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THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING
ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND
CHARLESWORTH’S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )

CONDUCTED BY

PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Esq., F.L.S.,
CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esa., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Ph.D., F.RS., F.L.S., V.P.Z.8, &c.,

AND

WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.L.S. |

VOL. XVIII.—THIRD SERIES.

LONDON:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER}; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.;
KENT AND CO.; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:
MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH ;

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1866.

La
“*

‘*Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentie testes, divitiz felicitatis
humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;
ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis éiacet.
Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper estimata; a veré eruditis
et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”’—
LINNZus.

“ Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir
qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent
toutes ses opérations.” BRUCKNER, Théorie du Systeme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

oe ee ee © ese « « The sylvan powers
Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells
The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild
And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs
That press with nimble step the mountain-thyme
And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,
But scatter round ten thousand forms minute
Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock
Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too
Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face
They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush
That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,
Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,
- The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,
All, all to us unlock their secret stores
And pay their cheerful tribute.
J. TaAYLor, Norwich, 1818.

CONTENTS OF VOL. XVIII.

[THIRD SERIES.]

NUMBER CIII.

I. Description of a new Species of Marine Worm (Phenacia pul-
chella). By Epwarp PaRFITT. (Plate 1.) cscsscsesscsscceeseereeeees

II. On the Affinities of Peridinium Cypripedium, Jas.-Clk., and
Urocentrum Turbo, Ebr. By Prof. H. James-Cuark, A.B., B.S.,
ee slo esis a 7. cu secces cern’ ecccccstecsedscecequesceuseonesee

III. On the Vascular and Nervous Apparatus of the Larve of the
Marine Crustacea. By M. Z. GERBE.......sccssseescceseeeeeeecetsencasres

IV. On the Menispermacee. By Joun Miers, F.RS., F.L‘S. &c.

V. Notule Lichenologice. No. VII. By the Rev. W. A.
Leicuron, B.A., F.L.S.—Dr. Wm. Nylander on three European
Species of Thelocarpon ......csscceccesscsecssscnssaneenserevecsssscrereeecerens

VI. Fifth Account of new Species of Snakes in the Collection of
the British Museum. By AtBert Ginruer, M.A., M.D., Ph.D.
eee scvsasaasivcccciscesccoceccevsecssccavescesaceocucsst

VII. Remarks on some Fishes from the River Amazons in the
British Museum. By Dr. ALBERT GUNTHER ...........00008 Gevusecdess

VIII. On the Fossils contained in a Lower Greensand Deposit of
Phosphatie Nodules in Bedfordshire. By J. F. Wauker, F.C.S.,
Sid. Suss. College, Cambridge ............scssscecsecsceecsececnsessecsoscsons

IX. Notes on the Palxozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No, VII.
Some Carboniferous Species. By T. Rupert Jonss, F.G.S., and
JAMES W. KIRKBY, Esq. ...-ecsssccsceccecrecerccenccsseeccseseassosscsece

X. Notices of British Fungi. By the Rev. M. J. BERKELEY,
M.A., F.L.S., and C. E. Broome, Esq., F.L.S. (Plate II.) .........

XI. On the Rhabdocela. By E. Mecznikow. (Plate VIII.)...

XII. On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides. By
PS PAMMERI Es ccce se soceeese0e SULOAaAaeRA eRe eb povascghgshs vansbae rene cevsiadess®

XIII. Further observations on the Reproduction and Embryogeny
of the Aphides. By M. BALBIANI......... shee whan cht np ehNaeiaes eeneveasd

On the Metamorphoses of the Marine Crustacea, by M. Z. Gerbe ;
On the Mi-lou or Sseu-pou-siang, a Mammal from the north of
China, which forms a new Section in the Family Cervide, by A.
Milne-Edwards; On the Pleuronectide of the Genus Zeugopterus,

Page

24

30

31

32

51
57

62

65

and the Structure of their Branchial Cavity, by J. Steenstrup 69—72

iv CONTENTS.

Page
NUMBER CIV.

XIV. Memoir on a new Parasitic Crustacean belonging to the
Order Lerneida, forming a new Family. By M. HeEsst............++

XV. Observations on the Development and Position of the Hy-
menoptera, with Notes on the Morphology of Insects. By A. 5.»
PACKARD, Junr., M.D. | dccicdscessciccces svc cousebisseesetuccaynsneian 82

XVI. On some Cetaceans. By HERMANN Burmeister. (P1.JX.) 99

XVII. Notule Lichenologice. No. VIII. By the Rey. W. A.
LereuTon, B.A., F.L.S.—Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens 103

XVIII. On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.

(Third Note.) By M. BALBIANT 2....c.csccscesccscesorecssees Lents Feneapatt@o
XIX. Note on some new Genera of Fossil Birds in the Woodwardian

Museum. By H. SEELEY, Esq. 06... cecieccscescsecuesdcssvcevosss ive suedas 109
XX. On the Fossils of the Carstone Formation. By H. Szr.ey,

Fiat), ssapasssiwasnes werenececesaccccenecaseneucedseveneeecesncoss sve ysiiiaent mE 111

XXI. Description of Calamoichthys, a new Genus of Ganoid Fish
from Old Calabar, Western Africa. By JouN ALEXANDER SMITH,
M.D., F.R.C.P.E.; with Observations on the Internal Strueture,
by R. H. Traquair, M.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy in the Uni-

versity of Edinburgh... -...sscsfeovsscvesnosdavvuvecechaleanvescsteienale wee 112
XXII. On the Amylaceous Globules of the Floridee and Corallinee.
By M. VAN TimGHEM sccsscsceecsceesssqsansccerosesesensesusunenen 117

XXIII. Notices of British Fungi. By the Rev. M. J. Berkeey,
M.A., F.L.S., and C. E. Brooms, Esq., F.L.S. (Plates III., [V., V.) 121

New Book :—Geological Map of England and Wales, by Professor
Ramaay, F.R.S.,, FG.S, sviswssse suis <i veeiidn’ das c'nhds dawn sonsttesianennem pa 129

Proceedings of the Royal Society ............e0e.+. eee weubeseat tat 131

On the Morphology and Affinities of the Brachiopoda, by H. Lacaze-
Duthiers ; On the finding of a second Ribbonfish, by John Hogg,
F.L.S. ; A few words on the Mammoth, in connexion with the
Engravings recently found in Périgord and supposed to represent
this Animal, by H. Brandt; Note on the Discovery of the Dermal
Shield in Megatheroid Animals, by Prof. Reinhardt; On the
Structure of the Anthers in the Aroidee, by M. van Tieghem;
Habits of Zosterops dorsalis, by the Rev. R. Taylor; On the
Organic Bodies contained in Ancient Egyptian Bricks, by Prof.
Unger; Interchange of Birds between America and Europe, by
Mr. 8. F. Baird ; Observations on the Microscopic Shell-Structure
of Spirifer cuspidatus, by F. B. Meek ........seeeseeees eeeeee 1L3S—144

NUMBER CV.

XXIV. Notes on some Species of the Orthopterous Genus Cloéon,
Leach (as limited by M. Pictet). By A. E. Eaton, of Trin. Coll. Camb. 145

XXV. On the Dentition of Thylacoleo carnifer,Ow. By Gerarp
Krerrr. (Plate XI.)

CONTENTS. v

Page
XXVI. On two European Argulide, with Remarks on the Morpho-

logy of the Argulide and their Systematic Position, together with a

Review of the Species of the Family at present known. By T. THorELL 149

XXVIII. Notule Lichenologice. No. IX. By the Rev. W. A.
LersuTon, B.A., F.L.S.—Dr. W. Nylander on two new Chemical

Tests for i a 2 A AT ei a 169
XXVIII. On two new Species of Freshwater Polyzoa. By Mr.

TOWARD PAREITT. (Plate XII.) 2..1....cccccccccrccoccscsccccscesesseces 171
XXIX. On the Classification of Buprestide and Elateride. By

Re MRE TIS ENE FES. bus blisc bec ole cs obid dde daUele's 40 6WOGTC asec oovkbe oe aveue 173
XXX. On the Homologies of the Male and Female Flowers of

Conifers. By ANpDrEw Murray, F.L.S. (Plate X.) ........seeseeeeee 212
XXXI. On Green Oysters. By AnrHuR W. E. O’SHAUGHNEsSY,

of the British Museum .........ssesecsecsoesereeeseeees bdieadeastehsssbdecedabe 221
XXXII. Notes on the Skulls of Sea-Bears and Sea-Lions (Otariade)

in the British Museum. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e. «.......+.- 228
XXXIII. Recent Researches onthe Fossil Fishes of Mount Lebanon.

By MM. F. J. Prover and A. HUMBERT ...-..cceseceeceesceeeeeseeeenees 237

New Books :—A History of British Sessile-eyed Crustacea, by C.

Spence Bate and J. O. Westwood. Part XIII.—A Catalogue

of Phytophaga (Coleoptera, Pseudotetramera), by the Rev.

Hamlet Clark. Part I. With an Appendix, containing Descrip-

tions of new Species, by H. W. Bates and the Rev. Hamlet oar
247—248

Proceedings of the Royal Socicty ...ccc....cscesssectecssceersreseaes 249—255

On a Cranium of Ziphius found at Arcachon (Gironde), by P. Fischer ;
Notes on the Domestic Animals and Plants of the Thirteenth and
Fourteenth Centuries, by James E. Thorold Rogers, M.A., &c. ;

On Postfloration, by D. Clos; Observations on the part played
by the Nucleus in Animal Cells, by M. Balbiani; On the Lateral
Canal of Lota, by Prof. Hyrtl .........cccscccccssceseossseeees 255—264

Z NUMBER CVI.
XXXIV. On the Habits of the Bess By ANDREW Murray,
SAGs pleases ves MMT N vei ian snus ssbiatscayncus \pcboeveeanontnty senteascpepceses 265

XXXV. On two European Argulide, with Remarks on the Morpho-
logy of the Argulide and their Systematic Position, together with a
Review of the Species of the Family at present known. By T. THo-

BE aE Set pF UG a Cancc ie sia stadeviivesisesctucesserscnssecrscvguesescuassuaseuase 268
_ XXXVI. On a new Species of Beech-Marten from Formosa. By
RosBertr Swinuort, H.B.M. Consul at Taiwan............cscseceesceeees : 286
XXXVII. Note on the “ Glass-Rope”’ RRM: ey Dr. J. E.
GRAY, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., F.LS. &0. cecseeceesseeseenereecssteesteeeescaes 287

XXXVIII. On new British Hydroida. By the Rev. THomas
Ra ble Nis uitlsalhcae ch void anne ddvanstnsebls de scepluacetaesiaciiecs senses 296

vi CONTENTS.

Page
XXXIX. On Glyptodon and its Allies. By Dr. Hermann Bur-
MUEISTOR cise cacsisaseaes sklsgVGkS Send ob te dh Asb ee GeoKOR smashed ose ucadcscuneetaaneul 299
XL. Additional Remarks on the Homologies of the Flowers of

Conifers. By ANDREW MURRAY, F.LS.......sscesecsscssscssceceteconces

XLI. Notule Lichenologice. No. X. By the Rev. W.A.Leicu- _
TON, B.A., F.L.S.—L’Abhé E. Coémans on the Cladonie of the Herba-
rit Of Achariuies iiise. svsbdeedsasesss csteadsestdbmdastacunedicees mma “.. 306

XLII. On a new Species of Halmaturus from East Australia. By
FrepDERIcK M‘Coy, Professor of Natural Science in the Melbourne
University and Director of the National Museum of Victoria ......... 322

XLIII. Notes on the Pronghorn Buck (Antilocapra), and its Posi-
tion in the System. By Dr. Joun Epwarp Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S.

BEE, ccssnscosasaennseneneuaanshpbeadinneniles «os nes asnnshbe anh uaguens sin 323
XLIV. On the Classification of Buprestide and Elateride. By
Prof, J; Co SCHIOD DR: is ccscksccnesesececsesadsanesbesessensst ss aaenenaaannn 327

On Scheuchzeria palustris, Linn., by the Rev.W.A. Leighton; On the
Long-eared or Mule Deer of North America (Eucervus), by Dr.
John Edward Gray, F.R.S. &c.; On the Development of the
Myzostoma, by E. Mecznikoff; On the Synonymy and Geogra-
phical Distribution of Jussiea repens (Linn.), by C. Martins ;
Note on a Regular Dimerous Flower of Cypripedium candidum,
by Asa Gray ; Boussingault’s Researches on the Action of Foliage ;
Observations on a Malady of the Cotton-plant called “ Pelagra,”
and on some Fungi which accompany it, by G. Gasparrini; On
Fossil Meduse from the Lithographic Slates of Eichstadt, by
Prof, Paockel: siiisecsssesssiusevedarsssessiassansepiossuieue aaa 338—344

NUMBER CVII.

XLV. Outline of a Theory of the Skull and the Skeleton. By
Harry G. SEevey, F.G.S., of the Woodwardian Museum in the

University of Cambridge | .....ccsscivassesiess ccecdsse yess sueuntnsean pam 345
XLVI. Notes on the Genus Menobranchus and its Natural Affini-
ties: By 5. VAN_DER HOEVEN. «0: cesiasenecseseceorssssensconsaeene 363

XLVII. On some new Species of Fossil Volutes from the Tertiary
Beds near Melbourne. By FrepER1IcK M‘Coy, Professor of Natural
Science in the Melbourne University, Government Paleontologist to
the Geological Survey, 856) 0.5.4 6ssissciacceasive vas iclacevesestebeenanaenene 375

XLVIII. On a Phosphatic Deposit in the Lower Greensand of
Bedfordshire. By J. F. Waker, F.C.S., Sid. Suss. College, Cam-

bridge. (Plate ATID.) svcccasecees<saqessenssesecsduaeneseses coneqanieaenn 3381
XLIX. Report on Dredging among the Hebrides. By J. Gwyn

JEFPREYS, ERS, 4. <cccocstesc oeces cops tadeseccseccnesanceluneaune ae mena 387
L. On Hyalonema mirabilis, in reply to Dr. Gray. By Dr.

BOWERBA NE, sevsccsscdecdacseocssosve $s Apap cehpwansasevpaascahsbcyasyeeneinelall 397

LI. On the Systematic Position of the Pronghorn (Antilocapra

CONTENTS. Vil
Page
americana). By P. L. Scuarer, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Secretary to
the Zoological Society of London...........s.scsssessecsscsscsscevesscesenees 401
LII. On the Existence of Hyalonema in a Fossil State. By Prof.
NN ad eis cers dnuadecuasesseccsnscceaceceucncsrasscessacenacss 404

LHI. Notule Lichenologice. No. XI. By the Rev. W. A.
LeienTon, B.A., F.L.S.—On the Examination and Rearrangement

of the Cladoniei, as tested by Hydrate of Potash ..............0. aeeavead 405
LIV. On Ophiodes, a new Genus of Hydroida. By the Rev.
eeerors. B.A, (Plate XLV.) ...c.csccsvesesccesccscscscevsessens 421

New Book:—Annuario della Societa dei Naturalisti in Modena.
Mee PEDMONR, Margin 1866 ..:...sccccccccsssesscotccsscnecses sees 423

Notes on the Capture of a Rare Fish (Ausonia Cuvieri) at Falmouth,
by Dr. W. K. Bullmore and Jonathan Couch; Additions to the
Zoophytes of Devonshire, by Edward Parfitt; Onthe Use of the
Genus Potamogale, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.;° Note on
West-African Species of Hemirhamphus, by Dr. A. Giinther; On
the Organs of Secretion in the Hemiptera, by J. Kiinckel; Fos-
sil Spider from the Coal-Formation, by Dr. F. Roemer; On the
Course followed by a Fungous Mycelium in the living Trunk of
Acacia dealbata, by G. Gasparrini...........ceecseseseeesseeees 424—428

NUMBER CVIII.

LV. On the Structure and Habits of Anthophysa Miilleri, Bory,
one of the Sedentary Monadiform Protozoa. By H. Jamus-Ciark,
et Ris vcakiasscsnes ‘psecrscussncansscesccsvocaccsbecsaancsescans 429

LVI. Ontwo European Argulide, with Remarks on the Morphology
of the Argulide and their Systematic Position, together with a Review
of the Species of the Family at present known. By T.THORELL ... 436

LVII. A List of Spiders captured in the South-east Region of
Equatorial Africa; with Descriptions of such Species as appear to be

new to Arachnologists. By Joun BLAcCKWALL, F.L.S. ........0..000 451
LVIII. Additional Note on the Antilocapride. By Dr. J. E. Gray,
F.R.S. &e. See eeeteteeeseeteesesesesese SOPH eee Ee ee eee SOS eee eee etesaeeee 468

LIX. On the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia. By Féxrx Puargau 469
LX. Description of a new Siluroid Fish from Ceylon. By Dr.

MR CPUIPTHER. (Plate XV.) .2.cccccccoscccccccssecscsscdsosdscccseces 473
LXI. On an Upper Incisor of Nototherium Mitchellii. By Prof.

Ro OwmEn, F.RS. (Plate XVI.) ....0....cceccsccseee ooesesnsens senedeeds 475
LXII. Notes on Spherion and Mallocera. By Francis P.

Pascokg, F.L.S., F.Z.S., late Pres. Ent. Soc., &. ....--.csseceeccsssseces 477
LXIII. Notes on Dr. Bowerbank’s Paper on Hyalonema. By Dr.

IT ERD. Bie: dbs iiss evan ceucusssccendalaebudiwiateccedsavdessans « 485

LXIV. Venus’s Flower-basket (Euplectella speciosa). By Dr. J.
ec sietateaivesstsiendscovcesaabesetia HL FERE TAS GT See i ep 487

Vili CONTENTS.

Page
New Book :—The Record of Zoological Literature. 1865. Vol. Il, —
Edited by Albert C. L. G. Giinther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.Z.S. &e. 490

Theory of the Skull and the Skeleton, by Herbert Spencer; On the
“Fulcrum” of Calamoichthys, by J. A. Smith; The Patagonian
Finner, by Dr. Burmeister; on the Phocena communis of the
North Sea, by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.; The Stuffed Whale in
the Swedish Museum; Observations on the Reproduction of the
Cecidomyide, by F. Meinert; A Last Remark on the Generic
Name Potamogale, by Dr. A. Giinther ..... ...scceeeeesee vee 494—499

PLATES IN VOL. XVIII.

PuiaTE I. Phenacia pulchella.

Il.

ay ee British Fungi.
V.

VI. Zamenis brachyurus.—Ablabes flaviceps.—Calamaria arcticeps.
VII. Lycophidium Horstockii.—Herpetethiops Bellii—Atractaspis
microlepidota.
VIII. Anatomy and Developmental History of the Rhabdoccela.
IX. Arctocephalus falklandicus.—Beak of Orca magellanica.
X. Homologies of the male and female Flowers of Conifers.
XI. Thylacoleo carnifex (restored).
XII. New Species of Freshwater Polyzoa.
XIII. Sphera Sedgwickii.—Pholas Dallasii.
XIV. Ophiodes mirabilis.
XV. Arius Layardi.
XVI. Upper Incisor of Nototherium Mitchellii.

ERRATA,
Page 230, for Grinders 6/6 read Grinders 8; for O. Geoffroyia read O.
Godeffroyi.
», 235, for Grinders 6/6 read Grinders 8.
», 288, line 14 from bottom, and p. 291 et seq., for Polythoa rea
Palythoa.

», 362, line 12, for diapophysis read diaphysis.

» 421, line 20, for Halecidee read Haleciide.

» 422, line 23, for that traverses read which traverses.

» 423, line 25, for away any invaders read away invaders.

THE ANNALS

AND

‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

' [THIRD SERIES.]

OF cwathesuesactsades per litora spargite muscum,
Naiades, et circdm vitreos considite fontes :
Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :
Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.
At vos, 0 Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas ; .
Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco
Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas
Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”

N. Parthenii Giannettasii Ecl.1.

No. 103. JULY 1866.

I.—Description of a new Species of Marine Worm (Phenacia
pulchella). By Epwarp Parrirv.

aj [Plate I.] :
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

I beg to introduce to your notice a very beautiful new species
of marine worm; it .was cast up at my feet by the waves at
Exmouth, January 6th, during a heavy gale. I forwarded a
rough sketch of it to my friend Dr. Baird, of the British Museum,
who informed me it was new to him, and that he could find no
description of it. In M. de Quatrefages’s “ Classification of the
Annelides,” published in the ‘ Annals’ for January last, p. 22,
he has separated the genus Sabellidis, and raised those species
with simple buccal cirri to the rank of a newgenus, Phenacia ;
and it is to this genus that the present species belongs: it will
therefore stand thus :—

Family XXV. Terebellea. SAH

Genus Puenacra, Quatrefages.
PS
§
Body composed of about forty annulations, the anterior com-

_ pressed and rugose, short, but gradually growing longer
Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 1

Phenacia pulchella, mihi.

2 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Affinities of

towards the posterior end, which is thickened and rugose.
The anterior annulations are armed with two fascicles of
yellow bristles, of about three or four each, placed opposite to
each other: the rest of the rings have about two each ; but the
“numbers vary. Colour pale orange-red, the mouth with a
purple cast. Buccal cirri twenty, ten on each side of the oral
organ, white, beautifully maculated with oblong spots of
orange-red down the centre. Dorsal cirri reflexed, purple,
with a faint reddish tinge.

Length of the worm 2 inches, of the tube 8 inches; diameter at
larger or anterior end 2 lines,

This species constructs a rather flexuose tube made of a thin
horny substance similar to that of the polypidoms of the Sertu-
larias, and coated. with grains of sand and comminuted shells,
with bits of corallines attached.

The worm is able to raise its head considerably above the first
or anterior ring, bearing the dorsal cirri, as shown in the figure
(Plate I.) on the right. Generally speaking, its movements
were slow; but when fully protruded it is a beautiful creature,
the dorsal cirri contrast so strongly with the delicately painted
buccal organs. I kept it alive for several days, and I found
that it seldom protruded itself by day ; but as evening closed in
it would then develope itself to its fullest extent.

I am, Gentlemen,
Yours obediently,

Epwarp Parrirt.
Devon and Exeter Institution,
April 21, 1866.

II.—On the Affinities of Peridinium Cypripedium, Jas-Clk., and
Urocentrum Turbo, Hhr. By Prof. H. Jamus-Cxarg, A.B.,
B.S8., Soc. Am. Acad.

In the ‘Proceedings of the American Academy’ of February
1865 I published a paper on the anatomy and physiology of
Peridinium Cypripedium, mihi. That article, with the accom-
panying plate, was copied into the ‘Annals and Magazine of
Natural History’ for October 1865. In the December Number
of the same ‘Annals’ I find some remarks on my paper by
Mr. H. J. Carter, the principal aim of which is to show that the
animal which I have deseribed is not a Peridinium but a Uro-
centrum. I wish, through the medium of your Magazine, to
give my reasons why I did not formerly, and do not now, believe |
that the identification of that gentleman can be sustained.

Let me state, in the first place, that the whole question hinges
on the identification of the animal as described and figured by

Peridinium Cypripedium and Urocentrum Turbo. 3

Ehrenberg, and in no way is dependent upon the affidavit of
Claparéde and Lachmann. ‘The latter can lay no greater claim
to correctness than Mr. Carter in this respect ; and all are equally
liable to a misapprehension of the nature of the infusorian as
_ described by Ehrenberg. The fact that the authors of the
-* Etudes’ found the animal in question, as they think, in Berlin,
as it were under the very eyes of Ehrenberg, renders the identi-
fication no more certain than the discovery of the same by Mr,
. Carter, as he thinks, far off in England.

I cannot help deprecating the confidence ‘with which Mr,
Carter pronounces upon what he calls my mistake, seeing that
his judgment is based upon a description at second-hand, as [
infer from his quotation of Ehrenberg’s statements from the
‘Micrographic Dictionary.’ The basis for an identification is
meagre enough in the work of the Berlin micrographer; and
how much less satisfactory in the Dictionary of Griffith and
Henfrey, every one knows who has compared the two books,
Messrs. Claparéde and Lachmann frequently find occasion to
deplore the unsatisfactory character of the descriptions and
figures of Ehrenberg; but if they never had cause to complain
before, it must have occurred when they attempted to decipher
the illustrations of Urocentrum on plate 24 of the ‘ Infusions-
thierchen.? For my own part, I felt the same restraint when
originally working up my article; and Mr. Carter must pardon |
me therefore when I say that I cannot see the necessity or
the proper basis for his ea cathedrd, even though he may
swear upon the original work itself. I am, however, far from
attributing to your distinguished authority upon the group of
Protozoa the singular fancy, possessed by some, for deciphering
the obscure two-line descriptions of the old-time species-makers;
still less would I suppose him capable of that remarkable mania
for identifying such zoological vagaries as those of Rafinesque
with this or that animal simply because it came from the same
locality as that named by that singular enthusiast.

Since, however, Mr. Carter has so positively pronounced upon
this matter, I am compelled.to assume the figures and descrip-
tion of Ehrenberg to stand in the place of the animal itself, and
not what others may happen to think it ought to be. Ehren.
berg says, in his generic diagnosis of Urocentrum, “ corpore non
ciliato, fronte ciliis coronata.”” Now in Peridinium Cypripedium
all of the body (excepting the broader end, which is occupied
by the pseudo-cuirass) is covered with cilia, and there is no such
thing as a corona of cilia upon it. The anterior and posterior
transverse annular furrows seem to be bands of vibrating cilia
simply because these cilia are only rather more crowded along
the edges of the furrows than elsewhere, The mouth of Uro-

1*

4 _ Prof, H. James-Clark on the Affinities of

centrum is stated to be at the anterior edge of the ventral face :
“ Fig. 1 von der Seite gesehen, Bauchflache rechts mit dem
Munde am vorderen Rande.” In Peridinium Cypripedium this
aperture is on the ventral side and about halfway between the
two ends of the body—a position which it seems to occnpy im
many of the Peridiniza.

Although I do not use the word spiral in regard to the siting
and cesophagus, it can hardly be said that I “ mention nothing
spiral” about them; for I think that the illustrations tell as |
much as the text ; and any one who will inspect my figures 2 &3
will see that the position of the mouth in the first, and the trend
and curve of the cesophagus in the second, are sufficiently indi-
cative of a spiral arrangement of these parts. The text fully
bears out this assertion, in the following words (p. 397; Annals,
p- 274):—“The mouth lies altogether within the posterior
obliquely transverse furrow (pf), and extends from its anterior
to its posterior edge, trending diagonally across the axial plane
of the body, from the right, backwards, towards the left ;” and
on p. 898 (Annals p. 275), “ From the mouth the cesophagus (@)
passes obliquely backwards and towards the dorsal region, at
least halfway through the body, and then terminates rather
abruptly just before the contractile vesicle, but a little to the
right side (fig. 8@) of the axial plane.” Lest, however, there
should be any further doubt in regard to my views upon this
point, I will state now that the arrangement of the mouth and
cesophagus is decidedly spiral, and unequivocally stamps this
animal as a member of the leotropic division of Infusoria
Ciliata.

As to the systematic position of this Peridinium, its leotropic
character at once removes it out of the division to which the
Vorticellina belong; but yet when we see that one of the latter
family, viz. Trichodina Pediculus, Khr., has its contractile vesicle
on the left side of the body, instead of on the right—thus par-
tially reversing the relationship of the organs as exhibited in
the other members of that group (see my paper in the Mem.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. i. 1866), and that it totally lacks
the protrusile vibratory disk, so eminently characteristic of the
Vorticellidee—and when, again, we call to mind the ciliated body
of another Vorticellidan, viz. Claparéde’s Trichodinopsis, the
way appears clear for the close approximation to the Vorticellina
of the totally ciliated Tintinnoidea with their terminal, depressed,
cyathiform front, bordered by the crown of cilia, which termi-
nates, according to Claparéde, by passing into the excentrie
mouth: and then, as a succeeding step, it does not seem at all
improbable that the Peridiniza, judging from the characters of
P. Cypripedium, should have a not very remote affiliation with’

Peridinium Cypripedium and Urocentrum Turbo. 5

the same group that the Tintinnoidea border upon. The appa-
rently low organization of some of the Peridinizea does not inva-
lidate their approximation, through the higher forms, to the
_ Tintinnoidea, any more than the inferior organization of the
Cyclopide depresses the whole class of Crustacea below the level
of the group of worms.

In this connexion I would mention that I do not believe that
the so-called Cilio-Flagellata are distinct, as an order, from the
Flagellata. I will not deny that the former, as well as the
latter, have more intimate relations among themselves than exists
between the two groups; but at the same time there are some
{as, for instance, Prorocentrum) among the Cilio-Flagellata which
hold their position there by a quite doubtful tenure—the few cilia
at the anterior end indicating merely a preponderance in favour
of their affiliation with that group, rather than a positive claim to
be so united. The lorica gives to Prorocentrum the habit of a
Peridinian, and may add a little to the strength of the argument
which the cilia afford; but, on the other hand, there is a new
genus of Infusoria which I have described in a recent work*
under the name of Heteromastix (H. proteiformis), which pos-
sesses all the habits, actions, mode of progression, and general
appearance of a true flagellate infusorian, very much like a
Hleteromita, Duj., and is endowed with two anteriorly subter-
minal flagella—the one acting as a proboscis or tentacular organ,
and the other as a trailer or moveable keel; but at the same
time the ventral anterior half of the body is hollowed out by
a broad median furrow, which is thickly lined with locomotive
cilia—thus presenting a peculiarity not heretofore deemed ad-
missible as a characteristic of Flagellata, but, on the contrary,
as appertaining alone to the Cilio-Flagellata. .

I would remark here, moreover, that in view of the fact that
Peridinium Cypripedium possesses, beside the median transverse
suleation, an anterior annular furrow, and immediately in front
of it a low skullcap-like covering, or pseudo-cuirass (both of
which Mr. Carter appears to have been inattentive to in perusing
my article), it seems possible that this infusorian may turn out
to be generically different from any other Peridinian described
hitherto, This looks so highly probable that I will propose the
name Peridinopsis for it.

Since my commentator has gone so far as to doubt even the
specific diversity of these two infusorians, I would add, in regard
to the species Urocentrum Turbo, that Ehrenberg describes and

* ©Mind in Nature,’ by H. James-Clark, pp. 330, with over two hun-
dred illustrations. New York, 1866.

6 On Peridinium Cypripedium and Urocentium Turbo,

figures it as having an ovate three-cornered body, ‘ corpore ovato
triquetro,” and states that the stylus or tail equals one-third the
length of the body, “stilo tertiam corporis partem zquante ;”
whereas the American Peridinium has an “ oblique pyriform
outline,” and the so-called flagellum is at least half as long as as
the body.

Between the statements of Ehrenberg and Claparéde there is
such a marked discrepancy that I am pretty well convinced that
the testimony of the latter cannot by any means be used as an
adjunct to the description of the former; for whilst Ehrenberg
speaks of the “corpore non ciliato, fronte ciliis coronata,”
Claparéde states (p. 76), in the first place, that there are no
other organs than the buccal cirri, but that (p. 185) “it is the
‘inferior part of the [transverse median] furrow that carries the
buccal cirri ;” and secondly, that “ the mouth is not placed where
Ehrenberg figures it [7 e. at the anterior edge of the ventral
plane], but is lodged in the transverse median furrow which
that author represents.”

Supposing, now, the animal of Ehrenberg to be the same as
that of Claparéde, and the one described by me likewise identical
with the former, then we must believe that Claparéde has com-
mitted a great oversight in not seeing the most prominent and
conspicuous cilia, in the region of the anterior annular furrow,
as described by me, and which, in this assumed case, are in a
corresponding position with the vibrating cilia-crown about the
anterior, flat, frontal plane (“um die vordere flache Stirnflache
einem wirbelnden Wimperkranz”) which Ehreriberg describes.
‘It hardly seems possible that Claparéde should have detected
‘the smaller cilia in the median transverse furrow and overlooked
the larger and more conspicuous ones, whilst Ehrenberg, with
his far less powerful lenses, appeared to find no difficulty in
making out the latter. It seems therefore much more plausible
that the Urocentrum of Ehrenberg is not the same as that of
Claparéde, and certainly more likely that the latter should have
failed to appreciate the value of the observations of the former
upon the anterior cilia-crown than that he should have over-
looked it were it really present.

I scarcely need add, therefore, that I am at least equally con-
fident, if not fully satisfied, that Peridinium Cypripedium is not
the same as the Urocentrum of Claparéde.

Cambridge, Mass., May 12, 1866. »

7

~ IIL.—On the Vascular and Nervous Apparatus of the Larve of
the Marine Crustacea. By M. Z. Gurze*.

Vascular Apparatus.—The larve of the Crustacea, whatever
form they may present, are at first completely destitute of
branchiz ; or if they possess them, these organs are quite rudi-
mentary, and do not yet fulfil any function. Respiration, in
this state, is performed by the whole of the general envelope.
Even in the Lobsters, which are hatched with tolerably large
branchie, the primitive respiration is absolutely tegumentary ;
for these appendages are impermeable to the blood until the
third moult ; and when they begin to perform their functions, the
number of blood-globules which they admit is excessively small
relatively to the mass of those which flow to the heart without
traversing them. From this modification of the respiratory act
there results a circulation of the greatest simplicity—the blood
which the arteries have distributed in all parts of the body
returns directly to the heart without passing through any special
apparatus.

The heart, of all the. organs exhibited by the Crustacea at
their birth, is that of which the general form undergoes the
least amount of subsequent change. In the larve it differs very
little from what it is in the adult Crustacea; and it invariably
occupies in the larve its definitive position, under the superior
wall of the cephalothorax and above the pyloric portion of the
intestine. In the Zoée (larve of Brachyurous Decapods) it is
found immediately at the base of the temporary spine which
rises from the middle of the thorax.

‘With the exception of the larva of the Nymphon of our
coastst, in which | have never yet succeeded in seeing the heart
distinctly, all the Crustacea of which I have been able to study
the metamorphoses{ have the central organ of the circulation
composed, at all ages, of two very distinct parts—one enveloped,
the other enveloping, and bound together only by a few mus-
cular bands, the action of which is manifested during diastole.

The enveloped portion evidently corresponds with the arterial
heart of the higher animals. It consists of a sort of contractile

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’
April 23, 1866, pp. 932-937.

+ The larva of this Nymphon is exceedingly curious, both in its external
form and in its internal organization, and it differs from the adults as
much as the Phyllosomes from the Palinuri, or the Zoée from the various
Crabs to which they belong. The body is not at all articulated; and the
true legs, which are only two in number, have only two joints and a ter-
minal claw. I propose, however, to make them the subject of a special
notice,

t See ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 26th December, 1864.

8 M. Z. Gerbe on the Vascular and Nervous Apparatus

sac, varying in form according to the species, with internal mus-
cular columns and delicate transparent walls, formed of longi-
tudinal and annular muscular fibres intercrossed in various
directions ; it presents on each side a single semilunar fissure,
to which a valve of the same form is adapted internally. From
this contractile sac issue all the arteries which perform the dis-
tribution of the blood.
_ The second sac, which is much larger and has its walls
thinner and less muscular, completely envelopes the arterial
heaxt, and communicates by two or three oblong apertures with
the same number of large venous lacune, which convey the
blood tothe heart. This enveloping portion of the central cireu-
latory organ has been assimilated to the pericardium of the red-
blooded animals. In this assimilation there is an appearance of
truth, if we consider only the form; but it is far from being
exact if we take into account the function, which is very different
in importance from the form. The pericardium in the Verte-
brata is an organ closed everywhere, without any communica-
tion either with the cavities of the heart or with the vessels
which run to it; here, on the contrary, the sac which has been
assimilated to the pericardium directly receives all the blood
into its cavity and transfers it to the ventricle. It is inter-
mediate between the venous lacune and the arterial heart, and
fulfils exactly the part which, under another form, the auricle,
in fishes for example, performs with relation to the vene cave
and the ventricle. By its functions, therefore, this second
cavity would be the analogue of the auricular portion of the
heart in Vertebrata.
Five arterial branches issue from the anterior extremity or
half of the central contractile sac; only one springs from its
posterior extremity. Of the five anterior arteries, one (the .
ophthalmic artery) follows the median line, passes directly to
the brain, and is distributed in the ocular peduncles. In those
species in which the rostrum in the young state acquires the
form of a long spine, the ophthalmic artery is produced to the
extremity of this appendage, after having furnished a. branch
to each eye. This arterial branch, which is one of the largest,
is furnished at its issue from the heart with a double valve, or
rather with two opposite flaps, separated at the base, in contact
at the apex, which alternately open and close to let pass the
globules of the blood and prevent their flowing back into the
heart. The action of these flaps, which is completely inde-
pendent of the contractions of the central organ, is sometimes
slow, sometimes rapid; frequently it is even suddenly and
momentarily suspended. Two other branches, one on each
side, originating a little behind the preceding, also run forward,

of the Larve of the Marine Crustacea. 9

following an cblique line, which removes them from the median
or ophthalmic artery, emit, in passing, a branch to the rudi-
mentary ceca which represent the liver, and distribute them-
_ selves at the base of the outer antenne. Lastly, the two re-
maining arteries, at their issue from the arterial heart, are imme-
diately reflexed downwards and lost beneath the liver and upon
the sides of the stomach. ‘These four arteries have their base
furnished with a simple valve.

The artery which springs from the posterior extremity is
generally as voluminous as the anterior median artery. lithe
Phyllosomes it follows the dorsal line of the intestine for some
distance, and then, on arriving at the level of the nervous
ganglia of the third pair of true feet, it bends, passes on the left
side of the intestinal tube, and divides into two trunks. One
of these, which is very large, traverses the ganglionic chain,
ascends as far as the mouth, and gives off to the right and left a
branch to each of the ambulatory limbs and buccal appendages :
it represents the sternal artery. The other, which is very slender,
descends to the last abdominal segments, following the course of
the intestine, and emits, in its course, a branch to the rudi-
mentary buds which represent the fourth and fifth pairs of true
legs. ;

In the Zoéa-form larve, in those of the Porcellane, Crangons,
Lobsters, &c., the posterior artery, instead of dividing only
after passing a certain distance, bifurcates at its issue from the
heart. One of its branches runs directly down to form the
sternal artery, after having traversed the thoracic ganglionic
mass at the same point as in the Phyllosomes; the other
branch follows the intestine to its extremity, remaining of a
considerable size throughout. This branch, which answers to
the superior abdominal aorta of the adult Crustacea, presents, in
the young Lobsters, a very remarkable peculiarity : on its course,
at a distance from the heart and a little above the constriction
which separates the intestine into the duodenum and rectum, it
has a sort of sphincter or circular valve, which contracts abso-
lutely in the same manner as the pupil of the eye of the cat.
Its contractions, which occur at indeterminate periods, progres-
sively and slowly, have the effect of obliterating, entirely or
partially, the calibre of the artery, so as to suspend, for some
seconds, the circulation in the postabdomen, or to moderate
the flow of blood towards that region. This fact is so excep-
tional that I cannot but call the attention of physiologists
to it. :

All the arteries, whatever be their size, have their extremities
bevelled, and terminate suddenly in a venous lacuna by an oval
opening, usually a little dilated into a trumpet-shape.

10 M. Z. Gerbe on the Vascular and Nervous Apparatus

The venous circulation in the larve, as in the perfect animals,
is rather lacunar than vascular. The blood which the arteries
have distributed to all parts of the body, returns indeed by
constant and determinate courses; but these courses consist of
a succession of cavities which the organs leave between them,
cavities in which it is difficult to ascertain the existence of
proper walls or of regular forms. Thus this mode of circulation
baffles description. All that can be said in a general way is,
that three principal perfectly limited currents, two anterior
and*lateral and one posterior and median, open into the —
heart. The two former, in the Phyllosomes, are caused by the
fluids which circulate in the cephalic buckler alone; the third
is formed by those which arrive from the true feet, the thorax,
and the abdomen. In the larvae of the other Macrurous Deca-
pods and in those of Brachyura, on the contrary, the fluids dis-
tributed to the head and thorax combine to form the lateral
currents, whilst the posterior current is produced solely by the
blood returning from the abdomen.

The elements of the blood in the first age of the Crustacea
consist of a perfectly colourless liquid, and small, isolated, dia-
phanous corpuscles, some oblong or square, others angular or
virguliform, with the outlines very distinct, but always very
irregular, even when these kinds of globules affect a more or less
rounded form.

Nervous Apparatus.—The nervous system of the larvee of the
Crustacea is composed, like that of the perfect individuals, of a
double series of ganglia or medullary masses, in which the
nerves of all parts of the body terminate. United to each other
by longitudinal cords, these ganglia, which are the more volu-
minous in proportion as the organs of the life of relation to
which they correspond are more developed, form a continuous
system upon the median line, extending from the base of the
ocular peduncles to the last joint of the abdomen. Neverthe-
less, taking into consideration the regions occupied by it, the
eentral nervous apparatus may be divided into a cephalic,
thoracic, and abdominal portion.

The cephalic portion, or brain properly so called, is composed,
both in the Phyllosomes and in the Zoé@ and other larve of
Macrurous and Brachyurous Decapods, of a single ganglionic
mass, situated between the bases of the rudimentary antenne
and symmetrically divided into three unequal pairs of lobes,
each of which furnishes a sensorial nerve. From the two
anterior lobes spring the optic nerves, which pass directly into
the ocular peduncles; from the two middle ones arise the inner
antennary nerves, and from the two posterior the nerves which
are distributed im the outer antennze and to the auditory organ

of the Larve of the Marine Ciustacea. ll

situated at their base. ach of these lobes likewise furnishes a
pair of nerves running to the muscles and the integuments.

Two cords issuing “from the posterior lobe of the brain and
united by an ante-cesophageal commissure, place this organ in
communication with the thoracic portion of the central nervous
system. These two cords, which are exceedingly short in the
larvee of the Prawns, Porcellane, Maia, Portuni, &c., and rather
more extended and thickened in the Lobsters, are excessively
long and slender in the Phyllosomes, in which they also prema
a second commissure behind the brain.

But it is especially in the arrangement of the ganglia of the
thorax that the larve of the Palinuri are distinguished from
those of other Decapods that I have béen able to observe. In
the latter, the thoracic nervous system, represented by the five
pairs of ganglia related to the buccal appendages, and by the
five pairs corresponding with the ambulatory feet, forms a
single oblong mass, pierced at the level of the third and fourth
pairs of true feet for the passage of the sternal artery—a mass
in which the ganglia are so intimately connected that some-
times, as for example in the Porcellane, scarcely perceptible
furrows mark their separation. Each of these ganglia furnishes
two pairs of nerves: one issues directly from the central medul-
lary nucleus, the other appeared to me to be intimately con-
nected with the nervous portion which forms the commissures.
Their origin would therefore be different.

In the Phyllosomes the thoracic nervous system certainly
forms a double chain as in the other species, but the ganglia,
instead of being grouped in such a manner as to form a body,
are, on the contrary, very distant from each other, their only
communications being formed by rather long longitudinal and
transverse commissures. Moreover the volume of these ganglia
is excessively unequal, being in relation to the development of
those organs to which each of them corresponds. ‘The masti-
eatory appendages, the first pair of footjaws, and the true feet
of the fourth and fifth pairs being rudimentary or incomplete in
the Phyllosomes, the ganglia devoted to these parts likewise
present themselves in a rudimentary state.

The concordance which I have just indicated is still more
manifest in the portion of the nervous apparatus which belongs
to the abdominal region. This region, where everything in the
Phyllosomes is in the condition of a mere sketch (the segments
of which it is composed, as well as the false legs of which
the successive moults cause the appearance), instead of six
pairs of ganglia which may be detected in it in individuals
furnished with their abdominal appendages, presents nothing
but the prolongations of the two nervous cords or longitudinal

12 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

commissures, upon which very slight swellings, representing
the future ganglia, may barely be perceived.

In the larvae of the Lobster, on the contrary, and in those of
the Zoéa-form in which the abdomen is well developed, we see
the double ganglionic chain from the very first, formed, as it
will be subsequently, of six pairs of ganglia, already of consi-
derable size, and bound together by the longitudinal commis-
sure. Here, as in the thoracic portion of the central system, two
pairs of nerves issue from each of the ganglia and from the
cords by which they are connected,

IV.—On the Menispermacee.
By Joun Miers, F.R.S., F.L.S. &e,

[Continued from vol. xvii. p. 270.]
29. STEPHANIA.

This genus, proposed by Loureiro in 1793 for two plants of
Chinese origin, was for a long time wholly neglected; at length
it was acknowledged by botanists, and so far extended by some
as to embrace Blume’s genus Clypea; others, on the contrary,
under vague notions of its real characters, gave the preference
to Clypea, and included in it all the species of Stephania. The
authors of the ‘Flora Indica’ and of the ‘Genera Plantarum’
have united the two genera, on the authority of Prof. A. Gray,
who placed little dependence on the constancy of their relative
distinctions as I had defined them: his doubts arose from the
examination of a plant considered by him to be identical with
Cocculus Forsteri, DC., which had been referred to Stephania ;
it appeared to him that its floral parts were sometimes 3-merous,
at other times 4-merous, in the same specimen—an inference
upon which I offered some remarks in speaking of Clypea (vol. xvii,
p- 268). In all the instances examined by me, which are ex-
tremely numerous, I have found, without exception, that the
floral parts in the two genera are constantly different in number,
Stephania in its g flower has six sepals in two series, three
smaller petals, and a 6-celled anther; while Clypea, as I have
shown, has eight sepals in two series, four petals, and an 8-_
celled anther. In Stephania the 9 flower has three sepals, three
petals, and a putamen with a remarkable perforation in the
middle of its disciform condyle; while C/ypea has four sepals,
two petals, and a putamen with an imperforated condyle, as in
Tleocarpus and Cissampelos. Many good characters also separate
this genus from Homocnemia and Ileocarpus : although the latter
has a similar number of sepals and petals, the imperforation of
its condyle renders it distinct; the former has four sepals and

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez. 13

four petals in the ? flower, its fruit being unknown. Ignoring
these well-marked distinctions, the authors of the ‘Genera
Plantarum’ amalgamate Clypea, Ileocarpus, and Homocnemia
with Stephania, and in the four genera thus confounded together
they recognize only three species, whereas I have here enume-
rated, under well-defined characters, twenty-six species of Ste-
phania, nine of Clypea, one of Ileocarpus, and one of Homocnemia,
making in all thirty-seven species. Much perplexity has arisen
from the incomplete characters of the several species hitherto
described by botanists, so that it has been difficult to reduce
into consistent order many of the plants that have been referred
to them; and, to add to this confusion, most of the specimens
now existing in herbaria appear to havé been named at hazard :
no one seems to have taken the trouble to examine the structure
of the flowers, in which, notwithstanding their minute size,

ood characters are found, corroborative of other features
obtainable from the differences that exist in the leaves, petioles,
and inflorescence.

The species are found chiefly on the Indian continent and the
islands of its great archipelago, their range extending eastward
as far as China, Japan, and Australia, and westward to the limit
of Africa: the genus is therefore quite foreign to the continent
of America. It may be here observed that the hairs of the
pubescence, whenever found in this genus, are short and articu-
lated, as they are likewise in Clypea.

Srepuani, Lour. ;—Clypea, W. & A. (non Bl.) ;—Cissampelos
(in parte) auctorum;—Flores dioici. Mase. Sepala 6, spa-
thulato-oblonga vel linearia, biseriata, quorum 3 interiora
latiora, membranacea, estivatione imbricata. Petala 3, sepalis
exterioribus opposita, cuneato-rotunda vel ovata, breviora,
» carnosula. Stamen unicum, centrale; filamentum teres, se-
palis zquilongum vel brevius; anthera annularis, 6-locellata,
ad marginem connectivi peltatim affixa, rima horizontali dehis-
cens.— Fem. Sepala 3, cuneato-oblonga. Petala 3, sub-
rotunda, subcuneata, carnosula. Stamina nulla. Ovarium
ovatum, gibbum, glabrum, 1-loculare, ovwlo solitario parieti
_ appenso. Stylus subnullus. Stigma subsessile, excentricum,
inzequaliter 3—6-laciniatum ; laciniis acutis, subreflexis. Drupa
- carnosa, glabra; putamen osseum, obovatum, valde compressum,
l-loculare, loculo peripherico et hippocrepiformi circa con-
dylum voluto, utrinque seriebus 2 concentricis tuberculorum
liris seepe connexis extus armato ; condylus excentralis, lamini-
formis, discoideus, utrinqgue subconcavus, medio foramine
distincto perforatus. Semen hippocrepiforme, dorso convexum,
ventre subplanum; inteyumentum tenuiter membranaceum,

14 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez,

linea longitudinali ad condylum affixum ; embryo in albumini
simplici carnoso, hippocrepiformis, tenuiter elongatus, teres,
cotyledonibus semiteretibus, incumbentibus, radicule supere
tereti ad stigma spectanti sequilongis et sequilatis.

Frutices scandentes, in Asia intertropica, in insults adjacentibus,
necnon in Australia et Africa crescentes; radix sepe tu-
berosus ; caulis ramosus; folia alterna, profunde peltata, sub-
orbicularia, deltoideo-ovata vel oblonga, integra vel sinuato-
angulata, imo rotundata, truncata vel cordato-sinuata, palmati-
nervia, sepius glabra: panicula in utroque sexu supra-avillaris,
sepe longissime pedunculata, umbellatim ramosa; umbellis
iterumque umbellulatis, multifloris ; flores minuti, in capitulas
dense aggregati, vel laxe corymbulosi.

The following species will be fully described in the third
volume of my ‘Contributions to Botany :’—

1. Stephania longa, Lour. Coch. ii. 747 ;—Coceulus Roshan
anus, Wall. in parte (non DC.) ;—v. s. in hb. Mus. Brit.
a; Chinn (Staunton) ; in hort. hot. Cale, culta (Roxburgh) ;
in hb. Soc. Linn. hort. Cale. cult. (Wall. Cat. 4972, non
A,B, c); in hb. Hook., Khasya (Hook. & Th.).
Japonica, nob. ;—Cocculus Japonicus, DC. Syst. i. 516;
Prodr. i. 96 ;—Menispermum Japonicum, Thunb. Jap. 195;
Lam. Diet. iv. 96 ;—Clypea venosa, Bl. Bijdr. 27 ;—Stepha-
nia venosa, Walp. Rep. 1. 96 ;—v.s. in hb. variis, ¢ & 2,
ins. Philipp. (Cuming, 1160) ; in hb. Hook. Kurg, ¢
(Hook. & Th.); ¢, Concan (Law); 2, Concan (Gibson) ;
pen. Ind. ¢& 9 (Wight, 953).
glaucescens, Walp. Rep. i. 96 ;—Clypea glaucescens,
Dene. Nouv. Ann. Mus. iii. 423, t. 18;—Cocculus Japonicus,
var. Timoriensis, DC. Prodr. i. 96 ;—v. s. in hb. Lindl. g,
Timor (Dene). ’
rotunda, Lour. (nen H. & T.) Coch. u. 747; Hook. &
Th. in parte, Fl. Ind. i. 197 ;—v. s. in hb. Mus. Brit. 3;
China (Loureiro) ; in hb. Hook. 3, Kumaon (Thomson,
1227
pare Eon nob. ;—Stephania rotunda, H. & T. in
parte, lc. 197;— Cocculus Roxburghianus, DC. Syst. i.
516; Prodr. 1. (non Willd.) ;—Cissampelos hexandra, Rowd.
Fi. Ind. iii. 841 ;—Cissampelos Pata, Buch. (non Roxb.) ;—
Cissampelos Finlaysonianus, Wall. (in parte) ;—v. s. in hb,
Soc. Linn. 9, Madras (Wall. Cat. 4977 p), @ & 2, Siam
(ibid. 4974.4); 4, Moulmein (ibid. 4977 8); 9 (ibid.
1291); in hb. Mus. Brit. ¢, India (Buchanan) ; in hb.
Hook., Bengal (Hook. & Th.), Bunsal (Thwaites).
glabra, nob. ;—S. rotunda, Hook. & Th. (i parte)

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Mr. J, Miers on the Menispermacez. 15

l, c. 198 ;—Cissampelos glabra, Roxb. Fl. Ind, iii. 840 ;—
Clypea Wightii, Arn. in Wight. Ill. p. 456 ;—Cocculus
Roxburghianus, Wall, Cat. (non DC.) ;—Cocculus Finlay-
sonianus, Wail. (in parte) ;—v. s.in hb. Soc. Linn. ¢, Nepal
(Wall. Cat. 4972 8); 9, Molung (ibid. 4972 4,5; ib.
4974 8), Sylhet (ib. 4972 c); in hb. Hook., Courtallam
(Wight, 2462), Assam (Masters), Vavao (Kay); 4, Moul-
mein (Parish), Bhootan, Kumaon (Griffiths, 1731); 9,
Himalaya (Griffiths); g, Kumaon (Strachey); 9, Khasya
(Hook. & Th.).

7. Stephania gracilenta, nob. ;—yv.s. in hb. Soc, Linn. 3, Segain, ©
Prome (Wall. Cat. 4977 A); 9, Nepal (Wallich) ; in hb.
Hook. ¢, Rangoon (M'Clelland) ; fd, Martaban (Scott) ;
in hb. Mus. Brit. et alior. g, Nepal (Wallich).

glandulifera, nob. ;—Steph. rotunda, Hook. & Th. (non

Lour.) l.e a 197 ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢, Khasya (Hook.

& Th.) ; ; Sikhin, Khasya (Hook. & Th.), ;

SD adicutete nob. ;—v. s. in hb. meo et Hook. 9,

Nielgherries (Gardner).

intertexta, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. Hook. ¢ & 2, Ceylon

(Walker), ibid. (Gardner, 32), Kandy (Thwaites, 2757).

hernandifolia, Walp. Rep.i.96; Hook. & Th. (in parte)

Fl. Ind.i. 196 ;—Clypea hernandifolia, Wight. Icon. tab.939;

—yvy. s. in hb. Soc. Linn. g, Nepal (Wall. Cat. 4977 x),

Sylhet (ib. 4977 r) ; ¢, Segain(Wallich), Goyalpoor, ¢ & 9

(Wall. Cat. 4977 a, a, 4977 B, b) ; in hb. Mus. Brit., Assam

(Griffiths, 572); in hb. Hook. ¢ & 9, Assam (Griffiths,

356, 357), Mergui (Griffiths, 823), Concan (Javin).

discolor, Walp. Rep. i. 96 ;—Clypea discolor, Bl. Bid,

26 ;—-v.s. in hb. plurim. ¢, Java (Zollinger, 462) ; in hb,

Mus. Brit. ° , Java (Horsfield, 472); m hb. Hook. ¢& 9,

Java (Spanaghoe).

latifolia, nob.;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢, Mucklow,

Khasya (Hook. & Th. \,

Gaudichaudii, A. aig Bot. Wilkes Exped. i. 387 ;—

v. s. in hb. DC. g, Port Jackson (Gaudichaud, 34).

obvia, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook., Java (Horsfield, 684),

concinna, nob. j—v. s. in hb. Mus, Brit. et Hook. ¢& 92,

Java (Horsfield).

hypoglauca, nob. ;—v. s. in hb, Soe. Linn., Nielgherry,

@ (Wall. Cat. 4982 a, a, non a, 6) (Noton).

elegans, Hook. & Th. Fl. Ind. i. 195 ;—v. s. in hb.

Mus. Brit. et Soc. Linn. 2? , Nepal (Wallich) ; ; in hb, Hook,

3 & 9, Khasya et Sikhim (Hook. & Th.); g, Darjeeling

et Khasya (Griffiths, 581); @, Assam (Jenkins); ¢& 9,

Gurwhal (Falconer, 89); 9, Mucklow (Hook. & Th.).

8.

9.
10.

ll.

12.

13.

14,

15.
16.

17.
18.

16 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

19. Stephania exigua, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. variis, ¢, ins. Philipp.
(Cuming, 1533). i

20. Australis, nob., in Ann. Nat. Hist. vii. 40; A. Gray
in Bot. Wilkes Exp. p. 38 ;—Stephania hernandiifolia,
Hook. & Th. (in parte) l. c. p. 196 ;—Stephania Hookeri,
F. Mueller, MS. ;—v. s. in hb. Heward, 92, Sydney (A.
Cunningham); in hb. Hook. ¢, Hastings River (Burke);
2, Burnett River (Mueller), Brisbane River.

21. pallidula, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. Hook., Australia, Fitzroy
Range (Mueller).

* 22: prelata, nob.;—v. s. in hb. Lindley ¢ & 9, Africa
austr. (Cooper, 904).

23. levigata, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. g, Fernando Po
(Mann, 629).

fastosa, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢, Camaroon Mt.
(Mann, 2169).

25. bullulata, nob. ;—v.s.in hb. Hook. ¢', Camaroon Mt.

(Mann, 1342).

ramuliflora, nob.;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢, Borne

(Motley, 1103).

24,

26.

30. CLAMBUS.

This genus was founded by me, more than twelve years ago,
upon a Mexican plant, collected by Ruiz and Pavon, its general
characters being sketched, two’ years since, in my synopsis (huj.
op. xiii. p. 123). It belongs to the Cissampelidee, and differs
from Cissampelos in its very different habit, its imflorescence,
and the presence of six sepals and six scale-like petals in the
male flower: in this latter respect it approaches Pericampylus
and Pselium; but its anthers are combined in a peltate disk
supported on a slender filament, as in Cissampelos. It offers
some analogy towards Stephania; it has the same number of
sepals, but double the number of petals, a different kind of
inflorescence, and a dissimilar habit. The female plant is un-
known. The genus differs from all others of the Cissampelidee
in its leaves not being peltate, and therefore not palmatinerved,
the nerves being all imparipinnate as we find them m Pyenar-
rhena, Penianthus, and some species of Hypserpa: the leaves are
supported upon very short petioles, and are ovate or elliptic,
with about eight pairs of alternately diverging nerves; they are
very reticulated above, glabrous on both sides, but opakely white’
beneath: this cretaceous appearance, when viewed under a lens,
is found to consist of a prominent network of white and ex-
tremely minute crossing fibres, like a spider’s web, which fills
the areoles of the ordinary venous reticulations. The inflores-
cence is axillary, upon an elongated, very slender rachis longer

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 17

than the leaf; its alternate branches, bracteolated at hase, are
_ dichotomously divided, the branches bearing many alternate
pedicels, bracteolated at base, and spicately arranged.

Cramevs, nob. ;—Fiores dioici. Mase. Sepala 6, biseriata, sub-
- wqualia, alternatim paululo angustiora, oblonga, petaloidea,
nervo longitudinali signata, patentia, sstivatione imbricata,
Petala 6, subbiseriata, equalia, sepalis dimidio breviora,

_ lineari-oblonga, apice emarginata, crasso-carnosa. Stamen
unicum, centrale; fi/lamentum tenue, sepalis paulo brevius ;
anthera peltata, 3-locularis, annuliformis, cirea connectivum
peltiforme affixa, loculis emarginatis, transversim bilocellatis,
extus horizontaliter 2-valvatim dehiscentibus.—FV. fam. et

ructus ignoti.

Frutex Mezicanus, forsan volubilis, glaberrimis ;. folia alterna,
palaia, late ovata vel elliptica, nitida, subtus incana, pinnato-
nervosa, breviter petiolata: panicula ¢ avillaris, glaberrima,
gracilis, folio longior, bracteolata, mox ramosa, ramis longius-
culis, ramulis spicatim plurifloris; flores minuli, brevissime
pedicellati.

‘The single species, Clambus araneosus, will be described in the
third volume of the ‘ Contributions to Botany.’

81. CycLra.

This genus, established by Dr. Arnott, was confounded with
Clypea and Stephania, until I first pointed out the lines of de-
marcation between them. It is easily distinguished from them
by its habit, another kind of inflorescence, by having a gamo-
sepalous calyx, a turbinately campanular corolla, both of them
often toothed or cut into deeply laciniated segments, and by
having a very different putamen. The authors of the ‘Flora
Indica,’ in acknowledging the validity of Cyclea, rightly united
my genus Rhaptomeris with it: in the former the calyx and co-
rolla are tubular, with a four- or five-toothed border; in the
latter the segments are deeper; so that the difference is only one
of degree, and is consequently of specific rather than of generic
value. A casual observer may be misled in regard to the num-
ber of floral parts in the female flower ; for in examining a capi-
tate head of flowers, a number of persistent scales, varying from
four to twelve, may be seen sometimes surrounding an ovary ;
but these extra scales really belong to other abortive flowers
congregated on the same receptacle. The learned botanists, in
their work above mentioned (p. 200), describe the female flower
of Cyclea as having two sepals laterally placed about a solitary
ovary, without any petal; but this does not correspond with my

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xviii.

18 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaceee.

observations; in the very numerous flowers I have examined I
have never yet found a sepal unaccompanied by a petal, which is
of nearly equal size, seated upon its claw, the former being always
recognizable by its external pubescence, while the Jatter is inva-
riably more fleshy and perfectly glabrous. This fact is reduced to
a certainty in C. peltata, where the inflorescence is more spread,
each flower being supported by a pedicel of equal length, brac-
teated at its base; we there find constantly a single sepal, with
its corresponding petal; both placed on that side of the ovary
which regards the axis of inflorescence. In C. Arnottii and
in C. versicolor, where the ultimate ramifications of the racemes
are extremely abbreviated, and on which two or more sessile
flowers are closely aggregated, they are sometimes constituted
as in the case last mentioned, but very often we see as many as
three or four sepals with their corresponding petals around a
single persistent ovary, where the other corresponding ovaries
have disappeared: in such case there can be no doubt that this
increased number of floral parts is due entirely to the decadence
or abortion of the ovaries, which often fall out of a head of
flowers while under examination. We may therefore consider
that normally each female flower of Cyclea consists of one sepal,
one petal, and one ovary, as in Cissampelos, with this difference,
that in the former the sepal and petal are antical, while in the
latter they are postical. The putamen of Cyc/ea is smaller than
that of Stephania, and more globular; its condyle is not disci-
form, but is expanded into a large hollow chamber, convex ex-
teriorly on both sides, around which the somewhat hippocrepical
cell is circumscribed; the embryo is like that of Cissampelos,
with its cotyledons somewhat shorter.

CycrzA, Arnott.—Flores dioici. Mase. Calyx gamosepalus,
tubulosus ; tubus aut late campanulatus ore 4—5-dentatus, vel
turbinatus et profundius in lacinias totidem oblongas fissus,
eestivatione valvata. Corolla campanulata, calyce dimidio
brevior, in lacinias 4-5 plus minusve profundas fissa, laciniis
integris, truncatis aut crenulatis, glabra. Stamen unicum}
Jilamentum centrale, tenue, teres, petalo equilongum ; anthera
peltata vel peltatim globosa, 4—6-locellata, loculis circa con-
nectivum sepe minusculum adnatis, extus rima horizontali
hiantibus et singulis septo horizontaliter 2-locellatis—Fam.
Sepalum unicum, oblongum, squamiforme, extus pilosum.
Petalum unicum, dimidio brevius, orbiculare, carnosum, gla-
brum, ad unguem sepali affixum. Ovarium solitarium, gib-
boso-globosum, villosum, 1-loculare, l-ovulatum. Stylus
brevis, subexcentricus. Stigmata 8, subulata, acutissima, sub-

_ erecta. Drupa ovata, carnosa, sepius hirsuta, stigmate pers

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez. 19

sistente basi proximo notata; putamen subosseum, globoso-
ovale, paululo compressum, 1-loculare, loculo circa condylum
hippoerepice gyrato; vondylus excentralis, subglobosus, utrin-
que convexus, vacuus, in sinu basali pro vasorum introitu

- pertusus. Semen loculo conforme ; embryo intra albumen sim-
plex, hippocrepicus, tenuiter teres, cotyledonibus semiteretibus,
incumbentibus, radicula supera ad stylum spectante 3-plo
longioribus.

Frutices scandentes Asie intertropice, sepius pubescentes aut-re-
trorsum hispidi; folia alterna, peltata, deltoideo-oblonga aut
obovata, subcordata, 5—7-nervia, petiolo tenui: inflorescentia
J axillaris, aut racemus elongatus, rachi tenui, sepe geniculatim
flexuosa, floribus numerosis minutis in glomerulos remotos
aggregatis; aut in utroque sexu panicula racemosa, ramis
alternis, remotis, longiusculis, «sepe iterum ramosis, floribus
corymbulosis aut agglomeratis.

Copious descriptions of all the following species will be given
in the third yolume of my ‘ Contributions to Botany ’ :—

1. Cyclea peltata, Hook. & Th. (in parte) Fl. Ind. i. 201 ;—
Menispermum peltatum, Lam. ;—Cocculus peltatus, DC.;
—y. 8. in hb. Soc. Linn. 3 & 2 , Sylhet (Wall. Cat. 4978 c),
Prome (Wallich) ; in hb. Hook. ¢ & 2, Java (Spanaghoe,
194); g, Assam (Griffiths, 355).

barbata, nob. ;—Cissampelos barbata, Wall. (in parte),

Rangoon (Wall. Cat. 4978 a, a), Taong Dong (Wall. Cat.

4978 zk).

