-
portant distinction between a question of detail and one of prin-
ciple. If physiological arguments are good at all in the way
Cuvier put them, they must be universal in their application, in
which case any exception is fatal ; on the other hand if they be of
limited application, before we can apply them in palzontology,
we must first have ascertained to what group the subject of our
studies belongs by other means, and these can only be the appli-
eation of morphological laws.

I trust I have now brought forward sufficient evidence to
justify my accusation of misrepresentation and misconception
on Dr. Falconer’s part, and I would most willingly leave the
subject, were it not necessary in defence of myself and others to
advert to one or two other points in Dr. Falconer’s attack. In two
of these, accuracy as to matters of fact isinvolved. The first relates
to the Stonesfield Mammal, a title which has been applied as
much to the Phascolotherium as to the Amphitherium. Dr.
Falconer asserts, that I have been unhappy in my citation of this
case, because the Amphitherium is an Lnsectivore, and because
the Phascolotherium has fewer teeth than the Amphitherium.
Candour might have led Dr. Falcqner to quote a little more of
Prof. Owen’s opinion as to the latter animal than he does*. If he
had combined careful thought with candour, he would have

* See British Fossil Mammals, pp. 55 and 56. Professor Owen espe
cially warns us against concluding “too absolutely” that the Amphitherium
“may not have combined the more essential points of the Marsupial orga-
nization” with the slighter inflection of the angle of the jaw.

54 Bibliographical Notices.

perceived that inasmuch as the Phascolotherium possesses forty-—
eight teeth (four more than the typical number in mammals), ”
and has the strongly inflexed angular process, it precisely fulfils”
the conditions of my argument. In point of fact, however, the
number of teeth is an irrelevant consideration. The other ques-
tion of fact relates to the structure of the Sloth’s tooth: when
Cuvier speaks of the alternation of substance in the teeth of an
Ungulate animal, he obviously refers to that peculiar alternation
of vertical plates of enamel, dentine and cement, which the teeth
of the typical Ungulates present. A difference of structure m
layers parallel to the crown of the tooth, is of course possessed. by
every Carnivore, and it is this kind of arrangement which the
Sloth also presents. I venture to think, therefore, that this
objection to my argument is like most of Dr. Faleoner’s, and
to use his own words, “ more specious than valid.”

I have left untouched many points in Dr. Falconer’s essay, not
because they cannot be answered, but because I conceive they
will answer themselves. Under this category I leave such pas-
sages as those at p. 488, the singular bad taste of which will cause
Dr. Falconer, in his cooler moments, far more annoyance than
they have occasioned to any one else, except his friends. But I
cannot pass without more grave comment, the allusion, at p. 477,
to the audience which I had the honour to address. Dr. Fal-
coner’s apparent ignorance of the nature of the Friday evening
audience at the Royal Institution—one which the best men in
this country approach gravely and earnestly, knowing as they
do that, whatever be the “ mixture” of their hearers, there is
pretty sure to be among them a fair jury of their peers,—can
be his sole excuse for the tone of his remarks.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

The Ferns of Great Britain, illustrated by J.E.Sowrersy. The
Descriptions by C. Jounson. London, Sowerby, 1855. 8vo.
The Ferns of Great Britain and their Allies. By ANNE Pratt,

London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 8vo.
The Fern-Allies, illustrated by J. E.Sowrrsy. The Descriptions
by C.Jounson. London, Sowerby, 1856. 8vo.

British Poisonous Plants. By C. Jounson. London, Sowerby,
1856. 12mo.

Ir has seemed more convenient to uotice the above books econjointly,
for the first three of them treat upon the same subject. Our pages
(xv. 354) have already contained a recommendation of Sowerby’s
‘Ferns’ to the favourable consideration of botanists, and we should
not have thought it necessary to record the fact, that its proprietor

Bibliographical Notices. . 55

has issued an edition with uncoloured plates at a very cheap rate,
had it not come to our knowledge that this determination was caused
by the publication by the ‘ Society for Promoting Christian Know-
ledge’ of the book that stands second on the above list. It really
does seem to us that a ‘ religious’ Society goes much out of its way
when it employs the funds of its subscribers in the issue of books of
a secular character, and thus becomes a ‘ publishing house,’ in com-
petition with men who have to gain their bread by their business.
But the matter becomes far worse when the book published is such
as that before us. Here we have a work illustrated by numerous
plates, nearly all the magnified portions of which, with the entire
figures of some of the plants, are badly, but certainly copied from
the plates contained in Sowerby’s work. We have taken some
trouble in the examination of this piratical act, and find that of those
figures which Sowerby cannot claim, a considerable number are
derived from Newman’s ‘Ferns.’ There is not the slightest ac-
knowledgement on the part of the Society, nor of the artist, that such
is the origin of these plates; and we are informed that it was only
after legal proceedings had been threatened that the Society, with
some dificulty, consented to insert the following notice in future
copies of their book, and Sowerby obtained payment for the use of
his plates :—

Cory or Notice.—tThe artist also wishes it to be understood,
that he has purchased permission of Mr. J. E. Sowerby, to copy from
the work lately published by him, entitled ‘The Ferns of Great
Britain, Illustrated,’ certain details of the plates, including the figure
of the rare plant Gymnogramma leptophylla.”

This notice gives a very faint idea of the extent to which he is
indebted to Sowerby, and takes no notice of his appropriations from
Newman. We have entered rather fully into this matter, because
we believe that neither the authoress nor the leading members of the
Society have any idea of the mode in which their “‘ Committee of
General Literature” is acting towards authors and publishers. That
they should require the threat of legal proceedings to perform an act
of common honesty, is more than we can easily believe.

But enough of this. The public benefit by the issue of the cheap
edition of Sowerby’s ‘ Ferns.’

The Society’s book makes no pretensions to a scientific character,
and will probably fulfil the objects of its writer; but it is certainly
not a work that we can recommend to persons desiring to acquire
any except the most superficial knowledge of the plants.

Messrs. Sowerby and Johnson’s ‘ Fern-Allies’ contains 31 plates,
and is intended to be a companion to their ‘ Ferns.’ _ It treats of the
Equisetacee, Lycopodiacee, Marsileacee and Characee. The plates
are mostly good; but exception must be made of several of those
representing the Characee, and a few others. That of Hquisetum
limosum is not like either of the forms, or, as Fries thinks them,
species, included under that name ; it appears to be a combination
of the two, such as we have never seen in nature. No figure is
given of the typical form of 2. variegatum. ‘There is a good plate
of FE. Moorei, a plant of which the specific distinctness is doubtful.

56 Zoological Society :—

We have very slight acquaintance with it, but fancy that it will prove:
to be a form of the Z. trachyodon (A. Br.), which is the 2. Mackait:
(Newm.).

The genus Chara seems to have been added to this book unad-
visedly ; for neither the artist nor the describer appears to know
much about the plants included init. Most of the plates are copied
from those in ‘ English Botany,’ or its ‘Supplement ;’ but these are
not all therefore good, for that of C. vu/garis, taken from an early
volume of ‘ Eng. Bot.,’ is very poor.

The new plates profess to represent C. syncarpa and C. prolifera,
the other five species described in Mr. Babington’s Monograph
(A. N. H. ser. 2. vol. v. p. 81) remaining unfigured in any English’
work. The plate of C. syncarpa is tolerable, and might have passed
without notice had not a piece of some totally different plant, perhaps
C. polysperma, been added at the foot. Certainly C. synearpa never
has the many-jointed stems there represented. As we do not know
from which plant the magnified nucules were taken, their value is
greatly reduced. In all probability the two entire nucules were
derived from the wrong plant, and the highly magnified piece of
stem is similarly erroneous. We must be allowed to doubt the
correctness of Mr. Johnson’s remark, that C. syncarpa is sometimes
moncecious.

The other new plate is a fair representation of C. prolifera,
although the jointed structure of the primary branches is not shown.
We may remark, that Mr. Wilson’s C. gracilis from Llyn Idwell is
stated in the above-mentioned Monograph to be C. syncarpa, and
that authentic specimens now before us confirm that statement,’
Mr. Johnson therefore must not think that he has disproved the
permanency of the moneecious structure in C. gracilis.

The ‘ British Poisonous Plants’ deserves our approbation, being
good as far as it goes. The 28 plates are transferred from ‘ English
Botany,’ and are therefore all, or nearly all, that could be desired.
The recent cases of accidental poisoning with the root of Monkshood
is the especial cause of its publication. It would have been well if a
figure of the root of this plant, and that of the Horse-radish, for
which it was mistaken, had been given; for at the season when
such mistakes are liable to occur, neither leaves nor flowers exist,
and they can only be guarded against by making generally known
the differences between the roots. \<o

We hope that this little book will obtain an extensive circulation.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
June 12, 1855.—W. Yarrell, Esq., in the Chair.

On a New Species or THE Genus Prion.
By Joan Goucp, F.R.S.

Through the kindness of Mr. Yarrell, I have the pleasure of
bringing to the Meeting a bird which I conceive to be a new species

Mr. J. Gould on a new species of Prion. 57

of Prion, captured on the island of Madeira, or on the neighbouring
rocky islets called the Desertas. I also exhibit five other species
(forming part of my own collection), which I consider to belong to
the same beautiful group, and which were captured by myself during
my voyages to or from Australia.

The entire Series present a great similarity in the colour of their
plumage, but a great diversity in the breadth or lateral development of
their mandibles, as well as in the fringe-like pectinations of the base of
the upper mandible; this latter character being much more prominent
in the larger than in the smaller species of the group, in which.
indeed, it is almost obsolete, if not entirely absent. I consider the
members of this genus to constitute a very distinct group among the
Petrels, quite equal in point of interest and value to that of the
Thalassidrome. 1 have had many opportunities of observing the
whole of them in their oceanic haunts, and did not fail to observe that
every five or six degrees of latitude was frequented by a different and
distinct species: they all inhabit the wide ocean, and rarely visit the
land except for the purpose of incubation: they are often seen in
immense flocks, and sometimes in multitudes: they never mount
high in the air, but are altogether the most light, buoyant and fairy-
like members of the great group to which they belong: their great
stronghold is the temperate latitudes of the southern ocean, and
until the occurrence of the present new species, I have never heard
of one being found north of the equator. The species to which the
Madeiran bird is most nearly allied, is that to which I have given
the name of P. Ariel, and which I met with and shot in great
numbers in Bass’s Straits. It differs, however, in being smaller in
all its admeasurements, in having a shorter, more swollen or robust
bill, particularly with reference to the nostrils and the terminal hook
of the upper mandible. For this new species I propose the name of

PRION BREVIROSTRIS.

Upper surface delicate blue ; edge of the shoulder, the scapularies,
outer margins of the external primaries and the tips of the middle
tail-feathers black ; lores, sides of the head and all the under surface
white, stained with blue on the flanks and under tail-coverts; bill
light blue, deepening into black on the sides of the nostrils and at
the tip, and with a black line along the side of the under mandible ;
feet light blue, the interdigital membrane flesh-colour.

Total length, 103 inches; bill, +3; wing, 64; tail, 33; tarsi, 14.

DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME NEW SPECIES OF ANT-THRUSHES
(ForMICARIINZ) FROM Santa Fé v1 Bocora.
By Pariuipe Lurtey Scuater, M.A., F.Z.S.

1. GRALLARIA HYPOLEUCA.

G. supra ferruginea, loris albidis; subtus alba, lateribus magis
einerascentibus : tibiis et hypochondriis brunnescentibus.
Long. tota 6°5, alee 3:5, caude 1:8.
_ The collection of the Jardin des Plantes at. Paris contains the only

58 Zoological Society :— lM

example I have yet seen of this bird, which appears to have eseaped
the notice of the French ornithologists. It is marked as having
been received from Bogota in 1843 by M. Rieffer. Its form is typi-
eal, but in colouring it differs from all hitherto known members of
the genus, though perhaps showing some resemblance to Grallaria
brevicauda (Bodd.) (Pl. Enl. 706. fig. 1), which is, however, much
smaller. It is of a uniform ferruginous brown above and white be-
low, passing into a cinereous tinge on the sides. Some brown colour
is mixed with the feathers on the sides of the breast. The bill is
black, the tarsi plumbeous ; the thighs and the under wing-coverts
brown.

2. GRALLARIA MODESTA.

G. supra intense brunnescenti-olivacea, alis caudaque nigricanti-
brunneis olivaceo tinctis: subtus olivacea, flavescenti-albido
flammulata; ventre medio flavescenti-albido: tectricibus sub-
alaribus pallide castaneis : mandibula superiore plumbea, hujus
apice et tomiis et mandibula inferiore, nisi basi, albicantibus :
pedibus pallide brunneis.

Long. tota 6°2, alee 3°2, caudze 1°8, tarsi 1°75.

This is a rather uniformly-coloured -species, of which the British
Museum contains a single specimen. There are indications of darker
marginations to the feathers of the nape and back. The breast fea-
thers are medially yellowish-white, broadly margined with olivaceous.

3. CHAM2ZA MOLLISSIMA.

C. supra brunneo-castanea, remigibus rectricibusque intus nigri-
cantibus : capitis lateribus et corpore toto subtus nigris, albo
dense transvittatis : uropygi plumis lawis, elongatis, densis- —
simis : rostro Chamzezze marginatee simili sed minore. ,

Long. tota 5°75, alee 3°2, caude 2:5.

This peculiar Ant-thrush, of which there is one specimen in the
British Museum, has the lower back very densely feathered, the
coverts reaching to within an inch of the end of the rectrices. The
wings are shorter than is usual in Chameza—the 4th, Sth, 6th and
7th primaries being nearly equal in length, but the Sth rather the
longest ; the tail rather more lengthened ; the formation of the feet
is much the same.

Above the colouring is of a brown chestnut, rather darker towards —
the tail; the sides of the head and whole under-plumage are blackish
barred with white, every feather having three or more transverse

white bars. A slight tinge of castaneous is intermixed, particularly
on the breast.

4. FoRMICIVORA CALLINOTA.

F’. olivacea ; pileo summo et nuchanigris : loris, capitis lateribus,
et corpore subtus ad imum pectus cinereis : abdomine pallide —
flavicanti-viridi : tergo late castaneo, pennis quibusdum nigris —
supra marginato: alis nigris, carpo et tectriceum marginibus —
flavis : secundariis et rectricibus olivaceo marginatis: rostro—

|

Mr. P. L. Sclater on some new species of Ant-Thrushes. 59

subulato, mandibula superiore nigricante, inferiore pallide
plumbea: pedibus plumbers.

Long. tota 4°0, alee 2°0, caudee 1°7.

This is an exceedingly pretty species of Formicivora, distinguished
by the bright chestnut colouring of its lower back, above which, i in
the middle of the back, are a few black- tipped feathers, forming a
small black patch. It must be placed next to the Brazilian Formi-
eivora maculata, (Max.) (Leptorhynchus striolatus, Menetries, Mém.
de l’Ac. St. P. 1835, pl. 10. fig. 2*), with which it agrees in form and
style of plumage. A single example of it is in the British Museum.

5. DysirHAMNUS SEMICINEREUS.

& cinereus, pileo intensiore ; subtus medialiter albicantior : dorso
postico et remigum marginibus cum ventre imo olivascentibus :
tectricibus alarum tenuissime albo limbatis : rostro pedibusque
nigris.

2 olivacea, pileo rufescente: gutture medio albo, lateraliter
cinerascente: ventre flavicanti-olivaceo ; mandibula imferiore
basi albicante.

Long. tota 4°5, alae 2:4, caudee 1°6.

In this apparently new Dysithamnus, of which the British Museum
contains several specimens, the cinereous colour in the male occupies
the whole upper plumage down to the middle of the back, where it
gradually passes into olive, and the whole lower plumage down to
the middle of the belly, where a like colour supervenes. The middle
of the body beneath is much paler. The bill is rather longer than
in D. mentalis, but the form is otherwise the same. The genus to
which this bird belongs is certainly very closely connected with
Thamnophilus, but I doubt whether that form can be divided even as
a subfamily from the South American Ant-thrushes.

6. PyRIGLENA TYRANNINA.

o nigricanti-cinereus, carpo summo et alarum tectricum margini-
bus albis: plaga dorsi medi interna nivea: subtus paulo pal-
lidior, rostro et pedibus nigris.

2 pallide brunnea, rufescente tincta; abdomine toto clare rufo :
mandibula inferiore, nisi apice alba,

Long. tota 5:2, alee 2°5, caudze 2°25.

A series of specimens in the British Museum clearly connect the
somewhat dissimilar male and female of this species, which it is diffi-
cult to place satisfactorily in any of the present established genera
of this family as far as I am acquainted with them, though without
doubt a member of the group, with somewhat of a Tyrannine aspect.
The characteristic white patch underneath the feathers of the back
is well marked in both sexes.

_* M. Menetries has made this bird a second species of his genus Leptorhynchus,
but I do not think it can be satisfattorily arranged along with the peculiar form
which he has made the type of his genus; and the name Leptorhynchus being
preoccupied, I propose to change it into Psilorhamphus. Type P.guttatus, mihi.
(Leptorhynchus.guttatus, Men. pl. 10. fig. 1.)

60 Zoological Society.
June 26, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chairs (09 95
Descriptions or some New Species or Birps rrom Santa
Fe pt Bocora. By Pritie Lurvey Sciarer, M.A,”

:
'

1. NeMOSIA ALBIGULARIS. aes
N. nigra: dorso postico crissoque cum macula collari utringue et
plumis narium quibusdam aurantio-flavis :; speculo alari albo:
subtus alba pectoris et laterum plumis partim intus nigro vit-
tatis: rostro supra nigricante, subtus carneo: pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 4°2, alee 2°5, caudee 1°8.

This is a close ally of Nemosia flavicollis (Vieill.), from which,
however, it may be at once distinguished by its white throat, the
yellow colour being confined to a patch on the side of the neck. The
spot above the nostrils and orange tint of the yellow are other dif-
ferences which serve to confirm the validity of this species. | There
are examples of it in the British Museum and in Mr. Gould’s wollee-
tion and my own.

2. PyriGLENA ELLISIANA.

P. fusco-castanea unicolor: facie, mento et regione auriculari —
cum cauda nigricantibus : rostro nigro, mandibula inferiore,
nisi ipsa tomia basique, alba.

Long. tota 7°0, alee 3°3, caudee 3:1.

The “only specimen I have seen of this species was received ne
Lady Ellis in a collection of birds from Bogota, and presented b
her to the British Museum. At the request of Mr. G. R. Gray, I
have named it after the donor. The form is nearly that of P. domi-
cella, but there is no sign of a white, subinterscapular spot, as is
general in the species of this genus. The tail-coverts are very thick,
The plumage is of a nearly uniform cinnamon-brown, brighter above,
and with a greenish gloss on the breast. The front, sides of the
head, throat “and tail are black. ¥

3, ANTHUS BOGOTENSIS. TF
A. pennis corporis superi medialiter nigris pallido cervino-brunneo
late marginatis : alis intus nigris ; primariis stricte, secundariis
autem et tectricibus pallido cervino-brunneo late marginatis :
rectricibus-nigris ; una utrinque extina, nisi pogonii interioris
parte basali, tota pallide alba, hrunnescente tincta ; ceteris
extus et duabus mediis utrinque cervino-brunneo anguste lim-
batis: capitis lateribus et corpore toto subtus pallide cervino-
brunneis, ventre crissoque albescentioribus ; pectoris lateribus et
collo antico punctis paucis triangularibus nigris, quasi torquem
Sormantibus, notatis: rostro nigro, mandibula inferiore basi
flavido: pedibus validis, flavis : ungue postico valde ee

Long. tota 5:0, alee 3:2, caudze 2°3,

This is the only bird of the nearly universally distributed family. off
Pipits I have seen from Bogota, and appears distinct from any species
previously noticed. The bill is rather larger, and the feet stronger.
and thicker than in the ordinary members of the genus. bavestiial
plumage is of the usual pale brownish fawn-colour, thickly clouded:
with black, caused by the feathers being broadly margined on each!

Royal Institution. 61

side with the fawn-colour. The sides of the head and under-plumage
are uniform, except on the sides of the breast and across the neck,
where there are small black triangular spots in the centre of some
of the feathers. The under wing-coverts are pure pale buff; the
middle of the belly and crissum lighter and nearly whitish.

4. OrTocorRyYS PEREGRINA.

Otocoris chrysolaimos, Bp. Att. Se. It. 1845, p. 405 (nee Wagl.).

O. supra grisescenti-brunnea, rufo tincta; pennis nigro variegatis :
Sronte, facie gulaque flavis, loris et regione auriculari et vitta
transversa verticis cum plaga magna superpectorali nigris : ab-
domine crissoque et tectricibus alarum inferioribus albis, pectore
et lateribus rufescenti-griseo mixtis : alis nigricantibus ; pri-
marus albido, secundariis rufescenti-griseo, tectricibus majori-
bus rufo limbatis ; tectricibus summis pure rufo-brunneis, pene
castaneis : cauda nigricante ; rectrice una utringue extima late,
secunda autem versus apicem solum et angustius albo limbata ;
duabus mediis rufescenti-griseo utringue late marginatis : tec-
tricibus caude superioribus basi rufis : rostro nigro, mandibula
inferiore basi alba: pedibus intense brunneis.

Long. tota 5:5, alee 3°8, caude 2°4,

I have had an example of this bird in my possession several years,
but have always considered it the same as Wagler’s O. chrysolema,
with which it has been identified by Prince Charles Bonaparte.
Having however lately obtained specimens of the Mexican species, I
find the Bogota bird presents such differences as to render its specific
isolation necessary. It is rather smaller than the former, the taiis
shorter, the bill longer and more curved, and the back has more
black upon it. But the chief peculiarity to be remarked in my
gan (which is not quite adult) is the pure red-brown colour of
the upper wing-coverts, which in the Mexican bird are lighter, paler,
and more pinky. There are many examples of this species in the
Paris Museum, in the collection recently transmitted from Bogota by
M. Lewy, the French consul there. I have no doubt fully mature
individuals will exhibit still further differences.

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

_ May 2, 1856.-—The Duke of Northumberland, K.G., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

“On the Ruminant Quadrupeds and the Aboriginal Cattle of
Britain.” By Prof. Owen, F.R.S.
» The speaker introduced the subject of the Ruminant order of
quadrupeds, and the source of our domesticated species, by some
general remarks upon the classification of the class Mammalia, and
on the characters of the great natural group defined by Ray and
Linneus as the Ungulata, or hoofed mammalia.
’ These are divisible into two natural and parallel orders, having
respectively the Anoplotherium and Paleotherium as their types;
which genera, as far as geological researches have yet extended,
were the first, or amongst the earliest, representatives of the Ungu-
lata on this planet.

62 Royal Institution :-—

The brilliant researches of Baron Cuvier, the founder of paleeon-
tological science and the reconstructor of those primeval hoofed
animals, from fragmentary fossil remains in the gypsum quarries at
Montmartre, were alluded to.

Diagrams of the entire skeletons of the Anoplotherium and Palseo-
therium were referred to, in illustration of their dental and osteo-
logical peculiarities.

The Anoplotherium, with the typical dentition of

3—3 ]—1 4—4 3—3
, canines , premolars , molars =44;

3-3 1—1 4—4 3-3

1INCISOTS

had all its teeth of the same length, and in a continuous unbroken
series : this character is peculiar to Man in the existing creation.
The Paleotherium, with the same dental formula as the Anoplo-
therium, had the canines longer than the other teeth, and developed
into sharp-pointed weapons ; necessitating a break in the dental series
to receive their summits in closing the mouth.

The Anoplotherium had 19 vertebrae between the neck and sacrum,
viz. 13 dorsal and 6 lumbar. The Palwotherium had 16 dorsal
and 7 lumbar vertebre.

The Anoplotherium had a femur with two trochanters, and the fore-
part of the ankle-bone, called “astragalus,”’ divided into two equal fa-
cets. Its hoofs formed a symmetrical pair on each foot. Cuvier has very
justly inferred that its stomach must have been complex, and proba-
bly, in some respects, like that of the Camel or Peceari. The Palseo-
therium had a femur with three trochanters, an astragalus with its fore-
part unequally divided, and hoofs, three in number, on each foot. It
most probably had a simple stomach, like the Tapir and Rhinoceros,
which, amongst existing animals, most nearly resemble that extinct
primitive hoofed quadruped, with toes in uneven number.

Every species of ungulate mammal with an uneven number of hoofs
or toes, that has been introduced into this planet since the eocene
tertiary period, whether it have 1 hoof on each foot, as in the Horse,
3 as in the Rhinoceros, or 5 as in the Elephant, resembles the Palzeo-
therium in having more than 19 dorso-lumbar vertebrae, which ver-
tebree also differ in number in different genera ; e.g. 22 in the
Rhinoceros, 23 in the Mastodon, 27 in the Hyrax. The typical
Pachyderms, with an odd number of hoofs, have also three trochan-
ters on the femur, the fore-part of the astragalus unequally divided,
and the pattern of the grinding surface of the molar teeth unsym-
metrical, and usually crossed by oblique enamel-ridges. All the
existing odd-toed or perissodactyle mammals have a simple stomach
and a vast and complex cecum ; the horned species have either a
single horn, or two odd horns, one behind the other on the middle
line of the head, as e. g. in the one-horned and two-horned Rhino-
ceroses. a

Every species of ungulate animal with hoofs in even number,
whether 2 on each foot, as in the Giraffe and Camel, or 4 on each
foot, as in the Hippopotamus, resembles the Anoplotherium in having
19 dorso-lumbar vertebre, neither more nor less ; in haying two

Prof. Owen on the Ruminant Quadrupeds. 63

trochanters on the femur, in haying the fore-part of the astragalus
equally divided, and in haying the pattern of the grinding surface of
the molar teeth more or less symmetrical. The horned species have
the horns in one pair, or two pairs. All have the stomach more or less
complex, and the cecum small and simple. In the Hog the gastric
complexity is least displayed; but in the Peccari the stomach has three
compartments ; and in the Hippopotamus it is still more complex.
But the most complex and peculiar form of stomach is that which
enables the animal to “ chew the cud,’ or submit the aliment to a
second mastication, characteristic of the large group of even-hoofed
Ungulata, called ‘* Ruminantia.”

These timid quadrupeds have many natural enemies ; and if they
had been compelled to submit each mouthful of grass to the full
extent of mastication which its digestion requires, before it was
swallowed, the grazing ruminant would have been exposed a long
time in the open prairie or savannah, before it had filled its stomach.
Its chances of escaping a carnivorous enemy would have been in a
like degree diminished. But by the peculiar structure of the rumi-
nating stomach, the grass can be swallowed as quickly as it is cropped,
and be stowed away in a large accessory receptacle, called the “ru-
men,” or first cavity of the stomach ; and this bag being filled, the
ruminant can retreat to the covert, and lie down in a safe hiding-
place to remasticate its food at leisure.

The modifications of the dentition, cesophagus, and stomach, by
which the digestion in the Ruminantia is carried out, were described
and illustrated by diagrams.

The speaker next treated of the various kinds of horns and antlers ;
the manner of growth, shedding, renewal, and annual modifications
of the deciduous horns, the peculiarities of the persistent horns, the
mechanism of the cloyen foot, and the provision for maintaining the
hoofs in a healthy condition, were pointed out.

The following were the chief varieties of the ruminating stomach.
In the small Musk-deer (Tragulus) there are three cavities, with a
small intercommunication-canal between the second and last cavity ;
the “ psalterium,” or third cavity, in the normal ruminating stomach,
being absent. This cavity is likewise absent in the Camel-tribe, which
have the cells of the second cavity greatly enlarged, and have also
accessory groups of similar cells developed frem the rumen, or first
cavity. These cells can contain several gallons of water. The rela-
tion of this modification, and of the hump or humps on the back, to
the peculiar geographical position of the Camel-tribe, was pointed out.

The modifications of the ruminating stomach ; the discovery of ru-
dimental teeth in the embryo Ruminantia, which teeth (upper incisors
and canines) have been supposed to characterize the Pachyderms;
the occurrence of another alleged pachydermal character, viz. the
divided metacarpus and metatarsus, in the foetus or young of all rumi-
nants, and its persistence in the existing Moschus aquaticus, and in a
fossil species of Antelope ; the absence of cotyledons in the chorion of
the Camel-tribe, with the retention of some incisors as well as canines
in the upper jaw of that tribe; the ascertained amount of visceral
and osteological conformity of the supposed circumscribed order

64 oe) Royal Institution > oo)

Ruminantia, with the other artiodactyle (even-toed) Ungulatas abdve
all, the number of lost links in that interesting ehain which have
now been restored from the ruins of former habitableysurfaces ofthe
earth—all these and other similar facts have concurred imestablishing
different views of the nature and value of the: Ruminant orderdrem
_ those entertained by Cuvier, and the majority of systematic naturalists
up to 1840. Thus instead of viewing the Anoplotherium as' a y-
derm, the speaker, having regard to the small size df its! upper inci-
sors and cauines, to the retention of the individuality of itsotwovchief
metacarpal and metatarsal bones, and to the non-development ofhorns
at any period of life, would regard it rather as resembling ancover-
grown embryo-ruminant—of a ruminant in which growth»had) pro-
ceeded with arrest of development. The ordinal characters of the
Anoplotherium are those of the Artiodacty/a. On the other hand,
instead of viewivg the Horse as being next of kin to the Camel; ofeas
making the transition from the Pachyderms to the Ruminants, the
speaker had been led, by considerations of its third trochanter; sits
astragalus, its simple stomach and enormous sacculated czeeumthe
paleotherian type of the grinding surface of the molars, and the
excessive number of the dorso-lumbar vertebree, to the conviction of
the essential affinities of the Lguide with other perissodactyles (odd-
toed hoofed beasts). wraacd aieae
The primitive types of both odd-toed and even-toed Unguilates o¢cur
in the eocene tertiary deposits: the earliest forms of the rami iant
modification of the Artiodactyla appear in the miocene strata. ‘The
fossil remains of the aboriginal cattle of Britain have been found in
the newer pliocene strata, in drift-gravels, in brick-earth deposits,
and in bone-cayes, Two of these ancient cattle (Bovide) were of
gigantic size, with immense horns ; one was a true Bison (Bison pris-
cus), the other a true Ox (Bos primigenius) ; contemporaty with these
were a smaller species of short-horned Ox (Bos longifrons), and a Buf-
falo, apparently identical in species with the Arctic Musk-buffalo
(Bubalus, or Ovibos, moschatus). Mes
The small Ox (Bos longifrons) is that. which the aboriginal na
of Britain would be most likely to succeed in taming. They possessed
domesticated cattle (pecora) when Ceesar invaded Britain. The ¢,
of the mountain fastnesses to which the Celtic population retr
before the Romans, viz. the Welsh “runt” and Highland “ ky
most resemble in size and cranial characters the pleistocene Bos’
gifrons. Prof. Owen therefore regards the Bos longifrons, and not
the gigantic Bos primigenius, as the source of part of our domestic
cattle. st pee |
From the analogy of colonists of the present day he proceeded to
argue that the Romans would import their own tamed cattle to their »
colonial settlements in Britain. The domesticated cattle of the Ro-.
mans, Greeks, and Egyptians bore the nearest affinity to the Brahminy
variety of cattle in India. As the domestic cattle prayers © he
Spaniards into South America have, in many localities, reverted to a
wild state, so the speaker believed that the half-wild races of white
cattle in Chillingham Park, and a few other preserves in Britain, were
descended from introduced domesticated cattle. The size of the déw-

oW. 4 «ek

Prof. Owen on the Ruminant Quadrupeds. 65

»lap, and an occasional rudiment of the hump in these white cattle,

»vas well as the approximation to the light-grey colour characteristic of

the Brahminy race, seemed to point to their primitive oriental source.

» But the speaker could not regard the pure white colour as natural to

a primitive wild stock of oxen. It is now maintained by the careful

destruction of all piebald calves that are produced by the so-preserved
half-wild breeds.

If the blood of any of the aboriginal cattle, contemporary with the
Mammoth and hairy Rhinoceros, still flowed in the veins of any of our
domesticated races, he thought it would be that of the Bos longifrons
transmitted through the short-horned or hornless varieties of the oxen
of the mountains of Wales and Scotland.

In conclusion the speaker referred to the subjoined table of the
classification of recent and extinct hoofed quadrupeds, as indicative
of the progressive extinction of those forms of Ungulata least likely
to be of use to man, and of the substitution of the ruminant forms,
which, from the perfect digestion of their food, elaborate from it the
most sapid and nutritious kinds of flesh.

* "Aprus, par ; Saxrvdos, digitus.
+ Ilepercodaxrvdos, qui digitos habet impares numero,
t Only those genera printed in ifalics now exist.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 2. Vol. xviii.

UNGULATA.

Typica. dAberrantia.
—-———---* —S —_
ArRTIODACTYLA*. PEeRISSODACTYLA}. ToxopDONTIA. SIRENIA.

Anoplotherium. Paleotherium. Toxodon. Maznatus.
Chalicotherium. Paloplotherium. Nesodon. Halicore.
Dichobune. Lophiodon. Rytina.
Cainotherium. Coryphodon. Prosposcip1a. Halitherium.
Poebrotherium. Tapirust. Elephas. Prorastomus.
Xiphodon. Macrauchenia. Mastodon.

Moschus f. Hippotherium. Dinotherium.

Antelope. Equus.

Ovis. Elasmotherium.

Bos. BAyraz.

Cervus. Rhinoceros.

Camelopardalis, Acerotherium.

Camelus.

Auchenia.

Merycotherium.

Merycopotamus.

Hippopotamus.

Dichodon.

Hyracotherium.

Hyopotamus.

Anthracotherium.

Hippohyus,

Cheeropotamus.

Dicotyles.

Phacocherus.

Sus.

66 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
April 10th, 1856.—Professor Balfour, V.P., in the Chair.

The following papers were read :—

1. “ Remarks on the State of the Forests in Pegu, and other parts
of India,” by Dr. M‘Clelland.

The statements in this communication were taken from Dr. M‘Clel-
land’s Report, as given in a Madras paper. That report, taken in
connexion with Dr. Faleoner’s report on the forests of the Tenas-
serim provinces, and Dr. Cleghorn’s on the forests of Madura and
Malabar, prove—

1. That the forests of Southern India and Pegu art approaching
rapidly to exhaustion, 2. That the first step necessary to check
this process is a more effective organization of the forest department
of the government of India. Instances are recorded in the Tenas-
serim provinces of the indiscriminate felling of teak trees of all ages.
Trees with a straight bole of 100 feet, and trees with the wood not
yet hard, were all hewn down alike. In some forests the axe never
ceased for twenty years. In others, every teak tree was removed,
In Malabar the destruction had not been so extensive, and steps had
been taken to prevent the further deterioration of the forests. ;

In Pegu, it appears that the Burmese Government and the squatters
have overworked the forests in a most reckless manner. Trees of all
sizes and ages were allowed to be cut, and it was stated that upwards
of 70 per cent. of the trees cut were under-sized. In some places
the forests have been worked unceasingly for thirty years. Exelusive
of trees felled or killed, there remain in the northern forest about
520,000 teak trees, which at the utmost will allow thinning to the
extent of 25,000 trees a-vyear. This number will soon be exceeded,
and the forests will thus speedily disappear, unless measures are
taken for the renewal of the trees, which it is not the interest of the
lessees to provide for. .

The conservancy of the valuable forests in India is a matter of
great importance, and calls for the immediate attention of the Indian
Government. Steps have already been taken in some of the Pre-
sidencies, but much still remains to be done in order to secure that
the timber of these extensive forests shall be preserved and turned to
good account.

2. “Remarks on some Edible Sea-weeds,”’ by Dr. Davy.

This paper detailed some experiments on Chondrus crispus, or
Carrageen ; Rhodymenia palmata, or Dulse ; Porphyra laciniata, or
Laver; Laminaria digitata, or Tangle; and Fucus vesiculosus, or
Doughlaghman. The author showed from the chemical composition
of these sea-weeds that they were valuable articles of food, containing
oy nitrogen than is present in the ordinary articles of vegetable
ood. ,

3. “On Fibrous Substances used in India, as communicated in the
Report of the Jurors of the Madras Exhibition.”
The Jurors report that it has been shown that Southern India is

Prof. Balfour on the Flora of the Cumbrae Islands. 67

abundantly supplied with fibrous materials of every description for
textile manufactures.

Among the Endogenous plants of India yielding fibre, are noticed
species of Palms, dyave, Yucca, Sanseviera, Fourcroya, Ananassa,
Musa, Pandanus, Rushes, Grasses, and Sedges ; among Exogenous
plants are species of Calotropis, Tylophora, Cryptostegia, Damia,
Cannabis, Corchcrus, Crotalaria, Hibiscus, Abelmoschus, and Abu-
tilon ; besides the barks of species of Ficus, Bauhinia, Grewia, Dal-
bergia, Isora, Butea, and Vernonia. Among the Palms are Cocos
nucifera, the Cocoa-nut Palm; Borassus jlabelliformis, the Palmyra
Palm of Europeans; late or Phaniv sylvestris, the wild Date ;
Caryota urens, or the Indian Sago Palm ; Calamus Rotang, or ground
Rattan. Among Liliaceous plants may be recorded: dyave americana,
American Aloe, and varieties; Fourcroya gigantea, Seemay Kathalay ;
Sanseviera zeylanica, Marool; Yucca gloriosa, Adam’s Needle; YF.
aloéfolia; Ananassa sativa, Pine Apple. Of Pandanacez and
Musaceze : Pandanus odoratissimus, or Screw Pine; Musa paradi-
siaca, or Plantain, and Musa sapientum, or Banana.

Substitutes for flax and hemp are found in the following Dicotyle-
dons :—Culotropis gigantea, or Yercum; Cryptostegia grandiflora,
or Palay ; Damia extensa, or Ootrum ; Crotalaria juncea, or Sunnee
Hemp ; Corchorus olitorius, or Jute; Hibiscus cannabinus, and
other species; Abelmoschus esculentus and ficulneus; -Abutilon
tomentosum and polyandrum.

4. “Notice of the Flora of the Cumbrae Islands,’’ by Professor
Balfour.

The Cumbrae Islands are situated on the Frith of Clyde, between
the coast of Ayrshire and the Island of Bute. In their geological
structure, as well as im their flora, they present many points of
affinity with the latter island. Red sandstone, with limestone and
trap, constitute the chief rocks of the Cumbraes. The rarer plants
are found on the rocky grounds near the shores. ‘The species are in
general those which characterize the western parts of Scotland. The
climate is mild, and some species are met with which are usually
considered characteristic of more southern situations. The Great
Cumbrae is about three miles long and one and a half broad; its
surface embraces about 2500 acres, one-half of which is arable. The
land rises in the centre of the island to about 400 feet. It consists
of a mass of red sandstone traversed by trap veins, some of which
form yery conspicuous dykes. In some parts of the island, limestone
occurs,

The Little Cumbrae lies about half a mile south of the Great
Cumbrae. It is about a mile in length and half a mile in breadth:
It is composed chiefly of trap, with here and there portions of sand-
stone.
The Phanerogamous plants seen by Dr. Balfour and his party
amounted to about 420; viz.—

Dicotyledones, .. <2. s+, 5+> S14
Monocotyledones . . . . . 106

AG os ee SOU
5*

68

Among the more interesting of these may be enumerated the fol-.

lowing :—

Brassica monensis (on
the sandy shores).
Sagina subulata.
Malva moschata.
Hypericum Androsze-
mum,
Geranium sanguineum.
Radiola Millegrana.
Rubus discolor.
Lythrum Salicaria.
Cotyledon Umbilicus.
Sedum Telephium.
Carum verticillatum.
Coninm maculatum.
Eryngium maritimum
{northern shores of
the Great Cumbrae).
Haloscias scoticum.
- Helosciadium inunda-
tum.
nodifiorum.
GEnanthe Lachenaln.
Dipsacus sylvestris
(naturalized).
Hieracium gothicum.
vulgatum.

The number of Ferns and their allies is—

Jasione montana.
Calluna vulgaris (var.
tomentosa).
Pyrola media.
Erythrzea littoralis.
Convolvulus Soldanella
(sandy northernshores
of the Gt. Cumbrae).
Mertensia maritima
(western shore of the
Great Cumbrae).
Solanum Dulcamara.
Hyoscyamus niger.
Linaria vulgaris.
Lamium intermedium.
Lycopus europeus.
Scutellaria galericulata.
Stachys ambigua.
Pinguicula lusitanica.
Utricularia minor.
vulgaris,
Anagallis tenella.
Samolus Valerandi.
Littorella lacustris.
Atriplex Babingtonii.
erecta.

Equisetaceze . .

Filices :

Lycopodiaceze
Total

The proportion of Ferns,

is large.

Asplenium marinum.

Botrychium Lunaria.

Hymenophyllum Wil-
soni.

Lastra Foenisecii.

Ophioglossum vulga-
tum.

Osmunda regalis.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

Salicornia herbacea.
Sureda maritima.
Polygonum Raii.
Rumex viridis.
Habenaria viridis.
Listera cordata.
ovata.
Juncus maritimus.
Alisma ranuneuloides.
Zostera marina, var.
angustifolia.
Carex extensa.
paniculata.
—— vulpina.
Eleocharis uniglumis.
Schcenus nigricans.
Scirpus maritimus.
Catabrosa aquatica, var.
minor.
Festuca arundinacea.
Pseudo-Myurus.
Melica uniflora,
Phalaris arundinacea,
var. picta.
Sclerochloa maritima.
Triticum laxum.

as compared with Phanerogamous plants,
Among the more interesting of these may be noticed—

Polypodium Phegopteris.

Polystichum angulare.
Scolopendrium yulgare.

The following is a list of the Cumbrae Mosses, partly determined
by Mr. Nichol, “and partly from a list given by Mr. Levack :—

Sphagnum cymbi-
fohum.

acutifolium.

cuspidatum.

+—— squarrosum.

Plenridium subulatum.

Gymnostomum tenue.

Weissia controversa.

Dicranum. heteromal-
lum.

Dicranum yarium.
cerviculatum.
—--- Scoparium.
palustre.
Campylopus flexuosus.
Fissidens bryoides.
adiantoides.
taxifolius.

Pottia Heimnii.
truncata.

Tortula muralis.

— subulata.

—— unguiculata.

Didymodon rubellus.

Ceratodon purpureus.

Trichostomum homo-
mallum.

Orthotrichum affine.

- Grimmia pulvinata,

—— maritima.

Prof. Balfour on the Flora of the Cumbrae Islands.

Racomitrium Janugi-
nosum.

canescens.

aciculare.

Ptychomitrium _poly-
phyllum.

Physcomitrium erice-
torum,

Entosthodon Temple-
toni.

Splachnum ampulla-
ceum.

Bartramia fontana.

—— pomiformis.

Bryum capillare.

carneum.

Mnium punctatum.

undulatum.

—— hornum.

——— rostratum.

Atrichum undulatum.

Pogonatum nanum.

alpinum,

Polytrichum commune.

Fontinalis antipyretica.

Neckera complanata.

Pterygophyllum lucens.

Pylaisea polyantha,

Homalothecium seri-
ceum.

Thamnium alopecurum.

Thuidium tamariscinum.

Hylocomnium splen-
dens.

triquetrum,

-—— loreum.

—— squarrosum.

Plagiothecium undula-
tum.

69

Eurhynchium longi-
rostre.

Stokesu.

Brachythecium ruta-
bulum.

velutinum.

populeum,

plumosum.

Hypnum commutatum.

——— revolvens.

cuspidatum.

scorpioides.

Schreberi.

— fluitans.

purum.

cupressiforme.

Jungermannia aspleni-
oides.

tamarisci.

-—— furcata.

The following list of Lichens, collected on the Cumbraes, has been
prepared by Mr. Macmillan :—

Nephroma resupinata
(in fruit).

Parmelia caperata
(barren).

pulverulenta.

parietina.

stellaris.

Sticta scrobiculata
(barren).

Borrera tenella.

Placodium plumbeum.

Spherophoron coral-
loides (in fruit).

compressum.

Parmelia glomulifera
(barren).

—— omphalodes (in
fruit),

Parmeliaperlata(barren).

Cladonia rangiferina.
uncialis.
Roceella tinctoria.
Parmelia conspersa (in
fruit).
Peltidea canina.
horizontalis.
Seyphophorus alcicor-
nis.
Ramalina fraxinea.
fastigiata.
Parmelia saxatilis.
Lecanora tartarea.
Parmelia aquila (in
fruit).
Evernia prunastri.
Usnea florida.

Squamaria murorum.

Ramalina scopulorum.

Lecidea geographica.

sulphurea.

Lecanora atra.

Sticta pulmonaria
(barren).

Parmelia olivacea.

Variolaria velata,

Lecanora parella.

Collema lacerum.

Sticta fuliginosa (barren).

Squamaria affinis.

Parmelia perforata (bar-
ren).

Stereocaulon paschale (in
fruit),

Mr. Maemillan remarked, “ In the above list of the most conspi-

cuous Lichens of these islands, it will be observed that several species
occur which are usually found only in the depths of shady woods, in
situations far inland. The Parmelia glomulifera, Sticta scrobiculata,
Placodium plumbeum, Nephroma resupinata, and Sticta fuliginosa,
are almost peculiar to the extensive forests of mountainous regions
where there is a great deal of moisture and shade; and hence their
occurrence, not merely as stray or isolated individuals, for the Lichens
are sometimes very erratic in their choice of habitats, but im con-
siderable quantities on islands almost entirely destitute of wood and
very much exposed, is a somewhat singular cireumstance. It is also
curious to notice in the list no less than eight species, which we
‘should sceareely expect beforehand to find, insomuch as they belong

70 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

to a somewhat Alpine zone, which usually commences at a greater

elevation than that of the highest ground on the islands. The
region in which the Cladonia rangiferina, Lecanora tartarea, Lecidea
geographica, Spherophoron coralloides, Parmelia omphalodes, &c.,
prevail in the greatest quantity, and attain to their greatest luxuriance
and beauty, commences at about 500 feet, and terminates at a height
of 1000 feet or a little more. Of course, extensive patches of these
Lichens may sometimes be found at much lower elevations ; indeed,
I have repeatedly gathered considerable quantities of each of them,
but very diminutive and ill-developed, all along the west coast of
Scotland in immediate proximity to the sea; but it is only within the
above limits that uniformly large and perfect specimens, furnished
with fructification, can be obtained. There are two Lichens occurring
on these islands which are found on almost all our sea-coasts, and are
never found far inland, the Parmelia aquila and Ramalina scopulorum,
The former has never been found, I believe, at a greater distance from
the sea than some twenty or thirty miles, and always grows on rocks
fully exposed to the sea-breeze ; it is found in considerable abundance
on rocks so situated on Arthur’s Seat. The latter lichen is peculiarly
plentiful upon rocks along the west coast of Scotland, and attains a
greater length and thickness in proportion as we advance northward,
the Orcadian rocks being sometimes covered with individuals from
six to eight inches long, and nearly one broad. The specimens ob-
tained in the Cumbraes are among the longest and shrubbiest I have
ever seen, and present a remarkable contrast to those gathered on
the east coast, and especially along the Frith of Forth, where it is
rare to find an individual above an inch high, and with lateral
branches. The fructification is rather uncommon, and occurs, I
believe, more frequently on small and well-grown individuals, than
on those which attain the greatest length; the thallus, in the case
of the latter, commonly developing new elongated branches at the
points of the margin where apothecia ought to have been produced.
The specimens found in the Western Islands differ considerably from
those collected on the Irish coasts, in being much narrower, of a
paler colour, and destitute of the oblong pale pitted buds, which
give a rough appearance to the aged Irish plant, and also in the disk
of the apothecia being of a much lighter colour, and nearly similar
to the thallus. It is a very variable species, however, if species it
can be truly called, presenting slight differences as regards size, colour,
shape, and mode of branching, on almost every coast. I have ob-
served in Menzies’ Herbarium at the Botanic Garden, a specimen
marked ‘ R. scopulorum?’ collected on the coast of California, which
appears to me to differ very little from certain states of our native
plant, except perhaps in the thallus being a little thinner, softer, and
somewhat lacunose ; and I possess specimens collected in New Zealand
and the Antarctic regions, which, making the usual allowances for the
widely different circumstances in which they were developed, may
safely be referred to one or other of the numerous states of our own
R. scopulorum.

“ By far the most interesting rarity found in these islands, how-

Prof. Balfour on the Flora of the Cumbrae Islands. 71
ever, is the Roccella tinctoria, now for the first time ascertained to
be a native of Scotland; the most northern localities previously
known for it being the maritime rocks along the south coast of
England, and the Guernsey, Portland, and Scilly islands. The
specimens found on the Cumbraes, where I believe it occurs in pretty
considerable abundance, are somewhat slender and diminutive, but
remarkably characteristic. The west coast of Scotland, and especially
the smaller islands, have been very little visited and explored by the
botanist ; and hence it is that we have remained so long ignorant of
the existence of this very interesting addition to the Flora Scotica,
I have no hesitation in saying, that, were a sufficiently careful and
diligent search once instituted along the other smaller and less-known
islands on the same coast, we should be able to record more than one
locality in Scotland for the Roccella tinctoria, I may add, in con-
clusion, that the nomenclature of these Lichens is that of Hooker’s
English Flora, I have adopted it in preference to that of other
authors, whose works are now slowly finding their way among us—
not because it is the best, but because it can be more easily consulted.”

The following list of Marine Algze found on the coast of the Cum-

braes was prepared by Mr. R. Hennedy :—

Halidrys siliquosa.
Fuens vesiculosus and
var. balticus.
ceranoides.
—— serratus.
— nodosus.
canaliculatus.
Himanthalia lorea.
Desmarestia aculeata.
viridis.
Alaria esculenta.
Laminaria digitata.
bulbosa.
: saccharina.
—— phyllitis.
fascia.
Chorda Filum.
lomentaria.
Zonaria parvula.
Dictyota dichotoma and
var. intricata.
Stilophora rhizodes.
— Lyngbyii.
Dictyosiphon feenicu-
laceus.
Striaria attenuata,
fragilis.
Punctaria latifolia,
plantaginea.
tenuissima.
Asperococeus Turner.
echinatus.
Lefestphen pusillus.
aminariz.

Chordaria flagelliformis.
Mesogloia vermicularis.
virescens.
Leathesia tuberiformis.
Ralfsia verrucosa.
Elachistea fucicola.
stellulata.
Myrionema strangularis.
Leclancherii.
—— punctiformis.
Cladostephus verticil-
latus.
spongiosus.
Sphacelaria scoparia.
plumosa.
cirrhosa.
radians.
racemosa.
Ectocarpus siliculosus.
Hincksie.
fasciculatus (var.
tessellatus).
tomentosus.
crinitus.
distortus.
Landsburgii.
—— littoralis.
—— granulosus.
sphzrophorus.
branchiatus.
Mertensii.
Mynitrichia claveefor-
mis.
—-— filiformis.

Odonthalia dentata.
Rhodomela lycopodi-
oides.
subfusca.
Polysiphonia urceolata.
formosa.
—— fibrata.
elongella.
elongata.
— fibrillosa,
—— Brodizi.
nigrescens,
atrorubescens.
fastigiata.
parasitica.
byssoides,
Dasya coccinea,
Bonnemaisonia aspara-
goides.
Laurencia pinnatifida.
—— ceespitosa.
dasyphylla.
Chrysymenia clavellosa.
Chylocladia kaliformis.
parvula.
articulata.
Corallina officinalis.
Jania rubens.
Melobesia polymorpha.
fasciculata,
membranacea.
verrucata.
pustulata.
Hildenbrandtia rubra,

72

Lithocystis Allmani.

Delesseria sanguinea.

sinuosa.

—— alata.

—— Hypoglosswn.

ruscifolia.

Nitophyllum puncta-
tum.

—-— laceratum.

Plocamium coecineum.

Rhodymenia bifida.
laciniata.
—— jubata.
palmata.
Spherococcus corono-
pifolius.
Hypnea purpurascens.
Gelidium corneum.
Gigartina mammillosa.
Chondrus crispus.
Phyllophora rubens.
meibranifolius.
— Brodie.
Peyssonelia Dubyi.

Gymnogongrus plicata.

Polyides rotundus.
Furcellaria fastigiata.
Dumontia filiformis.
Iridza edulis.
Catenella Opuntia.
Dudresnaia Hudsoni.
Ptilota plumosa.
-—-— sericea.
Ceramium rubrun.
botryocarpum.
—— strictum.

Ceramium flabelligerum.

nodosum.
echionotum.
acanthonotum.
ciliatum.
Griffithsia equisetifolia.
setacea.
Wrangelia multifida.
Callithamnion plumula.
Turneri.
—— tetragonum.
— Hooker.
polyspermum,
corymbosum.
yedicellatum.
Rothii.
floridulum.
Daviesii.
Bryopsis plumosa.
Vaucheria velutina.
Cladophora rupestris.
letevirens.
albida.
-—— lanosa,
arcta.
flavescens.
fracta.
Rhizoclonium riparia.
Conferva littorea.
tortuosa.
—— implexa.
—— erea.
Youngiana.
Enteromorpha intesti-
nalis.
compressa.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

Enteromorpha ramu-_
losa.
ercursa.
Ulva tatiana
—— Lactuea.
Linza.
Porphyra laciniata.
vulgaris (var. li-
nearis).
Bangia fusco-purpurea.
ceramicola.
carnea.
Rivularia plicata.
atra. .
Schizosiphon Warrenia,
Calothrix confervicola.
luteola.
—— scopulorum.
fasciculata.
—— frannosa.
hydnoides,
Lyngbya majuscula.
Carmichaelit.
speciosa.
Microcoleus angusti-
formis.
Oscillatoria littoralis.
subuliformis.
—— insignis.
Spirulina tenuissima.
Hutchinsiz.
Monormia intricata.
Spherosyga Thwaitesii.
—- Broomei.
Spermoseira littorea.

Professor Gregory examined the Diatoms, and prepared the
following list of them :—

Epithemia gibba.

rupestris.

turgida,

Argus.

zebra.

sorex.

Cymbella maculata.

cuspidata.

—— Ehrenbergii.

turgida, W, G.?

obtusa, W.G.

Cocconeis placentula.
vediculus,
hwaitesii.

transversalis,

W.G.
Amphora ovalis.

Amphora minutissima.
Cycloteila Kiitzingiana.
Campylodiscus spiralis.
Surirella minuta.
pinnata.

biseriata.
Tryblionella apiculata,

Cymatopleura Solea.
Nitzschia sigmoidea.
amphioxys.
vivax.
minutissima.
linearis.
Navicula ovalis, Sm.
(elliptica, Kitz.)
varians, W. G.

Navicula bacillans.
gibberula.
rhomboides, var.
elegans.
amphisbeena, __
rhynchocephala.
lanceolata.
Pinnularia major.
Dactylus, Ehr.
viridis.
Tabellaria.

—— gibba.

—— peregrina.

pti

—— mesolepta.
divergens.

— nodosa, Ehr,

Miscellaneous. 73

Pinnularia biceps, W.G. Synedra minutissima. Himantidium Arcus.

linearis, W. G. acicularis, undulatum.
acuta. Cocconema lanceola- gracile.

Stauroneis Pheenicen- tum. Fragilaria eapucina.

teron. —— cymbiforme. Odontidium mutabile.
punctata. cistula. mesodon.

—— anceps. Gomphonema tenellum. Harrisoni, Sm.
acuta. olivaceum. Tabellaria.
linearis. constrictum. Denticula tenuis.

— rectangularis, coronatum. sinuata.

W.G. Fusticulus, Sm.? Tabellaria fenestrata.

—— undulata, W.G. —— geminatum. flocculosa.

—— dubia, W. G,? —— msigne, W. G, Diatoma elongatum.

Pleurosigma eattenua- Meridion circulare. Melosira varians.

tum. Achnanthes exilis. distans.

Synedra radians. Achnanthidium lanceo- Mastogloia elliptica.
lunaris. latum. Colletonema neglectum.

To the names of such species as have been recently added to the
British flora, the name of the observer is added.

It will be seen that the number and variety of species is considerable,
yet, as we have found it in all other localities in the summer or autumn
of 1355, smaller than usual. The species are, with very few exceptions,
such as belong to fresh water; for the only forms that belong to
brackish or sea water are Navicula elegans, Pinnularia peregrina,
and perhaps Synedra acicularis.

There are one or two forms, which, although I have described them
as occurring in the Glenshira sand, are yet more frequent in some of
these gatherings than I have seen them elsewhere. Such are Cocconeis
transversalis, which I have also found in other freshwater gatherings ;
and Tryblionella apiculata, figured in the paper I lately read to the
Royal Society of Edinburgh. The rest of the forms, with the ex-
ception of those marked with my name, and one or two others of
Ehrenberg’s, are such as have long been known, and are very frequent.

MISCELLANEOUS.

EDWARDSIA VESTITA (FORBES).

One of the most interesting additions to our native zoophytology
that has been made for some time is a species described by the late
Professor Edward Forbes under the above title from specimens found
by him on the island of Paros in the Mgean Sea*. It isa vermiform
Actinia some six inches in length, with a beautiful expanded disk of
spotted tentacles ; the most conspicuous phenomenon in its ceconomy
being that it inhabits a tough thick tube formed of condensed mucus,
which is secreted in great abundance and thrown off from the surface
of its body.

This curious and beautiful zoophyte has been procured in some
numbers by Mr. W. A. Lloyd from the coast of North Wales; and

* See Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. for December 1841, and for July
43

74 Miscellaneous.

specimens may now be scen in the tanks of the Zoological Society
in the Regent’s Park. ‘

It is a very interesting coincidence, that the remarkable Annelide
found by Mr. Forbes in the same circumstances and described in the
same communication is also at present in the same noble collection ;
for, though I have had no opportunity of closely examining the spe-
cimen, I have no doubt that the curious Serpu/a which spontaneousl
appeared some months ago in one of the central tanks, and which
has been looked upon with some interest by zoologists, is identical
with Forbes’s Grecian Annelide in question. Its most salient point is
the long but graduated pectination of the branchial filaments on their
interior face, the pectinations projecting into the infundibulum and
meeting in the centre. It will probably require to be characterized
afresh, and to form a new genus.—P. H. Gosse.

CYCLAS LACUSTRIS, DRAPARNAUD.

In Forbes and Hanley’s admirable ‘History of the British Mol-
lusea’ (vol. ii. pp. 118 & 119) is a particular and accurate descrip-
tion of specimens in my collection which I obtained from Mr. Clark, ;
marked “ Exmouth 1831 and Dr. Turton’s cabinet.” They were
referred by those authors to the above-named species. Dr. Gray -
could not have been aware of this when he described the same species
in the last Number of the ‘ Annals,’ and assigned to it the name of”
“ Spherium pallidum.” Specimens which I took last month in
company with Mr, Rouse exactly agree with those in my collection
mentioned above, as well as with the description and figure in Dra-
parnaud’s work. Cyclas caliculata (to some of the varieties of which
this approaches in form), C. rivicola, and a variety of C. cornea
occurred in the same spot ; so that the species in question cannot be a
local variety of any of the others. Its distinctive characters are the
thomboid form and nearly straight hinge-line ; yellowish- white being
the predominant colour, with a greyish tinge and darker irregular
zones in adult specimens. It is probably the Tedlina lacustris of
Miller; but Pfeiffer, Charpentier, Dupuy and some other conti-
nental writers, appear to have mistaken for it varieties of Cyclas
cornea and C. caliculata. Mr. Rouse having afterwards told me
that Dr. Gray intended to publish the discovery, I communicated to
the latter my ideas on the subject, but I presume not in time for him
to make any use of them.—-J. Gwyn JErrrReys.

1 Montagu Square, 16th June 1856.

Occurrence of Clausilia Mortilleti, Dumont, in Kent.

A shell, for which I am indebted to Mr. 8. P. Woodward, and which
is regarded by him as a small variety of Clausilia Rolphii, Leach,
proves to be a pale, clear variety of C. Mortilleti. Mr. Woodward
found it on the chalk hills at Charing in Kent, living on the ground
in the woods, at the roots of ivy. Compared with a specimen of

Miscellaneous. 75

C. Rolphii, collected by him at Charlton near Woolwich, it presents
the following differences.

In C. Rolphii the shell is more elongate and the spire more gradually
decreasing in breadth towards the apex, not ventricose, and suddenly
narrowing to the attenuated upper portion of the spire, as in C. Mor-
tilleti. It is lighter in colour, with a fulvous tint, rather than the
purplish hue which pervades the specimens of the latter ; the basal
erest is not prominent or sharply defined, and the rima is narrow,
and elongated nearly to the base; whereas in C. Mortilleti the crest
forms a strong funiculate keel, and the periomphalus is open and
semicircular. In C. Rolphii the lower lamella is cruciate; both
species are deficient in the palatal callus so conspicuous in the true
C. plicatula, Dr.

Length of C. Rolphii, 14 mill.

of C. Mortilleti from Charlton-Kings near Cheltenham,
a we THN
——— of ditto from Charing, 11 mill.

C. Rolphii has 103 whorls; C. Mortilleti only 9} in English ex-
amples, but a specimen of a more slender variety, which | got at
Chaud-fontaine in Belgium, exhibits the same number as C. Rolphii.

Thus the two distant counties of Kent and Gloucestershire produce
a shell which has so long been unaccountably overlooked on the
continent, as well as in England. There are some who still persist
in confounding C. Rolphii with plicatula of Draparnaud, notwith-
standing the differences observable, and the assurance of De Férussac,
as reported by Gray. Independently of other characters the more
remote costation of plicatula, its palatal callus, and different mode of
timation sufficiently distinguish it. In colour its ranges with C. Mor-
tilleti, the differences of which were pointed out by Adolf Schmidt
in the ‘ Annals’ for January last.

C. plicatula, omitted in Mr. Jeffreys’s notes on the Swiss Mol-
lusca (Annals for January 1855), but noticed in his collection cata-
logue, occurs at Monthey and St. Maurice in the Valais, as well as at
Glarus. In both catalogues he has omitted C. pumila, Ziegler,
var. (3, Pfr., and C. lineolata, Held. The latter shell I got in the
tract explored by him, between Chillon and Villeneuve, as well as in
the north of Switzerland.

W. H. Benson.
12th June 1856.

On the Siliceous Sporangial Sheath of the Diatomacee.

In the 16th volume (1855, p. 92) of the ‘Annals of Natural Hi-
story,’ I pointed out the occurrence of a siliceous sheath enveloping
the sporangial frustule of a Navicula (Amphirhynchus’), and stated
that ‘‘ it was composed of silex, 7. e. was indestructible by heat and
nitric acid ;”’ also, that it was ‘colourless, elongate, rounded at the
‘ends, and furnished with coarse transverse strie, or depressions,
through which the line of fracture runs when the object is crushed,”

76 Miscellaneous.

In the 2nd yolume of the ‘Synopsis of the British Diatomaceze,” the
Rey. W. Smith states, that he has never observed this siliceous sheath,
and that “ probably it may have been an appearance resulting from
the condensation and corrugation of the mucus developed around the
reproductive body.”

I need scarcely say that Mr. Smith’s conclusion is untenable, for
no kind of mucus will resist the action of a red heat and nitric acid.
Moreover, the specimen was not an isolated one, but hundreds of them
were present. It is, however, perhaps excusable that Mr. Smith
should consider me as having been misled by an appearance, having
himself mistaken the cellular appearance upon the valves of the
Diatomaceze for the expression of a cellular structure.

In regard to the “blunder” committed by Dr. Hassall in the
formation of the name Gyrosigma (which is not alliterative however),
I may remark, that this name was retained in the ‘ Micrographic
Dictionary ’ and elsewhere, because it had claims from priority, and
from its adoption by Kiitzing and Rabenhorst ; also because, although
objectionable in structure, it was less so than the name Pleurosigma,
considering that no two authors agree as to which is the side of a
Diatomacean frustule.

Again, the objection to the name Gyrosigma applies also to some
other established generic names, as Spirogyra, &c., the alteration of
which would cause great and unnecessary confusion.

J. W. Grirritu, M.D.
9 St. John’s Square, May 9, 1856.

Travels in Central America. By MM. Scuerzer and WAGNER.
(Communicated by Count Marscua.t.)

Dr. Scherzer lately communicated to the Imperial Academy of
Sciences at Vienna (March 6, 1856) a report of his travels through
the northern portion of Central America, undertaken, in company
with Dr. M. Wagner, in 1852-55. A meteorological journal was
carefully kept during the whole journey ; and the altitudes of moun-
tains, plateaux, and volcanic peaks, together with the limits of the
diffusion of the most important among the animals and the cul-
tivable vegetables, were approximately determined by the aneroid
barometer. Intercourse with the savage Indian tribes, and residence
at villages of the settled and agricultural aborigines of Honduras,
San Salvador, and Guatemala, provided the travellers with valuable
materials for their ethnographical studies. The governments through
whose territories MM. Scherzer and Wagner passed most readily
communicated a large amount of statistical and administrative infor-
mation.

An extensive entomological collection was made in Costa Rica and
Guatemala ; and MM. Scherzer and Wagner brought home about
40,000 specimens of Invertebrata; among which are nearly 300
undescribed species (according to MM. Klug and Hopffer, of Berlin)
of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera. There are also many
new and interesting forms among the land and freshwater Mollusca.

Miscellaneous. 77

The specimens of Vertebrata, chiefly Reptiles, are far less numerous
than those of the Invertebrata; and have been presented, together
with the specimens of North American rocks and fossils, by Dr.
Scherzer to the scientific establishments of the Austrian Empire, or
to persons making them objects of special study.

The collections made by these indefatigable travellers are at least
sufficient to represent the essential characters of the Central American
fauna and flora which have been hitherto scarcely known. These
researches, haying been pursued on the opposite sides of the Cor-
dilleras and along the coasts of both oceans, are highly valuable with
reference to the geographical distribution of organized beings; and
the result proves that the ridge of the Andes is an effectual barrier
to the diffusion of animals endowed with a small amount of loco-
motive power, especially the terrestrial molluscs, the insects, and the
Arachnides.

The range of the travellers, who sometimes pursued different
courses for the sake of completing the object of their journey, ex-
tends from 50° to 9° N. lat.: from the uniform and gloomy scenery
about the mouth of the St. Lawrence, in Canada, to the virgin forests
of the Andes, south of Costa Rica, luxuriant in the richest variety of
animal and vegetable life. At Belize they embarked for the West
Indies, and visited Jamaica, Hayti, St. Thomas, and Cuba. The
vegetation of these isles, although strikingly luxuriant and graceful
in some localities (as the Blue Mountains, in Jamaica, and the central
mountain-valleys of St. Domingo), is far from rivalling in grandeur
the Centro-American flora, as it wants the lofty and magnificent
trees and the variety of parasitical and climbing plants characteristic
of the forests of Central America. On the other hand, the tropical
features of the scenery of the Antilles is in beautiful contrast with
the gloomy uniformity of the North American vegetation; and a
traveller, landing at Cuba, after having left Quebec eight days before,
may well be struck by the change of scene.

As a general rule, it appears that the level of the highest deve-
lopment of vegetable life gradually rises from the ground-level from
the poles to the equator. In tropical America the most magnificent
flowers are those on the tops of high trees, and on the plants climbing
on them. In the temperate zone the shrubs are richer in blossoms
than the other vegetable forms; and from 46° lat. northwards the
great variety of flowers is concentrated in the meadows.

MM. Scherzer and Wagner, besides the observation of physical
facts and the collection of specimens, paid particular attention to the
status of the West Indian Colonies, their ceconomical relations, and
their population.

Dr. Scherzer has already published his remarks on North America
(in three yols.), and on Central America (in one vol.); he is far,
however, from regarding the object of his researches as exhausted, as
he and his companion went through the whole of their enterprise
at their own expense, and consequently with limited resources (ex-
cepting the excursion to the ruins of Guirigua, in Guatemala, which
was undertaken at the cost of the British Government).

78 Miscellaneous.

On the Non-existence of Polarizing Silica in the Organic Kingdoms.
By Prof. J. W. Batrey. :

It is now more than twenty years since Sir David Brewster an
nounced the existence of polarizing or doubly refractive silica in the
cuticle of Lquisetum, and in that of some of the grasses. In Lindley’s
‘Natural System of Botany,’ the following account of Brewster’s
experiments is given:—‘‘On subjecting a portion of the cuticle of
Equisetum hyemale to the analysis of polarized light under a high
magnifying power, Brewster detected a beautiful arrangement of the
siliceous particles, which are distributed in two lines parallel to the
axis of the stem and extending over the whole surface. * * * *
Brewster also observed the remarkable fact that each particle has a
regular axis of double refraction. In the straw and chaff of wheat,
barley, oats and rye, he noticed analogous pheenomena.” ’

Tn Quekett’s ‘Treatise on the Microscope,’ 3rd edit. p. 358, direc-
tions are given for preparing the siliceous cuticle of Lquisetum hye-
male for microscopic examination, by boiling in strong nitric acid,
and it is added that ‘‘in balsam it forms a beautiful object for polar.
ized light.’’ Similar directions are given for preparing the silica in
the chaff of wheat, oats, &c. ‘

As these statements are contained in the last editions of each of
the above-mentioned works, it is evident that no contradiction of the
error involved in them has been pointed out; yet, notwithstanding
the high authority on which they rest, the statements, so far as the
polarizing action of the silica is concerned, are wholly erroneous. If
the cuticle of the above-mentioned plants is completely deprived of
its carbonaceous tissues, it will be found wholly devoid of action on
polarized light, and any preparation of the cuticle which is found to
affect polarized light, will also be found to blacken when heated in
concentrated sulphuric acid, and if then decarbonized by throwing
into the hot acid solution a little chlorate of potassa, the residual
silica shows no signs of action under the polariscope, either alone or
with the selenite plate, although it still retains the forms of the cells,
stomata, &c.

It is clear then that the error in the above statements has been
caused by the imperfect removal of the dense carbonaceous tissues
which are deposited beneath the silica. I have examined several
species of Lquisetum and a large number of plants of the Grass tribe
which are most remarkable for their siliceous cuticles, but have
found no trace of any action upon polarized light, when the carbo-
naceous matter was removed. But it is unnecessary to resort to arti-
ficial preparations to prove the correctness of my statements. Nature
has made her own preparations, and deposited them by myriads be-
neath every peat-bog, where may be found not only the siliceous
shells of the Diatoms and the spicules of the freshwater sponges, but
also a large number of the siliceous parts of the grasses, sedges, &c,
Ehrenberg has shown*, and I can confirm his statements, that the

* Berlin Monthly Reports, May 1848,

Meteorological Observations. 79

‘silica in these Phytolitharia, as well as in the Diatomacee, Polycysti-
neze and Spongiolites, is not doubly refractive. He makes an excep-
tion in the case of the shell of Avachnoidiscus, but my own experiments
pes that when properly cleaned this shell forms no exception. As

have shown above that the silica in the cuticle of the Equisetum
and Grasses agrees with that in the lower tribes in characters, I think
the conclusion is warranted, that doubly refractive silica has no ex-
istence in the organic world.—Silliman’s American Journal for May
1856, p. 357.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR MAY 1856.

Chiswick.—May 1. Overcast: cold showers, partly hail: clear and cold. 2.
Quite clear: cloudy: frosty at night. 3. Cloudy and cold: showery. 4. Overcast:
cloudy: clear, with sharp frost at night. 5. Frosty early a.m.: cloudy and cold.
6. Fine: cloudy and cold: rain. 7. Cold rain. 8. Densely clouded: cold north
wind. 9. Heavy clouds. 10. Uniformly overcast: fine. 11. Light haze: fine:
cloudy. 12. Uniform haze: rain. 13. Rain: cloudy. 14. Heavy showers. 15.
Fine: showers, with some hail. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy. 18. Boisterous, with
rain and hail. 19. Very fine. 20. Very fine: slight frost. 21. Fine: rain.
22. Rain. 23. Cloudy: fine. 24. Fine. 25. Cloudy: rain. 26. Fine. 27. Very
fine : heavy rain at night. 28. Cloudy: very fine. 29. Hazy: cloudy: fine. 30.
Cloudy and cold. 31. Rain.

Mean temperature of the month ......... Seaapassieetes aren anes 50°-09
Mean temperature of May 1855 —....0.....sceecacesecssceccocsees 48 *78
Mean temperature of May for the last thirty years ............ 53°55
Average amount of rain in May ...0....s.sesecosecsedovsccesesss 1852 inches.

Boston.—May 1. Cloudy: rain and sleet p.m. 2,3. Cloudy: rain and hail p.m.
4,5. Cloudy. 6. Cloudy: hailandsnow a.m. 7. Cloudy. -8. Cloudy: raina.m.
9,10. Cloudy. 11. Fine. 12,13. Cloudy. 14. Cloudy: rain with thunder p.m.
15, 16. Cloudy. 17. Cloudy: rain p.m. 18. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 19.
Cloudy. 20,21. Fine. 22. Rain a.m.andp.m. 23. Fine: rain and thunder p.m.
24. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 25, 26. Cloudy: raine.m. 27. Fine: rain p.m.
28. Cloudy: rain a.m. and e.m. 29. Cloudy: 30. Fine. 31. Cloudy: rain p.m,

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—May 1. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 2. Sleet-showers
a.M.: cloudy p.m. 3—5. Cloudy 4.m. and p.m. 6. Cloudy a.M.: clear p.M.
7. Clear A.M. and p.m. 8. Cloudy a.m.: clear p.m. 9. Clear a.M.: rain p.m.
10. Cloudy a.m.: drops P.M. 11. Drizzle a.m.: fog p.m. 12. Hazy a.m.: clear,
fine p.m. 13. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m.: rainp.m. 15. Cloudy a.m.
drops p.M. 16. Bright a.m.:cloudyp.m. 17. Clear, fine a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m.
18. Showers, bright a.m.: showers p.m. 19. Cloudy a.m.: showers p.M. 20.
Bright a.m.: clear p.m, 21, 22. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 23, 24. Cloudy a.m.
and vm. 25. Cleara.m.and p.m. 26, 27. Cloudy a.m.andp.m. 28. Brighta.m:
cloudy p.m. 29—31. Clear a.m. and p.m.

Mean temperature of May for previous twenty-nine years ... 47°85

Mean temperature of this month .......0....ceeeeseesneeees < AES 46 *83
Mean temperature of May 1855 —....se..secessettesscscsetererses 43 ‘81
Average quantity of rain in May for fifteen previous years .... 1°66 inches.

The great drought continues ; the rain during the last three months being
less than the average for May alone, which is our driest month, and not half the
quantity that fell in March alone last year.

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 104. AUGUST 1856.

IX.— On the Development and Propagation of Spheroplea
annulina. By Dr. Ferpinanp Coun*,

Up to last year there were few botanists who believed in the
sexuality of the Alge. Thuret’s observations on the antheridia
of the Fucacez did indeed open a new prospect, in demonstrating
the impregnation of the reproductive spores by minute sponta-
neously-moving spermatozoids (antherozoids, Thuret); yet this
discovery, so long as it remained isolated, appeared rather to
remove the Fucacez from the class of Algz, just as the pre-
viously discovered sexuality of the Characez has altered the
position of those plants in many systems. ‘The observations of
Pringsheim+, laid before the Academy in March last, have
proved that one of our freshwater unicellular Algze also possesses
separate sexual organs. Having discovered spermatozoa in the
“horns” (previously suspected to be antheridia) of Vaucheria,
and traced their entrance into the orifice of the sporangial cell,
Pringsheim has established the fertilizing process in the most
remarkable manner, and grounded upon this the conjecture that
difference of sexes exists in all the rest of the Alge, and that the
resting-spores, the true reproductive organs of these plants, are
in all cases impregnated by spermatozoa and are not capable of
germination without this. The history of development which I
am about to sketch in the following pages affords new evidence
in favour of this proposition: as it rests upon a totally inde-
pendent series of observations, almost simultaneously performed,
and reveals most remarkable modifications of this process, it
may still lay claim perhaps to an especial interest.

* Translated from the ‘ Menatsbericht’ of the Berlin Academy, May
1855, by Arthur Henfrey, F.R.S. &e.

+ Annals of Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. xv. p. 346.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 6

*

82 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

Spheroplea annulina, Ag., is one of the rarer freshwater Algz,
which is not observed, like most of these plants, everywhere and
at all seasons, but only at long intervals and under peculiar cir-
cumstances ; it consists, like all the Conferve, of cells of variable
length, connected in a single row into long filaments, and is
characterized by a peculiar arrangement of the chlorophyll.
Ehrenberg has already remarked that it covers extensive surfaces
about Berlin with a red coating, and hence may have given rise
to traditions of “ blood-rain.’ Near Bremen, where it was dis-
covered by Treviranus, it occurs upon flooded tracts. At Breslau
I found it the first time at the end of October, last year, in
a potato-field which had been laid under water by the great
overflow of the Oder in the last week of August. The Spheroplea
covered the field, which had dried again after the retreat of the
water, as an almost uninterrupted felt, of a beautiful red-lead or
vermilion colour on the smooth upper surface, and green on the
under side, where it was disentangled into the separated filaments.
The red colour depended upon the spores with which the fila-
ments of the Spheroplea were completely filled up; only those
filaments which were exposed to light and air on the surface of
the felt fructified; the under side, resting on the ground, con-
tained only vegetative filaments of the normal green colour.

The structure of the Spharoplea-spores is very simple; they
are red globules, usually from 1-125 to 1-100" in diameter,
surrounded by two hyaline membranes, of which the inner lies
close upon the contents, while the outer is somewhat separated
and is elegantly creased. The spores of Spheroplea are usually
described as stellate; Kiitzing however states that they are
encircled by spiral bands. Both these assertions are justified to”
a certain extent: it depends upon the position of the spores
whether they look like many-rayed stars, or as longitudinally
streaked, smooth-bordered globes. The outer coat of the spore
is so folded that the folds meet at the two poles of the globe like
so many meridians. Hence if we look at the pole of a spore,
the folds are seen surrounding the globe like a frill, in a sharp-
angled zigzag; while if we look upon the equator of the spore
with the axis parallel to the object-glass, the folds may be traced
in their whole course as longitudinal lines. In many spores,
especially the large ones, the plaiting of the outer coat is very
irregular, and forms merely wart-like elevations without any
definite arrangement. Sulphuric acid causes an expansion of
this coat, but does not destroy it ; iodine and sulphuric acid colour
it bright yellow.

The contents of the spores consist of rather large starch-gra-
nules, and protoplasm which is coloured bright vermilion-red by
a peculiar colouring matter ; they contain a red oil which stands

of Sphzroplea annulina. 83

in the closest relation to chlorophyll, and is equally produced
from this and transformed into it. In normal conditions this
oil is diffused so minutely in the colourless plasma, forming a
kind of emulsion, that it appears in infinitely small, red globules
which might be confounded with the so-called protoplasm-
granules ; their oily nature may be ascertained, however, when
the spores die or are destroyed by chemical reagents, as the red
globules then become confluent into large red-lead-coloured
drops, strongly refracting light, soluble in ether, are coloured
bluish-green by iodine, and by a somewhat longer action of sul-
phuric acid acquire a blue colour; this last reaction exactly
resembles that of sulphuric acid on chlorophyll; hence it is not
improbable that the acid converts the oil into the related sub-
stance chlorophyll. If the sulphuric acid remains long in con-
tact with the spores, the latter become bleached; the action of
light produces the same effect upon the spores when dead. The
red colouring matter of the spores of Spheroplea is different
from the erythrophyll of leaves and flowers, but it occurs in the
spores of Bulbochete, as shown by Pringsheim, in Protococcus
nivalis and pluvialis, Chroolepus Ivlithus, and many other Algze,
also in Euglena sanguinea ; in every case it is changed, in the
course of development, into green chlorophyll, and vice versd.
The spores of Spheroplea present a remarkable resemblance to
the red, stellate reproductive bodies which Ehrenberg pointed
out in the genus Volvor (V. stellatus), and which, according to
my investigations, contain both red oil and starch-granules.
The course of development of Spheroplea being hitherto alto-
gether unknown, and in fact the germination of the resting-
spores of the Algz generally never having been observed, except
in the Conjugate and Vaucheria, I resolved to turn to account an
immense mass of Spheroplea-spores at my disposal, in an inves-
tigation, and accordingly, at the beginning of October 1854, I
placed a portion of the red felted mass in a vessel of water. A
putrefaction immediately took place, through which the cells of
the filaments were dissolved ; while the spores thus set free,—
which, as a microscopic examination showed, protected by their
two membranes, underwent no alteration whatever,—subsided to
the bottom of the vessel in countless numbers as a reddish mud.
Notwithstanding that the glass now stood all through the winter
in the window of a warm room, I could not detect any change
in the spores before March ; the germination showed itself first
after a few mild spring days, and it occurred simultaneously in
two separate vessels. In order to ascertain whether a six-months’
rest was actually necessary to the Spheroplea-spores, I placed a
_ fresh portion of the filamentous mass in water, at the end of
March ; in this case I observed germinating sapln five days
a

84 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

after. The germination took place still more quickly in sub-
sequent third and fourth experiments, wherein it occurred in
forty-eight hours, with spores which up to that time had been
kept in the herbarium. I am quite unable to explain the enig-
matical hastening of the germination in the spring months ; it
could scarcely have depended on the greater heat, for the room
was heated to a higher temperature during the winter. At the
same time the germination of the Spheroplea-spores occurred
relatively rarely in cultivation, so that it went on through many
weeks, and the majority of the spores still remained unchanged ;
while in the natural locality, the potato-field above mentioned,
by the middle of April, about which time the field was again
flooded, the spores had all germinated, and no trace of the red
felted mass remained, while the standing water was full of the
green filaments of Spheroplea,

The germination of the spores of Spheroplea differs from
everything formerly known of the development of the Algze and
of plants generally ; on the other hand, it agrees surprisingly
with simultaneous observations on the germination of Bulbo-
chate* already published by Pringsheim in these Reports. The
youngest germs of Spheroplea that I perceived were spindle-
shaped corpuscles from ;},; to +4, of a line in diameter, and
about =1, of a line long, running out at both ends into long
filiform points which were irregularly curved and twisted, and
increased the total length to 54, of a line and more. These ger-
minating plants resembled in shape, even indistinguishably,
that interesting species of Closterium which Ehrenberg has de-
scribed and figured as C. rostratum. The contents of the germ
displayed every intermediate stage from the red of the spore to
the green of the developed plant; the red and green were
mingled in a most elegant manner, either with the red oil-glo-
bules accumulated at one end and the green chlorophyll at the
other, with a colourless band separating them in the middle ; or
bands of red and green alternated; or the whole contents were
green sprinkled with red globules. At first sight of these germs,
I perceived that their dimensions were much smaller than those
of the spores from which they must have been produced; hence
they evidently must have originated from a part, not the whole,
of the spore. Added to this, I never found a germinating plant
sticking in the membranes of the spore, but always scattered
free in all parts of the water; so that I was necessarily driven to
the conjecture that these portions must have been discharged
from the spores as “‘swarming-cells.” I was soon enabled to
confirm my conjectures by direct observation.

* Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. 2. xv. p. 349,

of Sphzroplea annulina. 85

When the spores of Spheroplea are about to germinate, in the
first place their contents are metamorphosed, acquiring a pecu-
liar granular organization and assuming a colour more brown-
red, a lighter circle becoming visible in the middle. The red of
the spore is frequently changed into green before germination,
the conversion advancing gradually from the borders to the
ceutre. The contents of the spore next divide, first into two, then
into four or eight portions; these portions break through their
double membrane and emerge into the water as free ‘ swarming-
cells.’ In the small number of spores which germinated daily
out of the enormous quantity present, I never succeeded in
catching the moment of the exit, and therefore I do not know
how the two coats of the spore are torn; but the empty mem-
branes are often met with, a mere remnant, at most, of uncon-
sumed contents remaining in them; I also found spores with
undischarged ‘swarm-cells’ dancing about actively in their inte-
rior. The whole process differs from what Pringsheim observed
only in so far, that in Bulbochete a long cylindrical germinal
filament escapes from the spore, and the contents of that are
formed into free ‘ swarming-cells,’ while in Spheroplea this ope-
ration is completed within the spore itself; but I often met with
spores from which the outer stellate membrane had been stripped,
and the contents had begun to divide within the inner smooth
coat.

The ‘swarming-cells’ (zoospores) which are formed in the
interior of the spores of Spheroplea have an exceedingly elegant
shape, which however, like their size and colour, is subject to
considerable variation. Ordinarily they are globular or short
cylindrical corpuscles ;4, to ;45 of a line long, of a splendid
carmine or vermilion colour, furnished at one end with a short
colourless head from which extend two long cilia. Other swarm-
ing-cells are larger and pear- or spindle-shaped ; these evidently
derive their origin either from a larger fractional part or from
larger spores: I met with globular swarming-spores even as much
a8 ;t, Of a line in diameter, not inferior in size to the ordinary
spores ; and perhaps these might have consisted of the total con-
tents of such a spore swarmed out in one mass. Many swarm-
ing-cells are of two colours; the part next the beak red, the rest
green ; ora green border surrounds a red centre ; but the colour-
less head or beak, with the cilia, is always evident. Their move-
ments last for many hours, and exhibit that vigorous, and yet
at the same time lazy character which distinguishes for example
the swarming-spores of Cdogonium, and still more those of
Chlamidomonas pluvialis, which are similar also in their colour
and the number of their cilia. The long pauses which occur
from time to time in the movements of these swarming-cells are

86 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

remarkable ; one might imagine sometimes that they had settled
quite to rest, but after an interval of an hour or more they sud-
denly recommence their old revolutions.

At the time when the swarming-cell breaks through the mem-
brane of the spore of Spheroplea, it possesses no cellular mem-
brane; but it produces this while still in motion, so that it
becomes distinctly surrounded by a delicate, young, and very
elastic cellulose coat. When the swarming-cell germinates, this
membrane becomes rigid and prolonged at both ends so as to
produce the spindle-shape; these ends grow out rapidly into
eapillary points, which constantly increase in length ; the middle
of the germinating cell then likewise extends itself, the ends
being pushed still further apart, and the entire cell is thus ren-
dered at once longer and thicker. The originally homogeneous,
finely-granular contents of the swarming-cell is changed in ger-
mination, the remainder of the red oil becoming rapidly con-
verted into chlorophyll, the germinating plant thus aequirmg a
uniform green colour ; but even in the earliest condition colour-
less bubbles (vacuoles) are found in the green plasma, these
vacuoles containing a fluid of less density, while the chlorophyll
between them is compressed, and thus assumes the form of green
rings standing at certain distances apart. In these streaks
large starch-globules are soon secreted, and by the time the
germinating plant is ;'; of a line long, it has already assumed
the full character of the cells of Spheroplea. It continues to
merease in length and breadth, retaining however its Closterium-
like shape. I met with colossal spindle-shaped cells half a line
and more long, prolonged into capillary points at both ends.
Spheroplea is the only Conferva known to me that never pos-
sesses a root; in all other genera one end of the germinating
filament, avoiding the light, grows downward into an organ of
attachment, while the other differently formed end grows by
apical development into the proper filament. In Spheroplea,
not only are both extremities of exactly the same shape from the
first origin, but no apicular growth occurs, at least not after the
capillary ends are completed ; the cells here grow in the middle.
Since the green rings in the cells of Spheroplea fix the relative
positions of their points, the places where the growth takes place
may be readily observed, the number of rings being constantly
multiplied, by the division of the old, previously formed ones. But
a minute investigation of this subject would carry us too far from
the object of this notice. After some time the germ-cell divides
in the nnddle, and with the enlargement of the plant the number
of cells is increased: the length of the cells is strikingly unequal,
for while in some cells they cannot be perceived, other cells are
only ; or 7 of a line. But m the longest, many-celled filaments,

of Sphzroplea annulina, 87

the fine capillary parts of the elongating ends may always be
observed,—a fact hitherto overlooked.

The contents of the full-grown cells of Spheroplea exhibit
most elegant structures, the comprehension of which is essentially
furthered by the interesting investigations of Al. Braun. The
constituents, colourless protoplasm, green chlorophyll, aqueous
fluid and starch-granules, are distributed in a peculiar manner,
the aqueous fluid forming large bubbles or vacuoles which attain
a diameter almost equal to that of the cell, and hence stand in
rows, like pearls, often in contact at their poles, and flattened
there so as to form seeming septa. In the interval between the
vacuoles is compressed the green plasma with the starch-gra-
nules ; and here further the space becomes disputed by nume-
rous smaller vacuoles which are excreted from the plasma: under
a low magnifying power the whole appears as if there was a
regular alternation of narrow green and broad colourless rings.
If the vacuoles are smaller and the chlorophyll is more abun-
dant, the cell appears uniformly green,—more intense merely in
the interval between the vacuoles. The vacuoles have an enve-
lope of condensed plasma, so that when the whole is softened in
water the vacuoles do not dissolve, but sustain themselves for a
long time, like cells; but they are not permanent structures ;
their number and size are subject to constant alteration.

In the second half of April I first observed the germinated fila-
ments of Sphzroplea beginning to reproduce spores. The regular
arrangement of the green rings disappeared in particular cells;
the vacuoles increased in number, so that the whole contents
assumed the appearance of a green froth; the starch-globules
were irregularly diffused through this. These were soon seen
to become grouped together in twos or threes, and largish
masses of the green plasma became accumulated around them ;
after a certain time the middle line of the cell was occupied by a
great number of green lumps, at regular distances, the frothy
matter being distributed between them. As the majority of the
vacuoles gradually disappeared these lumps assumed the form of
green stars, such as occur in pairs in the cells of Zygnema, re-
maining connected together by the green radiating filaments of
plasma. Between each pair of these stellate masses a large
vacuole was formed, which became flattened to level septa, so
that the whole cell appeared as if divided into chambers by a
number of parallel plates of plasma. In each of these chambers
there began an uninterrupted metamorphosis of the green mass ;
the mucilaginous filaments were gradually retracted ; the green
substance contracted itself sometimes towards the right, some-
times to the left; in a short time the colourless plasma had
become so distributed around the chlorophyll that the septa of

88 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

the chambers separated, and the whole contents were broken up
into a large number of free globular masses, which were sharply
defined, composed chiefly of colourless mucilage, and enclosed
im their centre an irregularly diffused, mostly laterally situated
heap of chlorophyll. These masses, the young spores, then pass
uninterruptedly through the most wonderful changes ; at first
they are in contact, and thus form by their adjacent boundaries
the plasmic septa, which are consequently double; their sub-
stance becoming somewhat contracted, the two layers of these
septa separate, the spores thereby becoming isolated; the chlo-
rophyll in their interior is constantly changing its mode of dis-
tribution ; the colourless mucilaginous envelope at one time con-
tracts strongly, so that free, regular globules are produced ; at
another it expands again, so that they are flattened against their
neighbours ; or sometimes one becomes elongated laterally, and
if a drawing is begun to be made, its shape has entirely altered
before the sketch is completed. Finally, the nascent spores
become rounded-off into smooth spheres, which however are
still far larger than in the mature condition, and are not com-
pletely filled with chlorophyll. But the latter becomes diffused
gradually more regularly in the spore-globe, while the colour-
less plasma is progressively more elaborated and excreted ;
consequently the spore is constantly becoming more condensed
and diminished in size, and finally becomes a regular sphere
composed entirely of a granular green substance, enclosing a few.
starch-granules, bounded externally by a smooth, elearly-defined
layer of plasma; there is no cellulose membrane, the green
structure is very soft, elastic, and under pressure passes away
into mucus; it 1s to be regarded as a ‘ primordial cell?

Long before the contents of the cells of Spheroplea have be-
come converted into young spores, peculiar changes have eom-
menced in the membrane of their cells ; it begims to change into
amyloid, and therefore is now coloured purple-red or violet by
iodine alone, without sulphuric acid. Evidently this is the
commencement of the chemical metamorphosis of this mem-
brane, which terminates in its total solution and sets free the ripe
spores. At particular points of the membrane small holes are
formed x45 to 345 of a line in diameter; I have counted from
two to six of these orifices in each cell; the holes are more easily
observed, as colourless spots, when the cell is coloured blue by
sulphuric acid and iodine.

This course of development, by which they are transformed
ito sporangia with numerous spores, does not occur im all the
cells of a filament of Spheroplea ; during the same epoch totally
different processes are completed in a large portion of the cells.
Here the green rings between the colourless vacuoles have gra-

of Spheroplea annulina. 89

dually assumed a peculiar colour: they have become reddish-
yellow, and the starch-granules have vanished. The orange-
coloured substance is soon seen to acquire a peculiar organiza-
tion ; in it may be detected, at first obscurely, but progressively
more distinctly, a separation into granules, then into little
_ Streaks, and finally it becomes converted into myriads of short,
confusedly crowded, little stick-shaped bodies. The colourless
vacuoles between the yellow rings take no part in this transfor-
mation. After this the rings begin to dissolve ; suddenly one of
the little stick-shaped bodies imbedded in the substance ac-
quires its liberty and begins to move about in the cavity of the
eell; more follow the example; the movement of these bodies
becomes more and more rapid; in a few minutes the entire
ring becomes decomposed into a countless number of actively
moving corpuscles ; then the stick-shaped bodies of a second and
third ring enter into movemeut ; finally the entire cell becomes
filled with these corpuscles, which shoot about and circulate in
all directions among each other. It is a wonderful sight to
see their incredibly lively motions inside the parent-cell. The
vacuoles partly persist during these processes, and they are seen
swimming in the cavity of the cell as globular bubbles enclosed
by a mucilaginous coat, often put into rapid rotation by the
movements of the stick-shaped bodies.

One or more orifices are formed very early in these cells also,
similar in shape and size to those which we have described in
the sporangial cells. The first of the stick-shaped corpuscles is
now seen to emerge through a hole into the water; it is soon
followed by another, and at length by a whole herd at once.
Their movements in the water are at first very weak; they
adhere firmly together and oscillate about in masses; but in a
short time they acquire greater energy and become scattered
like dust, with infinite rapidity, through all parts of the drop of
water. The corpuscles remaining in the mother-cell acquire a
more rapid motion the freer the space left them; but their
number gradually diminishes, and within a few hours all the
moving corpuscles have left their parent-cell. This is then quite
empty, and the orifices of exit can be perceived very distinctly ;
empty cells of this kind have been observed before, but their
peculiarities could not be explained. The orifices often become
stopped up by a vacuole, which with its mucilagimous membrane
lies against the hole ; this prevents the corpuscles from escaping,
and I have seen them dancing about in their mother-cell after a
lapse of twelve hours, then coming to repose and changed into
yellowish vesicles. It is not rare to find in the cells of Sphe-
roplea, after the exit of the stick-shaped corpuscles, other larger,
brownish globules, which often display a sluggish movement ;

90 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

these structures, to which Al. Braun had already directed atten-
tion, under the name of pseudo-gonidia, are remnants of the cell-
contents, unconverted into stick-shaped corpuscles, but which
have nevertheless acquired a power of independent motion:
perhaps they owe their origin to the fusion of a number of the cor-
puscles. I likewise sometimes found similar moving globes in the
sporangial cells, mingled with the spores, and they appeared to
have been formed simultaneously with the latter, out of the cell-
contents. These are distinct from other abnormal, cell-like strue-
tures in the Spheroplea-cells, some of which have a power of
motion, as also from the parasitic Infusoria (e. g. Trachelius tri-
chophorus) which make their way into the interior of the cells
through the orifices; the former are very remarkable and
varied ; but I reserve a special examination of them for another
occasion.

The corpuscles which ‘swarm’ out from the last-described
cells of the Spheroplea-filaments are elongated, bacilliform, and
mostly 54, of a line or more in length; their form reminds
one of certain slender Curculionide. The posterior extremity
is somewhat expanded, often spread out flat and of a yellow
colour; one or more granules may often be distinguished in its
interior ; the anterior extremity runs out into a long narrow
colourless beak, bearing at its end two long cilia, which are
rendered clearly visible when the corpuscles are killed with
iodine. These corpuscles differ strikingly therefore from the
spermatozoids of Vaucheria discovered by Pringsheim, and which
I have quite recently likewise had the good fortune to observe ;
as also from the spermatozoids of the Fucoidee described by
Thuret—whatever resemblance may exist in other respeets—by
the position of the two cilia; and they resemble herein many
‘ swarming-spores’ of Algze, especially those denominated micro-
gonidia, with which they are intimately connected in morpho-
logical respects.

The movement of the bacilliform corpuscles in Spheroplea is
characteristic : when the energy is weak they oscillate, as if feel-
ing about with the beaks ; when the motion is more active they
rotate on their ¢ransverse axis, like a stick fastened in the centre
and rotated around this ; their movement is distingushed by this
from that of true ‘ swarming-spores,’ which rotate on their lon-
gitudinal axis. Sometimes the corpuscles rotate upon themselves
without moving from one spot, like a cat round its tail ; but they
mostly dart off in cycloids, frequently advancing with jerks and
springs; more rarely they screw themselves straight onwards.
A tendency to seek the light is indicated by their readily col-
lecting at the side of the drop of water next to the window.

Not only did the external resemblance of these corpuscles to

of Sphzeroplea annulina. 91

the spermatozoids of the Fucaceze and Vaucherie give ground
for concluding an analogous function,—I further succeeded in
demonstrating their fecundating power, by direct observation, with
an evidence such as can only be possessed by a fact of natural
science: there can be no doubt that the active bacilliform cor-
puscles are the spermatozoids of Spheroplea, and therefore the
cells in which they are formed must be denominated the anthe-
ridial cells. x

When the discharged spermatozoids have hecome diffused
through the water, they are soon seen to assemble around those
cells of a Spheroplea-filament, the contents of which have become
metamorphosed into spores. They dance about in the vicinity
of these cells, attach themselves to the membrane, sometimes
tearing away again, soon to return. After a while a spermatozoid
approaches one of those little orifices, which we have already
noticed as perforating the wall of the sporangial cells; here it
fixes itself and pushes the slender beak into the hole. The pos-
terior extremity is often too broad to pass in uninjured ; then it
screws itself forward with evident effort, the beak constantly
working its way, compressing the elastic body; finally it suc-
ceeds in forcing its way through and entering into the cavity of
the sporangial cell. In the mean time other spermatozoids have
slipped in through various orifices; frequently three or four
crowd at once into one orifice; the more slender corpuscles
make their way, at the first attempt, in a remarkable manner
swimming in wide curves, from the water, through the hole,
without obstruction, into the cavity of the cell; after a time as
many as twenty spermatozoids circulating about in its interior
and ‘swarming’ round the young spores. These, as above de-
scribed, are smooth spheres, more or less completely filled with
chlorophyll, surrounded by colourless plasma, without cellulose
membrane. The spermatozoids rush from one spore to another,
as if electrically attracted and repulsed, so rapidly, that the eye
can scarcely follow them ; they often swarm from one end of the
sporangial cell to the other ; now and then the spores are thrown
into slow rotation by the vibratile cilia of the spermatozoids, but
this is only accidental and inessential, possibly only when the
spores are in a very free position. I have seen the spermatozoids
moving about in the sporangial cell for more than two hours ;
gradually their motion becomes more sluggish, they become
adherent to the young spores, in such a manner that one or two
spermatozoids become fixed to each spore, cleaving firmly to it
with the beak and cilia, so that their body stands perpendicularly
upon the spore. In this position they oscillate backwards and
forwards for some time longer; finally they come quite to rest
and apply themselves with their whole length against the sur-

92 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

face of the spores; their body is converted into a drop of muci-
lage and loses its form ; it appears as if a portion of the substance
was absorbed endosmotically by the spore : a formal penetration
of the spermatozoid into the spore certainly did not take place,
for a remnant of it, perhaps the reddish drops, can long be
seen attached upon the outside of the spore. However, Sphe-
roplea is not very well adapted for the investigation of the real
act of impregnation, on account of the want of transparency in
the green spores, notwithstanding that it offered an exceedingly
favourable object for the earlier processes.

After a short time the impregnated spore becomes enveloped
by a true cell-membrane, which at first can only be detected by
the contraction of the contents by reagents, but subsequently
can be readily seen by direct inspection, as it gradually separates .
further from the cell-contents. A second membrane is soon
produced beneath the first, the second being originally in close
contact with the contents of the spore, but subsequently folded
in the stellate manner above described ; the uppermost, earlier-
formed coat,is next thrown off, and such coats are found in the
sporangial cells as empty vesicles among the spores—a ‘ moulting’”
or ecdysis already observed by Al. Braun. Finally there is pro-
duced under the stellate coat a smooth membrane, so that the
impregnated spore of Spheroplea bears an analogy with those of
Spirogyra and Zygnema, and possesses likewise the three coats,
the outermost of which however is thrown off, not in germi-
nation, but even before the spore is ripe. The contents of the
spore are originally of a uniform green colour, in which several
starch-granules make their appearance ; subsequently they be-
come opake, and pass through olive-green and reddish-brown,
finally into a pure red. The number of the spores depends
upon the quantity of chlorophyll which was present in the spo-
rangial cell; their size is also very variable according as more or
less of the green plasma is applied to the formation of one
spore ; although they are usually from +}, to ;4, of a line in
diameter, spores also occur which have double and even 100
times that magnitude ; I observed elliptical spores which attained
qis> sip» even giz of a line in the long diameter; I once met
with a monster spore ;', of a line in the long diameter, the red
contents being enclosed in the papillose spore-coat just as usual.
The approximate or distant arrangement of the spores, in one
or several rows, is also liable to variation.

Spheroplea annulina, although it always occurs as a multi-
cellular filament, must be regarded as essentially a unicellular
plant, in Niageli’s sense, since all the cells, without exception,
even the terminal capillary-pointed cells included, take part in
the propagation, and therefore the whole filament can only be

of Spheeroplea annulina. 93

viewed as a family of cells (cell-stock). The history of develop-
ment here narrated reveals to us the fact, that, contrary to what
has been hitherto imagined in unicellular plants, the individual
is not immediately represented by each cell, but that these ap-
parently equivalent cells become sexually differenced in exactly
the same way as is the case in any of the most complicated
animal or vegetable organisms ; that consequently each individual
cell is by itself barren, and can only be rendered capable of
propagation by the cooperation of a cell of the other sex. We
must therefore distinguish in the cells of the Spheroplea-fila-
ment, male and female cells, or, for comparison with analogous
organs in another kingdom of nature, sperm-vesicles and ovaries,
which however must be more correctly conceived as inde-
pendent, sexualized, elementary organisms. The process of im-
pregnation in the Algz has been found precisely similar m the
three cases as yet known; in the Fucacee, Vaucheria, and Sphe-
roplea, the spermatozoids come into immediate contact with pri-
mordial cells destitute of (cellulose) membranes. The case of
Spheroplea is especially interesting, because there can be no
question here of an accidental contact of the seminal elements ;
for if in Fucus the spores to be fertilized emerge upon the sur-
face of the thallus—in Vaucheria the surfaces of the antheridia
and sporangia come almost into immediatecontact—in Spheroplea
the spermatozoids must often make their way through the water
to an often far-distant mature female cell, and force an entrance
through a narrow orifice. Easy as it is to observe the fact of
the entrance of the spermatozoid, the force which guides these
corpuscles through the wide surface of water and the crowd of
countless animalcules and plants, to the female cells, and often
makes them find their way through the narrow holes at the first
attempt, remains still an enigma. I may also recall the fact
that Spheroplea is as far removed from alliance with Vaucheria
as the latter from Fucus, and that since sexuality has been dis-
covered in such diverse forms of the Algz, there can scarcely be
a doubt that it must only remain to be discovered in the rest of
the Algze, and indeed in all plants; I therefore cannot hesitate
to give my adhesion to this conclusion of Pringsheim.

Whether the remarkable fact, that the spores of Spheroplea
do not always give origin, like all other spores and seeds, to one
individual, but mostly to several swarming-cells, and therefore
to several germ-plants ;—whether this is connected with the
action of one or more spermatozoids upon the nascent spore, I
must leave unaswered ; the only analogy to this fact is afforded
by the origin of several embryos in the ova of the Planariz. It
is remarkable, that, according to Pringsheim’s discovery, the fer-
tilized spores of Vaucheria grow out into a germinal tube by

94 Mr. W. H. Benson on new Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon.

direct elongation of the internal coat, like the spores of the
Zygnemacee formed through conjugation, while the spores of
Bulbochete, and perhaps the spores of the Desmidie, likewise
originating through conjugation, behave in the same way as those
of Spheroplea. This induces us to regard the latter fact as a
peculiar form of the ‘alternation of generations,’ if we deno-
minate the ‘ swarming-cells’ produced from the spores of Bulbo-
chete and Spheroplea an asexual generation, which by meta-
morphosis is converted at once into the Closterium-like germ,
then by asexual division produces the sexual cells, till the cycle
is concluded by the formation of the impregnated spores.

X.—New Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon, with a General List of
the Species inhabiting that Island. By W.H. Benson, Esq.

Cyclophorus Parma, nobis, n. s.

Testa latissime umbilicata, planato-depressa, discoidea, tenuiuscula,
confertim et arcuatim sericato-striata, saturate castanea, flammulis
nonnullis pallidis spiram versus ornata, subtus interdum pallidiori ;
spira planata, apice nullo modo prominente, sutura profunda ;
anfractibus 5 convexis, ultimo antice descendente ; apertura valde
obliqua, ampla, ovato-rotundata, superne angulata, intus livide
cerulea ; peristomate duplici, interiori continuo, albido, ad dextram
expansiusculo, exteriori breviter interrupto, expansiusculo, fusco-
corneo ; margine columellari subtus recedente, dextro prorsum ar-
cuato ; umbilico latissimo, minime profundo. Operculo tenui, cor-
neo, 54-spirato, suturis intus extusque pulchre carinatis.

Diam. major 26, minor 23, alt. 6 mill.

Hab. in regione montana Insule Ceylon. Mus. E. L. Layard.

There ave two specimens in the cabinet of Mr. Edgar Layard.
The shell is easily distinguished from the other planorbular
Cyclophori of Ceylon by its dark colour and depressed form,
which recall those of Pterocyclos hispidus, Pearson, by its very
wide and shallow umbilicus, and by the size and peculiar position
of the aperture. The whorls of the operculum, which is of a
clear horn-colour, are less closely wound than in C, Cratera.

Cyclophorus Cratera, nobis, n.s.

Testa late umbilicata, planulato-depressa, subdiscoidea, tenuiuscula,
radiatim et confertim ruguloso-striata, vix nitidula, fulvo-cornea,
raro castaneo-strigata; spira planulata, apice vix prominente, su-
tura profundiuscula; anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo longe
lenteque descendente ; apertura obliqua mediocri, subrotundata,
superne angulata, intus albida ; peristomate duplici, interiori con-
tinuo, acuto, breviter porrecto, exteriori expansiusculo, breviter
adnato, albido ; umbilico aperto, profundiusculo. Operculo tenui,

» >) eee

Mr. W. H. Benson on new Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon. 95

corneo, 7-spirato ; anfractibus valde angustis, suturis intus et extus
pulchre carinatis.

Diam. major 24 .. minor 20 .. alt. 8
> 3 22 9 18 3) 6
» 13 re i » 4

Hab. in Insula Ceylon.

There are five good specimens in the cabinet of Mr. Edgar
Layard, of which the largest only has irregular streaks on the
upper side. I find a single dead and bleached specimen among
some Cingalese shells received from Mr. Frederick Layard. The
operculum is more closely wound than in C. Parma, from which
it differs in colour, the form and position of the aperture,
sculpture, and deeper umbilicus ; this part is shallower than in
its near ally, C. annulatus, Trosch., which exhibits, moreover, a
prominent dark apex to the spire, whereas in C. Cratera the
apex is flattened and white. The variation in size is con-
siderable, as may be seen by reference to the measurements.
The smallest variety exhibits the adult character: the narrow
volutions of the operculum, and a darker corneous hue than in
C. Parma, are constant. Its double peristome and the flatness
of the apex at once distinguish it from C. Thwaitesi, Pfr. Of
three specimens of C. Bairdii, Pfr., contained in Mr. EH. Layard’s
cabinet, two specimens, well variegated with chestnut, show
no indication of a keel, while a pallid variety exhibits it di-
stinctly.

Leptopoma apicatum, nobis, n. 8.

Testa subobtecte perforata, globoso-conica, tenui, oblique striatula,
sublente spiraliter confertim striata, albida, interdum flammulis et
fascia unica infra periphzeriam angulatam ornata, sutura profunda ;
spira conica, apice saturate castaneo-nigrescente, acutiusculo ;
anfractibus 43 convexiusculis, ultimo ad periphzeriam obtuse angu-
lato ; apertura obliqua, rotundata; peristomate duplici, interiori
expansiusculo marginibus callo junctis, exteriori breviter expanso ;
margine columellari reflexo perforationem fere occultante.

Diam. major 103, min. 9, axis 9 mill.

Hab. in Insula Ceylon (ad portas Curuwitty dictas provinciz Suf-
fragam ?).

This Leptopoma may be distinguished from any of the
varieties of L. vitreum by its angular periphery, dark apex, more
convex whorls, deeper suture, double peristome and parietal
callus, as well as by the reflexion of the columellar lip over the
perforation, and of the narrow lip above it. It is deficient also
in the angular projection observable on the lower part of the
same lip in that species. The label which accompanies the
three specimens in Mr. E. Layard’s collection gives only the
general habitat as Ceylon; but Mr. Layard’s remarks on a
small Cyclostoma, 44 lines in height and diameter, and pre-

96 Mr. W. H. Benson on new Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon.

senting a closed umbilicus and black apex, contained i his
‘Rambles im the Island,’ leave little room for doubting that this
is the species found by Mr. C. P. Layard in the Curuwitty Pass,
with another scarcer species which | have not yet seen.

Bulimus fuscoventris, nobis, n. 8.

Testa anguste rimato-perforata, ovato-conica, tenui, irregulariter
puncticulata? striatula, albida, nitidula, fasciis tribus rufo-castaneis
evanescentibus, basali latissima, picta; spira conica, apice obtuso,
sutura impressa; anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo 4 teste
aequante, ventricosiusculo ; apertura obliqua, ovata; peristomate
tenui, undique breviter expanso, marginibus remotis callo tenui
rufo-castaneo junctis, columellari rimam obtegente, intus calloso
ascendente.

Long. 25, diam. 13, apert. 12 longa, 9} mill. lata.

Hab. in Insula Ceylon. Teste F. Layard.

This shell is not in good condition, and the surface and colour
may be somewhat different in perfect specimens. It has some
affinity to Bulimus Bontia, but the last whorl is less ventricose,
and the spire and aperture narrower.

Bulimus rufopictus, nobis, n. s.

Testa anguste perforata, ovato-pyramidata, oblique striatula, albida,
strigis rufis interruptis fulguratis, fasciisque tribus saturatioribus,
mediana basalique angustis, submediana latiori, picta; spira elon-
gato-conica, apice obtuso, sutura impressa; anfractibus 5 convexi-
usculis, ultimo 3 testee vix eequante, basi convexa; apertura ob-
liqua, rotundato-ovali; peristomate tenui, acuto, expansiusculo,
marginibus remotiusculis callo tenui junctis, columellari superne
latiori, perforationem obtegente, dextro valde arcuato.

Long. 20, diam. 114, apert. 9 longa, 7} mill. lata.

Hab. in Insula Ceylon. Teste F. Layard.

Achatina parabilis, nobis, n. s.

Testa oblongo-ovata, solidiuscula, nitida, rugose striata, striis minu-
tissimis obsoletis spiralibus decussata, sub epidermide luteo-cornea
albida ; spira elongato-conica, apice obtuso, sutura leviter impressa,
subcrenulata; anfractibus 6, subplanulatis, ultimo convexiusculo,
% testee vix sequante ; apertura triangulari semiovata, intus albida ;
peristomate leviter inflexo, marginibus callo tenui junctis, dextro
sinuato, obtusiusculo, columellari perareuato, oblique valde trun-
cato. .

Long. 20, diam. 10, long. apert. 9, lat. 5 mill.

Hab. in Insula Ceylon. Teste F. Layard.

Helix Galerus, nobis, n. s.

Testa umbilicata, subconoideo-depressa, lenticulari, pallide cornea,
confertissime oblique striata, striis spiralibus exiguis decussata ;
spira depresse conoidea, sutura impressa, apice obtusiusculo; an-

.

Mr. W.H. Benson on new Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon. 97

fractibus 5 lente accrescentibus, convexiusculis, ultimo antice ma-
jori, non descendente, periphzeria acute carinata, marginata, subtus
conyexiusculo, margine periomphali obtuse angulato; umbilico
profundo, subanguste perspectivo ; apertura subsecuriformi ; peri-
stomate acuto, marginibus distantibus, columellari brevi, superne
reflexiusculo.

Diam. major 9, minor 8, axis 4 mill.

Hab. ad Ragama, Ceylon. Coll. E. L. Layard.

5th June 1856.
CINGALESE LAND SHELLs.

Vitrina irradians, Pfr. Helix Thwaitesi, Pfr.

—— Edgariana, Bens. subopaca, Pfr.
membranacea, Bens. —— nepos, Pfr.

Succinea Ceylanica, Pfr. subconoidea, Pfr.
Helix Waltoni, Reeve. convexiuscula, Pfr.
Skinneri, Reere. carneola, Pfr.

— Juliana, Gray. Corylus, Reeve.
Gapoma, Pfr. umbrina, Reeve.

— Chenui, Pfr. Rivoli, Fer.
semidecussata, Pfr. erronea, Pfr.

— hemastoma; also in Nicobars. Charpentieri, Pfr.
— Pheenix, Pfr. Melanotragus fallaciosa, F.; also in S. India.
contains vars. of this and the last, Galerus, Bens.

and is set aside by Pfeiffer. Streptaxis Layardiana, Rens.
-—-— superba, Pfr. Cingalensis, Bens.
—— Tranquebarica, also in South Pupa muscerda, Bens.

India. mimula, Bens.
—— histrialis, Beck; also in South Ceylanica, Pfr. (Ennea).
India. Bulimus 3-fasciatus, Brug.

Ceylanicus, Pfr.
albizonatus, Reeve.
adumbratus, Pfr.

vittata, Miill. intermedius, Pfr.

Layardi, Pfr. punctatus, Anton; Bundel-
— ceraria, Bens. khund and South India.
concavospira, Pfr. Mavortius, Reeve.

-—— novella, Pfr. pullus, Gr.=insularis ; North
—— verrucula, Pfr. India.

—— hyphasma, Pfr. Panos, Bens.

— Enmiliana, Pfr. proletarius, Pfr.

—— Ceylanica, Pfr.
—— Gardneri, Pfr.
— coriaria, Pfr.

— Woodiana, Pfr. — gracilis, Hutton; and North
—— puteolus, Bens.=clathratula, India.
Pfr.? fuscoventris, Bens.

mononema, Bens. rufopictus, Bens.

— marcida, Bens. Achatina nitens, Gray.
partita, Pfr. Ceylanica, Pfr.; and Nil-
vilipensa, Bens.; apparently gherries.

also in Nilgherries. punctogallena, Pfr.
perfucata, Bens. inornata, Pfr.

— biciliata, Pfr. —— pachycheila, Bens.
—— Isabellina, Pfr. capillacea, Pfr.
— trifilosa, Pfr. veruina, Bens.

—— politissima, Pfr. —— parabilis, Bens.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xviii. 7

98 Mr. W.H. Benson on new Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon.

Cyclostomacea.

Aulopoma helicinum. ;
Hoffmeisteri, Trosch., distinct.
rande, Pfr.

Cyclophorus Ceylanicus, Sow.
Menkeanus, Ph.
— Involvulus, Miill., var.

alabastrinus, Pfr.
—— punctatus, Grat.
— Bairdi, Pfr.

—— Thwaitesi, Pfr.
annulatus, Trosch.

Cataulus Templemani, Pfr.
Layardi, Gray.

—— Eurytrema, Pfr.
—— pyramidatus, Pfr.
— Thwaitesi, Pfr.

loxostoma, Pfr. —— Austenianus, Bens.

— elgg Bens. ——- decorus, Bens.

— Parma, Bens. —— marginatus, Pfr.

Cratera, Bens. — duplicatus, Pfr.

Leptopoma halophilum, Bens. aureus, Pfr.

orophilum, Bens, Cyclostomus? gradatus, Pfr.
flammeum, Pfr. Pterocyclos rupestris, Bens., var. picta,
conulus, Pfr. Trosch.

semiclausum, Pfr. Cumingi, Pfr.

—— pecilum, Pfr. —— Cingalensis, Bens,

elatum, Pfr. — Troscheli, Bens.

apicatum, Bens. —— bifrons, Pfr.

Aulopoma Itieri, Grat. [117 Land Shells. |

Note.—Cyclophorus stenostoma, Sow. and Pterocyclos bilabiatus, Sow.,
have lately been sent to me as from Ceylon, without any definite locality.
They are both Nilgherry shells, and I consider their Cingalese habitat so
doubtful, that I have not introduced them in my list.

The Vitrine of Ceylon have an Indian aspect. A membra-
naceous species also occurs in South India. ;

The most characteristic form of Helix is that of H. Waltoni
and Skinnert.

A considerable number of Cingalese Helices are of the vitrini-
form type, well represented in the Nilgherries by small species,
and by larger forms even to a considerable height in the
Himalaya, and throughout Hindostan.

Several species are common to Hindostan (especially the Pen-
insula) and Ceylon.

The group, H. Rivolii, erronea, and Charpentieri, is repre-
sented, on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, by H. refuga,
Gould, and Achatina, Gray.

The Streptazes are nearly allied to the Nilgherry species.

Pupa Ceylanica is closely allied to the North Indian P. bicolor,
Hutton, both belonging to the type Ennea, Ad.

Some of the Bulimi are Indian in type, others approach the
Philippine forms.

The Achatine are of a type well represented in the Nilgherries,
and to which belong species from the Mahabaleshwur hills,
Bombay, Central India, Lower Bengal, Sikkim, and the Khasya
range.

4

Mr. C, W. Peach on the Metamorphosis of a Polype-like Animal. 99

The Cyclophori «re of Indian types. Leptopoma represents
forms of the Indian Archipelago.

Aulopoma is probably altogether, and Cataulus is nearly con-
fined to Ceylon, a species occurring in the Nicobar Isles,

Pterocyclos is an Indian type.

November 24th, 1855.

XI.—WNotice of a curious Metamorphosis in a Polype-like Animal.
By C. W. Peacu, Member of the Royal Physical Society of
Edinburgh *.

[With a Plate. |

In March of the present year, I obtained from a fisherman’s line
an old and deeply corroded valve of Psammobia ferroensis, hooked
up from deep water. On it I observed some minute jelly-like spots,
and on placing it in a shallow glass of sea-water and examining
it next day with my pocket-lens, I fancied I could make them
out to be Polype-like animals. I accordingly transferred the shell,
in a watch-glass filled with sea-water, to my microscope, and was
delighted to find my suspicions correct, for, after a little manage-
ment so as to catch the light, I could see the forms as figured at
A (Pl. VIII.), attached to the shell by short footstalks; they were a
little inflated near the upper part, and tipped with a slightly raised
and rounded centre, from which extended four long and four
short leaf-like arms, each granulated down the centre. One or
two had springing from these, delicate tentacle-like arms, as seen
at A, a—probably in a farther state of development. They were
easily disturbed, but soon again displayed themselves, and their
transparency, added to this shyness, rendered it difficult to cateh
their forms. At first I thought they were the early stage of an
Hydractinia, and probably H. brevicornis of Miller, mentioned in
Johnston’s second edition of the ‘ British Zoophytes,’ p. 35.
My next examination was on the 2nd of Apmil, after giving
them a supply of sea-water; they were still fixed ; I could how-
ever perceive a difference—the centre of the head was more raised
and conical, and the arms shorter. I examined them daily, and
on the 6th, instead of moored creatures, | had a fleet of probably
more than 100 minute free naked-eyed medusoid beauties jerking
about in all directions. Except in size they were all alike, and
perfectly transparent ; the umbrella was well rounded and pilose ;
the subumbrella large; each had four large ocellus-like bulbs,
composed of minute dark granules on the edge of the mantle,

* Communicated by the Author, having been read at the Annual Meeting

of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, Noy. 1855.
7*

100 Mr.C. W. Peach onthe Metamorphosis of a Polype-like Animal.

at the bases of the stiffly turned-up tentacles, which were tipped
with a disk having a dark centre surrounded by a light ring,
and outside a darker edge, as seen at fig. 5. Dark but short
bars were arranged in a quincunx manner on the tentacula, as
in fig. 9.

Besides these long tentacula, there were four smaller and
shorter, also turned up, but not furnished with ocelli (as at
fig. 4, where the edge of the mantle is shown); on the lower
part of the mantle runs a canal commnnicating with the bulbs
of the larger tentacula. In this canal I observed spherical
granules passing along, and as if revolving in the bulbs and a
short way down each large tentacle; into these bulbs smaller
granules descended from the subumbrella_by the gastro-vascular
canals. The latter extended to the upper part of the stomach,
as seen at fig. 8, the stomach being attached to them, rounded
on the upper part and divided into four lobes, as at fig. 6; it
then narrows and runs out in a campanulate form to the qua-
drate mouth, which has four long lips fimbriated at the tips, as
shown at fig. 6, and by the view from the under side at fig. 7.

The animals were very active up to the 10th, when some little
change took place; I supplied small quantities of water and used
every precaution, being anxious to see all I could of them. On the
11th they became sickly, and as figured in Pl. VIII. fig. 2; the
mouth, as at fig. 2a; the upper part of the umbrella, as at fig. 2 8, -
in eight festoons, the tentacula drooping. On the 13th they were
nearly inactive, and /urned inside out, with the tentacula folded
in the upper part, as at figs. 10 & 11. I began to hope, that,
as the mouth had become elongated into a peduncle-like form,
they were about to become fixed again; they however dwindled
away, and alihough I kept the water for months, I could trace
nothing more. I have not yet seen Steenstrup’s work on the
“ Alternation of Generations,” and therefore am unable to say
whether it may be one of the interesting facts observed by him.
They differed in the fixed state from any of the zoophytes noticed
by Johnston, and when free, from all the naked-eyed Meduse
figured in Forbes’s Monograph. It may be one of the latter in
its earlier stage, and probably is, from its being pilose, as is
the case with many of the young of the Medusze which have ,
fallen under my notice: I have seen many, but this is the most
interesting of all. The most like the free state is Lizzia octo-
punctata of Forbes, pl. 12. fig. 3; it agrees in the form of the —
umbrella, in having eight tentacular bulbs and four gastro-vas-
cular canals, in the shape of the stomach, quadrate mouth and
long fimbriated lips. It differs in being pilose, and in having ©
only eight tentacula instead of twenty, viz. three at each large
bulb and two at each of the smaller ones, Even this difference

Mr. J. D. Macdonald on the Anatomy of the genus Atlas. 101

in the number of tentacula, &c. is of little consequence, for I
have seen, and have a long list of notes and numerous drawings
of the strange changes, from the young to the adult state, of
these lovely gems; at present I cannot spare the time to make
the drawings and extend the notes.

Custom House, Wick, N. B., 9th Nov. 1855.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.
All very highly magnified.

A. A group of the animals on a piece of shell.

A, a. One with slender additional tips to the tentacles.

B. One of the animals more highly magnified.

Fig. 1. One of the Medusoids.

Fig. 2. Ditto when changing.

Fig. 2a. Stomach and lips. 2b. Upper part of umbrella.

Fig. 3. Under side, showing the arrangement of the tentacula, &c.

Fig. 4. Edge of mantle to show the canal, &c.

Fig, 5. One of the disks at the end of a tentacle.

Fig. 6. The stomach, mouth and lips.

Fig. 8. Upper part of the umbrella, showing the arrangement of the gastro-
vascular canals.

Fig. 9. A tentacle to show the markings.

Figs. 10 & 11. The Medusoid changed and turned inside out.

XII.— Brief Outline of the Anatomy of the genus Atlas (Lesueur).
By Jonn Dents Macponaxp, Assistant-Surgeon of H.M.S.V.
“Torch,” Tender to H.M.S. “ Herald,” Capt. Denham, R.N.,
F.R.S., Commanding the Exploring Expedition in the South
Seas.

. [With a Plate.]

Durrine our late cruises between Sydney and the islands of the
Pacific, different species of Lesueur’s curious genus Aflas were
taken in the towing-net, and the following short anatomical
account of them may prove interesting to the zoologist, more
especially as—like Phyllirrhoé—their position in the animal
kingdom has been so much a matter of doubt.

These little animals are of a rounded, oval, or elongated form,
according to the amount of contraction of the longitudinal and
cireular muscular fasciculi; and they are usually between 1th
and ;1,th of an inch in length.

Many of their movements resemble those of Annelida, parti-
eularly the manner in which they protrude and retract the head
and proboscis. They frequently draw up their bodies into the
form of a sphere, enabling them to resist a very considerable

102 Mr. J. D. Macdonald on the Anatomy of the genus Atlas.

pressure, or clongate themselves so as to assume a vermiform
appearance. The specimens which I selected for examination
were so continually undergoing those changes of form of which
their pliant bodies were susceptible, that it was difficult to find
them long enough in one position to portray them with much
accuracy.

The proboscis is supported on a kind of neck, which presents
a series of circular creases when partially retracted. The inte-
gument round the base of this neck forms an annular spreading
fold, bearing on its free border a dense cirelet of cilia so large as
to be distinctly visible to the naked eye. Although these are
the only organs available for swimming, the animals possess the
power of rising or sinking in the water at will, without any appa-
rent effort. The motion of the cilia is under voluntary control,
and the undulations produced by their successive action proceed
in a direction from left to right, with a precision and beauty of
effect far surpassing those of the ciliated circlets of the Rotifera.

The species of Atlas creep upon their proboscis, which much
resembles both in form and function the foot of a minute Gaste-
ropod, but the mouth is situated on the inferior or creeping sur-
face. The anterior lip especially expands so as to form a sub-
quadrilateral locomotive disk ; but behind the mouth a mode-
rately long and bifid lobe projects in a backward direction, the
hollow between the two divisions being richly ciliated.

The upper and fore part or frontal surface of the proboscis
mects the creeping disk in front at an angle of about 45°. It is
also subquadrilateral in form, presenting a number of rudi-
mentary visual organs superiorly, couched in four small patches
of black pigment-cells disposed in a transverse row, while on
either side it is bounded by a linear elevation, which, together
with the superior border, is clothed with large vibratile cilia.

The oral orifice when open is of a triangular shape, the base
corresponding with the posterior lip, but when closed it appears
like a simple transverse slit.

There are no dental organs in Atlas, but the lining membrane
of the wide pharynx and cesophagus is thrown into numerous
longitudinal folds, tinted with a deep purple pigment. The
alimentary canal having formed an elongated gastric dilatation,
takes a tortuous course towards the anus, which is situated at
the anterior part of the dorsal region, some little distance behind
the ciliated circle.

The liver is massive, minutely lobulated, and lined with secre-
ting cells containing globules of a rich golden-yellow oil. The
gland is in close relation with the intestine, and the passage of
the biliary fluid into the latter is so free, that on the slightest
pressure the stomach becomes distended with it.

ij =< “tS ei eee

Mr. J. D. Macdonald on the Anatomy of the genus Atlas. 103

The generative pit lies at the posterior extremity of the body,
and may be retracted or protruded by the action of the longitu-
dinal or circular muscular fibres of the integuments.

A large intestiniform tube commencing near the inferior part
of the base of the proboscis takes a flexuous course backwards in
close contact with the abdominal wall, and terminates in an
elongated tapering and protrusile organ at the lower part of
the generative pit.

On either side of the cesophagus a convoluted glandular tube,
with a ciliated lining, gives rise to a long and narrow duct which
passes directly backwards, and ends in a simple orifice lying
superior and a little external to the male opening (?) As I have
not been able to trace unequivocal spermatozoa or ova in any of
these tubes, I am doubtful as to the actual function of the par-
ticular organs, but enough has been said to show that Aé/as is
bisexual.

The coverings of the body are composed of an external epithe-
lium containing purple, brown, or green pigment-granules, and
a muscular tunic consisting of an external longitudinal, and an
internal circular or subspiral set of fibres. The former are dis-
posed in fasciculi with intervals often exceeding their own breadth,
but the latter form a continuous layer.

The interior of the body appears to be lined with vibratile
cilia, by the agency of which minute globules may be seen
coursing in a definite route through all the open spaces between
the viscera. This would appear to be the only representative of
a circulatory apparatus ; and that of respiration is most probably
combined with it, no heart, distinct blood-vessels or gills having
been detected.

This genus would seem to be made up of gigantic Rotifers,
in which the miniature outline, as it were, presented by the mi-
croscopic forms is filled up with a more complex internal orga-
nization in animals constructed on a much larger scale. It may
be also mentioned, that they present characters which give them
an intermediate position between the Bryozoa and Tunicata.
There is no essential difference between the ciliated circle of
Atlas and the circle of tentacula in a polype of Bowerbankia for
example. Were the former produced at regular intervals into
tentacular processes, At/as would then only differ from a Bryo-
zoon in those particulars which would naturally associate it with
the Tunicata. On the other hand, it would appear to represent
permanently the larval state of Stpunculus (see Max. Miller,
Mull. Archiv, 1850, v.) ; and in fact it may be regarded as a
common centre, connected, as it were, by radiating affinities with
a cirele of forms differing considerably amongst themselves.

Cuvier was unable to class the genus, from the ambiguity of

104 Mr.J.D. Macdonald on the Anatomy of the genus Atlas.

the account given of it; but De Blainville did not hesitate to
place it under the head of Akera, conceiving that it was closely
allied to Gasteropleron ; and after his example, this error has been
repeated in the able Monograph of the Bullide by Mr. Adams,
published in the second volume of Sowerby’s ‘ Thesaurus Con-
chyliorum,’ a work which is yet in progress. The characters
there given are as follow :—“ Head with two small tentacular
lobes. Body divided into two parts by a narrow pedicle. Foot
dilated circularly and ciliated at the margin. Shell none.” Now
all these points may be reconciled with the actual state of the
case by reference to the accompanying figures; but from what
has been stated above, I think I may hazard the assertion that
Alas has nothing whatever to do with the Gasteropoda.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Figs. 1-5 represent different views of a species of Atlas occurring
very plentifully off the coast of New Caledonia.

Fig. 1. Front view, showing the aperture of the mouth, the foot-like
anterior lip, the bilobed posterior lip, and the ciliated fold in a
quiescent state,

Fig. 2. Posterior view, showing the eye-specks near the upper margin of
the frontal aspect of the proboscis.

Fig. 3. A foreshortened view, with the ciliated circle in active motion : the
arrows show the path of the undulations produced by the suc-
eessive action of the cilia.

Fig. 4. A back view of the animal creeping on its labial disk, with the pro-
boscis and ciliated band retracted. The dorsal position of the
anus is also distinctly seen. 7 *

Fig. 5. A lateral view.

Fig. 6. A species of Atlas of a brilliant green colour, not so plentiful as the
last, but occurring in the same localities: a, the constricted an-
terior extremity, the proboscis and ciliated band being retracted
to the anus, b; c, the generative openings.

Fig. 7. Natural size.

Figs. 8, 9 & 10. Different stages in the eversion of the ciliated band.

Fig. 11. Diagrammatic figure of the animal, showing the relative anatomy
of its internal organs: a, the wide pharynx; J, the liver; e, the
intestine; d, the anus; e, a protrusile organ connected with the
intestiniform tube f, noticed in the text. At the opposite extre-
mity of this tube two small glandular-looking sacculi, g, are
indicated ; h, the small ducts of the lateral convoluted tubes.

Fig. 12. Natural size of the animal.

Fig. 13. Loop of one of the generative tubes (seen at 11 h) highly magnified,
showing a deposit of dark pigment on one side.

Fig. 14. A few of the hepatic lobuli also highly magnified.

Port Curtis, Feb. 13, 1855.

On the Development of Avenicola piscatorum. 105

XITT—On the Development of Arenicola piscatorum; with
Remarks upon that of other Branchiferous Annelides. By Dr.
Max Scuuurze*.

[With a Plate. |

Most of the Branchiferous Annelida, of which the earliest forms
have yet been observed, leave the egg-capsule or the embryonic
receptacle of the mother in a condition by which they are enabled
to swim about freely. They are furnished with strong bands of
cilia, or with a uniform ciliary coat, so that they can roll about in
the water at pleasure.

By fishing with a fine net in the neighbourhood of the coast
or on the high sea, a considerable number of such roving An-
nelidan larve come to the hands of the zoologist. As these,
without exception, when in their earliest stages of develop-
ment, possess a very different form from their parents, and are
destitute of any organs by which the determination of their
origin might be rendered possible, a long series of investigations
upon their further evolution is necessary to obtain certain indi-
cations of their parentage. It is. rarely that such larve can be
kept alive in the experimental glasses long enough to enable us
to follow their further metamorphoses upon one and the same
individual. Naturalists have therefore generally been compelled
to confine themselves to collecting the different young forms of
the same animal one after the other, by repeated fishings, and
uniting these to form a general picture of the development.
Frequently however it happens that, notwithstanding constant
exertions, a form once observed never again comes into the net,
or occurs so rarely, that the origin of the single larve has
remained unknown, whilst others which were taken plentifully
and at different periods continued so obstinately in a certain
early stage of development, that all endeavours to ascertain their
subsequent fate were vain. It is therefore not to be wondered
at if, amongst the great number of young Annelides which have
been fished up from the sea and described, there are but few
which we can refer to their parents. A remarkable example how,
with the greatest perseverance, the goal is often reached only
after the lapse of a long period, is furnished by the Mesotrocha
sexoculata, recently ascertained by Max Miiller to be the larva
of Chetopterus, although J. Miller and Busch were repeatedly
led to investigate it during their excursions without being able
to observe any considerable progress in its development.

The employment of artificial impregnation will be of import-
ance to the study of the metamorphoses of the Annelida. As
yet this has only been tried once by Quatrefages, who by this

* From the Abhandl. der naturforsch. Gesellsch. in Halle, vol. iv. Com-
munieated by the Author and translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S. &e.

106 Dr. M. Schultze on the Development

means obtained young Hermelle, and was enabled to follow their
development for a considerable time. When we possess a series
of similar observations, the forms discovered swimming freely,
whose mature state is still unknown, may be gradually deter-
mined. Thus, R. Leuckart remarks *, that the larvee represented
by Busch, ‘ Beobachtungen,’ &c. tab. 7. figs. 5, 6, which were
taken up from the open sea, remind one of the young Hermelle
jast mentioned, by their long stiff bristles. But in this case it
cannot be supposed that the former are actually the progeny of
Hermella, as the latter, according to Quatrefages, lose their cilia
before the appearance of any segmentation of the body.

Our knowledge of the development of the Annelida has also
been advanced by the circumstance, that certain branchiferous
worms bear their eggs about with them until the evolution of
the young. Thus, in Eunice sanguinea, according to Koch, the
young are brought to maturity in the cavity of the body of the
mother, where they are retained until they reach a length of
from one to two inches, and acquire from 100 to 120 segments.
No trace of cilia appears to exist in these young animals. The
progeny of Nereis diversicolor quit the cavity of the mother at a
much earlier stage of development. In female specimens of this
Annelide taken in April on the coast near Greifswald, where it
is very abundant, I observed that the oval or pyriform embryos,
which are uniformly covered with cilia, and, from their reddish-
yellow colour, remind one of the young of Medusa aurita, came
in hundreds out of small apertures on the sides of the body,
under the pedal tubercles. These embryos (PI. II. figs. 11 & 12),
which swim about rapidly, measure ;1,th to }th of a line; they
are rather opake, in consequence of the numerous fatty vitelline
granules imbedded in the body. They swim with the narrow
end forwards, and the little animal constantly turns on its axis.
Near the anterior extremity is the mouth, marked out by longer
cilia arranged in a circle, and from this a canal passes inwards,
the hinder extremity of which did not appear to be formed.
In front of the mouth there are one or two dark eye-spots,
without refractive bodies. I did not observe any further meta-
morphosis, as the larvee soon died in my glasses.

Instead of the cavity of the body, the embryos of other Annelida
are developed in peculiar sacs situated on the dorsal or ventral
surface of the mother, where they generally attain a propor-
tionably high development. This is the case in Sacconereist,

* Jahbresbericht, 1848-53, and Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1855, 1. p. 21. See
Annals, 2nd Series, xvi. p. 264.

+ Sacconereis helgolandica has recently been ascertained by Krohn
(Miiller’s Archiv, 1855, p. 489) to be the result of the division of Autolytus
prolifer, a great step m the history of the development of this interesting

of Arenicola piseatorum. 107

according to the observations of Johann and Max Miiller, and of
myself, in Cystonereis, Kolker, Exogene, Oersted and Kolliker,
and Syllis pulligera, Krohn. In Sacconereis the young appear
to issue in swarms from the ventral sacs of the mother, as they
are provided with several bands of cilia, and when the sac is
artificially destroyed, possess the power of swimming in a high
degree ; whilst the evolution of the young of Cystonereis, Exogene,
and Syllis pulligera takes place on the body of the mother until
the disappearance of the cilia (which are certainly present in the
earliest stages of EHxogene cirrata and Syllis pulligera) and the
appearance of the segments and lateral bristles.

In a considerable number of Branchiferous Annelides, again,
the eggs are deposited enclosed in a mass of jelly, and develope
themselves in this covering, without any connexion with the
mother, until the young are furnished with bristles and other
locomotive organs like those of the mature animals. These do
not enable them to swim freely for any length of time, but only
to creep along the sea bottom. Examples of this kind occur in
the Tubicolar families of the Terebellacea and Serpulacea in the
genera Terebella and Protula, with whose young Milne-Edwards
has made us acquainted. As the masses of eggs of these animals
are attached to the exterior of their tubes, no doubt can exist as
to their origi, when they are collected at the same time with
the mother; and the tracing of their further development is
extraordinarily facilitated by the fact that they require no change
of water, at least as long as they remain enclosed in the gela-
tinous masses, and therefore survive in the glasses.

An example of this mode of development is also presented by
Arenicola piscatorum, the egg-masses of which I collected near
Cuxhaven, on the 22nd March 1852, and brought with me to
Greifswald, where the further development took place. On the
island of Neuwerk, which lies a few miles to seaward of Cuxhaven,
the traces of Arenicola piscatorum occur in extraordinary numbers.
In passing, during the ebb-tide, over a surface of sand but
slightly covered with water, I saw, lying on the sand, close to
almost every one of the little heaps thrown up by the worms

gemmiparous worm; and the same is probably the case with the second
species, S. Schultzii, from the Mediterranean, described by J. Miller. I
have no doubt that the animal of this genus taken by me at Heligoland,
and mentioned by J. Miiller from my letters, is identical with that observed
by Max Miiller (Miiller’s Archiv, 1855, p. 13). I took no notes of the
number of segments in the body ; but the young animal is represented at
fig. 10 (P]. IL). It represents a further step in the development of the
young worm represented by M. Miiller, /. ¢. tab. 2. figs. 5-8, and is par-
ticularly distinguished by its four bands of cilia. Of the fine cilia which
at an earlier period covered the whole body, only those on the head are
still in existence.

108 Dr. M. Schultze on the Development

at this period, which were here scarcely six inches apart, a pyri-
form gelatinous mass about half an inch long and of a fine rose
colour. On examining them more closely, I found that each of
them was fastened into the sand by a gelatinous stem of about
two inches long, and that the red colour was caused by an
aggregation of red granules in the interior of the greenish-yel-
low jelly. These are the eggs of Arenicola, of which from 300
to 400 are enclosed in the gelatinous mucus (PI. II. fig. 1).