Arnottii, nob.;—Cyclea Burmanni, Wight, Ill. i. 22
(in parte) ;—C. Burmanni, Hook. & Th. 1. c. 201 (in parte) ;
Clypea Burmanni, W. & A. Prodr, i. 14 (in parte) ;—v. s.
in hb. Soe. Linn. 3, Kelaben (Wall. Cat. 4978 a, 5); Singa-
pore (Wall. Cat. 4978); 9, Prome (Wall. Cat. 4978 8) ;
in hb. Hook. ¢ , Rangoon (M‘Clellard); 9, Kurg (Hook.
&Th.); ¢, Khasya (Hook. & Th.) ; 5 , Mangalore (Ward) ;.
2, Ind. or. (Walker). ;

4. Burmanni, Hook. & Th. /. c. 201 ;—Rhaptomeris: Bur=
manni, nob. olim;—Clypea Burmanni, W. & A. Prodr. i.
14 (in parte) ;—Cocculus Burmanni, DC. Syst. i. 517 ;—
y. 8. n hb. Mus. Brit., Ceylon (Hermann) ; in hb. Hook. 2,
Ceylon (Walker, 194); 9, Ceylon (Gardner, 33), Ceylon
(Thwaites; 1049); @, Kandy (Champion); Ind. Penins,
(Wight, 40); ¢, Concan (Stocks, Gibson, Law).

5. - versicolor, nob.;—Cyclea peltata, Hook. & Th. (in parte)
l. c. 201 ;—Cissampelos discolor, Wall. (in parte) ;—v.. sv
in hb. Soc. Linn. g, Nielgherries (Wall. Cat. 4982 3)! ;
?, Trevandrum (Wall. Cat. 4982 a, b, non. 4, a).

Q*

2.

3.

20 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacer.

6. Cyelea laxiflora, nob.;—yv. s. in hb. Hook. ¢ & 9, Malacca
(Griffiths).

vi peregrina, nob.;—v.s. in hb. Hook. ¢& ?, Borneo
(Mottley, 673 & 684).
8. debilifiora, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢ , Khasya (Hook.
& Th.).
a. pendulina, nob, ;—v.s. in hb. Mus. Brit. g & 9, Ni-
cobar Isl. (Soc. Fratr.).
10. deltoidea, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook., Hong-Kong

(Champion).

82. PERAPHORA.

This genus was first proposed by me for a plant originally col."
lected in Bhootan by Griffiths, which had female flowers and fruit
only. Since then I found that the Cyclea populifolia described
by Messrs. Hooker and Thomson is the male plant of the same
species. It differs from Cyclea in its habit, its large, coriaceous,
cordate leaves on a rigid petiole almost palately inserted, its
different mode of inflorescence, in its floral structure, and in its
putamen. Although the male flower has a campanular calyx, it
has no petal; the female flower has two comparatively large,
opposite, sacciform, fleshy sepals, and no petal, and its putamen
bears no resemblance to that of Cyclea. - It is thus certain that,
with the exception of a campanular calyx in the d flower, the floral
structure in both sexes is totally at variance with the characters
of the genus to which it has been referred by the authors of the
‘Flora Indica.’ In the number of calycine parts it accords with
Antizoma ; but it differs in having no petals, and in the gamo-
sepalous calyx of its g flower: these differences, together with
the very dissimilar habits of the plants, will maintain the validity
of both these genera. The putamen, in its shape and its curved
spines, resembles that of some species of Stephania, but it differs
in having an imperforated condyle.

The generic name was suggested by the singularly bursiform
sepals of the female flower. )

Prerarnora, nob. ;—Cyclea (in parte), Hook. & Th.;—Flores
dioici. Masc. Calyx globoso-campanulatus, ore parvo, 4—5-
dentato, glaber, carnosulus. Petalum nullum. Stamen uni-
cum, centrale, subinclusum; jilamentum breviter filiforme ;
anthera subglobosa, 4—5-locularis, loculis cirea connectivam
peltatum in annulum connatis, margine rima externa horizon-
taliter dehiscentibus.—Fem. Sepala 2, opposita, pro mole
majuscula, suborbiculata, valde concava, imo gibboso-saccata,
ungue brevi affixa, carnosa, lateribus tenuioribus et expansis,
apice truncato et subreflexo. Petala nulla. Stamina nulla.

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 21

Ovarium solitarium, gibboso-orbiculare, 1-loculare, loculo lu-
nato ; ovulum unicum, loculo conforme, funiculo brevi e medio
faciei ventralis appensum. Siylus brevis. Stigma breviter 3-
_ fidum, laciniis linearibus, sulcatis, reflexis. Drupa subglobosa,
stigmate persistente ad hilum proximo notata, carnosa; putamen
tenuiter osseum, late subovatum, compressum, peripheriam
versus utrinque spinis obtusis recurvo-hamatis in seriebus 3
circa condylum hippocrepicis concentrice dispositis echinatum,
1-loculare, loculo lunato; condylus disciformis, excentralis,
utrinque concavus, imperforatus, medio stria longitudinali
sulcatus ; semen loculo conforme ; embryo ignotus.
Frutex in regionibus Himalaye scandens; folia majuscula, vix
peltata, oblonga, imo cordata, a medio sensim angustiora,
apice acuta, e basi 7-nervia, coriacea, subtus pubescentia,
petiolo zereti, limbo breviore: imflorescentia d et 2 racemi-
Sformi, paniculata, pubescens, ramis alternis, divaricatis, iterum
- divisis, bracteolatis ; flores minimi, pedicellati, glabri.

) The single species will be described in the third volume of my
‘Contributions to Botany’ :— ;

1. Peraphora robusta, nob.;—Cyclea populifolia, H. & Th. Fl.
~ Ind. i. 202 ;—Menispermea, Griffiths in Itin. Bootan, ii.
114 & 165; Icon. Boot. tab. 22 & 23 ;—v. s. in hb. Mus,
Brit. et Lemann, 9, Bhootan (Griffiths, 1732); in hb.
Hook. ¢ & 3, Sikhim (Hook. & Th.), Bhootan (Griffiths,
1782).

33. PERICHASMA.

I propose this genus for a plant, belonging to the tropical
African Flora, which offers many peculiar characters. Although
the number of its floral parts corresponds with that of Stephania,
the entire aspect of the plant proclaims that it cannot belong to
that genus, as does that of Clambus for a similar reason. Its slender
branches, with very distant axils, are furnished with long, patent,
simple hairs, which I have never seen in any species of Stephania ;
its leaves are larger, and, though peltate, are pilose on both sides,
and their margins are furnished with a strong marginal nerve,
which is indented into several rounded lobes or large crenatures,
and they are supported upon unusually long and slender petioles.
The inflorescence, instead of being, as in Stephania, a compound
umbel rarely exceeding an inch or two in length, is here a very
slender pendent raceme a foot and a half long, with numerous
distant, short, alternate branches, which are. again and again
alternately divided: in all these respects the general habit of the
plant is more in harmony with some species of Cyclea. The
flowers are very minute, pedicellated, with six oblong, subacute

22 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaceze.

sepals in two series, imbricated in eestivation, three small, ovate,
erect petals, and a central stamen almost concealed by the pe-
tals. It is, however, in the structure of the stamen that this
genus differs essentially from Stephania: in the latter genus the
anther has three or six cells, connate in an annular ring, affixed
on the margin of a peltate disciform connective, which is sup-
ported on the central filament; these cells always burst bival-
vately by a crenated horizontal line of sutures. In Perichasma
the anther has no connective, is comparatively large, completel
globular, simply 1-celled, and dehisces by a somewhat small
apical opercular valve, which is supported by a columella-like
extension of the filament (or placentoid of M. Chatin), round
which the grains of pollen are secreted ; the wall of the globular
cell consists of a finely reticulated membrane (apparently defi-
cient of the usual inner lining or endothecium), is very delicate.
in texture, without the slightest vestige of any dissepiment
or nervure, its three indented furrows being due to the external
pressure of the petals which embrace it in the bud. This
organization of the anther is without any parallel in the Ment-
spermacee, and reminds us of the opercular theca of some of the
mosses,

The generic name is derived from 7repl, circum, circa, yaopa,
hiatus, in allusion to the feature just mentioned. I have placed
it among the Cissampelidee, but I am not certain that this is its
proper place.

Prericuasma, nob.—Flores dioici. Masc.. Sepala 6, biserialia,
quorum 3 interiora paululo longiora, oblonga, submembranacea,
_demum expansa. Petala 3, dimidio breviora, orbicularia,
carnosula, margine membranacea, erecta, sepalis exterioribus
opposita. Stamen unicum, centrale ; filamentum tenue, petalis
brevius ; anthera majuscula, globosa, leviter 3-suleata, apici-
fixa, septorum nullo vestigio omnino 1-locularis, theca tenuiter
membranacea et minutissime reticulata, supra medium rima
horizontali operculatim dehistente, operculo parvo, apicali, co-

lumella centrali suffulto ; pollen simplex.—Fem. ignoti.
Frutex scandens Africe tropice ; rami longe pilosi; folia alterna,
peltata, oblonga, imo truncata, palmati-nervia, margine grosse
crenata, sparse pilosa, longe et tenuiter petiolata: inflorescentia
3 supra-axillaris, longissime racemiformis, pendula, pedunculo
tenuissimo, puberulo, alternatim ramoso, ramis tterumque ra-
mosis, ramulis plurifloris ; floribus minutis, alternis, pedicellatis,

. glabris. :

The single species, Perichasma letificata, will be described in
the third volume of the ‘ Contributions to Botany.’ |;

[To be continued. |

Dr, W. Nylander on European Lichens. 28

V.—Notule Lichenologice. No. VII.
By the Rev. W. A. Lertenton, B.A., F.L.S.

In the ‘ Flora’ (1865, p. 260) Dr. Wm. Nylander describes three
European species of Thelocarpon.

f , 1. Thelocarpon Laureri (Flot.).
Apothecia globulos formantia (diam. 0°12-0°15 millim.) citrino
- suffusos. Thece myriospore fusiformes; spore incolores,
- oblongz, simplices (longit. 0°0025-0:0040 millim., crassit.
0:0015-0-002 millim.); paraphyses graciles sat parce et non-
nihil irregulares. Gelatina hymenea iodo vix tincta, sed thecz
dilutissime czrulescentes.
Vidi specimen in Anglia lectum a Rey. Leighton (1864).

Sporz utroque apice obtusiores quam in figuris a Rev. Leigh-
ton datis. Paraphyses (crass. 0°0015 millim.) intus guttulas
oleosas efferentes, seepe ramoso-divise.

2. Thelocarpon intermediellum, Ny].

Extus simile precedenti, sed globuli paullo majores (diam.
0:2 millim.). Thece myriospore; spore oblonge (longit.
0°0035-0:0050 millim., crass. 0:0020 millim.), vulgo medio

~ obsolete tenuiores et utroque apice obtuse incrassatule ; para-

_ physes nulle. Gelatina hymenea iodo vinose fulvescens ;
thecze dilute cerulescentes,.

Ad lignum alni putrescens in Finlandia media (Norrlin)
[1863}.

A precedente differt magnitudine paullo majore, sporis aliis
et defectu paraphysium. Adsunt filamenta ostiolaria brevia,
gracilia, fasciculata in supera parte cavitatis perithecii (omnino
sterigmata simulantia spermogonii).

3. Thelocarpon superellum, Nyl.

Subsimile binis precedentibus quoad faciem externam, at glo-
bulis nonnihil majoribus (diam. 0°25 millim.). Theez poly-
spore; spore ellipsoidee (longit. 0°009-0°012 millim.,
crassit. circiter 0°0045 millim.); paraphyses graciles, elon-
gate, recte. Gelatina hymenea iodo non tincta, sed thece
tote bene czerulescentes.

Kola, in Lapponia orientali, ad lignum vetustum (N, I.

Fellman) [1863].

Notis allatis, sporis multo majoribus, paraphysibus &e. facil-
lime dignotum.
Dr. Nylander inclines to think that our English Thelocarpon

Laureri, described and figured by me in ‘ Annals and Mag. Nat.

24 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Hist.’ Dec. 1864, t. 9. f. 1-5, may be possibly different from
the typical 7h. Laureri, Flot. Should this prove to be the
case, the name he proposes, Th. anglicum, must be adopted for
the English plant, limiting 7. Laureri to the German speci-
mens. Dr. Korber, to whom I forwarded a specimen, com-
pared it with his authentic specimen (but whether micro-
scopically. or merely externally, I know not), and thought
them identical. Dr. Nylander has kindly afforded me an op-
portunity of examining his 7h. intermediellum, which corre-
sponds with the characters he has given of it. Recurring
to my own specimens, I am disposed to think that the plant
found by me parasitically on Beomyces rufus (see Ann. J. c.)
will eventually prove to be another species (for which I would
propose the name Thelocarpon epithallinum). In it I find the
paraphyses to be stronger, unbranched, and shorter than in
others, the asci more elongated, lineari-cylindrical, and the
spores (which I could not disengage from the asci, and therefore
may be optically deceived by the appearance. of their close ap-
proximation or packing) to be of an irregular spherical shape.
There also appears a difference in the gonidia. But the plant
was in too unsatisfactory a state to determine this decisively.

VI.—Fifth Account of new Species of Snakes in the Collection
of the British Museum. By Auserr Ginruer, M.A., M.D.,
Ph.D. ;

[Plates VI. & VII.]

Tue following species of Ophidians have been added to the
Collection of the British Museum since the publication of the
last paper on the same subject in this Journal (February 1865,
p- 89). The total number of species in that collection amounts
now to 827, and that of the typical specimens to 308. Our
numerous specimens of Typhlopides have been examined by
Prof. Peters, who has been for some years engaged upon a
monograph of this family.

In the following lists some of the species are marked with an
asterisk (*) : they will be described in this paper.

I. List of Species which were formerly desiderata.

Helminthophis flavoterminatus, Ptrs. Caraccas. Purchased.
albirostris, Pérs. Guayaquil. Mr. Fraser.
Typhlops tenuis, Jan. Bengal. Purchased.
lineolatus, Jan. ?

, Milleri, Schley. (=Pilidium dimidiatum, Blkr.). East-Indian
| archipelago. Dr. Bleeker.
"—— polygrammicus, Schleg. New South Wales. G. Krefft, Esq.

in the Collection of the British Museum. ‘25

Onychocephalus Kraussii, Jan. Old Calabar and Fernando Po.
Purchased.
—— lalandii, Schleg. Cape of Good Hope. Purchased.
-—— Bibronii, Smith. Cape of Good Hope. Sir A. Smith.
(Typical specimen.) _
verticalis, Smith. Cape of Good Hope. Sir A. Smith.
(Typical specimen.)
—— capensis, Smith. Cape of Good Hope. Sir A. Smith.
(Typical specimens. )
— mucruso, Ptrs. Zambesi Expedition.
mossambicus, Ptrs. Mozambique. Purchased.
Stenostoma cairi, D. gf B. Thebes. Prof. Peters.
— macrolepis, Ptrs. Mexico. Purchased.
—— macrorhynchum, Jan. Euphrates Expedition.
—— bilineatum, D. § B. Martinique. Purchased.
nigricans, Smith, South Africa, Sir A, Smith. (Typical
specimens. )
— fallax, Ptrs. Peru. Prof. Nation.
*Calamelaps unicolor, Rnhrdt. Sierra Leone. Purchased.
Rhabdion torquatum, D. § B. Borneo. Prof. Peters.
-Hapsidophrys ceeruleus, ischer. Sierra Leone. Purchased.
-Rhagerrhis producta, Ptrs. Nubia. Prof. Peters.
multimaculata=Coronella multim., Smith=Dipsina multim.,
Jan. Damara Land. Purchased. ,
* Atractaspis corpulentus, Hallow. ? St. G. Mivart, Esq.
Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus, Cantor. Formosa. -Consul R.
Swinhoe.
Echidna inornata, Smith, South Africa. Sir A. Smith, (Type
of the species.)

Il. List of the new Species procured and described in the course of
-the year 1865.

Typhlops obtusus, Pts. Shiré Valley. Zambesi Expedition.

— Gintheri, Pirs. North Australia. Mr. Elsey.
Stenostoma scutifrons, Pts. Benguela. Mr. Monteiro.

*Calamaria arcticeps. Borneo. L. L. Dillwyn, Esq.°

*Ablabes flaviceps. East-Indian archipelago. Purchased.

*Zamenis brachyurus.. Dekkan. Purchased.

*Herpetethiops Bellii. Sierra Leone. Lieut, Bell.

*Ahztulla nigromarginata. Upper Amazons. Mr. Bartlett, junr.

*Aspidiotes melanocephalus, Krefft. G. Krefft, Esq.
Hoplocephalus mastersii, Kreft. Flinders Range. G. Krefft, Esq.

*Atractaspis microlepidota. West Africa? A. Giinther.

Calamaria arcticeps. Pl. VI. fig. C.

Body moderately slender ; tail short ; head narrow, elongate,
the frontals being longer than broad, as long as the ver-
tical. Vertical five-sided, broader posteriorly than anteriorly,
‘the lateral edges being slightly convergent towards the front.

26 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

Five upper labials, the third and fourth below the orbit; the
first pair of lower labials touch each other behind the mentale,
without forming a suture. No azygos shield between the chin-
shields. Ventrals 151; anal entire ; subeaudals 16. Brownish
above, with eight brown longitudinal lines—two along the me-
dian line of the back (that is, one on each side of the vertebral
series of scales), a broader one along the meeting edges of the
fourth and fifth outer series of scales, one of the same width
along the meeting edges of the second and third series, and,
finally, one, very narrow, along the meeting edges of the two
outermost series. A broad brown collar on the neck, edged
with yellowish; tail with two large black transverse spots.
Lower parts uniform yellowish.

Eight inches long. Borneo.

CALAMELAPS, gen. nov.

Body cylindrical, rather slender; tail short in the female, of
moderate length in the male. Two pairs of frontal shields ;
rostral rounded, moderate; nasal single, its anterior portion
pierced by the nostrils; loreal and anteorbital absent, the pos-
terior frontal forming a broad suture with the third labial;
postorbital minute or absent; the fifth labial forming a long
suture with the occipital; six upper labials. Hye very small.
Scales smooth, without apical groove, in seventeen rows; anal
bifid; subcaudals two-rowed. The posterior maxillary tooth
elongate and grooved.

The type of this genus is Calamaria unicolor (Rnhrdt.), from
West Africa.

Ablabes (Enicognathus) flaviceps. Pl. VI. fig. B.

Habit rather slender; head depressed, with very short snout.
Scales in seventeen rows. Loreal rather higher than long; one
preocular, just reaching the upper surface of the head; two
postoculars. The occipital extends downwards to the lower
postocular ; temporals 2+2, the two anterior in contact with
the lower postocular. Hight upper labials, the third, fourth,
and fifth entering the orbit. Anterior chin-shields not longer,
but rather broader than the posterior, and in contact with four
lower Jabials. Ventrals 150; anal bifid; subcaudals 97. Maxil-
lary teeth’ small, numerous, closely set. Upper parts brownish
black, powdered with grey. A grey band commences on the
neck, runs along each side of the back, where it is three scales
broad, and disappears on the tail; anteriorly it is edged with
black, in the middle accompanied with black spots along the
edges; posteriorly the black spots stand in regular intervals
within the band. Head and anterior part of the nape dark

in the Collection of the British Museum. 27

yellow; a straight, blackish longitudinal streak runs through
_ the eye. Lower parts yellow; each ventral with a black spot
on each side,

East-Indian archipelago. 20 inches long ; tail 7 inches.

Zamenis brachyurus. Pl. VI. figs. A, A’.

This species resembles in general habit a small Dromicus.
Rostral shield scarcely broader than high, extending to the
upper surface of the snout; anterior frontals half as large
as the posterior. Vertical of moderate size, five-sided, rather
shorter than the occipitals, which are rounded behind. Lo-
real as high as long; one preocular, large, extending to the
vertical ; two postoculars. Upper labials eight, the fourth and
fifth entering the orbit; temporals 2+2+43. Scales elongate,
narrow, in twenty-three series. Ventrals 225; anal entire; sub-
eaudals 46; ventrals rounded, not keeled. Eye rather small,
with round pupil. The last maxillary tooth is the largest, and
separated from the others by an interspace. Upper parts
brownish olive; the upper side of the head and the anterior
part of the trunk are irregularly spotted with brown, the brown
spots being arranged in longitudinal series, and narrowly edged
with yellow. The posterior part of the trunk is immaculate.
- Anterior yentral shields brownish, each with a yellowish poste-
rior edge; posterior ventral shields uniform whitish.

_ We have obtained a single example from Poonah (Dekkan) ;
it is 17 inches long, the head measuring 7 lines, and the tail
2 inches.

Hrrrer2£tutors (gen. noy. Dryadid.).

Body and tail slender, scarcely compressed ; trunk with about
150 ventral shields, which are keeled; head somewhat elongate,
rounded in front, flat above; eye of moderate size, with round
pupil ; nostril lateral, between shields. Plates of the head re-
gular; loreal present; one anterior and two posterior oculars.
Seales rather elongate, smooth, without apical groove, in fifteen
rows; ventrals strongly bent up the sides; anal entire. The
two posterior maxillary teeth are the longest, not grooved, sepa-
rated from each other and from the preceding ones by a short
interspace,

Herpetethiops Belli. PI. VII. fig. B.

Head rather narrow, distinct from neck. Rostral shield
searcely broader than high, reaching the upper surface of the
snout; anterior frontals half as large as the posterior, about as
long as broad, Vertical bell-shaped, as large as a superciliary,
and not much shorter than the occipitals, which are short and
rounded behind. Loreal quadrangular, much longer than deep;

28 Dr. A. Giinther on new Species of Snakes

one preocular, nearly reaching the vertical; two postoculars ;
nine upper labials, the fourth, fifth, and sixth of which enter the
orbit. Temporals 242, the two anterior being in contact with
the postoculars. Scales much imbricate. Ventrals 159; anal
entire; subcaudals 85. Deep black above and below; only the
lower side of the head and the thirty anterior ventral shields are
whitish. | a .
We have received one example only, in a collection made by
Lieut. Bell at Sierra Leone; it is 33 inches long, the tail mea-
suring 9 inches,
Ahetulla nigromarginata.

Scales in fifteen rows, slightly keeled. Head small, depressed,
with the snout of moderate length, subtruncate in front ; rostral
shield rather broader than high; loreal none; preorbital not
reaching the vertical; two postorbitals; nine upper labials, the
fifth and sixth of which enter the orbit ; temporals large, 1 +2;
occipitals rounded, with some larger rounded scales behind.
Six lower labials are in contact with the chin-shields. Eye
rather large, with round pupil. Body and tail slender and
compressed. Ventral shields 158, slightly keeled; anal bifid;
subcaudals 115. Maxillary with a cluster of three or four en-
larged teeth, which are not grooved and not separated from the
others by an interspace. Upper parts green ; each head-shield
and scale with a black margin; sides without band. Lower
parts uniform greenish.

This species would enter the subgenus Uromacer of Duméril
and Bibron.

The British Museum possesses one example of this species,
collected by Mr. Bartlett, junr., on the Upper Amazons; it is a
female, 30 inches long, the tail measuring 10. Bs |

Ferania Sieboldii, Schleg.

This species attains to a very large size: we have received
from the late Sir R. Schomburgk a specimen 46 inches long,
the tail measuring 6 inches; the circumference of the middle of
its body is 5} inches. The spots which are so very distinct in
the young are confluent, giving a coarsely reticulated appear-
ance to the back. Lower part of the sides and belly with black
cross bands placed at regular intervals. Upperside of the head
immaculate; a black band from the eye along the temple.
This specimen, which is from Siam, has 106 ventral shields
only, and the anterior frontals are confluent into one, so that
the specimen might be taken for a Hypsirhina. However, an
original division of the plate is still indicated by an incomplete
suture. The Hypsirhina Bocourti, noticed by Jan as a new spe-
cies, is probably not distinct.

in the Collection of the British Museum. 29

Lycophidium Horstockii. Pi. VII. fig. A.

I have mentioned, in ‘Colubr. Snak.’ p. 197, that large spe-
cimens about 2 feet long appear nearly uniformly black, a small
number of scales on the posterior part of the body retaining
bluish-white edges.

We have received a very singular variety from the Gambia,
through the kindness of Sir Andrew Smith: one of the speci-
mens is 21 inches long, and the other about half. that size.
This is black, nearly all the scales having bluish-white edges.
_ A series of thirty quadrangular white spots occupies the back of
the trunk, each spot enclosing nine or ten scales. The series
commences with a white longitudinal streak on the neck and
occiput, and terminates with about seven streak-like spots on the
back of the tail.

This extraordinary variety might be taken as a distinct species;
but there is not the slightest structural difference from the typical
L. Horstockii.

Aspidiotes melanocephalus, Krefft.

Mr. Krefft has kindly sent to the British Museum a fine large.
specimen of this snake. I could not discover any teeth on the
maxillary bone; so that Mr. Krefft appears to be justified at
present in placing this snake among the Boide. However,
there is in other points such a strong similarity to Liasis, that
I cannot help thinking that an examination of younger examples
of 2 or 3 feet in length may reveal the presence of those teeth.

Atractaspis microlepidota. P\. VII. fig. C.

Uniform blackish brown. Body stout. Ventrals 212; sub-
caudals simple, 26. Scales in twenty-nine series. Two pairs
of frontal shields; one pre- and one postocular; six upper
labials, the third and fourth entering the orbit; temporals
rather numerous and irregular.

This is probably a West African species. Our specimen is
20 inches long, the tail measuring 18 lines.

Atractaspis corpulentus.

According to Hallowell’s notes (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad.
1857, p. 70), his specimen had one pair of frontals and 182
ventral shields; our specimen differs in having two pairs of
frontals and 210 ventral shields. However, we have seen similar
variations in one and the same species of African snakes, and
would not regard the two specimens as specifically distinct,
without further proof.

The British Museum now possesses four very distinct species

of this genus, so characteristic of the western and southern parts
of Africa.

30 Dr. A. Giinther on some Fishes from the Amazons.

VII.—Remarks on some Fishes from the River Amazons in the
British Museum. By Dr. Atzert Ginruer. —

A coxtection of fishes made by Mr. Bartlett, junr., on the
Upper Amazons, and acquired for the British Museum, con-
tained, besides numerous examples of described species, a few
which appear to be new to science*. It afforded me also the —
opportunity of comparing the true Prochilodus nigricans of
Agassiz with its congener from the Essequibo River (cfr. Fish.
v. p. 295). They prove to be specifically distinct, the species
from the Amazons having somewhat smaller scales, viz. L. lat. 48. .
L. transv. 10/9. The height of the body is one-third of the
total length (without caudal). The name nigricans must be
retained for the Amazons species, whilst the Essequibo fish is
most probably identical with P. rubroteniatus (Schomb.).

Tetragonopterus Bartlettii, n. sp.
D.11. A.3l. L. lat. 39. L. transy.-8/7.

The height of the body is contained twice and three-fourths
in the total length (without caudal), the length of the head
thrice and two-thirds. Interorbital space convex, its width
being scarcely more than the diameter of the eye, which is one-
third of the length of the head. The upper profile of the head
is very slightly concave. The maxillary extends a little behind
the vertical from the front margin of the orbit. The origin of
the dorsal fin is immediately behind the base of the ventrals.
Pectoral extending beyond the base of the ventrals, nearly to the
vertical from the origin of the dorsal. Humeral and caudal
spots distinct ; body without silvery band. One of the speci-
mens has a broad oblique dark band across the middle of the
dorsal fin.

Two specimens, 4 inches long, were in the collection.

Cynodon pectoralis, » sp.

This species is closely allied to C. scombroides, but has a
greater number of rays in the anal fin, and a much longer and
larger pectoral fin.

D..13, A. 48. P.1%. Ve10s

The height of the body is two-sevenths of the total length
(with the caudal), the length of the head nearly one-fifth.
Scales very small, those of the lateral line about twice the size

* I observe, in a letter of Prof. Agassiz, addressed to and published by
M. Milne-Edwards, that a new genus of freshwater Belonide from the
Amazons is mentioned. I suppose this to be the same fish which was dis-
covered by Mr. Bates some fifteen years ago, and is described in the ‘ Catal.

Fish.’ vi. p. 256, as Potamorrhaphis (Belone) teniata.

Mr. J. F. Walker on Lower-Greensand Fossils. 31

of the others. Dorsal fin above the middle of the interspace
between the root of the ventral and anal, somewhat nearer to the
latter. Anal low, scaly, anterior rays imbedded in fat. Caudal
short, rounded. The pectoral extends somewhat beyond (in C.
scombroides not quite to) the vertical from the origin of the
dorsal, its length being one-third of the total without caudal

in C. scombroides rather less than two-sevenths). Ventrals well

eveloped. A small black spot on the root of the lower pectoral
rays. The humeral spot and one on the adipose fin are present,
as in C. scombroides. '

Seven inches long.

VIII.—On the Fossils contained in a Lower Greensand Deposit
of Phosphatic Nodules in Bedfordshire. By J. F. Wauxer,
F.C.S8,, Sid. Suss. College, Cambridge.

Tue increasing demand for phosphatic manure has led to the
opening, a short time since, of new workings for the extraction
of nodules containing earthy phosphates, near Sandy, in Bed-
fordshire. A short account of this deposit was communicated
by the Rev. P. B. Brodie to the ‘Geological Magazine,’ and
published in that journal for April last. The deposit is referred
to the Lower Greensand; but nearly all the fossils contained in
it have been derived from the wreck of preexisting formations.
Mr. Brodie mentions an imperfect cast of a species of Rhyn-
chonella as the only fossil of animal origin observed by him
which appeared to belong to the bed; I have obtained a species
of Corbis, nearly allied to Corbis corrugata, Sby. of the Lower
Greensand of the southern counties, and have seen a species of
Terebratula, both presenting precisely the aspect of Lower
Greensand fossils, and exhibiting no traces of having been rolled.

Of the introduced fossils, the greater part appear to have been
derived from the Kimmeridge Clay. Among these are casts of
the interior of species of Cardium and of two other bivalves, and
of a large Pleurotomaria, much worn,—several fragments of the
dorsal spines of Asteracanthus ornatissimus and a small portion of
a spine of Hybodus,—numerous palatal teeth of Spherodus gigas,
and a single curved palatal tooth of Pycnodus. Several teeth of
Phosaurus and some teeth of apparently crocodilian character
also oceur.
_ The Oxford Clay has furnished four species of Ammonites, and
a phragmocone of a Belemnite ; and several vertebre and teeth of
Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus are also probably derived from this
formation.

But the most interesting point that I have ascertained with re-

32 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

gard to this deposit, and which indeed induces me to make this
communication, is the occurrence in it of water-worn remains of
Iguanodon. Of this reptile I have obtained one of the phalanges,
a worn tooth, vertebra, and one or two other fragments. The
presence of these rolled fossils so far beyond the present area of
_ the Wealden, coupled with the occurrence of numerous fragments
of fossil wood strongly resembling that found in the Purbeck
beds, seems to prove that, previously to the formation of this
deposit, an extensive denudation of Wealden strata must have
taken place in this district.

IX.—WNotes on the Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. VII.
Some Carboniferous Species. By T. Rursert Jonzs, F.G.S.,
and James W. Kirxsy, Esq.

Wirua the view of working out the characters and classification
of the Bivalved Entomostraca of the Carboniferous Rocks, we
have had to determine the specific value of the forms already
published by paleontologists. In the ‘Annals and Mag. Nat.
Hist.’ for May 1865 (ser. 3. vol. xv. p. 404, &c.) we gave the
results of our examination of some Bavarian specimens (with
which Dr. C. W. Giimbel obligingly favoured us), whereby we
were enabled to determine Count Minster’s eight Carboniferous
species—the oldest on our list, having been published in ‘ Leon-
hard’s Jahrbuch’ for 1830.

1793. Ure.—Before proceeding to discuss the species pub-
lished subsequently to 1830, we have to notice some figured but
unnamed forms, well known to the students of Scottish geology,
who have to refer to Ure’s ‘ History of Rutherglen and Hast
Kilbride’ (8vo, 1793). In this work the Rev. David Ure no-
ticed the existence of certain “ microscopic bivalved shells”
(Entomostraca) in the Carboniferous Limestones near Glasgow,
and supplied his friends with suites of these little fossils, toge-
ther with minute Gasteropods; and tastily mounted sets, in
glazed frames, are still preserved in the Hunterian Museum in
the Royal College of Surgeons, London, and in the Museum of
the Andersonian University, Glasgow. (See the very interesting
‘ Biographical Notice of the Rev. David Ure,’ &c., by John Gray,
8vo, Glasgow, 1865.) ‘‘ Both John Hunter and Dr. Anderson
were friends of Ure; and as these microscopic fossils were found
in Hunter’s native parish, they would be the more prized on
that account.” (Mr. John Young, Letter.)

Four or five of the little Entomostraca were figured and de-
scribed by Ure in his ‘ History of Rutherglen,’ &c.. One of
them (pl. 14. fig. 15), a subreniform Cythere (?), small, white,

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 33

and polished, was the most numerous of those mentioned; an-
other, also white and polished, but larger and scarcer, is sub-
triangular, and evidently a Bairdia (fig. 20), somewhat crushed
—a condition noticed by Ure; it was rare, in a limestone-quarry
fifteen miles west of Newcastle-on-Tyne, near the spot where
the Roman wall is intersected by Watling Street. Figs. 16,17,
‘and 21 are given as different views of one form, the scarcest of
all: fig. 21 is certainly a Kirkbya badly drawn ; and the other two
i Beyrichian in appearance (Beyrichia bituberculata, M‘Coy,
sp.).

Among the mounted specimens in the Hunterian Museum
are Leperditia Okeni, Minster, var., Cytherella, Bairdia curta,
M‘Coy, B. subcylindrica, Miinster, and the Kirkbya roughly in-
dicated by Ure’s fig. 21, which is K. Urei, Jones (Trans. Tyne-
side Nat. Field-Club, 1859, p. 136; and Gray’s ‘ Biograph.
Notice,’ &c., p. 52).

Dr. Ure’s microscopic specimens seem to have been collected
chiefly at Lawrieston and Stuartfield (East Kilbride). It is only
of late that the energetic geologists of Glasgow have been able
to rediscover the exact strata which yield them. In a letter
dated July 4, 1865, our friend Mr. John Young, of Glasgow,
states—

“Since I began to pay any attention to the collecting of
Entomostraca, I have often searched for the bed in which David
Ure obtained the specimens figured in his book, and also mounted
in the Hunterian Museum in London and in the collection of
the Andersonian Institution in Glasgow; but as the quarries
from which he got them have been filled up, and as Ure does
not tell the nature of the strata from which he collected them,
I have never been able to find them until the last week or two.
In examining some shale from the Calderside old limestone-
quarries, near High Blantyre, Lanarkshire, I was fortunate in
again discovering Ure’s bed for the Kirkbya, &c. It lies between
two beds of limestone, which crop out in both Blantyre and East
Kilbride parishes. This bed of shale is loaded with organisms
in a more or less perfect condition, namely Corals, Polyzoa,
Brachiopoda, Conchifera, Crinoids, Bivalve Entomostraca, Tri-
lobites, &c. The shale soon breaks up on exposure to the
weather, and then the minute organisms can easily be extracted
from it by washing.” Mr. John Young then refers to some
mounted specimens of Bairdia, Kirkbya, Cytherelle, and Fora-
minifera, from this shale, that were kindly sent in his letter, and
adds, “I find, on comparing the figures given by Ure with the
Entomostraca from Calderside, that he bas made a mistake in
confounding two distinct forms as belonging to the same spe-
cies. Figs. 16, 17, and 21 he thought were the same. I find

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xviii. 3

34 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

that figs. 16 and 17 are intended to represent Beyrichia bituber-
culata, M‘Coy, sp., which is sparingly found in the Calderside
shale together with Kirkbya Urei, Jones, which Ure produces
in fig. 21. It is strange that he should have made this mistake,
as the two shells are quite distinct to the naked eye under every
aspect.”
1834. Hibbert.—In 1834, Dr. Hibbert brought to the notice
of the British Association at Edinburgh, and in 1836 he described,
in the ‘Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh’ (vol.
‘xiii.), some Entomostraca from the Carboniferous strata near
Burdiehouse, which are rich in these minute carapaces, mostly,
however, belonging to one species*. At page 179 of his memoir
he gave small woodcut figures of his Cypris Scotoburdigalensis,
and at page 180 others of his Daphnoidia. The latter received
the name of “ Hibberti” in Morris’s ‘ Catalogue of British Fos-
sils,’ first edition, 1843. Dr. Hibbert’s specimens were again
noticed by Mr. L. Horner in the ‘ Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal’ for April 1836, and were regarded as indicating an
estuarine (and not a freshwater) origin for the strata contaming
them.
_. Among the many Carboniferous specimens lent to us by. our
friend Mr, E. W. Binney, F.R.S., are several bearing minute
Entomostraca that were in Dr. Hibbert’s collection. In these, »
“‘ Cypris Scotoburdigalensis”’ is abundant ; but Daphnoidia, wi-
fortunately, does not appear. Nor can we form a satisfact
conclusion as to the nature of this little fossil from Dr. Hibbert?
woodcuts. The so-called ‘‘ Cypris” is readily recognized to be
a dwarf Leperditia, with the characteristic muscle-spot, and
possessing even the hump on the back of the left valve, so
marked a feature in some members of that genus. Excepting
in relative size, no distinction can be discerned between Leper-
ditia Scotoburdigalensis and L. Okent; and we find very many
gradations in size among these little Leperditie of the Carboni-
ferous shales and limestones, including L. Okeni as a large form
and L. Scotoburdigalensis as the smallest. Two or more of these
varieties are often associated together, sometimes probably as
young and old conditions, but often as varieties determined b
mode of growth. Some slight differences in the outline of the
valves, or in the profile of the carapace, occasionally accompany
variation in size; and, taking these together, we use them as

* In more than one of the many samples of the Burdiehouse limestone
and shale that we have examined, we have noticed what appears to be a
more elongate (and Cythere-like) form than Leperditia Scotoburdigalensis;
but the specimens are so imperfect as not to be determinable. We may
say the same in respect to other crushed specimens from this locality, that
resemble Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones.

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 35

distinctions for nominal varieties. Thus L. Scotoburdigalensis
may be allowed to stand as a sufficiently distinct variety of L.
Okeni, though possibly it really differs only in having been
- dwarfed by unfavourable circumstances of growth.

In the Lower Carboniferous shales and limestone of Burdie-
house* we see Leperditia Scotoburdigalensis in company with
Spirorbis (Microconchus) carbonarius (not very abundant there),
abundant Fish-remains, Lepidodendron, Lepidostrobus, Spheno-
pteris, &e.

This smallest of the many varieties of Leperditia Okeni, oc-
curring in the Lower Carboniferous limestones and shales of
Great Britain and Ireland, has been found at Burdiehouse (by
Hibbert, Horner, Binney, Sorby, Crosskey, the Geological Sur-
_ veyors, and others) ; Granton (Harkness) ; Pittenweem, in Fife-

shire, (Hunter); Bathgate (Young); Arundale, near Bathgate -
(Young); Hurlet, S.W. of Glasgow (Crosskey); Carluke (Ran-
kine); Lammerton and Cockburnspath, Berwickshire (G. Tate);
and at many places in Ireland by Sir R. Griffith and the Geo-
logical Surveyors. (See further on.) -

One of us long ago saw that this little Entomostracan could
not be a Cypris, nor a Cythere, and put it with Cytheropsis (a
provisional genus). Hence it appears under that name in the
‘Monograph of the Fossil Estherig’ (Paleontographical Society,
1862) and in some other works. It was definitely referred to
Leperditia by us in 1863 (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1863, Sections,
p. 80; and ‘ Geologist,’ vol. vi. p. 460).

1836. Bean.—In 1836 Mr.W. Bean, of Scarborough, described
in the ‘ Magazine of Natural History,’ vol. ix. p. 377, a little
Entomostracan from the Coal-measures of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
as Cypris arcuata; and illustrated it by a woodcut (fig. 55).
This is really a Beyrichia, and has been so referred to, on the
authority of one of us, for several years past.

Beyrichia arcuata is one of the most widely distributed Ento-
mostraca in the Coal-measures of England and in the “ Upper
Coal-measures” of Scotland. It has also been found in the
shales of the so-called ‘“ Millstone-grit ” of Lancashire and in
the Lower Carboniferous shales of Scotland, but not in the
Mountain-limestone, or equivalent portions of the Carboniferous
Series, in England. We have it from the Ryhope Colliery, near
Sunderland, in shale, about 8 or 10 feet below the base of the
Permian strata ; from Claxheugh, near Sunderland, in ironstone ;
from Hylton, near Sunderland, in ironstone; from Prestwick,
Northumberland,in carbonaceous shale (Atthey); fromLoughton,

* For a full account of the Carboniferous Strata of Burdiehouse, see

the ‘ Memoirs of the Geol. Survey,’ &c.: ‘* Geology of the Neighbourhood
of Edinburgh,” by Howell and Geikie, 1861, p. 36, &e. ae

36 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

Staffordshire, in shale (J. Ward) ; in ironstone from the Coal-
measures near Dudley (Geol. Survey); from Chesterfield in
ironstone (Binney) ; from Babbington, Notts, in shale; from
Shaley Brow, Rainford (Binney) ; from Glodwick, near Oldham
(Binney) ; from Agecroft Colliery, near Manchester (Binney) ;
from Ashby-de-la-Zouch (A. H. Green) ; from Eagley Shore,
Lancashire, and from Holcombe, Bradshaw, Cranbourke, and
Brow Peel in the same county ; from Granton (Harkness) ; from
Carluke (Rankine) ; and from the shales associated with the
Shotts Gas- and Furnace-Coals, Lanarkshire (Grossart).

In the ‘ Memoirs of the Geological Survey,’ illustrative of the
several sheets of the Geological Survey Map, are several refer-
ences to the occurrence of Bivalve Entomostraca in the Coal-
measures. Beyrichia arcuata is quoted as occurring in shales of
the Middle and Lower Coal-measures of Lancashire and of the
“‘ Holeombe-Brook Series ’”’ (referred to the “ Millstone-grit ” by
the Surveyors) in the same district : Mem. Geol. Surv., “ Geology
of the Country around Bolton-le-Moors,” by Mr. E. Hull, 1862,
pages 33, 34, 40, &e. B. arcuata is also mentioned as belonging
to the Middle Coal-measures, near Wigan, in the ‘ Geology of
the Country near Wigan,’ 2nd edit. 1862, Appendix *, by Mr.
Salter, pp. 36 and 38, and is figured in a woodcut at p. 37
(fig. 2, 5).

1836. Phillips and Williamson.—In 1836 Professor J. Phillips
(Brit. Assoc. Report, 1841, Sections, p. 64) and Professor W.
C. Williamson (Phil. Mag. new series, vol. ix. p. 351) dis-
covered numerous small Entomostraca in the Upper Coal-mea-
sures at Ardwick, near Manchester (see ‘ Monograph Foss.
Esthenie, Pal. Soc. p. 118). Excepting a few specimens of
Leaia, these Entomostraca-were referred to as Cyprides, and
are possibly the same as Cypris inflata of Murchison, which is
found in the uppermost Coal-measures of Shropshire. :

1839. Murchison and Sowerby.—in 1839 Sir Roderick Mur-
chison and Mr. J. de C. Sowerby described and figured a small
Bivalve Entomostracan (obtained by the former from the Upper
Coal-measures of Shropshire) as Cypris inflata, in the ‘ Silurian
System,’ p. 84, woodcuts figs. A1, A 2, A3, which figures were
repeated in ‘Siluria,’ Ist and 2nd editions (2nd edit. 1859,
p. 322, fig. 83), and have been copied in other works on geo-
logy. These illustrations are really those of a small gibbous
Leperditia,—with a straight back, strong dorsal angles, and con-
vex ventral margin. In the ‘Silurian System,’ p. 84, it is

* In this Appendix, p. 37, fig. 2, 4, is figured another Beyrichia (under
the name of “ B. Binneyana, Jones’’), which is B. subarcuata, Jones, Pal.
Soc. 1862, Monogr. Foss. Esth..p. 120, pl. 5. fig. 16. The name “B. .
Binneyana” was intended for a different form as yet unpublished.

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 37

stated that a band of freshwater limestone stretches from Nobold
near Shrewsbury to Asterley beyond Pontesbury, and is found
in the Coal-measures between Westbury and Pontesbury ; and
it is described as containing Cypris inflata, together with Spi-
rorbis (Microconchus) carbonarius, and as being equivalent to the
Ardwick limestone, in which this latter little fossil also abounds.
This Spirorbis-limestone occurs also in the uppermost Coal-
measures of Warwickshire. See Geol. Survey Memoirs, 1859.
_ Mr. J. W. Salter has obtained for us, through the kind aid
of Mr. R. Wilding, of Church-Stretton, a specimen of the
whitish so-called “freshwater” limestone of the Upper Coal-
measures of Lee-Botwood, Shropshire. This contained a few
specimens of a dwarf Leperditia and many minute Spirorbes *
(Microconchi). Mr. E. W. Binney has also favoured us with
specimens of the same Spirorbis-limestone from Ardwick, near
Manchester ; Prizely, Shropshire; Rough Gill near Galescales,
Carlisle; and from the banks of the Ayr near Catrine, Ayrshire.
Some of these specimens enclose imperfect individuals of the
same dwarf Leperditia. In another specimen of the white lime-
stone that we have seen in the Ludlow Museum, Spirorbis
abounds, but no Entosmostraca are visible.

On account of the compact and crystalline condition of this
rock, it is very difficult to manipulate the little bivalve carapaces,
or their representative casts in the limestone; but, though not
so successful as we wished, we had evidence of such a little
Leperditia as that figured by Murchison and mentioned above ;
and we have no doubt that this is very similar to L. Scoto-
burdigalensis, its greater breadth or ventricosity alone dis-
tinguishing it. Hence we may keep the varietal name L. inflata
for the gibbous dwarf form of L. Okeni occurring in the south,
whilst L. Scotoburdigalensis is an equally small, but less swollen,
dwarf variety, found in the north of Britain, as well as in Ire-
land.

1839. M‘Coy.—In 1839 Professor F. M‘Coy figured and
described as Entomoconchus Scouleri, in the Journal of the
Geological Society of Dublin (vol. ii. p. 91, pl. 5. figs. a—e), a
large globose bivalved Entomostracan, common in some parts of
the Mountain-limestone, both of the British Isles and the Con-
tinent. This form had already been recognized as occurring in
the Mountain-limestone of Yorkshire (Bolland) by Professor
John Phillips, and referred to by him in his ‘ Geology of the
Mountain-Limestone District of Yorkshire,’ pages 240 and 251,
as a “ Cypridiform shell,” but not described, though sketches of

* Spirorbis (Vicroconchus) is abundant also in some of the limestones
of the Middle and Lower Coal-measures and of the Limestone-shales
(Ireland).

88 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

it are given in pl. 22. figs. 23 & 24 of that work. In a pro-

’ visional notice of the Entomostraca of the Carboniferous period,
we have been enabled to point out some of the relationships of
this curious fossil, in M‘Coy’s figures of which the hinge-line
is by mistake assigned to the anterior extremity.

This fossil is known to us by specimens from the Carboni-
ferous Limestone of Cork, Kildare, Meath, and Limerick (Grif
fith, D. Sharp, J. Wright, British Museum, Geological Survey) ;
Bolland, Yorkshire (Phillips, Morris) ; Park Hill, near Longnor,
Derbyshire (Geol. Survey) ; Lower Scar Limestone, Settle (Bur-
row) ; Braidwood Limestone, Carluke (Hunter) ; Carboniferous
shales of West Broadstone, Ayrshire (J. Young). The Rev. J.
Cumming found it in the Carboniferous Limestone of the Isle
of Man (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. pp. 322, 355). At
Visé, in Belgiam, it is not rare in the white Carboniferous
Limestone.

1842. De Koninck.—In 1842 six species of Bivalved Ento-
‘mostraca from the Carboniferous Limestone of Belgium were
carefully figured and described by Professor Dr. L. de Koninck,
of Liége, in his ‘ Description des Animaux Fossiles qui se trou-
vent dans le Terrain Carbonifére de Belgique’ (4to, Liége,
1842-44). At page 585, under the name Cythere Phillipsiana
(pl. 52. fig. 1), we have the peculiar gibbous form common in
some of the beds of the European Mountain-limestone, and
which had been named Entomoconchus Scouleri by M‘Coy in
1839. At page 587 De Koninck describes his Cypridina Ed-
wardsiana (pl. 52. fig. 2), and C. concentrica (fig. 4), and at
p- 588 his C. annulata (fig. 3) ; but the generic affinities are not
well determined, owing probably to the fact of the peculiar an-
tero-ventral notch in the valves of Cypridina having been omitted
in the engraving of Milne-Edwards’s typical species (as explained
in the ‘ Monograph of the Tertiary Entomostraca of England,’
Pal. Soc. 1856, p. 9), and the paleontologist having been thereby
misled in collocating the fossil carapaces with their recent
analogues. At page 589 of M.de Koninck’s work, his Cyprella
chrysalidea (pl. 52. fig. 6) is described, and his Cypridella
cruciata (fig. 7) at page 590.

These Entomostraca occur also in Great Britain, as well as the
curious Crustaceans, Cy¢lus Brongniartianus, Kon., and C. ra-
dialis, Phillips, sp., described and figured in the same memoir,
but of obscure relationship. A form allied to the latter has also
been found by Mr. Joseph Wright in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone of Little Island, Cork, and by Mr. J. H. Burrow at Settle;
another belongs to the Magnesian Limestone of Sunderland ;

* Report of the British Association, 1863, Sections, p. 80.

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 89

and a much earlier instance of the occurrence of the genus is in
the Silurian Limestone of Keisley in Westmoreland, where it
was discovered in 1864 by Professor R. Harkness, F.R.S.
_~ Acollection of Belgian Bivalve Entomostraca presented to one
of us a few years ago by M. J. Bosquet, of Maestricht,—a col-
lection of fossil Cyprinidae from Little Island, Cork, sent us by
Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S.,—and a collection submitted to us
by Mr. J. H. Burrow, M.A., of Settle, Yorkshire, enable us to
unravel some of the obscurities of this group, which had its
representatives even in Silurian times*, and is still largely
represented in the present seas. We intend, however, on the
present occasion merely to mention what we believe to be
the real relationships of M. de Koninck’s species, as already
indicated in the ‘Neues Jahrbuch’ for 1864, p. 54, and in the
‘Canadian Naturalist and Geologist,’ new series, vol. i. p. 237,
where we have stated that M‘Coy’s Daphnia primeva is a Cy-
pridina, De Koninck’s Cypridina Edwardsiana and Cypridella
eruciata are Cypridelie, his Cypridina annulata and Cyprella
chrysalidea are Cyprelle, and his Cypridina concentrica is an
Entomis.

1843. Portlock.—In 1843 the late General (then Captain)
Portlock, in his Report on the Geology of Londonderry,
p- 316, treated of two Entomostraca from the Carboniferous
Shales of Derry, Tyrone, and Fermanagh, Ireland, namely Cy-
pris Scotoburdigalensis (Hibbert) and Cypris subrectus (Portlock) ;
and illustrated the former by fig. 13.c, and the latter by fig. 13 4,
of his plate 24. C.subrecta (the original specimen of which we
have seen, by the kindness of the officers of the Geological
Survey Museum, Jermyn Street) is very similar to the first-
named in shape, but is somewhat larger. Both are varieties of
Leperditia Okeni; and, together with numerous very similar com-
rades, they infested the salt and brackish waters of the early
Carboniferous period in nearly every region of the northern
hemisphere, acting as scavengerst on the decaying animal and
vegetable materials in the muddy shallows and lagoons. As
Leperditia subrecta represents a size above that of L. Scotobur-
digalensis, and does not exactly correspond to any of the Bavarian

* In the pebbles of Silurian quartzite in the Conglomerate at Budleigh-
Salterton (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xx. p. 283; and Geol. Mag. vol. i.
p- 5), Mr. Salter has discovered a specimen very closely allied to Cypridina ;
and Mr. G. Haswell has found others in the Upper Silurian beds of the
Pentland Hills.

+ Since the publication of the ‘ Monograph of the Fossil Estherie,’ Pal.
Soc. 1862, in which allusion is made to the garbage-eating habits of the
small Entomostraca, we see that Prof. Phillips, as far back as 1841, pointed
out the common association of Fish-remains with Cyprids (Brit. Assoc.
Rep. 1841, Sections, p. 65).

40 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca,

forms described in our former memoir, it will be convenient to
retain the name as that of a variety.

In the second part of his ‘ Verstein. Grauwacken Sachsens?
(1853), p. 23, Dr. Geinitz described a small Bivalve Entomostra-
can, which he termed “‘ Cytherina subrecta, Portlock,” and which
he found at the Gunzenberg, near Plauen, in company with the
tail-spines of Dithyrocaris Murchisoni; and he remarked that,
as Portlock found his specimens with Dithyrocaris, the cireum-
stances are alike for the Silurian and the Carboniferous organ-
isms. But Geinitz’s Cytherina subrecta, as illustrated by him at
pl. 19. fig. 20 of the work above referred to, is very different
in appearance from Portlock’s C. subrecta, bemg narrower in
proportion, incurved both on the dorsal and ventral margins,
bordered by a flat rim (apparently) all round, and rounded
equally at the ends. The Silurian spines of the so-called
“ Dithyrocaris ” are very probably those of Ceratiocaris.

Leperditia Okeni of the size and form of L. subrecta occurs
at Fermanagh, Ireland (Portlock); Blackwell, near Bristol
(Moore) ; Great Orme’s Head (Dr. Holl) ; Whorlton, Teesdale
(Parker) ; Wyebourne, Cumberland (Bland); banks of the
Wansbeek (Pecket) ; Barnard Castle (Barron) ; Carluke (Hunter);
West Broadstone, Ayrshire (Thomson) ; Orchard, near Thorn-
licbank (Armstrong); Gare, Carluke (Thomson); Howrat
Quarry, near Dalry (Armstrong); Craigenglen (Young and
Crosskey) ; Campbeltown (Thomson) ; Carboniferous Limestone,
Ashford, Derbyshire. (Geol. Survey) ;* Carboniferous Shales,
half a mile south of Mitcheldean (Geol. Survey) ; and at many
places in Ireland (Griffith and Geological Surveyors). See further
on.

1844. M‘Coy.—In 1844 Professor M‘Coy considerably en-
larged our knowledge of the Entomostraca of the Carboniferous
Rocks by the description and illustration of twenty-two forms
(including ntomoconchus Scouleri), besides two species of
Dithyrocaris (D. Scouleri and D. tenuistriatus), all from the
Lower Carboniferous strata of Ireland.

Thanks to the courtesy of Sir Richard Griffith, Bart., we have
been enabled to examine many of the specimens described by
Prof. M‘Coy, and thereby to make our comparisons more surely.

The localities of nearly all the specimens described by M‘Coy
(and all that we have had in hand) have been given by Sir R,
Griffith in the ‘ Journal Geol. Soc. Dublin,’ vol. ix. (1860), pp.
21 &c.; and indeed the specimens retain their original labels,
with the localities indicated.

On comparing the specimens with the figures in the ‘ Synopsis
of the Characters of the Mountain-Limestone Fossils of Ireland,’
pl. 23. figs. 4-25, we fail in recognizing several of M‘Coy’s

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 41

species on the hand-specimens bearing their names on the
labels: they may perhaps have fallen out*. Some of the
figures referred to represent, we are sure, only modified condi-
tions of carapaces, either partially imbedded in the matrix or
altered by pressure ; some are for certain badly drawn; and in
many cases the edge-views of the carapaces must, we think, have
been constructed from the lateral profiles of imbedded valves,
and are therefore rarely of much valuet.

The figures in Prof. M‘Coy’s plate 23 are not drawn on a
true scale ; so that some specimens $ line long have larger figures
than some one line long.

Having carefully examined the several labelled hand-specimens
of shale and limestone lent to us by Sir R. Griffith, we propose
to make some remarks on the Entomostraca that we have met
with in them; and at the same time we shall offer our opinion
on such of Professor M‘Coy’s species as are figured in pl. 23 of
the ‘Synops. Charact. M. Limest. Foss. Ireland,’ but have not
reached us, or are not now to be seen on the hand-specimens.

1. “ Entomoconchus Scouleri. Lower Carboniferous Lime-
stone; Little Island, Cork.” Synops. Carb. Foss., Ireland,
p- 164, pl. 23. fig. 4. Griffith, List of Localities (Journ. Geol.
Soc. Dublin, vol. ix.), p. 68. A cast, in grey crystalline fos-
siliferous limestone.

_ 1*, Another cast, in similar limestone; Millicent, Clane, co.
Kildare.

1**, Another specimen (labelled “ Z. Scoulert. Upper Car-
boniferous Limestone; Black Lion, Enniskillen, co. Leitrim,”
Localities, p. 80) is a dark-coloured crystalline shelly lime-
stone with a Cyclus.

2. * Daphnia primeva.” Synops. p. 164, pl. 23. fig.5. Stated
to be 14 long, and # line deep, not very uncommon in some
localities, and possibly to be the same as Hibbert’s Daphnoidia.
The specimen was not sent to us, nor is it mentioned in the
List of Localities, and has therefore probably been mislaid. It
certainly is a Cypridina as far as the appearance of the valve is
concerned, whatever Dr. Hibbert’s specimens may have been
(see above, p. 34).

3. “ Bairdia curtus. Arenaceous shale; Granard, co. Long-

* In the ‘Dublin Quarterly Journal of Science,’ No. XIX. July 1865,
Mr. John Kelly explains that in 1853 Sir R. Griffith’s collection, compri-
sing these specimens, was removed from his house to the Great Exhibition
in Dublin, and that many of the specimens of shale crumbled away.
Hence, probably, the loss of several specimens.

+ In 1847 M. J. Bosquet, in his “ Descript. Entom. Foss. Maestricht,”’
p- 4, note, offered some criticisms on M‘Coy’s species, but not sufficiently
well founded to be of use.

42 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

ford.” \ Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 6; Local. p. 100 (“Car-
boniferous slate and arenaceous limestone,” Local. p. 48). Grey
limestone, with Spirifer, Crinoids, &c., and some obscure Ento-
mostracan valves besides the Bairdia under notice. This is in
good preservation. In 1859 one of us carefully examined the
specimen, and, having cleared away some of the matrix, con-
sidered the carapace to have been sufficiently well shown, and
regarded it as being somewhat different from Bairdia plebeia,
Reuss, in exhibiting less convexity in the antero-ventral edge.
Unfortunately this very convexity could even then have been
found by greater boldness of manipulation; for a year after-
wards, on again closely examining the specimen, it came out of
the stone, quite perfect, showing a fully curved hatchet-edge, as

in B. plebeia.

After the many doubts expressed as to the identity of the
Carboniferous B. curta and the Permian B. plebeia, we cannot
now recognize (with Sir R. Griffith’s specimen clearly before us)
a real specific distinction; and B. curta stands as the oldest
name. B. plebeia, however, may conveniently remain as a term
of inferior grade for the very prevalent form with a rounded
antero-dorsal angle (and hence less hatchet-shaped anterior ex-
tremity, as depicted in Reuss’s figure of B. plebeia, Jahresbe-
richt Wetterau. Gesell. 1854, p. 67, fig. 5, and in those given
in the Transact. Tyneside Field-club, vol. iv. pl. 9. figs. 1, 2, 4,
and woodcut 1, p. 145).

4. “ Bairdia gracilis.” Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 7. As

we have not seen this specimen, and as it is not referred to in
the List of Localities, we have nothing to add to Prof. M‘Coy’s
brief description of it, except that it seems to’ be the same as
B. subcylindrica, Miinster, sp. (Annals N. H. ser. 8. vol. xv.
p- 409, pl. 20. fig. 13).
5. “ Cythere amygdalina.” Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig 8.
We have not seen this specimen ; and, not being mentioned in
the List of Localities, it has probably been mislaid. We have
seen, however, a form corresponding to fig. 8 in the hand-spe-
cimen described further on as No. 10. | Prof. M‘Coy states that
* C’, amygdalina”’ is “‘ common.’

- 6. “Cythere arcuata. Yellow Sandstone; Dromard, Drapers-
tou co. Londonderry.” Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 9; Loeal.
p-48 (“Arenaceous shale,” Local. p. 100). A blackish mica-
ceous shale, rather hard but fragile, containing Modtole (?), and
abounding with small Entomostraca, Leperditia subrecta, L. Sco-
toburdigalensis, Kirkbya annectens (sp.n.), and others, but nothing
corresponding to the figure given of ‘ C. arcuata,’ which we
are inclined to believe to have been a specimen of L. subrecta
partially hidden by matrix on its dorsal region. Prof. M‘Coy

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 43

states that “ C. arcuata” is “ very common in the Carboniferous
shales.” -

7. “ Cythere bituberculata, Yellow Sandstone; Cultra, Holy-
wood, co. Down.” Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 10; Local. p. 48
(* Arenaceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Light-grey shaly shell-
grit, with Modiole (?), slightly micaceous. Leperditia subrecta
abundant, and smaller obscure Entomostraca present, but no-
thing like the figure. A very similar, if not identical Beyrichia,
however, occurs in Scotland (in the Coal-measures near Glasgow),
and will bear the name B. bituberculata, M‘Coy. Prof. M‘Coy
found his “ C..bituberculata” common in one or two localities.

_ 8. “ Cythere costata. Yellow Sandstone ; Cultra, Holywood.’
Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 11; Local. p. 48 (“ Arenaceous
shale,” Local. p. 100). Light-grey solid shell-grit (Serpule,
&c.), with crushed valves of Leperditia subrecta in abundance ;
but nothing visible to match the figure. We have, however, met
with a Kirkbya in the Carboniferous Limestone of the south-west
of England somewhat like fig. 11. Prof. M‘Coy refers to “ C.
costata” as being about } line in length, rare, and solitary.

9. “ Cythere cornuta. Yellow Sandstone ; Cultra, Holywood.”
Synops. p. 165, pl. 23. fig. 12; Local. p. 48 (‘ Arenaceous
shale,” Local. p. 100). ‘ Hard grey calcareous shale, with fish-
scales and Serpule; or rather a Serpula-grit, much like the
foregoing. Leperditia Scotoburdigalensis and Kirkbya annectens
are present, but not the figured specimen. This we believe to
have been L. subrecta with an extraneous morsel of matrix
attached near the middle of the hinge-line (taken for the ventral
border in Prof. M‘Coy’s description). It is stated to be about a
line long and “ not common.”

10. “Cythere elongata. Yellow Sandstone; Cultra, Holywood.”
Synops. p. 166, pl. 23. fig. 15; Local. p. 48 (‘ Arenaceous
shale,” Local. p. 100). Grey Serpula-grit, with Modiola (?),
There is no specimen like the figure (which appears to be an
oculate L. subrecta, with its dorsal region buried in the matrix)
now visible on the slab; but there are L. Scotoburdigalensis,
Kirkbya annectens, two Cytheres, and a Leperditia (?) like fig. 8,
** Cythere amygdalina.” M‘Coy’s “ C. elongata” is stated to be
half a line long and “very common in the shales of certain
localities ” (p. 166).

1l. “ Cythere excavata. Carboniferous Slate ; Aghnaglogh,
Clogher, co. Tyrone.” Synops. p. 166, pl. 23. fig. 14; Local.
p- 48 (“ Arenaceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Dark-coloured,
shelly, fissile shale, with Anthracomye (?) and obscure casts of
Leperditia subrecta; and the figure seems to have been based on
some such specimen.

12. “ Cythere Hibbertii. Yellow Sandstone; Larganmore,
Bangor, co. Mayo.” Synops. p. 166, pl. 23. fig. 15; Local. p. 48

44 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

(“« Arenaceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Dark, fragile, slightly
micaceous shale, with Crinoids, Modiola (?), &c., and containing
obscure valves and casts of Leperditia subrecta (?) and Kirkbya
annectens, but nothing exactly corresponding to the figure. Prof.
M‘Coy suggests that this “is perhaps Cypris Scotoburdigalensis
of Hibbert ; but this dwarf form of L. Okeni, smaller even than
the variety ‘subrecta, would hardly match “ C. Hibbertii,” which
is stated to be “ frequently upwards of a line in length,” and
“the largest species of Cythere of the Irish paleozoice rocks”
(though “ C. inflata” is said to reach 2 lines in length), except
when regarded as one of the modifications of L. Okeni, which
we believe to be the correct view of its relationship, though not
contemplated in the work before us.

. 18. “ Cythereimpressa. Yellow Sandstone; Dromard, Drapers-
town. Synops. p. 166, pl. 23. fig. 16; Local. p. 48 (“ Are-
naceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Grey, fine-grained, micaceous,
hardish shale, with Modiola (?) and Serpula. Some obscure
casts of Leperditia subrecta and of other Entomostraca are pre-
sent; but there is nothing exactly like the figure, which is
stated to represent a form about half a line long, and “ very
common in the slates and shales of several districts ’’( p. 166).

14. “ Cythere inflata. Lower Carboniferous Limestone ;
Ballyduf, Dungarvon, co. Waterford.” Synops. p. 167, pl. 23.
fig. 17; Local. p.68. Grey crystalline shelly limestone, veined.
Without any visible specimen of Entomostraca.

14*, White crystalline limestone, from Laracor, Trim, co,

Meath (Local. p. 68). This has a small Entomoconchus and a
minute hollow mould where a Leperditia subrecta has probably
been. The figure may have been taken from a small Entomo-
conchus, a Cypridella, or other nearly related Cypridine Ento-
mostracon.
. Prof. M‘Coy states that his “ C. inflata”’ is the “largest and
most abundant ” of the Carboniferous Cytheres (from 1 to 2 lines
in length), and that it abounds in the dark foetid limestones,
but is “ rare in the light-coloured limestone, where C. inornata
supplies its place.”

15. ‘ Cythere inornata. Yellow Sandstone; Cultra, Holy-
wood.” Synops. p. 167, pl. 23. fig. 18; Local. p. 48 (“ Are-
naceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Bluish-grey fissile shale, fine-
grained and micaceous, with numerous casts and broken valves
(s+ to 7s inch long) of Leperditia subrecta and L. Scotoburdi-
galensis, sometimes showing. the eye-spot. Prof. M‘Coy states
that his “ C. inornata”’ is rarely 4 line in length, and that it is
“very common in several localities.”

The Permian Cythere referred by one of us to C. imornata,
M‘Coy, is decidedly not the same as this, which is the common
dwarf variety of Leperditia Okeni, Miinster, sp.

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 45

. 16. “ Cythere orbicularis. Yellow Sandstone; Bunowna,
Easky, co. Sligo.” Synops. p. 167, pl. 28. fig. 19; Local. p. 48
( Carboniferous slate,’ Local. p.100). Dark-grey, fine-grained
limestone, with Orthoceras, &c. .There are some small, obscure,
roundish fossils, and a part of a valve of L. subrecta, but nothing
like the figure.

17. “ Cythere pusilla.” Synops. p. 167, pl. 23. fig. 20.

“Yellow Sandstone; Cullion, Draperstown, co. Londonderry,”
Local. p. 48. ‘Middle Limestone,” Local. p. 100. We have
not had the specimen. It may have been a very small Entomo-
conchus (?) or a Cypridella. Prof. M’Coy refers to it as “the °
smallest of the Cytheres” ... “greatly abundant” ... “length
about } line” (p. 167).
- 18. “ Cythere scutulum. Middle Carboniferous Limestone ;
Ballintrillick, Bundoran, co. Donegal.” Synops. p. 168, pl. 23.
fig. 21 ; Local. p. 75. Dark, compact, but softish, fissile shale,
with Crinoidal joints, casts of Aviculopecten, &e. Leperditia
Okeni, var. subrecta and Scotoburdigalensis are here plentiful, as
single valves, of various sizes. Some have the eye-tubercle ; and
occasionally large left valves (1;'z inch long) have their peculiar
dorsal swelling. C. scutulum is doubtless Leperditia subrecta,
Portlock, sp. The figured specimen must have had its dorsal
edge partly imbedded, and the proportions are not well given.

19. “ Cythere oblonga. Yellow Sandstone; Cullion, Drapers-
town.” Synops. p. 167, pl. 23. fig. 22; Local. p.48 (“ Arena-
ceous shale,” Local. p. 100). Dark-grey, fine-grained, fissile
shale, with Aviculopecten. Obscure casts of Leperditia subrecta(?),
but nothing that matches the figure. “ C. oblonga” is stated
to be “common,” and about 1 line in length. It is probably
L. subrecta.

20. “ Cythere spinigera.” Synops. p. 168, pl. 23. fig. 23. We
have not seen the specimen; but there is no doubt that it is
Leperditia Okeni (probably var. subrecta), either with the eye-
spot prominent, or with a small incrustation, such as we have
seen in one of the specimens from Cultra, and such as we believe
fig. 12 (“ C. cornuta’’) and fig. 24 (“C. trituberculata”) to have
borne.

21. “ Cythere trituberculata. Yellow Sandstone; Cultra,
Holywood.” Synops. p. 168, pl. 23. fig.24; Local. p. 48 (“Arena-
ceous shale,” Local. p.100.) Hard, grey Serpula-grit, like
No.9, but more solid. We can find nothing like the figure
(probably a small Leperditia with adventitious concretions or
bits of the matrix). JL. Scotoburdigalensis is present; also a
Cythere having an outline somewhat near that of the figure;
and there are numerous specimens of Kirkbya annectens, which,
though more or less lobed or tubercled, is not at all like fig. 24,

22. “ Cythere gibberula. Middle Carboniferous Limestone ;

46 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

Ballintrillick, Bundoran.” Synops. p. 166, pl. 23. fig. 25; Local.
p. 75. Darkish grey micaceous shale, with Aviculopecten. The
specimens are of the same form as “ C. scutulum,” and are de-
cidedly Leperditia Okeni, var. subrecta (about ;'; inch long).
** C. gibberula”’ is said to occur “in great numbers in the shale
of some localities.” The figure indicates a large hump on the
middle of the valves, which Prof. M‘Coy notes as remarkable ;
but the specimens before us are not characterized by any parti-
cular protuberance.

The following labelled specimen accompanied the others.

23. ‘ Cythere subrecta (Portlock, sp.). Yellow Sandstone;
Larganmore, Bangor, co. Mayo.” Griffith’s List of Localities,
Geol. Soc. Dublin Journ. vol. ix. p.48 (‘ Arenaceous shale,”
Local. p. 100). Hardish dark-grey micaceous shale, with abun-
dant small obscure casts of Leperditia Okeni, var. subrecta (about
z's inch long).

The following table shows the conclusions we have arrived at,
judging by evidences and probabilities, respecting the Bivalve
Entomostraca figured in pl. 23, ‘Synops. Charact. M. Limest.
Foss. Ireland :?’—

Prof. M‘Coy’s Names. eon Rvmsied Corrected Names,
Fig. 4. Entomoconchus Scouleri| 109 1 | Entomoconchus Scouleri.
5. Daphnia primeva ...... 13xX% | 2 | Cypridina primeva.
6. Bairdia curtus .......604.. 1 3 | Bairdia curta.
rg PTMCHEG is 21<c0ds eee 3 4 | B. subcylindrica, Miinster, sp.
8. Cythere amygdalina...... 3 5 | Leperditia Tne Piet:
9, APEDAGH GS <pesetteses 3 6 | L. Okeni, Minster, sp., var.
subrecta, Portlock, ‘sp.
10. —— bituberculata ...... 3 7 | Beyrichia bituberculata.
Re Costata......+0 phate 3 8 | Kirkbya costata.
12. CONUEA © ...060...00. 1 9 | Leperditia Okeni, Minster,
sp., var. subrecta.
13. elongata .........++ $ 10 =
14. CXCAVALA ....00s000 3 11 fo sa
15. —— Hibbertii ............ 1 12
16. —— impressa .........++ 3 13 Beyrichia (2).
17. —— inflata ..........0086. 13 14 | Entomoconchus (?) vel Cypri-
della (2).
18. —— imornata ............ 3 15 | Leperditia Okeni, Miinst. sp.,
var. subrecta; vel var.
; Scotoburdigalensis. -
19. orbicularis ......... 1 16 | Cypridella (?).
20. —— pusilla ............0.. $ 17 | Entomoconchus (?) vel Cypri-
3 della (?).
21. Scutulum ...0cveseves 1 18 | Leperditia Okeni, Minst. sp.,
var. subrecta.
22. oblonga ...c.ceeee. 1 19 ” ”
23. ——— spinigera ............ 1Z 20 « 3 ns
24, ——— trituberculata ...... 4 21 ‘ rie
25. —— gibberula............ 3 22 = we

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca. 47

.. Thus it will be seen that we refer figs. 12, 18, 14, 15, 18, 21,
22, 23, 24, and 25 to Leperditia Okeni without any doubt.
They comprise the varieties subrecta (Portlock) and Scotoburdi-
galensis (Hibbert). The locality of fig. 23 is not mentioned ;
but all the others are from shales either of the “ Yellow Sand-
stone,” of the “ Carboniferous Slate ” (fig. 14), or of the “ Middle
Carboniferous Limestone” (figs. 21 & 25). Figs. 10,11, & 16
are also in shales belonging to the “ Yellow Sandstone.”

Figs. 4, 6, 17, & 20 refer to specimens in limestone—from the
** Lower Carboniferous Limestone ”’ (figs. 4 & 17), the “ Carbo-
niferous Slate” (fig. 6), or the ‘“ Middle Carboniferous Lime- -
stone” (fig. 20). Of the locality and matrix of figs. 5, 7, 8, &
23 we have no indications.

In his ‘ Notice respecting the Fossils of the Mountain-Lime-
stone of Ireland,’ &c. (4to, Dublin, 1842), Sir R. Griffith thus
divided the Lower Carboniferous formation of Ireland (p. 4).

1. Upper Limestone. 2. Calp or Calp-slate, consisting of
alternations of shale and argillaceous limestone, with occasional
beds of pure limestone and rarely of sandstone—and less per-
_ sistent than the Upper and Lower Limestones. 3. Lower Lime-
stone. 4. Carboniferous Slate, or schistose beds, usually calca-
reous and alternating with argillaceous limestones, similar to
those of the Calp. 5. Yellow Sandstone, consisting of sand-
stones intercalated with slate or shale and occasionally with
limestone. Nos. 4&5 are wanting in some localities; and
sometimes No. 4 only is wanting. (See also Sir R. Griffith’s
Geological Map of Ireland, with its marginal explanations,
1854.

“geal 22, Sir R. Griffith states that Hntomoconchus
Scouleri occurs in the Lower Limestone of the southern and
middle districts of Ireland.

Bairdia curta occurs in the middle and northern.

gracilis 9 northern.

Cythere cornuta ,, northern.
inflata if southern and middle.
inornata me northern.
spinigera_,, northern.

These determinations were modified probably, and corrected,
in Prof. M‘Coy’s Memoir (1844), and in Sir R. Griffith’s List
of Localities’ in 1860.

The Geological Surveyors of Ireland, however, have found it
impracticable to fully adopt Sir R. Griffith’s nomenclature of the
Lower Carboniferous formation. According to their experience,
his “ Yellow Sandstone ” is not sufficiently definite in its upper

48 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

and lower boundaries, being in some places wholly “ Carboni-
ferous,” at others wholly made up of “ Old Red,” and elsewhere
combining portions of each ; and they restrict the term to the
upper portion of the Old Red Sandstone series, distinctly below
the beds with marine fossils. They consider that the “ Carboni-
ferous Slate” (about 150 feet thick), below the “ Carboniferous
Limestone” (3000 feet), in the north-eastern districts, is the
same as the “ Lower Limestone Shales” of England, and that
the “ Carboniferous Limestone” thins away on the south-west
and is wholly replaced by the ‘ Lower Limestone Shales”
(about 5000 feet), which are there cleaved, and therefore known
as “Carboniferous Slate.” The latter, in consequence, are in
the south-west the equivalents of the ‘Carboniferous Lime-
stone” and “ Lower Limestone Shales” together in the north-
east.

As this arrangement simplifies the order and succession of
the “ Lower Carboniferous” strata, we use both nomenclatures
in the annexed table of the Entomostraca that we have observed
in Sir R. Griffith’s specimens.

We have also seen other Carboniferous Entomostraca from
Ireland, which have been kindly submitted to us by the Officers
of the Geological Survey of Ireland.

I. From the “ Carboniferous Limestone.”
1. Meath (Map, Sheet 33/4); Clonalvy, near Naul. Entomo-

conchus Scouleri.

2. Meath (Sheet 27/1); Duleek. Light-grey limestone.
Cypridina primeva (gregarious).

3. Dublin (Sheet 7/1); Oldtown. Leperditia Okeni.

4. Tipperary (20/2) ; Carrig-Church, about 24 miles north-
west of Nenagh. Dark-coloured Polyzoan Limestone, with
Echinoderm fragments and Shells. Leperditia subrecta.

5. Limerick (Sheet 11/2); Ballynolan, near Pallaskenry.
Entomoconchus Scouleri.

6. Limerick (10/4); Glenbane, near Askeaton (No. 4253 a).
Leperditia Okent.

7. Limerick (29/1); Rathkeale. Grey limestone with Fenes-
tella. Leperditia subrecta.

8. Cork (76/3); Ballyvodock, about 2 miles south-west of
Middleton. Grey fossiliferous limestone. Entomoconehus Scou-
lert (gregarious).

II. “Lower Limestone Shale.”

1. Londonderry ; Ballrascreen. Hard dark-grey shale, mica-
ceous, full of small Leperditie. (Portlock’s Collection.) L. sub-
recta, L. Scotoburdigalensis, and still smaller obscure forms.

49

Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

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Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii.

50 Messrs. Jones and Kirkby on Carboniferous Entomostraca.

2. Tyrone; Tinnaglogh. Soft grey shale. (Portlock’s Col-
lection.) L. subrecta and L. Scotoburdigalensis.

3. Fermanagh; Kesh. Dark-grey hard shale, full of Ento- —
mostracous valves. (Portlock’s Collection.) L. Scotoburdi-
galensis ; also Beyrichia and Bairdia?

4. Fermanagh ; Clebby. Soft grey shale, with Bivalve Shells. —
(Portlock’s Collection.) L. subrecta. eee

5. Wexford (42/2); Whitestown House, Drinagh, near Wex-
ford. . Dark-blue hard shale, with pyrites. (H. 4321.) L. sub-

recta and smaller obscure forms.

III. ‘‘ Carboniferous Slate.”

1, Cork (74/2); Glen near the city of Cork. Dark-grey
schist, weathering brownish: a hardened cleaved shale, with
small Brachiopods. JL. subrecta (distorted).

2. Cork (65/4); Bilberry Hill, N.E. of Middleton. Pur-
plish and rusty schist or hardened cleaved shale, with Cypri-
cardia, Enerinital joints, and distorted Entomostracous valves.
This schist lies between the “Old Red Sandstone” and real
“Carboniferous Limestone” continuous with that of Little
Island. This “ Lower Limestone Shale” near Cork is 1000 ft.
thick, and all cleaved into slate (“Carboniferous Slate”). LZ.
subrecta and L. Scotoburdigalensis (distorted). These com-
pressed schists, with elongated and otherwise distorted Leper-
ditia, appear to be identical with some of the so-called “ Cypri-
dinen-Schiefer” of Germany. Shales with Beyrichia arcuata (?)
distorted (from Granton and elsewhere) resemble other speci-
mens of “Cypridinen-Schiefer.” Entomis supplies the other
so-called “‘ Cypridinz ” of these Rhenish strata.

3. Cork (118/1); Relane Point, south side of Bantry Bay.
Grey schist, with pyrites, and weathering rusty. Gasteropods,
&c. This schist is probably 2000 or 3000 feet above the top
of the “Old Red” beds. Leperditia Scotoburdigalensis.

4, Cork (67/2) ; Youghal. Drab schist, with an ochreous
parting which is full of well-preserved Entomostraca. This is
500 feet above the “Old Red” beds, and 800 feet below the
‘Carboniferous Limestone.” JL. suborbiculata and L. parallela.

5. Cork (105/1) ; Coory Commane Mountain, on the east side
of the Glen of Coomhdla, Bantry Bay. Grey schist, micaceous:
a hardened squeezed shale, with small Bivalves. This specimen
was from the middle of the “ Coomhdla Grits,” 1800 feet above
the top of the “Old Red,” and where these grits are 3000 feet
thick. L. Scotoburdigalensis (distorted).

Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S., has sent us a piece of “ Carboni- —
ferous Slate” from Shanbally, Cork, containing casts of a Cythere
(indeterminable).

Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 51

In the Museum of the Geological Survey, at Jermyn Street,
we have seen the following specimens from the Lower Carboni-
ferous rocks of Ireland :—

1. “Carboniferous Limestone,” near Kildare. Entomocon-
chus Scouleri (gregarious). —

2. “ Lower Limestone Shales.”

a. Fermanagh (Sheet 18, Nos. 3 & 4; and Portlock’s ‘ Geol.
Report,’ pl. 24. fig. 13c). Grey shale. Leperditia subrecta and
L. Scotoburdigalensis.

b. Kilkenny (Sheet 31/4) ; south of Knocktopher, and about
a mile west of Ballyhale. Argillaceous schist, containing
Rhynchonella pleurodon, and having rusty facings and badly
preserved casts of Leperditia subrecta.

X.—Notices of British Fungi. By the Rev. M. J. Burxutny,
M.A., F.L.S., and C. E. Broome, Esq., F.L.S.

[Plate II.]
{Continued from vol.-xv. ser. 3. p. 452.]

st 1104. Agaricus (Amanita) lenticularis, Lasch in Linn. 1827,
o. 18.

Coed Coch, Oct. 1866.

A single specimen of this magnificent species, according ex-
actly with a figure received from Fries, occurred last autumn in
the plantations surrounding the gardens at Coed Coch. It is
remarkable for the great development of the ring and the
smooth pinkish-tan pileus.

1105. A. (Lepiota) Friesii, Lasch in Linn. 1828, no. 9.

Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

1106, A. (Tricholoma) saponaceus, Fr. Ep. p. 35.

In woods. King’s Cliffe, Sept. 1, 1865.

This occurred in great profusion and perfection. A. graveo-
lens, Sow., which is quoted under A. saponaceus by Fries, is
undoubtedly A. gambosus, as appears from the original drawing
and the notes which accompany it.

1107. A. (Clitocybe) pithyophilus, Fr. Ep. p. 62.

In fir-woods. Coed Coch, Oct. 19, 1865.

1108. A. (Clitocybe) trulleformis, Fr. Ep. p. 68.

On the border of a fir-wood. Coed Coch, Oct. 27, 1865.

The rather distant gills, which are connected with veins and
infundibuliform pileus, distinguish this species, which is not
hygrophanous.

*A. (Clitocybe) inversus, Scop. Carn. p. 445, :

Several tufts of this species occurred late in the year at

4*

52 Rev. M.J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi.

Woodnewton, in a ditch at a distance from any fir-wood, exactly
according with Sowerby’s figure.

1109. A. (Collybia) exsculptus, Fr. Ep. p. 98.

On old oak stumps. Apethorpe, Norths.; Badminton, On
turf. Ilford, Essex, C. E. Broome.

Allied to A. dryophilus, but tougher. The gills are sulphur-
coloured and transversely striate.

1110. A. (Collybia) protractus, Fr. Ep. p. 97.

On the ground. Ascot, Nov. 22, 1865.

*A. (Mycena) pelliculosus, Fr. Ep. p. 116.

On the ground. Hanham, C. E. Broome.

1111. A. (Mycena) vitreus, Fr. Ep. p. 111.

In woods. Bryn Tyrch, Caernarvonshire, Oct. 1865.

1112. A. (Omphalia) gracillimus, Weinm. Ross. p. 121.

In marshy ground, on decaying stems of vegetables. King’s
Cliffe, Aug. 18, 1865.

1113, A. (Entoloma) griseo-cyaneus, Fr. Ep. p. 145.

On lawns. Coed Coch, Oct. 1865.

1114, A. (Clitophilus) popinalis, Fr. Ep. p. 169.

On downs. Worthing, Oct. 1865, F. Currey, Esq.

A curious species, with a strong odour of new meal, and pro-
bably esculent. The pileus and flesh are of a greyish tint, the
gills strongly decurrent, and the spores pink.

1115. A. (Clitophilus) cancrinus, Fr. Ep. p. 150.

In a grass-field. Apethorpe, Norths. Aug. 16, 1865.

Exactly agreeing with an original drawing from the Swedish
Museum. Pileus of a very pale flesh-colour or whitish, at first
umbilicate; gills distant, at first white.

1116. A. (Nolanea) junceus, Fr. Ep. p. 156.

In a wood near Pont Gyffyng, Caernarvonshire, Oct. 24,
1865.

Exactly agreeing with a drawing from Fries.

1117. A. (Hebeloma) deglubens, Fr. Ep. p. 173.

In woods. King’s Cliffe, Aug. 18, 1865.

Exactly agreeing with a drawing from Fries.

1118. A. (Hebeloma) hiulcus, Fr. Ep. p. 175.

In woods. Fineshade, Sept. 1, 1865.

Allied to A. rimosus; but the flesh turns everywhere reddish
when cut or bruised.

1119. A. (Flammula) gummosus, Lasch in Linn. 1827, no. 325.

On old stumps in the plantations round the Botanic Garden
at Cambridge, Dec. 6, 1865.

1120. A. (Flammula) carbonarius, Fr. Ep. p. 186.

In fir-woods where the undergrowth had been burnt, at Ascot,
Nov. 22, 1865.

This species, remarkable for its viscid pileus, squamulose

Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 58

stem, and adnate clay-coloured gills, occurred in immense quan-
tities at the above-mentioned locality.

1121. A. (Naucoria) autochthonus, n.s. Pileo obtuso, hemi-
spheerico, ochreo-albo, sericeo, margine flocculoso ; stipite tenul,
flexuoso, sursum basique albo-lanato incrassato; lamellis mel-
leis horizontalibus distincte dente adnatis.

On the naked soil. Woodnewton, Norths.

Pileus } inch across; stem ? inch high, not half a line thick
in the centre. Spores paler than in A. furfuraceus, ‘00019 inch
. long (those of A. furfuraceus -00022 inch long). It does not
become pallid in drying, like that species, but is of an ochraceous
white from the first. It is probably a very common species.

1122. A. (Naucoria) escharoides, Fr. Ep. p. 201.

On the bare ground. Apethorpe, Aug. 16, 1865.

Exactly the plant of Scheffer, t. 226.

Pileus campanulate, obtuse, slightly fleshy, umbonate or umbi-
licate, sometimes plane, hygrophanous, innato-squamulose, often
venulose, tawny, at length pallid; veil white, evanescent; stem
flexuous, nearly equal, clothed with white fibrils, pale, ringless,
fistulose; gills broad, bright cinnamon, distant, fixed, - acute
behind, at length seceding ; spores ‘0006--00065 inch long, of
a pure ochre, not peroxidate. Brittle.

1123. A. (Galera) aleuriatus, Fr. Ep. p. 203.

On rotten sticks, &. Coed Coch, Oct. 26, 1865.

An extremely pretty species, exactly according with a figure
from Fries. :

1124. A. (Galera) mycenopsis, Fr. Ep. p. 208.

In marshy ground, in a wood amongst Sphagna. King’s
Cliffe, Aug. 18, 1865.

Our plant belongs to a variety, mentioned by Fries, with ad-
nate gills.

Pileus with the margin clothed with little white scales, the
remains of the veil; stem slightly furfuraceous above; gills
adnate, not merely fixed with a tooth.

The species occurred also in Oct. at Pont Gyffyng, between
Bettws and Capel Curig, and near Lake Idwell, where Ag. semi-
lanceatus was abundant, with pallid gills entirely devoid of
spores.

1125. A. (Galera) paludosus, Fr. Ep. p. 209.

In marshy ground in a wood, amongst Sphagna. King’s
Cliffe, Aug. 18, 1865.

1126. A. (Hypholoma) hydrophilus, Bull. t. 511.

In woods, &e. Not uncommon in England, Coed Coch,
Oct. 23, 1865.

_ This species was described in the ‘ English Flora,’ but was by
some accident omitted in the ‘Outlines of English Botany,

54 Rev. M.J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi,

The veil, though fugacious, at once distinguishes it from some
other species with which it might easily be confounded,

*4, (Psathyra) corrugis, P., b. gracilis, Fr. Ep. p. 231. A.
pellospermus, Bull, t. 561. f. 1.

.- On the ground. Woodnewton, Aug. 20, 1865.

1127. A. (Paneolus) leucophanes, n.s. Pileo campanulato, -
obtuso, viscido, sicco nitido, innato-sericeo albo, hic illic sub- -
ochraceo; margine appendiculato; stipite sursum attenuato,
albo, fibrilloso, particulis farinaceis sparso, transversim sub-
undulato fistuloso, lamellis adnatis e pallide griseo-carneis atris,
margine albo.

In grass-fields. King’s Cliffe, Aug. 29, 1865.

A very pretty species, allied to A. separatus, Pileus ? inch
across; stem 2 inches high, about 1 line thick in the centre;
spores ‘00037 inch long, somewhat cymbiform.

Puate II. fig. 1. A. leucophanes and vertical section, nat. size.

1128. Cortinarius (Inoloma) camphoratus, Fr. Ep. p. 280,

On the ground in woods. Fineshade, Sept. 1, 1865.

*C. (Inoloma) Bulliardi, Fr. Ep. p. 282.

In woods. Fineshade, Sept. 1, 1865.

Remarkable for its bright-red mycelium.

1129. C. (Hygrocybe) decipiens, Fr. Ep. p. 312.

In woods. Fineshade, Sept. 1, 1865.

11380. C. (Hygrocybe) Junghuhni, Fr. Ep. p. 314.

In woods. King’s Cliffe, Aug. 30, 1865.

Spores ‘0003 inch long.

1131. Russula cyanoxantha, Fr. Mon. Hym. Suec. p. 194
(A. cyanoxanthus, Scheeff. t. 93).

In woods. Fineshade, Northamptonshire, Sept. 1, 1865.

1132. R. veternosa, Fr. Ep. p. 354.

On the ground. J. Fryer, Esq., Chatteris.

A single specimen only of this species was sent from the above
locality to the ‘ Gardener’s Chronicle’ office to be named.

1133. R. lactea, Fr. Ep. p. 355.

On the ground. King’s Cliffe, Aug. 29, 1865.

The thick, distant gills and milk-white pileus characterize
this fine species, which is probably widely diffused.

1134. Cantharellus radicosus, n.s. Pusillus; pileo profunde
umbilicato, floccoso, nigro; stipite pallido, radicante; hymenio
candido ; lamellis angustis.

On the bank of a gravel-pit. . Ascot, Nov. 22, 1865.

Pileus 4-1 inch across, deeply umbilicate, dark brown or
black, rough with radiating flocci; stem rooting, deeply pallid;
gulls narrow, white. Two or three pilei often grow from the
same obconical root, which is white and spongy. ;

Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 55

This agrees in some respects with C. carbonarius,Alb. & Schw.,
which is said to be a variety of C. umbonatus, and must therefore
be very different from the present species. C. anthracophilus,
Léyv., appears more nearly allied, but has a very different habit.

1135. C. crispus, Fr. Ep. p. 369.

. On branches of beech. Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

This very pretty species has occurred two years running.
The colour of the pileus varies from a yellowish brown to white.
_ *Marasmius Stephensit, Bk. & Br., Ann. of Nat. Hist. ser. 2.
vol. xiii. p. 403. This is probably synonymous with Marasmius
terginus, Fr.

1136. M. caulicinalis, Fr. Ep. p. 383.

On the ground, amongst leaves, in a fir-wood. Ascot, Nov.
22, 1865.

Pileus smooth, white tinged ‘with ochre, at length sulcato-
striate; gills adnato-decurrent, connected by veins.

Our plant seems paler in colour than that of Fries, but agrees
in essential characters.

*Strobilomyces strobilaceus, Berk. Outl. p. 236.

A specimen of this rare fungus was sent from Ludlow by the
Rev. A. Bloxam.

1137. Polyporus (Anodermei) cuticularis, Fr. Ep. p. 458.

On trunks of trees. Burnham Beeches, C. E. Broome.

_ The hairs are curiously trifid at the apex; the spores yellow,
as in P. hispidus.

- 1188. P. (Placodermei) fulvus, Fr. Ep. p. 466.

_ On decayed trunks of trees. Batheaston, C. E. Broome.

The specimen appears to have been gathered on a dead plum,
and exactly accords with one on poplar, from Fries, in the resu-
pinate state. It occurs on various trees, and is very distinct
from P, igniarius.

1139. P. (Inodermei) Airsutus, Fr. Ep. p. 477.

On dead trunks. Orton Wood, near Twycross, Rev. A.
Bloxam.

Certainly a very rare species in England, though one of the
most common in warmer couutries. The larger pores at once

stinguish it from P. versicolor, zonatus, and velutinus..

*Craterellus cornucopioides, Fr. Ep. p. 532.

As some doubt has been raised with respect to the specific
difference of Cantharellus cinereus, it may be well to state that
both were gathered at Burnham Beeches last autumn, and that
the spores of the former are ‘0006 inch long by :00035, those
of the latter ‘0004 long by ‘00015. In the former, moreover,
the sporophores are forked above, and the spicules long and
often less than four in number; in the latter the sporophores
are obtuse and the spicules four,

56 Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi.

*Sparassis crispa, Fr. Ep. p.570; Hogg & Johns. tab. 24.

Three large specimens of this noble addition to our flora
occurred at Didlington, near Brandon, whence it was sent ey
Admiral Mitford.

1140. Calocera striata, Fr. Ep. p. 582.

On a prostrate trunk. Batheaston, March 10, 1846, C. E.
Broome.

Exactly agreeing with Hoffmann’s figure. A very rare plant,
which has very seldom been seen by botanists. sith 0008 inch
long, ‘00025 broad.

1141. Apyrenium armeniacum, 0. 8s. Receplacuts lobato, sub-
gelatinoso, armeniaco, e filis ramosis, apice sporiferis, oriundo;
sporis obovatis, enucleatis.

On oak sticks, bursting through Corticium cinereum: Charmy
Down, near Batheaston, Oct. 1865.

Spores ‘0003—-0005 inch long. This little fungus, though
Tremelloid, has not the structure of Tremella. Pyrenium lig-
natile, Tode, is now pronounced by Tulasne to be a state of
Hypocrea rufa. Our plant may possibly be a condition of H.
gelatinosa; but, even should this prove to be the case, it is well
in the meantime that it should be recorded.

Puate II. fig. 2. Spores on their sporophores, highly magnified.

1142. Reticularia applanata,n.s. LEffusa, tenuis, olivaceo-
fusca ; sporis olivaceis, echinulatis.

On the fallen trunk of a tree, the surface of which had been
charred. Ascot, Nov. 22, 1865.

Resembling in habit Licea applanata. Surface reticulated as
in R, maxima, Spores 4-7, in a fascicle, connate, echinulate,
"0005 inch in diameter.

Puate II. fig. 3. a. part of the peridium, with the irregular flocei
proceeding from it, magnified; a'. part of the peridium seen from above,
stretching over the processes which run down from it, ditto; 0. spores,
more highly magnified, in groups and separate.

1143. Trichia flagellifer, n..s. Globosa, sessilis, metallica ;
floccis apice flagelliferis ; sporis carneis.

On spruce fir. Badminton, Dec. 1865.

Perfectly globose, but fixed only by a-small portion of the
surface, which slightly projects, smooth, bay, reflecting metallic
tints like a Physarum; flocci divided above two or three times ;
spores ‘0003-0004 in diameter.

Perfectly distinct from every other Trichia by the colour of
the spores and metallic coat, in addition to the flagelliform
threads.

Puate II. fig. 4. a@. single plant, magnified; 6. threads, ‘magnified ;
c. ditto, more highly magnified; d. spores, magnified.

[To be continued.]

M. E. Mecznikow on the Rhabdoceela. oF

XI.—On the Rhabdocela. By E. Mecznixow*.
[Plate VIII.]

In his great work on the anatomy and developmental history of
the lower marine animals, Claparéde has expressed the opiniont
that the Rhabdocela must be divided into two groups corre-
sponding with the two divisions of the Dendrocela. He founds
this opinion upon the fact that the genera Convoluta and Macro-
stomum possess two genital orifices. Although I can confirm
this observation from my own investigations, and even add a
third Rhabdoccelan with two genital apertures to those just
mentioned, I must affirm that this peculiarity of the organs
of generation, from its irregularity, cannot furnish any classifi-
eatory character either for the chief divisions or even for the
genera. The following statements as to the sexual organs of
some species of Prostomum may serve as a proof of this.

I will first call attention to the common freshwater form,
Prostomum lineare, the sexual organs of which have already
been investigated by Oscar Schmidt t and Max Schultze§. In
this animal the unequal development of the male and female
organs in different individuals appears most remarkable: some-
times we meet with those which exhibit an aborted female ap-
paratus along with a fully-developed male (PI. VIII. fig. 1) or
vice versd (fig. 2). In the former we find a large unpaired
testis (fig. 1 ¢), which communicates with a vesicle containing
seminal masses (v.s.); this opens into another thick-walled ve-
sicle, in which the zoospermia are converted into a compact
mass. After this vesicle has received several currents of fatty
corpuscles (c. ad.), which are evidently related in some way to
the zoospermia, it is connected with the spinous apparatus which
acts as the penis. In the individuals just described we find no
poison-gland, and only few traces of the female organs, namely
some isolated ovicells (0.7.) ; moreover in these individuals there
is an isolated round vesicle, or receptaculum seminis, containing
granules (r. s.).

In the other individuals of Prostomum lineare the male organs
are in a rudimentary state, as the testis alone can be detected in
them, whilst the two seminal vesicles have disappeared entirely.
The female organs of such individuals, on the contrary, are

completely developed. The ovary (fig. 20v.), a simple gland

* Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from Wiegmann’s ‘Archiv,’ 1865,
pp- 174-181.

+ Beobachtungen iiber Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte wir-
belloser Thiere, 1863, p. 16.

t Die Rhabdoccelen Strudelwiirmer, 1848, p. 26.

§ In Carus’s Icones Zootomice, tab. 8. fig. 16.

58 M. E. Mecanikow on the Rhabdoceela.

filled with ova, lies on the side of the body. Near it there is a
pyriform uterus (wé.), which is continued into a vagina opening
outwards. The yelk-stock is also to be seen as a long band-like
structure; and at the inferior side of the body there is a very
large double receptaculum seminis (r.s.), filled with zoospermia,
the orifice of which [ could not detect. Finally, the female in-.
dividuals also possess a poison-gland, the efferent duct of which
is combined with the spinous apparatus.

The organization of the genitalia of Prostomum lineare, as just
described, does not precisely agree with the descriptions of these
objects cited above. In the first place must be mentioned the
difference in the distribution of the male and female organs in
the same individual, both kinds of organs being represented as
quite equally developed in one specimen in the figures of the
above-mentioned writers—a circumstance which may probably
be due to their having made their drawings from the observa-
tion of several (male and female) specimens. The second and
more important difference between my description and those of
Schmidt and Schultze is due to the fact that those savants re-
garded the uterus as the egg-shell, and therefore furnished the
egg with a peculiar stalk (Schmidt), or with a still more peculiar
micropyle (Schultze). In consequence of this misconception the
above-mentioned authors have described Prostomum lineare as
monoporous, and have not recognized it as an animal furnished
with two genital apertures, which it really is. The other, less
important differences between my description and that of the
other observers may be seen by a comparison of the figures,

From the preceding statements it is clear that Prostomum
lineare presents in a less degree the same phenomenon of inci-
pient hermaphroditism which Claparéde observed in Convoluta.

The peculiarities in the structure of the sexual organs of
Prostomum lineare are by no means common to the whole of its
genus, and do not even extend to the most nearly allied species.
This is shown by a new marine species, also provided with a
spinous apparatus, which I discovered in Heligoland, and there-
fore indicate as P. helgolandicum. The specific characters of
this species (Pl. VIII. fig. 3), which is oval and furnished with
comparatively large eye-points and cerebral ganglia, relate chiefly
to the structure of the sexual organs. These are not so unequally
distributed as in the previously described species; P. helgo-
landicum is perfectly hermaphrodite. The ovaries and yelk-
stocks (fig. 3 ov. & vit.) are paired organs running along the two
sides of the body ; ‘and besides these, we may distinguish a
uterus (wt.) with a crown-like inner margin. Of the male
organs I was able to observe the two symmetrically arranged
seminal vesicles (v..s.) and the unpaired thick-walled vesicle

M. E. Mecznikow on the Rhabdoccela. 59

communicating with the spinous ‘apparatus ; ; the spine itself is
connected with the poison-gland.

Besides these two Prostomee I have met with Claparéde’s
Prostomum caledonicum* on Heligoland, and observed its sexual
organs. I have only to add to the accurate description of Cla-
paréde that the animal does not, as described, possess one seminal
vesicle, but three of them (fig. 4v.s.), of which two are situated
upon the upper surface of the penis and the third near its point
of aperture. J must also remark that these vesicles are not
imbedded in the interior of the sheath of the penis, but outside
of it.

II. Schmarda+ has found in the standing and brackish waters

of North America two Rhabdoccela with a terminal pharynx
and eyes placed behind it (that is to say, with the characters of
the genus Prostomum, according to former notions, when the
proboscis was regarded as the pharynx) ; of this he has formed
a distinct genus, Acmostomum, the representative of the family
Acmostomez.
_ I found a marine species of this family on Heligoland. This
pale-brown species, which measures 1:5 millim. (fig. 5), possesses
at the anterior end a conical pharynx, which differs in form, and
in the absence of the marginal papill, from the same organ of
the Acmostomez described by Schmarda. Behind this there are
two brown eyes, lying close upon the brain. The latter, which
is of the usual construction, gives off two strong nervous stems
from each side. The animal observed has the sexes completely
separated ; but unfortunately I have only found a male indivi-
dual, the generative organs of which consist of several testes
constructed exactly as in Monocelis (fig. 5 r. s.), and of a strong
seminal vesicle (v.s.) furnished with a muscular efferent duct.
The zoospermia with which the vesicle was filled are represented
In fig. 5 a.

The species just described may very well be regarded as the
representative of a peculiar genus ; but I leave it for the present
in the still imperfectly known genus Acmostomum, under the
name of A. dioicum.

Ill. Under the name of Alaurina prolifera, Buscht{ has de-
scribed an animal found by him only on one occasion, at Malaga,
upon the systematic position of which he was in doubt. It was
an elongated animal, with cilia and stiff hairs, and was met with
in process of transverse division.

A Turbellarian larva, with its caudal extremity apparently
presenting indications of a segmentation, described and figured

* Recherches sur les Annélides, Turbellaires, &c., ; Bl 5. fig. 5,

+ Neue wirbellose Thiere; Erste Halfte, p. 3, taf. 1. figs. 1, 2.
{ Beobachtungen iiber wirbellose Thiere, p. 114, taf. 11. fig. 9.

60 M. E. Mecznikow on the Rhabdoccela.

by Claparéde*, and’ found by him on the Scottish coasts, is evi-
dently very nearly allied to the animal just described.

Both these animals were found in a sexless state, and there-
fore regarded as larvee. Leuckart + remarks, upon the form de-
scribed by Busch, “ Alaurina prolifera is certainly a larval
worm, although it may be doubtful to what group it belongs.”
The anatomical structure of the larva in question is very imper-
fectly described in the memoirs just cited. It was the more in-
teresting to me, therefore, to meet with several specimens of an
animal nearly allied to Alaurina, which I found, in August last,
upon the surface of the sea near Heligoland.

All the specimens found were composed of four parts (Pl. VIII.
fig. 6), of which the foremost was the longest, whilst the other
three were nearly of equal length. The total length of the
animal was 14 millim. The anterior part was furnished with a
tactile proboscis, as in the animals of Busch and Claparéde,—
therefore with an apparatus which may be regarded as a group-
character. Its pale-green colour distinguishes it from the rest
of the -body, which is citron-yellow, and covered with a dense
coat of fine cilia, which are entirely wanting on the conical pro-
boscis. The stronger vibratile hairs described by Claparéde on
his larva are not present in my animal; but, on the other hand,
it bears a long seta at its posterior end, and this may probably
be identical with those of Alaurina proli ifera.

The cilia are inserted upon the isolable spherical epithelial
cells. Under the skin the body is surrounded by a distinct
layer of annular muscular fibres. Of the nervous system I have
found no trace in my animal; but there is a pair of small black
eye-points behind the proboscis. The eyes do not usually occur
upon the three hinder parts of the body ; once only have I seen.
a pair of such organs upon the last “ segment.”

The mouth is situated on the ventral surface, behind the eyes,
It leads into a ciliated buccal cavity, which narrows and then
leads into a pharynx (fig. 6 ph.) provided with strong muscles
(nearly as in the Mesostomee). The intestine runs straight
through the whole body; I could not observe its posterior ori-
fice (anus), any more than Claparéde, whilst Busch describes
his Alaurina as an animal provided with an anus. I believe that
these characters in my animal are very similar to those of the
Microstomee, in which I have likewise sought in vain for an
anus. In Microstomum lineare, under a moderate pressure, I
always saw the contents of the intestine issuing only from the
mouth. Do the Microstomez really possess no anus? and is

* Recherches, &c. p. 83, taf. 5. fig. 2.
Tt Gottingische Anzeigen, 1852, p. 867.

M.E. Mecznikow on the Rhabdoceela. 61

that which is described as such by previous observers perhaps
my a torn place produced by division ?

n the two sides of the body there are two very fine water-
vascular stems (fig. 6 r.a.), the opening of which, however, I
could not find. )

The A/aurina observed by me is evidently not a larva, but
rather furnished with hermaphrodite sexual organs, which are
present in each “segment,’’ and sometimes even occur in double
number in one or more of the segments. The testes are nume-
rous and distributed in the body (fig. 62), appearing like cap-
sules containing the zoospermia. The male apparatus also in-
cludes a seminal vesicle of considerable size (v. s.), the efferent
duct of which opens into a tubular penis (pe.) composed of
chitine. The extremity of this is inserted into the male genital
orifice, which is situated on the side of the body and often sur-
rounded by a cutaneous projection. ;

Near each seminal vesicle there occurs an ovum furnished

with a nucleus and nucleolus, which forms the female apparatus.
I could not find the female genital aperture; but, as it can
hardly be wanting (for the male orifice is too narrow to furnish
room for both male organs during copulation), I am inclined to
_ think that it is only present at the time of copulation.
As Ihave now described some of the peculiarities of organiza-
tion of the animal observed, I may be allowed to draw one or
two conclusions therefrom. In the first place, I must assert that
the parts of which the body is composed are by no means buds
which would subsequently separate. This opinion is founded
upon the fact that the whole animal possesses a common pro-
boscis, mouth, and intestinal canal, as well as common aqui-
ferous vessels ; and I have never seen traces of these parts upon
the segments when already sexually mature. Perhaps, however,
the parts above interpreted as segments are to be regarded as
the joints of an animal colony analogous to the Cestoda, as was
urged upon me by Prof. Leuckart (who also first called my at-
tention to the similarity of my Turbellarian to Busch’s Alau-
rina).

As regards the systematic position of this worm, which I de-
nominate Alaurina composita, 1 think that, together with the
animals observed by Busch and Claparéde, it forms a distinct
family in the neighbourhood of the Microstomee, to which the
Alaurine are more or less related from the resemblance in the
structure of the sexual organs and intestine.

If my statements are correct, Max Schultze’s system cannot
remain quite unaltered, inasmuch as he describes the Microsto-
mee as Arhynchia, which, however, will not do for the Alaurine
which are furnished with a proboscis. Perhaps the Microstomee

62 - M. Balbiani on the Reproduction

and Alaurine are to be regarded merely as families of the Rhab-
doccela, a view which has already been expressed by Leuckart,
at least with regard to the former. The peculiarities of the ’
sexual organs and fission can no longer be accepted as ordinal
characters, since we have become acquainted with the proliferous
Catenula and the Rhabdoccela with the sexes separate.

XII.—On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.
By M. Baxprant*.

Or the questions relating to the generation of animals, one of
those which are still most open to discussion is that of the
mode of propagation of the viviparous Aphides. According to
the ideas which observers have formed of the nature of the
reproductive organs of these insects, their multiplication has
been referred sometimes to the phenomena of alternate gene-
rations, sometimes to those of parthenogenesis or virgin-gene-
ration. As to the opinion which consists in assuming an
androgynous condition in these animals, which is still maintained
by some authors, as well as by Leeuwenhoek, Cestoni, and
Réaumur, it rests upon a mere hypothesis which has not yet
received its material demonstration by the detection of the male °
element in the viviparous Aphides.

It is this last view that I propose to defend here by bringing
forward the positive proof for which science has waited since the
time of the illustrious observers who first pronounced in favour
of the hermaphroditism of these creatures. I propose, in fact, to
show that this state is the normal condition of the Aphides
throughout the viviparous period of their existence, and I shall
also show in what manner the separation of the sexes is effected
in them, when, under the influence of certain determinate
conditions, their mode of reproduction reverts to the law common
to the generality of species of animals.

The evolution and physiological function of the generative
organs commencing at a very slightly advanced period of the
embryonic life of these insects, and their history being, so to
speak, inseparable from that of the development of the ovum
itself, I shall have to trace faithfully, though concisely, the
principal phases of this development. It is by following this
course in my observations that I have succeeded in coming to
an understanding of this question which has been so long in
debate. This investigation will also, as we shall see, reveal
some remarkable facts which I regard as of high interest with
respect to the origin of the male and female generative elements,

* Translated from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ June 4, 1866, pp. 1231-1234.

and Embryogeny of the Aphides. 63

and their relations to the rest of the organism. But, in the first
place, it is necessary to give an idea of the structure presented,
according to my observations, by the organ in which the embryo
originates—that is to say, the female sexual apparatus or ovary of
-the viviparous Aphides.

This apparatus consists, as in most other insects, of a variable
number of tubes or sheaths, each of which is dilated at its
anterior extremity into a terminal cell or chamber containing a
group of small cells. One of these occupies the centre of the
group and is entirely surrounded by the others. This central
cell is the most important of all; for it represents the generative
element or the mother cell of all the ovules in each sheath which
are destined to become converted into embryos. These ovules
originate in the form of true buds, which, separating successively
from the central cell, appear at the bottom of the terminal
chamber before passing into the upper part of the sheath.
The peripheral cells, attached to the former by hollow pedicles,
are its nutritive cells, its sole function being to emit incessantly
new ovular buds.

At the moment when the ovule penetrates into the ovarian
sheath, it clearly presents a germinal vesicle and spot. A delicate

filament still attaches it for a time to the mother cell; but this
union is soon broken, and the ovule remains completely isolated
in its chamber. It is generally at this moment that the modi-
fications which are to lead to the formation of the embryo
commence in the ovum. The germinal spot first disappears, and
is soon followed by the vesicle which contained it. During this
period some nuclei, at first rare, have made their appearance on
the surface of the vitellus, and condensed around them the
transparent homogeneous substance of which it is composed.
By this means are formed the first blastodermic cells. No
membrane as yet surrounds them. The rather wide intervals
separating them at first are quickly filled up by the appearance
of new nuclei and cells. The ovule is thus finally clothed over
the whole of its surface by a continuous layer of cells arranged
in a single series and pressed against each other. At this period
they all present a very recognizable proper envelope.

While the blastoderm has thus been completing its formation,
the ovum has increased in size and passed from a spherical form
to that of an elongated oval ; at the same time it has descended
a little in the interior of the ovarian sheath. The central vitel-
line mass enclosed in the cavity of the blastoderm has lost its
homogeneous aspect and become penetrated by fine colourless
granulations. Soon afterwards an orifice is formed at the pos-
terior pole of the blastoderm *, in consequence of the separation at

_* IT give the name of posterior pole of the blastoderm or ovum to the

64. M. Balbiani on the Reproduction

this point of the cells composing it; and the internal granular mass.
projects through this orifice. We then clearly perceive, either
directly or by means of reagents, that the whole inner surface of
the blastoderm is lined with a delicate membrane which extends.
like an envelope round the central vitelline mass.

It is this membrane, with a portion of its contents, that pro-
jects, as just stated, through the orifice at the posterior extre-
mity of the blastoderm. This hernial portion attaches itself to.
the corresponding epithelial cells of the ovarian chamber, which
are hypertrophied, and becomes as it were engrafted upon them.
When this connexion is established, the vitelline vesicle becomes
constricted in the interior of the cavity of the blastoderm like a
cell in process of division, and then separates into two juxta-
posed secondary cells,—the posterior adherent to the epithelium
of the chamber, the other, or anterior, being completely free in
the above-mentioned cavity. I have sometimes succeeded in.
detecting a very pale granular nucleus in the posterior vesicle,
and less distinctly in the anterior one; they, therefore, present,
all the characters of true cells. These vesicles or cells are to be
the origin of the male and female generative elements of the
future animal—that is to say, of the ova on the one hand, and
the spermatic cells on the other. In fact, by a phenomenon of
germination which I cannot describe here in detail, each of them
becomes covered at its surface by a generation of small cells,
which, when once produced, increase in size and continue to
multiply on their own account. From this results the forma-.
tion of two very distinct cellular groups placed side by side in
the cavity of the blastoderm. The group produced by the
herniated vesicle engrafted upon the exterior epithelium repre-
sents the male element, and will give origin to the fecundating
corpuscles ; that which originates from the free vesicle in the
interior of the ovum is, on the contrary, formed by the totality
of the female elements—that is to say, the generative cells of the
future ovules, surrounded by their nutritive cells. This latter
group soon subdivides into a certain number of secondary groups,
corresponding with that of the ovarian sheaths which are sub-
sequently to be formed. The cells which compose it remain
always transparent and colourless, and are also smaller than
those of the first group, the cells of which, on the other hand,
are soon permeated by numerous small green or yellow granula- —
tions, which enable them to be recognized with the greatest
facility*. The generative vesicles of the two sexual masses be-

extremity which is directed towards the external sexual orifice, and that of
anterior 30 to that which looks towards the terminal chamber of the
ovarian sheath.

* This yellow or green mass, which is met with in most Aphides at all

and Embryogeny of the Aphides. 65

have in a very different manner in the sequel of the develop-
ment; that which has given origin to the female elements dis-
appears immediately afterwards, whilst the vesicle which has
generated the male or spermatic elements, far from disappearing,
continues its development, often becomes very large, and after
forming connexions with the female generative apparatus, con-
stitutes a reservoir for the fecundative corpuscles—becoming, in
fact, a true seminal vesicle for this hermaphrodite apparatus.

_ When the curious phenomena just described summarily have
terminated, the embryonic development, properly so-called, has
not yet commenced. We may, indeed, observe that the cells of the
blastoderm have multiplied at the anterior pole so as to produce a
very considerable thickening there; but this modification is not fol-
lowed by the formation of any new part. This thicker layer, in
fact, soon gradually diminishes, and is at last entirely effaced*.

XIII.—On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.
By M. Baxrsiant. (Second Note.)+

Iy the viviparous Aphides the blastoderm assists to a certain
extent in the formation of the embryo, but its part is exclusively
limited to the production of the laminz which complete the ce-
phalic extremity in front. All the rest, on the contrary, results
from an entirely new part superadded to the blastoderm.

The first phenomenon which denotes the commencement of
embryonic development is a budding forth of cells upon one of
the halves of the circumference of the aperture (of which I have
already indicated the purpose and mode of formation) at the
posterior pole of the blastoderm. The result of this budding is
the production of a cellular lamina, which gradually rises from
the margin of the preceding aperture into the interior of the
ovum, folding back against the inner wall of the blastoderm,
-which it appears in some degree to double for a certain extent.
When arrived within a short distance of the anterior pole, it folds
inwards, inyersely to its former direction, as if to descend again
towards the aperture which was its point of departure, but with-
out passing, at least at this time, the middle of the ascending

periods of embryonic development and even after birth, has been described
sometimes as serving for the nutrition of the embryo ( pseudo-vitellus of
Huxley), sometimes as a plastic mass destined for the formation of the
vegetative organs (Leydig).

* This transitory production of the blastoderm of the Aphides is pro-
bably the analogue of the “ primitive cumulus ” described by Claparéde as
hive the formation of the embryonal rudiment in the ova of the

piders.
: ae Translated from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ June 11th, 1866, pp. 1285-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xviii. 5

66 M. Balbiani on the Reproduction

branch. This curved lamina, produced in this way by a bud-
ding of the blastoderm in the interior of its own cavity, is nothing —
but the embryonic rudiment or primitive streak, less the ante-
rior part of the head; in fact the ascending brafch represents
the whole of the ventral cephalothoracic wall, destined to bear
the buccal and locomotive appendages, and the descending
branch the ventral wall of the abdomen. As to the elements des-
tined to form the anterior wall of the head with its appendages,
or the antennz, these are, as I have just stated, the only ones
which result from a transformation of the blastoderm. For this
purpose the latter becomes thickened in the region corresponding
with that against which the ascending or cephalothoracie branch
of the primitive streak is applied in such a manner as to sur-
round like a hood the base of this branch, with which this thick-
ened part is continued through the orifice of the posterior pole.
In all the rest of its extent the blastoderm becomes trans-
formed into a delicate membrane, which envelopes the embryo
as it were in a sort of sac, which isolates it from the ovarian
chamber. ;

At this period of its evolution the embryonal streak therefore
presents in its totality the form of an §, of which the inferior
curvature represents the cephalic hood, the superior curvature
the rudiment of the abdomen, and the intermediate branch the
combined rudiments of the head and thorax. .

The primitive streak divides into two longitudinal halves by
the formation of a furrow upon each of its faces. These two sym-
metrical halves, which represent the axes of the two halves of the
body, and betray the bilateral type of the animal, are the germi-
native tuberosities (Kezmwiilste of the German embryogenists).
Their formation is one of the earliest phenomena in the evolution
of the Aphides; for it takes place part passu with the formation
of the primitive streak, and consequently long before the ap-
pearance of the zonites and their appendages. As to the other
principal embryogenic phenomena, such as the formation of a
reflected superficial lamella (the Faltenblatt of Weismann), that
of the primitive parts of the head, the division of the germinative
tuberosities into transverse segments or zonites, the appearance
of the cephalic and thoracic appendages, &c., I can only men-
tion them here, leaving all that relates to these different points
of embryonic evolution to the memoir in which I propose to treat
in extenso the subject of which this note gives a summary.

In proportion as the primitive streak penetrates into the in-
terior of the ovum, the sexual masses follow it in its movement,
and place themselves against the inner face of the upper reflected
or abdominal portion of this streak. At this period nothing yet
exists resembling a visceral cavity, the streak, as in all the Arti-

ee

and Embryogeny of the Aphides. 67

culata, containing only the elements of the head and of the in-

-ferior wall of the body. The sexual masses are therefore, in

point of fact, completely naked and outside the embryo. But
already we can see that the embryonic cells arrange themselves
in parallel series directed towards the extremity of the abdo-
men, to form excretory ducts, destined to place them in relation

with that region.

Development continuing under these conditions, the embryo
enlarges, and with it the whole sexual apparatus; the parts al-
ready existing become completed and perfected, the mouth and
anus are formed, and the digestive tube becomes visible at its
extremities. It is at this point that a phenomenon occurs
equally simple in its mechanism and important in its results
for the further progress of the development of the Articulata,
namely the reversal of the mode of rolling of the embryo. This
reversal, which is not always effected by means of exactly the
same process in all these animals, takes place in the Aphides by
an actual backward summerset executed by the embryo in the
interior of its cell. In consequence of this change of position
the head, which at first was in relation to the posterior part of
the cell, arrives at the anterior part, while the ventral surface, at
first turned inwards, now looks outwards, and is placed imme-
diately under the envelope of the egg. By the same act the
abdomen is transferred to the dorsal side, and rises, like a sort
of tail to the embryo, as far as the posterior part of the head,
leaving between it and the cephalothoracic rudiment a space,
the greater part of which is occupied by the mass of the gene-
rative organs. In this new position all that is necessary is that
the embryo should complete itself behind by the formation of a
dorsal wall, in order that these organs may be enclosed in the
cavity of the body quite naturally and without any new change
of position.

The closure of the hinder part of the body is effected by the

simple growth of the ventral arches towards the dorsal region,

’ and their fusion in the median line of the latter.

If we endeavour at this period of development to under-
stand the arrangement of the hermaphrodite apparatus of the
viviparous Aphides, we find the primitive common mass of ova-
rian cells divided into two groups, symmetrically placed in the
posterior part of the body, and each of these groups formed of
a small number of cellular masses, each of which possesses a
proper envelope. In these we easily recognize the terminal
chambers of the ovarian sheaths, with their contents, consisting
of small transparent cells. The male organ is likewise divided
into two parts, arranged, in the form of two. cords of variable
form, on each side of the digestive tube, within the ovaries,

68 On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.

above which they rise niore or less. The whole mass of these»
organs, the green colour of which being often very intense im-_
mediately catches the eye, is composed of large oval or poly-
hedric cells, the characters of which I shall describe further on,

im speaking of the formation of the seminal corpuscles. A very

delicate envelope extends itself round each of them, and is con-

tinued to the posterior part in an attenuated process, which

loses itself upon the sides of the rectum, and probably represents

an excretory duct. As the neck of the seminal vesicle may

likewise be followed into this region, it is probably there that

the union of these ducts with the spermatic reservoir is effected.

As to the seminal vesicle, it is formed by a sac of considerable

size situated on the median line above the intestine, with its

fundus sometimes advancing nearly to the middle of the body.

Its wall is formed by a simple structureless membrane, a true

cell-membrane, of such delicacy and transparency that in most

cases its presence is betrayed only by the seminal corpuscles and

coloured granulations composing its contents—which explains

how it has remained undetected by all observers. The seminal

vesicle terminates by a very slender duct, which represents its
neck, and which I have been able to trace to the point of union

of the two ovarian tubes, where it is probably inserted.

It remains for me, in conclusion, to say a few words about
the spermatic corpuscles and their formation. This commences
very early; for all the embryos of the viviparous Aphides at the
moment of their birth contain new generations in course of
development. Still more, it is not rare to find the spermatic
reservoir, to the early formation of which I have adverted above,
already filled with seminal corpuscles before there is any trace of
an embryo in the ovum. These corpuscles are formed, as I have
already stated, in the large coloured cells which constitute the
mass of the two organs situated in the vicinity of the ovaries.
At the moment of their appearance these cells contained only a
homogeneous and colourless substance ; but as they enlarge they
become penetrated by fine granules, which give them the green —
or yellowish-green colour presented by them in most Aphides ;
at the same time their contents become converted into a multi-
tude of little daughter cells, furnished with a membrane and a
nucleus: these are the cells of development of the spermati¢
elements. They are, im fact, soon replaced by innumerable
small dark corpuscles of 0°001—0:002 millim. in diameter, which,
under a strong power, appear like minute Amebe; but their
form does not change under the microscope. The large mother
cells have then lost their transparency and their green colour,
and become opaque and brownish ; they are easily disintegrated,
breaking up into a sort of powder after the destruction of their

Miscellaneous. : 69

enveloping membrane. In many Aphides these Amceboid cor-
puscles undergo a further degree of evolution by their transfor-
mation into small unequal bacilli, which are straight or diversely
flexuose, immobile ind colourless, and 0°005-—0:020 millim. in
length. We might easily be led to regard them as a parasitic
vegetable production, if we had not before our eyes all the suc-
cessive phases of the transformation of these elements. More-
over their rapid solubility in alkaline solutions constitutes a
character which differentiates them completely from the micro-
scopic Oscillatorie, with which they present the greatest resem-
blance. Several times I have succeeded in seeing some of these
corpuscles in the ovarian tubes, or forming small groups at the
bottom of the terminal chamber of the ovigerous sheaths.

In the third and last part of this memoir I shall investigate
the phenomena of reproduction in the oviparous Aphides, and
show how these are related to the viviparous generations which
preceded them.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Metamorphoses of the Marine Crustacea.
By M. Z, Gerse.

Tue author gives the following summary of the conclusions to
which his investigations have led him :—

1. The larvee of the species belonging to the genera Maia, Pisa,
Platycarcinus, Cancer, Xantus, Gonoplax, Portunus, Porcellana,
Palinurus, Homarus, Callianassa, Crangon, Athanas, Palemon,
Mysis, Tone, and very probably those of many other genera, undergo,
immediately after their birth, a first moult, which gives them a form
different from that which they possessed in the egg.

2. None of the marine Crustacea of the division Podophthalma,
or of the Edriophthalma, which I have observed has its organization
complete at birth or possesses forms by which it might be referred
to the species to which it belongs, and all are furnished with transi-
tory appendages for natation, which give them a locomotion different
from that which they will have in the perfect state: these appendages
persist until the fifth or sixth moult, and become atrophied in posi-
tion without falling off.

3. It is only at the fifth moult in some, and at the sixth in others,
and after having undergone modifications at each moult, that the

_general form of the adult and the external organs are complete.

To these transitory external forms, so different from those of the
perfect animals, and becoming modified at each moult, are due
a multitude of false species and genera and doubtful families *, and
even, as regards the larve of the Palinuri, an entire order to be
eliminated.

* The family of the Erichthide, in the order Stomapoda, appears to ine

-to be chiefly founded upon Crustacea in the larval state.

70 ‘ Miscellaneous.

- 4, However the larvee of various species of Crustacea may resemble
each other in external form, nevertheless in the arrangement, the
form, and the number of the spots of the skin and intestine, and
especially in the number and conformation of the provisional appen-
dages which adorn the extremity of the last segment of the abdomen,
they present definite characters which enable us to say to what
species any particular larva belongs.

5. The stomach of the larvee of the marine Crustacea presents
no solid piece adapted to the grinding of food ; it is merely furnished
on its inner face with rigid spinules arranged in rows, and with vibra-
tile cilia like those found in the stomachs of a great number of the
lower animals. These cilia communicate an incessant movement of
rotation to the organic molecules upon which the animal feeds.

6. In all larvee of Crustacea, the liver, ati first reduced to two
simple ceeca, one on each side, is manifestly a diverticulum of the
intestinal tube, with which it has wide communications ; by ramify-
ing, it forms a hollow tree, at the base of which we may see oscillating
the vitelliné globules which the umbilical vesicle pours into the
pyloric portion of the intestine.

7. The marine Crustacea, however the respiratory functions may
be ultimately performed, all have a tegumentary respiration in the
larval state.

With the exception of the Lobsters, which, when first hatched,
have a rudimentary branchial apparatus quite unfit to perform any
functions, the larve of the other genera of Crustacea enumerated
above are absolutely destitute of this apparatus; some, indeed, do
not present any traces of it until after several moults.

8. The want of the function of branchial respiration necessitates
a radical difference between the circulation of the individual in the
larval and the individual in the perfect form—that is to say, having
acquired branchiz. In all the larve of Maia, Porcellana, Crangon,
Palemon, Palinurus, Homarus, Cancer, &c., the blood which the
arteries have distributed to the different parts of the body returns
entirely, directly to the heart, and this condition persists for a con-
siderable time. It is only after the third moult, in the most perfect
larva of the species inhabiting our seas—that of the Lobster—that a
few globules are diverted from the original general circulation to
penetrate into the nascent branchie.

9. All the arteries open directly into the venous passages by an
aperture more or less bevelled and more or less dilated into a trumpet-
like form.

10. In some larve the abdominal artery may present a sort of
sphincter in its course, at some distance from the central organ of
circulation; this, by contracting, temporarily suspends the flow of
blood to the hinder parts*. ~

’ * This remarkable peculiarity exists not only in the larve of the Lob-
sters, as already indicated, but also in those of the Porcellane. It is even
probable that it will be found in many species, and perhaps in all; for
when we observe the circulation in the last segment of the abdomen of
larvee of Cancer, Carcinus, Palemon, &c., interruptions are perceived in it.

Miscellaneous. — 71

11, Although the transitory spines which arm the thorax of some
species do not receive any arterial branch, a complete circulation is
established in their cavity. Some of the globules which the venous
lacunz convey to the heart make a digression into these transitory
appendages, traverse nearly their whole length, and return by a
parallel course into the lacuna from which they started.

12. The central nervous system of the larvae of Crustacea presents
differences in its arrangement and form from that of the-perfect in-
dividual ; and the development of each of the medullary nuclei which
constitute the ganglionic masses is in relation to the development of
the organs to which these nuclei correspond.

13. Lastly, no larva of any species of Crustacea presents traces
of the generative apparatus.—Comptes Rendus, May 7, 1866,
pp- 1024-1027.

On the Mi-lou or Sseu-pou-siang, a Mammal from the north of
China, which forms a new Section in the Family Cervide. By
A. Mitne-Epwarps.

Father David, a missionary at Pekin, has sent to the Museum at
Paris a zoological collection containing skins of the Mi-lou, a large
species of stag, which is regarded by M. A. Milne-Edwards as a
completely new form.

In its general aspect, in its coat, its clumsy gestures, and the
mode in which the male carries his horns, it has a certain resem-
blance to the Reindeer. It approaches the true Cervi by the posses-
sion of a naked muffle and in the anatomical characters of the skull;
but it is distinguished from all known Cervidee by the direction and
mode of ramification of the horns, and also by the structure of the
tail.

The horns present no basal anterior antler, but they are greatly
developed and much branched. The processes of the frontal bone
from which they originate are larger than in the common stag.
The beam is thick, and, at a considerable distance above the burr,
gives origin to a long posterior branch, which is directed almost
horizontally backward, so as nearly to touch the back of the animal;
this branch is almost as thick as the perche, and bears on its sub-
terminal portion several antlers arranged upon its outer margin and
very close together, so as to form a sort of palmation slightly resem-
bling that ot the brow-antler of old reindeers. The perche, instead
of being regularly curved, is twisted into an S-like form, and bears
two large antlers directed backwards and inwards; it terminates in
a fork; lastly, all the upper part of the horn is armed with a series
of large tubercles; several of which are so much developed as to form
little accessory antlers on the outer margin. The female has no
horns.

The coat of these animals is rough, brittle, very thick, and of a
uniform yellowish-grey colour, except on the median line of the back
and chest, where there is a black band.

The tail, instead of being short and thick, is very long, and fur-

72 Miscellaneous.

nished with long hairs towards the end; these sometimes descend
beyond the heel, as in the ass,

According to M. David, the Chinese often give the Mi-low the
name of Sseu-pou-siang—that is to say, the four (characters) which
do not agree, as they consider that the animal resembles the stag in
its horns, the cow in its feet, the camel in its neck, and the mule or
the ass in its tail. The author considers the characters of this animal
to be so peculiar that it forms a new generic group, and he gives it
the name of Elaphurus Davidianus.