From microscopic examination of some of them, it appeared
that the yelks lay close together in the gelatinous mass, only
enclosed in an extremely delicate vitelline membrane, something
like those of Nemertes in their pyriform vesicles ; and as I found
no traces of the commencement of segmentation, I concluded
that the eggs were only just deposited.

Unfortunately I was unable to trace their development on the
spot, and only recommenced my observations nine days after-
wards on the egg-masses which I took with me to Greifswald.
I then found that the process of segmentation was completed in
most cases, and that the oval embryos had acquired a fringe of
extremely fine cilia, in the form of a broad band, near what I
afterwards ascertained to be the anterior extremity (fig. 2).
Other eggs, which were rather backward in their development,
although they certainly gave no satisfactory clue to the course
of the process of segmentation, showed at all events that this
was complete, and that the vitelline membrane had taken part
in it so far as to furnish envelopes for the globules of segmenta-
tion, and consequently gave off the materials for the walls of the
embryonal cells. The embryos could therefore have been enye-
loped in no other capsule, but lay quite free in the semifluid
jelly, in which they began to move about slowly after the deve-
lopment of the cilia. The animals soon became rather more
elongated (fig. 3), and with this change of form new circles of
cilia made their appearance (fig. 4), one close before and a second
close behind the first ciliary band, and a third at the hinder
extremity of the body. All three of these are very narrow, and
consist only of a few series of very fine cilia, which can only be
seen with a high magnifying power, and never exhibit the rota-
tory motion which is often so remarkable in the free-swimming
Annelidan larye. At the same time two dark-red eye-spots
made their appearance in the neighbourhood of the first circle
of cilia. This was the condition of the embryos on the twelfth
day.

The length of the animal now gradually increases, whilst the
circles of cilia undergo no change in number or form. On the
other hand, distinct annular constrictions make their appearance
in the middle of the body, the first close behind the last circle of

of Arenicola piscatorum. 109

cilia, whilst the following ones are at first rather close together
(fig. 5), but gradually become more distant with the further
growth of the animal (fig. 6). The body, which hitherto had
been quite opake, now separated into a lighter peripherie por-
tion, lying under the skin, which still contmued rather dark,
and an opake central portion. The former represents the cavity
of the body, the latter the intestine, in which a cavity may be
recognized by the granules which move about in it. The intes-
tinal canal does not, however, lie free in the general cavity, but
is attached to the inner surface of the skin by annular bands
corresponding in number with the developed segments of the
body. A mouth exists behind the eyes, on the ventral surface ;
the anal opening occupies the extreme hinder end of the body.
No traces of a nervous or vascular system are perceptible.

On the twentieth to the twenty-fourth day the bands of cilia
disappear entirely, and the young animals, which had previously
moved slowly about in the gelatinous mass, now quit it in the form
of sluggish, helpless worms. Their length is now } to 3". Their
form is cylindrical, somewhat widened towards the anterior ex-
tremity, which terminates in a point, and truncated behind
(fig. 7). The mouth lies close behind the red eye-spots, which
are destitute of a refractive medium; it leads into a muscular
cesophagus (a), and this into the intestine, which runs straight
backwards to the anus. The number of segments in the body
has increased to 10 or 12 by additions at the hinder extremity
(between the last and penultimate segments). On the most
anterior of these the first lateral bristles are perceptible, standing
in groups of from two to four; they are delicately serrated on
one edge (fig. 9), in this respect resembling the infinitely larger
bristles of the mature Arenicola.

My endeavours to keep these young worms any longer failed
entirely. I put them into a glass upon a thin stratum of sand
which [ had brought with me from the island of Neuwerk, con-
taining a variety of Infusoria and Algz which might possibly
have served them for nourishment, but they died without under-
going any further change of form. I think, however, that I
saw indications of the formation of the auditory vesicle, as I ob-
served on each side, in front of the eyes, a small vesicle with a
tolerably sharp outline, and with irregularly granular, but not
calcareous, contents, which would probably afterwards be the
otolithes.

It is to be expected that the young Arenicole, after creeping
out of their gelatinous envelope, would bore into the sand in the
neighbourhood of their parents, and then gradually acquire their
mature form. The next thing to be done, therefore, is to seek
the young in this situation at the proper season.

110 Dr. M. Sehultze on the Development

From the foregoing statements, the development of Arenicola
has the greatest similarity with that observed by Milne-Edwards
in Terebella and Protula. In these, also, the eggs are deposited
without any envelope besides the vitelline membrane in gelatinous
masses, in which the young are developed to a certain point,
They also obtain an anterior and posterior circlet of cilia, by
means of which they move about in the soft jelly, and do not
quit this until their more powerful locomotive organs, the bristles,
are developed, and the cilia have disappeared, so that a free
swimming condition does not occur. Nevertheless there is a
difference in the number of bands of cilia, as the last-mentioned
forms do not acquire the two fine circles which occur in Arenicola
before and behind the broad band. But no great stress ean be
laid upon this difference, as the increased number of ciliary circles
appears in this case to be rather a division of the original simple
anterior band, and they are all situated upon the same segment,
the head. Milne-Edwards supposes that the young animals,
after the development of the first cilia upon their surface, creep
out of the vitelline membrane, which is afterwards absorbed. It
appears to me more probable, that in Terebella and Protula, as
in Arenicola, the vitelline membrane passes into the embryo
itself, by furnishing the envelopes of the globules of segmentation,
or the future embryonal cells, and that consequently no egg-
capsule exists from which the embryos must escape. Muilne-
Edwards did not observe the process of segmentation, and was
consequently in uncertainty as to the part taken in it by the
vitelline membrane.

Remak, in his recent investigations upon the development of
the Vertebrata, has described the part played by the vitelline
membrane, which he calls the egg-cell-membrane (Hizellenmem-
bran), in the segmentation of the egg of the Frog, as consisting
in its furnishing envelopes for the segmentary divisions by the
agency of constrictions, which it acquires simultaneously with
the vitelline mass itself. I have confirmed this statement in the
eges of Petromyzon Planeri, which also undergo a total segmen-
tation*. I doubt, however, the propriety of adopting the name
of egg-cell-membrane for the membrane immediately enveloping
the yelk, as this and no other deserves the name of vitelline
membrane. I believe we must regard the vitelline membrane
as having the same signification in the eggs of Arenicola as in
these eggs.

In other Branchiferous Annclides, however, the behaviour of
the membranes of the egg appears to be different. At least in
the case of Hermella, Quatrefages asserts that during segmenta-

* See Annals, May 1856, p. 443.

of Arenicola piscatorum. 11]

tion the vitclline membrane retains its form of a simple vesicle,
but afterwards unites with the surface of the embryonal cells,
forming the skin of the embryo, and acquiring cilia on its outer
surface. And this statement acquires more force from those of
O. Schmidt with regard to the development of Amphicora (Fa-
bricia) sabella*. This little Annelide, which has been classed
amongst the Cephalobranchiate worms, although, according to
Schmidt, it bears its branchize on its tail, lays its eggs in the
tube which it inhabits, but which it then quits. Their develop-
ment resembles that of EHzogene and Cystonereis, and in the
course of it the vitelline membrane becomes converted into the
skin of the embryo, as in Hermella. New observations must
prove the reality of the occurrence of such a participation of an
egg-capsule in the formation of the embryo, which would differ
from all known modes of animal development.

If we attempt, in conclusion, to refer the numerous and vari-
ously formed Annelidan larve hitherto observed to a few typical
forms, in order to facilitate the examination of thew further
metamorphoses, and acquire an approximate knowledge of the
mode of development common to all, the nature of the ciliary
coat, and the number and arrangement of the bands of cilia
when such occur, present us with a constant character applicable
to this purpose, as has already been poimted out by others.

In this way Busch+ distinguishes two groups of Annelidan
larve,—one, for which Lovén’s larvat serves as the type,
possessing a circlet of cilia at each end of the body (the anterior
generally situated between the eyes and the mouth), between
which the segments of the worm are afterwards developed. These
have been subsequently named Telotroche by J. Miller (Archiy,
1855, p. 12); and besides Lovén’s larva, the destiny of which is
unknown, this series includes a portion of Busch’s larvee, which
also cannot be referred to their parents, the larvae of Polynoé
(Sars), Nereis (Busch, /. c. tab. 9. fig. 11), Terebella, Protula,
and Arenicola. Perhaps also the young Hermelle may be re-
ferred to this position, as Quatrefages thinks (Ann. des Sc. Nat.
3 sér. x. p. 189), although, according to the description and
figure, they are destitute of a hinder circle of cilia.

The second group established by Busch is that of the Meso-
troche, with a simple or double wheel-like organ situated in the
middle of the body. To this belong all the larvze to which the
generic name of Mesotrocha has been applied, one of which, the
M. sexoculata, as already stated, is now ascertained to be the
young state of a Chetopterus.

* Neue Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Wiirmer, p. 29.

+ Beobachtungen, &c., pp. 57, 62.
t Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1842, p. 302.

112 Dr. M. Schultze on the Development

All Annelidan larve, however, cannot be referred to these
divisions. For instance, the young of Sacconereis, as already
mentioned, possess several (four) bands of cilia at equal distances
on the body. The same is the case with a larva from Trieste,
described by J. Miiller (Monatsber. der Berl. Akad. 1851, p.471);
it measured ,%,'", and possessed no bristles, but was distingui
by the presence of bacillar corpuscles, like those in the skin of
the Turbellaria ; and also with the larva from Trieste with 2 strong
and 10-14 weaker circles of cilia, figured by Busch, tab. 9.
figs. 9 and 10, which was traced further by Max Miiller (Diss.
Inaug. Berol. 1852, p. 25, tab. 3. figs. 14-17), but without
arriving at its definite form. These young Annelida may be
denominated Polytroche, after J. Miiller.

Lastly, the general coating of cilia, which frequently occurs
in the earliest period of embryonic life (Chetopterus, Sacconereis,
Nereis diversicolor), but generally gives place to the isolated
circles, appears to be persistent in the same form throughout the
whole larval existence of many Annelides. For such J. Miiller
proposed the name of Afroche; he observed one of them at
Trieste, measuring 7/5", which was already furnished with de-
veloped sete (Monatsber. 1851, p. 472).

All the young Annelides referred to these four divisions agree
in their development from the egg in the form of globular or
oval, non-annulated embryos, in receiving indications of division
into segments from the circlets of cilia when these are present,
but only acquiring the form of an Annelide, with distinct body-
segments and lateral bristles, after the lapse of some time. A
considerable deviation from this plan of development is presented
by Cystonereis Edwardsii, and Exogene Oerstedii and cirrata,
described by KGlliker, as also by Exogene naidina according to
Oersted, and Amphicora sabella according to O. Schmidt. The
young of these animals acquire, whilst still in the egg, a form
similar to that of the mother, as they appear at their first forma-
tion divided into several segments, like the embryos of the Arti-
culata. In the embryos of Cystonereis Edwardsii, Kolliker
counted 8-9 segments, and 6in Hwogene cirrata. In these there
are no traces of circles of cilia, and even a general coat of cilia is
wanting; whilst, on the other hand, fine cilia occur on certain
regions of the body, as in the embryo of Eogene cirrata on the
ventral surface. In these animals, therefore, we cannot speak
of a larval state, as they pass through all those changes of form
whilst still in the egg, which gradually occur in the others during
their free-swimming period, and long after their embryonal ex-
istence. They are therefore destitute of the provisional, transitory
organs which characterize the larval condition of the others.

To this short summary of the present state of our knowledge

EE

of Arenicola piscatornm. 113
of the development of the Branchiferous Annelides, | add a
tabular view, in families, genera and species, of all those worms
whose earlier states have hitherto been observed, whether singly
or in complete series. The systematic arrangement is that of
Grube, in his ‘ Familien der Anneliden.’ It shows how extremely
small, in comparison with the number of known species, 1s
that of the observations of their developmental forms, a number
however which would certainly be doubled, if we were acquainted
with the parentage of all the larve hitherto observed.

Tabular View of those Branchiferous Annelides of which the Young

Rapacia.
APHRODITEA..

EuNICEA

LYCORIDEA ..

PHYLLODOCEA.
SYLLIDEA...;.
ARICIEA......

States have already been observed.

Polynoé cirrata......
eh 2 re | ee
Eunice sanguinea....

Nereis diversicolor ..
Nereis, sp. dub.......

Phyliodoce, sp.......

Syllis pulligera ....

Autolytus prolifer....

(Sacconereis helgolan-
dica.

Sacconereis Schulizii.)
Cystonereis Edwardsi.

Exogene naidina ....

Exogene Oerstedit and
cirrata.

Nerine (Malacoceros)
longirostris.

Leucodore ciliata....

Sars, Wiegm. Arch. 1845, i.

bl B

M’ Miller, Arch. 1851, p.323;
Desor, Bost. Journ. vi. p. 12.

Koch, Neue Denkschr. der
schweiz. Gesellsch. viii.

Schultze, in this paper.

Milne-Edwards, Annales des
Sci. Nat. 3 sér. iii. p. 166;
Busch, Beobachtungen, &c.
p- 69. tab. 9. figs. 1], 12.

M. Miller, Arch. 1855, p. 17,
note.

Krohn, Wiegm. Arch. 1852, i.
p-2o5l.

Krohn, Wiegm. Arch. 1822, 1.
p- 66; Miller, Arch. 1855,
p- 489.

M. Miiller, Mull. Arch. 1855,
p- 13; Schultze, in this
yaper.

J. Miller, Ueber den allgem.
Plan. in der Entwickelung
der Echinodermen, p. 7, note.

Kolhiker, im Koch, Neue
Denkschr. der schweiz.
Gesellsch. vii. p. 21.

Oersted, Wiegm. Arch. 1845,
p- 20.

Kolhiker, Neue Denkschr. der
schweiz. Gesellsch. viii. pp.
15, 22;

Leuckart*, Wiegm. Arch. 1855,
i.pp. 63 & 77 ; Busch, Beob.
tab. 8. figs. 14.

Oersted, Annul. Dan. Consp.
p- 39. tab. 6. fig. 96(?) ;
Freyand Leuckart, Beitrige,
&e. p. 98. tab. 1. fig. 19 (?).

* See Annals, 2nd Series, xvi. p. 259.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 8

114 On the Development of Arenicola piscatorum, |
Limivora.
TeLetuusa .. Arenicola piscatorum. Schultze, in this paper. ih4

TeREBELLACEA. Terebella nebulosa, &c. Milne-Edwards, Ann. des ‘Sci.

Nat. 3 sér. i. p. 145.

HerMELLACEA. Hermella .......... Quatrefages, Ann. des Sci.

Nat. 3 sér. x. p. 153.

SERPULACEA.. Protula.........00. Milne-Edwards, Ann. des Sei.

Nat. 3 sér. iii. p. 161.
Fabricia (Amphicora) O. Schmidt, Neue Beitr. zur

sabella. Naturgesch. der Wiirmer,
1848, p. 27.
CumrorTerReA, Chetopterus ........ M. Miiller, Arch. 1855, p. 1.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

. 6.

sI

8

9;

Mesotrocha sexoculata, J.
Miiller, Arch. 1846, p. 101;
Busch, Mill. Arch. 1847,
p- 187; Beob. &e. 1851,
p- 59.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Mass of eggs of Arenicola piscatorum, enclosed in a pedunculate
gelatmous envelope : natural size.

. Embryo of Arenicola after the process of segmentation has reached

the stage in which the embryo commences its movements in the
gelatinous mass by means of a broad band of cilia at the anterior
end (about 10 days old). 150 diameters.

3. The same embryo, rather more elongated (one day older).
. An embryo in which the body has become more elongated, with

the appearance of new bands of cilia (12 days old).

5. An embryo, in the interior of which the differentiation of the

central cord (the alimentary canal) has commenced, with the
appearance of the first traces of segments (13 days).

An embryo in which the intestinal canal and the segments are still
more distinctly developed; the general cavity is traversed by
transverse walls, corresponding in number with the segments,
and attaching the intestine to the inner surface of the walls of
the body: the circles of cilia are still unaltered (17 days).

. A young larva, 24 days old, which has escaped from the gelatinous

envelope. The circlets of cilia have disappeared, the number of
segments has considerably increased, and the anterior extremity of
the intestine passes into a barrel-shaped cesophagus, the wide an-
terior opening of which is close to the mouth (a). The anterior
segments of the body are furnished with seta. 80 diam.

Anterior extremity of the same embryo, seen from the side to show
the position of the mouth on the ventral surface.

Sete from the anterior segments of the body. 400 diam.

10. Young of Sacconereis, with four circles of cilia, from Heligoland.
Figs. 11 & 12. Young of Nereis diversicolor, just escaped from the cavity

of the mother; fig.11, from the ventral side, showing the mouth, a;
fig. 12, from the back.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. — 115

XLV.—Noles on the Freshwater Infusoria of the Island of Bombay.
No. 1. Organization. By H. J. Carter, Esq., Assistant
Surgeon H.C.S8., Bombay.

{With three Plates. ]

For some time past, when circumstances would permit, I have
paid considerable attention to the Infusoria and Freshwater Algz
of the Island of Bombay, which being the same, generally, as
those of Europe, have not occupied me much in specific descrip-
tion, while they have left me comparatively uninterrupted in
their structural and physiological observation. How much has
been gained by the latter the following summary of my “ Notes”
will show.

I shall commence with the freshwater Rhizopoda, the Astasie
and Huglene ; but before proceeding to remark on them sepa-
rately, I would premise some observations on the general organ-
ization of Infusoria, and these will be arranged under the fol-
lowing heads :—

Pellicula, or skin.

Diaphane, or transparent moving matter.

Sarcode, or abdominal mucus.

Molecule, or minute grains.

Granules, or large grains.

Digestive Globules, or spherical spaces which enclose the food.

Spherical Cells, or biliary organisms. (?)

Vesicula, or “ contracting vesicle.”

Nucleus.

Ovules, or embryonic cells.

Spermatozotds. (?)

Impregnation.

Development of Ovule.

Pellicula.—This term has been proposed by Mohl for the
consolidated surface of material which has no distinct enclosing
membrane*. Dujardin, in allusion to the tegumentary covering
of Amewba, &c., likens it to the film which occurs over “ flour-
paste or glue allowed to cool in the airt ;” and the same view
of it will be taken here. It is at first inseparable and undi-
stinguishable from the tissue which lies beneath it, yielding
in every way to the form which the latter assumes. As, how-
ever, Ameba progresses in development, and its activity begins
to diminish, the pellicula appears to thicken and harden, al-

*

* Mohl on the Structure of Chlorophyll. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.
vol. xv. p. 325, foot-note. May 1855.
+ Hist. Nat. des Zoophytes Infusoires, p. 29 et seq.
8*

116 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria,

though it still retains great tenacity; and thus the expansions
of the subjacent tissue are seen to burst through it in much the
same manner that the end of a stream of lead bursts through
its pellicle. Finally, when all activity ceases, and the Amaba
becomes stationary (by fixing itself to some neighbouring object
through a pedicular prolongation of the pellicula), a new layer of
the latter is formed below the old one, and thus the capsule is
formed, and the pellicula replaced on the body of the Ama@ba,
until the latter becomes firmly encysted (PI. V. figs. 6, 8)*. To
what part of the body of the Ameba the pedicular process cor-
responds, I am ignorant; but it is interesting to see that in
Euglena, where a similar process takes place, it is the anterior
extremity which is next the pedicle (fig. 9). Many freshwater
Rhizopoda secrete a testaceous covering, which mereases in size
with the animal; but the fleshy part of the body being for the
most part free, is of course still covered with pellicula. The
pellicula forms the surface-covering of Astasia and Euglenat, as
well as that of all the holo-, poly-, diplo- and mono-ciliated flexible
animaleules and zoospores. Here too, probably, the cilia them-
selves are also”covered with it, though secreted by subjacent
organs, analogous perhaps to those which secrete the hairs on the
bodies of higher animals,— a supposition that would appear ridi-
culous did we not find such a correspondence between the vital
processes of the highest and lowest developments as to induce us
to think the latter are but a repetition of the others on a smaller
scale; that is to say, effected by similar agents, of corresponding
minuteness, conducted on the same principle. Taking the
above view of the pellicula, we must regard it as a structureless
product, which hardens after secretion. May we not infer that
there is a layer below, specially organized for its formation ?
Diaphane.—By this name I would designate the moving
substance on which the pellicula rests (figs. 1-3). dAmaba,
whose primary figure is spherical, has the power of changing
this into an almost unlimited number of secondary forms, most
of which, being attended with root-shaped prolongations, this
Infusorium is justly entitled to a place among the Rhizopoda.

* After this the numbers alone of the figures will be inserted, as they
are continuous throughout the three plates.

+ Although Astasia and Euglena are here mentioned together, it seems
that, in classification, one should be on the animal, and the other on the
vegetable side of Amba; for Astasia possesses a mouth and complicated
buceal apparatus for biting off and taking in food, while Euglena appears
to have no mouth, and to be nourished by endosmosis. The half-developed
cilium, too, in Euglena, compared with the strong prehensile organ which
occurs in Astasia, with many other points which will be mentioned here-
after, allies the former as much more to the zoospore or gonidium of the
Algz, as the reverse does the latter to the higher Infusoria,

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 117

That the diaphane is structureless and transparent, so far as our
microscopic powers extend, may be seen by the travelling of
some kinds of Ameba across the field of the microscope, in
which the coating of the diaphane, though broader all round
than the diameter of the turbid mass of contents in the centre,
only now and then, when the light is favourable, comes into
view. The radii in Actinophrys are wholly devoid of turbid
material, except towards the base; and the advancing border of
the Amebe generally is always transparent (figs.2 4,34). But
whether granules are mixed with it or not, the diaphane by
itself, that is the contracting material, in the present state of our
microscopic powers, must be characterized by transparency and
motion, without apparent structure. It has the same appearance
and polymorphic power in Diffugia, Euglypha, and Arcella, as
in Ameba; but in Astasia and Euglena, though still possessing
great latitude in this respect, it can put forth no prolongations,
and, consequently, the primary forms of these families are never
entirely lost. This latitude is still more limited in Oxytricha,
Plesconia, Paramecium, &c., though in many Infusoria of this
class it has still the power of temporarily producing considerable
alteration in shape. It might be stated that the diaphane can-
not be demonstrated in these animalcules; but the great power
of motion of their tegumentary covering, combined with trans-
parency, warrants the use of the term here just as much as in
Rhizopoda, where it is only more striking, because, for want of
cilia, the animalcule is compelled to put it forth im delicate ex-
pansions and prolongations, in progression, and for the capture
of its food ;—indeed, these are the two great modes in which all
its vital movements are effected.

Some might think, from what has been stated, that there is
no difference originally between the pellicula and diaphane, and
that the latter passes into the former when the animalcule be-
comes encysted. But neither appears to be the case ; for if we
watch Ameba or Euglena undergoing this process, the activity
and accompanying polymorphism of the diaphane are diminished
only by the thickening and consolidation of the cyst, until the
latter is fully formed, when they cease altogether. Subsequently,
however, in Euglena, when this animaleule becomes temporarily
encysted, the diaphane separates itself from the last layer of
pellicula which completes the cyst, and thus the Euglena be-
comes free within it ; after which it will force off the constricted
peduncle of attachment from the object to which the cyst may
have been fixed, and, projecting its cilium through the broken
part, swim about for some time, until (perhaps by inerease of
size) the cyst is altogether burst, and its liberation restored

118 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

(fig. 9). Yet it might still be observed, that this is no proof of
the cyst and diaphane having been originally distinet structures,
—the diaphane may have been re-formed; in which case I can
only refer to what L have suggested respecting the origin of the
pellicula, and add that what takes place generally in the higher
organisms appears to me to be applicable to the lower ones,
Certainly we do not find one structure erected by the organism
of another in the former, but the production of each structure
dependent on the presence of its proper organism ab initio;
that is, that the structure does not appear before it is aceom-
panied by the fully developed form of the cell or organism which
produces it. I do not question that, under the laws of vitality,
one organism may occasionally take on the excretory or secreting
functions of another, nor that, from a common stock, all organ-
isms, in obedience to the same laws, may be adapted to that which
is particularly required of them; but I think that when once a
being is fully developed, each organ of which it may be com-
posed has its peculiar organism, and that organism its peculiar
duties, which, except in unusual instances, are the only ones
that it is capable of performing. That the diaphane, therefore,
should pass into the pellicula, or the pellteula be secreted by the
diaphane, seems untenable.

Related to the diaphane is the transparent intercellular sub-
stance of Spongilla, which has a polymorphism equally great
with the fully developed cells. This, however, can only be
satisfactorily seen when the new sponge is growing out from the
seed-like body, at which time it spreads itself over the glass in a
transparent film, charged with contracting vesicles of different
sizes, and in various degrees of dilatation and contraction.
low this substance is produced so early it is difficult to conceive,
since it seems to come into existence independently of the de-
velopment of the sponge-ovules, which are seen imbedded in it,
and there undergoing their transformation into sponge-cells.
The spicula too are developed synchronously with the advancing
transparent border, from little glairy globules about the size of
the largest ovules, which send out a linear process on each side,
and thus gradually grow into their ultimate forms. Perhaps
the only way of accounting for the early appearance of this in-
tercellular substance is to consider that it is a development from
some remnants of the original protoplasm, and then that it has
the power of secreting a general pellicula, while at the same
time it is in part the general diaphane ; and perhaps possesses
also the power of producing new sponge-cells, as we see the
protdplasm in Vorticel/a and the roots of Chara producing new
buds, viz. independently of the cell-nucleus.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 119

Sarcode.—This name was proposed by Dujardin for the
“glutinous substance of the interior” of Infusoria*; and we
shall here understand it as applicable solely to what, in other
words, might be termed the “abdominal mucus” (figs. 1 J, 2 4,
34), The sarcode occupies the centre, while the diaphane and
pellicula form the circumferential layers of Infusoria; besides
this, it is the seat of the “granules” and other organs of the
interior, and appears to receive the food directly into its sub-
stance. From the greater latitude of the particles which are
situated towards the centre, that portion may be inferred to be
of less density than the rest; and sometimes, when the animal-
cule is rendered spherical by aqueous distension, there appears
to be an actual cavity here (fig. 2d); but as I am not certain
about the real situation of the water under these circumstances,
I shall return to this point again by-and-by. In the Rhizopoda
generally, the sarcode appears to have no external communica-
tion, and hence the food must pass into it directly through the
diaphane; but in most of the other Infusoria it communicates
with the surrounding medium by one orifice at least. The same
kind of substance occupies a good portion, if not the whole, of
the internal or abdominal cavity of Astasia and Euglena, Vorti-
cella, Paramecium, and the Infusoria of this class. When death
is about to take place, it comes forth from Vorttcella, Parame-
cium, &e. in round, transparent, structureless expansions; and
even during life in Stentor a portion may be made, by pressure,
to issue through a rupture of the pellicula without any apparent
injury to the animalcule+. O¢ostomat, also, when under press-
ure, throws off portions of its sarcode through the anal orifice,
containing a number of the “ spherical cells,” to be mentioned
hereafter, with which it is charged in this kind of infusorium.
As we shall presently find that the portions of food which are
_ received into the midst of the sarcode are circulated round the
abdominal cavity, it seems necessary to admit, also, that the
sarcode is endowed with a power of motion, in which we cannot
help seeing an analogy to that motion which exists in the ali-
mentary canal of higher animals.

In Euglena the sarcode is separated from the diaphane by a
layer of pointed, sigmoid fibres, arranged parallel to each other,
so as to form in Crumenula texta, Duj., a conical cell, which, as
soon as the ovules have become developed, and the diaphane and
other contents of the sarcode have died off, becomes transparent,
but still retains its conical form until the resiliency of the fibres,

* Op. cit. p. 35.

+ Ehrenberg, ap. Dujard. op. cit. p. 34, foot-note. It is the same with

Nassula.
t Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvii. pl. 1x. figs. 6-8, 1856.

120) Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

now unrestrained by the diaphane and other soft parts; cause
dehiscence, and the ovules are set at liberty (PI. VI. fig. 60)... May
we not infer that the siliceous frustule of Navicula is similarly
situated to this fibrous layer, and that it also derives its power of
motion from an external coating of diaphane? That there is a gela-
tinous layer external to the frustule probably in all Diatomee, may
frequently be seen, although it may not be always endowed with
mobility. In a species of Palmellea too, like Gleocapsa granosa,
Kg.*, which I have had under observation, the transparent ex-
ternal covering (“ envelope-cell ” of Cohn) not only at one period
presents an actinophorous form, but also moves about under
this condition, bearing the green elliptical cell within (singly, or
divided into two or four, &e. as the ease may be), whose form
depends upon the presence of a more or less firm (skeleton) coat,
that corresponds in position and office to the spiral coat in
Euglena and the siliceous frustule in Navicula, viz. im supporting
the contents of the sareode and chlorophyll-bearing protoplasm,
and in sustaining their form in all these organisms respectively
(fig. 19). In Oseillatoria (princeps, Kg., mihi) again, although,
like Navicula, the presence of a layer of substance endowed with
motion round the cells cannot be seen, yet, when we observe
the whole chain of a fragment moving slowly backwards and for-
wards within its sheath, and even extending beyond it, so as to
force out the loosened cells at either end (probably for the
formation of new filaments), we can come to no other conclu-
sion, that I sec, than that cach cell, which corresponds in office
to the frustule in M avicula, &e., 1s surrounded by a transparent,
gelatinous substance, endowed with motion, and that, en masse,
they perform this act: although this substance cannot be seen
when the cells are undergoing simple elongation or filamentous
development, yet it becomes evident enough when they are
undergoing crucial division without the sheath for the multi-
plication of filaments. In none of these instances does this
envelope, if existing in Navicula, as well as the rest, present any
change on the addition of iodine but a yellow tinge, even when
assisted by sulphuric acid ; and it therefore appears to be entitled
just as much to the term of diaphane in Navicula (if present),
Glaocapsa granosa (?), and Oscillatoria, as in the Infusoria. In
Clostertum there are no signs of an organ of this kind externally,
except at the extremities, where it may be an extruded part of
the ciliated protoplasm within; for C. dunula, as Morren has
stated, can fix itself by one end, and partially rotate upon that
end; while in Spirogyra this much extrusion of the protoplasm

* Hematococcus granosus, Hassall, pl. 81, fig. 6, British Freshwater
Alga ;—but with cells scattered, not continuous.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 121

is not permitted, and the cell is here closed after the manner of
vegetable cells generally. What further strengthens the view that
there is in some Diatomeze (e.g. Navicula and Nitzschia) a layer
corresponding to diaphane on the surface, 1s, that there is some
prehensile and transporting organ here, which undoubtedly has
the power of seizing particles that come in contact with it, and
of conveying them “partially or wholly backwards and forwards
from one extremity of the frustule to the other, or of retainmg
them on any part of it stationarily.

Molecule.—We will apply this term to the minute, colourless
granules with which the sarcode is charged (fig. 3 6). They
differ in size, and are the first bodies that appear in it; but
whether they be of different kinds, have any particular office, or
undergo any further development, I am at present ignorant.
Ameba, Astasia (fig. 45), and Euglena (fig. 46), in the earlier
part of their existence, respectively seem to contain nothing else
but this molecular sarcode, the nucleus, and contracting vesicle ;
afterwards the “granules” appear, and last of all the ovules,
both of which are developed in the sarcode amongst the molecule.
By the time the ovules have become fully formed, the sarcode and
its moleculz have died off, or disappeared (figs. 26, 46, 56).

Granules.—This name is intended for certain large granules,
which make their appearance among the molecule, and are cir-
culated round the abdominal cavity in the manner of the diges-
tive globules and particles of food (figs. 4 a, 5 c, 65 a). They
are of different sizes, but chiefly characterized by beg much
larger than the molecule, few in number, of a circular, elliptical,
elongated, sub-round, or ‘irregular shape, with thick dark edges,
apparently produced by obstruction to the passage of hght,—
colourless, or of a yellowish-green tint. When large, and with
no other granular matters present but the molecule, they form
a striking feature in the interior of Ameba, Vortivella, Oxytricha,
Paramecium aurelia, &e.; but at times they are so insignificant in
size as to be undistinguishable from the molecule, even if present
at all. That they are not ovules may be satisfactorily seen when
both are together; the dark, thick, and frequently irregular
edges and colourless state of the former contrasting strongly
with the thin, circular margin and faint yellow tint of the latter
‘ (fig. 5 ec). They appear to increase in size and number with
the age of the infusorium, and, when fully developed, to remain
unaltered in s1Z¢, though apparently somewhat shrivelled in
form, until their dissolution. On one occasion, while watching
the metamorphosis of an Oxytricha (similar to, but not the
same as that described by M. Jules Haime*, and of which I

* Ann. des Sei. Nat. t. xix. p. 109, Zool. 1853,

122. Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

hope to give a detailed account hereafter), these granules, during
the formation of the globular cell within the body, which
enclosed the materials from which the Plesconia was ultimately
developed, became congregated together at the posterior ex-
tremity of the Oxytricha, and remained there in a roundish mass,
shut out from the cell, until the latter burst for the liberation
of the Plesconia, when, with the deciduous coverings, they
passed into dissolution. Of the nature of their office I am
ignorant, but they are sufticiently remarkable and constant to
demand particular notice.

In the development of the sponge-cell, a similar set of large
granules makes its appearance at a very early period, and
increase in number and size until they form as remarkable a
feature as those above noticed. At this time they are about
yodo0 Of an inch in diameter, of an elliptical shape, and of a
light amber colour by transmitted light; they are the colour-
bearing granules or cells of Spongilla, and give the colour of
chlorophyll to this organism when it becomes green.

Such granules would appear to be present also in the earliest
forms of Amba, since they may be seen in mono- and diplo-
ciliated monads, which, on losing these appendages, become
polymorphic, and assume all the characters of Ameba. Here
they not only resemble the granules of the sponge-cell, but at
the same time appear to be of the same kind as those above
described. Neither is it uncommon to see polymorphic cells,
precisely like Ameba, bearing granules coloured like those of
the sponge-cell ; but the resemblance between the two organisms
is so great, when the latter is free, that it is impossible to say
which is which : however, they are greenish-yellow and elliptical-
elongate in the foot of Difflugia proteiformis, Ehr., which cannot
be confounded with the cell of Spongilla. That these granules
are not ovules in the sponge-cell, any more than in the Infusoria,
their colour alone is sufficient to determine.

Digestive Globules.—We shall use this term for spherical
spaces of the sarcode, which are filled with water, and generally
contain more or less food (figs. 3 e, 65 b, 74 d). They are
formed in Vorticella and Paramecium in the following way, viz.
as the particles of nutritive matter are drawn into the vortex of
the buccal cavity, by the cilia which are disposed around its orifice
for this purpose, they are forced down, with a certain amount
of water, into the sarcode at the end of it, where they at first
form a pouch-like dilatation, which sooner or later becomes
constricted close to the buccal cavity, and, having been thus
separated from it, passes off in a spherical form into the midst
of the sarcode (figs. 65 c,74c¢c). The formation of one globule
is soon followed by that of another; and so on successively the

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 123

food, with a large quantity of water, is taken into the abdomen ;
sometimes the globule appears to contain nothing but water.
When in the sarcode, it is continually undergoing circulation
round the abdominal cavity, until the whole of its contents are
digested, and resolved into a fluid, or until their nutrient parts
are abstracted ; the remainder then, still in a globular form, if
there be sufficient water left to sustain this, is cast off through
the anal orifice, as it arrives opposite this point during rotation
(tig.68 6). Frequently, however, nothing but the crude ingesta
remain ; for as soon as the globule begins to be circulated, the
watery contents begin to be absorbed,—hence some particles of
food are almost always present, without any globule round them
(fig. 5d); added to which, in many instances bodies pass directly
ito the sarcode without any globule at all (fig. 74¢). I cannot,
with some others, think, that there is any intestinal canal in the
abdominal cavity, because the digestive globules and other par-
ticles of food are constantly undergoing circulation round the
whole of its interior. In Vorticella, particles of food may occa-
sionally be seen to circulate throughout, and accumulate, in
every corner of its interior, particularly those which do not happen
to be enclosed in globules (fig. 74 ee). Moreover, the intimate
resemblance which exists between the alimentary organs of higher
Infusoria, viz. Nassula, Otostoma, &c., and those of the binocular
and so-called blind Planarie,—in the distance of the mouth from
the anterior extremity, the presence of a buccal apparatus, and
a simple sac-like stomach in the latter, lined with a layer of
mucous substance (sarcode ?), charged with the “ spherical cells”
about to be described, is so great, that with such a simple gastric
organ in an animal so closely allied to these Infusoria as Planaria,
I do not see what reason we have, in descending the scale, to
expect a more complicated digestive apparatus; but, on the
contrary, one still more simple, in which there would be no
stomach at all ;—a condition which appears to me to be common
to all the Infusoria that have come under my notice.

In the Ameba, for want, apparently, of a channel of com-
munication with the exterior, the introduction of food seems to
take place directly through the diaphane; and it is only now
and then that the process by which the digestive globule is
formed can be distinctly seen. Thus, on one occasion, where
the particle about to be enclosed was a small Ameba, the latter,
after struggling for some time, got under the former, when the
large Ameba raised its diaphane in a dome-shaped cavity over
the small one, and then, closing in below, after the manner of a
sphincter, shut in the small Amaba, which, with a portion of
water, Immediately passed into the sarcode, under the form of a

124 Mr. Hi. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

spherical digestive globule*. That the food is broken down by
a digestive process in this way may be seen in the dmaba, where
it frequently appears in all degrees of solution in the same in-
dividual ; viz. from an opake, crude mass, to a blue or brownish
fluid, according to the colour which the material may assume
under its altered condition. In Astasia digestive globules also
appear; but here the food is taken in through a distinct mouth,
while in Euglena the absence of such vesicles would appear to
indicate that its support is of a different kind, if not introduced
in a different way.

Spherical Cells.—These cells, to which I have just alluded,
abound in the sarcode of Otostoma+, and apparently in many of
Ehrenberg’s Allotreta (fig. 92). In Otostoma they are of dif-
ferent sizes, because they are in all stages of development; and,
to keep up their numbers, without distending the animalcule,
they must be continually undergoing rapid decay, as well as re-
production. The most remarkable feature in them is, that the
largest, besides other granular bodies, contain several small
cells, filled with a brownish-yellow fluid, and these cells are also
found free among the general group; but what their ultimate
destination is, as they do not appear to grow larger, or to be-
come reproductive, I am ignorant. In the Planarie to which I
have alluded, as well as in Rotifera, such cells nearly fill the
stomach, and the large ones being more or less grouped together
in the former, at the same time that they chiefly contain the
yellow cells, the whole acquires a sub-acinous or glandular appear-
ance, very like the hepatic element surrounding the alimentary
canal of some of the lower worms. It is also interesting to
find here that each possesses a lash of cilia (about 50) projecting
from one part of the cell, which, for some time after they are
forced into the water through the oral orifice, or a rupture of the
body, act by their whippmg movements as imperfect locomotive
organs, while, when these cells are fixed in situ, the same whip-
ping movement must keep up a continued agitation of the gastric
contents, which, if not conducted in a similar way in the Infu-
soria, has its analogue there in the circulation of the digestive
elobules, and granular matters of the sareode (fig. 92 a, g).
Although ovules may occasionally issue together with these cells
from Otostoma, &c. as well as from the Planaria, yet the two

can hardly be confounded; as in the Planarie the peculiar

character of the ovule not only distinguishes it, but by careful
manipulation the whole generative apparatus may be exposed
outside the stomach.

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 93, 1849.
+ Idem, vol. xvii. pl. ix. fig. 6b b.

09 98 “eee a ee

Mr. Hi. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 125

That these cells in Planaria and Otostoma are homologous
organs can hardly be doubted, both from their general characters
and their correspondence in position ; but what their office may
be is at present unknown. Occurring, however, as they do, in
the stomach of Planaria and Rotifera, where there is no other
analogue of the so-called biliary follicles of the lower worms*,
and being almost identical in Otostoma and Planaria, they not
only ally these two organisms, but, at the same time, appear to
be the homologue of the biliary follicles im each.

I have never seen any cells of this kind in Ameba, unless the
“oranules” already described be their analogues. It appears
evident that these are the same both in Ameba and the sponge-
cell, and that they are the seat of the green colour in the latter.
Are the green granules of the sponge-cell analogous to the parts
or cells respectively which hold the colouring matter or endo-
chrome in the Diatomee, Closterium, Spirogyra, Cladophora, &c.,
and (through the latter) to the “green disks” or peripheral
layer of chlorophyll-bearing cellules in the internode of Nitedla,
and those which, scattered irregularly through its moving pro-
toplasm, are cireulated round the cell of Serpicula verticillata
(figs. 63 a, 64a)? Lf so, the chlorophyll-bearing parts of the
protoplasm in vegetables may be the analogue of the liver in
animals. In some Rotifera the spherical cells appear to bear
bile as green as grass or chlorophyll+, while m others it is
yellow. The same diversity of colour occasionally manifests
itself in the Diatomee; while in Spirogyra especially, the oil-
globules and amylaceous deposits, which abound in abortive
conjugation, are entirely confined to the green spiral-bands, thus
corresponding, in one identically, and in the other transitionally,
with the fat and sugar which are formed in the liver of man; the
colouring matter in all of course being, when present, a mere
indication cet. par. of the nature of the organ. How the colour-
bearing cellule of the spherical cells are produced in Otostoma

* By this I do not mean to class the Planarians with the Worms. Mr.
C. Girard, who has followed out the “ Embryonic Development of Plano-
cera elliptica,”’ would ally them to the Gasteropoda,— Researches upon
Nemerteans and Planarians,’ 4to, Philadelphia, 1854.

+ Since writing this, I have seen Diglena catellina, Ehr., discharge the
green matter from its alimentary canal, and retain nothing but the ordinarily
coloured biliary cells; also D. caudata to have the whole of the soft tissues
of its body coloured in this way, unless there be diverticulations of the
stomach to this extent; so that I now begin to think this colour, which at
first appeared persistent, to be adventitious, and gained from the Euglene,
and, perhaps, chlorophyll-bearing protoplasm on which these species chiefly
feed. Accidentally, perhaps, the bile may become green in any species of
Rotifera, as in animals generally ; and this appears to be the case with the
endochrome of Diatomee.

126 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

and Planaria, 1am ignorant ; but in some Rotifera (e. g. Bra-
chionus Pala, Ehr.) they present themselves at an early period
in a circular or discoid group, attached to the cell-wall, and thus,
with the absence of the nucleus, closely resemble a granulated
state of that organ.

Vesicula.—I would propose this name for the “ Contracting
Vesicle,” on account of the latter being a loose and inconvenient
term in description (figs.3 c, 4b), It is certainly the most
striking organ of the Infusoria, from its defined circular outline
when distended, its hyaline aspect, and above all its sudden
disappearance and gradual return at intervals, which give it a
pulsatory character, so like that of a heart, that at first we are
inclined to conclude that it must be the representative of this
organ in the Infusoria. Spallanzani considered it a respira-
tory organ* ; Ehrenberg the male organ of generation+; and
Siebold a circulatory organt. The following facts, however,
would seem to show that it is neither of these, but an excretory
organ, viz. :—

Ist. It is always seen either close to the pellicula, or close to
the buccal cavity, and always stationary. Thus, in Paramecium
aurelia, it is close to the surface, and although it of course passes
out of view as the animalcule turns on its long axis, yet it
always reappears, after contraction, in the same place (figs. 68 aa,
74 ff); while in Vorticella it is attached to the buccal cavity,
and, being centrically situated, seldom passes out of view, except
when it disappears under contraction, after which it also re-
appears in the same place.

2nd. In Actinophrys Sol§, and other Ameba, during the act
of dilatation, the vesicula projects far above the level of the
pellicula, even so much so as occasionally to form an elongated,
transparent, mammilliform eminence, which, at the moment
of contraction, subsides precisely like a blister of some soft
tenacious substance that has just been pricked with a pin
(fig. 24 a).

3rd. Lastly, when we watch the contraction of the vesicula
in a recently encysted Vorticella, we observe that at the same
moment that it contracts the buccal cavity becomes filled with
fluid; and further, that this fluid disappears from the buccal
cavity, and all trace of the latter with it, long before the vesicula
reappears ; thus proving at once, that the fluid comes from the
vesicula and does not return to it, whatever may become of it
afterwards (fig. 78).

The position of this organ, then, its manner of contracting,

* Ap. Dujardin, op. cit. pp. 103, 104. + Idem, pp. 105-108.

+ Ap. Claparéde, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xv. p. 212, 1855,

§ Idem, loc. cit, pl. vii. fig. 1.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 127

and the buccal cavity of eneysted Vorticella becoming filled with
fluid the moment it disappears (where we know it to be attached
to the buecal cavity, and not to the pellicula), are almost conclu-
sive of its excretory office. We have now to find out how this
fluid is brought to the vesicula.

It will be remembered that there is a series of fusiform sinuses
which surround each of the vesicule in Paramecium aurelia, and
some other animalcula of this class, on which Spallanzani made
the important observation, that as they become empty the vesi-
cula becomes filled*. This may be easily seen, as well as that
they do not reappear until some time after the vesicula has con-
tracted. Thus we infer, that the fluid with which the vesicula
is distended comes through the sinuses, but is not returned by
them to the body of the Paramecium.

Now in some cases, faint hyaline or transparent lines may be
seen to extend outwards+ from each of these sinuses, which lines,
Eckhard has stated, ‘traverse the body in a stellate manner.”
Hence, when we add Eckhard’s evidence (which I have been able
to confirm in a way that will be presently described) to the ob-
servation of Spallanzani, and connect this with the facts already
adduced in favour of the excretory office of the vesicula, it does
not seem unreasonable to conclude that the whole together
forms an excretory vascular system, in which the vesicula is the
chief receptacle and organ of expulsion.

While watching Paramecium aurelia, 1 on several occasions
not only observed that the vesiculz were respectively surrounded
by from seven to twelve pyriform sinuses of different sizes, and
that lines extended outwards from them in the manner described
by Eckhard; but I further observed that these lines were com-
posed of a series of pyriform or fusiform sinuses, which diminished
in size outwards; and frequently I could trace as many as three
in succession, including the one next the vesicula (fig. 66 bd).
Hence I am inclined to infer, that this vascular system through-
out is more or less composed of chains of such sinuses, and that
all haye more or less contractile power like that of the vesicula.
Just preceding death, when Paramecium aurelia is compressed,
and under other favourable circumstances, these sinuses run
into continuous hyaline lines, and may not only be seen extend-
ing in a radiated, vascular form across the animalcule, but even
branching out round the position of the vesicula, which, having
now become permanently contracted, has thus poured back the
contents which render them visible (fig. 67 b 6). They enter

* Spallanzani ap. Dujard. op. cit. p. 103; Spall. Opuse. Phys. trad.
France. t. i. p. 248.
+ Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xviii. p. 448, 1846.

128 =Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

the lower or inner part of the organ, and at this point, therefore,
are pushed inward as the vesicula becomes distended (fig..68:aa).
Under the same cireumstances, also, when the vesicula is\slowl
dilating and contracting, it may be seen to be attached to sama
papilla on the surface, about twice the diameter of those whie
surmount the trichocysts*, and through which. it) probably
empties itself (fig. 68 aa). In Ofostoma there appears to bea
similar arrangement of vessels round each vesicula, and here/also
they seemed to me to be branched,—at least such was my im-
pression after having watched this animaleule for a long time,
im order to determine the point.

In Amoeba and Actinophrys the vesicula is generally single ;
sometimes there are two, and not unfrequently in larger Amaba a
greater number. In Euglypha 1 have not been able to recognize
them, but in Arcella vulgaris and Difflugia proteiformis (figs. 79, 80)
they may be seen in great number, situated round the margin of
that part of the animalcule which is within the test; and from
their always reappearing, after contraction, in the same. places
respectively, we may perhaps infer that the situation of the
vesicula in Am@eba and Actinophrys also is fixed, though from
their incessant polymorphism it appears to be continually vary-
ing in position. In Paramecium, and Ehrenberg’s Enterodela
generally, the vesicula is either single or dual. When it exists
in great number in any of these (e. g. Chilodon ecucullulus,
Ehr.), this appears to depend on accidental dilatations of the
sinuses in connexion with it. Thus, in the animaleule just
mentioned, where the vesicula is single, and seems to be sub-
terminal and lateral in its normal position, it is not uncommon
to meet with a group in which every member presents a variable
number of contracting vesicles, variably also and irregularly. di-
spersed throughout the body, without one being in the true posi-
tion of the vesicula (figs. 82, 83). That the vesicula does make
its appearance now and then may be inferred, as it perhaps may
also be inferred that from oyer-irritability, or some such cause,
it does not remain under dilatation long enough to receive the
contents of the sinuses; and hence their accidental dilatation,

* These are narrow, fusiform cells, arranged perpendicularly, and at
some little distance from each other, under the pellicula, where they thus
form a layer all over the body, and each, according to Dr. Allman, contains
a delicate, resilient thread, coiled up in its interior, which, just after the
cells have been forcibly pressed out into the water, by crushing the. ani-
maleule, causes them to assume, for a second, a circular form, and then
burst, through which the thread is set free, and, lying rigid on the glass,
presents the form of an acicular crystal, terminated at each end by a
pointed extremity, one of which, bemg more attenuated than the other,
appears like an appendage. To these cells Dr. Allman has given the name
of “ trichocysts.”” (Quart. Journ. Microscop. Se. vol. iii. p. 177, 1855.)

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 129

and the appearance of a plurality of vesicule. That, also, the
sinuses which are in the immediate vicinity of the vesicula do
empty themselves mto it may be easily seen, when both are
present; and what takes place near, it seems not unreasonable
to infer may, through a concatenation of communication, take
place from a distance. At the same time, the sinuses of this
system in the sarcode of Amaba not only seem to burst imto
each other, and into the vesicula, but when the latter has con-
tracted, another sinus, partially dilated, and situated near the
border, may be seen to swell out and contract after the same
fashion, before the reappearance of the vesicula (fig. 81 a a).
Then there is no knowing how many vesicule there may be in
Ameba; while Actinophrys Sol, Ehy., is surrounded by a peri-
pheral layer of vesicles, which, when fully dilated, appear to be
all of the same size, to have the power of communicating with
each other, and each, individually, to contract and discharge its
contents externally as occasion may require ; though, generally,
one only appears and disappears in the same place. In Oxytricha
the vesicula is single or dual, but in Plesconia, as far as my
observation extends, always single. The vesicula is always
single in Vorticella, where it is attached to the buccal cavity
close to the anal orifice, as in Rotifera and the young of Cyclops
quadricornis (fig. 74 f, hh). In one species of Vorticella there is
a distinct pouch for these excretory orifices, about half-way up
the buccal cavity (fig. 75 a). In Colepina the vesicula occupies
the posterior extremity.

Its existence in Astasia, Anisonema, and Euglena can only be
determined by inference. They all have a transparent vesicle
situated close to the anterior extremity ; and in Astasia we know
that.it is thus situated close to the buccal cavity (fig. 45 e). In
Anisonema it seems to alter in size and shape, as it does in some
Amebe, without completely contracting ; and in Astasia also it
is at one time more defined and apparent than at another;
but this may be owimg to change of position in the entire ani-
maleule. In Polytoma Uvella it is similarly situated, but double,
and has been seen to contract by Schneider* ; and in a small
colourless animalcule, very much like a young Aséasia, as well
as in a minute species of Chlamidomonas, Ehr., I have frequently
seen this vesicle contract and dilate in the manner of the vesicula ;
so that there can be little doubt about the vesicle in the anterior
extremity of Astasia, Anisonema, and Euglena (fig. 49 b) being
the homologue of the vesicula, though in the latter the red body
be appended to it; this, however, is not the case in the Chlama-
domonas mentioned, where the red spot is nearly in the middle of

* Ann. & Mag. Nat, Hist. vol. xiv. p. 322, 1854.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvin. 9

130 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

the body, and peripheral, while the vesicula is in the anterior
extremity. ye

The apparent quiescent state of the vesicula in Astasia, Bu-
glena, &c. may be an approach to its disappearance altogether
as a distinct organ, and therefore a step nearer to the vegetable
kingdom. But Schneider, in allusion to this, quotes a passage
from Cohn, in which the latter observes, that “ internal pulsating
spaces’ have been discovered in “certain genera of Algz ;” on
which Schneider justly remarks, that if they “oceur in the
swarm-cells of Conferve, they certainly cease to be a character-
istic of animal nature* ;’—thus rendering useless another di-
stinguishing point between animals and plants at this part of the
organic kingdom, which after all, perhaps, may be found to have
its homologue in the vacuoles of the vegetable protoplasm.

That the vesicula is a distinct organ, and not merely a space
like the digestive globule, might be inferred from its always
occurring in the same place in the same species; but in addition
to this, the fact was on one occasion most satisfactorily demon-
strated to me by its remaining pendent in a globular form to the
buceal cavity of a Vorticella, when, by the decomposition of the
sarcode, and evolution of a swarm of rapidly moving monadic
particles, these two organs, with the cylindrical nucleus or gland,
though still slightly adhering to each other, were so dissected
out as to be nearly separate ; and thus yielding in position from
time to time, as they were struck by the little particles, their
forms and relative positions respectively became particularly
evident (fig. 76 a).

Although globular in shape, yet, as before stated, it is ac-
companied in Paramecium aurelia by a variable number of pyri-
form sinuses, which are arranged around it in a stellate form.
In most of the other animalcules these are globular, and, under
exhaustion of the animalcule from various causes, are frequently
so distended, and thus so approximated, as to assume the ap-
pearance of an areolar structure, immediately in contact with
the vesicula (fig. 84). Each globular sinus, however, would ap-
pear to be the proximal or largest of a concatenation of smaller
ones, which diminish in size with their distance from the vesicula
(fig. 82 d). The vesicula becomes doubled preparatory to fissi-
paration, and therefore appears dual in Vorticella, and quadruple
in Paramecium, &c. (fig. 69); and it is interesting to find that
in the metamorphosis of the former into Acineta it frequently
acquires a plurality similar to that which obtains in the Rhizo-
poda generally +.

* Loe. cit. p. 330.
+ See particularly Stein’s work on the Development of Infusoria.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 151

Of the use of the vesicula, and its vascular system, we are at
present ignorant, further than that its functions are excretory ;
and when we observe the quantity of water that is taken into the
sarcode with the food, and try to account for its disappearance,
it does not seem improbable that the vesicula and its vessels
should be chiefly concerned in this office. Another service,
however, which it performs, is to burst the spherical membranes
of Vorticella and Plesconie when they want to return to active
life after having become encysted: this it effects by repeated
distension, until the lacerated cyst gives way sufficiently for the
animaleule to slip out. At these times, also, the animalcule is
rendered so spherical by this distension that itis also évide tly
one way by which the Infusoria might assume this form (fig. 12).
Hence, in describing the sarcode, I have expressed a doubt
whether the water in an Ameba, when distended in this manner,
be in its centre or in the cavity of the vesieula. Cer tainly, w hen
Ameba is in the form of a sphere, I never have been able to see
the vesicula, while all the other elements of the cell have been
perfectly plain; added to which, under these circumstances, a
part of the cell-wall is generally transparent, from the absence
of the sarcode and its granules, which would be the case if the
vesicula were the cause of the distension, since in Ameda it is
attached to the pellicula, and therefore no sarcode exists imme-
diately opposite this point (fig. 13).

Should it have any other uses, they are probably similar to
those of the “ Water Vascular System” of Rotifera, which in
Brachionus Pala, one of the largest species of this class, consists
of a corrugated sac when empty (like the bladder of mammalia),
opening by a constricted neck into a heart-shaped cloaca close
to the termination of the alimentary canal ; and, when distended,
presenting (mihi) a single vessel opening into its fundus, and
then passing down through its side towards the neck, where it
divides into two, which respectively run up laterally to the an-
terior extremity of the body, bearmg m their course four mono-
ciliated (Huxley)* pyriform diverticula, and probably termi-
nating, as in Lacinulariat, partly in junction and partly in blind
tubes. The vacuolar structure attached to these vessels may be
analogous to the vacuolar structure connected with the vesicula
in the Infusoria, and it would be interesting to determine if the
vacuoles in it occasionally diminish in size or disappear, or be-
come dilated when from disease or approaching death the vesi-
eula itself is unnaturally and permanently distended. Should
the lateral vessels not terminate in Brachionus Pala, as above
mentioned, then they must, as appears to be the case m the other

* Quart. Journ. Microscop. Se. vol. 1. p. 7. t Idem.

O*

152. Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

Rotifera open into the vesicula close to its communication with
the cloaca.

It might be asked here, if all vacuolar dilatations of the sar-
code belong to this excretory system of sinuses ; that is, excepting
those made by the buccal cavity in the manner mentioned ?
Certainly, where there is a plurality of actively contracting vesi-
cles, without the appearance of the vesicula, as in Ghilodon cueul-
lulus, we may, as before stated, attribute this to a kind of, over-
irritability or constrictive spasm of the vesicula, and, therefore,
consider that these vesicles are accidental dilatations of the sinuses
in connexion with it; as we may set down the dropsical state of
Himantophorus Charon (Ehyr.), and other animaleules of the kind,
to an opposite condition of this organ, viz. that in which it is
unable to relieve itself of its contents (fig. 84) : this I have often
seen occur under my own eyes. But there is an intense vacuolar
state of the sarcode that occasionally presents itself in Ame@ba,
which makes it look like an areolar tissue composed of vesicles
diminishing to a smallness that cannot be determined by the
microscope,—such as is seen in the advancing border of Spongilla
when issuing from the seed-like body, and in the protoplasm of
the vegetable cell: whether this still be a part of the vesicular
system or not, | am unable to decide; at the same time, the eon-
tracting vesicles in the transparent growing border of the new-
developing sponge are so numerous, and so like those which are
scen in the protoplasm of the last cell under formation of the
stem and roots of Chara when budding from the nucule, that we
cannot fail to see a most striking analogy between the two, even
if we cannot reconcile ourselves to the former being a part of the
vascular system attached to the vesicula; indeed, in the new
nucleus itself of the roots of Chara, vesicles do appear and dis-
appear. :

Lastly, from the presence of the vesicula in Spengilla, and its
being so constant in the Rhizopoda generally, and so numerous
in Arcella vulgaris, it does not seem altogether unreasonable to
infer that the streams of water which issue from the great canals
of Spongilla are produced by the continued pouring into them,
from the vesicule of the different sponge-cells, the superfluous
water which they imbibe by endosmosis, apparently, during
nutrition; for the type of Spongilla is to be surrounded with a’
general pellicula, in which there is only one excretory opening,
and through which pellicula the ends alone of the spicula pro-
ject in bundles ; nor does it seem altogether far-fetched to con-
ceive that the offices of glandular organs in higher developments
may be performed, in some instances, after this fashion.

[To be continued. }

ee ee

Mr, A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 133

XV.—Monograph of the genus Catops.
By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh.

{Continued from p. 24. ]

Group II. (Subgenus Carors (true).)

Mesosternum nut keeled ; body oblong ; antenne more or less
club-shaped or thickened towards the apex, eighth joint decidedly
smaller than seventh and ninth. The posterior trochanters not
more developed in the males.

Ist Subdivision. Base of thorax decidedly narrowed or cut in,
so that the thorax and elytra do not form a continuous outline.
Middle tarsi widened in the mates.

6. C. acicularis, Kraatz.
Catops acicularis, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xui. 406. 6.

Oblongus, ferrugineus ; antennis subfiliformibus ; thorace trans-
verso, postice latiore, angulis posticis obtusiusculis; e/ytris
substriatis transversim strigosts.

Long. 14 lin.

Of the slender form of the species in the foregoing group, but
proportionally not so elongate ; ferruginous brown ; easily distin-
guished from the remaining species of this group by its trans-
versely strigose elytra. The antennz are slender, reddish brown,
not quite so long as the elytra; first joint somewhat shorter
than the second; second equal to the third ; third equal to the
fifth ; fourth somewhat longer and stouter than the sixth ; eighth
only one-third of the length of the seventh, and somewhat nar-
rower than those on each side of it ; ninth somewhat shorter than
the seventh, almost somewhat stouter, and equal to the tenth ;
eleventh of the stoutness of the preceding, about half as long,
from the middle forward cone-shaped acuminate. The head is
densely and finely punctate, pitehy-black. The thorax is nearly
of the breadth of the elytra, wholly light, twice as broad as long,
slightly arched,the sides wholly rounded, somewhat more strongly
behind than in front, so that the greatest breadth is behind the
middle; the anterior angles are somewhat bent down, strongly
rounded, the posterior angles are obtuse-angled. The basal
margin is extremely lightly sinuated on both sides towards the
scutellum ; the upper side of the thorax is moderately densely and
finely shagreen-punctured. The elytra are uniform oblong,
gradually narrowed towards the apex, each being rounded ; they
have feeble traces of longitudinal striz, and besides are trans-
versely strigose almost parallel with the base of the thorax. The
legs are ferruginous brown and slender.

134 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

I have not seen this species in nature, and have merely copied
M. Kraatz’s deseription. It appears to be readily reeognized
among its neighbours by its transversely strigose elytra. | Lt is
found in Sicily, and appears to be rare, M. Kraatz having’ only
seen three specimens. he

7. C. fuscus, Pana.

Helops fuscus, Panz. Fn. Germ. 18. 1.

Luperus fuscus, Frohl. Naturf. 28. 24. 2. t. 1. f. 16.

Catops sericeus, Payk. Fn. Suec. i. 342. 1.

Catops rufescens, Fab. Syst. El. ii. 563, 1.

Choleva sericea, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 145. 6.

Catops festinans, Gyll. Ins. Suec. iv. 314. 1-2. :

Catops fuscus, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 235. 3; Sturm, Deutsehl. Pu. xiv.

13. 5. t. 274. f. a. A; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 379.4; Redt. Fn. Austr. 164.
11; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 407. 8; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent.
Fr. 1. 101. 7.

Breviter ovatus, fuseus ; antennis subfiliformibus ; thorace trans-
verso, postice latiore, angulis posticis rectis ; elytris rufo-brun-
neis, substriatis.

Long. 2 lin.

Dark brown, short oval. Antenne ferruginous brown, very
feebly thickened towards the extremity, not quite so long as the
head and thorax ; first joint longer than the succeeding joints ;
second very little shorter than third; third and fourth very
nearly equal ; fifth and sixth equal, both a little shorter than
fourth ; seventh not much if at all longer than sixth, but a good
deal broader ; eighth shorter than those on each side of it, but not
greatly narrower ; ninth and tenth about same size, and eleventh
acuminate and nearly twice as long as the tenth. Head and
thorax black, very densely punctate, with a yellowish grizzly
adpressed pubescence ; mouth reddish ; edges of thorax ferrugi-
nous brown. Thorax rounded on the sides, broadest behind the
middle, at the base almost twice as broad as long, fig. 6,
very slightly rounded in at the posterior angles, which ;
are right-angled and have a slight tendency to pro-
ject behind. Llytra reddish brown, covered with a
bluish-grey bloom ; a little widened in the middle,
apex almost acuminate ; densely punctate, and with
striz visible towards the apex, scarcely perceptible in front.
Legs reddish brown.

This species is easily distinguished from the rest of the see-
tion by the breadth of its thorax behind, which gives its outline
at first sight, and before the junction of the thorax and elytra is
examined, very much the appearance of being a continuous oval
slightly mterrupted at the base of the elytra.

It is widely distributed, being found both in England and Seot-

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 185

land, France, Germany, and most of Europe. Kraatz says that it

is seldom or never found under leaves or fungi, but in cellars,

stables, potato-heaps, &c. Fairmaire and Laboulbéne mention
it as having been also taken in moss at the roots of trees.

Stephens gives “ carcases” as its habitat, and rightly enough

so far as regards the species he has under this name (viz. a pale

variety of chrysomeloides), but incorrectly as regards the true

fuscus. It is, however, easy to predicate of each species by a

simple inspection of its antenne whether it is a carcase-feeder

or not. Those species with filiform or slightly thickened an-
tennz are found among leaves and moss, &c. Those with heavy,
thick, clubbed antennz are found under dead birds or small
mammals. In other words, those which have to seek out pu-
trescent matter for their food, or a nidus for their eggs, are fur-
nished with largely developed antennze to enable them to smell
it out.

8. C. meridionalis, Aubé.
C, meridionalis, Aubé, Ann. Soe. Ent. Fr. viii. 326. 34. t.11. f.2; Kraatz,
Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 428. 10.

Ovatus, convexiusculus, piceus; antennis pedi-
busque ferrugineis; thoracis angulis posticis
valde productis; elytris oblongiusculis, stria-
tulis.

Long. 23 lin.

Fig. 7.

NS

Pitchy-brown ; in general appearance occupy-
ing’the middle between fuscus, Panz., and picipes,
Fab. Head black and finely punctate. Antenne
and palpi ferruginous ; antennz of the length of
the head and thorax, only feebly thickened to-
wards the point ; first joint equal in length to the
third, and nearly twice as long as the second; fourth equal to
the fifth, also to the sixth, and somewhat shorter than the
third ; seventh equal to the second, yet somewhat stronger than
those on each side of it; eighth scarcely half so long as the
seventh, scarcely more slender, somewhat shorter than the ninth ;
tenth equal to the ninth; eleventh acuminate. The thorax is
pitchy-brown, moderately convex, transverse, of the breadth of
the elytra, once and a half as broad as long, emarginate in frout,
cut almost straight behind, where it is broadest ; the sides are
_ broadly rounded ; the anterior angles depressed and rounded,
the posterior projecting behind and somewhat acute. Scutellum
tolerably large, finely punctate and reticulate. Elytra brown,
oblong oval, nearly twice as long as broad, finely punctate and
reticulate, and marked on each side of the suture with a suffi-
ciently distinct stria, and with several others on the disk much
jess perceptible, particularly in front, Legs ferruginous.

186 Mr. A, Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops:

This species at first sight looks very like an overgrown fuscus,
Panz., but closer examination shows that it is a good species,—~
the proportions of the joints of the antennz as well as other par-
ticulars being wholly different. In a specimen which | owe’ to
the kindness of M. Kraatz, I observe that the development of
the posterior angles of the thorax is considerably exaggerated in
the outline I have given, which is copied from Aubé’s own figure.
Aubé also states it is larger than picipes, Fab., which had
hitherto been considered the largest known Catops ; but my spe-
cimen is scarcely so large as the smaller individuals of picipes,
from which I should infer that it ought perhaps rather to be
stated as being about the same size as picipes. its entirely fer-
ruginous colour and the projecting posterior angles uf the thorax
furnish a tolerably good primd-facie guide to the species.

It is found in Sicily, and is as yet scarce in collections.

9. C. picipes, Fab.

Hydrophilus picipes, Fab. Syst. El. i. 251. 10.

Plomaphagus picipes, Illig. Kaf. Pr. 893.

Catops striatus, Duft. Fn. Aust. ii. 74. 3.

blapsoides, Germ. Ins. Sp. Nov. 84. 142? ;
picipes, Eviehs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 236. 5; Sturm, Deutschl. Faun. xiv.
17. 7. t. 274. f.c.C ; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 378. 5; Redt. Fn. Aust. 144.
10; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 428. 9; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent.
Frang. i. 300. 4.

Ovatus, convexus, niger ; antennis subfiliformibus
pedibusque piceis, apice testaceis; thorace
transverso, basi sublatiore, angulis posticis
obtusis ; elytris apice profunde striatis.

Long. 23 lin.

Fig. 8.

This is the largest species of the genus, with
the exception of the last. Oval, convex, black.
Antenne scarcely thickened at the end, reddish
brown at the base, blackish at the extremity,
excepting the last joint, which is light yellow.
Head very densely and finely punctate, mouth reddish. The
thorax is likewise very densely and finely punctate, with a fine
silky pubescence, black, strongly rounded on the sides, narrowed
both in front and behind, but most in front, posterior angles obtuse,
posterior margin yery slightly sinuated on each side, the greatest
breadth behind the middle, Elytra oval, very convex, black, with
a slight grey hoar-frost bloom upon them, very densely punc-
tate, with striz faint in front, deeper behind. Under side black,
abdomen and legs brown, tibie ferruginous brown, tarsi pale
ferruginous.

The only speeies with which there is any risk of this being

a

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 137

confounded is C. nigricans, Spence. Its large size removes it from
all but it and C. meridionalis, Aubé, and C. chrysomeloides, Spence.
Independent of other distinctions, its colour at once distinguishes
it from meridionalis, which is ferruginous, while this is black.
It likewise wants the projecting posterior angles of the thorax.
Its subfiliform antenne distinguish it from C. chrysomeloides,
which has the heaviest and thickest clubbed antenne in the
genus ; and there only remains C. nigricans, to which it is much
more allied. Both have subfiliform antennz, pale at the base
and apex, and the proportionate length of the joints of the
antennze is much the same; they are both black, with ferru-
ginous legs ; and I have specimens of nigricans very little infe-
rior in size.to picipes, but picipes is a broader and more robust-
looking insect. It has the elytra much more convex and bellied
out, and its thorax is differently shaped, being more contracted
in front ; and very commonly nigricans has two or three depres-
sions on the disk of the thorax, which picipes has not. The
posterior angles of the thorax in nigricans have a slight tendency
to project behind, which is not the case in picipes.

This species is found over the greater part of Europe, but is
rare. I have not yet seen a British specimen, Kraatz observes
that it is principally found in fungi. Fairmaire and Laboulbéne
say it is taken in the trunks of trees (I presume decayed).

10. C. nigricans, Spence.

Choleva nigricans, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 141. 3.

Catops nigricans, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 237.6; Sturm, Deutschl. Fn.
xiv. 18. 8.t.273. f.c.C; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 380.6; Redt. Fn. Aust.
144. 11; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 429. 11; Fairm. & Laboulb.
Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 303. 16.

Catops var. minor, C. fuliginosus, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br.i. 239.10; Sturm,

Deutschl. Fn. xiv. 28. 13; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771.
C. caliginosus (Mus. Berol.).

Catops var. major, C. longipennis, Chaud. Bull. de Mosc. 1845, No.111.196.

Oblongo-ovatus, niger seu piceo-brunneus ; an- Vig. 9.
tennis longioribus, obsolete clavatis, ferru-
gineis, apice plerumque fuscescentibus ; tho-
race transyerso, postice latiore, angulis pos-
ticis acuminatis ; elytris apice substriatis.
Long. 1? lin.—2 lin.

Oblong-oval, convex. Black or piceous brown.
Antenne a little longer than the head and thorax,
very slightly thickened towards the extremity,
sometimes entirely ferruginous, more generally ferruginous at
the base and becoming fuseescent towards the point. Head
finely punctate, mouth reddish brown. Thoraz very densely and
finely punctate, finely pubescent, a Liftle narrower than the elytra,

138 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

sides rounded, the greatest width at the middle; very generally
with two or three depressions on the disk ; posterior angles with
a point, projecting a little behind, which makes the posterior
margin appear to be visibly sinuate on both sides. Elytra
blackish brown, sometimes paler, elongate-oval, somewhat con-
vex, densely and finely punctate ; faintly striate, the striae per-
ceptible towards the extremity, effaced in front. Under side
black ; legs reddish brown, thighs blackish.

Kraatz gives the following remarks on the larger and smaller
varieties which have been described under the names of C. don-
gipennis, Chaud., and C. fuliginosus, Erichs. ; viz.—

“A, Larger, for the most part female specimens, differ from
the smaller males in many particulars, so that one may easily be
led to suppose them distinct species. In the first place, the
antenne of these larger examples are somewhat more elongate
than those of the smaller specimens, and when they belong to
females are also somewhat less stout, which makes them when
taken as a whole look much longer than the antenne of the
smaller individuals. Then the elytra are more bellied out, so
that the whole animal assumes a more convex appearance ; at the
same time also the striz of the elytra are more feebly marked in
this than in the other kind. Such examples are generally found
along with the rest, but not frequently, and are not of the typical
form. If there had not been laid before me by himself one of the
original typical examples from Germar’s fine collection, it would
not have been possible for me, from the short and imperfect de-
scription which Chaudoir gives of his C. longipennis*, to perceive
in it the just-deseribed variety of C. nigricans, Spence.”

The description by M. Chaudoir to which M. Kraatz refers is
as follows, viz. :—

“ Near the umbrinus, a little larger, form more elongate : thorax
broader, more rounded on the sides: elytra less swollen out,
flatter, longer : antennz more slender, last joint of these smaller
and more pointed.

“ A male, found at Kiew in the garden of the town under dry
leaves, in the beginning of September+.”

As to Erichson’s fuliginosus, M. Kraatz goes on—

“ B. The type of C. nigricans, sp., is the one described as
C. fuliginosus by Erichson, according to two specimens left by
Dr. Meuer to the Royal Museum (of Berlin). Those specimens
which are in the Royal Museum as C. nigricans are not fully
coloured, and, when we have only a few specimens for compa-
vison, such have altogether a different appearance from the full-
coloured specimens. If we compare more minutely Erichson’s
clear descriptions of both species, we find, besides an agreement

* Kraatz in Joc. cit. + Chaudow in /oc. cif. |

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 139

on the most important points, only two differences. One is that
the antennz of C. fuliginosus are darker, which proceeds from the
perfectly full colouring of the animal. The other again is that
the sinuation of the hind margins of the thorax (which parti-
enlarly characterizes this species) is in C. nigricans distinct, in
C. fuliginosus feeble,—a mark, which in individual cases is not
always present in equal force, and which also appears to the eye
of the observer in different aspects stronger or weaker than is
really the case. There are no specimens named C. fuliginosus,
Erichs., in the Royal Museum, but instead of it are C. caliginosus,
Erichs., evidently projeeted from the description of C. fuligi-
nosus. We must suppose that Erichson had originally given his
specimens of C. fuliginosus the name of C. caliginosus, and as
such also determined them to his acquaintances, but subsequently
allowed it to remain for reasons unknown to me*,”

In dealing with a description emanating from Erichson, it will
probably be better that I quote his description of C. fuliginosus,
leaving the reader to form for himself his opinion of its value as
a species. It is in these terms :—

“ Oblongo-ovatus, niger ; antenizis obsolete clavatis, rufo-piceis,
apice nigricantibus ; thorace basi apiceque latitudine equali,
angulis posticis acuminatis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis.

* Long. 12 lin.

“Very closely allied to the foregoing (nigrita, Erichs.). The
antennz have the same form and the same proportions, but are
differently coloured ; they are brownish red, the last four or five
joints including the termmal blackish. The thorax is somewhat
shorter than im the foregoing, a little narrower than the elytra,
lightly rounded on the sides ; the posterior angles pointed ; the
posterior margin on each side between the edge and the middle
twice feebly sinuated. The elytra are oblong oval, very indi-
stinctly striated. The colour of the body is black ; the head and
thorax have a fine yellow-grey pubescence; the elytra are more
brownish black, with a grey hoar-frost rime on them. The legs
are ferruginous brown, the thighs blackish +.”

The impression the description rather leaves upon my mind is,
that Erichson’s intended fuliginosus may have been the species
subsequently described by Keilner under the name of coracinus.
The yellow pubescence on the thorax for instance, and the ash-
grey rime on the elytra, apply well to it, but not to nigricans : on
the other hand, the size, 1% lin., is too much for coracinus.
Again, it may be that the small examples of nigricans standing
under the name of caliginosus in the Berlin Museum collection,
were not published by Erichson from a doubt of their being

* Kraatz in loe. cit. + Erichson in /oc. cit.

140) Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

distinct, and that C. fuliginosus may have been described from
other specimens, although they are not now in the collection im
the Berlin Museum.

Still, in the face of M. Kraatz’s deliberate opinion, fortified as
it.is by the specimens in the collection ‘of the Berlin Royal
Museum, and also doubtless by the traditions which must re-
main of Evichson’s own views in a place which has only so
recently been deprived of him, I have not ventured to carry my
difference of opinion further than to submit the above suggestions
for the consideration of the reader.

I have only to add with reference to this species (C. nigri-
cans, Sp.), that the readiest distinction between it and such
others (except C. picipes) as are likely to be mistaken for it, is
furnished by the longish almost subfiliform ferruginous antennze.
In my observations on C. picipes I have already noticed the
primd-facie differences existing between it and this species. |

Widely distributed, being found in Scotland and England,
France, Germany, and most of Europe, but nowhere common.

ll. C. coracinus, Kellner.

Catops coracinus, Kelln. Stett. Ent. Zeit. vii. 177.3; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771;
Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 431. 12.

Ovatus, niger; antennis obsolete clavatis, rufo-

pices ; thorace transverso, basi latiore, angulis pos- Fig. 10.

ticis distincte rectis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis.
Long. 1} lin.

This has a considerable resemblance to C. nigri-
cans, Spence, in the form of the elytra and antenne,
but is smaller, and more continuous in its outline:
the hinder angles of the thorax are very slightly acuminate, so
slightly as to be scarcely observable except by minute exami-
nation : the elytra are indistinctly striated. The antennz are as
long as the head and thorax, slightly thickened towards the
point, in some individuals a little thicker than in others, reddish
brown ; the club usually blackish, but the depth of colour varies.
The head and thorax are black, densely and finely punctate,
with a fine short yellowish pubescence. The thorax is almost as
broad as the elytra, broadest in the middle, straight at the base,
the anterior angles rounded, and the posterior angles right-angled
at the very angle ; that is, when looked at superticially the angle
would appear obtuse, but when examined more carefully there
appears a very short space of right angle before the thorax takes
its curved outline: the scutellum is proportionally large, and
clothed with the same coloured pubescence as the thorax. The
elytra are oval, densely and finely punctate, black, clothed with
an ashen-grey ‘pubescence or bloom indistinctly striated : no vyel-

ee ees

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 141

low pubescence along the base of the elytra. The legs are reddish
brown.

Its small size, shorter and more thickened antenne, more
uniform and less bellied outline distinguish this species from
picipes, Fab. Its shorter and more thickened antenne, the
yellow pubescence on the thorax and scutellum, want of depres-
sions on the disk of the thorax, and the want of the produced
posterior angles of the thorax distinguish it from the smaller
specimens of nigricans, Spence. Its antenne only slightly
thickened, as well as its smaller size, distinguish it from chry-
someloides, Spence. From most of those which have a decided
yellow pubescence on the thorax it is distinguished by the want
of yellow pubescence along the base of the elytra. This separates
it from ¢ristis, Panz., including abdominalis, Rosenh., montivagus,
Heer, longulus, Kelln., grandicollis, Erichs., and rotundicollis,
Kelln., and from: neglectus, Kraatz, and nigrita, Erichs. Its
yellow pubescence also is finer, shorter and more delicate than
m any of these. The only remaining species with which it may
be confounded is morio, Erichs., but the more elongate shape
and slenderer form of morto and’the difference in the posterior
angles of the thorax distinguish it. Morio has not got the
slight acumination which coracinus has at these angles, and in
it they are gently obtuse instead of being at first right-angled.
The thorax in morvo is also flatter.

It is found in Scotland and England, and in various parts of
the Continent.

12. C. morio, Fab.
Catops morio, Fab. Syst. El. ii. 564. 4.
Choleva dissimulator, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 150, 11.
Catops sericeus, Gyll. Ins. Suec. iv. 313. 1-2.
morio, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 240.11; Sturm, Deutschl. Fn. xiv.
29. 14. t. 276. fig. 6. B; Heer, Faun. Helv. 382. 14; Redt. Faun.

Aust. 144.13; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii.431. 13; Fairm.& Laboulb.
Fn. Ent. Frang. i. 301. 8.

Oblongo-ovalis, niger; antennis obsolete clavatis,
articulis duobus primis ultimoque et pedibus
ferrugineis ; thorace basi apiceque latitudine
subzequali, angulis posticis obtusis ; elytris ob-
soletissime striatis.

Long. 13 lin.

The antenne are as long as the head and
thorax, imperceptibly but not greatly thickened
towards the point ; the first two joimts are ferru-
ginous yellow, the rest, with the exception of the
last, blackish, the last joint yellow: rarely the whole antennz
are ferruginous, which Erichson observes is the case with the
examples in Fabricius’s collection. The body is black; the

Fig. 11.

142. Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

head densely and distinetly punctate; the parts of the mouth
red. The ¢horaxr is rather depressed and is thickly and finely
punctured, with a fine yellowish-grey dense pubescence ; it is
half as broad again as long, lightly rounded on the sides,
somewhat narrowed in front, but behind only a very little
narrower than in the middle; the posterior angles are nearly
obtuse-angled ; the posterior margin is truncate and straight,
The scutellum has the same pubescence as the thorax. The
elytra have an ashy-grey bloom, no yellow pubescence along
their base, are densely punctate, nearly without traces of strize,
a little widened in the middle, behind obtusely acuminate. The
legs are ferruginous red, the thighs brown.

The same characters which distinguish coracinus from the
other species in this group apply also to morio, and under that
species I have already given a comparison of the differences be-
tween them. They are however closely allied.

This appears to be arare species. So far as I know, it has not
yet been taken in Scotland. It is found in England, and is
widely spread over the Continent. It is included by Gebler in
his list of insects found in South-west Siberia. M. Kraatz says
it is found under leaves and in the chinks of wood.

13. C. nigrita, Erichs.

Catops tristis, Gyll. Ins. Suec. iv. 311. 1.

morio, Payk. Fn. Suece. i. 344. 2.

nigrita, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 239. 9.

tristis, Sturm *, Deutschl. Faun. xiv. 24. 11. t. 275. fig. ec. C.

— nigrita, Heer, Fn. Helv. 381. 12; Redt. Fn. Aust. 144.13; Kraatz,
Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 432; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Frang. i. 301,

Oblongo-ovatus, niger; antennis obsolete clavatis
rufo-piceis, clava nigra, apice testacea ; thorace Fig. 12.
basi apiceque Jatitudine zquali, angulis posticis
fere rectis \eviter acuminatis ; elytris obsoletis-
sime striatis.
Long. 12 lin.

Oblong-oval. The antennz are as long as the
head and thorax, imperceptibly thickened towards
the point. The first six joints are reddish brown,
the remainder brown, the 8th joint not much

smaller than the rest, the last joint oval, acuminate, yellow.
The thorax is searecly a half broader than long, rounded on

* Both from his figures and descriptions it appears to me evident that

Sturm has transposed the names of nigrita, Erichs., and tristis, Panz, This —

has not been noticed by Kraatz or subsequent authors, but a very short
perusal will I think convince them of it. Yor instance, of tristis, Panz., he
says, “the thorax broad, short,” &e., and of nigrita, Erichs., “ the thorax
narrower than the elytra, transverse,” which is just reversing the characters
of the thorax ; and his figures speak for themselves.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 148

the sides, broadest in the middle; nevertheless only a little
narrowed in front and behind, in front rather narrower than
behind; the posterior angles sometimes a little pointed *,
the posterior margin straightly truncate, and only towards the
middle very slightly sinuated. It is covered with a yellow silken
pubescence. The elytra, as well as the whole body, are black ;
they have a brownish-blue or purplish peachy bloom, with a
yellowish pubescence more conspicuous at their base and basal
margins than on the disk. They are finely punctured, very im-
perceptibly striated, longish oval, in the middle a little widened,
behind obtusely acuminate. The legs are ferruginous red, the
posterior thighs sometimes brownish.

This is the first of a little group of species, which, with a de-
cided yellow pubescence on the thorax, has a brownish-blue or
purplish bloom on the elytra, accompanied with yellow hairs or
pubescence conspicuous along the base and basal margins of the
elytra,—a character which will limit our comparison to only two
or three species. The two species just described, C. coracinus
and C. morio, have also yellow pubescence on the thorax, but
their elytra have not a purplish bloom, but a greyish-ash bloom,
and want the yellow hairs along the base. The yellow pubes-
cence on the thorax of these two also is feeble both in colour and
consistence compared with those which follow. The form of
the thorax of this species distinguishes it from all Fig. 13.
the others. Figure 13 shows the relative form ?
of the thorax of nigrita and tristis, the plain line
being the outline of nigrita, and the dotted line
that of dristis. These two species are in other
respects extremely alike. The antennz however
also furnish characters of discrimination—the
club of ¢ristis being heavy and thick, while the antennee of nzgrita
are only obsoletely clubbed. The great breadth of the thorax of
grandicollis, Krichs., easily distinguishes it ; and the form of the
thorax of rotundicollis, Kelln., which is an exaggerated form of
that of ¢ristis as above delineated (fig. 15), will prevent nigrita
being confounded with that species, The elytra in both nigrita
and ¢ristis are elongate and give a long character to the whole
msect, while rotundicollis has the elytra short and rapidly acu-
minate.

* Erichson in his description states that the posterior angles are pointed,
but Kraatz says that he cannot agree with him in that respect :—** accord-
mg to my view,” he says, “they are right-angled, in not a few examples
passing into obtuse-angled.” I have examined a considerable series
carefully with a view to determine this point, and find that both are
right. I possess specimens which have the posterior angles pointed, and
others where there is no appearance of a point, but the line of the base of
the thorax perfectly straight. This is another proof of the variable cha-

racter of the genus. It also shows us how inadequate are Spence’s sec-
tional divisions which are founded on this very character.

144 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

This species is widely spread, and is found under leaves, and
under the carcases of birds and small mammals. ride

vy

14. C. tristis, Panz.

Helops tristis, Panz. Fn. Germ. 8. 1.

Choleva Leachii*, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi.

Catops tristis, var., Gyll. Ins. Suec. iv. 312. 1.

tristis, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. 1. 238, 8.

nigrita, Sturm, Deutsch]. Faun. xiv. 24. 11. t. 275. f. e. C.

tristis, Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 380.8; Redt. Fn. Aust. 144.12; Kraatz,
Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 433.18; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 302.

Oblongo-ovatus, niger ; antennis abrupte clavatis, yi, 44
clava fusca, articulo ultimo breviori; thorace pe:
transverso basi apiceque latitudine subzequali, . 2
angulis posticis rectis ; elytris obsoletissime vail
striatis. Hyatt

Long. 1; lin. |
Of the same size and general form as the last

species (nigrita, Erichs.) ; the thorax, however,

is not so broad, particularly behind. Perhaps

the commonest impression it makes on a first

introduction is that of an insect with longish elytra and a dis-

proportionately short, narrow, somewhat square thorax. The

antenn are nearly as long as the head and thorax, strongly
thickened towards the point ; the first six jomts slender, reddish
brown, those following brown, broader than long, the eighth
not only much shorter but also narrower than the remainder of
the club, the last a little larger than the preceding, with a cone-
shaped point, generally pale at the tipt. The head and thorax
are black, densely punctate, more or less wrinkled transversely,
and thickly covered with a close yellow pubescence; the hairs
springing from the wrinkled punctuation as shown in the

magnified sketch represented im fig. 15. Fie. 15

The thorax one-half broader than long, ee

rounded on the sides, broadest in the

middle, or perhaps rather a little before
the middle, giving the primd-facie effect
of being narrowest behind ; but on com-
paring the narrowness both im front and
behind it is found nearly equal, or rather
narrower before than behind. The posterior angles are sharply
right-angled, the straight edge proceeding a little forward before

pete rer oe

* As already mentioned, I have been unable to make out satisfactorily
what the tristis of Spence is, and therefore have not added that as a syn-'

onym here. ; vt
+ Erichson says that the last joint is brown like the preceding, but this

is only the case sometimes; generally speaking it is paler.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. — 145

the outward curve commences: the posterior margin is almost
straight, only a little sinuate towards the middle. The elytra
are covered with a brownish-blue or purplish bloom, and with
some yellow pubescence most observable at the base and along the
basal margins*. Under the bloom the elytra themselves are
brownish, lightest at the base; they are densely punctate, with
feeble traces of striz, in the middle somewhat expanded, behind
oval-acuminate. Under side and thighs dark brown, tibiz fer-
ruginous brown, tarsi ferruginous yellow.

Erichson adds that in the males the extreme termination of
each elytron is produced into a single Fig. 16.
point. In the females the point is com-

monly rounded. My experience is that \

it varies indifferently. tag 1
This is a variable species, and under it,

I think, should be comprehended not only the C. abdominalis of

Rosenhauer, the longulus of Kellner, and the montivagus of Heer,

but also the grandicollis of Erichson, and probably the rotundi-

collis of Kellner. These I shall include as varieties under this

species, giving however a separate description of each, and where

I have not seen the variety in nature, quoting the words of the

author who described it.

Var. A. C. abdominalis, Rosenh. Beitr. Ins. Fn. Eur. i. p. 22.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, niger ; antennarum basi, abdominisque seg-
mentis 2 primis ferrugineis ; prothorace basi apiceque latitu-
dine zequali, angulis posticis rectis ; elytris obsoletissime stri-
atis, antennis abrupte clavatis.

“ Long. 14 lin., lat. 1 lin.

“Very similar to the C. nigricans, but smaller and not so
convex; particularly like the C. montivagus, Heer, Fn. Helv. 1.
381. I should consider it perhaps to belong to the latter, were
it not that the posterior part of the abdomen of two examples
which I possess from different districts of the Tyrol is uniformly
of a different colour from that of the rest, a character which is
not known to me in any other Catops, and which Heer must cer-
tainly have obseryed in describing his species had it existed in
it. In the new species also the colour of the base of the an-
tennze and of the feet is much darker and the thorax is broader.

* Tt is perhaps scarcely necessary to say, that in speaking of the bloom
and the pubescence on these species, I am speaking of perfectly fresh speci-
mens in good condition. When the insect gets greasy and dirty the bloom no
longer exists, and the yellow hairs get clogged together so that they look
black. The best way in such eases is to turn them about in different direc-
tions, till the eye catches the light in which the pubescence or bloom best
shows itself.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 10

146) Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

The head is not large ; black, finely and densely punctate, with a
yellowish-grey pubescence. The mouth is brownish. The an-
tennz are somewhat longer than the head and thorax, the first
six joints brownish red, slender, the remainder black, broader
than long, and thickened into a club towards the outer side ;
the eighth joint much shorter and more slender than the rest,
the last somewhat more slender and about a half longer than
the preceding, with an obtuse point. The thorax is densely
wrinkled-punctate, and thickly clothed with close-lying yellowish
hairs, transverse, about a half broader than long, rounded on
the sides, broadest in the middle, narrower in front than behind,
the anterior angles obtuse, the posterior straight, the posterior
margin scarcely sinuated. The elytra are a little broader
than the thorax, somewhat bellied out in the middle, oblong
oval, usually attenuated to a point at the apex, densely and
finely punctate and transversely wrinkled, covered with a grey
pubescence and bluish hoar-frost, the sutural striee very distinct,
and in the middle of the elytra we perceive the trace of several
strie. Under side black, the thighs dark brown, the tibiz fer-
ruginous brown, the tarsi ferruginous yellow; the first two seg-
ments of the abdomen are of a lively ferruginous red, the
remainder black, finely and densely punctate, delicately pubes-
cent.

“ Found in the Tyrol near Stemach and on the Franzenhohe,
4000-8000 feet above the level of the sea*.”

The reader will see that the above is a pretty accurate descrip-
tion of C. ¢ristis, with the exception of the colour of the first two
segments of the abdomen. Colour is at all times a character of
very doubtful value m Coleoptera, and the constant symptom
of immaturity or of not fully developed colour is the substitution
for black of a ferruginous brown or red of greater or less inten--
sity, or over a greater or less extent.

I have not seen specimens of this variety in nature, but
M. Kraatz, who had authentic specimens through his hands,
states that it is a mere variety of ¢ristis.

Var. B. C. longulus, Kellner.
Catops longulus, Kellner, Stett. Ent. Zeit. vii. 176; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771;
Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 433. 17.

Oblongus, niger ; antennis obsolete clavatis, basi apiceque testa-
ceis ; thorace basi apiceque latitudine squali, angulis posticis
rectis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis.

Long. 2} lin.

According to M. Kellner’s description this species is distin-

* Rosenhauer in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 147

guished by its long and slender form, and thereby easily sepa-
rated from the remaining varieties or species in this division.

The antennez are of the length of the head and thorax, mode-
rately strong, black in the middle, the basal joints reddish, the
terminal joint yellowish, the club a little thickened ; the head and
thorax are densely punctate, clothed with yellowish-grey hairs ;
the latter is gently rounded on the sides, narrowed in front and
behind ; the posterior margin is cut straight, and only slightly
sinuated on each side of the scutellum. The elytra are long and
uniform in their shape, densely and finely punctate, indistinctly
striated, lightly covered with yellowish-grey hairs and _ hoar-
frosted. The legs are black-brown, the feet brownish red.

M. Kellner states that he found this kind on high hills near
the mountains (of Thuringia) “ under moss and on exposed dead
birds : very rare.”

The only discrepancy which the above description shows be-
tween this variety and ¢ristis is that the club is but little thick-
ened, and that the elytra are long and uniform in their shape.
The degree of thickness of the club of the antennz varies in all
the thick-clubbed species (of course within certain bounds) ; and
the circumstance of its being found under dead birds sufficiently
shows that this is one of the thick-clubbed species. Moreover,
owing to the kindness of M. Kraatz, I have seen authentic ex-
amples of it, and am thus enabled to say that the antenne are
not of less thickness than they are in many other specimens of
C. tristis. The length of the elytra, which is in point of fact the
characteristic mark of this variety, is of no value as a character,
scarcely any two examples of tristis having the elytra of the same
proportions. In some they are more bellied out than in others,
which makes them look not so long, and others are longer in
point of fact, but they all have the same character which cannot
well be mistaken, and this supposed species is only a variety
with disproportionately elongate elytra.

I have found this variety in Scotland and England.

Var. C. C. montivagus, Heer, Faun. Col. Helv. i. 381.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, niger; antennis basi, tibiis tarsisque rufo-
testaceis, pronoto subtransverso, basi apiceque latitudine sub-
quali, angulis posticis rectis, acutis; elytris obsoletissime
striatis ; antennis abrupte clavatis, articulo ultimo penultimo
vix longiore.

“ Long. 1 hn.

“Very similar to C. tristis ; chiefly to be distinguished by its

thorax being a little longer, but narrower. The first five joints

of the antennze@re rufo-testaceous, the eighth the smallest, much
10*

148 =Mr, A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

shorter and narrower than those that follow, the last shortly ovate,
scarcely longer than the preceding ; the thorax much narrower
than the elytra, a little broader than long, with the sides lightly
rounded, behind subsinuate, very densely punctulated, clothed
with a dense yellow silky pubescence ; elytra oblong ovate, very
closely punctate, but evidently impressed with a sutural stria ;
thighs pitchy black.

“Very rare in the Alps. (At the Gemmi near the Dau-
bensee*.’’)

The above description can I think be referred to nothing but
tristis ; the greater relative length of the thorax, which M. Heer
specifies as the chief distinction, being doubtless either the result
of variation in the length of the elytra, or one of the variations to
which this species is subject. The next variety, which I refer to
the same species, shows a much greater variation in the relative
dimensions and proportions of the thorax.

Neither M. Kraatz nor myself have seen authentic examples of
the above species, but M. Rosenhauer speaks of it (supra) as if he
was familiar with it, and says that but for the colour of the last
segments of the abdomen in his abdominalis, he would have
referred that species to montivagus. M. Kraatz having ascer-
tained aliunde that abdominalis was an immature specimen of
tristis, differing only in the colour of these segments, it follows
that montivagus is what the description would lead us to suppose,
viz. a variety or synonym of ¢rvséis.

Var. D. C. grandicollis, Erichs.

C. grandicollis, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 237 ; Heer, Fn. Col. Helv. i. 380 ;
Redt. Fn. Aust. 144; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 432.15; Fairm.
& Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Frane. i. 300.
Ovatus, nigro-fuscus ; antennis obsolete clavatis Fig. 17.
pedibusque rufis, illis apice nigricantibus;
thorace transverso, coleopteris latiore, angulis
posticis obtusis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis.
Long. 13 lin.

Somewhat of the form of the C. nigrita, but
larger, and especially broader. Black-brown.
The antennz are not quite so long as the head
and thorax, gradually slightly thickened, to-
wards the point reddish brown, the last joint blackish. The
head and thorax are densely punctured and granulated exactly
as in C. tristis, clothed with close-lying yellow hairs. The latter
is considerably broader than the elytra, more than one-half

* Heer in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 149

broader than long, strongly rounded on the sides, the anterior
angles rounded, the posterior angles obtuse-angled, the posterior
margin cut straight, of the breadth of the elytra. These are
oblong oval, somewhat convex, densely and finely punctate,
indistinctly striated, brownish blue or purplish hoar-frosted,
with a yellowish pubescence along the base and basal margins.
The legs are brownish red.

This variety stands in a very different position from those
which have gone before. They are so near the type, that they
might without much harm have been described as synonyms.
The present, on the contrary, differs in some respects widely
from the type, and it is by no means surprising that it has
hitherto been considered one of the best characterized and
most distinct species.

The great breadth of the thorax is the prominent distinguishing
character ; its shape also is somewhat different, being nearer that
of C.nigrita, Erichs. The grounds on which I have deemed it a
variety of ¢ristis, are first, that all the specimens of grandicollis I
have taken have been in company with 7ristis, and they were gene-
rally without the admixture of another species except rotundicollis,
which, as J have already said, I suspect to be another variety of
tristis. The examples of grandicollis were almost invariably males*,
and those of tristis for the most part females. In my earliest cap-
tures it so happened that I found nothing but males of grandicollis
and females of tristis, and naturally came to the conclusion that
they were the two sexes of the same thing. Subsequent researches
have convinced me to the contrary, as I have now a good many
male specimens of ¢ristis, and one female of grandicollis. Stall
the great preponderance is as I have stated, and the result to
which I have come is, that grandicollis is the normal form of the
male, and ¢ristis of the female ; although, as is known sometimes
to take place in other orders of animals, the female occasionally
assumes the form of the male, or vice versd. Another ground for
assuming them to be the same species is their great general re-
semblance to each other, notwithstanding that the one has got
such a broad thorax, while in the other it is narrow. This simi-
larity is owing perhaps to the thorax in both being transverse,
and the rest of the body of the same figure. The pubescence,
colouring, wrinkling and punctuation are identical, and when two
fine fresh specimens with their pubescence and bloom untar-
nished are placed together, I think it is almost impossible to
avoid the conclusion that they belong to the same species. The
differences that exist other than the broad thorax are very trifling.
The antenne of grandicollis are perhaps a trifle thinner and not

* Erichson founded his description on a “ single male specimen.”

150) Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

so dark in the middle as in the generality of ¢ristis, and the ter-
minal joint is usually not paler than the rest of the club. But
these are all variable items in ¢éris¢is itself. I have specimens
with their antennz in every respect to the most minute parti-
cular the same in both kinds. The only other discrepancy is,
that the slight sinuation on the hind margin of the thorax of
tristis seems wauting in grandicollis. In a word, the only per-
manent difference is in the form of the thorax, which, in the face
of the circumstances I have adverted to, does not in this instance
appear to me a sufficient ground for constituting it a different
species.

Another curious confirmation of this view is, that similar
variations in the form of the thorax take place in C. chrysome-
loides. In fact, I possess specimens of the latter having exactly
the form of ¢ristis ; the sole difference being that they are larger ;
the thorax is more coarsely granulated, its pubescence darker ;
the elytra more rounded and not so acuminate at the apex, their
bloom also is ash-grey instead of purplish, their base is black
instead of brownish, and the yellow hairs at the base are wanting.
The antennz are thicker and darker and the last joint is longer.
These particulars serve to show that it is not ¢ristis; and in
addition these varieties are found mixed with large numbers of
the normal form of chrysomeloides. For instance, among about
200 specimens of ehrysomeloides which my friend Mr. Bates re-
cently sent me, all taken together at one time, I found three or
four with the form of ¢ristis ; also a specimen or two having in
like manner exactly the form of grandicollis, but with the elytra
not as in the variety of ¢ristis bearing that name, but as in chry-
someloides ; the antennz are thicker and darker, but there is no
other difference in the relative proportions, except in the last
joint, which is not long, as it is in chrysomeloides. Further, there
were a few specimens in the same lot having the shorter form
and more acuminate elytra of rotundicollis ; and lastly, there were
examples having the form of the thorax of nigrita. The result
to which I have come therefore is, that similar variations in form
exist both in C. ¢tristis and C. chrysomeloides ; that as we have a
variety of the former with a broad thorax (C. tristis var. grandi-
collis), we have also a variety of the latter of like form (C. chry-
someloides var. grandicollis). In like manner of each we have
_C. tristis var. rotundicollis and C. chrysomeloides var. rotundi-
collis, and C. tristis var. nigrita and C. chrysomeloides var. nigrita.
We have a var. of chrysomeloides like tristis (C. chrysomeloides var.
tristis), but I have not found any like resemblance to C. chryso-
meloides in tristis.

In all these varieties, however, there are certain general cha-
racters which appear to be constant, and enable us to refer each

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 151

variety to its proper species. These are the colour of the elytra
and of its bloom, and the colour of the pubescence at the base
of the elytra. There are also other characters, which, although
they vary in individual species on the one side or other, are on
the whole pretty constant. The antenne of chrysomeloides are
almost invariably considerably thicker than in ¢ristis, and the
last joint longer. The pubescence of the thorax (except in the
same variety) is browner than in ¢ristis, and, except in the var.
rotundicollis of tristis, is more coarsely granulated. The form of
the apex of the elytra, except in the same variety, is also rounder
in chrysomeloides than in tristis.

Var. E. C. rotundicollis, Kellner.

C. rotundicollis, Kellner, Stett. Ent. Zeit. viii. 176.2; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771;
Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 434.19; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent.
Fr. i. 302.

Ovatus, nigro-fuscus ; antennis obsolete clavatis ;
pedibus rufo-piceis; thorace transverso subru-
guloso, lateribus fortiter rotundatis;angulis pos-
ticis rectis ; elytris apice obsoletissime striatis.

Long. 1} lin.

Fig. 18.

The antennz are scarcely so long as the head
and thorax, thickened towards the point, reddish
brown, lighter at the base. The head and thorax
are densely punctate, or rather granulated and
densely covered with yellowish grizzly hairs ; the
latter is strongly rounded on the sides, most so towards the
front, narrowed behind, the anterior angles rounded, the pos-
terior angles almost pointed and right-angled, the posterior
margin cut straight, and slightly sinuated on both sides near
the scutellum. The elytra are oval, a little convex, densely and
finely punctate, indistinctly striated, with a bluish or purplish
bloom or hoar-frost on them, and also with yellowish hairs par-
ticularly at the base, and are narrowed to a point at the apex.
The legs are brownish red, the feet lighter.

This variety or species is found along with ¢ristis and grandi-
collis, but it is not without hesitation that I remove it from the
list of distinct species. The characters, however, which distin-
guish it being all variations in degree, and at times approaching
more or less to the type of ¢ristis, I have come to look upon it as
a variety of that species. It is well known that carcase-feeding
beetles are always more subject to variation than others, owing
to the chance of the food of the larvee becoming exhausted before
they are full fed. This species may be a starved variety. The
particulars however by which it is most readily distinguished

152 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

are its smaller size, the strongly rounded edges of the thorax
inflexed towards the base, and perhaps more than any other, the
more strongly marked punctuation or rather granulation on the
thorax ; but none of these distinctions appear to me sufficient
to justify its being kept as a distinct species. As to its size,
although it is only about half the size of grandicollis, 1 have un-
doubted specimens of ¢ristis quite as small as it; and even of
grandicollis T have seen a specimen received by M. Kraatz from
Thuringia not much larger. The general cut of the thorax is
that of | tristis, but broader in front. The elytra terminating
sharply is a character also shared by ¢ristis. The bluish or purplish
bloom on the elytra is perhaps not quite so marked a feature as
in éristis, but it is still well developed, and the yellow pubescence
on the thorax and along the base of the elytra is the same. The
distinction most appreciable is the punctuation or rather granu-
lations on the thorax. To the naked eye, or under a weak lens,
the thorax looks as if it were more coarsely punctate and of a
coarser texture than in ¢ristis. Under a higher magnifying power
it assumes the aspect shown in fig. 19, Fig. 19.

and a comparison of that with fig. 15
and fig. 20, exhibiting the marks on the
thorax of tristis and neglectus (next spe- ;

cies), will show that it Deeiepicwtle niligessilt - UN fo 2
place between them. This punctuation

i Dal dy PA )
\ VAY
in rotundicollis however is not always Dry! NAIR SA
equally coarse, showing gradations to the feebler granulations of
tristis.

It is not a rare variety, and is found under dead birds, &e.
both in England and Scotland and all over the Continent.

coded

id eh tad

15. C. neglectus, Kraatz.
Catops neglectus, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 434. 20.

Ovatus, nigro-fuscus; antennis obsolete clavatis pedibusque rufo-
piceis ; thorace “transverso, postice angustiore, variolariter
punctato ; elytris apice substriatis.

Long. 13 lin.

Shape entirely that of ¢ristis. Antenne obsoletely clavate,
reddish brown. The head is black, deeply, densely and distinctly
punctate. The thorax is in the middle almost ‘of the breadth
of the elytra, nearly half as broad as long, somewhat convex,
the sides moderately strongly rounded (exactly as in ¢ristis),
more narrowed behind than in front, so that the greatest
breadth is before the middle. The posterior angles are right-
angled, the posterior margin feebly sinuated on each side in

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 158

front of the scutellum. It is covered with a dense yellow pubes-
cence as in f¢ristis, but is not granulated like it, but covered
with shallow punctures, so that under a strong lens it looks
exactly as if pitted with the small-pox, and out of each shallow
flat pit issues a yellow hair (sometimes two, springing from the
same centre); these pits are arranged im a sort of irregular

Fig. 20.

transverse order (see fig. 20), which gives
the thorax to the naked eye the ap-
pearance of being strongly transversely
wrinkled. The elytra are densely and
finely punctate, with indistinct, very eva-
nescent traces (when highly magnified)
of similar depressions being scattered
over them, and with indistinct traces of
striz at the apex; they are clothed with a purplish brownish
bloom similar to that of ¢ristis, and with yellowish hairs princi-
pally seen at the base. The legs are brownish red, feet lighter.

Till this species was made known by M. Kraatz, it had been
always overlooked. Ona hasty glance it looks exactly like ¢ristis ;
a little better inspection, particularly of the apparent granu-
lations on the thorax, leads one to suppose it is rotundicollis, but
a careful examination brings out the much deeper and differ-
ently formed punctuation of the thorax. This is the only cha-
racter to be relied on to separate it from f¢ristis ; for although the
antennze are not so abruptly or heavily clavate as in that species,
and are entirely of a reddish brown instead of having a blackish
club, still in neither particular are they so different as to be beyond
similar variations to be found in the true ¢ristis. I therefore
felt great difficulty in making up my mind whether they were
distinct species or not. Thanks to the liberality of M. Kraatz,
who supplied me with specimens of his neglectus, I was enabled
to examine them all very carefully, which I did under high
powers of the compound microscope, and although there is in
one sense undoubtedly a transition between tristis and neglectus
through rotundicollis, inasmuch as while the sculpture of the
thorax in /ristis is slightly wrinkled, that of rotundicollis is gra-
nulated, and that of neglectus variolose, still there did appear a
greater difference between neglectus and rotundicollis than be-
tween the latter and ¢ristis. It is not easy to embody the dif-
ference in words, but I am enabled by the kind assistance of
Dr. Greville, whose qualifications as a microscopic observer and
microscopic draughtsman are unsurpassed, to submit the differ-
ences to the reader, in the woodcuts, figs. 15, 19 and 20, drawn
by him, which show the sculpture of the thorax of the three
kinds as seen under a magnifying power of 280 diameters. These
I think preve the close relationship of rotundicollis, fig. 19, with

154 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

tristis and grandicollis (both of which are exactly the same), fig. 15:
the punctures from which the hairs issue are only a little larger
and deeper in the former than in the latter, which also shows
the first faint traces of the circular depressions between these
punctures in the former. In neglectus however, although there
are deep circular depressions, these are on a totally different
arrangement from those in the other species. Here they sur-
round the puncture from which the hairs spring, while in rotun-
dicollis they are placed between the hairs. In neglectus the con-
cave curve of the depression is turned towards the hair, in rotun-
dicollis it is the convex curve which is turned to it.

Although the character is narrow, I incline to think that
this is a good species, more especially as M. Kraatz mentions
that nothing approaching to a transition between it and rotun-
dicollis has been found.

This interesting species was taken by M. Kraatz in Hessia,
but I have not yet observed it in any collection made in this
country.

16. C. quadraticollis, Aubé.

Catops quadraticollis, Aubé, Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de Fr. 1850, viii. 326.
35. t.11. f.3; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. 1. 302.

Oblongo-ovalis, convexiusculus, niger; anten- Fig. 21.
narum articulis primis et ultimo, tibiisque
ferrugineis ; thorace quadrato, vix postice an-
gustiore, angulis posticis rectis.

Long. 14 lin.

Oblong-oval, convex. Brownish black, co-
vered with a sparing yellowish-grey pubescence ;
mouth and base of the antennz obscure ferru-
ginous. Antenne gradually clavate, a little
longer than the head and thorax. Thorax almost as broad
as long; sides feebly arched, almost straight, except in front,
where they are pretty strongly rounded ; posterior angles right-
angled, a little sharply pointed; very finely and densely punc-
tate. Elytra with a more marked punctuation, very dense ;
sutural stria deep, disappearing on the anterior third. With a
strong lens some traces of stri are perceptible. Thighs brown-
ish black, tibize and tarsi obscure ferruginous.

This species is almost of the size of tristis, which it comes very
near in form and colour. It is however a little more elongated
and generally deeper in colour, and the antennz are less clavate ;
but the principal difference is in the form of the thorax, which
is nearly as long as broad and rectilinear on the sides, in fact
nearly square ; the posterior angles also are straighter. Dr. Aubé

Bm. CLL ee

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 155

says that the lateral margins are a little more rounded in the
males than in the females, but always less so than in tristis.

I have seen one female example of this species, in the collee-
tion of M. Chevrolat. At first I was disposed to consider it as
a variety of ¢ristis, but on closer examination I became satisfied
that it is a distinct species ; at least, that we must hold it so
until a closer study of its affinities and alliances shall teach us
otherwise.

17. C. chrysomeloides, Panz.

Helops chrysomeloides, Panz. Fn. Ger. 57. 1.

Choleva chrysomeloides, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. 29. 4; Spence, Linn.
Trans. xi. 146. 7.

Catops chrysomeloides, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br.1. 697.7 a; Sturm, Deutschl.
Fn. xiv. 22. 10. t. 275. f. b. B; Heer, Fn. Helv. 380.9; Redt. Fn.
Aust. 144. 10; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 432. 16; Fairm. &
Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 302.

Ovatus, nigro-piceus ; antennis abrupte clavatis, Pig. 22.
clava nigra nitidula, articulo ultimo oblongo ;
thorace transverso, basi latiore, angulis posticis
rectis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis.

Long. 2 lin.

Ovate, convex ; deep brown or biack, with a

pretty dense pubescence. Antenne shorter than
head and thorax, strongly and abruptly clavate,
‘the base (first six jomts or so) red, the club black or deep
brown, the fourth, fifth and sixth joints not longer than thick,
also not thicker than those preceding, those following consider-
ably thicker, the seventh, ninth and tenth somewhat thicker than
long, brown ; the eleventh oblong oval; the eighth narrower
than the other joints of the club, very short. Thorax one-half
broader than long, rounded on the sides, narrowed a little more
in front than behind; at the posterior margin a little narrower
than the base of the elytra; the posterior angles right-angled,
pointed; the posterior margin lightly sinuated on each side,
covered with a coarse yellowish grizzly pubescence. Elytra like
the thorax, very finely and densely punctate, very indistinctly
striated, with an ashy grey bloom ; no yellow pubescence. Legs
ferruginous red, often brown on the thighs.

This very distinct species is distinguished at once by the large
black club of its antenne. When seen along with other species,
its gloomy black opake appearance, combined with a larger club
of the antenne than any other species, at once point it out. The
only other large black species in this group are picipes and
nigricans, and neither of these has heavy thick-clubbed antenne.
From the other thick-clubbed species (none of which however

156 Mr. W. Webster on a new British species of Skenea.

have antennz equal to it in thickness), it may be quickly distin-
guished by its gloomy black colour, and by the dull ash-gre
bloom on the elytra. The pubescence on the thorax is dull
grizzly yellow, a good deal coarser than the strong rich russet
yellow of fristis and the other thick-clubbed species ; and the
bloom on the elytra wants the purplish tinge observable in
these species ; and there are no yellow hairs along the base or
margins of the elytra, which are not lighter in colour themselves
than the thorax. Immature specimens wholly ferruginous brown
are occasionally met with. The thickness of the club of the
antenn is also not always equally great, but always greater
than in any other species.

As I have already mentioned in speaking of the varieties of
tristis, similar varieties occur of this species, viz. :—

Var. grandicollis, with larger broad thorax.

Var. tristis, with narrow short thorax and broad elytra.

Var. rotundicollis, of the shape of rotundicollis, but larger.

Var. nigrita, of the shape of nigrita.

For the differences between these varieties and the similarly
named varieties of ¢ristis, see the remarks on page 150.

As I have already mentioned, this species used very generally
to be made to represent both ¢ristis and chrysomeloides by British
and even foreign entomologists.

It is found under small dead birds and mammals. Mr. Bates
of Leicester has taken hundreds (and supplied me largely) by a
simple trap which is very useful for taking some of our rarest
Clavicornes. He puts three or four rabbits’ feet into a soda-water
bottle, buries it in a favourable locality, so that the mouth of the
bottle is level with the ground, and in a week or ten days the
interior of the bottle is swarming with insects, among which
great rarities occasionally occur.

[To be continued. |

XVI.—On a new British species of Skenea.
By W. Wesster, Esq.

(With a Plate.]
To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,
Turovucu the kindness of C. Spence Bate, Esq., I am enabled to
send you a drawing (PI. VIII. figs. 12, 13) of an extremely
minute Skenea which I found in sand, taken amongst Corallina
officinalis from rock-pools at Gwyllyn Vase near Falmouth.
It is involute, like Skenea nitidissima, and equally umbilicated

Dr, J. E. Gray on a new species of Dolphin. 157

both above and below; but the whorls, which are three, instead
of two and a half, do not increase quite so rapidly in size. Its
distinctive feature consists in having three spiral ribs or carine
of a shining fulyous tint, which contrast strongly with the
whitish ground colour of the shell ; one is situated on either side
extending from the apex to the orifice, and the third, which is
not so distinctly elevated, on the centre of the body.

The entire volutions appear under a good lens strongly
wrinkled longitudinally, more especially on the inner sides, and
under a still higher power finely striated spirally. The mouth,
which is well rounded and does not turn to either side, embraces
a considerable portion of the body-whorl. The operculum I
have not been able to examine: its diameter hardly equals the
twentieth of an inch.

As yet I have only obtained four specimens, but have still
some small portion of the sand in which they were found, remain-
ing unexamined.

If the shell as described above is already known, I should feel
greatly obliged if any of your scientific ¢orrespondents wonld
favour me with the name.

I am borne out in my opinion that it is new to the British
fauna by Dr. Battersby of Torquay, who has kindly examined the
shell ; should it prove equally new to science, Skenea tricarinata
would be a very appropriate designation.

It may be interesting to some of your readers to know, that |
met with several fine specimens of the rare Crenella costulata in
rock-pools in Mount’s Bay, and also with Modiola phaseolina in
some abundance in the same locality.

Yours faithfully,
Upton Hall, near Birkenhead, W. WesstER.
June 21, 1856.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.
Fig. 12. The shell highly magnified. Fig. 13. Natural size.

XVII.—Description of a New Species of Dolphin (Steno) from
the upper parts of the River Amazon*, By J. E. Gray, Ph.D.,
F.R.S. &e.

Mr. H. W. Bares has sent to the British Museum the skulls of
two Dolphins which he has procured from the upper parts of the
Amazon.
The first is named Bouto by the natives, and found near
Ega. It is evidently the Delphinus Geoffroyii of Desmarest,
[* A brief abstract of a notice of two species of Dolphins occurring in the

Amazon, by M. Paul Gervais, appeared in the Annals, vol. xvii. p. 521.—
Ep. Ann, Nat. Hist.]

158 Dr, J. E. Gray on a new species of Dolphin.

described from a specimen procured by the French from the
Lisbon Museum during their occupation of that town, and
which the Portuguese most probably received from the Brazils.
M. F. Cuvier, in his ‘ Cetacea,’ p. 112, described this species
under the name of Delphinus frontatus.

M. D’Orbigny discovered the same, or at any rate a nearly
allied species, in the River Moxos in Upper Peru or Bolivia,
and described and figured it under the name of Inia Boliviensis,
Voy. Amér. Mérid. t. 22,

The measurements of the Brazilian skull are as follows, in
inches and parts of inches :—

inches
eneght Of skal ooo gs. cnc une ssscevsonnes sos sapestenenes 214
OF Ded occ ccccccsecascsecceseccrursSUNsONeaaem 13
of teeth-line of upper Jaw ......seeeeeeeeees 12}
————._. ———— Off lower Jaw ......ssceseevesen 11
OF LOW er JAW pie cases: 20s thnanponader sheer 174
i of symphysis of lower jaw .....-seeeseseeees 83
Width of skull 200.4: ..60555..00scuccdnvnesebscasanenene 10
in front of orbits at notch ......sseseseeeeee 6
_ of beak at notch. 20i..0.05.6.ecnsssvssdrounenae 3

Teeth = >

It is only the hinder eight or nine teeth which have a distinct
internal heel; the succeeding ones gradually assume the usual
conical form, but all the teeth are more or less rugulose.

Mr. H. W. Bates observes: “ The animal from which the skull
was taken is very large, and wholly of a pinkish flesh-colour. I
have seen them rear themselves entirely above the surface of the
water when the sexes are sporting in shoaly bays. It goes in
pairs, rolling together..... There are black dolphins of the
larger species, but I do not know if a variety or a separate
species. They also roll in pairs, and are abundant towards the
Delta of the Amazon. I cannot say whether the flesh-coloured
species is found in the Delta; one fact only I can mention—I
have never seen a black and a pink dolphin together in pairs.
They are always both either black or pink.”—Letter, Feb. 17,
1856.

The second species is named Tucuai by the natives. Mr. H.
W. Bates has sent the skull of each sex. They are similar, but
the skull of the female is considerably smaller than that of the
male. These skulls evidently belong to a species of the genus
Steno, which has not before come under my observation. It
may be described in the Catalogues as

Steno Tucuzi. The Tucuxi.

Nose of the skull depressed at the base, convex and attenuated
at the tip, rather (;',th) longer than the length of the head,

Bibliographical Notices. 159

nearly three times as long as the width at the notch; frontal

triangle elongate, continued considerably in front of the noteh-

line. Teeth =, slender, conical. The lower jaw rather slender

and slightly bent up at the tips; symphysis rather keeled
beneath in front.
Inhabits the upper parts of the Amazon River near Santarem.
The measurements are as follows, in inches and parts of
inches :—

j Male Female

Length of skull...... Seenaonemiasia Se Pe Be conees 12
BE eH vee oes awasesp aay anes 2 FE sores paring 63
OL COOUN-UNE. i <ceb-2erccetest Gh) evitt aces sce 52
OF LOWEF JAW .osc.cc0nessess.02 DOD: es taaver 94
Of symphysis ..:.-.csceeeee, ey Wavanad dene 13
RVR Sct heck ene cctiedinseces Bip Man shasiacae se 53
of beak at notch .......,.... PLP ocr enacen 23
- of forehead over notch ...... Ae rine eidislasletst 44

Mr. H. W. Bates, in his letter of the same date, observes :—
“The Tucuai, pronounced Tucoshee, is of a darkish black or
fuscous colour. It does not roll over like the Bouto, but comes
slowly to the surface to breathe.”

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Manual of Geology, Practical and Theoretical. By Joun Putuuirs,
M.A., F.R.S. &c. Griffin and Co., London and Glasgow, 1855.

Tue foundation of this work was laid twenty-five years ago,-—in the
‘ Encyclopzedia Metropolitana,’—and, without changing its general
character, it has been enlarged and improved by the materials col-
lected by the author and numerous fellow-labourers in the same field
during the interval. Among the most important geological researches
of late years has been the examination of the older rocks of Wales
and the Border Counties, and the newer and not less interesting de-
posits of the tertiary series of Eastern England and the adjoining
Continent. The author has devoted considerable space to these sub-
jects ; and, by a careful condensation of the evidence brought forward
by the multitude of observers conscientiously enumerated in his pre-
face, has given us a lucid and valuable résumé of paleozoie and
cainozoic facts, which, together with the revised chapters on mesozoic
history, form a really useful Manual of physical and topographical
geology. Unlike many elementary works, this is far from being a
compilation ; for the author, without neglecting the observations
of others, has observed for himself, and brings us his own enlarged
and practical experience,—the fruit of years of scientific labour, both
under official engagements and as separate undertakings. The man
who has worked for himself in the field can best recognize the edu-
cational wants of others, and thus offer them the necessary elementary
knowledge by which the inquiring mind may be led in the right di-
rection to comprehend the philosophy of the closet and the facts of

160 Bibliographical Notices.

the field. . The mode of inculeation of such facts varies too much
with books and teachers. The mere exercise of memory in learning a
table of classification is a poor substitute for the knowledge obtained
by the student from a good practical teacher. vast

After a succinct notice of the history of the science, in which :the
origin of inductive geology forms an interesting and instructive see-
tion, the author enters upon elementary views of the structure and
composition of the crust of the earth and of the preservation and dis-
tribution of organic remains.

To this succeeds a series of chapters descriptive of the primary}
hypozoic, paleeozoic, mesozoic, and cainozoic strata, in the ascending
order, In this respect we regard this plan of arrangement. as’ pre-
ferable, inasmuch as it provides the student with the true sue
cessional ordination of the various geognostical phenomena. Thus
he is better enabled to trace the origin of the suecessive and deri-
vative strata,—the varying hydrographical areas more or less defined
by these deposits,—and the gradual advance, in different directions
and under varying circumstances, of vegetable and animal organisms;
—and hence he is presented with a comprehensive view of the various
phases of the earth’s physical history.

Following the chapters on descriptive geology is a chapter devoted:
to modern causes in action,—a section which we are inclined to think’
should take its place at the commencement of the work; for the»
ordinary mind, when acquainted with existing physical agencies, not;
only better appreciates the present operations of nature, but possesses,
an index and a key to the multitude and apparent mybtery of ancient,
physical phenomena.

Inorganic phenomena, more especially those connected with the»
effects of heat, are fully treated of in the next following divisions of:
the work ;—one chapter being devoted specially to the rt Bs
Mineral veins.

In a subsequent chapter, on the state of geological theory, we
would erent recommend to notice the section on geological
chronology, in which the probable rate of accumulation of deposits
is inferred from the study. of the mechanical and chemical. origin of |
strata,—the alternations of beds of different lithological characters,
and of different natures, such as marine, freshwater, and igneous,—the
succession of races of imbedded organic beings, — and lastly, the repe-
titions of convulsions, and the metamorphism of rock-masses. . In
the same chapter we find two useful tables. illustrative of the distinet
groups of animal life which have followed one another in a settled -
order of geological time. The one, adapted from M. A, d’Orbigny,’
affords a rough estimate of the proportional number of species of all
animals in the several geological groups; the second, repeated from
the author’s work on Yorkshire, has reference to the distribution in -
time of the more prominent vertebrate types specially ohe tartare
of the great geological periods.

The appendix of tables and calculations contains also some pated
tical observations on the instruments used by the working geologist,
namely, barometers, clinometers, &e., with directions for the benefit :

*
‘Bibliographical Notices. 161

of those persons who are anxious to furnish satisfactory data for the
elucidation of questions connected with the general and special struc-
ture of rocks, such as dip, strike, divisional planes, faults, dykes, veins,
cleavage, &c. One page only, and that in the Appendix, is devoted
to the constituent ingredients of rocks,—a subject too little attended
to, and for which might have been found a fitter and ampler space in
the body of the work. A careful and useful glossary is added.

Without entering into any detail respecting the geological deserip-
tions in this work, as regards the mineral character, distribution, and
fossils of local deposits, we can but advert to a novel and extremely
useful feature presented by Prof. Phillips’s Manual. We allude to
the lists of genera of organic remains occurring in each group or
terrain of the geological formations. These lists are so arranged and
printed that the genera peculiar to certain strata are at once recog-
nizable, aud the numerical proportion of genera and species are seen
at a glance. In our notice of Morris’s ‘ Catalogue of British Organic
Remains’ in Annals, vol. xv. p. 54, we recommended that such tabu-
lated lists of genera and species should be made under the super-
intendence of the author of that work. Prof. Phillips, however, has
with considerable labour eliminated the materials required for such
categorical arrangement, in conformity with the geological classi-
fication adopted in that work, and has thus, with excellent judgement,
enabled the student to comprehend at one view the numerical pro-
portions, in family, generic, and specific groupings, of animal and
vegetable life during the several geological periods ; and those inter-
ested specially in the lower palzeozoic rocks will find at p. 122 a
table exhibiting the generic relations of the then existing great divi-
sions of animal life during the Cambrian and the Lower and Upper
Silurian periods.

One excellent feature of Mr. Phillips’s book consists of the many
well-executed illustrations of landscape-scenery illustrative of topogra-
phical geology. We wish that we could equally approve of the cuts
intended to portray the characteristic fossils. Generally speaking,
the imperfection of the specimens selected and the want of accuracy
in the drawing render the majority of the figures almost useless for
comparison.

This work, having features of its own both in paleontological and
geological aspects, and being well stored with modern information,
and characterized by the experience and philosophic opinions of the
author, takes a high rank among elementary works on geology. As
a text-book, embodying the real methods of geological investigation,
this edition necessarily offers more complete evidence of the unity of
the laws of nature, and of the correctness of the principles of geology
enunciated in the previous edition, —principles which amidst all the
activity of research are still unaltered, the methods of research and
the lines of reasoning remaining the same.

Much remains to be done ; the geologist has still great questions
before him waiting for solution ; his labours will be well directed and
much lightened by such manuals of the science as those provided by
Lyell, Mantell, Ansted, and Phillips.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvin. 11

>
162 Bibliographical Notices.

Tenby : a Sea-side Holiday. By Poitier Henry Gosse, ALLS.
London, Van Voorst, 1856. 12mo. i

Amongst the numerous caterers to the appetite for popular books
on Natural History, which is rapidly, whether for good or ill, be-
coming a more and more fashionable craving, Mr, Gosse has un-
doubtedly taken a very leading position. This is due not only. to
the numerous works of this nature which owe their existence to his
prolitic pen, for in this respect he is certainly not without rivals, but.
to the intimate practical acquaintance which he possesses with those
marine creatures with which he principally has to do, and to a second
and still rarer quality, springing perhaps to a certain extent from the
former, that of treating whatever comes under his hand in a style at
once pleasant and elegant, intermixing so much of human interest
with his descriptions of what in less skilful hands would furnish
intolerably dry reading, at least to the masses, that the dry bones
become clothed with fiesh and endowed with an astonishing amount
of life and vigour. As regards the positive effect of these works,
and the policy of consigning original zoological observations to. pages
which may almost be regarded as addressed exclusively to the un-
learned in such matters, there may be two opinions ; but there can be
no doubt, that those multitudes who at this particular period of the
year are always meditating gravely upon the necessity of passing the
next two or three months in some dreary watering-place, have good
cause to be thankful to Mr. Gosse for his delightful productions,
and to wish most heartily that there were more guides and instrue-
tors “like unto him.” Je4en

“Tenby,” Mr, Gosse’s new sea-side book, does not fall short of its
predecessors in general interest, although the amount of new matter
for the student contained in it is perhaps rather less. It opens with
an amusing account of the railway journey into Wales, and the first
acquaintance with the semi-foreign natives of the Principality ; the
energetic struggles of the Tenby coachmen to secure customers are
not forgotten, and the whole journey is described in a style which in
these days of unromantic travel is quite refreshing. The first im-
pressions of Tenby and the neighbouring scenery are also Graphically
described, — Saint Catherine’s and its caverns stand out vividly in many
pages, and the singularly rapid influx of the tide over the sands serves,
to introduce a humorous picture of the perplexity of three ladies,
whom Mr. Gosse ungallantly describes as ‘‘ middle-aged” and
“somewhat heavy im person,” who in their anxiety to view the
beauties of the place were somewhat unpleasantly reminded of the
fact that the old proverb, “Time and Tide wait for no man,” ap-
plies with equal truth to the fairer portion of humanity. This and
many other passages of a similar nature, including several excellent
descriptions of scenery and pieces of local history, must be regarded
by the scientific naturalist, however he may enjoy them, as comin
parenthetically in the midst of his severer studies ;—we shall there-.
fore refer no farther to the lighter portion of Mr. Gosse’s book.

We have already said that the number of new facts brought for-
ward in the present volume seems to be less than in Mr, Gosse’s

Bibliographical Notices. 163

“Devonshire Coast.” On the other hand, several of the chapters
(or Letters as our author calls them) contain excellent descriptions
of things, which although previously well known to zoologists, will
undoubtedly be exceedingly interesting to the general reader, in the
elegant costume iu which they are here presented to him. Amongst
these we may notice the development of the Decapod Crustacea and
Barnacles, of Clavellina and the Echinida. One chapter is devoted
to the description of the Pedicellarie, which Mr. Gosse, with the
principal authorities of the present day, regards as component parts
of the Echinoderms on whose surface they are found; our author
gives a very full description of the structure of these curious bodies,
and besides the three kinds or species described by Miller, notices
a fourth form, to which he gives the name of Pedicellaria steno-
phylla, The Actinie and their beauties naturally take up a good
deal of Mr. Gosse’s attention,—they are frequently referred to in
various parts of the work, and three new species are described m his
last letter ; whilst in an Appendix he gives some extracts from his
paper on Peachia hastata im the Linnzan Transactions, in which he
establishes the genera Sagartia and Bunodes at the expense of the
old genus dctinia, and gives his views as to the nature and affinities
of the family of the Sea Anemones.

Mr. Gosse is, however, by no means constant in his attachment to
the sea, and two of his letters are devoted exclusively to the fresh-
water Rotifera ;—in one he describes the mode of capturing these
little creatures, and in the second the way in which they are to be
observed under the microscope, and the structure of several striking
species.

Two circumstances must prevent our giving any extracts from
this charming little book,—one of these is the difficulty of selection
where so much is excellent, and the other the want of space. In
taking leave of it, however, we cannot but feel that it will do much to
open up new sources of delight to thousands who may visit not only
Tenby but other watering-places, by awakening in their minds some
little interest in the many apparently insignificant, but truly inter-
esting creatures, which they would otherwise pass contemptuously in
their objectless saunterings by the sea. We may add that the work
is illustrated with twenty-four coloured lithographic plates, executed
by the author, most of which are exceedingly good.

Manual of British Botany, containing the Flowering Plants and
Ferns arranged according to the Natural Orders. By CHar.es
Carpatre Bapinerton, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. &e. Fourth Edi-
tion, with many additions and corrections. London: Van Voorst,
1856, pp. 446.

An examination of Mr. Babington’s fourth edition suggests little
that we have not already said, still less that we might not have said,
respecting its predecessor. The countless silent rectifications of
diagnosis, which give Mr. Babington’s writings their chief value, will
hardly be appreciated except by assiduous use; but the marks of

11*

164 Bibliographical Notices,

unwearied observation of living nature and familiarity with the
published and unpublished researches of contemporary botanists up
to the latest moment are obyious to any reader. The only new
feature of this edition is an attempt to introduce all bond fide English
names, excluding those uncouth Anglo-Latin titles which sound like
fond reminiscences of pre-Linnzean nomenclature. Mr. Babington’
has advanced a little—we wish it had been more—towards distin-
guishing undoubted and little doubted natives from suspeeted in~
truders of all kinds. Some species formerly at liberty are now
bracketed ; others bracketed with numbers are now bracketed with-
out numbers; others are absolutely rejected. The notation, however,
is in this respect somewhat ambiguous and inconsistent. A few
probably new species, about which the author has not yet quite made’
up his mind, are neither excluded nor admitted to full citizenship,
but wisely introduced on a doubtful footing : Utricularia neglecta and
Potamogeton gracilis may be taken as examples. The disagreeable
but necessary work of correcting the synonyms goes on as before,
the result in some cases being the restoration of old names; thus
Myosotis suaveolens is now once more alpestris. Little can be
objected against these proceedings except their piecemeal nature.
A fearless and thorough revision of the names of our plants on de-
finite principles, whether those of the British Association or others,
is much wanted. Mr, Babington did good service in this depart-,
ment in the early part of his career: it is to be wished that he would
return to it with increased knowledge on a more methodical plan than
he has lately followed. This desultoriness is perhaps not confined
to nomenclature. Mr. Babington’s observations, extensive and minute
as they are, appear to have been too much confined to such plants as
have accidentally fallen in his way. For instance, he long ago de-
scribed, on rather slender evidence, a Potamogeton allied to P. pec-
tinatus as probably the P. zosteraceus of Fries. In his third edition,
having become better acquainted with the plant, he named it anew
as P. flabellatus, at the same time distinguishing P. pectinatus in
italics as having “leaves formed of two interrupted tubes.’ This
language might surely be too easily taken to mean that the leaves of
P. pectinatus differ essentially in structure from the upper leaves’
of P. flabellatus. Mr. Babington is of course too good a botanist.
not to have known, that in plants so closely allied the difference (if
such there be) could only be one of proportion, as the leaves of
neighbouring species are likewise formed of “interrupted tubes,”
and the peculiarity of P. pectinatus can lie only in the predominance.
of two over the rest. But though the ambiguity of 1851 may be.
excused by the want of adequate knowledge of the corresponding’
structure in P. flabellatus, it was surely incumbent on the author of a
Flora to have studied his own species a little further before 1856, and
not to leave the description as deceptive as ever, especially as Hooker
and Arnott had meanwhile challenged the distinctness of the species
on definite grounds. Many of the important changes of detail now
introduced into the ‘Manual’ are already known to our readers
through the monographs which the author has lately published

Bibliographical Notices. 165

in this Journal. A great part of them will, we are confident,
maintain their ground with, it may be, a few modifications. Others
unavoidably excite our scepticism; but, until arguments are ad-
duced on the other side, founded on something like equally cau-
tious and intelligent study, Mr. Babington has a fair right to claim
a strong provisional authority. If any one starts, as assuredly he
ought to do, at being told that Arctium majus and minus constitute
five species, we can only counsel patience and renewed observation,
A large proportion of the novelties occur in the genus Wieracium,
where the pains bestowed by Mr. Backhouse on the cultivation of
doubtful forms supply an excellent check on hasty conclusions in
either direction. We should not omit to notice the arrangement of
the Grasses, which has been greatly improved, chiefly from Fries and
Andersson.

Species introduced or separated in the Ath edition.

Ranunculus trichophyllus, Chaizx. Mieracium senescens, Backh.

R. Drouetii, F. Schultz? 1. lasiophyllum, Koch.

R. Baudotii, Godr. H. Gibsoni, Backh.

R. floribundus, Bad. Hi. argenteum, Fr.

R. peltatus, Fr. H. nitidum, Backh.

Polygala austriaca, Cr. H, aggregatum, Backh.

{Sagina densa, Jord. ] H. stelligerum, Froel.

Hypericum anglicum, Bert. Thymus Serpyllum, L.

Rubus pampinosus, Lees. {Salix acutifolia, Willd.

Epilobium rosmarinifolium, Orchis incarnata, L.

Haenke. Epipogium aphyllum, Sw.

E, anagallidifolium, Lam, Arum italicum, Mill.

Galium montanum, Vill. [Potamogeton sparganiifolius,

G. commutatum, Jord. Laest.? |

G. elongatum, Presi. {Eleocharis Watsoni, Bab. }

Arctium tomentosum, Pers. Festuea Myurus, L.

A. intermedium, Lange. Equisetum Moorii, Newm.

A. pubens, Bab. Pseudathyrium alpestre, Newm.

Hieracium holosericeum, Backh. 2 P. flexile, Newm.

H. eximiam, Backh. ? Asplenium acutum, Bory.

Hi. calendulifiorum, Backk. {Gymnogramma leptophylla, Desv. }

H. gracilentum, Backh. ? [Botrychium rutaceum, Sw.]

H. globosum, Backh. ? [Ophioglossum lusitanicum, L.]
Species omitted in the 4th edition.

Thalictrum majus. Hieracium anglicum.

Rubus calvatus. [{H. oreades. }

R. fuseus, H. dovrense.

R. Wahibergii. Salix Helix.

Hieracium atratum. S. Forbyana.

Trees and their Nature, or the Bud and its Attributes. By Avex.
Harvey, A.M., M.D. &c. London, 1856.

“This is an amusing little volume, displaying a great deal of acute-
ness, and the results of very careful reading within a limited sphere.
The object of the work is the discussion of the vexed question of

166 Zoological Society :-— Hal

individuality in plants, and the advocacy of the claim of the dud te
the dignity of the ‘vegetable individual.’ So far as inquiries of this
sort tend to direct attention to the physiological laws ruling the
growth and multiplication of plants, they are beneficial; but as re-
gards the main question it appears to us only a metaphysical puzzle,
calculated to afford much amusement to those whose taste lies that
way, but having no practical bearing. The meaning of the word
‘individual’ must always depend on foregone conclusions. It seems
to us that the author is not clear in distinguishing potentiality from
actuality. When a botanist speaks of the annual layers of wood of
the stems of Dicotyledons as ‘roots,’ the term can only be admitted
in a figurative sense. A bud may be capable of producing a distinet
tree, but if it be not detached, it becomes an individual braneh, not
an individual tree. Our author does not appear to be aware, either,
that roots as well as stems originate in definitely organized ‘buds,’
formed in the cambium region. The work is agreeably written, and
its perusal may serve as a pleasant intellectual exercise, but it must
not be accepted by any means as a full exposition of the question.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
July 10, 1855.—John Gould, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

On rur GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAMMALIA
AND Birps or THE HIMALAYA.
By B. H. Hopeson, Esa.*

“The Himdlayan mountains extend from the great bend of the
Indus to the great bend of the Brahmapvtitra, or from Gilgit to
Brahma Kiind, between which their length is 1800 miles. Their
mean breadth is about 90 miles; the maximum about 110, and the
minimum 70 miles. The mean breadth of 90 miles may be most
conveniently divided into three equal portions, each of which will
therefore have 30 miles of extent, These transverse climatic divi-
sions must be, of course, more or less arbitrary, and a microscopic
vision would be disposed to increase them considerably beyond three,
with reference to geological, to botanical, or to zoological phenomena.
But, upon comparing Captain Herbert’s distribution of geological
phzenomena with my own of zoological, and Dr. Hooker’s of botanical,
I am satisfied that three are enough. These regions I have deno-
minated the lower, the middle, and the upper. They extend from
the external margin of the Tarai to the ghat line of the snows. The
lower region may be conveniently divided into—I. The sandstone
range, with its contained Dhans or Maris; II. The Bhaver or
Saul forest; III. The Tarai. The other two regions require no

* Extracted from a memoir by the same author, entitled, “‘On the Physical
Geography of the Ulimalaya,” and printed in the Journal As, Soc. Bengal for 1849,
by Frederic Moore. j Th

Mr. Hodgson on the Mammalia and Birds of the Himalaya. 167

subdivisions. The following appear to be those demarcations by
height which most fitly indicate the three regions :—

Name. Elevational limits.
Lower region ...... Level of the plains to 4000 feet above the sea.
Central region...... 4000 to 10,000 feet above the sea.

Upper region .....10,000 to 16,000* feet above the sea: highest
peak measured is 28,176.

“To begin with Man, the upper region is the exclusive habit of
the Bhotias, who extend along the whole line of the ghats, and
who, with the name, have retained the lingual and physical charac-
teristics of their tramontane brethren. To the central region are
eonfined—but each in their own province from east to west—the
Mishmis, the Bors and Abors, the Akas, the Daphlas, the Lhépas,
the Lepehas, the Limbtis, the Kirantis, the Mirmis, the Néwars,
the Stimwars, the Chépangs, the Girtings, the Magars, the Khas or
Khasias, the Kohlis, the Garhwalis, the Kakkas, the Bambas, the
Gakars, the Khatirs, the Awans, and the Janjihs. To the lower
region are as exclusively limited the Kécch, the Bdédd, the Dhimal,
the Kichak, the Tharti, the Dénwar, the Sallah, and the Boéksan.
Of these races, those of the central region are all of transnivean
origin, like the first named; but they are much altered in speech
and aspect by twelve to fifteen centuries of residence in a cisnivean
climate, and by mixture in some few cases (as Khas or Khasia) with
southern blood ; whilst the races of the lower region are of the
aboriginal Indian or Tamulian stock, and nearly unmixed, though
some of them have adopted the speech and customs of the Hindust.
The hill Brahmans, Rajptits and Moslems, so common to the west-
ward, so rare to the eastward, are more modern immigrants from the
plains. It is very deserving of special notice, that the people of the
upper region cannot endure the climate of the central one, nor those
of the central region the climate of the lower one; so that the distri-
bution even of the human race in the Himdalaya affords a remarkable
verification of our triple transverse division from a quarter the least
likely to afford any such argument. But to proceed to our zoological
enumerations. ‘To the upper region exclusively belong, among the
Ruminants, the Bisons (Poéphagus) and Musks, the Wild Goats
(Ibex, Hemitragus) and Wild Sheep (Pseudois, Ovis) ; among the
Rodents, the Marmots and Pikas (Lagomys) ; among Plantigrades,
the Bears proper (Ursus). In the middle region, true Bovines (Bos)
take the place of the Bisons of the upper region; Caprine Antelopes
(Nemorhedus, Kemas) replace its Musks and Wild Goats and Sheep ;
common Rats, and Mice, and Hares, and Porcupines, and Hedge-
hogs, its Marmots and Pikas; and Sun Bears (Helarctos) its true
Bears ; whilst the Deer family, unknown to the upper region, is here

* This is about the average height of the ghats and of the perpetual snow. It
is also nearly the limit of possible investigation, and of the existence of organic
phenomena.

+ For these tribes see Journ. As. Soc. Beng. for December 1847, and April and
June 1848, and May 1849.

168 Zoological Society :— boH aM

represented only* by the anomalous Stilt-horns (S¢y/ocerus).) Tn
the lower region, the Ox family is represented by Bibos and Bu-
balus (splendid wild types); the Deer family, here abundant, by
Rusas, Stags, Axises, and Stilt-horns to boot; the Antelopes by
Tetracerus, or the four-horned kind; the Rodents, by the Bambi
Rats (Rhizomys) and Spiny Hares (Caprolagus) ; and the Bear
family by the Honey Bears (Me/wrsus) ; add to all whieh, that to
this region are exclusively confined all the large Pachyderms, such
as the Elephant and Rhinoceros; and the Monkeys also (Semno-
pithecus et Macacus), though not so exclusively in their case. The
Carnivora, again, are represented in the upper region by Ounces, by
Foxes of a large sort (J’. montanus), by the Weasels proper, and by
the Ailuri or Cat Lories; in the middle region, by the Wild Dogs
(Cuon), the Marten Weasels, Leopards, Thick-tailed Leopards
(FP. Macrosceloides, Wodgs.), Wild Cats (. Murmensis, Pardo-
chrous Oygilbii), Libyan Lynxes (Iibycus), Zibets, Screw-tails
(Paradowxurus), and Prionodons ; and in the lower region by Tigers,
Leopards, Hyzenas, Wolves, Jackals+, insectivorous Foxes (Kokri),
Bear-badgers (Ursitaxrus), Urvas, Mangooses, Helictes or Oriental
Gluttons, small Civets (Viverrula), hirsute Screw-tails, and sharp-
faced Cats (Celidogaster). Zibets recur in this region but rarely,
and one small species of Mangoose is found in special spots of the
central region. The Otters in the upper region are represented by
the small golden and brown species (1. aurobrunnea) ; in the central,
by L. monticola and indigitata; in the lower, by the large Chinese
species L. Sinensis, Among the Squirrels, the great thick-tailed
and purple species (S. macruroides et purpureus) belong solely to
the lower region; the small Lokries (8. Loria et Lokroides) to the
central, and the Siberian to the upper; whilst Flying Squirrels, a
numerous group, are confined to the central region, so far as appears.
In the Bat group, the Frugivorous species, or Pteropines, all are
limited to the lower region, whilst the Horse-shoes (Rhinolophine)
specially affect the central region.

“From the class of Birds we may select as characteristic of the
three regions the following :-—

“The True Pheasants (Phasianus), the Tetraogalli, the Sanguine
Pheasants (Ithaginis), the Horned and the Crested Pheasants (Cert-
ornis, Lophophorus) of the upper region, are replaced by Fowl Phea-
sants ( Gallophasis)t in the mid-region, and by Fowls proper (Gallus)

* I am fully aware that Rusas (Samber) are found in the western hills, but 2
careful consideration of the facts in that part of the Himalaya, with due advert-
ence to the known habits of the group, satisfies me that these Deer have been
driven into the western hills by the clearance of the Tarai and Bhaver.

+ Jackals have made their way (like crows) to the most populous spots of the
central region, but they are not proper to the region, nor Indian Foxes, though
some of the latter turned out by me in 1827 in the great valley of Nepal, have
multiplied and settled their race there. Ex his disce alia.

t The influence of longitude on geographic distribution might be singularly
illustrated, did space permit, from numerous Himélayan groups, Galline and
others: thus, for example, a black-breasted Ceriornis is never seen east of the
Kali, nor a red-breasted one west of it. So of the black and white erested Gal-
lophases; whilst a black-backed one is never seen west of the Aran, nor a white
hack east of it.

~

Mr. Hodgson on the Mammalia and Birds of the Himalaya. 169

in the lower. In like manner, among the Partridges (Perdicine),
the Grouse Partridges (Tetraoperdix) belong exclusively to the upper
region ; the Chukdrs (Caccadis) and the Tree Partridges (Arboricola)
to the central; and the Francolines (/’rancolinus) to the lower,
though the black species of this last form are also found in the mid-
region. In the Pigeon group, the Blanched Pigeons (€. leuconota)
belong solely to the upper region ; the Vinous Pigeons (C. Hodgson‘)
to the central, and the Green, the Golden, and the Banded (Teron,
Chaleophaps, Macropygia), as entirely to the lower; the Trerons
alone partially entering the central tract from the lower.

“<The splendid Edolian Shrikes (Chibia, Chaptia, Edolius) belong
exclusively to the lower region. They are replaced in the central
tract by plain Dicrurines, and in the upper by plainer Lanians. The
Cotton Birds (Campephaga) of the south are replaced by gaudy
Ampelines (Cochoa) and Leiothricinians (Leiothriz, Pteruthius,
Cutia) m the middle region: but both groups seem excluded from
the north. Among the Fly-catchers the gaudy or remarkable
species and forms belong wholly or chiefly to the lower region, as
Tchitrea, Rhipidura, Cryptolopha, Myiagra, Hemichelidon, Chelid-
orynx ; whilst those which approach the Warblers (Niltava, Siphia,
Digenea) belong to the mid-region ; and the plainer and more Euro-
pean types are alone found in the northern.

“Among the Fissirostres, Goat-suckers and Swallows are pretty
generally distributed; but Rollers, Bee-eaters, Eurylaimi, Trogons,
and all such gaudy types, belong to the south, with only occasional
alpine representatives, as Bucia is of Merops. The 'Tenuirostral
birds belong distinctively to the lower region. Yet they have repre-
sentatives or summer visitants in all three, even among the Sun-
birds. Upon the whole, however, it may be safely said that the
Sun-birds (Nectarinia) belong to the south; the Honey-suckers
(Meliphagide) to the centre and south; and the Creepers, Nut-
hatches and Wrens*, to the north and centre. The Sylvians or
Warblers are too ubiquitarian, or too migratory for our present pur-
pose, even Boreal types being common in the lower in the cold
weather. Uorn-bills, Barbets, Parroquets (Paleornis, Psittacula)
belong to the lower region, though they have a few representatives
in the central; none in the upper. Woodpeckers abound in the
lower and central regions, but are rare in the upper. True Cuckoos
( Cueulus) are as common and numerous in the central region as Walk-
ing Cuckoos (Phenicophaus, Centropus), &e. are in the southern,
where also the Golden (Chrysococcyx) and Dicrurine Cuckoos ( Pseud-
ornis) have their sole abode, whilst what few of the group belong to the
upper region, are all allied to the European type. The Rayens, Pies,
Choughs, Nut-crackers and Conostomes of the upper region are re-
placed in the central region by Tree Pies (Cissa, Dendrocitta), Jays,
Rocket-birds (Psi/orhinus), Pie Thrushes (Garrulax), Timalias, and

* | have in this paper followed, without entirely approving, Mr. G. R. Gray’s
classification of my collections in the printed Catalogue of the British Museum.
The geographic distribution is now attempted for the first time. But I will recur
to the subject in a separate paper devoted to it.

170 Zoological Society :— ace seentiaed

Hoopoe Thrushes (Pomatorhinus) ; and in the lower region, by the
common Indian Crows (C. cu/minatus et splendens), Grackles*, Stares,
Vagabond Pies and Dirt-birds (Malacocereus). 'Thrushes proper
with Rock Thrushes, Ousels, Myophones, Zootheres, Tesias and
Hypsipetes are as abundant in the central and upper region as
Bulbuls, Orioles, Pittas, are in the central and lower.

“In the Finch family, the Haw-finches, Bull-finches, Gold-finches,
and Cross-bills (Zowia) are as strictly confined to the wpper regions
as are the corvine Conostomes, Nut-crackers, Choughs and Ravens.
The former are replaced in the central region by the Buntings,
Wood-finches (Montifringilla), and Siskins; and in the lower
region by the Weavers and Minias. The Raptorial birds are, in
general, too cosmopolitan to subserve the purposes of geographic
distribution. Still it may be remarked that the True Eagles belong,
quoad breeding at least, to the upper region; the Crested Eagles
(Circaétus), the Neopuses and Hawk Eagles (Spizaétus) to the
central; and the Pernes (Haliaétus et Pandion) and Haliasturs to
the lower. Among the Vultures the distinction is more marked:
for the Eagle Vultures (Gypaétus) belong exclusively to the upper
region; the large European Vultures ( fulvus et cinereus) to the
central ; and the Neophrons and the small Indian Vultures (Ben-
galensis et tenuirostris) to the lower. The Himdlaya abounds in
Falconide, all the occidental types and species being found there,
and many more peculiar and oriental ones; and it deserves special
remark, that whereas the former (Imperialis, Chrysaétos, Lanarius,
Perrgrinus, Palumbarius, Nisus, &c.) affect the wpper and eentral
regions, the oriental types (Hypotriorchis, Haliastur, Hieraz,
Hyptiopus, Elanus, Poliornis) are quite confined to the lower
region.

“Those perfect cosmopolitans the Waders and Swimmers, migrate
regularly in April and October, between the plains of India and Tibet,
and, in general, may be said to be wanting in the mountains, though
most abundant in the Tarai. The great Herons (nodilis et cinereus),
the great Storks (nigra et purpurea) and great Cranes (the Cyrus
and Damoiselle) of the Tarai are never seen in the mountains, where
the Egrets alone represent the first group. But the soft-billed
smaller Waders (Scolopacide) are sufficiently common in the moun-
tains, in which the Woodcock abounds, breeding in the upper region
and frequenting the central, and rarely the lower region, from
October till April. Geese, Ducks and Teals swarm in the Tarai,
where every occidental type (so to speak, for they are ubiquitous)
may be seen from October till April; and many oriental non-migra-
tory types; whereas in the mountains the Mergansers (orientalis)
and the Cormorants (sinensis et pygmaeus) only are found, and that
very scantily, with a few Rails and Gallinules and Sandpipers from
the vast host of the Waders.”

* When Darjeeling was established there was not a Crow or Pastor to be seen.
Now there are a few Crows, but no Pastors. Enormously abundant as both are in
the lower region, this sufficiently proves that they are not native to the central
tract, though common in the great valley of Nepal. r

Indian impressions regarding the Habits of certain Animals. 171

ON NATIVE IMPRESSIONS REGARDING THE Natura History
OF CERTAIN {INpDIAN] ANIMats.
By H. Torrens, Esa., B.A., V.P. As. Soc. Bencau*.

.The singular impressions current among natives even of the
highest rank, as to the habits and nature of certain animals, are not
undeserving of record. It is rarely that the credence of the nar-
rators in these things can be elicited, if even they go so far as to
mention the existence of the belief; for they dread the ridicule as
much as they anticipate the incredulity of a European: consequently
these strange stories are but imperfectly known, even to the best
informed among us in such legends. I mention one or two, with the
circumstances of my acquaintance with them.

While out tiger-shooting with a party of Musulman gentlemen, I
was asked, in a confidential way, whether I had ever seen the
Phnew: 1 spell the word with the almost undescribable nasal aspi-
rate with which it was invariably pronounced to me. With an air
of graye and serious interest, which is the best way of inspiring
confidence, I replied, that the nature of the thing or being was
unknown to me, and I requested information on the subject. On
this there was a little hesitation, when, after a time, it was explained,
that as I had seen more of Tigers than my companions, they fancied
I might have also seen or heard something of the animal that always
preceded the Tiger, called Phnew, from the ceaseless iteration of a
sound similar to its name. I required further enlightenment as to
this creature, when I found it was a “something that preceded the
Tiger by six cubits, wherever he went, making the noise ‘phnew’
without end, looking for things for it.’ The old tales of “ the
Lion and his provider” recurred to me at once, and I bethought me
of the hospitality of some cat-like sound of Felis Tigris having led,
during his nightly search for prey, to the creation of the story. I
have done all I could, but in vain, to discover whether there were
real grounds for the-belief, based on such a habit of the animal. I
killed several Tigers in company with my friends afterwards, but
though we found no Phnew with any of them, the silent faith of my
believers in the marvellous has remained unshaken as to the existence
of the mysterious animal. I subsequently learned that there is in
Bengal a like belief respecting it among the Hindus, who term the
creature Ghigt.

There are few Englishmen in India who have not perhaps heard
seme of the strange tales related by the natives regarding Serpents.
The most remarkable to me has always been the belief in the Raj
Samp, or King-snake, who is represented as belonging to a superior
order of Serpent, as exacting homage and obedience from his ophite
subjects, and sometimes, as appearing with the semblance of a crown,
the type of his authority. I was one day in company with a number

* Extracted from the Journal As. Soc. Bengal for 1849. By Frederic Moore.
f According to Babu Rajendralal Mittra, the Hindus distinguish the Ghog as a
different animal from the P’heu.—Edw. Blyth, Esq.

172 Zoological Society :—

of native gentlemen, when the conversation turned upon the nature of
antidotes in the case of Snake-bites, the belief as to the eure effected by
applying to the wound the head of the identical reptile that had in-
flicted it, the charms powerful to compel the Snake to appear, —as to
all which matters I have never been able to obtain, amid many tales,
any relator daring enough to declare himself an eye-witness of the
marvels he recounted. At last, mention being made of the King-
snake, a party present said—“ At any rate I can assure you of the
existence of Arm, for it is well known that I have seen,” and the story, to
the following effect, was then told. The narrator, being at that time,
he said, about fourteen years old, had run hastily to the terraced roof
of a ground-floor house to recover his kite, when his attention was
attracted by a large Goomna (Cobra capello) which, without perceiving
him, raised itself with dilated hood in the erect attitude common with
those Snakes, and uttered loud cry. Immediately some ten or twelve
Snakes appeared from different quarters, and assembled before their
king, when, after a short time, he pounced upon and devoured one of
the smaller ones, with which arbitrary assertion of regal power the con-
vocation terminated. Now the narrator of this tale had no interest
in attempting to mislead me; he had mentioned what he stated again
and again to the majority of persons present for years before I ever saw
him, and he is naturally of intelligence, and in no sort the man to tell a
useless falsehood. It is, I was then informed, by these sort of assem-
blages that the King-snake asserts his power, and that his subjects
are called to them for the purpose of bringing tribute, in the shape of
dainties for the royal palate; should, however, no tributary Fro
or Cat, or bird be forthcoming, or should even the offering amine
be insufficient, one of the luckless ophids pays in person the penalty
of the omission, even as had been witnessed by my informant. I
ventured with respect to his story to object, in as delicate a way as
I could, to the incident of the ery uttered by the King-snake, but
in this I was immediately over-ridden. The ery of the large Goomna
was well known in the ruinous city where we were, and in which
they abound, and it was described to me as a strident sound, the
attempted imitation of which resembled the acute staccato note of
a treble hautboy. I heard this sound myself subsequently during a
sleepless night, emitted by a large Snake which killed a Rat in my
bed-room ; as it was pitch dark, I was unable to rise and destroy the
intruder, but the sound was too peculiar not to have been that of the
ophid, according as it did with the description given me, and bein
unlike anything I ever heard before, as also contrasting distinctly
and remarkably with the cries of its victim. I have noted down
these trivial, but not incurious niatters, as an inducement to the
record of more valuable facts as to the opinions held by natives upon
the habits of animals, whence perhaps some really useful information
may be elicited.

Note by Mr. Buytu.

The Snake which I have had invariably pointed out to me as the
Raj Samp by natives of Bengal, is Bungarus annularis, which

Mr. J. Gould on some new species of Birds. 173

habitually preys upon other Snakes, and is currently said to be a
deadly enemy of the Cobra. I have taken a T'ropidonatus umbratus
about two-thirds the length of its devourer from the stomach of this
species. Another ophiophagous species with the Cobra hood is
Hamadryas hannah of Cantor, or Maia vettata of Elliot, a spe-
cimen of which, 9 feet long, I obtained in the Midnapore jungle.

Mr. Layard some time ago informed me of a popular notion
among the natives of Ceylon respecting a “horn” which is said
to grow sometimes, but very rarely, on the forehead of the Jackal ;
and this horn is regarded by them as a specific of innumerable
virtues. Strange to say, the same notion is equally current among
the natives of Bengal, who believe that it ensures the prosperity of
its possessor, and success in every undertaking.

July 24, 1855.—Professor Tennant, F.G.S., in the Chair.

On some New Species or Brrps COLLECTED BY Mr.
M‘Gituivray. By Joun Goucp, F.R.S. etc.

In exhibiting a portion of the first collection of birds which has
been sent to this country by Mr. John M‘Gillivray, the naturalist
attached to H. M. surveying ship ‘ Herald,’ Captain Denham, I have
to remark, that it comprises several species of especial interest,
particularly some obtained on the Isle of Pines, and on Lord
Howe’s Island. It also comprises a new form among the Tur-
dide or Thrushes, from that isolated spot the island of Tristan
d’Acunha, which presents a union of the characters of the genera
Turdus, Chameza and Oreocincla. This new bird I propose to
characterize under the generic and specific appellations of Nesocichla
eremita. Among the birds from Lord Howe’s Island is a singular
species of Merula or Blackbird, nearly allied in form to, but ver
different in colour from, the Merula nestor of Norfolk Island; to
this species the specific name of vinitincta is assigned. From the
same island are two distinct species of Zosterops, entirely new to
science. ‘They differ from any other species of the genus which has
come under my notice, one of them being a very large bird for a
Zosterops, and the other a much smaller species, being nearly allied
to, but distinct from, the Australian Zosterops dorsalis: to these
two species I give the names of Z. strenuus and Z. tephropleurus,
A beautiful Parrakeet from Cape York, nearly allied to Platycer-
cus palliceps, 1 propose to name Platycercus cyanogenys. Among
the birds from the Isle of Pines is a very beautiful Pigeon, apper-
taining to the genus Ptilinopus. This bird, with several others
of eyen greater interest, I propose to make the subjects of a second
paper.

Genus Nesocicu.a.

Bill strong, more powerful than in the genus Turdus; gonys
nearly straight, with a small notch near the tip in the upper man-
dible ; culmen gradually descending from the base; nostrils seated
in an oval depression at the base ofthe upper mandible ; wings short,

174 | Zoological Society :— Un

somewhat concave ; first primary very small; the third, fourth ‘and
fifth equal and the longest ; tail rather shorter than in Turdus, and
the feathers rather pointed ; tarsi very strong, toes strong and much
lengthened, particularly the hinder one; front of the tarsi sentel-.
lated ; under part entire. ;

This form differs from all others in the great family of the,
Thrushes, and appears to partake of the characters of the genera
Turdus, Chameza, and Oreocincla.

NESOCICHLA EREMITA.

Head and all the upper surface, wings and tail dark sandy-brown,
with a darker shade in the centre of each feather, but the primaries
have paler edges, and the greater coverts and secondaries are tipped
with sandy buff; lores and cheeks rufous ; feathers of the under
surface deep buff at the base, with a lengthened pear-shaped mark
of brown down the apex of each feather, these marks being so large
and thickly placed as to give the whole a mottley appearance ; on
the throat these marks somewhat resemble strize ; thighs buff; bill
black ; tarsi reddish-brown, toes darker.

Total length, 83 inches; bill, 11; wing, 3%; tail, 3; tarsi, 1}.

Hab. The island of Tristan d’Acunha.

Remark.—tThis bird is about the size of the common Song- thrush,
Turdus musicus, and similar to it in appearance ; on examination,
however, it will be found to differ very considerably in structure. |

MERULA VINITINCTA.

The male has the head and nape blackish-brown, upper surface’
and wing-coverts reddish-brown ; wings brown margined with oliva-
ceous ; tail brown ; throat dark bluish grey ; under surface vinaceous
red; bill bright gamboge-yellow; eye-lash yellow; tarsi and toes
yellow.

* Total length, 8 inches; bill, 1; wing, 42; tail, 3g; tarsi, 14.

The female is very similar, but is of a somewhat paler tint, and.
has only a trace of the black hood of the male.

Hab. Lord Howe’s Island.

Remark, Of the same form, and somewhat allied to the Merula
nestor of the Norfolk Island.

ZOSTEROPS TEPHROPLEURUS.

Head and upper surface bright olive-green, with a wash of grey
across the shoulders; wings and tail slaty brown, margined with
olive-green ; throat dull yellow; around the eyes a circle of white
feathers, below which is a mark of black; under surface pale vina-
ceous brown, becoming gradually paler on the lower part of the ab-~
domen, and passing into the pale yellow of the under tail-coverts.

Total length, 43 inches; bill, $; wing, 23; tail, 22; tarsi 2.

Hab. Lord Howe’s Island.

Remark. This species is allied to Z. dorsalis, but is of a some-.
what larger size, and is less richly coloured on the flanks.

Lieut. Burgess on the Birds of Western India. 175

ZOSTEROPS STRENUUS.

Head and upper surface bright olive-green, with a wash of dark
grey across the shoulders ; wings and tail slaty-brown, margined with
greenish olive ; eyes surrounded by the usual ring of white feathers,
beneath which is a narrow line of black ; chin and throat yellow ;
flanks pale vinaceous ; centre of the abdomen nearly white ; under
tail-coverts pale yellow ; bill and feet bluish black.

Total length, 53 inches; bill, 1; wing, 23; tail, 2}; tarsi,

Hab. Lord Howe’s Island.

This is by far the largest species of the genus yet discovered.

na
°

PLATYCERCUS CYANOGENYS.

Crown of the head pale sulphur-yellow ; cheeks ceerulean blue ;
feathers of the nape, back and scapularies black, broadly margined
with sulphur-yellow, stained with green on the lower part of the
back; rump and upper tail-coverts greenish yellow, with an ex-
tremely narrow fringe of black at the tip of the feathers ; shoulder
and greater wing-coverts deep blue; lesser coverts black, bordered
with deep blue ; primaries and secondaries blackish brown, the basal
half of their external webs deep blue, the apical half pale blue ;
tertiaries black, broadly margined with greenish yellow ; breast pale
greenish yellow, abdomen light greenish blue ; all the feathers of the
under surface slightly fringed with black ; under tail-coverts scarlet,
narrowly margined with yellow; two middle tail-feathers greenish
blue ; the next on each side blue, slightly tipped with pale blue; the
remainder blackish brown at the base of their imternal webs, and
deep blue externally ; their apical portions being beautiful pale blue.

Total length, 13 inches; wing, 6;; tail, 7; tarsi, 4.

Hab, Cape York, north-east coast of Australia.

Remark. This species offers a very close alliance to Platycercus
palliceps, but differs in having no trace of searlet on the forehead, in
the green tinge of the borderings of the feathers of the back, in the
greenish yellow of the breast, and in having the cheeks blue instead
of light yellow.

Nores on THE Nests AND Ecos or THE Birps or WESTERN
Inp1A.—Part XI. By Lieut. Burcess.

Family CoLyMBID.

Genus Popiceprs.
PopDICEPS PHILIPPENSIS.

I believe the egg sent with this paper to be that of the Grebe. It
was taken from the nest with several others in the month of August.
The nests were composed of rotten reeds and grass, fastened between
tall reeds* ; each nest contained about eight eggs, 1 inch and nearly

_ * The eggs were carefully covered over, and the heat arising from the nest was
most perceptible : the eggs appear to be hatched by the heat arising from the de-
caying vegetable matter.

76 Zoological Society :—

5 ths in length, by 1 inch in width. Some of the eggs were nearly

10
white, others much discoloured.

Family PELECANID2. Subfamily Larip#,
Genus STERNA.
Subgenus SrerNa.

STERNA MELANOGASTER (Temm.). BLAck-BELLIED TERN,

I found this Tern common on the river Bheena, and was fortunate
enough to obtain an egg. Ona second occasion, when walking on a
sand-bank in the midst of the river where I obtained the first egg, I
was beset by a pair of these Terns, and on looking about on the
ground, found two eggs deposited in a slight hollow scraped in the
moist sand, not far from the brink of the water. These birds, when
flying overhead, utter a cry very like the chirp of a Sparrow. One
could easily distinguish the different kinds of Terns by their varied
notes.

The Black-bellied Tern breeds during the months of March and
April, laying two eggs. The egg measures 1 inch and rather more

[ole]

than ,2,ths in length, by 1 inch in width. It is of a rich stone-colour,
spotted chiefly round the centre, and more sparingly over the large

end with grey and light brown spots.

Subgenus Ruyncuors.
RHYNCHOPS NIGRA.

This large species of Tern I found most abundant on the river
Bheena, and had ample opportunities of studying its habits. On a
large sand-bank in that river I found that a large colony had esta-
blished themselves, and found young birds able to fly, nestlings and
eggs. The appearance of these birds is attractive, their long
orange razor-like beak, long wings, and curious skimming flight,
ever and anon dipping their lower mandible under water, their odd
shuffling gait when walking on the sand, as if they scarcely knew
what to do with their beak, and apparent difficulty in arranging
their long swift-like wings, their curious chattering notes when they
assemble on some spit of sand at the water’s edge,—all these points
attract any one fond of natural history.

I first noticed these birds on a mud-bank in the river in the month
of January. On visiting the same place in April, I found them on
a sand-bank higher up, and suspecting this to be their breeding-
time, was conveyed over the water to the bank. On reaching it and
narrowly inspecting the ground, I found the remains of broken egg-
shells ; after a further search, I was rewarded by finding four or
five nests, also the nest of a Little Ringed Plover and Black-bellied
Tern. The Rhynchops lays four eggs in a hole scraped in the
damp sand and gravel. Those which I found were mostly near the
water’s edge. In some nests I found young ones, and procured one

young bird that was able to fly very fairly. Any one at all accus-

tomed to the habits of birds might have told that they were nesting

Dr. E. Crisp on the Anatomy of the Tasmanian Wolf. 177

by their restlessness, and the vicious way in which they attacked all in-
truders. I saw them buffet a large Plover that pitched on the bank,
and boldly attack those insatiable pilferers of nests, the Crows. The
very young birds, when first hatched, are covered with a whitey-
brown down, spotted with dark spots. The curious square end of
the beak is very marked. The legs and feet of a dirty greyish-brown.
The eggs are rather more than 1} inch in length, by | inch and
rather more than 5!,th in width, of a pale stone colour, spotted and
blotched with grey and two shades of brown.

. Lsubjoin. the description of a young bird that was able to fly,
probably about six weeks or two months old. The beak (after the
skin was dried) was of a dull brown tinged with orange; the under
mandible sharp, as in the old bird, but scarcely longer than the
upper. .| Feathers on the cheeks pale fawn colour, with a few dusky
spots, those on the forehead much the same, but the dusky spots
more visible; on the top of the head behind the eye, back of the
neck, the feathers are dull black, with pale ferruginous edges ; lower
part of the back of the neck whitish, with a broad brown bar, and
tipped. with pale ferruginous ; upper. tail-coverts, some dusky black,
with pale ferruginous edges, some ferruginous mottled with white ;
tail-feathers, lower portion white, upper- portion dusky, with a
marked border of pale ferruginous ; primaries: nearly black, with
pale tips ; smaller quill-feathers, lower portion dusky, upper nearly
white; secondaries much the same, the white being much clearer ;
greater coverts dusky, with whitish tips; tertials dusky, with pale
ferruginous edges; the lesser coverts the same ; chin, throat, breast
and belly, under tail-coverts white ; sides of the neck white, with a
few dusky spots; legs and feet dirty orange-brown. '

On some Points RELATING TO THE ANATOMY OF THE
TasMANIAN Wo tr (THYLACINUS) AND oF THE CAPE Hunrt-
ine Doc (Lycaon pictus). By Epwarps Crisp, M.D.

Before I proceed to the immediate object of my communication, I
may be excused, I trust, for alluding to a mode of investigation that
I have followed in all my dissections, viz. that of taking accurate
weights and measures of the body of the animal and of the viscera,
with drawings the size of life of the organs examined.

By this method, combined with the use of the microscope, I be-
lieve hereafter that much light will be thrown upon many physio-
logical subjects which are at present but imperfectly understood,
It is, however, only by comparison on a large scale that any import-
ant benefit is likely to result.

‘Tuytactnus CyNOCEPHALUS.

This animal (a male) died at the Society's Gardens, where it had
been for several years. I believe it is the only one that has been
dissected in this country. It weighed 33 lbs., and measured from
nose to root of tail 2 feet 93 inches. The tail, 15 inches. The penis
curved backwards. The cause of its death was unapparent. It was

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 12

178 Zoological Society :— YT Ad

excessively fat; the fat on its abdomen and other parts weighing
probably four or five pounds. The heart, long and pointed ; weight,
4 oz. 60 grs. The trachea of moderate size; the connecting mem-
brane at the posterior part very thick. The lungs trilobed ; weight,
4 oz. 304 grs. The liver composed of five main lobes ; weight, 14 oz.
The spleen long, thin and narrow, with a lateral tongue-like process
(as in nearly all of the Marsupiata) 4 from the upper end. Length
of spleen, 103 inches; its average breadth about an. inch; it was
seated along the left side of the stomach, imbedded in fat. The
kidney of a rounded form; weight, 1 oz. 167 grs. The alimentary
canal measured only 6 feet 6 inches. The stomach of moderate size ;
its coats very thick, and capable of great distension. The rugee of
the lining membrane large and prominent; the pyloric valye strong
and muscular; the length of empty stomach 8 inches; the duode-
num at its commencement studded with numerous bead-like pro-
cesses, which emerged into a portion of mucous membrane thickly
studded with villi about 3 lines in length, as represented in fig. 1.
These were continued for nearly four feet ; they resemble much the
rumen of the sheep or rein-deer. In the small intestines of the Rhi-
noceros, fig. 2, the villi are about 6 or 8 lines in length, but far less
numerous. ;

The cecum absent. The large intestine measured 12 inches; the
coats thick and the lining membrane plicated longitudinally, The
relative weight of the viscera as compared with that of the body is
about as follows :—Liver, ;!;; spleen, 3}; ; kidney, 745; heart, 745;
lungs, 45; the blood-corpuscles about 45 of an inch in diameter.

Fig. 2.

I have examined the two skeletons of the Thylacinus at the Mu-
seum of the College of Surgeons, a description of which is given by
Professor Owen in the new Osteological Catalogue (p. 347). The
teeth, 46 in number ; incisors, 8 above and 6 below; canines, 4;
molars, 28, 14 in cach jaw =46. Vertebree: cervical, 7; dorsal, 13;
lumbar, 5; sacral, 2; caudal, 23; ribs, 13.

The time does not allow me to dwell on many points of great in-
terest respecting the anatomy of this animal, but a comparison of the
structure of the Thylacinus with the Dog I am about to describe will
not be unprofitable, ;

Care Huxtine Doe (Lycaon rvictrus. S. Africa).
This animal died at the Society’s Gardens, where it remained for
some months previous to its death, a few days before which period

Dr. E. Crisp on the Anatomy of the Cape Hunting Dog. 179

‘it had several convulsive fits. I could not examine the brain; but
Mr. Ward, who stuffed the animal, told me that a large quantity of
serum escaped from the cranium, so that probably death was occa-
sioned by inflammation of the brain and effusion of fluid.

In Cuvier’s ‘ Animal Kingdom,’ 1849, by Carpenter, p. 91, is the
following note :—** This remarkable species is dog-like, but certainly
not a Canis; its form and colouring (and, there is reason to suspect,
its internal conformation) are rather those of a hyzena, and it is
known to copulate in the manner of those animals, and not in the
_ peculiar manner of the dogs and foxes. Even its dentition is the

same as that elsewhere found (with one other exception, Proteles)
throughout the group to which we conceive the hyzenas to belong,
the dental system of which latter appears to be modified in accord-
ance with their much increased and prodigious strength of the jaw.”

This dog weighed about 50 lbs.; it measured 3 feet 1 inch from
nose to root of tail; tail, 13 inches; height to the back behind neck,
2 feet 3 inches ; fore-leg, 164 inches; ribs, 13. ‘Teeth: incisors, 6
in each jaw, 12; canines, 4; molars, 10 above and 12 below, =38.
The age of the animal about 2} years. Heart of a rounded form ;
weight 8 oz.; the parietes of the left ventricle 10 lines in thickness, of
the right 3 lines ; the aorta of large calibre, and its coats thick. Lungs,
the right four-lobed, the left three- ; weight 26 oz. Trachea very large.
Liver seven-lobed ; weight 21 0z. Bile of a dark yellow colour. Gall-
bladder of moderate size. Spleen about 500 grs. in weight; long,
lax, thin and narrow, as in all the Carnaria. It was in the usual
situation in this order of animals, viz. on the left of the stomach, to
which it was attached by « wide mesenteric fold ; the splenic artery
and vein long; no valves in the latter. Pancreas small and elon-
gated. Kidney oblong, less concave on its inner side than usual.
The stomach of moderate size, and shaped like that of the dog;
length 12 inches ; this organ with the cesophagus measured 12 feet
6 inches ; the czecum, which was in 2} spiral folds like that of the
dog, when unfolded was 5 inches in length; the colon and rectum
1 foot 10 inches ; total, 14 feet 9 inches. The czecal valve strong
and distinct. The alimentary canal was too much decomposed to
allow of my making a microscopical examination of it, but its strue-
ture appeared to resemble that of the Dog.

The ribs of the Hyzena are 15 ; those of the Lycaon 13, as in the
Dog, Wolf and Fox. The teeth of the Hyzena, judging from two
skulls in the Museum of tlie College of Surgeons, are, 4 incisors above,
6 below, 10 molars above, 12 below, canines 4, =36. In the skull of
the Striped Hyzena 10 molars in each jaw (one specimen), and in
some fossil jaws of this animal the number of molars is less than
above quoted ; but much, of course, will depend upon the age of the
animal. In the Pointer, Blood-hound, Dingo, and other dogs, I
found 12 molars above and 14 below, the canines being 4 and the
incisors 12. The same with the Wolf and Fox.

The only record I can find of the dissection of a Hyzena is one fur-
nished me by Professor Quekett, and in this animal (30 years old)

12%

180 ’ Zoological Society.

the alimentary canal measured 39 feet 54 inches. The account is
copied from Professor Quekett’s notes. I was at first inclined to
suppose that the copyist had made some mistake, the length men-
tioned being very great for a carnivorous animal. Professor Quekett
suggested ‘that the large quantity of phosphate of lime taken by
the hyzena might explain the anomaly.”’

On referring, however, to the notes of my dissections of four dogs,
in which I carefully measured the alimentary canal of all, the above
statement does not appear to be so improbable :—

Small Terrier, alimentary canal 7 feet 4 inches.

Small Terrier (young), 7 feet.

Blood-hound, 21 feet ; including large intestines, 2 feet 2 inches.

Large Mastiff (old), weighing 104 lbs., 31 feet; including large
intestines, 3 feet.

Common Fox, 10 feet 6 inches.

Young Indian Wolf (four months old), 6 feet 1 inch.

So that, looking to the ribs, teeth, caecum, length of alimentary
canal, and general form of the viscera, this animal must be classed
with the Dogs, and not with the Hyzenas.

Additional Remarks on the Lycaon pictus.

After the death of the dog, the bitch which was with him became
restless, howled frequently, refused her food, and died July 13th, ten
days after.

I examined the body a few hours after death. She was about the
same size as the dog, and of the same age. She had probably lost
10 or 15 lbs. in weight. The body weighed 314 Ibs., and the sub-
joined is the relative weight of the viscera, fractions being omitted :-—

Heart, 7 02. 7.

Lungs, 24 oz. 3.

Liver, 18 oz. 3.

Spleen, 790 grs. 345.

Pancreas, 370 grs. <5:

Kidney, 1080 grs. 34-
Alimentary canal, 13 feet 6 inches.

The uterus resembled that of the bitch (C./familiaris) ; the vagina
9 inches in length, the cornua 6 inches each.

But one of the most interesting results of this dissection was the
examination of the blood-corpuscles ; these were larger than in any
carnivorous animal that I have dissected ; they measured, the greater
part of those examined, about the 3000th of an inch in diameter,
being larger than those of Man.

I may add, that I could not discover any morbid lesion in this
animal, and that I believe her death was occasioned by the loss of
her companion.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 181

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

May 8, 1856.—Colonel Madden, President, in the Chair.

me following papers were read :—

. “On the Sexuality of the Alge,” by Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, of
er

After adverting to the various recent discoveries in Cryptogamic
reproduction, particularly those of Thuret and Pringsheim, the author
gave an account of the pheenomena observed by him in Spheroplea
annulina. He showed that the cells of one part of the filament be-
came male, and exhibited antheridia filled with spermatozoa, while
those of the other part became female, being transformed into sporan-
gia, developing many spores. He then described minutely the mode
in which the spermatozoa came into contact with the female cells
and fertilized the spores. He also gave an account of the mode of
fecundation in the genus @dogonium.

** Having observed,” the author remarks, ‘in the lower plants the
necessity of the material and immediate contact and union of sper-
matozoa and eggs or spores ; the want of a peculiar membrane around
the latter before impregnation; the formation of this wall and the
multiplication of the developed cell as the immediate consequence of
fecundation, we may conclude that the same course of development
may also be followed in the reproduction of other organisms,—a con-
clusion which is entirely confirmed by the most recent observations
on the fecundation of animals.”

2. “On the Preparation of Sugar and Arrack from Palms in
Ceylon,” by Alexander Smith, M.D.

Three Palms yield sugar in Ceylon: Cocos nucifera, Borassus fla-
belliformis, and Cari -yota urens. From each of these the juice of the
flowering-stalk is collected, and from it sugar is regularly prepared ;
but it is from the Borassus that almost all the palm sugar is obtained.
It is from the sugar of the Cocos that arrack is made in Ceylon.

«

3. “On the occurrence of Scalariform Tissue in the Devonian
Strata of the South of Ireland,’ by Robert Harkness, F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Geology, Queen’s College, Cork.

The author, after noticing the occurrence of Cyclopteris hibernica
in the neighbourhood of Cork, remarked that in some of the higher
beds of the Devonians of the South of Ireland there had been found
great quantities of drifted vegetable matter in the form of more or
less perfect stems of trees, exhibiting in their interior a fibrous char-
coal-like substance, which when examined by the microscope presented
evident scalariform tissue, showing that the plants belonged to the
Fern alliance.

4. “Notice of some additions to the Cryptogamic Flora of Edin-
burgh,” by Mr. W. Nichol.

The author remarked that the presence of such plants as Leskia
subrufa, Trichostomum flewicaule, Ancectangium compactum, En-
calypta ciliata, Tortula tortuosa, Bryum Zierti, and Blindia acuta,

182 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

at Habbies How, indicates an approach to an alpine flora. Habbies
How is a narrow chasm running nearly east and west, bounded on

each side by precipitous rocks, which are seldom exposed to the rays
of the sun. It lies at the base of the northern slope of the highest
of the Pentlands (here attaining an altitude of about 1800 feet), and
it is on the rocks facing the north that the plants oceur.

Professor Balfour read a letter from Mr. Macmillan, in which he
stated that he had received a number of Lichens gathered on the
Cumbraes, among which were several very rare species, for which
no locality had previously been found in Scotland, they being
eminently southern species ; such as Parmelia tiliacea and corrugata,
and Opegrapha Lyellii and dendritica.

Mr. Macmillan remarks :—‘ I found in a wood immediately above
Tnver, near Dunkeld, an immense number of juniper bushes, the stems
and branches of which were profusely covered with magnificent speci-
mens of the Podisoma juniperi-communis, avery rare Hypodermous
fungus, previously found only, as far as I am aware, in one or two
stations in England. Last year, I observed beside the monument in
the grounds of Taymouth Castle, a very old juniper bush completely
covered with it. Ina fresh state, and particularly during damp or
rainy weather, it bears considerable resemblance to some species of
Clavaria; growing in the form of a bundle of thick gelatinous stems
of an orange colour, and tapering at one extremity—aggregated
fogether on the part of the branch infested, and completely envelop-
ing it—and thus giving it an appearance not unlike a pine-apple
witcn seen from a little distance. In an old state, and in hot weather,
however, it dries up and becomes hard and shrivelled.

June 12, 1856.—Prof. Balfour, V.P., in the Chair.
The following papers were read :—

1. “Elucidation of some Plants mentioned in Dr. Francis Hamil-
ton’s Account of the Kingdom of Nepal,” by Lieut.-Colonel Madden.
An attempt to determine several of the doubtful species.

**On the Duration of the Life of Plants,’’ by Prof. Fleming.

3. “Inquiry into the signs of current Electricity in Plants,’’ by
Hf. F. Baxter, Esq.

After alluding to the researches of Becquerel, Donné, Wartmann,
and Zantedeschi, the author proceeded to detail experiments made
on plants by means of the electrodes of a galvanometer. He exa-
mined the electric currents in the leaves, roots, flowers, fruits, and
Fhe and the following are the conclusions drawn :—

lst. That when the electrodes of a galvanometer are brought into
contact, one with the surface of the leaf, and the other with the
flowing from the same leaf, an effect occurs upon the needle indicating
the surface and the sap to be in opposite electric states. These effects
cannot be referred entirely to ordinary electro-chemical actions, but
inay be referred, in part, to the organic changes which take place in
the leaf during vegetation.

Miscellaneous. 183

2nd. When the electrodes are brought into contact, one with the
external surface of the spongioles of a plant, and the other with the
sap ascending from the root, the sap and the external surface are in
opposite electric states. The effects which are here observed with
the galvanometer may, in the majority of instances, be due to ordinary
electro-chemical actions ; but in some instances the effect cannot be
referred to these actions, but may be referred to the organic changes
which oceur in the roots during vegetation.

3rd. That with the petals of flowers slight currents were obtained ;
and,

4th. In fruits and tubers powerful currents may be occasionally
obtained ; but these effects are evidently secondary results, due to the
reaction of the different vegetable juices upon each other.

4. “Notice of some Additions to the Hepaticz of the neighbour-
hood of Edinburgh,”’ by John Lowe, Esq.

d. ‘Record of Localities for Rare Plants,’ by Prof. Balfour.

6. ‘Continuation of Account of some of the Contents of the
Museum at the Botanic Garden,” by Prof. Balfour.

7. ‘List of the Fibrous Plants of India,’’*communicated by Prof,
Balfour.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the probable Origin of the Organized Beings now living in the
Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries. By M. Oswatp Herr.
In a letter to M. A. DeECANDOLLE.

In your Geography of Plants you have adopted the opinion of
Edward Forbes, that in the miocene period the European continent ex-
tended to the Azores and Canaries, and supported it by fresh proofs*.
In fact, the predominant European character of these islands, which
occurs in their insects as well as in their flora, proves that they were
anciently joined to the continent. Nevertheless we must not forget
that, as compared with Europe, these islands are very different from
those of the Mediterranean. They are distinguished in the first
place by a much greater number of peculiar species, which constitute
a third or a fifth of the plants; and in the second by some American
types, which make their appearance in all these islands. These are
not only certain American species which might have reached them
accidentally by the agency of the winds and currents, or of man, but
American genera which are represented by peculiar species. I will
instance the genera Clethra, Bystropogon, and Cedronella, as also
the unique pine of the Canaries (Pinus canariensis, Sm.), which
belongs to the American forms with acicular ternate leaves. The
relations of the Laurels is very remarkable in this respect; they form
a great part of the forests of Madeira and the Canaries, dividing into
four species and playing an important part. Two species (Oreo-

* DeCandolle, Géographie Botanique raisonnée, p. 1310.

184 Miscellaneous.

daphne fatens and Persea indica) are essentially American types ;
the third (Phebe Barbusana, Webb) belongs to a genus which oecurs
in India and America; and the fourth (Laurus canariensis, Webb)
corresponds with the European species. By the possession of these
laurel forests the islands of the Atlantic differ greatly from the African
continent, where they are entirely wanting, and approach America
rather than Africa, notwithstanding the proximity of the latter.

These facts obtain great importance by the observation that the
flora of the Atlantic islands has much resemblance to the Tertiary
flora of Europe.

In my ‘Flora Tertiaria Helvetize,’ I have proved that a considerable
number of plants of the Tertiary epoch corresponded with species
peculiar to Madeira and the Canaries, in such a manner that there
must be a relation between the two floras. On the other hand, our
Tertiary flora indicates a great resemblance to the flora of the
southern United States. Many perfectly characteristic genera, such
as Taxodium, Sequoia, Liquidambar, Sabal, &c., were distributed over
the whole of our tertiary country, and composed partly of species
very closely allied to those which now grow in America; other genera
belong equally to America and Europe (such as Quercus, Corylus,
Populus, Acer, &c.), and occur in the European Tertiary epoch, com-
posed of species corresponding with the American forms.

We find similar cases amongst the terrestrial mollusca and insects,
although this is not so positive as with regard to plants.

These remarkable circumstances are explicable, if we suppose that
during the Tertiary epoch a terrestrial formation united the continents
of Europe and America, and that this surface was extended by some
projection to the Atlantic islands. A glance at the map of the depths
of the ocean by Maury, shows that the bottom of the Atlantic forms
a longitudinal valley, of which the deepest parts are between the
twentieth and fortieth degrees of north latitude, nearly at an equal
distance from Europe and Africa, but that on the two sides of this
deep valley there is a vast maritime plateau, which includes the At-
lantic islands, as well as the whole space between the European con-
tinent, Newfoundland, and Acadia. Beyond this space another long
valley, but of less depth, takes its rise, in a direction from south to
north-east between Madeira and the Azores; it loses itself close to
the coast of Oporto.

If we may attribute any importance to these very general data, we
must admit that during the miocene period the maritime plateau
above indicated was solid ground.

This country, this ancient Atlantis, would have had the same
plants as central miocene Europe, of which the remains are found in
the mollasse of Switzerland in such astonishing profusion, that I shall
be able to give descriptions and figures of about six hundred species in
my ‘ Flora Tertiaria.” On the coast of this country the marine shells
presented a great conformity in America and Europe; and this remark-
able phaenomenon is still reproduced, that Europe has more littoral
than deep-sea species of shells and fishes in common with America ;
which proves that at one period a band of firm ground must have

Miscellaneous. 185

united these two parts of the world. The Atlantic islands had already
risen towards the south coasts of this continent at the diluvian period.
That this country was at the bottom of the sea during the miocene
epoch, is shown by the fossil shells of Porto Santo and St. Vincent
in Madeira and those of the Azores; but that it had emerged at the
diluvian period is proved by the terrestrial mollusca of Canical, and
the fossil plants of St. Jorge in Madeira*.

The islands formed at this epoch would have received their vege-
tation from the Atlantis in the diluvian period, and consequently at
an epoch when this continent had entered upon a new phase of deve-
lopment. If we suppose, that then, by a subsequent depression of
the soil, the connexion with America was destroyed, and subsequently
that which existed with Europe, we shall obtain the elements for the
explanation of the existing flora of these islands. We there find the
remains of the flora of the ancient Atlantis, and in consequence many
types of the Tertiary flora are retained there whilst they have disap-
peared in Europe. These remains, with a certain number of other
species, form the peculiar plants of these isles, corresponding in part
with the American species because they have issued from the same
centre of formation. But it is with Europe that these islands have
the most species in common, probably because their connexion with
this continent lasted longer.

At tne diluvian period the flora of central Europe was displaced by
great changes of climate (extension of glaciers, &c.) ; and as by the
depression of the Atlantis the connexion with America was destroyed,
the new European vegetation could not extend on that side, but only
towards the east. It is thus that the characters of the new vegeta-
tion would be explained, particularly that of the lower countries, whilst
the Alps and the north have undergone less change. This also is
the reason of the great analogies which occur between the north of
Europe, Asia, and America. I arrive therefore at the same conclu-
sion with yourself as regards these latter countries, namely that the
alpine vegetation is certainly the most ancient in our country, and
that subsequently when the climate became warmer, after the glacial
epoch, it rose from the low countries to the mountains and Alps.—
Bibliotheque Univ. de Geneve, April 1856, p. 327.

Note on Clausilia plicatula and C. Mortilleti.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq.

Mr. Benson, in the last Number of the ‘Annals’ (p. 75), states
that I omitted Clausilia plicatula in my “ Notes on the Swiss Mol-
lusea,”’? as well as two other so-called species of Clausilia ; all of
which he had found in Switzerland. My reason for omitting C. pli-
catula was explained in the preface to my ‘‘ Notes,” in which I said
I was induced to think that a notice of “ some hitherto unrecorded
localities’? which occurred to me might be interesting, and that I
adopted Charpentier’s Catalogue as my text-book. By referring to
that catalogue it will be seen that Charpentier mentions C. plicatula

* See Heer, “‘ Ueber die fossilen Pflanzen von San Jorge in Madeira.”
Zurich, 1855.

186 Miscellaneous.

as “fort commune dans toute la Suisse occidentale.’ I found it at
Belmont, les Rochers Naye, Lausanne, Devens, Blonay, and Mont-
reux. For the same reason I omitted such common species as Sue-
cinea amphibia, Helix arbustorum and nemoralis, Pupa avena, Clau-
silia parvula, Cyclostoma elegans, and Ancylus fluviatilis.

C. plicatula is undoubtedly distinct from C. Rolphii ; but whether
C. Mortilleti is not a variety of C. Rolphii is another question.
Judging from a comparison of specimens of C. Mortilleti kindly sent
me by Mr. Prentice, with specimens of C. Rol/phii, deseribed and
figured by the authors of the ‘ British Mollusca,’ I am inclined to
think they ought to be united. Mr, Hanley is of the same opinion.
The differences pointed out by Mr. Benson are equally observable in
varieties of C. nigricans and C. bidens. However, Mr. Benson has had
great experience in the discrimination of species from varieties ; and
(as I remarked on a former occasion) naturalists may fairly differ on
this point.—J. Gwyn JEFFREYS.

1 Montagu Square, 11th July 1856.

LERN#A BRANCHIALIS.
To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Falmouth, June 28, 1856.

GENTLEMEN,—The “ Lernea branchialis,”’ Linn., was procured
this morning by Miss Vigurs from the gills of the Gadus Avglefinus,
It measured one inch and seven-eighths in length. The head was
ornamented with two transparent horns, about one-eighth of an inch
long, slightly curved and sharp at the pomts. Neck long; body
inflated, bent in the form of the letter S; filaments contracted,
annulated, very much contorted, transparent. Colour of head, neck
and body chocolate- brown.

I am, Gentlemen, yours truly,
W. P. Cocks.

On two new species of Birds from Santa Fé di Bogota.
By Puiiire Luriey Scrarer, M.A.,, F.Z.S,

HxrTEROCNEMIS MARGINATA, Sclater.

H. supra cinnamomeo-brunnea, pennis strictissime nigro mar-
ginatis: alis caudaque intus nigricantibus, externe brunnes-
centibus: subtus alba, gutturis et pectoris totius plumis stricte
brunneo marginatis, quasi squamatis; his marginibus versus
ventrem gradatim latioribus: ventre crissoque cinnamomeo-
brunneis, nigro transversim vittatis : rostro nigro, mandibula
inferiore basi alba ; pedibus pallide brunneis.

Long. tota 3°0; alee 2°2; caudee 1:2; rostri a fronte *5,

Mr. Strickland’s name JZolocnemis, proposed in 1844 for the

H. nevia (figured in Cont. to Orn. 1849, pl. 18), has been pre-
viously applied to a genus of Coleoptera by Schilling, and I there-

Miscellaneous. 187

fore propose to change it into LZeterocnemis. A second species of
the genus seems to be the bird figured in Buffon’s Pl. Enl. 73,
fig. 2, under the name of ‘Le Bambla de Cayenne.’—(Turdus
bambla, Bodd.— Heterocnemis bambla, mihi.)—The present bird is
very closely allied to the latter. In the upper plumage it is very
similar, being only of a more cinnamomeous tinge ; but it may be
distinguished by the want of the white markings on the wings, and
the throat, breast and upper belly beg white, each feather narrowly
margined with brown. In H. dambla these parts are ash-brown,
with obsolete transverse markings. Lesson’s Myrmothera troglo-
dytes (Desc. d. Mamm. et Ois. p. 301, no. 118) seems the same as
H. bambla. This form is indeed very closely connected with some
of the Wrens, and hardly to be separated from certain birds that are
usually placed in the genus Scytalopus.

ToODIROSTRUM GRACILIPES, Sclater.

T. supra olivaceum ; alis caudaque nigricantibus, olivaceo anguste
limbatis ; pileo fuscescente ; loris mentoque albidis ; subtus
flavum, lateribus olivascentibus ; gutture et pectore longitudi-
naliter nigro striatis ; tectricibus subalaribus sulphureis ; ros-
tro nigro ; pedibus carneis ; tarsis gracillimis.

Long. tota 3°8 ; alee 2:0; caudee 1°7.

This apparently new species is most nearly allied to 7. maculatum
(Desm.) and T’. striaticolle, Lafr. (in both of which the neck is also
striated), but has the whole throat yellow. The bill agrees in form
with that of the former bird, but is rather shorter and narrower.
The type specimen is in the British Museum.—Proc. Zool. Soc.
July 24, 1855.

ON THE BRITISH DIASTYLIDA,.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

8 Mulgrave Place, Plymouth, July 10, 1856.
GENTLEMEN,—It has recently been pointed out to me by Mr.
Alder that I have unfortunately made use of two generic names in
the paper on “the British Diastylide,’ lately published in the
‘Annals,’ that have been previously employed to designate other
genera of animals. It is therefore desirable that the names Malia
and Venilia should be changed, and I propose instead to use Iphinoé
and Cyrianassa respectively. The names as applied will therefore

be Iphinoé trispinosa and Cyrianassa gracilis.
Believe me, yours obediently,
C. Spence Bare.

Note on Helix Cantiana, Mont. By Wm. Lonspats, Esq., F.G.S.

* Helix Cantiana is abundant around Keynsham, Somerset. It
was first found in the spring of 1825, alive and near the entrance to
Dr. Fox’s establishment, between Keynsham and Brislington ; and
more recently in lanes close to the town.”

188 Miscellaneous.

Description of a Fossil Cranium of the Musk-buffalo (Bubalus mos-
chatus, Owen), from the Gravel at Maidenhead, Berks. By Prof.
Owen, F.G.S.

This specimen was discovered by the Rev. Mr. Kingsley and
Mr. J. Lubbock in a gravel-pit close to the engine-house at the
Maidenhead station last summer, and is the first example of the
subgenus Bubalus yet*recognized as fossil in Britain. It consists
of the cranial part of the skull, with the horn-cores, nearly perfect.
The Professor, in describing this fossil, first offered his reasons for
regarding the so-called ‘‘ Musk-ox”’ as having been unnecessarily
separated from the Buffaloes, and then gave an account of the few

fossil skulls of the Musk-buffalo yet known, viz. those figured by |

Pallas, Ozeretskowsky, and Cuvier. A comparison was then made
of the fossil remains with recent crania; and, although the skulls
somewhat differ in a few points, especially in the relative curvatures
of the horn-cores, yet the author was led to conclude that, as far as
the materials for comparison at his command would serve, the dif-
ferences between the fossil and recent Musk-buffaloes are not of
specific value; that the Bubalus moschatus of the Arctic regions,
with its now restricted range, is the slightly modified descendant of
the old companion of the Mammoth and the Tichorhine Rhinoceros,
which with them enjoyed a much wider range, both in latitude
and longitude, over lands that now form three divisions or con-
tinents of the northern hemisphere; and that the circumstances
which have brought about the probably gradual extinction of the
northern Rhinoceros and Elephant have not yet effected that of the

contemporary species of Arctic Buffalo. Proc. Geol. Soc. Dec. 19, |

1855.
A last word on Scissurella. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—I had not intended at first to notice the commu-
nication of Mr. Woodward in your last Number, entitled ‘On the
Evils of Increasing Synonyms ;” but, lest it may be assumed that I
admit his statements, I must request you to insert these few remarks.

The real question at issue, and the only one which in any way
concerns naturalists or the cause of science, is whether Schismope is
synonymous with Seissurella, or whether they constitute distinet
genera. Now, although Mr. Woodward modestly states that he
has shown they are synonymous and that the fact admitted of no
reply, I cannot help reminding your readers that Dr. Gray (who is
undeniably a much better authority than either Mr. Woodward or
myself) has expressed a contrary opinion, and that the respective
characters of those genera were taken from species which differ from
each other in form, organization, and habit. I have now before me
130 specimens of Scissurella crispata of different ages and sizes, all
of which exhibit the open slit.

As regards myself personally, 1 must repeat my regret that Mr,

a

#

Miscellaneous. 189

Woodward has thought proper to mistake and pervert what passed
between us, as it has nothing whatever to do with the present con-
troversy.

It is true that he asked me for specimens of the Schismope, and
that I referred him to Mr. Damon, who had all my collection of
Mediterranean shells, on his repaying me (by previous agreement)
the expenses I was at in dredging. But it is not true, that when I
took him specimens (which I had a day or two before picked out of
some sand), he put such an impertinent question to me as he suggests
my remembering.

It was on this occasion that we examined together under a micro-
scope these specimens (and not the specimens given to him by Mr.
Damon), and that he noticed the peculiar structure of the closed slit.
After we had consulted Philippi, and Sowerby’s ‘Genera’ (and zot
“at that time,” as Mr. Woodward would have me say), I went to the
British Museum Library and referred to Sowerby’s translation in
the Zoological Journal of D’Orbigny’s Memoir. The result of this
reference I gave in a former paper. ;

When I took Mr. Woodward the specimens, I certainly understood
him to say that he was unacquainted with any other species of Scis-
surella than S. crispata. It was some time afterwards that he
showed me Mr. M‘Andrew’s specimen of S. angu/ata, Lovén (a true
Scissurella and closely allied to S. crispata, but of a much larger
size) ; and I certainly never saw D’Orbigny’s specimen of 8S. Berthe-
loti in company with Mr. Woodward, nor heard him-say anything
about a New Zealand Scissurella. We examined together a collec-
tion of fossi/ shells (containing Pleurotomaria and Trochotoma) in
quite another part of the Museum ; and this he seems to have mis-
taken for the D’Orbignyan collection.

This explanation, however, cannot interest your readers; and I
will not trespass any more on their patience.

I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,

J. Gwyn JEFFREYS.
1 Montagu Square, 11th July 1856.

New Mode of Cleaning Diatomaceous Deposits.
By Prof. J. W. Battery.

Having found the following method of cleaning diatomaceous de-
posits more speedy and efficacious than any other I have tried, I
recommend it to all those who may have occasion to prepare speci-
mens of the si/iceous organisms in soundings, guano, mud, &e. Dis-
solve out the lime compounds, if present, by means of nitric or
hydrochloric acid, wash and filter. Then put the moist contents of
the filter into a porcelain capsule with enough strong sulphuric acid
to make of the whole a fluid mass. Heat the capsule over a spirit-
lamp until the organic matters are all charred, and continue the heat
until strong acid fumes areevolved. Keep the capsule hot, and add,

in minute portions at a time, finely powdered chlorate of potassa. If
the acid is hot enough to give off fumes, the chlorate will be im-
mediately decomposed without the accumulation of explosive gases,

190 Miscellaneous.

and it will exert so powerful an oxidizing action, that | in’ i
moments a carbonaceous material as black as ink will become’
fectly clean and colourless. Nothing now will remain to be’ cr
but to wash off the acid, which is best done by the addition of water
and repeated decantations. I also would advise that the materials
thus cleaned should not be dried, but should be kept in bottles with
a little aleohol, which prevents their felting together, and does not
allow the growth of the byssoid plants which often develope in water.
It is necessary to caution those not familiar with chemistry against
using the chlorate of potassa with sulphuric acid in any other way
than above directed, as violent and dangerots explosions might re-
sult. The process as above given is perfectly safe and very effective.
—NSilliman’s Journal, January 1856, p. 145.

New method of Disintegrating masses of Fossil Diatomacee.
By Prof. J. W. Batvey.

Many masses of fossil Diatomaceee are so strongly coherent, that they
cannot be diffused in water (for the purpose of mounting in balsam)
without a degree of mechanical violence which reduces to fragments
many of the most beautiful and interesting forms. This is partien-
larly the case with some specimens from the “ infusorial deposits” of
California. Some of these I endeavoured to break up, by boiling in
water and in acids, and also by repeated freezing and thawing when
moistened, but without good results in either case. At last it oe-
curred to me that the adherence might be due to a slight portion of
a siliceous cement, which the cautious use of an alkaline solution might
remove without destroying any but the most minute shells of the
Diatoms. As the case appeared a desperate one, a “‘ heroic remedy”
was applied, which was to boil small lumps of the diatomaceous mass
in a strong solution of caustic potassa or soda. ‘This proved to be
perfectly efficacious, as the masses under this treatment rapidly split
up along the planes of lamination, and then crumbled to mud, which
being immediately poured into a large quantity of water, ceased to
be acted upon by the alkali, and gave, when thoroughly washed, not
only all the large shells of the Diatoms in a state of unhoped-for
perfection, but also furnished abundance of the minute forms.
Having obtained by this method highly satisfactory results from
specimens from many localities, I can confidently recommend it as
an addition to our modes of research.

The following directions will enable any one to apply the process.
Put small lumps of the mass to be examined into a test tube, with
enough of a solution of caustic potassa or soda to cover them; then
boil over a spirit-lamp for a few seconds, or a few minutes, as the
case may require. If the solution is sufliciently strong, the masses
will rapidly crumble to mud, which must be poured at once into a
large quantity of water, which after subsidence is removed by decan-
tation. If the mass resists the action of the alkaline liquor a still
stronger solution should be tried, as while some specimens break u
instantly in a weak solution of alkali, others require that it should
be of the consistence of a dense syrup. The mud also should be

Meteorological Observations. 191

poured off as fast as it forms, so as to remain as short a time as
possible in the caustic ley.

The only specimens which I have found not to give good results
by the method above described, are those from Tampa Bay, Florida, and
the infusorial marls from Barbadoes. In the masses from Tampa
the lapidification is so complete, that the alkali destroys the shells
before the lumps break up; and in the case of the Barbadoes marls
the cementing material is calcareous, and requires a dilute acid for
its removal. In applying the above process one caution is necessary,
which is to thoroughly wash the shells with water, and not with
acids, as the latter will cause the deposit of a portion of the dissolved
silica and materially injure the beauty of the specimens. When the
washings are no longer alkaline, the specimens may be thoroughly
cleansed by acids, or by the chlorate process described above.—
—Silliman’s Journal, May 1856, p. 356.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JUNE 1856.

Chiswick.—June 1, Hazy: cloudy. 2,3. Very fine. * 4. Very fine: cloudy :
lightning at night. 5—7. Very fine. 8. Dull and cloudy. 9,10, Very fine.
11. Cloudless. 12. Very fine: rain at night. 13. Rain. 14, Showery and
boisterous. 15. Very fine: cloudy: clear and fine. 16. Very fine. 17. Showery.
18. Very fine : clondy: rain. 19. Rain. 20. Showery. 21. Very fine : cloudy:
rain. 22. Cloudy and fine. 23. Overcast. 24. Very fine: uniformly overcast.
25. Very fine. 26. Sultry. 27. Cloudless and hot. 28. Uniformly overcast :
sultry : cold at night: range of temperature 45°. 29, 30. Clear and dry air.

Mean temperature of the month .........s.-sssecersccerserscsese 58°65
Mean temperature of June 1855 ............00ese0e pains sian soo ns 57 *98
Mean temperature of June for the last thirty years ......... 60 *31
Average amount of rain in June ....e.sees eee {id . oalnok de eee» 1880 inch.

Boston.—June 1. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 2—6. Fine. 7. Cloudy. 8—
1]. Fine. 12. Cloudy: rainr.at. 13,14. Cloudy: rain a.M.and p.m. 15. Cloudy.
16. Fine. 17. Rain am. 18. Cloudy. 19. Cloudy: rain a.m. 20. Cloudy.
21. Fine: rainp.m. 22. Cloudy: raina.m.and p.m. 23,24. Cloudy. 25. Fine.
26. Cloudy: thermometer 86° p.m. 27. Fine: thunder p.m. 28. Cloudy. 29.
Fine. 30. Rain a.m. and p.m.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—June 1. Cloudy A.m.: drizzlep.m. 2. Drizzle a.m.:
bright p.m. 3. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 4. Cloudy a.m.: drops p.m. 5. Bright
a.M.: cloudy p.m. 6. Cloudy a.M.andp.m. 7. Rain a.m.: bright p.m. 8. Clear
A.M, and p.M. 9. Cloudy a.m.: drops, clear p.m. 10, Clear a.m.: showers P.M.
1]. Rain a.m. and p.m. 12,13. Bright a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m. :
sleet-showers p.M. 15. Clear a.m.: cloudy p.m. 16. Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m.
17. Showers a.m. and p.m. 18. Bright A.m.: showers p.m. 19. Rain a.m.:
bright p.a»r. 20. Cloudy a.m.: bright p.m. 21. Rain a.m.: bright p.m. 22.
Bright a.m. and p.m. 23. Clear A.m.: cloudy p.m. 24. Fog a.m.: drizzle p.m.
25. Hazy a.m.: damp p.m. 26. Drops a.m.: rain,cleare.M. 27. Bright a.m. :
damp p.M. 28. Daiup a.M.: showers p.M. 29, 30. Clear a,m.: cloudy p.m.

Mean temperature of June for previous twenty-nine years ... 52°76
Mean temperature of this month ......ceseneceseeeseees Pitot 51°47
Mean temperature of June 1855 — .....s.cscseceeccseceeseseeseenes 52 °23
Average quantity of rain in June for preyious sixteen years... 2°24 inches.

’

——— i

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wes

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

{SECOND SERIES. ]

No. 105. SEPTEMBER 1856.

XVIII.— Attempts at a Natural Arrangement of Birds.
By Atrrep R. WaLvace.

Ir we examine the varied form and structure of Birds with a
view to their natural arrangement, we see as it were intuitively,
that certain well-marked groups exist, which can be distinctly
separated from the class, can be easily defined, and will contain
species which are more nearly related to each other than to any
other birds. Such are the Swimmers and Waders, which together
may be called Water Birds, and of the propriety of the separation
of which from the whole of the Land birds there has never been
a difference of opinion among naturalists. Again, among land
birds the Accipitres or Raptores of naturalists, containing the
Hawks, Vultures, and Owls, form a well-marked group, all the
members of which are undeniably related among themselves,
but are separated as it were by a chasm from all other birds;
for we consider the supposed affinity of the Owls with the Goat-
suckers to be quite incorrect ; those birds resembling each other
only in a few unimportant particulars, while in all essential
points of structure they widely differ. A third group which can
also be readily distinguished and separated from the rest, is that
of the Rasores or Gallinacee. The Pigeons are generally i in-
cluded in this order; but in that case a definition of Gallinaceze
becomes impossible, as so many of their most marked pecu-
liarities do not exist in the Columbe. It is however extra-
ordinary, that though the Pigeons possess more characters which
connect them with Perching birds than with Rasores, yet it is
more easy to conceive their connexion by intermediate links with
the latter than with the former ; for it has never yet been pointed
out what particular family or genus of Perching birds makes the
least approach to a Pigeon. We therefore conceive that the
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvin. 13

——— Fy

194 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

Columbe should form a distinct order, and should be considered
as an abnormal and passerine development of Rasores, repre-
senting the Perchers, but having no direct affinity with them.

Having thus eliminated a considerable number of generally
large-sized birds, we have still remaining by far the larger por-
tion, forming the Passeres, Insessores, or Perching birds. Out
of about 7000 known birds, upwards of 5000 are Perchers. It
is to this great group, or rather to a limited portion of it, that
we intend to devote the present paper.

The Passerine order comprises at once the most perfect, the
most beautiful, and the most familiar of birds. The feathered
inhabitants of our fields, gardens, hedge-rows and houses belong
to it. They cheer us with their song, and delight us with their
varied colours. Their activity and elegant motions are constant
sources of pleasure to every lover of nature. They are the birds
with which from our infancy and boyhood we are most familiar,
and we therefore involuntarily derive from them that ideal or
typical form of animal life with which we connect the general
term, Bird. And thus doing, who can doubt but that we are
correct? The lightness, activity, elegant forms, brilliant colour
and harmonious voice by which birds as a whole are peculiarly
distinguished from all other animals, find in this group their
fullest expression and most complete development. Here too
the greatest variety of forms and habits is found, which are all
connected together by such insensible gradations, that to dis-
cover in eyery case their true affinities has ever been and still
remains one of the most difficult, and at the same time most
interesting problems the naturalist has to solve.

_ The writer of this paper has enjoyed the great privilege of
observing the habits of many tropical birds in a state of nature
in S. America, and is at present doing so in the Indian Islands.
Every naturalist knows how important this is towards a proper
appreciation of the affinities of Birds, to which their habits are
generally a sure guide, or at all events of much value in con-
junction with other structural characters. Without pretending
to any great knowledge of anatomy, he believes that no intel-
ligent person can be in the constant habit of skinning birds
without obtaining much information on very important parts of
their internal structure. Even mere external characters, such
as the texture and arrangement of the feathers, the form and
structure of the tarsi, the form of the nostrils and of the tongue,
can be examined far better in a recently killed bird than in:a
dried or mounted specimen. In the process of skinning we
also ascertain the thickness and tenacity of the skin, the solidity
of the bones, the form and strength of the skull, and the
texture and contents of the stomach, which characters are

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 195

perhaps, for the determination of affinities, of as much import-
ance as any which can be pointed out. Observations of this
nature have been applied by him to an arrangement of the
Passeres ; not as a perfect scheme, but as a starting-point to guide
future inquiries. One portion of this arrangement, with the
families included in which he is best acquainted, he now wishes
to submit to the judgment of ornithologists.

The method illustrated at the commencement of this paper, of
marking off certain groups from the general mass, has been
satisfactory, because the portions so severed have been not only
capable of definition, but have contained only species which have
agreed in all essential points of thei structure and ceconomy.
They have therefore met with general acceptance, and in all the
different systems of ornithologists these groups have scarcely
suffered any variation. But in attempting to carry out this
system in a further division of the Passeres, no such satis-
factory and generally accepted results have been produced. No
syste matist has been satisfied with the arrangements of his
predecessors, and, after an endless variety of divisions and sub-
divisions, we are as far off from any generally accepted system of
arrangement as ever.

The reason of this we conceive to be, that we have to deal
with a mass of species in which the series is so nearly complete,
that there are no more of those great chasms separating consi-
derable portions from each other, and that the affinities are so
intricate and minutely varied, and so cut up as it were by minor
gaps between genera and families, that any attempt to form
great and well-marked subdivisions must fail, for the simple
reason that such are not marked out by nature. In such a case
an arrangement may be possible, but a classification may not be
so. We must therefore give up altogether the principle of divi-
sion, and employ that of agglutination or juxtaposition. We
shall best explain our meaning by pointing out the errors we
conceive to have been produced by the former method in most
modern classifications.

The system of Cuvier, as modified by Vigors, Swainson, and
G. R. Gray, may be fairly taken as that most generally in use, at
least in this country. The tribes of the Conirostres, Dentirostres,
Fissirostres, Tenuirostres, and Scansores, are said to be the na-
tural divisions of the Passeres, the main difference of opinion
being as towhether the Scansores shouldor should notform a sepa-
rate order, a question we believe to be of no importance what-
ever. ‘These divisions being accepted, every bird is forced into
one of them, and the result has been the most incongruous and
unnatural combinations. For instance, in the Tenuirostres are
combined the Humming Birds and the Sun Birds (Nectarinia),
families which in a natural arrangement would have, in our opi-

13*

196 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

nion, the mass of the other Passeres intervening between them.
In the case of these two families, a mere outward resemblance
appears to have been universally mistaken for an affinity. A
similarity in size, in the prevalence of metallic colours, and in
the slenderness of a very variable bill, has been taken to over-
balance the most important structural differences. The universal
characteristics of the Hummers are, excessively long wings and
as excessively small feet, with more or less united toes. They
take their food exclusively on the wing. Every motion is made
upon the wing. The feet are solely used as means of support,
never for locomotion. The Sun Birds and their allies, the Care-
bide of America, have on the other hand long legs and toes,
the hinder toe especially being very long and powerful ; they are
therefore as capable of hopping and perching as any of the most
highly developed Passeres. Their wings, too, are short and round,
quite incapable of any powerful flight, and their tail almost in-
variably short and even. Much stress has been laid upon the
similar form and structure of the tongue. But the extensile
tubular tongue only exists in some genera (Anthreptes, Arachno-
thera), while in others it is short, flat, and not extensible (Diceum,
Cinnyris, Carebide). There is therefore no general agreement
of structure to unite these groups, except the solitary and
trivial one of an elongate and slender bill.

On similar principles, we believe the Conirostres and Denti-
rostres to be equally untenable and unnatural. They are pro-
fessedly founded on one character only, and not on general
structure ; and it is therefore not to be wondered at, that in their
attempts to pay some little regard to natural affinities, while
forcing the genera and families into these divisions, no two natu-
ralists should be able to arrive at the same results, The asso-
ciation of the Hornbills with the Crows, the separation of the
Larks from the Wagtails, and the necessity for putting Denti-
rostral birds (Tanagers and Jays) in the Conirostral tribe, are
some of the inconsistent results of the system.

The remaining groups, the Scansores and the Fissirostres, we
believe to be much more natural, and in fact to be the only ones
which can be distinctly separated from the Passeres, of which
they form an abnormal development. It is to the arrangement
of these two groups that we more particularly address our-
selves.

The Fissirostres are those passerine birds whose feet are
adapted solely for a state of rest,—all motion being performed
by the wings. With very rare exceptions, they never move the
shortest distance by means of their feet,—a character which di-
stinguishes them at once from all other Passeres, which either
hop, climb, or walk almost incessantly. Such a peculiar ceconomy
must evidently depend upon corresponding peculiarities of or-

a

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 197

ganization ; and it is a remarkable proof of how little importance
is the form of the bill alone as an index of affinity, that in this
highly natural group we find every form of bill,—conical,
toothed, hooked, serrated, spear-shaped, curved, and flat. The
external characters which distinguish these birds are, very short
and weak legs, long, or at all events powerful wings, and a wide
gape. Their characteristic habit is to sit motionless, watching
for their prey, to dart after it and seize it on the wing, and to
return to their original position to swallow it. The groups which
possess these peculiarities in the greatest perfection are the
Trogons and the Kingfishers, with which we shall commence
our inquiry into the extent of the tribe. We must observe at
starting, that many continental ornithologists still place the
Trogons among the Climbers, because they have their toes
placed two and two, whereas those of the Kingfishers are
arranged as in the majority of birds. But this is a point of
detail which does not in the least affect the habits, for the toes
are in both cases connected together at their basis so as to form
a broad sole, giving a firm support to the bird without grasping.
In both the leg is equally short and weak, and in both all the
habits dependent on the feet are precisely similar. Of how very
little importance this change in the position of the toes is, unac-
companied by a change in their form, motion, or mode of con-
nexion with each other, we may judge from the fact of there
being species of Kingfishers and of Woodpeckers with only
three toes, and which yet have no perceptible difference of habits
from the rest of the family. It would be as reasonable (and as
unnatural) to withdraw these birds from their respective families
and form of them a new three-toed family, as to separate the
Kingfishers from the Trogons for the reasons assigned. As an
instance how totally unable the Trogons are to use their feet for
anything like climbing, we may mention that the Trogons of
South America feed principally on fruit, which one would think
they would get by climbing or walking after if they could. But
no; they take their station on a bare branch, about the middle
of the tree, and having fixed their attention on some particular
tempting fruit, they dart at it, seize it dexterously on the wing,
and return to their original seat. Often, while waiting under a
fruit-tree for Chatterers or Pigeons, have we received the first inti-
mation of the presence of a Trogon by the whir-r-r of its wings
asit darted after a fruit. It is curious that this habit seems con-
fined to the Trogons of America. In the East I have never yet
observed it, and in the numerous specimens I have opened
nothing has been found but insects. The African Trogons also
appear to be wholly insectivorous.

Somewhat intermediate between the Trogons and Kingfishers
are the Bee-eaters (Meropide) and the Jacamars (Galbulide),

198 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

The last possess the metallic plumage of the American Tro-
gons, and habits almost identical, while the bill is an approach
to that of a Kingfisher. The Motmots (Prionitide) are also
closely related to the Trogons, and may be considered as an off-
shoot of them, or of the Bee-eaters, parallel to the Jacamars. The
habits of all these birds, and of the small Eastern Kingfishers of
the genus Ceyz, are almost identical, and we think there can be no
reasonable doubt of the very close affinity of these five families.
The Rollers (Coraciade) are the next group whose affinities we have
to consider. These birds have for along time been strangely mis-
placed among the strong-legged Crows and Grackles, whereas the
short legs (with the toes united in some genera), wide gape,
insect food captured on the wing, the nest in holes of trees or in
the earth, and the colour and form of the eggs, all bring them
close to the Bee-eaters, Motmots, and Kingfishers, the two former
of which appear to be thei most direct affinities. The struc-
ture of the skeleton, according to the best observers, confirms
this result, which may therefore be considered as well established.
We now arrive at the Capitonide, or Puff Birds of §. America,
which, like the Trogons, have been often placed among the
climbing birds, from having their toes placed two and two.
They are, however, true sedentary birds, with habits exactly
analogous to those of the Jacamars, Bee-eaters, and Trogons.
Some, like the Tamatias, frequent the gloomiest and thickest
parts of the forest, where they sit motionless on some low branch,
and thence take short flights after insects. Others, like Monasa
aud Chelidoptera, frequent more open situations, sitting on bare
branches often of dead trees, and take longer flights, which in
Chelidoptera almost vie with those of Swallows for ease and
rapidity. The last-mentioned genera make their nests in holes
in sloping ground on the banks of streams,—a habit exceedingly
general among Fissirostral birds, but we believe quite unknown
among the Scansores. Their nearest affinities seem to be with
the Meropide and Trogonide, though their large heads and heavy
bodies would show some approximation to the Kingfishers.

We now arrive at some birds which have always been asso-
ciated with the present group, of which, in fact, they appear to be
the highest development, but which are nevertheless widely sepa-
rated from the families we have hitherto been considering.
They are the Swallows and Goatsuckers. In these the power
of capturing insects on the wing has reached its maximum.
The gape is enormously wide, the feet generally very short,
and the wings long and powerful. Even between the two there
is, however, a considerable hiatus; but no one has ever doubted
that they are more nearly allied to each other than to any
other birds. The question then remains, to which family of the
Fissirostres are either of them allied? Where is the link that

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 199

connects them? ‘The Swallows appear to us to be farthest
removed from any of the birds hitherto placed in the tribe.
Their small size, powerful flight, and compact plumage, added
to their strongly grasping feet, seem to shut out any direct
affinity with them. It is, then, in the Caprimulgide that we
must look to discover the affinity we are in search of; and we
believe that the only group to which we can approach them is
the Trogonide. The average size, the excessively thin skin, the
mass of downy plumage, the general form, the nature of the
food, and, in many species, the mode of capture, all point to an
affinity in this direction. The different structure of the feet is
the most important character on the opposite side of the question ;
but as this equally exists in such an undeniably closely allied
family as the Prionitide, it need not be considered an insur-
mountable obstacle. There is, no doubt, still a very wide chasm
to be passed over; but it will be still wider if we compare them
with any other family of the Fissirostres, with which their ana-
tomical structure, as well as the general considérations before
alluded to, compel us to place them. We consider, then, the
Swallows and Goatsuckers to exhibit the greatest development
of the Fissirostral form; or, if the term is preferred, to be the
typical groups. And, as a consequence of this position, they
can neither of them serve as the connecting links or transition
to any other tribe or order of birds; for if the Fissirostral
character is what serves to distinguish this tribe from all others,
it must certainly follow that those birds which have this cha-
racter in its highest development must be most distinctly sepa-
rated from all the species of any other group. We have here
another reason for believing that the resemblance of the Goat-
suckers to the Owls is one of externals, and not of essentials,—
of analogy, but not of affinity.

We have now briefly passed in review all the families which
possess the characters of Fissirostral birds in a plain and obvious
degree, and which, without the greatest violation of their natural
affinities, cannot be placed elsewhere in the system ; but there
are several others which have been associated with these by many
naturalists, some of them we believe erroneously. And, first,
the Eurylaimide, or Broadbills of the Eastern Archipelago, have
been, and still are, generally placed among the Fissirostres.
They have, however, in our opinion, no right whatever to this
situation, being true Passeres, allied to the Codingas and Querulas
of S. America. The Eurylaimus Javanicus and the Cymbirhynchus
macrorhynchus feed in the same manner as ordinary perching
birds, hopping about the branches of trees, and picking off the
fruit, which forms their principal subsistence. Their legs are of a
moderate length, their toes strong, and the hind toe large and
powerful, which is never the case in true Fissirostres. It is this

200 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

peculiar conformation of the feet which affects the whole character
and habits of these birds, which is not the case with the trivial
circumstance of the toes being partially united. They have,
moreover, none of the Fissirostral habits, nor any modification of
them, as they do not capture insects on the wing, those which
we have found in their stomachs being always ants and small
Coleoptera, picked off the bark and leaves of the trees. To what
erroneous results a dependence on such isolated characters as
more or less united toes will lead, is seen by the Manakins and
Rupicole of 8S. America being also often considered as Fissi-
rostres on the same grounds as : the Eurylaimi. Those birds are,
however, purely frugivorous, are excessively active on their feet,
have strong skins, firmly-set plumage (as have also the Eury-
laimi), and, in Sack, not one single natural character which can
remoye them from the great mass of Perching birds. The beau-
tiful Calyptomena viridis has also all the habits of the Chatterers,
and cannot be separated from them without a great violation of
natural affinities.

The little Todies of the W. Indies have also been usually
classed as Fissirostres; but their moderately long and slender
legs, short rounded wings, and their excessive activity on their
feet, are so totally opposed to the characters of every other
member of that group, that we think them far more naturally
associated with such Flycatchers as Todirostrum and Megalophus.
From the description of Mr. Gosse, in his ‘ Birds of Jamaica,’ it
appears that they are most active little birds, hopping, perching,
and flying after insects in every possible place and position :
how totally opposed is this to the general character of the Fissi-
rostres, which are sedentaryand motionless, except when upon the
wing! We cannot allow the one character of their nidification
in holes on the banks of streams to counterbalance such a total
diversity in structure and habits. It is, besides, impossible to
point out any one group of Fissirostres to which they can be
said to make any approach, whereas they have the greatest
possible resemblance to the genera of Flycatchers above men-
tioned. We must therefore unhesitatingly decide, that the
Todies are not to enter among the Fissirostres.

In place, however, of these two families which we reject, we
introduce two others which have not generally found a place
here. From an examination of the structure of the feet and
toes, and from a consideration of their habits, we are led to con-
clude that the Hornbills are Fissirostral birds, though of a very
abnormal form, Their very short legs, and united toes with a
broad flat sole, are exactly similar to those of the Kingfishers.
They have powerful wings, but their heavy bodies oblige them
to use much exertion in flight, which is not therefore very rapid,
though often extended to considerable distances. They are (in

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 201

the Indian Archipelago at least) entirely frugivorous; and it is
curious to observe how their structure modifies their mode of
feeding. They are far too heavy to dart after the fruit in the
manner of the Trogons; they cannot even fly quickly from
branch to branch, picking a fruit here and a fruit there; neither
have they strength or agility enough to venture on the more
slender branches with the Pigeons and Barbets, but they alight
heavily on a branch of considerable thickness, and then, looking
cautiously round them, pick off any fruits that may be within
their reach, and jerk them down their throat by a motion similar
to that used by the Toucans, and which has been erroneously
described as throwing the fruit up in the air before swallowing
it. When they have gathered all within their reach, they move
sideways along the branch by short jumps, or rather a kind of
shuffle, and the smaller species even hop across to other branches,
when they again gather what is within their reach. When in
this way they have progressed as far as the bough will safely
carry them, they take a flight to another part of the tree, where
they pursue the same course. It thus happens that they soon
exhaust all the fruit within their reach ; and long after they have
left a tree, the Barbets and Hurylaimi find abundance of food
on the slender branches and extreme twigs. We sce, therefore,
that their very short legs and syndactyle feet remove them com-
pletely from the vicinity of the Toucans, in which the legs
are actively employed in moving about after their food. Their
wings, too, are as powerful as those of the Toucans are weak,
and it is only the great weight of their bodies that prevents them
from being capable of rapid and extensive flight. As it is, their
strength of wing is shown by the great force with which they
beat the air, producing a sound, in the larger species, which can
be distinctly heard a mile off, and is even louder than that made
by the flight of the great Muscovy Duck. They are still farther
removed from the Crows, with which they have also been very
generally associated, solely because they are Conirostres, or conic-
beaked !—another instance of the extremely erroneous results
which are arrived at by a dependence on a single character, and
especially on one which so little influences the habits of a bird
as the external form of its bill.

The preceding deductions from the habits of these birds had
been made before I became aware that Mr. Eyton had arrived at
similar results from anatomical considerations alone; and I had
great pleasure in finding that there was such solid support for
the opinion which I had formed, entirely from my own observa-
tions. The only question that remains then is, to what family
of the Fissirostres do they most nearly approach? A careful
consideration leads us to fix upon the Kingfishers. They are
among the largest birds in the group, they have the largest bills,

202 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

and, in the structure of the feet, the two are almost identical.
The Hornbills of Africa are said to feed principally on reptiles,
as do the King-Hunters (Dace/o) of Australia. We look upon
Hornbills, therefore, as one of the abnormal developments of
Fissirostral birds, of which they are the largest, the least elegant,
and the least gifted with facilities for locomotion and for obtain-
ing their food ; and that their nearest affinities lie im the direec-
tion of the Kingfishers.

The remaining family, which, according to our views, belongs
to the Fissirostral tribe, is that of the Trochilide, or Humming
Birds, hitherto always placed in the Tenuirostres, which we have
before adduced some reasons for believing to be an altogether
artificial group. In this innovation we are not aware of having
any support; yet we think it possible to show good reasons for
it. What is it that characterizes the Fissirostral group but
minimized feet and maximized wings, always connected with
some modification of structure, adapted to give facilities for
seizing the food with the mouth? and all these the Hummers:
possess in a remarkable degree. In the ease and flexibility of
their motions on the wing they surpass even the Swallows. Their
little feet exactly resemble those of some of the Swifts (Dendro-
chelidon), and the long, variously-curved bill and extensile tongue
give them the same facilities for obtaiming their food as do
the short bill and wide gape in the other. They are, too (we
believe), like the Swallows, purely insectivorous ; for im every
specimen we have examined the stomach was full of insects,
principally minute flower-frequenting Coleoptera. No doubt
they do partake occasionally of the nectar, or the pollen of the
flowers they frequent, but as a delicacy rather than as solid food.
The firmness and solidity of their muscle, the thickness of their
skin, and the immense muscular exertion which they constantly
make, can doubtless be supported only by animal food, which the
very small space occupied by their stomach and intestines also
shows to be the case. But a stronger proof of this assertion is,
that there are many species which never frequent flowers! All
the species of the genus Phaéthornis which we met with on the
Amazon were found only in the lower parts of the forest, among
the shrubs and palms which rise only a few feet from the ground.
Here we have often seen them searching the leaves for insects,
supporting themselves almost motionless in the air, their body
erect and their bill pointed upwards, and passing rapidly over
the under surface of each leaf in succession. They would often
dart suddenly out into an open space, and remain motionless a
few feet from my face, and then fly off again to repeat their
search for their favourite food. At the various trees in flower
about which I have observed and shot Hummers, I have never seen
a species of Phaéthornis, whereas I used daily to meet with them

a ee

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 203

in the gloomy jungle, where not a flower exists; and yet, from
never being able to see them at a greater distance than three or
four yards, they were the most difficult of all to obtain, without
blowing them to pieces. Many species also hunt for insects in
the air, exactly like true Fissirostral birds. I have often observed
them in the evening, on the banks of streams, coming out of the
jungle just as the Goatsuckers were beginning to appear, and
darting about after the mosquitos and other minute insects,
returning after each short circuit to the edge of the forest, where
they remained balanced in the air for a moment and then darted
off again. At other times they will sit on the topmost twig of
a dead tree, and making short circuits in the air, return to it,
exactly in the same manner as do the Jacamars and Puff Birds.

There is also another interesting fact to be mentioned. I had
brought me a nest containing two little Hummers, apparently
very recently hatched. I tried to feed them, and gave them,
first, according to established rule, syrup made of.honey and
water, and also of molasses; but the poor little creatures did
not at all like it, though they opened their mouths as if raven-
ously hungry. They were nearly choked by the liquid, and tried
all they could to spit it out, which they generally succeeded
in doing. Finding all my efforts to suit their taste in vain, I
resolved to try if they liked insects better, and caught some
minute flies which were very abundant. On dropping one of
these into their mouths, they immediately closed their beak and
by a great muscular effort of the throat swallowed it, and opened
their mouths again for another. In this way they would each
take fifteen or twenty little flies one after the other before they
were satisfied. I thus kept them alive three or four days, and
could I have bestowed sufficient time and constant attention
upon them, there is no doubt they would have lived much
longer. At all events the experiment satisfied me that the young
Hummers are fed by their parents with insects, and not with
honey.

I also observed that the beak of these little birds was very
short, triangular, and very broad at the base,—in fact exactly the
beak of a Swallow slightly lengthened. We see therefore in the
Humming Birds an extreme and peculiar development of the
Hirundine form of the Fissirostres. The wings of the Swallow,
already among the longest in the whole class of Birds, are still
further lengthened. The feet, already so short, are still further
reduced. The plumage, which in the Swallow has become more
compact and appressed than in any other of the Fissirostres, has
these qualities still further developed. The skin, which in the
tribe generally is thin and tender, is in the Swallows compara-
tively thick and strong, and in the Hummers is perhaps stronger
in proportion to their size than in any other birds. The bill is

204 Mr. A.R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

that of a Swallow lengthened out to contain the long and exten-
sile tongue; and the vital force and energy which enables the
Swallows to enjoy such long-continued and rapid motion, seems
here to have reached a point beyond which further development
is scarcely possible. How then can we refuse them a place
among those birds of which they possess the distinctive cha-
racters in the most eminent degree, while at the same time we
keep together birds as different from each other as the King-
fisher from the Swallow, because they possess those characters ?

But it will be objected that the structure of the tongue is so
different and peculiar, and agrees so well with that of the Sun
Birds. But we have already mentioned, and again repeat, that
in closely allied genera of Sun Birds the tongue is totally dif-
ferent, and that therefore it is not a character to outweigh the
whole structure and habits of a group of birds: moreover, in
other groups the same difference in the tongue is not held to be
sufficient to separate birds otherwise allied. The Cuckoos and
the Toucans have ever been placed near each other, yet how dif-
ferent their tongues! while the Woodpeckers, still farther differ-
ing from them, are notwithstanding placed in the same tribe of
Climbing birds. We might also expect, that when the structure
of a bird had become so peculiarly modified as to bring it to seek
the same food in the same places as another bird of quite a dif-
ferent type of structure, we should find each of them gifted with
the same peculiarly modified organ adapted to such habits ; and
we therefore find that the Sun Birds and the Hummers, though
with a widely different general structure, yet have a similarly
constructed tongue which they both use in extracting minute
insects from flowers and leaves. An exactly analogous instance
exists in the Picide and Dendrocolaptida, two families as different
in general structure as the Trochilide and Nectarinide, but which
yet have one striking similarity in the rigid tail, which enables
them both to rest vertically against a tree while extracting insects
from the bark. We contend that these cases are strictly ana-
logous, and that there is no more real affinity in the one case
than in the other. The character which is most opposed to this
view of their affinities is their nidification ; but we think this is
not only not an insuperable obstacle to their being thus placed,
but one that we might to some degree have anticipated. In
some of the Swallows we have already seen one deviation from
the general character of the tribe in the carefully constructed
nest of clay. In the Goatsuckers we have another, the Podargus
of Australia forming a nest of sticks and grass on the branches
of a tree. We should therefore expect that birds so peculiarly
and highly organized as the Hummers, so aérial in their habits,
and so intimately associated with flowers and foliage, would have
a modified and characteristic form of nidification.

Se

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 205

We have now completed a very brief and imperfect review of
those families which we conceive can be separated from the mass
of Passeres to form the tribe of the Fissirostres, and in the
accompanying diagram we have endeavoured to represent at one
glance their various affinities.

Diagram of the Affinities of the Fissirostres.

TROCHILIDE,
(Hummers. )

HIRUNDINIDE.
(Swallows. )

CAPRIMULGID4.
(Goatsuckers. )

TROGONIDZ. PRIONITIDE.
(Trogons.) (Motmots.)
|
GALBULIDZ, —.- MEROPIDZ, —.»«CORACIADZ,
(Jacamars. ) (Bee-eaters.) (Rollers.)
CAPITONID4.
(Puff Birds.) ALCEDINIDE.

(Kingfishers. )

BUCEROTIDA.
(Hornbills. )

206 Mr, A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

It is intended that the distances between the several names
shdtld show to some extent the relative amount. of affinity ex-
isting between them; and the connecting lines show in what
direction the affinities are supposed to lie. By referring to the
diagram it will be seen that there are seven families placed
close together, forming a central mass. Beyond the Trogons at
some distance come the Goatsuckers and Swallows, while at the
greatest possible distance from each other are the Hornbills and
the Hummers, the former having a distant affinity to the King-
fishers, the latter to the Swallows.

We may here mention that it is an article of our zoological
faith, that all gaps between species, genera, or larger groups are
the result of the extinction of species during former epochs of
the world’s history, and we believe this view will enable us more
justly to appreciate the correctness of our arrangement. For in-
stance, let us suppose that the gaps shown in this diagram have
been all filled up by genera and families forming a natural trans-
ition from one of our groups to the other, and we shall be able
to judge whether our arrangement will agree with such a sup-
position. Thus, if the space between the Kingfishers and Horn-
bills has been filled up by a natural succession of families, we
can see that the change must have been to heavier, larger, and
larger-billed birds, and we see such a change begun already from
the Jacamars to the Kingfishers. So from the Goatsuckers to
the Swallows the change is to smaller, stronger-winged, thicker-
skinned, and brighter-coloured birds,—exactly the kind of change
which continued on will lead us to the Hummers. On the same
principles we may conclude, that as the change from the Jacamars
to the Rollers is to stronger-legged birds which do not feed
solely on the wing but also on the ground, so the same change
continued on would lead us to true Passeres in which the pecu-
liar Fissirostral characters altogether disappear. The Coraciada,
therefore, are either an extreme Passerine form of the tribe, or
else form a transition by direct affinity to the Passeres.

The method of representing affinities here adopted we believe
to be of the highest value. It is founded on the method sug-
gested by the late Mr. Strickland, and which we believe Dr.
Lindley has been the first naturalist to adopt, namely that of
placing to the right and left of every family or other group the
names of those to which it is most nearly allied. But this alone
conveys no idea to the mind, especially in an extensive group,
till represented by a diagram, the most convenient way to con-
struct which we have found to be as follows. Suppose you have
a family of a dozen genera which you wish to arrange ; first write
down the names of the genera in any order, and right and left of
them those to which you believe them to be allied most closely.

;

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 207

Then take a dozen pieces of paper or card cut out with a gun-
wadding punch, and on each write a name of a genus. Place them
on a table and arrange them according to your list. This will
not always be so easy a matter as it appears at first sight, for
you will most likely find that you have set down some conflicting
_ affinities, or that you have mistaken some mere analogies for
affinities. When you have them in tolerable order, the next
thing is to get the distances between them to bear some propor-
tion to the closeness or remoteness of the affinities, and lastly,
bring the whole into symmetry by placing what appears to be
the main line of affinities in a straight line, and bringing the
others into branches right or left from it. When this is done,
the positions can be copied on a sheet of paper and kept for
reference as a trial-arrangement, which is to be tested by every
new fact that is procured, and by any additional knowledge that
may be gained on the structure or habits of any of the species.
The advantage claimed for this particular form of diagram is
that it can be printed with ordinary type, whereas any circles or
figures to represent the groups require woodcuts or lithographs.
It is much to be wished that in every systematic work each tribe
and family should be illustrated by some such diagram, without
which it is often impossible to tell whether two families follow
each other because the author thinks them allied, or merely be-
cause the exigencies of a consecutive series compel him so to
place them. Thus, Bonaparte places in his ‘ Conspectus,’ the
Trochilide between the Cypselide and the Phytotomide. By
making them follow the Swifts he would seem to take the same
view of their affinities as is here done, but by placing imme-
diately after them the Phytotomide, one is at a loss to understand
by what principles he has been guided. An explanatory dia-
gram, or even the plan of denoting the affinities as adopted by
Dr. Lindley, would remove such doubts, and render a work of
such great labour and research as the one referred to less likely
to be misunderstood.

On the Affinities and Limits of the Scansorial Birds.

However much systematists have differed as to what families
should enter into or be excluded from the Scansores or Climbers,
considered as a natural group of Birds, there are four families
which have formed part of it in every system. These are the
Woodpeckers (Picide), the Parrots (Psittacide), the Cuckoos
(Cuculide), and the Toucans (Rhamphastide). We way there-
fore take these as a basis, to inquire in what respects the Scan-
sores differ from the true Passeres and from the Fissirostres, and
to deduce their natural characters. Having done this, we may

208 Mr. A.R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

inquire further if any and what other groups can be naturally
associated with them. |

The first thing that strikes us on comparing these birds with
each other is, that we could hardly pick four families from the
whole class which should have more diversified forms of bill.
The resemblance and affinity between them must therefore exist
in other parts of their body, and we find it in their wings and
feet. The former are generally short, rounded, and very weak,
quite incapable of rapid or long-continued flight, while the latter
are remarkably large, powerful, and peculiarly formed. They
may be said therefore to be the very reverse of the Fissirostres,
whose grand features are large wings and small feet, while in
the Scansores the small wings and large feet are equally cha-
racteristic. But it is the peculiar structure quite as much as the
size of the feet to which we must pay attention. The toes are
always exceedingly long, and the outer toe is either turned com-
pletely backwards or nearly at night angles to the others. This
toe is often the longest of all, while the true hind toe is always
small, and sometimes altogether wanting. It is this peculiar
structure that altogether separates this group from all the short-
winged and strong-footed Passeres, whether they are walkers,
perchers, or climbers.

The habits that result from this form of foot and wing are, as
might be expected, to a great extent characteristic, and will serve
us as a valuable guide in those cases of anomalous form and
structure where the position of a genus or family might be other-
wise doubtful. These birds then are truly arboreal, rarely de-
scending voluntarily to the ground. They use their wings only
for passing from tree to tree, and, whether frugivorous or imsecti-
vorous, they obtain their food in or upon trees. Their motions
along the trunk or branches, or among the thick foliage, are
either true climbing, or a succession of rapid hops producing an
appearance of climbing. ‘The Woodpecker runs up the vertical
trunk, and assisted by a peculiarly modified tail and a powerful
wedge-shaped bill, seeks his food beneath the bark. The Parrot
climbs, assisted by his hooked bill, after the fruit, which alone
he feeds on. The insect food of the Cuckoos is sought for upon
the leaves and smaller branches, and they progress among these
so rapidly, that they have been constantly mistaken by us for
squirrels or other small arboreal animals. The Toucans again
hop actively about the tops of lofty trees, devouring an immense
quantity of fruit.

Now, though these four families have evidently more connexion
with each other than with any other birds, yet they present so
many important points of difference, as to show that they are in
reality very distant from each other, and that an immense variety

Ye
—

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 209

of forms must have intervened to have filled up the chasms, and
formed a complete series presenting a gradual transition from
one to the other. The differences in the form of the bill have
already been alluded to, but those of the tongue are perbaps still
more extraordinary ; the fleshy tongue of the Parrot, the barbed
extensile spear of the Woodpecker, the short horny tongue of
the Cuckoo, and the long and slender feathered tongue of the
Toucan, would seem rather to belong to birds most remote from
each other, than to those for whom we can find no nearer allies.
We should be inclined to consider therefore that they form
widely distant portions of a vast group, ence perhaps as exten-
sive and varied as the whole of the existing Passeres.

Notwithstanding the difference of their food, it is evident that
the Cuckoos and the Toucans approach more closely to each
other than to the others. Their legs are longer, and they con-
sequently hop, which the other two. never do. Their bills are
similar in form, their plumage is in both much more Joose than
either in the Parrots or the Woodpeckers, which again, in these
peculiarities in which they agree, to some extent approach each
other. We would place therefore the Parrots and the Wood-
peckers at one extreme of the group, and also considerably re-
moved from each other, while the Toucans and Cuckoos, rather
nearer together, should be placed at the other extreme.

The Barbets (Bucconide of Lesson and Bonaparte, Capitonine
of G. Rh. Gray) have also been always included amongst the
Climbers, but their place has been so often varied and their affini-
ties so much misunderstood that they require a separate con-
sideration, especially as in the systems of Swainson and Gray
they have been considered as a subfamily of Picidz, and have
therefore not appeared among the famikes of the Scansores. The
only ground for placing them with the Woodpeckers appears to
have been that some African species do cling against and peck
at trees something in the manner of those birds. Their whole
structure however is totally opposed to their being thus placed.
In their feet, wings, and the form of the whole body they much
more nearly resemble the Toucans. ‘I'he texture of their
feathers, their broad, angular and weak skulls also resemble
them, and are strikingly dissimilar to those of the Woodpeckers.
From my own observations too, | can assert that, in the habits
both of the South American and of the Kastern species, they
resemble the Toucans more closely than any other birds; and
Le Vaillant makes the same observation with regard to the African
species. Besides, the grand characteristic of the Woodpeckers,
the barbed and extensile tongue, which exists equally in the Yunz
and Picumnus, is totally absent in the Barbets, while their bill is
of quite a different type of form, much more nearly approxi-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 14

210 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

mating to that of the Cuckoos. In their habits too they are
equally distinct; they hop and cling, but never climb, and they
live almost exclusively on soft fruits. We must therefore con-
sider them as a distinet family, and place them in the vicinity of
the Toucans and Cuckoos.

We will now proceed to the consideration of those groups,
about the propriety of including which im the Scansorial tribe
considerable difference of opinion has existed. These are the
Turacos (Musophagide), the isolated genus Opisthocomus, and
the Certhiade including the Dendrocolaptide. These last have,
we believe, only been so placed by Messrs. Vigors and Swainson,
but as their classification claims to be pre-eminently “The Natural
System,” and as it has still some advocates, it deserves to be
carefully examined. What are the characters then by which the
Dendrocolaptide are supposed to be united to the Picide? They
appear to be these: both are true Climbers, both have a rigid
tail which assists them in maintaining an erect position, and
both feed on insects which they obtain upon the trunks and
branches of trees. On the other hand, they present many and
important differences. The long, slender, curved bill and short,
horny, non-extensile tongue of the Creepers are very far removed
from the strong straight bill and extensile barbed tongue of the
Woodpeckers. But this, it may be said, is of no importance, as a
similar difference exists in the other families admitted into the
Scansores. ‘This is true; but then those birds agree in having
the same form of feet, which is of far more importance in this
case than it may at first sight appear, for we shall be able to
show not only that the Creeper’s foot is very different from the
Climber’s, but that 7¢ is further removed from it than is that of
any other of the Passeres.

The characteristic form of foot in the Certhiade and Dendro-
colaptide is to have the toes placed normally, three forward and
one backward, and to have the forward toes all connected to-
gether at their bases, particularly the outer toe, which is gene-
rally longer than the 4 inner, and often connected to the middle
toe as far as the second joint. The result of this conformation
is, that the forward toes do not spread much laterally, but form
one line of support opposed to the hind toe. This hind toe also
is remarkably long and powerful, and armed with an equally
powerful claw. This peculiar structure has been gradually ar-
rived at, through the most nearly allied families of Passeres.
Passing ‘from the Wagtails and Larks through the Anabatide to
the Certhiade, Sittide, and Dendrocolaptide, we find the outer
toe gradually more and more united to the middle one, and the
hind toe becoming gradually larger and more developed; so
that we are justified in asserting that we see here that peculiar

a ir

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 211

modification of the normal (}-toed) foot which is adapted for
climbing. In the Woodpeckers, however, we find the outer toe
always turned completely backwards, and therefore quite free
from the middle toe. The true hind toe is also invariably small
and weak, and of so little importance that in several species of
Woodpeckers it is altogether wanting, without at all diminishing
the bird’s powers of climbing. If we compare this foot with
that of the other Scansores, we shall find that it is an extreme
modification of the Scansorial form, adapted for true climbing.
The toes are all more powerful, the claws much stronger, the
outer toe longer, and the hind toe smaller. If therefore the
structure of foot in the Cuckoos and Turacos, where the outer
toe can be placed either forward or backward and the hind toe
remains moderately develuped, is (as is universally allowed) the

link between the $-tved and +-toed form, then it follows that of

all =-toed feet the Woodpecker’s is most removed from the ~-toed,
and of all +-toed feet the Creeper’s is the furthest removed from
the =-toed ;—and thence as a further deduction it follows, that

the feet of the Creepers and Woodpeckers are the furthest pos-
sible removed from each other. When, in addition to this re-
markable result, we consider that the structure of the climbing
tail is totally dissimilar in the two cases, we shall see that there
exist no grounds whatever for establishing an affinity between
the two families, and that the Creepers must not only be sepa-
rated from the Scansores, but in a natural arrangement will be
placed at a very considerable distance from them.

The Musophagide, contaiming the Turacos and Plantain-
eaters, have been placed among the Scansores by the conti-
nental ornithologists (Temminck and Vieillot), while in England
they have been considered to be Conirostres by Swainson and
Gray. We believe the former are correct ; for these birds have
the short, rounded and weak wings of the Cuckoos and Toucans,
and consequently very imperfect flight, while their legs are very
strong, the outer toe long and versatile, but rather less so than
in the Cuckoos, and the hind toe, as in all Scansores, short.
Their habits are described as being almost exactly those of the
Toucans and Barbets, their plumage is of a similar texture, while
the short crest at the back of the head is similar to that of the
Woodpeckers. Some species are said to be able to cling to ver-
tical trunks. Their internal structure and the form of the ster-
num appear to correspond exactly to this view of their affinities,
which is still further confirmed by thei nidification, like that of
all other Scansores, im hollow trees, so that they may be well
placed in the wide interval between the Cuckoos and Toucans

14

bios

212) Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

on the one side, and the Woodpeckers and Parrots on the other,
but rather nearer to the former than the latter. If, on the other
hand, we place this group among the Conirostres, we can give
no such satisfactory account of its structural affinities. Swainson
places it between the Fringillide and the Buceride. The former
have all well-formed Passerine feet, the hind toe always well
developed, and the outer toe never so long as the middle one;
they have generally powerful wings, and are of such a uniformly
small size as not even to give them an appearance of affinity
with the Turacos and Musophagide. The Hornbills are if pos-
sible still further removed, as our previous account of their
habits and the structure of their feet will at once show. We
cannot believe that so very acute and observant a naturalist as
Mr. Swainson could have been led to propound these as natural
affinities, had he not been blinded by his belief in the universal
existence in nature of a numerical and circular arrangement,
which, without disproving it: in any particular cases, we believe
can be shown to be absolutely untenable on two general grounds.
Ist. Geological investigations prove that the animals now exist-
ing on the earth are probably not one-tenth, perhaps not one-
hundredth, of those which have existed; for all before the Tertiary
epoch were of different species and mostly of different genera,
and thousands of other genera, families, and whole orders must
have existed of which we are absolutely in ignorance. I there-
fore this regular system were true of the whole, it must be quite
imperceptible in the mere fragment we have an acquaintance
with. Instead of complete circles being the rule, they should
scarcely ever exist ; in fact, the gaps left in the system by its
authors do not leave room enough for all the forms that must
have become extinct. 2ndly. This system absolutely places limits
to the variety and extent of creation; for it is said that every
group can only contain five subgroups, and the number of gra-
dations of groups is fixed. For instance, in a family there can
be only five subfamilies, in each of which there can be only five
true genera, and again in each genus five subgenera. In the
Psittacide therefore there ean be but twenty-five generic forms,
and when those are all known, not only is it declared to be im-
possible to discover a new one, but it is also asserted that no
others can possibly ever have existed and become extinct. This
is the logical deduction from any system of definite numbers in |
natural history, and it is one that should convince every a
of the false basis on which all such systems rest.

Having determined the position of the Turacos, we shall next
have to consider that remarkable bird, the Opisthocomus cristatus.
This has been and still is placed among the Gallinaceze by most
continental authors. Mr. G. R. Gray, however, places it near the

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 213

Twracos, and Mr. Swainson in the family of the Cuckoos. We
believe it should be placed between the two, or rather as a lateral
branch from the Turacos. This bird is very abundant on the
banks of the Amazon, where we have often observed and shot
it. It frequents low bushes on the river’s edge, where it feeds
on leaves, principally those of a gigantic Arum. It never goes
on the ground. This circumstance, combined with the fact of
its having no gizzard, would at once decide that it is not Galli-
naceous. Our own impression at the time, from its gencral ap-
pearance, flight, and habits, was, that it was a gigantic Cuckoo.
Its long crest remarkably resembles that of the genus Diplo-
pterus, several species of which occur in the same district, and
they both have the habit of throwing it- up when alarmed in
exactly the same manner. In its bill and general form:it ap-
proaches the Turacos more nearly than any other bird. The
only difficulty is in the feet, which, though similar in form, have
not the versatile outer toe of those birds. This however seems
of less importance, because a genus of Musophagide (Schizorhis)
has also all the toes directed forwards. The short wings, weak
heavy flight, strong legs, long toes, and the character of the
plumage, added to the resemblances already pointed out, cer-
tainly justify us in believing this to be the true position for this
singular bird, while its peculiar food and internal structure show
that it is to some extent isolated, and cannot be referred to any
known family.

We have now only one more group to introduce into our
Scansores, but it is one of extreme interest, as tending in some
degree to fill up the wide chasm which separates the Psittacide
from all other birds. This we believe is done by the Coliide, a
small group of birds peculiar to Africa, and which have been
generally classed as Finches, from their small size and thick
beaks. The particulars which Le Vaillant gives of their habits
are however exceedingly curious, and show a resemblance to the
Parrots which no other birds exhibit. They live entirely on
fruits, never touching either seeds or insects, They never perch
or jump. They walk with the whole tarsus applied to the ground,
creeping as it were upon their belly. They are very fleshy, and
weigh twice as much as another bird of apparently the same size,
for their feathers are so short and so close-laid upon their body,
that they are really much larger than they appear. They have
also very weak wings, and can fly a very short distance. They
climb up to the top of a tree or bush to fly to another, and in
doing so, lose elevation so as generally to arrive at the foot of it.
They climb one foot after the other, and help themselves on with
their beaks.

Now, almost the whole of this description will apply to some

ry

214 Mr. A.R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

of the Parrot tribe and to no other birds. Their bill is an ap-
proach to that of the Parrot ; the upper mandible being thick,
much curved, and acutely pointed, while the lower is much
smaller and nearly straight,—a form quite different from that of
the Finches. The feet are very peculiar, the hind toe being
small and capable of being turned forward. The tongue is de-
scribed as cartilaginous and flat,—one step from the ordinary
horny-tipped tongue to the fleshy one of the Psittacide. We
consider therefore the Coliide to be more nearly allied to the
Parrots than any other birds, and to be an isolated link serving
to connect them with the other Seansores in the direction of the
Musophagide.

In the accompanying diagram we have endeavoured to lay
down the families of Seansorial birds, so as to represent their
respective affinities; but the very imperfect and fragmentary
state in which according to our views the group exists, prevents
our arriving at a very satisfactory result.

We may here remark, that we can never hope to arrive at the
true direction and amount of the affinities of the several families
of birds, owing to our complete ignorance of the extinct forms.
It is probable that in very few cases is there a direct affinity be-
tween two groups, each being more or less distantly related to
some common extinct group, so that we should represent their
connexion more accurately by making our central line a blank,
fer the extinct portion of the group, and placing our families
right and left, at different distances from it. We should thus
see the reason why we so rarely find one family or genus exactly
intermediate between two others. For instance, though the
Cuckoos are by their feet intermediate between the Turacos and
Toucans, yet their different plumage and their insect food show
that they are more properly a lateral branch from some common
central group now extinct.

Having thus determined the extent of the two groups which
can be separated from the Passerine birds, there remains an ex-
tensive series of species which we believe constitute one great
group of equal value with those we have already defined. This
group may be called the normal or typical Passeres, and consists
of about thirty-five families, containing between three and four
thousand species, or at least half of the known birds. These we
believe are too intimately connected with each other to allow of
their being separated into a few great divisions without violating
many of their natural relations. They have all normal or +-toed
fect, which are never so short or weak as to be unadapted for
progression. The bill is always moderate in size and form, and
in the few cases where it is peculiarly modified, as in some spe-
cies of Dendrucolaptes, other species in the same family possess the

”

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. “215

normal form. ‘There is also a remarkable moderation in size;
for though the species are so numerous, there are none either so
large or so small as are to be found in the two abnormal groups.
There is also a much greater uniformity in texture of plumage

Diagram of the Affinities of the Scansores.

BUCCONIDZ.
(Megalaima. )

RHAMPHASTIDE&.
(Toucans.)

CUCULIDZ.
(Cuckoos.)
OpistOCOWUS . cae

MUSOPHAGIDE.
(Turaco.)

ees F {lt} z.

( Woodpeckers. )

COLIIDE.

PSITTACIDE.
(Parrots.)

and in form, as well as in habits, which binds the whole into one
compact and natural group. It is also a most important point

216 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

to consider that there are no isolated families,;—none but have
numerous points of connexion and transition with others ; and to
such an extent is this the case, that there is scarcely an extehaive
family group about the limits of which ornithologists can agree.
The Thrushes, Warblers, Flycatchers, Chatterers, Tanagers;
Finches, Shrikes, Bush-Shrikes, and many others are im this
condition, and offer a striking contrast to the families of the
Fissirostres and Scansores, about the limits of every one of which
there is scarcely any doubt or disagreement whatever. Here
then we have three groups, one of which, though very much
more extensive than the others, offers less variation in the form
and size of the species, and in the modifications of thew prin-
cipal organs. Correct principles of classification would surely
oblige us to consider the three groups of only equal rank.

But all the families which compose this group are so iti-
mately connected with each other, that the limits of a great
many of them cannot be determined, and there is no family of
any extent which does not gradually blend into others. How
then can we hope to form two or three primary divisions which
shall be sufficiently well marked out tocommand general accept-
ance? without some probability of which, the mere : multiplication
of systems of classification is a nuisance.

We conceive therefore that the efforts of ornithologists should
be directed to the study of the different families individually, in

order to determine their extent and to point out their true affi- _

nities with other families. When this has been done for all, we
may be able to arrange the whole group so as to present to the
eye a view of the relations of the several parts, and then, and
then only, shall we be able to determine whether any and what
subdivisions can be established.

There is one other point on which it is necessary to. say a few
words before concluding this paper. It is on the connexion of
the three groups we have here endeavoured to establish with
each other. The subject is a most difficult one, and we have
been able to come to no satisfactory conclusion upon it. Weare
inclined however to imagine, that the Puff Birds and Barbets, as.
exhibiting the least development of the peculiar characters of
their respective tribes, may show the line of connexion between
the Fissirostres and Scansores, while the Rollers may connect
the former with the normal Passeres somewhere near the 2
laimide. But a minute and careful examination of the families
in question is requisite to decide so nice a point, on which too
the greatest light may be thrown by anatomical observations.
It is to be hoped that some ornithologist will be found to inves-
tigate it fully.

—

Mr. A. Henfrey on Vegetable Embryogeny. 217

XIX.—Recent Discoveries in Vegetable Embryogeny. By AnruuR
Henrrey, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College,
London.

Tue subject of the development of the embryo of flowering
plants being one of those upon which I have constituted myself
a reporter, from time to time, for the pages of the ‘ Annals,’ I
find it necessary again to demand a small space, for the purpose
of making known some important events which have lately
oceurred in the history of the question, and at the same time of
putting in a distinct claim to priority in the publication of one
of the most important of the latest discoveries.

It is well known to all readers of this Journal who are inter-
ested m the present subject, that I have always been an advocate
for, and defender of, the opinion first put forth by Amici, that
the embryo originates as a distinct cell in the embryo-sac, and
is merely fertilized by the pollen-tube. Several physiologists
(whose papers will be found referred to in my ‘ Report’ pub-
lished in the ‘ Annals’ in 1852*) have argued on the same side ;
one of them however, Tulasne, declaring his inability to find the
germinal vesicle in the embryo-sac before fertilization, although
he distinctly asserts that it originates quite independently of the
end of the pollen-tube. On the other hand, Schleiden has con-
tinued to defend his original views, and has been ardently sup-
ported by his pupil Schacht, and more lately by Deecke.

The events of the last few months have quite changed the
aspect of the discussion; not only has Schleiden given “his ad-
herence to the opinion that the germinal vesicle pre-exists in the
embryo-sac, but Schacht also now states that he was in error,
and that the embryo is a product of a body originating in the
embryo-sac, and is merely fertilized by the pollen-tube.

The merit of convincing Schleiden is due to another of his
own pupils, Dr. Radlkofer, of Munich, who published at the
beginning of this year some excellent observations on Euphrasia
Odontites, and certain other plants+; and was empowered to
make known therein Schleiden’s acknowledgement of the accu-
racy of his representations. The memoir of Dr. Radlkofer did
not add any new fact of importance to our knowledge, but
was of much value, not only from its bearmg the approval of
Schleiden, but from its setting in their true light the phenomena
which Schacht and Deecke had recently urged as subversive of
Amici’s views. Dr. Radlkofer’s observations were made during

* Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. 2. vol. ix. p. 441, &c.

+ Die Befruchtung der Phanerogamen, von L. Radikofer, M. & Ph.D.
Leipzig, 1856.

218 Mr. A. Henfrey on Vegetable Embryogeny.

last year, but did not reach me until late in the spring of this
year, and were therefore overlooked in the brief summary of late
researches contained in my last publication. This publication, a
paper read before the Linnzan Society of London, March 4th,
1856, and reported in the ‘ Annals’ of May following, con-
tained the facts supporting, and the more definite assertion of,
the opinion which I had propounded in the article ‘‘ Ovule”
(page 482) in the ‘ Micrographie Dictionary,’ in the autumn of
1855, that the germinal vesicles (or corpuscles) exist in the
embryo-sac before fecundation, not as complete cells, but as cor-
puscles of protoplasm which acquire their cellulose coat after the
fertilization by the agency of the pollen-tube.

Entertaining this view, it was with no little satisfaction that
I last week received a new paper, by Schacht (published in
the Reports of the Berlin Academy for May 22nd of this
year), on the “ Process of Fertilization in Gladiolus segetum,”
in which he completely abandons the opinion so long and so
warmly urged by him, of the origin of the embryo from the
end of the pollen-tube, and not only admits the pre-existence
of the embryonal corpuscles, but, in ignorance of my recently
promulgated statements, describes the phenomena nearly in
the same manner as I have done in Santalum, more parti-
cularly as regards the formation of the cellulose coat around
the protoplasmic embryonal corpuscle, as a consequence of the
fertilization. This corroboration of my views may be given in
his own words: “In the unfertilized embryo-sae of Gladiolus
segetum lie two germ-corpuscles, closely adherent to the micro-
pyle-canal, the upper part of the corpuscles consisting of a
bundle of delicate filaments, the lower of a mass of proto-
plasm. At the epoch of flowering these corpuscles are not sur-
rounded by a firm membrane ; their points project freely out of
the embryo-sac. On the third or fourth day after the appli-
cation of the pollen, the pollen-tube arrives at the germ-cor-
puscles and becomes intimately connected with them, and a firm
membrane is developed around the latter as the first product of
this conjunction. The end of the pollen-tube swells, becomes
thickened, and loses its granular contents. Both corpuscles are
ordinarily fertilized by one pollen-tube, but only one of them
becomes further developed, a nucleus appearing in its plasma-
mass, and soon after this a horizontal septum. ‘The first cell
of the rudimentary germ produced in this way grows gradually
up into the embryo, while the upper half of the origmal ger-
minal corpuscle becomes the suspensor, which appears firmly
connected with the wall of the embryo-sac. Not uncommonly
two or three pollen-tubes descend, without producing any essen-
tial alterations; the pollen-tube sometimes branches in the

li Ieee

Mr. P. H. Gosse on a new British Zoophyte. 219

micropyle, and, though very rarely indeed, the fertilized germ-
eorpuscle may also branch in the embryo-sac. Hence the
pollen-tube exerts a fertilizing influence, and does not, as I
formerly assumed, directly produce the germ, for the first cell of
the germ does not origmate in its interior; on the contrary, its
influence causes a granular protoplasmic mass existing in the
embryo-sac before fertilization to produce that cell from which
both the embryo and its suspensor proceed. Those filaments
( fertiization-filaments), of which the apices of the germinal cor-
puscles consist, and which [always found destitute of any power
of motion, are quite essential to the act of fertilization, but they
do not appear to take any direct part in the formation of the
first cell of the germ.” (Pp. 11, 12.)

As to these ‘filaments’ I cannot say anything at present ;
they occur in the situation of the ‘coagula’ which I have de-
scribed and figured in my memoir, and Schacht’s drawings are
not very unlike what I have seen, except that I did not detect
any filamentous structure ; and moreover, I do not think they
project freely from the embryo-sac, although I have described
them as occupying the absolute summit and exhibiting a kind
of notch between them.

I must not conclude this brief notice without offermg my
testimony to the value of Tulasne’s recent researches on this
subject*. Although he has missed the most essential point,
his observations are of exceeding value as contributions to our
knowledge of the history of the embryo-sac and the earlier stages
of growth of embryos.

London, July 30th, 1856.

XX.—On Edwardsia carnea, a new British Zoophyte.
By Puiuie H. Goss, F.R.S.

[With a Plate.]

Sp. Char. Mouth conical; tentacles above twenty-four, in
three rows ; epidermis subpolygonal, coriaceous, rough, brown ;
anterior column and posterior bulb pellucid, carneous, marked
with white.

Description —Length #ths of an inch, of which the anterior
column is pth of an inch; diameter of body ;.th; expanse of
tentacles ;4,th of an inch.

Body enclosed in a tubular epidermis, from which the anterior
and posterior extremities protrude at will (PI. 1X. fig. 1). This

* Ann. des Sc. Nat., Botanique, 4™¢ Séy, iv. p. 65.

220 Mr. P. H. Gosse on a new British Zoophyte. —

epidermis is thick and coriaceous, roughened externally, the pro-
jections having a slight tendency to longitudinal arrangement,
imparting a subpolygonal form to the body, which however is
very indistinct: its colour is yellowish-brown, tinged im parts
with rufous, and slightly translucent, so that the scarlet hue of
the stomach shines through it, when the animal is contracted.

Anterior column cylindrical or slightly barrel-shaped ; fluted ;
pellucid, almost colourless; each fluting defined by a slender
white line, and marked with an oblong-linear spot of opake
cream-white near its base: stomach visible through the inte-
guments like a thick scarlet axis.

Oral disk small ; a star of cream-white rays on a translucent
ground, surrounded by twenty-eight short, subfusiform, pointed,
pellucid, carneous tentacles: mouth scarlet, on a low conical
papilla. Tentacles slightly ringed with alternate bands of sub-
opake and pellucid carnation; they are arranged in three indi-
stinet circles, those of the innermost circle thickest, graduating
outwards.

Posterior extremity, when extruded, a somewhat inflated
bladder, membranous, delicately pellucid, carneous, with the
pale septa distinctly visible. The extremity is imperforate; it
does not form a defined sucking-disk, but its surface is capable
of adhering with considerable force to extraneous bodies (as a
plate of glass for example), on pressure, thus forming a tem-
porary disk. When this bulb is extruded, the epidermis is
forced upward, and lies in great tucks or folds around the body,
like a loose stocking (see fig. 4). At other times it is quite
covered by the epidermis, which then appears continuous and
imperforate (see fig. 3).

In the specimen described, the anterior column was attached
to the epidermis, not at the extremity of the latter, but a little
within its periphery, which, when the column was protruded, rose
in irregular, overlapping, and somewhat everted points around
its base (see figs. 2&3). In the process of contraction, the
retiring column carried with it the epidermis, causing this to
invert itself to a considerable extent. After a time, however (a
week or more), I observed that the column, in retreating, ceased
to invert the epidermis, simply descending into it as into a
tube, the everted points of which remained exactly as they were
when the animal was protruded. Hence I presume that there is
no organic connexion between what is called the epidermis and
the animal, but that the former is a cutaneous secretion thrown
off, and inhabited as a tube; like the investiture of Edwardsia
vestita. un this case the attachment of the mouth of the tube
to the column observed before, was probably a voluntary and
temporary adhesion produced by the suctorial property of the

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria, 221

general surface ; a property which we have seen to exist in all
parts of the posterior bulb.

This pretty and interesting, though minute, Actinoid was found
at Torquay in July by Miss Pinchard, an accomplished student
of our marine natural history. This lady kindly forwarded it to
me in its own native nidus,—an old Savicava’s burrow in the
limestone rock, out of which its fore-parts projected (see fig. 2).
Though removed from its burrow for the purpose of examination,
it has lived several weeks in one of my small aquaria, expanding
at intervals (somewhat charily), and frequently adhering to the
glass by its posterior bulb.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. Edwardsia carnea: natural size.

Fig. 2. Ibid. (magnified), in the act of protruding.

Fig. 3. Ibid. (magnified) ; the anterior column protruded and expanded.
‘ig. 4. Ibid. (magnified); the posterior bulb protruded.

XXI.—WNotes on the Freshwater Infusoria of the Island of Bombay.
No. 1. Organization. By H. J. Carter, Esq., Assistant
Surgeon H.C.S8., Bombay.

[Concluded from p. 132.]

Nucleus.—By this term we shall understand, for the most
part, an organ situated in the outer portion of the sarcode, which,
when well marked, presents under the microscope the appear-
ance of a full moon (to use a familiar simile), with similar slight
cloudinesses (figs. 1 d, 2.e, 3d). It is discoid in shape, of a faint
yellow colour, and fixed to one side of a transparent capsule,
which, being generally more or less large than the nucleus itself,
causes the latter to appear as if surrounded by a narrow pellueid
ring. In this state it is invariably present in Amoeba, Actino-
phrys, Spongilla, Astasia (fig. 45 b), and Euglena (figs. 46 a, &e.),
though difficult at first to recognise ; particularly in the two
latter families, where the pellucid space or capsule, at the bottom
of which it is situated, is often the only visible sign of its pre-
sence. In Difflugia proteiformis it cannot of course be seen, from
the thickly incrusted state of the test ; but m asmaller and less
incrusted species, which might be called D. tricuspis (from the
trefoil-form of the opening of the test) (fig. 80), as well as in
Euglypha, its position is posterior, and evident, from the large-
ness of the capsule, though the nucleus itself is so faint that
even in Huglypha it can only occasionally be distinguished ;
while in Arcella vulgaris (Khr.) it is constantly double and

ee

opposite (fig. 79). In dmeba Gleichenti the nucleus itself oe-
easionally presents a pellucid spot or punctum in its centre, |

In Vorticella there is a long cylindrical organ, which appears
analogous to, if not homologous with, the nucleus, and this, in
a large Hpistylis common here, and some other species of Vorti-
cella, is wrapped once round the upper part of the buccal cavity, in
the same manner as the ovary is wrapped round the visceral organs
of Salpa among the Tunicata (fig. 74g). Stein states that after
Vorticella microstoma has become encysted, this organ divides
up into embryos, which, when the parent integument bursts,
come forth like “ Monas ‘colpoda or Monas scintillans” ; and he

‘assumes ” that these monads, after having become fixed and
sands pass into young Vorticelle* ;—an assumption which can
hardly be doubted, though it may be some time before chance
favours its demonstration.

In Otostoma, and many forms of Ehrenberg’s Enterodelous
class of animalcules, there is a similar organ, either of a cir-
cular, nosy nate? or fusiform, elongated shape (Annals, vol. xvii.
pl. 9. fig. 6). In Oxytricha also there is something of the kind,
and in Himantophorus (Charon, Ehr., mihi) it extends nearly all
round the body, commencing from the posterior extremity, and
terminating on “the right side close to the vesicula.

The cylindrical organ in Vorticella not unfrequently presents
a granular appearance, and the granules, which are minute, but
uniform in size, appear to occupy the periphery ; but whether
they are inside or outside the wall of the cylinder, or in the sub-
stance of the wall itself, I have not been able to determine.
Stein places them inside, in the form of a granular cylinder, and
within this “ nucleoli +,’—nucleated, discoid bodies, into which
the nucleus becomes divided.

In the Rhizopodous cell which inhabits the protoplasm of the
Characee}, it is at first uniformly clear and transparent, then
semi-opake and subgranular, afterwards two or more distinct
granules make their appearance, and finally it becomes wholly
granular and much enlarged; or undergoes fissiparation and
thus gives origin to more cells, like the cytoblast of the vege-
table kingdom.

Use.—It is impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, »
to specify the uses of the nucleus. One point, however, is evi-
dent, that it appears very early in the development of the fresh-
water Rhizopoda, sponge-cell, &c.; and another, that it bears a
close analogy to a similar organ in the vegetable cell, viz. the

222 Mr. H.J, Carter on the Organization of Infusoria,

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p.474 & 477
+ Die Infusionsthiere, &e. Taf. 4. fig. 24. 4to, Leipzig, 1854.
t Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvii. p. 101, 1856.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 223

eytoblast, which also is the primary organ of this cell ; and there-
fore, perhaps, we might term it the presiding organ, or consider
that such are its primary offices over the development and life of
these cells respectively. If we trace it from the Rhizopoda into
the vegetable kingdom, we shall find it occupying the very same
position relatively in Ameba that it does in the cell of Serpicula
verticillata*. Thus, im some Amcebous cells which settled down
from their spherical into the plane reptant forms, the following
sequence from without inwards was distinctly seen: viz. Ist, the
pellicula and diaphane ; 2ndly, the molecular sareode bearing the
nucleus, and a layer of greenish granules externally ; 3rdly, the
aqueous fluid of the centre (figs. 1, 2) ;—and in the spine-cell of
the leaf of Serpicu/a—l\st, the cellulose cell-wall; 2ndly, the
molecular protoplasm, im which are imbedded the green granules
(viz. cells or organisms in which part of the protoplasm bears
chlorophyll) and the cytoblast ; 3rdly, the aqueous fluid of the
centre (figs. 63, 64). The difference between cellulose and pel-
licula, and the absence of the vesicula, &c. are pomts which have
so little to do with the analogy in question when the latter is
followed up through Astasia, Euglena, Navicula, Closterium, &e.
into Gdogonium, and Nitella to Serpicula, that very little doubt
will, I think, then remain, of the offices of the nucleus in Ameba
being similar to those of the nucleus of the plant-cell, whatever
these may hereafter prove to be.—Here, again, I would return
for a moment to the cause of sphericity in Ameba, and submit
whether the cavity contaiming the distending fluid is that of the
vesicula or the centre of the sarcode ; since the aqueous cavity of
the vegetable cell may then be analogous to the vesicula ; for, as
before stated, I have never been able to succeed in detecting the
vesicula in Amoeba when under a spherical form ; although, the
moment it becomes plane and polymorphic, this organ reappears,
of its usual size, and endowed with its usual activity.

Much, however, as the nucleus may at first appear to be a
presiding organ, there can be no doubt, from what will presently
be stated, that its ultimate destination, in some organisms at
least, is to pass into granules which become new beings.

Ovules.—This term will be applied to a number of discoid, or
globular, nucleated cells, which appear together in the sarcode of
some of the Infusoria. At an early stage in Spongilla, Ameba, Eu-
glypha, Astasia, and Euglena, these bodies consist of a transparent
capsule, lined with a faint yellow film of semi-transparent matter,
which, subsequently becoming more opake and yellowish, also

* This aquatic plant is selected for comparison because the circulatory
movement is well marked in the cells which oecupy the body of the leaf,
and the eytoblast and protoplasm in the spine-cells of the margin.

224 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

becomes more marginated or distinct, and assumes a nucleolar
form. In Spongilla there is also a delicate, pellicular layer, which
is endowed with a low power of movement (figs. 89 2, 40a).

I first noticed these ovules in the seed-like bodies of Spongilla,
where they are enclosed in transparent globular sacs*, each sac
holding a greater or less number of ovules, which are discoid in
form, of different sizes, and accompanied by a great number of
active molecular granules (figs. 37, 38); and during the past year
I have frequently seen such in Amaba Gleichenii, where they have
been equally numerous, have borne the same characters, and have
been accompanied by anumber of active molecular granules, as
in the transparent globular cells of the capsules of Spongilla(fig. 5.)
They occur also in Euglypha alveolatat, congregated round the
hyaline capsule of the nucleus, from four to fifty in number, and
mostly of the same size, but always globular, and accompanied
also, as in Spongilla, by molecular granules (fig. 26). Such
ovules may also be seen similarly situated m Déifflugia tricuspis
(H. J.C.) and in Arcellina dentata (Khr.) ; enclosed in the latter
in an ovoid capsule, which nearly fills the test. In Actinophrys,
also, they appear to have been seen by M. Nicolet, as will be
mentioned hereafter.

Astasia and Euglena constantly become filled with discoid
cells of a similar kind, but in those of the former I have seldom
been able to distinguish the capsule from the internal contents,
on account of their smallness and the imcessant motion of the
animalcule (fig. 46). In Huglena, however, they are very evident,
and it is worthy of remark that each partakes of the form of
the Huglena to which it belongs (figs. 50, 58). Thus in Z. acus it
is long and cylindrical ; in LZ. viridis oblong, compressed (fig. 59);
in Crumenula texta and Phacus circular, compressed, &c.

In Spongilla and Ameba these ovules follow the motions of
the sarcode, in which they appear to be loosely imbedded ; they
also undergo partial transposition in Astasia and Euglena, but
in Buglypha aud Difflugia are chiefly located round the globular
hyaline capsule of the nucleus, at the posterior part of the
body (fig. 28),—a position which it is well to remember; for
although apparently unconnected in all, with the nucleus and
its capsule, and diffused generally throughout the sarcode in
Spongilla, Amaba, Astasia, and Kuglena, yet in Euglypha and
Difflugia, which we shall hereafter find the best for typical

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 87, 1849. Of the formation of
the seed-like body, I need not say more here, than that it consists of a
capsuled aggregation of ovule-bearing sponge-cells ; while Ameba presents
the same appearance, when preguaut with ovules, as one of these cells, and
becomes capsuled singly.

+ Dujardin, Hist. Nat. des Zoophytes, Atlas, tab. 2. fig. 9.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 225

reference, they are undoubtedly developed in the neighbourhood
of the nucleus, and therefore confined at first to a particular
part of the body.

In many of Ehrenberg’s enterodelous Infusoria it is not un-
common to see a number of defined globular bodies, of nearly
equal size, and of a faint, opake, yellow colour, which closely
resemble ovules,—ex. gr. Amphileptus fasciola (Ehr.), Himanto-
phorus Charon (Bhr.), Sc. ; nor is it improbable that many of his
Trachelina, which come near Planaria, possess ovules similar to
those which are found in the latter; but, from being so much mixed
up with the spherical cells, pass equally unnoticed while in, as well
as when out of the body, under such circumstances. M.J. Haime,
however, has distinctly seen instances in which these bodies have
been ejected from Infusoria, and have passed into locomotive ani-
maleules under his eye. Thus he states that in Plesconia they
form a group of from forty to fifty in the middle of the body, are
round, issue one by one, remain tranquil some time, then deve-
lope two filaments, one in front, the other behind, and move
about rapidly. In an “undescribed” species of Dileptus they
are whitish, and form a wreath, extending almost throughout
the whole length of the body, become yellow towards the anal
extremity, where they pass out with the remains of the food,
soon develope two opposite filaments, and move about rapidly.
In Paramecium aurelia, M. Haime states that an ovary appears
some hours before death, about the middle of the body, which
becomes filled with about sixty little nuclei; these increase in
size, burst the ovisac, and thus pass into the body of the parent,
from which they finally escape by an opening in the tegumentary
covering, formed by the diffluence of the latter, and the ovisae
follows them *.