The Mi-lou is of the size of a large stag; an adult male received
by the Museum measures 1°30 metre to the withers; and larger in-
dividuals are often seen, The animal lives in herds in the imperial
park at some distance from Pekin; it has been there for a long time ;
but the Chinese do not know how or at what time it was brought
there. M. David thinks that the reindeer spoken of by Hue, in his
‘ Voyage en Tartarie,’ as living in herds beyond the Koukou-Noor,
towards 36° N. lat., may have been identical with the Mi-lou.—
Comptes Rendus, May 14, 1866, pp. 1090-1092.

On the Pleuronectide of the Genus Zeugopterus, and the Structure
of their Branchial Cavity. By J. SreenstRup.

In a monograph published in 1835 upon the Pleuronectidee of the
Sound and the Gattevat, M. Gottsche established several new genera
which have not in general been accepted by zoologists. One of these
genera, Zeugopterus, was characterized by the author as presenting
a union of the anal fin to the ventrals by a fold of skin starting from
the last rays of the latter, M. Kroyer, in his ‘ Danish Fishes,’ has
rejected this genus, as being founded upon a character of secondary
importance, which can only be regarded as specific. M. Steenstrup
agrees with Kréyer as to the value of the character, but nevertheless
retains the genus Zeugopterus, because the character in question is
never isolated, but always presents itself in connexion with others.
The most important of the latter is a constant deviation either of the
anal or dorsal fin towards the blind side—a deviation which cannot
but exert some influence upon the mode of natation of the animal.
Moreover the scales of the Zeugopteri are roughened with little teeth,
and both the outline of the body and the coloration appear to present
certain peculiarities common to all the species. But the most evi-
dent proof that the group Zeugopterus really forms a well-marked
natural division, is the discovery by Steenstrup of a very remarkable
anatomical peculiarity which is not exemplified in any other Pleuro-
nectid. Thus in the Zeugopteri the vertical osseous partition which
separates the two branchial cavities from each other is perforated by
a large aperture in such a manner that the water can pass freely
from one branchial cavity to the other. The physiological bearing
of such an arrangement seems very problematical.—Oversigt, §c.,
Danske Vidensk. Selsk. 1865, p. 95; Bibl. Univ. May 1866, p. 79.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY..-
| [THIRD SERIES.]

No. 104. AUGUST 1866.

XIV.—Memoir on a new Parasitic Crustacean belonging to the
Order Lerneida, forming a new Family. By M. Hesse*,

Tue object of this memoir is to make known a new Crustacean,
which, from the simplicity of its structure and the singularity
of its habits, must, I think, excite the curiosity of naturalists.
They will judge, from the description we shall give of it, of the
embarrassment in which we could not but find ourselves, in the
absence of all definite characters, to assign it a place in the
classification of organized creatures.

§1. Description.

It is from 10 to 12 millimetres in length and 2 millims. in
breadth ; its body, covered with a parchment-like skin, is cylin-
drical and fusiform. It is essentially retractile in the direction
of its length; and the segments of its abdomen, in consequence
of the width of their inferior margin, can even become invagi-
nated one within the other. It is divided into five thoracic and
siz abdominal segments.

Seen from the back, the head terminates in a rounded point,
and presents in the middle a single eye, which, under different
degrees of incidence of light, exhibits a play of colours varying
from red to blue.

The thoracic segments are not very distinct, with the exception
of the first two, which are easily recognized. The others are
merely indicated by lateral depressions, especially when this
part is tumefied by the accumulation of eggs; they increase in
depth and width as they approach the base: the last, in parti-
cular, is much larger than the rest, is rounded laterally in the
middle, and then contracts at its junction with the first abdo-
minal segment.

__™ Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘ Annales des Sciences
Naturelles,’ série 5. tome v. pp. 265-279.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol, xviii. 6

74 M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean.

The abdominal segments, when in their normal state (that is to
say, neither much contracted nor much extended), are perfectly
distinct from each other ; they decrease in depth and width from
the base to the apex, and are nearly square, being only a little

“narrower above than below. The last, or sixth, does not at all
resemble the others in its form, which is nearly that of a shield,
widened at its base, slightly emarginate at the sides, and termi-
nated by two obtuse points furnished with a few hairs. Seen in
profile, they show between them a cavity in which the anal
orifice opens. However, these forms, which are well marked
when they are in their normal state, are extremely variable and
become considerably modified according to circumstances.

The head, seen in profile, has the frontal margin truncated at
the apex and rounded and bent downwards at the sides. - Upon
it we perceive the antenne, which are thick, short, cylindrical,
and composed of two or three joints, terminated by divergent
hairs. Starting from the antenne, the outer margin of the
cephalic envelope descends obliquely in a straight line to go to
the superior angle formed by the inflation presented by the
orifice of the cesophagus. ;

Between these two points is the buccal orifice, which is placed
in the centre of a circular platform slightly hollowed in the
middle. This apparatus, which is very complicated, presents
the following arrangement :—Immediately below the antenne,
and at the sides of the epistome, there are two pairs of footjaws,
which are solid, pectinated, and terminated by a hooked claw;
then follows, in the middle, the buccal aperture, composed of a
conical proboscidiform tube, which issues from and returns into
a cavity formed in the centre of the platform. This tube, which
is constructed of a very firm, but very delicate and transparent,
membranous tissue, receives its impulsion from two pairs of
footjaws, one superior and one inferior, which keep it extended
or contracted according as this organ issues from or re-enters
the cavity destined for its reception. When the tube is entirely
out, we may perceive in its interior a conical appendage, rounded
at the end, ascending and descending frequently, like the piston
in the chamber of a pump: this is really the mouth with its
mandibular armament.

The latter is formed of two pairs of footjaws, which are denti-
culated and trenchant, and furnished with a corneous substance;
these, by applying themselves together, can seize and triturate
objects. They are, moreover, surrounded by a soft and mobile
labial margin, which seems to cover them when necessary ;
lastly, within these organs we see some mandibular palpi, com-

- pleting this system, which may be employed, according to cir-

cumstances, both for suction and mastication.

M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean. 7D

The whole of this apparatus is strongly attached to the inte-

rior by very apparent muscular ligaments, by means of which it
is continually issuing from and returning into the proboscis.
_ Lastly, we also see beneath this proboscis—that is to say, at
the base of the buccal apparatus just described—a pair of very
strong fovtjaws, composed of three joints, and terminated by a
strong, flat, lamellar, and denticulated claw, constructed to dig
into or cut objects. These footjaws are curved inwards, so as to
be able to reach or even to pass the apex of the buccal orifice,
upon which they lower themselves in case of necessity.

We have also remarked that the eye. participates in the move-

ment to and fro which causes the buccal apparatus to issue and
return—an impulse which acts upon the tegumentary envelope
im which it is fixed; we have likewise ascertained that it is
capable of an incomplete rotation upon itself.
. The body, which is very opaque, and, in consequence of its
comparative thickness, conceals from sight the details of its in-
terior organization, is surrounded throughout its whole extent by
a transparent border, which follows all its outlines. Even with
the aid of the compressorium we were unable to detect the
movements of circulation, which nevertheless would have been
very interesting ; we ascertained only that the intestinal tube,
which is very voluminous, especially at the middle of the body,
passes directly from the cesophagus to the anus, and that the
matters contained in it are black, thick, and syrupous; these
issue readily from the body when it is touched rather roughly,
and then, by spreading in the water, form a tolerably compact
network, which remains for some time without dissolving.

It was only by infinite patience, and by taking advantage of
an individual kept alive for more than a fortnight and reduced
by abstinence until it was nearly transparent, that we succeeded
in ascertaining the organization of the mouth and its evolutions.
We had previously attempted in vain to detect them by means of
the compressorium ; its action upon these organs, crushing them,
produced nothing but confusion, which prevented our continuing
our observations. The lobes of the Jiver are very large, and are
contained in the middle of the abdominal cavity. We could not
detect the organs of generation. The ova are large, enclosed
within the most spacious part of the thoracic region, and placed
above the intestine while they are still contained in the oviduct.
They are arranged in a chain in two or three rows, and form a
considerable number of loops or sinuosities; their course may
be detected, and is directed towards the orifices placed at the
base of the last thoracic segment. When they are expelled
from the body, they form a square flat mass; they are enclosed
in a special envelope, and agglutinated together. They appear

6*

76 M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean.

to be excessively caducous; for I have never found them adherent
to the body of the Crustacean, but always beside it in its retreat.
But as they are contained in an enclosure from which they
cannot escape, there is the less inconvenience, in the interest of
reproduction, in the fact that they detach themselves so readily
from the body of the female.

The male of this species is unknown.

The embryo resembles that of all the suctorial Crustacea: its
body is oval, with the forehead nearly square. ‘The two sides
are nearly parallel; and the posterior extremity terminates in a
rounded point, presenting neither hairs nor terminal appendages,
Of the three pairs of natatory feet with which the body is fur-
nished, the first are simple, and the two others biramose, as in
the species just mentioned; all are armed with long flexible
sete destined to assist in natation. The articulations of these
feet are very nodulose, and well fitted to facilitate movements.
The buccal apparatus is proboscidiform and tolerably elongate ;
it is widened at its orifice, and appears to be furnished with two
little jaws. It is erectile, and may lie along the thorax or rise
up perpendicularly. .

The embryo, seen upon a white ground, appears black, but,
when illuminated, it is red. It swims slowly, and with much
less activity than those of the species with which we have com-
pared it.

Coloration.—This Crustacean varies much in colour. It is
sometimes bright yellow slightly tinged with vermilion; some-
times it is of the latter colour but rather pale, brown, or leather-
coloured (chamois). The head, the first thoracie segments, and
the last segment of the abdomen are always white. The intes-
tine, when full, is deep black; the ova are yellow or brown;
the eye, as already stated, red changing to blue.

Habitat. Found, pretty commonly, hidden beneath the scales
of the young of the green-streaked Wrasse (Labrus Donovani*),
where it lives as a parasite.

§ 2. History.

It is already a long time since, while seeking for parasites on
fishes, we first noticed that the young Green Wrasses often pre-
sented on the fore part of the sides of the body, not far from
the eye and the branchial aperture, a small tumour, the bright-
red colour of which contrasted with the green tint of the fish.
This peculiarity would not have attracted our attention so much
if we had not seen it reproduced almost constantly under similar

* The Breton fishermen call this fish Castrik. It is extraordinary that
the parasite is absolutely found only upon this species, although there are
several in the same genus which have the greatest analogy to each other.

—

-M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean. 77

-conditions—that is to say, exclusively upon young fishes*, always

of the same species and at the same place, and generally on the
right side, never hitherto on both sides. It occurred to us to
open one of these tumours, in the expectation of finding some
Entozoa in it, in a cyst or scirrous tube; but what was our
surprise when we found that we had to do with a being which,
although belonging to a higher class, must none the less take a
place among the lowest ranks of the Crustacea with which it
might be classed.

This tumour is of about the size of a lentil, sometimes smaller,
rarely larger. Two, or even three, may often be seen upon the
same fish; but in this case one is always stronger than the
others, and this is usually the first one, that is to say, the nearest
to the spot above indicated. On carefully examining the tumour,
it is seen to be formed by a certain quantity of scales; which are
deranged from their usual symmetrical arrangement, convergent
towards a centre, and superposed upon each other in such a
manner as to form a projecting and culminating point, at the
central summit of which we see a small round hole, evidently
opened to establish an issue.

By carefully removing the lateral scales which are at the base

of the cone, and have undergone no alteration, we arrive at those

which, on the contrary, have undergone a modification. These,
which are much thicker than the others, are, so to speak,
double-bottomed. If they are torn off, we see, on looking at
them from below, that they present a comparatively spacious
cavity existing between the upper wall, which is concave, and
the lower one, which is flat—an arrangement greatly resembling
that of the shells of the Anomia, if it were not that in these
Mollusca the two valves can open and close by means of the
hinge placed at the upper part of the shell, whilst in the case
now before us these two surfaces are soldered together, and are
consequently immoveable.

The scales which have undergone the modifications just men-
tioned present below (that is to say, on their flat surface) two
vertical perforations, of which that placed near the lower margin
is always the largest ; we also generally detect some other small
holes pierced in the upper surface. These scales are applied to
the side of the fish by the flat side. When we tear them off, we
see at the spot which exactly corresponds with the large perfo-
ration above mentioned, a hollow or sinus pierced in the flesh,

* We have already had occasion to indicate that it is especially to young
fishes that parasites attach themselves, probably as being less able to free
themselves. This law appears to be general for all organized creatures :
it is probably also for the same reason that old and inferior individuals
are also attacked.

73 M. Ilesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean.

and evidently the result of an erosion produced by the parasite
in obtaining its nourishment.

All these arrangements having been minutely described, it
only remains for us to seek to explain their purpose.

When the double-walled scales are extracted from the place
they occupied, and examined on their flat side, the parasite
which is enclosed in the cavity existing between the two surfaces
may be seen through the aperture pierced in the upper part.
Generally it only presents the anterior part of the body at this
orifice, and it is difficult to extract it therefrom, seeing that it
is retained by a purulent and agglutinative secretion, in the
midst of which it is immersed, and which causes it to slip when
we endeavour to seize it. This must be done with care, as the
least rough contact may wound it and immediately provoke the
emission of the substances contained in the intestine.

The ova, which are glued together and form small, square,
flat masses, also float in the above liquid.

When taken out of its refuge, the movements of the creature
are quick and repeated, but always the same; they are reduced
to contractions in a vertical direction and to nutations of the
head, which is agitated horizontally to the right and left, so as
to give rise to a certain very limited reptation, which sufficiently
indicates that it is destined only to furnish the animal with a
means of changing its position, but not its place.

The largest of the apertures, which corresponds directly, as has
been stated, with the erosion or sinus produced below, leaves no
doubt as to its nature or the purpose which has produced it; it
is evident that it is by this orifice that our parasite, finding itself
in contact with the fish on which it lives, obtains from it its
nourishment.

As to the inferior aperture, it seems to us to be destined, by
establishing a current, to facilitate the evacuation of the excre-
mentitious matters which might accumulate in this retreat, and
to renew the water, which, in consequence of the secretions,
might be altered and no longer fit for respiration.

The small apertures pierced in the. upper wall are probably
intended to correspond with the perforation produced at the
apex of the cone formed by the accumulation of the scales, and,
by admitting the external water, to facilitate also either the ex-
pulsion and dissemination of the embryos, or the access of the
male, which, concluding from the analogy of what is known to
us, must possess means of locomotion which have been denied
to his female.

Lastly, as regards the retreat in which this parasite shelters
itself, we shall content ourselves with the following supposi-
tions :— : '

M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean. 79

We suppose that the embryo, at its escape from the egg,
being still of extreme minuteness, penetrates by the base of the
- scale, and introduces itself between the two laminz which form
its two faces ; that it raises and separates them slowly in such a
manner as to double them, and that by its successive efforts it
not only succeeds in creating a space in which it finds a lodging,
but acts in such a fashion as to exert upon the scale an abortive
influence which, by distorting its structure, modifies its form *.
In fact, if we examine the first invasions of this parasite, we find
that at first they are confined to a mere long, vertical, ampulli-
form canal, which afterwards becomes dilated at its base until it
presents a capacity of nearly the same dimensions in all direc-
tions. The scales which present these proportions are usually
not more than two or three in number; it appears that they
suffice for the shelter of all the parasites which have to seek a
refuge in them; we perceive only, generally in the same line,
some small tubular conduits, of the same kind as those of which
we have just spoken, which appear to be so many covered ways
leading to these principal retreats. Lastly, it appears that these
parasites have also a tolerably powerful active force, since they
are not only able to make themselves a way between the lamine
of scales, which must present to them a certain resistance, but
even perforate them at several points with facility ; and the holes
which they make are as if pierced by a punch and rounded with
a borer.

The vitality of this Crustacean is very great: we have kept it
more than a fortnight without giving it any nourishment, and
we have found that the strongest pressure did not prevent it
from agitating the palpi of its mouth with extreme vivacity for
a long time.

§ 3. Systematization.

From what we have just said as to the mode of life of this
parasite, it will be understood at once that, being sheltered from
all contact, and completely protected from external dangers by
the safe asylum furnished by its host, it does not require for its
protection a solid carapace (accordingly that which covers it is
a mere parchment-like envelope) ; that, having neither to defend
itself nor to attack, it has no necessity for either offensive or
defensive arms; lastly, that being reduced to a state of almost

_* This deformation caused by parasitism need not surprise us, when we
consider those produced by Cynips, to the mode of life of which that of
our parasite presents some singular resemblances. These ways of com-
munication, these roads constructed by the parasite, recall the subepidermic
furrows and galleries which are formed by Sarcoptes scabiei for a similar
purpose.

80 M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean.

complete immobility, its useless locomotive appendages have
become almost null or rudimentary; but, as it must provide
itself with nourishment, it has, on the contrary, been completely
furnished with everything that could be necessary to it for this
purpose. We remark, in fact, that round the buccal orifice,
which, from its proboscidiform structure, may furnish it with
the means of absorbing liquids, there exists an auxiliary series
of mandibles, arranged circularly and fitted, in case of necessity,
to triturate solid objects, and that this organ is not only accom-
panied by palpi, but also by prehensile feet destined to aid them.
Thus, therefore, notwithstanding its apparent nakedness, it is
not the less true that it has been very completely provided for
its needs.

And thus we have arrived at the most arduous portion of our
work, which consists in finding the place in classification which
must be assigned to our parasite.

It may be seen, indeed, from the description that we de
given of it, that the characters upon which we depend are not
very strongly marked; we may add that they were still more
difficult to ascertain, in consequence, as already stated, of the
opacity of the body of this Crustacean, which is comparatively
very thick, and of its cylindrical form, which renders it very
unstable on the slide, where it does nothing but roll about;
hence, notwithstanding the long practice we have had with the
microscope and the compressorium, we are not quite sure of
having triumphed over these obstacles. Nevertheless, having
operated upon a great number of individuals, and repeatedly
verified our observations, we hope that in case we should have
committed some errors, these will not be of much importance.

At the first glance, seeing the simplicity of structure of the
parasite, we asked ourselves whether we really had to do with a
Crustacean. Subsequently, after having attentively examined
it, we perceived that it could only belong to this category, and,
this being the case, that, from the primitive state of its organs,
it must be referred to the lowest rank in the classification of
these Articulata, and placed among the Lerneocerea. This
opinion once admitted, we had to seek for the characters which
might justify this view; and the following are those which seem
to us to do so.

When we compared it, for example, with Lernea branchialis,
we were struck at once by the resemblance which exists between
their buccal systems: this part in each is proboscidiform, and
composed of a retractile siphon forming a sucker, which shelters
itself between the projecting rounded margins protecting the
two sides of the aperture of the mouth. We find also that, as in
Lernaa, this orifice is surrounded by auxiliary feet, and, lastly

M. Hesse on a new Parasitic Crustacean. 81

(and this is a special character of the Lerneida), that there
exists all round the body a transparent border, which accompa-
nies its outline through all its cireumvolutions.

_ Moreover a circumstance which has no less attracted our at-
_ tention, and which, in our opinion, is most curious, is the resem-
blance existing in the mode of life of the two parasites.

We know, in fact, that Lernea branchialis, by means of its
buccal apparatus, which, as in our parasite, does not appear to
furnish any resources for this purpose, and which appears rather
destined to draw up liquid materials by suction, succeeds never-
theless, in course of time, in perforating the very thick and re-
sistant first wall of the branchial arch of fishes, in order to lodge
its radiciform frontal system in the space occurring between the
two plates of this bony part. Our parasite, by similar actions;
also, by separating and raising the two lamine which form the
scales of the fish on which it has established itself, succeeds in
altering their structure, thus creating for itself a refuge in which
it is entirely lodged, and where it lives in peace and sheltered
from all dangers.

From what has gone before, and notwithstanding the differ-
ences existing between the two species which we compare, we
do not hesitate to think that they must belong to the same
order; and we form for our parasite a new family, which we
characterize as follows :—

Family Lernzosiphonostomea.

The females fixed upon their victim by means of the scales
of the latter, in which they hollow out a residence. Several
footjaws placed around the mouth. Head not horned. Ovi-
ferous pouch large and flat.

Genus Lepospuitus*, nobis.

Body fusiform, divided into ten [eleven] segments, which are
very distinct, with the exception of the third and fourth; of
these, four [five] are thoracic and six abdominal ; all surrounded
by atransparent border. Head small, rounded at the apex, bear-
ing above a median eye, and beneath presenting the buccal
orifice, which emits, in a proboscidiform process, some denticu-
lated jaws adapted for the trituration of objects, and laterally three
pairs of prehensile footjaws. Antenne very small, rounded at the
end, and terminated by divergent hairs. Abdominal segments
retractile, and capable of invagination ; last segments terminated
by divergent appendages. Embryo ovulate, furnished with three

* This name ought evidently to be Lepidophilus, and the specific name
Labri, instead of Labrei.

82 Mr. A. 8. Packard on the Development ©

pairs of feet. Eggs agglutinated, and forming a broad flat

mass.
Sp. Leposphilus Labrei.

Colour varying from yellow to pale red. Length about 10 to
12 millims. Male unknown.

Inhabits the Green Wrasse, in the scales of which it hollows
out a retreat.

XV.— Observations on the Development and Position of the Hy-
menoptera, with Notes on the Morphology of Insects. By A.
S. Packarp, Junr., M.D.*

Tue following notes form an abstract of a more extended memoir
upon the changes of the insect after leaving the egg, not touch-
ing upon the evolution of the embryo.

After the larva has become full-fed, as it is about to enter
upon the semipupa state, its body undergoes the followin
changes :—The thoracic rings and head become more hinges
and fuller, so that whereas in the larva the underside of the an- -
terior and posterior halves of the body are closely appressed to
each other, now the two halves begin to recede, and the grub, as
it lies in its cell, is but half doubled upon itself. With this im-
portant change of posture, the whole body becomes more cylin-
drical and rounded. Thus the sides (arthropleure) of the
thoracic ring become absorbed, and do not project out from the
walls of the body as in the larva ; and later still, the corre-
sponding area in the abdomen likewise almost wholly dis-
appears.

The greatest activity, however, is observable about the cephalic
portion of the body ; for here the greatest differentiation of parts
is to occur. The head of the pupa, already partially formed
beneath the prothoracie ring, though as yet very small, by its
aig still affects very sensibly the form of this region in the

arva, the skin of which still remains unbroken, though very
considerably distended. The whole length of the head (fig. 1 a)
and prothorax (fig. ] b) together is now equal to the united
length of the head and thorax in the larva originally. To effect
this, the larval head is greatly extended forwards, and the pro-
thorax is three times as long as before, and much narrower, the
sides converging towards the base of the head. The two pos-
terior thoracic rings. are also twice as long as in the larva. On
the under (sternal) side the mouth-parts are also elongated ; and

* Communicated by the author, from the ‘ Proceedings of the Boston
Natural History Society,’ Feb. 7, 1866.

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 83

the labium projects a little beyond the head, owing to the in-
creased size of the mouth-parts over those of the larva.

At this period, the two pairs of wings are very equal in size,
the posterior pair but little smaller than the anterior pair, and
inserted much higher up the ring nearer the median tergal line
of the body; and in the succeeding stage the posterior pair are
seen to be scarcely smaller than the anterior pair, and exactly
parallel in their insertions, their longitudinal diameter, and their
tips. This change in the position of the posterior pair of wings,
so important in a morphological point of view, is accompanied

-by a corresponding change in the proportions of the thorax.
the metathorax has become mostly absorbed, so as to resemble
more the same part in the pupa; while the mesothorax retains
much of its original proportions, though becoming more com-
pact and presenting less of the tergal area.

During this time the head has also greatly increased, especially
in the size of the appendages; the eyes, antennz, and mouth-
sa begin to assume the size and shape of those of the pupa.

evelopment here, as in the thorax, begins in the most impor-
tant central parts, and proceeds outwards to the periphery.

In this stage (fig. 1), when the mouth-parts of the semipupa
have become solid enough to enable the larval head to be stripped
off without lacerating the extremities of the appendages, the head
is seen to be divided into two portions. The basal region or
body of the head, which is lodged under the prothorax of the
larva, is orbicular when seen from the front; and its sides are
continuous with the sides of the thorax, as is also the vertex,
which is likewise of a continuous slope with that of the anterior
tergal portion of the thorax. Seen from the side, there is no
separation as yet between-the head and thorax. The outline of
the eyes is distinct, but they are not raised above the surface of
the head. The antennz, clypeus, and mouth-parts collectively
form a second anterior portion separated by a curved line from
the epicranium, It is this anterior portion which lies in the
larval head in this stage. The great increase of size of the ap-
pendages of the semipupa have forced forward the hard crust
of the larval head, which suggested to Ratzeburg the idea that
the head of the pupa was originally composed of the first two
rings (7. e. head and prothorax) of the body of the larva*. The
antenne are flattened down upon the surface, resting on each
side of the small trapezoidal clypeus, over the front edge of
which they again meet, when they are flexed upon themselves,

* “ Ueber Entwicklung der fusslosen Hymenopteren-Larven, &c.’’ (Nova
Acta Natur. Curios. tom. xvi. 1832). Westwood has fully shown the fal-
lacey of this idea (Trans. Ent. Soe. London, vol. ii. p. 121); and our own
observations corroborate his statements and conclusions.

84, Mr. A. S. Packard on the Development

lying on each side of the labrum with its palpi and the maxilla:
These appendages do not as yet project much beyond the an-
tennz, being short and papilliform, preserving the general form
of the same organs in the larve. ;

At this period the elements (sterno-rhabdites, Lacaze-Duthiers)
composing the ovipositor he in separate pairs, in two groups,
exposed distinctly to view. The ovipositor thus consists of three
pairs of slender non-articulated tubercles arising on each side of
the mesial line of the body, in juxtaposition. The first two pairs
arise from the eighth abdominal ring, and the third pair grow
out from the anterior edge of the ninth ring. The ends of the
first pair scarcely reach beyond the base of the third pair. With
the growth of the semipupa the terminal or tenth ring decreases
in size, the tip of the abdomen is gradually incurved towards
the base (fig. 2), and the three pairs of rhabdites approach each
other so closely that the two outer ones completely ensheath
the inner, until a complete distensible tube is formed, which
gradually is withdrawn entirely within the body (see fig. 4). The
male genital organ is originally composed of three pairs of non-
articulated tubercles, all arising from the ninth abdominal ring,
being sternal outgrowths, and placed on each side of the mesial
line of the body, two being anterior and very unequal: in size,
and the third pair nearer the base of the abdomen. Thus, in
their position, the three pairs of tubercles destined to form the
male intromittent organ cannot be said to be strictly homological
with the female ovipositor ; nor can the external genital organs
be considered in any way homologous with the limbs, which
are articulated outgrowths budding out between the sternal and
pleural pieces of the arthromere*. This view will apply to the
genital armature of all insects, so far as I have been able to ob-
serve. It is so in the larva of Agrion, which completely repeats
the structure of the ovipositor of Bombus in its essential features
detailed above. Thus in Agrion the ovipositor consists of a pair
of closely appressed ensiform processes which come out from
under the posterior edge of the eighth abdominal ring, and are
embraced between two pairs of thin lamelliform pieces of similar
form and structure, arising from the sternite of the ninth ring.
These sternal outgrowths do not homologize with the long, fili-
form, antenna-like, jointed appendages of the tenth ring, as
seen in the Perlide and most Neuroptera and Orthoptera, which,

* This term is proposed as better defining the ideal ring or primary
zoological element of an articulate animal than the terms somite or zodnite,
which seem too vague; so also the term arthroderm for the outer crust or
body-walls of Articulates, and arthropleura for the pleural or limb-bearing
region of the body, being that portion of the arthromere comprised between
the tergite and sternite.

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 85

arising as they do from the arthropleural or limb-bearing region
of the body, 2. e. between the sternum and episternum (or lower
_ pleurite), are strictly homologous with the abdominal legs of the
Myriapoda and the “false legs” of caterpillars; so that in
these genito-sensory appendages we perceive faint traces of the
idea of antero-posterior symmetry first observed in Vertebrates
by Oken, and more recently by Professor Wyman and Dr. B. G.
Wilder, involving a repetition of homologous appendages at the
two opposite poles of the body. The broad leaf-like appendage
to the tenth ring in Agrion seems homologous, both in function
and structure, with the respiratory lamelle of the swimming
abdominal limbs of the lower decapodous Crustacea and the
Tetradecapods, which perform the function of gills,

During this stage, the basal ring of the abdomen of Bombus
(fig. 2 c) is plainly seen to be transferred from the abdomen to
the thorax, with which it is intimately united in the Hymeno-
ptera. This we deem the most essential zoological character
separating the Hymenoptera from all other insects, This transfer
of an entire arthromere from one region to that next in front,
involving the remodelling of the entire form of the insect, though
not uncommon in the Crustacea, is, in the class of Insects, pe-
culiar to the higher families of the Hymenoptera, as in the
lowest (the Tenthredinidze) the transition is but partial, corre-
sponding to the Lepidoptera in this respect. It is an instance
of the principle of cephalization advanced by Professor Dana, so
fully illustrated in the Crustacea, where in some groups changes
occur in the primitive number of arthromeres, proved by the
inconstant number of rings (arthromeres) forming the abdomen
and cephalothorax respectively. This transfer of the zoological
elements from the posterior end of an animal towards the head,
involving in this act the entire reconstruction of the animal form,
lies at the basis of all sound classification, and is a principle
which must be followed by every student dealing with the clas-
sification of the larger divisions of the animal kingdom.

So intimately united with the thorax is this elemental ring,
that, from its sculpturing, its coloration, and, in fine, its close
mimicry of the normal thoracic segments, our best observers
have united in calling it the metathorax, and homologizing it
with that ring in the lower insects. Latreille and Audouin
considered it as the basal ring of the abdomen, as did Newman,
who termed it the propodeum. But our best hymenopterists of
thirty years’ standing consider it to be the metathorax, with
the exception of Baron Osten Sacken, in his articles on the
Cynipide*. During the autumn of 1863, when the observa-

86 Mr. A. S. Packard on the Development

tions here recorded were made, our attention was drawn* to this
part. At this period the thorax is one-third smaller than in the
pupa. The position of the three thoracic spiracles can be easily
discerned. On the two posterior rings of the thorax they are
seen situated in their respective “ peritremes ” (Audouin), which
pieces lie at the base and just under the insertion of the wings,
on the posterior half of the ring, while on the prothorax the
peritreme lies contiguous to and partially under the posterior
edge of the vascular tubercle, which in position is exactly homo-
logous to that of the wings.

It is thus demonstrated that the wings grow forth, first as
vascular sacs, through the arthroderm, just above the line of
spiracles, and at the line of juncture of the lower edge of the
tergite and upper edge of the upper pleurite or epimerum;
while, on the other hand, the limbs grow out through the line
of juncture of the sternite and the lower pleurite or episternum.

In what may be termed the third stage (fig. 3), though the
distinction is a very arbitrary one, the change is accompanied
by a moulting of the skin, and a great advance has been made
towards the pupa form (fig. 4). There are seen to be two
distinct regions to the body—the anterior, consisting of the
head and thorax, which are placed close together, and the
abdomen, which is separated from the rest of the body by a
deep constriction. We cannot fail to be at least reminded of
the biregional Crustacean—an analogy which Oken has called
attention to, and which has been successfully used by that.
author in comparing the pupe of Insects with Crustacea.

At this period the mode of sloughing of the larval skin is well
shown. Instead of the violent rupture’of the skin at one point
on the tergum of the thorax, as in the majority of insects, ac-
companied with the great exhaustion consequent on the act,
which makes the operation a perilous one to most Insects and
Crustacea, in this species (and most probably all the Hymeno-
ptera which at this stage have a soft tegument) the skin breaks
away gradually, in shreds, from the tension due to the unequal
growth of the different parts of the body. Thus, after the skin
beneath has fully formed, shreds of the former skin remain
about the mouth-parts, the spiracles, and anus. Upon pulling
these, the linmg of the alimentary tube and trachee can be
drawn out, sometimes, in the former case, to the length of
several lines. As all these internal systems of vessels are des-
tined to change their form in the pupa, it may be laid down as
a rule, in the moulting of Insects and Crustacea, that the lining

* Proceedings Essex Institute, vol. iv., ‘““The Humble Bees of New
England and their Parasites,”’ &c., April 23, 1864, p. 3, note.

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 87

of the internal organs, which is simply a continuation of the
outer tegument, or arthroderm, is, in the process of moulting,
sloughed off with that outer tegument*.

Whereas before the head and thorax together were but little
more than one-half as large as the abdomen, now they are con-
jointly nearly equal in size to the abdomen (fig. 3). The greatest
changes have gone on in the two anterior regions of the body.
They unitedly tend to assume a spherical form, while the elon-
gated abdomen is shortened and very perceptibly altered in form,
approaching near that of the pupa, and the whole body is
flexed more upon itself.

The head is still closely appressed to the prothorax, but much

less so than formerly, since the increasing size and different
proportions of the prothorax have pushed it away. This act of
separation has effected an important change in the position of
the head as related to that of the rest of the body. It is now
truly vertical. Before, its greater length was more continuous
with the longitudinal axis of the body, that is, nearly horizontal,
or rather inclined at a slight angle from the longer axis. The
horizontal position is normal in the lowest insects, as the Neu-
roptera. In the Hymenoptera the longer axis of the head is
- most completely vertical. .
_ The head in its size, and the development of the appendages,
including the mouth-parts, now begins to resemble those parts
in the pupa. The eyes are larger and more distinct than before;
the maxilla and antenne, though still very short, are shaped
more like those parts in the pupa. In the antenne, the most
marked change takes place in the three basal joints, or the
“seape,” of which the second joint now becomes the longest
and somewhat contracted in the middle and round at the extre-
mity; while the terminal joints are still doubled upon them-
selves, and rest folded upon the mouth-parts.

The thorax also resembles that of the pupa, though longer ;
and the basal ring of the abdomen (propodeum) is still exposed
to view when seen from above. At this stage the prescutum
of the mesothorax, before very distinct, is no longer seen, as in
the pupa it is mostly absorbed and passes out of sight, though
in the Tenthredinide it is a large and conspicuous portion of
the mesonotum.

Most interesting changes have occurred in the hinder part of
the thorax. Whereas in the previous stage the mesoscutellum
was immersed in the ring to which it belongs, it is now elevated
and becomes very prominent ; the thorax posteriorly falls rapidly

~ * Tt remains yet to be proved whether the biliary tubes, salivary glands,
and inner genital glands and cavities form exceptions to this rule.

88 Mr. A. S. Packard on the Development

away from it, at an angle of about 60°, and its hinder edge is
much thickened and folded down on itself. The metathorax is
entirely visible from above. The scutum is now entirely sepa-
rated into the two lateral halves, being transversely narrow tri-
angular pieces, the bases of which are square and closely adjoin.
the insertion of the hind wings, while their apices are much
produced and extend under the mesoscutellum. The meta-
scutellum is now distinctly seen to be a linear transverse piece
reaching on each side ‘to the middle of each half of the scutum.
The basal ring of the abdomen (propodeum, fig. 3c) is now
undergoing the process of being transferred from the abdomen
to the thorax. Whereas before it was a segment much narrower
than those contiguous, it has now become still smaller, and its.
tergal portion, instead of being nearly horizontal, is now much
inclined downwards posteriorly.

The abdomen, though still larger, approaches much nearer
the form of the pupal abdomen than before, and the segments
are flatter. The second ring has become much contracted, as it
is destined to become the “ pedicel” or “ first abdominal seg-
ment” of descriptive entomology. There is now a differentiation’
of the elements of the ring. Thus the tergites (notum, fig. 3,f)
are clearly distinguished from the pleurites (fig. 3 e, flanks) and
urites (Lacaze-Duthiers, fig. 3d, ventral side). The spiracles are
situated on the upper edge of the pleurites, opening out just
under the edge of the tergite. As we go back towards the tip
of the abdomen, the tergites as well as the urites decrease in
width, while the pleural region or pleurites increase in size. It
is the pleural portion, however, which is afterwards to become
absorbed, by which the dorsal and ventral portions of the abdo-
men approximate more intimately and overlap each other, thus
making the tip acute, as in the pupa (fig. 4) and especially the
perfect bee.

During this time the ovipositor, owing to the diminished size,
by absorption, of the parts supporting it, has become gradually
more and more retracted, while the entire tip of the abdomen is
more acute and incurved,

The Pupa State.

In this stage (fig. 4) the whole body is shorter, and there is a
decided transfer of the bulk of the body towards the head. The
head has increased in size, the thorax is one-third larger, while
the greatly shortened abdomen is a third shorter than in the
preceding stage. At this period the longitudinal axis of the
body is less curved than before. The mesoscutellum is now
placed just in the middle of the body, when before it was situ-
ated at the anterior third. This change also carries the wings

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 89

far back, to the middle of the body, from their previous situation
very near the head and on the anterior third of the body. The
limbs are greatly enlarged; the tarsi of the hind pair now
reach near the tip of the abdomen, whereas before they were
simply folded upon the thorax, not reaching to or resting upon
the abdomen.

Great changes have occurred in the appendages of the head.

The clypeus, labrum, and mandibles are now exposed to view.
The antennz have become straightened and greatly elongated,
and a corresponding change has occurred in the maxille and
labium with its palpi, which now reach to the middle of the
abdomen, while the lingua extends as far as the seventh abdo-
minal segment. This stage, therefore, is characterized by im-
portant modifications in the size and position of the extremities
and appendages of the head, thorax, and abdomen. In the
thorax the changes are not especially remarkable. The scutel-
lum is now in contact with the base of the abdomen, as if the
whole thorax had been carried backward, and the entire abdomen
brought forwards and upwards, due to the absorption of the
metathoracic ring and basal ring of the abdomen.
_ Thus each of the three regions of the body is a centre of de-
velopment, the gradual perfection of the appendages belonging
to each region proceeding from the centre towards the periphery,
beginning at the insertion of the limbs to the trunk, and gra-
dually perfecting their development towards the extremity.
Hence the wings, the tarsi, or terminal joints of the limbs, and
the abdominal appendages are the last to be developed and
perfected. The anterior part of the thorax is perfected earlier
than the posterior, while in the abdomen the development goes
on from behind forwards. Prof. Dana has shown that in the
Crustacea the cephalothorax and abdomen are each a distinct
centre of development, in which progress reaches to a wider or
narrower circumference in different species*. Researches on the
embryology of the higher Annelids show that the development
of worms proceeds from a single centret.

At this stage, which may be properly called the pupa state,
the eyes begin to turn dark, and a few hairs develope themselves
upon the upperside of the abdomen ; but the stage is so transi-
tory, that in a long series of individuals it is impossible to select
a single individual and denominate it a pupa, since there is no

M Introduction to the Crustacea of the U. S. Exploring Expedition,
vol. i. p. 22.

t See S. Lovén, K. Vetenskaps-Acad. Handl. 1840 (Wiegmann’s
Archiv, 1842, part 1). M. Sars, Development of Polynoé cirrata (Wieg-
mann’s Archiv, 1845, part 1). Milne-Edwards (Ann. Se. Nat. 1845).

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xviii. 7

90 Mr. A. 8. Packard on the Development

pause in the metamorphosis for a special biological design, such
as obtains in the Lepidoptera and the majority of lower Inseets,
The terms larva, pupa, and imago are therefore not absolute
terms.

Subimago State.

Certain individuals which would upon a casual glance be mis-
taken for “pup” differed so much from what we have called
pupze above, that they may be said to be analogous to the sub-
imago state of Ephemeride. In this state the arthroderm,
owing to the rapid deposition of chitine, is denser and harder ;
the wings are as large as in the perfect bee, and the joints of
the legs are spiny, while the ovipositor has become wholly
withdrawn within the walls of the abdomen.

In some specimens, remains of a thin pellicle were ound upon
the extremities ; so that we are neither justified in calling this
individual an imago nor, on the other hand, a pupa. The indivi-
duals had not left their cells. Their feet had not yet been used
for purposes of locomotion, nor their jaws to assist in making
their way out of their cells, while the hairs are nearly concolo-
rous all over the body, though very faintly shaded with yellowish
on the dorsal and lateral portion; so that the species can be
distinguished, as some of the specific characters depending on
ornamentation are at this time apparent. We have observed
facts indicating three moultings of the skin during the so-called
pupa state, in distinction from the larval and imago states ; and it
is highly probable that there are more. During the larval con-
dition it would be safe to say that there are four distinct moult-
ings, as there are five distinct sizes of larve, In some of the
eggs the larval forms can be indistinctly seen through the thin
walls, which we would homologize with the skin of the insect
after birth; for the fertilized egg must be regarded as the
insect in its inception, in a state equivalent to the larval, pupal,
or perfect state of the insect. The genus Bombus, therefore,
may be considered to undergo a series of at least ten moultings
of the skin; and we are inclined to think further observations
will tend to increase the number. Lubbock* has described
twenty in Ephemera; and five have been noticed in several
genera, such as Meloé and others.

. The sexes of the larvee can be easily distinguished, as the
genital armature appears through the transparent skin,

The specific differences between the larve of the different
‘species of Bombus are of the slightest possible amount, as they
only differ in size, the rings of the body being smooth or rough,

* Trans. Linn. Soc. yol. xxiv. part 2 (1863),

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 91

and in having more or less clearly defined sutures between the
pieces composing the head. The eggs of the different species
compared presented no appreciable differences.

In the pupa state, the two sizes of male, female, and workers
can be more readily appreciated than in the imago state, as the
insects can be more easily measured and comparisons made.
Corresponding cases of dimorphism in other insects will probably
be studied to great advantage when the insects are observed at
this period of life, Between the two sizes of the 9 in the pupa
of Bombus fervidus there was a difference of ‘05 inch, and in
the f ‘03 inch. In a number of the worker pupe of Bombus
separatus there was a difference of ‘04 inch between the two
broods of workers, the more advanced brood being smaller, and
not only shorter but also narrower.

In this connexion we would present some views relative to a
theory of the number of arthromeres composing the head of
Insects (Hexapoda), and the number and sequence of their ap-
pendages, suggested by studies of the larval forms of Hymeno-

tera, and especially the lower Neuroptera, not omitting insects
longing to other suborders, and some forms of Crustacea,
After Savigny had shown that the mouth-parts of Insects and
Crustacea were jointed appendages like those attached to the
thorax, and therefore repetitions of an ideal jointed limb or ap-
pendage, Audouin proved that in the ideal arthromere, of which
the bodies of all Articulata are each a congeries arranged in a
longitudinal series, the periphery should be distinguished into an
upper (tergite, Duthiers), lower (sternite, Duthiers), and pleural
part, and that in the thorax the legs were thrust out between the
pleurite and sternite, and the wings grew out between the pleu-
rite and tergite. The arthropleural region is therefore the
limb-bearing region of the body, and the different parts of the
ideal ring are developed in a degree subordinate to the uses of
the limbs and wings. Thus in the walkers, such as the Cara-
bidz, the pleural and tergal regions are most developed; while
in those insects, such as the Dragonflies, which are constantly
on the wing, and rarely walk, the pleural region is enormously
developed, and the tergites and sternites attain to their minimum
development. The muscles used in flight are greatly increased
in size over the atrophied muscles brought into requisition by
the act of walking. In the Hymenoptera, however, which are
both walkers and fliers, the three portions of the ring are most
equally developed.

These parts of the arthromere are simplest in the abdomen,
and become more differentiated in the thorax, where the nume-
rous pieces composing them have been classified and named,
mostly by Audouin, M‘Leay, and Lacaze-Duthiers. Scarcely

7*

92 Mr. A. S. Packard on the Development

‘an attempt has been made to trace these parts in the rings of
the head by those who have proposed theories of the number
of arthromeres in the head of insects.

As we can understand the structure of the thorax better after
‘studying the abdomen, so we can only homologize the different
‘head-pieces after a careful study of the thorax of Insects and
the cephalothorax of Crustacea, which thus afford us a standard
of comparison.

Since the arthropleural is the limb-bearing region in the
thorax, it must follow that this region is largely developed in
the head, to the bulk of which the sensory and appended diges-
tive organs bear so large a proportion; and as all the parts of
the head are subordinated in their development to that of the
appendages of which they form the support, it must follow logi-
cally that the larger portion of the body of the head is pleural,
and that the tergal and, especially, the sternal parts are either
‘very slightly developed or wholly obsolescent. Such we find to
‘be the fact. As to the number of rings composing the head, it
is evident that it is correlated with the number of appendages
‘they are to support. Hence, as in the thorax there are three
rings bearing three pairs of appendages or legs, it follows that
in the head, where there are seven pairs of appendages, there
‘must be seven rings. That there are seven such appendages,
among which we would include the eyes, which, if not homolo-
gous with the limbs, or, more properly speaking, repetitions of
the ideal appendage, are at least their equivalents, in that they
are situated on a distinct ring, as are the ocelli, which are exact
equivalents or repetitions of the eye, is evident.

The larve of Ephemera and Libellula, in the head of which
‘these parts of the cephalic rings, by reason of the degradational
character of the insects, appear in their simplest forms, afford
us the best material for study. In the head of the larva of
Libellula we have observed that the greatly elongated labium,
‘masking, when at rest, the mandibles, is in reality composed of
three sternites, immersed in and surrounded by three pleurites,
all bearing appendages, the basal pair being the mandibles, the
middle pair maxille, and thirdly, the pair of labial palpi, all of
which are placed behind the mouth-opening. Beyond and in
front of the mouth are successively placed the sensory organs,
the antenne, the pair of eyes, and what we must consider
two pairs of ocelli, since the early forms of Hphemera and the
early stages of Bombus show the three ocelli resting on three
‘separate pieces, the two posterior pieces (pleurites) forming a
‘pair, while the single ocellus in advance is placed on a trian-
‘gular piece which we regard as two pleurites united on the
median line of the body, as the ocellus has a double form, being

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 93

broad, transversely ovate, and not round, as if resulting: from
the fusion of two originally distinct ocelli.

The antenne*, by their form and position, naturally succeed
the labial palpi. Considering how invariably in the Crustacea
the eyes are situated in front of the gnathopods, we feel con-
vinced that the same position must be allowed them in the head
of insects. This will bring the ocelli most in advance of all the
other appendages. ‘The bulk of the head of insects must, then,
be formed by the great expansion of the eye-pleurites, which, so
to speak, are drawn back like a hood over the basal rings, while
the rings bearing the maxille and labial palpi and the antennary
ring are thrust out, telescope-like, through the large swollen
eye-ring ;. as in Decapods, a single ring covers. in the aborted
ring composing the rest of the cephalothorax, as Edwards and
Dana have shown, and our investigations have taught us. Thus
the upper surface of the head is composed of expansions of the
pleural pieces of the ideal arthromere, which never developes the
sternal nor probably the tergal portions in front of the mouth.
Thus each region of the insectean body is characterized by the
relative development of the three elements of the arthromere.
In the abdomen the upper (tergite) and under (sternite). surfaces
are most, equally developed, while the pleural line is reduced to
aminimum. In the thorax the pleural region is much more
developed, either quite as much as or often more than the upper
or tergal portion, while the sternite is reduced to a minimum.
In the head the pleurites form the main bulk of the region, the
sternites are reduced to a minimum, and the tergites are almost
entirely aborted, or may perhaps be identified in the centre of
the “occiput,” or what is probably the mandibular (or mandible-
bearing) ring, and in the “ clypeus.”

In the abdomen the same abolescence of parts: strikingly
exemplifies what may be called the law of systolic growth, where
certain parts of the zoological elements of a body are in the
course of development either greatly enlarged over adjoining
parts or become wholly obsolete, as stated by Audouin and
St.Hilaire, who ascribed it to the principle of “arrest of deve-
lopment,” which is now used by physiologists in a more limited
sense. While, as we have shown above, the genital armature of
insects is not homologous with the limbs, there are, however,

* Repeated observations have taught us that the idea advanced by
Zaddach (Untersuchungen iiber die Entwickelung und den Bau der Glie-
derthiere) and adopted by Claparéde (Recherches sur Evolution des
Araignées), that the antenne of the larve are not homologous with those
of the perfect insects, is untenable. In the larve of all Hymenoptera and
‘numerous families of Lepidoptera and Neuroptera they are identical in
position in all stages of development.

94 Mr. A. S. Packard on the Development

true jointed appendages attached to the ninth or tenth abdo-
minal rings or both, which are often antenniform, and serve
as sensorio-genital organs in most Neuroptera and Orthoptera.
The abdominal rings are confined, as a rule, to the two lower
suborders of Insects, and are homologous with the “ false legs ”
of the larve of Lepidoptera, the abdominal legs of Myriapoda,
and, we believe, with the three pairs of abdominal appendages
or spinnerets of the Arachnids. As in the most anterior rings
of the head, so in the terminal abdominal rings, there only re-
main minute portions of the arthromere, which are tergal pieces,
the other two elements of the ring being rarely present, or en-
tirely aborted. The two opposite poles of the body are there-
fore fashioned according to the same laws, and are morphologi-
cally simply repetitions of each other.

In conclusion, we consider that twenty rings (arthromeres),
as a rule, compose the bodies of insects, of which seven are con-
tained in the head, three in the thorax, and ten in the abdomen,
and that, as thus grouped, forming three distinct regions, the
Insects differ from all other Articulates, standing as a class
above the Crustacea and Worms. The Arachnids and Myria-
pods, as Mr. Scudder* has shown, agree with the Insects in
possessing a distinct head separated from the thorax or “ pseudo-
cephalothorax ;” so that the Myriapoda do not form a class by
themselves equivalent to the Crustacea, or Worms, or Insects,
but, with Leuckart, Agassiz, and Dana, we would prefer to rank
them as an order of the class Insectst.

In a former communication t we proposed a classification of
Insects into two series of suborders (not, however, agreein
with the Haustellata and Mandibulata of Clairville), of whic
the lower begins with the Neuroptera, and, through the Orthoptera
and Hemiptera, culminate in the Coleoptera; while the second
series ranks higher as a whole, beginning with the Diptera and
ending with the Hymenoptera, which thus stand at the head of
the Articulata. The Hymenoptera differ from all other insects
in having the basal ring of the abdomen thrown forward upon

* Proc. Bost. Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. ix. p. 69, May 1862.

+ The embryology of Arachnids, as worked out by Claparéde, shows
that the larva is strikingly worm-like, distinct rings (“ protozoonites”)
appearing before the biregional Arachnid form is assumed. The embryos
of two genera of mites, Demodex and Acarus, are at first hexapodous, as
Newport has shown that of Julus, a Myriapod, to be. The close homo-
logies of the Arachnids and Myriapods with the Insects (Hexapoda) con-
vince us that the three groups, whether we call them orders or classes, are
as a whole equivalent to the Crustacea or Worms.

t “Synthetic Types of Insects” (Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist. vii. 1863);
** How to observe and collect Insects” (Second Annual Report of Maine
State Survey, 1863).

and Position of the Hymenoptera. 95

the thorax; in having the three regions of the body more dis-
tinetly marked and more equally developed than in other insects.
The mouth-parts are more equally developed, and at the same
time more differentiated in structure and function ; there are no
abdominal jointed appendages present in the adult form, while
the waned generative organs are more symmetrically developed
and more completely enclosed within the abdomen in the highest
families than in any other suborder of Insects. They afford the
highest types of Articulates, being more compact, less loosely
put together, and thus presenting less of degradational features
than any of the other suborders; but the most valuable single
character is the transfer of the first abdominal ring forwards to
the adjoining region, which involves an entire remodelling of
the body, throwing forwards the prime elements of the organism,
by which it becomes more cephalized, and thus the nervous
power is rendered more centralized than in all other Articulates.

Selecting the Honey-bee as the type, being, in our view, the .
most perfectly organized of all insects, we find the head larger
and the abdomen smaller in proportion than in other inseets,
accompanied with the most equable and compact development
of the parts composing these regions. The brain-ganglia are
largest and most developed, according to the studies of ento-
motomists. The larve, im their general form, are more unlike
the adult insects than in any other suborder of Insects, while
the pupe most closely approximate to the imago. They are
short, cylindrical, footless, worm-like grubs, which are helpless,
and have to be fed by the prevision of the parents. In under-
going a more complete metamorphosis than any other insects,
in the unusual differentiation of the sex into males and females
and sterile females or workers, with a further dimorphism of
these three sexual forms and a consequent subdivision of labour
among them— in dwelling in large colonies, thus involving new
and intricate relations between the individuals of the species
and other insects—their wonderful instincts, their living on the
sweets and pollen of flowers, and not being carnivorous in their
habits as are the Neuroptera and a large proportion of the
Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera, and their rela-
tion to man as a domestic animal subservient to his wants,—
the bees, and Hymenoptera in general, possess a combination of
characters which are not found existing in any other suborder
of Insects, and which we must believe rank them first and highest
in the insect series.

Likewise the Hymenoptera are more purely terrestrial insects
than all others. The Neuroptera are, as a whole, water-insects :
their larve live in the water, and the perfect insects live near
streams and pools. The Orthoptera are more terrestrial. Among

96 Mr. A: S. Packard on the Development

the Hemiptera are numerous aquatic species, as there are in all
the other suborders except the Hymenoptera, of which only two
genera are found swimming, in the adult state, on the surface of
pools; and they are the low minute Proctotrupids, Prestwichia
natans and Polynema natans, Lubbock. As we have previously
shown, the Hymenoptera do not imitate or mimic the forms of
other insects, but, on the contrary, their forms are extensively
copied, in the Lepidoptera and Diptera especially. There are
synthetic types or mimetic forms which bind these suborders
into a single series. As the Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera,
and Neuroptera are bound together by homomorphous or mi-
metic forms into a series by themselves, so the Hymenoptera,
Lepidoptera, and Diptera possess their synthetic types linking
them together.

Another and very accurate method of determining the relative
rank of the larger groups in nature is by comparing the degra-
dational forms occurring in each group. Among the Neuroptera
the lowest wingless forms, such as Lepisma and allies, most
strikingly resemble the Myriapods in the great equality in size
of the arthromeres composing the body, and the slight dis-
tinctions preserved between the three regions into which the
body is divided. The largest, most vegetative, monstrous, and
bizarre forms of insects are found among the Neuroptera and
Orthoptera. Among Hemiptera the parasitic wingless lice, and
among Coleoptera the low Meloé and Stylopide, afford instances
of a genuine complete parasitism such as obtains more fully
among the low Crustacea and worms. While we find the de-
graded types of Insects belonging to the lower series of sub-
orders present elongated, worm-like, myriapodous forms, in ascend-
ing to the second and higher series of suborders, the lowest wing-
less dipterous Pulea assumes a much compacter, more cephalized
form ; while in the wingless Chionea, which wonderfully mimics
the higher Arachnids, there is a still greater concentration of
the arthromeres. This concentration of the body progresses
towards a higher type in the degradational forms of the Lepido-
ptera, such as the wingless females of Orgyia, Anisopteryz, and
Hybernia. In ascending to the wingless Hymenoptera, such as
Pezomachus, Formica, and Mutilla, there is a closer approxima-
tion to the winged normal form of the suborder. While in the
lower Insects the loss of wings involves apparently a total change
in the farm of the body, in the Hymenoptera this change is re-
markably less than in any other insects, and. the tripartite form
of the inseetean body is more strongly adhered to.

Again, in the degradational winged forms of the Hymenoptera
we find the antennz rarely pectinated—a common occurrence in
the lower suborders; also the wings of the minute Proctotru-

and Position of the Hymenoptera. ‘97

‘pide are rarely fissured, and when this occurs they somewhat
resemble those of Pterophorus, the lowest Lepidoptera ; and in
‘but a single hymenopterous genus, Anthuphorabia, are the eyes
in the male sex replaced by simple ocelli, like those in Lepisma
and other degradational forms of the lower Insects.

What we know of the geological range of Insects proves that
the Hymenoptera were among the last to appear upon the
earth’s surface. ‘The researches of Messrs. Hartt and Scudder
prove that the earliest known forms of insects found in the
Devonian rocks of New Brunswick were gigantic, embryonic,
and, in fine, degradational types of Neuropterous and Ortho-
pterous insects. The Coleoptera appear in the Mesozoic rocks,
where the lower Hymenoptera first appear in limited numbers,
including representatives of the Formicide and lower families,
and with them the Lepidoptera and Diptera.

We have throughout this article spoken of the Neuroptera as
a group equivalent to the Orthoptera or Hemiptera or any other
of the suborders of Insects. We believe thoroughly in the
Neuroptera as limited by the early entomologists. The Odonata
are the types of the suborder, and the. Termitide, Psocide,
Phryganeide, Perlidee, Hemerobiide, Sialide, Panorpide, Libel-
lulide (Odonata), Ephemeride, and Thysanura are closely inter-
dependent groups, and circumscribed by the most trenchant
characters, which they possess in common, and which separate
them from the closely allied Orthoptera, into which, by modern
German authors especially, some of their families appear to us
to have been unwarrantably merged.

The families of this suborder differ more among themselves
than those of other suborders, by reason of the lowness of their
type, presenting an unusual number of degradational forms, the
connecting links of which have become, we must believe, extinct.
The Neuroptera are moreover true synthetic types, combining,
as do all decephalized embryonic forms, the structure of several
equivalent groups, presenting features which remind us of cha-
racters more fully wrought out in higher and more compactly

‘finished groups of Insects.

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE FIGURES,

Fig. 1. Bombus fervidus. The first stage of the semipupa, concealed by
the larval skin. The semipupa head lies under the head (a) and
and the prothoracic ring (6,. The basal ring of the abdomen (c),
or fourth ring from the head, is unchanged in form. This figure
also will suffice to represent the larva, though a little more pro-
duced anteriorly than in its natural form.
_ Fig. 2. Bombus fervidus. The second stage of the semipupa. The larval
skin entirely sloughed off, the two pairs of wing-pads lying
parallel, aud very equal in size, like the wings of Neuroptera,

98

Mr, A. 8. Packard on the Hymenoptera.

the thoraco-abdominal ring, or propodeum (e), with its oblong
spiracle (n), essentially differing from those on the abdomen.
At this point the body contracts ; but the head and thorax toge-
ther are yet, as still more in the previous stage, much smaller

than in the pupa, and there is still a continuous curve from the
tip of the abdomen to the head. g, antenna; fh, lingua and
maxille and palpi; 4, fore legs; j, middle legs; k, mesoscutum ;
I, mesoscutellum; m, metascutellum; 2, spiracle of the propodeum.

Fig. 3. Bombus fervidus. The third stage of the semipupa. The head

and thorax together now nearly equal in size the abdomen; the

ropodeum (c) has become entirely transferred to the thorax.

he head has become greatly enlarged; the wings are very un-
equal, the hinder pair are much smaller, and overlain by the
anterior pair; the three terminal pairs of abdominal rings, so
large in fig. 2, have been absorbed, and partially enclosed in the
cavity of the abdomen; and there has been a further differentia-
tion of the ring into the sternite (d), pleurite (e), and tergite (f).
a, eye; h, lingua; 0, ovipositor, two outer rhabdites expused to
view. The abdominal spiracles in figs. 2 and 3 are repre-
sented by a row of dots. In the pupa (fig. 4) they are concealed
by the tergites.

Dr. H. Burmeister on some Cetaceans. 99

Fig. 4. Bombus fervidus. The pupa state, where the body has become
* much shorter, the appendages of the head and thorax greatly
differentiated, the external genital organs wholly retracted with-

in the cavity of the abdomen, the head freer from the body,

and the whole bulk of the head and thorax together, including

the appendages, greater than that of the abdomen. ¢, the pro-

podeum, nearly concealed in a side view; p, labrum; q, maxilla,

with the two-jointed palpi at the extremity; r, tip of the lingua.

XVI.—On some Cetaceans. By Hermann BurMEIsTER.
(From a Letter to Dr. J. E. Gray.)
[Plate IX.]

Tue Museum has received another new species of Cetacea since
my letter; it is a new Orca, which I name O. magellanica,
and now send a figure of the skull with a description. The
species is nearest to O. capensis, but more slender and different
in many respects, as you will find by comparing my figure and
description. The animal was found on the shore, near the
. mouth of the small river called “ Arroyo de Cristiano muerto,”
in S. lat. 38° 50', and was in a perfect state of preservation ;
but, by the negligence of the people who found it, the whole
skeleton was lost, with the exception of the skull and two verte-
bre (one dorsal, one caudal) which have come into my hands.

From your Catalogue I learn that you do not know the skull
of the adult Sea-Lion or that of Arctocephalus Falklandicus. We
have both in the Museum, these two species being the only ones
which are found in the Atlantic, near the mouth of the Rio de
la Plata. They were formerly very common on the small islands
north of the mouth of the river, named from them “ Islas de los
lobos,” lobo marino (sea-wolf) being the Spanish name for a
Seal; and not unfrequently they come into the mouth of the
river even as far as Buenos Ayres, where I have already twice
seen full-grown living specimens of Arctocephalus Falklandicus.
Both of these were, I believe, carried to France; but perhaps
they died on the voyage. They were kept here for a long time
in a large basin of fresh water; and I was one of the daily
visitors to these very interesting animals*.

We have in the Museum a young half-grown specimen nearly
8 feet in length. From this I have taken the skull, of which I
now send you a description and drawings (PI. IX. fig. 1 from
above, and fig. 2 from the side, one-half natural size; fig. 3, end
of the palatine bones, natural size; and fig. 4, some teeth, seen
from the inside, also natural size. The numbers indicate the

. * Thave no doubt it is one of these that is now alive in the Zoological
Gardens in the Regent’s Park.—J. E. G.

100 Dr. H. Burmeister on some Cetaceans;

position of the teeth—2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th molars). The.
skull is not very flat, and has no crest; the upper surface is
rounded and the orbits very large, with a sharp spine on the
anterior, and a horizontal crest on the upper margin. Teeth $ I.
and °° M.; the two outer incisors in the upper jaw are much
more prominent and of a conical form, like the canines; but
the other four are smaller than those in the lower jaw; the
upper with two points, one before, the other behind, of equal
size; the lower with a transverse obtuse margin, somewhat
higher than the outer edge. The canines have not attained
their full size. Of the six upper molars, the first four descend
perpendicularly, the other two are sloping, with the apex back-
wards ; each of them has a large conical crown, with a small.
acute tubercle on the anterior margin of the base, and the three.
last have another more elevated tubercle on the posterior part of
the crown. In the lower jaw there are only five molars; but, as
the last in the upper jaw is entirely white, and the others all
brown and less developed, it is possible that a sixth molar might
subsequently have been developed in the lower jaw. Each of
the five lower molars has a small tubercle in front, at the base ~
of the high conical crown; and the three hinder ones have also
a more highly developed tubercle on the posterior part of the
crown, which becomes higher and larger posteriorly. The pala-
tine bones are deeply excavated anteriorly, and flat behind. The
hinder margin is retracted forward in the middle, and has on
each side an obtuse prominent angle, as shown in my drawing.
The occipital condyles are wanting, and therefore only indicated
in my figure.
On Tursio Eurynome.

The skull of the Dolphin in our Museum which I have called
Delphinus Euphrosyne, perhaps by a change of the very similar
names, is not D. Euphresyne of the ‘ Voyage Ereb. and Terror,’
pl. 22, but D. Lurynome, ibid. pl.17, now named Tursio Eurynome
in your Catalogue, p. 261. The skull agrees exactly with your
figure, and cannot belong to a different species. The lower jaw
is wanting, and both sides of the wpper jaw want the tops; in
the remaining parts there are twenty orifices or sockets for the
teeth, wanting the five of the top, with that part of the maxil-
lary bones ; but as the intermaxillaries are completely preserved,
I can hardly be in error as to the portion wanting of the maxil-
laries. The skull is very old, and may have been brought by a
vessel from the East Indies to Buenos Ayres; but as it is very
rare for any one here to take an interest in the preservation of
such things, I supposed that it must have been obtained in this
country,

-Dr. H. Burmeister on some Cetaceans. 101

” On Delphinus microps.

Of this species we have now three skulls in the museum, it
being the commonest species on the coast of Brazil south of the
equator. I saw many troops of them during my voyage in the
sailing vessel which first brought me here.

The animal is of the size and colour of your Delphinus Walkeri
(fig. 100), and I think it may be the same species, if the skull is
not very different. My three skulls are of equal size, 17 Rhenish
(=18°15 English) inches in length, and 7 (=74 English) inches
in breadth at the widest point on the temporal arch, beneath the
fossa temporalis. They have from forty-seven to forty-nine teeth

in the upper jaw, and from forty-four to forty-eight in the lower;
ut the number seems to be variable, as the first and last teeth
‘are very small, and often wanting on one side when present on
the other. The upper jaw always has some more teeth behind,
‘and the lower jaw probably some more in front. The form is
exactly like your figure (pl. 25), even the deep groove on the
right side of the frontal tubercle being the same, and the occi-
pital crest very prominent in front, perhaps more so than in
your figure. The teeth are six to an inch in the middle of the
aw.
f In its general form the skull is nearly allied to that of Steno
attenuatus, which I received last year from a friend on his return
from Europe in a sailing vessel. This vessel took the animal in
the middle of the Atlantic, south of the line; and my friend
preserved the skull for me, the animal having been eaten by the
sailors. The skull is exactly 17 inches long, and agrees pre-
cisely with your figure in the ‘ Voyage of the Erebus and Terror,’
pl. 28.
4 Lastly, I have also received the skull of Delphinus Styx (Voy.
Ereb. and Terr. pl. 21) from a sailor, who captured the animal
near Madeira. I am also in expectation of an entire well-pre-
served skeleton of a Dolphin taken in the river two miles above
Buenos Ayres; but the owner would not give me the bones till
to-day.