Spermatozoids.—This term is provisionally applied to granules
which are originally developed from the nucleus in Ameba,
Euglypha, and Spongilla(?). In Ameba the process appears to
commence by an increase of size in the capsule of the nucleus,
which becomes more or less globular; at the same time the nu-
cleus itself becomes uniformly granular ; the latter then increases
in size, so as to occupy a third of the interior of the animalcule,
and then undergoes, apparently, duplicative subdivision, for the
mass is sometimes seen to present a single groove, which passes
through the centre, and ultimately becomes divided up into
several segments. These segments assume a circular com-
pressed or globular form, and continue entire until the granules
or spermatozoids of which they are composed become fully deve-
loped, when the latter acquire the power of locomotion, and

* Ann. des Se. Nat. Zool. t. xix. p. 131, foot-note, 1853.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 15

226 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

thus separate from each other ; meanwhile the original capsule
of the nucleus for the most part disappears (figs. 10-15). In
this way, some individuals out of a group of Ameba radiosa,
bearing such granules, were seen moving about, even when so
reduced that hardly anything but their cell-wall, and the one or
two spherical segments of the granulated nucleus that remained
in its interior, were left; upon being delivered of which it may
be presumed that they became effete or died (fig. 14). Some-
times these segments are evidently held together by a soft
mucous cell, which, being polymorphic, assumes the form of
Actinophrys, and thus exhibits a locomotive power (fig. 16);
while at others the cell becomes firm, transparent, and spherical,
and the granules do not leave it until they become endowed with
locomotion (fig. 15). When the latter is the case, the sperma-
tozoids may be seen, if fully developed, to be bounding about
their respective capsules, w hile the capsules themselves are still
rolled on in the sarcode of the Ameba under progression. At
other times the whole mass of spermatozoids, all separated,
and having left their capsules, may be seen to fill the body of
the Ameba, whilst still under active polymorphism and loco-
motion. Lastly, the parent sometimes dies in this state, and
then the mass of spermatozoids may be seen to undergo gradual
disintegration, as the granules, by twos and threes, or more, dis-
entangle themselves from the sarcode, and bound off into their

new element. These grannies or spermatozoids in Huglypha

average about +7455 to zadqq Of an inch in diameter; about
four of them would make the diameter of the largest. ovules,
which are, again, somewhat less than human blood-globules.

In Euglypha alveolata a similar development takes place round
the anterior part of the capsule of the nucleus (fig. 29); but
from the concealed position of the latter, 1 have not been able
to see it distinctly originate in the nucleus, as nm Ameba. .The
segments here have always been compressed, probably from the
soft polymorphic state of the mucous cell which encloses them
admitting of their assuming a plane or reptant actinophorous
form (fig. 31); and in this way they are carried out of the Eu-
glypha, which, like Ameba, perishing on their development, and
passing into decomposition, thus allows them to quit the parent
cavity ; at other times they separate close to the hyaline capsule
of the nucleus, and finally swarm about in the test generally
(fig. 29). Although this development, as well as that of the
ovules, takes place more profusely in different individuals than in
the same one, yet it is by no means uncommon to see, in a group
of ovule-bearing Euglyphe alveolata, individuals with both deve-
lopments in them at once (fig. 30); and with no gradation in
the size of the ovules to indicate that they originated in the

of aS |) |

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 227

granules, or vice versd,—the two developments thus appearing
distinct : and this seems to be confirmed by what takes place in
alarger variety of this species of Huglypha, where there is a test
something like that of the parent developed in the interior, and
within this a spherical capsule, provided with a straight tube,
which extends to the pointed end of the test m which it is
immediately enclosed (fig. 32). At this time the animal has
entirely disappeared, and the contents of the spherical capsule,
having undergone segmentation, assume the form of circular
masses of granules, like those developed from the nucleus in
FE. alveolata; after which the granules separate, and pass out of
the straight tube, which is slightly patulous at its free extremity
(fig. 33). Other tests of the same variety may be seen more or
less filled with ovules, as before described.

Lastly, in Spongilla, there are always many cells to be found
in that part of the mass where the seed-like bodies are being de-
veloped, partly filled with similar granules, loose or in’a cireum-
scribed group; but I have not yet been able to determine
whether this development is nucleolar, or ovular at an early
stage. It is certainly most like the granular development of the
nucleus in Luglypha and Ameba.

In Astasia, irregular globular botryoidal masses, dividing up
into spherical cells, colourless and translucent, or of a faint,
opake, yellow tint, present themselves so frequently (and gene-
rally inversely developed with the ovules, as in the Rhizopoda),
that I cannot help thinking that they are also developments
from the nucleus (figs. 47, 48) ; but from not having seen them
present that evident granular aspect which characterizes this de-
velopment in the Rhizopoda, I have not been able to determine
satisfactorily whether they are parts of the latter, or that kind of
division of the sarcode into green spherical cells which some-
times takes place in Euglena.

In Euglena, also, I have described a development of the nu-
cleus, partly under the idea that it might be a parasitic rhizo-
podous development ; but now it appears to me to be a simple
enlargement, granulation and segmental development of this
body into polymorphic, reptant, mucous cells, filled with sper-
matozoid granules, as in the Rhizopoda*.

Finally; from what organs, in the freshwater Rhizopoda,
Astasia and Euglena, ave the ovules and the spermatozoid
granules developed ?

Of the origin of the latter from the nucleus there appears to
me to be no doubt; for independently of the changes taking
place in it which have been mentioned, I have never been able

* Ann. & Mag. Nat, Hist. vol. xvii. p. 115, 1856.
15*

228 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

to see the nucleus and its capsule in their original form when the
spermatozoid mass has been present, though I have occasionally,
in Ameba, and almost always in Euglypha, seen the empty glo-
bular capsule in connexion with the latter. In Ameba, before
the spheroidal divisions of the nucleus have separated from each
other, they frequently appear in the form of a botryoidal mass,
projecting from one part of the capsule.

But, as regards the ovules, although they are also unquestion-
ably developed around the globular capsule of the nucleus in
Euglypha, yet the fact of their being developed throughout the
greater part of the sarcode which lines the cell of Huglena, and
the same in Astasia, which is closely allied to Ameba, while in
the latter they appear also to be developed from the sarcode
generally, seems to indicate that they are developments of some
part or parts of. the sarcode—perhaps of some of the molecule.
That the two developments, viz. that of the ovules and sperma-
tozoid granules, present themselves together in Huglypha, has
already been stated, and the fact of the ovules in Euglena first
becoming developed outside the capsule of the nucleus, and the
granular development of this body following it, shows that the
ovules are not developed from the nucleus. The capsule, there-
fore, in Euglypha, under these circumstances, as well as when
there are ovules alone present, is often seen minus the nucleus ;
and the same in Amaba Gleichenii, where it may be observed
rolling about with the ovules when the latter have, for the most
part, reached their largest size (fig.5). In these instances, too,
the granules of the nucleus, if the latter has undergone this
transformation, may be dispersed among the general mass, as
the nucleus on such occasions has, if not absent, appeared faintly
marked, probably from having become effete or atrophied,—the
ovules and spermatozoids appearing to be inversely developed ;
and in Astasia and Euglena, the former to be destroyed on the
development of the latter.

Nicolet has stated that in Actinophrys the generative organs
consist of a central spherical membrane, enclosing little globules,
which are the rudiments of “eggs,” surrounded by a “ gela-
tinous granular layer,” the granules of which appear to be the
reproductive organs*. But this simple statement, though bear-
ing the semblance of fact, is too meagre, without illustrations, to
be of any use. If his “ spherical membrane ” be the same as
our capsule of the nucleus, after the latter has become globular,
then certainly the ovules are not contained in it in Luglypha.
Stein also figures the nucleus of his Actinophrys oculata in
accordance with Nicolet’s observations, viz. with a granulated

* Comptes Rendus, vol. xvi. p. 115, 1848.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 229

nucleus, fixed in a spherical capsule, surrounded by a zone of
granular plasma (?) (fig. 95)*. This, as will be seen hereafter,
is very like the state of the nucleus in the rhizopodous cell of
the protoplasm of the Characez, when the former is undergoing
reproduction.

With reference to the organs of generation in the other Infu-
soria, I can state no more than that although there is a fusiform
nucleus in Ofostoma,I have also constantly seen a bunch of string-
like filaments floating about its interior, which appeared to be
attached near the buccal cavity ; and although I could make out
nothing more, I could at the same time only liken these to the
generative apparatus in the Planaria mentioned, which floats
round the buccal cavity and upper part of the membranous
stomach in a similar manner.

Impregnation.—In Ameba and in Actinophrys a union of
two individuals is not uncommon, and many have noticed this
in the latter. It has occurred to me, also, to see it in a species
of Ameba, which, from its circular form, and the prolongations
only taking place from one point of the circumference, appeared
thus to present an anterior extremity, by which several pairs
of the group were united (Plate V. fig. 17) ; and on one occasion
two separated under my eye, when an attenuated prolongation
of one seemed to be drawn out through a thick prolonged por-
tion of the other (fig. 18). More convincingly and frequently,
however, this union was observed in a group of Huglypha, where
the anterior extremity of the body is distinct (figs. 34, 36). Here
the protruded parts, after having been united for some time,
began to separate by constriction at the poimt of contact, which,
soon diminishing to a mere mucous thread, became smaller and
smaller, and more elongated, as the two individuals, retreating
from each other, withdrew themselves into the bottom of their
test respectively, from which they appear on such occasions never
again to emerge. Lastly, in a group of Euglena deses, several
couples appeared united by the tails, not only to one another,
but fixed to the watch-glass at this point, where they continued
until each sank down, close to the other or separate, into cap-
suled forms filled with ovules,—a state which appeared so much
the more to be the result of impregnation, from the number of
couples thus united presenting every stage of ovigerous develop-
ment in their interior, from mere molecular sarcode to repletion
with full-formed ovules (figs. 49, 52). It is not an uncommon
thing to see, among a group of Euglene agiles (H. J. C.), indi-
viduals chasing each other, becoming united head to head, head
and tail, or tail to tail, and then separating with difficulty by a

* Op. cit. tab. 5. figs. 25-28.

230 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Tnfusoria.

whirling motion, as if the bond of union were a mucous thread,
which could be only twisted off in this manner. Two Euglene

virides may also sometimes be seen united by the intertwisting:

of their filaments only, just like the congress of two snails.

All these wnions appear very much like so many acts of con-
jugation ; but when we find Kuglypha as well as Arcella united,
not only in pairs, but triply and quadruply, in this way, and the
same with Huglena viridis, the connexion of these phenomena
with reproduction, as Claparéde has stated *, becomes “ exceed-
ingly doubtful ;” particularly as we have seen the spermatozoid
sranules developed from the nucleus and among the ovules ; and
this granular spermatozoid development, if it be one, does not
take place until after conjugation. At the same time, in one
group of Euglyphe, nothing but spermatozoids were developed,
while in another hardly anything but ovules appeared ; and it
was only here and there that both were found together; again,
in the larger variety of Euglypha, the granules were developed in
a distinct : apparatus, and the ovules in the same manner as in
LE, alveolata, viz. mm the posterior part of the body, outside the
capsule of the nucleus.

Lastly, we come to the question whether or not these granules
are spermatozoids ? That the ovules m Spongilla pass into poly-
morphie cells, I proved by experiment some years since+; and
lately, I have repeated similar experiments, with the same results:
Moreover, I have seen the ovule of Huglypha in every stage, from
its first appearance in the test to the time when it has acquired
the power of putting forth rhizopodous prolongations (fig. 31),
after which the tests of very small Huglyphe presented them-
selves in the same basin, which did not appear before the parents
had died off and left their ovules to shift for themselves. Henee
this is one mode of propagation among the Rhizopoda, whatever
the granules which we have provisionally called spermatozoids
may be. Then, also, it has often occurred to me to see circular
groups of spermatozoids undergoing disintegration or dehiscence
in the test of Huglypha, while ovules were present, and granules
like the former swarming round the latter at the same time; as
well as granules of the same kind in Ameba Gleichenii, where
the ovules have been far advanced in development. In Spon-
gilla also similar granules abound in the transparent globular
sacs of the capsules which contain the ovules (figs. 37, 38); and
when the latter are set free by forcibly bursting the former,
these little granules crowd round the large ovules so markedl
that I made this observation several years smcet, when I little

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xv. p, 286, 1856.
+ Idem, Joc. cit. + Idem, Joe cit.

> vas

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 281

thought that there was any reason for thinking them organs of
impregnation. Lately, however, I have observed, that full half
the larger ovules of the seed-like body, under this condition,
have one of these granules in different degrees of connexion with
them, from simple approximation to almost undistinguishable
incorporation (fig. 39 a'-e) ; also that when the internal contents
granulate on the third or fourth day after they have been set
free, the prominence caused by the appended granule does not
disappear until the whole ovule has passed into a polymorphic
cell (A, /) ; that is, that after this, no capsule or anything else re-
mains behind, to indicate that the granule and its capsule, with
this prominence, have not wholly become transformed into the
new sponge-cell. This granule, however, is not entirely confined
to the larger ovules, where it is for the most part affixed to the
margin, but is also presented here and there by many of the
small ones. In the larger ovules it bears, in size, the proportion
of about one to eight, and the largest ovules average about 3,,5th
of an inch in diameter. About twelve hours after the ovules and
granules have been set free in the manner mentioned, into di-
stilled water, in a watch-glass, they, as well as the granules, ex-
hibit a great deal of motion, which lasts up to the end of the first
day, when they become quiet again; and this motion, though
least in the largest ovules and most in the smallest granules, is
generally from one side to the other in all, like that of a zoospore
which is attached to the glass by one of its cilia, or of a monad,
which possesses a polymorphic coat attached to some body, and
a moving single cilium, Some of the granules, however, every
now and then appear to break away from this attachment, and
then present a single (?) ciliary appendage, which ceases to be
visible again the moment they become fixed. All the ovules,
both those with which a granule is connected, and those without,
appear to undergo a like granulation of their ternal contents,
and pass into new sponge-cells (2, 4, /), which for a day or two
remain polymorphic and reptant, and then assume a spherical
actinophorous form ; while there is also a development of single (?)
ciliated monads, closely resembling those which are found in the
fully-developed sponge (m). In their reptant state, also, the
former present the vesicula and frequently a single cilium,
Under what circumstances we are to view the incorporation of
this granule with the sponge-ovule, I am ignorant*. Certain it

* Tt is just possible that these granules may be buds like those which
appear on the so-called “ferment-cells”’ (fig.44), but the latter grow intonew
cells as large as the old ones before they are detached, if even this takes
place then, which is not the case with the granule attached to the sponge-
ovule. Again, the ferment-cells are chiefly seen in pairs, from the bud in
many haying increased to nearly the size of the parent, while the sjfonge-

232 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

is, that one of these granules, which at first hardly appears to’
differ from the oyule itself, except in size and the addition,
perhaps, of a single cilium, may frequently be seen to exhibit
movements about a large ovule indicative of a desire to become
incorporated with it ; and frequently, also, it seems to succeed
in fixing itself permanently to its circumference, before the eye ;
while occasionally a monociliated granule may be seen to be ap-
pended to one of the sponge-cells thus newly developed, im the
same manner that the “ zoosperm ” attaches itself to similar cells
in the old sponge (fig. 43).

In the absence, then, of direct evidence respecting the ulti-
mate destination of these bodies, we must infer that they are
germs, which grow into new individuals (perhaps like micro-
gonidia*), or that they are impregnating agents, which enter
into the ovules, and thus render them capable of further deve-
lopment, or both. Analogy, im connexion with the faets men-
tioned, seems to favour the latter view ; for when we observe the
development of the ovules, and these spheroidal or discoid seg-
ments of the granulated nucleus, which are of about the same dia-
meter as the ovules, occurring together in the same Euglypha ;
and one cell, viz. that of the ovule, remaining entire, while the
contents of the other, viz. the spheroidal segment of the nucleus,
has apparently divided up into a number of locomotive granules,
—the process so far accords with what takes place in higher or-
ganic developments during the process of true generation that
we become much induced to extend the analogy still further;
and consider that the contents of some of the spermatozoid gra-
nules or smaller cells go into this larger one to complete it, in
the families of Rhizopoda, &c. mentioned. The monociliated cells
(“zoosperms” +) of Spongilla might, perhaps, by some be con-
sidered young sponge-cells, which lose thei cilium on further
development ; for such is the course with the monads which are
produced from the rhizopodous cells of the protoplasm of the

ovules do not appear in this state. It is only when the buds of the fer-
ment-cells are very small, that there is any direet resemblance between
them and the sponge-ovules presenting a similar condition. If the granule
in connexion with the sponge-ovule be a bud, it must be detached from the
parent when very young, for there are no intermediate stages as in the fer-
ment-cell to show that it is in reality one.

Again, the oscillation of the granule round the sponge-ovule may be a
physical attraction ; this oscillation, however, does not present itself among
the ferment-cells, while in the sponge-oyule it appears to end frequently in
a permanent attachment of the granule to the ovule,—a condition that may
be aided by the “ external layer” or diaphane envelope of the latter.

* See Braun on the reproduction of Hydrodictyon. Ray Soc. Pub. Bot.
and Phys. Mems. pp. 89 & 261. t

+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xiv. p. 334.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 233

Characeze before they pass into dmaebe; while the number of
the former being as great in the first portion of sponge which
issues from the capsule as in the older mass, if not more so,
seems not only to support this view, but also that they do not
all form part of the surface-layer of the canals in which cilia
have been detected by Mr. Bowerbank, for at this period there
are no canals present. The facts above mentioned, however, are
opposed to this view ; for there is a marked difference. between
the reptant sponge-cells produced from the ovules in the watch-
glass, and the monociliated ones developed from the granules,
both in size and appearance (/, m) ; and although the cilium sub-
sequently seen in the former may have pre-existed in the ovule,
still, both bemg polymorphic, rhizopodous cells, and, therefore,
when united undistinguishable individually, the ciium might
belong to either, 7. e. to the sponge-cell or to the incorporated
granule,—the latter of which may frequently be verified when
examining a piece of Spongilla torn to pieces, under the micro-
scope (fig. 43). Whether or not, however, both possess a cilium~
at first, the sponge-cell loses it afterwards, whatever may happen
to that of the supposed zoosperm, which may not become incor-
porated with one; and this may be the case with the monads
which are produced from the rhizopodous cell of the Characeze,—
there may be two kinds.

Should it be hereafter proved that the granules of the nucleus
thus become impregnating agents, then this mode of generation
may perhaps be extended through Huglena to Navicula, Closte-
rium, Spirogyra, Cidogonium, and Cladophora; for in none of
these Algze has anything approaching to a process of generation
been detected beyond conjugation and the formation of the
spore ; while, indeed, in Spirogyra mirabile (Hass.), Gidogonium,
and Cladophora, the spore is formed without conjugation.—
Might not the granulation of the nucleus, &c. go on in the
spore ?

In Cladophora the gonimic substance consists of nucleated
cells, each containing a portion of green chlorophyll-bearing
protoplasm, and these are arranged in the way of a pavement on
the mner side of the cell ; hence we must consider Cladophora a
composite Alga, which would then form the first step to the cell
of Nitella, in which the green chlorophyll-bearing cells would
correspond to the same kind of organisms in the cell of Clado-
phora; but as the form of Nitella is more complicated, so it re-
quires distinct organs of reproduction for its general develop-
ment. ‘That the conjectured mode of generation mentioned in
the freshwater Rhizopoda may be the same as in the lower Algze,
and that the addition of other and distinct organs for this pur-
pose in the higher developments is a necessary sequence of their

234 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

complication, are observations merely put forth for what they
may prove worth. At the same time, it appears evident that
each organ must have its proper cell, and this cell its proper
mode of impregnative reproduction, just as much as the most
complicated beings of which it forms a part; while-the granu-
lating of the nucleus of a cell to furnish fertilizing germs for the*
process of generation, when a simple division of it only is re-
quired for common reproduction, is perhaps not the least un-
tenable view that may be held on the subject.

In Physactis saccata, Kg., the spherical, terminal cell of the
snake-like filaments is filled or lined with a homogeneous, trans-
lucent substance, in one part of the circumference of which is a’
nucleus, and this part is invariably next the last granuliferous
cell of the filament (fig. 70), which with the four or five fol-
lowing ones unite together to form the elongated club-shaped
sporangium (fig. 7 71). When the sporangium: is completed, the
spherical cell is seen to be united to it by a kind of neck, but
the nucleus and its homogeneous contents have disappeared,
that is, have passed into the sporangium (fig. 71a). While
here and there may be seen spherical cells unattached to (pro-
bably separated from) their filaments, some of which have a gra-
nular substance growing out in a linear form from the nucleus
(figs. 72, 73). Hence then, as we have the nucleus of the sphe-
rical cell applied to the terminal cell of the granuliferous chain,
a tubular prolongation connecting it with the sporangium, the
disappearance of the nucleus and other contents of the spherical
cell after the formation of the sporangium, together with a gra-
nular growth from the nucleus of this cell when the sporangium
is in process of formation, I think it may fairly be inferred, that
the chief part which the spherical cell adds to the sporangium is
this granular growth from its nucleus.

Development of the Ovule.—In Spongilla and Euglypha, this
appears to take place by the passing of the transparent, faint-
yellow film, which lines the interior of the capsule, into an opake,
yellowish, granuliferous membrane ; synchronously with which
it becomes more marginated towards the capsule, and presents,
in the centre, a pellucid area, in the middle of which, again, is
a minute granule or body, which appears to be the rudiment of
the nucleus (fig. 59). Frequently, also, another layer, as before
stated, is seen in the ovules of Spongilla external to the capsular
one, and this appears to be endowed with locomotive power, as
it generally presents a parabolical shape, extended out from one
side of the ovule (fig. 40 a); after which the ovule in each be-
comes transformed, apparently wholly, into a polymorphic, rep-
tant Rhizopod (fig. 397, k). The same process, modified, appears
to take place in the ovules of Huglena. Thus in E. viridis, where

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 235

they are of an oblong shape (and therefore unmistakeable, if
nothing but a legion of this species pregnant with ovules be pre-
sent), they are found like the ovules of Spongilla, viz. scattered
over the sides of the vessel, and evidently have, in like manner,
the power of locomotion in addition to that which both also pos-
sess of turning upon their long axis when otherwise stationary.
This, perhaps, may be partly effected by the external membrane
just mentioned. The pellucid central area in the oblong ovules
of E. viridis corresponds with the oblong shape of the capsule
(fig. 59) ; but beyond this, and the central granule, I have not
been able to follow their development out of the parent ; though,
from the number of young E. virides which present themselves
under the circumstances mentioned, it may reasonably be inferred
that they come from the ovules. The young Euglene, however,
being so rapid in their movements when once the cilium is
formed, it can hardly be expected that, except under a state of
incarceration, their development can be followed so satisfactorily
as that of the slow-moving Khizopod. Instances do occur, how-
ever, where the ovules gain the cilium within the cell, and there
bound about, when fully developed, lke the zoospores of Algze
within their spore-capsules, In this way I have seen them
moving rapidly within the effete transparent capsuled body of
E. viridis and in Crumenula texta, where the spiral fibre layer is
so strongly developed as to retain the form of the Euglena for a
long time after all the soft parts have perished. On these occa-
sions the embryos are perfectly colourless, with the exception of
a central point, which reflects a red tint ; and on one occasion,
while watching a litter in rapid motion within the capsuled body
of E. viridis, the capsule gave way, and they came out one after
another just as zoospores escape from the spore-capsule ; but
from their incessant and vigorous movenient I was unable to fol-
low them long enough to make out anything more about them.
K6lliker also noticed in Euglena “four to six embryos in one
individual, and entirely filling it, which at. last, furnished with
their red points and cilia, broke through their parent, leaving it
an empty case*.” The same kind of development of the ovule
probably takes place in all the Rhizopoda as in Spongilla, and in
Astasia as in Euglena. I have seen young Astasie in the
effete body of an old one, but could not say that the latter was
the parent.

To Stein’s original and valuable observations on the develop-
ment of embryos, arising from the division of the nucleus in
Vorticelle, 1 have already alluded ; and also to M. Jules Haime’s
statements regarding the ovules which he saw in the bodies of

* Quart. Journ. Microscop. Se. vol. i. p. 54, 1853,

236 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

Plesconia, Dileptus, and Paramecium aurelia. Neither, however,
appears to have seen ovules in either of these Infusoria suffi-
ciently distinct to describe their composition in detail.

Lastly, I would advert here to the rhizopodous forms which
Vorticella occasionally appears to assume when under gemmi-
parous reproduction. Stein has described it in Acineta, and I
have since observed it in a Rhizopod undistinguishable from
Ameba Gleichenii; 1 have also seen Vorticelle developed singly
from Acineta; and am now compelled to return to the conclusion
which I doubted formerly, viz. that the rhizopodous development
which takes place in Euglena is a similar passage of the nucleus,
and perhaps certain other contents of this Infusorium, into a
rhizopodous form*. It appears to be as general in the family of
Euglena as in that of Vorticella ; and although these two organ-
isms at first look very different, yet not only is their metamor-
phosis into rhizopodous forms similar, but the sudden contractile
movement at intervals of a species of Glenodinium (Khr., very
nearly the same as G. tabulatum) is so like that of Vorticella, and
Glenodinium is so closely allied to Euglena, that we cannot help
seeing in this act alone a feature which links together Huglena
and Vorticella,—if not also, with other points of resemblance,
the biphorous Tunicata or Salpide.

Hence then, as Vorticella may pass into Acineta or Ameba,
and Huglena also into a rhizopodous cell, and the former may in
its metamorphosis produce young Vorticelle, so perhaps Euglene
may produce young Huglene after a similar manner.

How, then, are we to regard this granulating development of
the nucleus? We have seen that it occurs in Euglypha, where also
there is a distinct development of ovules. Are we to regard it
as the flowering of a dicecious male plant, or as the budding of a
moneecious or bisexual flowering one,—as the impregnating ele-
ment; or as a reproductive gemmiparous one? We can hardly
consider it budding or gemmiparous, because it is a development
of the nucleus itself, which allies it more to fissiparous or dupli-
cative subdivision ; and if this cannot be determined, perhaps it

* This was the original view I took of it. I then conceived it to be a
foreign development, like the rhizopodous cell of the Characez, for it took
place in several Crumenule, which had respectively been enwrapped for a
short time in rhizopodous cells, when I thought the germs of the new de-
velopment might have been introduced into them. Still I wavered in my
opinion, as may be seen in the latter part of my description of this (Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvii. p. 115), and since then I have returned to
the old view, which is that above expressed; for independently of other
evidence in favour of it, Euglena would be an exception to what now seems
to be a general occurrence m organisms closely allied to it, that is, if we
considered this granular metamorphosis of the nucleus into polymorphic,
rhizopodous bodies, a foreign development.

— st"

q

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 237

had better be called “ granulation.”” Gemmez grow out from the
surface, and do not appear to contain any portion of the nucleus
(ex. gr. Vorticelle)* ; neither could I discover an elongated nu-
cleus, as Stein has figured, in the Amebe and Acinete which I
saw developing young Vor ticelle, the former in plurality (one to
three), and the latter singly ; if present in the amcebous form, it
was circular, and if in the Acinete, undistinguishable from the
general “ granulation.”

Again,—Where are these transformations to end? Into what
kind of rhizopods do the sheathed Vorticelle pass? How many
of the freshwater Rhizopoda are alternating forms of Vorticelle ?
How many actinophorous Rhizopods those of Euglene? Wow
many more Infusoria pass into amcebous forms? &e. are questions
originating in Stein’s important discovery, which not only indi-
cate the necessity of further investigation, but a considerable
approaching change in the classification of Infusoria.

It is desirable, also, that I should add here what little more
I have been able to collect respecting the development of the
Monads in the rhizopodous cell, which dwells and multiplies in
the protoplasm of the Characee +. This, it will be remembered,
I conjectured to be by segmentation of parts of the diaphane and
sarcode ; but before making any further observations on the sub-
ject here, I will again premise a brief description of this cell. It
is distinctly a Rhizopod, like Ameba, or the sponge-cell, but of
greater tenuity, and without, so far as my observation extends,
a vesicula ; that is, I have not been able to recognize this organ
in it, though on dying it presents vacuoles. The nucleus, as
before stated, is clear at first, then becomes cloudy, and presents
one or more defined granules, afterwards semi-granular and
opake, and then uniformly g granular throughout, when it appears
to multiply by fissiparation in the parent cell, ‘and thus to give
rise to several daughter-cells, after the manner of a vegetable
cytoblast ; or to grow into an elongated granular body, of whose
ultimate development, while within the living internode of the
Characez, I am ignorant (fig. 93). But when the internode of
Nitella (ex. gr.) is about to die, and this rhizopod seizes upon
the green disks of the periphery and other nutritious matters
of the interior, now deprived of the vitality which kept them
together and thus exposed to the rapacity of the ascendant para-
site, the nucleus undergoes various changes, which arrests of
development at different stages, among the myriads which are

* A similar process takes place in the roots of Chara, where the new
nuclei for the new buds come into existence in the protoplasm surrounding
the old nucleus, but at some little distance from it, after which the old
nucleus perishes.

+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vols. xvi. p. 10, & xvii. p. 115.

238 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

presented to view, seem to elucidate. Thus the nucleus with its
capsule, now surrounded by the nutritive contents enclosed withm
the sarcode, enlarges and passes from its discoid form (elliptical
in the large Ni¢ed/a) into a globular one* : meanwhile the former
becomes distinctly and uniformly granular; the granules en-
large and become refractive ; they assume, en masse, a spheroidal
form enclosed within a cell of their own, and thus become di-
stinct from the capsule; at the same time one or more refractive
(oil ?) globules, or a nucleus, may sometimes be seen in the latter.
While this is going on, a zone of colourless plasma (?) forms all
round the capsule of the nucleus, which thus becomes separated
from contact with the now hardened cell-wall- or pellicula, as
well as from the diaphane and sarcode (fig. 94). The next stage
is the bursting of the proper cell, and passage of the granules
of the nucleus into its capsule, and from thence into the soft
plasmic zone which surrounds it. After this, the plasma assumes
a mulberry shape, and divides up into monads, which feed upon
the enclosed nutritive matters, and are at length seen im the
position of the sarcode and diaphane, now circumscribed by a
transparent delicate membrane, the second pellicular eystt. That
the refractive granules of the nucleus, and portions of the en-
closed nutritive contents, which are coloured brown by the dead
chlorophyll, get into the bodies of the monads, cannot be doubted,
as such matters are seen in them, and could come from no other
source. Frequently, however, cells may be seen, apparently
under an arrest of development, in which the plasmic zone has
assumed a subtuberculated or mulberry form, and the granules
of the nucleus are still in their globular cell within the capsule ;
hence it may be inferred that the segmentation of the plasma
commences before the granules of the nucleus get into it (fig. 96).
Again, in a more advanced but still arrested stage, the capsule
of the nucleus is seen to be empty, and its bright granules, in
the little pouches or mulberry-shaped excrescences of the plasma,
now reduced to a mere membrane by arrest of development
(figs. 97, 98). From which it may also be inferred that each
pouch, which represents a monad, receives one or more of the
granules of the nucleus. Does the tuberculated or mulberry

* I must infer this, because the nuclei in the large species of Nitella, as
well as in Chara verticillata, are all elliptical.

+ Is this degenerated pellicula and diaphane, or a new cyst, composed of
the former only? I am now inclined to the latter theory, here as well as in
Otostoma (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvi. p. 108 & xvii. p. 118 respec-
tively), and that in Ofostoma the ciliated coat is divided up’for the new litter,
while in the rhizopodous cell of the Characez the diaphane and secreting
organ of the pellicular cysts become effete and pass into dissolution. (See
the discussion on this point ante, pp. 117, 118.)

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 239

surface of the plasmie zone, thus under an arrest of develop-
ment, indicate that it has taken this shape from consisting ori-
ginally of a number of ovules enclosed within a globular mem-
brane ; and if so, is the passage of the granules of the nucleus
into them to be considered an act of impregnation? If they
were ovules, then one would think that there would be no oc-
easion to lay up extraneous nutrition for them, more than in
ELuglypha, Spongilla, &e., the ovules of which, after the parent
perishes, remain for a certain time in the effete body, and
ultimately undergo a kind of incubation generally after they
have left the cavity in which they were developed. Again,
though very much like the granulating of the nucleus in Eugly-
pha and Ameba, where the bodies which are thus evolved singly
or in groups generally become endowed with active locomotive
power before they leave the parent; yet in these instances no
plasmic zone around the nucleus preparatory to this has been
observed*. In the present stage of our knowledge, therefore,
we are not able to say whether this be a gemmiparous or a
generative process; whether monads developed in this way are
merely multiplied zoosperms of this organism, or the mixed pro-
duct of a genuine generative process; whether there be, in ad-
dition, an ovular development, as in Luglypha, &ec.; or whether
the monads thus developed soon perish, or become new cells.
Certainly in Spongilla there are two kinds of developments, viz.
the so-called zoospores or monads, and the transformation of the
ovules directly into the sponge-cell: both are polymorphic, and
at first have each (?) a single cilium ; but one being much smaller
than the other, they may perhaps be regarded respectively as
macrogonidia and microgonidia, as Braun has suggested*for the
zoospores of Hydrodictyont. From whence, then, come the so-
called zoospores in the latter—from the granules or the nucleus ?

Lastly, there are two organs in those Huglene (mihi, which
for no just reason Dujardin has separated from this family), viz.
Phacus (Ehr.) and Crumenula teata (Duj.), that I should notice
here, though I am perfectly ignorant of their use. These are
the so-called “red spot,” which in Crumenula teata, where it is
comparatively very large, rests in the form of a small obtuse
cone upon the vesicula; and the glairy capsuled body, which
always exists im the centre of Phacus, and in the long lip of
Crumenula texta, &c.;—in some Huglene there is an undefined

yellowish body here.

~ Of what use the “red spot” or body may be, I am igno-
rant; but it is very common to see matter like that of which

* Actinophrys oculata (Stein), however, presents a nucleus and plasmic
zone of this kind. (See p. 228.) i
+ Ray Soe. Pub. Bot. and Phys. Mems. Joc. cit.

240 Mr, H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

it is composed multiplied throughout the body of Euglena, both
in an amorphous and molecular form, or, when nothing but
the ovules remain in the colourless, transparent, fibrous cells of
the two species mentioned, to sce little granules of it moving
with a more than Brownonian motion among the ovules. Ehren-
berg regarded it as the rudiment of a visual organ; and perhaps
he is right, for there seems to be very little difference between
the pigment of the skin of a Negro and the pigment of the
choroid membrane of his eye, while the latter is confined to
the eye alone in white-skinned people. Again, in some of the
Rotifera, it is not uncommon to see the material of which the
red pigment of the eye is composed, more or less dispersed in a
molecular form, though it is generally confronted by a bluish
refractive matter, corresponding perhaps to the vitreous humour
and lens. Also, in the so-called blind Planaria, there are organs
like eyes with flat corneze, but no pigment ; and when the animal
is about to divide into two across the stomach, the first indi-
cation appears to be an inversion of the integument which is to
form the future eye, and at the same time a covering of it with
cuticle, which thus supplies the cornea. Finally, then, as we
find in the Albino eyes capable of seeing without the presence
of pigment ; the eye formed by an induplication of the skin; the
pigment dispersed over the body, as well as in the eye, in the
Negro, while it is confined to the eye in the white races,—we are
led to the conclusion that the red body in the family of Huglena,
though not necessarily indicating sight, may nevertheless mark
the point where something of this nature exists in this, as well
as in other Infusoria of the kind, although, as in Aséasia, it is
not similarly marked, any more than in many animals wherein
a visual organ is present without this accompaniment.

In a small species of Huglena, which dwells in the brackish
water of the main-drain of Bombay, and which, after having
been placed in fresh water, assumes the still, Protococeus form,
multiplying itself by fissiparation and internal segmentation of
the sarcode, after the manner of vegetable cells, and occasionally
in linear arrangement, like the filamentous Algze,—the red body
is as often omitted as repeated in each cell; while in the active
state, previous to longitudinal deduplication, the red body always
becomes dual, one on each side the vesicula. But in transverse
fission it is frequently absent in the lower half, and only remains
in the longitudinal divisions of the anterior one (fig. 62 a-d). It
is interesting, too, to observe that this body is present in the
gonidia of Ulothrix zonata, one of the filamentous Algz, and that
it also is confined to the first cell in fissiparation, which so far
corresponds with Euglena, that when the latter assumes a fixed
or algoid form, by capsulation, the peduncle of the pellicula is
extended from the anterior, ciliated extremity. This also is the

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 241

part which developes the root-like prolongations in Gdogonium ;
and probably the gonidia of Ulothrix grow after the same man-
ner; in which case the red body would remain in the inferior
half, and not be repeated, as in Euglena, when the latter fissi-
parates, in the still form, transversely.

With reference to the single, glairy, capsuled body which exists
in the centre of Phacus, and in the large lip of Crumenula texta,
also dually in Huglena geniculata (Duj., spirogyra, Ehr.), one on
each side the nucleus (figs. 53 a, 87 a, 88 a), I can state nothing
further than that in the two first it consists of a discoid trans-
parent capsule, which at an early stage appears to be filled with
a refractive, oily-looking matter; that it is fixed in a particular
position, and remains there apparently unaltered, with the ex-
ception of becoming nucleated, until every part of the animalcule
has perished, and nothing is left but the spiral-fibre coat, and
perhaps a few ovules. In Euglena geniculata it 1s bacilliform,
and contains a correspondingly-shaped nucleus ; and although I
can state nothing respecting its uses, [ cannot fail to see that it
has an interesting analogy, particularly in the latter instance, with
two similar organs, which are commonly seen in the Navicule,
and which in N. fulva, ex. gr. are situated in a variable position,
between the nucleus and the extremities on either side (fig. 89.
In this species they make their appearance as little specks,
generally previous to the development of the oil-globules, &c.,
and, enlarging rapidly, assume a globular form, consisting of a
transparent capsule, enclosing a glairy, refractive, oily-looking
fluid. As the starch and oil-globules are developed and subside,
these glairy globules become distinctly nucleated, sometimes
irregular in form, or pedicled to the endochrome-bearing proto-
plasm, and, like their apparent analogues in Crumenula, &c., re-
main in the frustule when everything else has become decom-
posed, or has passed into minute brown-red granules (sporules ?),
when they present a central, glairy, circular nucleus, surrounded
by a double globular capsule, neither of which, hke the globule
in Crumenula, takes any colouring from a solution of iodine. I
need not here go further into the description of this organ in
Navicula : suffice it to say, that it also appears constantly in a large
species of Amphiphora common in the brackish water of the
main-drain of Bombay, where it assumes the form, when fully
developed, of an elliptical body, terminated at each end by a
compressed, truncated, or obtuse elongation, like a barrel, and
is always attached to the circumference of a vesicle (fig. 90 a, a).
I should not have written so much about this organ here, but
as it is not (as, I think, is generally supposed) a common oil-
globule, and we know so little of the organology of the Dvato-
mee, while its oceurrence in Navicula seems to add to the other

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 16

242 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

points of alliance which exist between the Diatomee and Eu-
glene, its mention may not prove useless or uninteresting to
those who are engaged in these studies. Perhaps for the present
we had better call it the “ glair-cell.”

Here I should not omit to add, that the resting-spore or
macrogonidium (Braun) of G2dogonium developes a number of
capsules like the ovules of Euglene ; and that though they occa-
sionally exhibit, under the action of iodine, a blue tint, indicative
of their amylaceous nature, yet when fresh and newly formed,
they only take the brown-yellow one invariably presented by
the ovules of Huglena under the same circumstances. Similar
colourless capsules may also be seen moving about cells of Gido-
gonium whose contents have left their walls, and appear to have
partially progressed towards that of the spore, without having
had strength to assume the globular form ; and these very much
resemble the ovules of Crumenula when moving by the aid of a
cilium within the effete transparent cell. All must allow, from .
what I have stated respecting the cell-contents of Gidogonium
flavescens (Kg.), viz. that under favourable conditions, when the
cell is broken, they can leave it bodily, form into a spore, and
swim about by aid of their cilia, and that the germs of Gidogo-
nium can pierce the sheath of Oscillatoria princeps (Kg.), and ger-
minate between its cells, that these are pheenomena of a kind much
more common in the animal than in the vegetable kingdom.

In conclusion, I have only to remark, that the reader is re-
quested to view all speculative suggestions in this summary of
my “ Notes” as mere cursory observations, introduced for the
purpose of calling attention to subjects which are deemed worthy ©
of consideration ; the study of this part of organic creation being
so much in its infancy, and so intricate, that hardly anything
but that which has received ocular demonstration should be
taken for fact.

P.S.—The following is a good illustration of what I have just
stated. Since writing the above, I have seen numbers of “ pores ”
in the investing membrane of Spongilla, open, remain so, and
close ; admit currents of water, as proved by the presence of par-
ticles of carmine ; which particles were found to have been taken
into the bodies of the sponge-cells and so-called “ zoosperms,”
and afterwards thrown off again as the refuse of food by Ameba.
This last fact establishes the animality of Spongilla. The “ pores,”
at times, appear to be generally closed ; hence the error of my
haying supposed this with a single vent to be the typical form
of the investing membrane of Spongilla, and the consequent in-
ference, that it was thus supported by endosmosis. I shall have
to recur to these facts more particularly hereafter.

Bombay, 10th June 1856.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Oryanizacion of Infusoria. 248

EXPLANATION OF PLATES V., VI., VII.

PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Amcebous cell under spherical distension, about to become plani-
form, from the brackish water in the marshes of the island of
Bombay ; 1-400th of an inch in diameter: (a). pellicula and dia-
phane ; (4) sarcode and granules; (¢) space unoccupied by sar-
code ; (d) nucleus in its capsule.

Fig. 2. Section of ditto through the nucleus, showing the same parts
marked with the same letters: (¢) nucleus ; (d) central cavity now
distended by water.

Fig. 3. Ameba quadrilineata, H. J.C. (n. sp.?), under reptation : (a) dia-
phane ; (b) molecule of sareode; (c) vesicula; (d) nucleus and
capsule ; (e) digestive globule containing a fragment of Oscil-
latoria.

Fig. 4. Ameba Roeselii(?), Duj.: (a) “granules ;” (b) vesicula; (¢) nu-
cleus.

Fig. 5. Ameba Gleichenii (?), Duj.: (a) discoid ovules of different sizes,
the largest 1-2800th of an inch in diameter ; (4) one more mag-
nified showmg the capsule; (c¢) “granules ;” (d) portions of
food; (e) capsule of nucleus empty; (f) vesicula. Animal
about 1-400th of an inch in diameter when spherical.

Figs. 6-8. Ditto, becoming capsuled. 6. First stage, all extraneous matter
thrown off, peduncle formed, but pellicula still admitting of (b)
expansions; (@) ovules and granules. 7. Capsule too much
hardened to admit of expansions of the diaphane. 8. Capsule
formed, rough, yellow, about 1-5UV0th of an inch in long diameter.

Fig. 9. Euglena (viridis, mihi), Ehr., encapsuled, capsule rough, of a yel-
lowish-brown colour : (a) red-body next the peduncle.

Figs. 10-16. Ameba radiosa (?), Duj., showing nucleus in different stages
of “ granulation.” 10. (a) nucleus enlarged, granular. 1]. Nu-
cleus still more enlarged, (12) presenting first suleus of dupli-
cative (?) subdivision. 13. Same process ending in the production
of a mass of spherical, delicate, transparent, granuliferous cells.
14. Parent nearly effete with only two of the spherical cells re-
maining, the granules of which have become large, free, separated
from each other and endowed with rapid locomotive power.
15. One of these cells more magnified. 16. Plane or actino-
phorous form of ditto previous to hardening of the pellicula and
development of the granules.

Fig. \7. Ditto in conjunction.

Fig. 18. Ditto, another pair, just after separation.

Fig. 19. Actinophorous form of a species of Palmellea(?), Kg, like
Gleocapsa granosa, Kg., but with cells, separate and solitary.

Fig. 20. Nucleus of Ameba under “ granulation,” presenting the second
sulcus of duplicative subdivision.

Figs. 21-23. Different forms of botryoidal granuliferous cell-development
of the nucleus in Amebe.

Fig. 24. Ameba Roeselii (?), Duj., presenting a nucleus undergoing botry-
oidal development : (a) mammilliform projection of vesicula pre-
paratory to discharging its contents.

© Fig. 25. Euglypha alveolata, Duj.: (a) sarcode, granules, and molecule ;
(5) nucleus and capsule (the former very seldom visible except in
16*

Fig.

Fig.

ie ag.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

244
— Fig. 26.
— Fig. 27

. 30.
.3l.

32.

33.

34.

37.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

young individuals); (c) particles of food; (d) supernumerary
scales; (d') form of seale. Average length of full-grown test
1-400th of an inch.

Ditto, with body transformed into an ovisac filled with ovules.
Ovule about 1-4000th of an inch in diameter.

. Ditto, presenting a development of delicate granuliferous cells like

those of Ameba radiosa. Cells about 1-4000th of an inch in
diameter: (a) capsule of nucleus which generally remains entire.

. Ditto, showing that the ovules are developed outside the capsule

of the nucleus: (a) opercular closure of the test accompanying
these developments.

. Ditto, showing a separation and development of the granules into

moveable bodies (spermatozids?) within the test: (a) group of
cells entire on their passage outwards. This and the last figure
also show the development of the ovules and granuliferous cells
in the neighbourhood of the nucleus and its capsule, and the
latter apparently growing out of the nucleus.

Ditto, showing ovules and granuliferous cells developed in the
same test, and together: (a) supernumerary scales.

Ovule of Euglypha alveolata more magnified : (a) showing capsule
and nuclear portion; (4) ditto with pellucid area and central gra-
nule; (c) bearing granules. Do these granules indicate an ap-
proaching development of the sarcode, or are they adventitious ?
They do not appear in the early state of the ovule, but generally
before it has left the test, wherein granules like those developed
from the granuliferous cells are frequently seen oscillating round
them. (d) development of external layer or diaphane, now giving
the ovule a rhizopodous form. 31’. Granuliferous cell more mag-
nified ; in this state it progresses under a plane, actinophorous
form, or the granules become large, separate, and exhibit much
activity within the test.

Euglypha alveolata (large variety?), 1-500th of an inch in length,
showing a special apparatus for the development of the granu-
liferous cells: (a) animal (?) transformed into a secondary test ;
(4) cyst containing granuliferous cells; (c) tube for their libe-
ration when they have become locomotive. The same is seen in
the common or smaller variety.

Ditto, ditto, with the granules separated and endowed with active
locomotive power : by shows the structure of the test of E. al-
veolata.

Euglypha alveolata in conjunction ; the granules of each passing
freely backwards and forwards into each other’s tests, as if the
two bodies had been two drops of water thus united. The union
however is only apparent, as we see in the separation of Arcella
vulgaris, which also exhibits a similar conjunction both still and
under reptation.

. Ditto, ditto, separating: (a) the bond of union reduced to a mere

36.

thread.

Ditto, separation of the fleshy substance completed, tests still
united : (a) nucleus in its capsule.

PuaTE VI.

Globular sac of seed-like body of Spongilla, partly filled with
ovules and granules, of different sizes.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 245

Fig. 38. Portion of contents of ditto more magnified : (a) largest ovule of
the group presenting the type of the whole, viz. that of a nearly
colourless cell within a transparent capsule ; (4) granules ; (c) ditto
in connexion with ovules; (d) ovules without a granule. Largest
ovules 1-3000th to 1-2000th of an inch in diameter.

Fig. 39. Series of ovules of Spongilla to show the different degrees of ap-
proximation of the granule. 39 a'—c. Where the granule is ad-
herent to the margin; (f/f) marginal view of ditto; (d) when
adherent to the flat surface of the disk; (g) marginal view of
ditto; (e) two granules in connexion with one ovule; (4) deve-
lopment of the ovule in connexion with a granule which appears
to open into the cavity of the capsule, within which the granular
sarcode is making its appearance ; (7) next stage of development,
im which the ovule has become slowly polymorphic and presents
a vesicula ; (k) when the polymorphism is more active ; (/) ditto,
presenting a cilium; (m) granule (?) transformed into a monad
precisely like the “‘zoosperm.” All these developments take place
in three to five days after the ovules have been pressed out of the
seed-like body into distilled water in a watch-glass.

Fig. 40. Ovule of Spongilla in progress of development to show the pre-
sence of the external layer or diaphane extending from it in a
parabolic form. (It may here be asked, “‘ what becomes of the
‘capsule ’ which is originally so well defined?” This line of de-
marcation between the diaphane and sarcode disappears as soon
as the ovule becomes polymorphic.)

Fig. 41. Ovi-bearing sponge-cell, still polymorphic, from the seed-like
body at an early period, viz. before the capsule is formed. Sphe-
rical form 1-700th of an inch in diameter.

Fig. 42. Form of a sponge-cell which exists in a layer around the young
uncapsuled seed-like body, and probably constructs the capsule.

Fig. 43. Small sponge-cell with so-called “ zoosperm ” attached, from an
old piece of Spongilla.

Fig. 44. Group of so-called “ferment-cells ” from the juice (vulg. “‘toddy ”’)
of Cocos nucifera, under fermentation; to contrast with the ap-
parent budding development of the ovule of Spongilla: (a) va-
cuoles which abound in all these cells. Largest, circular cells
1-2000th of an inch in diameter.

Fig. 45. Astasia limpida, Duj., previous to the formation of ovules:
(a) molecular sarcode ; (6) nucleus; (¢) vesicula ; (d) buccal tube
or proboscis ; (¢) position of anal orifice (?). Length about 1-438th
of an inch. ‘

Fig. 46. Ditto, filled with discoid ovules, of which few are ever found so
large as the largest of Spongilla; they are generally about
1-6000th of an inch in diameter: (a) more magnified view of
ovule showing its capsuled character.

Fig. 47. Ditto, containmg spherical granuliferous cells like those of Ameba
and Euglypha. Ovules atrophied as in Crumenula texta under
similar (?) cireumstances (see Annals, vol. xvii. pl. 9. figs. 11-13) :
(a) granuliferous cell more magnified.

Fig. 48. Ditto, with a botryoidal development (of the nucleus?) of similar
cells: (a) bunch more magnified.

Fig. 49. Euglena viridis in conjunction previous to the formation of
ovules: (a) position of nucleus and capsule; (4) vesicula;
(e) red body; (d) molecular sarcode. Length of largest indi-
viduals 1-200th of an inch.

Fig. 5:

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig . 6

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

56.

60.

61.
62.

65.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

. Euglena viridis, after the formation of ovules ; individuals still

adhering to each other and to the watch-glass in which this was
observed.

. Ditto, subsiding into spherical encystment.
2. Ditto, eneysted. (Although one of each of these pairs is left

blank, both individuals were alike in nature.)

. Crumenula texta, Duj., showing sarcode and its granules, nucleus,

vesicula, red body, and (a) glair-cell; (4) glair-cell more -
nified to show its nucleated character. Length of animalcule
about 1-560th of an inch. (For a figure of the same filled with
ovules or ** embryonic cells,” see /oc. cit.) Ovules about 1-2300th
of an inch in diameter.

Ditto, effete, containing ovules endowed with locomotive power ;
probably from the development of a cilium, which in this instance I
could not see for want of a microscope of higher power. (0, 6) red
ee of material like that of thered body; (¢,d,e)
different phases of the ovule of this specimen more magnified.

. Euglena viridis (large specimen) encysted and filled with ovules.
. Internal, transparent, tough sac holding the ovules (probably a

transformation of the parent): (a) portion of the contents of the
sac to show that they consist of ovules of different sizes, and
granules.

. Ovule more magnified to show its oblong or quadrilateral form in

Euglena viridis: (a) capsule; (4) film of homogeneous matter
lining its interior; (c) pellucid area with central granule. (This
ovule has somewhat progressed in development.)

Effete cell of Crumenula texta, showing that it possesses a ske-
leton cell composed of sigmoid fibres arranged spirally, so as to
assume a conical form: (a) end view; (b,c) form of fibres;
(d) portion of a broken cell. Is not this analogous to the spiral-
fibre of the vegetable cell?

Longitudinal deduplication of Euglena viridis during active life.
Euglena agilis, UH. J. C. (n. sp.?), from the brackish water of the
marshes of Bombay: (a,b,c) Protococcus or still-form after
having been kept in a watch-glass and supplied with fresh water ;
(a) transverse division showing that the red body is not deve-
loped in the lower half; (¢) ditto quadruple, longitudinal divi-
sion showing that the red body is equally multiphed; (d) linear
development (probably by longitudinal division, as the red body
is present in each cell). Animal 1-600th of an inch in length.

. Serpicula verticillata, Roxb. Spine-cell of leaf showing the proto-

plasmic cell or primordial utricle of Mohl. (a) nucleus; (4) green
granules in the reticulate molecular protoplasm (the former cor-
responding to the “granules,” and the latter to the molecular
sareode of the amcebous cell, figs. 1, 2) (?).

. Ditto, cell of body of leaf showing protoplasmic cell in rotatory

motion, carrying round with it chlorophyll-bearing cellules (pro-
bably only an enlarged form of the green granules of the spine-
cell, fig. 64), imbedded in the protoplasm promisecuously. These
two figures are for comparison with the amoebous cell, figs. 1 & 2.
Paramecium aurelia, Ehr.: (a) granules; (b) digestive globules
containing food; (c) buceal cavity drawing in particles of food
for the formation of the new digestive globule at its lower extre-
mity. Length about 1-170th of an inch.

. Ditto; diagrammatic view under compression, showing (a, a) vesi-

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Hl

ig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

67.

. 68.

» f2.
sh

74.

80.

. Vorticella

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 247

cule and the papille respectively through which their contents
appear to be discharged ; (6, 6) radiating lines or vessels consisting
of a concatenation of pyriform and fusiform sinuses. This state
can be only partially seen, viz. when the vesicule are just re-
ceiving the contents of the sinuses; at this moment both may be
observed to be slightly dilated together, but never to the extent
represented in the diagram.

Paramecium aurelia, Ehr.; sketch of, under compression, just
preceding diffluence and death; showing the dilatation of the
proximal sinuses only, and the passage of the rest imto each
other, so as to form continuous vascular channels.

Ditto, not compressed ; showing a lateral view of the vesicule in
situ: (a, a) dilatation of the vesicule pressing wards the prox-
imal sinuses, which are thus shown to open into the inner part of
the vesiculz ; (4) discharge of digestive globule through the anal
aperture ; (c) granules.

. Ditto, in transverse fissiparation, to show the quadrupling of the

vesicule.

. Filament of Physactis saccata, Kg., with terminal spherical cell

previous to the formation of the sporangium ; (a) homogeneous
contents of spherical cell ; (4) nucleus of ditto.

. Ditto, after the formation of the sporangium: (a) spherical cell

now empty and connected with the sporangium by a tubular pro-
longation.

Spherical cell of P. saccata separated from the filament.

Ditto, with a granular development extending from the nucleus.

Puare VII.

Epistylis Galea (?), Ehr., showing (@) entrance of buccal cavity ;
(6, b, b) bueeal cavity with constriction armed with cilia (?);
(ec, ¢) digestive globules in process of formation; (d, d) ditto
formed and containing food ; (e, e) small green zoospores taken
in as food, and showing by their circulating throughout every part
of the body that they are not confined to an intestinal canal;
(f.f ) vesicula opening into the buccal cavity just above the con-
striction; (4) arrow marking the position of the anal aperture;
(gy) cylindrical form of nucleus wrapped round the vesicula and
buccal cavity like the ovary im Salpa; (7) closed individual.

?, presenting a pouch-like extensionof the buccal
cavity in the position of the anal aperture and discharging orifice
of the vesicula: (a2) pouch; (&) vesicula; (e) another individual
passing into the Acineta form.

. V. microstoma, showing the separation of the different organs

under decomposition: (a) vesicula; (b) buccal cavity; (c¢) nu-
cleus; (d) diffluent operculum.

. V. convallaria (?), Ehr., to show (a) granules, (0) nucleus.
. V. microstoma, to show the invisible state of the buccal cavity

during the dilatation of the vesicula, and vice versd: (a) with
vesicula ; (ce) dilated; (4) disappearance of vesicula and reap-
pearance of (d) buccal cavity; (e) nucleus.

. Arcellina vulgaris,: Ebr., showing (a, a) duality of nucleus;

(b, b, b) plurality of vesicula; (¢) granules; (d) filiform attach-
ments of animal to the test. Animal 1-200th of an ich in
diameter.

Difflugia tricuspis, H. J.C. (n. sp.?), showing (@) nucleusy (b) ve-

248 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

sicula in plurality ; (c) podal prolongations with enish elon-
gate “ granules ;”’ (d) tricuspid form of opening of tent 3; (e) fili-
form attachments of animal to the test. Animal 1-320th of an

mch long.

Fig. 81. Ameba quadrilineata, H. J. C., showing two lateral vesiculz (a, a)
about to discharge themselves independently of the large, appa-
rently normal one (4). Animal about 1-350th of an inch in Jength.

Figs. 82,83. Chilodon cucullulus, Ehy., two individuals to show linear con-
tinuation of circular sinuses in one (82), and the vesicula in its
normal position: (a) nucleus; (4) dental apparatus; (c) vesi-
cula; (d) lines of sinuses. 83. To show apparent absence of
vesicula and irregular distribution of contracting sinuses. Animal:
largest size seen 1-320th of an inch in length.

Fig. 84. Spirostoma virens (?), Ehr. Posterior extremity to show dropsical
state of proximal sinuses and vesicula ; the former thus presenting
the appearance of an areolar structure round the latter.

Fig. 85. Bursaria leucas (?), Ehr.: (a) nucleus; (0) vesicula surrounded
by six globular sinuses.

Fig. 86. Himantophorus Charon, Ehr. ; vesicula of, surrounded by dilated
proximal sinuses.

Fig. 87. Euglena spirogyra, Ehr., showing (a) posterior glair-cell with its
broad surface upwards, and cylindrical nuclens; (a’) anterior
glair-cell with its margin upwards ; (0) “nueleus.”” Animal about
1-133rd of an inch in length.

Fig. 88. Phaeus pleuronectes, Duj.: (a) glair-cell and its nucleus ; (d) sup-
posed position of “nucleus.” Animal 1-500th of an inch long.

Fig. 89. Navicula fulva, Ehr., showing the form of its endochrome or
organ bearing this colour: (a, a) glair-cells; (6) nucleus sus-
pended by threads to the endochrome, like those of Spirogyra.
Frustule 1-183rd of an inch long.

Fig. 90. Amphiphora oblonga, H. J. C. (n. sp.?), primary surface showing
form of endochrome after division: (a, a) glair-cells; (a’) one
more magnified. Largestspecimen seen 1-75th of an inch in length.

Fig. 91. Ditto, lateral view ; the margin is of course angular.

Fig. 92. Spherical cells or “ biliary organisms:” (a) one from Otostoma,
H. J. C., containing five or more cellule filled with a bile-coloured
fluid; (a’) one from a binocular Planaria, showing (0) oil-glo-
bule, (c) bile-cellula, (d) lash of cilia; (e) another cell from the
same Planaria, containing four daughter-cells, each of which is
provided with a single bile-cellule; (f) ditto with a single
large bile-cellule in the centre, and several small oil-globules ;
(g) spherical cell from Brachionus Pala, Ehr., presenting one
large bile-cell filled with granules, also a lash of cilia; this bile-
eell has much the appearance of a granulating nucleus.

Figs. 93-93. Rhizopodous cell inhabiting the protoplasm of the Characez,
under different phases to show the early stages of the develop-
ment of the monads. 93. The cell with single nucleus as it exists
im the living protoplasm : (a) pellicula and diaphane ; (4) nucleus
im the capsule; (¢) sarcode containing molecule and greenish
** granules.”

Fig. 94. Ditto after having taken in food (the green cellules of the imter-
node at its death), which is represented by the dark shade:
(a) old pellicula or external cell; (a’) secondary pellicular layer
or internal cell; () food in the midst of the sareode, which, with
the diaphane, now perishes; (c) development of plasmic (?) zone
round the capsule of the nucleus now become globular; (d) nu-

Mr. W. H. Benson on new species of Burmese Helices. 249

cleus subdivided into spherical granules of refractive matter, still
circumscribed by their proper membrane within the capsule ;
(e) nucleolus within this proper capsule which sometimes appears
as a disk of protoplasm, at others as an oil-globule, and at others
in a state of minute granulation.

Fig. 95. Nucleus of Actinophrys oculata after Stein (tab. 5. figs. 25-28.

: op. cit.), to compare with the nucleus and plasmic zone just de-
scribed : (a) *‘ Marksubstanz ;” (6) “ nucleus.”

Fig. 96. Rhizopodous cell of Characez under arrest (?) of generative deve-
lopment: (a) plasmic zone reduced to a membranous (?) state
and presenting a number of pouches on its surface; (5) granules
still within the capsule of the nucleus.

Fig. 97. Ditto, with capsule of the nucleus empty, and its refractive gra-
nules in the pouches of the mulberry-shaped plasmic membrane.

Fig. 98. The mulberry-shaped plasmic membrane, &c. of the foregoing
figure isolated.

XXII.—Descriptions of one Indian and nine new Burmese

Helices; and Notes on two Burmese Cyclostomacea. By
W. H. Benson, Esq.

1. Helix pylaica, n. s., nobis.

Testa obtecte perforata vel imperforata, depresso-conoidea, solidi-
uscula, nitente, superne radiato-costulata, subtus leviori, costulis
evanescentibus, cornea, spira depressa, apice obtuso, sutura im-
pressa ; anfractibus 63 lente accrescentibus, angustis, ultimo antice
vix descendente, subtus convexo, ad periomphalum excavato ;
apertura transversa, angusta, lunato-lineari dente unica elongata
parietali, lamelliformi, alba, coarctata ; peristomate incrassato, ob-
tuso, edentulo, albo, intus strictiusculo, margine externo infra an-
gulum peripheerii sinuato.

Diam. major 9, minor 8, axis 5 mill.

Hab. ad Maulmain. Teste W. Theobald.

This and the following shells were collected by Mr. W. Theo-
bald, jun. It presents a singular resemblance to the North
American H. hirsuta, Say, in the form of the aperture and the
structure of the parietal plait; but there is no disposition to
form teeth on the basal callus as in that shell. It must be in-
cluded in the division Tridopsis of Beck, of which H. hirsuta
and the Burmese H. infrendens, Gould, form a part. A still
nearer approach to the latter species will be found below in
H. capessens.

2. Helix artificiosa, n. s., nobis.

Testa anguste umbilicata, orbiculata, discoidea, nitidiuscula, superne
liris confertis sulcisque profundis spiralibus, costulisque confertis
obliquis decussata, subtus liris remotioribus striisque radiatis ornata,
pallide cornea, spira planulata, interdum omnino planata, apice vix

250 Mr. W. H. Benson on new species of Burmese Helices.

elevato, obtuso, sutura profunda ; anfractibus 6} angustis, lente
acerescentibus, ultimo superne subangulato, subtus convexiusculo ;
apertura sub-anguste lunata, obliqua; peristomate acuto, leviter
sinuato, margine columellari brevissimo, basalique expansiuseulo,
dextro crenulato.

Diam. major 14, minor 12, axis 5 mill.

Hab. ad Phie Than vallis Tenasserim. Teste W. Theobald.

The sculpture of this discoid species is very elaborate, and
strongly pronounced in proportion to the size of the shell, pre-
senting a very beautiful appearance under the lens. The ends
of the spiral lire give a scalloped edge to the outer lip.

3. Helix capessens, un. 8., nobis.

Testa imperforata, depresso-conoidea, superne radiatim costulato-
striata, subtus leeviori, rufo-cornea; spira subconoidea, apice ob-
tusiusculo, sutura impressa; anfractibus 6} convexiusculis, lente
accrescentibus, ultimo acute carinato, antice leviter depresso, subtus
convexiusculo, ad periomphalum excavato; apertura transversa,
angusta, dentibus 3 basalibus zequalibus coarctata, margine recto,
obtuso, vix sinuato.

Diam. major 9, minor 8, axis 4 mill.

Hab. ad Maulmain. Teste W. Theobald.

Nearly related to H. infrendens, Gould, which was found by
Mr. Theobald at the Kangoon Caves on the Salween River, but
easily distinguished by its more depressed form, keeled periphery,
and the more regular dentition of the basal margin. The profile
of the spire is less convex, and the last whorl is depressed in
front below the level of the keel of the penultimate whorl,
whereas in H. infrendens it ascends at the same part. H. capes-
sens forms, with H. pylaica, a notable addition to the restricted
section Tridopsis.

4. Helix convallata, n. s., nobis.

Testa vix perforata, convexo-depressa, tenui, nitidissima, radiato-
striata, translucente, olivaceo-cornea ; spira convexiuscula, apice
prominulo obtuso, sutura profunde canaliculata; anfractibus 6
conyexis, lente accrescentibus, prope suturam acute angulatis, ul-
timo rotundato, non descendente, subtus convexiusculo ; apertura
vix obliqua, lunata; peristomate acuto, superne prope suturam
angulato, antrorsum leviter arcuato, margine columellari oblique
descendente, expansiusculo.

Diam. major 14, minor 114, axis vix 7 mill. Apert. lata 7, alt. 5 mill.

Hab. ad collem Therabuin vallis Tenasserim. Detexit W. Theobald.

Singular among the allies of Helix vitrinvides on account of
the excavated canaliculate suture with a carinate margin.

-
ee ee

Mr. W. H. Benson on new species of Burmese Helices. 251
5. Helix Hariola, n. s., nobis.

Testa perforata, subturbinata, tenui, Batis striatula, striis minu-
tissimis confertissimis spiralibus sub lente ornata, non nitente,
diaphana, purpureo-cornea, strigis opacis, albis, laciniatis, fascias
duas latas efformantibus, picta ; spira conoidea, apice obtuso,
sutura impressa; anfractibus 43 convexiusculis, ultimo ad_peri-
pheriam obtuse angulato ; apertura obliqua, late lunata;_peri-
stomate tenui, albido, margine dextro, basalique expanso, colu-
mellari laminam triangularem dilatatam, umbilicum subtegentem
efformante.

Diam. major 15, minor 13, axis 103 mill. Apert. 63 mill. longa,
8 lata.

Hab. ad Thyet Myo, prope ripas Irawadi fluvii. Detexit W. Theobald.

The interspace between the opake bands forms a dark girdle
below the angle, and the periomphalus is similarly coloured.
The shell is more depressed in form and destitute of a keel, but
singularly like the rare H. Capitium, Bens., in colouring. Since
the discovery of the latter species by Capt. Boys, at the foot of
the Rajmahal Range near Sikrigali, it has not been met with by
any naturalist in that quarter ; “put all imperfect specimen of a
very rare Helix met with by Mr. Theobald in the hills above
Cuttack, 400 miles to the southward of its original habitat,
proves to be a young H. Capitium.

6. Helix bifoveata, nu. s., nobis.

Testa umbilicata, oblato-globosa, utrinque concava, oblique striata,
minutissime granulata, luteo-fusca, translucente; spira profunde
excavata, perspective umbiliciformi ; anfractibus 4} angustis, con-
vexis, recedentibus, ultimo prominente, superne compresso, glo-
boso, czeteros occultante, subtus circa umbilicum mediocrem per-
spectivum compresse angulato ; apertura verticali longissima utrin-
que testam superante, angustissime lunata, superne et infra suban-
gulata; peristomate simplici, acuto, expansiusculo, marginibus
remotis convergentibus, columellari brevi subverticali, leviter
expanso.

Diam. major 10, minor 9, axis 6 mill. Long. apert. 7, lat. vix 2 mill.

Hab. ad collem Therabuin vallis Tenasserim raro. Detexit W. Theo-
bald.

This is the most singular among the planorbular Helices
which exhibit a concavity, and, as it were, an umbilicus on the
spiral, as well as the basal face of the shell. The parietes of the
true or basal umbilicus are more vertical than those of the
spiral depression, and the excavation is deeper. The sculpture
is peculiar, consisting of lines of granules crossing each other
obliquely.

The published species most nearly related to H. bifoveata are
H. Omicron, Pfr., H. Shuttleworthi, and H. Calculus.

252 Mr. W. 11. Benson on new species of Burmese Helices.

7. Helix pansa, n. s., nobis.

Testa perforata, conoideo-depressa, confertim oblique striata, subtus
nitida, radiatim striatula, translucente, fusco-cornea ; spira convexo-
conoidea, apice prominulo, glabro, nitido, sutura leviter impressa ;
aufractibus 6 lente accrescentibus, convexiusculis, ultimo’ ad peri-
pheeriam subearinato, subtus convexiusculo ; apertura obliqua, late
lunata; peristomate recto acuto, margine columellari oblique de-
scendente, superne breviter reflexo.

Diam. major 14, minor 13, axis 6} mill. Apert. 5 longa, 7 lata.

pon oR Akaouktoung prope ripas Jrawadi fluminis. Detexit W.Theo-

ald.

Allied to the Sikkim form, Helix tugurium, nobis.

8. Helix Bolus, m. s., nobis.

Testa subaperte perforata, globosa, tenui, oblique striatula, striis
minutissimis confertissimis spiralibus, sub lente, sculpta, nitidula,
trauslucente, pallide cornea, interdum fascia unica rufa supra peri-
pheeriam ornata ; spira conoidea, apice obtusiusculo, sutura leviter
impressa ; anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo inflato; apertura
vix obliqua, rotundato-lunari; peristomate tenui, expansiusculo,
albido, margine columellari latiori, superne perforationem subte-

gente.
Diam. major 14, minor 12, axis 103 mill.
” ” 153, ” 14, ” 114 ”

Apert. majoris 9 mill. longa, 8 lata.
Hab. ad Prome. Detexit W. Theobald.

This shell varies in being more or less globose in the last
whorl, some specimens presenting a subturbinate appearance.
The band is indifferently present or absent in each variety.

9. Helix textrina, un. s., nobis.

Testa perforata, depressa, superne lineis radiatis et spiralibus rugose
decussata, pallide rufescente, subtus leeviori, lactea ; spira planius-
cula, apice obtuso, sutura leviter compressa ; anfractibus 53 sub-
planulatis, sensim accrescentibus, ultimo supra peripheeriam angu-
lato ; apertura late lunari; peristomate acuto, vix expansiusculo,
margine columellari oblique descendente, superne brevissime re-
flexo.

Diam. major 29, minor 25, axis vix 13 mill. Apert. 15 mill. lata,
10 alta.

Hab. ad Thyet Myo. Detexit W. Theobald.

Allied to H. labiata, Pfeiffer, a Western Himalayan shell, but
differing in its more depressed form, peculiar sculpture, like that
of the upper part of H. ligulata, by its more widely lunate aper-
ture, and by the absence of any true labiation. The colour may
be more pronounced in fresher specimens.

Mr. W. H. Benson on new species of Burmese Helices. 253

The spire is more depressed and the apex less prominent than
in H. Theodori, Phil.; the shell also is more solid, the aperture
wider, and the columellar lip descends more horizontally.

10. Helix Laidlayana, n. s., nobis.

Testa constricte perforata, sinistrorsa, turbinato-depressa, tenui, ob-
lique striata, striis confertissimis spiralibus decussata, nitidiuscula,
translucente, albida, fascia 1 supera angusta, rufo-castanea, peri-
phzeriam tangente, interdum | supera lata, et altera infera remo-
tiuscula ornata ; periomphalo et pariete aperturali castaneis ; spira
depresse conoidea, apice obtusiusculo, sutura leviter impressa ;
anfractibus 5 sensim accrescentibus, ultimo ad peripheeriam angu-
lato, antice breviter descendente, subtus convexo ; apertura valde
obliqua, subquadrato-lunata ; peristomate recto, acuto, margine co-
lumellari subrecte descendente, anguste reflexo, perforationem con-
strictam subtegente. :

Diam. major 27, minor 23, axis 15 mill. Apert. 15 mill. lata, 13}
alta.

Hab. in Provincia Bengalensi Bheerbhoom, ubi exemplum unicum
junius detexit J. W. Laidlay ; nuperrime in Provincia Orisse,

non procul ab urbe Cuttack, exempla majora non raro invenit
W. Theobald.

Named after a former Secretary of the Asiatic Society of
Calcutta, to whom I am indebted for a specimen found by him
many years ago in the region of the late Santhal insurrection.
The rediscovery of the shell in about 20° N. lat., as well as the
detection of H. Capitium in the same quarter, shows that these
species range through nearly 5 degrees of latitude. The colour-
ing of H. Laidlayana has much resemblance to that of H. quesita,
Fér., but the shell has nearer relations to H. interrupta, nobis,
and H. trifasciata, Mull. It differs from H. interrupta in colour,
depressed form, greater number of whorls, contracted perfo-
ration, descent of the last whorl above the aperture, and in the
‘disposition of the bands. When a single broad dark band is
present in interrupta, it touches the angulate periphery. From
H. 3-fasciata it differs in lustre, less depressed form, want of
solidity, contracted perforation, more vertical columellar lip, and
in the disposition of the bands, that which is above the periphery
in 3-fasciata never touching the angle. The colour of the peri-
omphalus and parietes of the aperture is also peculiar.

Among the known Burmese Helices, H. Achatina, Gray (an-
guina, Gould), var. 8B, Pfr., was taken by Mr. Theobald at Maul-
main, and at the Kangoon Caves on the Salween River. A
small variety of H. refuga, Gould, occurred at Kwadouk, near
Thyet Myo, on the Northern Frontier, and an interesting dex-

wo

54. Mr. J. Lowe on Salix Andersoniana.

trorse variety at Phie Than in the Tenasserim Valley. A fragment
of H. Saturnia, Gould, was also sent from that valley, where
H. retrorsa and anceps, Gould, were found abundantly, and H.
Theodori, Phil., very sparingly. A shell, apparently referable as
a variety to the Darjiling H. Castra, nobis, was once met with
at Pya, between Maulmain and Tavoy. Hela Merguiensis, Ph.,
H. gabata, Gould, a small var. of H. delibrata, nobis ( procumbens,
Gould), and H. honesta, Gould, occurred both at Maulmain and
in the valley of the Tenasserim River, where H. resplendens, Ph.,
was not rare. The widely spread H. stmilaris, Fér., is noted from
Thyet Myo and Prome, on the river frawadi, and a sharply-
keeled variety of H. rotatoria, V. d. Busch, hitherto supposed to
be peculiar to Java, inhabits the banks of the same river, lower
down, at Akaouktoung. None of the Helices, described by Gould
or others from the former dominions of the Burmese Empire,
appear to have escaped the researches of Mr. Theobald, who has
added largely to the list, several other species of Hela remain-
ing to be described.

Rhaphaulus (Anaulus and Megalomastoma) Chrysalis, Pfr.,
from Maulmain, in a more perfect condition than the type spe-
cimen, shows a much longer tube running up the penultimate
whorl than either bombycinus or Lorraini, Pfr., and its colour is
a rich chestnut. A dead specimen of Megalomastoma sectilabre,
Gould, from Yanglaw on the Tenasserim River, confirms an opi-
nion communicated last year to Pfeiffer, and derived from Gould’s
and Mason’s observations, and from a view of Pfeiffer’s supposed
specimen of sectilabre from Borneo, that, although allied to, it
was quite distinct from my Bornean M. Anostoma, with which
Pfeiffer had believed it to be identical. The channel in M. Ano-
stoma (Annals, 1852, vol. x. p. 269-270) is on the inner lip, as
in M. altum, Sow. In sectilabre it appears on the right lip, near
the top of the aperture. The latter is a more solid shell, with
the spire more slender and longer in proportion ; the suture is
distinctly marginate ; the peristome is white (not coloured, as in
M. Anostoma), and presents a contrast with the orange-chestnut
interior of the aperture ; the apex also is not pale or white, as in
the Bornean species.

Cheltenham, 30th July 1856.

XXIII.—On an Abnormality in the Flowers of Salix Ander-
soniana. By Joun Lowe, Esq.*

In the year 1841, the Rev. J. E. Leefe communicated to this
Society a paper, entitled ‘ Remarks on some curious Metamor-

* Read to the Edinburgh Botanical Society, July 10th, 1856.

i a ie a ain i

Mr. J. Lowe on Salix Andersoniana. 255

phoses of the Pistil of Saliz Caprea.’ A short time since, I ob-
served a corresponding set of changes occurring in the male
flowers of Salix Andersoniana. These, as forming, with those
of Mr. Leefe, a complete series of morphological changes, may
not be unworthy the Society’s notice. The changes observed by
Mr. Leefe in Sali Caprea consist of a gradual conversion of the
pistilline into staminal organs, each step in the process being
clearly explained by the plate which is given with his paper m
the 1st volume of the Society’s ‘ Transactions.’

In the present specimens we have just the opposite, viz. the
stamens becoming converted into ovaries, and this by every con-
ceivable gradation.

The plant from which these were taken grows about half a
mile below Cramond Bridge near Edinburgh; it is to all appear-
ance strong and healthy, and in the majority of its flowers there
was no observable alteration. ;

Fig. 1. is a floret whose filaments are partially united at the
base; in other respects it is perfectly normal. The scales and
glands in this as in the other florets present nothing unusual.

Fig. 2. The stamens still further united, giving the filament
a forked appearance.

Fig. 3. represents one of the stamens of the last figure con-
verted into an ovary which bears a pollen-mass on its inner
edge; the other stamen is unaltered.

Fig. 4. A still more advanced condition. The ovary has no
vestige of pollen-cells, but at the base is the remaining anther,
sessile.

Fig. 5. shows each stamen converted into a carpel and bear-
ing an antherine mass. The styles have each but one stigma.

Fig. 6. The two ovaries are here nearly united, but have a
fissure superiorly in which are the remains of the anthers. The
styles are distinct and monostigmatous.

Fig. 7. The fissure seen in last figure has disappeared by the

256 Mr. J. Lowe on Salix Andersoniana.

union of the styles; a pollen-mass still remains on the side of
the united ovaries.

Fig. 8. A complete and well-formed ovary.

I ought to remark here that these figures are not intended to
represent the progressive development of the ovary as shown by
any individual floret, but simply the different stages which may
be traced in a number of florets and which may be reasonably
regarded as successive.

We may now consider the cause of these phenomena and the
laws which govern formations of this nature,

The generally received opinion regarding the production of
dicecious flowers is that each flower is rendered unisexual by the
suppression of the other sexual whorl, and though this maybe
mainly true of many dicecious plants, it does not appear to ex-
press the whole truth with respect to dicecious Amentiferz.

Dr. Braun in his ‘ Rejuvenescence of Nature,’ states that both
kinds of sexual organs are derived from the same leaf, or as he
expresses it, “the same leaves appear in the male as stamens and
in the female as carpels.” In other words, the leaf which fails
to produce a male will give rise to a female organ, and vice versd.
Hence, though it is perfeetly correct to say, that there is an
arrest of development when stamens are alone produced, it is
otherwise with respect to female organs, since there is here not
an arrest but an exaltation of development.

These specimens illustrate also the parts of the leaf which
give origin to the different parts of the essential organs ; thus, the
anther gradually merging into the carpel shows that it is derived
from the lamina of the leaf (the fact of the carpel being formed
by the lamina of the leaf beimg ascertained by morphological
changes in other plants). The pollen observed on the edge of
the ovary in fig. 5, would encourage the idea that pollen is
merely a gemmiferous condition of the lamina of the leaf. And,
lastly, we may allude to the gland, which, although not pre-
senting any peculiarity in the present specimens, | have never-
theless found in others assuming a very interesting form. I am
not aware that the question has been mooted as to what is its
real morphological value. It might be assumed to represent an
abortive stamen, but that we find it present in those Salices
which may be regarded as having their staminal whorl complete,
Salia pentandra for instance. Moreover it is found to be placed
opposite the interval in flowers which have only two stamens,
thus having an alternate arrangement. I have little doubt,
especially since meeting with the specimen shown in fig. 9, where
there are two glands alternating with the stamens, that they re-
present the corolla. Regarding the scale as the calyx, we have
thus the various whorls of the flower complete.

Mr. P. H. Gosse on Cardium exiguum. 257

XXIV.—Cardium exiguum :—i/s Siphons and its Byssus.
By Purxie H. Gossr, F.R.S.

{With a Plate. ]

A minute Cockle (Cardium eaxiguum), about one-fourth of an
inch in diameter, and of a pure white hue, was dredged by me in
Weymouth Bay, May 13th, 1855, and was deposited i in one of
my aquaria. For some time after I had domiciled it I saw no
more of it, and supposed it was lost; but one day my attention
was arrested while looking with my lens through the glass side,
along the edge of the bottom-rubbish, by an object which I
knew not what to make of. From the midst of the floccose
matter a very minute bladder was projected, the motions of
which were so vivacious as to cause me no little surprise and spe-
culation as to what manner of thing it might be. After vainly |
trying to decipher it by mere gazing, I ventured carefully to
clear away some of the rubbish on each side with a pin-point
fastened to a stick ; when I discovered my tiny friend, the Cockle.
No trace, it is true, was now to be seen of the bladder, but after
a few minutes I saw it again, and understood the mystery; not
indeed all at once, but by degrees, and by repeated examinations.
The facts I thus learned I will now record.

In the great spinous Cockles (C. aculeatum, &c.) the ejecting
or anal siphon is formed closely like the receiving or oral one,—
a simple orifice, surrounded by filiform tentacles. But in this
pigmy species the anal orifice is crowned by a semi-elliptical sac,
which at the instant of opening the valves for the renewing of
respiration is projected with a jerk. This sac is composed of
membrane of the most extreme delicacy, and of such transpa-
rency that it would be utterly invisible but for rows of minute
opake-white dots that run down it longitudinally. It terminates
in a cireular aperture, whose width is about half that of the
greatest diameter of the sac; but from the sensitiveness and
contractility of the membrane, the form and dimensions of the
orifice slightly vary. Its edges are not in the least thickened,
and they are with the greatest difficulty detected, except by the
termination of the macular lines just mentioned. In some cir-
cumstances it is protruded to a much greater extent than in
others, forming a very elongated ellipse, and extending to the
length of 4th of an inch, or little less than the transverse dia-
meter of the valves. I for a time thought it was projected by
the evolution of its walls; but on more careful examination, I
saw that the sides collapsed into a wrinkled thread when the
jet ceased, and were instantly distended, with force, when it was
renewed.

The movements of this organ, though not extensive, are
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 17

258 Bibliographical Notices.

indicative of great sensibility. It is continually contracting and
dilating both laterally and longitudinally ; bends quickly from
side to side; twitches spasmodically ; and occasionally contracts
or constricts one part without altering the rest. The ejection of
the effete water from it is continuous while the organ is pro-
truded, and sufficiently forcible to make the current visible at the
distance of upwards of an inch from the orifice. The receiving
current however is intermittent. The siphon through which
this latter passes is a short truncate column, the edge of
which is set with about fifteen short incurved tentacles, separated
from each other at their bases by more than their own diameters.
This column, when withdrawn, first becomes oval, and then col-
lapses ; the sides coming into contact as the valves close over it.

I am not aware that any one has included the Cockles among
the byssus-spinners. This little species however exercises the
faculty freely. It crawls up the glass sides of my aquarium, or
up a phial, six inches or more in a few hours, moving itself by
seyeral diverging threads of varying length; and frequently,
when disturbed, hanging by one alone, after the others have
been cast off. I watched the process of spinning, which did not
differ from what I have observed in other byssiferous Conchifera.
The tiny white foot was protruded, and pressed against the
glass for a few seconds; during which a slit, with mobile fleshy
lips, was opened in its upper edge, not reaching to the tip, but
terminating at about two-thirds of its length from the base.
When the foot was withdrawn, two threads were found attached
to the glass by minute sucking buttons. All the time of the
process I perceived that the terminal, ungrooved portion of the
foot, which was pellucid, seemed to be permeated by a central
eanal through which a fluid was percolating. Such at least was
the appearance.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. 5. represents Cardium exiguum, with the siphons extended; magnified
5 diameters.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

An Introduction to Entomology, or Elements of the Natural Histor
of Insects, By Wiu1t1am Kirsy, M.A., F.R.S, F.L.S., =
WixtiiaM Spence, F.R.S., F.L.S. Seventh Edition. Sm. 8vo.
London, Longmans, 1856.

Arrer the long period during which this work has occupied a high
place in our entomological literature, almost all that remains for us
to do is to announce to our readers the appearance of this ‘‘ new and
cheaper” edition of the ‘ Introduction to Entomology.’ It comprises
only the first two volumes of the original edition, containing what may
be termed the popular portion of the book, and is in fact a reprint of

ta tn

_———s

Bibliographical Notices. 259

the sixth edition of these two volumes, which were published sepa-
rately some years since.

Considering the exceedingly low price at which this volume of
upwards of six hundred pages is offered to the public, it is certainly
very well got up, although we are sorry to see a good many misprints
in its pages, which one would think might easily have been avoided
ina work which has been so often printed. The entomologist perhaps
may find these but trifling difficulties, but many of them will prove sad
stumbling-blocks in the way of the ordinary reader. We should
have been glad also to have seen a few alterations in the notes in some
parts of the work, as for instance at page 155, where the reader is
referred to Mr. Westwood’s ‘ Introduction’ for an “ account of the
facts hitherto recorded respecting’ the Strepsiptera, although Mr.
Westwood’s book, having been published before the history of these
singular insects was cleared up by the researches of Von Siebold and
others, must necessarily give a very erroneous view of the present
state of our knowledge of their mode of life. ;

An interesting appendix is formed by the addition to the volume of
the account furnished by Mr. Spence to Mr. Freeman’s Life of the
Rey. W. Kirby, of the origin and progress of the ‘Introduction to
Entomology,’ with particulars of the portions which are principally
due to each author.

Ferny Combes: a Ramble after Ferns in the Glens and Valleys of
Devonshire. By Cuartotre Cuanter. London, Reeve, 1856.

This is a pleasant little volume, written in a simple style, and com-
mending itself alike to the tourist and valetudinarian, whom it would
fain lead through some of the beauties of the ‘ far west,’—and whom
it would seek to inoculate with that love of natural history which
unfolds a new volume of hidden stores to the temporary sojourner
*midst Arcadian scenes, converting the barren moor, and bleak upland
waste, into a paradise. Although its main object is, as indeed its
title would imply, to point out localities for those species of our ferns
which the authoress has detected in the fairy Combes of Devon, yet
she distinctly disclaims any intention of entering the realms of science :
«[ write,” says she, “for the votaries of health and pleasure, not for
votaries of science. I write for those of less cultivated intellect, who,
with an innate taste and love for all that is beautiful and divine in
nature, too often wander in darkness where even a little knowledge
would open to them worlds of light in the animal and vegetable king-
doms,—provided not only for use, but for endless interest and research
into the works of their Creator.” Her delineations of the country
through which she conducts us are truthful and good,—clearly ema-
nating from the pen of an observer, and bearing no evidence (as is
too frequently the case in similar publications) that she has merely
compiled from the works of others. The description (p. 17) of the
inconveniences of a ‘ Devonshire lane’ is marvellously correct ; and
to us, who have wandered, over and over again, through these ‘arva
beata,’ prying into every nook and crevice between the limits of
Lynton and Lundy, and have marked (to our cost) the sudden

17*

260 Zoological Society :—

change which comes over the ‘ face of the deep’ when the bold pro-
montory of Hartland affords us no longer its friendly shelter on our
passage to the ‘isle of rats,’ her remarks are painfully suggestive of
the past: ‘ Ah! how the coast and sea alter as you pass Hartland
‘Point ! No gentle wavelets ripple over the sand, but sturdy Atlantic
billows, rolling in from the far west, come bounding over the stony
strand, and leap high into the air as they strike against the project-
ing masses of rock.” (p. 26.)

Her picture, too, of Clovelly is manifestly ‘drawn from the life ;’ as

is also that of the entrance into it, by the well-known ‘‘ Hobby-drive,” _

—‘‘a road terraced along the cliff, winding in and out through deep
wooded glens and over trickling streams ; whilst, below, the blue sea
shines between the branches, and the waves make gentle moan upon
a beach you cannot see” (p. 28). Clovelly is indeed a wonderful
spot, and “any one,”’ says our authoress, ‘‘ who would venture down
its street must leave his dignity behind him, and get down as best he
can,—fortunate if he have not a hard tumble or two by the way.”
Another writer has aptly deseribed it as “a small fishing-village built
on the steep slope of a cliff, and looking almost as if the whole place
had been wrecked from some large ship, and had cleverly contrived
to scramble on shore, and clamber up the rocks just beyond high-
water mark, but had never been able to reach the summit *.”’

In the concluding portion of her volume, Mrs. Chanter pilots us
through the ‘ pixied haunts’ of Dartmoor, and leads us into many a
wild and unvisited retreat. From the top of Lustleigh Cleve she
surveys, amidst craggy Tors, the teeming valleys beneath,—and
taking up her harp, in all the warmth of a poetic imagination,
exclaims: ‘‘It is a place in which one longs to linger and drink im
all its charms. It is a place from which one cannot turn without a
sigh of regret ; a place that comes back in pleasant dreams of happy
hours ; a place one seems to have known somewhere, somehow,—
long, long ago.” (p. 67.)

The last chapter of this little book contains some directions on
the cultivation of ferns, and the three or four preceding ones de-
scriptions of the species of these plants, referred to in other parts of
the work. These descriptions appear to be copied for the most part
from Mr. Moore’s works, and they are illustrated by some pretty
good coloured figures.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 13, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.
CHARACTERS OF SOME APPARENTLY New Species or Bucco-
nip. By Puirie Lurtey Scrarer, M.A., F.L.S.

1]. Bucco HYPERRHYNCHUS.
Tamatia hyperrhynchus, Bp. MS. et Consp. Vol. Zygodact. p. 13.
B. supra fulgenti-niger ; fronte lata et superciliis anticis albis :

* June: a Book for the Country in Summer-time. By H. T. Stainton
(London, 1856), p. 64.

i i

Mr. P. L. Sclater on some new species of Bucconide. 261

subtus albus, nigro late torquatus ; lateribus nigro radiatis :
rostro maximo.

Long. tota 10°5; ale 4°5; caudz 3°5; rostria rictu 2:1.

Hab. In regionibus fl. Amazonum superioris (ZZawawell). Mus.
Paris. et P. L.S.

When I drew up the characters of Bucco macrorhynchus, as given
in the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’ for May 1854, p. 357, I had not in my
possession specimens of the true macrorhynchus from Cayenne, and
consequently confounded with it the present bird. But the much
larger size of the bill and whole body, the greater extension of the
white colour on the front, the narrower black band and the total
absence of any fawn-coloured tinge on the belly and vent are quite
sufficient to distinguish this Bucco from its Cayenne representative.

I have lately ascertained, through the kindness of Prince Bona-
parte, that this is the species included under the name Tumatia
hyperrhynchus in his Conspectus Volucrum Zygodactylorum, pub-
lished in the ‘ Ateneo Italiano’ of May last, and I have therefore
adopted his specific designation. But no descriptions have yet
appeared of the many new species of which the names only are inserted
in that and other similar recent publications of the Prince.

The type specimens of the present bird are in the French National
collection.

2. Bucco pysoni.

Tamatia gigas, Bp. Consp. Vol. Zygodact. p. 13 ?

Bucco dysoni, G. R. Gray in Mus. Brit.

B. supra fulgenti-niger ; fronte usque ad oculos et collari postico
albis : subtus albus ; vitta pectorali lata nigra ; lateribus nigro
variis ; rostro pedibusque nigris.

Long. tota 9°7; ale 4:5; caude 3°4; rostri a rictu 1°8.

Hab. In America Centrali, Honduras (Dyson). Mus. Brit.

Obs. Species a Buccone macrorhyncho fronte latius albo, rostro
majore, et ventre pure albo, a Buccone hyperrhyncho rostro minore
et fronte minus albo diversa, et inter has duas media locanda.

A single specimen of this bird in the British Museum was procured
by Mr. Dyson in Honduras. In my Synopsis of this family I have
confounded it with its near affines, from which I now think, as
might have been expected from the locality, it will bear separation.
It is very probable that Prince Bonaparte’s name, gigas (which was
applied to a bird brought by Delattre from Nicaragua), was intended
for this same species, but as the type has disappeared, and no
specific characters have been published for the name, it is difficult
to be certain on that point.

3. Bucco PULMENTUM.

Tamatia (Nyctactes) pulmentum, Bp. et Verr. MS.

B. supra fusco-brunneus; fronte et superciliis rufescentibus ;
torque angusto nuchali inconspicuo albido ; dorsi medii alarum
uropygiique plumis partim fulvo terminatis: subtus albus ;
gutture inferiore pallide rufescente ; plaga utrinque gutturak

262 Zoological Society :— a

magna cum maculis crebris pectus totum et ventrem (precipue
ud latera) occupantibus atris: rostro nigro.

Long. tota 5-0; ale 3:1; caudz 2°5.

Hab. In Peruvia Orientali et regionibus fl. Amazonum superioris :
Pebas (Cast. et Dev.): Chamicurros (Hawzrwell). Mus. Paris.,
Joh. Gould et P.L.S.

Obs. Sp. Bucconi tamatie affinissima, sed gula pallidiore et
maculis ventris majoribus et intensioribus differt.

This appears to be a western representative of the B. tamatia of
Cayenne, from which, however, I think it may be fairly separated.
MM. Verreaux of Paris have lately received a considerable number
of specimens of it from the Upper Amazon, They all present the
same distinctive characters as are above noticed.

“4. MonaSA PERUANA.

Monasa peruana, Bp. et Verr. MS.

M. plumbescenti-nigra, capite et gutture intensioribus ; fronte et

menti summa parte albis : rostro ruberrimo.

Long. tota 11°0; ale 5:0; caude 4°5.

Hab. 1a Peruvia Orientali in regionibus fl. Amazonum superioris :
Chamicurros (Hawawell). Mus. Joh. Gould et P.L.S.

Obs. Simillima M. personate sed rostro clarius rubro, mento ad
ipsam apicem solum albo haud nisi dubie disjungenda.

My specimen of this bird was obtained from the MM. Verreaux,
and carries the MS. name above quoted, which I have thought it as
well to adopt. The characters which separate it from its well-known
Brazilian representative are certainly very slight, but appear to be
constant in at least a dozen examples I have examined from the
same locality.

5. Bucco PIcATUs.

B. supra niger ; plaga in summis scapularibus utrinque magna et
maculis in pileo rotundis cum loris albis: subtus albus; vitta
lata pectorali nigra: cauda nigra, rectricibus tribus utrinque
extimis in medio et harum omnium apicibus albo maculatis :
rostro pedibusque nigris.

Long. tota 6°7 ; ale 3°2; caude 2°3.

Hab. In reg. fl. Amazonum superioris ; Chamicurros (Hawawell).

Mus. Joh. Gould.

Obs. Species Bucconi tecto forsan nimium affinis, et ob crassitiem
majorem, torquem pectoris latiorem et caudam minus albo maculatam
non sine dubio constituenda.

Mr. Gould’s collection contains two examples of this bird, which
he has entrusted to me for comparison with its Cayenne representa-
tive. It is not, however, without hesitation that I have determined
to separate them from it. Besides their larger size and broader
breast-band, the white medial square spot extends in the present
species only through the three lateral rectrices, with a slight trace of
it in the fourth. .

In the Cayenne bird the outer five pairs are all strongly marked

thus. The whole plumage of the bird is also generally more intensely
black.

st 3} ee =

os ge

Dr. J. E. Gray on new species of Freshwater Tortoises. 263

6, MaLAcoPriLa NIGRIFUSCA.

Malacoptila fusca, ex Bogota, Sclater, P. Z.S. 1855, p. 136.

M. nigricanti-brunnea, plumarum scapis pallide fulvis ; loris et
plumis mystacalibus cum plaga triangulari super-pectorali
albis : ventre medio crissoque fere unicoloribus, albicantioribus ;
rostrt basi lete aurantia, apice nigro; pedibus nigricanti-
brunneis.

Long. tota 6°5; alee 3°5; caudz 2°5.

Hab. In Nova Granada, Santa Fé de Bogota. Mus. Brit. et Joh.

Gould.

Obs. Sp. Malacoptile fusce affinissima sed statura minore et
coloribus nigricantioribus: rostri basi leetius aurantia.

This New Grenadian bird, which in my Synopsis of this family and
List of Bogota birds I united with the true fusca of Cayenne, cer-
tainly presents considerable claims for specific distinction. The
body is generally smaller, the bill in particular is shorter and not so
strong, and at the base is of a deep orange colour instead of pale
yellow, the black not extending so far towards the base of the upper
mandibles ; the markings on the head, throat and breast also, are
much blacker, and I have therefore named the bird nigrifusca.
There are specimens of it in the British Museum and in Mr. Gould’s
collection.

The East Peruvian or High-Amazon examples on the other hand
(which are held distinct by some naturalists under Du Bus’ title
inornata) resemble the Cayenne bird much more nearly. After
remarking that the white lore-spot is nearly obsolete, and the skins
are rather finer and larger, it is in truth difficult (at least with my
present examples) to see further differences, and I therefore regard
M. inornata as a very doubtful species.

Rio Napo specimens are still more like the true fusca.

On some New Species or FResHwaTer TortToises FROM
Nortu America, CEYLON AND AusTRALIA. By Dr. J. E.
Gray, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. etc.

Fam. 1. Emypip#.

The freshwater Tortoises which have been referred to the genus
Emys, as it is at present constituted, may be divided into two very
distinct genera ; and this is the more advisable as it is extremely
difficult to distinguish the American species of which it is composed,
and the separation of any of them by organic characters must facili-
tate the process. The genera may be thus named and defined :—

1. Emys.
The lower jaw rounded beneath, and covered with the hinder part
of the horny beak; the toes strong, covered with broad band-like

scales.
This genus includes E£. ornata, E. seripta, EL. Holbrookii, and

many other species, both Asiatic and American.

2. Pseupemys.
The lower jaw flattened beneath and covered with a soft skin. The

264 Zoological Society :—

toes weak, slender, covered with small scales above, and very broadly
webbed.

1. Pseudemys concinna.

2. P. serrata.

The genera Batagur and Malaclemys have nearly similar feet, and
they appear, like Pseudemys, to be the most aquatic animals of the
family.

The species which have hitherto been referred to the genus Cistupo
differ considerably in their habits, some being nearly terrestrial and
others almost exclusively aquatic. The examination of the animal
shows that there are good external characters by which they may be
divided into natural groups agreeing with their habits and their
geographic distribution.

I. The more terrestrial have the front of their legs covered with
thick, imbricate, triangular scales, the toes only slightly webbed,
and the sternum broad, hiding the legs when withdrawn, as—

1. Cistupo.

The head rhombic, the forehead flat, and eyes lateral: confined
to N. America; as

C. Carolinensis, with four, and C. Mevicana, with only three toes
on the hind feet.

2. LUTREMYS.

The head oblong, depressed, with the eyes on the upper part of the
cheek. Found in Europe, as L. Europea.

II. The more aquatic kinds have the front of the legs covered
with small scales and some broad, transverse, lunate plates ; the toes
webbed. They are confined to Asia; as

5. Cuora.

The head rhombic, the eyes lateral, the sternal lobes broad, hiding
the legs when contracted, as C. Amboinensis and C. trifasciata,

4. CYCLEMYS.

The head depressed, eyes subsuperior, the sternal lobes rather
narrow, not hiding the legs when contracted, as C. dentata and
C. platynota. The latter species was referred to the genus Testudo
by F. Miller, and when I first described it I considered it as an
Emys, but the examination of a series of specimens of different ages
shows that it is a species of Box Tortoise nearly allied to C. dentata.

It has been hitherto believed that there was only a single species
of the genus KinosTeERNON, as now restricted, found in the United
States ; and all the adult specimens I have received from that country
are, 1 must own, exceedingly alike, so much so that I cannot under-
take to say that we have adult specimens of more than a single species.
On examining the young specimens of this genus from the United
States, in the Museum Collection, it is evident that there are at least
three most distinct species found in that country, which probably in

Dr. J. E. Gray on new species of Freshwater Tortoises. 265

their eroded and discoloured adult state are so alike as to be mistaken
for one another.
They may be thus described :—

1. KrnosTERNON PENSYLVANICUM.

Head brown-dotted ; temples with two parallel distant streaks of
white spots, from the upper and lower edge of the orbit, and a third
streak across the lower jaw ; neck white-dotted ; back deep brown ;
lower side of marginal shields, the axillary and inguinal plates and
each of the sternal plates with a large yellow spot; sternum broad,
rounded before and behind.

Hab. North America, Florida, EL. Doubleday, Esq.

2. KrnosTERNON Hippocrepis.

Head brown, with a broad white streak on each side, from the end
of nose over the eyebrows to the sides of the nape; back pale and
sternum brown; dorsal shield with a single apical and some scattered
black spots ; under side of each marginal and sternal plate rather-
paler in the middle; sternum rather broad, rounded in front and
slightly truncated behind.

K. Pensylvanicum, Holbrook, N. Amer. Herp. t. 21.

Hab. North America, New Orleans, £. Doubleday, Esq.

3. KINOSTERNON PUNCTATUM.

Head brown, minutely white-dotted, without any streaks ; the back
brown, discal shield with a very distinct apical, and some scattered
black spots; margin with a very narrow white line ; under side whitish,
with minute scattered black dots and line; sternum narrow, con-
tracted at each end, and with straight sides behind, rather truncated
in front and more distinctly and broadly so behind.

Hab. North America.

There are several specimens of the first species of different ages
from various parts of the States, in the British Museum; I have
therefore retained for it the more general name; and two young
specimens and a half-grown one of the second species, and only a
single young specimen of the third species ; the latter is so distinct,
by the narrow form of its sternum, from the other two, that it might
be referred to the genus Aromochelys if the pectoral plates were not
triangular; it may be considered as the species passing towards
that genus, and I should think that the adult animal must differ
considerably from the common form of K, Pensylvanicum.

AROMOCHELYS.

The Musk Tortoise, or, as it is more commonly called, theStinkpot of
North America, is easily distinguished from the other Kinosterna by
the narrowness of the sternum and the humeral plates being square,
like the pectoral one, instead of triangular, as they are in K. scor-
poides and K. Pensylvanicum. Yor this reason I have proposed to
divide them into a distinct group under the name of Aromochelys.

Iam the more inclined to do so, as there are two most distinct
species in the British Museum Collection, which have either been

266 Zoological Society :— L.1

confounded together by the American naturalists, or haye been most
unaccountably overlooked. They may be thus defined :—

1. AROMOCHELYS ODORATA.

Head moderate, with two streaks from the nose, one above and
the other under the eyes, to the side of the neck; the back oblong-
convex, the vertebral line rather flattened; the gular plate small,
triangular, the humeral plate rather oblique, shield brown, purple-
brown spotted.

Holbrook, N. Amer. Herpet. t. 22.

Hab. United States and Louisiana.

2. AROMOCHELYS CARINATA.

We have four specimens of this species in the Museum Collection.
Cat. Tortoises B.M. t. 20 a.

Head very large, black-dotted, without any lateral streaks; back,
oblong, very high, the vertebral line high and acutely keeled the
whole length, shields grey-brown, spotted and lined with purple-
brown; the gular plate very small, linear, transverse marginal, the
humeral plate square, transverse, parallel to the pectoral plates.

Hab. North America, Louisiana.

There are two species of North American Tortoises which are re-
ferred to the genus CueLypra, which are so differently organized
that they are evidently the types of two very distinct genera, which
may be thus characterized :—

1, CHELYDRA.

Head moderate, rather depressed, covered with a soft skin, chin
bearded, neck granular; back with two slight keels; marginal plates
in a single series.

Chelydra serpentina.

2. MAcROCHELYS.

Head large, angular, contracted in front, covered with symmetrical
horny plates, neck with several series of spinose warts; back with
three sharp continued tubercular keels; the lateral marginal plates
in a double series.

M. Temminckii.

Fam. II. CueLypip2.

When Australia was first visited by Sir Joseph Banks, he brought
home with him from New Holland a freshwater Tortoise, which Dr.
Shaw described under the name of T'estudo longicollis. This has
been made the type of the genusCureLopina. Recent travellers in
Australia have shown that the genus is distributed over the country;
each part appears to have a species peculiar to itself. In Capt.,
now Sir George Grey’s Travels, I described and figured a species from
Western Australia under the name of Chelodina oblonga. In a col-
lection which we have lately received from Haslar Hospital, there
are two very large specimens of the genus sent from Swan Riyer
by the late Mr, Collie, which, though similar in several respects to

Dr. J. E. Gray on new species of Freshwater Tortoises. 267

Chelodina oblonga, may be considered as a distinct species, which
I shall proceed to shortly characterize.

The species of the genus hitherto described have the thorax
covered with very thin smooth shields, so transparent that a peculiar
black reticulated appearance, which exists between the shields and
the bones of the thorax, can be distinctly seen through them. This
character is common to C. longicollis of New Holland, C. oblonga, and
Mr. Collie’s species from Swan River, which I propose to call, in
honour of my late friend and excellent collector—

1. CHELODINA COLLIEI.

The shield oblong, elongate, contracted and revolute on the sides ;
under side uniform pale yellow.

Hab. Swan River, Alexander Collie, Esq.

This species agrees with C. oblonga in the uniform colour of the
back and sternum, which is only varied by the dark lines of the netted
appearance before referred to; but it is easily known from that species
by its larger size, the much narrower shape, and the lateral margin
becoming strongly revolute, and the edge over the hinder limb raised
up and rather expanded.

The British Museum have lately received, with some other speci-
mens, from the Australian continent—but unfortunately the special
habitat was not indicated—the shell of a Tortoise which has all the
characters of the genus as at present defined, except that, instead of
the shields on the thorax being thin, submembranous and semitrans-
parent, they are thick, horny and concentrically grooved like the
shields of many other genera. It is not accompanied by the head or
limbs of the animal, so we have not the means of determining if
they offer any characters which, with the peculiar structure of the
shell, might render it desirable to form it into a separate genus.
It may be defined and thus named :—

2. CHELODINA SULCATA.

Shell depressed, roundish ovate, brown; shield horny, thick,
distinctly concentrically grooved.
Hab. Australia.

Fam. III. Trionycip2.

The species of this family, which have the hind legs covered with
moveable flaps affixed to the sides of the hinder lobe of the sternum,
named Cryptopus by MM. Dumeril and Bibron, may be divided
into two very distinct geographic genera.

1. Emypa, Gray.

The margins of the upper shield strengthened with bones; the
sternum with three pairs of callosities and a small odd one behind
the anterior pair. Asia.

2. CycLanosteus, Peters.

The margin of the upper shield flexible, without any bones; the
sternum with four pairs of callosities and an odd one behind the two
anterior pairs; the pair on the hinder lobes small, far apart. Africa.

268 Miscellaneous.

It has been usually stated that the only known species of the
genus Emypa was generally distributed over India; we have in the
British Museum specimens only from the Valley of the Ganges. The
young specimens all agree in the head and shell being variegated.

We have lately received a specimen of this genus from Ceylon,
collected by Mr. Thwaites, which differs in both the above particu-
lars ; and in the Museum of the Society there is the shell of an adult
animal, sent home from Ceylon by Dr. Kelaart, which shows that it
is a most distinct species. They may be thus characterized :—

1. EmyDA PUNCTATA.

Back and upper part of the head pale spotted; the odd anterior
callosity small, roundish triangular; the hinder callosity of adult
oyate, inner edge semicircular; of young triangular, far apart.

Hab. India, Ganges.

2. EmMyDA CEYLONENSIS.

Back and upper part of the head (in spirits) dull pale olive ; lips,
chin and lower part of the body whitish. The odd anterior sternal
tubercle large, oblong, transverse; the hinder pair of callosities
large, close, in adult nearly united, with straight parallel inner edges.

Emyda punctata, Kelaart, Prod. Faun. Ceylon. 179.

fab. Ceylon.

Dr. Kelaart, in his work on the Ceylon animals, was not aware of
the distinctness of this animal from the continental species ; he ob-
serves that the head is black-lined when alive.

The new species described in this paper are figured in the
Illustrated Catalogue of Tortoises in the Collection ef the British
Museum.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Vitality of the Anguillule of Mildewed Wheat.
By C. Davarne.

Tur Anguillule of wheat in the larva state are endowed with the
power of remaining dry and apparently dead for several years, and
recovering their powers of moyement when moistened. This is net
the case with these animals after they have acquired sexual organs.

In the larva state also they exhibit a remarkable resistance to the
action of violent poisons, provided these are not of a nature to act
upon their tissues. The author has found by experiment, that opium,
the salts of morphine, belladonna, atropine, strychnine, and its com-
pounds, &c., have no action upon these animals. In a concentrated
solution or paste of these substances, they continued to live and
move for a fortnight. Nicotine, on the contrary, soon destroys their
movements, but not their vitality, for after remaining several days in
coutact with this substance, they become as lively as ever when freed
from it by washing.

Organic matters, and especially animal matters in a state of decom-

fat |

_—

Miscellaneous. 269

position, have the same action as nicotine upon the Anguillule. A
little piece of meat, cheese, some paste, &c., put into the water con-
taining them, will render the whole of them straight and stiff in the
course of a few hours in hot weather. By drying and again moist-
ening them, or by washing them constantly with pure water, they
soon begin to move again, and the author has repeated this resusci-
tation frequently with the same individuals. So great is the influence
of decomposing animal matters upon the Anguillule, that if a few of
them be crushed in opening a mildewed grain, this will be sufficient
to prevent the others from moving when placed in a small quantity
of water.

Substances which act chemically upon the tissues, and especially
acids, destroy these animals more or less quickly; sulphuric acid,
diluted with 200 volumes of water, kills them in a few hours, and
may be employed to destroy them in seed corn. This action, which
is common to all acids, is the more singular, as other Anguillule live
and breed in vinegar.

These animals also support an intense cold. The author has
exposed them to a temperature of —4° F. for several hours without
killing them. Heat on the contrary is fatal to them, and they perish
at about 148° F., whilst the Rotifera and Tardigrada support a heat
of 212° F. The author remarks, that as wheat loses its germinative
power at about 148° F., it was unnecessary that these animals should
be enabled to bear a higher temperature.

The adult Anguillule exhibit far less tenacity of life m all these
respects. The larvee live two months or more in water ; the adults
on an average a day and a half. The extreme limit was five
days. The larve live at least two hours in sulphuric acid diluted
with 200 volumes of water; the adults less than one hour. In a
mixture of 3 parts of water and 1 of alcohol, the larvee live for six
hours or more, the adults only two hours. The larvee kept for more
than a month in glycerine are soon revived when put into pure
water; the adults could not be resuscitated after lying in this sub-
stance for two hours. Five hours’ exposure to a temperature of —4°F,
does not injure the vitality of the larvae, whilst exposure for the same
period to a temperature of + 3° to + 4° F. always kills the adults.
The larvee may be kept dry for several years and revived by placing
them in pure water; whilst the adults after a desiccation of a few
hours have entirely lost their vitality.

The author has also made some experiments with the view of
determining whether these singular little animals would undergo any
metamorphosis if placed in conditions different from those in which
they usually occur, and found that changes of habitat produced no
modifications in their characters, which would approximate them to
the other Nematoid worms. He placed the larvee in vegetable mould,
in vinegar and flour paste, and administered them to animals. In
no ease did the Anguillule acquire the appearance of the Nematoid
worms which live naturally in such situations, and when administered
to cold-blooded animals they were evacuated in a motionless state, but
still alive.— Comptes Rendus, July 21, 1856, p. 148.

270 Miscellaneous.

Notice of a new species of Nocturnal Lizard from Mexico.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Among the animals collected at Cordova in Mexico by M. Sallé,
lately added to the Zoological Collection of the British Museum, is a
fine specimen of nocturnal Lizard, belonging to the genus Cudina,
which appears to have hitherto escaped the notice of zoologists.

CUBINA GRANDIS.

Blackish, brown beneath, crown black spotted; nape with an
elongated oblique spot on each side, forming an imperfect crescent ;
back with five narrow, the tail with eight broad white cross rings,
the one on back of the neck just in front of the shoulders crescent-
shaped, the rest transverse.

The back and legs covered with close, rounded, smooth tubercles ;
the tail with regular rings of small, less raised tubercular seales; the
crown of the head with smooth scales ; the temple with conical acute
tubercles ; the belly covered with smooth, rather elongated, square,
four-sided shields ; the under side of the tail with smaller, narrow,
more elongated similar shields; the chin and throat with small gra-
nular seales; labial shields moderate, four-sided, with three rows of
larger six-sided shields on the edge of the jaw, below the lower
labial plates, the hinder one of the series being rather smaller and
slightly keeled ; the toes elongate, narrow, black above, with a white
ring over each joint.

Body and head, 5 ; tail, 5 inches.

Hab. Mexico, near Cordova (M. Sallé).

On a new genus and species of Trochilidee from Ecuador.
By Joun Govuxp, F.R.S. &c.

This fine species of Humming Bird is remarkable for its size,
deeply forked tail, and the harmonious hues of its plumage, which,
although less glittering and metallic than in many other species, is
nevertheless strikingly beautiful. I consider this bird to be new to
science, both generically and specifically, and as the name of Victoria
regia has been given to one of the finest flowers of the same part of
South America, I am desirous of dedicating this new Humming Bird
to the Empress of the French, and I accordingly propose to name it
Eugenia imperatriz. Its native habitat is the vast Andean forests in
the neighbourhood of Quito in Ecuador, where it procures its insect
food from the bell-shaped flowers of the Dature.

Genus EvGenia.

Gen. Char. Bill rather lengthened, straight and strong; wings
long and pointed ; tail lengthened and very much forked, the feathers
narrow and rigid; tarsi clothed with feathers nearly to the toes ;
feet small.

EUGENIA IMPERATRIX.

Male. Face and fore part of the neck brilliant grass-green ; crown
of the head, back, neck, chest and upper part of the flanks very

te tie

Meteorological Observations. 271

deep green ; on the centre of the throat a gorget of reddish-violet ;
abdomen and under tail-coverts shining, greenish-yellow; wings
purplish-brown ; tail deeply forked, the feathers black, narrow and
rigid ; some tufts of white downy feathers across the lower part of
the abdomen ; thighs brown in front, white behind.

Total length 6} inches; bill 14: wing 33; tail 3.

Female. Upper surface green ; throat, chest and abdomen greyish-
white spangled with green, the spangles being very minute on the
throat and gradually increasing in size downward to the flanks ; tail
blackish-brown ; tarsi white.

Total length 53 inches; bill 13; wing 23; tail 23.

Hab. Ecuador.—Proc. Zool. Soc., Nov. 13, 1855.

-

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JULY 1856.

Chiswick.—July 1. Cloudless, with very dry air. 2. Dry haze: very fine.
3. Clear and very fine. 4. Fine: overcast: slight rain. 5. Fine: overcast: very +
fine. 6. Very fine: lightning, with rain at night. 7. Densely clouded: rain.
8. Very heavy rain, cold and boisterous. 9. Fine. 10. Very fine. 11. Cloudy:
slight drizzle: fine. 12. Overcast. 13. Very fine: overcast: cloudy. 14. Very
fine: overcast. 15. Cloudy and fine: lightning, with rain at night. 16. Rain:
heavy clouds and showers: very fine. 17. Very fine. 18. Overcast: drizzly: very
fine. 19. Fine: overcast. 20. Slight drizzle: overcast: rain. 21. Very fine.
22. Sultry. 23. Slight fog: very hot: cloudy: lightning. 24. Shower: very hot.
25, 26. Exceedingly fine. 27. Overcast: rain. 28. Cloudy: very fine: hazy.
29. Slight fog: very fine. 30. Uniform haze: very fine. 31. Slight fog: very
sultry: clear and fine.

Mean temperature of the month .......sssesseeveescoveseeeces ess 61°20
Mean temperature of July 1855... Soeseeacaeees Sa ecieseseeds 62 -99
Mean temperature of July for the last thirty years ......... 63 ‘11
Average amount of rain in July —...sceceessseeeeeeeeneeeees see.e. 2°008 inches,

Boston.—July 1—4. Fine. 5. Cloudy. 6. Cloudy: rainp.m. 7. Cloudy: rain
A.M. and p.M. 8. Fine: rain a.M.andp.m. 9. Fine: rainp.m. 10. Fine. 11.
Cloudy. 12. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 13. Cloudy. 14. Fine. 15. Cloudy.
16. Cloudy: rain A.M.andr.m. 17. Fine. 18. Rain a.m.and p.m. 19. Fine.
20. Clondy. 21, 22. Fine. 23,24. Cloudy. 25. Fine: rainp.m. 26, Cloudy.
27. Cloudy: rain a.m. 28—31. Fine.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—July 1. Bright a.m.: clear p.m. 2. Clear a.m.
andp.m. 3. Clear a.M.: showers P.M. 4. Drizzle a.m.and p.m. 5. Cloudy A.M. :
drizzle, showers p.m. 6. Showers a.m.: drizzle, showers p.m. 7. Rain A.M. :
bright p.m. 8. Drizzle, showers a.m. and p.m. 9. Drizzle, showers a.M.:
cloudy p.m. 10. Cloudy a.m.andp.m. 11. Cloudy a.m.:rainp.m. 12. Bright
A.M.: bright, fine, thunder p.m. 13. Bright a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 14. Clear,
fine A.M.: cloudy, rain p.m. 15. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 16. Drizzle a.m.:
rainp.M. 17. Cleara.M.andp.m. 18. Rain a.m.: showers p.m. 19,20. Drizzle
A.M.: damp p.M. 21. Bright, fine a.m. and p.m. 22. Clear, fine a.m.: cloudy,
fine p.m. 23. Rain a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 24, 25. Bright a.m. : bright, fine p.m.
26. Clear a.m.: showersp.M. 27. Bright A.M.: showers P.M. 28. Showers a.M. :
cloudy, fine p.m. 29. Clear, fine A.M.: rainp.M. 30. Bright a.m.: hazy p.m.
3]. Cloudy, fine A.M.: rain P.M.

Mean temperature of July for previous twenty-nine years... 55°°22
Mean temperature of this MONth ......ccceccscsercscsscscssessves OLAS
Mean temperature of July 1855 — .....-.scccesereoes ceconccsscees 59 +19
Average quantity of rain in July for previous sixteen years ... 2°45 inches.

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ajay

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

{SECOND SERIES.]

No. 106. OCTOBER 1856.

XXV.— Monograph of the British Umbilicarize.
By the Rev. W. A. Leicuron, B.A., F.B.S.E.

[With a Plate. ]

Tae Umbilicarie constitute a distinct and well-marked group
of Lichens. Their thallus bears a general external resemblance
to that of some species of Endocarpon (e. g. End. miniatum), but
the different internal structure shows these genera to have no
real connexion. Their apothecia approximate in external form
to those both of Lecidea and Opegrapha. But this resemblance
is limited to external character alone, for dissection demonstrates
that there is no affinity in structure between the plants. The
apothecia of the Umbilicaria are entirely destitute of that black
carbonaceous excipulum which is so conspicuous a feature of
the Lecidee. Their structure greatly assimilates, and indeed is
almost identical with, that of the apothecia of the plant generally
known as Lecidea vesicularis, Ach. With the Opegraphe the
resemblance is altogether external, the gyrations or redupli-
cations to which the apothecia are subject alone constituting the
similarity ; iterna! structure being here also entirely different.

The structure of the thallus appears to be alike in all the
plants included in the genus, however dissimilar their external
aspect may appear. The only differences apparently arise from
one portion or layer being more or less developed in growth,
probably from local circumstances, than another. This has
been admirably investigated, described and figured by M. L. R.
Tulasne, in his ‘‘ Mémoure des Lichens,” published in the ‘ An-
nales des Sciences Naturelles,’ 3 série, tom. xvii. The thallus
of U. pustulata, he says, presents a double cortical layer. The

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 18

274 Rey, W.A, Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

superior cortex is formed of small polygonal cells intimately
united, and its superficial brown colour is veiled by a sort, of
furfuraceous powder, whose cellular elements, very irregular, are
unequally distributed and variously associated. The cortical
layer of the inferior face of the thallus is about double the
thickness of the preceding, and forms with it nearly a fourth
part of the entire thickness of the lichen. This part of the
plant is greyish, of a horny consistence, and very hygrometrie,
It is constituted, as nearly all the tissues of this sort, by glo-
bular utricules, with extremely thick walls, and so united to
each other, that the external contours of each of them are in-
distinct. This horny layer bears on its free face an infinity of
minute papillze of a conical or pyramidal form, and which are
continuous with it, that is to say, formed of a tissue entirely
similar, but of a very deep brown colour. The fibrous medulla
which occupies the middle of the thallus, is, as in most foli-
aceous lichens, a loose tissue filled with air, above which, the
spherical gonidia form a slight continuous layer. The structure
of the other species scarcely differs in any material point of view.
In our plate (Pl. X. fig. 1) we have copied M. Tulasne’s exquisite
illustrative section.

The apothecia arise from the medullary layer, and their deve-
lopment appears to take place somewhat in the following manner.
In the spot where an apothecium is about to appear, the cortical
layer is, by the uplifting of the medullary layer, formed into a
small wart or tubercle, This tubercle opens in the middle, the
hymenium appears exposed to view, the cortical layer is on either
side thrown back or reflected upon itself so as to constitute a
kind of excipulum to the hymenium, which is gradually and
progressively protruded upwards by the medullary layer, until
a fully expanded apothecium is formed, sessile or closely ap-
pressed on the surface of the thallus. The apothecia are of a
deep black or brown colour, but a vertical section shows this
tint to be confined exclusively to the surface of the disk and of
the excipulum. The base of the hymenium is not subtended by
any carbonaceous mass, as in the Lecidee, the medullary layer be-
coming in that part of a brown colour more or less deepened in
tint. ‘The apothecia are either simple, forming a single patellula,
or compound, consisting of numerous gyrations having much the
general appearance of the lirellie in the Opegraphe. The internal
structure is the same in both cases; and dissection shows that
the compound apothecia result, not from a division of the disk of
a single patellula, but from a great number of apothecia spring-
ing from the same spot, forced, by excessive compression against
each other and growth within a limited circular space, to assume
a gyrate direction, and to exhibit the singular appearances for

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 275

which the apothecia of the genus are so conspicuous and re-
markable.

So far as my opportunities of research extend, the first writer
who mentions these plants is Tournefort, in his Institutiones
Rei Herbariz, 1710, who describes, in the concise manner usual
with earlier writers when treating of Lichens, two species, U. pus-
tulata and grisea. Vaillant, followmg his great master, in his
Botanicon Parisiense, 1727, describes and figures the same two
species, with that characteristic accuracy and fidelity for which
his plates are so valuable. Micheli, in his Nova Genera Plan-
tarum, 1729, makes U. pustulata the sole type and constituent
of his 18th Ordo of Lichens, in which the seeds are disposed
in comosa arbuscula” over the whole surface of the plant.
These seeds, which are now ascertained to be pulverulent ex-
erescences of the thallus, he figures with much accuracy, and
also the apothecia, of which however he takes no notice in his °
description, possibly supposing them to be only the incipients of
the fructification which would be ultimately developed into the
“eomosa arbuscula.” His tab. 47 represents characteristically
a very large specimen in that torn or deeply divided state fre-
quently observable when the plants attain considerable magni-
tude, and apparently resulting from this excess of growth. He
complains that Vaillant’s figure is taken from too small a spe-
cimen, but identifies it with his own, having received an authentie
specimen from Vaillant himself. Dillenius, in his Historia Mus-
ecorum, 1741, describes at length and figures U. proboscidea,
Turn. and Borr., grisea, Ach., erosa, Hoffm., arctica, Ach., poly-
phylla, T. and B., pellita, Ach., and pustulata, Ach.

Linneus, in Species Plantarum, 1763, under his section
Lichenes Umbilicati includes six species, velleus, pustulatus, pro-
boscideus, deustus, polyphyllus, and polyrrhizos. The same ar-
rangement is followed by Pollich (Flor. Palat. 1777), Lightfoot
(Fl. Scot. 1777), Weber (Spicil. Gotting. 1778), Hudson (FI.
Angl. 1778), Hagen (Tent. Pruss. 1782), Humboldt (FI. Frib.
1793), Retz (Fl. Scand.1795), Withering (Arrang. 1795), Afze-
lius (Act. Upsal. 1788), Westring (Act. Se. Stockh. 1793), and
Acharius (Act. Sc. Stockh. 1794), varying indeed in the number
of species described according to the cireumstances of their
respective localities. Hoffmann, in his Plante Lichenosz in
1788 (according to the date on his tab. 2) first uses the generic
name Umbilicaria. He figures with inimitable beauty and accu-
racy eleven species. This name Umbilicaria was immediately
adopted by Baumgarten (Flor. Lips. 1790), Schrader (Spicil.
1794), and Acharius (Prodr. 1798). In this latter work it
should be mentioned that Acharius refers murinus to the genus
Endocarpon. The generic name Umbilicaria is very aptly taken

18*

276 ~— Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

from the umbilicate thallus; but Acharius, in his Meth. Lich.
1803, changed it to Gyrophora from the external appearance of
the fructification, because he thought it most probable that
future observation would show that Lecidea Oederi, silacea, prt-
vigna, and other species also, ought to be meluded in the same
genus, because their apothecia became deformed or gyriform
like those of Umbilicaria, in which case the former name Umbi-
licaria would not be applicable to the genus thus compre-
hensively considered. Dissection and the microscope have shown
that these conjectures of Acharius were groundless, and that
there was no real necessity for a change of the generic name.
He deseribes in this work fifteen species, all of which are true
Umbilicarie, but refers pustulatus to Lecidea. Ventenat again
changes the generic name to Capnia. DeCandolle, in Flor.
Frang. 1805, adopts the genus Umbilicaria of Hoffmann and
Acharius, and enumerates thirteen species, several of which are
now considered as varieties or states of the same plants. Acha-
rius retains his name Gyrophora in his Lich. Univ. 1810, de-
scribing eighteen species, including murinus and pustulatus:
Flérke has some remarks on the genus in the Berlin Magazine
for 1810, but which I have not seen. Wahblenberg (FI. Lapp.
1812) changes the name of the genus to Gyromium, but without
assigning any reason for so domg, which name he continues
in his Flor. Carpath. (1814), Flor. Upsal. (1820), and Flor.
Suec. (1824-26). In this latter work he explains the eause of
the change to be, from the similarity of the fructification to im-
testinal convolutions. Turner and Borrer in the Lichenographia
Britannica (i813) retain the name Gyrophora, as all the generic
distinctions in that work had been taken from the fructification.
They describe ten species as found in Britain, with an elaborate
care and minute fidelity and accuracy which cannot be praised
too highly. Another valuable feature of this work was the de-
termination of the plants of Linnzus and Dillenius from their
respective herbaria. Acharius (Syn. 1814) extends the number
of species to nineteen; one of them, G. Clementei, growing on
wood, is now referred to Thelephora quercina, Pers., all the rest
being saxicolar plants. Scherer, in Meisner’s Naturw. Anz.
1817, has a paper on the Gyrophore, and another on the “ Umbi-
licaria Helvetice” in Scringe’s Musée Helvétique d’ Hist. Nat.
1821. These he arranges under six species, which he deseribes
at length, adding full synonyms from Vaillant downwards, and
illustrates them with five plates filled with beautifully coloured
figures of all the species and varieties. In his Spicilegium he
refers U. pustulata to Lecidea, and places all the rest under four
species, viz. U. depressa, U. polymorpha, U. enea, and U. erosa;
whilst in his Enumeratio (1859) he-again includes pustulata, and

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 277

rearranges the various forms into eight species. British authors,
as Purton, Midl. Fl. (1817), Hooker, Fl. Scot. (1821), and
Greville, Fl. Edin. (1824), adopt Gyr ophora as the genus. Fries
imall-his works resolutely maintains the original name, Umbzli-
caria, of Hoffmann. Eschweiler, Syst. Lich. "1824, places Gyro-

phora im company with Solor ina, Ach., Dermatocarpon, Eschw.,

Endocarpon, Hedw., Capitularia, Eschw:; and Peltidea, Ach., in
his Cohors V. Dermatocar pee. Wallroth, Crypt. Germ, (1831),

makes Umbilicaria a section of his genus Graphis, considering
the affinity in structure of the apothecia with those of the Gra-

phidee, hinted at by Bernhardi, Flérke and DeCandolle, to be cor-
rect and well founded. Hooker in Brit. Flor. (1833) follows the
arrangemcut of Fée (Cryptog. Ecorces, 1824) into Gyrophora and

Umbilicaria, from the different external aspect of the apothecia.
His distribution of the species differs somewhat from that of the
‘Lichenographia Britannica” Dr, Taylor in Flora Hibernica
(1836) again unites the two genera. Merat in Flor. env. Paris
(1836) puts U. pustulata into a new genus called Zasallia. Che-
vallier (Flor. Paris, 1836) and Flotow (Lichenes Flor. Siles., 1850)

separate Umbilicaria and Gyrophora. Tuckerman, Syn. Lich.

Amer. (1848), retains the entire genus Umbilicaria, Hoifm., with

a modified generic character.

Massalongo (Licheni Crostosi, 1852) retains Umbilicaria,
Hoffm., for the generality of the species, but refers U. pustulata
to a new genus, Macrodictya, his distinctions being taken from
the dissimilarity of the sporidia. In his Memorie Lichenog.
(1853) he rejects his new genus Macrodictya and adopts Merat’s
Lasallia. In his Systema Lichenum Germaniz (1854) Koerber
separates Umbilicaria (pustulata) from Gyrophora. Nylander in
his ‘€ Nouvelle Classification des Lichens ” in Mém. Soe. des Se.
Nat. de Cherbourg (1854 & 1855), retains the original and com-
prehensive genus ‘of Hoffmann, Umbilicaria, as the type of his
tribe Gyr ophoree.

From the preceding summary it is seen, that whilst the plants
have retained their relative position as members of a closely con-
nected group, considerable difference of opinion has existed as
to the name which should be assigned to it, and whether Umbr-
ficaria pustulata should be included in the same genus, or form
a. distinct genus by itself. From the identity of structure both
of thallus and apothecium, i incline to think that it ought, with
the other plants, to constitute one and the same genus, and that
the original name of Hoffmann, Umbilicaria, which appears to
have been changed from no really substantial scientific reasons,
should be restored to it.

The learned authors of the ‘ Lichenographia Britannica’ com-
plain, and with justice, that the genus has been divided into too

278 = Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicaria.

many species. In my opinion our British Umbilicarie appear to
resolve themselves into two species only, U. pus/ulata, which has
peculiar sporidia, and U. varia, which may include all the rest,
the sporidia being alike in all ; and this latter species comprises
two series distinguished by the copper or grey colour of the
thallus.

1. Umbilicaria varia. Thallus coppery or ashy-grey, simple
or compound, naked or fringed at the margins; upper surface
smooth, efflorescent, granulate, pustulate, areolate, corrugate or
reticulated ; lower surface smooth,. pitted, granulate, papillose,
fibrous or reticulated; sporidia in asci, cight, minute, oblong,
pale.

* Thallus dark copper-coloured when dry.

a. polyphylla, Schrad. Thallus thin, unequally lobed, naked
and smooth on both sides; upper side greenish copper-colour,

under black.

Lichenoides tenue pullum, foliis utrinque glabris, Dill. 225. t. 30, f. 129.
A. B. C (1741).

Lichen &c. undique glaber, Linn. Fl. Lapp. no. 452 (exel. syn.).

Lichen polyphyllus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1618 (ed. 2. 1763); Huds. Fl. Brit. 551;
Lightf. Fl. Scot. 2.863; Robson, Br. Fl. 300; Web. Spicil. 258 ; Humb.
Fl. Frieb. 29; Retz. Seand. 288; With. Arr. 4. 65; Sm. E. Bot.
t. 1282.

Lichen glaber, “ Ach, in Act. Stockh. xv. 95. t. 2. f. 5” (1794) (fide Ach.
et T. & B.); Ach. Prodr. 144.

Umbilicaria polyphylla, Schrad. Spicil. 102 (1794); Hoffm. Fl. Germ. 2.
109; PL. Lieh. 3. 14. t. 59. f. 2; @, Tuckerm. Syn. 71.

Gyrophora glabra, Ach. Meth. 101 (1803); a, Syn. 63. excl. syn. var. an-
thracina; «. & 8, Mook. Fl. Seot. 2.41; Heppe, Fl. Wurzburg. 69 ;
Chev. Fl. Paris, ed. 2. 1. 643.

Umbilicaria glabra «, DC. Fl. Frang. ed. 3. 3. 412 (1805).

Gyrophora heteroidea a. & 8, Ach. L. Univ, 218 (1810); Moug. & Nestt.
342!

Gyromium polyphyllum, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. 481 (1812); FI. Carpath. 394 ;
Fl. Upsal. 424; Fl. Suee. 48).

Gyrophora polyphylla, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 214 (1813); Hook. Br,
Fl. 2. 217; Koerber, Lich. Germ. 95.

Umbilicaria enea, #. glabra, Scher. Spicil. 90, 364 (1826-33) ; Exs. 149!

Umbilicaria polyphylla, Fries, L. Ref. 352, excl. b. & ce. (1831); 8. V.§S.
117; Leight. Lich. Brit. xs. 65!

Umbilicaria polyphylla, «. glabra, Scher. Enum. 28 (1850).

Graphis enea, 8. discolor, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 1. 341 (1831).

a. monophylla. Thalius of a single peltate leaf—Turn. &
Borr. /. ¢.

Snowdon, Dillenius. Cheshire and Cornwall, Lich. Brit.
Clova! Craig Raynoch ! Mr. W. Gardner in herb. Borrer. York-
shire! Mr. G. Dizon. Scotland! Mr. G. Lawson. Ingleby and

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 279

Howden Gill, Cleveland, Yorkshire, Mr. W. Mudd! Barmouth,
Rev. T. Salwey! Wrekin and Arcoll Hills, Shropshire !

“ Thallus peltate, flattish, consisting of a single leaf, adhering
to the stone by a small thickish callous disk, mostly orbicular,
but sometimes mclining to elliptical, from half an inch to an inch
and a half in diameter; the edges slightly cleft mto numerous,
irregular, rounded lobes, and minutely, but unequally, crenate :
upper surface of a greenish copper-colour when moist ; when dry,
black, or of a very dark brown closely approaching to it, smooth,
or rarely very slightly wrinkled, and naked, occasionally marked
with minute black dots: under surface for the most part perfectly
black, whether wet or dry, and usually covered with a fine sooty
efflorescence, scarcely perceptible without a microscope, which
does not stain the fingers; when this is wanting, the surface is
generally most minutely granulated, and in some instances
blotched with a colour similar to that of the upper side: sub-~-
stance coriaceous, but so thin as to be almost membranous,
pliant and soft when moist, rigid and extremely brittle when
dry. Trice very rarely produced, scattered, when present, all
over the thallus, sessile, but fixed only by their centre, of an
irregularly angular figure ; their margin thin, notched, enclosing
a more or less convex disk, the gyri of which are not arranged
concentrically, but compose, for the most part, several separate
groups.”— Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit.*

Specimens from Upsal, Fries fil., in my herbarium are iden-
tical with this form.

b. congregata, T. & B. Thalli small, clustered, much curled,
edges erect or reflexed.

Maze Beck, Westmoreland ! Mr. W. Robertson in herb, Borrer.
Mynydd-y-Myfyr near Oswestry, Shropshire! Rev. T. Salwey.
Seotland! Mr. G. Lawson. Wrekin and Arcoll Hills, Shrop-
shire! Ingleby, Yorkshire, Mr. W. Mudd!

Specimens! from Acharius in herb. Borrer, labelled by him-
self ‘ Gyrophora anomea var. variegata,” are minute specimens
of this state of the plant.

The states monophylla and congregata grow together in some
abundance on the Wrekin and adjoining hills, and may be seen
passing into each other by every degree of gradation.

ce. suleata, T. & B. Thallus marked on the upper side with
superficial cracks.

On Ben Ferg, a mountain in Inverness-shire, by the head of
Loch Ericht! Mr. Borrer. Clova! Mr. G. Lawson.

* We have adopted the deseriptions from this privately printed work,
as little or nothing can be added to their fidelity and acturacy.

280 = Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarre.

* Thallus somewhat thicker than in ‘a,’ simple or more or
less compound ; upper surface marked with a few superficial,
undulating, indented lines, the edges of which occasionally sepa-
rate so as to leave a smooth black interstice ; under surfuce as in

‘a, but more commonly blotched with the paler colour of the
upper side.”—Lich. Brit.

This state seems apparently a transition to hyperborea.

d. lacera. Thallus very deeply divided, divisions lacero-lobate.

Craig Raynoch! Mr. 1V. Gardner in herb. Borrer, Scotland !
Mr. G. Lawson.

The mode of division of the margins of this state is different
from that of the preceding ones, and assimilates to that observable
in anthracina.

A specimen in my herbarium, collected by M. Philippe at
Tourmalet, Pyrenees, agrees with ‘this state.

Mr. Borrer’s herbarium contains specimens ! of G. anthracina
from Acharius in Scherer, with which I have not noticed any-
thing identical among British plants. Their general appearance
is different from polyphylla, but the sporidia are similar, (See
Pl. X. fig. 3.)

Piate X. fig. 2.

8. flocculosa, Hoffm. Thallus thin, unequally lobed; upper
side of a greenish copper-colour, dotted, and rough with sooty
granulations ; under, black, naked, pitted.

Lichen flocculosus, Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. 3. 99. t. 1. £. 2 (1789), fide Turn.
& Borr.

Lichen deustus, Schrank, Fl. Salish. 234 (1792); Westring in Aet. Stockh.
1793 (fide Ach.); Ach. Prodr. 145 (exel. Linn. syn.).

Umbilicaria flocculosa, Hoffm. F1. Germ. 2. 110(1795); Pl. Lich. 3. fase. 4.
3. t. 68. figs. 1-4; Massal. Ricereh. 61 ee syn.).

Gyrophora deusta, Ach. Meth. 102 (1803); L. Univ. 255; Syn. 66 (excl.
Linn. syn. in all); Sm, E. Bot. t. 2483.

Gyrophora flocculosa, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 217 (1813); Koerber, L.
Germ. 95.

Gyromium deustum, Wahl. Fl. Carpath. 394 (1814); Fl. Upsal. 423; FI.
Suec. 856 (excl. Linn. syn.).

Umbilicaria polyphylla, ec. deusta, Aig L. Reform. 352, exel. Linn. syn.
(1831); Nyl. Nouv. Classif. 172

Graphis enea, «. concolor, Wallr. cry pt. Germ. 1. 341 (1831).

Gyrophora deusta, Hook. Fl. Seot. 42 (1821); Brit. Fl. 2. 218 (exel. Linn.
syn.); Grey. Fl. Edin. 328.

Umbilicaria enea, y. flocculosa, Scher. Spicil. 91. 364 (1823-36); Exs.
152!

—— polyphylla, 8. deusta, Tuckerm. Syn. 71 (1848).

polyphylla, 8. floceulosa, Scher. Enum. 28 (1850).

— varia, var. flocculosa, Leight. Brit. Lich. Exsice. 219 !

Highlands of Scotland, Mr. Dickson. Corstorphine and Craig-

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 281

lockhart Hills, Maughan, Dr. Greville. North of England! Rev.
John Harriman in herb. Borrer. By the lake by the ascent of Ben
Nevis! northern ridge of Ben Cruachan! Mr. Borrer., Caer
Caradoc, Shropshire! states a. b. & c. growing together.

a. monophylla. Thallus of a single peltate leaf.

“ Thallus consisting generally of a single peltate leaf from
1 to 2 inches in diameter, attached to the rock by a central cal-
lous disk, orbicular, flattish, but curled and reflexed at the edges,
which are irregularly lacerated or divided into a few unequal
shallow lobes: the upper surface dark greenish-brown when
moist ; when dry, of a rusty-brown approaching to black, mi-
nutely dotted and sprinkled with a coarse sooty efflorescence,
very copious in some specimens, but in others rare, sometimes a
little wrinkled about the centre, and occasionally bearing nume-
rous small leafy scales: the under surface dark brown or black,
naked, quite smooth in general, though now and then most
minutely granulated and pitted, more copiously in some speci-
mens than in others, with small depressions, which are often so
numerous as to give it an absolutely reticulated appearance :
. substance coriaceous, very thin, so as to be almost membranous ;
flexible when moist, but rigid and brittle when dry. Trice rare,
seattered about the thallus, sessile, but attached only by the
centre, orbicular, their margin slightly elevated and entire, their
disk convex ; the gyri most frequently concentric, sometimes, but
rarely, forming irregular groups.”—Lich. Brit.

Specimens from Upsal, Sweden! Fries fil., and from the
Pyrenees! M. Philippe, in my own herbarium, agree with our
British plants.

b. polyphylla, T. & B. Thalli small, clustered, curled.

Whitwick Rocks, Leicestershire! Rev. A. Bloxam.

Thallus composed of numerous small remarkably curled leaves
arising from a common central disk and growing in an irregu-
larly orbicular group, the diameter of which is not greater than
that of the simple leaf of monophy/la.

c. squamigera. Thallus rough with small scale-like leaves.

d. erosa. Thallus with ragged and perforated edges.

The trice are figured in ‘ K. Bot.’ from foreign specimens
received from Dr. Swartz. None of the British specimens in
Mr. Borrer’s herbarium bore any fructification, nor those in
Scheerer’s Lichenes Exsiccati.

Closely allied to «. polyphylla, and apparently approximating
to e. erosa by the state d. erosa.

Puare X. fig. 4. Sporidia.

282 ~=Rev. W. A. Leighton oa the British Umbilicarie.

y. hyperborea, Hotfm. Thallus thin, jagged, and somewhat
lobed, a little perforated, naked on both sides ; upper side green-
ish-brown, pustulate ; under side blackish-brown, nearly smooth,
slightly pitted.

“ Liehen superficie subtus lacunata, Linn. F|. Lapp. n. 453” (fide Wahl.),
pullus, “ Wulf. in Jacq. Mise. 2. 83. t.9. f.3” (1781) (fide Dicks.) ;
Dicks. Crypt. 2. 23 (secund. specim. in herb. Borrer !).

—— erosus, Westr. in Act. Stockh. 1793 (fide Ach.).

hyperboreus, Ach. in Act. Stockh, xv. 89. t. 2. f. 2(1794); Prodr. 146.

Umbilicaria hyperborea, Hottm. Fl. Germ. 2. 110 (1795); Pl. Lich. 3.
fase. 4. t. 71; Stenh. in Sched. Crit. fase. 5 & 6. no. 126; Fries, L.
Ref. 353; S. V.S.117; L. 8S. 126 (fide Nyl.); Tuckerm. Syn. 73;
Massal. Ricerch. 63. fig. 117; Nyl. N. Class. 175!

Lichen Jacquini, With. Arr. 4. 62? (1796).

Umbilicaria papillosa, DC. Fl. Frang. 3rd ed. 3. 411 (1805).

Gyrophora hyperborea, Ach. Meth. 104 (1803); L. Univ. 225; Syn. 66;
Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 227 ; Heppe, Fl. Wurzb. 70; Moug. & Nest.
Stirp. Crypt. Vosges. 1047!; Koerber, Lich. Germ, 95.

Gyromium hyperboreum, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. 482 (1812); Fl. Ups. 424; Fl.
Suee. 856. :

Umbilicaria enea, 8. hyperborea, Scheer. Spicil. 91. 364 (1823-36); Exs.
150! 151!

Graphis enea, y. papulosa, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 341 (1831).

Umbilicaria polyphylla, y. hyperborea, Scher. Enum. 29 (1850).

By the Truim, near Dalwhinnie, Inverness-shire? James Brodie
of Brodie, Esq.

“ Thallus peltate, composed of a single leaf, attached to the
stone by a thick, callous, central base, irregularly orbicular,
2 inches or more in diameter, flattish, folded in a most uncertain
manner, erose and laciniated at the edges, so as to be torn into
many shapeless lobes of variable size, and perforated here and
there with equal irregularity : upper surface dusky greenish-
brown when moist, much darker and losing the tinge of green,
or sometimes almost black, when dry; always naked, and all
over rugged, with irregular pustular elevations of the cuticle,
which has the appearance of having burst, leaving smooth black
interstices, varying much in width and figure between the ele-
vations: under surface deep blackish-brown, smooth and naked,
irregularly pitted all over, and thence appearing obsoletely reti-
culated ; sometimes, in very old specimens, slightly granulated,
and pierced here and there with perforations of the inferior coat
of the thallus: substance coriaceous, thin, flexible when moist,
and somewhat so, though brittle, even when dry. Trice sessile,
attached by the centre, irregularly orbicular, elliptical, or va-
riously distorted and angular, flat, or more generally more or
less convex ; their margin nearly entire ; gyri of the disk often
parallel and straight, but most frequently variously twisted and
disposed in several groups, aud in this case the common margin

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 283

of the tric is often wanting. In old specimens the thallus is
sometimes found partially separated into two coats, but much
less frequently and remarkably, as in e. erosa. The edges of the
blisters of the cuticle become also now and then detached, and
somewhat elevated, so as to give the thallus the appearance of
being covered with leafy scales.”—Lich. Brit.

Mr. Borrer states that he has sought for the plant in vain in
the particular station specified by Mr. Brodie.

In my own herbarium is a specimen received from Mr. George
Dixon, of Great Ayton, Yorkshire, given to him by a friend who
collected it somewhere in Scotland ; but I could not ascertain
the exact locality by subsequent correspondence. Specimens
from Upsal, Sweden, from Fries fil. and Dr. Nylander are iden-
tical.

Puate X. fig. 5 & fig. 5a. (1. Section of thallus and apothecia. 2. Spo-
ridia.) :

6. arctica, Ach. Thallus thickish, crenate, slightly lobed,
naked on both sides ; upper side greenish-brown, rugged with
pustules; under, blackish-brown, nearly smooth.

Lichenoides atrum corii Persici instar exasperatum, Dill. 110. t. 30. f.119,
fide herb. Dilleniani cl. Borrero teste (1741).

Gyrophora arctica, Ach. Meth. 106. t. 2. f. 6 (1803); L. Univ. 221; Sm.
E. Bot. t. 2485; Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 225; Sommerf. Suppl. FI.
Lapp. 177.

Gyromium proboscideum, 8. arcticum, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. 483 (1812), fide spe-
Seer a Wahlenbergio seipso recepti teste cl. Smithio in E. Bot.
t. :

Susephess proboscidea, 8. arctica, Ach. Syn. 65 (1814); Hook. Br, FI. 2.

Umbilicaria polymorpha, yy. arctica, Scher. Spicil. 88 F. 363 (1823-36) ;
Exs. 556!; Enum. 27; Tuckerm. Syn. 71.

Rocks in the county of Durham ?! Mr. Robson in herb. Borrer.
Devonshire ? Mr. Hudson.

“ Thallus peltate, flattish, consisting of a single leaf, affixed to
the rocks by a thick, callous, central disk, orbicular, from an inch
to two inches or more in diameter ; its edges irregularly crenate,
divided into a few shallow rounded lobes, and somewhat reflexed :
upper surface of a dull greenish-brown when moist, changed by
drying to a pale pruinose grey in the centre, whence it gradually
darkens towards the edges, where it is blackish ; or sometimes it
is dark brown all over ; naked, everywhere very rugged, with irre-
gular pustular elevations of the cuticle, which here and there
towards the edges of the thallus has the appearance of having
burst, as if from being overstretched, leaving depressed, smooth,
undulating interstices : under surface of a paler brown and sub-
pruinose, black (in our specimens) about the centre, quite smooth

284 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie,

or very minutely papillose: substance coriaceous, thickish, flex-
ible when moist; rigid, almost horny, but tough, when dry.
Trice slightly elevated, othiculat, varying to angular and subre-
niform, somewhat convex ; their margin entire, scarcely elevated ;

gyri of the disk sometimes concentric, but more frequently dise
posed in several irregular groups, usually, not constantly, leaving
a minute cavity in the centre.

The fragment of a specimen from Mr. Robson in herb. Borrer
has all the appearance of belonging to y. hyperborea. It seems
searcely sufficient to enable us to form a decisive opinion on this
plant.

Pate X. fig. 6.

e. erosa, Hoffm. Thallus thickish, splitting when old into two
or three lamine, jagged and somewhat lobed, perforated ; upper
side greenish-brown, naked, divided by flexuose anastomosing
lines into convex arcolz ; under side paler, papillose, separately
pierced, fibrous,

4

Lichenoides rugosum durum pullum, peltis atris verrucosis, Dill. 220. t. 30.
f. 118 (1741) (fide herbarii Dilleniani cl. Lightfootio teste, 1. c. infra).

Lichen polyrrhizos, Huds. Fl. Ang. 550 (exel. syn. Linn.) (1778),

torrefactus, Lightf. Fl. Scot. 2. 862 (1777) (see. specim. a Lightfootio

seipso recepta cl. Borrero teste in Lich. Brit. cit. infra) ; With. Arr. 4.

62 (excl. syn. preter Dill.).

erosus, Web. Spicil. 259 (1778); Swartz in Act. Ups. iv. 250 (fide

Ach. & Scher.); Ach. in Act. Stockh. xv. 87. t. 2. f. 1; Prodr. 145.

reticularis, Westr. in Act. Stockh. xiv. 45 (fide Ach.) (1793).

Umbilicaria torrefacta, Schrad. Spicil. 104 (1794).

Lichen Cribellum, Retz. Fl. Seand. 287 (1795).

Umbilicaria erosa, Hott. Fl. Germ. 2. 111 (1795); Pl. Lich. 3. fase. 4. 7.
t. 70; DC. Fi. Franc. ed. 3. 2. 411.

Toaleiiccrsa erosa ec, Scheer. Spicil. 93. 364; Exs. 153!; Enum. 29; Stenh.
in Sched. Crit. fase. 5 & 6. no. 127; Fries, bP Reforn 354 ; ‘Siitante
Veg. Seand. 117; Tuckerm.! Syn. 73; Massal. Ricerch. 62. fig. 116;
Nyl. N. Class. 175!

Gyrophora erosa, Ach. Meth. 103 (1803); L. Uniy. 224; Syn. 65; Sm.
E. Bot. t. 2066; Moug. & Nestl. Crypt. Vosges. 250!; Turn. & Borr. !
Lich. Brit. 229; Hook. Fl. Seot. 2.42; Brit. FI. 2. 218; Tayl. Fl.
Hib. pt. 2. 155; Koerber, Syst. Lich. Germ. 96.

Gyromium erosum, Wahl. FI. Lapp. 482 (1812); Fl. Suec. 856.

Graphis enea, 6. dispansa & e. cribrosa, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 342 (1831),

Highlands of Scotland, Lightfoot. St. Vincent’s Rock near
Bristol, Hudson. Llanberris, Rev. Hugh Davies. On the vitri-
fied forts in the Highlands of Scotland; Durham; Yorkshire ;
North Wales, Sir J. “E. Smith. Mangerton and other mountains
in Ireland, Dr. Tas ylor. Corry Leese, Ben Nevis! Mr. Borrer.
Ben Beck | Craig Koynoch! Mr. W. Gardner intherb. Borrer.
Clova! Mr. G. Lawson, Capel Cerig, North Wales! Mr. H.

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 285

Piggot. Birkdale, Westmoreland! Mr. W. Robertson in herb,
Borrer. Dartmoor! Mr. Borrer. Swinhope Fell, Durham! Mr.
W. Mudd. Barmouth, N. Wales! Rev. 7. Salwey.

“ Thallus peltate, consisting of a single leaf, attached by a
thick, callous, central base, suborbicular or oblong, an inch or
two in diameter, flattish, but elevated towards the centre, so as
to have an irregularly convex appearance, undulated, and not
unfrequently erect or reflexed at the edges, ragged all over, and
torn, without any order, mto various rounded lobes of most un-
certain size, which are most usually shallow, but occasionally
reach almost to the root, and slightly imbricated : it is also per-
forated, chiefly towards the edges, with numerous cavities of no
definite size or figure, giving to some specimens the appearance
of being fringed with beautiful lacework ; in other specimens the
perforations are found all over the thallus, and again in others
they are almost, if not altogether, wanting : upper surface dusky-
greenish-brown when moist, when dry deep brown, and fre-
quently almost black, always naked, in a young state even, and
marked with various undulating black indented lines, which, as
the plant becomes older, grow more numerous, and, frequently
anastomosing, divide the cuticle into irregular areolz, which
swell into pustular elevations: under surface, when wet, semi-
transparent, generally light greyish-brown, but sometimes of the
same colour as the upper one, turning darker, often blackish,
from drying; minutely granulated, so as to look like shagreen
when magnified, entire in young specimens, in old ones ragged
with irregular holes, which have elevated thickened lips, and do
not extend to the upper coat of the thallus ; besides which, there
also grow out of the under surface, in all stages of its existence,
fibres of the same colour and substance as itself, aptly compared
in ‘ English Botany’ to shavings, performing, according to Dil-
lenius and Schrader, the office of roots: substance coriaceous,
variable in thickness, flexible when moist, rigid and brittle when
dry. rice numerous, scattered all over the thallus, affixed by
their centres, sessile or slightly elevated, flat or variously convex,
varying in shape from linear through every gradation to orbi-
cular ; sometimes surrounded by a nearly entire slightly elevated
margin, but more frequently wanting it, and consisting merely
of irregular clusters of twisted gyri*.”—Lich. Brit,

The sporidia were not seen in the specimens of U, Muhlen-
bergii from Mrs. Merry in herb. Borrer ; but in specimens of
U. Muhlenbergit and its variety alpina in the same herbarium,
received from America from Mr. Edward Tuckerman, jun., they
were identical with those of erosa (see Pl. X. figs. 9 & 10).

* For the spermagonia of this form see Tulasne, /. c.

286 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicariz.

Specimens of erosa from Upsal, Sweden, Fries fil. ; Stockholm,
Dr. Nylander, and Saibten, M. Philippe, in my own herbarium;
are identical with our British plant.

PLare X. fig. 7. Sporidia. Fig. 8. Section of thallus and apothecia.

£. pellita, DC. Thallus thin, unequally lobed and erenate ;
upper side ‘ereenish copper- colour, smooth; under side black,
papillose, reticulated and densely ‘fibrous ; trice immarginate,
growing ont into tufts of fibres.

Lichenoides pullum superne et glabrum, inferne nigrum et cirrosum, Dill.
226. t. 30. f. 130 (1741).

Lichen polyrhizos, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1618? ; Lightf. Fl. Scot. 2. 864; apr

Br. Fi. 301; With. Arr. 4. 64 (excl. syn. 2d0 Dill.).

velleus #, Huds. Fl. Angl. 550 (1778) (exel. var. 8).

Umbilicaria vellea, Hoffm. PI. “Lich. 2. 9. t. 26. f. 3 (exel. Linn. syn. (1791),
admirable ; Schrad. Spicil. 105 (exel. syn. Lightf.).

Lichen hirsutus, Westr. in Act. Stockh. 1793 (fide Ach.).

pellitus, Ach. in Act. Stockh. xv. 99. t. 3. f.2 (1794); Prod. 149; Sm:

Ki. Bot. t. 931.

Gyrophora pellita, Ach. Meth. 108 (1803); L. Univ. 228. t. 2. f.10; Syn.
67; Turn. & Borr.! Lich. Brit. 238; Hook. Fl. Scot. ¥. 42; Brit.
Fl. 2. 219; Tayl. Fl. Hib. pt. 2. 155; Chev. Fl. Paris. 1. 644.

Umbilicaria pellita, DC. Fi. Franc. 3rd ed. 2. geile eee

depressa, 8. spadochroa ¥, Scheer. Spicil. 84. 362 (1823-36).

Gyromium polyrrluzon, Wahl. Fl. Suec. 858 (1824-26).

Umbilicaria polyrrhizos, Fries, L. Reform. 358 (1851); Summa Veg. Seand,
117; Scher. Enum. 29; Nyl. N. Class. 175.

On the rocks called Llyn Liydaw, Snowdon ; and about Llyn
Cwm y Ffynnon tas; also on the summit of the mountains at
Cwm Brwynog towards Ardhu near Llanberris, Dillenius. High-
lands and Lowlands of Scotland, Lightfoot. Clark’s Park and
Paradise near Moneymusk, Aberdeenshire, Withering. Carnedd
Llewellin, near the summit. On Moel Shabéd near Capel Cerrig,
Caer marvonshire, Mr. Griffith. Yorkshire, Mr. W. Brunton, -
Durham, Rev. ds Harriman. Cheshire, Turner and Borrer. On
rocks on Tonlagee, Co. Wicklow, Dr. Taylor. Scotland! Mr,
G. Donn in herb. Borrer, without locality (fructu) ! Mr. Sowerby
in herb. Borrer. Cronkley (fructu)! Mr. W. Robertson in herb.
Borrer. Loch Phadrick ! Craig Koynoch! Clava! Mr. W. Gard-
ner in herb. Borrer. Ben Ferrag! Llyn Canvay! Mr. Borrer,
Near Lake Tumanel, Cumberland (fructu) ! Mrs. Joshua Stanger,
Barmouth, N. Wales! Rev. 7. Salwey. Clova! Mr. G. Lawson,

“ Thallus peltate, sometimes simple, but generally consisting
of many leaves, spreading from a common central disk, by which
they are affixed to the stone, in a roundish cluster varying from
1 to 3 or4 inches in diameter ; ; many such clusters often forming:
together irregular patches of considerable extent : the leaves vary
much in size, in proportion as the thallus is more or less com-

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 287

pound: when it consists of a single leaf, this is sometimes
2 inches in diameter, of an irregularly ovisictilan outline, with a
few, rounded, shallow, crenate lobes, and nearly flat ; m the
more common and complicated state, each leaf is seldom an inch
in diameter, usually much smaller, much and variously crumpled,
suborbicular, very uncertain im the number and shape of its
lobes, which are usually, however, few and shallow, their edges
waved. and. crenate: upper sur face of a greenish copper- -colour
when wet ; copper-brown, sometimes blackish, when dry ; very
smooth and even, excepting a few scattered minute black dots,
sometimes impressed, at other times slightly elevated : wader sur-
face invariably quite black, clothed for the most part with innu-
merable entangled black fibres, which most frequently are pro-
truded beyond the edges, so as to give them the appearance of
being fringed (which sometimes also they are im fact), less fre-
quently naked here and there, or nearly all over, and then-
rough with minute shagreen- like granulations, and irregularly
retienlated (which is most remarkably the case towards the
centre), with elevated veins or threads, which are often detached,
except at their extremities, so as to form a coarse Jacework :
substance coriaceous, but thin, flexible when wet, very rigid and
brittle when dry. Trice rare, orbicular or elegantly lobed, flat,
appressed to the thallus, to which they are affixed by the w hole
under side, always destitute of a mar ‘gin, and composed entirely
of numerous narrow gyri, which are much and variously subdi-
vided and contorted, but seem to spread from a common centre,
and frequently unfold, or grow out into elevated irregular clusters
of much-branched minute black fibres, and these clusters are of
more frequent occurrence than the trice themselves.”—Lich,
Brit.

Our British plant coincides with specimens of U. polyrhizos
(Linn.) in my herbarium received from Fries fil., collected at
Upsal, Sweden.

Puate X. fig. 11.

In Mr. Borrer’s herbarium are authentic specimens! from
Acharius of G. hirsuta and G. vellea* which appear to be iden-
tical. In the former the sporidia were not seen, but those of the
latter were double the size of those of pellita (see PT efits PZ
and 13), consequently showing them to be distinct species.
Scherer’s Exs. 137! and 188! were also identical with the
Acharian specimens.

No British specimens have occurred to our notice ; though
Robson in his British Flora, p. 800, gives as a habitat for the

* For the spermagonia see Tulasne, /. c.

288 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

plant of Dillenius, 545. t. 82. f. 5, “on rocks near Settle in York-
shire.”
** Thallus ashy-grey when dry.

n. grisea, Hoff. Thallus thin, crenate, somewhat lobed,
papillose on both sides; upper side pale ash-coloured, naked ;
under mostly naked, blackish.

Lichen pulmonarius savatilis, e cinereo-fuscus, minimus, Tourn. Instit. 549
(1719); Vaill. Paris. 116. t. 21. f. 14.

Lichenoides savatile, foliis minus divisis, cinereo-fuscum, Dill. in Raii Syn.

73 (1724).

coriaceum cinereum, peltis a'ris compressis, Dill. 219.

Lichen deustus, Robs. Br. Fl. 300 (1777) t. 30. f. 117 (1741) (fide herbarii

Dilleniani cl. Borrero teste).

griseus, Swartz in N. Act. Stockh. v. p.91.t. 2. f.3 (fide Ach.) ; Westr.

in Act. Stockh. 1793 (fide Ach.); Retz. Seand. 286.

Umbilicaria grisea, Wottm. Fl. Germ. 2. 111 (1795).

Lichen Dillenii, With. Arr. 4. 63 (1796).

murinus, Ach. Prodr. 143 (1798).

Umbilicaria murina, DC. Fl. Frang. 3rd ed. 3. 412 (1805); Nyl. N. Class.
175.

Gyrophora hirsuta, y. murina, Flérke in Berlin Mag. 1810, p. 67 (fide
Scherer).

Gyrophora murina, Ach. Meth. 110 (1803); L. Univ. 231; Syn. 69; Sm.

E. Bot. t. 2486; Stenh. in Sched. Crit. fasc. 5 & 6. no. 132 (1825) ;

Hook. Brit. Fl. 2. 218; Chev. Paris. 1. 643. t. 14. f. lle.

grisea, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 236 (1813).

Umbilicaria depressa, 8. spadochroa A, Scher. Spicil. 82. 362 (1823-36).

Gyromium velleum, 5. murinum, Wahi. Fl. Suec. 857 (1824-26),

Graphis vellea, 8. alutacea, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 344 (1831).

Umbilicaria vellea, y. hirsuta, * murina, Fries, L. Reform. 358 (1861) ;

Summa Veg. Scand. 117.

vellea, y. spadochroa, a. grisea, Scher. Enum. 24 (1850).

Found on St. Vincent’s Rocks near Bristol by Mr. Dare, Dil-
lenius.

“ Thallus peltate, consisting generally of a single, orbicular,
crumpled, concave leaf, from an inch to an inch and a half in dia-
meter ; sometimes of two or three smaller leaves ; attached to the
stone on which it grows by a callous central disk, divided at the
edges into a few, shallow, rounded lobes, and irregularly notched
or crenate: upper surface of an ash-colour, with a slight tinge
of brownish-green when wet ; white ash-colour and subpruinose,
but still brownish towards the edges, when dry; granulated, as
if minutely cracked all over, but smooth to the touch, and

scarcely appearing rough to the naked eye: under surface,

whether wet or dry, dark brown, varying to almost black,
covered with a minute shagrcen-like roughness, naked, or very
rarely producing a few scattered branched fibres : substance thin,
flexible when wet, and still somewhat flexible, but brittle, when

-_—S

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 289

dry. Trice, except in their very youngest state, when they
appear as round black dots, depressed, and almost immersed in
the thallus, orbicular and reniform, surrounded when young by
a margin, which afterwards disappears. Disk at first flat, very

convex in a more advanced stage; its gyri arranged concen-
trically.”—Lich. Brit.

Doubtful if of British growth, but imserted on the authority
of Dillenius, whose herbarium contains only two specimens
(foreign ?), marked as having been received from Celsius. :

Distinct from U. hirsuta by the different sporidia (see Pl. X.
fig. 12).

Puiate X. fig. 14.

@. deusta, Linn. Thallus thin, crenate, slightly lobed, naked
on both sides; upper side greenish-brown, rugged and reticu-
lated ; under, ash-coloured, smooth. ;

Lichen deustus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1618 (excl. syn. Vaill. & Dill.) (1763), fide
herb. Linn. cl. Borrero teste); Huds. Fl. Angl. 550 (rev. Daviesio
teste); Lightf. Fl. Scot. 2. 861.

proboscideus, Afzel. in Act. Stockh. 1788 (fide Ach.); Ach. Prodr. 147

(in part).

Umbilicaria mesenterica, Schrad. Spicil. 103 (1794).

Gyrophora proboscidea «. (in part), Ach. ! Meth. 105 (1803) ; L. Uniy. 220 ;
Syn. 64; Sm. E. Bot. t. 2484; Turn. & Borr.! Lich. Brit. 222; Hook.
Fl. Scot. 2.41; «, Brit. Fl. 217; Heppe, Fl. Wurzb. 69; Johnst. FI.
Berw. 2.99; Chev. Fl. Paris. 1. 644; Koerber, Syst. Lich. Germ. 96.

Gyromium proboscideum, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. 483 (1812); Fl. Carpath. 394 ;
Fl. Suec. 857.

Umbilicaria polymorpha, 8. deusta, Scheer. Spicil. 88. 363 (1823-36); Exs.
148!; Enum. (in part) 26.

Graphis corrugata «, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 338 (1831).

Umbilicaria proboscidea x. (in part), Fries, L. Reform. 354 (1831) ; Summa
V. Scand. 117; L. S. 128 (fide Nyl.); Nyl. N. Class. 157!

St. Vincent’s Rocks near Bristol and about Llanberris, Hudson.
Highland rocks of Scotland, Lightfoot. North of England and
Wales, Sir J. E. Smith. Rocks near the summit of Hedgehope,
Northumberland, Dr. G. Joinston. Ben Lawers, Scotland !
Mr. Borrer.

“ Thallus peltate, flattish, but umbonated in the centre, and
rather elevated and undulated at the edges, consisting generally
of a single leaf, affixed to the rock by a thick callous central
disk, which scarcely ever forms any stalk, or sometimes, though
rarely, of many leaves growing together and diverging from a
common centre: leaf orbicular, from an inch to an inch and a
half in diameter, irregularly crenate at the edges, and often here
and there divided into a few shallow rounded lobes: upper sur-
face a dull greenish-brown when moist, when dry changing to a

Ann. &§ Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii.

290 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

pale pruinose grey in the centre, whence it gradually darkens
towards the edges, where it is nearly black ; in some specimens
all over blackish ; always marked, especially abont the centre,
with elevated reticulated veins, which are very conspicuous in
most individuals, though occasionally almost wanting: under
surface quite smooth, except now and then a few granulations
towards the central part, naked, of a smoky-brown, varying in
depth, somewhat palest when wet, and always lightest near the
middle: substance thin, between coriaceous and membranous,
flexible when moist, and often scarcely rigid, though very brittle,
when dry. Trice numerous, scattered all over the thallus, quite
sessile, though affixed only by their centre, depressed, usually
orbicular, but varying to angular and reniform, surrounded by
an entire elevated margin. Disk nearly flat ; its gyri either con-
centric or arranged in several parcels, lying together without any
regular order, and often leaving in the middle a subtriangular
eavity.”—Lich. Brit.*

Swedish specimens from Stenhammer and Nylander, labelled
Umbilicaria proboscidea (L.) Fries, are identical.

b. fimbriata, Turn. & Borr. Thallus edged with a few black,
branched, tooth-like fibres.

Gyrophora deusta, 8. fimbriata, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 222.
proboscidea, Moug. & Nest. Stirpes Vosges. 249!

Similar in substance, colour, and every other respect with ‘a,’
except in having the edges of the thallus here and there toothed
and fringed with a few scattered black branching fibres; evi-
dencing an approach to proboscidea. There are also occasionally
a few fibres sprinkled over the underside.

Highlands of Scotland! Mr. Borrer. Between Glen Callater
and Lochnagar, Scotland! Mr. J. Tatham. Clova! and about
Loch Phadrich! Mr. W. Gardner in herb. Borrer. Swinhope
Fell, Durham! Mr. W. Mudd. Glenmalure, co. Wicklow, Mr.
Isaac Carroll.

Specimens in my herbarium collected at Tourmalet, Pyrenees,
by M. Philippe and Mr. Spruce, coincide with this state.

ce. corrugata, Turn. & Borr. Thallus thin, rough with ele-
vated reticulations.

Umbilicaria corrugata, Hoffm. Pl. Lich. 2. 65. t. 43. f. 4-7 (1794), admi-
rable; Massal. Ricerch. 61. fig. 113.

Lichen proboscideus (im part), Ach. Prodr. 147 (1798).

Gyrophora proboscidea, 8. exasperata, Ach.! Meth. 105 (1803).

* For the spermagonia see Tulasne, J. c.

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. = 291

Umbilicaria proboscidea y, DC. Fl. Franc. ed. 3. 3. 410 (1805).
Gyrophora proboscidea y, Ach. L. Univ. 221 (1810).

proboscidea «. (in part), Ach. Syn. 64 (1814).

deusta, y. corrugata, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 222 (1813).
Umbilicaria proboscidea «. (in part), Fries, L. Reform. 354 (1831).
Gyrophora proboscidea (in part), Chev. FI. Paris. 1. 644 (1836).
Umbilicaria polymorpha, 8. deusta (in part), Scher. Enum. 26 (1850).

Highlands of Scotland! Mr. Borrer.

Similar in all respects to ‘a,’ except in its upper surface
having extremely prominent reticulations, rising to nearly a line
in height, and looking like a series of erect curled squame.

_d. mesenteriformis, Turn. & Borr. Thallus thickish, the upper
side rough with elevated reticulations, and somewhat papillose.

Lichen mesenteriformis, Wulf. in Jacq. Mise. 2. 85. t. 9. f. 5 (fide Turn. &
Borr.) (1781). i
Gyrophora deusta, 8. mesenteriformis, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 222 (1813).

Highlands of Scotland! Mr. Borrer.

Upper surface of the thallus singularly rugose, almost papil-
lose. The reticulations nearly as prominent as in ‘c,’ and some-
times growing out into new leaves: substance considerably
thicker than in the other states.

I must refer here a specimen ! amongst Mr. Spruce’s Lichenes
Pyrenzi collected at Lac Lehon.

Piate X. fig. 15.

t. proboscidea, DC. Thallus thickish, unequally lobed, fringed
at the edges, naked on both sides; upper side greenish-brown,
rugged; under, ash-coloured, smooth.

Lichenoides corneum, marginibus eleganter fimbriatis, Dill. 218. t. 29.
f. 116 A (1741); Fl. Dan. t. 471. f. 1, 2 (fide Turn. & Borr.).

Lichen proboscideus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1617 (excl. syn. Amcen. Acad. & Dill.)

(1763) (fide herb. Linn. cl. Borrero teste); Huds. Fl. Angl. 551;

Wulf. in Jacq. Mise. 2. 80. t. 9. f. 2 (fide Turn. & Borr.); Hedw.

Crypt. 2. 5. t. 1 A (fide Turn. & Borr.); Retz. Scand. 288; With.

Arr. 4. 65; Sm. E. Bot. t. 522, two upper figures.

polyrrhizos, Weis. Crypt. 81 (1770) ; Web. Spicil. 265.

— crinitus, Lightf. Fl. Scot. 860 (1777).

cylindricus, Afzel. in Act. Stockh. 1788 (fide Ach.) ; Ach. Prodr. 148.

foliaceus umbilicatus, peltis turbinatis truncatis perforatis, Linn. FI.

Lapp. 359 (Sm. 2nd ed. 1792).

Umbilicaria crinita, Hotfm. Pl. Lich, 2. 67. t. 44. f. 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 8 (1794) ;
Massal. Ricerch. 61. fig. 111.

Gyrophora cylindrica «, Ach. Meth. 107 (1803); L. Univ. 223; Syn. 65;
Hook. FI. Scot. 2.42; Brit. Fl. 2.218; Johnst. Berw. 2.99; Wallr.
Crypt. Germ. 339; Tayl. Fl. Hib. pt. 2. 155; Koerber, Syst. Lich.
Germ. 97.

Umbilicaria proboseidea «, DC. Fl. Frang. 3rd ed. 3. 410 (1805).

19%

292 Rev. W.A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

Umbilicaria proboscidea, B. cylindrica, Fries! L. Reform. 356 (1831);
Summa V. Scand. 117.

Gyromium cylindricum, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. 483 (1812); Fl. Suee. 857.

Gyrophora proboscidea «, Turn. & Borr.! Lich. Brit. 219 (1813).

Umbilicaria polymorpha, «. cylindrica A. & D, Scheer. Spic. 86 (1823-36) ;
a. monophylla, Exs. 143!; b. polyphylla, Exs. 146!; a. crinita, &
d. fimbriata, Enum. 26.

Gyrophora crinita, Chev. F|. Paris. 1. 644 (1836).

Umbilicaria cylindrica, Tuckerm. Syn. 71 (1848); Nyl. N. Class. 175.

varia, var. proboscidea, Leight. Brit. Lich. Exs. 95!

On Snowdon on the rocks called Llyn Llydaw, and near Llyn
Cwm y Ffynnon tas; also on the summit of the mountains
from Cwm Brwynog towards Ardhu near Llanberris. On lofty
rocks of the Berwyn Mountain, Dillenius. Rocks on the High-
land mountains, as on Goatfield in the Isle of Arran, on the
mountains of Breadalbane, Ben Nevis in Lochaber, Lightfoot.
On rocks in the mountainous parts of Dartmoor, Devonshire,
Mr. Newberry. Summit of Carnedd Llewellin, Mr. Griffith.
Scotland, Wales, and North of England, Sir J. E. Smith. On
Cheviot, Mr. Winch. Near the summit of Hedgehope, North-
umberland, Dr. G. Johnston. On rocks at Connavalla, Ireland,
Dr. Whitley Stokes. On Mangerton, Ireland, Dr. Taylor. Rocks
about Loch Phadrick ! rocks Stroine-dhu ! summit of Carlowrie !
Mr. W. Gardner in herb. Borrer. Birkdale, Westmoreland !
Mr. W. Robertson in herb. Borrer. Clova! Mr. G. Lawson.
Scawfell! Mrs. Joshua Stanger. Yorkshire! Mr. G. Dizon.
Summit of Arran Mowddy! Mr. Borrer. Falcon Clints, Tees-
dale, co. Durham! Mr. W. Mudd.

“ Thallus peltate, ascending, composed usually of numerous
imbricated curled leaves, attached to the rock by a thick central
callous disk, which is sometimes drawn up into a sort of stalk,
whence they spread in nearly a circular form, making patches
of 1 or 2 inches in diameter : the leaves, taken individually, vary
in shape from orbicular through every intermediate degree to
cuneiform, and are divided very irregularly, some down to the
centre, others slightly, into rounded lobes, the edges of which
are crenate or dentate, and everywhere fringed with black
branched compressed fibres, a line or two long, composed of the
substance of the thallus itself, so that they may perhaps most
properly be regarded as elongated teeth, though they have en-
tirely the appearance of cilia of a different substance : these, from
the remarkably undulated mode of growth of the edges of the
thallus, often look at first sight as if they were disposed in two
or three rows: the upper surface is of a dull greenish-brown
when moist ; and of a smoky-grey, with a pruinose appearance,
and sometimes speckled with white, when dry ; always roughish
with minute elevated reticulations of the cuticle, very visible in

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 293

some specimens, but in others scarcely to be detected : the under
surface is quite smooth and naked, except occasionally a few
scattered fibres, which are either branched or simple, shorter and
usually much paler than those which fringe the edges of the
thallus: it is of a pale ash-colour near the centre, but gradually
darker towards the edges, where it is brown, with a greenish
tinge when moistened : substance coriaceous, flexible when moist,
extremely rigid and almost horny when dry, but still tough.
Trice plentifully produced all over the thallus, and often
clustered, turbinate in their first state, afterwards becoming
supported upon extremely short peduncles, mostly orbicular, but
not unfrequently reniform, surrounded by a nearly entire undu-
lated margin, nearly of the same height as the disk, so that the
whole surface is flat; the gyri are mostly concentric, leaving in
the centre a subtriangular cavity, but are not rarely disposed in
various parcels, lying together without any regular order.”— .
Lich. Brit.

Specimens in my own herbarium collected “ in alpibus Jemt-
landie ”! by Fries fil.; “ad rupes in Pyrenzis orientalibus”’ !
by Dr. Cam. Montagne and M. Philippe, are identical.

b. denticulata, Turn. & Borr. Edges of the thallus coarsely
fringed and toothed.

Lichenoides corneum &c., Dill. 218. t. 29. f. 116 B.

Lichen proboscideus, Sm. E. Bot. t. 522, two lower figures.
Gyrophora cylindrica, 8. denticulata, Ach. Meth. 107.

cylindrica «. (in part), Ach. L. Univ. 223.

proboscidea, 8. denticulata, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 219.
Umbilicaria polymorpha, «. cylindrica B, Scher. Spic. 87 ; Exs. 144!
polymorpha, «. cylindrica, b. denticulata, Scher. Enum. 26.

Rocks about Loch Phadrick ! rocks, Ben-na-Bourd! Mr. W.
Gardner in herb. Borrer. Clova! Mr.G. Lawson. Summit of
Arran Mowddy! Mr. Borrer. Galtymore, co. Tipperary! Mr.
I. Carroll.

In all respects similar to ‘a,’ except that the marginal fibres
are coarser and larger, and more evidently a prolongation of the
thallus.

A “forma minor in alpibus maritimis Liguriz occidue,”’ re-
ceived by me from Prof. De Notaris, seems referable here.

c. denudata, Turn. & Borr. Edges of the thallus almost
naked.
Umbilicaria crinita, Hoffm. Pl. Lich. 2. 67. t. 44. f. 7.

Gyrophora proboscidea, y. denudata, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 219.
Umbilicaria polymorpha, «. cylindrica C, Scheer. Spicil. 88 ; Exs. 145! (not

294 Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

characteristic, at least in my copy; but specimen ! in herb. Borrer re-
ceived from Scherer good). ‘ ;
Umbilicaria polymorpha, «. cylindrica, ec. nudiuscula, Scher. Enum. 26.

Highlands of Scotland, Turner and Borrer. Summit of Gly-
der! Falcon Clints! Westmoreland Mountains! Mr. Borrer.

d. exasperata, Turn. & Borr. Thallus polyphyllous, ragged,
rough on the upper side.

Gyrophora proboscidea, 8. exasperata, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 219.

County of Durham, Mr. Robson.

Remarkably curled and undulated, and divided into numerous
small irregular lacinie : upper surface remarkably rough.

I have seen no specimens, but this and denudata appear to be
connecting links with @. deusta.

Pate X. fig. 16. Section of thallus and apothecium. Fig. 17. Ascus.
Fig. 18. Sporidia.

2. Umbilicaria pustulata, Hoffm. Thallus thin, torn, and
lobed, papillose and naked on both sides ; upper side pale olive-
green, blistered and sprinkled with fibrous glomeruli; under side
brownish, deeply pitted: sporidia in asci, one or two, very large,
oblong, pale, wrinkled or reticulated on the surface, 3-septate ?

Lichen cruste modo saxis adnascens, verrucosus, cinereus, et veluti deustus,
Tourn. Instit. 549. (1719) (fide Turn. & Borr.); Vaill. Paris. 116.
tO FS:

Lichen pulmonarius sazatilis, inferne reticulatus, et lacunatus, superne
cinereus, ac verrucosus ; receplaculis florum et seminibus nigricantibus,
et veluti deustus, Micheli, 89. t. 47 (1729).

Lichenoides pustulatum cinereum et veluti ambustum, Dill. 226. t. 30. f. 131
A. & B (1741); Fl. Dan. t. 597. f. 2 (fide Turn. & Borr.).

Lichen pustulatus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2nd ed. 1617 (1763); Fl. Lapp. 359;
Lightf. Fl. Seot. 2. 858; Robson, British Fl. 300; Huds. i Angl.
549; Pottich, Palat. 3. 250; Web. Spicil. 261; Leers, Fl. Herborn,
265; Humb. FI. Frib. 28; Retz. Scand. 287 ; With. Arr. 4. 64; Ach.
Anas cite Sm. E. Bot. t. 1283; Westr. 161, cum icone (fide Turn.

¢ Borr.). 2

Umbilicaria pustulata, Hoffm. Pl. Lich. 2. 13. t. 28. f. 1, 2, & t. 29. f. 4
(1791); Sehrad. Spicil. 102; DC. Fl. Frang. 3rd ed. 3. 411; Hook.
Fl. Scot. pt. 2. 42; Brit. Fl. 2. 219; Stenh. in Sched. Crit. fase. 5 & 6.
mo: 125; Fries, L. Reform. 350; S. V. S. 117; Chev. FI. Paris. 1.
42.

——- pustulata «, Tuckerm. Syn. 70; Bohler, Lich. Brit. 125!; Scher.
Enum. 25; Leight. Brit. Lich. Exs. 166; Koerber, Lich. Germ. 93;
Nyl. Nouv. Class. in Cherb. Mém. 3. 175.

sais 7 pustulata, Ach. Meth. 85 (1803); Scher. Spicil. 106. 190; Exs.

56!

Gyrophora pustulata, Ach. 1. Univ. 226 (1810); Syn. 66 ; Moug. & Nest.
Stirp. Vosges. 60!; Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 232; Purton, Midl. Fl.
2.598; Heppe, Fl. Wurzb. 71; Tayl. Fl. Hib. pt. 2. 155; Spruce’s
Lich. Pyren. !

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 295

Gyromium pustulatum, Wahl. F1. Upsal. 424 (1820); FL Suee. 858.
Graphis pustulata, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 345 (1831).

Lasallia pustulata, Merat, Paris. 202 (183 ); Massal. Mem. 118.
Maerodictya pustulata, Massal. Ricerch. 59. fig. 109 (1852).

On rocks and stones in mountainous districts. By the road
from Pemnorvay to Dolbelmen, and under Keven Lees Castle,
Dillenius. Malvern Hills, Stokes. Old wall, about half way
between Caernarvon and Beddgelart, Rev. H. Davies. Near
Biddiston Lighthouse, Cheshire, Mr. Bradbury. Near Halifax,
Mr. Bolton. Nant Hevynant Vale, near Snowdon, Turner and
Borrer. Near Bantry, Ireland (fruit), Miss Hutchins. Ireland,
Dr. Taylor. Highland mountains of Scotland, Lightfoot. Dart-
moor! Devonshire (fruit), Six W. J. Hooker. Hey Tor! Moel
Hebog! Loch Sligachan, Mr. Borrer. North Wales, Rev. T.
Salwey. Nesscliffe ! Caer Caradoc! Shropshire.

“ Thallus a single leaf, attached to the rock by a thick, cal- ,
lous, central disk, orbicular in its youngest state, but afterwards
varying from orbicular to elliptical, or sometimes quite irregular
in its form, from 1 to 8 or 10 inches in diameter ; flat, except
at the edges, where it is elevated, cleft at first into a few, shallow,
rounded lobes, which, as the plant grows older, deepen and _be-
come torn, so as to be entirely shapeless : upper surface pale dull
olive-green when moist ; whitish ash-colour, with more or less
of a brownish or sometimes of a glaucous tinge, when dry, and,
then particularly, palest at the centre ; uneven in every part,
except sometimes for a very small space round the centre, with
pustular elevations of the whole substance of the thallus, of
an elliptical figure, and varying in size from that of hemp-
seed to that of turnip-seed, large and small being mixed
together without any order, though they generally decrease in
size towards the edges of the thallus ; the whole surface, as well
of the pustules as of the interstices, is rough with minute gra-
nulations (bearing no slight resemblance, in miniature, to those
on the surface of Lycoperdon Proteus), which are most evident
at the centre, and scarcely observable in any other part by the
naked eye, and produces also scattered clusters of black branch-
ing fibres, most numerous towards the border, where they often
become confluent; similar fibres generally lining the edges of
any cavities in the thallus, and sometimes that of the whole
thallus itself (as represented in the upper fig. in EK, Bot.), with a
beautiful black continuous fringe : under surface brownish olive-
green when wet; when dry, varying from dark brown to ash-
colour, and generally slightly pruinose, naked, minutely granu-
lated and full of cavities, exactly corresponding with the pustules
of the upper surface, which in some specimens are so numerous,
that the under surface has at first sight the appearance of a

296 = Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicariv.

coarse network; the interior of the cavities black, and rather
more minutely granulated than the other parts: substance cori-
aceous, thin, very flexible when wet, but exceedingly brittle when
dry. Trice of extremely rare occurrence, scattered among the
tufts of flocculi, principally towards the edges of the thallus;
patelliform, sessile, yet slightly elevated, urceolate when young,
afterwards subturbinate, orbicular, their largest size about equal
to that of rape-seed ; their margin at first raised, thick, often
very rugged and even flocculose, sometimes entire or only waved,
gradually becoming narrower, and at length obliterated, as the
disk, which in the young fruit is concave, becomes flat, and at
last slightly convex. This part is, in all its stages, opake, and
of an uneven appearance, when observed with a glass; in old
convex tricee it is occasionally rugged with irregular warts,
usually depressed at the centre, and approaching more or less
nearly to the appearance of imperfect gyri. These warts in our
specimens do not assume a concentric arrangement, but are
either scattered singly or clustered into little groups.”—Lich.
Brit. Sporidia one or two in each ascus, of a very large size,
oblong, pale, and wrinkled with network, without apparent septa,
though not unfrequently three darker lines may be seen like
horizontal septa *.

It would seem that the external darker portion of the cor-
tical layer of the apothecium frequeatly developes into minute,
branched, thick, fleshy fibres, which increase into the tufts or
flocculi above mentioned.

Specimens in my own herbarium from Upsal, collected by
Fries fil. and Dr. Nylander ; from Italy, Prof. De Notaris ; from
Aste, M. Philippe; from S. de Amoreira, Estremadura, §, de
Cintra, and S. de Gerez, Nos. 21, 32 & 107 of Dr. Fr. Wel-
witsch’s ‘ Cryptotheca Lusitana,’ are in all respects identical with
our British plant.

Mr. Menzies’ specimen from the Cape of Good Hope! in
herb. Borrer, mentioned in Lich. Brit. 234, is smoother and
less granulated on both surfaces, tinged of an ochrey-red; the
apothecia very numerous, much more sessile, their margins
entire or irregularly waved and undulated, but not at all fibrous.
Sporidia similar to those of British specimens. A specimen in
my own herbarium received from Prof. De Notaris, collected by .
Zeyher at the Cape of Good Hope, and labelled “ Lasallia (Gyro-
phora, Eschw.) porphyrea, De Not.,” appears identical with
Mr. Menzies’ in structure and sporidia. The thallus when wetted
becomes of a vivid scarlet hue.

Of the two specimens of G. Pennsylvanica in herb. Borrer !

* For the spermagonia see Tulasne, /. c.

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 297

mentioned in the note, Lich. Brit. 235, as received from Mrs.
Merry, the under surface of one was very finely and less con-
spicuously granulated, whilst that of the other was very coarsely
granulated, but not more so than is observable in Devonshire
specimens ! of U. pustulata in the same herbarium. The upper
surface was smoother and browner, though still with the pale
yellow tinge; the pustules less numerous and rounder, but still
variable. The apothecia were sessile, either simple or gyrate
from compression and aggregation. The sporidia in both are
identical with those of our U. pustulata, of which we cannot but
regard them as varieties or states.

Specimens of U. Pennsylvanica! and of U. pustulata B. papu-
losa! from North America, from Mr. Tuckerman, in herb. Borrer,
had sporidia identical with our U. pustulata.

Fée describes the sporidia of U. pustulata as elliptical, 4-celled.

PuiaTe X. fig. 19. Section of thallus and apothecium, younger state. °
Fig. 20. Section of ditto, older state. Fig. 21. Sporidium.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.

Fig. 1. Section of thallus and apothecium of Umbilicaria pustulata, Hoffm.,
from Tulasne.
2. Umbilicaria polyphylla, Schrad.: sporidia.
Fig. 3. Umbilicaria anthracina, Ach. & Scher. Exs. 154: a, ascus and
paraphyses ; 6, sporidia.
4. Sporidia of Umbilicaria flocculosa, Hoffm.
5. Sporidia of Umbilicaria enea, 8. hyperborea, Scheer. Exs. 150.
Fig. 5a. 1. Section of thallus and apotheefa of Umbilicaria enea, 8. hyper-
borea, Scher. Exs. 151. 2. Sporidia.
Fig. 6. Sporidia of U. arctica, Ach. Specimen from Mr. Robson.
Fig. 7. Sporidia of U. erosa, Hoffm.
Fig. 8. Section of thallus and apothecium of U. erosa, Hoffm.
Fig. 9. Sporidia of U. Muhlenbergii, var. alpina, from Mr. Tuckerman.
Fig. 10. Sporidia of U. erosa, from Mr. Tuckerman.
‘ig. 11. Sporidia of U. pellita, DC.
Fig. 12. Sporidia of U. vellea, Ach., from himself, in herb. Borr.
Fig. 13. Sporidia of U. depressa, var. hirsuta, Scher. Exs. 137.
Fig. 14. Sporidia of U. grisea, Hoffm.
Fig. 15. Sporidia of U. deusta, Linn. and Turn. & Borr.
Fig. 16. Section of thallus and apothecium of U. proboscidea, DC.
Fig. 17. Ascus of U. proboscidea, DC.
Fig. 18. Sporidia of U. proboscidea, DC.
Fig. 19. Section of thallus and apothecium of U. pustulata, Hoffm., in a
young state.
Fig. 20. Section of same in a mature state.
Fig. 21. Sporidium of U. pustulata, Hoffm.

The sporidia are all equally magnified, and therefore in relative pro-
portion.

298 M.A. Miiller on the Development of the Lampreys.

XXVI.—On the Development of the Lampreys.
By Aveust Mixier*.

M. Aveust Mitxier has observed some interesting facts in
the history of the small Lamprey, which occurs abundantly in
the fresh waters near Berlin. The animals appear suddenly at
the spawning season in clear brooks, where they glide about
amongst the stones, or, attaching themselves to these by the
mouth, float in the stream. After spawning they disappear
entirely; and, during the period of their occurrence, none but
full-grown individuals are to be seen.

At the spawning time they are seen in small groups of ten
or more individuals, and the spawning is effected in the fol-
lowing manner :—The male fastens with his mouth upon the
neck of the female behind the eyes, and then twists his body
half round towards her belly, when the emission of the ova and
seminal fluid takes place.

The recently emitted ova are less than half a line in diameter,
white, slightly yellowish, and enclosed in a thin gelatinous
capsule, which is difficult of detection even after swelling in
water. The segmentation is complete, as already stated by
Schultze+, and commences about ten hours after fecundation., ~
The process is described much in the same terms as by Schultze;
the yelk is divided into a smaller upper, and a large lower por-
tion, from the former of which the embryo is developed; the
upper portion is composed of small, and the lower of large
masses, and the centre is occupied by a cavity, which afterwards
becomes smaller, and gradually draws towards the head of the
embryo.

The hinder end of the egg becomes flattened, and on the
upper part of this flat space the anal opening makes its appear-
ance, surrounded in front and on the sides by a horse-shoe-shaped
ridge, and from this a narrow canal is soon traceable half across
the egg, beneath the region of the dorsal cord. ‘The brain and
spinal cord then become more strongly developed; they are
divided by a longitudinal furrow, which soon closes again. The
dorsal cord never advances further than between the labyrinths
of the ears. Its contents appear striated towards the period of
exclusion, as is also the case in the embryos of some bony
fishes; but in the Lamprey the striz consist of series of cells.
The head grows out, and exhibits two lateral swellings, separated
by a cleft in the middle. Above these is the cavity of the
mouth, and subsequently the nasal opening makes its appear-
ance, and gradually moves from the ventral to the dorsal surface.

* From Miiller’s Archiv 1856, No. iv. p. 323. Communicated by
W. S. Dallas, F.L.S.

+ See Annals, vol. xvii. p. 443.

M. A. Miller on the Development of the Lampreys. 299

The hinder portion of the body is thick, and contains the
vesicular intestine, which is still filled with cells of segmenta-
tion. A yelk-sac is never present. The long neck begins
to move, and at its base the heart is seen, without a pulsating
bulb.

About the eighteenth day the young animal escapes from the
egg, when it is white and opake; but its substance gradually
becomes clear, until the movement of the blood can be recog-
nized, when it begins to develope pigment. The brain and
spinal cord resemble a constricted thread, thickened anteriorly.
The eyes appear as dark points on the sides of the bram. The
neck exhibits eight clefts, of which the anterior soon closes,andthe
cavity of the mouth is united with the branchial cavity by a small
opening. The intestine consists of a very fine membrane, covered
with a very long bacillar epithelium. Along the back of the
intestine runs a fold which receives a vessel, and the ureters rise.
on the dorsal side of the intestine, and form but few ramifica-
tions, in which ciliary movement is seen. The dorsal wall of
the mouth has at first two, but afterwards several papillar
elevations. In front of the heart is a longish oval organ, like
a vesicle, and divided down the middle ; this becomes the mus-
cular portion of the sucking apparatus of the Lamprey.

A muscular veil is now developed in the mouth, which pre-
vents the exit of water; and the papillee of the upper surface of
the mouth increase in number and form branches, constituting a
sort of net which prevents the entrance of foreign bodies. At
this period the author was surprised by the great similarity of
his young fishes with those of the genus Ammocetes, which
occur in the same waters with the Lampreys, and for some time
he endeavoured in vain to find any difference between them.
After keeping them for two years they died, without exhibiting
any tendency to take on the form of their parents ; and during
the whole of this period they appeared to be genuine Ammocetes.
The author was therefore led to imagine, that the supposed
genus Ammocetes was in reality founded upon the young of
Petromyzon.

To ascertain the correctness of this supposition he sought for
Ammocetes in course of metamorphosis, and found them in a
condition which distinctly showed their intermediate state. The
silvery lustre of the skin which distinguishes the Lampreys was
already perceptible, and the dorsal fin was elongated. The eye
was distinct, but in some individuals was still dull, whilst in
others it was perfectly clear. The mouth was narrower than in
the true Ammocetes; in the latter it measures 3} millimeters,
during the metamorphosis 3, and in the fully developed animal
in spring 53. The distance of the nasal opening from the

300 M.A. Miiller on the Development of the Lampreys.

anterior margin of the mouth increases in a regular ratio; thus,
in the Ammocetes it is 4}, in the metamorphosis 6-7, and in
the developed Petromyzon 9 millimeters. The cleft which
separates the upper from the lower lip in the Ammocetes was
still distinctly present in some animals, but had completely dis-
appeared in others.

The papillae of the mouth were reduced, but bore no horny
armature, and the veil of the mouth still existed in some indi-
viduals, especially those which exhibited the cleft between the
upper and lower lips most distinctly. When the opening of the
mouth was completely rounded, the veil was reduced to a small
remnant. The branchial apertures had lost the external valves
which in Ammocetes prevent the ingress of water; and, in the
most developed individuals, these apertures were furnished with
a border. The inner branchial apertures were narrowed, but
wider than in the Lamprey. In the structure of the cesophagus
and other particulars of their anatomy, the animals also exhi-
bited the same intermediate condition. The ova in the ovaries
had already become white and opake; those present in the
ordinary Ammocetes being transparent. They exhibited the
germinal vesicle distinctly, and the testes had developed cells
for the formation of spermatozoa.

The metamorphosis goes on rapidly from this point. In
sixteen days the yellow teeth made their appearance in many
animals, and the sucking apparatus was in action; but it had
not acquired its ordinary energy in four weeks in animals kept
in confinement.

With this change of form comes a corresponding change in
the mode of life. The Ammocetes shun the light, and bury
themselves in the sand at the bottom of the water. Their
respiratory organs are protected by the network in the mouth ;
they live upon the substances which are collected by it in their
mouths, and their cesophagus exhibits ciliary epithelium. The
author found the shells of Bacillarie in all the Ammoceetes which
he examined. The Petromyzon, on the contrary, being well
furnished with eyes, seeks the light, and swims about in the
clearest water, or fixes itself by suction, when respiration is
effected by the ingress and egress of the water through the
external branchial apertures.

There is therefore no doubt that the Ammocetes are the larve
of Petromyzon, just as the Tadpoles are the larve of the Frog.
As however only one European species of Ammocetes has been
described, although we have several species of Lampreys, the
author thought it worth while to examine the Ammocetes of the
River Lamprey. He found this to be exactly similar to that of
the small Lamprey above described ; both possess a gall-bladder

.

M. A. Miiller on the Development of the Lampreys. 301

and otolithes, although these only persist in the small Lamprey.
With regard to the Sea Lamprey he could ascertain nothing.

It appears from his observations that the duration of the
larval existence must be three years. The spawning takes place
in the spring, and only once in the year. In May he took six
Ammocetes ; three small ones, measuring on an average about
22 inches, and weighing on an average 94 grains, and the other
three measuring about 6 inches, and weighing on an average 87
grains. The three first must have been those of the preceding
year, the larger ones must have been two years old; and as they
showed no trace of: metamorphosis, they could not have pro-
duced perfect Lampreys until the third year. Large individuals
of Ammocetes also occur after the time of the metamorphosis,
and these probably do not undergo their change until the fourth
year. In the perfect state, the Lampreys live a very short time.
Immediately atter the spawning season they disappear entirely, -
and their dead bodies may be seen floating in the water, the
ovaries of the females being quite empty. This long duration
of the larval state is remarkable, as in the only other Vertebrata
which undergo a metamorphosis (the Batrachia) this usually
takes place at an early period, and the animal continues to grow
long after it has acquired its mature form. The metamorphosis
of the Lampreys, therefore, resembles that of the Insects, in
which the larval period is the most important portion of the
animal’s existence,—its principal business in the perfect state
consisting in providing for the continuance of the species.

In conclusion, the author refers to the doubts which these
observations may induce as to the systematic position of the
Lampreys. In the occurrence of the metamorphosis, and the
complete segmentation of the yelk, they resemble the Batrachia ;
and they also differ from the Fishes in the occurrence of a pair
of elastic swellings in the bulbus arteriosus, one above cach semi-
lunar valve, whilst the inner wall of the bulb is destitute of the
trabecular system which is generally present in Fishes. The
structure of the brain also is different from that prevailing
amongst the Fishes ; but, according to the author’s views, the
nature of the dorsal chord and its appendages is decidedly piscine.
The result of his examination of comparative characters is, in
fact, to leave the Lampreys exactly in their former position.

He promises a longer memoir on this subject, illustrated with
figures.

302 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

XXVII.— Monograph of the genus Catops.
By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh.

[Continued from p. 156.]
Exotic Species.

18. C. celer, Lucas.
Catops celer, Lucas, Explor. de l’Algérie, Anim. Art. ii. p. 225.

Oblongo-ovatus, fulvo-pubescens ; capite subtilissime granario ;
antennis ferrugineis, ultimis articulis fuscis ; thorace granario,
angulis posticis acuminatis; elytris granariis ; corpore infra
granario ; pedibus ferrugineis femoribusque nigricantibus.

Long. 1} lin., lat. lin.

Very closely allied to the C. nigrita; black, covered with a
yellow, silky, very dense pubescence. The head is very finely
shagreened and scarcely pubescent. The labial as well as the
maxillary palpi are of a clear ferruginous colour. The antenne
are ferruginous, with the four last joints of a deep brown. The
thorax is very finely shagreened, much more pubescent than the
head ; it is very slightly convex, rounded on the sides, with the
posterior angles projecting and pretty strongly acuminate. The
scutellum is very finely granulated and scarcely pubescent. The
elytra are a little more strongly granulated than the head and
thorax, and are very pubescent. All the body below is granulated,
scarcely pubescent, and of the same colour as above. The legs
are ferruginous, very lightly pubescent, with the thighs blackish.

Found by M. Lucas in Algeria under stones in the month
of June. He mentions Oran and the Bondjaréa as localities
where he took it, and he observes that it is very agile.

The above description is reproduced from that of M. Lucas.
I have seen specimens in his possession, but not having had
an opportunity of comparing them with the specimens in my
own cabinet, I am not able to pronounce positively upon them.
The same remark applies to the other two species from Algeria
described by him (marginicollis and rufipennis).

19. C. fuscipes, Menetr.

Catops fuscipes, Menetries, Mém. Acad. Imp. Sciences St. Pétersb. 6 sér. vi.
(1849) p. 53.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, convexus, posterius valde angustatus pallide

rufo-ferrugineus ; capite, thoracis dorso, pectore abdomineque

nigro-fuscis ; antennis tenuibus longitudine dimidii corporis ;

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 303

thorace antrorsum angustato, lateribus deflexo, angulis posticis
productis acutis ; elytris stria tantum suturali exarata*,”
Long. 1# hin., lat. ¢ lin.

Menetries says that this species somewhat resembles his
C. lateritius (already described (No. 5) in the first group), but
that it is much more conyex and narrower behind, with the pos-
terior angles of the thorax pointed and prolonged backwards ; he
adds that moreover it has no perceptible striz on the elytra, ex-
cept one along the suture, but that it is particularly the colour
which distinguishes it at the first glance.

I have not seen this species, but the above description, parti-
cularly the portion which I have printed in italics, would seem
to indicate an affinity to C. nigricans, and the pale colour has
probably arisen from immaturity. I have therefore, in the absence
of any more precise information, placed it in this group.

Menetries does not mention its locality, but as it comes im- ~
mediately after C. lateritius, and he institutes comparisons be-
tween them, it is probable that they were found not far from
each other. In that case the locality of this species would be
Novaia Alexandroyskaia.

20. C. vestitus, mihi.

Oblongo-ovatus, fuscus, dense griseo-pubescens; Fig, 23.
antennis clavatis, nigris, basi ferrugimeis ; thorace
transverso, granulato, angulis pésticis abtusin'; ae
elytris stria saturali. pinky

Long. 2 lin. |
|
}

Oblong-oval, blackish-brown ; mouth and legs
ferruginous ; clothed with a thick, coarse, griseous
pubescence, of a more lively fulvous colour on the
thorax. The antennz are clavate, black, except at
the base, which is ferruginous ; they are not so slender at the
base as is usually the case, making the club look less thickened
than it is in reality. The first joint is large, the second shorter
and narrower ; the rest are nearly all of equal length, with the
exception of the seventh and ninth, which are a little longer,
and the eighth, which is shorter. They gradually increase in
thickness up to the seventh, which is the broadest and largest
of them all; the eighth joint is smaller and thinner than the
seventh and ninth, but not very minute; the terminal joint is
suddenly acuminate at the tip, looking as if truncate at the end,
with a short spike projecting from the centre. The thorax is
transverse, broadest a little behind the middle. The posterior

* Menetries in Joc. cit.

304 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

angles are obtuse, except at the very angle, where there is an
exceedingly minute rectangular starting-point. The surface is
coarsely granular. The scutellum is small. The elytra are gra-
nulated and have a distinct sutural stria, but apparently no
others—at least the traces, if any, are exceedingly indistinct.
The anterior tarsi and first joint of the middle tarsi are dilated
in the male.

This species has some resemblance to C. chrysomeloides, but it
is smaller, the thorax is narrower and more transverse, the an-
tenne are not so heavily clubbed, and the joints are differently
proportioned. It has also some resemblance to C. tristis, but
the form of the thorax as well as a difference in the pubescence
distinguish it. The pubescence is coarser and more dense than
in most other species.

From the East Indies (Boys’ collection). The above descrip-
tion is taken from a unique (male) example kindly presented to
me by my friend Mr. Westwood.

21. C. Spencianus, Kirby.

Choleva Spenciana, Kirby, Fn. Bor. Amer. p. 108 (1837).

Catops cadaverinus, (Esch.) Mannerh. Beitr. zur Kaf. Faun. der Aleu-
tischen Inseln, Sitka, und Calif., aus d. Bull. Naturforsch. Moscow,
xvi. (1843) p. 82. no. 173.

fuscus, Hoff. var. Dej. Cat. 3rd ed. 133.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, fusco-piceus, tenue-pubescens; anten-
nis mediocribus, clavatis, basi ferrugineis; thorace brevi
transverso, basi parum latiore, angulis posticis obtusis ;
elytris rufescentibus punctatis, stria suturali impressa ;
pedibus ferrugineis piceis ; femoribus infuscatis.

“ Long. 1} lin., lat. 1 lin.* ”

Body black, covered with decumbent pale hairs. Head
minutely punctured ; antenne shorter than the prothorax, the
two first joints ferruginous, the eighth shorter and smaller than
the rest ; mouth and palpi ferruginous ; prothorax not visibly
punctured, with all the angles rounded ; base with a slight sinus
on each side ; elytra acute, very minutely punctured, with a hair
emerging from each puncture, without furrows, except a single
one parallel with the suture, ferruginous, black at the tip ; ab-
domen piceous, rufous at the base; legs ferruginous.

Found in the Sitka Islands by Eschscholtz and Kuprianoff.

A comparison of the authentic unique specimen of Kirby’s
Choleva Spenciana preserved in the British Museum, with speci-
mens of Mannerheim’s Catops cadaverinus, shows that they are
the same species.

Fig. 24.

* Mannerheim in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 305

Mr. Kirby remarks regarding it, that “This species appears
to present the type of a new family of Choleva, not noticed in
Mr. Spence’s ‘ Synopsis Sectionum ’ in his admirable Monograph
of that genus. From his first section (Choleva, Steph.) it bor-
rows the rounded posterior angles of the prothorax; from his
second (Catops, Steph.) its clavated antenne ; and from his
third (Ptomaphagus, Steph.) its unfurrowed elytra: it seems
properly included in the second, with which it most agrees in
habit*.”

Var. b. Mann. Bull. de la Soc. Mose. 1843, pp. 173, 254.

Ferrugineo-testacea ; capite fusco; thoracis disco antennisque
infuscatis ; elytris pallide livido-testaceis, postice nonnihil
obscurioribus.

As Count Mannerheim observes, this species is somewhat allied
to C. morio, Erichs. (fuscus, Gyll.), but distinguished from it by °
the thorax being smaller and narrower and the elytra longer.
The colour both of the pubescence and body is paler.

Tu carcases in the island of Afognak; taken sparmgly in
the month of August by M. Holmberg, who also took it in Cali-
fornia. It was Tikewise brought by M. Frankenhauser from
the interior of the Peninsula of Kenai.

For the figure of this and the other American species I am
indebted to my friend Dr. Leconte of Philadelphia, who has kindly
furnished me with drawings of them made expressly for my use
in this paper. They are in half outline, and all his figures are
four times enlarged. The head is brought up simply to show
proportions.

22. C. brunnipennis, Mann.

Catops brunnipennis, Mann. Nachtrag zur Kiafer-Fauna der Nord-Amerikan-
ischen Lander der Russischen Reiches, Mosc. 1853, p. 14.

*“ Oblongo-ovatus, convexus, crebre subtilissime reticu- Fig.25.
lato-strigulosus, nigro-piceus, griseo-pubescens ; an-
tennis thorace vix brevioribus, ferrugineo-testaceis,
clava parum incrassata fusca, articulo octavo minutis-
simo; thorace longitudine sesqui latiore lateribus
modice rotundatis, antice latitudine basis haud angus-
tiore, angulis omnibus subrotundatis; elytris obscure
castaneis, apice subacuminatis, stria suturali leviter !
exarata; pedibus piceo-testaceis.

“ Long. 13 lin., lat. 3 lin.

“ Longer than C. cadaverinus, Esch., more narrowed behind,

* Kirby in loc. cit.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 20

306 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

besides differing from it in having the antenne more slender, the
thorax much broader, shorter, and not narrowed in front.
“Found tolerably frequently near the river Tschunuktnu in
the Peninsula of Kenai, in carcases at the end of June, M. Fran-
kenhiauser*.”
The reader owes the figure of this species to Dr. Leconte.

23. C. luridipennis, Mann.

Catops luridipennis, Mann. dritten Nachtrag zur Kafer-Fauna der Nord-
Amerikanischen Linder des Russischen Reiches, Mose. 1853, p. 84.

“ Ovatus, convexus, crebre subtilissime reticulato-strigu- Fig. 26.
losus, nigro-piceus, griseo-pubescens ; antennis thorace
nonnihil longioribus, crassiusculis nigris, articulo oc-
tavo minuto; thorace longitudine fere duplo latiore,
lateribus rotundato, antice latitudine basis hand angus-
tiore, angulis omnibus rotundatis ; elytris obscure cas-
taneis, apice obtusis rotundatis, stria suturali leviter
exarata ; tarsis rufis.

“ Long. 14 lin., lat. 3 lin.”

Mannerheim says that this species is allied to his C. brunni-
pennis, but is shorter, and is besides distinguished by having
the antenne thicker, the thorax shorter, its sides more rounded,
and the elytra rounded at the apex.

Collected in carcases in the months of July and August by
M. Frankenhauser on the banks of the Tschunuktnu in the
Peninsula of Kenai: not frequent.

24. €. simplex, Say? Lec.

Catops simplex, Say? Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. v. 184; Leconte, Syn-
opsis of the Silphales of America in Proceedings of Acad. Philad.
1853, 281.

Fig. 27.

“ Piceus, fulvo-sericeus, dense punctulatus; thorace an-

trorsum subangustato, lateribus rotundatis, basi late

rotundato ; elytris obsoletissime striatis, stria suturali
profundiore ; antennis basi testaceis ; tibus calearibus
mediocribus armatis.

“ Long. 1 lin.

“The anterior tarsi and first jomt of the middle tarsi of the
male are moderately dilated ; the antenne are as long as the
head and thorax, moderately thickened ; the seventh joint is a
little larger than the sixth, and equal to the ninth ; the eighth
is about one-half smaller {.”

* Mannerheim in loc. cit. + Ibid. + Leconte in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 307

The above is Dr. Leconte’s description ; the following is Say’s :

“ Pale brownish, sericeous ; terminal and five basal joints of
the antenne rufous. Inhabits Arkansas. Head dark ferru-
ginous; antenne dark ferruginous, the five basal joints and
terminal joint rufous; palpi and mandibles ferruginous ; thorax
rather paler than the head, quadrate, a little transverse, sides
regularly arcuated; posterior margin not wider than the ante-
rior ; posterior edge rectilinear ; angles rounded; elytra paler
than the thorax, light brownish, with obsolete striz, more ob-
vious towards the tip; very numerous minute punctures fur-
nishing minute hairs ; beneath piceous; feet rufous ; thighs yel-
Jowish beneath. Length nearly ,3,ths of an inch. This species
occurred on dung*.”

Dr. Leconte in speaking of his species remarks, that he is not
positively certain that it is Say’s species, which was found in
Arkansas, while his was from New York. He adds, ‘ The thorax °
is more narrowed in front than described by him; although the
legs are in reality black, the lustre of the fulvous hair is such,
that one might readily be tempted to describe them as testaceous
at base.”

25. C. clavicornis, Lec.

Catops clavicornis, Lec. Synopsis of Silphales of America in Proceed. Acad.
Philad. 1853, 281. 7
fig. 28.

“Oblongo-ovatus, ater, subtiliter pubescens, dense punct-
ulatus ; thorace antrorsum valde angustato, lateri-
bus rotundatis, basi late rotundato; elytris versus
apicem obsolete striatis, stria suturali profunda ; an-
tennis thorace brevioribus, magis clavatis.

“ Long. 14 lin.

“One female: New York. This species is readily distin-
guished from the preceding (C. simplex) by the shorter, more
clavate antennz, which are only indistinctly testaceous at the
base ; the seventh joint is about twice as large as the sixth ; the
eighth is smaller than the sixth, and appears only about one-
third as large as its neighbours. The spines of the tibiz are
somewhat smaller than in the preceding species (stmplex)+.”

2nd Subdivision. Thorax forming a continuous or nearly con-
tinuous line with the elytra; middle tarsi of the males widened in
some species, in others not.

In the last subdivision our arrangement led us gradually from

* Say in loc. cit. + Leconte in Joe. cit.

20*

308 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

the species with slender antenne to those with the heaviest and

thickest-clubbed antenne. The affinity to these leads us now to —

reverse this order, and to commence this subdivision with those
having similar thick antenne.

A. Antenne heavily clubbed and middle tarsi widened in the
males.

26. C. fumatus, Erichs.

Choleva Watsoni, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 156.

Catops agilis, Fab. Syst. Eleuth. ii. 565. 6; Gyll. Ins. Suee. i. 277. 2;
Panz. Faun. Germ. 95. 10; Duft. Fn. Aust. iii. 75. 4.

Catops fumatus, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 240. 12; Sturm, Deut. Fn. xiv.
31. 15. t. 176. f. c. C; Heer, Fn. Helv. 1. 382. 15; Redt. Fn. Aust.
144.7; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 436. 22; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn.
Ent. Fr. i. 303. 14.

Oblongo-ovalis, fusco-piceus ; antennis brevibus, cla- Fig. 29.
vatis, basi apiceque ferrugineis; thorace brevi,
basi latiore, angulis posticis rectis ; elytris pedi-
busque testaceis.

Long. 1} lin.

One of the smaller species. Oblong oval. Deep

brown, Antennz short and thick, a little longer
than the thorax, brown ; last joint broader than
long, both it and the three first joints ferruginous.
Head black, densely punctate. Thorax with reddish transparent
margins, slightly arched ; densely and finely punctate, almost
twice as broad as long, as broad at the base as the elytra, or
very nearly so, narrowed in front ; posterior angles right-angled,
pointed ; posterior margin almost straight. Elytra oval, acu-
minate, densely punctate, without traces of striz, except the
sutural ; reddish-brown, often brownish at the extremity. Under
side blackish-brown. Legs ferruginous.

Distinguished from the other European species of this sub-
division, except alpinus and scitulus, by its short, thick, heavily-
clubbed antennz.

The alpinus is clearer in colour, is longer, and has the thorax
usually narrower than the elytra. Scitu/us differs from fumatus
in having the antenne longer, the elytra broader, the posterior
angles of the thorax projecting, and the colour somewhat dif-
ferent, the elytra being brown, without the reddish tint which
is characteristic of fumatus, particularly at the base of the elytra,
and having a marked sericeous lustre.

One of the commonest species. It is found in Scotland and
England, and all over Europe, under detritus, in decaying fungi
and under leaves.

-

|
i

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 309

27. C. alpinus, Gyll.
Catops alpinus, Gyll. Ins. iv. 3121.2; Heer, Fn. Helv. 1. 318. 11; Kraatz,
Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 435, 21.
Catops subfuscus, Kellner, Stett. Ent. Zeit. viii. 177.4; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771.
Oblongo-ovalis, fusco-piceus; antennis abrupte clavatis, Fig. 30.*
basi ferrugineis ; thorace brevi, angulis posticis ob-
tusiusculis ; elytris pedibusque rufo-brunneis.
Long. 14-13 ln.

Very like C. fumatus, but usually somewhat larger,
with a narrower thorax, the posterior angles of which
are obtuse, and the basal margin not so broad as
the elytra. The antennz are as long as the head
and thorax, with the basal joints reddish and thick ;
club blackish; the last jomt is usually black, but sometimes
yellowish at the tip. The head is black, densely and finely .
punctate, with a yellowish pubescence. The thorax is blackish-
brown, densely punctate, densely clothed with yellow hairs, at
the basal margin not so broad as the elytra, cut straight, and
slightly simuate on both sides of the scutellum, the anterior
angles obtuse and the posterior angles slightly rounded. The
elytra are oval, densely punctate, lightly clothed with yellow
pubescence, clear reddish-brown, generally blackish at the tip
and towards the suture. The legs are brownish-red.

The normal specimens are readily distinguished from fumatus
by their larger size and more elongate form, and by the thorax
being narrower than the elytra; but these characters are some-
times wanting, and in form the smaller specimens do not differ
from C. fumatus ; the clearer colour, the particularly strong dark
club of the antenne with its eighth joint proportionately smaller,
then serve to distinguish it ; but on the whole I am very doubtful
of its being more than a variety of fumatus, and it is with hesi-
tation I have placed it as a distinct species.

Generally distributed over the north of Europe; but I have
not yet seen British specimens.

28. C. brevicollis, Kraatz.

Catops brevicollis, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 436, 23.

“‘ Qvatus, fusco-piceus ; antennis ferruginets obsoletissime clavatis,
articulo ultimo duobus precedentibus longitudine equali, acumi-
nato ; thorace fusco, transverso, basi latiore, angulis posticis
rotundatis ; elytris substriatis pedibusque rufo-testaceis.

“ Long. 1} lin.”

I have not seen this species. The following is M. Kraatz’s
description :—

* The comparative breadth of the elytra is rather exaggerated in this
figure.

310 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

“Nearly in the middle between C. fumatus and C. scitulus.
Easily distinguished from both by the wholly different thorax
and form of the antenne. Pitchy-brown; elytra and legs
brownish-yellow. The antennz are somewhat longer than the
head and thorax, reddish-brown throughout ; the club scarcely
perceptibly thickened ; the five last joints are only a little stouter
than those preceding, and are of equal breadth ; the first joint is
somewhat longer and a little stouter than the second; the third
somewhat shorter than the second, distinctly larger than the
fourth, almost equal to the sixth ; fifth scarcely larger than those
on each side of it; seventh half as long again and somewhat
stouter than the sixth, equal to the ninth; eighth scarcely
slenderer, and half as long as those on each side of it; tenth a
little shorter than ninth ; eleventh as long as ninth and tenth
together, from the middle outwards sharply acuminate. The
head is pitchy-black, very finely moderately densely punctate ;
the mouth brownish-yellow. The thorax of the breadth of the
elytra, broadest at the base, more than twice as broad as long,
tolerably strongly and symmetrically narrowed from the base
towards the front. The anterior angles are rounded, somewhat
depressed ; the obtusely rounded hinder angles project a little
beyond the anterior margin of the elytra; the posterior margin
is very feebly sinuated on both sides near the middle ; the upper
side is moderately, densely, finely shagreen-punctate, pitchy-
black ; the sides and posterior margin brownish, tolerably closely
covered with a long yellowish-grey pubescence. The elytra are
uniform, only slightly narrowed behind, densely and finely punc-
tate, with a slight bloom or hoar-frost on them, sparingly and
finely pubescent, brownish-yellow. The under side of the body
is pitchy-black. The legs are reddish-yellow*.”

M. Kraatz has established this species upon one example from
Sicily, communicated by Zeller to the Royal Museum of Berlin.

29. C. scitulus, Erichs.

Choleva fumata, Spence, Linn. Trans. xl. 155. 4. .
Catops scitulus, Erichs, Kaf. d. M. Brand. i. 241. 13; Sturm, Deutschl.
Faun. xiv. 33. 16; Redt. Faun. Aust. 772; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit.
xill. 437. 24; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 304. 17.
Ovatus, fuscus; antennis leviter clavatis, ferru- _—_‘Fig. 31.;
gineis ; thorace postice latiore, angulis posticis
productis, rectis; elytris pedibusque obscure
fusco-testaceis.
Long. 1} lin.
Oval, brown. Antenne as long as head and
thorax, ferruginous, a little deeper before the

* Kraatz in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 311

extremity. Head brownish-black, densely punctate. Thorax
large, deep brown, densely punctate, only one-third broader than
long, as broad at the base as the elytra, narrowed in front from
the middle, rounded on the sides; posterior angles pointed, a
little projecting behind, which makes the posterior margin
visibly sinuated on each side. Elytra oval, slightly acuminate,
densely punctate, without vestiges of striz, except the sutural ;
testaceous-brown, extremity blackish. Legs ferruginous.

Resembles C. fumatus, but differs by having the antennz
longer, the elytra broader, and the posterior angles of the thorax
projecting a little behind, and its colour darker and con-
colorous ; and covered with a fine silky pubescence, so that when
looked at from behind, a paler sericeous band appears to stretch
across the elytra.

Not common. Has been taken near Berlin, in Thuringia,
Erlangen, Switzerland, near Paris, near London, and in the.
south of England. I have not seen any examples taken in
Scotland.

B. Antenne not heavily clubbed; middle tarsi of males rarely
widened.

30. C. depressus, mihi.

Breviter ovatus, postice attenuatus, ferrugineus; an- Fig. 32.*
tennis subfiliformibus ; thorace transverso, sub-
depresso, postice latiore, lateribus postice leviter
infleais ; angulis posticis fere acutis ; elytris pal-
lidioribus, substriatis.

Long. 1% lin.

Entirely of a pale ferruginous colour; the elytra
paler, and the legs testaceous. The antennz are
slender, pale ferruginous ; first joint stouter and
longer than the second; third joint nearly twice as long as the
second ; fourth nearly as long as the third ; fifth and sixth joints
nearly equal in length—if there is any difference, the fifth
is longer than the sixth, but this is scarcely perceptible ; they
are also all of the same breadth, and each is shorter than the
third ; the seventh is a little longer than the sixth, and broader ;
the eighth is only half as long as the seventh, but scarcely
narrower; the ninth and tenth are nearly equal in length,
rather broader than the seventh; the eleventh is nearly round,
but with a slight obtuse point at the tip. Head brown, pretty

* The sinuations of the thorax and prominence of the shoulders are
rather exaggerated in this figure.

312. Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. —

closely and distinctly punctate, most deeply in front, and with
a shallow frontal depression; clothed with a yellowish pubes-
cence. ‘Thorax transverse, subdepressed, narrowest in front ;
the posterior angles meeting, and as broad (or nearly so) as the
base of the elytra, the lateral margins with a slight appearance
of inflexion just before the posterior angles; the anterior angles
rounded ; the posterior angles somewhat acute ; posterior margin
broadly sinuate towards the sides; shagreen-punctured, clothed
with a yellowish pubescence. LElytra 2} times as long as the
thorax, ferruginous-red; shoulders prominent, and tapering
from them towards the apex ; turned rapidly in at the apex, so
as to make it appear almost slightly truncate; a depression
surrounds the scutellum (which is large and triangular) and
extends along on each side of the suture for more than half
the length of the elytra, the back of each elytron rising in a
somewhat humped manner from the depression; there is a
deep sutural line running up the middle of this depression ; it
touches the suture at the apex, expands as it goes along, and
contracts almost to the suture again when it reaches the scu-
tellum ; the elytra are tolerably distinctly striated, the striz
deepest at the apex; shagreen-punctured, and clothed with a
close testaceous yellow pubescence. Legs and under side of same
colour as upper side, but rather paler, clothed with a similar
pubescence.

At first sight this species is very like fuscus, many specimens
of which have the same depression on the back of the elytra;
but it is distinguished at once by the different form of the
posterior part of the thorax, which in fuscus turns in to meet
the base of the elytra, while in this species it does not. The
joints of the antennz are also somewhat different in their pro-
portions, and the elytra taper more rapidly to the apex, and
the apex itself at its extremity has a tendency to become semi-
truncate for a short space, while in fuscus the apex is rounded
off to the suture. There is, however, no doubt that this is
very much akin to fuscus, and, in a strictly natural arrange-
ment, should come next to it; but no arrangement will provide
for all the aberrant forms which occur, and an occasional sepa-
ration of nearly allied species must be submitted to, for the
sake of the greater facility of determination afforded by artificial
divisions.

The above description is taken from a single female spe-
cimen which I found in M. Chevrolat’s collection, and which,
although unique, he has kindly ceded to me. It stood among
his European species, but the exact locality was not men-
tioned.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 313

31. C. umbrinus, Erichs.

Catops umbrinus, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Brand. i. 235.4; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771 ;
Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 407. 7; Fairm. & Laboulb. i. 303. 15.

Ovatus, brunneus; antennis subfiliformibus; tho- Fig. 33.
race transverso, postice latiore, angulis posticis

elongatis, acutis ; elytris substriatis.

Long. 12 lin.

Short oval, brown. Antenne scarcely thickened
at the extremity, ferruginous, lighter at the base,
clear yellow at the apex. Head almost black ;
mouth reddish. Thorax densely and finely punc-
tate, broadest behind, posterior margin sinuate, and the pos-
terior angles pointed, projecting, embracing the base of the
elytra. Elytra very shghtly widened in the middle, obtusely
rounded at the apex, finely and densely punctate with indistinct
strize, scarcely more visible behind. Legs reddish. Middle’
tarsi of males widened.

The completely oval shape of this species, the outline of the
thorax fitting exactly to the elytra, distinguishes it from all but a
few. Its slender antennz distinguish it from those in the pre-
ceding section of this subdivision. It is the largest species of
this section, and comes nearest to C. velox. Its larger size,
darker colour, the posterior angles of the thorax more projected
behind, and the middle tarsi widened in the males, distinguish
it from that species.

Widely distributed over the Continent, but I am not aware
of its having been taken in Britain*. It has been taken near
Stettin, Berlin, in Austria, near Kiew, Paris, Fontainebleau,
&e., on trees and under leaves.

32. C. velox, Spence.

Choleva velox, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 154. 13.

Catops velox, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Brand. i. 241. 14; Sturm, Deutsch]. Faun.
xiv. 3. 5. 17. t. 277. f. b. B; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 383. 17; Redt. Fn.
Aust. 144. 15; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 437. 25; Fairm. &
Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 504. 18.

Ovatus, ferrugineus ; capite fusco ; antennis lon- Fig. 34.
gioribus, obsolete clavatis, ferrugineis; thorace 3
transverso, basi latiore, margine postica leviter
sinuato, angulis posticis rectis; elytris obso-
letissime striatis, subtilissime transversim ru-
gulosis.

Oval, ferruginous-red; head brown, reddish

* T recorded this in my ‘ Catalogue of Scottish Coleoptera’ as having
been taken by Mr. Morris Young near Paisley, but I am now satisfied that
this was a mistake.

314 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

in front, extremely finely punctate. Antenne as long as the
head and thorax, slender, very feebly thickened towards the
extremity, ferruginous, the last joint not more slender than the
preceding, excised at the extremity. Thorax densely and finely
punctate, as broad behind as the elytra, one half broader than
long, rounded on the sides, narrowed in front ; posterior angles
right-angled, pointed a little inwards ; posterior margin lightly
but visibly sinuate on each side; ferruginous, with the disk
darker, and the margins semi-transparent. Elytra scarcely
widened in the middle, obtusely rounded at the extremity, with
very indistinct striz ; surface densely punctate, finely wrinkled
across. Anterior legs slightly widened at the extremity ; middle
tarsi not widened in the males.

Distinguished from C. scitulus, to which it has considerable
outward resemblance, by its more slender antenne, its paler
colour, the margins of the thorax lighter-coloured than the disk,
its transversely wrinkled elytra, and its middle tarsi not widened
in the males.

Differs from C. umbrinus by its smaller size, its lighter colour,
the posterior angles of the thorax not produced behind, the
elytra transversely wrinkled, and the middle tarsi not widened
in the males.

Found throughout Britain and over the Continent not un-
frequently. It has also been taken by Chaudoir at Kiew, and
by Wollaston at Madeira, where, however, it appears to be ex-
cessively rare.

33. C. badius, Dahl., Sturm.

Catops badius, Meg. Dahl. Col. et Lepid. 30; Sturm, Deutschl. Fn. xiv. 40.
20. t. 278. 6. B; Heer, Faun. Hely.i. 383. 19; Redt. Fn. Aust. 145.
15; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii, 437. 26.

Ovatus, piceo-brunneus ; antennis longioribus, Fig. 35.
obsolete clavatis, ferrugineis; thorace trans-
verso, basi latiore, margine postico recto,angulis
posticis rectis, prominulis ; elytris obsoletissime
striatis.

Long. 1-13 lin.

Perfectly egg-shaped, the sharper end behind,
gently convex, clear pitchy-brown, the whole
upper side clothed with a fine, adpressed, yellow-
ish-grey pubescence. The antenne are a little longer than the
head and thorax, ferruginous-yellow, somewhat thickened to-
wards the point; the seventh joint longish, the eighth shorter,
but as broad as the last, the terminal joint obtuse roundish.
The head is very finely punctate, the eyes black. The thorax
is finely and densely punctate, short, behind exactly as broad as

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 315

the base of the elytra, strongly narrowed in front, the anterior
and posterior margins not sinuate, the sides lightly rounded,
the posterior angles right-angled, somewhat projecting over
the shoulders of the elytra. The scutellum large, triangular,
finely punctate. The elytra are oblong-oval, widest in the
middle, behind acuminate-oval, finely shagreened, with a deeply
impressed sutural stria, but without traces of other strie. The
under side of the body and the legs are of the same colour as
the upper, only somewhat lighter.

Distinguished from C. velox by its decidedly more slender
form, by its colour always pitchy-brown and not reddish-brown,
and by the posterior angles of the thorax somewhat projecting
over the margins of the elytra.

Differs from C. precow by its thorax not being wider than
the elytra, and from C. brunneus by its larger size, and the
posterior angles of the thorax not being obtuse. :

This species seems rare. Sturm simply says it is found in
Austria. Kraatz says he has only seen two specimens, which
came from Vienna. I have not seen it.

34. C. precox, Erichs.

Choleva Wilkinii, Spence, Linn. Trans. x1. 157.

Catops precox, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 242.15; Sturm, Deutschl. Fn. xiv.
37. 18. t. 277. f. ec. C; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 318. 18; Redt. Fn. Aust.
145.116; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 438. 27; Fairm. & Laboulb.
Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 304. 19.

Oblongo-ovatus,ferrugineus; antennislongioribus, _ Fig. 36.
obsolete clavatis, ferrugineis ; thorace brevi, basi <
latiore, margine postico recto, angulis posticis
obtusis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis, paulo
angustioribus quam thorace.

One of the smallest species, of a peculiar shape,
oblong-oval, gradually narrowed behind, with the
apex somewhat truncate, brownish ferrugimous, clothed with a
very fine and thin yellowish pubescence. The antenne are
ferruginous-red, almost longer than the head and _ thorax;
only the three last joimts are perceptibly thicker than those
preceding, and the eighth joint decidedly shorter, but not more
slender than the seventh. The head is frequently brownish or
blackish on the front. The thorax is large, transverse, very
slightly, but still perceptibly, broader than the elytra; the sides
are rounded, more narrowed in front than behind ; the posterior
angles obtuse; the posterior margin straight, very finely and
densely punctate. The scutellum is of the form of an equilateral
triangle. The elytra are oblong, straight, perceptibly narrowed
behind, with the apex truncate, somewhat flat, more distinctly

316 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

punctate than the thorax, and very feebly and indistinctly
striated, with the exception of the sutural stria, which is deeply
impressed. The anterior tibie are slightly widened towards the
extremity.

Where the characteristic breadth of the thorax is well deve-
loped, this species can be recognized by the base of the thorax
being a little wider than the base of the elytra, and by the elytra
narrowing backwards and becoming truncate: where this is less
conspicuous, the smaller size, narrower shape, the straight mar-
gins of the elytra, and their narrowing behind, distinguish it from
C. velox. From C. badius, its smaller size, much lighter colour,
straight posterior margin of thorax not projecting backwards at
the posterior angles, separate it; and it is readily distinguished
from the following species (C. brunneus) by the finer punctuation
of the elytra.

Spread over all Europe, including Scotland and England, but
everywhere scarce.

35. C. transverso-striatus, De}. Cat.
Catops transverso-striatus, De}. Cat. 3rd ed. p.

Angustatus, elongatus ; antennis longioribus quam capite et
thorace ; elytris postice attenuatis, striatis et fortiter elongatis,
transversim strigosis.

Mas, elytris longissimis. Long. 14 lin.

Fem., elytris minus elongatis. Lat. 1 Jin.

This species bears considerable resemblance to C. precoz, is
of the same colour, but is larger, and in the male especially has
the elytra much more elongate. It has also the elytra very
deeply transversely strigose, and has seven distinctly impressed
irregular striz, besides a deep sutural stria.

Male. Pubescent, of a yellowish testaceous or pale brown
colour. The antennz are testaceous, slender, longer than the
head and thorax. The first and second joints are long, the first
a little shorter and thicker than the second ; the second, third
and fourth are about equal in length ; the fifth, sixth and seventh
are all nearly of the same breadth and thickness, but each a
little shorter than the one preceding it; the eighth is slightly
shorter than those on each side of it. The last three are thick-
ened; the last is short and a little acuminate. The head is a
little darker than the rest of the body, and the mouth somewhat
lighter. The thorax is pubescent, smooth, not punctate, but
feebly granulose, broader than long, rounded on the sides,
broadest a little behind the middle, bisinuate at the base, with
the posterior angles projecting slightly backwards. The scu-

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 317

tellum is large and acutely triangular. The elytra are very long,
being five times the length of the thorax, and taper towards the
apex in a wedge-shape. They are very deeply transversely
wrinkled, with a profound sutural stria, and seven other striz
less deeply impressed but still quite distinct. The apex of each
elytron is somewhat rounded. The margins of the elytra are
broadly inflexed, leaving a prominent lateral ridge.

Female. The above description will apply also to the female,
with the following alterations :—She is much shorter and com-
paratively broader, and the elytra are not so disproportioned
in their length. The antenne are shorter and thicker, the base
and apex much paler than the middle. The impressed strize on
the elytra are much less evident, but the transverse strigations
are equally distinct.

No species that I have seen has the transverse strigations so
strongly marked. It may at first sight be mistaken for a very -
large precox, but these strigations and the almost dispro-
portionate length and wedge-shape of the elytra in the male
distinguish it readily.

I found three males and one female under this name, marked
as coming from Portugal, in the collection of the Count Dejean ;
the kindness of M. le Marquis de Laferté Senectére having
placed that collection in my hands for examination.

36. C. brunneus, Dahl., Sturm.

Catops brunneus, Knoch, Dahl. Col. et Lepid. 30; Sturm, Deutschl. Fn.
xiv. 38. 19. t. 278. f. a. A; Redt. Fn. Aust. 145. 16; Kraatz, Stett.
Ent. Zeit. xiii. 439. 28.

Ovatus, piceo-brunneus, fumatus ; capite fusco; an- —_—Fig. 37.
tennis longioribus, obsolete clavatis, ferrugineis ;
thorace transverso, basi latiore, margine postico
recto, angulis posticis obtusis ; elytris brunneis.

Long. 1 lin.

As large as the preceding species (C. precoz),
but of a wholly different shape. It is broad-oval, \
moderately flat, behind broadly truncate, ferru-
ginous-brown and shining. The antennz are as
long as the head and thorax, thin, gradually some-
what thickened towards the apex, the terminal joint roundish,
pubescent, the eighth joint short. The head broad, pitchy-
black, finely punctate; the parts of the mouth ferruginous-red.
The thorax is large, broad, as broad at the base as the elytra,
only slightly narrowed in front; the sides lightly rounded; the
posterior angles obtuse; the basal margin straight ; it is more-
over slightly convex, somewhat darker on the back, very finely
and densely punctate, and thinly clothed with a fine yellowish-

318 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

grey pubescence. The scutellum is obtusely triangular, densely
punctate. The elytra are of a short and broad oval form, broadly
truncate at the apex, finely shagreen-punctured, thinly clothed
with a yellowish-grey pubescence, deeply impressed with a
sutural stria, and without any traces of other strie. The abdo-
men is pitchy-black ; the legs are ferruginous-yellow.

The salient points in which it differs from the preceding have
been already noticed. It is larger, more densely pubescent,
more thickly punctate and less shining than the following spe-
cies (C. anisotomoides).

The above description is reproduced from Sturm, as I have
not seen the species. It has been taken in Hungary and
Austria.

37. C. anisotomoides, Spence.
Choleva anisotomoides, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 156. 16.
Catops anisotomoides, Sturm, Deutschl. Fn. xiv. 42. 21. t. 278. fc, C;

Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 384. 20; Redt. Fn. Aust. 145. 16; Kraatz, Stett.
Ent. Zeit. xiii. 439. 29; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 304. 20.

Ovatus, piceus, nitidulus; antennis longioribus,ob- Fig. 38.

solete clavatis; thorace transverso, basi latiore,

margine postico recto, angulis posticis obtusis ;

elytris piceis seu rufo-piceis.
Long. 3 lin.

Oval, very convex. Pale ferruginous-brown,
somewhat shining, variable in depth of colour,
deeper on the disk of the thorax and of the elytra,
with a fine brown pubescence. Antennz tolerably long, scarcely
thickened at the extremity. Thorax transverse, as broad at the
base as the base of the elytra, narrowed a little in front, very
densely but finely punctate ; posterior margin straight, posterior
angles obtuse. Elytra elongate-oval, scarcely widening behind
the base, then gradually becoming narrower; densely punctate,
but not so finely as the thorax; suture raised; sutural stria
deep, almost reaching the scutellum; no traces of other striz
to be seen. Legs and antenne of the same colour as the body.

The smallness of its size, and its short and more convex form,
distinguish it from C. velox. It is nearer in point of size to
C. precoz, but the more elongate form of the latter and its dif-
ferently shaped thorax distinguish it; and a tendency which it
has to curl itself up like an Agathidium will suggest what it is.

Distributed over all Europe, and generally common. In
Scotland and England it is scarcer; but in France and Germany
it is very common. Fairmaire says it is found almost all the
year round in vegetable detritus, principally on the banks of
lakes and marshes.

[To be continued. }

M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 319

XXVIII.—Contributions to the Anatomy of the Infusoria*.
By N. Lizserkvuugn.

Tue essential characters, discernible by direct observation, as-
signed by Ehrenberg to the genus Ophryoglena, are, that the
mouth and the anal point do not lie at the same end of the
body; that the body bears cilia over the whole surface, and that
a forehead-eye exists; and, more particularly, “the mouth is a
pit below the forehead, and the anal point is observed on the
back at the base of the tail.”

Of the three species, Ophryoglena atra, acuminata and flavicans,
the latter is thus described :—O. corpore flavicante, ovato, turgido,
postico fine attenuato obtuso, ocellorubro frontali. Size #,th of
aline. It is added of O. flavicans,—“ It resembles a Bursaria,
and I only distinguish it from this by the eye-spot, hitherto
unknown in the family, the physiological importance of which I .
established. The cilia of the mouth are longer than in the
preceding species. The mouth, passing away from the forehead,
forms a deep pouch, and near this there always exists a light,
but not so distinct, spot as in the preceding species.” It was
made to take in indigo.

During last winter and spring, I frequently found in the
water of the Spree, where Spongillee were present, an Infusorium
which shares the essential peculiarities of Ophryoglena flavicans,
and manifests, in addition, some hitherto unknown. Its yellowish
body is entirely covered with cilia; the cilia are placed in lon-
gitudinal rows; it is ovate, attenuated towards the posterior
extremity, without becoming prolonged into a point. At the
part called by Ehrenberg the forehead (Stirn), it bore a pigment-
spot varying from brown-red to dark brown, situated close
by the mouth, which formed a deep pouch. According to
Ehrenberg, the spot is not always so distinct as in the other
species, and the animalcule in question likewise exhibits this
irregularity: the pigment-spot of Ophryoglena atra, which I
found frequently in the stagnant water near Pichelsberg, is
ordinarily more distinct. The inconstancy of the colour of the
eye-spot of our Infusorium affords no essential distinction, if
we entertain Perty’s statement, that the pigment-spot of Ophryo-
glena griseovirens is reddish in young specimens and blackish in
old ones (Perty, zur Kenntniss kleinster Lebensformen in der
Schweiz, p. 142).

The animalcule I observed differs in size, which amounted to
ith of a line, and also in the constant presence of two contractile
vesicles ; for Ehrenberg ordinarily saw only one, rarely two,

* Translated from Miiller’s Archiv, January 1856.

3820 M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria.

which he regarded as indicative of the commencement of
division.

The animaleule took up abundance of indigo. I did not see
any excretion of substances, and hence I cannot state anything
about an anal point; no special orifice was visible.

The presence of an eye-spot, the position of the mouth, the
complete investment of the body with cilia, require the assign-
ment of the animalcule to the Ophryoglene ; and the described
form of its body, its colour, the peculiar pouch-like form of the
mouth, the variability of the distinctness of the pigment-spot,—
all these make it appear warrantable to name the animalcule
Ophryoglena flavicans, until more certain distinctive characters
have been discovered. The following notices regarding it relate
more particularly to the existence of a hitherto unobserved
watch-glass-like organ near the pigment-spot, and to the vascular
system.

The Eye-spot and the watch-glass-like Organ,

In order to describe accurately the position of these organs,
it is necessary previously to give a more particular account of
the mouth of the animalcule. The mouth forms a narrow slit
in the form of a semicircular line, and lies in a small depression.
In a large specimen, measuring ;°,ths of a millimetre in length
and ;';4,ths of a millimetre in breadth, the distance of the upper
point of the mouth from the end of the head was 75th of a
millimetre, of the lower from the upper point of the mouth
zSépths of a millimetre. The oral cilia, placed all round the
margin of the slit, are far longer than the cilia of the rest of the
body, although these are also remarkable for length; the cilia
of the mouth are seen to project far beyond the others when
the animalcule lies so that the mouth is on the outline of its
figure. The oral slit leads directly into a sac-like space, which
may be traced for a short distance into the cavity of the body,
whenever the latter is not filled up with the strongly refractive
granules; we may also then detect a membrane constantly
vibrating backwards and forwards in the interior of the sac.
But this part ordinarily only becomes distinctly visible when
the oral portion, with the pouch, has been isolated by the com-
pression of the animalcule; the mouth is the entry into the
pouch ; at the opposite side is an orifice, through which sub-
stances which have been taken in by the mouth are conducted
further. Near to this is attached the vibrating membrane, and
it is fixed by one angle to the internal wall of the sac, while the
other parts project freely into the cavity of the latter. That it
is not merely an apparently undulating membrane, as Stein
correctly asserted of the ciliary wreath of the Trichodine, is at

M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 321

once ascertained by compressing the isolated oral structure while
the membrane still vibrates.

Close by the oral slit, on its concave side, lies the pigment-spot.
Its form is extremely irregular, sometimes globular, sometimes
ellipsoidal, in many cases toothed. Ordinarily it is so distinct
as to be at once perceived; sometimes, however, it is so small
that it can only be detected by close examination. In animalcules
filled with strongly refracting substances alone, it is always
difficult to discover it. The pigment-spot of Ophryoglena atra
has, on the whole, more uniformity of form and magnitude. If
we squeeze down an Ophryoglena flavicans between the covering
glass and the slider, we find that the pigment-spot is composed
of a heap of minute, scarcely measurable granules, strongly re-
fracting light. I never could discover a lens in the pigment.
All the specimens examined by me possessed but a single
pigment-spot. Beside this lies always a hitherto unobserved
structure, the form of which is perfectly described when we call
it a watch-glass on a small scale. This watch-glass-like organ is
transparent and colourless, and shows no trace of fibrous or any
other structure. The circular base has a diameter of about
rhath of a millimetre; its depth amounts to about a third part
of this diameter ; the convexity is very considerable. The watch-
glass-shaped organ usually turns its convex side towards the
pigment-spot ; its concave side is directed towards the point of
the head ; it does not seem to be moveable by the animalcule.
When isolated, it withstands the action of water for a longer
time than is usually the case with the other parts of the body of
this Infusorium. After lying some time in water, it swells up
in some degree, and frequently becomes perforated by a hole in
the middle. The presence of the watch-glass-shaped organ is
not dependent on the presence of a pigment-spot ; for Ophryoglena
atra possesses a pigment-spot, but no watch-glass-shaped organ,
while Bursaria flava has a watch-glass-shaped organ, but no
pigment-spot. In other Infusoria with eye-spots, as in the
Euglene and Peridinia, I have sought in vain for this organ. |
have not met with any facts throwing light on its function.

The Nucleolus.

This structure, first described by Von Siebold in Lowodes
Bursaria, and subsequently observed by Stein in Prorodon, is
properly the only part, except the eye-point, which distinguishes
the Ophryoglena in question from Bursaria flava,—at least in
all the specimens which I have hitherto observed. These two
animalcules stand, on the whole, much nearer together than
Bursaria leucas and Ophryoglena atra, which resemble each

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 21

322 M.N.Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria.

other very much in form and in the structure of the mouth ;
Ehrenberg himself, too, has said, that he only distinguished
Ophryoglena flavicans from a Bursaria by its eye-spot. Bursaria
flava, which I found in great numbers, in spring and summer,
in stagnant water in the Berlin Thiergarten, has the same
structure of the mouth, the same throat-like prolongation, and
the same undulating membrane as Ophryoglena flavicans ; the
watch-glass-shaped organ also stands in the same place, near
the concave side of the mouth, and likewise regularly has its
convexity directed towards the point of the head; the only
difference is a slightly larger size, the diameter of the base
amounting to ;33,ths of a millimetre, when the animalcule did
not exceed 4 of a millimetre in length. In the interior of the
body frequently occur long, yellow-ochre-coloured globular gra-
nules, about ~4,th of a millimetre in diameter, rendering the ani-
malcule opake ; among these were isolated colourless spheroidal
cavities, like those which Ehrenberg describes in Bursaria flava.
I could not find an anal orifice ; but sometimes there was at the
posterior extremity of the body a light spot and a depression,
which Ehrenberg refers to the anal orifice. I found the form of
the body to agree exactly with that of Bursaria flava as figured
by Ehrenberg, as did also the position of the contractile vesicle ;
so that Ehrenberg’s description exactly applied: ‘ Bursaria
corpore ovato-oblongo, flavo, seepe postica parte paullo tenuiore,
subacuto, ore corporis aliqua parte superato.”

Let us now return to the description of the nucleolus in
Ophryoglena flavicans. As this animalcule usually contains in its
interior extremely few, and at the same time minute granules
of strong refractive power (in rare cases I found them like those
which occur in Bursaria flava), the mternal structures are
generally readily perceived. The nucleolus is shaped lke a
grain of barley, and is marked at each end with a few sharply
defined streaks or furrows ; its length is somewhat more than
y2,ths of a millimetre, its thickness in the middle about ;}5th
of a millimetre. Its substance has a stronger refractive power
than that of the rest of the body, but far less than the fat-like
globules. Under the highest magnifying power, no structure
could be distinguished; and it withstands for a considerable
time the action of water. The nucleolus is situated on the
middle of the testis, as Ehrenberg called this organ, or the
nucleus, as it is termed by Von Siebold. The nucleus is about
one-fifth of the entire length of the animalcule, and its breadth
in the middle is about one-third of its length. Its longitudinal
axis ordinarily coincides nearly, like that of the nucleolus, with
the long axis of the animalcule. It is of ovate form; its sub-
stance displays no recognizable structure.

*

M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 323

The nucleolus has very different characters in all the specimens
of Bursaria flava I have hitherto observed. It was always so
small that it was difficult to find it, and never became visible
until the Infusorium was compressed, while in Ophryoglena flavi-
cans it may usually be seen through the integuments. Its form
is globular, and it presents no structure. It generally adheres
firmly to the surface of the ovate nucleus.

The nucleus is not any larger in the rather larger specimens
of Bursaria flava which possess two contractile vesicles. I
met with some of them occasionally in company with the one-
vesicled. They did not differ from the rest at all in shape, in
the condition of the ciliary clothing, or in the formation of the
mouth, so that I held them to be identical until I observed the
second contractile vesicle, or the somewhat differently formed
and smaller watch-glass-shaped organ; which last, in the
specimens I have hitherto examined in respect to this point, had’
not a circular, but an elliptical base,—so far at least as a Judg-
ment can be formed from the mere aspect. Measurements
made on one specimen gave—length of the animalcule, ;4,ths of
a millimetre ; greatest thickness, ;2,ths of a mill.; diameter of
the globular nucleus, +45ths of a mill. ; of the nucleolus, +7,,5ths
of a mill.; distance of the mouth from the head-point, 12 ths
of a mill.; distance of the contractile vesicles apart, th of a

mill. ; of the hinder one from the tail-point, -Z5ths of a mill. ;
greatest diameter of the base of the watch-glass-shaped organ,

toooths—smallest, ~;';5ths of a millimetre.

The Vascular System.

This consists of two contractile vesicles, and a system of canals
which open into them. The best subjects for the examination
of these objects are usually found in those specimens of Bursaria
flava which contain in their interior only the smallest forms of
the strongly refractive granules. I frequently found such among
the others in the pools of the Berlin Thiergarten. The con-
tractile vesicles lie in the immediate vicinity of the mouth, a
little behind it: if we conceive the animalcule to le upon
its back, with the mouth upwards and the end of the head
turned away from the observer, the contractile vesicle will
be placed to the left of the mouth, on its convex side, distant
from it about a quarter of a circumference; when there are
two vesicles, the anterior contractile vesicle lies exactly in the
same spot, and the posterior is cut by a straight line drawn from
the anterior vesicle to the tail-point. The position is just the
same in the Ophryoglene above described. If we examine a

Bursaria of this kind with a power of about 300 diameters, we
21%

324 M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria.

perceive near the surface a quantity of light streaks, which
run together towards the contractile vesicle from the anterior
and posterior parts of the body, in more or less considerable
curves. In each streak we detect an extremely delicate but
perfectly distinct canal, terminating ultimately in the contractile
vesicle ; its walls and its contents are readily distinguished by
their different refractive power. When one of these canals is
traced backwards from its orifice, we may often perceive, after
it has run a short distance, a ramification; this may frequently
be traced to one of the extremities of the body, and sometimes
it gives off another branch ; ultimately the canals become so
excessively fine, that they are invisible. Their opening into the
vesicle and their course in running from it are seen very di-
stinetly when the contractile vesicle is turned directly upwards ;
we may then recognize how the canals run between the con-
tractile reservoirs, which lie very close to the surface of the body,
and between the surfaces of the body inside the cortical sub-
stance; and the orifices may likewise be seen. Another re-
markable position is when the nucleus is turned next the observer
at the surface of the body; the canals are then seen remarkably
clearly on its bright background. <A few canals always run
over directly, with a slight curvature, towards the posterior part
of the mouth. When the animalcule lies so that the contractile
vesicle appears at the margin of the body, there is sometimes an
appearance as if one or more of the canals opened externally at
this point ; but close examination shows that they curve round
and run towards other parts of the body.

The number of vessels opening into the contractile vesicle in
Bursaria flava is about thirty; this number, or a few more or
less, existed in all the specimens which I examined in reference
to this pot. They are apparently uniformly distributed over
the whole surface. .

The specimens of Bursaria flava with two contractile vesicles
have the system of canals double, each system grouped inde-
pendently around its reservoir. The canals of the posterior
reservoir stretch into the district of the anterior; but I have
never been able to detect any communication between the two.
In the Ophryoglene from the Spree, very little could be detected
of the canals, even when the interior of the body contained only
slightly refractive substances. When a suitable specimen is
somewhat compressed between the glasses, so that it cannot
‘move about, the vessels are especially seen when they have the
nucleus for a background, and when they end in the contractile
vesicle.

I have never been able to trace any vessels into the interior of
the body ; for instance, towards the nucleus. I am also ignorant

M. N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 325

at present whether that part of the contractile vesicle which is
turned toward the centre of the body of the animalcule receives
any vessels.

Both Bursaria flava and Ophryoglena flavicans belong to those
Infusoria in which the contractile reservoirs may assume the
well-known stellate form. Von Siebold describes this pheeno-
menon, in Paramecium, in the following words :—‘ These pul-
sating spaces have a very striking shape; they consist of two
central round cavities, around which stand from five to seven
smaller pear-shaped reservoirs, with points directed outwards,
in the shape of a star. In the pulsation of these strange star-
shaped reservoirs sometimes the stars disappear entirely, some-
times only the central round spaces, and sometimes only the
rays.” The opake Bursarie exhibit this phenomenon just in
the same way as it is described by Von Siebold; and those
specimens in which the vascular system can be detected, offer
the explanation of it. The small pear-shaped spaces are really
the commencements of the vessels, which expand with the
accumulated fluid, and the rays are the further prolongations of
the same, which may be traced to the ends of the body.

At the moment when the contractile vesicle has attaimed the
greatest expansion, that is, when the diastole is terminated, it
appears in the form of a globe filled with colourless fluid, from
which the vessels run out on all sides in the cortical substance
as canals, apparently of equal diameter ; they have at this time
the smallest diameter they can assume at their embouchure into
the reservoir. In opake specimens, this is the moment when
the opened contractile vesicle is observed. A little before we
observe the commencement of the systole, the vessels begin to
expand slowly, at points distant about one diameter of the con-
tractile vesicle from the surface of the latter, to many times their
original size. The more the systole progresses, the wider and
longer become the swollen places, and they approach gradually
to the contractile vesicle. If we make an observation at the
moment when the diameter of the contractile vesicle is diminished
to about one-fourth of its original size, the shape of the apparatus
agrees im all essential points with the well-known stellate figure,
represented by Dujardin in Paramecium Aurelia, with the single
exception that the embouchures of the rays are distinctly visible,
and their peripheral prolongations run out widely in the form
of canals over the entire animalcule. Opake specimens of the
Bursaria display the phenomenon only in such a degree that the
rays terminate in delicate attenuated points, at a distance of
about one diameter of the reservoir from the latter. When the
contractile vesicle has closed completely, the fusiformly expanded
vessels only are seen, as they run together with their apices to

326 M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria.

one point. This completes the systole. The diastole then re-
commences. If we examine the animal at the moment when the
reservoir has again attained half its greatest diameter, we find a
totally different appearance from that at the corresponding epoch
of the systole. The vessels are not expanded now in the form
of a spindle, but of a funnel, with the base of the funnel in
the contractile vesicle, and the point prolonged out imto the
vessel. This is the form which Ehrenberg has figured in Para-
mecium Aurelia, only omitting the further prolongations of the
vessels ; Von Siebold rejects Ehrenberg’s figure, and recognizes
Dujardin’s; but both are really correct, only representing
different instants; Dujardin gives a stage of the systole, Ehren-
berg of the diastole.

The more the contractile vesicle now expands, the more is
the depth of the funnel decreased, and its diameter proportion-
ately increased ; or, in other words, the vessel expands only at
its embouchure, and the depth of the expanded part decreases in
proportion with the advance of the diastole. In opake Bursaria,
we see at this time only the contractile vesicle produced out in
various directions into short funnel-shaped processes. By
degrees these processes entirely disappear, the contractile vesicle
having expanded to its original volume. We now see again
how, from the fully expanded contractile vesicle, the whole of
the vessels run out in the cortical layer, in all directions, as
slender streaks; in opake specimens, only the contractile reser-
voir is visible. é

The processes above described are those usually observed when
a suitable specimen is placed so that it cannot move, or only
move very little, upon the slider. If, however, a Bursaria is
compressed somewhat more with the covering-glass, or if the
water on the slider is almost all evaporated, some other peculiar
phenomena present themselves, not only in the contractile
vesicle, but in the vessels. The last diastole coming perfectly
to rest, and nothing unusual being observed, except that the
reservoir is more elongated, with the systole appear suddenly
two contractile vesicles instead of one ; that is, a portion of the
surrounding substance makes its way across the middle of the
contractile vesicle while it is contracting, and thus divides it
into two parts. Each of these two new reservoirs has its own
systole and diastole. In most cases their contractions do not
occur at the same moment. Each is in connexion with those
vessels which opened into it before the separation. The vessels
exhibit the same play as if there were but one uninjured con-
tractile vesicle. Sometimes the two reservoirs reunite into a
single one. I saw this happen during a diastole which oc-
curred exactly simultaneously in both: they advanced near

M. N. lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 327

together, projected out poimts toward each other, which came in
contact and formed a dumb-bell-shaped reservoir, and this was
rapidly converted into a globular vesicle, which contracted and
expanded as at the origin.

Von Siebold has already observed in Phialina vermicularis,
Bursaria cordiformis, &c., “ that in strong contractions of the
whole body, a largish round pulsating space was drawn out
longitudinally, constricted in the middle, and at length was
separated into two smaller round spaces,—exactly as occurs
when a drop of oil is separated into two portions.” During the
above-described alterations in the contractile vesicles, alterations
ordinarily take place in the vessels also. Thus expansions appear
in them at points lying very distant from the contractile reser-
voirs. These enlargements are not however subject to rhythmical
disappearance and reappearance, but are permanent; they are
filled with the same colourless fluid as the contractile vesicles;
and are mostly globular or ellipsoidal. If such enlargements
of the vessels are seen in specimens which, from unfavourable
optical conditions, do not display the vessels themselves, they
may be taken for vacuoles (in Dujardin’s sense). Their con-
nexion with the vessels, and their mode of origin, which is
readily accessible to observation, prove that they are totally
distinct from the vacuoles in the interior of the body, part of
which contain nutrient substance, while part do not.

I have not succeeded in any case in isolating a membrane of
the contractile reservoir or of the vessels. I find no trace of
cilia in the interior of the vascular system. This alone suffices
to distinguish essentially those Infusoria furnished with vessels,
from the Distoma-embryo in which G. R. Wagener has discovered
ciliated vessels.

Different hypotheses have been put forth in explanation of the
function of the contractile vesicles. There is a detailed account
of these in Claparéde’s paper on Actinophrys*. Claparéde
rightly explains the contractile vesicles as organs of the circula-
tion. As to the direction in which the fluid flows in the vessels,
nothing can be directly observed in most cases, since we cannot
perceive in the fluid any solid corpuscles at all similar to the
blood-corpuscles of other animals. Is it a perfect circulation ?
or does the fluid flow back again in the same vessel in which it
has been propelled forward by the contractile vesicle? or are
the contents of the contractile vesicles constantly expelled ex-
ternally ? The last view has been set up by Oscar Schmidt.
He states that he has seen the place of exit im the genera
Bursaria and Paramecium. Claparéde is opposed to this, since,

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, xv. p. 211.
ag

328 M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria.

in the most minute examination, he was unable to discover that
the contents of the contractile vesicle were expelled externally in
the systole. Actinophrys is better suited to the settlement of
this question than a ciliated Infusoriam. I have many times
sought for currents in the fluid surrounding Actinophrys Sol and
A. Eichhornii, when the fluid contained masses of fine globules
immediately in front of the projection of the contractile reservoir;
but I have never seen, any more than Claparéde, any correspond-
ing displacement when the vesicle contracted. In Bursaria
leucas, B. Vorticella, Paramecium Aurelia and P. Chrysalis, 1
obtained the following results :—The contraction takes place
exactly in the manner described by Schmidt ; the vesicle contracts
from the interior of the animalcule towards a point lying near
the surface, and it expands on the entrance of the fluid in such
a manner, that it increases in diameter gradually from the
surface of the animalcule inwards toward the centre. But does
this teach us what Schmidt concludes from it, that the reservoir
expels its contents outwardly every time when it contracts
toward the outside, and becomes filled from without when it
expands toward the interior? If the contractile reservoir is
attached by that part turned toward the surface of the animal-
cule, to the internal surface of the cortical substance, while the
portion projecting into the interior of the body is free in the
soft medullary mass,—will not the contraction take place from
within outwardly, and the expansion from without inward,
whether the fluid flow inwards or outwards? In Actinophrys,
sometimes in Arcella vulgaris, and in Urostyla grandis, a totally
different import must be attributed to the contractile reservoir, if
Schmidt’s criterion be valid; for here the reservoir does not
contract toward the surface, but toward the interior of the
body, and forms an elevation on the surface when it becomes
filled, as described minutely in Actinophrys by both Von Siebold
and Claparéde. But it is not on this alone that Schmidt rests
his opinion: he asserts that he has observed also an actual
external orifice of the contractile vesicle. I must admit that
Bursaria Vorticella has a distinct orifice at the hinder part of the
body, and this exactly at the place to which the contractile vesicle
contracts until it vanishes. But regarding this orifice which I
saw, only so much is established, that it is the anal orifice which
Ehrenberg has already described. I have seen the emergence of
remains of devoured substances, of lorice of Bacillariz, of fine
undeterminable granules, &c., from this very hole, so frequently,
that there can be no doubt on this point ; and it is even not rare
for a corpuscle to slip out from the anal orifice during the
diastole,—that is to say, at the very time when, according
to Schmidt, the fluid should flow in from the outside. I

M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 329

found the Bursaria just named during sprmg and summer in
standing water near Tempelhof; it agrees in the main with
Ehrenberg’s Bursaria Vorticella. The buccal orifice is situated as
in Bursaria truncatella, in which however I did n ot observe any
contractile vesicle at the posterior end of the body. The «speci-
mens of B. truncatella | observed were all about 4rd of a line or
more long, those of B. Vorticella at most ith of a line. The
latter is im any case not a Leucophrys; therefore, in case Ehren-
berg considers his Bursaria Vorticella a Leucophrys, it is a dif-
ferent animaicule from the latter. I was equally unable to
satisfy myself of the correctness of Schmidt’s view in the Para-
mecia. When a specimen of Paramecium Aurelia lies so that
the contractile vesicle, either the anterior or posterior, is seen at
the margin, it appears, under certain circumstances, as though
a short canal ran directly out through the integument of the_
animaleule ; but in reality it only runs into the integument, and
turns round toward the side of the body directed away from
the eye. I found the same in Paramecium Chrysalis also ; it was
always one of the rays of the contractile vesicle which presented
to Schmidt the appearance of an external orifice. The same is
the case in Bursaria flava, where I could always trace the cur-
vature of the vessel toward the opposite side of the body most
distinctly. F. Stein strongly questions the external opening of
the contractile vesicle in the Vorticelle. Hence it is clear, that
the explanation of the contractile vesicles as part of a water-
vascular system is unproven.

Is it however established, on the other hand, that the con-
tractile reservoirs pour back their contents again into the paren-
chyma whence they receive it, as Von Siebold says? And if this
is the case, how does it happen? Everything indicates most
strongly that the contractile vesicles are filled out of the vessels
during the diastole. We see how, during this process, the
swollen part of the vessels near their embouchure gradually or
suddenly return to their smallest diameter, as the stellate figure
vanishes. And I have observed a part of a vessel inflated with
the fluid, originating at the extreme end of the animalcule,
traverse the whole distance up to the contractile vesicle during
a single diastole. This phenomenon may be supposed to show
that the absorbed fluid which had inflated the vessel into a
globule, flowed during the said period into the contractile
reservoir,

But if there is a fair presumption that the contractile vesicles
are filled out of the vessels, the above observations teach us
nothing whatever on the question as to where the fluid flows
during the systole.

I have hitherto only become acquainted with one fact relating

330 Rey. W. A. Leighton on new British Arthonie.

to this point. In Bursaria Vorticella we may detect the following
fact: as soon as the contractile vesicle which lies at the pos-
terior end of the body has contracted, we may observe at the
margins of the animalcule, in its usual position of swimming,
that two long narrow cavities originate, filled with transparent
colourless fluid, and these stretch from opposite the mouth
as far as the region of the contractile vesicle. They both gra-
dually enlarge, and thus approach near to the anal point; here
they meet, lose their often very irregular form, and change into
the globular: the remaining contents of the body are displaced
upwards by this; and then these globular reservoirs contract
until they vanish, without it being perceptible where the fluid
has been driven to; after some time the narrow light streaks
reappear, and the process is repeated in the way above-described.
The afferent canals, therefore, are not filled at the commencement
of the systole. But must this not be so much the more expected,
if the fluid flowed back in the same path as it came in, the
vanishing of the contractile vesicle taking place much more
rapidly than its production ?

I have never yet found in any Infusorium special canals in
which the fluid is seen to flow back into the body during the
systole, and which would give the means of a perfect circulation.

The facts stated in this paper were first made public at the
meeting of the Berlin ‘“ Naturforschende Freunde,” June 19,
1855.

XXIX.—New British Arthoniz.
By the Rev. W. A. Lerenton, B.A., F.B.S.E.

[With a Plate. ]

Since the publication of my Monograph of British Graphidee,
the following species of Arthonia, new to our flora, have occurred
to my notice.

1. Arthonia glaucomaria, Nyl. Thallus none; ardelle hy-
menicolar, sessile, round; disk black, flattened, more or less
convex, dull ; sporidia in asci, eight, oblong, 1- 2- 3-septate.
Arthonia glaucomaria, Nyl. Nouv. Class. Lich. (2 Mém.) in Mém. Soe. Se.

Nat. Cherbourg, 3. 189 (1855); Syn. Arthoniarum in Mém. Soc. Se.
Nat. Cherbourg, 4. 98; Leight. Lich. Brit. Exsic. 247!

Parasitic on the apothecia of Lecanora glaucoma, Ach.

Haughmond Hill! Caer Caradoc! and Long Mynd! Shrop-
shire. Barmouth! N. Wales. Cliffrigg, Cleveland, Yorkshire !

Thallus undistinguishable from that of the matrix. Ardelle

Rey. W. A. Leighton on new British Arthoniz. 331

round, very variable in size, either single, or several arising as
elevated rounded spots on different portions of the surface of
the hymenium of Lec. glaucoma, ultimately becoming confluent,
and entirely covering it, thus rendering it abortive, and giving
it the general appearance of a black disk with a white irregular
wavy thalloid margin. Disk roughish, somewhat flattened or
more or less convex, without any margin, of an opake brownish-
black. A vertical section shows the parasite occupying the
upper portion of the hymenium, obliterating all traces of the
paraphyses and asci of L. glaucoma, and leaving its pale yellow
hypothecium alone free. Hymenium of a pale brown colour,
with numerous obovate or pyriform asci imbedded in a compact
mass without any appearance of paraphyses. Iodine turns the
Arthonia of a deeper brown, but the hypothecium of L. g/au-
coma of a blue eolour. Sporidia in asci, eight, oblong, normally
with three septa, frequently with two only, and sometimes with
only one; the cells either empty or filled with minute rounded
granules, colourless or pale yellow.
Our specimens were identified by Dr. Nylander*.

Puate XI. tig. 1. Thallus of L. glaucoma with the Arthonia on the apo-
thecia: nat. size. Fig. 2. The same, magnified. Fig. 3. Vertical
section of apothecium of L. glaucoma, showing Arthonia glauco-
maria parasitic in the upper portion of hymenium. Fig. 4. Ascus
and sporidia of A. g/aucomaria, magnified. Fig. 5. Sporidia, more
highly magnified.

2. Arthonia vinosa, Leight. Thallus thin, membranous,
smooth, pale brown, subdeterminate ; ardellz sessile, irregularly
roundish ; disk deep vinous red, convex, dull; sporidia in asci,
eight, large, obovate, uniseptate.

Arthonia vinosa, Leight. Lich. Brit. Exsic. 224! (1856).

On oaks: Newton Wood! Stagdale ! and Oggeray Gill! Cleve-
land, Yorkshire, Mr. W. Mudd. Nesscliffe Hill, Shropshire !

Thallus forming irregular patches of greater or less extent,
and of various form, of a cheerful pale brownish hue varying in
intensity, on the bark of oaks. Ardelle minute, variable in size,
roundish, oblong and irregular in form, single or confluent,
more or less raised or convex, especially on older barks, whilst
on younger barks they are scarcely raised and almost flat. On

* Dr. Nylander in his Syn. Arthoniarum quoted above, says of his
A. parasemoides, which he states to occur on the apothecia of Lecidea para-
sema, Ach., and also on Lecanora glaucoma, Ach., “ex Anglia eandem
misit rey. Leighton.” I know not to what plant he refers. He cliarac-
terizes A. parasemoides thus: “ Thallus nullus, apothecia parasitica hyme-
nicola atra convexiuscula, intus albida vel nigricantia; sporse 6-8"® ovoidese
1-3-septate, gelatina hym. iodo sordide rubescens.”

332 Rev. W. A. Leighton on new British Arthonie.

older barks the ardellz have a watery stain or shading off around
them of a pale brown colour, especially conspicuous on spe-
cimens with a paler tinted thallus, and on those which are
whitened over with (? Lepraria alba). Disk of a rich deep brown
or vinous red colour, in old age becoming blackish, without
margin. A vertical section showed the obovate asci imbedded
in a dense and compact almost fleshy brown mass in which no
paraphyses were conspicuous. Sporidia in asci, eight, obovate,
colourless or of a pale yellow, margined, with a single septum,
the upper cell rather larger and broader than the lower one,
either empty or filled with comparatively large round granules.

Differs from A. lurida, Ach. (Leight. Brit. Graph. p. 57. fig. 38,
and Leight. Lich. Brit. Exsic. 17!), to which its general aspect
has some resemblance, in the sporidia being double the size of
those of that species.

PLATE XI. fig. 6. Thallus and ardelle of nat. size. Fig. 7. Whitened
thallus and ardelle with surrounding watery stain, nat. size.
Fig. 8. Thallus and ardelle, magnified. Fig. 9. Vertical section
of ardella. Fig. 10. Sporidia, magnified.

3. Arthonia aspersa, Leight. Thallus thin, membranous,
smooth, indeterminate, greyish-green ; ardelle minute, sessile,
various in form; disk black, flattened, more or less convex,
dull ; sporidia in asci, eight, small, obovate, 3-septate, upper cell
largest.

Arthonia aspersa, Leight. Lich. Brit, Exsic. 248 ! (1856).

On holly: Hobhole, Baysdale, Cleveland, Yorkshire! Mr. W.
Mudd.

Thallus very thin, spreading indeterminately, of a pale opake
greyish-green. Ardelle minute, very numerous and crowded
as if copiously sprinkled, distinct or confluent, very variable in
size and form, sometimes mere specks, roundish, oblong, ovate,
angular or of irregular wavy outline. Disk more or less raised,
convex or flattened, without any margin, opake black, smoothish,
A vertical section shows the hymenium to consist of a dark brown
compact mass destitute of any distinct paraphyses, with numerous
round or very broadly obovate asci imbedded in it. Sporidia in
asci, eight, obovate, pale yellow, margined, 3-septate, the upper
cell considerably the larger, occupying nearly one-half of the
sporidium, the septa being confined to the lower portion.

Differs from A. Swartziana, Ach. (Leight. Brit. Graph. p. 54.
fig. 33; Leight. Lich. Brit. Exsic. 70!), in the sporidia being
only half the size of those of that species and in the different
arrangement of the septa.

For the two last plants I am indebted to Mr. W. Mudd of

Royal Society. 333

Cleveland Lodge, Yorkshire, whose indefatigable researches in
his neighbourhood have supplied me with many Lichens hitherto
unknown to our flora.

Puate XI. fig. 11. Thallus and ardelle, nat. size. Fig. 12. The same,
magnified. Fig. 13. Vertical section of ardella. Fig. 14. Ascus
and sporidia. Fig. 15. Sporidia, highly magnified. Fig. 16. Scale
of +255 of an inch, magnified equally with the sporidia in figs. 5,
10 & 15, to show their real size.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

April 3, 1856.—Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Egerton, Bart., V.P.,
in the Chair.

“On the Dicecious Character of the Rotifera.”’ By Philip H.
Gosse.

Professor Ehrenberg, in his descriptions of this class of animals,
assumed them to be in every case hermaphrodite. His conclusions
remained unchallenged till 1848, when Mr. Brightwell discovered
the separate sexes of Asplanchna Brightwellii. The author of this
memoir soon afterwards discovered a second species of the same
genus (4. priodonta) with a like dicecious character ; and more
recently Dr. Leydig has added a third (4. Sieboldii), which does not
differ in this respect from its congeners.

Dr. Leydig plausibly conjectures that Enteroplea of Ehrenberg is
the male sex of Hydatina, that Notommata granularis is the male
of N. Brachionus, and that Diglena granularis of Weisse is the male
of D. Catellina.

The author of the present memoir has ascertained from his own
observations that the sexes are separate also in Brachionus Pala,
B. rubens, B. amphiceros, B. angularis, B. Bakeri, B. Dorcas,
B. Miilleri, Syncheta tremula, Polyarthra platyptera, Sacculus
viridis, and Melicerta ringens. ‘The males of these species, which are
here described in detail, differ so greatly from the females in form,
size, and structure, that they could not have been supposed to
belong to the same genera, or even families, if their parentage had
not been distinctly determined.

One of the most remarkable characters of male Rotifera is the
absolute and universal atrophy of the digestive system. No mastax,
jaws, cesophagus, stomach, or intestines occur in any example of
any species. Another peculiarity is the great disparity between the
sexes. In every observed case the male is inferior in size and in
organization to the female.

The muscular system is well developed in the males of Hydatina,
Asplanchna, and Brach. Miilleri. The frontal cilia are in general
greatly developed in this sex, the result of which is seen in the
energy and rapidity of its locomotion. In most instances the great
occipital ganglion is distinct, with a red eye seated on it; and the
latter is almost always present, even where the ganglion cannot

334 Royal Society :—

be defined. The lateral convoluted threads appear in Hydatina,
Asplanchna, and Brach. Dorcas ; and in Aspl. Brightwellii they are
accompanied by tremulous tags, and by a contractile bladder.

Irregular masses of opake substance are almost constantly present
in male Rotifera. This substance Dr. Leydig considers a urinary
concretion.

In all cases the abdominal cavity is oceupied by a capacious sperm-
sac, from which spermatozoa are forced out by pressure. The out-
let of the sperm-sac is by a thick, protrusile, and retractile penis.
In those species which possess a foot, the intromittent organ is
soldered to its dorsal side, and is often so greatly developed that the
foot itself appears as an appendage. The penis is protruded by
eversion ; and is then seen to be a thick column with the extremity
truncate and ciliated. The sexual coitus has been witnessed by the
author in several instances.

For a parallel to the curious facts thus established, the author
considers we must look to the Crustacea. The Hectocotylus of
certain Mollusea is scarcely an analogous case; nor are those
Entozoa in which the males are organically united to the females.

In the Crustacea, however, many examples occur of a sexual
difference which may be compared with that of the subjects of this
memoir. In the genera Bopyrus, Phryvus, and Ione, the males are
notably smaller than the females, very diverse in form, and in some
respects inferior in structure. In the Siphonostoma, “the males are
extremely small, and do not iz the least resemble the females”
(Baird) ; though those of different genera bear a strong resemblance
inter se, even where the females are very dissimilar. So low is their
grade of organization, that Burmeister has attempted to prove the
minute males to be embryonic forms. Finally, in the Cirripedia,
Mr. Darwin has proved the existence of males in the genera Ié/a and
Scalpellum, which are very minute as compared with their females,
excessively abnormal in form, and in some respects in an embryonic
condition, though unquestionably mature, as shown by their sperma-
tozoa. And, what is still more interesting, there is, in these male
Cirripedia, “no vestige of a mouth, or masticatory organs, or
stomach.’’ The same observer describes the internal structure as
“a pulpy mass with numerous oil-globules ;” and the sperm-vesicle
as ‘‘a pear-shaped bag at the very bottom of the sack-formed animal
containing either pulpy matter, or a great mass of spermatozoa,”’—
terms which might have been employed in describing some of the
male Brachioni.

In all these analogies, the author finds additional reasons for
assigning to the Rotifera a zoological rank among the Articulata.

June 19, 1856.—The Lord Wrottesley, President, in the Chair.

** Researches on the Toraminifera.’”’—Part I]. By William B.
Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

In the pursuance of his plan of minutely examining certain typical
forms of Foraminifera, for the purpose of elucidating their history as
living beings, and of determining the value of the characters they

Dr. W. B. Carpenter’s Researches on the Foraminifera. 835

present to the systematist, the author in this memoir details the
results of his investigations on the genera Orbiculina, Alveolina,
Cycloclypeus, and Heterostegina. .

The genus Ordiculina has long been known, through its preva-
lence in the West Indian seas, which causes its shells to abound in
the shore-sands of many of the islands of that region. These shells
present great varieties of form, and have been ranked under three
distinct species; but M. d’Orbigny has correctly inferred, from a
comparison of a large number of specimens, that their diversities of
form are partly attributable to differences in the stage of growth,
and partly to individual variation, so that all the Orbiculine of
Cuba, the Antilles, &c., are referable to but one specific type. Of
the essential features of its structure, however, he would seem to be
quite ignorant; since he ranges Orbiculina in a distinct order from
Orbitolites, to which it is very closely allied. This alliance was
first pointed out by Prof. Williamson, whose account of the structure
of Orbiculina, though defective and erroneous in certain puvints, is -
nevertheless correct in the main.

The author has had the opportunity of examining not merely a
considerable number of West Indian specimens, but also a set ot
specimens peculiarly remarkable for their high development, which
form part of Mr. Cuming’s Philippine collection. Many of these
present the form of flattened disks, marked with concentric circles,
and having one or more rows of pores at their edges, not distin-
guishable, save by their prominent central nuclei, from certain forms
of Orbitolites formerly described. The similarity is equally great
in their internal structure; so that, if a marginal fragment only
were submitted to examination, it would not be possible to say with
certainty whether it belonged to an Orditolites or an Orbiculina,
The distinguishing character of the latter is derived from its early
mode of growth, which is uniformly spiral; and from the circum-
stance that each of the first three or four turns of the spire not
merely surrounds, but invests its predecessor, thereby producing an
excess in the thickness of the earlier over that of the later-formed
portion, which gives rise to the central protuberance already men-
tioned. The transition from the spiral to the cyclical mode of in-
crease is effected (just as it is in those individuals of Orbitolites
which begin life upon the spiral type) by the opening-out of the
mouth of the spire, which extends itself on either side around the
previously-formed body, until its two divisions meet on the opposite
side, where they coalesce so as to constitute a complete annulus.
This transition may take place at any period of growth after the
completion of the first four or five turns of the spire; so that we
sometimes meet with small specimens which have already become
discoidal and taken-on the cyclical plan of growth, whilst we occa-
sionally meet with full-grown specimens which retain the spira.
form, and show no tendency whatever towards the assumption of the
cyclical plan of growth. These facts obviously point to the very
subordinate value of plan of growth as a distinctive character.

The author next proceeds to a like investigation of the genus

336 Royal Society.

Alveolina, which he shows to bear a very marked resemblance to
Orbitolites and Orbiculina, in the simple coneretionary texture of the
shell, in the freedom of communication everywhere existing among
the chambers, in the mutual relations of these to each other, and
in their mode of communication with the exterior; whilst its plan
of growth is very different, the axis round which the spiral turns
being greatly elongated, and every additional whorl of the spire pro-
ducing a much greater augmentation of its length than of its diameter.
There is obviously a close physiological relationship between this
genus and the preceding, since the condition of each individual seg-
ment of the sarcode-body must be essentially the same in each ; and
it is merely in the mode in which these segments are multiplied,—a
character which we have seen not to be constant in different parts
even of the same specimens of Orbitolites and Orbiculina,—that it
differs from them.

A marked contrast to Orbitolites and Orbiculina in all their phy-
siological characters, coexisting with an agreement in their respective
plans of growth, is presented by the genera Cycloclypeus and Hete-
rostegina; the former of which, like Orbitolites, is cyclical from the
beginning, its chambers being formed in successive annuli round a
central cell; whilst the latter, like Orbiculina, is spiral in the first
instance, but tends, as age advances, to assume the discoidal shape
and cyclical plan of growth. The genus Cycloclypeus is a new one,
founded by the author upon specimens dredged-up by Sir E. Belcher
off the coast of Borneo. These are the largest Foraminifera at pre-
sent known to exist; the diameter of some of them being not less
than 24 inches. The genus Heterostegina was formed by M. d’Or-
bigny ; but he seems only to have been acquainted with young spe-
cimens, and has altogether misapprehended its true characters and
relations. A fragment of the flattened spire of Heterostegina could
scarcely be distinguished from a marginal portion of the disk of Cy-
cloclypeus ; so close is the conformity between the two, as regards
the form and relations of the chambers, their mode of communica-
tion, and the structure of their shelly envelope. Each chamber, as
in Nummulites, has its own proper wall, so that the partition be-
tween the adjacent chambers, whether of the same row or of different
rows, is double; and between its two lamelle there is interposed an
additional stratum of shell that belongs to neither. This additional
stratum is thin, in the septa dividing adjacent chambers of the same
row; but it is much thicker, and forms a much more complete
separation, in the septa intervening between different rows. It is
traversed by a canal-system, analogous to that existing in Nummu-
lites ; which the author believes to be occupied in the living state by
threads of sarcode, and to be specially destined for the nutrition of
the ‘intermediate skeleton’ formed by the aggregate of these inter-
posed lamelle. The chamber is covered-in above and below by
successive layers of a minutely-tubular and peculiarly-compact shell-
substance, resembling dentine in its general aspect ; certain parts of
this, however, are non-tubular, and form cones, of which the bases
appear on the surface as minute rounded tubercles. The adjacent

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 337

chambers of the same row do not seem to communicate with each
other; but each chamber communicates with two chambers of the
previously- formed row, and, in like manner, with two of the subse-
quently-formed row, by narrow passages, the number and position of
which are by no means constant. These passages seem to afford the
principal means whereby the segments of the sarcode-body occupy-
ing the inner chambers, can be Zoasshed from the exterior; but it
is by no means impossible that. the tubuli of the shelly laminze that
invest the chambers above and below, may also be subservient to this
purpose, since, however numerous may be the laminz, the tubuli
are continued through them all from the cavity of the chamber to
the external surface.