Orca magellanica, n. sp. Pi. IX. fig. 5,

This animal is known only by a skull found on the shore of
the provinee of Buenos Ayres, in lat. 38° 50'S., near the mouth
of the small Rio del Cristiano muerto. It seems to be very like
Orca capensis, but rather more slender, as is proved by the fol-
lowing measurements of the skull, compared with the same in
Orca gladiator and capensis, as given by Dr. Gray in his ‘ Cata-
logue of Seals and Whales, ed, 2. pp. 280 & 284.

102 Dr. H. Burmeister on some Cetaceans.

O. gladiator. | O. capensis. |O. magellani

Length, entire -....0......00 33 363 36

| Length of nose ...++0.--+++ +00 193 18 19
Length of teeth-line ......... 143 14 15
Length of lower jaw......... 273 29 30
Breadth at notch .........00 103 12 103
Breadth at orbits ............ 18 21 20
Breadth of temple..........., 18 20 18
Breadth at middle of beak 93 10 10
Breadth of intermaxillaries its 34 43
Breadth in front ..........+ 4 ae, 42
Breadth in middle ......... 4 33 | 4

These measurements show that the beak is longer than in the
Cape species, and relatively shorter than in the European spe-
cies, but perhaps of the same breadth; the teeth-line is longer
than in either of them, and the after part, between the orbits
and temples, rather smaller and not so broad. Other differences
are presented by the forms of the different bones.

The intermaxillaries, which in Orca gladiator are narrowed to
the apex, and in O. capensis are enlarged into an ovate figure
(as shown by the drawings in the Voy. Ereb. and Terr. pls. 8 & 9),
have a more rounded form in O. magellanica, and are broadest
at the apex; from that point they go in a straight line to the
base of the nose, only becoming rapidly narrower near the notch,
where the breadth is only 34 inches (at the anterior extremity 4),
and then are extended into the usual elliptical part surrounding
the nasal apertures. In consequence of this breadth of the in-
termaxillaries in the anterior region, the maxillaries are slender,
and narrower than in the other two species.

In the form of the occiput Orca magellanica agrees rather
with O. capensis than with O. gladiator, being larger and having
a somewhat excavated surface, and a sharp crest on the whole
circumference above. This crest has in the middle a posteriorly
protracted angle, into which enters the high protuberance of the
frontal bones behind the nasal apertures; from the edge of this
angle a sharp elevated margin or line descends along the middle
of the occiput to the great occipital foramen. The sides of the
occiput are sloped more backward, as in O. capensis, and thus
form a larger posterior temporal cavity. The tuberosity before
and above the orbits seems to be not so high; but the lower
angle of this tuberosity in front of the entrance into the orbit is
much sharper and more descendant, and the small notch in the
middle of the upper margin of the orbit is somewhat broader ;
but the form of the entrance of the orbit is exactly the same as
in Orca capensis. The postorbital process also shows some dif-

Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens. 103

ferences: it has the same figure as in O. capensis, but is some-
what thickened only at the lower margin, whilst the upper part,
near the suture with the maxillary bone, is deeply excavated,
so that the suture is even more elevated than the bones be-
neath it. .

The fossa temporalis resembles that of O. capensis in form,
and is much more elongated than in O. gladiator ; it is acute in
front and rounded behind. It is 10 inches long, 4 inches broad
in the middle; the lower margin is of a sigmoid form, and has
a stronger protuberance over the region of the ear than in O.
capensis; but the hinder part of the occiput, corresponding with
the mastoid process of higher animals, is not so strong as it
seems to be in OU. capensis, and is somewhat shorter.

The tympanic bones are wanting, and the articular cavity for
the lower jaw is strongly excavated, with a prominent lower
margin.

The number of teeth is twelve in each jaw; each of them is
situated in a large socket, the first sockets being somewhat
smaller than the following ones. In front of the first socket, in .
the intermaxillary bone, there is a small and not very deep
groove, in which there has probably been a small tooth, now
wanting. The total number of teeth would then have been
thirteen im the upper jaw.

Each tooth is of a conical form and somewhat curved, with
the apex backward, and the anterior margin more perpendicular
than the somewhat inclined posterior margin. The upper half
of the crown is whitish, the lower half brown; on the former
there is a thin layer of enamel, which is wanting on the lower
brown portion. .

Buenos Ayres, Your sincere Friend,

May 5, 1866. H. Burmeister.

XVII.—Notule Lichenologice. No. VIII.
By the Rev. W. A. Leicuron, B.A., F.L.S.

NEW BRITISH LICHENS.

Tue following additions to our British Lichens are made by
Dr. W. Nylander in the ‘ Flora’ for February 1866, p. 85.

1. Lecidea chlorotiza, Nyl.

Thallus cinereo-virescens, tenuis, subleprosus, effusus ; apothecia
carneo-flavida, convexiuscula vel convexa (latit. 0'4—-0°6 mil-
lim.), immarginata (solum juvenilia margine obtuso), intus
incoloria; spore 8"®, incolores, oblonge vel oblongo-fusi-
formes, 1-septate, longit. 0°009-0:012 millim., crass. 0-002—

104 Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens.

0:003 millim. (rarius simul subbacillares et longitudinis usque
0-014 millim.) ; paraphyses gracilescentes vel non bene dis-
crete ; epithecium, hymenium et hypothecium incoloria.
Gelatina hymenea iodo cerulescens, deinde mox violacee
tincta vel violaceo obscurata. .
Ad corticem ulmi prope Clifton in Anglia, 1865. (C. Lar-
haleative: Esq.)
Facie est Lecidee luteola, var. ohlordbiai Ach., sed affinitate
— ad L. globulosam, F\k.

2. Verrucarta antecellens, Ny).

Similis V. epidermidis f. tremule, sed sporis (ovoideo-oblongis,
l-septatis) multo majoribus, longit. 0-032-0:035 millim.,
crassit. 0°009-0'011 millim.; paraphyses graciles vel vix
ullee.

Ad corticem Ilicis in Anglia (Tilgate Forest, Sussex) legit

Larbalestier.

Varietas sit V. epidermidis. Apothecia conferta, sat parva.

3. Lecidea dispansa, Ny)l.

Lecidea expansa, Nyl. in Leight. L. Br. Exs. 186, memorata in
‘Flora’? 1865, p. 355, non omnino eadem est ac Americana
corticola L. myriocarpoides, Nyl. in litt. ad Tuck; hoe corri-
gere liceat ex examine accuratiore. LL. myriocarpoides tha-
lamium habet dilute lutescens et epithecium luteo-fuscescens;
in dicta L. expansa thalamium est subincolor, epithecium
nigricans; etiam thalli et hypothecii differentie obveniunt,
Ob nomen eaxpansa alii ante datum a Chevalier mutandum,
proponere liceat ejus loco novum. Dicatur tum nostra ea-
pansa posthac Lecidea dispansa. Male ad hance _dispansam
relata fuit L. sylvicola, Flot. Krbr. Lich. Sel. 75, cui apothecia
vulgo convexa, thalamium (lamina tenui visum) cerulescens,
epithecium non obscuratum, hypothecium medio nigricans,
gelatina hymenea iodo vinose rubens, spermatia tenuiora, etc.;
ita differentiz plurimee.

On the Cephalodia in Peltidea venosa. By Dr. W. Nx.
(Flora, 1866, p. 116.)

De Nylander has at various times in his writings cointelas
the existence of cephalodia of divers sorts upon Lichens. On
the upperside of the thallus granuliform cephalodia occur in
Lecidea paneola, placodioid ones in Placopsis, fruticulose ones
-in certain Stictei, besides others in Stereocaulon, Usnea, &c.

On the lower surface of the thallus peculiar pyrenodine (“ ob
-formam imitantem apothecia pyrenocarpea obtecta”) cephalodia
‘are present in some Stictei and in Nephruma expallidum.

Dr. W. Nylander on Lichens. 105

He now makes known those which he has recently discovered
on the lower surface of the thallus, and most frequently on the
fuscous tomentose nerves of Peltidea venosa. These cephalodia
are granular, cartilaginous, glaucous or glauco-cinereous (at
length becoming dark or blackish), small (commonly 0-2—0°5
millim. broad), superficial, subglobose or somewhat depressed,
not unfrequently clustered. They contain granula gonima, of
moderate size and moniliform, in a thin cellular texture.

GONIMIA, LEPTOGONIDIA, OR GONIDIMIA.

Dr. Nylander (/.c.) suggests that it may be advisable to call
the granula gonima by the term “ gonimia,” to distinguish them
from true gonidia. Perhaps, also, the gonidia of peculiar type
which are observable in Peltidei, Solorine, Nephroma expallidum,
and which are of small size and furnished with a thin cellular
wall, may deserve a distinct name, which he proposes to be
*‘leptogonidia” or “ gonidimia.”

CLADONIA, CLADINA.

Dr. Nylander (in Flora, 1866, p. 178) proposes to divide the
genus Cladonia thus :—

Those species which have a thallus leafy or squamaceo-foliolose
at the base, and podetia (with a cortex partially split up and
powdery) often more or less furnished with leaflets or scales,
and still oftener more or less scyphophorous, he retains in the
genus Cladonia.

Those species which have a leafless thallus, podetia commonly
without scyphi, branched, the branches sharply pointed, a cortex
not splitting up, and powdery (although sometimes evanescent,
and thus denuding the subarachnoid stratum medullare), he
comprises in a new genus, Cladina. In this he arranges C.rangi-
ferina, peltasta, uncialis (et amaurocrea), medusina, candelabrum,
gorgonea, Salzmanni, divaricata, leporina, aggregata, retipora,
schizopora, and perhaps also papillaria.

Cladonia furcata and its allies approach to Cladina, but differ
by possessing leaflets.

SPERMOGONIA.

To show the value of the spermogonia as a distinctive cha-
racter, Dr. Nylander states (/.c. p. 181), “ Platysma subperlatum,
spermogoniis neglectis dignosci fere non potest a Parmelia
latissima; Platysma commiatum vix nisi spermatiis distat a Pla-
tysmate Fahlunensi; Physcia adglutinata similiter distincta a
Physcia obscura, quarum (spermatiis non examinatis) ante juncta
fuit ut varietas.”

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3, Vol. xviii. 8

106 M. Balbiani on the Reproduction

IODINE.

Dr. Nylander says (7. c.), “ D. Fries affert me reactionem iodo
effectam attulisse tanquam signum Lichenes omnino a Fungis
distinguens, etsieam nunquam aliter eo respectu proposuil quam
sicut adminiculum accedens in certis casibus, ubi dubium re-
stitit in formis Lichenaceis infimis a Fungis simillimis distin-
guendis.”

XVIII.—On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.
(Third Note.) By-M. Bausrani*.

Havine described in my two previous communications the phe-
nomena presented by the viviparous Aphides in their reproduc-
tion and development, I now come to the examination of the
same facts in the oviparous Aphides, which represent the last
generation produced by the preceding individuals towards the
close of the year. This autumnal generation consists, as is well
known, of males and females, which copulate, when the females
lay eggs which pass through the winter and are hatched only in
the following spring.

The oviparous Aphides are produced under conditions exactly
similar to those which governed the development of the vivi-
parous forms. ° Not only does the embryo originate in an ovule
differing in no respect from that producing the latter, but all
that I have said with regard to the first modifications of the
ovum, the formation of the blastoderm and embryos, and the
production of the male and female generative elements is per-
fectly applicable to them. From this it results that these ani-
mals, which, after their birth, will give the most manifest signs
of the separation of the sexes, appear during a great part of
their embryonic existence like truly hermaphrodite creatures,
which it would be impossible to distinguish from their oviparous
-[?viviparous] congeners. It is only when their development
has become considerably advanced that the first tendency to the
separation of the sexes is manifested. How this separation is
brought about, is what we shall now proceed to examine.

Of all the means at the command of nature for the attainment
of this end, the most simple would evidently be to affect with
atrophy one of the sexual apparatus, the other continuing its
normal development. But this is not what takes place. The
male apparatus does not disappear, and is found, after birth, in
individuals of both sexes, with characters scarcely differing from

* Translated from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ June 25th, 1866, pp. 1390-
1394. See Annals, ser. 3. vol. xviii. pp. 62-69.

and Embryogeny of the Aphides. 107

those which it presented in the viviparous Aphides*. All the
transformations, therefore, affect only the female apparatus,
which, according to the sex which the embryo is to possess,
retains its primitive character or undergoes such modification as
to become a true testis.

The changes which this organ undergoes in order to become
a well-characterized ovary, such as we meet with in the female
when adult, are reduced to a simple growth of all its parts, the
form and arrangement of its elements not presenting any fun-
damental difference from those which they present in the vivi-
parous individuals. We may then recognize in it, in a most
evident manner, the mode of grouping of the cells in the ovarian
chamber which I have described in the latter.

When, on the contrary, the female element of the hermaphro-
dite apparatus is destined to become a testis, the small cellular
masses surrounded by a proper envelope of which it consists
become converted into so many fusiform capsules or follicles
containing rounded masses composed of numerous small cells,
which are only the developmental elements of the spermatozoids
of the male. In the embryo these capsules form at first two
groups symmetrically placed in the two halves of the body ; but
after birth they become confounded into a single group by their
coalescence in the median line. At the period of reproduction
these capsules are found to be filled with long filiform spermato-
zoids arranged in parallel bundles, as in other insects.

I have already stated that the embryonic male organ occurred
almost without any modification in individuals of both sexes
after birth. It is easy, in fact, to ascertain that this is the case
by the existence of the two cellular cords (of a green colour in
most species), which are found arranged in the same way as in
the viviparous individuals, both in the females and males—that
is to say, in the interior of the ovaries in the former, and in that
of the testes in the latter. The persistence of this element in
animals in which the -separation of the sexual functions in
different individuals is shown so evidently, does not, at first
sight, appear to be capable of explanation except by that familiar
tendency of nature to retain a part, even when it is of no use to
the organism, and solely to recall a typical or primitive condition.
It is, in fact, difficult to interpret otherwise its preservation in
the male, where it appears to be supererogatory to the well-

* T shall have, on another occasion, to explain my notion of the nature
of this male embryonic organ, which must not be confounded with an
ordinary testis. I have found its analogue in several other animals, the
Sea BE of reproduction in which, hitherto enveloped in obscurity,

ave led to their being classed among the species which are propagated by
parthenogenesis.

108 On the Reproduction and Embryogeny of the Aphides.

developed testis; but in the female it is otherwise, and we shall
see, in speaking of the development of the egg, that its presence
in this sex has a much more important signification.

The conditions. which influence the determination of the sexes.
in the Aphides are probably of the same kind as those which
act in a more general manner to bring on a change in their
mode of propagation; that is to say, they are probably depen-
dent upon the phenomena of nutrition in these insects, The
following observations support this opinion.

At the period when the production of the dicecious genera-
tions commences we find that at first females are almost exclu-
sively generated, the males being still comparatively rare. But
the latter soon become more and more numerous, and at last
are even produced in greater abundance than the female indivi-
duals. A single hermaphrodite mother may, moreover, contain
at the same time embryos of both sexes, succeeding each other
without apparent order in the interior of her ovarian sheaths.
It is curious to observe the difference of coloration of the male
and female embryos of the same species. The latter alone pre-
sent a colour which resembles that of their mother: thus, for
example, in a species of which the viviparous individuals are
brown, the oviparous females are also brown, whilst the males
are constantly green*, and vice versd. This difference of colour
is due to the oleaginous globules which fill the cells of the fatty
body, and is, no doubt, connected with a different chemical
composition of the nutritive fluids in the embryos of the two
sexes.

After this brief exposition of the embryogenic phenomena
connected with the determination of the sexes in the Aphides,
it remains for me, in order to traverse the whole reproductive
cycle of these animals, to describe in few words what I have
been able to observe of the development of the ovum destined to
reproduce the viviparous generations with which we commenced
this investigation. Notwithstanding the considerable differences
as to its elementary constitution and the conditions of its deve-
lopment presented by the voluminous ovum of the oviparous
Aphides when compared with the little ovule of the viviparous
individuals, there is nevertheless a striking analogy in the phe-
nomena of which both are the seat. Although the formation of
the embryo does not commence in the former until after it has
been fecundated by the male and brought into the world, it
nevertheless, whilst still enclosed in the ovary, exhibits pheno-
mena which indicate that genetic operations have already begun
in its interior. Thus we observe, at the posterior pole of this

* At least in the embryonic and larval states; the adult male is almost
always blackish.

Mr. H. Seeley on some new Genera of Fossil Birds. 109

ovum, a rounded mass composed of a group of small, pale, and
scarcely visible cells, enclosed in a common envelope, which
become more and more apparent in proportion as the egg ap-
proaches the term of its maturity. At this moment it is impos-
sible not to recognize in these elements the analogues of the
spermatic cells of which I have described the mode of formation
in speaking of the development of the viviparous Aphides.
These cells, indeed, present all the characters, even to the green
coloration due to numerous small pigment-granules, which I
have indicated in the latter ; and we may also recognize in them
even the little daughter cells in which the seminal corpuscles
will afterwards be developed. These facts evidently indicate
that the egg has already, while in the ovary, undergone a first
fecundation, with which the male has nothing to do, and the
effect of which is limited to the production of the generative
elements of the future animal. Now the agents of this fecunda-
tion are nothing but the seminal corpuscles developed in the
hermaphrodite apparatus of the embryo, and which are trans-
mitted by the latter to the adult female.

After fecundation by the male, and the deposition of the egg
which succeeds this, the embryogenic work, properly so-called,
commences. The blastoderm appears in the form of a continuous
layer of cells surrounding the whole surface of the egg. This
blastoderm opens widely at its posterior part, and the mass of
spermatic cells penetrates towards the middle of the vitellus. A
wide canal, which extends from the posterior pole to the centre
of the egg, marks this passage for some time; then the orifice of
the blastoderm closes, and the walls of the canal are effaced.
But, unfortunately, the egg, which, while these phenomena are
taking place, has acquired a darker tint at its anterior pole, due
to the coloration of the chorion, soon becomes covered from one
end to the other by a blackish veil, which conceals from the
observer the further phenomena taking place in its interior.

XIX.—Note on some new Genera of Fossil Birds in the Wood-
wardian Museum. By H. Srnrey, Esq.

TERTIARY BIRDS.
Ptenornis.

Sternal end of a right coracoid from the Lower Tertiary of
Hempstead, Isle of Wight. It has much the size and form
seen in the Mute Swan; but the exterior angle is rounded and
thickened, as in Bubo. The bone is compressed; the sternal
articulation is convex. There is nothing to show whether the

110 Mr. H. Seeley on some new Genera of Fossil Birds. -

bird was raptorial or natatorial. It bears evidences of having
been eaten.
Macrornis tanaupus, Seeley.

Proximal] end of right tibia of a large Struthious bird from
Hordwell. It is as large as the Emu, but is further removed
from the Emu than the Ostrich, in the struthious direction.
Both pairs of sides are subparallel. The patelloid prominence
arises from a narrower base than in the great Struthionide,
and is produced into a considerable process on the inner side of
the leg. There is an inflation at the back of the proximal end.
The shaft is compressed, and the fibula-ridge is sharp. The
points in which it is unlike known struthious birds are those
which characterize some genera of waders and gallinaceous
birds.

Megalornis, Seeley.

Lithornis emuianus, Bowerbank, Ann. Nat. Hist.

. Cast of original specimen in the British Museum; and distal
end of a right tibia exactly corresponding to it, from the London
Clay of Eastchurch, in the Isle of Sheppey. Taking the Ostrich
as a type, this bird diverges from the typical Struthionide on
the other side of the Emu, yet appears to conform to the Casua-
rine allies. The. shaft is set on to the extreme back of the
trochlear end, and is more robust than in the Emu. Also its
posterior side is more rounded, and the inner side more angular,

CRETACEOUS BIRDS.

Mr. Lucas Barrett, in 1858, discovered bones in the Upper
Greensand which he recognized as those of a bird allied to the
Natatores. They are described, in Sir C. Lyell’s Supplement to
the fifth edition of the ‘Elements,’ as rather larger than those of
a common pigeon. -And Prof. Owen, in the second edition of
the ‘ Paleontology,’ speaks of a trifid tarsus showing the outer
toe-joint much higher up than the other two. Of neither of.
these are there any examples at Cambridge. But we have col-
lected or seen a number of cervical, caudal, and dorsal vertebra,
proximal and distal ends of tarsal bones, proximal ends of tibia,
proximal and distal ends of femora, humeri, metacarpal bones,
&c., which demonstrate the existence of a very distinct genus of
birds in the Cambridge Greensand, of which I have named the
typical species Pelagornis Barretti.

Descriptions of these new genera will appear in the ‘ Cata-
logue of Fossil Vertebrata in the Woodwardian Museum.’

Mr. H. Seeley on the Fossils of the Carstone Formation. 111

XX.—On the Fossils of the Carstone Formation.
To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

In April the ‘ Geological Magazine’ contained a short paper
on the phosphatic nodules of Bedfordshire, which I first observed
in company with my friend Mr. Knowles, of Emmanuel College,
several years ago, when the cuttings for the Bedford Railway
were being made. Both before and ever since then [ have been
gathering material for a memoir on the Carstone and its southern
extension, in which this phosphate-bed is found; but I should
not have been tempted to refer to the bed yet, had not the
paper in the ‘ Geological Magazine’ called forth another, from
an old friend, which you have inserted in the last Number of
your Journal.

_ The author of the former paper asserts that “every organism
of this phosphatic bed is evidently extraneous, and probably
was derived from the destruction of the Oxford and Kimmeridge
Clays and intervening Coral Rag, from which the phosphatic
matter must have been obtained, while the Lower Greensand
was in process of formation.”

. To any one who knew the fauna of the bed in question (the
Carstone) this would seem remarkable; for, instead of every
fossil being extraneous (and I have dozens of genera), I have
never obtained one that is extraneous: they all appear to me
denizens of the old sea-bed where they abound. The multitudes
of Saurians are chiefly Cretaceous species ; and among the shells
I seek in vain for fossils from the Oxford or Kimmeridge Clay,
or for blocks of Coral Rag. The Gryphea dilatata is perversely
wanting; the Ostrea deltoidea cannot be found ; the Ammonites
will not answer to any of their Oolitic names, or show a trace
of iron pyrites. And yet when fossils endurable like these, and
abundant, are wanting, it is imagined that the fragile and very
rare argillaceous casts of shells—no firmer than the clay they
rest in—have withstood with impunity ages of buffetting ona.
gravelly beach.

The truth is, the “Sandy nodule bed,” as this bed in the
Carstone may be called, reproduces, earlier in time, the conditions
of the Cambridge Greensand. There are specimens in it of other
rocks in hundreds; but they are old rocks, like those the Carstone
was derived from.

And if the fossils had been extraneous specimens from a clay,
it would have been no more astonishing to have found that the
alumina, magnesia, and fluorine in the nodules only make up
4 per cent. together than to have discovered Oxford or Kim-

112 Dr. J. A. Smith on Calamoichthys,

meridge Clay, or even Coral Rag, so stored with phosphoric -
acid that its denudation would furnish nothing but a magnificent
crop of nodules of phosphate of lime, like these.

The wood which occurs in the bed is like that which occurs
in the Gault of the southern counties and Carstone here, and is
mineralized with phosphoric acid, and therefore no more requires
an appeal to extensive denudation of Purbeck beds to account
for it than the occurrence of remains of Igwanodon can be held
to prove denudation of Wealden beds; for the chief fame of that
beast is from its occurrence in the Shanklin Sands in the Igua~
nodon quarry.

Like the Cambridge Greensand, the deposit offers many new.
facts of interest in the distribution of life. Thus Pliosaurus, so
characteristic of Oxford Clay, Coral Rag, Kimmeridge Clay (and
probably Portland), is now found in the approximate equivalent
of the Shanklin Sands. Dinotosaurus, a new genus of the
Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays, also abounds here, and thus,
like Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus, Megalosaurus, &c., helps to con=
nect into one great life-system the lower and the upper Secondary

Rocks.

I am, Gentlemen,

Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. Faithfully yours,
July 17, 1866. H. SEeiey.

XXI.—Description of Calamoichthys, a new Genus of Ganoid
Fish from Old Calabar, Western Africa. By Joun ALEXANDER
Smitu, M.D., F.R.C.P.E.; with Observations on the Internal
Structure, by R. H. Traquair, M.D., Demonstrator of Ana-
tomy in the University of Edinburgh*.

In the beginning of January 1865, the author received from the
Rey. Alexander Robb, Old Calabar, a package of specimens of
natural history preserved in spirits. Among these were two
small ganoid fish. They were, however, imperfect, having been
torn across near the anal region, and their caudal extremities were
wanting. The characters of the fish could not, therefore, be
completely determined. The author, however, exhibited them
at a meeting of the Royal Physical Society, on the 22nd March,
1865, and stated that they were allied to the genus Polypterus ;
but from various differences in character, to be afterwards de-
tailed, and especially the great relative length of their bodies,
and the apparently total absence of ventral fins, he would place
them in a new genus, which, from their general aspect and form,

* Communicated by Dr. Smith, from the Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh.

anew Genus of Ganoid Fish. 113

he designated Erpetoichthys*, the reptile- or serpent-fish ; and
the species, from the locality where it was found, he named
E. calabaricus.

Since that time the author had received perfect specimens
from Old Calabar, and found that the accuracy of his previous
conclusions were confirmed.

The fish is got in the freshwater streamlets which run into the
main rivers or creeks of the great Calabar River, and in the pools
of the marshy lands. It is occasionally sold in the markets, and
eaten by some of the natives. Its native name is U-nydng,
which the Rev. Mr. Robb explains by suggesting that it may be

‘derived from a verb signifying to struggle or scuffle for the
possession of a thing, and he therefore supposes it to mean the
struggler, or, using a Scottish word as more appropriate, the
“wambler,” the name being probably given to it on account of
the apparent struggling, wriggling, or undulating movements
of its elongated body as it swims in the water or mud of the
river.

Summary of characters of the genus Calamoichthys, and its
relation to the’genus Polypterus :—

Genus Calamoichthys.—Head small, depressed above, some-
what oval in shape (rounded and narrow in front, expands late-
rally behind orbits, and contracts again at the back part, towards
neck). Suboperculum wanting. (No small plates below pre-
operculum.) Body much elongated, anguiform (cylindrical for
about half its length, then becoming gradually more compressed’
laterally, and tapering slightly towards its caudal extremity).
Caudal extremity short, tapering rapidly. Caudal fin rounded,
homocereal; fin-rays hard. (Scales osseous, rhombic, sculp-
tured.) Fins small; pectorals obtusely lobate; fin-rays soft ;
dorsal finlets numerous, separate; anal (with fulcrum at base
anteriorly) in male large, in female small; fin-rays hard; ven-
trals wanting.

The last character is rather an important one, as this fish thus
appears to be the only living ganoid yet known which has no
ventral fins. Van der Hoeven, in his ‘ Handbook of Zoology,’
gives the presence of ventral fins as one of the characters of his
great Section III. of the class Pisces, the Ganolepidoti; and
older naturalists, as Cuvier, place the Ganoids, for a similar
reason, among the Malacopteryii abdominales. The discovery of
this fish will therefore necessitate a change in this character of
the whole section.

* Since this paper was sent to press, the author has learned that a closely
corresponding name to Erpetoichthys had been already used in ichthyology;

and accordingly he now changes the designation to Calamoichthys (kddapos
and iy@vs), which still bears a relation to the cylindrical shape of the fish.

114 Dr. R. H. Traquair on the Anatomy of Calamoichthys,

In the genus Polypterus, on the other hand, the head is rela-
tively larger (with apparently little or no lateral expansion and
subsequent contraction towards the neck) ; its gently swelling
outlines gradually expand and run backwards into those of the
body. Suboperculum present; several small plates below pre-
operculum. Body relatively much shorter, generally tapering
gradually from behind region of pectoral fins, and becoming
more compressed laterally towards its caudal extremity. Caudal
extremity longer. Scales generally smooth (?). Fins larger 5
pectorals, fin-rays osseous; anal apparently alike in size in
male and female; ventrals present.

The genus Calamoichthys agrees, however, with Polypterus in
the general character of its numerous dorsal finlets ; Jobate pec-
torals, two nasal cirri, a spiracle on each side of the head above,
and a large flat branchiostegous ray, or jugular plate, on each
side of the mesian line below; and also in the hard, osseous, rhom-
boidal-shaped ganoid scales, arranged in rows running obliquely
backwards, and in the tapering caudal extremity of the body.

The new genus belongs, therefore, to the same family as Po-
lypterus, and would accordingly fall to be placed next to it in
the family of the Polypterini.

Family Polypterini.
I. Genus PoLyprerus. |
II. Genus Catamotcuruys.
1. Species C. calabaricus.

(The specimens described measured from 8 to nearly 13 inches
in length.)

Hab. Old Calabar River, and the Camaroons, West Africa.

(A female sent by Mr. G. W. Mylne from the latter locality,
and recently received by Dr. Smith, was also exhibited.)

On dissecting those specimens of Calamoichthys entrusted to
the author by Dr. Smith, the greatest similarity was found to
exist between their internal organization and that of Polypterus,

- the chief differences being dependent on the great elongation of
the body of the former fish, while the abdominal cavity extends
proportionately still further back towards the caudal extremity
than is the case even in the genus last mentioned.

The vertebre resemble in construction exactly those of Poly-
pterus, but are very much increased in number, amounting, in the -
specimen which was used for the preparation of the skeleton, to
110, the first of which’ has no body, consisting merely of neura-
pophyses, spinous process, and a pair of ribs. These latter form

Dr. R. H. Traquair on the Anatomy of Calamoichthys. 115

the first of the series of well-developed upper ribs, which extend,
in the horizontal intermuscular septum, as far back as the ninety-
eighth vertebra. But ribs of the lower series are very deficient in
development in comparison with those in Polypterus, where the
whole series of abdominal vertebre, except the first, is furnished
with those appendages, which posteriorly attain a considerable
length. In Calamoichthys, on the other hand, those lower ribs are
very minute, and no trace of them was found in advance of the
sixtieth vertebra. The number of abdominal vertebre, in the
specimen alluded to, is 100, of caudal 10—showing the very great
proportional elongation of the abdominal and shortening of the
caudal region. The vertebral column projects beyond the last
caudal vertebra, as a notochordal continuation or “ urostyle”
concealed among the rays of the caudal fin. The bones sup-
porting the fins agree in their general conformation with those
in Polypterus, there being, however, a less ossified state of the
radius, ulna, and carpus, while the pelvic bones, along with the
ventral fins, are completely absent. The first dorsal finlet is
placed opposite the forty-ninth vertebra.
_ As regards the form and arrangement of the bones of the
cranium and face, the most complete correspondence is found
with those of Polypterus, a space being found, however, below
the preoperculum, which, in various species of Polypterus, is
defended by a variable number of bony plates. The suboper-
culum is also completely absent. The arrangement of the
mucus-canals on the head is similar to that in Polypterus.

The arrangement of the muscular system corresponds in the
two genera. In Calamoichthys, owing to the great increase of
the number of vertebra, the number of transverse segments of
the great body-muscle is also much larger. The muscular layer
along the belly is very thin.

Viscera.—The cesophagus dilates into a flask-shaped stomach,
which terminates behind in a cul-de-sac. From the interior part
of the stomach, and close behind the entrance of the cesophagus,
issues the intestine, which passing first slightly forwards, makes
almost immediately a turn on itself, and then proceeds straight
back to the anus. A small cecal appendage, with the apex di-
rected forwards, is seen in connexion with the intestine shortly
after its backward flexure; and a little further down, between
this and the anus, a spiral valve of about five turns is developed
in the interior. The liver was in none of the specimens exa-
mined very voluminous, but much elongated, being continued
as a narrow stripe the whole length of the abdominal cavity.
The gall-bladder is distinct, and opens into the intestine imme-
diately after its flexure, and in front of the cecum.

The heart is conformed as in Polypterus, with muscular bulbus

116 Dr. R.H. Traquair on the Anatomy of Calamoichthys.

arteriosus, which is furnished internally with numerous valves, of
unequal size. The branchial artery gives off first a large lateral
branch on each side, which divides into three for the three pos-
terior gills; the trunk then bifurcates, giving off a branch for
the anterior gill of each side. As in Polypterus, the posterior
gill has only one row of leaflets, and the cleft behind it is want-
ing. No trace of a “pseudobranchia” was found, an organ
likewise absent in Polypterus. The spleen is very long and
slender, lying closely along the great air-bladder. The air-
bladders are two in number, opening by a common orifice into
the lower aspect of the throat, behind the gill-clefts. That of
the left side is small, being only 23 inches in length in a fish
of 10 inches ; it is closely adherent to the side of the cesophagus
and commencement of the stomach. That of the other side
measures 8? inches in the same fish, and extends through the
whole length of the abdominal cavity, lying closely along the
under surface of the vertebral column.

Like the rest of the abdominal organs in general, the kidneys
are very slender and elongated ; each consists of a number of little
lobules, which lie in the concavities on the under surfaces of the _
vertebral bodies. The excretory duct or ureter lies along the
outer border of the organ, and passes straight backwards to
unite with the genital duct, and, with its fellow of the opposite
side, at the urogenital pore. The ovaries and oviducts corre-
spond exactly with Miiller’s description of these organs in Po-
lypterus (Trans. Berlin Acad. 1844). Each ovary is in the form
of a flattened plate, suspended in front of the posterior part of
the kidney by a mesentery, is solid, and consists of a stroma
imbedding ova of all sizes, up to =‘; inch diameter. _ The ovi-
duct, proceeding forwards from the urogenital pore as a pretty
wide tube, crosses beneath the ovarian mesentery, and opens
into the peritoneal cavity, on the outer side of the gland, and
closely above its lower extremity. The ovaries are not sym-
metrical in position, one being in advance of the other, so that
also one oviduct is longer. In a female measuring 83 inches
the right ovary was 1} inch in length, its anterior extremity
being placed 43 inches from the top of the snout, and the length
of the oviduct 1% inch, while the left measured 12 inch, was
situated at its anterior extremity 53 inches from the tip of the
snout, and had a duct of 1,3; inch. The testes are very mi-
nute, and situated very far forwards, each being a small oval
body =; inch in length in a male of 10 inches; and in the same
specimen the right one was situated 24, and the left 2+} inches
back from the tip of the snout. A very minute duct runs back-
wards parallel with and close to the ureter, which it joins near
the urogenital pore.

On the Amylaceous Globules of the Floridéz and Corallinee. 117

On opening a number of specimens, it was found that all
those with a large anal fin were males, while those in which that
organ was small were females. The females are, however, to be
distinguished from the males by another character, namely the
much larger size of the urogenital pore, which is situated imme-
diately behind the anus.

XXII.—On the Amylaceous Globules of the Floridez and Coral-
linee. By M. van TieGHEM*,

Kiirzine first indicated+ the existence in the cells of certain
Floridee of amyloid grains, sometimes endowed with a con-
centric structure; but in assimilating them to the _proto-
plasmic globules of the green and olive Alge, in including
under the general name of cellular globules or gonidia the whole
of the intracellular formations of the Algz, however dissimilar
they may be, and in ascribing to them, as is implied by this
name, a reproductive faculty, the illustrious algologist seems to
me to have misunderstood their nature and function. M. Nageli,
also, in his great work on starch-grains{, hesitates to pronounce
an opinion as to the existence of starch in the Floridex. His
own observations, indeed, showed him, in Cystoclonium purpu-
rascens, Kiitz., some globules to which iodine communicates a
coloration varying from red to brown and violet; but he took
them for slightly amylaceous parietal grains of protoplasm, and
he remained so uncertain upon this point as to declare, in
another part of his memoir (p. 382), that starch-grains are
wanting in the Floridez, and finally to leave to future investi-
gations the care of deciding whether these Alge do possess
starch, and of what kind it is. It is this point that I have
undertaken to clear up by a series of observations, of which I
have the honour to present the Academy with the first results.
For the sake of clearness I shall take as an example Halo-
pithys pinastroides, Kutz., which is found in abundance on our
coasts. In the cylindrical and much branched frond of this
Floridean, the thickened joints of the axis contain only a finely
granular liquid ; the joints of the five siphons, on the contrary,
and the cortical cells are filled with transparent globules, which
are colourless in the interior tissue and of a rosy tint in the
peripheral zone, although readily deprived of their colour by
alcohol; these are scattered in the liquid which bathes the
sections, forming therein white streaks. Their most general

_ * Translated from the Comptes Rendus, Noy. 6, 1865, pp. 804-807.
+ Phycologia generalis, p. 40.
} Pflanzenphysiologische Untersuchungen : Die Stirke-Korner, 1858.

118. M.van Tieghem on the Amylaceous Globules

form is spherical or ovoid ; sometimes they are flattened and dis-
coidal or lenticular in form, sometimes irregular. They are
formed by a very distinct colourless or rose-coloured membrane,
filled with solid greyish contents, most frequently without any
central space, but sometimes with a cavity in the centre, which
it is not unusual to see divided into several compartments. The
full globules are of two kinds: some, and by far the greater
number, have a circular outline and are simple ; their contents,
apparently homogeneous, are formed of very delicate concentric
zones, and give a very clear black cross in the polarizing ap-
paratus ; the others, variable in form and aspect, are composite,
and show a system of concentric layers and a black cross in each
of their compartments, when these are sufficiently large.
The very variable dimensions of these globules is in relation
to their degree of development: the ordinary diameter of the
well-developed grains is from 0-013-0:015 millimetre; the
maximum observed was 0°025 millimetre. Iodine gives them
a reddish-yellow colour. This tint persists upon all the globules
whatever be the quantity of tincture of iodine employed; but
when we renew the liquid which bathes the grains in proportion
as it evaporates, replacing it alternately by a drop of tincture of
of iodine and a drop of water, at the edges of the covering glass,
where the osmotic movements produced by an alternate disic-
cation and humectation with liquids of different densities are
most active, we see the globules become altered in a remarkable
manner at the same time that their colour changes. Sometimes
there appears at the centre a small circular space, which enlarges
by degrees, the layers becoming dissolved successively from
the centre to the periphery, at the same time that the globule
enlarges and becomes discoidal; it is reduced at last to a
membrane, which becomes more and more delicate, entire or
irregularly torn, and as the granule becomes empty its tint
passes to pure violet. In other cases the solution commences
by a circle of small holes, which increase radially, remaining
separated by solid rays; the centre is at the same time hollowed,
and the outer membrane, being unable to yield equally to the
inflation, becomes undulated; the globule is then of a fine
violet, and presents the aspect of a wheel, of which the nave,
the spokes, and the undulated felly are of a deep violet, and the
intervals of a lighter tint. In the composite globules, formed of
compartments arranged in a circle round a central chamber,
the contents of each compartment become dissolved by de-
grees, the granule swells, becomes of a fine violet colour, and
presents the radiated appearance which I have just described,
with still more distinctness. This disorganization of the gra-
nule with blue coloration may, however, be produced rapidly.

of the Floridee and Corallinez. eae SES

If iodized water be brought into contact with globules placed in
alcohol, we see a certain number of the granules situated on
the line of meeting of the two liquids suddenly burst, and throw
out around them their contents, reduced to the form of very
small granules, which become blue, whilst the torn membrane
is of a pale violet colour.

When heated in water to near 158° Fahr. the globules swell,
become partially dissolved, and at the same time acquire a fine
violet colour. A drop of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid immedi-
ately gives a violet or blue tint to the granules which have been
reddened by iodine, but at the same time dissolves them partially,
swells them up, and tears them. Potash also dissolves them.
Hypochlorite of lime alters them rapidly ; in twenty-four hours
there remain of most of the granules only the outermost layers
isolated from each other; in thirty-six hours all has disappeared.
Acetic acid and ammonia have no action upon them.

Thus these globules present all the characters of starch in
their form, structure, and optical properties, and in the action
exerted upon them by hot water, acids, and alkalies; but they
differ from amylaceous grains as these are defined, by their
acquiring a red colour with iodine. However, they are easily
converted into common starch under the ordinary influences
which I have just described, but with the condition that they
become disorganized and partially dissolved. This difference,
which is not sufficient to warrant the employment of a new
name, leads to the supposition that we have to do with a hydro-
carbonated principle isomeric with cellulose and starch, but in-
termediate between thein by its cohesion.

After the details into which I have entered with regard to
Halopithys pinastroides, Kiitz., I can only say a few words of
the starch-grains of other Floridee; but I must make special
mention of the Polysiphonia, because the amylaceous formation
in them presents a new character, which, indeed, occurs very
frequently elsewhere, but less evidently. In Polysiphonia nt-
grescens, Grev., which I shall take as an example, the joints of
the axis never contain anything but a finely granular liquid;
the flattened cells of the siphons, on the contrary, and the corti-
cal cells each contain a coherent mass of spherical globules, which
entirely fills them. These globules, the diameter of which is
pretty uniformly 0-007 millim., do not scatter themselves in the
liquid which bathes the sections, but the entire masses issue in
their cells. By applying pressure to them we may succeed in
breaking them up into several fragments; but their elements,
which have a strong mutual adherence, do not separate; when
their margin is carefully examined, they are seen to be surrounded
by a continuous membrane, which is rendered yellow by iodine ;

120 On the Amylaceous Globules of the Floridez and Corallinez. ~

a drop of sulphuric acid renders the globules violet, whilst the
envelope remains yellow ; the prolonged action of the acid dis-
solves the granules, and all that remains of the mass is a yellow
reticulated membrane, with circular or polygonal meshes, pro-
duced by a fold which the membrane sends between the globules
of the peripheral layer. A reticulated envelope of the same kind
exists also in Halopithys; but, the elements not having a strong
mutual adherence, it is torn under the knife, and is only met
with here and there in fragments carried away by the peripheral
globules, which are inserted upon it by small pedicels. I have
ascertained its presence in most of the species that I have inves-
tigated ; it is therefore very frequent, if not universal.

The amylaceous formation which is clearly defined by the two
preceding examples, recurs with the same characters in the im-
mense majority of the Floridez and Corallinez, as is proved by
observations which I have already extended to more than thirty
species belonging to twenty-five genera. The differences relate
to the mode of distribution of the globules in the tissues, and the
form and dimensions of the granules, which I have not as yet
found superior to those of Halopithys, and which are sometimes
scarcely 0-001 millim. I cannot enter here into the details of
these observations; but they explain why certain large species,
such as Iridea edulis, Bory, which are very rich in this sort of
starch, may furnish a nutritive food to the poor inhabitants of
our coasts; and at the same time they demonstrate in most of
the Floridez and Corallinee an abundance of amylaceous matter
which may be compared with that of the potato or the cereals.

In the cellular Cryptogamia, starch in grains rendered blue
by iodine accompanies chlorophyll; and its production appears
to be correlative with the mode of life, which results from the
functions of the green matter; where the latter is wanting no
starch is found. The preceding observations acquire a fresh in-
terest by showing, in a vast group of cellular plants deprived of
chlorophyll and consequently endowed with an_ exclusively
comburant respiration, the formation of a principle very nearly
related to ordinary starch, but apparently not identical with it.

Do these globules fill the vegetative cells at all periods of the
year? and what is their part in the mode of life of these plants,
of which so little is yet known? These are questions which I
shall endeavour to solve as soon as circumstances will permit.
M. Decaisne has been kind enough to verify the principal results
of this investigation, and I beg him to accept my best thanks
for having done so.

Rey. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 121

XXII1.—Notices of British Fungi. By the Rev. M.J. Berxeey,
_M.A,, F.L.S., and C. H. Broome, Esq., I'.L.8S.

[Plates III., IV., V.]
¥ [Continued from p. 56.]

1144. Gleosporium umbrinellum, n.s. Maculis irregularibus
angulatis brunneis; sporis pallidis.

On fallen oak-leaves. Charmy Down, near Batheaston, Oct.
1865. |

Forming minute brown spots; spores binucleate, ‘0004—
0006 inch long, supported on long, often forked, sporophores,
at length oozing out in the form of a pale irregular tendril.

Puare III. fig. 5. Spores supported on their sporophores; and separate,
more highly magnified.

1145. Sporidesmium opacum, Cd. Fase. i. f. 115.

_ On stumps of wych elm, near St. Catharines, March 31, 1865.
C. E. Broome.

When young, forming small, round, cinereous tufts, sparingly
scattered over the wood.

This has been received from Mr. Bloxam under the name of
S. fasciculatum; but it does not agree with Corda’s character,
* soris effusis.”

Puate III. fig. 6. Spores and sporophores, magnified.

1146. S. lobatum, n.s. Stipite articulato, deorsum hyalino,
sursum in articulos subquaternos subglobosos divisum.

On fir sticks. Lucknam, April 12, 1865.

Forming minute, black, pulvinate tufts. At first simple and
strongly swollen above. The upper articulation then divides,
and ultimately gives off the spores, which are ‘0006 inch long.
The whole plant is about ‘001 high.

PuiateE III. fig. 7. Spores in various stages, magnified.

1147. Puccinia Apii, Cd. Fase. vi. tab. i. fig. 11.

On celery, about London, Sept. 1865, destroying the crops.
Plants sent down to Cambridgeshire were equally affected. For
further notice see Journ, Hort. Soc. n.s. vol. 1. 1866.

1148. Thecaphora hyalina, Fingerh. in Linn. x. p. 230
(Uredo Seminis Convolvuli, Desm. no. 274).

In the capsules of Convolvulus Soldanella, King’s Lynn,
J. Lowe, Esq.

*Stilbum fasciculatum, B. & Br. no. 492.

This is clearly what is figured by Tulasne as a state of his
Sporostilbe gracilipes, Carp. ii. tab. 14. figs. 14-19.

1149. Rhinotrichum repens, Preuss in St. Deutsch, Fl. 25 &
26, no. 22.

On fallen trunks of trees. Leigh Wood, Oct. 1865. Fine-
shade, Norths., May 31, 1866. On very rotten “ branches,

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist, Ser.3. Vol, xvii,

122 Rev, M.J, Berkeley and Mr. C. BE. Broome on British Fungi.

Probably extremely common ; but, as it looks like a mere bloom,
it may easily escape notice.

1150. Psilonia discoidea, n.s. Pallide cervina, dein fusea,
disco prolifero ; sporis oblongis, margine discreto roseo-alutaceo. «

_ On very rotten rails. Langley, Wilts, Jan.—Feb. 1866, C, E.
Broome.

Whole plant 1-2 lines across, variously shaped, orbicular,
elongated, flexuous, &c. In the early stage the disk is quite
covered by the shaggy coat, which afterwards folds back or
cracks, and leaves the stratum of spores naked, precisely as in
Myrothecium. Spores oblong or, seen laterally, subcymbiform,
00035 inch long. Our plant, however, wants the gelatinous
element of that genus, and is nearer to Psilonia than any pub-
lished genus.

Puare III. fig. 8. a. plants in various stages, one of them proliferous,

slightly magnified; b. portion from edge of a plant, showing the spores on
their sporophores; ¢. spores highly magnified.

1151, Morchella crassipes, Pers. Syn. p. 621.

_ On red soil, April 1866, Miss L. E. Lott, at King’s Kerswell,
near Newton Abbot, Devonshire. .

This magnificent fungus attains a height of 9 inches or more,
and is remarkable for its grooved stem. It is of a soft, brittle
substance, and does not dry well like the common morel. It is,
however, sold in the market at Prague for present use, where it
occurs in autumn as well as spring. It is well figured in
Krombholz’s large work, at plate 16. fig. 1.. :

1152. Helvella sulcata, Afzelius in Vet. Ac. Handl. 1783,
p- 305. tonya

On the ground. Bowood, C. E. Broome, Oct. 20, 1863.

A small but very neat variety. Spores very broadly elliptic,
with a single large globose nucleus, ‘0006-0007 long.

1153. Peziza (Helvelloideze) phlebophora, n.s. Cupulis po-
culiformibus, obliquis, substipitatis, subtiliter pulverulentis, basi
venoso-costatis.

On clay banks. King’s Cliffe, M.J. Berkeley. Brislington,
C. E. Broome. .

Cup 4-14 inch across, often rather oblique, yellow or brown-
ish, springing from a very short stem-like base, from which
branched ribs are given off, ending in little pits, Sporidia
"0004 inch long, while those of P. /eporina are 0006 with curved
paraphyses, and those of P. onotica ‘0005. Hymenium often
venose. Figures are added of the fruit of these species.

PuatTeE III. fig. 9. a. P. phlebophora, nat. size; b. ascus, magnified ;
ce. sporidia, highly magnified.

Fig. 10. Sporidia of P. onotica, highly magnified. i

Fig. 11. a. curved paraphysis of P. leporina, magnified; 5, sporidia,
highly magnified. -

Rey. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi, 123

1154. P. (Helvelloideze) bufonia, P. Myc. Eur. vol. i, p. 225.
On heaps of rubbish by the side of the road. Grantham,
Mr. W, Summerby.
« Resembling P. vesiculosa, but distinguished by the brown
hymenium and verrucose cup. Sporidia ‘00075-0008 inch
long; in P. vesiculosa ‘0009.
Puate III. fig. 12. Sporidium, highly magnified.

*P,(Humaria) rutilans, Fr. Ep. p.68 (P. leucoloma, St. Deutsch,
Fl. 32. tab. 17).

It is almost impossible to make out the red Pezizas of the
tribe Humaria without specimens, as by far the best characters
are derived from the fruit. We have now authentic specimens
of this plant before us, and find that our Peziza humosa is this
species. The sporidia, when perfectly developed, are strongly
et with one or more (rarely two) nuclei, and ‘001 inch

ong.

Puate III. fig. 13. a. ascus with paraphysis, magnified; 5, sporidia,
highly cepithed: . fi i Y

1155. P. (Humaria) aggregata, n. s. Gregaria, confluens,
obconica, aurantia, basi albo-tomentosa; hymenio concavo ;
sporidiis fusiformibus.

On heathy ground. Bewick, Dr. Johnson,

The peculiar crowded habit and fusiform sporidia, ‘0008 inch
long by ‘0003 wide, easily distinguish this species.

1156. P. (Humaria) subhirsuta, Schum, Sel, p. 433.

On the ground. Batheaston, C. E. Broome.

Asci linear; sporidia smooth, elliptic, enucleate, 0006 inch
long; paraphyses slightly clavate.

Puiarte III, fig. 14. a. ascus with paraphysis, magnified; 8. sporidia,
more highly magnified.

*P, (Humaria) humosa, Fr. Ep. p. 71.

This in turn is what is called P. Polytrichi under no, 768.
Sporidia variable in size, ‘0006-001 inch long, by :0003—-0005
broad; paraphyses forked. P. Polytrichi will still remain for
the Scotch plant.

Subjoined are sketches of the fruit of P. leucoloma, of which,
it may be observed, some specimens belong to Ascobolus Crouana,
Cooke, and of P. fibrillosa, Curr., found at Hanham, which
resembles externally P. humosa.

Puate III. fig. 15. a. ascus with paraphyses, magnified; 9. sporidia,
more highly magnified. The plant from which the dissections were taken
was gathered at Hanham.

Fig. 16, a. ascus and paraphyses of P. leucoloma, magnified ; b. spori-
dia, more highly magnified, ‘0006-0008 inch long, ° wide; c, end
view of ditto.

Fig.17. a. ascus and paraphyses of P.fibrillosa, Curr., magnified; 6. spo-
ridia, more highly magnified, ‘0006-0007 inch long, ‘0003 %,

124 Rey. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi.

1157. P. (Humaria) brunneo-aira, Desm. no. 826.

On the ground. Leigh Wood, C. E. Broome.

Asci linear; sporidia minutely echinulate, ‘0007—'0009 inch
long. In Desmaziére’s authentic specimen, ‘0006-00075.

Puate IV. fig. 18. a. ascus, magnified; 0. sporidia, more highly
magnified. 5

‘1158. P. (Humaria) salmonicolor, n. s. Parva, gregaria;
cupulis subhemisphericis hymenioque salmonicoloribus ; ascis
oblongis ; sporidiis biserialibus, ellipticis, enucleatis.

On the side of a ditch. Woodnewton, Oct. 1858.

Sporidia ‘0008 inch long, sometimes ‘0005 broad. Nearly
allied to P. hemastigma.

Puate IV. fig. 19. a, ascus and paraphyses, magnified; 5, sporidia,
more highly magnified.

1159. P. (Humaria) hemastigma, Fr. Syst. Mye. ii. p. 74;
Sturm, Deutschl. Fl. 33. tab. 11.

On the walls of a cottage. Pen y Gwryd, North Wales, Sept.
1862, C. E. Broome.

Asci short, oblong, subclavate ; sporidia biseriate, ‘0006 inch
long by ‘0009, or nearly globose.

Puate IV. fig. 20. a. ascus, magnified; 8. sporidia, more highly mag-
nified.

1160. P. (Enccelium) fravinicola, n.s. Sparsa vel stipata,
cupulis extus pallide cervinis furfuraceis, intus fuscis; hymenio
leviter depresso ; sporidiis uniseriatis.

On ash-twigs. Northamptonshire.

Cups at first closed, then opening with an irregular aperture,
at length orbicular, slightly depressed, pale fawn-colour and
furfuraceous externally, umber-brown within ; hymenium slightly
depressed ; asci elongated clavate; sporidia uniseriate, elliptic,
"00045 inch long. -

Puate IV. fig. 21. a. ascus, magnified; 6. sporidia, more highly mag-
nified.

*P, (Sarcoscyphe) pygmea, Fr. Syst. it. p. 79.

On bits of dead stick, apparently gorse. Ascot, Rev. G.
Sawyer, 1863. In moss and turfy mould, on Blackdown Hills,
near Taunton, March 1866. Wimbledon, May 1866.

About + inch high when full-grown, stipitate, the stem
branching out or dividing into several heads, which form cups
resembling the genus Ditiola or Tympanis; when young and
unbranched, resembling Solenia. The cups are often proliferous,
producing smaller cups on their surface, of a bright apricot-co-
lour, but whitish towards the margin. A figure of the proliferous
state will appear in the forthcoming number of the Linnean

Rey. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 125

Transactions. Sporidia uniseriate, linear-oblong, ‘0005-0006
inch long.
aug IV. fig. 22. a. asci, magnified ; 5. sporidia, more highly mag-
eae et ;
*P, (Sarcoscyphe) radiculata, Sow. t. 114.
__ Fine specimens of this rare species have been found this year
by Mr. Jerdon near Jedburgh, in a fir-wood.

Sporidia *0005 inch long, ‘rather broad, binucleate.

Puiate IV. fig. 23. Sporidia, highly magnified.

Fig. 24. a. ascus of the same species in Rabenhorst, specimen no. 618;
b. sporidia of ditto (‘0007 inch long), more highly magnified.

1161. P. (Sarcoscyphz) /anuginosa, Bull. tab. 396. fig. 2.
Var. Sumneri cupula demum radiato-fissa, margine junioris an-
guste nudo.

Under cedars. Fetcham Park, Mrs. Holme Sumner. Chis-
wick House, Mr. Edmonds, Jan—May. Under a larch, Wilson
Saunders, Esq.

At first entirely buried, then forcing its way through the soil,
and splitting into several lobes, like a Geaster, which it much
resembles from its thick substance. The outer coat is densely
clothed with flexuous hairs, very different from those of Peziza
hemispherica. 'The sporidia, moreover, are shortly and bluntly
fusiform.

A large and magnificent species, acquiring frequently a dia-
meter of 2 inches, and combining in some measure the characters
of P. sepulta and P. hemispherica, from both of which it differs
ma.-rially in the subfusiform fruit. It has also a very close
affinn ~to Tulasne’s genus Hydrocystis. It has been observed
form uy years at Fetcham, but has not hitherto been recorded
as J .tish. Bulliard’s plant is considered by Fries a variety
of ?. hemispherica, but it is really very different. In plants
which are just open a delicate veil is often found stretched over
the orifice.

A figure and analysis of this fine fungus will appear in the
forthcoming number of the Linnean Transactions.

Piare IV. fig. 25. a. hairs from outer surface, magnified; 5. ascus
with paraphyses, ditto; c. sporidia, highly magnified.

1162. P. (Sarcoscyphe) Geaster, n.s. Brunnea, cupula sub-
globosa, floccosa, demum radiato-fissa.

On the ground. Wentworth, Oct. 9, 1858, Mr. J. Henderson.

About an inch across; hairs flexuous, branched, articulated,
often giving out little curved hyaline processes with a few straight
bristles intermixed. Hymenium brown like the rest of the
plant. Paraphyses clavate ; sporidia elliptic, with the ends very
slightly attenuated, ‘0009 inch long. The sporidia of P. sepulta,
a much coarser species, are of the same length.

126 Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi.

This is closely related to the last, but very distinct.

PuaTE IV. fig. 26. a. hairs, magnified; 5. sporidia, highly magnified.
Fig. 27. Bporldis of P. sepulta, Fighly fuagithad. ey ae
1163. P. (Sarcoscyphee) wmbrosa, Fr. Syst. ii. p. 85. 7
On the ground. Bewick, Dr. Johnston.

Sporidia ‘0008 inch long, ‘0007 inch wide.

Puate IV. fig. 28. a. hair, magnified; }, ascus with paraphyses,
ditto ; ¢. tips of paraphyses, more highly magnified ; d. sporidia, ditto.

*P. (Sareoscyphz) vitellina, Pers. Myc. Eur. i. p. 257.

On the ground. Wareham, C. E. Broome.

Sporidia ‘0009 inch long by -0005.

Puate IV. fig. 29. a. ascus with paraphysis, magnified; 5. sporidia,
more highly magnified.

1164. P. (Dasyscyphz) calyculeformis, Schum. Sel. p. 425.

On dead wood. ‘Twycross, Rev. A. Bloxam, May 10, 1859.

1165. P. (Dasyscyphe) Acuum, Fr. Syst. ii. 95.

On leaves of spruce fir. Mossburnford, A. Jerdon, Esq.

1166. P. (Fibrina) leptospora, n.s. Cupulis primum hemi-
sphericis, dein applanatis, extus e floccis sparsis nigris minutis-
simis appressis luridis, intus albidis ; sporidiis filiformibus.

On decayed wood. Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

About half a line across; at first perfectly globose, often col-
lapsed in the centre, but gradually opening and exposing the
soft, pallid, sometimes straw-coloured hymenium. Asci oblong;
sporidia very long and slender, filiform, flexuous, with a row of
globular nuclei, at length repeatedly septate.

PuatE IV. fig. 30. a. ascus, magnified; 0. sporidia, highly magnified.

1167. P. (Calycine) imberbis, Bull. t. 467. f. 2.

On willow. Mossburnford, A. Jerdon, Esq.

Sporidia linear, slightly curved, about ‘0004 inch long.

1168. P. (Mollisia) erythrostigma, n.s. Minima, stipitata,
punctiformis, pallide rubra; hymenio demum convexo; ascis
clavatis ; sporidiis uniseriatis, ellipticis vel subglobosis.

Parasitic on Spheria pheostroma. C.E. Broome.

The stem is mostly curved, distinctly cellular. Asci clavate ;
spores minute, subglobose. Very minute, but a pretty object
under the microscope.

Puate IV. fig. 31. a. plant, magnified; 5. asci with sporidia, highly
magnified.

1169. P. (Mollisia) peristomialis, n. s. Minuta, cylindrica,
pallida, ore dentibus longis triangularibus cellulosis albis or-
nato, disco planiusculo; ascis lanceolatis; sporidiis biserialibus,
fusiformibus, multinucleatis. '

On holly. Penzance, J. Ralfs, Esq.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. C. E. Broome on British Fungi. 127

A most exquisite object under a moderate magnifier, resem-
bling some Actinia in miniature. Sporidia ‘001 inch long.

Puare V. fig. 32. a. group, magnified; 5. ascus, magn. ; c¢. sporidia,

highly magnified.

1170. P. (Mollisia) viburnicola, n.s. Subglobosa, dein hemi-
spherica, cinerea, extus granulata; margine denticulato, furfu-
raceo; hymenio pallidiore.

On either side of dead leaves of Viburnum. Received from
England by A. Jerdon, Esq.

Minute, punctiform, externally speckled with little dark tufts
of cells, which sometimes give out a few short flexuous hairs.
Asci clavate ; sporicia lanceolate, ‘0004—-0005 inch long.

1171. P. (Mollisia) nervisequia, Desm. no. 2012.

On leaves of Plantago lanceolata. St. Catharines, near Bath-
easton, Feb. 1852, C. E. Broome. —
Sporidia ‘0004 inch long.

1172. Stietis lecanora, Schm. & Kze. no. 174.

On dead willow-twigs. Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

1173. P. (Patellea) Resine, Fr. Syst. vol. i. p. 149.

On resin. Sparingly near Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

This appears to be a true Peziza from its mode of rooting into
the bark. |

1174. Helotium pruinosum, Jerd. in litt. Minutum, candidum,
sessile vel brevissime stipitatum totum albo pruinosum; disco

pallide carneo ; sporidiis elongato-cymbiformibus, 3—4-nucleatis.

On Hypozylon fuscum and stigma. Appin, Capt. Carmichael.
Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

The hymenium, which has sometimes a slight blush tinge, is
pruinose as well as the outer surface. Sporidia ‘0006 inch long.
Some of the specimens referred formerly to Peziza epispheria
certainly belong to this species, which was originally called
P. pruinosa by Capt. Carmichael. The same plant occurs at
Belvoir, with the sporidia -0004—-0005 inch long.

Puarte V. fig. 33. Sporidia, highly magnified.

1175. Hypomyces Broomeianus, Tul. Carp. iii. p. 108 (Hypo-
crea luteo-virens, Rabenh. no. 751).

On Polyporus annosus. Batheaston, C. E. Broome.

Puate V. fig. 34. a. thread with conidia, magnified; 4. conidia,
“0002-0003 inch long, more highly magnified ; c. ascus, magn. ; d. spo-
ridia, ‘0005-0006 inch long, highly magnified.

*H. ochraceus, Tul. Carp. iu. p. 41.

This is, in all probability, Cryptomyces aurantia, Grev..t. 78.
Blastotrichum Puccinioides, Preuss, Sturm’s Deutschl. F1.25 & 26,
tab. 11, is evidently a state of this or some closely allied species,
and has occurred at Batheaston.. Hypomyces aurantius has been

128 Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. CU. E. Broome on British Fungi.

found in Flintshire, on Pol. sguamosus, and has also been ga-
thered on Agaricus ostreatus. Spheria aurea, Grev., is a Nectria.
The species from Laxton on Boletus is H. luteo-virens.

Puate V. fig. 35. a. ascus, magnified; b, sporidia, ‘001 inch long,
highly magnified.

1176. Hypocrea delicatula, Tul. Ann. d. Sc. Nat. sér. 4. vol.
xiii. p. 18; Carp. Fase. iii. tab. 4. figs. 7-18.

Fir-plantations. Lucknam, April 1866.

This extremely interesting fungus is nearly allied to H. citrina,
of which it has the habit. It forms patches which are easily
separable from the matrix, of a delicate cream-colour, studded
with the fawn-coloured perithecia.

1177. Spharia (Denudate) Epochnii, n.s. Peritheciis pri-
mum conicis, dein subglobosis, collapsis, stipatis, atro-olivaceis,
granulatis ; ascis clavatis; sporidiis uniserialibus, fusiformibus,
medio constrictis, demum triseptatis; conidiis elongatis, tri-
septatis, apice incrassatis.

On Epochnium fungorum, of which it is the perfect form.
Warleigh, near Bath, March 1866.

Perithecia at first pale bottle-green, crowded in the centre of the
Epochnium, then black green, granulated, sometimes depressed
at the summit, with a minute pore. Asci clavate, containing a
single row of triseptate fusiform sporidia, ‘(001-0011 long,
strongly constricted in the centre, at length pale brown, when
they resemble a good deal the naked spores of the Epochnium.
The sporidia are at first uniseptate, with two nuclei in each
division. :

Puate V. fig. 36. a. plant, magnified; 4. portion of mycelium with

conidia (epochnium); ¢. conidia, highly magn. ; d. ascus with sporidia,
magn. ; e. sporidia, young and old, highly magnified.

1178, S. (Caulicole) Alliarie, Auersw. Rab. no. 261.

On Erysimum Alliaria. Jedburgh, A. Jerdon, Esq.

1179. Dothidea melanops, Tul. Carp. ii. p. 78, tab. 10.

Abundant on beech near Jedburgh, but without perithecia.
A. Jerdon, Esq.

Mr. Jerdon’s specimens, though on beech, correspond better
with Tulasne’s typical form on oak than his variety fagicola.
The stylospores are just the same, and not Bree short,
as in the variety.

1180. Hysterium varium, Fr. Syst. vol. u. p. 582; Duby,
Hyst. p. 28.

On decorticated branches of yew. Wynd Cliff, April 18,
1866.

Scattered over pallid spots; perithecia elliptic, subimmersed,
with a slight keel and very obscure aperture, quite even; asci
elongated ; sporidia uniserjate, elliptic, slightly pointed at either

Bibliographical Notice. 129

end, uniseptate, with a large nucleus in each division, ‘001 inch
long by ‘0005 broad.

The sporidia of this and the next species differ entirely from
those of our other British species. Duby’s plant is on Juniperus
pheniceus, that. of Fries on oak. :

Puate V. fig. 37. a. asci and paraphyses; 5. sporidia, highly magnified.