The almost entire separation of the segments of the sarcode-body
in these two genera, the investment of each of them with its own
proper envelope of shell, the minutely-tubular structure and firm
consistence of the shell-substance, and the interposition of. the inter-
mediate skeleton with its canal-system, are features that place them ~
in such marked contrast with Orbitolites and Orbiculina, that, not-
withstanding their conformity to those two genera in their respective
plans of growth, it is scarcely possible for them to be more widely
removed in everything that relates to their respective physiological
conditions.

From a comparison of the five genera whose structure has been
thus elucidated, the author deduces the conclusion that, im this
class, external form, which depends exclusively on plan of growth,
affords no clue whatever to internal structure ; and that the latter
alone, as the exponent of the physiological condition of the animal,
can afford the basis of a natural classification.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

July 10th, 1856.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

In taking the Chair, Professor Balfour stated that the painful
duty devolved upon him of recording the “death of the President,
Colonel Madden, which took place suddenly and unexpectedly from
rupture of the aorta soon after last meeting of the Society. ‘“ We
all, I am sure (he said), deeply deplore the loss of one who took a
warm interest in our proceedings. His amiable deportment and
gentlemanly manner endeared him to all of us, and we rejoiced to
see one who had spent a large portion of his life in the active service
of the East India Company devoting his time and leisure to the pro-
secution of science. During his residence in India he was a careful
observer, and made many interesting remarks on the flora of the
country. He sent home the seeds of many valuable plants, which
have flowered in Glasnevin and in other gardens. When he came to
settle in Edinburgh, he joined the Royal and Botanical Societies, of
both of which he became a very active member. He was elected a
councillor of the Royal Society, and took a marked interest in its
proceedings. He particularly took charge of the scientific additions

Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Serv. 2. Vol. xvi. 22

338 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

which it was agreed to make to its library. To the Transactions of
the Botanical Society he contributed an excellent paper on the
occurrence of Palms and Bamboos high on the Himalaya, and it is
to be hoped that the paper which was read from him at our last
meeting will be in such a state as to allow of its publication.

“T have also to report the death of Mr. William Gourlie of Glas-
gow, who was connected with our Society from its commencement,
and aided it much by his exertions. He was a zealous naturalist,
and had made a large and valuable collection of plants, which it is
hoped will not be lost to science. From his mercantile position
in Glasgow, he was able to render important service to this Society
and to botanists on many occasions, and he was always ready and
willing to do everything in his power for the promotion of science.
He set an example of zeal to the mercantile men of the western
metropolis, and his labours promised to be instrumental in infusing
a taste for science among the community of Glasgow. When the
Meeting of the British Association took place in Glasgow in “y*
tember 1855, he acted as local Secretary. The labour which he
underwent, not merely during the Meeting, but for months before,
was extraordinary. He spared no pains to render the Meetin
creditable to Glasgow, and the arrangements which he made calle
forth commendation from all. About the time of the Meeting,
symptoms of disease of the bones in the face appeared. He endured
at first great suffering, which he bore with much fortitude and re-
signation ; and, after a protracted illness, he sunk in the course of last -
week. He has been taken away in the midst of his usefulness, and
at the very time when he seemed to be gaining the highest eminence
in his native city. The place which he occupied will not be easily »
supplied. Let us hope that his enthusiastic love of science, and his
noble exertions in the cause of botany, will be the means of stimulating
his townsmen to follow his steps ; and that, while they are prosecuting
their commercial speculations, they will not think it beneath their
notice to devote some of their time to science, which was to him in
his season of recreation a source of high enjoyment, and which secured
for him many friends in all parts of the world. Though dead, may
he yet speak to them!”

Professor Balfour read a note from Mr. Babington in reference to
Mr. Cock’s statement made at a recent meeting, that Hypericum
anglicum does not grow at Falmouth. Mr. Babington has seen spe-
cimens at Falmouth, collected by Mr. Polwhele, and H. hircinum
grows there also.

The following paper was read :—

1. “A brief Account of the General Botanical Features of a Hill
District in Western India, with the results of a Series of Observations
in connection with Vegetable Climatology,” by John Kenneth Wil-
son, Esq.

The hill, or rather mountainous district, upon which I am about
to make a few observations, is situated upon an immense moun- -
tain-chain which lies parallel with the coast of Western India, and
which extends from the Province of Candeish in the north, to Cape

Mr. J. K. Wilson on Vegetable Climatology. 339

Comorin in the south. This mountain-chain is designated the
Western Ghauts. It is situated between isothermal lines which de-
viate little from their parallels of latitude, and the points of inter-
section which they form with the meridian. The Ghauts extend
over an immense area, included between the parallels of 21° of north
and 8° of south latitude.

The particular portion of this district to which I am about to call
attention is denominated the Mahabaleshwar Hill district. In this
district is situated the source of the river Krishna. Near the head
of this river is placed a small Brahmin village named Mahabaleshwar,
and a large number of bungalows occupied by European residents.
The site of the European bungalows is] 7°56! north latitude, and 73° 30!
east longitude. The Mahabaleshwar district has been long and de-
servedly a favourite resort of invalids ; the climate being cold, bracing,
and elastic, and the scenery around magnificent. The hills of the
district rise abruptly by means of terraced trappean steps on their
western side from the Province of the Concan, and on their eastern
side from the Province of the Deccan. Their general elevation above
the level of the sea is 4500 feet, and their highest attainment 4700 feet.
Their elevation is much more abrupt and precipitous on their western
aspect than on their eastern; the suddenness of their elevation on
the western side freely exposing them to the influence of the sea
breeze. The hills from top to bottom are trappean and highly
quartzose. They are extremely eccentric in their formation, being cha-
racterized by great diversity of outline; precipices, ravines, chasms,
scarps, woods, and waterfalls abounding on their surface. They are
well supplied with water which permeates their surface from stream-
lets which traverse them in all directions.

In some of the districts at the foot of the hills, I observed the soil
inereasing from the disintegration of the trap rock, and the native
agriculturists selecting for their cereal crops those localities where
the greatest amount of disintegration was going on. On the summit
of the table-lands, the soil consists of red clay formed by the disin-
tegration of the laterite, a species of cellular ferruginous claystone,
which overlies the secondary trap formation, and which constitutes
the surface-rock. The soil is very abundant on the lower levels,
where it forms a highly productive brown mould, owing to its inter-
mixture with decayed vegetable matter and the debris of the trap
rocks ; but upon the higher levels the soil is much more scanty and
of a redder colour ; the rock below it generally existing in the form
of superficial or detached masses, hardened and blackened by oxida-
tion from exposure to the air.

On the plains at the base of the hills rest those plants which re-
quire the hottest climate, such as the Palms, Banyans, and oleaginous
shrubs; the vegetation in this locality being tropical, and similar to
that which characterizes the plains of India generally ; but upon
proceeding from the plains to a more elevated position, a vegetation
of a different nature presents itself. The withered grass and scanty
stripes of Cocoa-nut trees, and groves of Palms, that afford very
inadequate shelter from the scorching rays of a tropical sun, are ex-

changed for a vegetation of surpassing beauty, richness, and variety,
2a*

el ue

340 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

standing out in marked and vivid relief upon the fantastic terraces
and mural cliffs of the surrounding rocks ; and consisting of a certain
intermixture of temperate with tropical genera, the predominating
genera being tropical.

The vegetation is not distributed in equal parallel lines as regards
altitude, except when regarded ex masse, as I frequently found spe-
cies of genera whose proper habitat was on the hill portions of the
district, spreading, extending, and flourishing in the plains during
the cold season—the plains being at this season cooled down to a
temperature in which they could exist ; while again, during the hot
season I observed plants whose proper habitat was in the plains,
spreading, and diverging into the hill districts. It is probable also
that species of tropical hill genera reach not only a much higher
altitude, but likewise a much higher latitude, than their represen-
tatives on the plains, owing to the less extensive range of the ther-
mometer, greater amount of moisture, and less free radiation, which
they possess in their more elevated position.

At the base of the hills, as at that of almost all the other moun-
tains in India, the ground is covered with jungle, at first thin and
open, and then becoming marginal, and well-nigh impervious, con-
sisting of shrubs, trees, and high grasses, intermixed with an immense
quantity of miscellaneous underwood. The amount of carbonic acid
exhaled in the jungle during darkness is enormous ; this amount is
fostered by the rank and luxuriant vegetation, and by the older vege-
tation in progress of decay; but fevers are not so prevalent amon
the inhabitants in this as in other jungle districts, and the approac
to the hills is at all times safe, owing to the jungle being cleared in the
neighbourhood of the roads. In some parts, at a distance from the
roads, it grows, however, so thick, and so thoroughly interwoven with
enormous creepers and thorny parasites, as to be rendered perfectly
impenetrable. Among the jungle trees, I observed as typical of this
district the occurrence of Grewia Asiatica, Combretum ovalifolium,
Nauclea Cadamba, Carissa Carandas, Grislea tomentosa, and also of
several species of Celastrus, Zizyphus, Cordia, and Sterculia.

When mentioning the occurrence of the Sterculiacea, I may state
that in the Province of the Concan I had an opportunity of examining
that rare tree, the Adansonia digitata, with its immense stem, large
flower, and enormous fruit. There is every reason to believe, as
Roxburgh has shown, that this tree, although indigenous in Africa,
is yet an exotic an India. It is one of the largest trees in the world,
and is supposed to exceed any other in longevity. In several specimens
which I examined, I never could find the occurrence of any such
annular rings as would be necessary to prove the very great longevity
generally attributed to this tree. Professor Lindley has in a most
excellent manner shown the true value of calculations regarding the
age of this tree. The natives use the pulp of the fruit, which affords
a pleasant acid, as a medicine, and as the basis of a sort of sherbet,
very grateful to patients suffering from febrile complaints. The young
leaves are eaten as food, and the fibres of the wood are put to a
variety of useful purposes.

The humid vapoury atmosphere which pervades the jungle shades,

Zoological Society. 341

under the massive bowers of foliage so gigantic, is most favourable to
the growth and spread of Fungi, Lichens, and other Cellulares ; ac-
cordingly, in this locality they abound everywhere.

In some portions of land cleared of jungle by the native agricul-
turists, I observed many fruit-trees flourishing in cultivation, such as
the Mango (Mangifera Indica), Custard Apple (Anona squamosa),
Plantain (Musa paradisiaca), Pomegranate (Punica granatum), &e.
In several small plots of cultivated ground, likewise recovered from
the jungle, I observed Rice, Sugar Cane, Bamboo, and other useful
plants, growing and flourishing in apparent abundance, and asso-
ciated with cereal grains, such as Holeus Sorghum (joaree) and {Iol-
cus spicatus (bajree).

On ascending the mountain slopes, and after emerging from the
jungle, the vegetation again becomes changed. At first the change
is slow, but at length it becomes well marked and decided. The
underwood becomes less abundant, and the trees stand forth in more ,
solitary grandeur and in greater relief, the varied colouring of our
autumnal foliage being absent among them, but this absence being
more than compensated for by the richness of their verdure, the con-
trast of their forms, and the gracefulness of their proportions. Mosses
of various descriptions and beautiful Lichens clothe the rocks, while
Grasses of great variety and fantastic appearance are met with in
abundance. Arums and Euphorbias now become prevalent. In ad-
dition to the rarer trees and shrubs already enumerated as occurring
in the jungle, I observed as typical of this district—which district
may be designated that of the slopes—the presence of the Bridelia
montana, Pentaptera paniculata, and P. tomentosa.

In continuing in an altitudinal direction, the aseent of the hills
becomes suddenly very abrupt, the trap rock being now thrown up
in most places into immense terraces, crowned by table-lands, and
flanked by high and precipitous cliffs. On these table-lands forest
trees are generally absent ; but forest trees occur here and there.
The whole surface of the table-lands is, however, strewn over with
large tree shrubs and plants of great variety. The Calyptranthes
caryophyllifolia or Jambool tree is very characteristic of this district.
The Olea dioica, Terminalia Chebula, Symplocos racemosa, Meme-
cylon ramiflorum, and the Water-tree or Oomber (Iicus glomerata)
occur very frequently. Urtica pulcherrima, Rubus rugosus, a species
of Saliz (the tetrasperma of Roxburgh), Lriolena Hookeriana, and
Pygeum acuminatum occur here and there.

[To be continued. |

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
November 27th, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

Nore on Toe Genus LeGriocincius, Lesson, AND ITs SYNO-
nyms. By Paruipe Lurvey Scuater, M.A. erc.

In his last published work on natural history, entitled ‘ Description
des Mammiféres et Oiseaux,’ which is part of the series known as

342 Zoological Society :—

‘Complément aux ceuvres de Buffon,’ M. Lesson has elevated to
generic rank by the name of Legriocinclus, a bird previously deseribed
in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ (ix. p. 168, anno 1838) as
Petrodroma mexicana. While lately in Paris I was favoured by
Prince Charles Bonaparte with a sight of several volumes of ve
beautiful coloured drawings of birds and other animals of whic
M. Lesson in his lifetime had published descriptions only. M.Lesson’s
descriptions, as is well known, are so short and often so inaccurate as
to render identification of the originals almost impossible ; and these
drawings are therefore very valuable, and, as they are to be disposed
of, will, it is to be hoped, pass into the possession of some public
institution, where access to them may always be had. Among them
is a plate of the so-called Legriocinclus, which, there is no difficulty
in perceiving at a glance, is a member of Lafresnaye’s genus Ram-
phocinclus, and so closely resembling the R. brachyurus, the type of
that genus, as to leave little doubt that the two generic names are co-
equal. But if Lesson’s locality is correct (Vera Cruz), which, how-
ever, I am hardly inclined to believe, the Legriocinclus mexicanus may
possibly be a new species of this peculiar form—hitherto considered
as confined to the Antilles, but thus extended geographically to the
mainland.

Three species of Ramphocinclus only are given by Lafresnaye
in his article in the ‘Revue Zoologique’ (1843, p. 67). Of the
first of these—the type of the genus—R. brachyurus (Turdus
brachyurus, Vieill. Nouv. Dict. xx. 255, et Ene. Méth. p. 655),
the Paris Museum contains several fine examples from the islands
of St. Lucia and Guadaloupe. Vieillot says his bird was from
Martinique, which is very probable, as that island is situate between
the other two.

Upon reading attentively Lafresnaye’s description of his second
species of the genus, R. tremulus, 1 think there can be little doubt
that, if not absolutely identical with, it is at all events a very
close ally of the bird which Mr. Gould described as long ago as
1835, under the name of Stenorhynchus ruficauda. There are two
specimens of this bird in the British Museum, from the island of
Nevis.

Stenorhynchus, having been previously employed in Zoology, was
changed by Mr. G. R. Gray in 1840 to Cinclocerthia.

Prince Bonaparte, in his ‘ Conspectus’ (p. 223), has somehow or
other confounded the third species of this same genus along with
Campylorhynchus scolopaceus of Spix, which is quite a different form
and is the type of the wren-like genus Campylorhynchus, and Thryo-
thorus longirostris of Vieillot, which he likewise quotes as synony-
mous, is, I believe, a true Thryothorus. Again, Zoothera cinclops
of the same work (p. 253), since generified into Cinclops (Cinclops
melanoleucus of Mr. G. R. Gray’s lately published List of Genera),
seems to be nothing more than a bird of this genus—probably
R. brachyi rus, though it is dangerous to draw positive conclusions
from so meagre a description.

Under these circumstances I propose to reduce into one group, or
at all events to place in close juxtaposition, the following six generic

Mr. F. Moore on some new species of Birds. 343

terms, some of which have hitherto been arranged in widely different
families :—

1. Srenoruyncuvus, Gould (1835), P. Z. S. p. 186.

2. CrncLocerraia, G. R. Gray (1840), List of Gen. p. 22.
3. Rampnocincivs, Lafr. (1843), Rev. Zool. p. 66.

4, Herminiervs, Lesson, (ubi?)

5. Bh et Lesson (1847), Descr. d. Mamm. et Ois.
p- 278.

6. Crncrops, Bp. (1854), Notes Ornithologiques, p. 25.

Of these, Mr. G. R. Gray’s name Cinelocerthia is the oldest that
can be adopted.

Note.—-Since writing the above, I have carefully examined the
two specimens of Cinclocerthia ruficauda in the British Museum.
They seem to agree in every respect with Lafresnaye’s description of .
Ramphocinclus tremulus, and, as the islands of Nevis and Guadaloupe
are so near, I think we may reasonably conclude that these two
birds are not specifically distinct. The rectrices are twelve in num-
ber, and not ten, as Mr. Gould supposed (P. Z. S. 1835, p. 186)
might be the case.

The three species of this group ought therefore apparently to stand
as follows:—1. CrncLOCERTHIA RUFICAUDA (Stenorhynchus rufi-
caudus, Gould; C. ruficauda, G. R. Gray; Ramphocinclus tremulus,
Lafr.). 2. CINcLocERTHIA GuTTURALIS (Ramphocinclus gutturalis,
Lafr.); and, 3. CincLocerTHIA BRACHYURA (Turdus brachyurus,
Vieill. ; Ramphocinelus brachyurus, Lafr.; Zoothera cinclops et
Cinclops melanoleucus, Bp.).

Noricre OF SOME NEW SPECIES OF Birps. By FREDERIC
Moores, Assist. Mus. East Inp1A Company.

Genus Orocoris, Bonaparte.

Orocoris LonGirostrRis, Gould, MSS.

Allied in colour to O. penicillata, and in the markings of the head
and breast, but differs in its larger size, considerably more lengthened
bill, wings and tail, and thicker toes ; and in the feathers of the back
being broadly centred with brown.

Length 7% inches; of wing 5 inches; tail 3$ths ; bill to frontal
plumes ;8,ths; to gape 3ths; tarsus 19ths; middle toe and claw
zszths ; hind ditto ;’;ths of an inch.

Hab. Neighbourhood of Agra. In Mr. Gould’s Collection.

Genus Emreeriza, Linn.

EMBERIZA sTRACHEYI, Moore.

Affined to HZ. Cia, but differs in having the markings about the
head more broadly developed, and of a deeper black colour, forming
three well-defined black bars, as seen laterally ; the throat and sides

S44 Zoological Society :—

of neck being whiter, and ashy on the front of the neck only, the
breast and the rest of the under-parts being uniform bright rufous-
brown, which colour is also prominent on the back, and especially
on the scapulars, rump and upper tail-coverts.
Length 6 inches; of wing 32ths; tail 3; tarsus $ths of an inch,
Hab. Kumaon. In Mus. East India Company.

EMBERIZA CASTANEICEPs, Gould, MSS.

Also affined to 2. Cia. Crown and ear-coyerts deep chestnut-
brown ; superciliary streak, base of upper mandible, throat, front
and sides of neck ashy white; behind the ears and nape ashy; a
spot before the eye and streak from base of lower mandible down the
sides of the throat black; back, scapulars and rump rufous-brown,
the two former having blackish centres to the feathers ; wings dusky
black, the feathers margined with rufous-brown ; tail dusky black,
the two centre feathers broadly margined with rufous-brown, the two
outer tipped obliquely with white for nearly the whole length ; breast
and flanks rufous-brown, and paling towards the centre of the belly ;
upper mandible dark-horn, lower paler.

Length 5} inches; wing 2{ths; tail 23ths; tarsus 3 of an inch.

Hab. Kintang in China. In Mus. East India Comp., J. Gould,
Esq.

Genus Propasser, Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Mise. p. 84 (1844);
P. Z. S. 1845, p. 36.

Puenicospiza, Blyth, J. A. 8. Beng. xxiii. p. 213 (1854).

PROPASSER THURA.

Carpodacus Thura, Bonaparte et Schlegel, Monogr, des Loxiens,
t. 23. Bonap. Consp. Gen. Ay. p. 531 (male).

Propasser rhodopeplus, part. Hodgson.

Hab. Nepal. In Mus. East India Comp. Brit. Mus., J. Gould,
Esq.

This species may be distinguished from the true P. rhodopeplus, by
its rather smaller and a trifle more pyrrhuline bill; the colour of
the male above being hair-brown, the feathers centred with blackish,
and the lesser range of wing-coverts only being crimson-tipped ; the
under-parts, rump and upper tail-coverts, cheeks, forehead, and
superciliary streak are pale silvery-crimson, the end of the latter and
the centre of the belly being pure white ; the crimson feathers of the
head and throat being centred also with white, and the crimson
colour being deepest at the base of the bill ; whereas, in P. rhodopeplus
the male above is dark crimson-brown, and has both ranges of
wing-coverts and the tertiaries pale crimson-tipped. The female of
P. Thura (which is now for the first time described) may be distin-
guished from the same sex of P. rhodopeplus by being paler above and
having paler centres to the feathers; the colour of the under-parts
being considerably more uniform; having also but faint centres to
the feathers. P. rhodopeplus is a trifle larger than P. Thura.

The Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte has compared thesespecimens,
and his Highness also verifies their distinctness.

Dr. J. E. Gray on a new genus of Fish-scaled Lizards. 345

PROPASSER PULCHERRIMUS, Hodgson.

Propasser pulcherrimus, Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Mise. (1844),
p. 85.

. Hab. Himalaya. In Mus. East India Comp., Brit. Mus., J. Gould,
uSq.

The male differs from P. rhodochrous in having the forehead,
superciliary streak, cheeks, throat, and under-parts, with the rump,
of a paler or more silvery-crimson colour, being in some lights very
silvery ; the upper parts, with the crown, are dusky-brown with pale
crimson-tinged edges to each feather. The female differs from the
same sex of P. rhodochrous in having the under-parts dusky white,
instead of rufescent, and the colours above are also less rufescent.

The size is the same as that of P. rhodochrous, excepting that in
P. pulcherrimus the wing is longer in both sexes.

Remarks.—Both sexes of this species and P. rhodochrous were
sent from Nepal by B. H. Hodgson, Esq., under the name of pul-
cherrimus, which name, upon examining his original drawings in -
the British Museum, we find refers to the true rhodochrous and not to
the present species; but, as that indefatigable naturalist applied the
name to both birds, we deem it but correct to retain it for the present
bird.

Genus Linora, Bonaparte.
CANNABINA, Brehm.

Lrinora BREvIROsTRIS, Gould.

Linota brevirostris, Gould, Bonap. Geogr. et Comp. List of B.
p. 34 (1838).

? Fringilla bella, Hempr. et Ehrenberg, Mus. Berol.

Hab. Erzeroum and Afghanistan. In Mus. East India Comp. et
J. Gould, Esq.

Allied to L. montium, but distinguished from that species by its
lighter colour, and the male having the pik colour on the rump
paler; the axillaries aud the basal edge of the inner web of the
primaries and secondaries pure white ; the tail being margined on the
whole outer and broadly on the inner web also with pure white ; the
primaries and secondaries above are also broadly margined exteriorly
with white. The female is also paler and broadly edged as in the
male with white.

Length 5 inches ; of wing 3iths; of tail 23ths; centre feathers
4 inch less; bill to frontal plumes ;3,ths; to gape } an inch; tarsus’
7oths ; centre toe aud claw 3ths; and hind ditto $ an inch.

Remark.—Cabanis in Catal. Birds Mus. Heine, p. 161, states
that ‘the bill of #’. della, of Hempr. and Ehrenb., is a trifle larger
than in L. eannabina, Linn., but in colour almost agrees with ZL.
Sringillirostris, Bonap, et Schlegel, Monog. Loxiens, t. 49. p. 45.

New Genus or Fisu-scatep Lizarps (Scissosar2), FROM

New Guinea. By J. E. Gray, Ph.D. F.R.S., erc. erc.

The Lizard which I have the pleasure of bringing before the
Society this evening, was presented to the British Museum, with

346 Zoological Society :—

other most interesting and novel specimens, by Mr. John MacGillivray,
who accompanied H.M.S. Herald as naturalist during her voyage in
the Australasian seas.

Corvcta.

Head broad, flat-topped ; nostrils ovate, oblique, simple, not 9
longed behind, on the middle of the lower part of the nasal shields ;
supranasal shields none; rostral square; internasal one, large, 8-sided,
broader behind; frontal-nasal two, moderate, band-like, transverse ;
lateral-frontal one, small, subtrigonal, nearly equal-sided ; frontal-
parietals two, rhombic, contiguous at the angle; interparietal one,
rhombic, elongate ; eyebrows covered with band-like shields; lower
eyelid with a series of larger opake scales ; temple covered with large
shields ; ears large, simple, edged in front.

Body fusiform, compressed ; scales, 6-sided, smooth, with 3, 5 or
7 grooves, seen through the skin, of chin and underside of the body
thinner, smooth.

Legs strong ; toes five, cylindrical, elongate, unequal, with a series
of band-like shields beneath ; claws strong, curved.

Tail elongate, tapering, rather compressed, scales of upper surface
like those of the back, but rather larger, with a central series of
broad hexangular shields beneath.

Hab. Australasia.

This genus belongs to the same section in the Museum Catalogue
as Ateuchoglossus, characterized by the simple nostril and scaled
opake lower eyelids. It differs from that genus in the smoothness
of the scales, the shielded underside of the tail and several other cha-
racters.

CorRUCIA ZEBRATA.

Pale yellowish-white (in spirits); back with irregular blackish-
brown cross-bands ; upper part of limbs and tail blackish, varied ;
head dark-brown.

Hab. New Guinea, the Island of San Christoval, John Mac-
Gillivray, Esq., two adult and young specimens.

Length of adult nearly 2 feet.

December 11, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

Description oF Two New Species or ACTINIA, FROM THE
Soutu Coast or Devon. By E. W. H. Hoitpsworrs.

Among various species of Actinia collected by me in July last, on
the south coast of Devon, two appear to be undescribed, and although
of small size, are of some interest as being additions to the fast
increasing list of our native zoophytes.

They were found on the rocks near the entrance to Dartmouth
harbour, a part of our western coast, which, from its steep rugged
character and its luxuriant growth of sea-weeds, presents a fruitful
hunting-ground for those in search of marine productions.

The first that I have to notice may be thus characterized :—

Body smooth and cylindrical when fully extended, from half to
three-quarters of an inch in height, but very much flattened when

Mr. EK. W. H. Holdsworth on two new species of Actinia. 347

contracted ; tentacula in four rows, moderately long, slender, and
slightly tapering towards the tips, their length regularly diminishing
from those of the inner circle outwards. The entire animal has a
pale transparent appearance, and the only trace of decided colour
about it is found in a narrow dark blue line surrounding the base of
each tentaculum, and extending a little in the direction of the mouth,
but soon becoming indistinct. Very delicate white lines are at times
visible on the surface of the body, but these are probably only the
edges of the membranous septa seen through the transparent skin.
When this animal is at all roughly handled, the long seminal fila-
ments are thrown out from the mouth in great profusion. This
little Anemone approaches very closely in many respects the Act. ean-
dida of Mr. Gosse, and I am indebted to that gentleman for his ready
assistance in determining the differences between them. Act. candida
may be distinguished by its possessing fewer tentacles, by the colour
of the body being of a more opake white, and especially by the narrow
- lines surrounding each tentaculum being of a reddish-purple tint, and.
enlarging into a conspicuous spot on each side of its base. In their.
habits and general appearance they are very much alike, and had I
obtained only one example of the pale species, I should hardly have
ventured to consider it more than a variety. Ten specimens, how-
ever, were taken from different places, and did not vary except in
size; they were found on the exposed surface of perpendicular rocks
at about half-tide mark, and when out of the water and contracted,
were very difficult to distinguish, owing to their great transparency.
I propose for this species the name of pallida.

It has been my custom, after any expeditions in search of Actinia,
to bring home one or two plants of Laminaria digitata, in order to
examine at my leisure the various forms of animal life commonly met
with among their tangled roots; and it was on one of these plants I
found, in company with minute Ophiocome, green Nereides and
numerous other animals, the beautifully marked Anemone that I have
now to describe.

It has the following characters :-—

Body elongate, cylindrical, about three-quarters of an inch in length
when extended, the upper half covered with numerous pale perforated
warts, increasing in number as they approach the top, and from
which the white filaments are protruded when the animal is irritated.
Tentacula in five rows. Colour of the body a dark orange, becoming
paler towards the base. This species is chiefly remarkable for the
beauty of its oral disk, which for colouring and elegance of marking
will bear comparison with that of any of the larger kinds. The external
half of the disk is of a rich purplish-brown, changing into a light
orange tint towards the mouth, the pink tumid lips of which are
frequently conspicuous ; from near the centre diverge ten or twelve
pairs of yellow bands slightly separating as they proceed outwards,
and at their extremities partially surrounding the bases of the tenta-
cula, according to the following arrangement. Taking a small seg-
ment of the disk, the first tentacle may be said to arise from the
space between two pairs of bands, the second being situated within

848 Miscellaneous.

the pair; the band bifureates near its extremity, and encloses the
third tentacle; these branches again divide and form a similar enclo-
sure for the arms of the fourth row: beyond these is a set of very
short tentacula; these, as far as I have been able to examine them,
are not connected with the yellow bands, but their small size and the
difficulty of seeing their entire length when the animal is expanded,
render it almost impossible to describe their exact appearance. On
the surface of the disk a cream-coloured spot is situated near the
base of each tentacle of the first and second rows, those connected
with the inner series being farther removed from them than those of
the second; the alternation of light and shade produced by this
arrangement gives a battlemented appearance to the disk, and adds
considerably to the general effect. The tentacula rapidly diminish
in size from those of the inner row outwards; they are dark brown
at the bases, becoming paler towards the tips, and are encircled by
three well-defined white rings, of which the basal ones are very
distinct. Several examples of this species were obtained at extreme
low water-mark, from a large mass of detached rocks known as the
Mewstone, near the entrance to Dartmouth harbour. They were met
with on two or three occasions, but were always found nestling among
the roots of Laminaria digitata.

A few weeks since, part of a plant of Laminaria was sent to me
from Devon, and among the roots I found six specimens of an
Actinia that closely resembled the one just described, excepting that
the brown on the tentacula and certain parts of the disk was replaced
by various shades of red. These animals differ so little, except in
the general colour of the disk and appendages, that until I have an
opportunity of examining some more specimens, I must consider the
red one as only a variety of the other, and as such I would pro-
visionally describe it. This uncertainty obliges me to depart from
the old-established rule of giving the specific name from some marked
character in the animal, and I must therefore propose the more
general title of ornata for the brown species, and suggest that of
rubida for the red one, should it on future examination prove to be
distinct, which I am inclined to think is probable.

MISCELLANEOUS.

OBITUARY NOTICE.—WILLIAM YARRELL.

Tue list of British zoologists has just lost one of its best and
brightest ornaments in the person of William Yarrell, who died sud-
denly at Yarmouth on Monday the 1st of September. Mr. Yarrell
was born in June 1784, in Duke Street, St. James’s, where his father
carried on the business of a newspaper agent : this business was after-
wards continued by the son in Ryder Street until nearly the time of
his decease.

On the 3rd of August last, as he was returning from church, he
was seized by a giddiness and unsteadiness of foot, which proved to

Miscellaneous. 349

be caused by incipient paralysis. From this he had pretty nearly
recovered, ouly complaining of a slight ‘ woolliness”’ in his brain,
when on the Saturday before his death he went to Yarmouth with
an invalid friend. On Sunday night he was attacked by a difficulty
of breathing, which continually increased until about half-past
twelve, when he tranquilly departed from this world.

Early in life Mr. Yarrell was celebrated as a keen and successful
sportsman, but during this sporting phase of his existence neither
neglected the management of his business, nor, what is of more im-
portance to us, the cultivation of his innate taste for natural history,
for he was busily engaged in forming collections illustrative of the
natural history of this country, especially of its Birds and Fishes,
and in making notes of their habits, which stood him in good stead
when at the mature age of forty he began to write upon his favourite
science. His first paper, containing ‘‘ Notices of the occurrence of
some rare British Birds observed during the years 1823, 1824 and
1825,” was published in the ‘ Zoological Journal’ in the latter year.
From this time he seems gradually to have relinquished the gun and
the rod for the pen, and his communications subsequently appeared
pretty frequently in the periodical above mentioned, in ‘Loudon’s Ma-
gazine of Natural History,’ and in this Journal. He also contributed
valuable papers to the Transactions of the Royal, Linnzean, and Zoolo-
gical Societies ; but the works upon which his fame chiefly rests,
and those with which the English student at all events will princi-
pally connect the name of Yarrell, are the admirable Histories of
British Birds and Fishes, published in a style of such unrivalled ex-
cellence by Mr. Van Voorst. In these works we find accuracy of
scientific research, combined with a plain but agreeable mode of
communicating information on the details of the natural history of
particular species, such as has rarely been equalled; and these
Histories of British Birds and Fishes will always remain of the
highest value to the investigator of the natural history of these islands,

Mr. Yarrell was elected a Fellow of the Linnzan Society in 1825,
and for some years before his death he was a Vice-President and the
Treasurer of that Society. He was also one of the founders of the
Zoological Society, and a constant attendant at its meetings; and for
many years he was the Treasurer of the Entomological Society.

Whilst thus distinguished in the scientific world, Mr. Yarrell’s
social qualities endeared him highly to his acquaintances. His more
intimate friends always spoke of him in terms of affectionate regard,
and even those who knew him superficially could never be insensible
to the kindliness of his nature. To quote the words of a writer in
the ‘ Athenzeum,’ who evidently knew him well, ‘‘ His judgment was
elear and sound, his appreciation of the value of facts and of evidence
most accurate, his advice always practical and thoughtful. His
truthfulness and simple-heartedness were even childlike, his temper
gentle, his heart loving and affectionate, and he was liberal and
charitable almost to the verge of imprudence. A kindlier spirit
never lived.”

850 Miscellaneous.

AMPHIOXUS LANCEOLATUS,

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.
Falmouth, September 23, 1856.

GEeNTLEMEN,—The “ Amphiovus lanceolatus,” Yarrell, was found
in dredger’s refuse from Gwyllyn Vase Bay on Friday last, by Mr.
Henry Bastian of this town. Length one inch and one-sixteenth ;
breadth in the middle one-eighth of an inch; of a lanceolate form,
tapering to each extremity, riband-like, transparent as crystal ; mouth
circular, produced, armed with long slender cirrhi, crenated laterally ;
when these are reflexed, the passage to the oral aperture is consider-
ably increased in length and diameter, and the water, with its crus-
tacea, &c., has ready ingress, assisted by the ciliary current. The
animal closes the aperture by contracting and crossing the free
extremities of the cirrhi. It swims rapidly with a wriggling or snake-
like motion for a few seconds, and then suddenly settles down at the
bottom of the vessel, where it remains motionless, lying flat on its
side, with the mouth open to its fullest extent (to all appearance
dead), for thirty or forty minutes, or longer if not disturbed. Two
days after its capture, I put into the vessel (of water) a quantity of
shell-sand, which at first appeared to excite it very much, for it
swam with increased velocity for a second or two, and then suddenly
disappeared under the bed of sand formed at the bottom of the

lass.
= Fifty minutes after this occurrence, I was pleased to see one-third
of the body projecting in a vertical direction from the surface of the
sand, its mouth open, and the cirrhi slightly reflected at their extre-
mities ; but on agitating the water with a piece of straw, the body
was partially drawn in, and on repeating the annoyance it disappeared
altogether.

This morning the body was completely covered (over) with the
sand, but the open mouth could be seen just above the surface of it—
awaiting its prey (?). I consider it a scarce fish in our neighbourhood,
not arare one. Its rarity arises from the naturalist being ignorant
of its habitats, and selecting ground for his dredging operations
incompatible with the movements of the fish. Dr. Vigurs’s fish
(1851) carried ova. Mr. Bastian’s is a young one.

I am, Gentlemen, your obedient Servant,
W. P. Cocks.

Description of a newly discovered Tanager of the genus Buarremon.
By Puruipe Luttey Scuarer, M.A. &e. !

Through the kindness of Sir William Jardine I am enabled to
describe a specimen of a very distinct species of Buarremon, which
Professor Jameson of Quito has lately transmitted to this country.
It was obtained by him during a recent expedition into the eastern
Cordillera of the Andes near Quito at an elevation of 6000 feet above
the sea-level. In form and size it is similar to B. pallidinuchus, but
the style of coloration is different and more nearly resembles that

Meteorological Observations. 351

of B. schistaceus. Sir William Jardine has named it Jeucopterus,
from the conspicuous white spot on the wing. The area of the
genus Buarremon appears to extend along the Andean range from
Bolivia into Southern Mexico, the vicinity of Bogota being perhaps
the principal sedes or focus, where no less than seven or eight species
occur. The present bird may be characterized as follows :—.

BUARREMON LEUCOPTERUS.

B. schistacescenti-niger, alis caudaque obscurioribus ; pileo ochra-
ceo-rufo ; macula utringue anteoculari et speculo alari con-
spicuo cum toto corpore subtus albis ; lateribus in cinereum tra-
hentibus ; capitis lateribus nigris; tectricibus alarum inferi-
oribus albis ; rostro pedibusque nigris.

Long. tota 6°2; ale 2°8; caudze 2°7.

Hab. in rep. Equatoriana (Jameson ).—Proc. Zool. Soc. Nov. 27,

1855.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR AUG. 1856.

Chiswick.— August 1, 2. Slight haze: very hot. 3. Hot and sultry. 4. Over-
cast: very hot. 5. Cloudless and hot. 6. Cloudy: slight haze: very fine. 7.
Clear: hot and sultry. 8. Cloudy: overeast: very fine: rain. 9. Slight rain.
10. Cloudy and fine. 11. Very fine: cloudy: rain. 12. Cloudy: very fine. 13.
Very hot : heavy rain at night. 14. Cloudy and fine: rain. 15. Cloudy and fine.
16. Very fine: thunder, lightning and rain at night. 17. Slight rain at half-past
eight a.M.: excessively heavy rain commenced, nearly an inch fell in one hour:
cloudy at night. 18. Cloudy. 19. Overcast: rain. 20. Foggy: overcast : heavy
rain at night. 21. Densely clouded : boisterous, with heavy clouds and showers.
22. Partially overcast : cloudy: very fine. 23. Fine. 24, Cloudy and fine. 25.
Slight showers. 26. Very fine. 27. Uniformly overcast: very fine. 28. Cloudy
and fine: rain. 29. Very fine. 30. Slight fog: very fine. 31. Very fine: rain
at night.

Mean temperature of the month .............eceeescevereceseeces 63°40
Mean temperature of Aug..1855. ..,...cesecccsessaicetecsssecvecs 00 -00
Mean temperature of Aug. for the last thirty years ......... 61 °97
Average amount of rain in AUg. ..-ceeceessseceeeececeueeees bce 2-413 inches.

Boston.— Aug. 1—3. Fine. 4. Cloudy. 5, 6. Fine. 7. Fine: thunder, light-
ning andrain A.M. and p.m. 8. Fine. 9. Cloudy: rain a.M.and p.m. 10. Cloudy.
11,12. Fines 13. Cloudy. 14. Cloudy: raina.m. 15,16. Fine. 17. Rain
A.M. and p.m. 18. Cloudy: rain A.M. andr.m. 19. Cloudy. 20. Cloudy: rain
A.M. and p.m. 21. Raina.m.andp.m. 22. Cloudy: rain a.m. 23. Cloudy.
24. Rain. 25. Cloudy. 26. Cloudy: raine.m. 27. Cloudy: raina.m. 28.
Cloudy: rain a.M. and p.m. 29—31. Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Aug.1. Drizzle a.m.: fog p.m. 2. Clear, fine a.m.:
clear p.m. 3. Bright a.m.:clondy r.m. 4. Bright a.m.: clear, fine, aurora p.m.
5,6. Bright a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 7. Bright a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 8. Cloudy
A.M. and P.M. 9. Cloudy a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 10. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m.
11. Drops a.M.: drizzlep.m. 12. Bright a.m.: thunder-showers p.m. 13. Clear
A.M.: bright p.m. 14. Bright a.m.: vapour, fine p.m. 15. Damp a.m. : drizzle p.m.
16. Damp 4.m.: clear p.m. 17—22. Cloudy a.m. andp.m. 23, Cloudy a.M.:
cloudy, drops p.M. 24. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 25. Rain A.m.: showers P.M.
26. Showers a.m.: drizzle, showers p.m. 27. Cloudy a.M.andp.m. 28. Rain
A.M.: drops P.M. 29. Showers a.M.: drops p.m. 30. Clear a.m.: cloudy p.m,
31. Rain a.m. : clear, aurora P.M.

Mean temperature of Aug. for previous twenty-nine years ... 55°03
Mean temperature of this month ......... Sagteattersacscses ses Bo 22
Mean temperature of Aug. 1855 — ...cseseeeeeeee eee Lonsapaherere 56°10

Average quantity of rain in Aug. for previous sixteen years... 3°01 inches.

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 107. NOVEMBER 1856.

XXX.—A Notice of some New Genera and Species of British’
Hydroid Zoophytes*. By Josnua AxpER, Esq.

{With three Plates. ]

Havine had occasion lately to examine the zoophytes of the
coasts of Northumberland and Durham for the purpose of draw-
ing up a local Catalogue for the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club,
I have been so fortunate as to meet with several undescribed
species, some of which have not been before observed, and others
have been misunderstood or passed over as varieties. The
species here described belong to the Anthozoa Hydroida of
Johnston.
Family Corynide.

VoRTICLAVA, noy. gen.

Polype linear-cylindrical or clavate, soft, naked, affixed at the
base, solitary ? Head terminal ; tentacles in two rows, stout,
dissimilar, the upper row capitate.

Vorticlava humilis, n. sp. Pl. XII. figs. 1-4.

Body white, semitransparent, nearly of equal thickness through-
out; upper tentacles five, short and stout; lower tentacles
ten, about three times the length of the upper.

Length of body 5%, inch.

On Corallina officinalis, in a rock-pool between tide-marks,

Cullercoats.

* Read at the late Meeting of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science at Cheltenham. Four new species of Polyzoa, forming a
al of the communication then read, have been published in the 17th Num-

er of the Journal of Microscopical Science.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviu. 23

354 Mr. J. Alder on some new genera and species

Only one specimen has yet occurred to me of this very inter-
esting little zoophyte, which may readily escape observation on
account of its diminutive size. It was observed on a branch of
Corallina officinalis that had remained for a while in a glass of sea-
water, in the autumn of 1853. The pools where it was obtained
have been searched several times since for additional specimens,
but without success. Iam happy, however, to find that the spe-
cies was also found by Mr. Busk, in the same year, at Felixstowe in
Suffolk. The Cullercoats specimen, which lived with me several
days, showed little animation, holding itself always in a curved
position as represented in fig. 2. The mouth is tubular and
prominent. The upper tentacles, which surround the mouth,
are short and generally curved inwards; their enlarged heads
showing, when highly magnified, a congeries of little tubercles,
which probably contain thread cells. The lower tentacles form
a radiating circle near the base of the head.

Mr. Peach has described, in the ‘ Annals of Natural History ”
for August last, the change of a zoophyte somewhat similar
to this into a naked-eyed Medusa. That gentleman’s obser-
vations led him to conclude that the change was a complete
metamorphosis, and not a reproduction by gemmation as is
usually the case, though the exact point of transition does not
appear to have been observed.

Names given to genera in this family must be considered pro-
visional and subject to revision, should the Zoophytes afterwards
prove to be the transition-state of something already known.
At present this genus has as good a claim to recognition as
Clava and some of its nearest allies.

Family Tubulariade.
Eudendrium confertum, n. sp. Pl. XII. figs. 5-8.

Polype white or pale flesh-coloured, with a longish ovate head,
surrounded by a single row of tentacles. Po/ypary consisting
of short crowded stems rising from a common base ; they are
tubular, yellowish horn-coloured, strongly wrinkled across but
not annulated, slightly branched, and expanding a little
towards the apertures: base a densely reticulated and closely
adhering crust, the interstices filled up by a membrane.

Height { to 3 inch.

On old shells of Buccinum undatum and Fusus antiquus from
deep water, Cullercoats.

This little zoophyte appears to have been first noticed by
Dr. Johnston, though he had subsequently overlooked or for-
gotten it, as when I sent him a description of a specimen got at

of British Hydroid Zoophytes. 005

Cullercoats in 1854, he wrote me that it was not anything he
was acquainted with. I have since, however, found in his Cata-
logue of the Zoophytes of North Durham, published in the
“Transactions of the Newcastle Natural History Society,’ mention
made of a zoophyte, which is undoubtedly the same as this, and
the description is so characteristic that I cannot do better than
adopt it. “I have observed,” he says, “a small Tubularia which
invests old specimens of Murex antiquus with a dense beard-like
coat, and may, possibly, be a species distinct from the above
(71. ramosa). It is only the quarter of an inch in height, slender,
horny, wrinkled, slightly and irregularly branched, the branches
without rings at the origins: polypes white, furnished with a
single series of obtuse tentacula, that do not seem to exceed
ten in number. In this respect it agrees with 7. ramosa as
characterized by Dr. Fleming, but differs from the specimens
which I have seen, and also from Ellis’s figure of it, in which -
the tentacula are much more numerous.” ‘The incrusting base,
which Dr. Johnston does not appear to have examined, forbids
our considering it to be the young of Hudendrium ramosum.
The basal ramifications are corneous and more solid than the
ascending stems, rather broad, flat and undulating in outline,
forming a dense network, the spaces between the larger reti-
culations being nearly filled up with smaller ones, and the
whole, in old specimens, appear to be united by a membrane.
The number of tentacles is not very constant, varying with age,
and occasionally reaching sixteen, but ten is the more usual
number. The mouth is conical when at rest, but varies much
in form, sometimes expanding to a flat disk, with a wide aper-
ture, similar to what is occasionally seen in Hydractinia echinata,
to the polype of which this bears a strong resemblance.

I have lately met with specimens, apparently of this species,
more branched than the form above described, and showing at
the top of the tube, a cup-like expansion, similar to what is repre-
sented by Van Beneden in his E. ramosum: the cup, though
continuous with the tube, is more membranous and soon falls
off. The species may therefore possibly be the same with that
so well described by Van Beneden, but is not the 7. ramosa of
Linneus, of which Ellis’s figures must be taken to represent the
type.

Eudendrium capillare,n.sp. Pl. XII. figs. 9-12.

Polypary minute, very slender, thread-like, a little branched,
transparent, pale horn-coloured, smooth, excepting two or
three faint rings near the origin of each branch. Podypes ter-
minal on the upper branches, vase- or pear-shaped, with a
single row of eighteen or twenty long, slender tentacles : re-

23%

356 Mr. J. Alder on some new genera and species

productive capsules on separate short branches near the lower
part of the stem on clustered or verticillate pedicles, two or
three capsules in linear series on each pedicle.

Height } inch.

Parasitical on Antennularia ramosa, from Embleton Bay,
Northumberland, R. Embleton, Esq.

The peculiarity of this elegant and graceful little zoophyte is
that the reproductive capsules are on separate branches from the
polypes ; the latter always terminating the upper branches, while
the former are on branches near the lower part of the stem. The
moniliform mode of arrangement of the capsules on the pedicles
is similar to what is seen in LZ. ramosum, where, however, they
are in union with the polypes, arranged round the base of the
tentacles. A more near approach to the mode of arrangement
in E. capillare may be found in Cavyolini’s Sertolara racemosa
(Eudendrium racemosum), which has two kinds of reproductive
capsules, one set of which are arranged in moniliform series on
umbels very closely resembling those of our species. According
to Krohn (as quoted by Professor Owen), these capsules, in the
Mediterranean species, are found to contain spermatozoa, and
this may possibly be the case in the present instance.

For a knowledge of this new species I am indebted to Mr.
Embleton, who kindly sent it to me along with some other very
interesting species collected in Embleton Bay. It was fortu-
nately preserved in spirits, so that the characters of the animal
could be distinctly made out ; otherwise it might readily be taken
for a Coryne.

Family Sertulariade.
Sertularia tricuspidata, nu. sp. Pl. XIII. figs. 1,2.

Stem slender, alternately branched, twisted at intervals, and
jointed above each cell: cells alternate, rather distant, smooth,
exactly cylindrical, a little bent outwards, with a three-toothed
rim ; ovicapsules strongly ribbed across, with a narrow funnel-
shaped aperture.

Height 1 to 2 inches.

On zoophytes from deep water on the Northumberland coast.

Without a careful examination of its characters, this species
might be passed over as a small variety of S. polyzonias, from
which it differs in the slenderness of its proportions, in the shape
of the cells, and especially in their three-toothed apertures.
Mr. Busk has pointed out to me that there is a species very
nearly resembling this found in the South Seas—the S. Johnstont
of Gray, of which he has kindly sent me a specimen from New

of British Hydroid Zoophytes. 357

Zealand. Like our species it is tridentate; but on a careful
comparison of the two, I find that the southern form differs from
ours in the following particulars. It is of smaller size and more
compact mode of growth ; the cells are more closely set, smaller,
shorter, broader at the base, and attached for a greater part of
their length, besides having some rib-like thickenings of the
walls, which are not to be found in the northern species. There
are likewise occasionally two or three cells together without a
joint. The ovicapsules are very similar, but the aperture is not
so much produced, and is conical, not funnel-shaped. Upon the
whole I think there can be little doubt that the two species are
distinct. The form is at least new to the British seas.

The cells of this species do not bulge out below as in S. poly-
zonias, and the capsules are narrower and much more strongly
and regularly ribbed across, with a funnel-shaped aperture, having
a smooth, everted rim. j

Sertularia tenella, nu. sp. Pl. XIII. figs. 3-6.
Sertularia rugosa, var., Johnst. Brit. Zooph. 62. f. 8c.

Minute, creeping, throwing up short unbranched or slightly
branched stems, which are slender, zigzagged, and jointed
above each cell: cells alternate, rather distant, elongate,
barrel-shaped, finely wrinkled across; the aperture erect,
patent, squared and four-toothed.

Length } to 1 inch.

Parasitical on Plumularia falcata and other zoophytes, but not
common.

This pretty little species is smaller and more delicate in all its
proportions than S. rugosa, with which it has hitherto been con-
founded. The cells are more erect, narrower, and more closely
and regularly ribbed or wrinkled across; the wrinkles generally
rising a little opposite each angle; they are six or seven in this
species—in S. rugosa three or four. The aperture is erect,
patent, and conspicuously squared and four-toothed: in S. ru-
gosa the aperture is much less prominent, and is always bent
outwards. The stem of S. ¢enella is slender, seldom exceeding
half an inch in length, and most frequently unbranched : it is
waved or zigzag, bearing a cell at each angle: opposite each cell
there is a joimt, above which the cell is much constricted and
slightly ringed er twisted. The cells are more distant than in
S. rugosa, in this respect resembling S. polyzonicas, but are more
slender and elongated than in either species; they are thin,
delicately wrinkled transversely and produced a good deal at the
top. The aperture is closed by a quadripartite operculum, open-

358 Mr. J. Alder on some new genera and species

ing in segments as in Campanularia syringa, but here the seg-
ments are fewer, corresponding with the angles of the mouth.
S. rugosa has a similar operculum. The ovicapsules, for a know-
ledge of which I am indebted to the Rev. T. Hincks, scarcely
differ from those of S. polyzonias and S. rugosa, but are perhaps
a little more produced at the top. The polypes appear to be
yellow or orange-coloured. Specimens of S. ¢ene//la occur in
which the creeping fibre throws up only single cells on short
foot-stalks throughout its course. In this form it might be
taken for a Campanularia.

Family Campanulariade.
Campanularia volubilis. Pl. XIII. fig. 7.

Sertularia volubilis, Linn. Syst. Nat. 12th ed. 1311 ; Ellis, Brit. Corall. 24.
t. 14. f. a A.

Stem creeping, sometimes giving off shoots in a free state, gene-
rally spirally twisted ; pedicles rather longish, spirally twisted,
and not ringed at the base; a single spherical ring below
each cell; cells generally rather narrow and deep, with about
ten shallow blunt denticles round the margin: ovicapsules
rising on short pedicles from the creeping stem, oblong flask-
shaped, smooth, with a long narrow neck.

Height about ath inch.

On Plumularia falcata, Sertularia fallax, and other zoophytes :
frequent.

Three or four species have hitherto been confounded under
the name of Camp. volubilis. It therefore becomes necessary to
redescribe and discriminate them, and to ascertain, if possible,
to which the Linnzan appellation properly belongs. Unfortu-
nately the description of that author is very imperfect, but as he
quotes the excellent figures of Ellis, with which his description,
as far as it goes, corresponds, these may be fairly taken as
representing the true C. volubilis. The distinguishing character
of the species there represented is the spirally twisted stem ; and
Ellis remarks in his description, that “ at the bottom of each
[cup], where they join the stalk, the microscope discovers to us a
very minute spherule or little ball, as in some drinking glasses.”
With these characters the species here described perfectly agrees.
I have for some time been satisfied that this was distinct from
the C. volubilis of Johnston and other modern British authors,
but it was not until lately that I was so fortunate as to meet
with its ovicapsules, the peculiar form of which will, I think,
remove all doubt on the subject. This species is almost equally
common on our coast with that described by Dr. Johnston (which

= d™ yee

of British Hydroid Zoophytes. 359

I propose calling C. Johnstoni), but on account of its usually
inhabiting deeper water, it is not so generally met with. They
may, however, be occasionally found mixed together on the same
zoophyte, particularly on the stem of Plumularia falcata; but
when their peculiar characters are known, they can readily be
distinguished from each other. C. volubilis, as here distin-
guished, is scarcely more than half the size of C. Johnstoni, and
has the cells usually narrower and more cylindrical, with the
crenations of the margins blunter and shallower. But the best
distinguishing character is in the pedicle, which in this species
is always spirally twisted throughout, though becoming less
marked towards the top, where a single spherule supports the
cup. The creeping stem is generally, but not always, twisted
when attached ; but when, as is often the case, it becomes free,
its spirally twisted character is beautifully displayed, and it has
the appearance of a minute transparent cord, with a club-shaped”
termination. The pedicles and cells arising from the free part
of the stem are always shorter than where it is attached, and
more nearly resemble Ellis’s figure. The ovicapsules are oblong
flask-shaped, smooth, compressed laterally and produced into a
very long and narrow neck ; they arise from the creeping stem
by a short pedicle of two whorls.

Campanularia Johnstoni. Pl. XIII. fig. 8.

Camp. volubilis, Johust. Brit. Zooph. 107, woodeut 18; Couch, Cornish
Fauna, 40. t. 2. f. 1; Gosse, Ramb. Dev. Coast, 296. t. 18.

Stem creeping, plain; pedicles long, with numerous close-set
rings at the base, and more or less ringed at the top; the
middle part usually plain; cells deep and rather large, with
ten or twelve strong denticles round the rim: ovicapsules
nearly sessile on the creeping stem, ovate oblong, strongly
plicated transversely and truncated at top.

Height 12 tenth.

On sea-weeds, zoophytes, and shells, from between tide-marks
to deep water: common.

This species is of more robust growth than the last, with the
cells larger and more strongly denticulated ; they are also wider,
but this character is rather variable in both species. The pedicles
are longer and stouter, and have always numerous close-set rings
at the base, and also several rings at the top: the middle part is
variable, sometimes partially or even wholly ringed, but more
frequently plain*. The creeping fibre is always plain, and

: It is important in this genus to distinguish between rings and spiral
ridges.

360 Mr. J. Alder on some new genera and species

seldom if ever detached. The ovicapsules are large, ovate or
subcylindrical, more or less elongated, with a truncated top, and
very strongly plicated transversely ; they rise from the creeping
stem by scarcely perceptible pedicles. (Mr. Gosse has repre-
sented a spur at the bottom which I have not observed.) It may
be a question for future solution, whether this species is ever
branched. I have found branched specimens from deep water
very much resembling this, with a ringed base and strongly
denticulated cup, which I believe to be the young of Laomedea
dichotoma 8, Johust. (Sert. longissima, Pallas), having once found
an example a little more advanced, with the ovicapsules of that
species. In Ellis and Solander’s ‘ Zoophytes,’ however, a figure
is given of a branched specimen under the name of Sertularta
volubilis, with vesicles resembling C. Johnstoni.

Campanularia Hincksit. Pl. XIII. fig. 9.
Camp. volubilis, var., Hincks in Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. vol. xi. p. 180.

Stem creeping, plain ; pedicles long, nearly smooth, with two or
three slight spiral twists at the base, and two or three sphe-
rical rings at the ‘op, one of which is within the cup: cells
rather long, with parallel sides, wrinkled or lineated longitu-
dinally ; marginal denticles ten, of a squared or castellated
form, a little indented at top.

Height 13 to 2 tenths.

On shells and zoophytes from deep water: rather rare.

This species differs from the two former in the castellated .
form of the rim, and also in the shape of the cup, which is
broad at the base and lineated longitudinally ; the spherical ring
within the cup is also a distinguishing character. The pedicle
is long and quite smooth, with the exception of one or two rings
at its junction with the cell, and a slight spiral twisting at the
base. In this respect it differs from the C. volubilis of Van
Beneden, the cells of which, though differing in shape, have a
somewhat similar castellated rim, but the pedicle is short and
strougly annulated throughout. This latter will probably
constitute a fourth species. The C. Hincksii was first noticed
by Mr. Hincks, who described it in the ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.’ for
March 1853, as a curious variety of C. volubilis, from specimens
sent him by Mr. Templar from the West of England. I have
since met with it sparingly from deep water on the Northum-
berland coast. Mr. Hincks informs me that in his specimen the
ovicapsules were apparently smooth, but from their imperfect
state of preservation, this character was not satisfactorily made
out. My specimens are without capsules.

of British Hydroid Zoophytes. 361

Campanularia gracillima, nu. sp. Pl. XIV. figs. 5, 6

Stem erect, compound, subunilaterally branched; cells very
slender, long, tubular, thin, set on loosely twisted pedicles of
about two whorls: aperture entire.

Height 1 inch.
On shells and zoophytes from deep water, Northumberland
coast: occasionally.

This is a critical species, greatly resembling C. dumosa, from
which it can only be distinguished by comparative characters,
though its general appearance and habit at once strike the eye
as something distinct. It is much smaller than C. dumosa,
thinner in texture and more flexuose when fresh, with narrower
cells, set on longer pedicles. The stem is erect, and generally
compounded ae two or three tubes, diminishing to one at the
ends of the branches. It is a good deal branched, the branches .
often rising more from one side of the stem than the other.
The cells are long, very slender, thin and transparent, with a
smooth rim; they are set on pedicles, about one-fourth the
length of the cells, loosely twisted and making about two turns ;
they generally rise at a less angle from the stem than in
C. dumosa, and are more fragile, being very apt to fall off when
dry. The cells of C. dumosa, on the contrary, are more persistent
than in any other species of the genus. C. gracillima appears
usually to assume the erect form; only in one instance have I
observed it creeping over the surface of a shell near the base of
the ascending stem.

A Campanularia from Bass’s Straits, of which Mr. Busk has
sent me a drawing, is very similar to this, if not identical.

Genus GramMaria, Stimpson.

“ Polypidom rectilinear, elongated, cylindrical, composed of
aggregated tubes, generally without branches, which, when they
occur, are of the same character as that from which they spring.
Cells arranged on all sides in more or less regular and equi-
distant longitudinal rows, giving the section of the stem a star-
like appearance.” —Stimpson*.

G. ramosa, n. sp. Pl. XIV. figs. 1-4.

Polypary stout, horn-coloured, irregularly branched, the
branches rising from a constricted base: cells cylindrical,
bending outwar rds to a distance near ly equalling the width of
the stem, with an even margin, behind which they are fre-
quently annulated with one or two lines of growth ; they are

* Synopsis of the Marine Invertebrata of Grand Manan, p. 9. t. 1. f. 3.

362 On new genera and species of British Hydroid Zoophytes.

set in about four longitudinal rows, the adjoining cells alter-
nating, and the opposite cells nearly on a line with each
other.

Height 1 to 2 inches.

From the deep-water fishing-boats, on the coasts of North-
umberland and Durham: rather rare.

This species comes very close to the Grammaria robusta of
Stimpson, of which it may possibly be a variety, the principal
difference being that the British form is constantly branched,
while the American species is linear and straight. The genus is
new to Europe, and does not appear to differ much from the
Salacia of Lamouroux founded on an Australian species.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XII., XIII., XIV.
PLATE XII.

Figs. 1, 2. Vorticlava humilis, natural size and magnified.

Fig. 3. A tentacle of the lower row much enlarged.

Fig. 4. Ditto of the upper row ditto.

Figs. 5, 6. Eudendrium confertum, natural size and magnified.

Fig. 7. A polypary of the same, magnified.

Fig. 8. A tentacle contracted and very highly magnified.

Figs. 9, 10. Eudendrium capillare, natural size and magnified.

Fig. 11. A polype of the same, more highly magnified.

Fig. 12. Reproductive capsule (sperm-capsule?), more highly magnified.

PLATE XIII.

Figs. 1, 2. Sertularia tricuspidata, natural size and magnified.
Figs. 3, 4. tenella, natural size and magnified.
Fig. 5. Ovicapsule of the same.
Fig. 6. A polype-cell showing the operculum.
Fig. 7. Campanularia volubilis, highly magnified.
ig. Johnstoni, ditto.
Fig. 9. —— Hincksii, ditto.

WOnNIAS

PLATE XIV.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

. Grammaria ramosa, natural size.

. Another specimen magnified.

A portion of the same more highly magnified.
. A section of the stem of the same.

. Campanularia gracillima, nat. size.

. A portion of the same, magnified.

Os Ot OO DO

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 363

XXXI.—The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. By
Dr. ALeExanDER Braun, Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Berlin, &c.* Translated by Cuas. Francis Srong, B.A.

[Concluded from vol. xvi. p. 354.]

Waite thus, on the one hand, all the facts seem to unite in
establishing the individual nature of the shoot, on comparing
shoots in their qualitative relations, phenomena are brought to
view which seem to contradict such a view of its individuality.
The higher departments of the animal kingdom usually present
as individuals, representatives of the specific type agreeing in all
essential respects, though, perhaps, not perfectly identical. The
fact of the separation of the sexes was all that modified this
view; and here, indeed, the essence of the species does seem
to be divided between two different individuals. Attempts have -
not been wanting to obviate this contradiction by the Platonic
doctrine of the original unity of the sexes, by the assertion of
Paracelsust ; that, in fact, the two together must be regarded as
the one real individual—and such like.

This contradiction to the usual view of what constitutes the
individual is shown in a far higher degree by qualitative compa-
risons of vegetable shoots, not merely of the same species, but
also of the same stock. Thus we see, e. g. in Equisetum arvense
(Field Horsetail), shoots totally different in aspect proceeding
from the same root-stock ; in early spring they are pale, disco-
loured, unbranched, terminating with a strobilaceous-like fruc-
tification ; later, green and foliaceous ones appear, verticillately
ramified. Investigations into subterranean vegetation show even
other varieties of shoot-for mation, viz. offsets dwindling down to
a point, and club-shaped buds which, at a later per iod, drop off
of themselves. The Colt’s-foot (Tussilag yo Farfara) presents
similar phenomena, in early spring putting forth leafless shoots,
with asparagus-like scales terminating with yellow capitula,
which in summer are followed by others bearing leaves. The
flowers in the little capitula of the first present a third variety
of shoots in their lateral branchlets. Even in common life we
distinguish leaf-buds from flower-buds, on many trees. Let us
consider this relation in the Cherry-tree, for example. On the
same branch we find, on the one hand, buds which develope into
branches bearing leaves, without producing flowers ; on the other
hand, some bearing only little squamate leaves on the shortened

* Reprinted from Silliman’s American Journal for January 1856.

+ “For this ye must know: man without woman is not a whole; only
with woman is he a whole. That is as much as to say: both together make
man, and neither alone.”

364 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

axis, from whose axils the flowers rise and form a third kind of
shoot.

On examining closer into the real origin of these differences,
we find their ground to be a partition of the different steps of
the metamorphosis (of the formations) among different shoots.
True, there are many plants which go through the whole series
of formations, from the inferior* and the foliaceous formations
up to flower and fruit ; but the cases are very numerous in which
this does not take place, and in which the single shoot is not
able to produce all the formations. Thus there are shoots which
are only able to realize the lower steps, and never attain to flowers
and fruit ; while others overleap all the inferior degrees and com-
mence immediately with the formation of flowers. Hence, on
the one hand, we see the metamorphosis interrupted, a stoppage
taking place at a determinate step; on the other, the metamor-
phosis attained by passing over the intermediate steps. Still
more remarkable are the cases in which the retardation is not
merely an mterruption at a determinate step, but appears as a
real retrogression in the metamorphosis, whereby an alternate
rise and fall—an oscillation—usually takes place, which may at
last pass over in victorious progress to the formation of flower
and fruit; though in most instances it prevents the shoot in
question from ever attaining itsend. Helleborus niger is an ex-
ample of the first case; for after many years of inferior- and
foliaceous-leaf formation, at last it attaims superior leaves and
fruit by overleaping the formation of foliaceous-leaves which
until then had prevented its further progresst. Many of our
trees with true foliage present examples of the second case.
Their branches commence with bud-scales (inferior-leaves), the
succeeding foliaceous branch ends with a terminal bud (thus
falling back to inferior-leaf formation), and in the next period of
vegetation they rise again to foliaceous-leaf formation {,—as in

* On the terminology of the leaf-formations, see Wydler, Bot. Zeit.
1844, S6tes Stiick, and A. Braun, Verjiingung, p. 66. (Henfrey’s Transl.
Ray Soc. 1853, p. 62.)

+ Analogous cases occur in the branches in Zsculus and many Maples
which attain to flowers. Among herbaceous plants Anemone nemorosa and
Asarum Europeum also belong here, and especially remarkable is the Tulip,
the plants of which, not yet ripe for flowering, annually develope one single
foliaceous leaf, followed by a central bud hidden in the middle of the bulb
and composed of several inferior-leaves. ‘This bud preserves this position
in bulbs deep in the ground, but in those nearer the surface it is, as it were,
led out of the centre of the bulb, and sinks deeper into the earth, causing
an indentation of the surrounding base of the preceding leaf in form like a
spur, boring through the old bulb and penetrating vertically into the
ground, and at the same time sinking itself into a deeper stratum with the
spur ;—an arrangement explained, but not with sufficient clearness, by
Henry in Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. vol. xxi. p. 275. t. 16 & 17.

+ In such librations, of course, the formation of the flower can only be

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 365

the Oak, Beech and Poplar. A similar oscillation between infe-
rior-leaf formation and foliaceous-leaf formation, keeping pace
with the change of season, is seen in the creeping main-shoot of
Adoxa, and in the stock of Hepatica nobilis, creeping close to the
soil, with its short internodes, and which in so far deserves its
French name (a fille avant la mére) as its flowers, which unfold
before the foliage, do not belong to the same individual as the
foliage, but are produced laterally as a “ daughter generation ”’
from the axils of the inferior-leaves of the maternal stem *. A
similar phenomenon, only in a higher degree (a rising and fall-
ing between foliaceous- and superior-leaf formation), is presented
by those plants whose inflorescence ends in a foliaceous coma, as
is remarkably the case in the Pine-Apple, and also in the New
Holland species of Melaleuca and Callistemon, whose crowded,
brush-like inflorescence (7. e. the region covered with superior-
leaves and bearing the flowers in the axils of these) returns and ,
forms foliaceous-leaves, and in the following year again attains
an inflorescence.

While every leaf-formation may bring the progress of the
metamorphosis on a single shoot to a consummation, it is con-
ceivable that one shoot may be allowed to each step for itself
alone. Thus, there are shoots which represent inferior-leaf
formation alone; e.g. the root-stock of Paris quadrifolia, the
tuberiferous branches of the rhizoma of the Potato+; and there

attained by particular branches, deviating in character from the rest,—the
catkins which pass over leaf-formation advancing from the inferior-leaves
immediately to the superior-leaves out of whose axils the flowers are
emitted.

* The same obtains in Galanthus nivalis, in which every annual gene-
ration consists of one inferior-leaf, one foliaceous-leaf with a vagina, and
one without a vagina, which follow each other in simple alternation, in a
distichous arrangement. The flower, as a branch, is emitted from the axil
of the second foliaceous-leaf, while the direct continuation of the shoot re-
turns again to inferior-leaf formation. In striking contrast to the extremely
simple relations of this plant we find Ovalis tetraphylla and other species
of that genus, in which the subterraneous main-stem also presents an alter-
nation of inferior-leaf formation and foliaceous-leaf formation, advancing
with the change of season, but conjomed with a rare abundance of leaves
and a complicated phyllotaxis. The number of the inferior-leaves amounts
to several hundreds; and transverse sections of the bulbs, which last
through the winter and are formed by the close approximation of these
leaves, form some of the prettiest specimens of phyllotaxis, showing 21-15
arrangement through easily computable 8-, 13- and 21-ranked oblique
spirals. The number of the foliaceous-leaves is not so large ; they develope
in the summer, and form an 8- to 13-leaved rosette, out of which the axil-
lary inflorescences issue, with their long peduncles.

+ In case (as sometimes occurs) the tuber does not pass through this
formation and advance to foliaceous-leaf formation. The tuber is the
thickened apex of the inferior-leaf shoot. Cf. the figure by Turpin, Mém.
du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. t. 19. pl. 2.

366 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

are some which are endowed with the foliaceous-leaf formation
only, as the primary axis of many species of Veronica, the sterile
leafy branches of several Euphorbia, as well as the leafy branches
of those woody growths which have no bud-scales and no terminal
inflorescence (e. g. Rhamnus Frangula). Cases of pure superior-
leaved shoots may be seen in the peduncles of Veronica Cha-
medrys, officinalis, &e., in the (always lateral) spike-bearing
scapes of Plantago, and the racemes of Convallaria majalis, which
shoot out of the axil of the highest lower-leaf as branches. Even
the leaf-formation belonging to the flower can be divided among
different shoots, and thus the flowers may be produced piece-
meal, so to say; as is the case in all dicecious plants, where
the two most essential formations of the flower (the stamens and
pistils) are found, not in the same flower, but in two separate
ones. Even the less essential parts of the flower, the sepals and
the petals, may occur separated from the other particular shoot-
lets; as may be seen in the neutral flowers in the coma of the
spike of Muscari comosum and in the ray-flowers of the cyme of
Viburnum Opulus. The destitution of the shoot may be carried
so far as to cause it to produce but one single leaf, or one single
formation (whether from the sphere of the plant-stock, or from
that of the leaves) ; in which case the individual represents only
one single organ; as, for instance, in the branches which form
the axis of the inflorescence in Vicia monantha and other Legu-
minosz with racemes reduced to one flower, bearing one single
superior-leaf, from whose axil the flower proceeds. The male
flower of Euphorbia is a peduncle whose flower consists of one
single stamen*. Must we, now, still regard as individuals, these

* The genuine cases will be of rare occurrence if we look at the cases
which belong here rigorously, that is, if we take into account the dwarfed
foliaceous formations which may possibly exist, suppressed or scarcely dis-
cernible. The male flower of Euphorbia itself properly belongs here only
in appearance, as two small scales (inferior-leaves) occur, more or less de-
veloped, at the base of the peduncle. The small involucre of the male
flower proceeds to develope itself out of one of these scales. (Cf. Wydler,
Linnea, ]843, p. 409.) Another example of a one-leaved shoot (though a
spurious one) is presented in the Californian Pinus monophyllos (Fremont),
whose lateral branchlets bear a fascicle of needle-shaped leaves reduced to
one single needle: but this, as well as the pair of such leaves of our ordi-
nary Pines, is preceded by a vagina composed of several bud-scales.
Perhaps another deception is played upon us in this ease, for the perfectly
round form of this needle excites the suspicion that it may be composed of
two which have grown together through their whole length. The seed-
bearing fruit-scales of the cone of Abietine, which are placed in the axils
of the scales, also appear to be one-leaved shoots; but the series of changes
which these scales present in cones of Pinus Larix which have completed
their growth, proves that these fruit-scales are composed of two concrete
leaves. The spurious axis of the Grape is a concatenation of alternating

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 367

shoots, so partially endowed, and the last-named so destitute ?
Certainly. For if the individual can fall short, though ever so
little, of the perfect realization of the specific idea, then there
are no limits to its imperfection and destitution ; for, after all,
the realization of this vegetable Idea by the different members
of the vegetable kingdom is precisely similar to the realization
of the species by its single individuals. To be sure, our idea of
a plant implies that it shall manifest its life in a series of suc-
cessive formations, that it shall put forth its leaves, flowers and
fruit by successive steps ; and yet there are plants which produce
no leaves and no fruit (the Cryptogamia) ; again, there are others
which hasten on to form flower and fruit with various inter-
missions of the regular steps, as is especially the case with the
ugly parasites destitute of that green foliage which elsewhere is
so characteristic a product of the vegetable world*. One of
these (the Hydnorat, which preys upon the root of the South
African Euphorbie) seems entirely devoid of all the foliage which
is usually formed before the flower. Hence, therefore, in gene-
ral we cannot necessarily regard individuals as perfect repre-
sentatives of the specific idea, and hence, too, we cannot regard
them as representations invariably identical in their realizations.
Individuals appear rather as living attempts, by which the Idea
is more or less attained, and is thus realized with various modi-
fications. From this point of view even the differences in indi-

one- and two-leaved leaf-shoots, if we do not count the one or two little
dwarfed superior-leaves, which im most cases are perceptible on the apex of
the single shoot which finally forms a cirrhus. Ophioglossum presents a
genuine case of a one-leaved shoot. The spike of this plant is a single
fertile leaf, standing in the axil of the sterile one, and hence belonging to
a lateral axis, of which however nothing is perceptible but this leaf. (Cf.
Schnitzlein, Icon. fam. nat. Heft 11. t. 32.) The utriculus of Carex is the
solitary leaf of an axis which in its normal condition developes no farther,
and out of which, as the axillary formation of the utriculus, the female
flower is emitted. And the so-called neutral flower of Panicum, and the
allied Grasses, is a shootlet which developes nothing but one leaf (the
bract of the flower).

* Orobanche, Lathrea, Monotropa, Cynomorium, all of which agree in
the inferior-leaf formation passing immediately into superior-leaf formation,
and thus the formation of foliaceous-leaves is omitted. In the celebrated
Rafflesia the immense flower is preceded by bud-scales only, which must
be considered as the inferior-leaf formation. The same occurs in Frostia,
which preys upon the branches of arborescent Leguminose, and which re-
sembles a mere flower so much, that one might doubt whether it is merely
a monstrous papilionaceous flower or a real parasite. (Cf. Endlicher, Gen.
Plant. p. 76; and Guillemin, Nouv. Ann. des Se. Nat. ii. t. 1; and as to
parasites in general, Unger, Annalen d. Wiener Museums, part 2.)

+ E. Meyer, Nov. Act. Acad. L. C. Nat. Cur. xvi. 2. p. 771. t. 58 & 59,
and R. Brown, On the female flower and fruit of Raffesia and Hydnora,
1844, pl. 6-9.

368 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

viduals, as pointed out by the doctrine of shoots, within the
limits of vegetable species, will no longer surprise us; on the
contrary, it will open to us a deeper insight into that independ-
ence presented to us even in the life of nature, in the realization
of the internal problems of the creation.

But here, too, as is so variously the case in nature, the regu-
lative law is admirably united to the free configuration ; for what
gives a peculiar interest to the differences among shoots in the
same species is the regular reciprocal relation among the shoots,
as they reciprocally complete each other by their very one-sided-
ness, and thus form a higher whole. In this respect the quali-
tative difference of shoots bears a certain relation to their origin,
that is, to the order of ramification to which they belong. And
as the formation of shoots, as was shown, is a process of propa-
gation, we see here, in the history of the development of the
species, propagation taking the place of individual development.
A second individual takes up the thread of reproduction which
the preceding one was unable to carry any farther. Thus, what
we are accustomed to see elsewhere attained in the individual, is
here reached by the generation in a more or less strictly deter-
mined cycle ;—in other words, where the single shoot is inca-
pable, a determinate succession of shoot-series arises to bring the
internal problem of its existence to a consummation,—to com-
plete the metamorphosis into flower and fruit. This remarkable
phznomenon,—which is a very frequent one in the vegetable
kingdom, and is one of the essential characteristics of many of
the most important families of plants, e. g. the Grasses, Synan-
theree, Labiatifloree, Cruciferea, Leguminosae, &c.,—is the same
as that which in the animal kingdom (in whose lower orders it
reappears) was, we cannot say discovered, but brought to a
clearer comprehension not long since by the Norwegian natu-
ralist Sars*, completed and confirmed by Von Siebold’s inyesti-
gations into the history of the development of Medusa auritat,
and soon after substantiated in its universality by the Dane,
Steenstrup, under the name of “ aiternation of generation,” or
propagation and development by alternate series of generations f.
Single cases of alternation of generation had been already care-
fully observed §; but they were too much in opposition to the

* In Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1844, where the observations published in the
author’s earlier works, on the adolescent states of Medusa, are completed
and concluded.

+ Beitrage zur Naturgesch. der wirbellosen Thiere. ee 1839.

+t Ueber d. Generationswechsel, iibersetzt von Lorenzen, Copenhagen,
1842.

§ Bonnet’s industrious observations, the first that were made, of the
alternating mode of reproduction of Aphis, published in his ‘ Traité de

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 369

usual mode of reproduction to be understood in their true mean-
ing. It was attempted to reconcile them with the customary
mode by an unnatural interpretation, which regarded them as
subversive exceptions to the general rule; while on the contrary
almost all later works* bring to light a multitude of unexpected
facts which take their places naturally under the law of alter-
nation of generation as now known, and substantiate the perti-
nent words of Goethe with which Steenstrup opens his Memoir:
“ Nature keeps on her course, and what seems an exception is in
rule.” It was Sars, however, who first gave the answer to the
riddle, the key to the newly opened domain, when he said of the
course of development of Medusa, that here “it was not the in-
dividual, but the generation, which underwent the metamor-
phosis+.” This was the true point of view; for Steenstrup
dwelt too exclusively on the physiological side, the functional
relations, of the alternating generations. Steenstrup, in fact,

V’Insectologie’ in 1745, though made in 1740, belong here. Also Cha-
misso’s correct observations of alternation of generation m Salpa, described
in his Memoir, De Animalibus quibusdam e classe Vermium Linnzana,
Fasc. 1, 1819. Fragments in regard to the alternation of generation of
Trematoda were known (but as such they did seem very enigmatical) by
Bojanus’s Beschreibung d. kénigsgelben Wiirmer (the “nurses” of Tre-
matoda according to Steenstrup) aus welchen Cercarien (the larvee of the
final generation) herauskommen (Isis, 1818), and by von Bauer’s important
work on Cercari@ and the related Bucephalus (Beitrage zur Kenntniss d.
niederen Thiere, Act. Nat. Cur. vol. xin. 1827).

* Of the later works, by which the field of alternation of generation has
been extended, I will adduee in particular: Sars, Fauna litoralis Norvegie,
1846, in which the sections especially important in relation to alternation
of generation are those on Syncoryna, Podocoryna, Perigonimus, Cytais,
as well as on Agalmopsis, Diphyes, and Salpa.— Van Beneden, Recherches
sur l’Embryogénie des Tubulaires (1814); Mém. sur les Campanulaires de
la céte d’Ostende (1845, in the Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Bruxelles, t. xvii.) ;
Recherches sur ’Anat., la Physiol. et le Dével. des Bryozoaires (Mém. de
YAcad. Roy. de Br. t. xvui.).— Dujardin, Sur le Dével. des Méduses et des
Polypes hydraires (Ann. des Se. Nat. Nov. 1845).—Krohn, Bemerkungen
uber die Geschlechtsverhiltnisse d. Sertularinen (in Miiller’s Archiv, 1843,
R 174); Ueber d. Fortpfl. u. Entw. der Biphoren (Froriep’s neue Notizen,
No. 868, 1846).—Busch, Beob. itiber Anat. u. Entw. d. Infusorien (Arch.
f. Naturgesch. xv. p. 92). How great an importance must be attributed to
the discovery of alternation of generation in dispelling the darkness which
until then settled on the history of the life and development of Hntozoa,
may be seen in particular in Siebold’s pregnant communications in R.
Wagner’s Handworterbuch d. Physiologie, p. 640 (Article: Parasiten).

+ Sars, /.c. p.29. This assertion, of course, must not be understood as
if the particular generation did not come in for its part of a metamorphosis.
Sars’ view is most beautifully corroborated by a comparison with plants ;
as in plants the metamorphosis of the individual itself is connected with
the formation which leads to the completion of new parts, which in their
turn have their own subordinate metamorphosis.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 24

370 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

considered that the significance of alternation of generation con-
sisted in its being an organic nursing of the brood connected
with particular generations, for which reason he termed the in-
dividuals of ¢hese generations “nurses ;’—a mode of viewing
the subject, which, with all Steenstrup’s pregnant elaboration of
his idea, and with all the analogies he pointed out between it
and the well-known phenomena of nursing the brood by parti-
ticular individuals among bees, wasps, ants and termites, does
not seize the essential point of the phenomenon of alternation
of generations*. R. Leuckart+ conceives alternation of gene-
ration from a more comprehensive physiological point of view,
in connexion with the totality of all the other phenomena of
the formation of different individuals, whether it occurs in a dif-
ferent or in the same generation; regarding all these pheno-
mena from the point of view of a division, not merely of the
generic task, but of the vital task in general, among certain in-
dividuals ; considering it as a polymorphism determined by a
division of labour. But even this view must lead to the mor-
phological one ; for the division of labour is determined by the
organic development, while this itself obtains its peculiar cha-
racter from the determinate step of the metamorphosis at which
the development ceases ;—and this is just what is so unmis-
takable in the phenomena of alternation of generation in plants.
Hence as a typical phenomenon of development, as a metamor-
phosis of generation, alternation of generation (as well as the
metamorphosis of the individual) presents analogies with the
graduated series in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and
the organic scale of the creation, in general ;—a point to which

* Steenstrup’s explanation is most correct in regard to the history of the
development of Distoma, whose nurses and grand-nurses are at last utricles
entirely filled with the brood, and forming mere receptacles of the brood,
Its application is less happy to those cases where the transition from the
preparatory generations to the final generation takes place through external
shoot- or bud-formation, as in Sertularie, Campanularia, and Coryne,
whose nurses forming the polype-stem can continue to live even after the
concluding generations, comparable to the flower in plants, separate or
wither off. Hence the vital activity of the preparatory generations is not
exhausted in the production of the brood. Steenstrup’s view, accordingly,
would only be correct if non-sexual brood-production (by internal or ex-
ternal shoot-formation or by division) and alternation of generation were
correlative conditions of each other. But this is not the ease, as repro-
duction by shoots takes place without any alternation of generation in a
great number of animals (Ascidia, Bryozoa, Madrepora), and by division
as well (Astrea, Annulata, Infusoria). These cases aré comparable to the
occurrence of unessential branches in plants ; while alternation of generation
represents the succession of essential shoots.

+ Ueber d. Polymorphismus d. Indiv. od. d. Ersch. der Arbeitstheilung
in d. Natur. Ein Beitrag z. Lehre y. Generationsw. (1851).

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 371

Carus* called attention, and Reichert, his predecessor, as
well.

The difficulties which the qualitative differences of shoots of
one and the same species seem to present to our conception of
shoots as individuals, will be entirely obviated if we can demon-
strate that a partial outfit and equipment of individuals, perfectly
analogous to those found among plants, are likewise found in
the animal kingdom, where in most cases there is less doubt as
to what is an individual,—if we can show that in both kingdoms,
and in a similar manner, a polymorphism of individuals occurs
which depends upon a division of the steps of development and
of the vital problem of the species among individual members,
whether of the same generation (divisions of generation), or of
different generations cyclically succeeding each other (alternation
of generation).

Let us first compare the phenomena of alternation of gene- -
ration (or, as it should be called, cyclical succession of gene-
rations) in both kingdoms}. As is the case in the alternation

* Zur naheren Kenntniss. d. Generationsw. (1849); and, Einige Worte
ib. Metam. u. Generationsw. (von Siebold u. Kolliker, Zeitschr. f. wiss.
Zool. ii. 1851, p. 359).

+ These remarks on alternation of generation in plants, do not depend,
as one might perhaps be disposed to think, upon a zoological doctrine
fancifully applied to plants. But I recognized the phenomenon as the
same, and I treated of it in my papers, if not under the same name, still in
the same meaning, before my attention was called to the occurrence of this
phznomenon in the animal kingdom by Steenstiup’s work. As soon as
the doctrine of the shoot as the vegetable individual was assumed in all its
consequences, a determinate succession of generations emitted one from
the other necessarily appeared to be the ground of the flower’s first making
its appearance in many plants im a determinate degree of ramification, and
of the occurrence of a determinate succession of steps in the series of axes
up to this goal, caused by a peculiar partition of the leaf-formations.
Hereby the essential shoot-succession. which is the one which represents
alternation of generation, was accurately distinguished from the unessential
one. Twenty years ago, or more, C. Schimper distinguished between
essential and unessential shoots, denominating the first (in a wider sense of
the word) “ Ableger”’ [ off-sets], the latter “ Ausleger”’ [out-sets]. In the
‘Versammlune d. Naturforscher in Mayence in the autumn of 1842, I made
a communication on this subject, and at the same time in particular I
ealled attention to the frequent importance of the characteristics involved
in these relations when applied to improving the differentiation and group-
ing of species. Of this communication a report appeared in the ‘ Flora’ for
1842, p. 962, though, indeed, somewhat distorted by maccuracies. Wydler
treated the same subject in the ‘ Bot. Zeit.’ 1844, St. 37, under the heading
* Achsenzahl der Gewichse,” and gives a compendium of examples, in
which, however, much appears which needs qualification. As Wydler in-
forms us, Aug. de St. Hilaire is said to have turned his attention to ascer-
taining the number of essential axes in plants ; however, I find nothing in
the place referred to in the ‘ Lecons de Botanique ’ but the distinction be-
tween determinate and indeterminate growth, which has been known since

24+

372 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

of generation of animals, a twofold reproduction appears in
plants: sexual and non-sexual. Disregarding for the present
the various relations of alternation of generation among the
Cryptogamia, we find sexual reproduction (in animals by ferti-
lized ova,—in plants by fertilized seeds) always vested in the
generation which concludes the cycle of generations. That the
consideration of this generation as the concluding one is not
arbitrary, is shown by comparing it with the usual course of
the metamorphosis ; for the concluding generation is invested
with the concluding formations of the metamorphosis (flower
and fruit), in the same way in fact as in the animal the complete
development of the organs of generation occurs at the summit
of the individual metamorphosis. The preceding (preparatory)
generations, which Steenstrup calls “nurses,” on the contrary
invariably produce their brood by non-sexual reproduction; im
the animal kingdom this takes place, now through germ-granules
which develope in the interior of the body (as the nurses of
Distoma), now by a process of division in the posterior part of
the body (the nurse of the Medusa, the Tape-worm), or finally
by external, persistent or deciduous, shoot-formations (Coryne,
Campanularia, Sertularie, &e.). Among Phanerogamia the last
is the only kind occurring subservient to alternations of gene-
ration. , ;

In animals, as in plants, the number of the generations in
which the cycle of alternation of generation is completed, is for
the most part a determinate one. Medusa, Salpe, Coryne, and
Tubularie conclude this cycle in the second generation : according
to Steenstrup’s showing, Distoma pacificum has a trimembral
alternation of generation, and the family stock of Pennatula
seems also to be formed by a trimembral succession of shoots.
Campanularia has a quadrimembral cycle, in which however the
two first generations are of the same character. Among Sertu-
larie, cycles of still more numerous members appear to occur:
eight to ten generations form the annual cycle of generation of

Joachim Jung’s time, and was brought forward especially by Roeper and
applied by him to classifying inflorescences. It is exemplified, in that place,
by creeping stems, upright root-stocks, and by bulbs; and the section on
indeterminate stems is unluckily exemplified by wrong cases, viz. Scirpus
palustris, Primula officinalis, and Menyanthes, to which indeterminate
main-shoots are falsely ascribed.—Steenstrup also lays down an alter-
nation of generation in plants, in the coneluding remarks in his work
quoted above, as well as in his later book, ‘ Ueber das Vorkommen des
Hermaphroditismus in der Natur’ (On the Phenomenon of Hermaphro-
ditism in Nature), though in an entirely different manner from mine as
here given; for he compares the single leaves of the plant with the indi-
vidual in animals,—a mode of viewing the subject in regard to which I
have already expressed my opinion in the Introduction.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 373

Aphides, though, excepting the last one, they are all similar and
not even determinate as to number.

To these examples from the animal kingdom much more nu-
merous ones from the vegetable kingdom might be added, though
I will only adduce a few of them here. Most Labdiatiflore,
Synantheree, Grasses, Polygalee, Primulacee, the Dictamnus,
Tris, Galanthus nivalis, &c., have a bimembral alternation of
generation in different ways, according to the partition of the
formations. In Paris, for example, the first generation takes
the lowest grade: it presents a subterranean inferior-leaf shoot
(rhizoma), which never leaves the darkness of the earth, only
reaching the world of light, towards which all plants strive, in
its posterity, viz. in the quadrifoliate and unifloral lateral shoots
which it sends up. The first generation of Viola odorata and
allied species forms foliage proper ; still, the main axis tarries
close to the earth, and the second generations (the lateral flowers)
scarcely rise above the foliage. In Lysimachia nummularia the
main-shoot, a rooting leaf-stem, creeps along the surface of the
ground, growing indefinitely, and terminating only in the (essen-
tial) lateral branches by its golden-yellow flowers. The main-
shoot rises perpendicularly, forms foliage proper, and passes
on to superior-leaf formation in many species of Veronica, e. g.
V. acinifolia, producing its flowers as a second generation out of
the axils of the leaves. The same holds good in regard to Oro-
banche ramosa, which fixes itself and preys upon the root of
Hemp, though its main-shoot has no green leaves. A very re-
markable bimembral alternation of generation is shown by Adoza,
now so famous, its name to the contrary notwithstanding*. The
main-shoot creeps along the ground, oscillating with the seasons
between leaf and inferior-leaf formation,—at every return of the
latter stretching out like a runner and boring into the earth.
Flowers and fruit, frustrated by the invariable retrogression of
the main-shoot, are produced by the aspiring perpendicular
branches, after a pair of small leaves on the scape, and several
insignificant superior leaves, out of whose axils the lateral flowers
are emitted as unessential shoots of the third degree. Hepatica
presents a similar division of the formations among the two ge-
nerations of shoots ; but the main-shoot, rejuvenated from year
to year and alternating between inferior-leaf and leaf formation,
is short and upright. The branches with their single flowers,
forming the second generation, arise in the axils of the scale-like
inferior-leaves. A bimembral succession of shoots occurs in
Convallaria Polygonatum, the genus Aloe, all species of Plantago,

* E. g. Adoxa moschatellina, which derives its name from dd£a (fame).

The relations of growth in this plant have been correctly described by
Wydler, Bot. Zeit. 1844, p. 657.

874 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

Veronica officinalis, Chamedrys, &c., Viola sylvatica, Lysimachia
thyrsifolia, Alyssum sazatile, and some other Crucifere, Eeheveria
coccinea, all the species of Melilotus, Medicago, Galega, in Pisum,
and many other leguminous plants, and in Succisa pratensis,
Anacye lus, Pyr et a, Polygonum, Bistorta, &e. A familiar ex-
ample oceurs in Secale : its spiciferous culm forms the shoot of
the first degree, the lateral spikelets which compose the spike
itself are those of the second*, and the florets in the axils of the
superior leaves (pale) of these spikelets are the shoots of the
third degree, 7. e. the third generation of the cycle. A quadri-
membral succession of shoots occurs in Trifolium montanum,
Hedysarum coronarium, and in several of the New Holland phyl-
lodineous Acacia. Several species of Carex, e. g. C. maxima and
leptostachys, ave a trimembral succession of shoots up to the
male flower and a five-membral one up to the female.

If we were to reckon the similar generations which are reared
one above the other until the tree gains strength enough to per-
fect its flowers, in many trees without terminal buds, as in the
Willow, or the Lime+, we might find a number of generations
equal or even much superior to that presented by Aphis.

Besides the generation essential to itself, and by which it gives
existence to the next grade in the cycle, every generation may
have still another unessential reproduction, which only extends
the same grade. As above we distinguished between essential
and unessential shoots, so here accordingly we must distinguish
an essential succession of generations,—the true alternation of
generation,—and an unessential one. Very often both occur in
the same species of plants. A fine example of this is shown in
Lysimachia nummularia, from whose creeping and rooting leaf-
axis are emitted not only peduncles, but here and there a new
creeping leaf-axis exactly repeating the original one (except as to
the two early-lost cotyledons) : and from the undetermined leaf-
bearing main-axis of Tropeolum minus are emitted in regular
alternation three lateral flowers at a time, and then again one
(unessential) leaf-shoot. Im Cardamine amara the first genera-
tion (the stem bearing foliaceous and superior leaves) is repeated
in a twofold manner, by lateral branches from the cauline leaves,
and by creepers from axils of the root-leaves. Similar relations
obtain in Mentha and a large number of other plants. This
same phzenomenon is repeated in the animal kingdom. The
polype-like nurses of the Medusa increase as such (according to
Sars and Von Siebold) by lateral buds and runners. Syncoryne

* Secale, in fact, has no terminal spicule ; neither has Triticum mono-
coccum, while the other cultivated species of Triticum have.

+ Ihave described the Grape in reference to this subject in another
place (Verjiingung, p. 49) [Henfrey’s Transl. op. cit. p. 46}.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 375

are spadix-polypi, which represent trees by their formation of
unessential branches, emitting finally from every branch and
from the middle stock a whorl of individuals of the second (and
last) degree. Campanularie and Sertularie put forth runners
from the bases of the main-individual, which again shoot up
and become new main-stems, or new stems emerge out of
them; and perhaps the ramifications of Bucephalus (which
according to Steenstrup’s supposition is the larva of Aspido-
gaster conchila), as represented by Baer in Nov. Act. Acad. Nat.
Cur. xiii. 2, belong here.

In our qualitative comparison of shoots, it was shown how
the shoot may be limited to a few leaves, or even to a single
one ; in like manner the animal individual, in the division of
réle which occurs in alternation of generation, may become the
representative of one single organ, of one single function.
Thus the females of Coryne squamata are hardly anything more -
than egg-stocks, and the males than sperm-stocks*. The mem-
bers of the Tape-worm, which are so many individuals of the final
generation, hardly represent anything more than hermaphrodite
sexual apparatus. As an analogous example in the vegetable
kingdom perhaps the Willow+ may be compared to the Coryne ;
here too the shoots of the last degree are nothing but naked
unisexual apparatus of reproduction. In Potamogetont, on the
contrary, they are hermaphrodite, as in the Tape-worm. The
construction of many of the lower animals, which when con-
sidered as individual animals seem to be the strangest monsters,
becomes more intelligible as soon as they are regarded from this
point of view,—as soon as we make up our minds to regard the
supposed individuals as a family stock, and its parts (formerly
held to be mere organs, and which, physiologically considered,
are really nothing more) as individuals. In particular this is
true of Physophora, Stephanomia and Agalmopsis.

In many cases we find alternation of generation connected
with division of generation, that is, the appearance of hetero-
geneous individuals in one and the same generation. Just as is
the case in animal and vegetable forms without alternation of
generation, so, where it is connected with alternation of gene-
ration, division of generation relates principally to the sexual
functions ; and a glance at the animal kingdom shows us rela-
tions of alternation of generation complicated by division per-

* Hence Rathke regards the male individuals as mere testicles. Cf.
Wiegm. Archiv, 1844, p. 155, and Steenstrup, Hermaphr. tab. 1. f. 17-20.

+t The two stamens in the Willow, and the floriferous bud as well, are
Ee by only two very small bracts, which grow together and form a

e scale.

{ The flowers of Potamogeton are branches which bear only stamens
and carpels.

376 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

fectly similar to those which occur in the vegetable kingdom.
In animals which go through an alternation of generation, the
individuals of the preparatory generations are non-sexual ; still
they may nevertheless have a determinate importance in relation
to the completion of the race which is to form their posterity.
When in fact the final generation does not consist of hermaphro-
dite individuals, as obtains, for instance, in the Tape-worm,
various alternations are conceivable: the final individuals of both
sexes can be nourished by the same nurse, and hence the sexual
division will first take place in the second, or generally speaking,
in the last generation; or, different nurses may nourish the
two sexes, so that a division of generation will occur even at
the degree of nurse-formation. If im the last case the nurses
are not single ones, but even then form per se a family stock,
then on the same stock we may either have male-bearing and
female-bearing nurses together, or these two kinds of nurses
may be divided among different stocks, according as the division
of generation occurs in a determinate later generation, or is
present already im the first. Although as yet the observations
of these relations by no means form an unbroken chain*, still
this much is certain, that in animals, in the same way as in
plants, both moncecious and dicecious forms occur; and hence
there are families partly bisexual, partly unisexual. Coryne,
Tubularie, Campanularie, and probably all Sertularie (hence,
doubtless, the greater part of Hydroids), also Veretillum, Cyno-
morium, according to Steenstrup, Krohn, and other observers,
are dicecious, whether they form small simple stocks, as Coryne
squamata, or small ramified trees, as Syncoryne, Campanulariet,
&e. On the other hand, the Siphonophora, according to Milne-
Edwards’s description of Stephanomiat (and judging from Sars’
description of Agalmopsis), are monoecious family stocks ; Hydre
are also moncecious§. ‘To enter any further into these relations
as they occur in the lower animals would lead us too far from
our subject ; but it may be in place to give some details as to

* Thus, e. g., as far as I know, it remains to be shown whether the

single nurses of Meduse produce Meduse of both sexes, or, as is most
probable, only those of the same sex. In Aphis also this point still needs
to be more accurately determined.

+ Steenstrup, Hermaphr. pp. 66, 67, 72.

+ Ann. des Se. Nat. 1841, p. 217. pl. 7-10.

§ The later investigations into the Siphonophora by Huxley, Edin. Phil.
Journ. 1852, Kolliker, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 1852, and Leuckart, Zool.
Untersuch. Heft 1, 1853, corroborate the moncecious relations of these won-
derful creatures as regards most of their genera, e.g. Agalma, Agalmopsis,
Stephanomia (Apolemia), Physophora, and the other closely related genera.
Busch’s researches into the group of Diphyide have proved them to be

dicecious, and the same obtaims in the related genus Epibulia. (Later
note.)

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 377

the manifold relations under which sexual division of generation
occurs in plants.

Dicecious relations may occur without alternation of genera-
tion when, in fact, the flower has a terminal inflorescence and
no branches, or only unessential ones,—when, therefore, as it
is usually expressed, it is “umiaxial,” as e. g. in Rubus Cha-
memorus, Lychnis, and Visewn. Much more frequently, how-
ever, division of the sexes occurs in plants which at the same
time have a cyclical succession of shoots (alternation of genera-
tion),--a succession which each of the two heterogeneous stocks
passes through independently, and not always pari passu. This
is a circumstance which must not be neglected in considering
the differences of habitus nm male and female flowers. Thus, in
Mercurialis the female plant bears flowers even on the second
axis; in the male plant, however,—if I do not misunderstand
the inflorescence (a spike composed of small glomerules),—this.
first occurs on the third. In Carex dioica, vice versd, the male
plant flowers im the second line and the female in the third*.
In other dicecious plants, on the other hand, the male and female
flowers appear in the corresponding generation: e.g. in the
second, Stratiotes, Empetrum, and Taxus; in the third, Sala,
Populus, Myrica, Cannabis; im the fourth, Phaniz. In Hemp,
the extremely heterogeneous appearance of the inflorescence of
the male and female plants does not depend upon a division of
the flowers of the two sexes among different axes, but upon the
production of numerous unessential peduncles in the male inflo-
rescence}. ,

Moneecism necessarily presupposes a succession of shoots
(alternation of generation) ; in the simplest case at least for one
of the two sexes, as both cannot be united in the same terminal
flower ; but, vice versd, both may easily appear in determinate
(equal or unequal) degrees of ramification. The most important
circumstance to be considered in moneecious relations, consists
in both the sexes (7.e. the shoots which bear them) occurring
either subordinately or coordinately {, for one either arises out of

* The second axis, which is a complete dwarf or a mere bristly spine,
bears the so-called ‘ urceolus,’ in the axil of which the female flower is
placed, as the third member of the succession of generations.

+ The female flowers are placed at the sides of the primary branches
as branches of the second degree. In the same place where one single
flower occurs in the female plant, a furcately ramified inflorescence is found
in the male, produced by branching out of the two bracts of the original
flower.

+t Both these cases doubtless occur in the animal kingdom; the first
probably in Alcyonella, where the stock is said to be composed partly of
males and partly of females. As the stock is here formed by individuals
continually shooting out of each other, one sex must shoot out of the

378 Dr. A. Brann on the Vegetable Individual,

the other, or they both spring from a common mother-stem.
In the first case, the female flower usually belongs to the earlier,
the male to the later (subordinate) generation ; the male flower-
shoot springing from the female*, as e.g. in Euphorbia, Ricmus
and Poferium, in which the female flower terminates the main
axis, and the male occurs as a lateral shoot+. In Buaus the
female flower occurs as the second, the male as the third axis;
in many species of Phyllanthus (e. g. Ph. niruri), the female as
the third, the male as the fourth; in Xylophylla, the female (on
the margins of the spurious leaves) as the fourth, the male
arising from the bracts of the female flower (as in Phyllanthus)
as the fifth. In Momordica, Ecbalium, Cephalanthera, and some
other Cucurbitacee, the female flower, placed in the axils of the
foliaceous leaves of the main-stem, belongs to the third axis, and
the male to the fourth; for the third axis, which here arises
from the base of the peduncle of the female flower as main axis
of the racemose male inflorescence, is a superior leaf-shoot. In
the other cases,—in which the succession of shoots, in order to
arrive at the two kinds of flowers, separates into two coordinate
lines,—-both kinds of flowers may appear either immediately in
the first generation after this separation, or, since here again
preparatory generations are intercalated, in a later one. Further,
the number of the generations (axes) in the two lines arising
from the division, may be either equal or unequal. A few ex-
amples may serve to explain the manifold cases which thus
occur. In Musa, Myriophyllum and Sagittaria, the coordinate
male and female flowers appear in the first generation after the
separation, and in the whole as a second system of axes. Here
the female flowers stand in the lower, the male in the upper
part of the spicate or racemose inflorescence. The contrary
holds true of Cucurbita and the moneecious Bryoniet ; for here

other. The second case occurs in Agalmopsis (according to Sars), where
partly female (seminal vesicles) and partly male individuals grow out of
the same main-stem.

* The opposite case seems to occur very rarely or not at all. A mon-
strosity, which for some reasons might be adduced here, is found in Laria
Europea and Picea alba, in which transitions of the amentaceous male
flowers into female cones occur, where the fruit-scales are emitted from the
axils of stamens which are often only slightly abnormal.

+ As in all the examples adduced, the unessential aggrandizement of
the inflorescence must be disregarded, which occurs in Ricinus and Pote-
rium in the form of lateral female flowers emitted beneath the terminal
female flower.

+ Bryonia has apparently axillary racemes; but a more careful investi-
gation shows that they do not spring immediately out of the axil of the
foliaceous leaf, but (as secondary branches) out of the peduncle of a single
flower standing directly in the axil of the leaf which exactly corresponds to

_the flower in Cucurbita.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 879

the earlier flowers, which appear in the axils of the foliaceous
leaves, are male; while the later ones, which appear on the
further continuations of the stems, are female. Arum* has
below female, in the middle male, and above again female flowers,
though these last are dwarfed and sterile. Likewise in the first
generation after the separation, but in the whole as the third
system of axes, we find both kinds of flowers in Pachysandra
and Acalypha, and here again, as is usually the case in inde-
terminate spicate inflorescences of mixed sexes, the female flower
is in the lower, the male in the upper part of the inflorescence.
The same obtains in moncecious Palms with axillary spadices;
though here the flowers appear in ramified spikes from the
fourth system of axes. When the flowers make their appearance
m the second generation after the division, they cannot easil
be united in the same inflorescence, and special male and female
inflorescences will arise. Thus, e. g., in Platanus, Liquidambar ,
and Sparganium, in which the female inflorescences occur on the
lower part of the main-shoot, and the male in the upper; like-
wise in Quercus and Fagus, though here, vice versd, the male in-
florescences are the lower, and the female the upper. Finally,
if the division of the succession of shoots is an unequal one in
the separated lines of generation leading to the two kinds of
flowers, 7. e. if the number of essential axes is unequal, it is
greater sometimes for one sex and sometimes for the other. In
the Walnut (Juglans) it is the male flower which attains the
higher degree of ramification ; in Xanthium, and the species of
Carex with separated male and female spikes, it is, on the con-
trary, the female flower+.

Other dimorphisms or even polymorphisms of the flowers,
more or less independent of sex, occur when the sexes appear
in the two different lines of generation ; for even among flowers
of the same sex, whether hermaphrodite, male, or female, differ-
ences often reveal themselves of a very striking character, which
are generally coordinate according to fixed laws of division of
generation. ‘Thus, in all Primule, and in several Labiate, two
kinds of hermaphrodite flowers occur, in a state of dicecious

* The inflorescence in Arum is terminal, as well as that in Calla.

+ In species of Carex with terminal male and lateral female spikes, the
male flower belongs to the first generation after the division, and the female
to the third. In most of the species where the shootlet which bears the
inflorescences is a continuation of the main axis of the plant, the male
flowers represent in general the second generation and the female the
fourth ; in those species, on the other hand, which have a shortened main
axis, which forms a mere rosette of leaves whence the shootlets bearing
the inflorescences proceed as branches, the male flower is the third system
of axes, and the female the fifth; as 4g. in C. maxima, leptostachys and
pilosa.

380 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

separation ; one with a large corolla and strongly developed
stamens (forma brevistyla), the other with a small corolla and
strongly developed pistils (forma longistyla). According to C.
Schimper’s observations* both forms occur at times in Labiate
even on the same stock and in the same inflorescence, e. g. in
Dracocephalum Moldavicum. Many species of Viola also produce
two kinds of hermaphrodite flowers on the same stock; early
ones of the usual form, and late ones without petals. In Viola
mirabilis the first arise directly out of the main-stem (as branches
of the first degree) and are mostly sterile, while the latter spring
from the foliaceous branches (as branches of the second degree)
and are fertile. In Impatiens, sterile flowers with perfect corollas
and apetalous fertile ones occur in the same raceme. The cases
in which normally formed above-ground and abnormally formed
under-ground flowers appear, belong here ; the latter have their
corolla developed slightly or not at all, and are merely female,
and, par excellence, fertile. If both kinds of flowers are fertile,
the subterranean fruit differs from that borne above the soil ;
such cases are found especially in the family of Leguminose, e.g.
in several species of Lathyrus and Vicia, in Amphicarpea, and
Arachis+ ; and also in the very remarkable Abyssinian Convol-
vulaceous plant, Hygrocharis Abyssinicat. Among the most
striking cases of dimorphous flower-formation are those described
by Jussieu § in Gaudichaudia, Camarea, and other Malpighiacee.
Here, besides the flowers conjoined in racemes or in corymbs,
and formed according to the common type of the family, other
apetalous flowers occur, standing alone and hidden in the axils of
the leaves. Besides the normally formed glandulose corolla,
they have only one stamen and two carpels. In several cases
the dimorphism of the flowers is confined to the formation of
the fruit alone, as e.g. in some species of A’thionema (espe-
cially 42. heterocarpum, Gay), which in the same raceme bear
partly dehiscent silicles with two cells and several seeds, and
partly one-celled and one-seeded indehiscent silicles. Cerato-
capnos\|, a North African genus of Fumariacee, bears in the
lower part of the spike oval, ribbed, one-seeded nutlets, and in

* Communicated in the Versamml. d. Natur. zu Wiesb. in Sept. 1852.

+ For details, vide Treviranus, Bot. Zeit. 1853, p. 393.

t Hochstetter, in Schimp. Iter Abyss. Nos. 572 & 1701. The same plant
is called Nephrophyllum Abyssinicum by Richard, Tent. Flor. Abyss. and
figured in pl. 76. The two kinds of flowers are emitted from the axils of
the foliaceous leaves of the same creeping stem; those provided with
corolla, stamens and pistil stand upright ; the others without corolla and
stamens bend down to the ground on their long peduncles.

§ Adr. de Jussieu, Monographie des Malpighiacées (1843).

|| Durieu, Explor. scient. de l’Algérie, pl. 78. Endlicher, Gen. Plant.,
Suppl. iv. p. 32.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 381

the upper part, lanceolate two-valved and two-seeded siliques.
Polymorphism of flowers and fruit occurs in the most hetero-
geneous manner in the family of Composite; I will only refer
to Zinnia, Dimorphotheca, Heterotheca, Thrincia, Geropogon,
Crupina; and especially to Calendula, where the hermaphrodite
blossoms of the ray produce three different forms of fruit, so
that, including the male flowers of the disk, the capitulum
presents four different forms of flower-shoots (belonging to the
same generation). As somewhat similar cases in the animal
kingdom, the instances of dimorphal insects, of which there are
several, might be adduced*.

A separation of the series of generations into several distinct
lines occurs in fact not only as regards the flower, but also,
though less frequently, even among the inferior formations of the
plant ; this is especially the case where a particular lateral line
is allotted to the leaf as well as to the flower. The true Pines
afford the best known example of this. Their fascicles of needle- ~
shaped leaves are nothing but foliaceous branches of circum-
scribed growth +, which lie outside of the lime which leads to the
two kinds of flowers, while they are essential, as the leaf-forma-
tion appears on them alone{. Here the generation splits up
into three kinds of essential and coordinate shoots: Ist, the
small leaf-shoots, which, after some few inferior-leaves forming
the vagina, bear two, three, or five foliaceous leaves; 2nd, the
male flowers, or small shoots, which are provided with stamens
only ; 3rd, female inflorescence, shoots with superior-leaves (the
integumentary scales of the strobile) in whose axils the fruit-
scales of the cone are formed, belonging to a further system of
axes. In the animal kingdom cases analogous to these occur
in moneecious Siphonophora, especially in Stephanomia and
Agalmopsis, where even more than three kinds of coordinate
individuals are emitted from the main axis: in particular motory
individuals (the so-called Swimming-bells), nurses, the proboscis-
like formations or imbibing tubes, and as already mentioned,
two kinds of sexual individuals.

The differences of shoots thus far considered depend princi-

* The first in several species of Dyticus (D. marginalis, cireumcinctus,
Lapponicus, Reselii, according to Erichson, Gen. Dyticeorum, 1832, p. 31);
the last in Aphis Quercus, according to Bonnet.

+ That the fascicles of leaves in Pinus are branches, is proved by the
phenomenon of pererescence, which is not unfrequent, especially in young
Pines.

+ The main-stem, as well as all the elongated branches essentially
resembling the stem, bear only leaf-seales, which may be best compared to
bud-scales, and ascribed to the inferior-leaf formation. It is only in early
youth (in the first and second years) that the main-stem itself bears needle-
shaped leaves. :

382 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

pally upon this: one portion represents exclusively the vegeta-
tive formation, or a certain part thereof; the others represent
the degrees of formation which belong exclusively or principally
to the sphere of fructification. Hence, in regard to the division
of functions, to one portion the functions of nutrition are allotted,
to the others those of generation. For this reason the different
kinds of shoots of such a partial character must unite in a deter-
minate succession, and complete each other; and even those
which we have designated as unessential are of importance in
enriching, preserving, and increasing the plant-stock. Finally,
we have still to consider those shoot-formations which properly
do not belong either to the essential or the unessential succession
of shoots, but rather to an aberrant formation ; as they neither
conduce to the perfection of any of the common steps of the
metamorphosis, nor perform any essential physiological function
in the plant, but at the best are only of some service as organs
of defence, support, or adherence. These are the shoots which
take the form of thorns, bristles, hooks and tendrils, which for
the most part owe their peculiar abnormal character to an entire
suppression of the leaf-formation, and a final induration of the
point of vegetation: these seem to be the last, terminal or lateral
members of the generation, abortive in every respect. Not un-
frequently they form the last ramification of paniculate and
dichotomous inflorescences, like terminal flowerless peduncles,
as e.g. in Teloxys (Chenopodium aristatum, L.), Acroglochin,
and in a very peculiar form, branching and complicated by
aculeate or setiform leaf-formations, in Pupalia, Desmocheta,
Digera and Cometes*; also in Seleropus, where they take the
form of short, thick, cartilaginous stalks, with two converging
leaf-apicules. Among the Grasses they are known under the
form of bristles in Setaria. In many Rhamnaceous and Sapin-
daceous plants (Helinus, Cardiospermum) they appear as small
cirrhi; not as the last sterile ramifications of the inflorescence,
but on the contrary as the first, followed by other fertile
peduncles. They often occur in the axils of foliaceous leaves ;
and wherever they make their appearance they naturally arrest
the further succession of shoots, when they have neither of the
two leaves at their origin, out of whose axil an additional shoot
may be developed. This is the case in Passiflora, whose flower

* The plumose tails which form the “envelope” of Cometes are the
last branches of the dichotomous inflorescence, accompanied by similar
accessory (secondary and tertiary) branchlets. All these numerous sterile
branchlets are elongated and beset with setiform leaflets arranged in spiral
order (2), commencing with two similar anterior leaves. The direction
of the phyllotaxis in all these branchlets follows the law of fureate inflo-
rescence.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 383

arises from the axil of a leaf situated at the side of the base of
the tendril. The thorns of Ononis, Hleagnus and Maclura*
present the same phenomenon. In other cases the succession
of generation thus arrested by the aculeate shoot is restored by
secondary formations; when, with the thorn, a second shoot
follows out of the axil, which in some cases may form a leaf-
shoot, and in others a flower-shoot. This happens in Gleditschia,
in several Acacie (e.g. A. pulchella), in Prinsepia utilist, the
Lemon, the Egyptian Balanites, Duranta, Bougainvillea and
Randia, in which the secondary shoot arises close under the
spine; while in Celastrus pyracanthust and Europeus, as well
as Pisonia aculeata$, the secondary shoot occurs above the
thorn. In Uncaria pilosa\| and Strychnos spinosa, pairs of
leaves with axillary thorns alternate with pairs which have
peduncles in their axils.

Have even these phenomena of extreme alienation of the
individual (as they occur in the thorns and hardened shoots of
plants) analogous forms in the animal kmgdom? Yes, I believe
they have! I believe I may assert that in the animal kingdom
itself there are individuals which occur as mere fixed claws,
pincers, scourges, tactile and predial filaments, &c.—individuals
which perform neither functions of nutrition nor of reproduction
in the society to which they belong, but which probably merely
assist in seizing the food, or lend a helping hand in defending
the community. The cases which I have here in mind are of
frequent occurrence among Bryozoa, and especially im the group
of Cellaria. Individuals in the form of horns (which usually
conclude the series of complete cell-inhabiting individuals)
occur, e.g. in Eucratea cornuta YJ and Cordierii** ; in another
form (reminding us of Je/oxys), as forked terminal spines, in
Vesicularia spinosat+. Moveable individuals, representing mere
weapons, in form like a bird’s beak, a crab’s claw, or a pincers,
appear in Acamarchis avicularia tt and flustroides§§, Retepora
cellulosa, Scrupocellaria scruposa\||| and many others. In the last-

* Here belongs also the curious hook of Uneinia, which is also visible,
though less developed, in many species of Carex. The utriculus is a leaf
at the base of this spine.

t+ Royle, [lustr. of the Bot. of Himal. pl. 38. fig. 1.

t Boissier, Voy. bot. en Espagne, t. 38.

§ Rheede, Hort. Malab. vii. t. 17.

|| Wallich, Plant. As. Rar. t. 170.

{{ Ellis, op. cit. pl. 21. f. 10 (Cellaria cornuta); M.-Edw., Ann. d. Se.
Nat. (1838) t. 8. f. 2 (Crisidia cornuta).

** Descrip. de 1 Egypte, Polypes, t. 13. f. 3.

+t Van Beneden, Rech. sur les Bryozoaires, t. 4. f. ¢.

tt Van Beneden, /.c. t. 6. f.1-8(Cellularia avicularia, Pall. Crisia avicu-
laria, Lamx.). §§ Ellis, op. cit. pl. 38. f. 7.

\||| Wan Beneden, J. c. t. 5. f. 8-16 (Cellaria scruposa, Auct.).

384 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

named Cellarie, besides the claw-individuals, there are also
scourge-individuals, which Van Beneden himself compared to
the cirrhi in plants, and which even Leuckart * acknowledges
to be individuals. Besides the ‘ Swimming-bells’ evidently re-
sembling Meduse, the peculiar retractile predial filaments of the
Stphonophora doubtless belong here also; they are remarkable
for a purplish-red swelling on or under the apex, and they shoot
out singly as branches from the stalk of the nutritive individual
(imbibing-tubes), and themselves bear a series of similarly
formed filaments as secondary branches. They are found with
unimportant departures from this form, especially in Physo-
phorat, Diphyest, and Aga/mopsis. In the last-named genus,
according to Sars§, they have even three modifications: the
spadiciferous terminal piece ends in a long simple filament, or
in a short two-parted one, or without any filament at all. In
Stephanomia\| numerous filaments, called tentacles, arise out of
the stalk of the nutritive animals (the so-called proboscis-formed
organs) without such coloured swellings, which in the same
manner may also be regarded merely as individuals with a very
incomplete outfit of organs4.

After having in the foregoing review regarded all lateral shoots
which spring from the main axis of the plant as real individuals,
however unimportant a fraction of the total specific character
they may realize, it will hardly be deemed surprising if we finally
apply this mode of view to the branches of the root and to ad-
ventitious shoots. It is only possible for the main-shoot to
develope freely both the points of vegetation of the axis; yet

* Polymorphism. p. 17.

+ Philippi, Miiller’s Archiv, 1843, taf. 5.

t Sars, Fauna lit. Norv. tab. 7. § Ib. tab. 5.

|| Milne-Edwards, Ann. d. Se. Nat. 1841, pl. 7-10.

€| Since Sars observed the separation of the Medusa-like sexual indi-
viduals in Agalmopsis, the view that Siphonophora are composite animal
stocks has gained ground more and more among zoologists. But this
mode of viewing the subject was for the first time carried out (after a
fashion) consistently in Leuckart’s latest work on strange animal forms
(Zool. Unters., erstes Heft, Siphonophoren, i853); and this idea had
forced itself upon me as early as 1847, when I compared the deserip-
tion of Diphyes with Agalmopsis, in Sars’ Fauna lit. Norv. In the above-
named work, Leuckart extends the view which allows individual import-
ance tothe parts of the stock of Siphonophora, not only to the tentacles
and predial filaments, but also to the covercles, which in most of the
genera are placed close above the nutritive individual as protective enve-
lopes ; these formations, like all the other appendages of individual import-
ance, being emitted from the stem as shootlets, and in the first stages of
their formation, resembling the tentacles in particular. Accordingly the
Siphonophora have not less than eight different forms under which the indi-
vidual may appear on the whole stock. (Later note.) [I have omitted the
enumeration of these forms.—TR. |

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 885

even here the lower point remains undeveloped. On the con-
trary, the lateral shoots, thus far considered, have no lower
point of vegetation; for their base is united to the maternal
shoot, and hence they are mere developments of the upper point
of vegetation. Opposed to these, there are, however, other
shoots by which the lower point of vegetation is represented,
and which on the other hand have no upper point of vegetation.
Among these may be reckoned not only the root-branches which
take their rise from the main root, but also all adventitious roots
which spring from the stem at determinate or indeterminate
places. I must, however, content myself with this general hint,
as any attempt to particularize these relations could after all
only show the deficiency of the investigations into this subject,
and how desirable a more comprehensive work is on root-forma-
tion in the vegetable kingdom.

The few points which I have selected out of the inexhaustible
field of shoot-formation in the vegetable kingdom may in the
mean time suffice to show that the comparison of the vegetable
shoot with the animal individual is not far-fetched or arbitrary,
but is presented to us by Nature herself. The solution of the
difficulties which this mode of conceiving the vegetable indi-
vidual encounters in the lowest grades of the vegetable kingdom,
I must defer to a later day. These difficulties are founded upon
the less complete organization of the inferior plants, and at all
events cannot invalidate the results gained in considering the
higher organizations. We may therefore consider it settled,
that although the individual has not exactly the same importance
in the vegetable kingdom as in the animal, plants still realize
their vital cycle in sections which are not only comparable to
the animal individual, but are in fact its complete analogues.
What distinguishes plants is the formation of family-stocks (a
formation manifested in the highest vegetable representations,
and here in the richest fullness),—as ancestral trees organically
connected, variously disposed in their ramifications, and com-
prising numerous generations, rendered reciprocally complete
through individuals variously endowed. And this leads us back
again to the tree from which we set out; in which even our
natural perceptions seemed to discern something more than one
common individual, and whose high import scientific research
must confirm. Just what at the outset appeared to be an
obstacle to our allowing the single shoots of the tree their true
significance,—now that we have compared them with alternation
of generation in animals, at length proves to be the most con-
clusive demonstration of the correctness of our first conception.
The conception of these so heterogeneous shoots as individuals
of one and the same species has led us, in fact, to a more pro-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 25

386 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

found and more pregnant conception of individuality, which will
no longer seem paradoxical when we perceive it 1s confirmed
even in the highest realms of life—in the sphere of the mental
development of the individual. Or are the differences of human
individuals in mental endowment and development less important
than those which we have seen in the morphological and phy-
siological endowment and development of shoots? Do we not
meet with a similar reciprocal completion, a similar division of
labour among the individuals of the family, of the state, and of
nations, and cannot even the human individual become likewise
a mere organ? Do we not see the development of the human
race itself bound up with a succession, in which the later gene-
rations continue the edifice their predecessors began, like branches
depending upon the earlier stocks and nourished by them ;—in
which generation is added to generation, and cycles to cycles ;
so that thus, by the ever-renewed labour of the individual, the
problem of human life may be ceaselessly aspired to, and at last
reach its final accomplishment ?*

* The preceding pages were almost all printed when I was fortunately
enabled to read Reichert’s memoir (Die monogene Fortpflanzung, Dorpat,
1852), upon a subject closely allied to the one here discussed. His work
is full of new views of the subject, elaborated with great acuteness. The
vegetable individual itself is considered in detail, and the author is thus led
to a mode of viewing this subject similar to the Schultz-Schultzenstein-ian
doctrine of anaphyta—regarding not only the shoot, but even its single
parts, the internodes, with their leaves, as series of individuals shooting out
of each other, or intimately connectcal by continuable bud-formation.
Since, however, it is implied m the idea of an individual, that it shall some-
how be limited by, and distinguishable from (notwithstanding it is connected
with), others, it seems to me that even from this point of view Reichert’s
idea can by no means be carried out. I will not deny that there are still
other considerations in the nature of the shoot which it is difficult to re-
concile with the idea of the simple individual, and I can only find the
ground of this phenomenon in the fact, that the individual appears in its
full import in the higher steps of the series of created beings, while in
the lower it loses more and more its reality, if I may so say. I must
reserve farther remarks on this subject until I treat of the individuality of
the lower plants.

[We cannot but think, after all, that this view of Reichert’s, &ec., which
our author rejects, is the legitimate conclusion, to which the very line of
argument so completely and ably presented in the preceding pages, when
fully carried out, naturally leads. It is merely a question of degree of
individuality. As yet, perhaps, no sure middle ground has been secured
between the two extreme views,—one of which regards all the vegetative
offspring of a seed, however numerously multiplied, as philosophically the
individual; while the other views the phyton, or in the simplest lower
plants, the cell, as philosophically representing the individual,—real indi-
viduality being incompletely realized (and with various grades of incom-
pleteness) in all vegetables, and in many animals. The mind is reluctant
to accept either of these conclusions, and seeks—thus far in vain—for some
stable intermediate view. Of the two extreme views, if forced to the choice,
we should ineline to prefer the latter.—Asa Gray. ]

Mr. T. H. Stewart on the young state of Ophiocoma rosula. 387

XXXII.—On the young state of Ophiocoma rosula, and on the
Form and Development of the Spines of this Species. By
T. H. Srewart.

[With a Plate.]

On looking over a maundful of trawl-refuse lately, which was
obtained by the fishermen from off the Plymouth coast, and
principally from near the Eddystone lighthouse, I found fine
specimens of Salicornaria farciminoides, around the lower por-
tions of many of which a parasitic sponge* was attached. On
tearing apart this sponge to look for the form of the spicula, a
number of exceedingly small starfishes were found on it. When
I first saw them, I fancied that they were young Ophivcome
rosule, and subsequent investigation has proved this to be the
case ; although on looking at them afterwards with a low power
(100 diam.) under the microscope, I was, from the very peculiar -
form of the spines, led to think them a new species of Ophiocoma.

It is an interesting and curious fact, that not only have these
young starfishes been found in deep water, as at the Eddystone,
which is about 50 fathoms, but also in pools left by the receding
tide in limestone rocks under the “ Hoe,” Plymouth, and in this
case also crawling on a soft sponge; and I have not hitherto
observed them in contact with any harder material.

The fact of their having been found in two such different
localities proves that this Ophiocoma spawns both in deep and
shallow water. It is also remarkable that they should in each
case have been found on sponge, and that those from the deep-
water locality were never seen to crawl on the Zoophyte, but
were found exclusively on the sponge at the base.

They were not stalked, as the late lamented Prof. Edward
Forbes fancied the young of the Ophiocome might be (however,
they may have passed this period), but could crawl about at
pleasure, though they did not seem te be very active, and seldom
moved unless intentionally disturbed, and were crowded chiefly
in the corners of the sponge.

None of them, however, when roughly handled, showed any
tendency to break off their arms.

The largest of them did not exceed one-eighth of an inch in
diameter, including both the rays and disk.

Their appearance when alive, under the low power of a micro-
scope, was a most interesting sight; and by employing the
polarizing apparatus, the colours that the various parts, more
especially the spines, exhibited, made them tenfold more beautiful.

* On submitting this sponge to Mr. Bowerbank, whose judgement on
such subjects is always appreciated, he not only kindly examined it, but
also pronounced it to be a new sponge.

25*

388 Mr. T. H. Stewart on the young state of Ophiocoma rosula.

The disk in this young state is more pentagonal than in the
adult animal. It is of a deep yellowish-brown or purple colour,
and it was this part that rendered the starfish evident on the
sponges.

The entire starfish was very transparent, so that the move-
ments of the stomach and parts within could be distinctly seen
under an inch power (100 diam.).

The disk was spimous, but had the spines more irregularly
arranged than in the full-grown starfish. The forms of the spines
are those depicted in Pl. XV. fig. 4. They were most distinctly
seen on the borders of the disk, between the rays, and all of
them had a like typical form, though some differed from others
on the same starfish in slight particulars, as the length of the
stalk bearig three spinules or secondary spines.

The base of these spines is a flattened disk, and somewhat
circular in form; immediately above the base is a contraction,
and it then shows a perforated structure; the holes producing
these perforations are regular and arranged in the central line.
The length of the stalk is rather /ess than half the length of the
whole spine. The spine then separates into three prongs or
spinules, which are rather more than half the length of the
whole spine.

These spinules in some spread out wider apart than in others,
and in one they approached each other again at the tip. All the
spines of the disk are of this form, and they retain the same in
the adult O. rosula, but as a general rule they are rather longer
in the stalk.

If the animal be turned on its back, and examined with a
power of 100 diameters by transmitted light, the outline of the
stomach is seen to be of a pentagonal form, and has five lateral
attachments to the inner surface of the body, which are situate
between the rays. The outline of the stomach is dark and well
defined, and appears like lines passing from one point of attach-
ment to the other; it might be taken at first sight for the
nervous system, were it not for the fact, that the meeting of the
lines where the nervous threads to the rays would be given off,
takes place between the rays, and not at their base, as would be
the case if it were the nervous system.

The contractions of the stomach were very evident ; sometimes
the orifice was completely closed, and was then central, and the
radiating muscular fibres could be detected. At other times it
was dilated quite to the lines indicating the outline of the stomach
before mentioned, and at another time much to one side.

The dilating muscle possesses a great deal more power than
the contracting one, as the motion of the former was considerably
quicker effected.

Mr. T. H. Stewart on the young state of Ophiocoma rosula. 389

Within the stomach were seen ten attached club-shaped bodies’
similar to the membranous tentacula of the arms, which were in
constant motion ; two were attached between each dark bundle
of spines, or oral cluster, which are situated at the mouth of the
disk. They seemed to be contractile, and to draw back to the
sides of the stomach, assuming a somewhat globular form.

But what I desire more especially to direct attention to are the
spines on the rays; these may be said to be of three kinds :-—
Ist, those which may be termed palmate or basal spines of the
ray, or the first set at the part where the ray SE aS from the
disk (fig. 4); 2ndly, the reticulated spines (fig. 5); Srdly, the
hooked spines (fig. 6).

The first set are shaped somewhat like a hand with the fingers
spread out, only minus a thumb: as the greater number have
only four spinules, or secondary spines, these are longer and
more widely separated from each other than in the second set,
and consequently the whole spine is broader. It has a broad,
thick, and rounded base, and immediately above the base the
spe is narrowed, and then becomes wider again so as to form
a constriction at this part; and in fact the spine may be divided
into three parts,—the base, the body constricted at the lower
part, and the spinous extremities.

The palmate portion of the spine is pierced with irregular
holes. The entire spine is covered with a delicate membrane,
and this connects the spinules, forming a web, thus giving the
spine a strong resemblance to the foot of afrog. In other parts
of the spine this membrane is closely attached to it; and where
the webbing occurs, the two parts covering the upper and lower
portions of the spine come in contact, and thus as it were en-
close it in a membranous sac. This membrane is destroyed by
boiling in caustic potash.

The spines of the second set may be said to occupy rather
more than the lower two-thirds of the ray on the under side, and
almost the whole of the upper. They are more irregular in their
form than the last, especially as regards the number, form, and
arrangement of the spinules. Their base is not so rounded and
the constriction not so well marked as in the first set. In fact,
the spine altogether is not so symmetrical and constant in its
shape as either of the others, and is evidently in a transition
state, for no two of these spines were alike in form, whilst the
first or palmate, and the third or hooked, never varied to any
marked extent. In the adult animal, the hooked spines still
preserve the form that they had in their young condition, though
of course they are proportionately larger.

As the second set of spines grow, they become more regular
im form, and the spinules, or w hat are then the rough serrations,

390 Mr. T. H. Stewart on the young state of Ophiocoma rosula.

are placed at regular distances, and the spine becomes symme-
trical, and assumes that beautiful form depicted in fig. 8;
and figured by Prof. E. Forbes, who says, “the lightness and
beauty of which might serve as a model for the spire of a
cathedral.”

The most interesting of all these spines are the ¢hird set, or
hooked ones, which oceupy the tip and a portion of the under
surface of the extremities of the rays. They are not unlike
reaping-hooks, only they have a secondary hook below, just at
the point of the junction of the handle and blade. They
also have a tubercle below this on the handle, but this is never
formed into a decided hook like the other two above. It
was the existence of these hooked spines that led me to fancy
the young O. rosula a new Ophiocoma. But in order to be quite
sure on the subject, and not to make new species without careful
investigation, I boiled some older O. rosule in caustic potash ;
and on examining the result, I found the same hooked spines to
be present.

By examining and comparing the spines of these young with
those of an adult O. rosula, it will be noticed that the hooked
ones do not grow in the same proportion as the rest; for in the
adult, though they still keep the same form, they are very small
in comparison to the other spines, whereas in the young they
are of the same size and serve an important office, viz. enabling
these young and feeble starfish to gain a firmer hold of the sub-
stance on which they crawl, so that they are not drifted off by
every slight force to which they are exposed; and indeed I found
that while they were alive it required a considerable effort to
separate them from their attachment.

It would appear therefore that these hooks are specially pro-
vided for the young condition of the starfish, and is another
beautiful instance how Nature modifies parts of the body to
meet the special requirements of animals under varying cireum-
stances. These hooked spines have the same rounded base and
constriction as the others, and they then form the sickle-like
termination.

Parallel with this terminal hook in about the middle of the
spine another is formed, which is not so long or large as the
terminal one; and at an equal distance below this second hook
is a little tubercle, which is not developed into a hook, but is
perforated with small holes, as also is the base, giving it when
only slightly magnified a granular appearance.

I have never found more than two hooks on a single spine,
except in one adult animal, where on one of the spies there
were three; but the lowest near the base was very rudimentary.

All the spines are covered with the animal membrane before

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 391

described, and all the spinules are more or less connected toge-
ther or webbed by it.

Royal College of Surgeons, October 14, 1856.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XV.

Fig. 1. The perfect young O. rosula, magnified 100 diameters.

Fig. 2. The under surface of disk as seen when alive, magnified 100 diam.

Fig. 3. The spines of young O. rosu/a from the disk.

Fig. 4. Palmate or basal spmes of the ray.

Fig. 5. The reticulate spines.

Fig. 6. The hooked spines from the extremity, and a portion of the under
surface of the ray.

Fig. 7. The spines of young O. rosula, showing animal membrane.

Fig. 8. Perfect spine of adult O. rosula, magnified 100 diam.

XXXIII.— Monograph of the genus Catops.
By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh.

[Continued from p. 318.]

Exotic species.

38. C, marginicollis, Lucas.

Catops marginicollis, Lucas, Expl. de Algérie, Anim. Art. u. p. 224.

pl. 21. fig. 4.

“Capite nigro, granario ; thorace subgranario, nigro, Fig. 39.
ferrugineo marginato, angulis posticis subacu- =,
minatis ; elytris nigris striatis subtilissimis con-
fertissime punctulatis ; corpore infra nigro, sub-
tiliter granario; pedibus antennisque ferrugineis.

“Long. 2} lin., lat. 13 lin.

“The head is black, granulated, and scarcely pu-
bescent. The maxillary and labial palpi, as wellasthe “~~
antennz, are entirely ferruginous. The thorax pubescent, very
lightly granulated, black, with the lateral margins ferruginous ;
it is very gently convex, rounded on the lateral parts, with the
angles on each side of the base less projecting, and a little less
acuminate than in C. celer, Luc. The scutellum is black, gra-
nulated, The elytra, of the same colour as the scutellum,
pubescent, have a very fine and very dense punctuation; they
are striated, and the striz are sufficiently well marked. All
the body below is of a deep brown, and is very finely granulated.
The legs are entirely ferruginous*.”

This species was taken by M. Lucas at Oran, in the west of
Algeria, under stones, in the end of February.

* Lucas in loc. cit.

392 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

39. C. rufipennis, Lucas.
Catops rufipennis, Luc. Exp). d’Algérie, Anim. Art. ii. p. 224. pl. 21. fig. 3.

“Capite nigro, granario; thorace subtilissimegranario, Fig. 40.
nigro, ad latera posticeque rufescente marginato ;
elytris granariis rufis, ad suturam utrinque uni-
striatis ; corpore infra nigro; pedibus rufis tibiis-
que fusco-maculatis.
“Long. 24 lin., lat. 1 lin.

“This is smaller than C. celer, from the same
country (Algeria), and cannot be confounded with it,
on account of the colour of its elytra, which are entirely ferru-
ginous. The head is black, granulated. The maxillary palpi,
as well as the labial palpi, are reddish. The antennz are ferru-
ginous, with the last joints a little brownish. The thorax
slightly pubescent, very finely granulated, and tolerably convex ;
black, margimed with ferruginous on the sides and behind ;
the sides are rounded, as are also the angles on each side of the
base. The scutellum is black, pubescent, and very finely granu-
lated. The elytra very pubescent, ferruginous; they are finely
granulated, striated, and a sutural stria appears pretty deeply
impressed on each side of the suture. The whole body below is
black. The legs are of the same colour as the elytra, with the
thighs marked with brown, and the tibiz finely denticulated*.”

Met with by M. Lucas on a single occasion, under stones, in
the month of January, in the ravines of Djebel Santon, in the
neighbourhood of Oran.

40. C. fungicola, Kolen.
Catops fungicola, Kolenati, Meletemata Ent. fase. v. 51.

“ Castaneus, nitidus, pubescens, punctulatus; capite brunneo,
antennis pedibusque testaceis.

“ Long. 0:0025, lat. 0°00133.

“ Head blackish-brown, shining, scarcely punctulated; tho-
rax testaceous or chestnut, pubescent, very finely punctulate ;
elytra convex, chestnut, shining, narrowed behind, rounded,
punctulate. Scutellum brown, punctulate.

“ Lives in fungi in the woods of Mount Ssarijal, in the pro-
vince of Elisabethopolis+.”

This species is unknown to me, and I place it in this group
merely from the colour, none of the characters on which I

* Lucas in loc. cit. + Kolenati in loc. cit.

—

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 3938

have rested my subdivisions of the genus being mentioned by
M. Kolenati.

41. C. pusillus, Motsch.
Catops pusillus, Victor Motschoulsky, Bull. Soc. Imp. Mose. 1840, p. 175.

** Ovalis, cinnamomeus, sericeo-pubescens; thorace Fig. 41.
transverso, angulis posticis subproductis, lateribus
rotundatis; antennis pedibusque dilutioribus pu-
bescentibus.

“ Long. 3} lin., lat. 4 lin.

“One of the smallest species of Catops, and covered r
with a close golden pubescence. The antennz are a little pilose,
of the length of the head and thorax together, the eighth joint
much smaller and shorter than the seventh. The thorax is trans-
verse, rounded on the sides, and when looked at from in front,
it appears even a little broader than the elytra; it is cut
straight at the base, and has the posterior angles a little project-
ing backwards. The scutellum is triangular. The elytra are
oval, obliquely emarginate at the extremity towards the suture,
with the exterior angle projecting in a point. On each side of the
suture there is an impressed line which reaches a little beyond
the half of the elytra. The anterior tibie are a very little
dilated*.”

The emargination of the elytra at the apex of the suture fur-
nishes an easy character for distinguishing this species.

M. Motschoulsky mentions that he took it in spring at Ana-
nur, on the great military route of Georgia, and in the month
of August, near Davial, on the same route. It was found under
stones, and in the earth, among roots, in obscure places. The
specimens which have been recently excluded are often of a tes-
taceous colour.

42. C. pallidus, Menetries.

C. pallidus, Menetr. Cat. rais. des Obj. de Zool. rec. dans un Voyage au
Caucase, &c., p. 169.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, subdepressus, ferrugineus, breviter griseo-
pubescens ; elytris obsolete punctulatis, apice subacuminatis.
“ Long. 2 lin., lat. 1} lin.

Found at Bakont+.”

The above meagre description is all that we know of this

* Motschoulsky in loc. cit. + Menetries in Joc, cit.

894 Mr.A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

species; it would, however, rather appear to belong to this
group.
43. C. Dauricus, Motsch.

Catops Dauricus, Motsch. Remarques sur la Collection de Col. Russ. de
’. de Motschoulsky in Bulletin de Moscou, vol. xviii. 1845.

“ Testaceo-ferrugineus ; thorax angustior quam elytra.

“ A species remarkable on account of its thorax being much
narrower than the elytra, which are of a tolerably broad oval,
and acuminate at the extremity. The facies approaches nearly
the genus Pteroloma, but the body wholly removes it. It is of
a ferruginous-yellow colour, and is found on the summits of the
alps of Hamar-Daban in Mongolia*.”

I have not seen this species in nature, and the above descrip-
tion is too short to enable us to form an accurate idea of its
form or affinities.

44. C. basilaris, Say.
Catops basilaris, Say, Journ. Acad. Philadelphia, iti. 194.

“ Niger, brevissima flavescente pubescentia vestitus ; elytris
brunneis, pallidioribus ad basin.
“ Long. 13 lin,

“ Body black, covered with numerous short yellowish hairs ;
eyes fuscous; antenne blackish, two basal joints yellowish-
white ; eighth joint very small, transverse, shortest ; the seventh
and three terminal joints lar eest, the latter somewhat piceous ;
thorax transverse, quadrate, convex, rather narrower before ;
lateral edge regularly arcuated, basal and anterior edge sub-
rectilinear ; angles rounded; scutellum triangular; elytra
brownish, paler at base; a distinct subsutural impressed line ;
labrum and palpi pale piceous, beneath blackish piceous; feet
dark piceous.

“ Found under wood at Engineer Cantonment, on the Mis-
sourit.”

I believe it is not known what species Say had in view in
describing this. Dr. Leconte, whose knowledge of American
entomology is perhaps greater than that possessed by any other
naturalist, includes it, in his ‘Synopsis of the Silphales of
America, among those which were unknown to him. Say’s
description, I think, seems to point either to an affinity with
C. tristis or C. fumatus, and I place it in this group with doubt.

* Motschoulsky in Joc. cit. t Say in Joc. cit,

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 395

45. C. opacus, Say.

Catops opacus, Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. y. 184; Leconte, Syn.
Silph. Amer. in Proceedings of Acad. Philad. (1853) 280.

“ Ater, punctulatus, subtiliter pubescens ; thorace semi- Fig. 42.
elliptico, basi late rotundato ; elytris obsolete striatis ;
tibus calcaribus magnis armatis,

“Long. 2 lin.

“ New York and Ohio: rare,

“The male has three joints of the anterior tarsi
strongly dilated; the middle tarsi are not dilated. The
sutural stria of the elytra is deeper than the others*,”

46. C. terminans, Leconte.
Catops terminans, Lec., Agassiz, Lake Superior, 218 ; Lec. Synops. Silph.
N. Amer. Proc. Acad. Philad. vi. 1853, 282.

“ Oblongo-ovalis minus convexus, nigro-piceus, subtiliter Fig. 43.
pubescens ; elytris distinctius rugose punctulatis, stria
suturali profunda; thorace breviore, antrorsum valde
angustato, angulis posticis vix productis; pedibus
fuscis ; antennis apice flavis, basi testaceis.

“ Long. 1 lin.

“ Very abundant at the mouth of the Pic river, on the north
side of Lake Superior, under dried animal matter. This species
is broader and less convex than C. consobrinus, and is easily
known by the more distinct punctuation, and by the absence of
the transverse lines. The thorax is densely and finely punctulate ;
it is about twice as wide as its length, strongly narrowed in
front, rounded on the sides, especially anteriorly, slightly emar-
ginate at apex, truncate at base, and very slightly sinuate at the
posterior angles, which are scarcely perceptibly acute. The
anterior tarsi of the male, and the first jot of the middle tarsi,
are dilated +.”

47. C. monilis, mihi.

Oblongo-ovalis, fuscus ; antennis capite et thorace Fig. 44.
longioribus, articulo octavo minutissimo, articulis
ante seatum non gradatim crescentibus magnitudine,
fuscis, articulo ultimo et articulis ad basin ferru-
gineis ; thorace leviter, elytris fortiter transverso-
strigosis, his stria suturali impressis; pedibus
spinosis.

Long. 1} lin., lat. 3 lin.

Oblong-oval, nearly of the same size and form as C. alpinus,

* Leconte in Joc. cit. + Leconte in loc. cit.

396 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

brown, a little darker behind and on the middle of the thorax.
The antennz are longer than the head and thorax; the basal
joints (first, second, third, fourth and fifth) and the last joint are
ferruginous-yellow ; the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth joints
blackish-brown ; first jot large, and longer than second ; second
thin and slender, a little longer than third ; third, fourth and fifth
thin and slender and very short, nearly all of equal length ; sixth
shorter than these, but rather broader; seventh largest and
broadest of the whole; eighth excessively minute; ninth and
tenth of equal length and thickness, rather narrower than the
seventh, their sides more parallel than is the case in other spe-
cies ; eleventh of the same breadth as the two preceding. Head
broad, rugosely punctate; mouth broad, concolorous. Thorax
pale on the margins, lightly transversely strigose. Elytra more
decidedly transversely strigose, with the suture and a sutural
stria somewhat depressed, and indistinct traces of striz towards
the apex. Scutellum equilaterally triangular, somewhat de-
pressed, clothed all over with a concolorous fuscous pubescence ;
beneath the pubescence the surface is somewhat shining ; under
side and legs fuscous-brown, paler than above; tibiz slightly
and delicately spinous, middle tibiz slightly bent.

This species has very much the appearance of alpinus, but the
structure of the antennz is different. They are longer than in
that species. The club also does not gradually increase in thick-
ness from the first joint onwards till it reaches its greatest
breadth at the seventh, and then taper away again, as in
alpinus ; the club from the eighth joint to the middle of the last
joint is of equal thickness, giving a somewhat moniliform ap-
pearance to the club, from which character I have given its
name. In alpinus the third joint is thicker and longer than the
second, while here it is smaller and slenderer. In alpinus the
fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh joints go on increasing in thick-
ness, while here the third, fourth and fifth form a narrow slender
peduncle, all being of nearly equal size ; the sixth and eighth joints
here are much smaller than in alpinus. The pubescence in this
species is also darker and duller and more sparing than in alpinus.

It was found at Caraccas by M. Sallé, and presented to me by
his relative M. Chevrolat.

48. C. spinipes, mihi.

Elongato-ovalis, fuscus; antennis capite et thorace vix Fig. 45.
longioribus, articulis ante sextum gradatim ecrescentibus
magnitudine, fuscis, articulis ultimis et primis pallidi-
oribus ; thorace leviter et elytris fortiter transverso-
strigosis, his stria suturali impressis ; pedibus spinosis.

Long. 1 lin., lat. } lin.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 397

A good deal smaller than the preceding (C. monilis), to which
it has considerable resemblance, but is more elongate in form.
The antennz are not quite so thick; the joints do not continue
thin, short and slender from the second to the sixth, but go on
increasing in breadth from the second to the seventh; the
second and third are nearly of equal length ; the fourth and fifth
are each shorter than the third, and gradually but slightly
increase in breadth; they are all of nearly the same length ;
the sixth is shorter than the fifth, but not very minute ; the
seventh is the largest joint in the antenna; the eighth is minute,
but not nearly so much so as in monilis ; the ninth is as broad but
shorter than the seventh ; the tenth is a little narrower than the
ninth, and the eleventh a little narrower than the tenth, otherwise
they are nearly of the same size. The antenne are brown, with
the exception of the two first jomts which are clear ferruginous,
and the three last which become gradually paler to the tip. The
head and mouth are broad ; the former is rugosely punctate and
darker than the rest of the body. The thorax is short, darkest
in the middle, transversely rugose. The elytra are very distinctly
transversely strigose ; there is a sutural stria impressed on them.
The scutellum is small, elongate triangular, depressed, and darker
than the elytra. The whole body is covered with a dense fuscous
pubescence of the same colour throughout, but throwing a
reflexion like a lighter band across the elytra towards the apex
when viewed in certain lights. The under side is of the same
colour as the upper. The legs are paler; they are very distinctly
spinose, a character which is found in other species, but which,
from being very marked here, I have taken to furnish a suitable
name to the species. The middle tibiz are alittle bent. In the
males the anterior tarsi are widened, but the middle tarsi are
not.

Found at Caraccas by M. Sallé, and presented to me by
M. Cheyrolat.

Group III.

Mesosternum keeled ; middle tarsi alike in both sezes.

Ist Subdivision. Body polished and shining; the elytra not
transversely strigose.

49. C. lucidus, Kraatz.

C. lucidus, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xin. 439. 30.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, nigro-piceus, nitidus ; antennis pedibusque fer-
rugineis ; thorace transverso, basi latiore levi ad angulos ob-
tusos utrinque distincte sinuato ; elytris flavo-testaceis, apice
piceis, passim minus profunde punctatis.

“Long. 13 lin.”

398 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

Not haying seen this species, | can only reproduce M. Kraatz’s
description, which is as follows :—

“ A new species differing so much from all the species of
Catops known to me, by its shining glittering upper side and
clear yellow elytra, that I cannot class it under any one of
Erichson’s groups: not only so, but I was not wholly averse to
have based a new genus upon it, if in spite of the many differ-
ences there was not a form of transition to that of the perfect
Catops in a species which I possess (the only one hitherto
accessible), and a species from Mesopotamia in the Royal Mu-
seum (of Berlin) (though in other respects differing little from
the C. lucidus of this country). The antennz are nearly of
the length of the elytra, entirely of a lively reddish-brown,
stout ; first joint distinctly longer than the second, and as well
as it a little more slender than the remaining joints; third a
little stouter than the fourth, nearly as long as the first ; fourth,
fifth and sixth are reverse cone-shaped, the following joint always
somewhat shorter than the preceding; the seventh is equal to
the ninth and to the tenth in length, which is the same as the
length of the fourth joint, but somewhat stouter; the eighth is
somewhat shorter but scarcely more slender than the joints
which encompass it; the eleventh is almost of the length of
both the preceding, from its base to its last third growing gra-
dually broader, from thence cone-shaped acuminate. The head
is black, shining, not punctate; the mouth yellowish-red. The
thorax at the base is more than double as broad as long, gra-
dually narrowed from the base towards the front, so that the
greatest breadth is before the middle*, gently rounded on the
sides ; the anterior angles are obtuse, somewhat sloping down-
wards, the posterior angles likewise obtuse and rounded off ; the
posterior margin is distinctly sinuate and depressed over the
moderately densely finely punctate scutellum, and on each side
towards the posterior angles, so that the posterior angles project
slightly and are a little reflexed; the upper side is dark pitchy-
brown, clearer on the sides and posterior angles, flatly arched,
bright shining. The elytra are symmetrical oblong, only feebly
narrowed behind, shining pale yellow, brownish towards the
scutellum, dark pitchy-brown at the apex, disappearing at some
distance, with punctures irregularly arranged in rows and clothed
with solitary yellowish hairs; the under side is shining black,
not punctured, the last abdominal segment yellow. The legs are
lively reddish-brown.

* Sic in orig., viz. “ von der Basis an nach vorn allmalig verengt, wodurch
die grésste Breite vor der Mitte.” It should probably have been, “ greatest
breadth behind the middle.”

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 399

One example from Kubr, probably found in Dalmatia*.”
I am unable to give any description of the species from Meso-
potamia above referred to by M. Kraatz.

50. C. eryptophagoides, Mannerheim.
Catops cryptophagoides, Mann. Bull. Soc. Imp. Mose. 1852, pt. 2. p. 333.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, convexus, rufo-ferrugineus, nitidus, glaber-
rimus ; antennis extrorsum valde incrassatis pilosis, articulo
octavo precedente multo minore ; thorace levi, antrorsum ro-
tundato, angulis posticis supra elytra rotundato-productis ;
elytris disperse punctatis, subrugulosis.

“ Long. 2 lin., lat. ¢ lin.?”

I have not seen this species. M. Pippingskold collected it
in the island of Sitka under a stone.

Mannerheim states that in form it comes very near the genus
Colon, but he rather referred it to Catops from the structure of
the antennz, although at the same time differing from both by
the polished smoothness of its body. From this indication it
should probably rank beside /ucidus, Kraatz, and I have accord-
ingly placed it in this subdivision.

2nd Subdivision. Body not polished and shining ; elytra trans-
versely strigose.

51. C. strigosus, Kraatz.
Catops strigosus, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. p. 441. 31. Fig. 46.

Ovatus, rufo-ferrugineus ; antennis longioribus,
obsolete clavatis, ferrugineis; thorace trans-
verso, angulis posticis fere acuminatis ; elytris
substriatis, evidenter transversim strigosis, apice
acuminatis.

Long. 13 lin.

The antennz are slender, entirely reddish-brown ; first, second
and third equal in length; fifth scarcely longer than those on
each side of it, half as large as the first jot ; seventh somewhat
longer and stouter than the foregomg, equal to the ninth and
tenth ; eighth scarcely half as long and a little thinner than the
seventh ; eleventh somewhat longer than the tenth, moderately
sharply acuminate. The head is red-brown, densely and finely
punctate. The thorax is nearly 25 times as long as broad; at
the base it is of the same breadth as the elytra; it is gradually
narrowed towards the front, gently rounded on the sides; the

* Kraatz in loc. cit. + Mannerheim in Joc. cit.

400 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

upper side is moderately densely clothed with golden-yellow
pubescence, coarsely granulated ; the anterior angles are obtuse,
sloping downwards ; the almost pointed posterior angles pro-
ject pretty. strongly backwards embracing the elytra, so that the
posterior margin appears to be strongly sinuated on both sides
near the elytra. The elytra are oval, strongly narrowed from
the middle towards the apex, each tolerably sharply acuminated,
moderately densely and finely pubescent, and deeply transversely
strigose, with distinct traces of longitudinal striae. Under side
and legs reddish-brown.

Kraatz says it is of a reddish colour, but the only specimen I
have seen was black.

Of the form of the C. velox, Spence, approaching most to it,
but a little smaller, more acuminate behind, and easily recog-
nizable by its keeled mesosternum ; distinguished from the fol-
lowing species by its different form and longer antenne; and
from C. acicularis, Kraatz, the only other species of the pre-
ceding groups which has transversely wrinkled elytra, by its
smaller size and shorter and broader form.

Found in Austria: extremely rare.

52. C. validus, Kraatz.
Catops validus, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 441. 32.
“Oblongo-ovatus, niger, fusco-sericeus ; antennis rufo-piceis, cla-
vatis ; thorace, elytrisque transversim strigosis, apice truncatis.
“ Long. 23 lin.

“This distinct species comes near the following in the form
of the body, and only deviates from them by its greater size and
the different structure of the antenne. I confine myself there-
fore to describing the latter more strictly.

“ Antenne reddish-brown ; first joint at least twice as long
and half as strong again as the second, somewhat more slender
at the base; second very small, at the end nearly as broad as
long, somewhat more slender at the base; third at least three
times as long as second, for the last third part becoming gradually
somewhat broader; fourth equal in length to second, but some-
what broader ; fifth equal to fourth ; siath somewhat shorter and
broader than the eighth; seventh somewhat shorter, but just as
broad as the ninth; eleventh distinctly more slender and half as
long again as tenth; from the base to the apex conical acumi-
nate, somewhat paler at the tip. Agreeing in other respects
with the following species.

“Two examples from Stentz in Hungary are in the Royal
Museum, under the name of C. validus*.”

* Kraatz in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 401

Not having seen this species in nature, I have merely copied
the description of Kraatz. In size it is a third larger than the
following species ; but although that of itself would not be sufli-
cient to constitute it a distinct species, the differences in the
structure and proportion of the joints of the antenne are too
great to allow us to hesitate in according it a place as such.
The principal differences in these proportions have been printed
in italics in the respective descriptions of the antennz of these
species.

53. C. sericeus, Fabr.

Catops sericeus, Fabr. Syst. El. ii. 564. 2; Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 243. 16 ;
Sturm, Deutschl. Fn. xiv. 43. 22. t. 278. f. d. D; Heer, Fn. Helv. 1.
384. 21; Redt. Fn. Aust. 145.1; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 442.
34; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 305. 21.

Helops sericeus, Panz. Fn. Germ. 73. 10.

Ptomaphagus truncatus, Ulig. Mag. i. 42. 4.

Catops truncatus, Gyll. Ins. Suec. 1. 279. 3. ’

Sola Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. it. 29. 5; Spence, Linn. Trans. x1.

Mycetophagus picipes, Kug. Schneid. Mag. 558. 9.

Mordella silphoides, Marsh. Ent. Brit. i. 493. 19.

Var. minor. Catops sericatus, Chaud. Bull. de Mose. 1845, no. 3. 199.

Oblongo-ovatus, niger, fusco-sericeus ; antennis
brevioribus, nigro-piceis, ad basin ferrugineis ;
thorace elytrisque transversim strigosis, his
apice truncatis.

Long. 1-1} lin.

Oval, a little depressed above, of a deep
blackish-brown, very silky. Antennz about as
long as the thorax, perceptibly thickened towards
the extremity; first joint twice as long as the second; second
and third nearly equal in length and thickness; fourth and fifth
nearly equal in length, each shorter than second or third; sixth
about the same length as fifth, but decidedly broader, twice as
long as eighth, and not so broad ; seventh a very little longer and
much broader than sixth ; ezghth less than half as long as seventh,
and scarcely less broad ; ninth and tenth each about the same length
as seventh, but broader ; eleventh more slender and half as long
again as tenth, and only commencing to be acuminate past its
middle; the apex obtuse, reddish-brown, lighter at the base,
deeper at the apex. Head black, large, finely punctate. Thorax
shining black, finely transversely wrinkled, a little broader than
long, somewhat narrowed in front ; posterior angles pointed, pro-
jecting backwards, which makes the posterior margin broadly
arched. Elytra of a brown, more or less dark, finely transversely
strigose, becoming narrower from the base to the extremity,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 26

402. Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

which is obliquely truncate. Legs brown ; thighs often blackish.
Size very variable.

Distinguished at first sight from all the allied species, except
varicornis and validus, by its truncate elytra. From C. varicornis
it is distinguished by the apex of the antenne not being light-
coloured, and from C. validus by its smaller size and by the dif-
ferent proportions of the joints of the antenna.

Common in Britain, and generally distributed all over Europe.

54. C. varicornis, Rosenhauer.

Catops varicornis, Rosenh. Beitr. zur Ins. Fn. Eur. i. 23; Kraatz, Stett. Ent.
Zeit. xii. 442. 33.
Oblongo-ovatus, niger, fusco-sericeus ; antennis brevioribus, basi
apiceque ferrugineis ; thorace elytrisque transversim strigosis,
his apice truncatis.

Long. 1} lin.

Closely allied to C. sericeus, and principally distinguished by
the form and colour of the antennz, which are shorter and
ferruginous both at the base and the apex, and the beetle is usually
somewhat darker. The head is broad, finely punctate, shining
black with a grey pubescence ; the mouth ferruginous-red. The
antenne scarcely reach beyond the half of the thorax, and are
thickened on the outer side so as to be distinctly club-shaped.
The individual joints are as in the C. sericeus, but form a rounder
oblong and thicker club. The first five joints are ferruginous-
red, those following brownish ; the eighth shorter but not more
slender than the remainder ; the last transverse, short, and very
obtuse, much shorter than in the C. sericeus, and reddish-yellow.
The thorax is large, black, shining, clothed with a silky pubes-
cence, almost square, a little broader than long, of the breadth
of the elytra, somewhat narrowed in front, gently rounded on
the sides ; the posterior angles pointed, projecting slightly back-
wards, the posterior margin rounded. ‘The scutellum is large,
triangular, transversely strigose. The elytra are dark brown,
finely transversely strigose, a little arched, somewhat rounded on
the sides, moderately narrowed towards the extremity, not so
strongly truncate at the apex as in C. sericeus, and more rounded,
with a fine brownish pubescence. The under side is black ; the
legs are brown, the tarsi paler.

The pale terminal joint of the antennz, combined with the
general appearance of C. sericeus, at once indicates this species.
It is also a deeper insect than sericeus, and the sides more nearly
approach the perpendicular.

Described by Rosenhauer from three specimens found at

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 403

Stettin. It has since been found in other parts of Germany, and
no doubt is scattered all over the continent. I have not found it
in Scotland, but it has been taken by Mr. Guyon near Richmond,
and by Dr. Power near London.

Chaudoir’s C. sericatus is said by Kraatz to be only a small
variety of this species. I have not seen it, but I have no doubt
he is correct. Chaudoir’s description contains no character suf-
ficient in my view to support the establishment of a new species.
His description is as follows :—“ C. sericatus, hitherto confounded
with C. sericeus. It is constantly three times smaller, more
narrowed behind; the elytra narrower ; the wrinkles above less
marked; the antennz less enlarged towards the extremity, the
last joints more elongate, the eighth a little narrower, the last
less obtuse, and of the colour of the preceding. The breast is
less convex ; the colour of the elytra is lighter towards the extre-
mity, which is almost ferruginous.

“Found at Kiew in spring, under dry leaves at the foot of
trees *,”

55. C. colonoides, Kraatz.
Catops colonoides, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 169. 35.

Oblongo-ovatus, fusco-sericeus ; antennis obsolete cla- Fig. 48.
vatis, ferrugineis ; thorace elytrisque transversim stri- = _-—
gosis, his non truncatis.

Long. { lin.

The antennz are about the length of the head and
thorax, imperceptibly thickened towards the point, fer-
ruginous-red; the seventh joint scarcely broader, but at least
twice as long as the preceding, always darker-coloured than the
remaining joints; the eighth joint somewhat smaller than the
sixth; the ninth, tenth, and the acuminate eleventh tolerably
equal in size. The head is blackish-brown, finely punctate, with
a grey pubescence. The thorax is blackish-brown, somewhat
lighter on the extreme posterior margin, extremely densely and
finely granulated, about a fourth broader than long, narrowed
in front, moderately rounded on the sides ; the posterior angles
are sharp, projecting backwards. The elytra are dark brownish,
towards the apex lighter, finely transversely strigose, covered
with a fine silky brown down, gradually narrowed towards the
apex. The under side is blackish-brown, the margins of the
individual abdominal segments lighter ; the legs are ferruginous-
brown. Nearly constant in size.

A very distinct species, similar to C. sericeus, and, like it,

* Chaudoir in Joc. cit.

26*

404 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

with transversely wrinkled elytra, but smaller than the smallest
individuals of that species, and easily distinguished by the wholly
different form of the antenne, by the gradually narrowed and
not truncate elytra, and the stronger more distant transverse
wrinkling. The club of the antenne is as a rule somewhat
darker, the last joint somewhat larger than the preceding, cone-
shaped, acuminate.

Kraatz says that it is taken near Berlin in loose sand at the
foot of old oak-trees, and that it is frequent in moors.

[To be continued. ]

XXXIV.— Elucidation of some Plants mentioned in Dr. Francis
Hamilton’s Account of the Kingdom of Nepal. By Lieut.-Col.
Manppen, F.R.S.E., President of the Botanical Society of
Edinburgh*.

Tue possession by the University of Edinburgh of the duplicate
herbarium (unfortunately incomplete) and the valuable MS.
Catalogue of the Plants collected in Nepal and other parts of
India by the late Dr. Francis Hamilton (formerly Buchanan),
has recently afforded me the opportunity of comparing them
with some which he has introduced into his ‘Account of Nepal,’
only, or chiefly, by their vernacular designations, which are of
no assistance to the English reader. Of the result of this
examination I purpose to submit a short statement to the Bo-
tanical Society, to the members of which it may prove the more
interesting from the fact that, in several cases, the scientific
names have not hitherto been given in any, even the latest,
works on Indian Botany which have fallen under my notice,
although the plants are well known and of general utility
in India. Nor will it be considered inconsistent with the
object of our meetings, to dedicate a brief space to an in-
quiry into the botany of a district which engaged the in-
terest and employed the time of this accomplished naturalist,

* Read to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, June 12, 1856. The
death of the author having occurred since this paper was read before
the Botanical Society, it has been printed without the benefit of his cor-
rections.

+ The genus Hamiltonia, of the order Cinchonacez, was devoted by
Roxburgh to the memory of this “ illustrious peregrinator,”’ as he is ealled
by D. Don. H. suaveolens is a shrub of the Réjmahal and other hills of
Behar; and a very beautiful azure-blue variety abounds all along the base
of the Himalaya, the H. azurea of Wallich, scabra of D. Don, propinqua
of Jacquemont. The flowers are sweetly fragrant till bruised, when they
exhale a most foetid odour, from which the plant derives its Kuméon name

from the Kingdom of Nepdl. 405

whose late residence, Leny, near Callander, must be familiar to
many of our explorers of the romantic scenery of the Trosachs.
Dr. Hamilton was, I believe, the first to investigate the botany
of Nepal and the adjacent countries, in which he has been
zealously succeeded by Wallich, Griffith, and Hooker. I have
not myself had the good fortune to visit these regions, and poli-
tical jealousy has almost sealed Nepal, especially its alpine tracts,
to us; but I have traversed its western frontier, and was for
several years associated with its military tribes in the service of
the East India Company, and have thus been enabled to acquire
the popular names of several of the plants in question. I shall
not altogether limit myself to those occurring in the ‘ Account of
Nepal,’ but shall extend my remarks also to a few of those enu-
merated in the Catalogue, with respect to which there is reason
to think any additional information will be acceptable, or any
errors remain to be rectified. Many points must continue un-
determined, and will furnish a field of inquiry to future botanists.
Dr. Royle has been the most successful investigator of the
various sources of the many articles of the Indian Materia Me-
dica, in his valuable ‘Illustrations of the Botany of the Hima-
layan Mountains’; but the origin of many of those contained
in his list, published in the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal’ for October 1832, is still to be made out. With refer-
ence to the object before us, the most advantageous plan, per-
haps, will be to quote the several passages from Dr. Hamilton’s
work as they occur, with some regard to the natural sequence
of the orders as understood by Dr. Lindley ; appending such
notices as may be supplied by the Catalogue, and concluding
with my own comments.

As Dr. Hamilton always makes use in his Catalogue of the
classical names for the various provinces, it may be well to pre-
mise that

Magadha is the modern Behar.

Mithila PF Zirhut.

Cosala Gs Oude and Gorakhpur.
Camroop Be Rangpur and Assam.

Angga iy North-western Bengal.

Banga 4, Western and Southern Bengal.
Matsya 5 the district of Dinajpur.

of Padéra. Dr. Hamilton himself remarks thus on the specific name at
No. 694 of the Catalogue :—
* Hamiltonia suaveolens. Habitat in sylvis Angge et Mithile.
“Nomen specificum haud aptum, cum flores, licet aliquando suaveo-
lentes, seepius, ut in Pederia et Serissa affinibus, odorem stercoraceum
gravissimum spirant, quod in ceteris ejusdem generis speciebus quoque
evenit.”

4.06 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

“ Phaphar, said by some to be a species of Amaranthus, called
Amardana in the low country; but others say that this is a
mistake.

“ Uya, which I presume is rye, the natives saying that it is
neither barley nor wheat, but has a resemblance to both.”

The chief grains of Kullu, a hill province north of the Sutlej
river, now a British possession, were reported to Dr. Hamilton
to be Phaphar, Chuyé, and Uya: “The Chuya, from the de- |
scription given, would seem to be the Holeus Sorghum, although
the coldness of the situation renders this doubtful” (pp. 274,
275, 315).

The Uy4 is the Hordeum celeste, well known to the residents
of Simla as the Ua jao, or Ua barley, being in high estimation
in the preparation of cakes.

Phaphar or Phaphra is the Fagopyrum rotundatum, Bab.
(emarginatum, No. 1688, Wall.), near F. tataricum; it is known
as Bitter Buckwheat, and is very generally cultivated in the higher
and colder sites of the Himalaya; Fagopyrum vulgare (or escu-
lentum), No. 1687, Wallich, beimg common lower down, and
known as Ogal or Ogla, and Kotu (not Kultu); distinguished
from the last as Sweet Buckwheat*. Chuyé and Anardana are
one and the same: Amaranthus anardana, No. 2028 of the Cata-
logue (exclude synonym Amaranthus frumentaceus, Hort. Beng.
677). “Andrdéné Hindice. Colitur in arvis Cosale et Ne-
pale ;” and at Bhagalpur on the Ganges, according to Moquin
in DeCandolle. Andrdéna implies the supposed resemblance of
the grains to the carpels of the Pomegranate. I never met any
one who used the name, and incline to think Amardan4, as
Dr. Hamilton once writes it, may be the true one, meaning ‘im-
mortal grain,’ and therefore nearly identical with Amaranthus :
nothing can better answer to the appellation than this species,
which is grown all over the Himalaya, and is also known as
Marsa and Bathu. It rises six to eight feet high, and is either
of a brilliant crimson or a rich yellow. The effect of a mountain-
side, terrace above terrace, covered with distinct fields of these
colours, and glowing under the rays of the afternoon sun, is
gorgeous indeed; but as an article of food, it must be confessed
the reality falls far below the promise of the eye. Amaranthus
caudatus is occasionally cultivated for the same purpose, and is,
in Garhwal, called Rémdané4, ‘the grain of God.’

Cynosurus corocanus : Maruya of Nepal: now Eleusine coro-

* There is considerable discrepancy in the description of the Himalayan
Buckwheats given by Don (Prod. Fl. Nep. pp. 73, 74. Nos. 21, 22, 23),
Babington (Linn. Trans. xviii. 93 seq.), and Meisner (PI. As. Rar. vol. iii.).
Iam only acquainted with two cultivated species, the Ogal and the Pha-
phar, as noticed in the text.

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 407

cana, everywhere cultivated in the British Himdlaya as Man-
dua or Marua. Z£. stricta is also grown in Garhwal.

Holeus Sorghum. Kaunguni, Mucceai, or Muruli,—the first
being the Newar name (i. e. of the aboriginal Mongolian popula-
tion), the last two those of their Parbatiya or Hindoo conquerors,
also a mountain race. Generally, however, Kangani is Pani-
cum italicum, and Muccai (Makkai) Zea Mays: it is probably
a term of Indian origin, but the Mohammedans suppose it to
be so termed because Maize came to them from Mecca; of this
fact it is but a very slender corroboration that the French call
the same corn ‘Blé de Turquie” Sorghum vulgare is little
cultivated in the mountains, but Sorghum saccharatum is occa-
sionally seen about Almorah.

Panicum colonum. Tangni, Tangri, or Kakun, p. 231.

Sabe, referred to Ischemum, a grass of the Nepal Tarai,
growing in great quantities, and exported to the British terri-
tories for the manufacture of ropes (p. 64).

No. 2324. Ischemum Sabe.~ Sabe, Hindice. Habitat in
Mithilz campis ubi legitur ad ligamina foliis nectanda. (Speci-
men from Nathpur.)

No. 2325. Ischemum sparteum. Sabe, Hindice. Habitat in
Magadhe montosis. Ad usum eundum cum precedente inservit.
(Specimen from Ghoramara.) These two plants are identical ;
Spodiopogon laniger, No. 8845 B. of Wallich’s Catalogue, Nepal,
1821, being there referred to a new genus, “ Hriantho affine.”
In 1850 I found it stacked in large quantities on the bank of
the Ganges at Bhojpur and Monger in Behar, where the owners
ealled it Saba, SAma, and Sabar, and informed me that it was
brought down from the Rajmahal Hills, south, and from those
of Tirhut, north—the localities specified by Dr. Hamilton.
Dr. Royle (Illustrations, p. 416) states that Spodiopogon laniger
is “one of the grasses found in the northern as in the southern
parts of India.” In Kumaon it occurs as far in the mountains
as Almorah, and up to an elevation of 5000 feet, flowering in
April. Mr. Edgeworth informs me that it is abundant in the
rdos or hot-water courses of the Sewalik and lower ranges of the
Himalaya in the Pinjor Dun, below Simla, up to 3000 feet ;
there, as throughout Northern India, it is termed Ban (a word
which in Shakespeare’s Hindustani Dictionary is erroneously
identified with Munj), and is well known as a common material
for making rope, which is much used, especially for the bottoms
of beds and similar purposes. Dr. Royle adds that Eragrostis
(Poa) cynosuroides is employed for rope-making: under the
names Darbh (Dabh) and Kusa, it plays an important part in
the religious ceremonies of the Brahmans, and, when young, it is
a favourite food of cattle; but any other destination has not

408 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

fallen under my observation. Eriophorum (Trichophorum) co-
mosum, Wall., cannabinum, Royle, called Babar and Baib, and
Saccharum (Erianthus) Munja, also yield excellent material for
cordage (the latter requiring the preliminary process of being
pounded) ; but we are indebted to Dr. Hamilton for having in-
dicated the importance of Spodiopogon laniger as supplying one
of the textile articles of Indian produce.

Kshir Kangkri, or Titi Pirald ; a Lilium or Pancratium (p. 86).

No. 855. Pancratium sylvestre. Titi Piralu montanorum,
Hindice. Habitat in sylvis Nepale inferioris. (Marked in the
margin Allium cumaria.) From Chatera, April 1810. There
is no specimen in the Herbarium, but Wallich believed it to be
his No. 8974, P. verecundum. Dr. Hooker met “a very sweet-
scented Crinum” in the Sikkim Tarai, perhaps identical with this.

Dr. Royle (Illustr. p. 374) has a Crinum (C. Himalense)
from Mansar, in the interior of the Himalaya; and the late Dr.
M‘Gregor assured me that he had found one wild in the valleys
near Sabathu.

Dr. Hamilton, however, states that the true Titipiralu (which
signifies the bitter bulb or Colocasia) consisted of the dried
scales of a tuberous root, having every appearance of being a
species of Lilium. Of this genus, as well as of Fritillaria, many
species inhabit Nepal, and among them L. japonicum, sometimes
called L. Wallichianum, known in Kuméon as Findora, a corrup-
tion of Pindalu. ‘The bulb-scales of Lilium japonicum dried
are said to be employed in China, like salep, im pectoral com-
plaints.” (Royle, Illustr. 388. Figured, Wight’s Icones, t. 2035.)

According to some of his informants, the Kshir Kangkri is
one of the Cucurbitacee; this is borne out by the signification
‘juice of the cucumber ; perhaps C. Hardwickii, which is called
Air-alu in Kumaon, and Pahari Indrayan, Hill Colocynth, in
Garhwal, from its bitterness. Royle, t. 47. f. 3.

Amomum: Desi Elachi, large Nepal Cardamom, with mem-
branous angles (pp. 74, 75).

No. 13. Amomum? aromaticum, Hort. Beng. 1; Roxb. Fl.
Ind. i. 44. Alaichi montanorum in Nepala. Colitur inter
montes Nepal. (To this is added at a subsequent date),—To
this probably belonged the specimen received from Surat, which
Linneus considered as the true Cardamomum. (Linn. Trans. x.
252.)

There is no specimen in the Herbarium. In Dr. Christison’s
valuable collection of Materia Medica, this species is named
“Java Cardamom, Pereira, ed. iii. p. 1135. From Amomum
maximum, Roxb, Java and Bengal.” I observed it exposed for
sale in considerable quantities at Barmdée, a mart on the western
frontier of Nepal, where it was said to come from Doti, a pro-

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 4.09

vince bordering Kumaon to the east. Roxburgh (/. ¢.) describes
Amomum aromaticum, Morang Elachi, as a native of the valleys
on the eastern frontier of Bengal, with an ovate capsule, the
size of a large nutmeg; those of Doti are much smaller.

“ Singgiya Bikh or Bish (of the lower mountains and hills,
p- 98), much celebrated among the mountaimeers. The plant
was brought to me in flower, but was entirely male; nor did I
see the fruit, which is said to be a berry. So far as I can judge
from these circumstances, I suppose that it is a species of Smilax
with ternate leaves. To pass over several of its qualities that
are marvellous, the root, which resembles a yam, is said to be a
violent poison. The berries also are said to be deleterious, but
when applied externally are considered as a cure for the goitre,”
p- 87.

No. 2219. Smilax? virosa. Singgiya Bish vel Bikh monta-
norum, Hindice. Habitat in Nepale montibus. Identified by
Wallich with No. 5099 of his Catalogue, Dioscorea virosa, which
Dr. Royle informs us occurs also in Garhwal and Sirmur under
the name of Ramberee (the divine Zizyphus). It is remarkable
in this genus from having its stems furnished with aculei; and
Dr. Royle calls our attention to the fact that this species, with
D. triphylla, pentaphylla, and demona, all with compound leaves,
are distinguished by the acridity of their tubers*. Singgiya a
Bikh, signifying ‘horned poison,’ alludes to their curved form
in D. virosat.

No. 220. Smilax? narcotica. Bharbang montanorum, Hin-
dice. Habitat in Nepala inferiore ad montium radices.

This is identified by Wallich with the preceding.

* Roxburgh (iii. 806) and Graham (Cat. of Bombay Plants, p. 218) agree
that the tubers of D. pentaphylla are wholesome, and used as an esculent.
Graham tells us that the root of D. triphylla, ‘‘imtoxicating and intensely
bitter,”’ is often sliced and infused in toddy to render it more potent. It
occurs in Kumaéon as high as 6000 feet; D. demona, with equally nauseous
tubers, only reaches to 3000.

The root Charmaghas, so often mentioned in the Sanscrit dictionaries,
has not been identified. I found it sold at Barmdee by the Nepalese
traders; but my specimens were destroyed by the ‘ Fish insect,’ Lepisma
saccharina, the scourge of our Indian libraries and herbaria. It may be the
Sham, or root of Cherophyllum esculentum, mentioned in Royle’s ‘ Ilus-
trations,’ which is probably the Chamaas, “‘a wild edible root used as a
relish” by the people of Rol, near the Shatul Pass, Basehar (Lloyd and
Gerard, i. 293). The S. ndlika implies a plant with a tubular stem: sap-
tala, having seven leaves.

+ The vernacular Sing, ‘a horn,’ softened from the Sanscrit Sringa, gives
the origin of the Arabic and Persian word for ginger, Zinjabil, from which _
the Greek Zingiberis is derived. The common source of all is the Sanserit
Sringavéram, signifying ‘antler-shaped;’ and it is remarkable that this
classical name, as well as that (Naiada) from which the ancients formed
their term (Nardos) for spikenard, is no longer used in the Indian dialects,
being superseded by some of the many synonyms,

410 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

Pinus Picea,W. Common Spruce Fir. Hingwal Ka Ch’hota
Saral, 7. e. Small Alpine Pine, pp. 83-96.

No. 2064. Pinus striata: Pinus Picea, Hamilton’s Nepal, 83,
96. Hingwal Ka Ch’hota Saral (Alpium parva Pinus), Hindice.
Habitat in Nepal alpibus. On the label, “ leaves very odorous.”
This is Pieea Webbiana, and is identified by Wallich, No, 5058
(for 6058), Pinus Webbiana: P. striata, Ham.

Neither Wallich nor Hamilton has the Himalayan Spruce
(Abies Smithiana, or Morinda) from Nepal; it is also absent
from Kumaon, but is common both east and west of these pro-
vinces.

P. excelsa is figured by Wall. Pl. As. Rar. iti. t. 201; but
t. 246, P. Smithiana, errs nm exhibiting the cones erect.

Catalogue, No. 2063. Pinus Strobus. Gobiya Saral monta-
norum, Hindice. Habitat in Nepali alpibus. (The native name
belongs to the Jast.) Weymouth Pine, p. 83. Pius excelsa,
which is very near to P. Strobus. In Lambert’s ‘Deseription of
the genus Pinus, it is characterized as follows :— This species
approaches so near in habit and in the figure of its cones to
P. Strobus, that were it not for the simple round membranous
crest of the anthers, it would be almost impossible to distin-
guish their limits as distinct species. The leaves of this species
are considerably longer than those of P. Strobus, and the cones
larger.” P. Strobus has “ antherarum crista omnium minima é
setis duabus erectis brevissimis.” Mr. D. Moore of Glasnevin
informed me that it is, in Ireland, less hardy than P. excelsa.
A variety of this in our Horticultural Society’s Garden, with
short leaves, removes one of the differences on which Lambert
relies. Colonel Markham (Shooting in the Himalaya, 213, 214)
says that, in Kunwar, “torches are made from the Cheel Pine,
which, being full of turpentine, burns beautifully, and gives a
capital light. la ipsa rk The gum of the Cheel is held in great
estimation for its healing qualities throughout the hills.” So
Hooker, Journals, ii. 45.

The Salla of Dr. Hamilton is Pinus longifolia, also called
Chir, a species occasionally introduced into our Pineta, but
quite unfitted to endure the severity of our winters, being a
semi-tropical plant.

It is observable that Dr. Hamilton nowhere mentions the
Deodar, which he could scarcely have failed to procure had it
been indigenous to Nepal. When in India, with very scanty
materials for an opinion, I came to the conclusion that we have
no evidence of its existence till we come to Garhwal, though it
is usually quoted as a native of Nepal: a reference to Dr. Wal-
lich’s Catalogue establishes the correctness of this conclusion,
for under his No. 5060 (for 6050?) we have “Pinus Deodara,

from the Kingdom of Nepdl. 41]

Roxb. a Kamaon, R. B. (Robert Blnkworth). ? 8. ex horto
quodam ad Patan in Nepalia, 1821.” But even in Kumaon,
where fine groves occur, the tree is clearly introduced.

Juniperus: Dhupi. Alpine Nepal. No. 2280. Juniperus
sguamosa. Dhupi montanorum, Hindice. Hamilton’s Nepal,
96. Habitat ad Emodi nives: labelled, “Thibet Hills.” So
Wallich, No. 6043. J. squamosa, Ham. Gosainthén, Chur.
The common species of the Himalaya, with considerable diver-
sity as found in the dry or the rainy districts. The description
of the Dhupi in the ‘ Account of Nepal,’ p. 96, can, however,
only agree with Juniperus excelsa: “A very large tree.” “ Its
wood has a beautiful grain, a fine mahogany colour, and a re-
markably pleasant scent, a good deal resembling that of the
pencil Cedar, but stronger, and I think more agreeable. Planks
of this are sent to Thibet, from whence they are probably carried
to China.” Dhup signifies ‘ incense.’

Juniperus: alow bush; Thumuriya Dhupi. “ Branches and
leaves have an agreeable smell, and are used in fumigations,”

; 6:

' No. 2279. Juniperus? incurva. Thumuriya Dhupi monta-
norum, Hindice. Hamilton’s Nepal, 96. Habitat ad Emodi
nives. No. 6042, Wallich. Juniperus recurva, Ham., identified
with his J. recurva. Gosainthan. Dr. Hamilton’s specimen
quite resembles some of the north-western forms of J. sqguamosa,
and has neither the hue nor the pendulous branchlets of the J.
recurva of our collections, which is certainly not a native of the
British Himalaya. Dr. Hooker (Journals, 11. 28, 45) calls it
the weeping Blue Juniper, and figures it as a tree 30 feet high,
in Upper Sikkim, but comparatively scarce.

Catalogue, No. 2067. Cupressus sempervirens. Bhairopati,
Hamilton’s Nepal, 97. Habitat in Nepal alpibus. Labelled,
“ Brought from the alps of Thibet: said-to be a shrub.” (“Its
dried leaves have a disagreeable sulphureous smell,” p. 97.) The
name is here given, ‘ Bhaingropati;’? and in p. 97, Bhairopati
(i. e. Siva’s leaf) is said to be a Rhododendron. Wallich
(No. 6041) identifies Dr. Hamilton’s specimen with Juniperus
excelsa; and has Cupressus torulosa (No. 6046) only from Niti
in Garhwal. I have stated elsewhere, on the authority of the
late Mr. J. E. Winterbottom, that he had obtained it from
Gosainthan in Nepal; but he subsequently discovered that his
specimens were those of a Juniper. Dr. Hamilton’s plant has
the branches four-sided, agreeing with Don’s “ quadrifariam
imbricatis” of C. torulosa (Prod. Fl. Nep. 55) and with my own
observation. Lambert says, “ramulis teretibus,” perhaps from
a young state of the plant.

Hingwal Ka bara Saral: the Yew, according to Dr. Hamilton,

amt. Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Planis

confirmed by his specimen No, 2281. YVaxus baccata falcata.
Yew-tree, Anglorum. Hingwal Ka bara Saral montanorum,
Hind. Hamilton’s Nepal, 83, 96, 117. Habitat in Nepale
alpibus. The name signifies ‘great Alpine Pine,’ and is cer-
tainly misapplied, probably by the carelessness of the collectors ;
as ‘small Alpine Pine’ cannot belong to Picea Webbiana. They
have most likely been interchanged.

Zuccarini* constitutes a distinct species (Taxus Wallichiana)
for the Himalayan Yew ; but though the leaves are more curved,
and the berries smaller than in our European tree, the difference
is 80 trifling, that, with our knowledge of such a marked variety
as the Irish Yew generally reproducing the common form, a new
species seems uncalled for. Dr. Hooker (Journals, ii. 25) holds
that the Himalayan, the North American, and several connect-
ing links, all belong to Taxus baccata; he tells us (i. 186) that
the red bark is used as a dye, and for staining the foreheads of
the Brahmans in Nepal. The timber found by Layard in the
palaces of Nineveh, and pronounced by him to be Cedar, is in
reality Yew.

Dr. Wallich (No. 6054, and Tent. Flor. Nep. t. 44. p. 57)
identifies Taxus baccata falcata of Nepal with Taxus nucifera of
Kaempfer from Japan, an oversight which has been set night by
Zuccarini, as well as by the fact that no one has hitherto de-
tected that plant or other Taxus in any part of the Himalaya.
Dr. Wallich has indeed, in “ No. 6056, Taxus? Lambertiana,
Wall. Pini spec. Wall. Herb. 1824. Himalaya, Webb, Govan,
Kamroop.” No specimen exists in the collection here; but
from Lambert’s genus Pinus iii. t. 67, we know it to be Pinus
(Picea) Pindrow. “ Dr. Wallich, who had seen neither flowers
nor fruit, supposing it to be a Taxus, has doubtfully referred it
to that genus under the name of Taxus Lambertiana, in the
Catalogue of his Herbarium. It does not appear to have been
found in Nepal, but is frequent in the countries to the west-
ward, having been observed in Kumaon by Captain W. 8. Webb,
and in Sirmore and Garhwal by Drs. Govan and Royle.” Dr.
Thomson (Western Himalaya and Tibet, p. 86) considers it
one species with Picea Webbiana : “The long green-leaved state
is that of the moist Himalaya; in the driest regions the very
short glaucous-leaved form occurs.” The Himdlayan chain
from Kumaon to Baséhar on the Indian face is annually
drenched with rain; and still more the various detached out-
liers, Dudutoli, Chur, &c., rising above 11,000 feet. Every-
where in this tract, so far as my observation extends, the Pin-

* Morphology of the Conifers, 52, 53, in Reports and Papers on Botany,
printed for the Ray Society, London, 1846.

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 413

drow alone will be found up to about that elevation, when in a
few hundred feet it yields to P. Webbiana. Owing to this lofty
habitat, P. Webbiana is stimulated into premature growth by
our early springs, and often cut down by subsequent frosts ;
the Pindrow, though from a lower zone, is not liable to this
accident.

The preparation of a kind of tea from the Yew-tree is, I think,
peculiar to the Himalaya, and it is remarkable that so dangerous
a plant should have been selected. Col. Markham (Shooting
in the Himalaya, p. 115) thus describes its use in Kashmir:
“There is a capital substitute for tea, in the inner bark of the
Yew-tree, dried and prepared like tea. The colour is perfect ;
but I never could find much taste in the infusion, although one
of my friends once said that he liked it better than tea.” It is
for this reason that, in Kunawar, Taxus baccata is called Sang-
cha= Sang fea, perhaps connected with the name of the moun-
tain Sung-lo in Kiangnan, “ famous in China as being the place
where the green tea shrub was first discovered, and where green
tea was first manufactured*.”

Of the popular idea of the great age attained by this tree, I
met with a curious illustration im 1851, when an Irish gardener
repeated the following as being an ancient composition taught
him by old people. Three years being the age assigned to the
unit, the total comes to 2187 :—

Tri saoghail muic, saoghal con ;
Tri saoghail con, —_—saoghal eich ;
Tri saoghail eich, — saoghal aufhir ;
Tri saoghail aufhir, saoghal seade ;
Tri saoghail seade, saoghal iolair ;
Tri saoghail iolair, saoghal au iur.

In English.
Three lives of a pig = life of a dog;
Three lives of adog = life of a horse ;
Three lives of a horse = life of a man;
Three lives of aman = life of a path (or furrow) ;

Three lives of a path = life of an eagle ;
Three lives of an eagle = life of a yew.

[To be continued. |

* Fortune’s Tea Countries of China, 86.

414 = Dr. J. E. Gray on a new Subgenus of Helicinade.

XXXV.—Notice of a New Subgenus of Helicinade.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.

THERE is an inclination, in several groups of Marine Univalve
Mollusca, for the animal to form a more or less deep notch or
fissure on the hinder part of the outer lip, as in the genera
Pleurotoma, Amphibola, Pleurotomaria, and Siliquaria; this
notch appears to be formed to facilitate the entrance and exit of
the water from the respiratory chamber. Sometimes the slit, or
a series of holes which may be considered as an interrupted slit,
is placed more in front, as in Haliotis ; or when the shell is sym-
metrical, as in Hmarginula, it is in the centre of the front edge.
Some shells which are normally destitute of this notch are liable
to a malformation exhibiting it, as is the case in the common
Littorina littorea.

I had never observed any indication of such a conformation
in any terrestrial mollusk until Mr. Damon of Weymouth kindly
showed to me some specimens of a species of Helicina he had
received from Cuba, under the name of Trochatella regina, which
have this notch most_perfectly developed, and as it indicates a
peculiar structure in the animal, I propose to separate it from
the group hitherto recognized in the family Helicinada, as a
distinct subgenus. Dr. Pfeiffer has considered it as forming a
peculiar section of the genus Trochatella, but none of the other
species of that genus show any inclination to this peculiarity.

I may here remark, that some species of this family have a
notch or very narrow slit in the front of the outer lip near the
axis, but this slit appears to have no relation to the notches or
slit referred to in the other genera, being merely formed by a
process in the front of the outer edge of the operculum, a pecu-
liarity I have not observed in any other family of Mollusks,

HAPATA.

Shell conical, subglobose ; spire conical, acute, whorls striated ;
aperture semiovate; outer lip expanded, with a deep sinus in
front and a deep wide notch in the hinder part of the outer edge.
Pillar-lip callous, straight in front, without any anterior slit.
Operculum half-ovate, annular, thin, horny; nucleus in the
middle of the inner straight edge; covered internally with a
thick, smooth, shelly, callous coat.

Hapata regina = Trochatella regina, Pfeiffer, Pneum. Mon.328;
Cat. Phanerop. Brit. Mus. 236.

Hab. Cuba.

Zoological Society. 415

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
November 27, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

On Panopxa ALpROVANDI, Lam.
By S. P. Woopwarp, F.G.S.

The specimen of Panopea Aldrovandi, preserved in spirits, and now
exhibited to the Zoological Society, was presented by Capt. Guise to
the Gloucester Museum, and was lent me for examination through

the kindness of J. W. Wilton, Esq., of Gloucester.

*

Panop2&A ALDROVANDI, Lam.

(Chama glycimeris, Aldr.)
One-fourth natural size.

a, a’, Adductor muscles.

Pp, p', Pedal muscles.

r, Position of renal organ.

t, Labial tentacles, or palpi.

6, Body.

JF, Muscular foot.

m, Pallial muscle, or retractor of

the mantle.
8, Siphonal muscle.

The arrows indicate the inhalant,
or branchial siphon, and the exhalant
or anal siphon, communicating with
the channels above the gills.

This species is found at Sicily, and on the south coasts of Spain

and Portugal; but not, so far as we are aware, at Mogador or the
Canaries.

416 Zoological Society :—

On the coast of Sicily, according to M. Philippi, it is rare, and
only found between La Trezza and Aci Castello. M. H. Crosse,
who purposely visited this locality, found a rocky beach in which it
could not possibly live, and the only spot where the fishermen were
acquainted with it was the village of Giardini, near the sandy bay of
Taormina; even there only odd valves were procured, and he says it
would be exceedingly difficult to obtain the animal on account of the
absence of tides*.

Capt. Guise has favoured me with the following note :—

“The Panopea was collected, together with many of the rarest
forms of Mediterranean Mollusca, by the Rev. L. Larking, on the
coast of Sicily ; the animal, when alive in a vessel of sea-water, was
a most lively mollusk—slashing its siphons about, and discharging
the water with the force of a piston.”

There appears to be no description of the animal published.
Philippi had not seen it, nor Valenciennes, at the time he wrote the
monograph of the genus for Chenu’s ‘ Conchological Illustrations.’
Being the type of the genus Panopea, I was the more desirous of
examining it, especially as British naturalists have taken their notion
of Panopea from the British shell called “‘ Panopea Norvegica”’—
which it now appears does not belong to the genus, or even to the
same family, but must be referred to Saxicava amongst the Gastro-
chenide.

In P. Aldrovandi all the visible portion of the mantle and the
long united siphons are clothed with thick, brown epidermis, striped
with black, and very much wrinkled by the contraction of the animal
in aleohol: it was impossible, without dissection, to see whether the
orifices of the siphons were fringed as in Mya, The anterior gape of
the shell exhibits an oval space, perforated in the centre by a small
pedal orifice, scarcely large enough to admit the little finger.

By lifting up one valve and removing the portion of the mantle
within the pallial line, the internal organs were seen and sketched.

The body is large and oval, suspended by four muscles whose
attachments are close to those of the adductors; it is truncated in
front, where it supports a small finger-like muscular foot ; behind it
is produced into a blunt point.

The oral palpi are triangular and pointed, but were probably larger
and broader during life; they are deeply plaited inside, with a plain
posterior border.

The gills are two on each side; the inner gills extend from the
base of the respiratory siphon to the palpi, between which they are
received ; they are deeply plaited, the plaits being in pairs, and the
lower edge of the gill is grooved. The inner dorsal margins are not
united to the body, so that the dorsal channels are only closed by
the apposition of the parts.

The outer gills are simpler in structure, being formed of a single
series of vascular loops placed one behind another ; the free edge is
not grooved, and the gill terminates in front some way behind the

* Journ. Conch. vol. ii. 1851.

Mr. 8S. P. Woodward on Panopzea Aldrovandi. 417

inner gill. The dorsal margin of the outer lamina is expanded be-
ond the line of suspension, and is fixed.

The gills of the opposite sides are united to each other behind the
body and to the branchial septum.

The whole structure is closely like that of Mya arenaria, the
chief differences being the shortness of the palpi, and the inequality
of the gills.

There are nine other reputed recent species of Panopea.

1. P. apspreviaTa, Val.; discovered by M. d’Orbigny on the
coast of Patagonia between the R. Negro and 8. Blas. This shell
appears to have been again met with by the U. 8. Exploring Expe-
dition, under Commander Wilkes, and is described by Dr. Gould as
P. antarctica.

2. P. zELANDICcA, Quoy ; of which an odd valve only was picked
up on the beach.

3. P. soranpri, Gray; probably the same as the last.

4. P. ausrrauis, G. Sby. (Genera of Shells, pl. 40. f. 2), one of
G. Humphrey’s shells from New South Wales; of which there is a
series in the British Museum, from Tasmania.

5. P. ausrrauis, Val. (not Sowerby’s).

This species is as large as P. Aldrovandi, and very like it. Being
quite distinct from the P. australis of Sowerby, it is proposed to call
it P. natalensis.

It was discovered in the sandy bays of Port Natal, by Capt. Cecile
and the officers of the French frigate ‘Heroine,’ who observed the
tubes of the shell-fish projecting through the sand at low water.

*‘The sailors endeavoured to draw the creature out of its habita-
tion by the tube, but in vain; for the siphons, after offering con-
siderable resistance, in every instance gave way, and often were with-
drawn entire, in spite of the grasp of its persecutor. Curious to
know the nature of the being which thus escaped them, they dug for
it with spades, and at length uncovered the Panopea buried several
feet below the surface of the sand, and gregarious*.”

6. Panorama saponica, A. Adams, Zool. Proc. for 1849, p. 170.
pl. 6. f.5. This species, of which the original and unique example
is in the Leyden Museum, is much like the fossil P. intermedia of
the London clay.

7. PANOPHA GENEROSA, Gould; Puget Sound, Oregon. (U.S.
Expl. Exped.)

8. Panorp#a Norvecica, Spengler, is found throughout the
Arctic seas, from Behring’s Straits to Newfoundland, the North Sea
and Russian Lapland.

I was so convinced of the affinity of this shell to the Savicava, that
(in my Manual) I placed the latter genus next to Panopea ; it now
appears that I should have left it in its former place with Gastro-
chena and have removed the Panopea norvegica to it. The shell
differs from Panopea in having the pallial line broken up or divided

* Forbes, i. p. 174, from Valenciennes’ Archives du Muséum, t. i. 1839.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 27

418 Zoological Society :—

into a number of separate spots, and the animal has very long taper-
ing gills, prolonged far into the branchial siphon.

9. PANop&®A MIDDENDORFFII, A. Adams, Zool. Proc. for 1854,
p- 137. Arctic Seas. (Haslar Museum.) Appears to be a variety
of P. norvegica.

The Geographical Distribution of the genus Panopea affords an
illustration of the rule, or “law,” so earnestly investigated by the
late Prof. E. Forbes,—that the range of genera, as well as of species,
depends in great measure on their geological antiquity; and that
when the members of a group are scattered over the greater part of
the world, we may expect to find evidence of their existence in the
intervening spaces during a former age. M. d’Orbigny describes
139 extinct species of Panopea, commencing in the Permian age,
and occurring in every part of the world where secondary or tertiary
strata have been found.

December 11, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

Cuaracters or Two New SrecigEs oF TANAGERS.
By Puruie Lutvey Scuater, M.A.

1. DuBUSIA AURICRISSA.
Dubusia eyanocephala? Sclater, P. Z. S. 1855, p. 157.

D. supra flavescenti-olivaceo-viridis : capite nuchaque ceruleis :
loris nigris : subtus cerulescenti-cinerea: tectricibus subalari-
bus et ventre imo crissaque cum tibiis vivide aureo-lavis.

Long. tota 6°5, alee 3°6, caudze 5:0.

Hab. in Nova Grenada, Bogota.

Obs. Species D. cyanocephale simillima, sed rostro minore, colore
dorsi flavescentiore olivaceo, capitis ceeruleo magis extenso, yentre
ceerulescenti- neque albescenti-cinereo, et tectricibus subalaribus nec-
non ventre imo crissoque cum tibiis vivide aureo-flavis.

Since compiling the list of Bogota birds, in which I have included
this species under the name Dubusia cyanocephala’, 1 have examined
D’Orbigny’s types of that bird in the Paris Museum, and find them
so different from the present as to lead me to conclude that they are
specifically distinct. :

The present bird—which must be considered as the representative
of D. cyanocephala in the mountain ranges of New Grenada—is com-
mon in collections from Bogota. The British Museum contains ex-
amples of both the species. Those of D. cyanocephala were procured
by Mr. Bridges in Bolivia.

2. In1DORNIS PORPHYROCEPHALA.
Tanagra analis, Tschudi in Mus. Berolinensi.

I, supra purpurea, dorso imo et marginibus alarum et caude virides-
centibus : fronte, loris, mento summo et regione auriculari nigris :
gutture late et lete aureo-flavo: pectore summo purpurascente:
ventre viridescente, medialiter rufescenti-ochraceo : ano intense -

Dr. J. E. Gray on the genus Assiminia. 419

Serruginescenti-castaneo : tectricibus alarum inferioribus virides-
centibus : rostro superiore nigro, inferiore albo.
Long. tota 5:6, alee 3°0, caudee 2°2.
Hab. in Nova Grenada et rep. Equatoriana.
Obs. Affinis Iridornithi anali, sed capite dorsoque summo purpu-
reis, pectore purpurascente et ventre viridescente facile distinguenda.
When at Berlin in 1854 I first noticed a specimen of this Tanager,
which is in the Museum there under the name “ Tanagra analis,
Tschudi.” But having just before that had the opportunity of ex-
amining type specimens of the latter bird in the collections of
Brussels and Bremen, I saw at once that the present was to all
appearance a distinct although closely allied species, and accord-
ingly assigned to it a new name in my MS. At Neufchatel I
again saw T'schudi’s analis (the types described in the Fauna Peruana
being contained in the Museum at that place), and I was also so
‘fortunate as to obtain by exchange, through the courtesy of M. Cou-
lon, the Directeur of the Museum there, a duplicate example of
that species. Upon comparing this with a skin lately received by
Mr. Gould along with other birds from the neighbourhood of Quito,
I find the same differences as I had previously noted in the Berlin
Museum specimen; and, fortified by a second example, no longer
hesitate to introduce the bird as new to science under the title of
Iridornis porphyrocephala.

February 12, 1856.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

On THE Genus AssimIniA (Leac#).
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., P.B.S. etc.

In a list of some species of British shells at the end of an arrange-
ment of Mollusca in the ‘London Medical Repository’ for 1821 (vol. xv.
p- 239), I noticed a new mollusk under the name of “ Nerita (Syncera)
hepatica, u.s. The animal of this shell differs from all others of this
order by the eyes appearing to be at the end of the tentacula, but I
believe that they are placed on a peduncle as long as the tentacula,
and the peduncle and tentacula are soldered together.”’

Dr. Leach, when he examined the animal of this shell, formed it
into a genus under the name of Assiminia, and named the species
after myself as 4. Grayana, described under this name at the end of
the genus Limnea, in Fleming’s ‘ British Animals,’ p. 275 (1828),
who observes, ‘‘ Dr. Leach sent me several years ago a shell from
_ Greenwich marshes, constituting a new freshwater genus, under the

titie Assiminia Grayana. ‘The lip is thickened on the pillar and re-
flected over the cavity, but is destitute of the oblique fold, and the
lip does not extend over the body whorl. The colour is brown ;
whorls six in number, conical, regularly increasing in size, glossy,
with minute lines of growth. Length about ,%,ths of an inch.”

~ In my paper “On the Difficulty of distinguishing certain genera of
Testaceous Mollusca by their Shells alone, and on the Anomalies in
regard to Habitation observed in certain species,” published in the
_* Philosophical Transactions’ for 1835, p. 301, I observe: ‘‘ About

27*

420 Zoological Society :—

fifteen years since I first observed in the marshes near the bank of
the Thames, between Greenwich and Woolwich, in company with
species of Valvata, Bithynia and Pisidium, a small univalve shell,
agreeing with the smaller species of the littoral genus Littorina in
every character both of shell and operculum. Yet this very pecu-
liar and, apparently, local species has an animal which at once distin-
guishes it from the animal of that genus and from all Ctenobranchous
Mollusea. Its tentacula are very short and thick, and have the eyes
placed at their tips, while the Littorine, and all the other animals
of the order to which they belong, have their eyes placed on small
tubercles on the outer side of the base of the tentacles, which are
generally more or less elongated. The shell in question and its
animal were described and figured by Dr. Leach in his hitherto un-
published work on British Mollusca, under the name of Assiminia
Grayana, and as this name has been referred to by Mr. Jeffreys and
other conchologists, it may be regarded as established, and that of
Syncera hepatica, proposed by myself in the ‘ Medical Repository,’
vol. x. p. 239, will take rank as a synonym. A second species of
this genus has lately been made known by Mr. Benson, by whom it
was found on the ponds in India. Its shell is banded like that of
Littorina 4-fasciata and several other smaller Littorine, and has
been figured in the Supplement to ‘ Wood’s Conchology,’ t. 6, f. 28,
under the name of Turbo Francesie.”

In my edition of ‘Turton’s Manual,’ 1840, p. 88, I characterize
the genus thus :—Assiminia: Shell ovate, conical, solid; mouth
ovate; tentacles very short, scarcely longer than the tubercles on
which the eyes are placed, and united to their side, p. 78, f. 4, 5, 6,
observing, ‘‘the animal differs from Littorina in the apparent posi-
tion of the eyes, which is an anomaly among the water and Cteno-
branchous Mollusca ;” and after quoting Mr. Berkeley’s description
of the tentacula I observe,—‘‘ I am inclined to retain my former
theory, for if the pedicel of the eye of this genus is minutely exa-
mined, it will appear to be formed of two parts united by a suture.’

In 1852, having obtained permission of the family, I printed
Dr. Leach’s ‘ Molluscorum Britannize Synopsis’ above referred to,
and he there described the genus—‘‘AssimintA. Testa conica,
spira mediocris. Animal tentaculis duobus brevibus, apice paulo
angustioribus obtusis, ad apicem oculigeris, instructum ; oculi parvi,
rotundi; operculum tenue.”

“From the form of the shell this genus might be considered as
belonging to the second stirps (testa conica, spira brevis), but the
animal proves that it is more nearly allied to Sabanea than to any
other of the British genera.” (p. 155. t. 9. f. 4, 5.)

Lately some doubt has been attempted to be thrown on the
distinctness of the genus, which it has been proposed should be
united to the genus 7runcatella of Risso.

Considering the very great similarity which often exists in the
general appearance of the animals of very distinct genera of Mollusca,
—a similarity so great, that if a person was to place before me, without
the shell or operculum, the animal of the genera Murew, Triton, Pur-

Dr. J. E. Gray on the genus Assiminia. 421

pura, Fasciolaria, Columbella, &c., I should not be able to distinguish
one from the other without the examination of the teeth or the lin-
gual membrane, and that would only enable me to separate Triton,
Cassis and Fasciolaria from each other and from Murex, Purpura and
Columbellia, and not the three latter genera from each other; and it is
the same with the animals of several other orders and families ;—

Fig, 2.

SE

'é

4
a
1. Truncatella truncatula B. 2. Assiminia Grayana.
a. With foot extended, in the act of a. Under side of animal and shell.
drawing up the shell. b. Side view.

6. Side view. ec. Front of foot, showing how the
e. Seen beneath as crawling up a lower lamina of the foot pro-
glass, when the muzzle is ex- jects beyond the upper.

serted.

yet the animals of the two genera Assiminia and Truncatella (see
figs. 1 and 2) proposed to be united, are so unlike in general ap-
pearance, minute structure and habit, that it is extraordinary that
any person should have made the proposal.

I think the best way to show the distinction of these two genera
will be to copy, in addition to the extract already given, the figures
(see figs. 1 and 2) and descriptions of the animals given in different
authors, commencing with Mr. Lowe, who has figured and described
the animal of Truncatella in the fifth volume of the ‘ Zoological
Journal,’ and Mr. Berkeley’s description and figure of the animal of
Assiminia ; then the description of the animal of the Indian species
of the latter genus, both printed in the volume above referred to;
and, lastly, some extracts of additional peculiarity of the genus
Truncatella, observed by Mr. Clark, and published in his work on
British Mollusca.

“1, TruncaTeLuA. R.T. Lowe, Zool. Journ. v. 299. t.19. f. 4.

**Tentacula (2 contractilia) cylindrico-conica, brevia, obtusa, basi
distincta, proboscide sepurata; oculis sessilibus paullo supra basis
angulum externum positis. Caput proboscidiforme exsertum. Os
ad extremitalem proboscidis cylindrice, inter tentacula exserte,
disciformem, supra emarginatam (sc. bilobam, ob buccas labiales in
proboscidem ipsam coadunatas vel commutatas). Pallium collare
siphone nullo; orificio ad dextrum corporis ut in Helice, Melam-
pode, Pedipede, Sc. Pes rotundatus vel ovalis, brevis, minimus,
posticus. Operculum corneum simplex, i.e. non spirale, ovale,
aperturam teste omnino claudens. Testa turrita; adulta cylin-

422 Zoological Society :—

drica, decollata vel truncato-obtusa ; anfractibus distinctis, vel
levibus vel transverse costatis. Apertura ovalis, brevis ; peri-
tremate continuo. Labrum simplex. Epidermis nulla.

Animal littorale, amphibium, sed revera marinum et branchiis
spirans. Ingredienti, discus terminalis proboscidis pro pedis parte
antica servit; itaque modo fere larvarum Phalenidarum Geome-
trarum gradibus alternis incedit. Testa junior, tereti-acuminata,
e pluribus anfractibus quam adulta constat; prioribus in plerisque
demum (ut in Hel. Bulimo decollato) defractis, truncata evadit.

“It is now nearly three years (1829) since the acquisition of a single
live specimen of Cyclostoma truncatulum, Drap., and a long and
continued observation of its animal, convinced me that it was entitled
to rank as a distinct genus from any which were then constituted.
I had accordingly designated it in my MSS. by the generic name of
Herpetometra ; derived from its peculiar manner of crawling. This
appellation I had since purposed changing into Truncatella, the very
name by which I find the self-same species designated by Risso in
his ‘Histoire Nat. &c. de Europe Méridionale.’ In this work,
however, the genus rests, like very many others of the same writer,
on most unsubstantial ground, the animal being entirely neglected.”

« Assrminta. Berkeley, Zool. Journ. v. 429. t. 19. f. 4.

“ Voluta denticulata, Mont. (Carychium Myosotis, Michaud,
Compl. de histoire de Drapard.), and Assiminia Grayana, Leach,
abound under stones in the salt marshes by the Thames at Gravesend,
Having an opportunity of examining both in a living state in the
summer of 1832, I was surprised to find manifest indications that
both were pulmoniferous, which were confirmed on a minute inspec-
tion of the internal structure, as far as perhaps could be expected in
such small animals. I was enabled in the former to trace distinetl
the course of the vessels, and was decidedly of opinion that the lungs
were constructed for the breathing of air unmixed with water. In
the other case I was not so successful, though the utmost pains were
taken; but as the animal is only half the size, the difficulty was much
increased. I am enabled, however, to assert, that I could detect
nothing like branchize ; and what is more to the point, that the vault -
of the cavity of respiration was traversed by a multitude of minute
vessels all tending one way towards a large vessel ramming down in
the direction of the heart, which is exactly the structure in pulmo-
niferous Mollusca. This, perhaps, will be esteemed as decisive when
the external characters of the animal are taken into consideration.”

** ASSIMINIA GRAYANA.

“ Foot broadly obovate, obtuse, composed evidently of two distinct
laminze, the lower projecting beyond the upper, and separated from
it by an accurately defined line; above fuseous, beneath olivaceous,
shaded with cinereous. Tentacula very short and obtuse, fuscous ;
eyes at the tips. Muzzle porrected, not truly proboscidiform, deeply
notched in front, fuscous, strongly annulated; the edge of the lip
paler ; on each side is a groove running backwards from the base of

Dr. J. E. Gray on the genus Assiminia. 423

the tentacula, Mantle open behind. Feces elliptical (as in Cyelo-
stoma). Operculum corneous, ovate, spirally striated. The most
remarkable circumstance in this animal is the position of the eyes,
at the tips of the tentacula, as in Helix and its allies, and not at
the base. It would appear as if there were in reality no tentacula,
and only the tubercle common to many Mollusca at the base of the
tentacula a little more developed than usual. The shell is so like
that of some species of Rissoa, that it is quite surprising that in
Dr. Fleming’s ‘ British Animals,’ and in Mr. Jeffreys’ paper in the
‘Linnean Transactions,’ it should be placed in, or close to, the
genus Limnea. Dr. Leach seems to have formed his conclusions from
an actual inspection of the animal, and consequently made a distinct
genus for its reception. In many points the animal resembles very
much that of Cyclostoma, and is perhaps a step nearer than that and
Helicina, which have the mantle open behind, to the Pectinifera.
Its nearest ally, however, amongst the pectiniferous Mollusca I
should conceive not to be Rissoa.

The animal and shell are figured in Forbes and Hanley’s ‘ British
Mollusca,’ iii. 70, t. 71. f. 3, 4, and t. H.H. f. 6,

* Mr. Benson, at page 463 of the same volume of the Zool. Journ.,
has given the following description of the animal of Assiminia fas-
ciata (Turbo Francesii, Gray, in Wood’s Supplement, t. 6. f. 28):
—‘Animal: Head with only two short, thick, subcylindrical ten-
tacula, with the percipient points placed at their summits. Snout,
like that of Paludina, transversely corrugated and bilobed, or rather
emarginate at the centre of the extremity, the lobes rounded. Mantle
free, and branchial cavity open. Foot witha spiral horny operculum,
angular at the upper part.”

I may add to these descriptions that Mr. Clark has lately stated that
the tentacula of Truncatella Montagui are “short, flat, broad, triangu-
lar, and diverge greatly, scarcely forming an angle of 25°. The eyes
are large and black, and have white prominent pupils, which visibly
dilate and contract. I have never observed such in any mollusk,
though similar ones may have escaped notice; they are placed a
little nearer to the base than the middle of their lower half, not on
pedicles, but quite flat on the centre of semicircular expansions of
the outer side of the tentacles, with an external tendency. The
branchial plume is single, of an elongated, kidney-shaped figure, and
has the usual constriction or sinus at the end nearest to the heart ; it
can be detected with high powers in sunlight, through the body
volution of pale, clear, thin shells.”

The eyes of T'runcatella littorea “are precisely those of 7. Mon-
tagui, and a similar white pupil is a singular coincidence.”’

In conclusion, I may observe, that I regard the general form and
organization of the animal and shell of Truncatella as so peculiar, that
I have long considered it the type of a peculiar family, characterized
by the form of the lips and feet, the mode of walking, the short,
broad, diverging tentacles, the position of the eye and its peculiar
form, and the truncation of the shell.

424 Miscellaneous.

On the other hand, the general form of the animal, the manner of
walking, and habitation of the genus Assiminia are so like those of
some of the smaller species of Littorina (which Dr. Leach named Sa-
banea), that if it was not for the peculiar position of the eye on its
long pedicel I should have been inclined to have considered it as a
subdivision of that genus, with very short tentacles and elongated
eye-peduncles. But Mr. Berkeley’s observations have set that at
rest, as well as the distinction between it and T’runcatella; for he
shows that Assiminia has lungs like Cyclostoma, or rather Helicina,
while the Littorine and Truncatelle have well-developed gills for
respiration, like the greater part of the marine genera; but the gills
of Littorina and Truncatella are very unlike one another, the gills
of the former being broad, short, laminar, and of the latter, single,
ovate, and pectinate.

P.S.—Messrs. H. and A. Adams, in the number of their work
issued since this paper was read, are so impressed with the pecu-
liarity of the combination of characters that the animal presents, viz.
a pulmonary respiration, spiral operculum, and terminal eyes, that
they have formed for the genus a suborder named Prosophthalma, and
a particular family, Assiminiade: see Genera of Mollusca, 313.

MISCELLANEOUS.

ON CLAUSILIA ROLPHII AND MORTILLETI,

I nave lately received the first part of Adolf Schmidt’s ‘ Kritischen
Gruppen der Europiischen Clausilien,’ containing the groups allied,
severally, to Cl. ventricosa, Dr., plicatula, Dr., rugosa, Dr., and to
the true gracilis, Rossm., and placing Cl. ventricosa, Rolphii, Leach,
and tumida, Ziegl., in the first group, while lineolata, Held, plicatula,
&c. are assigned to the second.

I am also indebted to Mr. Woodward for a further supply of Clau-
silie found by Mr. Sharman at Charlton in Kent. These all prove
to be of the form found by Mr. Prentice at Charlton Kings near
Cheltenham, and assigned by A. Schmidt to C/. Mortilleti, Dumont.
Early in June I called M. Schmidt’s attention to the fact of his
having altogether ignored C/. Rolphii, as a substantive species, in the
Prodromus published in the ‘ Malak. Blatter’ of the present year.
It now appears that, after some doubt whether Gray’s description
did not apply to Cl. lineolata, he had finally arrived at the con-
clusion that the plate presented a better outline of the form of the
shell to which he had referred- under the name of Mortilleti, and
which he had received from Mr. Prentice, through his brother, from
England, where Cl. lineolata had not been detected. Clausilia
Rolphii therefore appears as a substantive species, with C7. Mortilleti
as a synonym.

On a review of the single large specimen first received from
Mr. Woodward, and which I regarded as the type of Cl. Rolphi
(Annals for July 1856, page 75), and on further examination of
A. Schmidt’s amended characters, remarks and figure, I am disposed

Miscellaneous. 425

to consider the two Woolwich forms as being variations of Rolphii ; the
peculiar form of the subcolumellar plica, and other characters, not
admitting of the union of either with any other allied species. The
specimen formerly in question must for the present be considered as
a large and unusual variety, or accidental deviation from the general
type of Cl. Rolphii. This deviation is particularly observable in the
form of the spire, in the less-developed basal crest, and in the more
narrowly rimate and contracted periomphalus. There is also no trace
of the slight palatal callus, vanishing towards the base, which is
observable in the ordinary form found in other English localities and
on the continent.—W. H. Benson.

On the Origin of Greensand, and its Formation in the Oceans of
the present Epoch. By Prof. J. W. Bainey.

As an introduction to the subject of this paper, it is proper to
refer to various observations which have been made of facts inti-
mately related to those which I wish to present. That the calca-
reous shells of the Polythalamia are sometimes replaced by silica,
appears to have been first noticed by Ehrenberg, who, in a note
translated by Mr. Weaver, and published in the Philosophical
Magazine for 1841 (vol. xviii. p. 397), says :—

“J may here remark that my continued researches on the Poly-
thalamia of the Chalk have convinced me that very frequently in the
earthy coating of flints, which is partly calcareous and partly sili-
ceous, the original calcareous-shelled animal forms have exchanged
their lime for silex without undergoing any alteration in figure, so
that while some are readily dissolved by an acid, others remain insolu-
ble; but in chalk itself, all similar forms are immediately dissolved.”

The first notice of casts of the cells and soft parts of the Poly-
thalamia was published by myself in the ‘American Journal of
Science’ for 1845, vol. xlvii., where I stated as follows :—

«The specimens from Fort Washington presented me with what
I believe have never been before noticed, viz. distinct casts of Poly-
thalamia. That these minute and perishable shells should, when
destroyed by chemical changes, ever leave behind them indestructible
memorials of their existence, was scarcely to be expected, yet these
casts of Polythalamia are abundant and easily to be recognized in
some of the Eocene marls from Fort Washington.” This notice
was accompanied by figures of well-defined casts of Polythalamia
(Z. c. pl. 4. fig. 30, 31).

Dr. Mantell also noticed the occurrence of casts of Polythalamia
and their soft perts preserved in flint and chalk, and communicated
an account of them to the Royal Society of London, in May 1846.
In this paper he speaks of the chambers of Polythalamia as being
frequently filled with chalk, flint, and silicate of tron (Phil. Trans.
1846, p. 466). To Ehrenberg, however, appears to be due the credit
of first distinctly announcing the connexion between the Polytha-
lamia and the formation of greensand, thus throwing the first light
upon the origin of a substance which has long been a puzzle to

426 Miscellaneous.

geologists. In a notice given by this distinguished Obscene EGF
the nature of the matrix of the bones of the Zeuglodon from
bama (see Berlin Monatsbericht, February 1855), he says :—

“That greensand, in all the numerous relations in which I have
as yet examined it, has been recognized as due to the filling-up of
organic cells, as a formation of stony casts (Steinkernbildung) mostly
of Polythalamia, was stated in July of the preceding year.” He
then refers to the Nummulite limestone of Traunstein in Bavaria,
as rich in green opal-like casts (Opalsteinkernen) of well-preserved
Polythalamian forms, and mentions them as also occurring, but
more rarely, in the Glauconite limestones of France. He then
proceeds to give an account of his detection of similar casts in the
limestone adhering to the bones of the Zeuglodon from Alabama,
and states that this limestone abounds in well-preserved brown,
green, and whitish stony casts of recognizable Polythalamia. This
limestone is yellowish, and under a lens appears spotted with argen
These green spots are the greensand casts of Polythalamia, and they
often form as much as one-third of the mass. By solution in dilute
hydrochloric acid, the greensand grains are left, mixed with quartz-
ose sand, and with a light yellowish mud. The latter is easily
removed by washing and decantation. The casts thus obtained are
so perfect, that not only the genus, but often the species of the
Polythalamia can be recognized. Mingled with these are frequently
found spiral or corkscrew-like bodies, which Ehrenberg considers as
casts of the shells of young mollusks.

With reference to the perfection of these casts of the Polythalamia,
and the light they throw upon the structure of these minute animals,
Ehrenberg remarks :—

“The formation of the greensand consists in a gradual filling-up
of the interior space of the minute bodies with a green-coloured, opal-
like mass, which forms therein as a cast. It is a peculiar species of
natural injection, and is often so perfect, that not only the large and
coarse cells, but also the very finest canals of the cell-walls, and all
their connecting tubes, are thus petrified and separately exhibited.
By no artificial method can such fine and perfect injections be ob-
tained.”

Having repeated the experiments of Ehrenberg upon the Zeuglodon
limestone, I can confirm his statements in every particular, and would
only add, that besides the casts of Polythalamia and small spiral
mollusks, there is also a considerable number of green, red, and
whitish casts of minute anastomosing tubuli, resembling casts of the
holes made by burrowing sponges (Cliona) and worms.

In the Berlin Monatsbericht for July 1855, Ehrenberg gives an
account of very perfect casts of Nummulites, from Bavaria and
from France, showing not only chambers connected by a spiral
siphuncle, but also a complicated system of branching vessels. He
also gave at the same time an account of a method he had applied
for the purpose of colouring certain glass-like casts of Polythalamia,
which he had found in white tertiary limestone from Java. This
method consists in heating them in a solution of nitrate of iron, by

Miscellaneous. 427

means of which they can be made to assume different shades of
yellow and brownish-red, still retaining sufficient transparency when
mounted in balsam to show the connexion of the different parts.

The interesting observations of Ehrenberg, which are alluded to
above, have led me to examine a number of the cretaceous and
tertiary rocks of North America in search of greensand and other
casts of Polythalamia, &c. The following results were obtained :—

Ist. The yellowish limestone of the cretaceous deposits of New
Jersey, occurring with Teredo tibialis, &c., at Mullica Hill, and near
Mount Holley, is very rich in greensand casts of Polythalamia and
of the tubuliform bodies above alluded to.

2nd. Cretaceous rocks from Western Texas, for which I am in-
debted to Major W. H. Emory, of the Mexican Boundary Com-
mission, yielded a considerable number of fine greensand and other
easts of Polythalamia and tubuli.

3rd. Limestone from Selma, Alabama, gave similar results.

4th. Eocene limestone from Drayton Hall, near Charleston, South
Carolina, gave abundance of similar casts.

5th. A few good greensand casts of Polythalamia were found in
the residue left on dissolving a specimen of marl from the Artesian
well at Charleston, S.C. ; depth 140 feet.

6th. Abundance of organic casts, in greensand, &c., of Polytha-
lamia, tubuli, and of the cavities of Corals, were found in the
specimen of yellowish limestone adhering to a specimen of Scutella
Lyelli from the Eocene of North Carolina.

7th. Similar casts of Polythalamia, tubuli, and of the cavities of
Corals, and spines of Echini, were found abundantly in a whitish
limestone adhering to a specimen of Ostrea selleformis from the
Eocene of South Carolina.

The last two specimens scarcely gave any indications of the presence
of greensand before they were treated with dilute acid, but left an
abundant deposit of it when the calcareous portions were dissolved
out. All the above-mentioned specimens contained well-preserved
and perfect shells of Polythalamia. It appears from the above, that
the occurrence of well-defined organic casts, composed of greensand,
is by no means rare in the fossil state.

I come now to the main object of this paper, which is to announce
that the formation of precisely similar greensand and other casts of
Polythalamia, mollusks, and tubuli, is now going on in the deposits
of the present ocean. In an interesting Report by Count F. Pourtales,
upon some specimens of soundings obtained by the U.S. Coast Survey
in the exploration of the Gulf Stream (see Report of U.S. Coast
Survey for 1853, Appendix, p. 83), the sounding, from lat. 31° 32',
long. 79° 35', depth 150 fathoms, is mentioned as “a mixture in
about equal proportions of Globigerina and black sand, probably
greensand, as it makes a green mark when crushed on paper.” Having
examined the specimen alluded to by Count Pourtales, besides many
others from the Gulf Stream and Gulf of Mexico, for which I am
indebted to Prof. A. D. Bache, the Superintendent of the Coast
Survey, I have found that not only is greensand present at the

428 Miscellaneous.

above locality, but at many others, both in the Gulf Stream and
Gulf of Mexico, and that this greensand is often in the form of
well-defined casts of Polythalamia, minute mollusks, and branching
tubuli, and that the same variety of the petrifying material is
found as in the fossil casts, some being well-defined greensand,
others reddish, brownish, or almost white. In some cases I have
noticed a single cell, of a spiral Polythalamian cast, to be composed
of greensand, while all the others were red or white, or vice versd.

The species of Polythalamia whose casts are thus preserved, are
easily recognizable as identical with those whose perfectly preserved
shells form the chief part of the soundings. ‘That these are of
recent species is proved by the facts that some of them still retain
their brilliant red colouring, and that they leave distinct remains of
their soft parts when treated with dilute acids. It is not to be
supposed, therefore, that these casts are of extinct species washed
out of ancient submarine deposits. They are now forming in the
muds as they are deposited, and we have thus now going on in the
present seas, a formation of greensand by processes precisely ana-
logous to those which produced deposits of the same material as long
ago as the Silurian epoch. In this connexion, it is important to
observe that Ehrenberg’s observations and my own, establish the
fact that other organic bodies than Polythalamia produce casts of
greensand ; and it should also be stated that many of the grains of
greensand accompanying the well-defined casts are of wholly un-
recognizable forms, having merely a rounded, cracked, lobed, or even
coprolitic appearance. Certainly many of these masses, which often
compose whole strata, were not formed either in the cavities of Poly-
thalamia or mollusks. The fact, however, being established beyond a
doubt, that greensand does form casts in the cavities of various organic
bodies, there is a great probability that all the masses of this substance,
however irregular, were formed in connexion with organic bodies, and
that the chemical changes accompanying the decay of the organic
matter have been essentially connected with the deposits in the
cavities, of green and red silicates of iron, and of nearly pure silica.
It is a curious fact in this connexion, that the siliceous organisms,
such as the Diatomacez, Polycistinez, and Spongiolites which accom-
pany the Polythalamia in the Gulf Stream, do not appear to have
any influence in the formation of casts.

The discovery of Prof. Ehrenberg, of the connexion between
organic bodies and the formation of greensand, is of very great
interest, and is one of the many instances which he has given to
prove the extensive agency of the minutest beings in producing geo-
logical changes.—Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 364.

On THE Cumz. By Pror. AGassiz.

In a recent number of the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural His-
tory,’ Mr. Bate describes some Crustacea related to Cume, which
had young, aud therefore were adults. This is not in conflict with
the statement of Prof. Agassiz in this Journal, vol. xiii. p. 426,

Miscellaneous. 429

where he says, ‘‘ In regard to the Crustacea called Cume, I cannot
say positively that the group must as a whole be suppressed. But
I can state with confidence, that all the species of that genus which
I have had an opportunity to examine alive—and I have watched
three—are young of Palemon, Crangon and Hippolyte.”’ Prof.
Agassiz, in a recent letter (to J. D. Dana, dated Nahant, July 18th)
respecting these observations of Mr. Bate, writes that ‘they only show
how extensive a field of observation remains untrodden among these
little forms. Had Mr. Bate looked more fully into the embryology
of Crustacea, he would have been better prepared to appreciate the
close correspondence there is between the young of certain families and
the adults of others, and would have known that these facts are not
limited to the Macroura, as I have shown in my Lectures on Embryo-
logy, p. 62-69: he would know that the eyes of even the highest
Crustacea are sessile in the young, &c., and that such characters ob-
served upon young Crustacea do not therefore prove them to be peculiar
types, unless at the same time their reproduction be satisfactorily
traced. Acknowledging Mr. Bate’s interesting observation as proving
that his Diastylis Rathkii is an adult animal, the question has made
a real progress through his researches ; but it remains as certain as
before, that there are Cume which are larve of Macroura.’—Silli-
mans American Journal, Sept. 1856.

NOTE ON CALLITRICHE HAMULATA.
To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

October 13, 1856.

GENTLEMEN,— While lately in Scotland I had the satisfaction of
finding the Callitriche hamulata (Kiitz.) growing in a ditch commu-
nicating with the river Annan, close to Jardine Hall.

The specific character of the C. pedunculata, as given in Babington’s
Manual (ed. 4. p. 293), applies accurately to the C. hamulata, with
the exception of the supposed want of bracts in the former plant.

On mentioning the subject to Mr. Babington, he informed me that
he had detected bracts on cultivated plants of his C. pedunculata,
fi. sessilis, and convinced himself that that plant is C. hamulata. He
considers C. hamulata (Kiitz.) as the type of the species, and the
C. pedunculata (DC.) to be a variety of it.

My discovery does not therefore increase the number of our spe-
cies, but only corrects the nomenclature by identifying a doubtful
plant with a known continental species. This is a highly satisfactory
result.

I may add that Mr. Babington mentioned that the bracts are
usually very deciduous in this plant ; such I found to be the case in
the Scottish specimens.

I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,
FREDERICK TOWNSEND.

4380 Miscellaneous.

RARE BRITISH BIRDS.
To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Plymouth, October 16, 1856.
GENTLEMEN,—During the late gales we have been visited by
rather an unusual number of the Sterna arctica and S. hirundo.
Specimens of each species have been shot in the neighbourhood.
The Thalassidroma pelagica was captured alive on the 2nd of this
month, in the passage of a house, Woodlane Terrace, by H. O. Bull-
more, Esq. ‘The bird was in excellent condition, fat and fleshy, but
right wing was broken.
I am, Gentlemen, yours truly,
W. P. Cocks.

Descriptions of two New Species of the Genus Orthotomus. By -
Freperic Moors, Assist. Mus. East India Company.

At a Meeting held in the early part of the present year, I laid
before the Zoological Society a monograph of this interesting genus,
and since that time I have been favoured by my brother with a search
through the birds contained in the Derby Museum, which has resulted
in the discovery of two additional undescribed species. These I now
proceed to characterize.

OrTHOTOMUS DERBIANUS, Moore.

Forehead, crown and occiput dark ferruginous ; back, rump and
sides of neck ash-colour ; ear-coverts, throat and breast pale ash,
with the centre of the feathers whitish ; flanks ashy-white ; belly
and vent dull white; wings brown, broadly margined throughout
with yellowish-green; edge of shoulder pale brown; under wing-
coverts rufescent-white ; tail much graduated, ferruginous-brown
above, dusky at base, paler beneath, and without discernible terminal
spots or band; thighs ferruginous; upper mandible horn-colour,
lower mandible and legs pale.

Length, 5} inches; of wing 2 inches; tail 2} inches; bill from
frontal plumes Sths inch, to gape }$ths inch, and tarsus ;8ths of
an inch.

Hab. Philippines ? (HI. Cuming). In Derby Museum, Liverpool.

Remark.—May be distinguished from all the previously known
species by its greater size, and in having the ear-coverts, throat and
breast ash-colour, with the centres of the feathers whitish.

ORTHOTOMUS MACULICOLLIS, Moore.

Forehead ferruginous, becoming dull ou crown; feathers of the
occiput greenish-brown, faintly edged with black; wares, behind
the eyes, a line under, with the ear-coverts and sides of neck ferru-
ginous-white, each feather being edged with black ; back and rump
greenish ; throat white; breast, belly and vent ferruginous-white ;
sides of breast black, and flanks light greenish ; wings brown, edged

Meteorological Observations. 431

exteriorly with greenish-ferruginous-brown; edge of shoulder and
under wing-coverts pale rufescent-white ; tail brown above on the inner
webs, and yellowish on the outer, beneath pale ashy-brown, having
indistinct dusky spots towards the end, and pale at the tips and inner
margins of the feathers ; thighs pale ferruginous. Bill, darkish horn
above, paler beneath ; legs yellowish,

Length, 4,3; inches ; of wing 1,5; in. ; tail 1,85 in. ; bill to gape 4,
and tarsus 58, of an inch.

Hab. Malacca. In Derby Museum, Liverpool.

Remark.—Allied to, but distinguished from O. longicauda by
having the sides of the head and neck ferruginous-white, each feather
being edged with black.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Dec. 12, 1854.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR SEPT, 1856.

Chiswick.—September 1. Very fine: thunder and lightning at night, but without
rain. 2. Shower: very fine: clear. 3, 4. Heavy dew in the mornings: very fine.
5. Slight fog: cloudy and fine. 6. Slight fog: rain at night. 7. Very fine. 8.
Foggy: very fine. 9. Dense fog: very fine: cloudy. 10. Slight haze: very fine.
11. Overcast. 12. Cloudy: very fine: rain. 13. Cloudy. 14, Clear and fine.
15. Fine: overcast. 16. Clear: fine. 17. Overcast: rain. 18. Rain: very fine.
19. Clear, quite cloudless: very fine. 20. Very clear: cloudy and cold: slight
frost at night. 21. Fine: rain. 22. Clear: showery: fine. 23. Clear: cloudy:
bright sun at intervals. 24. Clear: heavy showers. 25. Clear: dense clouds:
fine. 26. Fine: rain at night. 27. Heavy rain. 28. Rain: heavy showers.
29. Cloudy and fine. 30. Very fine: cloudy: fine at night.

Mean temperature of the month ............sesesessceeeseenes ae 54°41
Mean temperature of Sept. 1855 ............cssssescessevecerees 56 “11
Mean temperature of Sept. for the last thirty years ......... 56°95
Average amount of rain in Sept. ..-.e..es.ssceeseesseeenens eee... 2°455 inches.

Boston.—Sept. 1—4. Fine. 5. Cloudy. 6. Fine. 7. Fine: rain a.m. 8,9. Fine.
10. Cloudy. 11. Cloudy: rain a.m. 12, Cloudy. 13. Cloudy: rain a.m. and
p.m. 14. Fine. 15. Cloudy. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy: rain p.m. 18,19. Fine.
20. Cloudy. 21, 22. Fine: rainr.m, 23. Cloudy. 24—26. Fine. 27—29.
Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 30. Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Sept. 1. Clear a.m, : clear, aurora P.M. 2. Bright
A.M.: clear p.m. 3. Clear a.M.: cloudy p.m. 4,5. Clear a.m. and p.m. 6.
Bright a.M. : cloudy p.m. 7. Drizzle A.M.: damp p.m. 8. Damp a.M.: fog P.M.
9. Fog a.m. andp.m. 10. Fog a.m.: showerse.M. 11,12. Bright a.m.: showers
p.m. 13, Showers, bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 14, Drizzle, bright a.m.: showers
p.m. 15. Showers a.M. and p.m. 16, Showers a.m.: rain, lightning p.m. 17,
Showers A.M.: clear p.m. 18. Sleet showers A.M.: showers p.m, 19. Cloudy
A.M.: showers P.M. 20. Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m. 21. Bright a.m.: showers
p.m. 22. Rain A.M.: showers P.M. 23. Bright A.m.: showers p.m. 24. Rain a.m.:
showers P.M. 25. Showers A.M. and p.m. 26. Clear a.m.: clear, aurora p.m.
27. Hoar-frost A.M.: showers, aurora P.M. 28. Damp a.M.: cloudy p.m. 29.
Showers A.M. and p.m. 30, Showers a.M.: clear P.M.

Mean temperature of Sept. for previous twenty-nine years ... 52°28
Mean temperature of this MONth ...sessseceeeseseeescsscnceererees 50°83
Mean temperature of Sept. 1855 — ...secssessescnceasseseneeecenes 52°74

Average quantity of rain in Sept. for previous sixteen years ... 2°82 inches,

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES. ]

No. 108. DECEMBER 1856.

XXXVI.—New Land Shells collected by KB. L. Layarp, Esq.,
and described by W. H. Benson, Esq.

Tue following shells were collected by Mr. E. L. Layard at the
Cape of Good Hope, and on his route to that colony, at St.
Vincents, in the Cape de Verde Islands, and St. Helena. His
researches have added new localities for several species already
known, and he has furnished some interesting facts respecting
their habits.

Bulimus arenicola, nobis, n.s.

Testa vix perforata, trochiformi, irregulariter subplicato-striata,
nitidula, albida, rufo-castaneo fasciata; spira attenuato-conica,
sutura leviter impressa, apice acuto, castaneo; anfractibus 63
subplanulatis, ultimo magno, dimidium teste efformante, acute
carinato, subtus convexiusculo, fasciis duabus, altera suturali,
altera ad carinam, ornato; apertura magua, subquadrato-rotun-
data; peristomate simplici, acuto, margine externo infra ad peri-
pheeriam angulato, columellari verticali areuato, expansiusculo,
superne breviter appresso-reflexo, perforationem fere claudente,
basali valde arcuato.

Long. 17, diam. 15; long. apert. 10, lat. 83 mill. ; diam. anfr. supra
aperturam ad carinam 11 mill.

Hab. ad colles arenosas prope sinum “ Waterloo”’ dictum Caffrariz.

Were it not for the evident affinity of this shell to the Natal
species, Bulimus spadiceus, Menke, 1 should have been inclined
to refer it to the genus Heliz, Mr. Layard states that there is
a brown, bandless variety. It may be at once distinguished from
B. spadiceus by its higher and more slender spire, by the acute
carination of the last whorl, and by its imperfect perforation ;
the umbilicus in B. spadiceus being pervious, although narrow,
and merely hidden by the free dilatation of the columellar lip.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 28

434 Mr. W. H. Benson on some new Land Shells.

Bulimus Gemmula, nobis, n. s.

Testa rimato-perforata, ovato-conica, striatula, nitida, cornea; spira
conica, sutura impressa, apice obtusiusculo; anfractibus 5, ultimo
ad basin cireum umbilicum subangulato-compresso ; apertura ro-
tundato-ovali, tuberculo vix conspicuo parietali subangulari munita ;
peristomate undique expansiusculo, tenui, acuto, margine dextro
arcuato.

Long. 23, diam. 1} mill.

Hab. ad insulam Sancti Vincentii Promontorii Viridis, sub lapidibus.
Found by Mr. Layard on the west side of the island, under

the Duke’s Head Mountain ; not uncommon. This little shell

belongs to the group which contains Bulimus nitidulus, Pfr.,

B. putillus, Shuttl., cenopictus, Hutton, tutulus, nobis, and mar-

ginatus ( fallar), Say, which have been indifferently assigned to

Bulimus and Pupa, and all of which are characterized by the

tubercle at the right angle of the parietal border.

Bulimus compressilabris, nobis, n. s.

Testa vix perforata, subuliformi, confertim flexuose costulato-striata,
cerea, albida, sutura subimpressa, marginata, apice obtusiusculo ;
anfractibus vix 7, ultimo # longitudinis eequante ; apertura trun-
cato-ovali, basi rotundata; peristomate tenui simplici, margine
dextro superne antrorsum arcuatim producto, subcompresso, colu-
mellari verticali, breviter reflexo, subtus nullo modo truneato nee
emarginato.

Long. 61, diam. 2 mill.

Hab. ad insulam Sanctee Helene in horto publico non infrequens.

This is a form of the widely spread type to which Bulimus
Goodalli, Octona, &c. belong. Mr. Layard found it in a little
artificial watercourse in the public gardens at the entrance of
Jamestown.

Achatina Spiculum, nobis, n. s.

Testa imperforata, subulato-cylindracea, gracillima, hyaleea, politis-
sima; spira elongata, apice obtuso, sutura impressa, marginata ;
anfractibus sub 6, convexiusculis, ultimo 4 teste equante; aper-
tura verticali, attenuate-pyriformi, basi rotundata ; labro obtusius-
culo, leviter arcuato; columella ad basin oblique valde truncata et
pariete callosis.

Long. 4, lat. 1 mill.; long. apert. 14 mill.

Hab. ad insulam S" Vincentii sub lapide.

A single specimen was found by Mr. Layard on the west side
of the island, under the Duke’s Head Mountain. This is a very
distinct species of the Acicula type. An uncertain species, Ach.
vitrea, W. B., from Teneriffe, is contained in D’Orbigny’s collec-
tion in the British Museum. Dr. Pfeiffer has, on examination,
transferred it to the genus Bulimus, in which he places it as

—SE————

Mr. W. H. Benson on some new Land Shells. 435

577 a. Suppl. He has favoured me with a copy of his diagnosis,
from which I am enabled to state that it has no close relation-
ship with the present species.

Achatina Veru, nobis, n.s.
J ~)

Testa imperforata, subulato-cylindracea, gracili, levigata, cerea, ni-
tidula, translucente ; spira elongata, apice obtuso, sutura impressa,
marginata ; anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo 4 teste eequante ;
apertura verticali, pyriformi, basi latiuscula rotundata ; peristo-
mate acuto; labro tenui, leviter arcuato; columella subcallosa, ad
basin leviter oblique truncata.

Long. 43, diam. 1 mill. ; long. apert. 15 mill.

Hab. in insula Sanctze Helene.

A single specimen was found by Mr. Layard with Bulimus
compressilabris. It belongs to the aciculoid type, and is de-
ficient in the lucid transparency and peculiar slenderness of
Ach. Spiculum. The proportions of these two shells differ from
those of their allies, 4. Acicula and Hohenwarti, neither of which
can compete with the new species in slenderness.

Pupa Acarus, nobis, n.s.

Testa rimato-perforata, cylindrico-ovali, minutissima, cornea, pellu-
cida, sutura impressa, apice obtusiusculo ; anfractibus sub quinque,
convexis ; apertura rotundato-ovata 6-plicata, plica 1 valida lamel-
liformi irregulari mediana parietali, 2 columellaribus, quarum su-
periori minuta, inferiori valida transversali, dentibus 3 palatalibus
brevibus parum profundis, quarum | basali et proxima majori ;
peristomate tenui, corneo, undique breviter angulatim expanso,
intus leviter marginato.

Long. 132, diam. 3 mill.

Hab. ad insulam S* Vincenti sub lapidibus.

There is some indication of a fourth tooth above, on the palate,
in the only specimen received, but it cannot be made out di-
stinctly. The shell occurred in company with Achatina Spiculum.

Pupa Layardi, nobis, n. s.

Testa arcuato-rimata, elongato-conica, oblique striatula, albida ; spira
elongato-conica, apice ?, sutura impressa; anfractibus 6-7
superstitibus, subplanulatis, ultimo antice ascendente, pone aper-
turam angustiori, subscrobiculato, basi compresso-eristata; apertura
triangulari-obovata, verticali, breviter soluta, sex-plicata ; peristo-
mate undique expanso, marginibus tenuibus acutis, dextro plicis
tribus, columellari plica unica majori decurrente, parietali | angu-
lari, secunda remotiuseula, omnibus profunde intrantibus, munitis.

Long. sp. imperfecti 7, diam. 4 mill.

Hab. ad Promontorii Bone Spei extremitatem ‘Cape Point”’ dictam,

Three specimens of this singular Pupa were found dead under
a rock by Mr. Layard. The specimen sent to me is much
28*

436 Mr. W. H. Benson on some new Land Shells.

weathered, is deficient in the upper whorls, and is slightly
damaged on the columellar lip; but the characters of the aper-
ture and of the last whorl are too peculiar to allow of its being
confounded with any other species. The superior parietal plait
and the upper palatal one run almost contiguously parallel for
some distance into the aperture, forming an imperfect tube which
opens at the top of the aperture.

The rather variable sinistrorse shell (perhaps including P. ca-
pensis, Kr.) which I found on the shores of Simon’s and Hout Bays,
and which I referred in a former paper to Pupa pottebergensis,
Krauss, was found abundantly on the same Point by Mr. Layard,
together with Heliw Menkeana, Pfr., and the true Helix Lucana of
Miller. A small variety of the latter shell, from Caledon, I was
at first inclined to describe as a new species. It differs in having
the umbilicus almost rimate, and shows a passage towards a small
variety of Helix Alexandri, Gray, found, in Namaqua Land, with
several varieties of H. globulus. The same modification of the
umbilicus, in the species dwelling more to the eastward, is ob-
servable in a specimen of Helix Menkeana sent to me by Prof.
Albers, from Elim, as compared with Mr. Layard’s specimen,
and with the larger inflated variety which I found on the sand-
hills in Hout Bay. Pupa Kurri, Krauss, noted by its describer
as a Zwellendam species, has also been forwarded from the
George District.

Helix Charybdis, nobis, n. s.

Testa subaperte umbilicata, discoidea, utrinque concaya, confertim
radiato-costulata, costulis alternis acutis salientibus, cornea; an-
fractibus 44 convexis, ultimo angusto, ceeteros dominante, superne
subangulato, subtus convexo; apertura anguste lunari, altiori quam
lata, utrinque testam superante ; peristomate tenui, acuto, margine
columellari expansiusculo, umbilico profunde perspectivo.

Diam. major 53, minor 45, axis 2} mill. Long. apert. 3, lat. 2 mill.

Hab. ad Promontorium Bone Spei.

Mr. Layard found this species rarely, in company with H. per-
plicata, nobis, at the Waterfall, near the highest blockhouse, on
the Table Mountain towards Rondebosch. Only three specimens
were taken. The specimen described is in bad order, especially
about the aperture, the characters of which may be open to cor-
rection on the receipt of a better specimen.

Helix Tollini, Albers.

Testa obtecte subperforata, globoso-depressa, tenuiter striata, sub lente
striis exilissimis spiralibus utrinque decussata, nitidula, sericea,
fusco-cornea, translucente ; spira vix elevata, apice prominulo, ob-
tusiusculo, sutura impressa, submarginata; anfractibus 5 con-
vexiusculis, ultimo rotundato, subinflato; apertura verticali, rotun-
dato-lunata ; peristomate recto, tenui; margine columellari subito

Mr. W. H. Benson on some new Land Shells. 437

valde reflexo, superne expanso, calloso, appresso, perforationem
obsoletam tegente, tum oblique descendente.
Diam. major 12-14, minor 11-123, axis 7-9 mill.

Previously to the receipt of Mr. Layard’s specimens, Dr. Pfeiffer,
who had obtained the shell from Dr. Albers, sent it to me for
inspection ; and I subsequently received examples from Dr. Albers
himself, with the name above adopted, Mr. Tollin having trans-
mitted to him the first specimens seen in Europe.

Mr. Layard has found it on all sides of Table Mountain at the
Cape of Good Hope, on the Devil’s Peak, and in the ravine behind
the Admiralty at Simonstown, always in damp shady places, under
stones. The caudal portion of the animal is very long and narrow,
and carinate above. The inferior tentacula are short and white,
the superior very long and attenuated, generally wavy, and black,
with white tips, slightly clubbed, in which the small black eyes
are set. The animal creeps fast, with a serpentine motion,
carrying the shell horizontally on the back, and, when recently
taken, has a curious habit of retracting the head into the shell,
while the long tail portion remains extruded; it then throws
itself about, as Mr. Layard reports, doubling, twisting, and often
springing away several inches, with the little button-like shell
adhering to the anterior extremity of the part exposed. In con-
nexion with this fact [ may mention that Mr. Theobald has lately
met, in the Khasya Hills, with a little Vitrina which springs
3 or 4 inches from the ground.

Several Helices, which I met with round the foot of Table
Mountain, have been observed by Mr. Layard at various ele-
vations, as instanced already in H. perplicata, which inhabits
succulent plants, as well as the under sides of stones. 4H. vor-
ticialis, Bens., occurred on the Devil’s Peak, the Lion’s Head
and Tail, and on Table Mountain, under stones, wood, leaves,
and sacking; H. bisculpta, B., on the Devil’s Peak, under
stones. Helix dumeticola, B., was met with near the shore at
Camp’s Bay, parasitic on Helix capensis, and feeding on that
species under ground at the roots of geraniums. Three living
specimens were taken with their heads buried in their half-
eaten victims, and lived for some time feeding on the small
specimens which were introduced into their box. The animal is
about half an inch in length, and the upper part of the body is
dark grey, with two light stripes running close together down
the back, which is minutely mottled. The under side and tail
are light brown.

H. sabuletorum, B., lives under stones at Simon’s Bay, in the
Round Battery, and in the Admiralty Garden. Mr. Layard
states that it has two tentacula, with the eyes at the summits.
The lower pair may perhaps be inconspicuous, or abortive, as im

438 Mr. W. H. Benson on some new Land Shells.

Vertigo. We reports also that he had found, on the Devil’s
Peak, a unique minute conical Helix with acute radiating
ribs, together with a small Vitrina, which was crushed in the act
of capture. Another new Helix, from a ravine at Simon’s Bay,
is in a condition too imperfect for description, and an imperfect
shell from the ravine which runs between the Devil’s Peak and
Table Mountain may be another subglobose translucent var. of
H. Menkeana.

At St. Helena Mr. Layard found a shell, answering to Quoy’s
description of Succinea St. Helene, on the leaves of a Sagittaria,
and of an arborescent Fern, in the watercourse of a ravine at
Brown’s Hill. The animal was whitish below, and, in old speci-
mens, reddish mottled with brown above, and with a dark line
running from each of the superior tentacles down the back. At
the same spot whence he procured Bulimus compressilabris, B.,
he got a single specimen of the widely-spread Helia pulchella
(which I had detected at the more remote locality of the Cape),
and of a decayed shell which could not be distinguished from
the North American H. minuscula, Say. These shells may have
been imported into the garden with plants. Under stones, in
damp places about Napoleon’s Tomb, he found the smaller
variety of Pupa anconostoma, Lowe, abundant. This is evi-
dently the shell which I got in 1832 between Plantation House
and Stitch’s Ridge (Annals, 2nd Series, vol. vii. p. 263), and
which I lost before I could observe its characters sufficiently.
It is found in the Canarics, as well as in Madeira, and by some
writers its separation from P. umbilicata, Drap., is contested.
Helix remota, Bens., occurred to Mr. Layard under stones
on the upper side of the road leading from Jamestown to
Longwood.

Cyclophorus convexiusculus, Pfr., var. minor.

I had described this shell as new with reference to the de-
scription in the Zoological Proceedings for 1855 of C. convemi-
usculus, Pfr., brought from the Cape by Mr. Macgillivray, Dr.
Pfeiffer having omitted to notice the obtuse angularity of the
periphery of the last whorl. Wishing however to obviate the
possibility of error, I applied to Mr. Cuming, who obligingly
forwarded the type specimen, which proves to be the same
species, only larger by half the diameter, and with a more
obtuse apex, the vertex in Mr. Layard’s shell being a little more
prominent, and the whorls only four in number. The epidermis
is also darker, and more strongly plicate in the smaller variety.
The aperture is milky-white internally. Diam. major 4, minor 3,
axis 2 mill. This is the only Cyclophorus certainly known to
inhabit the African continent.

Mr. J. Alder on new British Zoophytes. 439

Mr. Layard discovered it in damp mould, amongst a pile of
loose rocks, in a steep ravine, on the side of Table Mountain
overlooking Camp’s Bay, and in company with the next species.

Hydrocena Noticola, nobis, n. s.

Testa subobtecte perforata, globoso-conica, levigata, nitidula, sue-
cinea, pellucida ; spira conica, apice obtusiusculo, rubello, sutura
valde impressa; anfractibus 4, convexis, ultimo ventricoso ;
apertura vix obliqua, ovato-acuta; peristomate tenui acuto, callo
parietali, columellarique, appresso-reflexo, umbilicum fere tegente.
Operculo normali, corneo, pellucido, paucispirato.

Long. 2, diam. 13 mill.

Hah. cum precedente.

This is the first species of the genus which has been observed

on the African continent. In its smoothness it presents a

marked contrast to the Citra-gangetic species from the Khasya

Hills and Burma.

A Lymnea, a Planorbis, and a Unio (probably the shell found
by Rang in the Berg River, and nearly allied to the European
U. pictorum), have been found by Mr. Layard, and will, with
some fluviatile shells taken by myself in the vicinity of Cape
Town, form the subject of a separate paper. P

Cheltenbam, November 7th, 1856.

XXXVII.—Descriptions of three new British Zoophytes.
By Josuva Aver, Esq.

[With a Plate. |

In addition to the new zoophytes described in my former com-
munication to the ‘ Annals of Natural History,’ I now beg to
offer an account of three others, extracted from a Catalogue of
the Zoophytes of Northumberland and Durham, about to appear
in the ‘ Transactions of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club.’

Family Tubulariade.
Tubularia implexa, n. sp.

Tubes small, very slender, generally more or less contorted
below; smooth, wrinkled, or regularly annulated beneath a
smooth transparent epidermis; slightly and subunilaterally
branched, the branches going off nearly at right angles to
the stem, and a little constricted at their bases. Gregarious,
forming a densely tangled mass of } to } of an inch in height.
Discovered by Mr. R. Howse on an old anchor brought in by the

fishermen from forty fathoms water, thirty miles off Holy Island.

440 Mr. J. Alder on new British Zoophytes.

As the polype of this species has not been observed, its claim
to a place in this genus cannot be fixed very decidedly. Its
mode of branching is similar to that of the other Tubularia, but it
is much smaller than any species hitherto described. The divi-
sion of the tube into two coats is curious. This takes place
sometimes near the base, but more frequently in the young
branches, where the thin, smooth epidermis shows a strongly
ringed tube within. The epidermis in dried specimens shrinks
to the form of the inner tube, so as not to be distinguished
from it.

Family Campanulariade.
Laomedea neglecta, n. sp. Pl. XVI. figs. 1, 2.

Polypary minute ; stem filiform, subflexuose, with two or three
alternate simple branches, each bearing a cell; the stem is
annulated with from four to seven rings above the origin of
each branch, and sometimes slightly ringed below it; the
branches are ringed throughout: cells narrow and deep, with
alternately shallow and deep crenations, forming about eight
bimucronated denticles round the margin. Polype with fifteen
or sixteen slender tentacles.

Height 5%, in.

On the under side of stones between tide-marks, Cullercoats
and Tynemouth : frequent.

This delicate little Laomedea, though apparently not rare, has
hitherto escaped observation ; or, if observed, it has been passed
over as the young of Johnston’s small variety of L. gelatinosa
(L. flecuosa, Hincks, MS.), with which it is sometimes associated
on the same stone. It is, however, not very readily seen unless_
the stone is examined with a magnifier. It differs from the
species above named in being of much humbler growth, more
slender, and in having smaller, narrower, and deeper cells, cre-
nulated on the margin. The margin of the other is plain. The
crenulations are very difficult to detect, on account of the extreme
tenuity of the edges. They resemble those of the true Sertu-
laria gelatinosa of Pallas (Laomedea gelatinosa, var. 8, Johust.),
though the shape of the cell is different, as may be seen by a
reference to fig. 3, where a cell of that species is figured for
comparison. I have also added two cells of L. longissima, Pallas
(L. dichotoma, 8, Johust.), fig. 4, the only other British denti-
culated Laomedea with a campanulated cell. These two species
were supposed to have plain margins by Dr. Johnston, who had
not seen them in a perfect state.

Mr. J. Alder on new British Zoophytes. 44.1

Laomedea acuminata, n. sp. Pl. XVI. figs. 5, 6, 7, 8.

Polypary minute, scarcely branched ; with a slender, annulated
stem ; cells thin, membranous, finely striated longitudinally,
elongate-ovate or pod-shaped, squared below, and tapering to
a fine point above; margin slightly crenulated. Polype reach-
ing, when extended, to two or three times the length of the
cell, with about twenty muricated tentacles, united by a web
at the base.

Height ;, in.

On an old shell of Fusus antiquus from deep water, Cullercoats.

This is an extremely curious and interesting species, which
one would scarcely think of referring to the genus Laomedea,
were it not for its near alliance to the L. /acerata. The stem
rises from a creeping fibre, and is generally more or less annu-
lated throughout, the annulations becoming fainter, or entirely
disappearing towards the cell. In most of the specimens ob-
served, the stem bore only a single polype, but in two or three
instances a branch, bearing a second polype, was seen proceed-
ing from it. The cells are extremely elastic and membranous,
changing form with the polype, and scarcely to be distinguished
from it when alive, excepting at the apex when the animal is
withdrawn. The polype, when extended, stretches far beyond
the cell, the latter adhering closely to it and becoming cylin-
drical. The whole animal is very extensile, and frequently
changes its form. The tentacles sometimes appear short and
stout, and at other times they are extended into long and slender
threads, as in the freshwater Hydra, to which the animal then

bears considerable resemblance. The tentacles are united by a

web for about one-sixth of their length; a circumstance I have

not observed in any other species. The margin of the cell
appears to be crenulated, and not divided into deep segments, as
in L. lacerata. This character, however, is difficult to ascertain.

I have watched the opening of the cell several times when the

polype was emerging from it, without being able to detect the

exact form of the margin, which is extremely thin and mem-
branous.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.

Figs. 1, 2. Laomedea neglecta, natural size and magnified.

Fig. 3. A cell of Laomedea gelatinosa, Pallas.

Fig. 4. Two cells of Laomedea longissima, Pallas.

Fig. 5. Laomedea acuminata, natural size.

Figs. 6, 7. The same highly magnified, with the polype in different states
of expansion.

Fig. 8. The same with the polype withdrawn.

2 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

XXXVIII.— Elucidation of some Plants mentioned in Dr. Francis
Hamilton’s Account of the Kingdom of Nepal. By Lieut.-Col.
Mappen, F.R.S.E., President of the Botanical Society of
Edinburgh.

[Concluded from p. 413.)

Bhurya patra, or Bhurjapatra, p. 97. Betula bhojpatra,
Wall. “This bark (of a fine chestnut colour) is imported into
the low country in considerable quantity, and is used both in
the religious ceremonies of the Hindus, and for constructing
the flexible tubes with which the natives (and Huropeans also)
smoke tobacco.” Both in India and in Persia this bark was
anciently substituted for paper (called Tus in Persia); hence a
Sanscrit name of the Birch, Vidhadal, ‘leaf of knowledge.’
The blocks used in Thibet for stereotype printing are formed of
its wood. The Sanscrit Bhurjja, ‘firm or hardy in the earth,’
seems the origin of our term Birch, Russian Beréza, &e. The
Bharangi bark from Almorah (Royle, J. A. 8. B. for October
1832, No. 110) is explained to be Betula bhojpatra,—Iustrated
Cat. of Great Exhib. of 1851, vol. u.

Kaephal (not Karphal), p. 85. MJyrica sapida. Kayaphal,
from the Sanscrit Katphal, signifies both acid and stony fruit.
It is scarcely worth eating; but the bark is sent down to the
plains in large quantities, and is used, I think, in dyeing.

Lalchandan, “a timber tree, the foliage and appearance of
which have some resemblance to the Laurels” (p. 85). No
specimen or reference seems to exist in the Catalogue; but the
plant is probably Goughia Himalensis, Bentham (a new genus of
Euphorbiacez, near to Sarcococca), which is not uncommon in
moist valleys in outer Kumaon and other provinces of the
Himalaya as far N.W. as Dharmsdla near Kotkangra, at 5000-
7000 feet. The Kumdon name, Rakt Chandan, is of the same
import as that given by Dr. Hamilton, and signifies ‘ Red San-
~ dal-wood ;’ the heart-wood being used for the sectarial mark
which the Hindus daub on their foreheads.

The genus Goughia is described and figured in Wight’s Icones,
v. 22. t. 1878-79.

Catalogue, specimen No. 1486. Sinapis Gorrea. Ghor rayi,
Hindice. Colitur rarius in Indie Gangetic arvis ob semina
acria. In fr. Surjaghorri, 27 March, 1811. Identified by
Wallich (No. 4790) with Sinapis erysimvoides, Roxburgh, Fl. Ind.
ili. 123, from Wynaad, a district of Malabar.

Ten years since, I noticed this plant under cultivation at Al-
morah, with the names Makara rai, Asl rai, Tarantula and True

rom the Kingdom of Nepdl. 443

Mustard. I referred it doubtfully to S. erysimoides or nigra.
On a voyage down the Ganges in 1850, I found the plant com-
monly grown from Mirzapur as far down as Bar in Behar, but
in the greatest abundance about Benares, being cultivated (like
the rest of the genus) in the cold season, on the rich clay banks
of the river. The leaves are used as cress, the seed for the
same purposes as with us; as well as in horse and camel medi-
cines: hence the name Ghor-rai, Horse Mustard. On arriving
in Europe that year, it was at once recognized as Sinapis nigra.

The cultivation of Sinapis niyra in India does not appear in
our works on its agricultural resources. Dr. Royle enters Sinapis
nigra? (No. 219) among the Indian articles of Materia Medica
(Journal As. Soc. Bengal, Oct. 1832); and in the Liverpool
Collection of Imports, Class 29. No. 270. of the Exhibition of
1851, is “ Mustard Seed, Brown: Sinapis nigra, from Bombay.
Import, 1100 quarters in 1850.” In the Illustrated Catalogue,
ii. 879, is a similar entry,—‘‘ Annaloo Noone (Sznapis nigra)
from Tanjore ;” and “ Khardal rai, Sinapis nigra.” (871.)

It appears from Ainslie’s ‘ Materia Indica,’ 1. 231, that the
plant was cultivated long since in the Calcutta Botanic Garden
from seeds “brought from Engiand by Colonel Garstin.”

Malayagiri, p. 84, “a pale yellow wood, with a very agree-
able scent.”

1262. Micheha Zila. Wam. Nepal, 217. Zila champa.
Habitat in sylvis Nepale. This is apparently M. Kisopa. Mi-
chelia Doltsopa is described by Don (Prod. Flor. Nep. 226) as
“arbor vasta ligno odorato gaudens, ad <edes eedificandas om-
nium arborum Nepaliz optima.” Magnolia (Michela) excelsa,
Wall. (Tentamen Fl. Nep.), yields a valuable timber, of a fine
texture, at first greenish, but soon changing into pale yellow.
This is probably the champa of Darjiling, described as “an ex-
cellent yellow timber.” One of these I suppose to be the
Malayagiri, a term implying ‘ mountain Sandal-wood” Dr.
Hooker mentions the Cupressus funebris, Chandan, as “ valued
only for the odour of its wood” (/. c. 1.45), which is probably
yellow. Ligustrum nepalense, Buaus Himalensis, Symplocos cra-
tegoides, have all yellow wood, but without odour. Camphora
glandulifera, the Nepal Camphor-tree, however, has pale yellow
wood, while fresh smelling strongly of camphor, and may be the
Malayagiri.

“Bish, Bikh, and Kodoya Bish or Bikh; nor am I certain
whether the Mitha ought to be referred to it, or to the foregoing
kind,” Bishma.

“1 have only seen the flower and fruit of one. This is called
Bishma or Bikhma, and seems to me to differ little in botanical
characters from the Ca/tha of Europe,” p. 99.

444 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

Catalogue, No. 1247. Caltha? Bismia. Bishma vel Bikhma,
Hamilton’s Nepal, 99. Habitat inter nives Emodi.

1248. Caltha? Nirbisia. Nirbishi vel Nirbikhi. Ham. Ne-
pal, 99. Habitat cum precedente. Montanorum unus hane
pro radice indica toxicaria ostendebat, alter autem sequentem
afferebat. Flores non vidi.

1249. Caltha? Codoa. (No specimen.) Kodoya Bish vel Bikh, -
Hamilton’s Nepal, 99. Habitat cum duabus_ precedentibus.
Credo hane esse reveram Toxicariam Indorum radicem. Flores
non vidi. *

In Brewster’s Edinburgh Journal of Science, i. 249-251,
“On the Herba Toxicaria,”’ Dr. Hamilton informs us that
his specimens were collected in July 1810, near the sources of
the Kosi River, and therefore necessarily quite immature ; still
it is surprising that he should have referred them, even doubt-
fully, to Caltha, to which they bear no resemblance. In the
very short account in the Journal last mentioned, founded pro-
bably on the specimens before us, he says of Caltha Bisma,
“The Bikhma is used in medicine, and is a strong bitter, very
powerful in the cure of fevers*.” Caltha Nirbisia “ has no dele-
terious qualities,” while Caltha Codoa includes Bish and Kodoya
Bish. Dr. Wallich+ showed that all these specimens belong to
Aconitum: his 4723, A. palmatum, being Caltha? Bishma, H.
Ham.; and 4721, A. ferox, including Caltha? Nirbisia and
C.? Codoa, H. Ham.

It would be impossible to unravel this complication without
a visit to Nepal; but perhaps some additional light may be
thrown on the subject by eliminating the known from the un-
known, and rejecting the specimens as misnamed. Dr. Hamil-
ton (p. 98) expressly says there are “four different plants.”
We know that the Bish{ proper is Aconitum ferow. Kodoya

* So in the Account of Nepal, p. 99.

+ He left occasion for additional criticism. The description of A. ferox
in the ‘ Pl. As. Rar.’ is full and interesting, pp. 35-39; but the plate (t. 41)
and specimen 4721 A. belong to A. dissectum, Don’s Prod.197. A. ferox
flourishes at from 11,000 to 13,000 feet; it has beautiful deep-blue flowers
in August and September, and is described and figured by Dr. Balfour and
Mr. M‘Nab in the Ed. New Phil. Journal, October 1849, plate 5, from
plants which first flowered that autumn in our Horticultural Garden. A.
multifidum is abundant at from 12,000 to 14,500 feet ; A. palmatum grows
at Nagkhanda near Simla in forests at 8500 to 9500 feet, and flowers from
May to July; A. heterophyllum at from 8500 to 13,000 feet.

{ The term vish, Sanscrit, denotes ‘poison’ simply, and is from the
same root as vishnu, ‘ penetrating, pervading.’ In the mountains and the
north-west provinces it is pronounced Bikh; in Behar and Bengal, Bish;
but there is no difference in the original word. Narbishi means ‘ not poi-
sonous,’ a term from which Don (General System of Gardening, i. 63)
forms his genus Nirbisia to include two deadly Aconites and an innocent
Delphinium,—as uncalled-for therefore in botany as it is false in etymology.

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 445

Bikh may be A. palmatum, or Dr. Hooker’s new species from
Upper Sikkim, A. luridum, reported to be as virulent as A. ferox
(Journals, 1. 168; 11.108). A. ferox is found all over the alpine
Himalaya; on the Shatil Pass, in Basehar, it is well known as
Bikh; also Maur, Madr, and Méhur, of the same import. Vat-
sanaba, ‘ calf-destroyer,’ is the original of the Bachnag*, men-
tioned by Dr. Royle from the Makhzanul Adwiyyah. In order
to ascertain whether it were justly called Mitha, ‘sweet,’ I
masticated a very small slice, and found it was so; but this was
soon succeeded by the most distressing burning all over the
mouth and fauces, though nothing was swallowed.

Plants of other genera are also known as Bikh and Mahtr :
the root of Meconopsis Wallichii is reported in Sikkim to be very
poisonous (H. and Th. Flor. Indica, 254); and the root of a
Convallaria with verticillated leaves is considered a very virulent
poison (Hooker’s Journals, i. 168)7. Dr. Royle (Illustr. 382)
says that “ Polygonatum verticillatum, L., called Mitha-dudhya
in Sirmore, and Smilacina pallida, called Didhya-mohura, are
both accounted poisonous in the Himalayas.” On Mahasu,
near Simla, I observed people gathering the young shoots of P.
verticillatum or cirrhifolium, to induce intoxication; and the
poisonous root Mahura was useful, they said, in cases of ring-
worm.

Nirbishi denotes some plant, “not Aconitum ferox,”’ but re-
sembling it. Dr. Royle observes that he was struck with the
resemblance of some Delphinium roots from the Himalayas to
those sold as Narbisi; and both at Pindri in Kumaon and
Bhojgara, on the south side of the Kowari Pass in Garhwal, at
11,090 to 14,000 feet above the sea, I found the beautiful Delphi-
nium Kashmerianum, Royle, p. 55. t. 12 (Jacquemontianum, Cam-
bassedes, Voyage aux Indes, vii. t. 7), with cylindrical tuberous
roots, absolutely identical in form with the ordinary Nirbisi,
and, I doubt not, its true source. No one, however, could pre-
viously supply me with the least information as to the province
which produced it: the Nepalese said it came from the west ;
the Tibetans told Major H. Strachey it came from the east.

* Bachnag, according to Graham’s ‘ Bombay Plants,’ is Gloriosa superba;
its root is a virulent poison.

+ In the Journ. As. Soc. of Bengal for May 1849, page 438, Dr. Hooker
states that “‘ another far more powerful Bikh is yielded by a plant of the
order Composite, which I have gathered abundantly at 10,000 and 9000
feet; and it requires care to distinguish its root from that of the Aconites ;
when mixed, the Bhotiyds could not separate them.’ Dr. Hooker informs
me that the plant in question is a Cacalia, allied to C. aconitifolia; and
that the reputed qualities having never been confirmed in any shape, he
does not doubt that they are altogether due to the similarity of its foliage
to the Aconite.

446 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants
Dr. Royle (J. A. S. B. October 1832) got the root (No. 49) from

Amritsir. Its properties seem to be unknown; he describes it
as having a pure bitter taste*, )

The Bishma of Dr. Hamilton is expressly stated to be a bitter,
which precludes the idea of its being Aconitum ferox, of which
the taste is sweet ; and Colonel Kirkpatrick, in his ‘ Account of
Nepal,’ p. 182, note, long since supposed it might be a kind of
Gentian. Dr. Royle conjectures that it nay be Aconitum hetero-
phyllum (excellently figured, ‘ Illustr.’ t. 13), the root of which,
called Atis, Patis, and Mahaushadham, ‘the great drug,’ 1s in
much estimation for its medicinal qualities. Atis is a vernacular
corruption of the Sanscrit Ativisha, ‘overcoming pvison,—
antidote,’ (erroneously reudered summum venenum by Wallich,)
with the synonyms Upavish, ‘ reverse of poison,’ and Prativisha,
‘against poison, an antidote’+; the last is the origin of the
vernacular Patis. This plant, however, is not quoted as indige~
nous to the east of Kumdon; and we may therefore substitute
Gentiana Kurroo, Royle, which is much used in the N.W.
mountains, or Aconitum multifidum, a very abundant species in
the alpine Himalaya, “ planta 4A. Anthore affinis,” Royle ; of this
or A. dissectum, Colonel Munro states (Hooker and Thomson’s
Fl. Indica, p. 58) that “the roots ave eaten in Kunawar as a
pleasant tonic.” Dr. Royle’s A. multifidum is from that district.
A. Lycoctonum (leve, Royle) is as common in the Himalaya as in
Alpine Europe; and its roots, which are, I believe, harmless,
may also be so employedf.

* Dr. Royle distinguishes this Amritsir and Basehar drug from the
common sort: according to him it is fusiform, externally black, somewhat
flattened and wrinkled, and in some respects resembling the Bikh itself,
with a slight degree of bitterness and acrimony (Illustr. p. 49). This would
agree well with the roots of Wallich’s fig. of Aconitum ferox (A. dissectum),
and with Colonel Munro’s fact of a Kunawar species being used as a tonic.
It appears, on the authority of Linnzus, that in certain cold climates the
root of A. Napellus is eaten with impunity.

+ It is the Jadwar or Zedoary of the Arabs and Persians. “ Ideoque
dixit Avicenna nihil esse ea priestantius ad ebibitum Napellum” (Royle,
Illustr. 50). Jn all probability this is purely an imaginary virtue.

+ Griffith (Journals of Travels, ix. 37, 57) says, ‘1 hope before my re-
turn to have seen Coptis Teeta in flower, and to have proved that the Beese
is different from that of Nepal.”” The Coptis, called Mishimi Tita, or
Bitter, from being indigenous to the Mishimi Mountains, a branch of the
Himalaya, bounding Assam to the east, is, like the best Chiretta, of a
yellow colour, “a pure intense bitter of some permanence, but without
aroma.” He calls it a “valuable drug.” It may be one of the Bikhmas.
In Hindustani, Bikhman is explained by Shakespeare, “name of a medi-
cine or poison,” perhaps from the Sanscr. vishama, uneven. Bee or Bih is
merely the Assamese form of Bish: thus we have Koni-bih (Croton Tiglium),
Naga-bih (Gordonia integrifolia). Mr. Griffith (J. A. Soc. Beng. 1837,
331-335) mentions “ the celebrated poison, Bee,” of the Ranunculacee (and

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 447

Jumne-mundroo, p. 85. Berberis (Mahonia) nepalensis ;
properly Jaémani mandru.

Chootraphul, 7. e. fruit of the Chotra, a Barberry. Catalogue,
No. 841. Berberis asiatica, Hort. Beng. 25; DC.i.107. Ha-
bitat in dumetis Nepale. The specimen is wanting, and Chotra,
Chutro, is the proper name of B. aristata; but Wallich has,
No. 44, B. asiatica, Roxb., from Nepal and Kumaon.

Catalogue, No. 1082. Rhododendron puniceum. Potasar : Go-
rangs: montanorum Hind. The common R. arboreum.

“Sanpati: a small Rhododendron, like Myrica Gale ; the leaves
are very odorous, and even when dried retain their fragrance.
It is used in fumigations, and sent to the low countries,” p. 97.

Catalogue, No. 1083. Rhododendron. Son Pati. Hamilton’s
Nepal, p.97. The specimen is imperfect, but seems to belong to
Rhododendron anthopogon or pendulum; the leaves of the first
are very aromatic, and are burned as incense.

Bhairopati. Rhododendron. “Its qualities are similar to
those of the former, but it is less fragrant,” p. 97.

Catalogue, No. 1084. Rhododendron Bhairopatium. Bhairo-
pati v. Bhaingropati. This specimen is also without flowers or
fruit, but belongs to R. lepidotum, or one of the varieties or
allied species discovered by Dr. Hooker.

Catalogue, No. 1062. Melia Azederach.

a. Enc. Method. i. 341; Willd. Sp. Pl. 1. 558. Colitur ad
urbes Indiz rarius, habitat in Nepdla. In flower, Caleutta Botanic
Garden, 4th January 1814.

No. 1063. M. Azederach.

6. Ene. Method. i. 341. Melia sempervirens, Willd. Sp. Pl.
ii. 559. Habitat ad Indie pagos. In flower, Jolpigorry, 31st
March 1809.

Wallich’s Cat. 1251. M. sempervirens.

Nepal and Kumaon.

Ibid. 1250. M. Azederach, L. H. B.C.

Dr. Hamilton’s first No. has oval-lanceolate leaflets ; in 1062
they are somewhat broader and less arcuate; the difference,
however, is certainly not more than is usual in specimens from
the same tree ; and hence Dr. Hamilton finds M@. Azederach in
Nepal, where Dr. Wallich finds M. sempervirens ; and M. sem-
pervirens in the Indian villages, which Dr. Wallich has only from

says it is “in very great request ’’) as one of the three staple articles of the
Mishims. Masters (J. Agri. and Hort. Soe. Cale. iv. ZU) tells us that ‘ the
juice of this fruit (Dillenia speciosa) is mixed with the Mishimi Bih to
prepare the poison for arrows.”” And Wilcox (As. Res. xvii. 456) mentions
two kinds of poison from the mountains north of Assam,—the Bor Bis
(great poison) and Sengumuri Bis; all no doubt to be included in the
above-mentioned species of Aconitum.

448 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

the Caleutta Botanic Garden. I am satisfied that the Himalayan
plant is identical with that of the Gangetic plains; in the hills
it is called Dek or Jek and Betain; in the plains, Bakéyan,
a name which is applied to M. sempervirens, As. Res, xi. 170.
No specific name could be more inappropriate, since it is com-
pletely leafless during the winter months; and this appears to
be true also, to a somewhat less extent, of the West Indian
M. sempervirens, Swartz, which is said to vary from a small bush
to a tree. Seemann (Kew Journal of Botany, October 1851)
informs us that this is a native of Panama, and known as ‘Ja-
sinto.’ DeCandolle (i. 621) mentions Jamaica as its habitat,
and says, “‘priore minor, florens jam biennis, folia tardius au-
tumno deponens, et tepidarium per hyemem in nostris hortis
requirens.” Roxburgh (ii. 895) adds to the difficulty: he says
M. sempervirens is “a native of Persia, now common throughout
India...... It blossoms the greater part of the year in our gar-
dens, and is perfectly distinct from Azedarak, which is a robust,
deciduous timber tree, and this is a small delicate evergreen, of
short duration compared with the other.” He gives Bakarja as
the Hindustani name,—evidently the Bengali name, Bakarjan,
of M. Azederach. This last he calls a native of China. Graham
(Cat. of Bombay Plants, p. 30) says it is common “about vil-
lages” in the Concan and Deccan, 8. India. Jaequemont
(Voyage dans l’Inde, ui. 147) finds it under the same circum-
stances in the Punjab, but scarcely indigenous, nor has it the
least claim to be so considered anywhere in Northern India. Its
Sanscrit names, Mahatikta, ‘the great Bitter,’ and Mahanimb,
therefore, go for nothing, and are not in the Amera Kosha.
The Persian Azad-i-darakht, ‘the spreading tree,’ which gives
it the specific name, with its popular one, ‘ Indian or Persian
Lilac,’ is compatible with its importation from America by the
Portuguese, who, like other Roman Catholic people, use the
berries in rosaries (Bead-tree) ; once introduced, its “very great
beauty,” and flowers like the Lilac, sweetly fragrant (Roxburgh),
would speedily cause its general diffusion. Wight and Arnott
(Prodromus, p. 117) found Roxburgh’s own specimens of M.
Azedarach and sempervirens so much ake as to appear as if cut
from the same tree; and the figure of the latter in the Botanical
Register, t. 643, may very well be M, Azedarach in a young state,
and forced in a stove. In Dr. Royle’s List, No. 191, Bakain
is entered as M. sempervirens ; and in February 1850 I saw this
last in the Calcutta Botanic Garden in full flower, a tree 30 feet
high, called Moha nim by the Bengali gardeners, and quite the
same with the Bakayan of Northern India.

Timmue (for Timmur) or Taigbul: a mountain shrub; and
an arboreous species on the lower hills (p. 84). The first, well

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 449

known for its aromatic capsules, and for the thick prickly clubs
used by fakirs (mendicants), is the Xanthoxylon hastile of Royle
(X. alatum of Roxb. ii. 768, and X. acanthopodium, DC.), called
Timur and Zejbal, the last expressive of its strong pungency.
It seems to be the Jwarantika, ‘fever-ender,’ of the Sanscrit.
It is (perhaps erroneously) referred to X. aromaticum, a West
Indian species, in the Illustrated Catalogue of the Great Exhibi-
tion of 1851, 1. 895. There is a new species flourishing in
shadier and loftier sites in Kumaéon, which Mr. Edgeworth pro-
poses to call X. tomentosum; of this the native name is Simur ;
it has similar properties. The arboreous species mentioned
by Dr. Hamilton may be X. Budrunga of Roxburgh, of which
the capsules are of a warm spicy nature, with the fragrance of
lemon-peel. Yoddalia floribunda, Wall., and another species of
Xanthoxylon are natives of Nepal; and Tetrodium cymosum and
frazinifolium (Royle, 157) may be from Lower Nepal.

Padam chhal ‘is a plant with a thick cylindrical root that is
used in medicine, and brought to the low country for that pur-
pose. The specimen that I procured had one large heart-shaped
rough leaf, and had somewhat the appearance of an Anemone”
(p. 100). The name signifies ‘bark of the Lotus,’ and, accord-
ing to my Nepalese authority, belongs to some species of Rheum,
probably R. Emodi, or Webbianum, or both, the roots of which
have “‘a spongy texture” (Royle) resembling the Lotus.

Sied burrooa: Daphne papyrifera, Ham. pp. 85, 232; pro-
perly written Seta-baruwa, 7. e. White Baruwa. The shrub
abounds in the temperate districts of the Himalaya; and the
paper made from its bark, though coarse, is not touched by in-
sects. The bark is exceedingly strong and pliable, and seems
to be the same with certain tape-like bandages employed by the
Chinese in tymg many of their parcels.”