1181. H. repandum, Blox., Duby, Hyst. p. 27, tab. 1. f. 6.

On rotten stumps. Orton Wood, near Twycross, Rey. A.
Bloxam. .

Perithecia almost free, elliptic, the lips well rounded ; aperture
gaping. Asci rather short; sporidia broadly cymbiform, the
apex at one end very slightly elongated and perfectly hyaline,
“0006-0007 inch long*.

Puate V. fig. 38. a. ascus and paraphyses, magnified; 4. sporidia,
more highly magnified.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

Geological Map of England and Wales. By Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S.,
; , F.G.S., &. 3rd edition. 1866.

TuarT a new edition of this useful Map should be required speaks
well of the public taste for geological knowledge ; or at all events
indicates that the public find that they require and can use a map
showing at a glance to those who can read it aright the real structure
of the country, the chief characters of its hills and valleys, the courses
of its rivers in relation to the nature of the uplands, and the pro-
jections and hollows of its coasts in relation to the harder and softer
materials of its rocky skeleton, and, still more, the relative position
of its mines, coal-pits, quarries, and other sources of mineral wealth.
The traveller may, if he will, recognize the geological character of
the country he is passing through by rail or otherwise, by referring
to this handy sheet; the tourist may spread it out on the green
sward, the beach, or the barren hill-top, and trace out the deep-set
roots of the mountain, the inland range of the sea-cut strata, or the
structure of hill and dale around, and take in new pleasure with his
satisfied curiosity, besides all the delight that light and shade, form
and colour, changing cloud and rippling water can give him, be he
artist or amateur. Fishing and shooting, too, have an additional
zest with the geologist; for he is rarely too busy not to see some-
thing new; and when sport is dull, the eye is still pleasingly at work.

* Coniocybe beomyciodes, Erbario Crittogamico Italiano.

On turpentine. Lucknam, Dec. 10, 1864,

From pallid white to a bright yellow, sometimes brick-red, scattered over
some Sporidesmium (Tromera resine) which colours the turpentine black.

The genus Coniocybe is a very doubtful member of the Fungi; and the
species, which is new to Great Britain, is therefore recorded in a note.

1380 Bibliographical Notice.

After a day’s hunting a geological map has explained why white
mud and brown, black clay and white chalk, peat-bog and sand-hills
have succeeded each other so quickly in the run across country,—or
why one long gallop carried along with it the uniform splashing of
yellow mud with little change. Of course, now-a-days, geological
maps are hanging up in halls and studies far more frequently than
in times past ; and instead of trying to find causes for differences of
peoples and lands in county-boundaries and political divisions, we
look to mountains and valleys, hills and dales, with their varying
geological structures, as land-marks among men, whether in counties,
provinces, or continents. The traveller in unknown lands brings
home but a meagre account of the geography of the country he would
describe if he knows not its real structure: he may make a model
even of its heights and rivers; but, without a knowledge of its strata,
his model will fall as short in actual worth as a badly painted por-
trait. Not only will a full appreciation of structural peculiarities of
hill and cliff be wanting, but none of the links of analogy or identit
that bind it on to the strata of other lands can be indicated ; and,
like the nameless ruined column, it waits for further elucidation.

At home our geological maps are progressing rapidly towards per-
fection. Amateur workers have accumulated observations for more
than fifty years; and within about twenty years a systematic plan of
geologizing the British Isles has been carried on by the State. The
Government Geologists, well trained, enthusiastic, and yet cautious,
fairly using the results of fore-gotten knowledge, have worked as
quickly as their limited numbers would permit. Thus ie? have
gone over Wales, the South of England, much of the Midland
Counties, some parts further north in Scotland, and a large part of
Treland. From these results Prof. Ramsay has carefully produced
the Map of England and Wales before us, filling up unsurveyed areas
with the results of amateur and casual work. In this third edition
we may easily see where earlier mapping has given way to the work
of adepts and professional geologists, working over every inch of the
ground, going along the whole line of an outcrop, trusting nothing
to fancy or the memory, but examining and noting with precision,
day by day. In this way the broad areas of colour, with boldly
rounded and entire boundary-lines, filled in as the result of a holi-
day’s research or rapid sketch-work, must be replaced by the labo-
rious entanglement of outlier, inlier, and jagged border of outcrops
along broken ground, carrying at once an appearance of truth to the
experienced eye. Thus in the so-called ‘‘ London Basin” more de-
tail in the northern border of the Tertiary beds is now given; and
the Bagshot formation and the alluvium of the Thames are far more
correctly delineated. The Tertiary outliers at the west of this area,
and those between it and the “ Hants basin,”’ are altogether rear-
ranged, patches of “Drift” apparently having formerly been mis-
taken in many instances. The Wealden area is now far better cha-
racterized in accordance with the late researches of the Geological
Surveyors, who have worked out its complicated structure as care-
fully as if it were a coal-field; nor indeed do we know but what it

Royal Society. 131

will be soon necessary to apply their knowledge in the search for
oie the old ridge of crumpled paleeozoic rocks beneath its northern
er.

The West of England has received a few touches here and there ;
but the outerops of the Cretaceous and Upper Oolite beds through
Berks, Bucks, and Cambridgeshire have been carefully revised ; and
so have the Oolites of Northamptonshire and Oxfordshire. Still
more important is the improved work in the Warwickshire and Lei-
cestershire Coal-fields, and in Charnwood Forest, with its Cambrian
(if not older) rocks. The North-Staffordshire and Lancashire Coal-
~ fields become, as it were, remodelled by the now accurate outlines of
their areas; and the neighbourhood of Mauchester, in particular,
passes from an artificial to a natural appearance, geologically viewed.
The great Permian range, from Durham southward, is taking its
natural form on paper ; for the Survey has reached northwards much
beyond Doncaster. The red sandstones of the Eden and of the west
coast of Cumberland now appear in their true Permian colours ; and
various spots in Northumbria also speak of the researches of several
active geologists of to-day. Lastly, in Wales a few modifications of
outlines in the Old Red and the complicated patches of igneous rocks
may be noticed. The illustrated sections are repeated (with stronger
lettering) on the margins, as heretofore.

In this new map there are additions to the railways, bolder di-
stinctive numbers to the different formations, and modifications in
some of the tints; and an important massof information is added
in notes and remarks all around the coast.

The general result is that we have a very useful and handsome
Geological Map of England and Wales (12 miles to the inch), not
so large as the ‘‘ Greenough Map” published by the Geological So-
ciety of London, but constructed on the same basis, and containing
a very large amount of useful information, clearly put by the master-
hand of an accomplished geologist, and produced in good style by
an intelligent publisher.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

April 26, 1866.—J. P. Gassiott, Vice-President, in the Chair.

“Qn the Dentition of Rhinoceros leptorhinus (Owen). By W.
Boyd Dawkins, M.A., Oxon., F.G.S.

The fossil remains of the genus Rhinoceros found in Pleistocene
deposits in Great Britain indicate four well-defined species. Of
these the R. tichorhinus, or the common fossil species, ranged
throughout France, Germany, and Northern Russia, and, like its
congener the Mammoth, was defended from the intense winter cold
by a thick clothing of hair and wool. Its southern limit in the
Europeo-Asiatic continent was a line passing through the Pyrenees,
the Alps, the northern shore of the Caspian, and the Altai Mountains.

132 Royal Society.

It has not yet been proved to have existed in Europe anterior to the
deposit of the Boulder Clay. The second species, the R. megarhinus
of M. de Christol, characterized by its slender limbs and the absence
of the “cloison,” has been determined by the author among re-
mains from the brick-earths occupying the lower part of the
Thames valley, and from the Preglacial forest-bed of Cromer. The
species ranged from the Norfolk shore southwards through Central
France into Italy. In France and Italy it characterizes the Pliocene
deposits, being found in the former country in association with
Mastodon brevirostris and Halitherium Serresii, in the latter with
M. Arvernensis. From its southern range we may infer that the
megarhine species was fitted to inhabit the warm and temperate
zones of Europe, just as the tichorhine was peculiarly fitted for the
endurance of an Arctic winter. ;

The third species is the R. etruscus of Dr. Falconer, confined to
the forest-bed of the Norfolk shore, and, like the R. megarhinus,
found in the Pliocenes of France and Italy; it ranged across the
Pyrenees as far as Malaga, and is the only species known to occur in
Spain.

The fourth, the R. leptorhinus of Professor Owen, is the equivalent
of the R. hemitechus of Dr. Falconer. It is defined as “ R. A narines
demicloisonnées,” and is probably not the same animal as the R.
leptorhinus or ‘‘ R. & narines non-cloisonnées’’ of Baron Cuvier, the
evidence as to the absence or presence of the cloison in the type of
the species being of the most conflicting nature. In Central France
it is identical with R. mesotropus and R. velaunus of M. Aymard,
the R. Aymardi of M. Pomel, and the R. leptorhinus (du Puy) of
M. Gervais. Its dentition is characterized by the presence of the
third costa in the upper molar series, coupled with the stoutness
of the cingulum, the suppression of the anterior combing plate, the
smoothness of the enamel, and the extent to which the upper molars
overhang the lower, which causes the enamel on the outer side of
the latter to be worn obliquely. The lower molars can be deter-
mined by the flattening of the anterior area, coupled with the fine
sculpturing of the enamel-surface. In common with the other
fossil British Rhinoceroses, it possessed a molar series of six only on
either side, and was bicorn. It ranged through England, from the
Hyzena-den of Kirkdale in Yorkshire in the north, as far south as
the plains of Somersetshire, and as far to the West as Pembroke-
shire. It is very generally found in association with Elephas anti-
quus and Hippopotamus major, both species which lived in Pliocene
times. The association in Wookey Hole Hyzna-den with Llephas
primigenius and R. tichorhinus and other characteristic Postglacial
mammals proves that it coexisted with the tichorhine species, to
which it probably bore the same geographical relation as the Elk
does to the Reimdeer in the high northern latitudes. The sum of
the evidence proves that it was coeval with the Mammoth and
tichorhine Rhinoceros, and does not characterize deposits of an
earlier epoch in the Pleistocene. It has not as yet been found in
Preglacial formations. The R. leptorhinus is more closely allied to
the bicorn Rhinoceros of Sumatra than to any other living species.

133

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Morphology and Affinities of the Brachiopoda.
By H. Lacaze-Duruiers.

Few animals are so widely diffused in the strata of the surface of
the globe as the Brachiopoda, and few consequently are so frequently
in the hands of naturalists; nevertheless, although they are repre-
sented by many species living in our seas, their zoological relations
and their general plan of organization are by no means agreed upon.

Placed in the first instance among the Acephala, side by side with
the Lamellibranchiata, they now justly form a distinct division; but
the relationships of this division are far from being the same in the
eyes of all zoologists. Thus, to dwell only upon the last opinion,
Messrs. Huxley and Hancock, two of the most eminent English
naturalists, would place them among the Molluscoida, by the side of
the Ascidia and Bryozoa or Polyzoa.

This new mode of appreciating the affinities of this group led me
to desire to study these creatures afresh ; and when the opportunity
was afforded me of investigating the faunas of great depths in the
Meditterranean, I hastened to resume observations commenced about
1858 in the sea off Corsica. :

To determine the affinities of the Brachiopoda I seek in their
nervous system for the criterion that must guide me. It is to the
characteristic organ of animality that I apply myself, because, as has
been so admirably shown by Cuvier, it furnishes the characters of
highest value; and I compare it on the one hand to that of the
Lamellibranchiata, and on the other to that of the Bryozoa.

In the Lamellibranchiate Acephalan the plan of organization is
simple. The organs are repeated symmetrically on each side of the
median line. Thus we find three double nervous centres—one near
the mouth, another in the foot, the third between the base of the
foot and the anus, near the branchiee. Moreover certain organs
have an existence, a peculiar symmetry, and very precise relatious
with these different centres.

Upon the median line are the mouth, the foot, and the anus. At
the base of the foot, between it and the anus, on each side, beyond
the ganglia of the third or pallio-branchial group, open the two
glandular bodies called the glands of Bojanus; lastly, to the right
and left of the mouth there are two pairs of labial vela, which vary
greatly in form in the different species.

To compare this well-known plan, which it was necessary to refer
to here, with that of the Brachiopods, we must first of all place the
animals in a comparable position. Suppose, for example, that we
have a Terebratula and an Anodonta to compare: the former must
be placed with its ligament downwards, its apophysary valve to the
left of the observer, and its perforated valve to his right; the second
must have its hinge to the left and its mouth upwards. Most
figures show the Brachiopoda in a position the reverse of that just
indicated, which renders their comparison with the Acephala more
difficult.

134: Miscellaneous.

In the animals thus placed the first difference that presents itself,
and that which has most caught the attention of observers, is this:
the Anodonta has its valves lateral ; the Terebratula has one of them
dorsal, the other abdominal.

This difference, which appears very great, has not quite so much
importance as we should be inclined to attribute to it at first sight ;
we need only free it from the secondary conditions which surround it,
so as to see only the fundamental parts. Thus the greatly developed
and multiplied muscles have become longitudinal and symmetrical,
in consequence of the arrangement of the valves, and they have at-
tracted the attention of naturalists perhaps too specially, and led
them to neglect other more important organs,

As the Brachiopod lives attached, a special locomotive organ would
be useless to it; therefore its foot is aborted, and with it the corre-
sponding portion of the nervous system. Here, morphologically
speaking, we have a great and fundamental difference, very different
from that presented by the position of the valves.

On each side of the mouth of the Terebratula we find two long
fringed arms, rolled up in a spiral form, and accompanied by a mem-
branous lip; these are the analogues of the labial vela of the Lamel-
libranchiata. The investigation of the nervous system justifies this
notion ; for there exist two small symmetrical ganglia which, with the
assistance of the long commissure uniting them, surround the ceso-
phagus like a collar, and furnish nerves to the arms, as in the
Lamellibranchiata the analogous ganglia furnish the nerves to the
labial vela.

These first ganglia, which are difficult to discover, correspond with
the cesophageal ganglia of the other Mollusca; they are united by
long connectives with the most highly developed and therefore most
evident nervous masses, which are found above the mouth, in the
median line, in the fold of the two lobes of the mantle. We know
that this last organ performs, in great part, the function of the organ
of respiration ; and as it receives its nerves from this last ganglionic
centre, this may be regarded as the analogue of the pallio-branchial
centre.

As to the pedal ganglia, they do not exist, as the organ for which
they are necessary is wanting.

The organs of Bojanus and those of reproduction open in the
Terebratula, as in the Anodonta, symmetrically outside and by the
side of the pallio-branchial nervous centre. Moreover, according to
the beautiful investigations of Mr. Hancock, the heart in the Brachi-
epoda is dorsal, which furnishes an additional feature of resemblance
between the two groups, for in this way the central organ of the
circulation is separated-from the organs of Bojanus and the pallio-
branchial ganglia by the digestive tube.

Lastly, in the Brachiopod, as in the Lamellibranchiate Acephalan,
the organs just referred to are repeated symmetrically on each side
of the median line of the body. :

Thus if we suppress in the Lamellibranchiate Acephalan the foot
and the pedal ganglia, there remains an organism having the greatest

Miscellaneous. 135

analogy with that of the Brachiopod, always excepting the position
of the valves. Now this is also easy to be brought under the gene-
ral plan of the Anodonta, if we suppose the two lateral lobes of the
mantle to be united above the mouth and below the anus, and imagine
that about the middle of its length an emargination is formed which
may advance as far as the hinge; for then the two halves of the
mantle are no longer lateral, but dorsal and abdominal, and the shell
reproduces the pattern upon which it models itself.

The modifications undergone by the muscles are the consequences
of the changes of arrangement which have taken place in the shell ;
they cannot invalidate the zoological approximation which I am en-
deavouring to establish. Do we not, for example, find an Ascidian
(Chevreulius) presenting symmetrical muscles analogous to those of
the Terebratulee, and this merely because its tunic has become bivalve,
and without one being able to remove it from the group to which it
belongs ?

If we now compare the Polyzoan or Bryozoan with the Brachiopod;
we find some external resemblances, but profound differences of

ter importance. No doubt the Bryozoan often presents an organ
in the form of a horseshoe, placed close to the mouth, and which
may be compared to the arms of the Brachiopods; but this is not a
sufficient feature of resemblance to bring together animals so differ-
ent. If we look at the nervous system, we shall soon be convinced.

Hitherto the Molluscoida have presented only a very simple ner-
yous ganglion, without an cesophageal collar, and without any very
evident double symmetry ; consequently they are more distant from
the Brachiopoda than the latter from the Lamellibranchiata.

Thus the investigation of the nervous system legitimates the ap-
proximation which we are seeking to establish, and does not justify
that which the English authors have attempted ; but it leads us also
to recognize the necessity of making a distinct group for the Brachi-
opods, which are much rather degraded Acephala than elevated
Molluscoida.

_ These zoological relationships are by no means invalidated by an
organic peculiarity as curious as unexpected, Professor Huxley was
the first to demonstrate the non-perforation of the anal extremity of
the intestine in the Terebratule, and I have myself confirmed this
observation in several other genera and species ; this arrangement
forms a very remarkable exception among the Mollusca, and appears
to be especially proper to the Articulate Brachiopods, which really
represent Caelenterate Mollusca.

The preceding general observations constitute a résumé of minute
and detailed investigations undertaken in 1858 in Corsica, and in 1862
in Algeria, upon the,genera Megerlia, Terebratulina, Thecidia, Argi-
ope, and Crania, which inhabit the Mediterranean, and were all ob-
served living on the spots which they inhabit.—Comptes Rendus,
November 6, 1865, pp. 800-803,

-

136 Miscellaneous.

On the finding of a second Ribbonjish.
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—Having heard in May last that another Ribbonfish,
or Gymnetrus, had been found near Whitby, and being in that town
on Monday last, I inquired for it in the museum, and I was shown
the specimen by an assistant there.

This fish is labelled ‘ Ribbond fish cast up at Whitby, April 23,
1866,” but its specific name is not given. It was cast upon the
sands near Whitby, and was discovered by some schoolboys. Being
unwieldy, and 10 feet long, they could not convey it with them; so
they cleverly cut it into five slices, and then carried the slices sepa-
rately. A man who stuffs birds near the museum has preserved it
very well, and sewn together the five slices. - The tail is broken ;
there are no appendages about the head; and the long dorsal fin is a
good deal injured, as well as the numerous rays. From want of time,
and the glass case being so close to the back of the fish, I could not
wait to count the number of the rays. This specimen may be, like
that cast up at Seaton Snook on the Ist or 2nd of last March, the
Gymnetrus Banksii, which was 14 feet 7 inches in length; though I
am inclined to think it is the “ king of the herrings,” as one of the
species is called.

The distance from Seaton Snook to Whitby Sands is some thirty
miles along the Yorkshire coast, to the south-east.

I am, Gentlemen,
Yours truly,
Joun Hoge.

Norton House, Stockton-on-Tees,
July 6, 1866.

A few words on the Mammoth*, in connexion with the Engravings
recently found in Périgord and supposed to represent this Ani-
mal. By H. Brannpr.

Professor Brandt, referring to the account given by M. Lartet of
a plate of fossil ivory from Périgord bearing incisions which appeared
to represent an elephant with a long mane, and to a second note by
M. Vibraye on the reproduction in reindeer-horn of a head supposed
to be that of the Mammoth, remarks that these discoveries were
particularly interesting to him, as he had been for years accumu-
lating materials towards a monograph of the Mammoth. He states
that as long as ten years ago, in his memoir on the distribution of
the Tiger, he expressed the opinion that Elephas primigenius,
Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cervus euryceros, Bos primigenius, Bos
urus, Bos moschatus, Cervus Alces, Elaphus, and Tarandus, &c.,
belonged, with man, to a single contemporary fauna, that in Asia
these large animals were pursued by the tiger at the most distant
periods, and that the remainder was in part destroyed by man.

* According to a note appended by Milne-Edwards to the title of this
paper, the proper spelling of the name of this animal is “ Mamont.”

Miscellaneous. 1387

The researches made in France have shown the truth of this
opinion ; but Professor Brandt makes the following observations on
the figures of the Mammoth described by MM. Lartet and Vibraye.
The figure on a plate of ivory described by the former evidently
represents the anterior half of an elephant; and it is quite clear that,
by means of the lines observed on the neck, shoulders, and flank,
‘the artist has tried to indicate long hairs, which might be regarded
as representing parts of a mane. The direction of the tusks reminds
- one vividly of the Mammoth ; but it must be remarked, with regard
to the mane, that neither the form nor the density of this has yet
been sufficiently demonstrated by naturalists. Adams accepted the
notion of a mane, without having seen it, from the testimony of his
companions and the presence of long hairs; and Tilesius does not
oppose this conclusion. But the merchant Boltunoff, who saw the
Mammoth three years before the arrival of Adams, and in a much
better state of preservation, says nothing about a mane. Nevertheless
“two pieces of the skin of the nape, still attached to the cranium of
the Mammoth at St. Petersburg, show a considerable quantity of
the basal portions of rigid hairs, which were evidently rather long,
and may at least be taken for traces of the existence of a mane.
Perhaps, however, the artist of Périgord had a better opportunity of
recognizing the mane than the Russian naturalists.

The representation of an elephant in reindeer’s horn, described by
M. Vibraye, seems to resemble the Indian elephant, at least as re-
-gards the anterior part of the head. The ear is rather close to the
eye; it is oblong and comparatively very narrow. All these charac-
ters, especially the small size of the ear, remind us of the Mammoth.
-—Ann. des Sc. Nat. sér. 5. tome v. pp. 280-282.

Note on the Discovery of the Dermal Shield in Megatheroid Animals.
By Prof. Rernuarpr.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—I send you for insertion in the ‘ Annals’ an ex-
tract from a letter received from Professor Reinhardt, of Copenhagen,
and remain Yours obediently,

British Museum, A. GUNTHER.
July 23, 1866.

* May I also draw your attention to the fact that this ‘ discovery’
of a dermal shield in Megatheroid animals was made as much as
twenty years ago, and that Lund, in his last work on the extinct
Mammalian Fauna of Brazil, expressly states that he found a kind
of dermal shield in two different genera, Scelidotherium and Celo-
don, gives a very detailed description of them, and even draws the at
that time justifiable and natural conclusion that probably all Mega-

-theroid animals were furnished with a more or less similar shield.
The shield was not so perfectly developed in Scelidotherium and
Celodon as Burmeister has found it to be in Mylodon; but that is
of small importance (see ‘Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes
Selskabs Afhandlinger,’ Kjébenhavn, 1846, 12 Deel, p. 77).”

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 10

138 Miscellaneous.

On the Structure of the Anthers in the Aroidee.
By M. van TieGHEM.

From his investigations Chatin has deduced the general rule, that
anthers which open by terminal pores are destitute of fibrous cells.
The genus Solanum, the anthers of which have fibrous cells round
the terminal pore, forms a curious exception to this. The author
indicates the occurrence of similar exceptions in the apicilar anthers
of several Aroidee.

The sessile anther of Richardia africana, Schott, has two loculi,
each divided into two locelli by a delicate longitudinal septum; and
these open at the apex by a small vertical tube pierced through the
thick plate formed by the connective above the loculi; beneath this
terminal pore the septum is absorbed, to enable the loculi to com-
municate. The inner wall of the chamber is clothed, when mature,
with a layer of prismatic cells perpendicular to its surface, and fur-
nished with strong spiral bands. In each locellus this layer of
spiral cells ceases at the two lines of origin of the septum, where it
curves inwards a little and unites by means of smaller cells with the
corresponding layer of the neighbouring locellus, thus forming two
longitudinal ridges. The septum is therefore destitute of fibrous
cells; when mature, it is composed only of a layer of interlaced
threads, the remains of the cells of which it was originally composed.
The delicate cellular membrane which clothes the whole interior of
the locelli in the young anther is absorbed at the moment of dehis-
cence. The layer of spiral cells is continued to the terminal pore,
the inner orifice of which it borders; but it does not line the wall
of the little tube, which is formed of colourless cells, each con-
taining a grain of starch, whilst the cells of the plate are larger and
filled with a yellow liquid. Here, therefore, we have exactly the
reverse of what occurs in Solanum, where the fibrous cells surround
the pore without extending upon the inner surface of the cell.

The mode in which the anther of Richardia emits its pollen shows
that it is a powerful agent of expulsion. Through each pore a white
thread is seen to issue and become longer by degrees, which at last
forms a little cotton-like ball, of a dull white colour, round the ori-
fice. This filament is composed of two or three parallel rows of
ovoid pollen-grains united by a gummy liquid ; by exposure to the
air, this cement evaporates, and the grains, becoming free, are dis-
seminated. The author considers that the contraction of the cell
causing this expulsion of the pollen is produced by the layer of
fibrous cells; but he is unable to explain its mode of action.

In the anther of Alocasia odora and metallica, Schott, each of
the two cells arranged round the dilated connective is constructed
nearly in the same manner ; but the cell, instead of opening upon
the plate itself by a duct traversing its thickness, is bent out-
wards and opens directly beneath the plate by an orifice common to
two confluent cells; the fibrous cells predominate round the pore,
and several other rows are frequently added to the ordinary one at
the upper part of the curve.

Miscellaneous. 139

The difference is greater in Aglaonema marantefolia, Schott.
The bilocular anther is furnished with a short filament, and the
connective does not form a plate. Each cell is divided into two
locelli by a thick septum, absorbed beneath the terminal pore where
the locelli communicate. The inner wall of each locellus is lined
throughout with a strong layer of perpendicular fibrous cells: hence
the quadrilocular structure of the anther. The fibrous layer is
produced upon the outer walls up to the orifice, where it is covered
directly by the epidermis.

Hence there is no necessary correlation between apicilar dehis-
cence and the absence of fibrous cells. The presence or absence of
these is a character of more constancy and of a higher order than
the mode of dehiscence. Thus in the Aroideze we pass by insensible
gradations from Richardia, &c., in which the apicilar dehiscence is
most strongly marked, through 4rwm and Dracunculus, to rimate
dehiscence, either transverse (Arisarum) or longitudinal (Calla,
Anthurium, &c.), whilst the fibrous layer is still strongly developed ;
and this is further seen from the complete absence of these cells in
Lycopersicum (where the dehiscence is longitudinal), and their nearly
complete absence in Solanum (where it is apicilar). Moreover api-
cilar dehiscence is by no means common to all the genera of the
families in which M. Chatin has ascertained the general absence
of the fibrous cells: thus the Epacrideze open their unilocular
anthers by a longitudinal fissure ; among the Ericaceze Leiophyllum,
_ Pieris, and Epigea, and among the Melastomacezee Mouriria, Meme-
cylon, &c., open their bilocular anthers by two longitudinal fissures;
lastly, in the Monotropez the unilocular anthers of Monotropa and
Hypopitys open by a transverse fissure, whilst the bilocular anthers
of Pterospora have a longitudinal dehiscence; and yet the fibrous
layer is wanting in all these genera.

M. Chatin has also observed the structure of some abnormal
anthers (those of Hypowis erecta and Pittosporum Tobira), ‘« which
are destitute of fibrous cells at the same time that they are empty
of pollen, or only contain it in an imperfect state; these sterile
anthers have, no doubt, been seized by an arrest of development act-
ing simultaneously upon the tissues of the second membrane and
upon the pollen ;” and from this he concludes “‘ that in some plants
the stamens of which have undergone an arrest of development, the
absence of fibrous cells coincides with the imperfect evolution of the
pollen.” The author’s observations upon Ranunculus Ficaria show
that something very different may be the case. The anthers of the
bulbiferous variety of this species produce no pollen, and this is the
sole cause of the sterility of the plant. Each anther-cell, divided
into two locelli by a septum, has its valve formed of an epidermis
thickened by a layer of spiral and reticulated cells which does not
extend over the septum or upon the inner wall of the cell formed by
the connective, as appears to be generally the case in the Ranuncult.
In the interior of each locellus there is a long mass narrowed at the
two extremities, formed of several rows of large, polyhedric, colour-
less, thick-walled cells furnished with numerous dots; these cells

140 Miscellaneous. :

are united into a continuous tissue, separate from the walls of the
locellus, so that these four masses may easily be extracted from the
anthers. The mother cells of the pollen, instead of giving origin to
ordinary grains and then becoming absorbed, have become thickened _
and acquired dotted walls. The layer of fibrous cells, however, has
acquired its normal structure, although the author has never seen
the anthers open, which would seem to indicate that the pollen-
grains themselves have a part to perform in producing dehiscence.
Hence two conclusions may be drawn :—

1. The abortion of the pollen in the anther does not always, as in
the two examples cited by M. Chatin, imply that of the fibrous
cells; the arrest of development may affect the mother cells of the
pollen without reaching the walls of the anther.

2. Of the two simultaneous functions assigned by M. Chatin to
the transitory membrane of the anther, which, according to him, is
at once “the nurse of the pollen” and ‘the reservoir from which
the cells of the second membrane draw the nourishment necessary
for their rapid transformation,” the latter alone is confirmed by the
above observations.—Comptes Rendus, June 11, 1866, pp. 1289-
1294.

Habits of Zosterops dorsalis. By the Rev. R. Tayior,
(In a Letter to Dr. J. E. Gray.)

My pear S1r,—I have received your letter acknowledging mine
with the Zosterops dorsalis; and I am pleased to find that I am
correct in my supposition of its being an arrival from Australia or
Tasmania. It appears to increase in New Zealand in a most extra-
ordinary way, far more rapidly than any of our indigenous birds,
and flies about in large flocks of several hundreds, making an inces-
sant chattering,—quite a novelty in that respect. We hailed it as a
blessing on its first arrival, as it attacked the American blight-inseet
and cleared the trees of it; but we now find it is of doubtful good,
for it feeds upon the tender buds of the tree as well; and as at the
approach of summer it retires to the high grounds of the interior, it
gives the blight time to become as bad as ever before it returns.

Several new discoveries have been lately made in ornithology in
the middle isle; but I think some of the birds supposed to be newly
discovered are in reality old acquaintances. I expected to find the
Nestor superbus to be quite new; but when I saw a specimen of it
at the Otago Exhibition last year, I found it was my old friend
figured in my work as the Korako (Nestor meridionalis) ; and lately
a far more beautiful specimen of the same bird was procured by
Mr. Buller, which was taken up the Wanganni river, with a brilliant
bright-red back as well as breast. It is probably the male Korako.

' Believe me, my dear Sir,
Ever most sincerely yours,
Ricuarp Taytor.
Wanganni, May 7, 1866.

Miscellaneous. 141

On the Organic Bodies contained in Ancient Egyptian Bricks.
By Professor UNGER.

The author lately obtained some tiles from the well-known brick
pyramid of Dashur, the building of which dates between 3300 and
3400 years B.c. These, like all the Egyptian bricks, have been
made with an addition of desert sand and chopped straw, in order to
give them greater cohesion and durability. Both with the principal
mass, the Nile-mud, and the chopped straw, seeds of various plants,
animal remains, and artificial products were accidentally introduced
into the manufacture; so that, the consistency of the enclosing
substance having remained unaltered, these bodies have also been
preserved unchanged to the present time, and are therefore to be
recognized quite distinctly.

The investigation of these bodies, which are generally small,
showed the presence, at the remote period of the building of the
pyramid, of five different cultivated plants, seven field-weeds, and
some local plants, together with several freshwater Mollusca and
remains of fishes and insects, &c., but all organisms which still for
the most part occur in Egypt,-and have hitherto remained un-
altered.

Besides two cereals (wheat and barley), there were found the teff
(Eragrostis habyssinica), the field-pea (Pisum arvense), and the
flax ( Linum usitatissimum) ; the last was, in all probability, employed
both as a food-plant and for textile purposes.

Greater interest attaches to the weeds, which belong to the com-
monest kinds, and have necessarily migrated with the cultivated
plants, not only over all Europe, but over the greater part of the
earth. Among them may be named Rhaphanus Rhaphanistrum,
Chrysanthemum segetum, Euphorbia helioscopia, Chenopodium mu-
vale, Bupleurum aristatum, and Vicia sativa.

Of artificial products, there were found fragments of burnt bricks
and earthen vessels, a small piece of linen thread and one of woollen
thread—all of which indicate a tolerably advanced civilization at the
time of the building of this pyramid. Moreover the condition in
which all these enclosed objects, especially the chopped straw, oc-
curred, proves that brick-making was really carried on in the manner
stated by Herodotus and described in Exodus v. 11. .

The author expresses a hope that a continued investigation of this
material will furnish much important information as to the com-
mencement of civilization in Egypt, and that the dumb and sealed-
up bricks of Nile-mud will tell us many things that we seek in vain
in the old buildings and sareophagi, to say nothing of written records.
—Anzeigen der Akad, der Wiss. in Wien, math-naturw. Classe,
' June 14, 1866; pp. 141, 142.

Interchange of Birds between America and Europe.

In a memoir presented by Mr. Spencer F. Baird to the National
Academy of Sciences, “ On the Distribution and Migrations of North
American Birds,”’ an abstract of which is published in Silliman’s
Journal for January, March, and May of this year, the author de-

142 Miscellaneous.

duces the following generalizations in regard to the interchange of
birds between America and Europe.

European birds, especially the land species, reach Greenland. and
return to the continent by way of Iceland, the Faroe Islands forming
a stepping-stone from Great Britain and Scandinavia. In very rare
instances species seem to proceed direct to Greenland, without sto
ping in Iceland, although this may be due to the fact that while
visiting Iceland they have not yet been noted there by any naturalist.

The European birds found on the continent of North America
reach it by autumnal movement from Greenland in company with
strictly North American species.

Birds of North America rarely, if ever, reach England from
Greenland by direct spontaneous migration by way of Iceland, as
shown by the fact that only three of the American birds occurring
in Greenland are found in Iceland, and that few of the American
species observed in Europe are found in Greenland at all.

Most specimens of American birds recorded as found in Europe
were taken in England (about fifty out of sixty-nine), some of them
in’ Heligoland ; very few on the continent (land birds in only five
instances).

In nearly all cases these specimens belonged to species abundant
during summer in New England and the eastern provinces of British
America.

In a great majority of cases the occurrence of American birds in

England, Heligoland, and the Bermudas has been in the autumnal
months.
' The clue to these peculiarities attending the interchange of species
of the two continents will be found in the study of the laws of the
winds of the northern hemisphere, as developed by Prof. Henry and
Prof. Coffin. These gentlemen have shown (see Prof. Henry’s
articles on Meteorology, ‘Report of Commissioner of Patents for
1856,’ p. 489) that the ‘‘resultant motion of the surface atmosphere,
between latitudes 32° and 58° in North America, is from the west,
the belt. being twenty degrees wide, and its greatest intensity
in the latitude of 45°. This, however, must oscillate north and
south, at different seasons of the year, with the varying declination
of the sun. South of this belt, in Georgia, Louisiana, &c., the
country is influenced, at certain seasons of the year, by the north-
east trade-winds, and north of the same belt by the polar winds,
which, on account of the rotation of the earth, tend to take a diree-
tion towards the west. It must be recollected that the westerly
direction of the belt here spoken of is principally the resultant of
the south-westerly and north-westerly winds alternately predomi-
nating during the year.”

From these considerations and facts, therefore, we are entitled to
conclude that the transfer of American birds to Europe is principally,
if not entirely, by the agency of the winds, in seizing them during
the period of their migration (the autumnal especially), when they
follow the coast or cross its curves, often at a considerable distance
from land, or a great height above it. Carried off, away out to sea,

Miscellaneous. 143

mainly from about the latitude of 45° (the line of greatest intensity
of the winds), the first land they can make is that of England,
whence the fact that most of the species have occurred in the British
islands, as well as Heligoland, equally well fitted to attract stragglers
and furnish them a resting-place. It is probable that, apart from
their few permanent residents, the Bermudas are supplied in the
same manner.

Iceland being in the latitude of the reverse current, from east to
west, such of its species as are caught up by the winds and carried
off would soon reach Greenland, only a few hundred miles distant.
This may be the principal agency of supply from Europe to Green-
land, as most European land birds are only met with there at rare
intervals ; although, as Greenland lies north of Iceland, there may
be a regular migration to some extent.

As remarked, the prevailing direction of the winds, whether vio-
lent or moderate, throughout the year as well as during the period
in which our birds are on either their spring or autumnal migration,
is from America towards Europe. Even should their direction be
reversed, and that rare phenomenon, a summer “north-easter,”
occur, it would merely have the effect of bringing the birds back
upon our own coast, or into the interior, the line of the storm being,
in fact, about parallel with the eastern shore line of the United States,
and its influence extending only a short distance from the coast, and not
involving the vicinity of Europe at all. That such storms do affect
the movements of our birds is shown in the case of the golden
plover. It is well known that this species breeds in immense num-
bers in the northern regions of America, and that the southward
migration, in summer or autumn, is principally confined to the
region along or near the Atlantic coast. Generally large flights
would seem to start directly from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia
for the West Indies, where they are met with every autumn passing
still southward into South America, and reaching almost to Pata-
gonia. Usually it is but a comparatively small number that touch
and rest along the Atlantic states; but it is well known to the
sportsmen of New England that, should a violent north-east storm
occur off the coast towards the end of August, unusual flights of
plover and curlew may be looked for*. This was the case in 1863,
when the islands of Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, and other locali-
ties along the coast of Massachusetts swarmed with incredible
flights of these birds. On similar occasions immense numbers have
been carried far into the interior of the Atlantic states, furnishing*
the occasion of a regular carnival for gunners, much as in the case o
great flights of the wild pigeon.

Another instance of the influence of north-east storms is in the
occurrence of the Stormy Petrel (Mother Carey’s Chickens) and
other oceanic birds far in the interior, and even across the Allegha-
nies, during and after such storms. The collections of the Smith-

* Mr. G. N. Lawrence mentions (Annals New York Lyceum, 1864, viii.
100) that the golden plover is always found at Montauk Point on the 28th
of August, should a north-east storm occur.

14.4 Miscellaneous.

sonian Institution embrace specimens of Thalassidroma Leachit
killed about Washington in August 1842, with hundreds of others.
I myself obtained at Harrisburgh, Penn., a fine adult Pomarine
Skua (Cataractes pomarinus), killed on the Susquehanna, near that
city, in September 1839. Adults of the species mentioned are
rarely seen within the limits of the United States at all, and in sum-
mer the latter would hardly be likely to occur south of Newfoundland.

The present is not the occasion to discuss the nature of that im-
pulse which causes the bird or the fish to retrace its steps in spring
so unerringly ; the fact is a well-established one, and of much im-
portance in reference to the multiplication or diminution of species.
A region deprived of its spring birds or fishes by extermination will
only be filled up again in the course of a long period of time. The
result, however, can be greatly accelerated by artificial propagation
in the places to be supplied.

It may be considered established that the migrations of birds
are generally more or less in a north and south direction, influenced
very materially by river-courses, mountain-chains, forests, conditions
of moisture, mean temperature, altitude, &c. Middendorf (Die
Isepiptesen Russlands) suggests that birds- migrate in the direction
of the magnetic pole—a suggestion not at all borne out by the facts
in North America.

It may be further remarked that while birds proceed generally in
the spring to the very spot of birth, and by a definite route, their
return in autumn is not necessarily in the same line. Many birds
are familiar visitors in abundance, in certain localities, in either
spring or autumn, and are not known there in the other season.
This is a fact well known to the diligent collector; and I have been
inclined to think that, in very many instances, birds proceed north-
ward along the valley of the Mississippi, to return along the coast of
the Atlantic. ;

In general the northward vernal movement is performed much
more rapidly, and with fewer stops by the way, than the autumnal.

Birds generally make their appearance in given localities with
wonderful regularity in the spring, the Sylvicolide especially—a
difference of a few days in successive years attracting the notice of
the careful observer; this difference is generally influenced by the
season. The time of autumnal return is perhaps less definite.

Observations on the Microscopie Shell-structure of Spivifer cuspi-
datus, Sow., and some similar Forms. By F. B. Mrex.

Mr. Meek shows in a paper in Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. 1865,
p- 275, that the shell of the Spirifer cuspidatus, both of American
specimens referred to this species, or closely related, and of an Irish
specimen of this species received from Mr. Davidson, is clearly punc-
tate, contrary to the decision of Dr. Carpenter. He then asks the
question whether two types—a. punctate having the internal charac-
ters of Syringothyris, and an impunctate—may not be included under
the species, and suggests the importauce of observations with refer-
ence to this question.—Silliman’s American Journal, May 1866.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.
2 [THIRD SERIES. ] |

No. 105. SEPTEMBER 1866.

XXIV.—WNotes on some Species of the Orthopterous Genus Cloéon,
Leach (as limited by M. Pictet). By A. E. Eaton, of Trin.
Coll. Camb.

Axruouen but little attention is paid by the generality of ento-
mologists to the Ephemeride, the following notes may prove not
altogether uninteresting. From reading Dr. Hagen’s introduc-
. tory remarks to his synopsis of the British species of this family
(Ent. Ann. 1863) one might be led to imagine that in their early
stages of development they are strictly carnivorous. The exist-
ence of such a propensity is clearly seen by merely placing a
number of pupz in a small vessel, when the stronger will speedily
devour such as they are able to master. But that their diet is
partly vegetable also is apparent on an examination of the con-
tents of their alimentary canal; for, in many instances, along
with a large proportion of mud, half-digested Diatoms and
pieces of Confervee can be detected. These the animals obtain
by nibbling over the surface of water-plants and stones—an oc-
eupation to which they are much given. For this work their
jaws are admirably suited. In the front are four or five strong
sharp teeth, arranged in two rows, whilst behind these is a very
singular structure—a flattened transversely striated protuber-
ance, somewhat resembling an elephant’s tooth in miniature*,
Their subulate antenne and their unconcentrated abdomen are
not the only points in which they resemble Libellulide, as, be-
sides the branchial plates of the pupa, the rectum is subservient
to purposes of respiration. They seem to be furnished with a
muscular cloaca, which is shut off from the extremity of the ali-
mentary canal by a voluntary sphincter muscle. Its external
aperture is the anus, through which water is admitted when the
insect wishes to inspire. The cloaca being filled, this is then
closed, the rectum opens, the cloaca contracts and forces. the
* Jaw of the pupa of Ephemera vulyata, L.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser.3. Vol. xviii. 1]

146 Mr. A. E, Eaton on some Species

contained fluid into the intestine, over which ramify branches of
the tracheal trunks. The distribution of these trachez varies,
possibly according to the age of the insect; yet the branches
(in a Cloéon) which are given off from the trunks in the seventh
and eighth segments (Dr. Schaum’s method of reckoning) are
larger than those in the other segments, especially in young pupe.

The genus Cloéon, as limited by M. Pictet, whom Dr. Hagen
follows, may be at once divided into two groups, which in reality
are genera, although not recognized as such hitherto. As it is
therefore necessary to propose a name for one of them, I will
suggest that Cloéopsis be given to C. diptera, L., on account of
a variety of the male resembling in colour Cloé or Cloéon Rho-
dani, Pict.

CLoiopsis, nov. gen.
Comprises one widely distributed species, C. diptera, L.

Grn. Cuar.—Pupa with six pairs of double branchial plates
and one pair of single ones. Imago dipterous, with two anal
sete, the third abortive.

In this species the larger division of the double branchial plates .
of the pupa is nearly circular; the smaller is indicated by the
dotted line in the figure. The single plates are also -
circular. It may perhaps be unnecessary to mention 4 ;
that, although Dr. Hagen has included it in his dia- + \)
gnosis of the pupa, the possession of black wing- Outline of

is indicati : . a double
cases is indicative of state, and is not a special cha- _ branchial
racter; in Cloéon Rhodani, and some other speci on
? ’ pecies

also, these organs become black shortly before the final change
of the pupa. Dr. Hagen, too, attaches great importance to the
markings or absence of colour in the sete of the imago, as well
as to the colour of the turban of the male. But there is scarcely
any colour-character which, when fully tested, is not found to
vary more or less in the species of this family. Specimens of
this insect from Cambridge and Huntingdon often have the
turban dull greenish yellow (like the legs of C. Rhodani subim.),
instead of reddish brown (eyes of house-fly) ; and in the same
localities the female generally has colourless wings, like the male.
The sete are frequently not annulated.

Cioion (as restricted).

Grn. Cuar.—Pupa with seven pairs of single fe
branchial plates. Imago with four wings and 4—7 |
two anal sete; third seta abortive. Bei Peston. %

In this genus the form of the rudimentary hind wings is very
useful in determining the species, as it does not vary to any

of the Orthopterous Genus Cloéon. 147

great extent among individuals of the same kind, whether sub-
imagos or imagos, and it is not much affected by drying. The
interneural veinlets’ on the apical margin of the fore wings are
disposed in pairs in the species with round-tipped hind wings,
but singly in that with sharp-tipped wings.

C. Rhodani, Pictet.

In the ¢ the turban varies precisely as does that of C. diptera.
The lines on the thorax also are si- k
milar to those in that insect in oe

highly coloured specimens. The

anal sete are sometimes entirely / < —_____=7
white, generally white, with fuscous © / gene
rings at the joinings and the middle Hind wing, magnified,

of the joints, seldom fuscous throughout, and become transpa-
rent, through tenuity, towards their tips. The imago appears,
in favourable weather, throughout the year. A branchial plate
of the pupa is figured, I believe, in M. Pictet’s work on the
oS otha

C. pumilum, Burmeister.

Subimago. &. Turban yellow. Spots and lines of imago
all indicated. Legs yellowish white; tarsi, tibie, and tips of
femora tinged with fuscous. Thorax yellowish fawn-colour,
Abdomen pale yellowish grey. Wings and
setz unicolorous, fuscous. Penis black. ——

Imago. Turban of male yellow, changing “—<———_{
to red when dry. Thorax shiny yellowish
brown. Legs yellowish, pale; knees and
tarsi darker in the female, but paler in the male. Abdomen in
the male whitish yellow, the four apical segments brown: in the
female dull yellow brown, with the tips of the dorsal arches darker.
Setze in both sexes white, either annulated with fuscous or not.
The hind margins are more delicate, much smaller and narrower
than those of C. Rhodani, as will be seen on referring to the
figures,

Hind wing, magnified.

C. bioculatum, L.

Turban of male cornelian-red, seldom yellow. The imago
varies but little in colour. It appears from April to November,
if not throughout the year. The figure of
the hind wing of C. bioculatum, Pict. (Hist. oS
Nat. des Névrop.), differs entirely from the “———
‘above. His is more like that of Stephens’s
bioculatum (i.e. C. pumilum, Burmeister), to
which insect C. bioculatum, L., when dry, is very similar, size
excepted.

Hind wing, magnified.

Lif

148 Mr. G. Krefft on the Dentition of Thylacoleo carnifex.

The above notes were taken from living specimens.

It would be interesting to know more than is known at pre-
sent about the distribution of the British Ephemeride. In
Dorset and on Dartmoor Potamanthus erythrophthalmus is the
commonest of the genus, whilst P. marginatus is the most fre-
quent in the Cambridge district. On the Dart Baétis montana
predominates, but B. dutea at Little Bridy, Dorset. At this last
place, too, Cloéon Rhodani outnumbers C. bivculatum; but at
Blandford, in the same county, and at Cambridge the converse
obtains. From this it would appear that P. erythrophthalmus
_and C. Rhodani are better fitted to inhabit swift streams than
P. marginatus and C. bioculatum.

XXV.—On the Dentition of Thylacoleo carnifex (Ow.).
By Grrarp Krerrt.

[Plate XI.]
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN, .

In the December Number of your Journal you figure a tooth
which is supposed by Prof. M‘Coy to be the hitherto unknown
canine of Thylacoleo carnifex, because it was discovered “ with
part of the lower jaw and teeth of Nototherium Mitchellii, on
which it had probably been feeding.” I do not think the find-
ing of such a tooth in proximity with a Nototherium’s teeth is
sufficient proof that it belonged to a Thylacoleo, the more so as
the huge canine of that animal had never been known before—
and never will be known, because the Thylacoleo carnifex was
not furnished with canine teeth, and the dental series (in the
lower jaw at least) ended in a pair of incisors, from which fact
I venture to conclude (guided by the analogy furnished by the
dentition of our living Marsupials with two lower incisors, the
wombat excepted) that the upper jaw contained the usual six
incisor teeth, and that if it ever possessed a canine it must
have been a very small one, corresponding to the diminished
tooth found in Hypsiprymnus and Phalangista.

The tooth described by Prof. M‘Coy is not referable to Thy-
lacoleo; and the shape of its crown proves it at once to be an
incisor, not a canine, and most likely the (incisor).tooth of the
animal with the remains of which it was discovered. Prof.Owen
(who long ago expressed his opinion to the effect that the dental
series of the lower jaw of Thylacoleo would probably end in a
pair of incisors) has given us a full description of the teeth of
this animal, to which I have nothing to add, except that, with
the scanty material at my disposal, | have ventured to recon-

M. T. Thorell on the Argulide. 149

struct the skull and dentition of this famous marsupial lion
(Plate XI. fig. 1), which, in my opinion, was not much more
carnivorous than the Phalangers of the present time.

I also enclose drawings of sections of

Lower incisor of Thylacoleo..., Fig. 2.

» ‘s Nototherium .. Fig. 3.
» a Diprotodon .. Fig. 4.
pa a Thylacine .... Fig. 5.

Bs Sarcophilus . .. Fig. 6.
Upper i incisor of Felis tigris .. Fig. 7.
Lower a Pi Fig. 8.

showing the relative size of the teeth in these animals, and
proving sufficiently that the T’hylacoleo was far inferior in
strength to a modern tiger, and no match for ponderous Dipro-
todons and Nototheriums. The scale of the photographed
fractions i is in inches, the sections are of the natural size.
I remain, Gentlemen,
Your most obedient Servant,
GerarD Krerrt,

Australian Museum, Sydney. Curator and Secretary.
May 24, 1866.

XXVI.—On Two European At gulide, with Remarks on the
Morphology of the Argulide and their Systematic Position, to-
gether with a Review of the Species of the Family at present
known, By T. THorewi*.

Amone the various groups which, during the last few years, have
attracted the special attention of zoologists, the small Crustacean
family of the Argulidz holds a prominent place. Long represented
by one species only, which is common throughout a great part
of Europe, and was already, before the time of Linnzus, known as
Argulus foliaceus, this remarkable family has, in the course of
the last thirty years, received a sudden and unexpected acces-
sion to the number of its species. Kréyer+, whose writings are
the most recent upon the animals composing it, gives the number
of known species as thirteen, of which eight have been described
since the beginning of the year 1857, and amongst these the three
species which constitute Heller’s American genus Gyropeltis. Of
these thirteen Argulidz, one (4. giganteus) belongs to Africa, and
one only (A. foliaceus) also to Europe ; the remaining eleven are
all from America.

* Translated, by A. O’Shaughnessy, from the (fvers. af Kongl. Ve-
tensk.-Akad. Forhandlingar, 21st series, Stockholm, 1864 (communi-
cated 9th Dec. 1863).

t “Bidrag til Kundskab om a cma ad Naturhistorisk Tidskrift,
3die Rekke, Bd. ii. (1863) p. 85.

150M. T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide.

Under these circumstances it will not be uninteresting to
learn that our quarter of the globe possesses two additional
species of the family Argulidz,—one a marine form, from South-
ern Europe (the Mediterranean), the other a freshwater form,
like A. foliaceus, and belonging to the middle and northern parts
of Sweden. The first of these two species, Argulus purpureus,
has certainly been already described by Risso under the name of
Binoculus bicornutus and Agenor purpureus ; but it seems to have
been altogether overlooked by later observers, the reason for which
should no doubt be sought partly in the limited circulation
which many of Risso’s works have attained, partly in that
author’s usually very insufficient descriptions, which often render
the recognition of the species intended very difficult: Agenor
purpureus is referred to the family Bopyride! A new descrip-
tion of this species, of which I found an example at Nice, on the
pectoral fin of Pagellus erythrinus, will, therefore, not be consi-
dered superfluous.

The other, the Scandinavian species, which I call Argulus
coregont, is, on the contrary, new to science. My attention -was
drawn to it through a memoir by Dr. C. L. Nystrém*, wherein
mention was made of an unusually large Argulus as one of the
parasites which infest the Coregonus in Jemtland. Specimens
of this Argulus were brought by Dr. Nystrém to the Royal
Zoological Museum in Stockholm, where also specimens exist
from Dalsland collected by Mag. . Widegren ; and through
the united kindness of Prof, Lovén and Hrr. Nystrém and
Widegren, I have had opportunities of examining both Jemt-
land and Dalsland’ specimens of this large and well-marked
species. ;

i:

Before proceeding to the description of the animals in ques-
tion, it will be advisable to state my own conceptions of the
various divisions of the body and its accessory organs, which have
been very differently interpreted by the authors who have hither-
to handled this group. The first great division of the body,
which bears the antenne, the organs of the mouth, and the fol-
lowing two minute pairs of limbs, and which in these animals is
developed into a large shield produced behind into two lobes, I
call the head or head-shield (secutum cephalicum) ; the other, to
which the cloven swimming-feet are attached, the trunk (truncus),
which is followed by a ¢az/l (cauda) transformed into a leaf-like
respiratory plate, bearing two small appendages, which, in the
newly-hatched larva, are situated at the tip of the tail (as is the

* “Takttagelser rérande ‘Faunan i cae ted Vattendrag,” Akademisk
Afhandling, &c. (1863), p. 19.

M. T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide. 151

case in the allied forms Phyllopoda and Copepoda), but, in the
adult animal, have gradually advanced upwards to the base of
the incision which divides the respiratory plate into two lobes.
The trunk is named by some authors thorax, by others abdo-
men, according as they call the first division of the body head
(cephalic shield) or cephalothorax; the last segment is, in a
similar manner, regarded either as the abdomen or postabdomen,
in descriptive works mostly called cauda. Kréyer* regards it as
the genital ring, in consequence of his having, curiously enough,
considered it to correspond only to the so-denominated foremost
segment of the “postabdomen” in the Caligide: the append-
ages of the Argulide should, according to him, represent not
only the appendages, but the whole of the tail behind the genital
ring in the Caligide—and hence, naturally, in all the other
Copepoda. But the genital ring is nothing but the coalesced
first two segments (or only the first segment) of the tail, which
in the Copepoda is usually set apart for the functions of genera-
tion, and in the Caligide and many other (especially the pceci-
lostome and siphonostome) Copepoda attains a greater develop-
ment, especially in breadth, than the following caudal segments.
The number of these varies much, being four or less: omsetimes,
even, the tail remains unsegmented and consists of a single piece,
for instance, in some species of the genus Coryceus; and just
such, in fact, is the stage of development of the tail in Argulus.
Now, if the unsegmented tail of Coryceus corresponds to the
tail inclusive of the genital ring in the Caligide, which no one
presumes to doubt, so also must the tail in the Argulide corre-
spond to the entire tail in the Copepoda and Caligide in general.
Still less correct than Kréyer’s is Gegenbaur’s view of the
hindmost segment of the body: Gegenbaur} regards it as
consisting of “ a pair of partly coalesced branchie,” and takes it as
corresponding not only physiologically, which would have been
perfectly correct, but even morphologically with the branchiz of
the Crustacea. Gegenbaur’s assertion that this view is shared by
Leydig would seem to be the result of a misunderstanding of that
author’s meaning}. In the larval state the tail in Argulus has
a form whieh easily shows the incorrectness of Gegenbaur’s
view: it is then exactly like the tail in the older Phyllopod and
Copepod larvee, and bears, as already mentioned, the usual ap-
pendages at the tip, between which the anal opening is situated.

If the various body-segments of the Argulide have been thus

* Loe. cit. p. 88.

+ Grundziige der vergleichenden Anatomie (1859), pp. 245-246,

t Vide Leydig, “‘ Ueber Argulus foliaceus, ein Beitrag zur Anatomie, His-
tologie und Entwicklungsgeschichte dieses Thieres,” Zeitschrift fiir wis-
senschaftliche Zoologie, Bd. ii. (1850) pp. 338-339,

152 M.'T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide.

differently regarded, this is certainly the case in a like or even
greater degree with the accessory organs, especially the anterior
ones or those which appertain to the head. We shall treat of
those which belong essentially to the mouth further on, and
would begin by directing our attention especially to the four
pairs of members which are situated before and behind these.
The views taken of these organs, of which we call the two fore-
most pairs the first and second pairs of antenne, and the two
hindmost the first and second pairs of footjaws, have, as we have
said, been very various, doubtless through erroneous notions of a
complete correspondence between the accessory organs of the head’
in the lower Crustaceans and in the Decapoda, which has rendered
the terminology of the former so confused and contradictory*.
Of the antenne one pair has usually been considered a pair of
footjaws,—the first pair by Heller and Cornalia, the second by
M.-Edwards and Kroyer. The view we have taken agrees with
that given by Dana and Herrick}; and its correctness is shown,
not only by the form and position of the corresponding parts in
the Phyllopods and Copepods, to which the Argulide are most
neatly allied, but also by the history of their development. The
newly hatched larva of Argulus has, as Jurine’st and also
Dana’s and Herrick’s figures attest, a pair of antenne and two’
pairs of swimming-feet, like the larvee of the Phyllopods and
Copepods ; and since the organs which are developed from the
antennee and first pair of jaws in the Phyllopod and Copepod larvee
are now generally regarded as the first and second pair of antenna,
the same rule should be applied to the Argulide. <A glance at
the larva of an Argulus shows immediately that the conditions are.
here just the same as in the case of the Phyllopod and Copepod ~
groups; the sole difference between the Argulide and these is
that the antennze in the Argulus-larva gradually attain a hooked
form, becoming hooked fixing-organs through a stronger deve-
lopment of their two first joimts, while the other joints are corre-
spondingly reduced and at last form only a small appendage to
the second joint of the antenne. ‘The first pair of feet in the
larva is, as is usual in the allied Crustacea, biramose ; the hinder
branch already exhibits the form of the adult animal’s second
pair of antenne; the foremost branch ines during the de-
velopment of the larva.

I should not have dwelt so long on the antennee of the Argu-
lidee were it not that Kroyer$ has very lately sought to esta-

* Vide Claus, “ Zur Morphologie der Copepoden,”’ Wiirzburger Natur-
wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift, Bd. i. (1860) p. 26 &e.

+ Deser. of Arg. catostomi, Silliman re aural, vol. xxxi. (1837) p. 298 &e.

~~ Mémoire sur l’Argule ponent Ann. du Mus. t. vii. an ee ‘ge fig 4.:

§ Loc. cit, p. 87. -

M. T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide. 153

blish another view respecting them, tending principally, as it
would seem, to discover a nearer affinity between the Argulide
and the Caligidee, in which latter group, as in the parasitic Crus-
taceans in general, it is not the first but the second pair of an-
tenne which take the form of fixing-organs. According to
Kroyer, that which I have called the first pair of antenne con-
sists of both pairs of antenne coalesced; the appendage would
thus be the first, the claw itself the second pair of antenne. In
accordance with this view, the real second pair of antenne is re-
garded as the first pair of footjaws. After what has been already
said relative to the history of the development of these organs, a
detailed refutation of Kroyer’s hypothesis would be superfluous.
With regard to the other appendages of the head, a comparison
between them in the Argulide and the groups allied thereto is
' rendered difficult by the circumstance that the Argulus-larva at
its exit from the egg is much more fully developed, and already
furnished with the parts belonging to the mouth, and also with
the two pairs of limbs situated behind these, so that the origins
of these parts cannot be followed genetically. One may, how-
ever, conclude from analogy that in the Argulus, as in the Phyl-
lopods and Copepods, the mandibles are formed out of the base
of the second pair of feet in the larva, and the maxille behind
them as an independent pair of limbs. How far the two following
pairs of limbs in the Argulide are originally, as Claus* showed
to be the case in the free Gnathostoma and in at least a part of
the parasitic Copepoda, branches of one and the same pair of
limbs is certainly not clearly ascertained: nevertheless their
form and position (especially in the larvee) exhibit too evident
marks of correspondence with the footjaws in the higher families
of Siphonostoma to admit of their being regarded in their origin
and morphological significance as bearing no relation to these.
The first pair seems to serve exclusively as fixing-organs: they
take, as is known, in the adult state of the different species of the
genus Argulus the form of sucking-cups, while in the larve
and in the genus Gyropeltis they are armed at the extremity with
a hook. The functious of the second pair are not equally easy
to determine; but if they serve to maintain the animal when
fastened on its prey, they probably also, and perhaps principally,
serve as organs of locomotion, and may therefore be called
“ creeping-feet ” (pedes gressorii), as they have, indeed, been
named by Kroyer. Vogt+ maintains that the animal. avails
* Die frei lebenden Copepoden, p. 28 (1863). “ Ueber den Bau und die
Entwicklung von Achtheres percarum,” Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool., Bd. ix.
(1861) p. 293. :
+ “Beitriige zur Naturgeschichte der Schweizerischen Crustaceen,”’ Neue

Denkschriften der allg. Schweizerischen Gesellschaft fiir die gesammten
Naturwissenschaften, Bd. vii. (1848), p. 12.

154 M.T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide. -

itself of these “for cleaning the sucking-cups and for removing
extraneous particles from the cavity.” Their first joint usually
shows on the underside a plain, sharply-defined surface, which,
posteriorly, is mostly produced into three strong teeth, and
which we therefore, in common with Kroyer, call the comb
(kammen,”’ pecten).

Immediately behind the base of the second pair of antennze
is a strong chitinous tooth or hook, which is regarded by Kroyer
as a palp. In position and external appearance it agrees, indeed,
with the hook, frequently occurring in the Caligide (the first
pair of maxille, according to M.-Edwards and others), which
Kroyer designates “ antennpalp,” but is called “‘ accessory hook
of the second pair of antenne” (“hjelpkrok,” hamulus) by
Steenstrup and Liitken*, and is not regarded, therefore, by
them as belonging to the true series of appendages, but as a —
cuticular growth appertaining to the dermal framework, This
view seems to be shared also by Claus, and is, in my opinion, the
correct one, both as regards the Caligide and theArgulide. With
respect to the latter, this is indeed evident from the cireumstance
that the Argulide often possess two extra pairs of perfectly simi-
lar hooks,—the one between the second pair of footjaws, the other
behind these, before the base of the first pair of swimming-feet,
which hooks cannot easily be looked upon as reduced appendages
or parts of such. On the basal joint of both the first and second
pairs of antenne and the second pair of footjaws the chitinous
covering is also developed into similar hooks ; and certain parts of
the underside of the body, especially the border of the head-
shield anteriorly, are usually thickly set with small teeth, which
have a similar significance with the larger hooks previously men-
tioned, and, like them, serve to fix the creature on the spot to
which it has attached itself by suction or clinging. All these.
hooks and teeth have, accordingly, the apex directed backwards,
and thus prevent the animal from sliding or being brushed from
before backwards, the only direction in which any strong pres-
sure under ordinary conditions could operate. This modifica-
tion of cuticular structure should consequently be stronger in those
species which principally subsist on the outer integument of
fishes, as, for instance, A. foliaceus, coregoni, purpureus, and
weaker in such as subsist in the gill-cavity, like 4. catostomt.

It remains for us briefly to account for the ¢rue mouth-organs
in the Argulide, as far as these are known to us. Former
authors who have occupied themselves with researches concern-

* « Bidrag til Kundskab om det aabne Havs Snyltekrebs og Lernzer,
&e.,”’ Kongl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrift. 5te Rekke, Bd. v. (186])

p. 350

M. T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide. 155

ing Argulus foliaceus, and even the distinguished Jurine*, assumed
that the oral aperture was situated at the tip of the anteriorly
produced sting (“ gadd,” aculeus or stimulus) in that animal,
and consequently missed all acquaintance with the essential
parts of the mouth. For the first exact description of these
parts in an Argulid we have to thank Dana and Herrick, who,
in their admirable memoir already cited, on Argulus catostomt,
have given an accurate representation of the structure of the
mouth-tube in that American species, and have shown that it
contains two pairs of organs. These they designate inner and
outer maxille ; the sheath itself which contains these they regard
as corresponding to the mandibles,—a view which is in accordance
with these authors’ attempt to show a like segmentation and
number of the appendages in the Argulidee to those which obtain
in the Decapoda—consequently, as in those, one pair of mandibles
and two pairs of maxille.

Several years later Vogt gave a description of 4. foliaceus, in
which Jurine’s mistake as to the position of the mouth is recti-
fied; but the exposition which Vogt puts forth of the oral
organs is far from clear, as is the case also with the figure which
accompanies it. The following is Vogt’s description :—“The
opening of the mouth is situated in a club-shaped projection
behind the ‘sting,’ protected on each side by two ring-like
horny plates inclined inwards; and on the inner surface of
these are seen two smaller plates of similar appearance. A sin-
gular S-shaped double lip is seen below, which is inclined up-
wards, and opposed to a single horny piece bent over the open-
ing above.”

Leydig, who has written an excellent memoir on the inner
conformation of A. foliaceus, has also briefly named the oral
organs and described them as follows :—‘ The opening of the
mouth is placed in a club-shaped projection bent downwards.
It is bounded posteriorly by a crescent-shaped lower lip, an-
teriorly and laterally by two broad gradually tapering plates.
Several disk-like pieces inside represent the mandibles.”