Sinkauri, Silkauli: the leaves, Tejpat. ‘ Both its bark and
leaves havea fine aromatic smell and taste, and this quality in
the leaves is strengthened by drying” (p. 84). Cinnamomum
albiflorum ; Laurus Soncaurium, Hamn., Linn. Trans. xii. 557 ;
C. Cassida, Don, Prod. 67. Another Sinkauri is distinguished by
its aromatic quality residing in the bark of the roots. Dr. Hamil-
ton received it from the mountains of Morang, the tract between
the rivers Kosi and Tista. In the Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. 558,
he describes this plant as Laurus Sailyana: “vis aromatica tota
in radicis cortice posita. Hic autem cortex levis, colore lateri-
tius, odoratissimus, sapore grato aromaticus. Cortex ramorum
et folia insipida, inodora.” Nees von Esenbeck (in Wall. Pl. As.
Rar. 11. 73-75) identifies it as Cinnamomum albiflorum B, very
near C. Tamdla, ‘Taj’ Bengalensium, cultivated in the gardens
of Camrup.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 29

450 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

Machilus odoratissimus (Laurus Champa et bombycina, Herb.
Ham.), a fine tree of all the warmer valleys of the Himalaya, is
known in Kumaon as the Kaula, which term enters into Hamil-
ton’s Nepalese names. Dr. Hooker found Cinnamomum in Sik-
kim, up to 8500 feet (i. 162).

“The Seta and Cala Bhot mas of the Parbatiyas (Hindoo
mountaineers) are called Musa and Gya by the Newars (the
Mongolian aborigines of Nepal). They are two varieties of the
Dolichos Soja, the one of which has yellow flowers and white
seeds, and the other has black seeds and purplish flowers. The
former is ripe about the lst of November, the latter about the
Ist of September ” (p. 228).

Catalogue, 1778. Dolichos Soja. Soja hispida, DC. Garo
Kolai, Bengalensium. Bhot mas, Montanorum Hindice. Coli-
tur in Camrupz orientalis et Nepal montosis.

Thence abundantly up to Kumaon, where the Soy Bean plants
are called Bhat. “Bhut. Soja hispida, Kumaon.” Illustrated
Cat. of G. E. of 1851, 11. 87]. No mention of it, however, in
this respect occurs in our botanical or agricultural works on
India. Soy pulse is reckoned rather unwholesome, and much
of the sickness which assailed the divisions operating against
Nepal in 1813-14 was popularly attributed to its use.

Catalogue, 1690. Hedysarum Alhagi. Habitat in ripis Gangis
et Jomanis arenosis. Labelled, “ Monger, 17th June, 1811.”

This is the common Jawésé or Camel Thorn of the plains of
Northern India, and is here introduced as an example of the
way in which species are unnecessarily formed, on the supposi-
tion that a new locality (though erroneous) requires a new
species. The plant extends from the extreme north of India
down to Behar, where [ have seen it in the neighbourhood of
Monger, near the well-known hot spring of Sitdkund. It is
Dr. Wallich’s No. 5760. Alhagi Maurorum, Hedysarum Alhagi,
H. Ham. e Monger; and neither of these botanists gives any
intimation of the genus being found in Nepal, nor is there any
known Sitaékund in that country. Yet, on the supposition that
it is from that country, A/hagi Nepaulensium forthwith appears
in our books:—Don, System of Gardening, 11. 310, “ Native
of Nepaul, near Sitaucund.”” DeCandolle, Prod. 11. 352. Syn.
Genista Juasi, Ham. Hedysarum Hamiltonii, Sprengel, Syst.
iii. 316; and Manna Nepaulensis, D. Don, Prod. Fl. Nep. 247.
Habitat in Nepalia, prope Sitaucund, Ham., in which DC.
follows.

In the same manner D. Don has (Prod. 101) Heliotropium
obovatum. Hab. versus ripas fluminis (Bhagirathi) infra Mor-
shidabad, Ham. (it is H. europeum, L.), to which DC. prefixes,
“ In Nepalia versus,” &c., the locality being Bengal. A Me-

from the Kingdom of Nepdl. 451

Jianthus Himalayanus is constituted (Linn. Trans. xx. 417) from
a garden specimen of M. major grown at Hawalbagh, near Al-
morah, the only individual of the genus in Kumaon. In short,
if we take as criteria the genera Viburnum, Lonicera*, Cirsium,
and others in DeCandolle’s Prodromus, one-fourth of his Hima-
layan species have no reality independent of the different names
imposed by different botanists, and adopted as species without
examination.

Alhagi Maurorum is interesting as the shrub which yields
the ‘Manna’ of N. Persia, Bokhara, and Samarkand, called
Tarangabin or Taranjabin ; the plant itself being Khar-i-Shutar
and Ushtar-Khar, 7. e. Camel Thorn. The Manna of Mount
Sinai, a product of Tamariz gallica, is also formed in Louristan
and Irak, where it is called Gazdéngabin or Gazdnjabin. The
names are all Persian.

Sazifraga ligulata, Wall.

S. Pacumbis, Ham. MSS. in Don, Prod. 209. Dr. Hamil-
ton’s specific name, I doubt not, is a misprint for Pashan-bhéd,
its Sanscrit designation (pronounced Pakhan-bhédin in the
mountains), still preserved as Paékhan-bhéd in Nepal and Gar-
hwal: so Royle, J. A. 8. B. Oct. 1832, No. 12]. H.H. Wilson
erroneously explains the Sanserit term by Plectranthus scutella-
rioides. It signifies ‘ Rock-splitter’; and it is the more inter-
esting that the name should in this remote district be applied
to a species of our genus Sazifraga, since Pliny (H. N. xxi. 30)
refers Sazifragum to Asplenium Trichomanes, or Adiantum Ca-
pillus-Veneris: “calculos e corpore mire pellit frangitque, uti-
que nigrum. Qua de caussa potius, quam quod in saxis nasce-
retur, a nostris saxifragum adpellatum crediderim.”

Catalogue, 771. Calotropis procera. Uabitat in arenosis
Mithile, Magadhz, et Cosale.

The distribution of this plant (C. Hamilton, Wight, Contrib.
53) is ill understood. Abundant in the south of Syria (Beid-el-
osshar), Northern Africa, and all the warmer regions of Asia, I
traced it down the Ganges to Nadiya in Bengal, where it appa-
rently ceases. It appears to have escaped the observation of
Roxburgh, and is not mentioned in his ‘ Flora Indica” The
allied species, C. gigantea, is unknown in Northern India, ex-
cept at the base of the Himalaya below Naini Tal in Kumaon,
where for some miles it occurs in profusion: thence southward
I met with it wild till ten or fifteen miles below Rajmahal,
from which to Nadiya both species are intermingled, C. gigantea

* Lonicera quinquelocularis of Hardwick and Roxburgh (DC. iv. 358.
no. 50) is L. diversifolia, Wall. (no. 24, 334), as I ascertained on the spot
where the General discovered it. Exclude “ ramis volubilibus.”

29*

452 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

reaching Calcutta. The name Madér* applies to both: the
term Ak, also often applied, is from Sans. Arka, ‘the sun,’ to
which the flowers always turn; hence, where the two occur,
C. gigantea is called Baré dkand ; C. procera, Chhota akand ;
great and small Calotropis.

Griffith (Itimerary Notes, p. 207) has nearly the same distri-
bution as above : “ Calotropis Hamiltonii ; very common through-
out the sandy plains of India, on the N. side of the Rajmahal
hills, to the complete exclusion of C. gigantea. In appearance
there is scarcely any difference, and, as far as foliage goes, per-
haps none; the flowers are smaller, and invariably the leaflets
much smaller and bilobed at the apex.” Dr. Hamilton (Linn.
Trans. xiv. 246-248) explains the differences excellently. Dr.
Hooker (Notes of a Tour in the Plains of India, P. 1. p. 78)
notices nearly the same distribution as Griffith: “The species
look very different, but when gathered, there is extreme diffi-
culty in recognizing them.” He adds, that “there is considerable
discrepancy of opinion as to their comparative efficacy, the votes
being in favour of C. gigantea.”

Catalogue, No. 781. Swertia Chirata. Bara Chirata.

No. 782. Gentiana Cherayti. Chhota Chirata.

Dr. Hamilton informs us (p. 85) that of these two species the
smaller (782) is the one most in request. It is the Agathotes
Cherayta of D. Don (Linn. Trans. xvi. 522); Gentiana flori-
bunda (Prod. 127); G. Chirata, Wall. (P. A. R. i. 34. t. 252,
where the flowers are of far too intense a yellow). Dr. Hamilton
truly describes it as a perennial; it has yellow roots, hence the
Arabic Kasb-al-zarirach, ‘ yellow stem or twig’ (Royle, 278) ; it
brings twice the price of the other kinds: “sapore intense
amaro,” Wall., who also notes its “radix perennis.” It flou-
rishes in woods and shady places, with Plantago-like leaves, and
is the largest plant of the whole, reaching 4} feet high ; so that
the native appellation, given by Dr. Hamilton, does not apply.

No. 781 is probably Ophelia angustifolia, from which much
of the Chirayita of commerce is obtained+; but several other

* Madarine, the active principle of C. gigantea, “ possesses the pro-
perty of coagulating by heat, and becoming again fluid on exposure to
cold.”

+ D. Don (Linn. Trans. /. ¢. 524) says it is “‘ more bitter than the last,”
the Agathotes. Wallich, on the contrary (PI. As. Rar. iii. 2), says that it
and paniculata ‘ possess only a slight degree of bitter taste.” Don is here
most correct, according to my experience.

The large and handsome Swertias of the Alpine Himalaya do not appear
to be imported to the plains.

Chiréyita derives its name from the Kiratas, a people of Eastern Nepal,
the Cirrhade of Arrian: hence the Sanscrit Kirata-tikta; but the moun-
taineers call it simply Kanda Tita, ‘ bitter stem.’

from the Kingdom of Nepdl. 453

species, alata, cordata, fasciculata, purpurascens, are equally
esteemed or collected. These are annuals, and abound in open
sites, at various zones from 4000 to 12,000 feet above the sea.
Ophelia angustifolia and paniculata are figured in Wallich’s
Pl. As. Rar. iii. t. 204-5.

“The Kutki is another officinal plant, with a woody root,
and a stem containing many alternate leaves, toothed on the
edges and shaped like a spathula. It has much the appearance
of a Saxifrage. The roots are brought for sale” (p. 100).
Picrorliza Kurrooa, Royle, Llustr. t. 71. f. 2, a bitter for which
he tells us that Gentiana Kurroo is. frequently substituted.
Nima quassioides, occurring in the valleys of Basehar and Upper
Garhwal at 5500 to 8000 feet, is also called Karwi, from its
exceedingly bitter bark and wood.

Picrorliza Kurrooa is abundant in the Alpine Himalaya, on
the open downs above the limit of forest, 12,000 to 14,000 feet.
There is a second species in Kumaon, discovered by Major R.
Strachey, at similar heights.

Jatamangsi, p. 97: the Nard or Spikenard of the ancients ;
Hebrew Neredde, from the Sans. Nalada, 7.e. ‘ giving fragrance.’
Nardostachys Jatdémdnsi, Royle, Illustr. t. 54. f. 2. Patrinia
Jatamasi, Don, Prod. 159, 160. The Indian women consider
the smell very agreeable, and most of them that can afford it
use oil impregnated with this root for perfumimg their hair.
“ All I can say is,” adds Dr. Hamilton, “that if this root was
the Spikenard of the Roman ladies, their lovers must have had
a very different taste from the youth of modern Europe.” Cant.
i. 12. There is, however, a larger species, N. grandiflora (DC.
Prod. iv. 624), in Kumaon, flourishing at similar elevations
(13,000 to 14,000 feet) to N. Jatémdnsi*, and with a similar
root; “but it is much larger, and its smell is more agreeable”
(Wall. P. A. R. iii. 40) ; and Lambert (Genus Cinchona, 1821,
p-. 179) says, it “may be considered as possessing the most
agreeable odour of any” of the Valerians. His figure (p. 180)
evidently represents this species, not NV. Jatdmdnsi; and the
description, anticipated from Don’s Prodromus, proves that the
latter also, unless made from Nepal specimens, belongs to it.
The perfume and properties of the genus are, in fact, very nearly
those of Valeriana Celtica and Phu; and it is curious enough
that the radical leaves of the last two species (the roots of which
are substituted in Western Asia for the Spikenard) are simple,
and bear a considerable resemblance to those of Nardostachys.

* It is strange that DeCandolle (iv. 624) should assign Mandu and
Chitor in Central India as stations for this plant, which cannot live at
Almorah, 5500 feet, beyond a few months.

454 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

The name Jatéménsi signifies ‘locks of hair,’ sometimes simpl
Masi; and the vernacular Balchhar denotes ‘hairy staff, all
with reference to the root, which has been compared to the tail
of an ermine, “on account of its withered stalks and ribs of
leaves, cohering in a bundle of yellowish-brown capillary fibres.”
Pliny’s description accords (N. H. xii. 26): ‘Cacumina in
aristas se spargunt: ideo gemina dote nardi spicas ac folia cele-
brant.” Spica is a translation of the Arabic Sumbul, Hindi
Bal, ‘an ear of corn.’ Sir W. Jones, in As. Res. ii. 405-10,
iv. LO9, where the figure (copied, except the root, by Roxburgh,
ib. iv. 435) with cordate radical leaves, is, as Lambert truly ob-
serves (/. c. p. 179), that of Valeriana Hardwickii (Pl. As. Rar.
iii. t. 263). The roots of this very common species have the
same smell as those of V. officinalis, are also used medicinally,
and were substituted by Sir William Jones’s collectors without
any very glaring imposture. In Pliny’s time also, adulteration
took place by Pseudo-nard, “crassiore atque Jatiore folio.”
They are called Shameo in Nepal and Kumaon, the Sanscrit
Shami, from Sham, ‘to calm’; proving how widespread is the
antispasmodic energy attributed to them.

The aromatic-rooted Grass, Andropogon Jwardncusa (i. e. the
‘fever-goad,’ also Jwarandsaka, ‘ fever-destroyer’), at first taken
for the Spikenard*, is abundant all along the base of the Hima-
laya, and in the valleys of Kumaon up to 4000 feet. At a lower
level in the valley of the Alakananda in GarhwéAl, the still more
fragrant species, A. Calamus-aromaticus, Royle, t. 97, nardoides,
Nees, from which the celebrated Rusa, or Grass-oil of Nimméar,
is distilled, is not uncommon. Dr. Royle only traces it north
to Delhi.

“The Manjit, or Indian Madder, seems to be of two kinds:
the Rubia cordata of Willdenow, and a species of Rubia not
described in the common systems of Botany. Both seem to be
equally fit for the purpose, and grow in the same manner, It
is cultivated exactly as cotton is among the hills” (p. 74).

Catalogue, No. 554. Rubia cordifolia.

Catalogue, No. 355. Rubia Chaya. From Bhotan.

The first is Rubia Manjistha, Roxb. 1. 374, the R. cordata of
Thunberg, from Japan; differing by its pentandrous flowers
from R. cordifolia, L., from Siberia. But this test is not satis-
factory, as remarked by Wight and Arnott, whose statement is
perfectly correct, that the flowers of R. Manjisthd are frequently
tetrandrous. DeCandolle (iv. 588) describes them as all pen-
tandrous, and those of R. cordifolia both tetrandrous and pen-

* “The root of Andropogon muricatum”’ is given as a secondary mean-
ing of Nalada, Spikenard.

Jrom the Kingdom of Nepal. 455

tandrous, agreeing with R. Javana (R. cordifolia, Blume), which
he considers a medial form. Wight and Arnott (Prod. 442),
Wight (Icones, i. t. 187; Illustr. ii. t. 128 dis), and Don (Prod.
133) all identify them. R. Manjistha is very abundant in the
Himalaya, from 4000 to 9500 feet, with black fruit, and deep
red flowers, not yellow, as represented in Archer’s Popular Eco-
nomic Botany, P. xv. f. 78.

The second species, which Dr. Hamilton considers new, is by
Dr. Wallich (No. 6069) identified with R. cordifolia, L. Our
Edinburgh specimen, however, though imperfect, seems to be
an undescribed species, which I found in the glen of the Sarju
River in Eastern Kumaon, in two localities, Ramesar and Gan-
goli, at 3000 to 4000 feet elevation above the sea. Mr. Edge-
worth proposes to name it R. nervosa. Griffith (Itinerary Notes)
probably found it in Bhotan; his No. 11 is Rubia Manjistha,
Dewangiri, in woods. No. 116. Rubia cordifolia; alt. 2800
ped. in sylvis. No. 367. Rubia cordifolia. Khegumpa. Yields
Manjistha (Madder). No.1021. Rubia sp. Scandens, hirsuta,
certe distincta a R. cordifolia; towards Panga, in woods, 6500
to 7500 feet. In the Journals of Travels, p. 203, he writes at
Dewangiri, elevated 2000 feet : “I find that large quantities of
Manjistha or Madder are sent to the plains from this, where
the plant is very common.” At p. 292 we have Rubia hispida,
at 8700 feet; and at p. 296, Rubia hirsuta, at 5500 feet. At
p- 209 he says, “ Madder is furnished by both Rubia Manjistha
and R. cordifolia; these species are quite distinct, the latter
affecting greater elevations than the former, scarcely descending
below 4000 feet.” The plant becomes shorter and stouter at
high elevations; and in a matured Report, published in the
Journ. As. Soc. Bengal for April 1839, p. 281, he modifies this
view, and identifies these two supposed species, adding that
“ Bhotan has fwo species. The two species used in Bhotan are
very distinet, and very general constituents of other mountainous
floras ; one of them has leaves without stalks.” This is perhaps
Dr. Hamilton’s plant from Bhotan. His specific name Chaya
appears to vindicate a practice condemned by Mr. Archer (/. c.
212): “ Munjeet is often called Chay-root ; but this is a mis-
take, the latter being the produce of a totally different plant,”
Hedyotis umbellata, in Tamul Saya. In Bengal, Chaya is rua
lanata. Wallich (Roxb. Fl. Ind. i. 384) has Rubia alata, from
Nepal, which Don reduces to R. cordifolia; and Major Strachey
has a Rubia from Niti in Garhwdl, with greenish flowers, which
he considers to be R. Manjisthd of Roxburgh. Rubia purpurea,
figured and described by Decaisne in Jacquemont’s ‘ Voyage
aux Indes, is merely R. cordifolia, one of the many instances in

456 On some Plants from the Kingdom of Nepdl.

that valuable work of needless synonyms, owing to the want of:
ordinary precaution as to what previous botanists had already
named.

“ Umbelliferous plant with root resembling Athamanta Meum,
and when fresh, an uncommonly fragrant smell” (p. 98). Very
probably the well-known Chora, Angelica glauca of Mr. Edge-
worth, abundant at 9000 to 10,000 feet (and which I take to be
the aromatic Gertheon or Certheana of Assam, a compound of
Valeriana and Pastinaca, Griffith, Journals, 37, 57; and J. A.
Soc. Beng. 1837, 331,335). Two thousand feet higher flourishes
the Hushial, also very aromatic, which I believe to be Hymeno-
lena angelicoides, DC. Prod. iv. 245; as well as Hymenidium
Brunonis, Nesir or Lesir* of the mountaineers, a very fragrant
plant.

Bhutkes: Bhutkesar, pp. 86, 98. “A thick woody root, on
the top of which were many stiff bristles, and from among these
the young leaves were shooting.” These Dr. Hamilton thought
belonged to Thalictrum, and Dr. Royle (Illustr. p, 69) refers
Bhutkes to Corydalis Govaniana; but it is actually the root of
Oreocome filicifulia and elata of Mr. Edgeworth (Linn. Trans.
1845), especially the former. This is probably identical with
Selinum Candollii (Peucedanum Wallichianum, DC. Prod. iv.
181; Selinum tenuifolium, Wall.) and Pleurospermum cicutarium,
Royle, Illustr. Don’s three species of Athamanta, Prod. 184-5,
described in accordance with the signification of Bhutkes, seem
to belong to Oreocome. Both the above plants, and one or two
species of Cortia, growing at great elevations (14,000 to 15,000
feet), are well known all over the Himalaya by Dr. Hamilton’s
names, which signify ‘hair of the spectre,’ against which they
are worn as charms. ‘They are often called simply Kés, ‘hair,’
for the same reason as the Jatémansi. With the medicmal root
Bhutkes, Dr. Hamilton mentions another, called Jainti, which
he refers to an Orchid growing among moss on large stones, on
the higher mountains. Calogyne precoz is so described on his
authority in Don’s Prodromus, p. 37. “ Brim” (p. 100) is another

* Dr. Hoffmeister has pointed out the resemblance of this name and
plant to the Laserpitium (Lesir-pati) of the Romans, the Silphium of the
Greeks, which the historians of Alexander inform us that his army found
in Afghanistan. The Greeks of Cyrenaica represented the plant (Thapsia
Silphium of Viviani, Flor. Lib., or Thapsia garganica, Desfontaines) on
their coins still extant; and Pliny (N. H. xix. 15; xxii. 49) paints in high
colours the virtues of its gum-resin, Laser Cyrenaicum, as a medicine and
pertume. The celebrated drug, Asa dulcis of Cyrene, recalls the Assa-
feetida of Persia, as well as a kind of incense from the Himalaya, called
Asé puri (i. e. ‘the fulfiller of hope’), of which the Nepalese told me won-
derful virtues. '

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 457

orchideous root used in medicine; but neither of this nor of the
Bariyalbhera seeds (p. 285) from Chhinachhin in Yumila, a
province east of Kumaon, have I any identification to bring
forward.

XXXIX.—Monograph of the genus Catops.
By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh.

[Concluded from p. 404. ]

Exotic Species.
56. C. suturalis (mihi).

Affinis C. sericeo, sed elongatior, lateribus minus rec-
tis, et thorace forma breviore ; elytris longioribus.
Long. 1} lin.

Fuscous; head and thorax with fulvous sericeous
pubescence ; elytra ferrugimous-brown, with the ante-
rior half of the sutural margin and the margins of
the elytra darker; inflexed margins of elytra and
margins of under side of thorax clear ferruginous,
remainder of under side pitchy-black; legs ferru-
ginous. Antenne with base ferruginous, club and apex dark ;
first joint large and long; second not so long ; third and fourth
of nearly the same length; fifth shorter than fourth ; sixth
shorter than seventh; seventh large and broad; eighth very
small ; three last nearly of the same size. Thorax faintly trans-
versely strigose, posterior angles obtuse. Elytra deeply trans-
versely strigose. Scutellum elongate. Sutural stria shortened,
joing the suture at about one-third from the apex. Elytra
truncate at the apex; pubescence on elytra darker than on
thorax.

This species has a great resemblance to C. sericeus, but differs
from it in the following particulars. In general outline it is
searcely broader in front than behind, while sericeus is usually
markedly so. The thorax begins to round-in towards the head
almost immediately from the base forward, while in sericeus it
does not begin to turn inwards till about the middle of the
thorax. Scutellum more elongate than in sericeus. The length
of the elytra is 2} times that of the thorax, while in sericeus
it is not so much as twice that length. The elytra also are not
so broadly truncate at the apex.

Described from a specimen in M. Chevrolat’s collection re-
ceived under this name from M. Motschoulsky. Locality not
mentioned ; supposed to be from Mongolia.

458 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops:

57. C. californicus, Leconte.

Catops californicus, Lec. Synopsis of Silphales of N. America, Proe, Acad,
Philadelphia, vol. vi. 1853, p. 281.

Oblongus, subovalis, piceus, sericeus, subtilissime Fig. 50.
punctulatus et transversim strigosus; antennarum / —
basi, pedibus, elytrisque pallidioribus, his stria sutu-
rali profunda; thorace antrorsum valde angustato,
angulis posticis paulo productis subacutis.

Long. 1 lin.

,

The antennz are slightly clavate and as long as the head and
thorax ; the thorax is strongly narrowed in front, truncate at base,
and slightly sinuate near the posterior angles, which are subacute ;
the sides are broadly rounded; the disk is sometimes blackish,
and the sides dark rufous. The punctures of the upper surface
in this species are very indistinct, and the transverse striz very
fine ; the pubescence is sericeous, but not dense ; the anterior
tarsi of the male are strongly dilated, the intermediate pair
simple, the posterior pair longer than the tibiz.

Dr. Leconte mentions that it is abundant at San Jose and San
Diego, California. He also observes that one female specimen
which he had from San Diego appeared more elongated than the
others and much more narrowed posteriorly. He could not,
however, find any other difference.

58. C. consobrinus, Leconte.

Catops oparohrteet Lec. Syn. Silph. N. Amer. Proc. Acad. Philad. vi. 1853,
p- 281.
“ Oblongo-ovalis, subelongatus, ater, subsericeus, vix Fig. 51.
punctulatus, subtiliter transversim strigosus ; antennis
basi rufo-piceis ; elytris stria suturali profunda ; tho-
race antrorsum modice angustato, angulis posticis
leviter productis.
“ Tong. 1 lin.

“Georgia. This species resembles the two preceding, but is a
little more elongated and more oval; it is entirely black, except-
ing the base of the antennz and the tarsi, which are rufo-piceous.
The thorax is more than one-half wider than long, moderately
narrowed in front, broadly truncate at apex, very slightly
rounded on the sides, truncate at base, and faintly sinuate at
the posterior angles, which are slightly acute. The punctures
are very indistinct. The transverse scratches are as fine as in
C. californicus*.”

* Leconte in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 459
59. C. Lecontet, mihi.

Catops strigosus, Lec. Syn. Silph. N. America, Proc. Acad. Philad. vol. vi.
1853, p. 281.
“ Oblongo-ovalis, subelongatus, piceo-rufus, sericeus, Fig. 52.
distinctius strigosus ; thorace latitudine sesqui brevi- |
ore, antrorsum modice angustato, angulis posticis vix
productis, subacutis ; elytris stria suturali profunda ;
antennis magis incrassatis, piceis, basi testaceis.

“ Long. | lin.

* One female, South Carolina, Dr. Zimmerman. This species
resembles the preceding, but the thorax is less narrowed in front
and less rounded on the sides ; the transverse lines on the thorax
and elytra are more distinct ; the punctures are very indistinct ;
the first four or five joints of the antennz are testaceous, the rest
are piceous ; the apex is indistinctly paler*.”

The “ Synopsis of the Silphales of America north of Mexico,”
in which this species was described by Dr. Leconte under the
name of strigosus, was published in February 1853, while
M. Kraatz’s description of the European species so named by
him was published in the ‘ Stettin Ent. Zeitung’ in 1852. By
the rule of priority therefore, the name strigosus must be retained
for Kraatz’s species, and another name given to this. It appears
to me that it is an appropriate homage to name it after the
eminent naturalist who first described it.

60. C. oblitus, Leconte.
Catops oblitus, Lec. Syn. Silph. N. Amer. Proc. Acad. Philad. vi. 1853, 282.

“ Subellipticus minus convexus, rufo-fuscus, pubescens ; Fig. 53.
thorace punctulato antrorsum subangustato basi trun-
cato, angulis posticis fere obtusis; elytris transversim
minus dense strigosis, stria suturali distincta ; antennis
flavis, art. 4-10 fuscis.
“ Long. 1} lin.

“ Three specimens, Georgia. Easily distinguished by its sub-
elliptical and less convex form. I cannot discover any punc-
tures on the elytra; if they exist they are concealed by the dense
pubescence, which is however scarcely sericeous. The male has
three joints of the anterior tarsi dilated; the middle tarsi are
simple in both sexes+.”

The mesosternal keel is less elevated in this and the next than
in the other species.

* Leconte in loc. cit. + Leconte in loc, cit.

460 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

61. C. parasitus, Leconte.

Catops parasitus, Lec. Syn. Silph. N. Amer. Proc. Acad. Philad. vi. 1853,
p. 282.

“ Breviter ovatus, piceo-rufus, sericeus ; thorace disco Fig. 54.
obscuriore, brevi, antrorsum valde angustato, angulis

posticis non productis ; elytris transversim strigosis,

stria suturali profunda ; antennis basi apiceque flavis.

“ Long. } lin.

“ New York, in ants’ nests, with Heterius brunnipennis, March
and April. This species is much broader and more suddenly
narrowed posteriorly than the others. The thorax is fully twice
as wide as its length, punctulate, not strigose, strongly narrowed
in front, broadly rounded on the sides, truncate at base, with
the posterior angles simply rectangular and not produced. The
elytra are punctulate and distinctly striate transversely. The
antenne are as long as the head and thorax, very slightly ineras-
sated, rufo-piceous, with the first four joints and the apical one
yellowish ; the seventh joint is more than twice the length of
the sixth ; the eighth joint is much shorter, but scarcely thinner
than the following ones. The anterior tarsi of the male are
broadly dilated ; the first joint of the middle tarsi is less dilated
than in C. terminans*.”’

The mesosternal keel is finer and less raised in this and
C. oblitus than in the other species.

62. C. ascutellaris, mihi.

Oblongo-ovatus, fusco-sericeus ; antenmis vix ad apicem Fig. 55,
incrassatis, fuscis, basi apiceque ferrugineis ; thorace
elytrisque leviter transversim strigosis, his stria
suturali impressis ; scutello inviso.

Long. § lin.

Fuscous-brown. ‘The antennz are scarcely so long
as the head and thorax, so slightly clavate as to be almost
filiform, fuscous, the basal joints ferruginous, the two apical
joints pale ; first and second joints long and slender, those follow-
ing short, gradually though very slightly increasing in breadth
up to the seventh ; the seventh is rather shorter than the ninth,
and of about the same thickness ; the eighth is not narrower than
those on each side of it, but shorter, being about half the length
of the ninth ; the ninth and tenth are equal in length and thick-
ness; the eleventh is larger than the tenth, and becomes acu-
minate towards the point. The head is darker than the rest of

* Leconte in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 461

the body. The thorax forms a continuous or nearly continuous
line with the elytra; its posterior angles do not project behind ;
both thorax and elytra are seen under a powerful lens to be very
finely though distinctly transversely strigose. The elytra are not
truncate, although they are rounded rather rapidly at the apex.
The scutellum is not visible. The sutural stria is distinct at the
base, but it draws closer to the suture as it proceeds to the apex,
and is lost before it reaches it. Under side and legs ferruginous-
brown.

From Caraccas. I received this species from M. Deyrolle,
under the manuscript name of equinoctialis ; but the advantage
of having a name bearing reference to some particular character,
when that can be had, is so obvious, that I am sure that that ex-
cellent entomologist will excuse my not adopting the name he
had destined for it.

63. C. australis, Erichs.
Catops australis, Erichson, Wiegm. Arch. (1842) p. 243.

Mesosterno carinato, niger, nigro-pubescens ; thorace Fig. 56.
elytrisque transversim strigosis.
Long. 13 lin.

Oval, lightly convex, black, with black pubescence. Y,
Antenne of the length of the head and thorax, the
apex slightly thickened, the eighth joint narrower
than those next it, black, piceous at the base. Thorax
about the same breadth as the elytra, with the sides
lightly rounded, the posterior angles slightly projecting obliquely
behind, nearly right-angled ; the base subsinuate on each side,
finely transversely strigose. Elytra transversely feebly strigose,
the strigations rather widely separated, impressed with a sutural
stria, rounded at the apex. Legs concolorous, tarsi piceous, the
anterior lightly dilated at the base in the males. Mesosternum
slightly keeled.

This species seems to come between strigosus, Kraatz, and
sericeus.

It is found in Tasmania, and is the only species yet recorded
from the southern part of the hemisphere.

Genus CatToprricuus, mihi.

Antenne of eleven joints, the last eight of which are strongly
serrated in the males, somewhat less so in the females ; the three
first are slender; the eighth joint is very slightly, if at all, nar-
rower or shorter than those on each side of it. In other respects
the characters do not differ from those of Catops.

462 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

l. C. Frankenheuseri, Mann.
Catops Frankenheuseri, Mann. Bull. Soc. Imp. Mose. 1852, pt. 2. p. 332.

Elongatus, fusco-piceus, griseo-pubes- Fig. 57.
cens ; antennis pectinatis, basi ferru-
gineis, articulo ultimo pyriformi apice
acuminato ; thorace quadrato, angulis
rotundatis, obsolete canaliculato, pos-
tice in medio impresso; elytris ob-
longo-ellipticis, subtilissime punctu-
latis, tenue striatis, stria suturali pro-
fundiore, rufo-testaceis, cinereo-holo-
sericeis, pilis longis fuscis presertim
in margine obsitis; pedibus ferru-
gineo-piceis. 7

Long. 24-3 lin., lat. 14-1} lin.

Elongate, having a good deal the form of the first group
(subg. Choleva) of the genus Catops: fuscous, clothed with a
griseous pubescence. Antenne pectinated, black, ferruginous at
the base ; the first three joints slender ; third longer than second ;
fourth to tenth each of nearly equal length, globose, with a long
spine proceeding outwards. Thorax quadrate, angles rounded,
obsoletely canaliculated, impressed behind in the middle. Elytra
oblong-elliptic, very finely punctulated, feebly striated, the sutu-
ral stria deeper, rufo-testaceous, with a cimereous bloom and
clothed with long brown hairs, especially on the margin; legs
dark ferruginous.

Inhabits the island of Sitka. Several specimens were taken
by M. Frankenhzuser in a human body lying in a wood, and in
putrid fungi.

I owe the above figure to Dr. Leconte.

Genus Catoprsimorpuus, Aubé.
Catopsimorphus, Aubé, Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 2 sér. val. viii. p. 324.

“ Antenne with eleven joints, very much flattened ; the eighth
not narrower and scarcely shorter than the seventh and ninth.
Epistome cut almost straight. Labrum broadly and deeply
emarginate, and provided in front with a small very slender
membrane, strongly emarginate in the middle and ciliated in the
emargination. Mandibles denticulated at the extremity and fur-
nished within with a ciliated membrane. Maxille with the
internal lobe terminated by a small hook; the external lobe
obtuse and hairy at the extremity. Maxillary palpi with four
joints, the first very small, the second slightly clavate, the third
obconic, the last conical, a half smaller than the third. Labium

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 463

membranous, pretty deeply emarginate. Labial palpi with three
cylindrical joints, the last smallest. Tarsi with five joints, the
anterior and middle probably dilated in the male. The facies of
this genus is completely analogous to that of Catops. It differs
from it principally in the form of the antenne. We know
nothing of its mode of life*.”

1. C. orientalis, Aubé.
Catopsimorphus orientalis, Aubé, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 2 sér. viii. 325.

“Ovalis, convexiusculus, niger, griseo-pubescens ;

: ; : aS Fig. 58.
antennis, ore, elytris pedibusque ferrugineis ;
thorace antice angustato, angulis omnibus ro- )
tundatis.—3} mill. % y;
S
“Head black, somewhat brilliant, tolerably 2

broad, very finely punctate and slightly pubescent. /
Labrum, palpi and antennz testaceous ; the latter /
with the first joint longish, cylindrical ; the second;
almost globular; the remainder transverse, flat- | parry
tened and gradually increasing in size to the last, | || |
which terminates in a point; the eighth scarcely \ | /
shorter than the seventh and ninth. Thorax “| /”
black, pubescent and finely punctate and reticu-

lated, more than one and a half times broader than long, much
narrower in front than behind, cut almost straight at the apex
and the base, very broadly rounded at the sides; the anterior
and posterior angles obtuse and rounded. Elytra as broad as
the thorax at the base, about one and a half times longer than
broad ; broadly rounded behind ; ferruginous, less finely punctate
and reticulated than the thorax ; pubescent and marked with
a deeply impressed stria on each side of the suture. Under side
of body black, with the extremity of the abdomen somewhat
ferruginous. Legs ferruginous ; thighs slightly brownt.”

Dr. Aubé mentions that he had two individuals of this species,
both taken in the neighbourhood of Constantinople. He sup-
poses them to be both females from their having all their tarsi
simple.

Since the first part of this paper was in print, I have had an
opportunity of carefully examining the specimens in the collec-
tion of the Count Dejean, now belonging to the Marquis de
Laferté Senectére, who kindly placed them in my hands for
that purpose; and it may be desirable that I should state the

* Aubé in loc. cit. + Aubé in Joc. cit.

464 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

result of my examination in reference to the names used by
Count Dejean and published in his Catalogue. The specimens
are for the most part in good order and preservation. A few,
however, were in a less satisfactory state, and of course I give
my opinion of these with doubt. As might be expected in such
a difficult genus, there were sometimes more than one species
placed under the same name, so that it is a matter of opinion
which was the typical species he intended to designate.

The names in the collection correspond with those published
in the 3rd edition of his Catalogue, 1837. His

Catops rufescens=C. angustatus, Evichs.

oblongus = cisteloides, Froeh\. (castaneus, Sturm).

— ovatus, De}. =agilis, Erichs.

—— major, De}.=prcipes Erichs.

—— Americanus was in too bad a state to determine.

—— morio=nigrita, Erichs.

Under this name were found specimens of nigrita, fuscus,

and umbrinus, but the preponderance in poimt of number
was decidedly in favour of nigrita.

Catops tibialis, De}.=coracinus ?, Kelln.

This species and a portion of those standing under the
next name, fuscus, but which were the same, were marked
as coming from Portugal. I thought they came nearer to
coracinus than any other, but am not satisfied that they
were not perhaps an undescribed species.

Catops fuscus=tristis, Erichs.

I have no doubt that Dejean meant tristis to be the type
of his fuseus. He had a number of ¢ristis, and one of
grandicollis under it, and none of these under any other
name. At the same time he had among them several of
the above Portuguese species, and some of alpinus, Gyll., as
well as Spencianus, Kirby (cadaverinus, Mann.).

Catops chrysomeloides=chrysomeloides, Sp.
australis = australis, Erichs.
agilis=fumatus, Erichs.
Some of C. alpinus, Gyll., were mixed with fumatus under
this name, but the great majority were the latter.

Catops truncatus=sericeus, Erichs.
A single fumatus and a single velox have found their way
into the mass of sericeus, but this is obviously by inad-
vertence.

Catops transverso-striatus =a new species described by me under
this name in the foregoing pages.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 465

Catops pallidus=veloz, Spence. Represented by a single bad
specimen.

luridus =scitulus, Erichs.

The first specimens are scitulus, then follow some of veloz,
and lastly what may be brunneus, Sturm.
flavescens=precox, Erichs.

—— minutus = anisotomoides, Spence.

The remainder of his species are different species of Colon,
and do not fall within this Monograph.

On looking over the preceding parts of this paper, I am not
satisfied with the figure given of C. nigrita (fig. 12), and would
beg the reader instead of it to adopt the figure I now give, as a
more accurate representation of the species.

A figure of transverso-striatus § was omitted to be given with
the text. It is now supplied.

C. nigrita. C. transverso-striatus.

I have only now to add the Dichotomous Table of the European
species which I promised at the commencement of this paper.
It is not to be understood as a substitute for the descriptions,
but merely as a slight aid in turning to the quarter where the
species are likely to be found.

Dichotomous Table of Characters of European Species of Carvors.

EE AGMOCEHAINE RUTIDIC §, 0. 00.002nnnen>osepainees nnesdeeas ]
PECMOSLEPHOID MOTION | Kc apcea<c,scuesssacsovesnvnesys>a¢ 30
Antenne nearly filiform and decidedly longer than
1 DEER stot tas evactcusddsunccccccbocns dansspecedapubuse
*| Antennz more or less clavate, and not longer or
very slightly longer than thorax cesecsesesesereeee 5
9 sei broader towards base than in front ......... agilis.
‘| Thorax not broader towards base than in front ... 3
Punctuation coarse, pubescence long and sparse,
3 Bait Clyite Dellied Ot s..ca,ssenadassanencanseonnetannn spadiceus.
* | Punctuation fine, pubescence dense and short, and

elytra elongate and narrow ..........secseececseeeeees

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 30

466 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

{Mate of thorax paler than middle _ ............... angustatus.
Margins of thorax not paler than middle ... do. var. cisteloides.

Base of thorax cut in, so as not to form a ction
5 Outline with elytra .....0:.ccsosscscseesecenss Bee
*| Base of thorax forming a continuous outline with
elytra or nearly SO ...64. eeeeees seneeseeseseenesens ws 19

Colour of pubescence grey and brown or dull yellow
on thorax, yellowish hairs on base and margins
of elytra wanting or scarcely perceptible, and
6. either no bloom or grey bloom on elytra ......... 7
Colour of pubescence clear yellow on thorax, a
brownish-blue or purplish bloom on the elytra,
Land yellowish hairs on base and sides of elytra... 14

Antenne longish and subfiliform, not heavily
7 : Glabbed | «2. ckateds ie. seve evansudec suck sstacpereeeeseeee 8
Antenne shorter and more clavate ....... vi ccape ont ene
Elytra transversely strigose ...esesse0 essereesseesees acicularis.
Elytra not transversely strigose ......-0ssseeesesrsevee 9
Antenne with apex pale —......++..s00 scccvcccsecsens UCIpes.
Antenne with apex not paler than rest ........ ee 10
10 { Posterior angles of thorax acuminate behind ...... 11
Posterior angles of thorax not acuminate behind... fuscus*.
Posterior angles much produced, antennz wholly
1 FEFFUGINOUS 2....cccoecsvcererees bibcboeckniwanineceeeeel meridionalis.
Posterior angles only slightly produced, antennz
more dusky towards apeX ...csessseeesesseeeeeeeees . nigricans.
12 fers very heavily clavate .......sscscssscseseeses .«. chrysomeloides.
Antenne only moderately clavate .........sseseeeeveee 13
13 { Inseet thin and narrOw! <ssecsis.cissisendedeacs - morio.
Insect shorter and more compact ......ceescseseeees +. coracinus.
14, { Antenne comparatively long and subclavate ...... nigrita.
Antenne heavily clavate ......... pee Soe sorsascepeueue IL
Thorax deeply punctured ......ssccssececsstereneceeees neglectus.
15 | Thor more or less transversely granulose or
WEMMKIEA Ss Miesoccukrenssdeasvepsevaten cel eye
Thorax nearly parallel on the sides ......... devoousen uadraticollis.
16 yi ; q
Thorax not parallel on the sides ........seseeeseeees 1
V7 te faintly transversely wrinkled _....... Be 18
Thorex oragulons .ci.-<<csnesnsvesanasecssvsunss tristis, var. rotundicollis.
Thorax short, transverse, and not broad; elytra
18 usually very long —«--...+s+00s sinelaa Sa ince gages we-+. tristis (type
Thorax broad, elytra moderate in length ... tristis, var. gran senile
19. ea: tarsi widened. in males ...s0sscsscesso+v-debeus 20
fiddle tarsi not widened in males ......... capveteul 25

* Fuscus is one of those species, which, from their transitional charae-
ters, nearly put dichotomy at defiance. It might almost be placed under
No. 19 instead of No. 6, as the base of the thorax has only a slight inter-
ruption in its continuity ; and again, its brown or purplish elytra are not
unlikely to induce one to place it under No. 14 instead of No. 7.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 467

20, { Antennze heavily clavate ......-s.seeeeeeeeeereeeeseees 21
Deemmectie WabClavate 12). isessctsccscesccasesecessaccses D2
2] eae not narrower at base than elytra ............ fumatus.
"| Thorax slightly narrower at base than elytra ...... alpinus.
22 { Thorax with posterior angles rounded .....-......46- brevicollis*.
“ | Thorax with posterior angles not rounded ......... 23
23 { Thorax with lateral margins reflexly sinuated ...... depressust.
‘| Thorax with lateral margins rounded — ...........0645 24

{ Thorax with posterior angles projecting strongly
backwards, forming an acute angle; elytra not
distinguished by sericeous pubescence ........+... umbrinus.

24. d Thorax with posterior angles projecting slightly

1 backwards, the angle not acute but right-angled ;

| elytra distinguished by a silky pubescence which

in different lights shows like a light band across
[ i) ESR See peer Pera hier oe eee scitulus.
25 { Thorax not wider at base than elytra .........44. was 20
* | Thorax slightly wider at base than elytra ............ precoz.

Elytra more than three times the length of thorax transverso-striatus.
26.4 Elytra not more than three times the length of

THOLANAEC Ret eee. cc scces eat Pee speeen ee 27
27 A Faeai margin of thorax sinuated ....00....s.seesseres velox.
* | Basal margin of thorax straight ............sceeeeeeeeee 28
28 { Posterior angles of thorax right-angled ..........+- badius *.
‘| Posterior angles of thorax obtuse ......... St AS 29
MARI ooo senna wane sacvsasan a1 ane nexvesnua seees Anisotomoides.
“(Insect more elongate ...... pies cee esa raean ol Satan ean caste brunneus f.
30. Body polished and shining ....-.......+++++ see SEBS lucidus.
POGY HOE POUSNE. «2. 10. 6... cccnwsaveecoccedeeecsssenene 31
2
31. { Flytra not truncate 9 ..........-.00000. safeties Aart re? 32
RMEICALON, 2 oeco ac crvetnss~cnqcvaslsehontnecesteeners 33
32 as REMLIMIAECS 4 eo san sac -Ceceseaaneone Asan apne seer strigosus.
* | Elytra not acuminate ............. Poe Wee 8 Muddvettaneee Colon.
33 pam with apical joint pale ............eeceeseeeees varicornis.
"| Antenne with apical jot not pale .........seeeeeees 34
Antenne heavily clubbed, with base not paler than
34 RE MNE Mr aati gantigsiclssy axens biseasbadsdadarpasneb acura aaavss validus.
| Antenne moderately clubbed, and base paler than
CUE sueaeaxxovans mipadapdate cnanvgub<aiecgacee inns eaas wee SETICCUS.

* Not having seen this species, I only place it under No. 19 provisionally,
the description given by M. Kraatz being scarcely sufficient to satisfy me
as to its place.

+ Not haying seen the male of this species, it is only from supposition
that I have placed it under No. 20.

t Not having seen badius nor brunneus, their place is marked provi-
sionally and with hesitation.

30*

468 Dr. Gray on the Abnormal Operculum of Polydonta elegans.

XL.—On the Abnormal Operculum of Polydonta elegans of New
Zealand. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

In the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for May 1854,
N.S. vol. xiii. p. 419, I described the reproduced operculum of
a Fusus, fig. 1, and the restored operculum of Pleurotoma baby-
lonica, showing that the restored operculum and the mended part
of one only partially destroyed differed from the normal form of
the operculum of the species.

At that time I had not observed the same fact in opercula of a
spiral form. In an interesting collection of shells and other
animals made in New Zealand by Dr. Andrew Sinclair, the late
Colonial Secretary of that colony, I found a specimen of Poly-
donta elegans with a very abnormal operculum; arising, I have
little doubt, from the operculum having been entirely destroyed
by some external violence and reproduced by the animal.

The reproduced operculum is circular,
of the size of the mouth of the shell, but
instead of being formed of numerous
narrow, very gradually enlarged whorls,
it has a rather large central circular
part or nucleus, which extends into
a broad, rather rapidly enlarging whorl
and a half, somewhat like the oper- we
cular or the more circular-mouthed Reproduced operculum of
Littorinide. Polydonta elegans.

I may observe, that though I have examined all the opercula of
shells that have come under my notice for years, I have never
seen any example of reproduction of the operculum in the Tro-
chide before ; but according to the following paragraph, extracted
from Mr. Clark’s ‘ Marine Mollusca,’ p. 309, it is not uncommon
in Trochus lineatus :— A singular character is attached to this
species, which I have not observed in any other Trochus. The
animal either casts the operculum, or is deprived of it by the
attacks of enemies, perhaps from its own pulli, white masses of
which, in the genial season, I have seen deposited on the foot,
and they may possibly feed on and destroy it ; however this may
be, numerous examples are found with the opercula in various
stages of development and renewal, but never resembling the
original : this is a curious fact, which I can at present scarcely
account for on rational grounds. The renewals and reparations
form irregular spiral, oblique and elliptical curves, or, instead of
the sixteen normal volutions, often only show two grossly spiral
ones, as in the Littorina littorea. I have many such in my
collection. I may observe, that, however the sculpture of the

Rev. T. Hincks on Reticularia immersa and Halia pretenuis. 459

area may be varied, the operculum always retains the circular
form.”

I think the irregularity may be easily explained, when we
consider that the animal has to reproduce the operculum in the
most rapid manner to replace the lost part, and therefore com-
mencing from the centre, it forms only one or one and a half
broad whorl, instead of the large number which it gradually
deposited. As it has to adapt the operculum to the increased size
of the mouth of the shell and of the foot on which it is formed,
and the end of the foot of the animal and the circular mouth of
the shell not being altered by the abstraction of the operculum,
the reproduced operculum is naturally of the form of the pre-
vious normally formed one.

XLI.— Note on Reticularia immersa and Halia pretenuis.
By the Rey. Taomas Hincxs, B.A.

In the ‘ Annals’ for February 1855 I described a supposed
Polyzvon under the name of Halia pretenuis. I had never met
with the species living, and merely inferred from the character
of the cell, &c. that it must be ranked as a Polyzoon, and not as
a Hydroid. Mr. Alder, having recently made a careful exami-
nation of the common parasite of Sertularia abietina and other
zoophytes, which passes as the Reticularia immersa of Professor
Wyville Thomson, has informed me that he can detect no dif-
ference between this species and the Halia, and that he believes
them to be identical. I have now no doubt that his opinion
is correct, and that the genus Halia was founded on speci-
mens of the zoophyte which Prof. Thomson has described as
Reticularia immersa. In characterizing this species, however, he
has fallen into a mistake as to the form of the cell, and his
figure (vide Annals, Ser. 2. vol. xi. pl. 16) is not an accurate
representation of the reality. Deriving my knowledge of Reti-
cularia, as I did, from his description and figure, there was
nothing to lead me to suspect its identity with the form which I
had obtained on mnssel-shells from the Dogger Bank, and
which I published as Halia pretenuis. I could have no doubt that
the zoophyte of his paper was not the species which I had before
me when I constituted the new genus.

The cause of this mistake on the part of so able a naturalist
may perhaps be found in the difficulty which attaches to the
examination of Reticularia in its ordinary state,—the cells being
densely packed together and forming a confused mass, amidst
which it is no easy matter to trace the form. When the species
creeps over shell (as was the case in my specimens) the character

470 Rey. T. Hineks on Reticularia immersa and Halia preetenuis.

is greatly altered,—the cells are sparingly distributed along
the fibre, and the difficulty vanishes. Both Prof. Thomson and
myself overlooked the fact, that the production, which we re-
spectively designated as Reticularia and Hala, had been pre-
viously described by Mr. Hassall in the Transactions of the
Microscopical Society (vol. iii. p. 163) under the name of Cam-
panularia serpens. Mr, Hassall’s description may not perhaps
be as full and precise as might be desired, but it is sufficient for
the identification of the species. There is no doubt that it has
no claim to a place in the genus Campanularia, and that Prof.
Thomson was right in constituting a new genus for its recep-
tion. The name Reticularia, therefore, must be retained, but
Mr. Hassall’s specific designation is entitled to precedence.
The characterization may be revised as follows :—

Order Hyproipa.
Fam. ———*.
Genus RericvuLaRia.

Polypidom “a parasitical, investing network of horny tubes,
immersed in a horny crust ;” cells decumbent, adherent, irre-
gularly disposed along the fibre, to which they are attached at
the base. “ Polype of a greenish colour, with numerous smooth,
solid tentacula ; very minute.”

Reticularia serpens.

Campanularia serpens, Hassall, Microscop. Transact. vol. for 1852.
Reticularia immersa, W. Thomson, Annals, vol. xi. for 1853.

Halia pretenuis, Hincks, Annals for Febr. 1855.

Capsularia serpens, Gray, List of Brit. Radiated Animals, p. 151.

Yells elongate, with upturned, terminal, and more or less
tubular orifices, moperculate, and with even rim.

The polypidom is a creeping fibre of great delicacy, which
forms an irregular network, corneous and closely adherent ; it is
invested by a kind of crust, which, when the zoophyte i is in a
recent state, gives it a soft and spongy appearance, but is not
apparent when it is dried; the cells, which occur sometimes in
pairs, one on each side of the fibre, sometimes singly, sometimes
in companies, are elongate, attached by the base to the poly-
pidom, adherent, except at the anterior extremity, which bends

* I do not associate Reticularia with any of the existing families of
Hydroida, fully agreeing with Prof. W. Thomson in the opinion that the
section of the genus Campanularia which embraces C. syringa, dumosa,
parvula (and to these may now be added the C. gracillima (Alder)),
together with the genera Coppinia and Reficularia, should form a distinet
group “intermediate between the Sertularians and the Campanularians.”

Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Conchology of France. 471

upwards, and terminates in a circular aperture ; they are com-
monly laid alongside the fibre, and often appressed to it, but
occasionally stand out from it.

There are two very distinct states of this zoophyte. In old
specimens, spreading over the stems of Sertularia, &c., the cells
are massed confusedly together, and the form is with difficulty
distinguishable. On shells it presents a much simpler appear-
ance: the cells are sparingly distributed and distinct, and in
such specimens I have never been able to detect any trace of a
crust.

Hab. Exceedingly common on our coasts, both north and
south, on Sertularia abietina and other zoophytes; also on
mussel-shells from the Dogger Bank, &c.

XLIU.— Contribution to the Conchology of France.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

Havine spent part of this autumn on the coast of Normandy,
with my family, I have been requested by some of my scientific
friends to publish the result of my researches; but I fear my
story will not be much longer than that of the weary knife-
grinder. In fact the whole of my work in the North of France
was fruitless, as regards the discovery of new or rare species ;
although perhaps a list of some species taken by me, and which
have not been noticed by writers on French Conchology, may
be of some use in contributing towards the elucidation of the
important problem of geographical distribution.

Etretat (where I was located) is a small sea-bathing place,
containing about 1800 inhabitants, and is distant seventeen
miles from Havre on the road to Dieppe. It is a delightful
retreat, and has hitherto escaped invasion by our countrymen,
who, if they knew of the clear sea and atmosphere, the picturesque
rock scenery, the fontaine, subterranean river, and oyster park,
and above all the facility of access from Kngland, would soon
crowd and spoil the place. This may be a selfish, but I believe
it is a common, sentiment.

The fauna of this coast was, 1 understand, investigated many
years ago by the late Abbé Dicquemare, whose MSS. are now to
be seen in the public library of Rouen ; and Cuvier is said to
have made Fécamp (which lies about ten miles to the north of
Etretat) his retreat during the storm of the Great Revolution,
and to have commenced there his studies on the Mollusca,
M. Bouchard-Chantereaux has published a list of the marine
Testacea found in the Pas de Calais; M. Collard des Cherres
has also published a list of those found in the Department of

472 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Conchology of France.

Finisterre; and M, Petit de la Saussaye has given in his ‘ Journal
de Conchiliologie’ a résumé of French marine Conchology, in
an article entitled “ Catalogue des Mollusques marins qui vivent
sur les Cétes de France.” This Catalogue was published in 1851;
but it is too meagre to offer a satisfactory comparison between the
French and our own Conchology, especially as regards the minute
species. M. Moquin-Tandon’s admirable work, which has lately
been published, on the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of France,
may be safely consulted for that branch of the subject.

My dredging at Etretat was a complete failure, as the sea-
bottom for many leagues seemed to be composed of nothing but
flint pebbles ; and the shore was nearly as unproductive. The
only uncommon species I obtained was Otina otis; and of this
only a single specimen occurred to me.

I will now enumerate the marine Testacea I found, and which
are not included in M. Petit’s Catalogue, as well as the localities
for a few land shells, which are not given by M. Moquin-Tandon.

1. Montacuta bidentata, Forbes and Hanley’s Brit. Moll.

. Trochus Montagui, Brit. Moll.

umbilicatus, Brit. Moll.

. Lacuna puteolus, and variety, Brit. Moll.

vincta, Brit. Moll.

. Rissoa semistriata, Brit. Moll.

. Skenea planorbis, Brit. Moll.

. Odostomia plicata, Brit. Moll.

obliqua, Brit. Moll.

Rissoides, Brit. Moll.

11. Otina otis, Brit. Moll.

12. Cerithiopsis tuberculare, Brit. Moll.

13. Nassa varicosa, Brit. Moll. M. Petit refers to this as a synonym
of N. incrassata, which is also common on the French coast.

14. Zonites glaber, Moquin-Tandon; Etretat, Lillebonne, and Hon-
fleur. I do not agree with M. L. Pfeiffer, that the Z. alliarius
of British authors ought to be united with this species.

15. striatulus, M.-7. (Z. radiatulus, Brit. Moll.) ; St. Clair
near Etretat.

16. Helix aspersa, M.-7'.; Etretat and Honfleur. I mention this (to
us common) species, because M. Moquin-Tandon gives its habitat
as “ Principalement la France méridionale.”

iF. fusca, M.-T. (H. revelata, Bouchard) ; Etretat.

limbata, M.-7.; Honfleur and Lillebonne.

19. Clausilia nigricans, M.-7'.; Etretat.

Rolphii, M.-T. ; Honfleur, Le Héve near Havre, and Lille-

bonne. I observe that Mr. Benson has modified his opinion

as to the Cl. Mortilleti of Dumont being a distinct species.

M. Mogquin-Tandon gives it as a synonym of C/. Rolphii.

© Os & = W bo

_

Montagu Square, London, Oct. 31st, 1856.

Bibliographical Notices. 473

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Flora Vectensis: being a Systematic Description of the Pheno-
gamous or Flowering Plants and Ferns indigenous to the Isle of
Wight. By the late W. A. Bromriextp, M.D. &c. Edited by
Sir W. J. Hooker and T. Bexu Satrer, M.D. London, 1856.
8vo, pp. 678, xxxv. Portrait of the Author. Map.

WE have recently received a copy of this valuable and long-ex-
pected posthumous work, and have the pleasure of expressing, upon
the whole, our high approbation of it. The editors have wisely
avoided adding more than was absolutely necessary to the manu-
script of our lamented friend ; but, owing to his decease before the
completion of his original plan, it was necessary to add the technical
characters of many genera and sections of them, and of not a few
species, in which the manuscript was deficient. In doing this they
have usually adopted the words of Messrs. Hooker and Arnott from
their ‘ British Flora,’ but in some cases where it was perfectly mani-
fest that the author was adopting the arrangement of Mr. Babington,
they have taken the definitions from that gentleman’s ‘Manual.’ In
this we think that they have exercised a sound judgement, although
we fancy that they have not always correctly appreciated Dr. Brom-
field’s views. But this is a matter of very little consequence, for the
value of the work is not at all affected by it. It is very unfortunate
that the author did not leave behind him a more complete account
of his own views on these matters, for his opinions upon the best
characters to be employed in defining the genera and species would
have been highly acceptable, from the attention which he is known
to have paid to the value of characters in the different natural
_orders. The great peculiarity and value of the book, as it is now
presented to us, consists in the elaborate descriptions of the great
majority of the species drawn from the examination of very many
specimens of each plant. They are by far the most complete and
accurate descriptions of British plants which we possess, and strongly
remind us of the elaborate and voluminous ‘ Flora Italica’ of Berto-
loni, but even surpass those of that eminent botanist. From its
proximity to the mainland, the Isle of Wight possesses a more
extensive flora than is usually to be found in small islands, and
therefore this work contains Dr. Bromfield’s descriptions of a very
large portion of the common plants of England. From the situation
of the Isle, it of course does not include the plants peculiar to the
more distant parts of Britain. There are many species of which the
full descriptions were not prepared by the author, and in such cases
the editors have inserted a specific character derived from one or the
other of the above-mentioned British Floras, together with such notes
as were to be found in the author’s manuscripts. For some months
preceding his final departure from England, Dr. Bromfield had been
inserting in successive numbers of the third volume of the Botanical
Journal called the ‘ Phytologist,’ a very complete account of Isle of
Wight plants, in which he communicated to the public a large quantity

474 Bibliographical Notices.

of most valuable critical and other remarks. As much of this informa-
tion was acquired, and many of the views there adopted were formed, at
a later period than that at which the parts of this work which treat
concerning the same plants, were written, we think that the editors
might advantageously have added, as notes to the Flora, many ex-
tracts from these papers. It is plain that they have thought
differently, for the ‘ Phytologist’ is rarely quoted by them.

The author’s preface contains some remarks upon the rules to be
observed in deciding upon the claims of plants to be considered as
indigenous or introduced, which well deserve the consideration of
the writers of local and even national floras. He very properly
protests against the scepticism of those botanists who “reject as
aliens a large proportion of species that have been long recognized
and admitted by common consent into our indigenous catalogues,”
acknowledging at the same time that “they at least err on the safe
side.” He adopts the view expressed by Fries in the following
words: ‘Eas dico plantas indigenas, quee per longam annorum
seriem sine omni cultura inter provinciam copiose et definito loco
propellarunt et quotannis sunt multiplicate.’’ He is of opinion that
“the safest criterion for resolving doubtful claims to enrolment is to
be sought for by reference to the geographical distribution of the
species under consideration. The more extended study of this im-
portant branch of botanical science would. . . . go far in removing
many of those scruples that are raised against the admission of no
small number of our vegetable productions into the aboriginal lists.”
Accordingly great attention is paid to the continental distribution
of all plants upon which much doubt has been cast. Botanists have
cause to thank him for this care ; for we are quite convinced that it
is the true mode of attaining correct views on this contested subject.
It often happens that plants which are now only found in rather
doubtful stations in our fully cultivated country are really old natives
which have been reduced in quantity or driven from their original
sites by improvements in agriculture. When this has happened the
plants may now continue to exist in a very few restricted spots, or be
found seattered thinly over a large district, maintaining themselves
with difficulty in hedgerows or on bits of waste ground. In such
_cases, it is much the fashion to state boldly that they are not indi-
genous, without inquiring if their continental distribution is or is not
favourable to their claims to admission amongst British plants.

It does not seem desirable to extend this notice by entering upon
discussion concerning any of the species, although there are many
things stated by the author, or introduced by the editors, which do
not accord with our views. In some of these cases we feel quite sure
that the remarks would have been omitted or modified had the author
been permitted to prepare his work for the press; but the editors
have done wisely in printing the manuscript as they found it. It
must be remembered that the work has not, alas! had the benefit of
the author’s revision since the spring of 1850, and that much advance
has been made in our knowledge of British plants during the last six
years. These facts do not, however, detract from the value of the

Zoological Society. 475

‘Flora Vectensis,’ the essential peculiarity of which lies, as we have
already stated, in its valuable original and elaborate descriptions of the
species noticed by its author.

Cautioning botanists to bear im mind that the real date of the book
is not that of its publication—and that it is posthumous ; and recom-
mending those who may use it to distinguish carefully between the
work of the author and the additions (clearly marked with inverted
commas) of the editors,—we most strongly recommend the work to
our readers.

Sylloge Flore Europee seu plantarum vascularium Europe indige-
narum enumeratio, adjectis synonymis gravioribus et indicata
singularum distributione geographica. Auctore C. F. Nyman.
Oerebroz, 1854-55. Royal 8vo, pp. 442. xxiv.

This is a work which was wanted as affording a mode of easily
ascertaining the extent to which any species of plant is known, upon
published authority, to be distributed throughout Europe. It cannot
fail of being much employed for that purpose, having been drawn up
with great care. A list of the works used in its compilation is ap-
pended, by means of which the author’s accuracy may be tested in
doubtful cases. Of course a work of this nature must have occupied
a considerable time in its preparation, and therefore we cannot hope to
find that it is quite up to the present state of our knowledge. Judging
from a somewhat careful examination, it is far more complete in that
respect than we expected.

The chief objection to it is found in the system upon which it is
arranged. Being the work of a Swede, probably a pupil of Fries, it
is not wonderful that he should think the system proposed by that
eminent man the proper one to adopt. As that classification is not
in common use, some little inconvenience results. This is met by the
addition of a copious index to the genera and subgenera.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
February 12, 1856.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

DescRIPTIONS OF SOME COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS IN THE CoL-
LECTION OF THE British MuseuM, HITHERTO APPARENTLY
UNNOTICED. By ApamM WuiTte.

The number of “new species” of Coleopterous Insects in the
Museum collection is in relative proportion to the great richness of
the other branches. In this paper, some species belonging to the
families Prionida, Lamiade, and Cetoniade will be given, as there is
every likelihood, from the way in which these great groups have been
investigated by Messrs. Serville, Burmeister, Schaum, Gory, and
other entomologists, that the species are as yet unrecorded in scientific

476 | Zoological Society :-—

works ; it is to the kindness of Dr. Gray, the keeper of the depart-
ment, that I am indebted for permission in laying these descriptions
before the Society.

Tribe Loneicornia.

Family Prionip&.

The Prionide consist of several marked subfamilies, in one of
which we would place Tricrrenoroma, G. R. Gray, one of the most
interesting of the genera of Beetles. This form, which appears to
me to be altogether Longicorn, is chiefly remarkable for its hetero-
merous tarsi, and for the ninth and tenth joints of its antennee being
serrated or produced at the end, almost as in the Lucanide. It is
one of those ‘‘aberrant’’ forms which naturalists call “ annectent,”’
and which appear to partake of the characters of several groups,—
for instance, with the depressed form and velvety pilosity of many
Elateride, it has five joints to the two first pairs of legs, and four only
to the hind pair. Its head, jaws, and legs are essentially Longicorn,
the number of joints of the tarsi being not a necessary character of the
group; the tarsi of Parandra are pentamerous, and Dorx pentamera,
an Australian insect described by Mr. Newman, has likewise five
joints to all the tarsi. The sternum of Trictenotoma is also peculiar,
that of the prothorax being received into a notch of the mesothorax,
while the sternum of the metathorax is capable of being firmly fixed by
** dovetailing,”’ as it were, into the hinder notch of the mesothorax; in
fact, this structure must enable the insect, if placed on its fiat back,
to “right”’ itself, like those Beetles called “‘ Skip-jacks”’ (Elateride).
In some species, such as 7’. Childrenii (G. R. Gray), 7’. Templetoni
(Westw.), and 7’. Grayii (F. Smith), the sternum of the metathorax
bulges; in 7’. enea (Parry) that part is flattened, and the thorax is
curiously serrated on the lateral margin in front, and has a very pro-
jecting point on the side beyond the middle, and notched between
that point and the posterior angle, instead of being nearly straight
and simply angled as in the other three species. Of these Tricteno-
tome, all the species described are in the Museum Collection ; the
T. Childrenii beg the type female specimen from the Tenasserim
coast, described by Mr. G. R. Gray in one of the two insect volumes
of Griffith’s edition of ‘Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom’ (pl. 5 and 5*).
The T. Templetonii of Westwood (Oriental Ent. tab. 23, f. 3) is a
native of Ceylon; like the former, it has a yellowish-grey pile; the
T. Grayii described by Mr. F. Smith in 1851 (Cat. Coleopt. Brit.
Mus. Cucujide, p. 18) is from Borneo, and has a purplish base beneath
the more tawny pile of the upper parts; in the Museum there are two
females, one from the collection of Mr. Alfred Wallace, who obtained
it at Sarawak. The 7. @nea, the giant of the genus, is of a brassy
green, slightly pilose above. The Museum has lately obtained a
specimen from India; the specimen was found by a soldier at
Dhargeeling.

To the same family, and not very remote from the subfamily con-
taining Spondylis and its allies, belongs, in the opinion of Dr. Bur-
meister, Mr. Westwood, and Mr. Leconte, the very anomalous Hypo-

Mr. A. White on some Coleopterous Insects. 477

cephalus, of which a fine figure, with some striking remarks, has been
published by Mr. Curtis in the ‘ Transactions of the Linnzean Society ;’
of this species, three specimens known to me, exist in this country,
one in Mr. Melly’s great cabinet at Liverpool, a second drawn by
Mr. Westwood in the ‘ Arcana Entomologica,’ from a specimen in his
own very curious collection, and a third exhibited at the Linnzean So-
ciety in 1854, from the rare cabinet of Mr. Aspinall Turner of Man-
chester. This remarkable Prionidous insect, like the Mole-cricket,
has been altogether constructed for a subterraneous life ; its marvel-
lously developed thorax, fossorial and burrowing legs, curiously de-
fended head, abbreviated antennz, and other characters well shown
by Mr. Westwood, and particularly by Mr. Curtis, all mark this;
just as Dorysthenes of the East, a burrowing insect, is shown by
M. Guerin- Meneville to have Walrus-like jaws, as Lethrus has incurved
mandibles and other features useful in supporting the creature in the
holes of the ground whence it comes. As aberrant Prionide may be
mentioned, the very curious genera Torneutes, Reich., described in
the Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. (ii. 9, t. 2. f. 7), of which three species
are now known, one from Patagonia, described by M. Guerin, and
the singularly interesting Hrichsonia of Mexico, named by Mr.
Westwood, in memory of that most laborious and scientific of all the
German entomologists, Dr. Erichson. The genus Thaumasus,
Reich. (Ann. Soe. Ent. Fr. 1853, p. 419), founded on what Olivier
described as a gigantic species of Ips (Ips gigas, Journ. d’ Hist. Nat.
1792, i. 267, pl. 14. f.6; Thaumasus g., Reich. 1. c. p. 422, pl. 13,
f. 4), may be particularized as another aberrant form. In fact, the
family Prionide, like many other great families, is more negative
than positive, and will be found at its extremities, or at many points
of its circumference, to lead off to other families, and even tribes:
so that the naturalist, who wishes to simplify arrangement, however
much he may split up genera, ought to avoid dividing families.

It may interest the general reader to quote a short passage from a
privately circulated paper, written by my friend Mr. Empson of Bath,
a distinguished natural-history traveller in South America. The insect
alluded to is the noble Psalidognathus Friendii (G. R. Gray), which
is named by the natives of Columbia ‘Alaja,’ that is, ‘ the jewel.” Mr.
Empson remarks, ‘‘The first of these splendid insects which I ever saw,
was at a feast given by the Cabildo, at Mariquita; upon that occasion
Don Domingo Conde had placed one of them as a button to loop up,
after the Spanish fashion, the broad brim of his Panama hat ; to this
brilliant ornament a loop of living Fireflies was attached, in a mode
common in South America, and which does not injure those dazzling
insect gems ; thus decorated, the sombrero of the cavalero was more
conspicuous in the bail-room than the jewelled tiaras of his more
wealthy neighbours, although sparkling with the choice emeralds
from the mines of Muzo.

“ After many a weary search,” adds Mr. Empson, ‘ with Don
Domingo for my guide, in the primeeval forests on the eastern slopes
of the Andes, we captured three of those Alajas.’’ One of those, he
remarks, “ was resting on the perishing trunk of a palm-tree ; in our

478 Zoological Society :—

eagerness to secure it, my hand was so much lacerated that I was
obliged to relinquish my prize, and we saw its gorgeous colours
flashing beneath the full blaze of a tropical sun; it settled on the
stem of a cedar, and was then more cautiously transferred into my
possession.”

With these few remarks, which might be much amplified, a curious
genus of Prionide, allied to Psalidognathus, G. R. Gray, and to
Prionacalus, figured in a previous part of the Proceedings, may be
here briefly described. It is strictly pseudo-tetramerous, and has
much of the character of Mr. George Gray’s fine Columbian genus.
This genus, for which I would propose the name Psalidocoptus*, is
from Tana, in the New Hebrides, and is one of those fine insects for
which science is indebted to the researches of Mr. John Macgillivray,
the late able Naturalist of H.M. surveying ship ‘Herald.’ The
sternum does not notably differ from that of Psalidognathus, but it
differs in having very short palpi, much shorter antennee, the third joint
the longest, the eight following about equal in length. Head, exelu-
sive of the jaws, rather longer than wide, behind the eyes somewhat
narrowed and without projection. Eyes prominent, transversely
kidney-shaped, very slightly notched in front. Thorax wider than
long, but much longer than in Psalidognathus and Prionacalus, with
three broadish spine-like projections on each side, one in front, one
about the middle, and one before the hinder angle. Scutellum small
and wide, covering the abdomen; in the male, considerably sur-
passing it. Wingless; elytra united on the suture, contracted some-
what at the base, where there is a short spine, gradually dilated
about the middle, and as gradually tapering toward the end, where
they terminate in two spine-like points, the outer the longest, the
inner almost a continuation of the notch, between which would be the
suture ; the two points curiously rotundate-emarginate. Legs very
long and strong, particularly the femora, which are compressed.
Tarsi with small pulvillus on end of three first joints ; tarsi of female
broader and shorter than those of the male.

PsaLIDOCOPTUS SCABER, Nl. S.

Head between the eyes with a deep line, divided into two in front.
Thorax surface curiously undulated, and with the head scarcely
rough, although with small scattered warts; the elytra scabrous,
with numerous small warts; each elytron with two parallel ridges
united behind the middle and a sutural ridge; margin of elytra
between warty and serrated. Jaws strong, punctured at the base,
incurved, sides parallel, inner side short and obliquely cut between,
the cutting edge sharp; a curious tuft of ferruginous hair on tro- -
chanter; legs serrated below on femora and tibia, more or less
scabrous. The whole insect is of a blackish-brown, with ferruginous
hairs bordering the inside of the tibiee of the first and second pairs of
legs ; thorax beneath, and other parts, liable to be chafed by motion

* Wahis, scissors, and cér7w, from a fanciful idea of the waved outline being
as it were cut with that instrument.

Mr. A. White on some Coleupterous Insects. 479

of joints ciliated with ferruginous hairs. Abdomen somewhat squa-
moso-verrucose beneath, a pit behind each scale-like wart, with a
short hair proceeding from it.

Note. The figures were drawn on wood by Miss E. Wing, and are
of the size of nature.

Family Lamrap2&.

Among the Lamioid Longicorns there is a genus contaming many
finely coloured African species. The genus 7'ragocephala, Dupont
(Dej. Cat. p. 638), was first briefly characterized by Laporte in his
‘ Animaux articulées,’ tome il. p. 472.

TRAGOCEPHALA NoBILIsS. Lamia nobilis, Fabr. S. El. ii. 297;
Oliv. t. 11. f. 76; also described by Fabricius as Saperda leta,
l.c. p. 318. Sierra Leone. (Coll. Brit. Mus.)

TrRaGocerHaLA FoRMOSA. Cerambyx formosus, Oliv. t. 20:

480 Zoological Society :—

f. 153, is another well-marked species from S. Africa, abundant in
collections. (Coll. Brit. Mus.)

TRAGOCEPHALA PULCHELLA, Westw. Arc. Ent. ii. t. 69. f. 4, is
another species from Sierra Leone. (Coll. Brit. Mus.)

TRAGOCEPHALA VARIEGATA, Bertolom., Ann. Se. Nat. 1845,
p- 423. 8S. Africa (Inhambere).

TraGcocerHaLa GALatuea, Chevr., Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1855,
p- 184, was procured by the Scottish missionaries at Benin, Old
Calabar.

The TrRaGocerHALA ANGOLATOR and T. Lucta, described by
Olivier and Newman, belong likewise to this genus, but are aberrant
forms, as is the TRAGOCEPHALA TRIFASCIELLA, described and figured
in the illustrated Proceedings for 1850. The latter differs somewhat
from Tragocephala proper, while Lamia angolator, from its short
wide thorax, &c., may hereafter constitute the type of a distinct
section: all three are in the Museum Collection.

In the Museum Collection are some undescribed species, which
may be characterized as

TRAGOCEPHALA COMITESSA.

T. elongata, nigra; fronte aurantiaca ; thoracis lateribus auran-
tiacis, post tuberculum nigris; elytris fasciis duabus sulphureis,
lateribus aurantiacis ; prima continua, secunda angustiore, an-
tice et postice sinuata; elytris singulis punctis tribus albis ;
sutura apice albo-punctata, ante apicem macula aurantiaca
margine pallidiore ; metathorace maculis duabus aurantiacis,
aliquando obsoletis; abdominis segmentis tribus basalibus
lateribus subtus aurantiacis.

Long. lin. 9-11.

Hab. Africa Austr. (Port Natal). Coll. Brit. Mus. (Gueinzius et

Krauss).
T. formose affinis sed distincta.

TRAGOCEPHALA CHEVROLATII, 0. S.

T. nigra, capite aurantiaco, mandibulis basi aurantiacis, fascia
in genis, fascia inter antennas et vertice nigris; thoracis lateri-
bus flavis, tuberculo apice et postice nigro ; dorso nigro, macula
parva pallida posticali alteraque antica sepe obsoletis ; elytris
singulis nigris ; fascia mediana aurantiaca subobliqua, ramum
antice ferente ; maculis duabus aurantiacis sepe obsoletis, ma-
cula magna aurantiaca ante apicem, punctoque parvo ad apicem;
abdominis lateribus aurantiaco maculatis; pedibus cinereo-
griseis, femoribus flavo maculatis.

Long. lin. 83-11.

Hab. Africa Austr. (Port Natal). In Mus. Brit., &e.

In honorem L. A. Augusti Chevrolat, Parisiensis, Coleopterophili

valde egregii.

TRAGOCEPHALA DUCALIS, 0. 8.

T. capite aurantiaco, fascia oculari, alteraque verticali nigris;
antennis crassiusculis, nigris; thorace supra medio nigro, lateri-

Mr. A. White on some Coleopterous Insects. 481

bus aurantiaco late marginatis, pube subvermiculata ; elytris
nigris fasciis duabus aurantiacis suturam haud attingentibus,
lateribus latioribus, marginibus pallidis, apice aurantiaco, ma-
eulis tribus parvis inter apicem et fasciam secundam, exteriore
majore ; corpore subtus aurantiaco, abdominis segmentis, medio
et lateribus nigris; pedibus ochraceo-griseis, femoribus extus et
intus aurantiaco maculatis. ;

Long. lin. 8-9}.

Hab. Africa Austr. (Port Natal). Coll. Brit. Mus. (Saunders, &c. )

TRAGOCEPHALA GEMMARIA, I. S.

T. nigra; lateribus frontis maculaque genarum et macula inter
antennas pallide ceruleis; thorace supra maculis novem ceruleis,
quatuor in margine antica, tribus in postica ; elytris singulis
maculis 12-13 pallide ceruleis; thorace subtus et abdominis
lateribus maculis ceruleis majoribus; pedibus posticis, femoribus
extus, tibiis basi supra ceruleo-notatis ; antennis articulo se-
cundo compresso.

Long. lin. 63.

Hab. Africa Occid. (Sierra Leone) (Rev. D. F. Morgan). Coll.

Brit. Mus.

TRAGOCEPHALA GUERINII.

T. nigra, capitis thoracisque lateribus fascia flava continua, ely-
tris fascia lata guttaque ante-apicali ferrugineo-ochraceis, meso-
thorace ferrugineo-ochraceo, medio nigro-lineato abdominis late-
ribus subtus fascia flava extus dentata.

Long. lin. 10.

Hab. Congo.

In honorem Guerin-Meneville, entomologi et carcinologi Parisi-

ensis celeberrimi, naturzeque delineatoris exquisitissimi.

TRAGOCEPHALA BUQUETIANA.

T. nigra, fronte macula elongata aurantiaca sub oculis ramum
haud emittente ; elytris singulis basi fascia aurantiaca obliqua,
humero et spatio circa scutellum nigris; fascia mediana et
macula sub-apicali aurantiacis.

Long. lin. 8.

Hab. Sierra Leone (Rev. D. F. Morgan).

In honorem M. Buquet, Parisiensis, in Coleopteris exoticis ditis-

simi et peritissimi.

We have also in the Museum the elegant, slim, little graceful
T. Tenvicornis, Chevr., from Port Natal, the T. scentca of Dej.,
from W. Africa, and the T. picror, Klug, a common S. Neon
species.

Tribe LAMELLICORNIA.
Family Cetrontap&.

Note.—Mr. Turner of Manchester, the possessor of a very fine
collection of the larger and more showy Coleoptera of West Africa,
and of many of the Beetles of other lands, showed me a specimen we

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 31

482 Zoological Society :—

the (so-called) Goliathus giganteus, of which I once saw the example

in the Hunterian Museum at Glasgow, and which served to show that

the sharp and discriminating eye of the able and judicious Dr. Schaum,

who, with Dr. Burmeister, is one of the best authorities on the subject

of Cetoniade, was probably right in regarding G. giganteus and

G. Drurii as mere local varieties of one species, to which the name
Go.iaTuus Arricanus, Lamarck, may be given.

TriGonopuorvs HooKeERrt, n. s.

T. lete viridis, metallico valde refulgens, pedibus gracilibus, femo-
ribus viridibus flavescenti-rubro lineatis seu lavatis, tibiis rubris,
posticis intus ciliatis, tarsis fuscescenti-nigris ; thorace antice
angustato, supra dense punctulato, margine postica solum levis-
sima; scutello fere toto levi; antennis subrufis, capite maris
in fronte rufo.

Hab. In India alpina.

Named after Dr. Joseph Hooker, F.R.S., &c. &c., author of many
noble botanical works, and of the ‘ Himalayan Journal.’ During
his travels in India he found this and many other fine species of
insects now in the Museum Collection. We have now all the species
of this interesting group except 7’. Delessertii, Guerin-Meneyille.

STETHODESMA SERVILLEI.

S. fusco-subpurpurea, sericea, thorace flavo cingulato, elytris singu-
lis maculis decem parvis albo-argenteis, uropygio albo-maculato,
subtus rufo-brunnea, plagis albis lateribus singulis in serie
duplici ordinatis.

Hab. In Africa meridionali (Port Natal) (Dr. Krauss).

The red of the thorax extends on its under side. Mesothorax
with scattered scales. Head cut in front, and side lobes produced
shortly and somewhat rounded. Legs uniform in colour.

Huic insecto nomen Servilleanum, synonymon Entomologie, in
honorem dudinet-Serville amici dilectissimi, proposuit descriptor.

CLINTERIA DUCALIS.

This insect, of which the name only appears in the Museum List
of Cetoniada, p. 15, published in 1847, is regarded by Dr. Schaum
as a variety of the very variable Clinteria atra. The present variety
is of a dull olive-green, and has a patch of golden-yellow about the
middle of each elytron. The under side is purplish-brown, and the
sides have two rows of small white spots. The head and legs are
purplish.

It is a native of Silhet, and notwithstanding the great authority of
Dr. Schaum, I cannot help, even now, regarding it as distinct from

C. atra, Wied., of which C. funeraria and C. biguttata of Gory and
_ Percheron are varieties.

CLINTERIA HOFFMEISTERI.

This very beautiful and distinct species was described in the
‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,’ vol. xx. p. 341.

Mr. A. White on some Coleopterous Insects. 483

. Scurzorwrna Basstr.

Described in the ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. History’ (vol. xx.
p- 264). The genus Bassia was not named after Mr. G. Bass.

Scurzoruina (Hemipuaris?) Emini.

S. (1.2) nitida, subgracilis, subparallela, eneo-viridis, thoracis
linea laterali, maculisque duabus postice aurantiacis (aliquando
subobsoletis), elytrisque singulis lineatim punctatis, aurantiaco
maculatis aut plagiatis.

Animaleulum hoe pulchrum, Febr. 2ndo, a.p. 1856, die nat. de-

seriptum, Emilize Jalland, filize fratris mei, dicatum est.

Head rather closely punctured, very slightly notched in front,
above distinctly punctured. Thorax indistinctly punctured, except
before the hind angles, shaped much as in /Z. insulavis, of a highly
polished but obscure brassy green, thickened margin of thorax in
front yellow, the yellow continuous (beyond the middle of the edge)
on the inner side; thorax on each side with a narrow irregularly-
edged yellow line, almost parallel with the edge, and truncated and °
somewhat dilated behind ; before the posterior thoracic lobe are two
small triangular yellow spots. Scutellum yellow; margins, especially
at the apex, green; each elytron is irregularly margined with yellow
on the sides at the base, and there are six to eight irregular yellow
marks, one before the apex somewhat transverse ; sides of meso- and
metathorax yellow; sides of abdomen with three yellow spots ;
pygidium with two yellow marks nearly covering it, and divided by a
pear-shaped green spot, or green extended so as to leave only four
small yellow spots ; tibize and tarsi tinted with purplish; base of
anterior femora and coxe rufous. This species quite connects the
subgenera Hemipharis and Diaphonia, and shows the accuracy of the
views of that learned entomologist Dr. Schaum. The two specimens
are females, and have short lamellz to the antennee.

Hab. New Hebrides (Aneiteum). Collected by Mr. John Mac-
gillivray, the able naturalist to H.M.S. ‘ Herald.’

Scu1zoruHina (Hemrpuarts) Ip.
S. (H.) grandis, fusculo-nigra, capitis vertice, thorace supra, elytris
a basi usque ultra medium, pygidio, mesothoracis lateribus, meta-
thorace femoribus posticis infra flavescenti-brunneis.
S. (H.) Brownii valde affinis et forsan varietas geographica. Di-
eatur Ide Pfeiffer, viatricis celeberrimee que in Ceram speciem hance
pulchram invenit.

Creronta (PROT2TIA) PROCERA, 0D. S.

C.(P.) supra viridi-subsericea, poroso-punctata, albido paululum
submaculata in elytris presertim, elytris apice spinoso-pro-
ductis; subtus lete metallico-viridis, abdomine plagis 16 albo-
pilosis, in quatuor ordinibus dispositis.

In size between P. ferruginea and P. regalis; above, including

upper side of legs, it is of a fine dull, dark velvety green, which,

when rubbed, displays beneath a metallic base, as in many of the
31*

ASL Zoological Society :—

Cetoniade, such as Goliathus torquatus ; the edges of the nasus are
metallic. The head and thorax above are thickly and distinetly
poroso-punctate ; there is an indication of a yellowish-white dot near
each front angle of the thorax (which dot may vary in size in other
specimens) ; the elytra have four dots passing into short transverse
streaks on each side, and a small spot near the suture, about the
middle, and a short white streak midway between the middle and the.
spine; three dots between that and the spine, which is longer and
much more distinct than on the sides of elytra, transversely pitted in
many shallow short waves; general surface punctured, the punctures
chiefly in strize. Head small, slightly ridged on sides in front of eyes,
slightly narrower in front, and rather deeply grooved behind front
margin. Under side and legs metallic green ; femora and mesothorax
acuducted, the latter with two or three patches of isabella pile ; abdo-
men irregularly punctured, smooth, with eight transverse patches of
isabella pile on each side in double columns. Hairs on tibize rufous ;
fore edge of front tibize and tarsi of all the legs metallic green.

Hab. Philippine Islands. (Coll. Cuming.)

This is alluded to in Dr. Schaum’s second list of Cefoniade, and
is quoted under the above name.

Crronia (Prorzti1a) ScHAuMIt.

Supra obscure viridis, subtus lete metallico-viridis, capite fluvo
trilineato, linea media latiore, thoracis marginibus anticis late-
ralibusque flavis, plaga transversa subheraldice postica flava,
scutello flavo apice excepto viridi; elytris flavo irregulariter
transverse trifasciatis, elytris singulis medio longitudinaliter
sub-bicarinatis, et 9—11-punctato-lineatis, pedibus flavis, extus
et apice articulorum subviridibus, tarsis obscure viridi-fuscis,
abdominis lateribus subtus punctatis, segmentis quatuor late-
ribus flavo-marginatis ; uropygio favo triangulariter biplagiato
elytris apice suturali acuminato, sterno antice flavo producto.

Hab. Celebes (Madame Ida Pfeiffer).

Head semicircularly cut in front, the margins trending inwards.

Seems really to connect Pachnoda with Protetia.

Named in compliment to Dr. Schaum, whose name and abilities

require only to be mentioned when Coleoptera are described.

On a New Species or PIGEon.
By G. R. Gray, F.L.S. & Z.S., etc.

As I believe the members of the Society take some interest in
those birds which have passed a portion of their existence in the
Gardens, I am induced to place before them a Pigeon, which I have
every reason to suppose has remained hitherto undescribed. It be-
longs to the same division as the Garnet-winged Pigeon of Latham
(Columba erythroptera, Gm.), which has been placed in Dr. Reich-
enbach’s subgenus Phleyenas by H. H. Prince Bonaparte; but I
think that, considering the numerous divisions that have been

Mr. G. R. Gray on a new species of Pigeon. 485

sei in this class of birds, it might with equal propriety be divided
om it.

I am led to consider that there exists some slight confusion in the
description of the Columba erythroptera, which 1s stated by Latham
(in his History, viii. p. 71) to come from the Isle of Eimeo, which
he describes as having the “ belly and vent black ;”” but I think that
this is a mistake, as I find amongst Ellis’s drawings, made during
the voyage of the great circumnavigator Cook in the year 1777-79,
a representation of a Garnet-winged Pigeon that was found on ‘‘ York
Isle or Eimao,” having those parts pure white, and that it even
extends to the end of the under tail-coverts and on the thighs.

Latham has further noticed two varieties; viz. that which forms
his var. A. is from Otaheite, and the description was taken from the
drawing of Forster, who also accompanied the same celebrated
voyager during the years 1772-74, which exhibits the belly and
vent as “dusky.”” Forster had applied the name of C. /eucophrys to
this bird, under which name the description will be found in his
‘ Descriptiones Animalium, &c.,’ edited by Professor Lichtenstein, at °
p- 168 ; while the variety B. is stated to be from the island of Tanna,
and is recorded as having a “reddish black”’ belly (the same colour
as the back).

From these notices, there appear to be at least two, if not three
species of Garnet-winged Pigeons; and may not they, like the Péi-
lonopi, be peculiar to the different groups of islands of the South
Pacific Ocean? This, however, cannot be at present satisfactorily
determined, from want of specimens from the different localities, but
I have ventured to draw attention to these differences, that it may lead
to a further elucidation when an opportunity offers.

I may add, however, that M. Temminck, in his work on Pigeons
(t.55), figures one that may probably come near to variety B. of
Latham, but he describes the belly black with purple reflexions.
The British Museum contains two specimens from Bow Island,
which approach in some measure to the variety A. of Latham, but
the belly is of a dusky greyish black.

The one now exhibited is quite different from those referred to;
it may be described in the following terms, with the name of

CaLa@nas (PHLEG@NAS) Stari.

Glossy brown, with coppery reflexions in some lights; top of head
and back of neck dark slate, glossy with green; front, side of neck
and breast pale vinaceous brown ; throat and a gorget round the
breast white, which latter is margined outerly with dark garnet
colour ; abdomen vinaceous brown, dusky on the sides ; quills dusky
black, slightly margined with rufous ; tail brown, with a broad band
of black at the end. Bill black and feet pale.

The specimen is marked as a male, and I suppose was brought
from the Samoan or Navigators’ Islands, as the British Museum
was previously in possession of a skin given by the Rev. J. Stair as
from that locality, with other interesting birds.

486 Royal Society :—

On a New Species or Leprporrerovus Insect.
By G. R. Gray, F.L.S. & Z.S., etc. ‘

Among the various novelties sent home during the voyages of
H.M.SS. ‘ Rattlesnake’ and ‘Herald’ by Mr. Macgillivray, is the
splendid Butterfly now laid before the Society. It belongs to the
great genus Papilio and to the subdivision Ornithoptera, and like
the other known species of that group, its flight is very elevated; so
much so, that it became necessary to employ powder and shot to
secure the specimen; many shots have perforated the wings, and
have rather damaged the specimen, but still not so as to entirely
destroy the beauty of this remarkable butterfly. No lepidopterous
insect of its magnitude has hitherto been known from the locality of
this species; which, from the other insects contained in the same
box, is supposed (as no memorandum was sent with it) to be either
Solomon Islands, Aneiteum, New Hebrides, or the Fiji group,—at any
rate from one of the islands in the South Pacific Ocean.

The general colour is glossy bronze-black, with the two outer rows

of irregular-sized spots of pure white, while those at the base of the
fore wings are rich king-yellow, but partly pure white outerly ; the
anterior margin of the secondary wings narrowly bordered with king-
yellow.
' The under surface like the upper; but the anterior margin of the
secondary wings broadly bordered, and some of the spots tinged,
with rich king-yellow. The head and thorax pure black; the body
ochraceous yellow above, and black along the middle beneath.

It is a female. The male remains at present unknown, but one
may suppose, by the usual brilliancy of the males of this group to
which it belongs, that it is likely to prove a most beautiful insect,
exhibiting some gorgeous combination of colour.

The name I propose for this splendid insect is Papilio (Ornitho-
ptera) Victoria.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

Dec. 13, 1855.—Colonel Sabine, R.A., Treas. and V.P., in the Chair.

“«On the Structure and Development of the Cysticercus cellulose,
as found in the Pig.” By George Rainey, Esq.

The Cysticercus cellulose, in its mature state, consists of two
parts: one a small oval cyst, composed of a very thin membrane,
rendered uneven on its external surface by minute rounded projec-
tions, and containing in its interior, granular matter, particles of
oil, and a colourless fluid. This may be called its ventral portion.
The other is folded inwards, occupying the centre of the cyst just
described, but by pressure it may be made to protrude. This part
is sometimes called the neck. Its length varies very much in dif-
ferent Cysticerci, depending upon their age. It is hollow, having
strong membranous parietes, wrinkled transversely, and composed
both of circular and longitudinal fibres. The cavity has no visible
communication with that of the ventral portion. It contains a

Mr. Rainey on the Structure of the Cysticercus cellulose. 487

multitude of small oval laminated calcareous bodies, which, when
acted upon by acids, effervesce briskly, and become partially dis-
solved, leaving only a small residue of animal matter. When the
neck is protruded, the extremity farthest from the cyst is seen to
present an enlargement, sometimes called the head, on the free
surface of which there is a quadrangular area, occupied by
four circular disks and a ring of hooklets. Each angle contains a
disk, and the hooklets are placed in a circle around the centre of
this space. The suctorial disks are traversed each by a passage
taking rather a spiral course, and terminating in the cavity of the
neck. The membrane composing a disk presents two orders of
fibres, circular and radiating. The hooklets are generally twenty-
six in number, thirteen long and as many short, arranged alter-
nately a long and a short one. Each consists of a curved portion
like a bird’s claw, and a straight portion or handle; and at the
junction of these two parts there are tubercles, two in the short
hooklets, and only one in the long ones. The hooklets are crossed
by two zones of circular fibres. They are also connected by
radiating fibres, which occupy the spaces between each adjacent”
pair, like the interosseous muscles situated between the metacarpal
bones and phalanges. The hooklets are disposed like radii, with
their points turned outwards and the extremities of their handles
inwards, which, not meeting, circumscribe a circular space whose
centre corresponds to that of the quadrangular area before men-
tioned. At this part there is no perforation answering to an oral
orifice, but here the membrane is simply depressed so as to present
a conical hollow. By pressure upon the neck, this membrane can
be made to protrude in the form of a tongue-like process, to which
the handles of all the hooklets are connected, so that when this
part in the living animal is made to move, the handles of the hook-
lets will be drawn in with it, and their points carried from the
entozoon, and thus made to penetrate the part to which it attaches
itself. These entozoa are chiefly found in the cellular intervals
between the muscular fibres, contained in an adventitious cyst
formed by the condensation of the surrounding tissues. No more
than one entozoon is ever met with in one cyst.

Development of the Cysticercus cellulose.

The earliest appearance of the incipient stage of the Cysticercus
cellulose is a fusiform collection of small cells and molecules in the
substance of a primary muscular fasciculus, or immediately beneath
its sarcolemma. ‘These cells, in this condition of the entozoon,
have only an imperfect or partial covering; however, they soon
become completely enclosed in a well-defined membrane which is
at first homogeneous, but which afterwards sends out short,
slender, projecting fibres, resembling short hairs or cilia. ‘These
hair-like fibres, though resembling in some respects cilia, differ
from them in being much less sharply defined and less pointed ;
however, for convenience sake, I shall speak of them as cilia.
Their direction is remarkable. At either extremity of the fusiform

488 Royal Society :—

animal they are reflected backwards at a very acute angle, like the
barbs of a feather, their direction being of course opposite at the
two ends. ‘They become less and less inclined as they approach the
middle of the body, where they stand out at right angles to the sur-
face. ‘The apparatus of cilia-like processes above described is evi-
dently designed to give to the entozoon, whilst in this stage of its
existence, the power of penetrating between the ultimate muscular
fibrille, and thus to enable it to force its way from the interior of a
primary fasciculus into the spaces between the muscular fibres, This
will be the effect of the friction of the fibrille against the cilia, which
will allow of motion in one direction only. And as its two ends
must move in opposite directions, the cilia will also serve to aid the
entozoon in its development longitudinally. That such is their
office will be apparent on examining a sufficient number of speci-
mens; in some of which the primary fasciculi will be seen to have
been completely split up by these animals, But the correctness of
this inference is more strikingly proved by the influence which the
size and arrangement of the primary bundles of muscular fibres
have upon the form and dimensions of the entozoa. ‘Thus in the
muscular parietes of the heart, where the primary fasciculi are smaller,
and, from their frequent interlacing, shorter than in other parts, the
Cysticerci are, in this stage of their development, also very short and
of a different form to those found in other muscles, composed of
striped fibre, although in other respects perfectly similar; and, when
completely formed, those taken from the heart cannot be distinguished
from those formed in other muscles. The cells which have been
alluded to as forming the principal part of the Cysticercus thus far
developed, and contained in the investment first described, are all of
the same character, differing only in their form and size, according to
their age and situation. ‘Those situated about the centre, and form-
ing the chief part of its bulk, are collected together into rounded
masses, giving to many of the animalcules an obscurely annulose
appearance. ‘They are of an elliptical, or rather reniform figure.
‘This form, however, is not essential to these cells, but merely re-
sults from the circular shape of the masses into which they enter,
the convexity of each cell being a part of the outline of its
respective mass. ‘These cells contain minute granules, or rather
molecules, which are variously disposed in different cells, so as to.
present a variety of appearances, such as circular spaces, which
might be mistaken for nuclei, but which seem rather to be pro-
duced by a deficiency of the cell’s contents at these parts, than by
any distinct nucleus. The mode of formation of these cells must be
examined in the growing parts of the animal, and for this purpose its
extreme ends are best adapted. When one of these ends is about
to have an addition made to its length, the investing membrane
at this part becomes at first very thin, and then disappears. A
clear space is next seen, having in some specimens the form of the
part which is about to be added to the extremity of the entozoon ;
in others it has no defined limit. This space contains, in some
cases, nothing but extremely minute molecules, of different

Mr. Rainey on the Structure of the Cysticercus cellulose. 489

shapes; in others, these molecules are mixed with granules of
various sizes, which have every appearance of having been pro-
duced by the coalescence of the molecules; and lastly, with these
molecules and granules, there are in other examples very distinct
globular cells, of a bright aspect, looking more like nuclei than
perfect cells; these soon become flattened oval, and ultimately take
the elliptical form before described. All the time these changes are
taking place in the molecules and cells, the membrane has been in
progress of formation, so that when the molecules have disappeared,
and their place has become occupied by perfect cells, the end of the
animal is completed. The cilia are soon afterwards added. The
lateral growth of these animals takes place in the same manner: the
first indication is a separation of the cilia, which, it must be observed,
are larger at the sides of an entozoon than at the extreme ends;
and then a thinning of the membrane supporting them ; and, lastly,
the formation of globular cells, as before noticed. After the animals
have become of a considerable size, and forced their way from the
interior of the primary fasciculi into the cellular spaces between -
the larger muscular fibres, they still continue to grow, especially
in breadth; but they lose their cilia, and gradually acquire those
parts which have been described as belonging to the neck. The
first evidence of this addition is the appearance of inversion of the
middle part of the cyst, forming a small hollow, the sides of which
look as if thrown into folds containing granular matter, and the
bottom presents a circular space in which are granular particles of
various forms and sizes, but those in the centre are darker than the
rest. It is from these particles that the suctorial disks, the hook-
lets, and the first of the laminated bodies are about to be formed,
but as yet none of these parts are recognizable. At a stage a little
more advanced, this apparent inversion of the cyst has increased,
the neck has become longer, and the appearance of disks, hook-
lets, and laminated bodies is sufficiently distinct to be perfectly
recognizable. The process of development is particularly apparent in
the hooklets, and perhaps there is no other instance of the growth of
an animal tissue which presents such facilities for the examination
of the manner in which it is effected. First, because the part of
the entozoon on which these organs are formed, is sufficiently trans-
parent to admit of examination by the highest magnifying powers
without any previous dissection. Secondly, because the material
of which they are composed is so characteristic, and so dissimilar
to the surrounding parts, that it can be detected in the minutest
possible quantities. And, thirdly, as only a few of these hooklets
are in progress of development at one time, and as these are in all
stages of formation, every step in the progress of their growth can
be traced from the merest molecule to a perfect hooklet. This is
important in reference to the general theory of development, as it
furnishes an example of the formation of a complete set of organs,
on a plan more simple, and at variance with the cell-theory of
Schwann and others. Before one of these hooklets takes on a
recognizable form, it exists as a group of exceedingly refractive

490 Royal Society :—

particles, all apparently of the same composition, and of a more or
less globular form, but of very different sizes, some being so minute
as scarcely to be visible by one-eighth of an inch lens, others
being almost as large as the handle of a perfect hooklet, while
the rest are of all dimensions between these extremes. The next
condition of a hooklet is the apparent fusion or coalescence of
some of these particles into the hocked part of the organ. Then
the handle and tubercles are added, these having been previously
formed by the fusion of the smaller particles, and these latter by
the coalescence of the minutest and the minuter ones. Before
the several parts are perfectly consolidated, their points of junction
can be distinguished, and in other groups the fragments corre-
sponding to those recently united can be recognized. Directly a
hooklet is found, it is of its full dimension; and some of its parts
are even larger and more clumsy-looking than in older hooklets.
The substance of the particles entering into these organs, after
they are once formed, undergoes no change in its microscopical
characters, but is the same after as before their union. It is im-
possible to single out any one particle from the rest, which can be
taken for the nucleus of a cell, or for what physiologists would call
a nucleated cell; and thus there is nothing which indicates that
these organs have been formed by transformation of previously ex-
isting cells, but, on the contrary, there is every appearance that
their formation is due to the simple coalescence of homogeneous
molecules.

Up to the present point, the facts which I have stated are so
obvious, that their accuracy will, I think, not be questioned; also
the interpretation of them is not only that which appears to
me the most natural, but is almost self-evident. ‘There remain,
however, some considerations of a more theoretical kind, though
not of less importance. It will be asked, how the entozoon, in its
earliest condition, such as I have described it, finds access to the
interior of a primary fasciculus. Before attempting to answer this
question, I must observe that my description commences from a
condition of this entuzoon so complete, that no one, on examining
it in this state with the microscope, will deny its perfect similarity
to those of the higher form. But there are other links in the chain
which I must now consider, and which so far have been omitted
only because I wished to keep that which is certain distinct from
that which is probable. Before the cells and molecules already
described accumulate in sufficient quantity to present the undoubted
character above mentioned, they are found aggregated in smaller
groups, and even occurring individually in all the primary fasciculi
of the diseased muscle; their quantity, and the size and form of
these groups, present the greatest possible irregularity in the dif-
ferent fasciculi. In some the molecular deposit looks like an early
stage of fatty degeneration, but it has characters very different ;
one is the shape of the molecules, which resemble in all respects
those in the growing ends of an entozoon; and another is, their
situation, which seems to be between the primary fibrille, tending

Mr. Rainey on the Structure of the Cysticercus cellulose. 491

to separate them longitudinally; however that may be, it is an
abnormal condition, and always coexistent with the higher forms of
the Cysticercus ; and as the entozoon, as I have first described it,
could not possibly have taken on that form all at once, these groups
of molecules must therefore be looked upon as its antecedent stage,
or as portions of Cysticerci in progress of development. But I also
find in the specimens of muscle infested with these entozoa, many
of the capillaries and smaller blood-vessels filled with organic mole-
cules, which, so far as I am able to judge from the comparison of
such extremely minute bodies, seem to resemble those molecules
which are found in the primary fasciculi. ‘The vessels filled with
these molecules have their coats so thin as to be inappreciable, and
some of the capillaries appear to be partially destroyed, and their
molecular contents diffused among the sarcous elements. As this
is an abnormal condition of the contents of these vessels, as well as
of their coats, and, so far as my experience goes, is not found ex-
cepting in conjunction with the earliest stages of the Cysticerci, I
am inclined to believe that the molecules in question are the same
as those in the primary fasciculi, and that it is by their coalescence
in these fasciculi that the formation-cells of the Cysticerci are
formed.

Addendum, Dec. 6.—After an entozoon has left the interior of a
primary fasciculus, and arrived at the space between the muscular
fibres, it loses its ciliated investment, and increases in breadth. Its
margin now seems to be formed entirely by the convexities of
the globular masses of cells of which its body appears to be made
up, causing it to present a crenate form similar to that of the ven-
tral portion of the perfect animalcule, with this difference only,
that these cells are compressed. ‘The next change which is visible
is the formation of folds, which become more perceptible as the
animal increases in breadth, and which remain in the perfect
entozoon so long as it is confined to a small space, but dis-
appear when it gets to the space between the surface of a muscle
and the fascia covering it. The unfolding in this last situation
seems to be produced by the imbibition of fluid, and the consequent
distension of the ventral part. These more advanced stages of the
worm-form are best found in those specimens of diseased muscle
in which the perfectly developed Cysticerci abound. Their number
in proportion to that of the perfect animalcules varies considerably
in different specimens.

I have always succeeded in finding some of those of the worm-
form along with the perfectly developed ones; and in some cases
there are as many of one kind as the other. After they have
acquired a certain breadth—about one-twelfth, or the one-eighth of
an inch,—the central part of the cyst appears to be drawn inwards,
forming a hollow; at the bottom of which, the granular material
is deposited from which the suckers, hooklets, and calcareous
granules are formed, as above described.

492 Miscellaneous.
MISCELLANEOUS.

Observations on the Structure of the Retina in certain Animals.
By H. Miurer.

I wave shown in my work upon the Retina, that this part furnishes
microscopic characters which may be employed in the systematic
distribution of vertebrated animals, to such an extent, that it is often
possible to determine the class, the order, and even ‘the irre, of an
animal from a small fragment of its retina.

In general the more marked the systematic characters are in the
different divisions of a class of Vertebrata, the more do we observe
variations in the microscopic characters of the retina. The retina of
the Sturgeon presents one of the most remarkable examples of this.
In a recent examination I found that the layer of batons in this fish
is constituted in accordance with a type foreign to the other Fishes, a
type which occurs moreover in the class of Birds. There are two
elements, the cones and the batons. The latter are truncated ex-
ternally, whilst the internal part passes into a conical point. The
fatty drops, which have been mentioned by other observers, do not
belong to the batons but to the cones, which I had formerly suspected,
aud as may be seen in my work above referred to. The cones are com-
posed of an internal thicker, and an external thinner part, as in Birds.
At the extremity of the former part is the fatty drop, which, except
in its less brilliant colour, exactly resembles those which are found in
the cones of Birds. We do not at present know any other Fish, of
which the retina exhibits this arrangement of cones and batons,
exactly similar to that of Birds. But on the one hand it is very re-
markable that this type of the retina, proper to Birds, also occurs in
certain Reptiles, namely the Tortoises, which, themselves, in this
respect differ widely from the other sections of the Reptiles. On the
other hand, I may remark, that, amongst Fishes, it is exactly in the
orders which also possess the most peculiar characters, that we find the
most distinct variations in the elements of the retina. In the Sturgeons
the layer of cones and batons is constituted in accordance with the
type of Birds; in the Cyclostoma, as appears from my previous re-
searches, there are only simple cones, without batons; in the Pla-
giostoma, on the contrary, I have only found batons and no cones.
In the class of Reptiles, we also find very important differences between
the Batrachia, the Sauria, and the Tortoises, whilst in the Birds and
Mammalia there is a greater uniformity in the general type of the
elements referred to, and only slighter modifications.

Another remarkable point is the presence of nervous fibres with
double outlines in the retina in certain animals. It is well known
that in the eye of the Rabbit there is a beautiful white radiation
especially on the two sides of the entrance of the optic nerve, and
many observers have remarked, that fibres are sometimes found else-
where which contain a kind of medulla. But, besides the Rabbits,
there are many animals in which the optic fibres present a medulla
with dark outlines, in a very marked degree.

I have found that in the Sturgeon, the optic fibres which extend

Miscellaneous. 493

in a very elegant manner in the form of a double comb, possess very
strong outlines in a great part of the retina. The retina of the
Plagiostoma also, both Sharks and Rays, contains fibres of a breadth
of as much as 0°01 mill., which exhibit all the characters of the
varicose fibres with double outlines which occur in the nervous centres.
Lastly, I have observed that in the eyes of many Dogs, the optic
nerve is still white at its entrance into the eye, and that it is only in
the retina that the nervous fibres become pale and transparent. But
the change takes place very soon after the entrance of the optic nerve,
whilst in the fishes just mentioned, the fibres with double outlines
extend over a great part of the retina, and only pass by degrees
to the aspect of the pale fibres. In a physiological point of
view it is remarkable that in the Fishes of which I am speaking,
notwithstanding the double outlines of the nervous fibres, the retina
appears to be tolerably transparent during life, whilst in the Rabbits
and Dogs it is opaque and white, in the whole extent of the fibres
with double outlines. In the former case the influence upon the
sight does not appear to be important, but in the latter the perception
of light must be hindered or disturbed as far as this peculiarity of*
the fibres extends ; and the ophthalmoscopic effect of the bottom of
the eye, and especially of the entrance of the optic nerve, must present
remarkable modifications in all the animals in which a state similar
to that which has long been known in the Rabbit exists.— Comptes
Rendus, Oct. 20, 1856, p. 743.

Remarks on Nika edulis, Risso. By Wriit~t1am THompson.

The possession of a healthy specimen of Nika edulis has enabled
me to offer the following remarks, which, I trust, may add some-
thing new to what is already known of this species.

The first specimen I obtained by dredging on the 2nd July, 1853.
I find by my notes, which were made at the time, that it was a
female, and in spawn; the ova were darkish green, the animal itself
was of a cream colour, and spotted with red dots; the spots were
of different sizes, perfectly round, and rather thickly and regularly
placed. This specimen was dead before I examined it, and this will
account for the difference of colour as contrasted with the specimen,
the more immediate subject of the present paper. I had previously
obtained one specimen, and a third specimen, also in spawn, was
brought to me on the 20th July, 1855; the ova were bright green,
and the animal of a cream colour, ‘This specimen was dead when
examined.

The subject of the present paper was brought to me alive by my
dredger on the 21st February in this year, and lived three weeks.
It was dredged in Weymouth Bay, near the mouth of the harbour.
The colour in this living specimen was very different from that of
the dead specimens I had previously obtained. When first brought to
me, the whole animal was a light greenish-drab, irregularly and thinly
sprinkled with pure white stars; the carapace and covering of the
abdomen were alike transparent, and the intestines could be easily

494 Miscellaneous.

seen beneath. I could also detect the breathing apparatus placed on’
each side at the back of the mouth; the movement was similar to
that of a long rope when gently waved at oneend. After a few days’
confinement it changed colour : five or six broadish bands of a lovely
rose colour appeared, the bands of colour being restricted to the back
portion of each segment of the body; the tail also changed to the
same rosy hue, but in the course of two or three days the animal again
assumed its original colour. I have noticed this change of colour in
many of the Palemonide and Crangonida, and I believe it to arise
from the transparency of the cuticle enabling any change in the body
itself to be seen through it, and that the change of colouring of the
body is occasioned by fear or some instinct. In all the specimens of
Nika I have obtained the shell is soft as in a new-moulted Prawn, and
in piercing them with a fine pin for preserving, the shell bends before
it. Is this of any value as a generic character? M. Milne-Edwards
says they reseinble Athanas ‘in possessing but a small rostrum ;”
they also resemble them in their mode of locomotion, as they then
carry the external pedipalps and first pair of feet extended before
them in a line with their body; their movements are also slow and
deliberate, and they appear to progress by walking and not by
swimming ; when alarmed they shoot backwards by striking forward
with their tail, as is the habit of all the long-tailed Crustaceans.

I now proceed to lay before you the information I have obtained
as to its habits.

I may assert that Nika is essentially a burrowing genus. I was
not prepared to find it so, as I considered its slender limbs and its
prominent eyes but ill-adapted for the purpose ; however, we live
and learn, and I have learned that practice is far better than theory ;
had I relied on the latter I should have insisted that Nika edulis was
not a burrower.

In accordance with a plan which I have formed of attempting to
study the habits of any of our rarer marine animals I may have the
good fortune to meet with, I placed my prisoner in a vase with a
few weeds and some pebbles, that being the nature of the ground on
which it was dredged; I left it in this vessel for two days, and found
out it was not at home, and, in fact, that a pebbly bottom was not
its choice. I therefore removed it to a large earthenware pan in
which I had previously placed a few weeds, having filled it also to
the depth of three inches with coarse gravel; I then left it for an
hour, and on examining the vessel I could not find my friend; I
searched on the table, thinking it might have thrown itself out, but
it was without success ; I turned over the stones and weeds, and with
the like result. I then commenced turning over the gravel, and at
last found that Nika edulis was a burrowing Crustacean. I accord-
ingly transferred it for facility of observation to a vase, and placing
in it the same material, namely, the coarse gravel and weeds, in this
gravel it buried itself three several times. Burrowing in this loose
material was evidently a difficult matter; it required great patience
and perseverance to overcome the difficulty occasioned by the loose
gravel constantly falling in on the excavator: it took the animal ten

Miscellaneous. 495

minutes to burrow to about the depth of three parts of its length.
I afterwards transferred it to a vase with sand to the depth of three
or four inches at the bottom; in this it quickly disappeared, three
minutes sufficing to completely cover itself. In this vase it was that
I made the following observations on it.

Its mode of mining is extraordinary: lying at the bottom of the
vase, it commenced proceedings by probing the sand around with its
third pair of feet, and inserting them to some depth in it; when it
found a spot suited for the purpose, that is, free from any large
stones, it at once commenced excavating. These operations were
earried out by the external pedipalps, which are very long and
strong, and also by the first, third and fourth pairs of legs; the
second pair of legs, as may be supposed, are for this purpose per-
fectly useless: they are as much as possible placed out of the way,
being bent up snugly with the hand turned backwards: the only
motion I could detect was a nervous action in the moveable finger,
constantly attempting to clutch objects, but not seizing anything.
The fifth pair of feet have a simple though useful office assigned
them: it is to support the body im the proper position until the
burrowing has progressed sufficiently to enable the burrower to do
without their support ; they are then immediately called into more
active employment, and assist in the work of excavation. The spot
for burrowing having been selected, the little animal steadies its
body by means of its fifth pair of legs, and this allows the greatest
freedom of action to the body. The pedipalps perform a prominent
part in the burrowing; the nail on the last joint is curved slightly
forward, and the advantage of this is clearly seen, as in digging, the
pedipalps are forced into the sand or shingle, and are thus forced
forward and outwards, and they prevent the side of the burrow from
falling in ; the third and fourth pairs of feet are in constant motion,
probing the sand and loosening it, thus lightening the labour for the
pedipalps ; all these movements take place very regularly and at the
same time. A small hollow having been made, the animal raises its
body by means of its fifth pair of legs to nearly a right angle with
the bottom; its eyes, which are very large and carried at right angles
with the body, are thus suddenly thrown forward with a spring in a
line with the rostrum, and the hollow is surveyed; should it not be
of a sufficient depth the body is again lowered and the burrowing
continues, the eyes resuming their original position ; when the hole
is sufficiently deepened, the eyes are again brought forward, the
antennze are thrown back in a line with the body, and the animal
forces its head in the hole it has made; this is facilitated by the
body being gradually raised by means of the fifth pair of legs ; the
head being inserted, the burrowing continues with increased energy,
and the animal assumes the position as in photograph No. 2; this
view shows the sand which has been thrown up accumulated in a
heap under the body.

I have occasionally found it continue in this position, but gene-
rally it burrows perpendicularly, until only the tips of the antennz
are visible.

496 Miscellaneous.

I placed my captive in a glass vase, and his having selected the side
of the glass for burrowing (probably from the glass forming one firm
side to the work), enabled me to watch every movement; the sand
appeared to be passed to the mouth of the hole by the legs and false
legs, when it filled round the body and filled in as the animal passed
downwards. The antennz are delicately sensitive. I believe this
sensitiveness depends on the sense of touch: the slightest contact
with them sets the animal in motion (and this when it is buried
some depth), using every exertion to burrow deeper. It is evidently-
a night-feeding genus, as it remained buried and inactive during the
day, but the state of the sand in the tank in the morning proved
that it had not been idle during the night.

From these facts I am justified in stating that Nika edulis is a
burrowing species (if not of a burrowing genus), and that its bur-
rowing is only by day to hide itself from its enemies, and not to
procure food.

The description I have given of the colouring of this species will
be found to be different from that given by Risso, as stated by Mr.
Milne-Edwards. I should have great diffidence in differing from
these eminent naturalists had I not imagined that their descriptions
might have been taken from cabinet specimens. Had I waited to
describe my specimen until after its death, I must have described it
as it now is, namely, flesh-red; I find all the thinner-shelled Crus-
tacea change more or less of a flesh-red, with the exception of the
Crangonide.—Proc. Zool. Soc., April 22, 1856.

NAUCRATES DUCTOR.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.
Falmouth, November 1, 1856.

GENTLEMEN,—A shoal of the Naucrates ductor, Cuy., made its
appearance in shallow water, Custom House Pier, on Friday afternoon,
Oct. 31, 1856, and more than three dozen of them were caught in
nets, baskets, &c., by persons on the beach. I have procured species
of this interesting fish every year during my residence in this neigh-
bourhood.

I am, Gentlemen, yours truly,
W. P. Cocks.

On Peculiar and Quasi-spontaneous Movements of the Plasmatic
Cells of certain Animals. By Prof. KOLuikER,

I have just observed at Nice, upon a fine animal of the family of
the compound Ascidians, which according to M. Milne-Edwards has
not yet been described, a very peculiar tact, namely, movements of
the cells which occur in great number in the gelatinous substance
common to the whole bunch and formed of cellulose. These cells,
which are round or stellate and of very various forms, have, in the
living animal, a slow, but easily perceptible movement, consisting in
a constant change of form, so that the same cell, which was at one
time round, becomes stellate or fusiform in different degrees, by the

Miscellaneous. 497

formation of two or several prolongations, often very long and even
branched, returning subsequently to the round form which it had at
the commencement. This movement, which is constantly observed
in all these cells, although slow, is nevertheless pretty strong, and I
have even several times observed cells which changed their position
by the formation of processes, the whole presenting a considerable
resemblance to the movement of an Actinophrys or Ameba. As in
these animals, the contents of the cells also took part in the move-
ment, and it was easy to see that these granulations passed sometimes
into the processes, returning afterwards into the body of the cells, so
that the change of form of the cells is accompanied by a movement
of all the parts of which they consist, which may probably be inti-
mately connected with the chemical and vital phenomena which are
accomplished in these cells as well as in all the others.

Having observed these movements, it occurred to me that it was
possible that many stellate cells exhibited similar movements, espe-
cially as something of the same kind has already been seen in the
pigmentary cells of the Frog, and I set myself to examine the plasmatic¢
cells or corpuscles of the conjunctive tissue. As these observations
were made during the last days of my stay at-Nice, I cannot give
them the extent which I desired; however, I was fortunate enough
to see that the plasmatic cells of the gelatinous conjunctive tissue of
the head of the Torpedo, and the stellate cells of the gelatinous sub-
stance of the body of Cassiopeia borbonica, also exhibit movements
similar to those which I have just described, and I do not doubt that
it will be found that this phenomenon has a considerable extent,
and even some physiological importance.—Comptes Rendus, Oct. 27,
1856, p. 794.

Description of a New Species of Actinia from the Devonshire Coast.
By E. W. H. Hotpsworrs.

When contracted, the body forms a rounded button abont ¢ of an
inch in diameter, but in full expansion it is generally elongated to
the extent of 24 inches, and terminates in a somewhat cup-shaped
disk about 12 inch wide, and having its extended edges frequently
thrown into irregular festoons. The tentacula, about 150 in number,
are arranged in four or five series, as in most of the group to which
this species belongs; the first row contains twenty-five arms, about
half the length of the diameter of the disk, and moderately stout ;
the others gradually diminish in size as they proceed outwards, their
numbers at the same time increasing ; but the irregular manner in
which they are placed renders it difficult to enumerate the contents,
or to determine the limits of any oue of the series. The disk is of a
uniform olive-brown without any superficial markings,—the appear-
ance of radiating lines, sometimes visible, being only the upper edges
of the internal septa showing through the transparent skin ; the
mouth opens transversely, and displays a regular crenation of its
pink lining membrane. ‘The tentacula are of a reddish purple, and
entirely destitute of rings or other marking ; they present a remark-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii.

-

498 Meteorological Observations.

able contrast to the body of the animal, which at its upper part is of
a dark orange colour, gradually assuming a paler tint towards the
base ; numerous white sucking-pores are disposed over the upper
surface, and afford points of attachment to surrounding substances,
when required to conceal the body; they also give exit to the con-
voluted filaments, which are abundantly thrown out from them and
the mouth, when the animal is irritated. Its natural haunts appear
to be narrow crevices of rocks, into which it can retire when alarmed,
and I was prevented obtaining many specimens by their having
chosen such inaccessible hollows for their residence. Four or five
examples were, however, procured at extreme low-water mark, from
the very productive rocks outside Dartmouth harbour, and, excepting
in size, presented no points of difference. I propose for this species
the name of vinosa.—Proc. Zool. Soc., June 10, 1856.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR oct. 1856.

Chiswick.—October 1. Exceedingly fine. 2. Cloudy. 3. Cloudy and fine: rain.
4. Rain: cloudy: rain. 5. Rain: cloudy: fine: lightning at night. 6. Foggy:
rain: cloudy. 7. Hazy and drizzly: rain at night. 8. Heavy rain: densely over-
cast. 9. Overcast. 10. Hazy: fine. 11. Heavy rain: uniform haze: slight rain
at night. 12. Foggy: uniform haze. 13. Dense fog: very fine: cloudy. 14.
Foggy : overcast : fine. 15. Rain. 16. Overcast: showery. 17. Fine: overcast:
hazy. 18. Very fine. 19. Dense fog: very fine. 20. Foggy: very fine. 21.
Foggy: exceedingly fine. 22. Very dense fog: exceedingly fine. 23. Foggy:
very fine. 24. Fine. 25. Foggy: heavy clouds: fine. 26. Hoar-frost: hazy:
very fine. 27. Frosty: haze: fine. 28, 29. Very dense fog. 30. Hazy clouds:
overcast : fine. 31. Uniform haze: rain: cloudy.

Mean temperature of the month ..........sssesecssssseveencceece 51°28
Mean temperature of Oct. 1855 —.......0..00se0sscdeasusscenten 50 +28
Mean temperature of Oct. for the last thirty years PEPE TE 50 -00
Average amount of rain)in Oct, + ..-s0ns00+..00:cvamsnuvesvpenseey 2°802 inches.

Boston.—Oct. 1,2. Fine. 3. Fine: rainr.m. 4. Raina.M.andp.m. 5. Cloudy.
6. Fine. 7,8. Rain a.M.andp.m. 9—12. Cloudy: rain a.M.andp.m. 13.
Cloudy. 14. Fine. 15. Fine: rain A.M. and p.m. 16. Cloudy: rainp.m. 17.
Fine. 18. Cloudy. 19. Fine. 20,21. Cloudy. 22, 23. Foggy. 24. Fine.
25—28. Cloudy. 29. Foggy. 30,31. Cloudy: rain a.m.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Oct. 1. Bright, fine a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 2.
Bright, fine a.m.: drops p.m. 3. Hazy a.m.: drops p.m. 4. Hazy a.m.: drops,
showers p.M. 5. Showers a.m.: clear, aurorap.M. 6. Clear, fine, hoar-frost a.m. :
clear, aurora p.M. 7. Clear, fine, hoar-frost a.m.: cloudy p.m. 8. Bright a.m.:
cloudy p.m. 9. Cloudy, fine a.m.: clear p.m. 10. Cloudy, fine a.m. and p.m.
11. Bright, hazy a.m.: cloudy p.m ‘12. Clear, fine a.m. and p.m. 13. Bright,
fine a.m.: cloudy p.m. 14. Damp a.m.: clearp.m. 15. Damp a.M.: cloudy P.M.
16. Showers a.m. : drizzlep.m. 17. Cloudy a.m. : rain, clear p.m. 18. Brig ht A.M. :
drizzle p.m. 19. Bright, fine a.m.: drizzle p.m. 20. Bright, fine A.M.: clear,
aurora P.M. 21. Fog a.m.: cloudy p.m. 22. Cloudy, fine A.M.: showers P.M.
23. Clear, fine a.m.: clear, aurorap.M. 24. Clear, frost, fine a.M.: clear, aurora
P.M. 25. Dampa.M.:rainr.M. 26. Drizzle a.m.: dampp.M. 27. Drizzle a.m.
and p.m. 28. Damp a.m.: cloudy p.m. 29. Hazy, fine a.m.: clear p.m. 30.
Cloudy, fine a.m.: cloudy p.m. 31. Cloudy, fine a.m.: clear, fine p.m.

Mean temperature of Oct. for previous twenty-nine years ... 47757
Mean temperature of this month ......... seed yeas ssebtte aon 48 ‘84
Mean temperature of Oct.,1855° :% 5 J.46-3.sc8 Uns apy dassiabooana 45 ‘72
Average quantity of rain in Oct. for previous sixteen years ... 5°09 inches.

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“UIBY “PUTA, *‘aJOMIOMIOY,T, “a OMLOIV ET

INDEX to VOL. XVIII.

AcHatTina, new species of, 96,434. Benson, W. H., on Clausilia Mortil-

Actinia, new British species of, 346,
497.

Agassiz, Prof., on the Cumz, 428.

Alder, J., on some new genera and
species of British hydroid Zoo-
phytes, 353, 439.

Algz, on the sexuality of the, 81, 181.

Alternation of generations, on the,
368.

Ammocetes, on the development of,
298.

Amphioxus lanceolatus, on the habits
of, 350.

Anguillulz of mildewed wheat, on the
vitality of the, 268.

Animals, on peculiar movements of
the plasmatic cells in certain, 496.

Annelides, on the development of the
branchiferous, 105.

Anthus, new species of, 60.

Arenicola piscatorum, on the develop-
ment of, 105.

Aromochelys, new species of, 266.

Arthoniz, descriptions of new British,
330.

Assiminia, observations on the genus,
419.

Atlas, on the anatomy of the genus,
101.

Babington’s, C.C., Manual of British
Botany, reviewed, 163.

Bailey, Prof. J. W., on the non-ex-
istence of polarizing silica in the
organic kingdoms, 78; on a new
mode of cleaning diatomaceous de-
posits, 189, 190; on the origin of

nsand, and its formation in
the oceans of the present epoch,
425.

Balfour, Prof., on the flora of the
Cumbrae Islands, 67.

Bate, C.S., on the British Diastylide,
187.

leti, 74, 424; on new terrestrial
shells from Ceylon, with a general
list of the species inhabiting that
island, 94; on new Indian and
Burmese Helices and Cyclosto-
macea, 249; on some new land-
shells from the Cape, 433.

Birds, new, 56, 57, 60, 173, 186,
260, 270, 343, 350, 418, 430, 485 ;
of the Himalaya, on the
phical distribution of the, 166;
attempts at a natural arrangement
of, 193 ; on the affinities and limits
of the scansorial, 207 ; rare British,
430.

Books, new :—Sowerby’s Ferns of
Great Britain and Fern-Allies, 54;
Johnson’s British Poisonous Plants,
ib.; Phillips’s Manual of Geology,
159; Gosse’s Tenby, 161; Babing-
ton’s Manual of British Botany,
163; Harvey’s Trees and their
Nature, 165; Kirby and Spence’s
Introduction | to Entomology, 258 ;
Chanter’s Ferny Combes, ” 959;
Bromfield’s Flora Vectensis, 473;

Nyman’s Sylloge Flore Europee,
475

Botanical Society of Edi
ceedings of the, 66, 181, 337.

Braun, Prof. A., on the vi in-
dividual in its relation to species
363.

Buarremon, new species of, 350.

Bucco, new species of, 260.

Bulimus, new species ‘of, 96, 433.

Burgess, Lieut., on the nests and
of the birds of Western
175.

Busk, G.,on Polyzoa collected on tk
coast of Norway and Finmar)
32.

Callitriche hamulata, note on, 429.

INDEX.

Calcenas, new species of, 484.

Campanularia, new British species of,
358.

Cardium exiguum, on the siphons
and byssus of, 257.

Carpenter, Dr., on the Foraminifera,
334

Carter, H. J., on the freshwater Infu-
soria of the Island of Bombay, 115,
221.

Catops, monograph of the genus, I,
133, 302, 391, 457.

Catopsimorphus, description of the

- *new genus, 462.

Catoptrichus, description of the new
genus, 461.

Caitle, aboriginal, of Britain, on the,

Cellepora, on some species of, 32.

Cell-formation, on vegetable. 42.

Cetoniade, descriptions of new, 481.

Ceylonese shells, list of, 94.

Chameza, new species of, 58.

Chelodina, new species of, 267.

Choleva, on the species of, 1.

Clausilia Mortilleti, observations on,
74, 185, 424.

Clinteria, new species of, 482.

Cocks, W. P., on Lernza branchialis,
186; on Amphioxus lanceolatus,
350; on the occurrence of some
rare British birds, 480; on the oc-
eurrence of Naucrates ductor, 496.

Cohn, Dr. F., on the development
and propagation of Sphzroplea an-
nulina, 81; on the sexuality of the
Alge, 181

Coleoptera, descriptions of new, 1,
133, 302, 457, 475.

Conchology of France, contributions
to the, 471.

Corucia, characters of the new genus,
346.

Crisp, Dr. E., on some points relating
to the anatomy of Thylacinus and
Lycaon, 177.

‘Cubina, new species of, 270.

Cume, observations on the, 428.

Cyclas lacustris, note on, 74.

Cyclophorus, new species of, 94.

Cysticercus cellulose, on the strue-
ture and development of, 486.

Davaine, M., on the vitality of the

~ Anguillule of mildewed wheat, 268.

Defrancia, on some species of, 35.

Diastylide, on the British, 187.

501

Diatomacew, on the siliceous spo-
rangial sheath of the, 75.

Diatomaceous deposits, new mode of
cleaning, 189.

Dolphin, on a new species of, 157.

Dubusia, new species of, 418.

Dysithamnus, new species of, 59.

Edwardsia, new British species of, 219.

Edwardsia vestita, note on, 73.

Emberiza, new species of, 343.

Emyda, new species of, 268.

Eschara, new species of, 33.

Eudendrium, new British species of,
354.

Eugenia, description of the genus,
=-{V.

Fibrous substances of India, on the,
66.

Flora of the Cumbrae Islands, on the,
67; of the Atlantic Islands, on the,
183.

Foraminifera, researches on the, 334.

Forests of Pegu, on the state of the,
66.

Formicivora, new species of, 58.

Gosse, P. H., on the Edwardsia ves-
tita of Forbes, 73 ; on a new British
species of Edwardsia, 219; on the
siphons and byssus of Cardium
exiguum, 257; on the dicecious cha-
racter of the Rotifera, 333 ; Tenby,
reviewed, 162. f

Gould, J., on a new species of Prion,
56; on new species of birds, 173 ;
on a new genus of Trochilide, 270.

Grallaria, new species of, 57.

Grammaria, new British species of,
361.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on a new British
species of Spherium, 25; on a new
species of Dolphin, 157; on some
new species of freshwater Tortoises,
263; ona new species of nocturnal
Lizard, 270; on a new genus of
Lizards, 345; on a new subgenus of
Helicinade, 414; on the genus
Assiminia, 419; on the abnormal
operculum of Polydonta elegans,
468.

Gray, G. R., on a new species of
Pigeon, 484; on a new species of
Lepidopterous insect, 486.

Greensand, on the origin of, 425,

Griffith, Dr. J. W., on the siliceous
sporangial sheath of the Diato-
mace, 75.

502

Halia preetenuis, observations on, 469.

Hamilton’s, Dr. F., Account of the
Kingdom of Nepal, on the plants
mentioned in, 404, 442.

Hapata, description of the subgenus,
414.

Harvey’s, Dr. A., Trees and their
Nature, reviewed, 165.

Heer, O., on the probable origin of
the organized beings now living in
the Azores, Madeira, and the Ca-
naries, 183.

Helicinade, on a new subgenus of,
414.

Helix, new species of, 96, 249, 436.

Helix Cantiana, note on, 187.

Henfrey, Prof., on vegetable cell-
formation, 42; on recent disco-
veries in vegetable embryogeny,
217.

Heterocnemis, new species of, 186.
Hincks, Rev. T., on Reticularia im-
mersa and Halia preetenuis, 469.
Hodgson, B. H., on the geographical
distribution of the mammalia and

birds of the Himalaya, 166.

Holdsworth, E. W. H., on new species
of Actinia, 346, 497.

Hornera, on some species of, 34.

Huxley, T. H., on the method of pa-
leontology, 43.

Hydrocena, new species of, 439.

Hypocephalus, observations on the
genus, 477.

Idmonea, on some species of, 34.

Infusoria, on the organization of, 115,
221 ; contributions to the anatomy
of the, 319.

Insects, descriptions of new, 1, 133,
302, 457, 475.

Janella, observations on the genus, 41.

Jeffreys, J. G., on Cyclas lacustris, 74;
on Clausilia plicatula and C. Mor-
tilleti, 185; on Scissurella, 188;
on rare shells from the coast of
France, 471.

Johnson’s, C., British
Plants, noticed, 54.

Kinosternon, new species of, 265.

Kolliker, Prof., on peculiar move-
ments of the plasmatic cells of
certain animals, 496.

Lamiadz, descriptions of new, 479.

Lampreys, on the development of the,
298.

Laomedea, new species of, 440.

Poisonous

INDEX.

Legriocinelus, note on the genus, 341.

Leighton, Rey. W. A., on the British

mbilicaria, 273; on new British
Arthoniz, 330.

Leptopoma, new species of, 95.

Lerna branchialis, note on, 186.

Lichens, new habitats for rare British,
182; descriptions of British, 273,
330.

Lieberkuhn, N., on the anatomy of
the Infusoria, 319.

Linota, new species of, 345.

Lonsdale, W., on Helix Cantiana, 187.

Lowe, J., on an abnormality in the
flowers of Salix Andersoniana, 254.

Lycaon pictus, on some points relating
to the anatomy of, 177.

M‘Clelland, Dr., on the forests of
Pegu, 66.

Macdonald, J. D., on a bitentaculate
slug found at Aneiteum, 38; on
the anatomy of the genus Atlas,
101.

Madden, Lieut.-Col., on Nepalese
plants, 404, 442.

Malacoptila, new species of, 263.

Mammalia of the Himalaya, on the
geographical distribution of the,
166.

Merula, new species of, 174.

Meteorological observations, 79, 191,
271, 351, 431, 498.

Monasa, new species of, 262.

Moore, F., on some new species of
birds, 343 ; on two new species of
Orthotomus, 430.

Miiller, A., on the development of
the Lampreys, 298.

Miller, H., on the structure of the
retina in certain animals, 492.

Murray, A., on the genus Catops, 1,
133, 302, 391, 457.

Naucrates ductor, note on the occur-
rence of, 496.

Nemosia, new species of, 60.

Nepalese plants, notes on, 404, 442.

Nesocichla, new species of, 174.

Nika edulis, remarks on, 493,

Operculum, observations on an ab-
normal form of, 468.

Ophiocoma rosula, on the young state
of, 387.

Ophryoglena, on the anatomy of, 319.

Orang-utan, on the habits of the, 26.

Orthotomus, new species of, 430,

Otocorys, new species of, 61, 343.

INDEX.

en, Prof., on the ruminant qua-
drupeds and the aboriginal cattle
of Britain, 61 ; ona fossil cranium
of the Musk-buffalo from the gravel
at Maidenhead, 188.
alzeontology, on the method of, 43.
-Panopza Aldrovandi, observations on,
BS 415:
Papilio, new species of, 426.
Peach, C. W., on a curious metamor-
phosis in a polype-like animal, 99.
Petromyzon, on the development of,
298.
hillips’s, J., Manual of Geology, re-
viewed, 159.
lants from Nepal, on some, 404,
442.
latycercus, new species of, 175.
Polydonta elegans, on an abnormal
operculum of, 468.
Polythalamia, observations on, 426.
Polyzoa, descriptions of new, 32.
Prion, new species of, 56.
rionidz, descriptions of new, 476.
Propasser, new species of, 344.
salidocoptus, new species of, 479.
Psalidognathus, remarks on the ge-
nus, 477.
Pupa, new species of, 435.
Pyriglena, new species of, 59, 60.
Quadrupeds, rumimant, on the, 61.
Rainey, G., on the structure and de-
velopment of Cysticercus cellulose,
486.
Reticularia immersa, observations on,
469.
etina, on the structure of, in certain
animals, 492.
otifera, on the dicecious character of
the, 333.
Royal Institution, proceedings of the,
61.
oyal Society, proceedings of the,
333, 486.
Salix Andersoniana, on an abnor-
mality in the flowers of, 254.
Scherzer and Wagner, MM., on the
vegetation of Central America, 76.
Schismope, on the new genus, 36, 188.
Schizorrhina, new species of, 483.
Schultze, Dr. M., on the development
of Arenicola piscatorum, 105.
Scissurella, on the genus, 36, 188.
Sclater, P. L., on new species of Ant-
Thrushes, 57; on new species of
birds from Santa Fé di Bogota, 60 ;

503

on new species of birds, 186, 260,
418; onthe genus Legriocinclus,
341; on a new species of Buarre-
mon, 350.

Sertularia, new British species of, 356.

Shells, new, 25, 94, 156, 249, 433.

Silica, on the non-existence of polar-.
izing, in the organic kingdoms, 78.

Skenea, on a new British species of,
156.

Slug, on the external characters and
internal anatomy of a bitentaculate,
found at Aneiteum, 38.

Sowerby’s Ferns of Great Britain and
Fern- Allies, reviewed, 54.

Spherium, new British species of, 25.

Spheeroplea, on the development and
propagation of, 81.

Steno, new species of, 157.

Stethodesma, new species of, 482.

Stewart, T. H., on the young state of
Ophiocoma rosula, 387.

Thomson, W.,on the burrowing habits
of Nika edulis, 493.

Thylacinus cynocephalus, on some
points relating totheanatomy of,177.

Todirostrum, new species of, 187.

Torrens, H., on native impressions
regarding the natural history of
certain Indian animals, 171.

Tortoises, new species of freshwater,
263.

Townsend, F., on Callitriche hamu-
lata, 429.

Tragocephala, new species of, 480.

Trictenotoma, description of the ge-
nus, 476.

Tridornis, new species of, 418.

Trigonophorus, new species of, 482.

Trochilide, description of a new
genus of, 270.

Tubularia, new species of, 439.

Umbilicariz, monograph of the Bri-
tish, 273.

Vegetable embryogeny, on recent dis-
coveries in, 217.

climatology, observations on,
338.

individual, on the, 363.

Vorticlava, new British species of,
Joa:

Wagner, M., on the vegetation of
Central America, 76.

Wallace, A. R., on the habits of the
Orang-utan, 26; on the natural
arrangement of birds, 193.

504

Webster, W., on anew British species
of Skenea, 156.

White, A., on some coleopterous in-
sects, 475.

Wilson, J. K., on vegetable climato-
logy, 338.

Woodward, 8. P., on the evils of
increasing synonyms, 36 ; on Pano-
pea Aldrovandi, 415.

INDEX.

Yarrell, William, notice of the late,
348.

Zoological Society, proceedings of the
or ei66, 260, 341,415,478.

Zoophytes, on some new genera and
species of British, 219, 353, 439,
469.

Zosterops, new species of, 174.

END OF THE EIGHTEENTH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

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