It will be seen that this description also is not satisfactory,
since it gives no further light on the form and number of those
parts which are said to correspond with the mandibles. These
two authors, Vogt and Leydig, would seem to be the only ones
who have given any exposition of the armature of the mouth in
A. foliaceus based on independent researches. Others, as
Milne-Edwards and Baird}, have, further, applied to the Euro-
pean species Dana’s and Herrick’s representation of the struc-
ture of the oral organs in the American A. catostomi ; but how

* Loe. cit. p. 440.
+ Nat. Hist. of Brit. Entomostraca (1850), p. 248.

156 M.T.Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide.

hazardous such a proceeding is appears at once from the fact
that, according to Heller’s description, the mouth-tube in
another American species, A. Nattereri, only contains one pair of
chewing-organs, of an entirely different appearance from the cor-
responding parts in A. catostomi. That considerable differences
exist also between the oral organs of A. foliaceus and A. cato-
stomi is apparent at once on a comparison of Dana’s and Herrick’s
description and figures of, for instance, the mandibles and
maxille in the latter species with the account given further
on of the same parts in A. foliaceus. According to Heller and
Cornalia, the genus Gyropeltis agrees with A. Nattereri in having
only one pair of jaws in the mouth-tube. In that genus this
consists apparently of an upper lip anterior and a lower lip
posterior to the jaws; in the Argulide which have a sting
( gadd”) before the mouth-tube, this latter must be formed of
the lower lip only, whereas the “ sting” is a transformed upper
lip, as indeed Vogt and others have held. |

Of the authors who have described the Argulidee none have ad-
vanced further than those already quoted towards a clear exposition
of the nature of the mouth; the only species with respect to whose
oral organs we possess satisfactory information are consequently
Argulus catostomi and Nattereri, together with the three species
of the genus Gyropeltis. Even Kroyer, who was the last to oceupy
himself with these animals, and who gave complete descriptions
and figures of several species of them, neglects the struc-
ture of the mouth to such an extent that he does not even
inform us whether his species possess a sting (“ gadd”) or not—
a point all the more important since, to judge from his figures,
they seem to lack that organ whose presence would constitute
one of the characters distinguishing Argulus from Gyropeltis.
As tothe form and number of the footjaws no information what-
ever has been vouchsafed. It is, however, evident that a natural
arrangement of this rapidly enlarged group, without a know-
ledge of the structure of these important organs, must be im-
possible cr in a high degree difficult to arrive at.

Of Argulus foliaceus | have been able to have recourse to a
few specimens in spirits only ; consequently the following descrip-
tion of its oral organs is not so complete as I could have wished.
The structure of the sting (“gadd”’?) is given with sufficient
accuracy by Vogt and Leydig, and may therefore be passed
over here. Its function is probably only that of an irritating
organ, whose puncture occasions.a strong flow of blood to the
spot where the animal is about to suck.

The mouth-tube has, as is known, a recurved, conical, or
club-like appearance; in a very young specimen I have
fancied I perceived signs of a suture of some extent along

M. T. Thorell on the Morphology of the Argulide. 157

the front, whence I conclude that both borders of the lower
lip have coalesced with each other in the formation of the
mouth-tube. Above, before the middle of the front surface,
two small teeth are observable. Laterally, its diameter is
almost the same throughout; and the club-like shape depends
consequently on the fact of its being somewhat broader at the
extremity. The tip itself is obliquely truncated, and shows
behind a hood-like extension of the wall of the tube, which
spreads itself over the back part of the oral aperture in the
form of a large, moveable, almost crescent-shaped lip. The al-
most triangular oral aperture is bounded by the two posterior
(inferior) arms of an almost H- or X-shaped chitinous structure
or apparatus, as also by two thin, oblong, chitinous lamelle,
which are rounded at the extremity, and are situated immedi-
ately beneath these, and whose direction is parallel with them :
on the inner margin these latter show some few saw-like teeth.
Both these lamelle I regard as maxille.

Somewhat higher up in the tube are placed the two man-
dibles. They are oblong, almost triangular, somewhat curved,
and end on either side in a finely pointed apex, above and be-
fore which the convex (lower and inner) margin is raised into
two smaller and two stronger teeth. These mandibles are di-
rected with their tips towards each other, inwards and upwards,
in the gullet, while the maxille diverge backwards and out-
wards.

In order to give suppleness to this armature, and at the
same time to support the mouth-tube itself, this last contains a
rather complicated chitinous framework. Such a framework is
apparent on either side of the tube, and involved in its wall,
being somewhat thickened beneath the crescent-shaped lip,
where it forms a knob on either side of the tube. This knob
furnishes the principal support for the mandible. Two other
such chitinous processes, which are placed more inwards and
backwards in the tube and do not touch its walls, extend below
the lip, whose arch they seem to support, and form here a bow
by means of which they unite with the two side processes. The
X-shaped chitinous framework which bounds the oral aperture
is also brought into connexion with these processes by means
of its arms, and thus, at the extremity of the mouth-tube, is
formed a solid apparatus.

The gullet ascends as a slender, strongly chitinous tube, and
proceeds backwards in a bowed shape through the nervous |
ring situated in the throat to the stomach, where it opens, by
means of a remarkable cup-like organ, into a cardia or stomach-
mouth ( mag-mun’’), which probably acts as a sucking-pump.
I think it probable that the maxillz serve to effect an opening

158 M. T, Thorell on two European Argulide.

in the integument of the animal upon which the parasite has
fixed itself, and that the imbibed blood-corpuscles, on their way
through the narrow gullet, are broken and ground by the
mandibles.

In those forms (for instance the species of the genus Gyro-
peltis) which lack maxille, the mandibles are placed close to
the opening of the mouth, and may, being strongly toothed on
the lower border, unite the functions which we observe to be-
long to the mandibles and maxille in A. foliaceus and the allied
species.

Within both mandibles and maxille other perfectly similar
mandibles or maxille are usually perceptible, differing from these
only in being somewhat smaller. These are probably formed to
replace the older external organs when a change of the integu-
ment takes place: a similar supplemental structure is found
in the claw of the antennee of the first pair. In A. coregoni the
oral organs exhibit almost the same formation as in A. foliaceus.
A. purpureus differs especially in having the mandibles situated
lower down, close to the opening of the mouth, and in the
maxille being destitute of teeth on their inner border. The
lip also has a different form.

After these remarks on the morphology of the Argulidz we
pass on to the description of our two species, A. purpureus and
A. coregont.

II.
Argulus purpureus, Risso *.
Syn. kg bicornutus, Risso, Hist. Nat. d. Crustacés de Nice, (1816)
Ager purpureus, Risso, Hist. Nat. d. princip. prod. de PEurope
mérid. tom. v. (1826) p. 139, pl. v. fig. 28.

Scutum cephalicum maximum, oblongum, multo longius quam
latius, in lateribus parum rotundatum, antice utrinque pro-
funde sinuatum, postice anguste et profunde incisum, pedes
omnes totamque caudam tegens; segmentum trunci ultimum
utrinque lamina foliacea preeditum ; cauda ampla, latissima,
dimidiam reliqui corporis longitudinem eequans, vix ad medium
incisa, laciniis acuminato-rotundatis; stimulus longissimus ;
sipho subcylindratus ; cotyledones parvi, diametro 4; longit.
corporis eequantes ; pecten plaga media scabra nulla, dentibus
tribus acutis ; pedes flagello carent.—Longit. cirea 18, lat.
10 millim. (¢).

Hab. in Mari Mediterraneo ad Niceeam, in Selenia (Carangi) luna (Geoffr.)

* Although the name Dicornutus is older than purpureus, we prefer the
latter, on the ground that the former appellation is based on a false appre-
ciation of the antennz; we have less hesitation in doing this, smce no
personal right of priority is thereby affected.

M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide. 159

a Risso, et in Pagello erythrino Cuv. a me ipso inventus. Plerumque

in pinna pectorali piscis parasitat.

Descr. Femina. Scutum cephalicum maximum, totum truncum
cum cauda et pedibus tegens, plus dimidio longius quam latius,
zequaliter convexum, antice ad lobum frontalem abrupte sinuato-
angustatum, angulis utrinque rotundatis, lateribus subparallelis,
parum rotundatis, fissura angustiore, fere ad medium scuti longitu-
dinis ducta bipartitum, laciniis apice late et oblique rotundatis; supra
leeve, subtus ad margines antice, preesertim capitis, denticulis
minutissimis dense sparsum. Pars media (cephalica) medio scuto
duplo angustior, latitudine plus dimidio longior, margine antico
(frontali) rotundato-triangulo, sulco utrinque valde manifesto, forma
fere literze S, a reliquo scuto separata et costis duabus chitinosis, in
medio appropinquantibus, ut in 4. foliaceo cet., preedita.—Truncus
convexus, postice paullo angustatus, segmentis duplo latioribus quam
longioribus; segm. quarto utrinque laminam oblongam, incurvam,
apice rotundatam, caudz dorso impositam gerentie. Cauda maxima,
eadem circiter longitudine ac latitudine, segmentis 4 trunci conjunc-
tim non brevior, 4 totius corporis longitudine eequans, in lateribus
rotundata, antice ad segm. trunci quartum excipiendum angulis
rotundatis subemarginata, postice fissura, fere ad medium longitu-
dinis ducta, in duas lacinias rotundato-triangulas divisa. Appendices
minutee, cylindratee, diametro multo longiores.

Oculi sat parvi, semilunati. Macula ocellaris ab oculis multo
longius distat, quam illi inter se.

Antenne in fovea communi utrinque ante oculos locates marginem
capitis minime attingunt. Ant. primi paris robuste; art. 1s
brevis, subtriangulus, aculeo forti armatus ; art. 2° oblongus, brevior
et crassior quam in A. coregoni et foliaceo, apice in uncum fortissi-
mum incurvo, angulo vel dente acuto antrorsum et intus directo ad
basin in latere anteriore, uncoque forti fere in medio lateris posterioris
armatus ; appendix tenuis, parum ultra apicem attenne pertinens,
articulis 2: art. 1° latitudine multis partibus longior, in apice postice
seta brevi, lata, acuminata instructus, art. 2% fere triplo brevior et
paullo angustior quam art. 15, subacuminatus.

Ant. secundi paris longitudine priorum, at inter se multo
longius distantes, ad basin crasse, extus tenues, articulis 5, subcy-
lindratis. Art. 1° diametro paullo longior, unco forti ad basin
postice ; art. 28 prioris fere crassitudine, sed duplo brevior, apice an-
tice rotundato-fornicato, articulum 3™ postice gerente, qui articulus
3-plo angustior est, subcurvatus, diametro 3—4-plo longior, in latere
anteriore pilosus ; art. 4§ priore duplo angustior et paullo brevior est,
versus apicem pilosus; art. 5° eo etiam angustior et duplo brevior,
subangustatus, in apice subpilosus.—Pone antennas dens vel uncus
auxiliaris fortis utrinque adest, cum unco art. primi antenn. primi
paris trapezium latius quam Jongius formans.

Stimulus longissimus est, et sulco profundo, lato, antice dilatato,
in Jateribus transverse striato, apice acuminato inter antennas secundi
paris ducto excipitur; vagina verticulam ad basin ostendit et sulco
illo longior est; porrectus ultra antennas primi paris pertinere
videtur,

160 _ M. 'T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

Stpho tenuis, subcylindratus, in lateribus subsinuatus, in apice
circa 4 millim. latus, diametro saltem 3-plo longior, retro et deorsum
directus, paullo pone stimulum oriens, paullo ultra basin maxillipe-
dum secundi paris pertinens. Apex /abio transverso rotundato-
triangulo, forma fere cuculli, subtus aperto efficitur, cujus in fundo
apertura oris se ostendit, maxillis definita. Margo labii in media
parte membranula tenuissima, striata auctus. Mazille oblonge,
apice rotundate, in margine interno non dentatze, divaricantes, ad
basin costa lata, chitinosa conjunctee. Mandibule transverse positee,
in ipsa apertura oris apparentes, ad basin late, subquadratee, tum
repente supra angustatee, reliqua parte oblonga, subangustata, in
margine inferiore versus apicem et in ipso apice obtuso dentibus
paucioribus armate.

Cotyledones (maxillipedes primi paris) parvee, diametro +/; longi-
tudinis totius corporis vix superantes, radiis marginis circa 65,

Mazxillipedes secundi paris breves, basi fortes, articulis 3 ultimis
tenuioribus. Ex articulis 5 constare videntur : art. 1° foras directus
crassissimus, postice”convexus, pectine postice latiore, antice rotun-
dato, latitudine paullo longiore, glabro, plaga scabra nulla, dentibus
3 minoribus acuminatis eademque fere magnitudine armato. Art.
2* angustior et brevior, subconicus, deorsum et antrorsum directus,
articulo vel patella quasi auctus, quee instar cotyledonis supra basin
articuli proximi eminet. Articuli sequentes retro et paullo foras
directi sunt : art. 38 subcylindratus, latitudine duplo longior ; art. 45
paullo angustior, latitudine non longior, intus rotundato-dilatatus ;
art. 5§ minutus, priore dimidio brevior at multo angustior, subovatus,
intus versus apicem abrupte angustatus, inermis.

Inter basin maxillipedum secundi paris adsunt dentes vel unci duo,
fortes, cum aliis duobus multo minoribus pone eos sitis trapezium
postice latius formantes.

Pedes breves, tenues, ultra marginem scuti vix prominentes,
Jlagello carentes. _ Par. 1-3™ eadem fere sunt forma et longitudine,
stipite compresso, subzequali, articulis 3, quorum 1* brevissimus est,
2* diametro breviore dimidio longiore, 3°ad apicem rotundato-acumina-
tus, diametro illo vix vel parum longior. Rami parvi, stipite dimidio
ad duplo breviores, ad basin crassi, extus acuminati, ramo superiore
crassiore et paullo longiore, in marginibus pilosi. Ramus inferior
pedum ¢ertit paris differt in eo, quod ex articulis 2 constat, primo
breviore et crassiore, subeylindrato, diametro fere duplo longiore.

Pedes quarti paris reliquis dissimiles, magis retro directi, et ita
segmento ultimo trunci affixi, ut angulum rectum inter se forment.
Stipes ex 2 articulis constat : art. 18 basi truncatus et subrectangulus
est, extus latitudine brevior, intus ita angustato-productus, ut duplo
longior quam latior evadat, norme formam simulans. Excipit extus
artic. 2", qui eadem fere est longitudine, subcylindratus, in latere
interiore leviter rotundatus, diametro plus duplo longior. — Rami
longitudine circiter articuli prioris, forma ut in pedibus tertii paris,
art. primo rami inferioris multo crassiore et parum breviore quam
art. 2°.

Color (in vivo): scutum cephalicum pallide czeruleo-virescens,

M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide. 161

rarius albo punctatum, vittis in utraque ala 3 violaceis, parallelis,
versus apicem scuti latioribus et confluentibus, et linea tenui, obscurius
violacea, antice introrsum geniculata, inter vittas duas interiores ducta.
Lobus frontalis margine subviolaceo. Rami gastrici luteo-fusci.
Ovarium in dorso perlucens album, dense violaceo punctatum, linea
media ad longitudinem ducta, purius alba geminatum. Cauda scuto
pallidior, densius albo punctata, versus apicem et in margine externo
pallide violacea, vitta violacea ad marginem internum, receptaculis
seminis obscure fuscis. Truncus subtus in medio late fuscus, in
lateribus albicans, ipso margine cum stipite pedum czeruleo-virescens.
Dentes corporis, partium oris, maxillipedum cet., cum annulo
chitinoso cotyledonum fusci. Partes oris ceterum, ut rami pedum,
hyalinee.

With regard to the internal conformation of the animal, I have
only the following to communicate. It differs from A. foliaceus
in the fact that the large side branches of the stomach send out
smaller branches, not only on the outer but on the inner side
also. The outbranchings of the stomach are on the following
plan:—Immediately before the first pair of legs the stomach
sends out on either side a strong, outwardly and somewhat
backwardly directed stem, which, when it has attained almost
the middle of the wing of the shield, bends backwards at almost
a right angle, sending immediately a strong stem forwards.
This divides soon after into two smaller stems, which stretch
backwards towards the end of the shield, and on either side
send forth numerous branches and subbranches, which, however,
never anastomose with one another. ven the short anteriorly
directed stem branches forward in the same manner. In all
these vessels the rhythmical pulsating backwards and forwards
of the brownish-yellow contents is perceptible in the living
animal. ‘The circulation of the blood is particularly evident in
the broad and thin tail.

The ovary reaches far forward between the second pair of
footjaws, and is therefore somewhat pointed at its anterior
extremity. It is long and narrow (7 millim. long, 2 millim.
broad), and contains a great many eggs, closely packed and
adhering together, about } millim. in length and } millim. in
breadth. The eggs show the same formation and appearance
as in A. foliaceus and A. coregoni. In the living animal the
ovary is transparent through the back as a whitish, thickly
violet-dotted organ, divided lengthwise by a clear white band.
Of this fine species I obtained a single specimen in Nice on the
8th March, 1862, a female, fastened upon the inside of the pec-
teral of Pagellus erythrinus, Cuv. The right lobe of both the
head-shield and the tail are somewhat shorter in this specimen
than the left, which is undoubtedly only an accidental variation.

Risso found this species at Nice, in the month of May, on
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 12

162 M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

Selenia luna (Geoffr.), Bonap. (le Caranz magnifique, Citula
Banksii, Risso), commonly attached to the base of the pectoral
of that fish. The female was unknown to him: the male is
distinguished by “ deux petits tubercules coniques, blanchatres
.... situés a la base de la derniére paire de pattes.” In colour
it is said to be “ d’un pourpre violatre, traversé par six lignes
longitudinales paralléles, blanchatres.” The description in ‘ Hist.
Nat. d. Crustacés de Nice’ is extremely detailed, but contains
many inaccuracies. The description in ‘ Hist. Nat. d. prine.
prod. de Kurope mérid.’ would seem to be only an abstract of
the former. It is accompanied by a figure, in which it is not
easy to recognize an Argulid. In his first-mentioned work,
Risso gives correctly the affinities of the animal, and places it in
Geoffroy’s genus Binoculus, under the name of B. bicornutus.
But in the later work we search in vain for either Binoculus or
Argulus ; with his usual superficiality, Risso there removes the
animal to the family Bopyride, under the name of Agenor (n. g.)
purpureus, by the side of species of the genera Bopyrus and Ce-
crops! A. purpureus deserves, more than any other species of
Argulus, to be made the type of a distinct genus (Agenor, Risso).
Besides the unusual development of the head-shield, it is espe-
cially characterized by the absence of the “ tassel” or flagellum
(“ gissel””) on the anterior pairs of legs, as also by the two
lamellz on the last segment of the trunk. The parts of the
mouth also show a somewhat different structure, as does the
second pair of maxillipeds, in the peculiar “ patella” which is
inserted between the second and third joints of these limbs.

Argulus coregoni, n. sp.

Scutum cephalicum antice utrinque subsinuatum, in ? inverse
subovatum, vix longius quam latius, pedes ultimi paris non
tegens, in ¢ amplissimum, suborbiculatum, laciniis apice se
invicem et omnes pede’ tegentibus ; cauda ovata, longitudine
5 reliqui corporis superans, saltem-ad medium incisa, laciniis
apice lanceolato-acuminatis; art. 18 antenn. secundi paris dente
minuto armatus; stimulus minutus; sipho subeylindratus ;
cotyledones sat parve, diametro 2—} longitudinis corporis
eequantes ; pecten plaga media oblongo-rotundata scabra,
dentibusque 3 conicis, acuminatis.—Long. 9 usque ad 13,
latit. ad 84 millim.; ¢ longit. 104, latit. 8 millim,

Hab. in lacubus majoribus Sueciz medie et septentrionalis ; in Storsjén
aliisque lacubus Jemtlandiz a Dr. C. L. Nystrém in Coregono lavareto
Linn. et Thymailo vulgari Nilss. inventus; in Laxsj6n Dalslandiz in
Coregono lavareto et in lacu Vettern in Saimone trutta Linn. a Dr. H.

Widegren quoque captus. In cute externa piscium parasitat.
Descr. Femina. Corpus in universum eadem est forma atque in

A. foliaceo: ovatum, depressum, supra modice convexum, Sceutum

M. T. Thorell on two Huropean Argulide. 163

cephalicum inverse subovatum, longitudine maximam latitudinem
_(paullo pone medium) parum superante, in lateribus eequaliter rotun-
datum, antice utrinque sinuatum, lobo frontali eequaliter rotundato ;
postice late at non profunde (vix ad tertiam longitudinis partem)
excisum, laciniis, a parte posteriore segmenti primi trunci orientibus,
in margine interiore sinuatis, apice rotundatis, fere ad medium seg-
menti ultimi trunci pertinentibus. Truwncus tertiam scuti partem
latitudine zquans, quoad liberus est parum longior quam latior,
stice rotundatus et subangustatus, segmentis subsequalibus, duplo
tioribus quam longioribus, ultimotamen prioribusbreviore sublunato.
Cauda, longit. } totius corporis haud sequans, } vero multo superans,
oblonga est, subovata, basi angusta trunco affixa, in lateribus sub-
salads, profunde, plerumque ultra medium, fissa, laciniis latitudine
duplo longioribus, apice lanceolato-acuminatis. Ad basin caudee
subtus eique adnata adest lamina parva, breviter subovata, apice in
formam trianguli inciso, longitudine diametrum artic. ultimi# pedum
quarti paris haud snperans. Appendices supra in fundo fissuree mi-
nutissimze sunt, cylindrate, diametro cirea 3-plo longiores, in apice
pilis 4—5 instructe.

Oculi rotundati, oblongi, inter se paullo longius quam a margine
capitis distantes. Macudaocularis cum oculis triangulum eequilaterum
format.

Antenne utriusque lateris, e callo obliquo exeuntes, foras et an-
trorsam directze sunt ; latera capitis ad eas excipiendas utrinque in
foveam sunt excavata. Ant. primi paris, inter se sat longe distantes,
ex art. 2 constant: 1* brevissimus, aculeo forti subtus armatus; 2°
oblongus, extus angustatus et in unguem fortem, incurvum produc-
tus, tuberculo foras directo versus basin in margine anteriore, in
margine vero posteriore, paullo supra hoc, unco forti armatus. E
laterearticuli superiore et posteriore, infra medium ejus affixa, excurrit
appendiz longa, tenuis, angusta, parum ultra ipsam antennam per-
tinens, articulis 2, primo longo, subzequali, in apice setam fortem et
articulum secundum gerente, hoc art. illo triplo saltem breviore, paullo
angustiore, duplo longiore quam latiore, apice rotundato, piloso.

Antenne secundi paris prioribus paullo breviores sunt et fere duplo
longius inter se remote, articulis 5: 2 primis crassis, reliquis tenui-
bus. Art. 1° fere zeque latus ac longus, in latere postico dente mi-
nuto armatus ; art. 2° paullo angustior, et duplo fere brevior ; art. 3°
multo angustior quam art. 2°, latitudine duplo longior ; art. 4° etiam
paullo angustior et brevior ; art. 5° priore paullo brevior et. duplo
angustior. Omnes art. in apice pilis aliquot brevibus instrueti.
Paullo pone antennas utrinque adest uncus auxiliaris. fortissimus,
callo illo antennarum ab iis divisus, unco articuli primi antenn. primi
paris robustior. Quattuor unci, quorum meminimus, trapezium for-
mant antice latius, latitudine antica fere duplo brevius.

Stimulus in medio inter cotyledones oriens, sulco profundo,
usque inter antennas primi paris ducto receptus, tenuis est et brevis,
parum conspicuus, ad basin antennarum secundi paris, versus quam
porrigitur, nullo modo pertinens, vagina tertiam partem longitudinis
sulci fere equante.

Y2*

164. M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

Sipho e sulco stimuli in medio inter cotyledones surgens, retro et
deorsum directus, basi innititur costis duabus crassis, postice divari-
cantibus, foveam latam et profundam definientibus. Brevis est
satisque tenuis, non ad basin maxillipedum secundi paris pertinens,
diametro plus duplo longior, subcylindratus, versus apicem tamen
paullulo incrassatus, ipso apice planitiem fere libratam formante.
Tubum format tenuem, costam utrinque fortem chitinosam, ipsi
parieti siphonis innatam, a basi ejus versus apicem ductam, aliasque
duas ejusmodi costas liberas includentem. Que costs omnes in
apice siphonis ad pegma satis complicatum, instrumenta manduca-
tionis gerens, formandum concurrunt. Ipsa apertura oris, que forma
fere trianguli est, postice definitur labio quodam mobili, semilunato,
cuculli instar, in lateribus vero mazillis duabus oblongis, divarican-
tibus, in apice rotundatis, in margine interno subrecto dentatis, callo
chitinoso fere H- vel X-formi ad basin (antice) conjuncetis, qui callus
cum costis illis chitinosis quoque conjunctus est. Etiam profundius
observantur mandibula, transverse positee, oblonge, basi late, versus
apicem angustate et sursum subcurvatee, in apice aculeis minutis
quasi pilosee, ante apicem in margine convexo (inferiore et interiore)
dentibus tribus gradatim majoribus, ultimo in apice bifido, armate.
Ipsa mandibula et maxilla plerumque aliam mandibulam vel maxillam
supplementarem includit.

Cotyledones (maaillipedes primi paris) sat parvee, }-+ longitudinis
scuti diametro apicali sequantes, a margine scuti et inter se paullo
plus quam diametro illo distantes. Radios marginis plus 80
numeravi; ipse margo plerumque inzequaliter dentatus, quasi lacerus
est.

Mazillipedes secundi paris extensi non ad marginem scuti perti-
nent. Art. 1* brevis, crassus, postice valde convexus ; pecten obli-
quus, in margine interiore fortiter sinuatus, latitudine media fere
duplo longior, plaga dentibus hispida rotundata, oblonga, subobliqua,
maximam latitudinis partem occupante preeditus dentibusque 3 forti-
bus, longis, acuminatis armatus. Art. 2* versus apicem angustatus,
latit. media duplo longior ; art. 3° eo multo angustior, duplo brevior,
subcylindratus ; art. 4° etiam angustior, subquadratus ; art. 5° priore
minor, oblongus, apice in digitum, articulo minuto auctum excurrente
et 2 aculeis minutis, curvatis armato.

Inter maxillipedes secundi paris adsunt dentes vel une duo, et pone
eos alii duo, ante basin pedum primi paris siti, qui prioribus paullo
minores sunt et paullo magis inter se remoti.

Pedes versus apicem satis eequaliter angustati, e stipite compresso
binisque ramis consistunt, primi et secundi paris flagello introrsum
directo preeterea instructi. Par. 1-3 eadem fere longitudine sunt,
ultra marginem scuti pertinentes, primi paris reliquis tamen paullo
breviores. Séipes, in latere posteriore versus apicem pilis plumatis
vestitus, ex 3 articulis parum distinctis compositus est. Art. 1°
omnium parium brevissimus est; art. 2° ordine gradatim paullo
brevicr, art. 3° gradatim paullo longior evadit: art. 2° diametro
breviore fere duplo (primi paris)—vix dimidio longior est ; art. 3°
priove fere duplo (primi paris) —parum brevior, paulloque angustior,

M. T. Thorell on two European Argulide. 165

versus apicem subangustatus, diametro illa non (primi paris )—di-
midio longior. Rami stipite paullo longiores, eequaliter angustati,
_ subrecurvi, pilis crebris longis, plumatis, curvatis.in latere posteriore
et versus apicem vestiti, non distincte annulati; ramus superior in-
feriore parum longior est, at versus basin multo crassior. Flagellum,
quod prope apicem art. 3° stipitis in latere ejus superiore initium
capit, longitudine stipitis est, tenue et angustum, parum curvatum,
in margine postico plumato-pilosum, in apice setis 2 fortibus, cur-
vatis instructum. Ramus inferior pedum tertii paris (ut et quarti
paris) a reliquis in eo differt, quod verticula manifesta in duos arti-
culos divisus est, art. 2° altero dimidio longiore.

Pedes quarti paris, qui non a scuto teguntur, prioribus paullo
breviores sunt, stipite preesertim breviore, articulis tantum 2, in
margine postico toto plumato piloso. Art. 1° latitudine brevior est,
basi postice in lobum rotundatum, oblique introrsum directum pro-
ductus ; art. 2° paullo angustior,, versus apicem subangustatus, dia-
metro breviore dimidiolongior. Ramus inferior paullo ante medium
verticula in duas partes divisa.

Color (in exemplis in spiritu vini,asservatis) virescens, albicans .
vel rufescens. In alis scuti subtus valde manifesta sunt plage duse,
colore pallidiore, nigra linea limitate,. anteriore parva, posteriore
magna, oblonga, a maxillipedibus secundi paris usque inter pedes
secundi et tertii paris pertinente. Cauda ad basin supra plagam
fuscam, interdum in duas divisam ostendit, cujus ad basin receptacula
seminis maculas duas rotundatas fusciores formant.

Mas in eo presertim a femina differt, quod seutum cephalicum
multo est amplius, eque latum ac longum, suborbiculatum, omnes
pedes et basin caudee tegens, laciniarum lateralium altera alteri ita
incumbente, ut spatium parvum, subtriangulum tautum inter se re-
linguant. Lobus frontalis latior, minus rotundatus, subtruncatus.
Cauda \amina illa parva ad basin subtus caret ;, lacinize ejus acutiores
sunt, appendices angustiores : testes. inverse et anguste ovati, a basi
ultra fissuram porrecti, longitudine 2 caudee non sequantes.

Pedes parium 2—4' quoque a feminze diversi sunt, instrumentis
copulationis prediti. Art. 2° pedum secundi paris in latere postico
tres procursus rotundatos ostendit, duos infra, quorum alter prope
basin, alter versus apicem situs est, tertius supra, versus basin arti-
culi. Flagellum horum pedum longius est quam pedum primi
paris. Pedes ¢ertii paris magis etiam diversi: in latere anteriore,
supra, art. 2° ad basin eminentiam parvam, fere semicirculatam gerit,
et prope hance, ad apicem, in dentem mollem productus est ; art.
3° procursum longiorem, apice rotundatum, huie denti quasi incum-
bentem ad basin ostendit ; in latere postertore adest eminentia major,
fere semicirculata, art. 2° et 3° conjunctis imposita (capsula seminis),
et ipse ramus superior horum pedum basi in formam dentis versus

rocursum illum productus est. Pedes quarti paris art. 1" non adeo
introrsum dilatatum habent atque in 2; art. 2° brevior est, quam in
illa, in latere anteriore versus apicem procursu forti armatus, cujus
apex in aculeos vel digitos excurrit, uno (intimo) eorum subincurvo,
apice incrassato et rotundato, in latere concayo denticulato.

166 M.T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

Internal structure.—As is the case in A. foliaceus, the een-
tral portion of the nervous system is highly concentrated. Es-
sentially the two species agree in what concerns this portion of
the nervous system; but there are still many differences which
it is not difficult to detect. In A. coregoni the ventral series
of ganglia reaches only from the throat to the base of the
second pair of footjaws, and is about 14 millim. long. This
proceeds with two short strong arms encircling the throat to
the brain, which seen from above is almost quadrate, though
somewhat longer than broad, rounded behind, diminishing
somewhat anteriorly, and here giving off the two strong nerves
for the organs of vision. From above the brain shows the
usual portion dilated into three lobes and bears the single
ocellus. The ventral cord consists of six ganglia, which are
situated close upon one another, without any well-marked
commissure, but are all evidently separate. The first ganglion
is much longer than the others, rounded, and separated by
a stronger constriction from the rest of the series. The five fol-
lowing ganglia form a common, oblong division, which is some-
what diminished towards the extremity. The last ganglion is
rather longer and smaller than the foregoing, the breadth of
which is more than double their length. They are bent inwards
on the hinder surface, and are somewhat more transparent in the
middle part, showing phenting: that they originally consist of two
lateral halves.

But it is more especiallyin the number and course of the nervous
stems proceeding from this central chain of ganglia that A. coregont
differs from A. foliaceus, at least according to the exposition of
the nervous system of this latter species given by Leydig *. In
A. foliaceus the ventral cord is similarly composed of six gan-
glia, but, strangely enough, no nerve-stems proceed from the
second, fourth, and fifth of these. The first and third each give
off one pair of nerves, the sixth three pairs, of which the mner-
most (last) passes into the head-shield, the others branching off
to the second pair of footjaws and the legs. With A. coregont,
however, the case is quite different. The first ganglion gives off
on either side one strong stem (as in A. foliaceus, where this
stem gives off one branch to the sucking-cups, another to the
second pair of footjaws) ; from each of all the following ganglia
proceed two pairs of nerves; and these nerves unite with two
bundles extending, one on each side of the trunk, as far as the
tail. The further course of the various nervous stems I have
not been fortunate enough to make out clearly: whether some
of them branch forward or become fused together (as in A. foli-
aceus) I cannot venture to determine; for I entertain doubts on

* Ueber Arg. fol. p. 329.

M.T. Thorell on two European Argulide. 167

this point. That one of the anterior pairs of nerves runs into
the second pair of tootjaws, that, moreover, out of the lateral
bundles a nerve proceeds to each leg, and that the last (inner-
most) pair of nerves passes unbranching to the tail, I have, how-
ever, ascertained. No doubt certain stems proceed to the head-
shield, although I have not been able to follow them thither.
Of the two pairs of nerves which radiate from each of the second
to the fifth ganglia, the foremost, which is also the thickest, pro-
ceeds from the margin of the ganglion, the hinder one from its
underside. The nerves of the sixth ganglion are almost equally
strong; those of one pair start from its side, those of the other
from its hinder margin.

The eyes seem to be entirely similar in structure to those of
A. foliaceus. The number of crystalline cones I have found to
vary between 40 and 50. ‘The single eye-spot consists of pig-
ment only, without crystalline bodies.

The intestinal canal.—The narrow, chitinous gullet proceeds
ina bowed shape to the stomach, where it opens, by means of a
cup-like organ, into a cardia, which, however, is longer and
narrower than in A. foliaceus. The length of this organ is about
0:33, its greatest breadth 0-15, and its least breadth 0-09 millim.
The mouth of this organ is thickly set with papille or obtuse
teeth. Before its entrance into this latter the gullet shows an
increase of width (its greatest diameter being about 0-06 millim.,
its diameter where it enters the cardia about 0:04 millim.).
The stomach itself is a short, spacious, posteriorly rounded
sac, which passes into the intestine between the first two pairs
of swimming-feet, being, however, distinctly separated therefrom.
On either side the stomach sends forth a strong branch into the
head-shield ; the further outbranchings of this are not easily fol-
lowed in a specimen in spirits ; and therefore I cannot venture to
state whether such branches are directed outwards only, as in
A. foliaceus, or whether, as in A. purpureus, they proceed from
the larger stems inwards as well as outwards.

The intestine extends as a spacious, gradually tapering tube
from the stomachal sac to the anal opening, which is situated
between the appendages of the tail.

The heart or dorsal vessel I have not been able to separate
distinctly. I regard the tail as a respiratory organ which, on
its inner surface, shows a copious network of muscular fibres,
the contractions of which keep the nourishing fluid in quick and
powerful motion. .

Generative organs.—In full-grown females the ovary forms an
oval mass, which extends from the base of the second pair of
footjaws to the base of the tail, where the opening is situated in
a low rounded projection. Tle surrounding membrane stretches

168 M.T. Thorell on two European Argulide.

along the middle line of the upper surface of the adult animal,
and is marked on either side of this median line with large dark
spots, arranged in rows. In the sae which is formed by this
membrane the eggs are closely packed together, sometimes
rather firmly attached to each other, sometimes apparently quite
free. They surround here a smaller, almost cylindrical organ
(the true ovarium), to which the innermost eggs are firmly at-
tached. I have sometimes found that this organ contaimed a
large number of eggs in a very early stage of development, while
those lying outside were fully matured. I conjecture that these,
after they are laidand sufficiently matured, becomesevered from the
spot where they were formed, and so come to be immediately en-
closed in the outer membrane of the ovary. Thus Leydig’ 8 sug-
gestion that the ovaries in A. foliaceus are “a simple bag” does
not apply to A. coregoni.

‘The number of the matured eggs is very variable. In a large
specimen I have reckoned about 350 points. In appearance
they are exactly like the eggs of A. foliaceus. Their length “is
about 4, their breadth about } millim. The receptacula seminis
are situated, as in A. foliaceus, at the base of the tail. ~ They
have the form of an almost spherical bladder, from which a long
channel of communication, with thick walls and a very narrow
passage, proceeds to a conical papilla situated im a concavity on
the side and somewhat behind the mouth of the ovary. In this
passage, rather nearer to the papilla than to the receptacle, is the
commencement or opening of another blind, crooked canal, spiral
towards the end: in A. foliaceus two such canals are found.
The receptacle itself is, in young specimens, perfectly empty, but
in the older ones it contains another bladder, of a darker colour.
Such is the case also in A. foliaceus, where, according to Leydig,
this inner bladder first shows itself after pairing, and is full of
spermatozoids. It seems to be perfectly closed, and may easily
be taken out of the receptacle without breaking. Leydig asserts
that its membrane is produced in A. foliaceus into a homo-
geneous. thread, which stretches through the channel as far as
the tip of the papilla. I have not found such a thread in A.
coregoni. The passage of this channel of communication pre-
sents just the same optical appearance in individuals with or
without the spermatozoid-bladder already mentioned ; and the
passage of the accessory canal is perfectly like that of this chan-
nel. If such a thread as that which Leydig speaks of were pre-
sent here, it would certainly produce a streak in the canal.
Moreover, when the bladder is taken out, a portion of the
thread would follow if such were really present; this, however,
does not occur, and I have been equally unable to detect it by
cutting asunder the channel of the receptacle.

Dr. W. Nylander on new Chemical Tests for Lichens. 169

The two testicles are small], ovate, and extend some distance
beneath each of the tail-lobes. The seminal vesicle in the pos-
terior part of the trunk is oblong ovate, and sends forth on either
side a capacious backwardly directed ductus deferens, which
opens at the extremity of the trunk. The accessory glands, which
no doubt exist, I have not been able to discover. Of the external
organs of generation, which are much more complicated than in
A. foliaceus, I have already given an account.

The species of Argulus which we have just described was first
found in the lakes of Jemtland by Dr. C. L. Nystrém, on both
the Coregonus and the Grayling. The species of Coregonus
which is most generally met with there is C./avaretus, Linn.; and,
according to the verbal communications I have received, it is on
this species that A. coregoni was found, although it undoubtedly
affects other species of that genus. Mag. H. Widegren has
found and sent me several specimens from salmon-lakes in Dals-
land, taken also from Coregonus lavaretus, and has asserted,
moreover, that it occurs on Salmo trutta in the Vettern. The
species is probably widely spread over Scandinavia.

In Dr. Nystrém’s already cited “Observations on the River-fauna
of Jemtland,” on p. 19, are the following remarks with reference
to Argulus coregoni :—One of the parasites of the Gwyniad is re-
markable from the fact of its giving a preference to a particular
fish. An unusually large species of Argulus fastens itself at cer-
tain times in summer, in large numbers, on the Gwyniad, and
also, though less readily, on the Grayling. Almost every fish
has, during this time, one or several of these blood-suckers on its
body, which bite it till the belly is quite drained of the blood.
The fishes then hurry in crowds to certain parts of the lake
where probably the currents are colder, and fall in large quanti-
ties into the nets which are there spread for them. This fishery:
lasts but a short time, perhaps two days only, but produces
during that time in some localities several tons of fish.

(To be continued. ]

XXVII.—Notule Lichenologice. No. IX.
By the Rev. W. A. Leicuron, B.A., FILS.

Dr. Nyianper, with his usual skill and sagacity, has recently
discoyered two new chemical tests or criteria which are likely to
prove of great value in the study of Lichens, not only in the
discrimination of many difficult and closely allied species, but
also in associating varieties with their proper species, and in
some instances in defining the affinities of genera. These tests
are applied to the thallus ; and their usefulness is at once demon-

170 Dr. W. Nylander on new Chemical Tests for Lichens.

strated and enhanced by the fact that the very smallest frustule
is sufficient to determine the lichen submitted to them, and that
whether in the sterile or fertile state, and even in the youngest
condition. They are the hypochlorite of lime and the hydrate
of potash ; and the details of their reaction will be found in the
‘Flora’ of May 12 and 13, 1866, and more at large in an ela-
borate paper in the Journal of the Linnean Society of London.
The reactions take place in a powder or colorable material
which is generated in the gonidial stratum of the thallus. In
the Roccelle, which are destitute of a cortical layer, the reaction
is at once visible ; but in the Parmelia and all other lichens which
possess a cortical layer it is necessary to scrape off that organ,
and to expose the subjacent medulla, in which the reaction takes
place ; and this is perfectly visible to the naked eye, and requires
no aid of the microscope. Dr. Nylander attributes the red re-
action of the hypochlorite of lime to the presence of “ erythric —
acid ;”’ and its operation is beautifully exhibited in Combea mol-
lusca, Roccella Montagnei (soredia not coloured), R. Sinensis, R.
tinctoria, R. phycopsis (soredia not coloured), in the Dirine
(proving their affinity with Roccella), and in the Urceolaria of
the group of U. scruposa and its allies, No reaction, however,
can be detected in Roccella fuciformis (except in the soredia),
R. hypomecha, R. Gayana, R. intricata, and R. leucophea.

The red reaction of hypochlorite of lime is observable in the
medulla of the following Parmelie—viz. tiliacea, revoluta, carpo-
rhizans, olivetorum, osteoleuca, hypoleucites, polycarpa, Borreri;
whilst no reaction can be detected in P. sawatilis, perlata, perfo-
rata, cervicornis, levigata, sinuosa, latissima, reducens, tenuirimis,
mutabilis, physcioides, livida, hypotropa, caperata, physodes, con-
spersa, and olivacea.

The other reactive, hydrate of potash, is of practical importance
in Lichens whose natural colour is yellow, orange, or red; and
the reaction occurs in the powder generated on the surface of the
thallus and the apothecia. The red or purple colour produced
on the application of the reagent is due to the presence of ©
“ chrysophanic acid,’ and it is visible in Physcia parietina and.
lychnea, in the species of the group of Lecanora cerina, in young
Physcie and Placodia, in the apothecia of the erythrocarpous
Cladonia, in the apothecia of Lecanora ventosa, hematomma,
erythromma, Lecidea Domingensis, flavocrocea, chrysosticta, leuco-
aantha, cinnabarina, russula, &e. On. the contrary, no red re-
action is observable in Lecanora candellaria and vitellina, or in
chrysophthalma, epanora, Schleicheri, chlourophana, oreina, Derma-
tiscum, Lecidea lucida, yeographica, Thelocarpon, &e,

The hydrate of potash manifests also the presence of “ usneic”
and “Jlecanoric acids” by producing a yellow colour on the

Mr. E. Parfitt on two new Species of Freshwater Polyzoa. 171

thallus. Thus Lecanora subfusca, which exhibits the yellow
reaction, is distinguishable at once from L. umbrina, dispersa,
and conferta, in which no such reaction is visible.

The same reactive operates on other Lichens by producing a
yellow colour which quickly changes into a red or purple. Of
this a good example is Lecanora cinerea, which is thus distin-
guished from gibbosa (and its varieties calcarea, lacustris, &c.),
in which there is no reaction. The L. cinereo-rufescens, Anzi,
Langob. 73, has the same reaction as cinerea, proving it to be
only a variety of that species, whilst the true cinereo-rufescens
(and its forms diamarta and obscurata) has no reaction. The
reaction takes place also in Lecanora oculata, blanda, ochroidea,
whilst there is none in L. mutabilis and verrucosa.

To the above many other instances might be added ; but these
will be sufficient to show the applicability of these valuable tests.

XXVIII.—On two new Species of Freshwater Polyzoa.
By E. Parrirt, Esq.

[Plate XII.]
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.
GENTLEMEN,

I have much pleasure in introducing to your notice two new
species of freshwater Polyzoa met with by me in my investiga-
tions of the Devonshire fauna, in the compilation of which in a
catalogue form, with notes and observations, I have been engaged
for nearly two years; and I hope by-and-by to publish it.
The tracings enclosed are made from my own drawings taken
from the life, which I hope your artist will be able to use.

As an appendix to Prof. Allman’s beautiful monograph of the
Freshwater Polyzoa, I beg leave to add the description of the
statoblasts of Paludicella Ehrenbergii, as they had not been seen
by the learned author, and I have been fortunate enough to
meet with several :—

The outline is a very elongated ellipse, the cell very small as
compared with the very broad border, plano-convex; the cell
reddish brown, the annulus or border bluish purple, beautifully
reticulated and reflecting the prismatic colours.

_ They were arranged three in each tube, placed end to end.

I have met with a variety of Paludicella which I shall have
something to say about at some future time.
I am, Gentlemen,
Yours obediently,
Exeter, Aug. 3, 1866. Epwarp Parrirt.

172 Mr. E. Parfitt on two new Species of Freshwater Polyzoa.

Plumatella lineata, n. sp. Pl. XII. figs. 1-3.

Coencecium creeping, adherent, somewhat radiating, reddish
horn-colour, cylindrical, with eight or ten dark-brown longitu-
dinal lines running the whole length of the tubes.

Polype-cells barrel-shaped, hyaline, the mouth entire, each
having five or six distinct dark-brown annulations, slightly con-
stricted at each annulus.

The orifices or polype-cells frequently produced in pairs.

Animal white, or with a faint tinge of yellow, having the
longest tentacles of any species I have seen.

Calyx none? Tentacles sixty-two.

Statoblasts dark reddish brown, elliptical, with a broad yellow
margin.

Habitat. On the underside of the leaves of water-lilies in a
pond in Mr. Veitch’s old Nursery, Topsham Road, Exeter,
July 1866.

In habit this species is like that described by Van Beneden
and named by Prof. Allman P. stricta. The form of the stato-
blast is the same, but the description appended to that species
is so brief that I cannot pronounce the one under consideration
and P. stricta to be the same. Nothing is said of the peculiar
lineated appearance of the tubes as seen in this, which to me
marks it at once as distinct; and the peculiar dark annulations
on the polype-cells form another good distinction.

The animal is the largest and I may say the grandest of all
the species that have come under my notice, either in reading
or seeing the animals themselves; its name ought to be Pluma,
without the diminutive termination. They have a peculiarity
of half withdrawing themselves within their cells, so that their
long flexible tentacles alone protrude; these are then made to
sweep the water, waving to and fro something like the Tere-
bellas in the sea.

Plumatella Limnas, n. sp. Pil. XII. figs. 4-8.

Coencecium adherent, branched, the branches growing mostly
in pairs, and slightly enlarged towards the orifices, which are
somewhat conical, not occupying the extreme end of the tubes,
transparent, entire, and raised above the tubes, with three or
four folds or rings towards the base. The whole upper half of
the tubes or polypidom transparent, hyaline, showing under
condensed light a very faint line of dusky granules running the
whole length of the tubes. The inferior half of the tubes opake
and coated with grains of reddish-brown matter; these opake
walls are white iside the tube, and are made up of pentagonal
cells, the walls of which are very thick in comparison with the
size of the area of the cells.

Prof. J. C. Schiédte on Buprestidae and Elateride. 173

Animal white; tentacula fifty to fifty-four. Calyx festooned.

Statoblasts elliptical, yellow, with a narrow blackish ring
dividing the cell from the narrow purple rim or annulus which
surrounds it. The cell is beautifully reticulated externally.
Two out of the three statoblasts observed had a slight constric-
tion on one side, which gave them a slightly reniform outline.

Habitat. On an old valve of Anodon cygneus, in the canal,
Exeter, June 23, 1866.

This appears to be a very distinct species, and is allied or,
rather, belongs to that section of the genus to which P. emar-
ginata belongs, viz. with a line or ridge along the upper part of
the diaphanous tube. But the line of demarcation between the
diaphanous portion of the tube in this species and the thick opake
walls of the inferior half gives it, even at first sight, a very dis-
tinct and marked appearance. Another striking peculiarity is
that the tubes grow mostly in pairs, and are very closely adhe-
rent to the matrix, except the polype-cell, which stands up con-
spicuously near the end of the tube.

Length of the coencecium 10 lines.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

Fig. 1. Plumatelia lineata : ccencecium, nat. size, or 2 inches in its longest
diameter.

Fig. 2. A portion of the same, enlarged, showing the animals peoeraricd,
and one partly withdrawn within its cell.

Fig. 3. Statoblast.

Fig. 4. Plumatella Limnas: coencecium, enlarged.

Fig. 5. Polype-cell, showing its position at the end of the tube.

Fig. 6. Showing the true polype-cell within the ectocyst.

Fig. 7. The polype expanded,

Fig. 8. Statoblast.

XXIX.—On the Classification of Buprestide and Elateride, with
special regard to the Danish Fauna. By Prof. J.C. Scu1é6prTe*,

I,

By the well-known and valuable researches of Eschscholtz (pub-
lished in Thon’s ‘ Entomologisches Archiv,’ ii., and in Silber-
maun’s ‘Revue Entomologique,’ vol. iv.) attention was drawn toa
great number of hitherto unobserved points in the external
structure of Elaterids, on which he founded an artificial classifi-
cation of that family; and since then, the remainder of Latreille’s
Sternoxi have been subjected by other entomologists to an ana-
logous examination, resulting in the establishment of more than

* Translated from ‘ Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift,’ ser. 3. vol. iii. Copen-

hagen, 1865. Accompanied in the original with a plate representing the
organs of the mouth.

174, Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

300 genera. The usefulness of this work in procuring at any
rate a temporary survey of the extensive collections which have
accumulated in museums cannot, of course, be doubted; but at
the same time it is but too apparent that this method is entirely
insufficient whenever it is attempted by its means to establish
and satisfactorily circumscribe natural groups. Not even for
the distinction of the two great natural families of Buprestide
and Elateride have truly scientific characters been forthcoming ;
it has been found necessary to adopt a number of unsatisfactorily
characterized groups, forming, as is supposed, links of transition
between them; and the characters which at length have been
fixed upon as the most distinctive and most generally valid are,
as will be shown hereafter, unstable both in theory and practice,
and unable to stand the test either of morphological criticism
or of careful examination. Two excellent entomologists have
engaged in the study of Elateride, in order to bring about a
more natural view of the relationships; I mean Germar and
Erichson: but, as Lacordaire observes, both have evidently
given it up in despair ; and the last-ramed author himself, after
long-continued and careful investigations, cannot suggest any
other remedy than, as he expresses himself (Genera-des Coléopt.
iv. p. 137), “to let tradition make up for the inability of science
to master the subject.”

Lacordaire’s summary of the earlier investigations, and his
general view of the structure, development, and habits of Ster-
noxi, reappears, in all essential points, together with many va-
luable contributions of detail, in the extensive and independent
treatises on these families which have appeared during the last few
_ years from the hands of Leconte*, Kiesenwetter+, Thomson {,
and Candéze§. In this manner certain views concerning the
principal points in the natural history of these animals have been
temporarily established by the repeated examination and assent
of the greatest modern authorities in this department.

II.

If we attempt to extract from all these sources the essence of
the information they offer concerning the larve of Buprestide
and Elateridz, the result may be thus summed up.

The larvee of Buprestide are soft, elongated, blind, apod, and
live burrowing in timber. Their prothorax is discoid, laterally
distended, their head divided into two parts, of which the smaller

* Classification of the Coleoptera of North America, Part 1. Washing-
ton, 1861-1862.

+ Naturgeschichte der Insecten Deutschlands, iv. Berlin, 1858.

{ Skandinaviens Coleoptera, synoptiskt bearbetade, vi. Lund, 1864.

§ Monographie des Elatérides. Liége, 1857, &c. -

of Buprestide and Elateride. 175

anterior part carrying the organs of the mouth is chitinized,
whilst the larger posterior part containing the mandibular muscles
is soft and retractile within the prothorax. In some, however,
as in the larve of Diphucrania (New Holland), the prothorax is
not distended ; and the larve of Trachys, which live in the paren-
chyma of leaves, where they excavate their burrows, are said to
have hard dorsal and ventral shields, free head, two eyes, and
short legs.

Similar to the larve of Buprestide are those of Eucnemide.
The larva of Melasis is only distinguished by the structure of
the mouth, and by the head consisting of one piece only. The
mandibles are not chisel-shaped, as in the larve of Buprestide,
but short, turned outwards, with a hook on their external margin,
close behind the point; and the other buccal organs, which
are free in the larve of Buprestide, are in that of Melasis repre-
sented by a small plate serrated in front. It is said to live in fresh
timber, forming long irregular galleries, with entirely smooth
and even walls, a piece of the burrow being rounded off in the
shape of a cylinder for the accommodation of the pupa. At the
same time, exceptions occur in the group of Eucnemidz as in
that of Buprestide, the larva of Fornax madagascariensis being,
according to Coquerel, flat, depressed, and hard, the prothorax
not distended, the head hard, flattened in front, with a serrated
edge, without perceptible organs of the mouth—nay, without a
buccal orifice ; the larva burrows in timber, as that of Medasis.

Entirely different from these are the larve of Elateride.
They are long, slender, with a hard skin, cylindrical or a little
depressed ; the mandibles are hooked and pointed, with an in-
terior tooth; the maxillary lobes and palpi are distinct, the
maxille coalesced with the labium into one piece; the legs are
short and powerful, and the last joint of the body often furnished
with prominent teeth. They are supposed to live on vegetable
matter, many on decaying timber; sometimes, however, they
feed on the other larve they happen to fall in with. For more
than a century the larve of Agrivtes have been known as dan-
gerous enemies of several cereals, leguminous and other agricul-
tural plants, of which they attack the roots.

Such is a summary of what science hitherto has taught us as
to the history of these larve; but it is quite clear that these
statements do not afford the materials for an accurate estimation
of the systematic relationships of these creatures. Nay, these
statements even contain several details which, on closer exami-
nation, cannot but excite doubt and suspicion, and stimulate to
new investigations.

This applies, in the first instance, to the statement that in the
larvee of Buprestidee the mandibular muscles are not, as usual,

176 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

fixed to the firm sides of the head, but pushed back into a pecu- —
har kind of soft bag behind the head. If anybody were to state
that he knew of a group of Rodentia whose jaw-muscles were —
not fixed to the sides of the skull, but accommodated in a mem-
branaceous appendage behind the occiput, the absurdity would
be apparent to every one; but that statement concerning the —
mandibular muscles of the larve of Buprestide implies a diffi- —
culty if possible still greater. For as their hard mandibles are
articulated on the firm framework of the mouth by means of
complete cardinal joints, the necessity for a firm support for the
moving muscles is still greater than in Rodentia. The difficulty
is, moreover, enhanced by the fact that the membranaceous part
of the head with the mandibular muscles, when compared with
the smaller anterior part containing the organs of the mouth, in
shape and size appears as a larger circle placed behind a smaller
one, from which it follows that the relative position of the base
of each mandibular muscle and the inner angle of the mandible,
or the point on which the tendon must join the mandible, must
be such that a muscle thus placed could not inflect the mandi-
bles unless the tendon went through a pulley. But such a
pulley-arrangement would seem inapplicable where so great a
force is required as is the case with chisel-shaped instruments
destined in many cases to be used as pincers to detach piece
after piece of sound timber.

This account, which it seems so difficult to reconcile with ge-
neral truths, is mainly due to Prof. Erichson (in Archiv fiir Natur-
geschichte, 1841, 1. p. 81), and it has met with universal assent as
the only true solution of the problem (which is certainly not
very easy) how to interpret the peculiar-looking front part
of the body of the larva of Buprestide. Before him Low had
turned attention to the matter, asserting (in Entomologische
Zeitung Stettin, 1841, p. 35) that the larvee of Chalcophora, “as
those of all Buprestidae, are distinguished by the extension of
the prothorax, which is rendered necessary for the reception of
the enormous mandibular muscles.” Low, therefore, agreed
with Ratzeburg in assuming that not the head, but the pro-
thorax, was divided into two parts, of which the anterior part
was soft, the posterior endowed with hard skin. Against Low,
Erichson urged the great anomaly of the mandibular muscles
being placed in the prothorax ; and it seems that this considera-
tion more than any other has led him to the new interpretation
which is now generally adopted ; for in favour of this he appealed
to the fact that the muscles in question did not, as Low thought,
fill the whole prothorax, but only its anterior soft portion, which
he therefore considers to be part of the head, while he considers
that part of the body which Ratzeburg and Low looked upon as

of Buprestide and Elateride. 177

the whole head to be merely a firm framework for the mouth.
The correctness of this view is generally assumed. Chapuis and
Candéze concur in it entirely, and even try to support it by an
additional argument, which I cannot but think is of very doubt-
ful value—namely, that the head must have soft integuments
for the purpose of being retracted into the prothorax*. On the
subject of Goureau’s theoryt, according to which the whole of
the prothorax becomes head, Lacordaire observes that it does
not deserve refutation, that moreover it has been sufficiently
refuted by Léon Dufour and Perris; he considers Erichson’s
interpretation so decidedly true that he looks upon that of
Ratzeburg and Léw as an almost inexplicable error (Genera des
. Coléopt. iv. 7. 1).

Nevertheless Erichson’s theory offers, as we have seen, insu-
perable difficulties in a physiological point of view; and it seems
to be quite worth our while to try whether the matter may not
be differently regarded. Let us, then, first of all try to realize
fully the conditions under which the larve have to exist in the
interior of the timber, and compare the structure of other larvee
burrowing in wood, particularly the apod larve of Cerambycide;
we shall then soon arrive at two important conclusions. In the
first place, the mandibles must possess extremely powerful
flexors, which consequently must be too large to find room in
the proportionally small part. which has hitherto been looked
upon as forming the whole head in the larve of Lamie and
Buprestide ; in the second place, the great demands upon the
power and endurance of these apod larve cannot be satisfied by
the strength of the mandibular muscles alone, however great ;
but power and accuracy in the guidance of the head—that
is, in the application and pressing of the mouth against the
timber during the act of burrowing—is required in no less de-
gree. In these sentences lies the key of the whole complicated
arrangement. A careful dissection will show, what is sufficiently
surprising, that no one has hitherto had an accurate idea of the
real extent, shape, and position of the head in the larva of
either Lamize or Buprestidee. The fact is, that the protruding
anterior part of the head is uninterruptedly continued back-
wards into a very large skull, which, in the larve of Bupres-
tide, is so large that it actually reaches the very bottom of the
prothorax, so that the neck is on a line with the first pair of

* “Fn effet, dans ces larves la plaque sous-céphalique, cornée a sa partie
antérieure, est devenue trés-molle dans le reste de son étendue, parce
qu’elle doit se replier sur elle méme pour rentrer avec les parties de la
bouche dans la gaine que lui forme le prothorax.”’ (Chapuis et Candéze,
Catal. des Larves de Coléopt. pp. 131, 132.)

+ Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de Fr. sér. 2. vol. i. p. 26.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 13

178 Prof.J.C. Schiddte on the Classification

spiracles. With the exception of the middle line, this larg

head will be found filled by the powerful flexors of the mandi-
bles, reaching to the foramen occipitale, which is very large and
entirely transferred to the under surface of the head. The head,
then, is for the greater part hidden in the prothorax as in a
sheath, fixed all around and directed by the powerful muscles
of the neck. The whole of the part which is placed inside the
prothorax is only sparingly chitinized; but the action of the
muscles of the neck extending between the outside of the skull
and the walls of the prothorax makes up for any loss of support
which could arise to the mandibular muscles from the want of
hardness in the skull. During the act of burrowing, the pro-
thorax is firmly ensconced between the walls of the gallery, the .
numerous grains of chitine with which its surface above and
below is generally beset increasing the firmness of its posi-
tion; and thus every requisite condition is provided—a firmly
placed prothorax affording support for the muscles of the neck
in guiding the head forwards and backwards and to the sides,
and the skull inserted as in a sheath giving support to the
enormous mandibular muscles.

The immense size of the head and its deep insertion into the
prothorax, of course, are the causes of the peculiar shape and
unusual size of the latter part, which has further contributed to
confound the views of entomologists on the structure of the
larve of Buprestide*. It has been overlooked by all that in
this case one part of the prothorax is developed at the cost of
the others—namely its anterior portion, the so-called collar (col-
lare prothoracis), which is found in all larvee and all imagos of
insects with more or less inserted neck, but which in the larve
now before us is immensely increased in size. In my paper
on the larve of Coleoptera, published in the ‘ Naturhistorisk
Tidsskrift,’ I describe the dorsal part of this collar as pretergum
pronoti. The rest of the prothorax, which is elsewhere much
the larger, and which serves the locomotory system by accom-
modating the fore legs, is in this case to such a degree reduced
that if seems to be entirely wanting, and the large spiracula
thoracica have not been able to find room as usual on the pro-.
thorax, but have been transferred to the lateral folds of the next
ring, pleuree mesothoracis. The larve of Trachys being de-
scribed as possessing a free head and short legs, it. will, no
doubt, be found that the larve of Buprestide will show the same

* In the Mém. de l’Acad. des Se. de Lyon, 1851, pp. 116-120, M. Perris
has given a minute summary of the discussion between Goureau, Lucas,
and Léon Dufour on this subject. Although each of the four authors now
and then has got hold of the clue for a moment, they have always lost it
again, and none of them has succeeded in solving the problem.

of Buprestide and Elateride. 179

series of forms as those of Cerambycide, but in aless degree. In
these latter the collar of the prothorax varies not a little in ex-
tent according to groups and genera, the head being in some cases
deeply inserted into the prothorax, in others tolerably free ; but,
in all of them, so much at least of the principal portion of the pro-
thorax remains that, at any rate on the underside, it appears as a
transverse fold which carries the short legs when such are found.
To the larve of Lamiz correspond those of Buprestide, to that of
‘Trachys the larve of Lepturini, in which the head is sometimes
so little inserted that it seems to betray a relationship to those
Jarvee of Curculiones which burrow in timber. When the head
occupies such a position as in the larve of Buprestide, being
inserted in the prothorax, the skin of the neck must necessarily
be very full, in order to afford the necessary play for the pro-
trusion and retraction of the head ; and in proportion as the in-
sertion of the head is deeper, the skin of the neck is fuller and
more protruding.

It will now appear that although none of the theories above
mentioned have hit upon the facts, they all contain in some way
an element of truth. Low’s view is purely anatomical, and
although wrong in a morphological sense (because the mandibu-
Jar muscles cannot well be situated in the prothorax of any insect
with articulating mandibles), yet it is so far true that the head
which contains them is itself imbedded in the prothorax; what
Léw has overlooked is the walls of the head. Goureau’s view
is, so to say, that of common sense unshackled by anatomical
or morphological scruples; and from such a point of view the
prothorax might be called the head with perfect justice. Hrich-
son’s view is learned and critical, with a theoretical element
inviting attention, but is neither probable in a physiological
point of view nor true in point of anatomy ; it has therefore less
of body or soul than either of those it attempts to reconcile.
What he considers the hind part of the head is merely the dis-
tended skin of the neck.

III.

The striking external similarity between the larve of Melasis
and those of the Buprestide has not only served as a principal
argument for looking upon Melasis as a connecting link between
Elateride and Buprestidee, and thus exercised a decisive influence
on all the more recent attempts at a new classification of the
Sternoxi, but it has at the same time weighed heavily against
the probability of finding in the study of the larve a sure guide
to the true classification of insects—a circumstance which Erien-
son has not omitted to mention in the introduction to his in-
structive treatise on the larvee of Coleoptera (in Archiv f, Natur-

13*

180 Prof. J. C. Schiédte on the Classification

geschichte, 1841, i. p. 62). He admits that very much will
be gained for the classification of insects by a more accurate
knowledge of their earlier stages ; but at the same time he warns
us against entertaining too high expectations as if the progress
of classification principally depended on the study of the meta-
morphoses, and he urges particularly that we must not suppose
that a classification according to the larvee would always coincide
with a classification according to imagos. He mentions by
way of illustration that one would naturally expect a great simi-
larity between the larve of Buprestidae and those of Hlateride,
which does not really exist, and that the larva of Melasis would
make a nearer approach to the Elater-type than to the Buprestis-
type, whereas the reverse is rather the case. A couple of pages
further on he sums up his remarks in this general result—that,
although it would not be possible to build a classification on the
structure of the larve, it will nevertheless be of the greatest
importance, nay, decidedly necessary, to take that point into
consideration, as it will always do good service as a means of
testing classifications founded on other principles,—a general
statement which I have no doubt sounds so very qualified prin-
cipally because he was checked by the idea that Buprestidee and
Elateride are very nearly allied to one another, though their
larvee are so different, and by the apparently anomalous relations
of the larva of Me/asis. But for these points being present to
his mind, his verdict would have been much fuller and more
decided. These words, like so many others which have pro-
ceeded from the celebrated entomologist—too early taken away
from his bright scientific career—have awakened an echo in many
a dark corner, and since served as a principal support for the
often repeated and convenient assertion that the earlier stages of
insects correspond in many cases so little to the relationships of
the imagos, that they even at times vary more according to spe-
cies than generally according to genera or families. And thus
it has come about that this view of the larva of Melasis now
stands as a sort of barrier in front of an immense tract of
scientific fallow land, which only by the razing of that barrier
can be made available for new culture. .

And this barrier indeed seems indestructible; for how could
anybody presume to doubt that the larva of Melasis, which
presents such a striking external similarity to the typical larva
of Buprestes, also burrows in timber like the latter, seeing that
we possess minute accounts of it by such able entomologists as
Nordlinger* and Perrist, the former of these having, as well as
Guérin t, even supplied us with drawings of its Rien galle-

* Stettin. entom. Zeit. (1848) pp. 225-226, t. 1, fig.
+ Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de Fr. sér. +2. v. 548. : ibid. i. pl. 5. fig. 4.

of Buprestidee and Elateride. 181

ries, and beds for the pupa excavated in the solid timber? At
first sight an attack seems hopeless on so strong a scientific
fortress ; but a closer inspection will, I trust, discover more than
one weak point.

The structure of the larve of Buprestide is easily understood,
for in every point it exhibits with great consistency the peculiar
characteristics of an animal burrowing in wood. Such are the
large head deeply seated in the prothorax, the short thick man-
dibles formed like a hollow chisel, the large protruding labrum,
the short, freely developed lower organs of the mouth, the
powerful muscles of the neck, the broad prothorax beset with
grains of chitine, the slender body adapted for creeping through
galleries, the large anal segment, which is turned straight back-
wards. If now the habits of the larva of Melasis are really the
same as those of the larva of Buprestide, its structure must be
identical with theirs at least in these principal points. But if
the similarity only applies to the external structure, it is clearly
insufficient, however striking, to prove a true affinity between
these creatures, or even a similar way of feeding; it merely justi-
fies us in supposing that they live in similar localities and use a
sunilar mode of locomotion. One would think that such a con-
clusion, of which the truth is evident to common sense at every
step in the study of living creatures, could not but be sufficiently
appreciated and generally adopted. Nevertheless, as I have often
urged on other occasions, no principle is oftener sinned against.
No souree of errors in natural history flows more copiously than
that which rises from the confusion of relationship with simi-
larity, of affinity with analogy, of typical characteristics with
biological modification ; so that it is but too clear that we have
as yet advanced but very little towards the great aim of compre-
hending the rational consistency of nature. It is this ancient,
ever recurring mistake which also. in this case has obscured the
truth.

For in spite of the positive and decisive appearance of the
investigations just alluded to, they nevertheless embody a simple
impossibility. Instead of a rasp-like chitinous armour on the
prothorax, the larva of Melasis has merely a couple of narrow,
partly transversely grooved bands of chitine, and its skin is
generally thin and weak; the lower organs of the mouth are
rudimentary, and coalesce into a small plate; the labrum is
absent; the mandibles are pointed and bent outwards, they
have a tooth on their back, and their inner margin presents
merely a narrow unarmed edge; the head is free, rather soft,
with only a few firmer bands of chitine forming a frame-
work round the epistoma and hypostoma; the anal or tenth
abdominal segment, which in the larva of Buprestidee forms a
direct continuation of the body, appears here merely as a small

182 Prof..J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

protuberance on the ventral surface of the ninth segment; this
latter exhibits exactly the same serrated margin as in the larva
of Elateridee—a circumstance which has hitherto been entirely
overlooked, perhaps because it is very little chitinized in Melasis;
and, finally, the larva of Melasis has no buccal cavity at all, but
only a very small opening for the mouth, so small that it can
only be observed with difficulty—a point hitherto overlooked,
but of the greatest importance.

As soon as these facts are fully appreciated and properly
combined, every idea of an animal so constructed burrowing in
timber and feeding on it must at once be relinquished; and if
we then examine the accounts before us, it will soon appear that
the investigators have not really seen what they and others
think they have seen.

Guérin had the larva and the piece of wood he figures sent to
him from the Vicomte de Lamotte-Baracé, and he therefore founds
his statements entirely on the written account of an unscientifie
correspondent.

Professor N6rdlinger found the beetle sitting on an alder
branch 3 inches in diameter and perforated with galleries in all
directions. He asserts that “the deposition of the eggs certainly
takes place in the same way as in Buprestidee, the mother beetle
therein making use of clefts in the bark or even in the timber ;”
but as he does not say that he really has observed the process,
his assertion, in spite of its decided language, cannot be looked
upon as anything more than a mere supposition. He states, on
the other hand, that he did find a dead beetle with its head and
body half hidden in a “ fly-hole ”—that is, one of the openings
made by perfect insects on making-their escape, at the end of
their transformation, from the timber on which they lived as
larvee ; but he surmises that it only intended to hide itself there ;
for he says, if the beetle had penetrated into the timber through
old burrows and deposited its eggs in the galleries, he thinks that
he must have met with beetles in such burrows, which he has
not. He adds, however, one observation which admits of no
other explanation than that the eggs had not been deposited
from the outside on the bark, but, on the contrary, in a burrow
inside the wood—namely, that he found quite young larve in
the thick of the timber, several inches from the bark. From a
log of wood taken in one year, in November, beetles made their
appearance through several consecutive years, from which he
considers that the Jarva takes at least three years to complete its
development. The larva is found in the burrows im a bent-up
position, compressing the ,wood-dust behind itself so as to form
an arched cavity. The burrows are undulating, but only in a
horizontal plane*, 6

* Stettin. entomol. Zeit. (1848) p. 225-226,

of Buprestide and Elateride. 183

. According to Perris, this larva forms broad irregular galleries
in the interior of the timber, at a depth of from 2 to 5 centimetres.
The form of these galleries is, in his opinion, as characteristic
as that of the larva itself, being different from the burrows of
any of the many other timber-larve with which he is acquainted.
He states that the walls are so smooth that they look as if they
were produced by means of a very sharp instrument *; and as
this is indeed the only remarkable peculiarity which he mentions
in these burrows, it would appear as if he looked upon this
smoothness and evenness as their great distinctive feature.
But such are the burrows of a great many, if not all, timber-
‘larvee, when they are cleared of wood-dust, which, generally,
speaking, is indicative of their being o/d and long left by their
original inhabitants. There is therefore nothing really charac-
teristic in this; and I am inclined to think that Perris’s expres-
sions rather proceeded from some indistinct feeling that the
appearance of the burrows did not quite agree with that of the
larvee (supposing the latter to have constructed them). For
just before, speaking of the outward-bent hooked form of the
mandibles, he says that he should have thought it a mon-
strosity if he had not found it in all the individuals he examined
and thus convinced himself of its being of constant occurrence.
He adds the observation that the larva moves its mandibles
horizontally, like other larve, but that it gnaws the wood not in
closing them, but in opening them+.

Here, then, we are placed face to face with the unheard-of
phenomenon that the mandibles of an articulated animal bite
and gnaw, not by being approached to one another, but by being
separated, not by closing, but by opening, not by the action of
their flexors, but by that of their extensors! We are called
upon to believe that a larva not only makes way for itself through
solid timber, but even constructs extensive burrows and galleries
with extremely smooth walls, lying all the while quite loose
curled up on its side without support, working in a desultory

* “Bille s’enfonce dans le bois 4 une profondeur de 2 a 5 centimétres, en
creusant des galeries larges et irréguliéres dont la forme est aussi carac-
téristique que celle de la larve méme et comme n’en pratique aucune des
nombreuses larves xylophages que je connais. Ce sont des cavités qui ont
en largeur une fois et demi celle de la téte, et prés de trois fois celle du
corps et guére plus d’un millimétre de hauteur. Leurs parois sont si
nettement taillées qu’on les dirait fagonnées par un Instrument tres-
tranchant.” (Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de Fr. 2° sér. v. p. 545.)

+ “Je crus la premiére fois, que c’était une erreur de la nature, une sorte
de monstruosité, et si je n’avais vu qu’une seule larve, jaurais certainement
signalé avec quelque méfiance une semblable anomalie...... Le jeu de ces
mandibules est horizontal comme dans les autres larves; mais c’est en
s’écartant et non en se rapprochant qu’elles rongent le bois.” (L. ¢. p. 543.)

184 Prof, J. C. Schidédte on the Classification

manner, spreading out a pair of pointed hooks now in one
direction and then in another !

Nevertheless it is but justice to these observers to say that,
had they not gone to their task with their eyes blinded by
prejudice, they would not have imagined they saw what they
never really did see, nor have taken refuge in interpre-
tations which they would otherwise have disdained; and their
prejudice was, that similarity in outward appearance always
entails similarity in habits of life. Whether the mother beetle
deposits her eggs in the clefts of the bark, or, what is far more
probable, penetrates through the openings of old burrows, and
lays her eggs in old galleries, these latter are certainly not the
work of the Melasis-larva.

The similarity in outward appearance between this larva aud
those of Buprestide means nothing more than that the former
is destined to live in the burrows formed by the latter or by
other similarly equipped xylophagous larvee. What the larva of
Melasis tears and perforates with its mandibles must be some-
thing soft, not a hard substance; in fact it cannot be anything
else than the skin of really xylophagous larve and pupz. What-
ever be its food, it must take it in by drinking, and there is no-
thing for it to drink but blood.

FY:

A minute orifice of the mouth; pointed mandibles, placed at
a distance from the mouth; no labrum; the lower organs of
the mouth coalesced ; short antenne; slender body; the ninth
abdominal segment serrated ; the anal segment placed under
the preceding ; movement by lateral winding of the body: these
were characteristics of the larva of Melasis, and these same cha-
racters are those of the larvee of Hlateride. Nor must we allow
ourselves to doubt their affinity because the former is destitute
of legs and of chitinous armour, or because the mandibles are
bent outwards instead of inwards and the second and third pair
of appendages of the mouth are rudimentary ; to lay overmuch
stress on these points would simply lead us through a byway
back to the same confusion which has done so much mischief,
and owing to which the Me/asis-larva was thought more closely
allied to the larvee of Buprestidz than to those of Elateridze merely
because it was apod and soft. The larva of Melasis does not in
reality present a greater modification from the type of Buprestidze
than many of those which I have described in my Contributions
to the Knowledge of the Larvae of Coleoptera*—not more, for in-

* Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, ser 3. vol. i. pp. 193-232, pl. 3-10; vol. iii.
pp. 131-224, pl. 1-12.

of Buprestide and Elateride. 185

stance, than the remarkable larva of Haliplus, which in so stri-
king a manner maintains the type of its family, whilst so widely
differmg in external appearance. At the same time, perhaps,
there is not much reason to fear such an objection just at present ;
for although it is still constantly repeated that the larve of Ela-
teride are generally phytophagous, and only exceptionally take
animal food, I do not hesitate to assert directly the contrary—
namely, that they are carnivorous as a rule, and only exception-
ally phytophagous; and the positive affirmation of this truth
has, so to say, long been looming in the horizon. Erichson
considers the-larve of Elateride unreservedly as phytopha-
gous, some being supposed to feed on decaying wood, others
on fresh roots: nevertheless he was not without scruples,
for he adds, in a note, that he doubts whether larvee with
such a mouth really can masticate their food (Archiv f. Natur-
geschichte, 1841, 1. pp. 87-88). Nor do I doubt that many a col-
lector, when his attention is drawn to the subject, will remember
very often to have met with these larvee under bark, in decaying
wood and wood-dust, engaged in the very act of piercing the
bodies of soft larvae and pupe, and thus be enabled to confirm
from his own experience those testimonies which already have
appeared at different times as to the carnivorous habits of the
larve of Elateride. It seems that the attention of some has
already been drawn to the analogy between the structure of their
mouth and that of the larve of Carabi; so that it may soon be
generally acknowledged, what I certainly hold to be the true
view, that they are as truly typical carnivorous animals as
the larvee of Carabi, and that they bite through the skin of
their prey, tear it to pieces, crush and suck it just like the larve
of Carabi—with which tribe they also correspond in this parti-
cular, that a certain number of them, being on purpose en-
dowed with shorter and thicker mandibles, shorter legs, less
perfect armour of the point of the abdomen and of the anal
segment (that is, with less power of locomotion), eat their way
into juicy and farinaceous roots, destroying them in the same
way as the animal food of the majority is treated, by crushing
and sucking. It is a state of things quite analogous to what
we find in insectivorous and carnivorous mammalia, among
which the hedgehog, the badger, and the bear are distinguished
by modifications of the type, either in the movements of the
jaws, or in the teeth, or in both, which do not by any means
destroy the original carnivorous type, but nevertheless enable
the animal to extend its range of food to vegetable matter suffi-
ciently rich in nitrogen.

If, now, we comprise within our view the whole division of
Sternoxi, starting from this new information we find that the

186 Prof. J. C. Schjédte on the Classification

larve of that division group themselves round two, and only
two, entirely different types—that of Buprestis and that of
Elater, the former burrowing in different parts of plants and
being phytophagous, the latter being blood-suckers or living on
vegetable juices. In both divisions we meet with modifications
of the type analogous to those met with in all other natural
divisions of Coleoptera,—their body being more or less hard
or quite soft, the buccal organs, the organs of move-
ment, the limbs, the point of the abdomen and the anal
segment more or less developed—all in accordance with the
occurrence and quality of the food. The larva of Medasis thus
belongs to the Elater-type, but is modified for the purpose of
hunting xylophagous larve living in hard wood. In the larva of
Fornaz the mouth appears, from the description of Coquerel (Ann.
de la Soc. Ent. de Fr, sér.3. iv. pp. 511-516, pl.15. fig. 37, 1, m),
to be still more modified than that of Medasis in the direction of
the organization met with in such larve of Antliata as live on
prey in galleries in wood, 7. e. in those larvee of Laphria which
suck the larvee of Buprestidee.

These larve of Antliata correspond, within their own order,
exactly to the larve of Melasis and Fornaz in Coleoptera, the re-
lation in point of structure between the former and the phyto-
phagous larvee of Antliata being exactly the same as that between
the Coleopterous larve in question and those of Buprestide.
That Coquerel failed to discover the opening of the mouth in
the larva of Fornax can have been caused only by the fact that
it merely possesses a small orifice for sucking blood, whereas he
expected to find a large cavity of the mouth, supposing as he
did that the larva burrowed in timber and fed on wood. La-
cordaire, who also supposed that it “fed on wood” and con-
structed galleries, though only in decaying wood, is likewise
astonished at the want of a mouth (Gen. des Coléopt. iv. p. 565).

I have on purpose limited the preceding inquiry into the
larve of Buprestide and Elateride to what was absolutely ne-
cessary for the attainment of my aim, which was nothing more
than to clear away the obstacles which that interpretation of
their structure which has hitherto prevailed has placed in the way .
of that view of their mutual relationship which will be deve-
loped in the sequel. I am in possession of very rich materials
for the illustration of these laryee in detail; but I reserve that
for the continuation of my papers on the larvee of Coleoptera,
published in the ‘ Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift.’

. ¥,
For a long time after the publication of Audouin’s well-known
treatise on the thorax of Insects, in which he had distinguished

of Buprestide and Elateride. 187

as a separate piece a small part of the skeleton situated near the
root of the coxz and called by him the ¢rochantin, only very
little attention was paid to it. The modern examinations of the
external skeleton of insects, undertaken for the purpose of dis-
covering useful marks of distinction for the numberless genera
and other divisions established by entomologists according to a
general impression of the habitus of the animals, have, however,
in some cases led to the trochantins being taken into considera-
tion ; and they are said to exist in some cases, but to be wanting
in others, This view, however, appears to be erroneous. They
seem never to be wanting in Coleoptera (to which we are now
particularly alluding), although they vary very much in size and
shape; and the difference in question would be more correctly
indicated by describing the trocbantins as either covered by a
prolongation of those “plates of the skeleton which surround
the coxze, or uncovered and bare. At the same time, however,
cases would occur in which it might be difficult to say whether
the trochantins should be called covered or uncovered, as in
some instances they are not visible till the coxa are turned back
in their sockets. Besides this, the definition of the family of
Buprestid now generally adopted contains another still more
misleading feature—that part of their thorax which has been
called the trochantin being an entirely different piece and having
nothing to do with the coxa. In one instance the common
interpretation has been exchanged for a new one; but this new
interpretation is not only erroneous in itself, but does not agree
with a thorough understanding of the true structure of the pro-
thorax in insects.

In Buprestidz, as well as in Elateride, each of the anterior
cox is on the outside surrounded partly by a receding pro-
longation of the prosternum, and partly by a portion of the lower
edge of the epimeron. In the first group of the family of Ela-
teridz (see my classification below) these lateral laps of the pro-
sternum are veryshort; but in the second group of Elateridzandin
Buprestidz they are so long that they occupy about the same space
as the epimera on the outer margin of the coxa. In all Elateridz
the laps of the prosternum and the epimera join so closely that the
upper and outer part of the coxa, and with it the trochantin, are
entirely hidden ; whilst in Buprestide the parts in question do not
join closely, whereby the socket of the coxa receives a small and
narrow extension on the outside, and in this open groove a part
of the coxa is always seen, whilst the little round trochantin
itself is not seen, unless the coxa is turned back a little. It is
therefore better to express the difference between these two
families in this respect by drawing attention to the opening be-
tween the prosternum and epimera than by saying that the

188 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

trochantin is visible in Buprestide, hidden in Elateride. But if
we say, as authors usually have said hitherto*, that only Bupres-
tidze possess trochantins, which are wanting in Elateride, then the
real fact is entirely missed. And if other authors, as Lacordaire
and Thomson, go further, and state that the trochantins are .
very large and prominent in Buprestide, and put this forward
as one of their principal characters, then they must have over-
looked the real trochantins, which are very far from being large
or prominent, whilst the lateral prolongations of the proster-
num just mentioned have been mistaken for trochantins. Nor
is this mistake inexplicable; for the laps in question are in
Buprestide separated from the rest of the prosternum by a more
or less deep groove, whereby they assume the appearance of being
connected with the coxee. But any such belief is at once dis-
pelled by turning the coxa about, in fresh or softened specimens,
when it will be seen that the supposed trochantin remains quietly
in its place, instead of following the movements of the coxa as
a real trochantin would; and if the coxa is turned back in the
socket, the real trochantin will appear in the open groove. To
render the experiment still more convincing, detach the coxa
from its socket, and the true trochantin will be found sitting in
in its proper place, whilst the supposed trochantin shows itself
to form one piece with the prosternum.

The only author who has refused to regard the lateral pro-
longations of the prosternum as trochantins is Von Kiesenwetter,
who, without further explanation, describes them as episterna
(Naturg. d. Insekten Deutsch. iv. p.6). But, as already stated,
this seems to imply another mistake. What we call epimera in the
skeleton of Arthropoda are nothing but the chitinized side-folds
(pleurz) between the ventral and dorsal shields of the segments—
that is to say, (in the thorax of insects) between the pro-, meso-,
_and metanotum above, and the pro-, meso-, and metasternum
beneath. In many insects having the thorax strongly chitinized
the epimera are found to be divided into two parts, of which the
foremost is called the episternum, whilst the hindmost is then
alone called the epimeron ; but this division is owing merely to
the necessity of procuring access for the air to the spiracles, —
which open behind the epimera. As, however, the articulation
between the prothorax and mesothorax is so loose that the air
can always easily penetrate into the spiracula prothoracica
which are situated between them, there is no necessity for a
division of the epimera prothoracica into episterna and epimera
sensu strictiori; nor do we ever find such a division carried out,

* Lacordaire, Gen. des Coléop. iv. 1. pp. 90, 94, 130; Leconte, Classif. of
the Coleopt. of N. Amer. i. pp. 156, 158, 159; Thomson, Skandinav. Coleopt.
vi. pp. 6, 56,

of Buprestide and Elateride. 189

although a. slight indication of it may be found in some cases,
where the posterior part of the epimeron is somewhat bent out-
wards. It is even very rare to find the pronotum and epimera pro-
thoracica separated by a real suture (as in Carabide) ; nay, it often
occurs that the sutures between the pronotum, prosternum, and the
epimera become to such a degree effaced that the entire prothorax
seems to consist of only one piece (as in most Curculionide). In
Buprestide and Klateridz all these parts are immoveably united,
but the seams between the prosternum and epimera are always
to be recognized, and the junction of the epimera and pronotum
is marked by the more or less sharply raised lateral edges of the
latter. It follows that the Buprestide possess.no episterna on
the prothorax, any more than any other insect, unless that ap-
pellation is to be given to the large lateral shields themselves
which are commonly called epimera. Von Kiesenwetter regards
the true epimera as laterally inflected parts of the pronotum,
and gives the name of episterna to the prolongations of the
prosternum (which other authors equally erroneously call tro-
chantins), and thus he comes to the result that the prothorax in
Buprestidz consists of pronotum, episterna, and prosternum,
but in Elateride of pronotum and prosternum alone (Nat. Ins.
Deutl. iv. p. 217), whereas the prothorax in both families con-
sists of the same pieces as in other insects, viz. pronotum, pro-
sternum, and epimera prothoracica, as shown before.

i's Be

Anybody who has watched nature a little in field and forest
knows full well that faculty in the Elateres which has procured
them the popular name of spring-beetles. It would therefore
be natural to expect that the peculiar contrivance by means of
which these beetles are enabled, when placed on their back, to
toss themselves up in the air and fall down on their legs, had
long ago been so thoroughly investigated and understood by
scientific entomologists that it could always-with certainty be
decided whether any given species is endowed with this faculty
or not. But this is very far from being the case: it is still a
moot point with regard to many animals of the Elater-type
whether they can spring or not, so that, generally speaking, one
is not satisfied till one has’ seen the thing done before one’s own
eyes ; and with regard to this mechanism there is but little agree-
ment amongst entomologists, except concerning the cases where
the articulation of the prothorax and mesothorax is sufficiently
loose to allow us to inspect easily the whole structure and pro-
ceeding. This latter has been familiar for a very long time; and
short and correct accounts of it are given in old manuals, as
by Latreille in Cuvier’s ‘ Régne Animal.’ It is true that some

190 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Classification

German naturalists (particularly Burmeister and - Erichson),
whose statements Lacordaire in this as in most cases implicitly
adopts, have tried to overthrow these simple results of experience
by means of utterly erroneous theories; but another German
author, Von Kiesenwetter, has again returned to the true track,
and given a correct and lucid description (Nat. Ins. Deutschl.
Vi. pp. 224-226). This, then, may be considered sufficiently well
established,—that if a bond-fide “ skip-jack” finds himself lying
on his back, he at once folds up his legs and antenne, pressing
them closely to the body, so that as little of them as possible
protrudes; he then pushes back the prothorax so far that the
point of the prosternal spine meets the salient middle part of
the mesosternum, for which purpose it becomes necessary to
bend the body in, so as to form an obtuse angle; the animal
then begins to contract the flexors of the prothorax with con-
stantly increasing force against the pomt of support on the
mesosternum which has thus been obtained: suddenly it lets
go; the prosternal spine glides rapidly along the groove in the
mesosternum and down in the dip which is adapted to receive
it; the most prominent parts on the dorsal surface of the ani-
mal, particularly the bases of the elytra, are thereby violently
struck against the ground, and, by the recoil, the whole body of
the animal is tossed up into the air: while in the air, it unfolds
its legs, in order to be able to catch a hold with its claws if it
comes down on its legs. It is apparent that a very free articu-
lation between the prothorax and mesothorax is necessary for
this operation ; and accordingly we find both the pronotum and |
the bases of the elytra steeply inclined towards the articulation ;
it is further apparent that the prosternal spine, the prolonged
‘mesosternum, with its little dip in front, its sliding plane, and
the deep excavation at its root, play a principal part ; and from
this starting-point a great many conclusions may be safely made.
It is evident why the skeleton of the spring-beetle is so hard—
because otherwise it would not possess the requisite elasticity to
effect a sufficiently strong recoil from the ground; we perceive
why the whole shape is moderately long and narrow, with
rounded points in front and behind, closely fitting edges, and
elliptical outline both in the longitudinal and cross sections,
why all the limbs are more or less completely adapted for being
received into grooves on the lower surface of the head, sternum,
and abdomen, the legs for being folded up, the hip receiving
the femur, this again the tibia, and the tibia in its turn receiving
the foot; finally, we see the necessity of the prothorax being
long and shaped like a cushion above and below, far thicker than
the exigencies of the muscles of the neck and legs would require.
It is clear that in the same proportion as these arrangements

of Buprestide and Elateride. 191

are more complete, more carefully adjusted and balanced, the
greater is the power and accuracy with which the animal exer-
cises its springing faculty, and the more often can it repeat it;
in the same degree as the skeleton is harder and more naked,
the prothorax longer (whereby the clicking-joint is placed more
in the middle), its hind quarters longer and more pointed, the
joint between the elytron and pronotum more free, the root of
the elytra thicker and their ribs higher, the more perfect is the
performance of the clicker.

We possess even in our native species a more than sufficiently
rich series of exemplifications of all these and many more modi-
fications of the different parts composing this machinery, which
are combined in infinitely varied ways.

But if it be so (and after all that has been said I do not sup-
pose that anybody will doubt it), that this “ clicker-business ”
really is the fundamental peculiarity in the Elater-type, why,
then, is it that entomologists refuse to admit into the family of
Elateridz a numerous series of beetles (such as Throscidze, Me-
lasidee, Eucnemide, Cebrionide) in which the selfsame structure
recurs in al] its essential points, but which are not considered
true, genuine, and bond fide clickers? What is the difference ?
If the question is put in this straightforward manner, the an-
‘swer is not difficult. The fact is evidently this, that the spring-
ing-apparatus has not yet been so thoroughly studied that the
type of it can be recognized with certainty in the cases where
it is not carried out to its fullest perfection. Only thus can
it have happened that this feature of the structure is so far
from having been brought forward as an essential and fun-
damental character, that, on the contrary, it has been given up
in despair, as “leading to entirely illusory characters” (Lacor-
daire, Gen. d. Coléopt. iv. 1. p. 131), and unfit to distinguish the
family of Elateride either from the intermediate divisions just
mentioned, or even from Buprestide. But if this at present is
the whole upshot and result of scientific inquiry in the matter,
it is quite clear that neither Elateride nur Buprestide are really
understood. That they are nevertheless constantly placed side
by side in the systems is therefore owing merely to the similarity
of their external habitus ; and then the loss of that mark of dis-
tinction, which was shown to be valueless in the preceding part
of this paper, will be severely felt. The great question which
still is unanswered, and which we shall next attempt to solve, is
this :— Does the similarity in shape of Elateride and Buprestidee
signify one and the same thing, express one and the same type?
Only when this is answered ean we hope to be liberated from
the spell of illusion.

Let us then, first of all, on some Buprestis lift the prosternal

192 Prof. J.C. Schjadte on the Classification

spine out of its bed on the mesosternum, and we shall then find
that this bed is shaped so as to fit the spine exactly, so that there
is nothing different in the arrangement from what we find, for
instance, in Carabi and in Dytisci; that is to say, it has no other
object than to procure a firm junction between the parts. And
this same tendency to firmness, and even rigidity, is not confined
to this point, but is carried out in the whole structure, by every
means which the elements of the body offer, along the whole
ventral surface—that is to say, in that line which in Arthropoda
corresponds to the spinal column of Vertebrata. We observe,
first, the peculiarity that not only the mesosternum and episterna
mesothoracica, but also the epimera mesothoracica, take part in
the articulation with the prothorax; secondly, the complete
coalescence of the ventral segments, save the last three ; finally,
that the abdomen prolongs itself with a very strong spine or
wedge between the posterior cox, reaching the metasternum,
embracing also the posterior cox laterally by means of two
large lobes, which reach the epimera metathoracica. In most
Bupvrestide there is this further provision, that the pronotum,
by a backward prolongation, wedges itself in between the elytra.
Whilst now in Carabi the firmness and compactness of the body
is required to render them fast runners, in Dytisci to increase
their power of swimming, its significance in Buprestide is to
render their flight strong. They are the Colibris amongst
beetles, creatures fitted for living in strong sunlight, with
markedly sculptured surface, sparingly endowed with hairs, rich
~ in glittering metallic colours, resplendent with green, gold, purple,
and azure—with a broad metathorax for the powerful muscles of
the wings—of ovoid figure, pointed behind, with the centre of
gravity between the wings, which are without cross folds (unique
amongst Coleoptera), so that they can be unfolded for flight
with lightning speed—with large oval eyes, presenting nu-
merous fine facets, calculated for broad daylight—short naked
antennze, with spots of pores—short folding legs which, though
not of very characteristic form, pointedly retain their character of
walking legs, being of very nearly equal length, the trochanters
of the posterior pair not supporting—the feet also, by their broad
soles and membranaceous pads, announcing themselves as the
representative of the herbivorous type of insect foot within the
series of Serricornia*. Looking to. their internal structure, we
find that their tracheal system is extremely rich in air-vesicles—
a peculiarity which does not seem to reappear amongst Coleoptera,
except in Scarabzei, which, next to the Buprestide, contain the
most powerful fliers of the order.

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xv. pp. 182-183, “On the Classi-
fication of Cerambyces.”

of Buprestide and Elateride. 193

Then let us take some species or other (it does not matter
which) of the divisions of Throscide, Melaside, EKucnemide,
Elateride, or Cebrionide, and let us lift the prosternal spine out
of its bed on the mesothorax, and we shall find that the bed is
not by any means coustructed only with regard to that spine;
so that the arrangement is entirely different from that of the
Buprestide. The place in which the prosternal spine rests
always terminates behind in a deep excavation, which would
be as superfluous for the accommodation of that spine as it is
necessary for the actommodation of the “ springing-spine”
(mucro saltatorius), the essential instrument of the springing
beetle, which has hitherto been either overlooked or misunder-
stood, having been confounded with the prosternal spine. The
fact is, that when the articulation of the prothorax with the
mesothorax is’ not very free (that is, in most cases), the spring-
ing-spine is, on account of the limited space, placed on the
upper surface of the prosternal spine, forming an angle with it,
and therefore hidden by this when the animal is viewed from
below. It is only when drawn out by the animal for use in
springing, or when the prothorax is entirely loosened, that it is
seen. By degrees, as the articulation of the prothorax with
the mesothorax is freer, and the mesothorax more salient,
the springing-spine assumes a more horizontal direction, and
appears behind the posterior extremity of the prosternal spine ;
the boundary between the two is in this case marked by a small
tooth, which is nothing but the extremity of the prosternal
spine. Finally, in those Elaters where the joint in question is -
entirely free and open below, this little tooth also disappears,
and with it the last indication of the original position of the
springing-spine, which in this last case appears simply as the
continuation of the prosternal spine.

We shall do well to pause a few moments after having gained
these results. We have seen that the larve of Sternoxi group
themselves round two distinct types, and we now see this bifur-
cation confirmed in the perfect animals by equally decisive and
thorough-going marks of distinction. We found the type of the
Buprestidee to be that of an animal organized for flight, that of the
Elateridz to be characterized by the springing-mechanism. But
the latter type is less one-sided than the former. The Buprestis-
larva and its congeners are always xylophagous, burrowing in
timber, and there is consequently not much room for variety in
shape; whether the egg is deposited in clefts of the bark of trees,
in the tenderer stem of herbs and shrubs, or in the parenchyma of
leaves, the demands which the propagation of the species makes
upon the structure of the beetle remain upon the whole the
same; but time and strength will at the same time be to such a

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 14

194. Prof. J.C. Schjédte on the Classification

degree engrossed by this part of its activity that the beetle’s
own nutritive life cannot be expected to express itself very
strongly inits structure. The Elateride, on the contrary, are, as
larvee, carnivorous; and consequently we find amongst them a
a great variety of forms, according to the mode of life of the
prey; and the corresponding demands for the equipment of the
perfect beetle with regard to propagation causes a far richer
variety of form among the Elateridz than among the Buprestide.
In those Elateride which, as larve, hunt their prey in closed
galleries in timber, the faculty of springing is reduced in power
and facility, whilst that of flying is more developed, and the
animal then approaches somewhat to Buprestide in outer form,
sculpture, &c.,—thus, particularly, in Melasini and Euenemidini,
especially in exotic genera, as Pterotarsus. Those Elateridz, on
the contrary, which, in the larval state, seek their food in less
circumscribed localities are more developed as “clickers” than
for flying, and therefore occupy a place in every respect oppo-
site that of the others: excellent instances of this combination
are afforded by many species of the group Diacanthus and con-
geners. The majority of Elateride stand between these two
extremes, inclining sometimes more to one than the other.
Elateride are consequently to a certain extent placed under
equal.conditions with true carnivorous beetles—that is, such as
live on animal food in all stages of their existence; and it is
therefore natural to expect further analogies with such beetles—
as, for instance, with Carabide. Accordingly we find that they
- live in shade, or are mostly active at night, with close, fine, and
minute sculpture, regularly ribbed (striated) elytra covered with
short and fine hair; their colours are mostly dark and dull,
principally black, brown, or ferruginous; some are more
vividly coloured, red, or with checquered light and dark designs,
or even with metallic lustre; but they rarely attain and never |
surpass that degree of splendour and lustre which is met with
amongst Carabide. LElateride possess similar round eyes, and
longer antenne ; and though the legs, for the sake of the spring-
ing-faculty, cannot be very strongly developed, they nevertheless
retain the character of running-legs by the trochanters of the
third pair being large and “supporting,” asin Carabide*. Nor is
the analogy with Carabide deficient in this point—that amongst
Elateride one group (viz. Cebrionini) is calculated for digging
in the ground, just as several genera amongst Carabide. It is,
however, time to turn our attention to the structure of the
mouth,

* Latreille has already pointed this out in the Elateres properly so-
called: ‘ Femora postica ad basin appendice trochanteriformi instructa”’
(Gen. Crust. et Ins, i. 2. p. 248).

of Buprestide and Elateride. 195

VII.

With regard to that series of families into which the division
Sternoxi has been resolved, the constant verdict of modern au-
thors is to the effect that the organs of the mouth are destitute
of systematic value, and upon ‘the whole are much reduced,
which seems to mean that they are rather short and do not
project much from the mouth (Lacordaire, Gen. des Coléopt. iv.
21. pp. 95, 96,131). The same assertion is often made also with
regard to other groups. Such a view, however, when properly con-
sidered, is always found to be erroneous ; for if the structure of the
mouth really remains the same in an extelisive series of animals,
this fact is not valueless, but, on the contrary, affords a never- failing
indication of their near relationship. I say “ never-failing,”
for in no case has it ever been found at variance with the testi-
mony of the rest of the structure. If, then, the result of the
investigation of the mouth is thought unsatisfactory, the fault
lies in the preconceived views of the observer who rejects its
testimony. It is the method of so many modern authors which
leads to results inconsistent with nature; and if they find that
the structure of the mouth is at variance with these results, it
is said to be without systematic value, instead of that ¢ireum-
stance being accepted as a proof that the results obtained are
erroneous. Authors are bent on distinguishing, and hunt after
marks of distinction—for what? For those groups and divisions
which are constantly being proposed on the strength of mere
external and often accidental similarity in shape. Of course,
the careful examination of every part of the animal accessible to
the pocket magnifier, which constitutes the method of so many
even of the best modern entomologists, does occasionally lead to
the discovery of good and useful characters for classification ;
but such a method has really only a limited claim to the name of
natural method which it assumes. It approaches the natural
system in many points, but it attains merely a superficial contact ;
it never penetrates the essence of the natural system. Much
material is sifted and laid in store by that method ; but the scien-
tific edifice of a natural system makes no progress. Not even the
mere elementary task of procuring a survey of the material can
be mastered by that method: the enormously complicated animal
composition is much too intricate to be overcome by artificial
classification ; it must be realized in thought and imagination
in its unity and through all its ramifications.

In order to appreciate properly the organs of the mouth,
they, as well as other animal instruments, must be regarded
both in their own mutual relation and in their relation to all
the other parts of the organism. In Buprestidee their develop-

14*

196 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

ment depends partly on the nutritive side of the animal’s life,
partly on the requirements of propagation ; but the latter pre-
dominate. The mandibles present the appearance of short,
exceedingly strong, quadrangular, pointed, hollow chisels, with
sharp or somewhat serrated edges, with a deep and roomy
socket above, and a very prominent globular condyle be-
low, which strongly reminds us of the head of the humax
femur. Their muscles are so large as to necessitate a very large
and round skull. The mandibles are principally in the service
of the propagation of the species, since it is by their means
that the beetle, after its transformation, works its way out of the
timber; nor is it improbable that they are employed in making
preparations for the deposition of the eggs, viz. by facilitating
the application of the ovipositor to suitable parts of the bark.
They are largest in those Buprestide which, as larve, burrow
deepest, and the food of the beetles consists in that case of
leaves and buds*. In the group of Anthaxini, on the contrary,
they are somewhat Jess developed; they are flatter, their extre-
mities laciniated, and their inner margin less deeply excavated :
in this case the beetle feeds upon pollen, and possesses peculiar
bag-shaped extensions on the cesophagus for the preliminary
collection and softening of this kind of food. The maxille are
broad and powerful, their lobes small, coriaceous, covered with
very stiff, short hairs—the outer one broader, but the inner one
more pointed, than in the leaf-eaters. The mentum affords, by
its clumsy shape and considerable thickness, a good support
from below for the play of the mandibles and the maxille. The
lingua is without stipes, small, thick, coriaceous, undivided,
armed in the same way as the lobes of the maxille; the labial
palpi are short, with much-reduced basal joints, but with free pro-
trusible stipites. The palparium in both pairs of palpi is large
(the terminal joint truncate) in those Buprestidz which have to
choose timber for their young ; but it is small (the terminal joint
obovate) in those which place their eggs in thin branches, stems,
and parenchyma.

The great variety of forms amongst Elaterids is expressed
also in the structure of the mouth. Of this we meet with two
types, one being principally calculated to serve the nutritive
life, the other to serve the propagation of the species.

* According to information from Tranquebar, the large Sternocera
chrysis swarms round certain trees, eating their leaves, as the cockchafers
with us. In some years it occurs in great numbers. Once it happened
that a box received from that locality contained nothing but hundreds of
bellies of this Buprestid. The native who had been sent out collecting had
understood the matter in his own way, and taken off the shiny green shields,
which his countrywomen use for ornaments.

of Buprestidee and Elateride. 197

The first type is met with in those Elateridz of which the
larve hunt in the fields, under leaves and moss, in meadows or
in decaying wood. ‘The care of the offspring is here so slight
that the beetle has time for running about to seek food for it-
self; and as this consists of pollen, the mouth resembles not a
little that of those Cerambycide which feed on the same sub-
stance, particularly Lepturini. The labrum protrudes, covering
the mouth from above. The mandibles are triangular, gradu-
ally pointed and arched, of no considerable strength, with small
socket and condyle; the joint is cleft into two sharp teeth, one
above the other ; the whole inner margin is arched, and presents
a sharp edge with a marginal fringe. The maxillary lobes are
large, particularly the outer one; their skin is thin, and their
edge covered by a close beard. The mentum is short and thin;
the stipites of the labial palpi long, very moveable; the lingua
large, broad, and bifid, with thin skin, and the margin closely
fringed with hair, the stipes narrow and strong; the terminal
joint of the palpi almost always subsecuriform, with a large
palparium. ‘This is the structure of the mouth in the group of
Elaterini.

The other type, which is almost exclusively governed with
regard to the propagation of the species, is met with in those
Elateride which, as larve, hunt in more confined localities,
particularly in galleries in wood. The. care of the eggs, together
with the considerable labour which may fall to their lot in order
to get out of the timber, leaves very little time for the beetles
to seek food for themselves; and according to the greater or less
preponderance of these considerations, two modifications of this
type are developed, of which one is analogous to that of Callidiini
amongst Cerambycidz, the other to that of Asemini and Prionini
in the same family.

The first of these modifications characterizes the group of
Euenemidini, and differs less considerably from the structure
of Elaterini. The labrum is more or less obsolete. The man-
dibles are very powerful, and still furnished with an edge ; but
it is more or less clumsy and thick, and is without any fringe;
the socket and condyle are large, the point sometimes entire,
sometimes divided into two or more sharp teeth. The other two
pairs of buccal organs are very small in proportion. Maxillary
lobes and lingua considerably shortened, and rather to be de-
scribed as covered with fine hair than as being provided with a
marginal beard. The terminal joint of the palpi is of propor-
tionally enormous size, broad, and securiform, with very large
palparium. .

In the second subtype, characteristic of the group Melasini,
the labrum has entirely disappeared; the mandibles are of

‘198 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

enormous strength, with colossal socket and condyle; at the
base they are so much extended both upwards and downwards
that they appear as if they carried horns when seen from the
back; their inner margin is destitute of fringe, excavated like a
spoon, and the point sometimes whole, sometimes divided into
several powerful and sharp teeth. The two other pairs of buecal
organs are extremely small. The palpiferous stalk of the maxille
is shaped like a joimt, and stands out from the stipes; there is
only one lobe, which is small, with thin skin and fine hair. The
mentum is very small and thin; stipites palporum labialium not
separate ; lingua small, short, obtuse, undivided. The terminal
joint of the palpi is very large, oviform.

It is a matter of course that both in Buprestidee and Elateride
the mouth is turned more downwards, in proportion as the
beetle has more to do with wood, on account of the habits of the
larva. The fore legs being, in both families, weak, with globular
cox, the prothorax is naturally short, unless the clicking-appa-
ratus be strongly developed, in which case also the organs of the
mouth are larger, more protruding, and calculated for eating
pollen. These, then, require protection during the work in
earth, moss, and decaying wood, where the eggs are to be placed
&c., which protection is afforded by a peculiar prolongation of
the prosternum, a “chin-lobe” (mentonniére), by means of
which the beetle can hide the organs of its mouth when the head
is not protruded. Such a chin-lobe is therefore found in all
Elaterini ; but it is of varying size, more or less distinctly marked
by a transverse groove, more or less turned downwards, accord-
ing to the degree in which the Clicker-type is developed in the
species. When authors deny (as Lacordaire does in Gen. des
Coléopt.iv.p.224) thatsuch genera as Campylus and Cebrio possess
this chin-lobe, and find one of their essential characters in this
defect, this must arise from their not having sufficiently
investigated the character of that organ, so that they are unable
to recognize it when it is somewhat different in appearance from
its most general form: For it must always be kept in view that
this chin-lobe is merely a prolongation of the prosternum
alone, which is indicated by its: being separated, be it ever so
short, from the epimeron on either side by a small sharp notch.
Thus understood, the chin-lobe becomes one of the most es-
sential characters of the group of Elaterini.

VIII.
On a former occasion I gave an account of the internal
anatomy of Buprestidze*, and I shall here offer a corresponding

* Oversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabers Selskabs Forhand-
linger (Transactions of the Royal Danish Society of Sciences), 1847, no. 3.
pp. 24-35.

of Buprestidse and Elateride. 199

account of that of Elateride, only mentioning such details of
_ the anatomical structure of Buprestide as will serve to clear up
the differences between the two families. The statements I have
to offer with regard to Elateride are the results partly of my
own investigations of the anatomy of the insects, partly of a
considerable number of dissections made by Dr. Fr. Meinert.

The trachee are without vesicles; the spiral ribs of the in-
ternal membrane of the larger trunks in the head and thorax
are generally furnished with fine spines. The fat is not present in
great quantity, though the less active species (as Agriotes lineatus,
obscurus, sputator) have more of it; it is often of a yellowish
colour, on account of the numerous yellow cytoblasts contained
in the fat-cells.

True salivary glands are wanting, the cells secreting the saliva
being not more numerous than can be accommodated in the
walls of the pharynx, on either side of which a series of orifices
— outlet to the ducts from these large and round glandular
cells.

The digestive tube is of very simple construction, and so short
that it never much exceeds the length of the animal, often only
by a sixth or an eighth, more rarely by one-third. The pharynx
is flat, strongly narrowed behind. The cesophagus is very short,
gradually widened into the very small craw, which reaches a
shorter or longer way into the prothorax. The muscular mem-
brane of the cesophagus and the craw is rather weak ; the inner
membrane is covered with fine stiff hairs, which are directed
forwards, more or less conspicuously arranged in longitudinal
rows. ‘The gizzard is very small, and in reality but little more
than a pylorus formed by the narrowing of the craw, whereby
the hair spines are made to stand closer together, so as to form
a reversed wheel.

The stomach is cylindrical, straight, and reaches more or less
far into the abdominal cavity ; in front it is club-formed, dis-
tended, and the anterior end often protrudes so much that it
receives the gizzard in a kind of dip. The muscular membrane
of the stomach has in some cases equally well-developed longi-
tudinal and transverse muscles, forming a net of quadrangular
meshes, through which the layer of glandular cells peculiar to
the stomach protrudes like warts; but in other cases the trans-
verse muscles are weak, whilst the longitudinal ones are very
powerful and strongly striated (as in Lacon murinus, Diacanthus
eneus), through the intervals of which the cellular stratum pro-
trudes as parallel longitudinal rows of small semiglobular ceca.
The intestine is in the majority of cases straight, smooth, with-
out prominent longitudinal bands or intestinal warts, mostly
with unstriped transverse muscles, and without marked distinc-

200 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

tion between small intestine, large intestine, and rectum. But
in Cebrio it is slightly winding, with powerful transverse museles,
the posterior half distended so as to form first a colon of con-
siderable dimensions, in its posterior part furnished with many
small ceca, and finally a short rectum, markedly separated
from the former, and with powerful longitudinal muscles.
There are four rather short (in Throseus very short and thiek)
Malpighian vessels, of which the ends are closed and quite free,
although each pair is closely held together by minute trachex.
They consequently do not form two loops such as are represented
by Léon Dufour (Ann. d. Se. Nat. 1824, iii. pl. 2. figs. 3, 4).
Each of the testes consists of a bundle or tassel of shorter or
longer folliculi, which are closely united by intertwined tracheze
and imbedded in fat, but not enclosed in a common bag. The
testes are situated in the anterior portion of the abdominal
eavity, close to the back, over the digestive tube, which runs
elose under them through the ring which is formed by the vasa
deferentia. The number of follicles in each testis is very variable:
m Adrastus limbatus there is only one, in Cryptohypnus quadri-
pustulatus nine, in Lacon murinus more than twenty ; but within
the natural groups their number seems to depend principally on
the size of the animals, so that it is upon the whole greater in
the larger species and less in the smaller ones. Thus, whilst
Diacanthus eneus has fifty, D.tessellatus forty, and Agrioteslineatus
and obscurus fifty, Agriotes sputator has only twenty-four, Am-
pedus balteatus twenty, Limonius minutus nine to eleven ; again,
Athous niger has seventy, A. ruficaudis forty, and A. subfuscus
twenty. All these numbers are approximate, as in each species
the number vacillates between certain limits. In Cebvio the testes
are distinguished by their extraordinary length and slenderness ;
they consist of more than 100 follicles placed on short stems in
longitudinal rows, round the thin vas deferens, which oceupies
the middle.
The vasa deferentia are long, closely wound, and first extend
a considerable way backward, passing the vesicule seminales,
whereupon they bend forward again to the point where they
join the ductus ejaculatorius. Near the testes they are slender,
but increase by degrees in thickness, without, however, usually
assuming very remarkable dimensions, except in species where
they are very short (as in Cryptohypnus quadripustulatus, Limo-
nius minutus, Campylus linearis) ; in species where they are very
long they do not become very stout (as in Ampedus sanguineus,
where they reach about 11-4 millims., in Diacanthus eneus,
where they attain 19-2 millims., in Athous ruficaudis, where the
length is about 11 millims.). In some species (for instance,
Agriotes aterrimus, Diacanthus tessellatus, Athous niger, but not

of Buprestide and Elateride. 201

A. ruficaudis) a short lateral branch starts from the point where
they bend forwards again. In Cedrio the vasa deferentia, though
very long, are towards their lower extremity suddenly extended
into a long winding folliculus, of which the circumference is
five or six times that of the thin part.

The ductus ejaculatorius is short, thick, and clumsy ; it re-
eeives at the top, besides the vasa deferentia, three pairs of
glandular vesicles.

The first pair of these, which are more properly described as
vesiculz seminales (spermatophorous glands), vary considerably
in size and shape, though they form generally the most conspi-
cuous parts of the interior sexual organs of the male. In
Diacanthus pectinicornis they are fusiform, unusually small,
1-2 millim. long, whilst the ductus ejaculatorius in this species
is particularly thick, club-shaped, and about 3°6 millims. long.
In Athous niger ,ruficaudis, and subfuscus they are, on the contrary,
very large bags, of oval, on the inside somewhat concave form ;
in Adrastus limbatus and Diacanthus tessellatus the shape of the
bag is still more arched and the inner anterior angles some-
what produced; in Limonius minutus and Diacanthus bipustu-
latus the curvature increases, and in the last-mentioned species
the anterior angles are likewise produced; this protraction of
the angles is further increased in another series of species,
and the angles are variously wound, as in Cryptohypnus quadri-
pustulatus, Agriotes aterrimus and marginatus, and Ampedus
balteatus ; in Lacon murinus the anterior angles are even divided
each into two unequal branches, which are wound in spirals each
in its own direction; in Agriotes obscurus, finally, the vesicule
seminales have the shape of a stout, arched and winding tube, to-
wards the end spiral, with a short, thick lateral branch, whilst
in Agriotes lineatus they differ by being wound in double spirals
at their end. In Cebrio these organs are slender, not stouter
than the extended part of the vas deferens, with arched and
spirally wound ends. But with regard to all these varieties
of form, it must be observed that they embrace only the outer
forms of the vesiculz seminales, whilst the inner membrane is
quite independent and does not by any means follow the external
outline of the organ. This inner membrane forms a compli-
cated system of cavities and expansions communicating with one
another. In Cryptohypnus quadripustulatus its anterior part
' terminates in two long, extremely fine tubes, which accompany
the anterior winding part of the vesicula. In Agriotes obscurus
it forms a long tube with various dilatations, and is accompanied
by a darker band, of alternating width, and of which the lighter
parts show themselves to be composed of perpendicular cellular
glands. The tube enters into the above-mentioned thick lateral

202 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Classification

branch of the organ, runs through its whole length, and then
doubles back and continues into the extreme end of the spirally
wound part of the vesicula seminalis: from the point where it
doubles back, near the extremity of the lateral branch, a long
slender cecum arises, of which the inner cavity soon becomes
obsolete, and which then becomes exceedingly thin and pointed.
The inner membrane is very firm and tough, and often pushes
through the surrounding cellular stratum and the external mem-
brane in the process of dissection under water,

The second pair of glandular follicles partly cover the vesicule
seminales when the sexual orgaus are observed from below;
they are generally cleft into two branches—one very thick and
clumsy, behind the top of the ductus ejaculatorius, the other,
which is more slender, in front of this (Cryptohypnus quadripus-
tulatus, Lacon murinus, Agriotes aterrimus and marginatus, Am-
pedus balteatus, Diacanthus tessellatus). In other cases they are
shaped like bags, the terminal part bent like a ram’s horn
(Limonius minutus, Diacanthus bipustulatus, Athous vittatus) ;
or the terminal portion may besides be deeply bifid (A. niger)
or be furnished at the base with a tubiform arched branch
(A. ruficaudis, Campylus linearis). In Adrastus limbatus these
follicles are dilated into the shape of balloons, and are very
large, almost four times as large as the vesicule seminales; in
Cebrio they are likewisevery large, and the bagsof elliptical shape.

The third pair of glandular follicles attached to the ductus
ejaculatorius are almost always tubiform, of very varying stout-
ness and length: only in Adrastus limbatus have they the same
considerable size and balloon-shape as the second pair of follicles
possess.

The penis is narrow, spear-shaped, with a pair of narrow
valves, which are generally furnished with a small tooth near
their extreme point. —

The ovaries are divided like the fingers of the hand. The
number of fingers varies considerably, according to genera and
species, but generally according to the same rule as that of the
folliculi of the testes, so that the number is greater in the larger
species, less in those of smaller:size. Their number, however,
does not generally exactly correspond with that of the folliculi
testis, as may be seen by the following series of examples :—
Diacanthus eneus has eighty to ninety fingers, Athous niger
seventy to eighty, Melanotus castanipes, Diacanthus pectinicornis,
sjelandicus, and Athous ruficaudis about fifty; Lacon murinus,
Agriotes aterrimus about forty; Diacanthus tessellatus, Limonius
cylindricus, Athous vittatus, Campylus linearis about thirty ; Car-
dwophorus asellus, Ampedus sanguineus, Diacanthus bipustulatus,
Athous subfuscus twenty to twenty-six; Agriotes lineatus, ob-

of Buprestide and Elateride. 203

scurus, sputator, Ampedus balteatus fifteen to eighteen; Cardio-
phorus ruficollis, Agriotes marginatus twelve ; Cryptohypnus qua-
dripustulatus and Adrastus limbatus five. The oviducts are short,
-and open through a short common duct into the under surface of
the vagina at a varying distance from its top; when filled with eggs,
their appearance is quadrangular. The eggs are rather small,
of short oval form: mature eggs, when taken out of the ovi-
ducts, measured in Agriotes marginatus 0°25 millim. in-length,
-and 0°169 in width; in Limonius cylindricus 0°304 millim. by
0:179 millim.; in Diacanthus bipustulatus 0°309 millim. by
0184 millim.; in Diacanthus pectinicornis 0°429 by 0-232 millim.

The vagina is either long and tubiform, or short and club-
shaped. The tubiform type of vagina is, in places, of varying
thickness, strongly curved (Diacanthus pectinicornis) or sharply
bent at an angle (Melanotus castanipes, Limonius cylindricus,
Ampedus sanguineus, Diacanthus eneus); when the oviducts join
the vagina far behind the end of the latter, it is winding or even
forms a spiral (Lacon murinus, Agriotes marginatus). The club-
shaped vagina is not often gradually widened towards the fore
end (Adrastus limbatus, Agriotes lineatus) ; more frequently the
thick fore end is sharply defined, and besides is constructed so
as to assume various forms (Cardiophorus ruficollis, Cryptohypnus
quadripustulatus, Agriotes aterrimus, obscurus, Diacanthus tessel-
latus, bipustulatus, Athous niger and subfuscus). The internal
surface of the vagina is furnished with a greater or smaller
number of spinulose plates of chitine, or with spines placed in
rows, or with both contrivances together, which do duty in the -
act of copulation as retaining instruments. The most frequent
combination is a couple of lateral plates (Cardiophorus ruficollis
and asellus, Lacon murinus, Agriotes aterrimus, lineatus, obscurus,
sputator, Diacanthus tessellatus, pectinicornis, sjelandicus, bipus-
tulatus, Athous niger, ruficaudis, and subfuscus). The plates are of
different sizes, oblong, often with ribs and marginal teeth (Athous
niger and subfuscus) ; and in some cases a second pair of plates
over them are met with, which have spines on their inner margin
(Cardiophorus asellus, Diacanthus sjelandicus and tessellatus) ;
in Lacon murinus there are, besides the pair of plates first men-
tioned, a number of long spines at the anterior extremity of the
vagina. When plates are wanting, the spines are so much the
more abundant (Agriotes marginatus, Ampedus sanguineus and
preustus, Diacanthus eneus).

The foremost dilated extremity of the vagina receives the
semen during the act of copulation, and thus serves as a kind of
bursa copulatrix, but is rarely separated by a constriction,
which, however, is the case in Cardiophorus ruficollis and asellus
and in Campylus linearis.

204 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Classification

The spermathece likewise assume the form of dilatations of
the anterior free extremity of the vagina. Their shapes are very
various, sometimes that of a conic protuberance (Cryptohypnus
quadripustulatus, Diacanthus tessellatus and bipustulatus), some-
times that of a tolerably long tube (Agriotes aterrimus), or of a
short bag terminating in a tubiform continuation (Melanotus
castanipes, Limonius cylindricus), or of two (Diacanthus eneus)
or three (D. pectinicornis) short thick-branches ; in D. sjelandicus
they are represented by five long tubes situated inside the vagina ;
in Ampedus balteatus there are two long club-shaped tubes pro-
ceeding from the top of the vagina, and five others starting from
the duct of the accessory gland. This last case effects a transi-
tion to those cases where the tubes of the spermatheca do not
open immediately into the vagina, but into its upper tubiform
part, mto the end of which the accessory gland opens, and which
therefore may be looked upon as the duct of the latter. In
Cardiophorus ruficollis this conduit is thin, towards the end
wound and twisted, and bears on one side more than sixty short
spermathecal tubes*. In Agriotes marginatus this duct carries
close before its dilated end a long spermathecal tube, from
which, again, a lateral appendix branches off towards its extre-
mity. In Agriotes obscurus, lineatus; and sputator the duct is of
extraordinary length, and near the base twisted in a double
spiral, one outside the other; beyond this part, a very long
twisted spermatheca separates itself from it, and beyond this,
again, the duct carries a varying number of shorter club-shaped
tubes along its sides; and, besides this, there is in Agriotes ob-
scurus a short cylindrical tube, and in A. lineatus a somewhat
larger deeply bifid bag, placed at the point of junction between
the vagina and the duct of the accessory gland. In Throscus,
finally, we find two small round spermathece, of which the
ducts unite into a short common duct inserted near the base of
the duct of the accessory gland; in their natural position they
are placed upon the vagina like a pair of spectacles.

The accessory gland of the spermatheca in Elaterini is large

* The structure in Cardiophorus asellus is very similar; and there can
consequently be no doubt that Stem (Anat. u. Physiol. d. Ins tab. 5. fig. 1)
has represented the sexual organs of this or an allied species of Cardio-
phorus—not, as he thinks, of Athous hirtus (niger). To his account of the
duct of the accessory gland, however, it should be added that the serrated
form he represents is caused by the great number of lateral tubes (nearly
forty), which do not join the duct at right angles, but lie along it slanting
forwards. In Stein’s drawing are also wanting the two elongated triangular
plates of chitine (united at their ends) which are situated over the larger
plates represented by him in the vagina; and, besides, the seminal groove is
omitted, which here, as is usually the case, extends from the stem of the
lateral follicle to the base of the common oviduct.

of Buprestide and Elateride. 205

and shaped like a hand. The basal part increases in size with
the number of the fingers; in Diacanthus pectinicornis it is
divided into two or three lobes, with numerous short fingers.
The number of these latter varies very much (in. Cardiophorus
ruficollis two, Melanotus castanipes three to five, Diacanthus bi-
pustulatus five to six, Campylus linearis six to seven, Diacanthus
tessellatus ten, Athous subfuscus thirteen, Agriotes aterrimus,
lineatus, Limonius cylindricus twenty, Athous niger twenty to
thirty). In Lacon murinus the fingers are ramified, with small
triangular dilatations in the angles; the gland opens with a
short stem in the side of the somewhat swollen and muscular
end of the duct. In Throscus, on the contrary, the accessory
gland is a simple, thick, but-little-wound tube, inserted at the
base of the bursa copulatrix.

Several Elateride possess, besides, a pair of very large vaginal
glands which have more or less thick walls, are closely united at
their bases, and inserted above the oviducts in the receding
angle between them and the vagina. This is the case in Dia-
canthus sjelandicus (but not in D, pectinicornis), in Agriotes ater-
rimus, lineatus, obscurus, sputator, and marginatus.

Many Elateride possess a peculiar, rather firm, inside more
or less chitinized, funnel-shaped seminal groove, reaching from
the base of the duct of the accessory gland to the mouth of the
oviducts, or, in the cases where the vaginal glands just described
occur, to their point of insertion—for instance, Agriotes spu-
tator and marginatus, Athous subfuscus, and Campylus linearis.

Finally, many Elateridz possess a peculiar kind of lubricating
glands, of which the yellow oily secretion is destined to facilitate
the sliding of the vagina in the muscular tube. In Agriotes
_aterrimus, obscurus, sputator, and marginatus they are oval,
almost reniform ; in Diacanthus tessellatus very long and slender,
a little club-shaped toward their extremity. In Melanotus casta-
nipes they are long, furnished with a lateral branch, and their
end is tortuous; their walls are distinctly observed to be filled
with transparent glandular cells placed edgewise ; towards their
mouth they are abruptly constricted, and then continue them-
selves as two minute tortuous tubes inside the outer membrane
of the vagina, form a small dilatation, and finally perforate this
membrane so as to discharge their contents in the muscular
case of the vagina. The whole glandular tube can be moved by
means of striped muscular fibres.

The ovipositor is a long, thin, chitinous tube, supported by a
pair of small lateral flaps, terminating in a small joint covered
with short and stiff hairs, which carries the vaginal palpi.

The male of Lacon murinus possesses a pair of bag-shaped
scent-glands, of not inconsiderable dimensions; they are situ-

206 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

ated in the abdominal cavity, and can be pushed out behind

the dorsal shield of the penultimate segment. When they are

retracted in their natural position, numerous ducts, proceeding

from the glandular cells (which are accumulated so as to form.
acini), are seen to open at their bottom. They are furnished

with striped muscular fibres, fixed to the bottom and on one

side, and when they are protruded, the greater part of the cel-

lular tissue and muscular fibres follow the walls of the bags,

and are consequently then situated inside the bags, which are

turned outside in.

With regard to the nervous system, I have to observe that
the ventral chords are not separated beyond the ganglion meta-
thoracicum ; but for the rest they are.closely united, sometimes
enclosed in one and the same neurilemma. There are eight
abdominal ganglia, of which the first two are situated in the
metathorax, the foremost of them close to the metathoracical
ganglion ; the seventh and eighth ganglia (the sexual ganglia)
are as usual closely united. The nervous stems for the organs
of respiration proceed as usual from particular small ganglia in
front of the abdominal ganglia connected with the ventral cords.

If, now, we institute a comparison between the inner structure
of Buprestide and that of Elateridz, the essential results will
be the following :—

BUPRESTIDA. ELATERIDZ.

The trachee furnished with
numerous vesicles.

Salivary glands very much ra-
mified.

The digestive tube long, two
or three times the length of the
animal,

(Esophagus long, the craw
large, situated in the hind part
of the prothorax, in the meso-
thorax, or even in the metathorax:

Csophagus with large lateral
dilatations in those species which
feed on flowers.

The stomach long, with two
horns on its anterior extremity,
spirally wound behind, very glan-
dulous.

The intestine bent at an angle,
with strongly developed glandu-
lous colon.

The trachee without vesicles.
No salivary glands.

The digestive tube short, very
little longer than the animal.

(Esophagus very short, the
craw small, situated in the fore
part of the prothorax.

(Esophagus simple, even in
species feeding on flowers.

The stomach short, almost
straight, without horns, very few
glands.

The intestine straight; the
colon not at all distinct, or, rather,
indistinctly marked; few glands.

of Buprestidz and Elateride.

BUPRESTID.

Six Malpighian vessels, of
which the ends are fixed to the
angle of the intestine.

The folliculi testium very long,
tubular, at the base elliptically
dilated; the ends of all the folli-
culi in each testis twisted into a
spiral ; each testis furnished with
its own enclosing membrane.

Two pairs of vesicule semi-
nales,—one thick, pear-shaped ;
the other long, tubiform, closely
twisted.

Spermatheca very simple, elon-
gated, club-shaped, without ac-
cessory gland *.

The ventral cords of the ner-
vous system separated in their
entire length.

The ganglia of the mesothorax
and metathorax coalesced.

Five abdominal ganglia ; only
the last three in the abdominal
cavity. The first abdominal gan-
glion distinct from the metatho-
racic ganglion.

207
ELATERID.

Four Malpighian vessels, with
free ends.

The testes free ; the folliculi
short, more or less round, mutu-
ally free.

Three pairs of vesicule semi-
nales, of which two pairs vary
exceedingly in structure.

Spermatheca of extremely vary-
ing, often very complicated struc-
ture, with large ramified acces-
sory gland.

The ventral cords of the ner-
vous system separated only as far
as the metathoracic ganglion.

All thoracic ganglia sepa-
rate.

Eight abdominal ganglia; the
last six situated in the abdominal
cavity. The first abdominal gan-
glion united with the metathora-
cic ganglion.

IX.

The investigations of which we have given the results in the
preceding pages prove that-the mutual relation of these two
families is very different from what was formerly supposed.
With regard to development, structure, and habits of life, they
appear as widely separated as two families can be, within the
boundaries of the same principal division of animals. Amongst
Serricornia, Buprestide occupy, in all stages of life, the same
place as Cerambycide and, more particularly, Lamiini (Lamia,
Saperda, &c.) amongst the phytophagous or cryptopentamerous
Coleoptera. Hlateridz, on the contrary, are carnivorous as larvae,
and in that stage of their life very like the larve of Carabide,
from which it follows (on account of the influence of the genera-
tive life on the structure) that also in their perfect state Elateride

* In the paper above quoted on the anatomy of Buprestidae, the bursa
copulatrix is erroneously represented as spermatheca, and the true sperma-
theea as accessory gland—an error which was easily rectified by the use of
a better microscope.

208 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification ‘

exhibit analogies with Carabide, as far as their larve live in a
free state, but with Buprestide when their eggs are deposited in
timber and for that reason are developed rather with a view to
their flying-capacity than to their “clicking ”’-powers. On the
other hand, their feeding on pollen causes analogy with the phy-
tophagous Coleoptera, particularly with the Cerambycide, because
analogous food requires an analogous arrangement of the mouth.
The starting-point of the modifications of the mouth being thus
identical in both families, we find a parallelism between these
modifications in those cases in each family where the work of
propagating the species becomes so considerable as to occupy
the whole time and strength of the animal in its perfect state :
thus Melasini and Eucnemidini amongst Elateride correspond
to Prionini, Asemini, and Callidiini amongst Cerambycide, just
as those Elateride which frequent flowers correspond to Lep-
turini.

But if this be so, it seems that a new light is thrown on the
whole series of Serricornia through these results. Very exten-
sive investigations are necessary to place the relations of that
entire division in a perfectly clear light, as our present know-
ledge of the great majority of these Coleoptera is entirely im-
sufficient to afford us a deeper insight. But it may perhaps
even now be predicted without presumption that the other divi-
sions of that series likewise will show themselves parallel to
different divisions in other series of the order of Coleoptera, the
different elements of nutrition and propagation influencing the
structure of the animals in a corresponding manner. ‘The pe-
culiar type of Coleoptera calculated for life in free air, which we
describe as Serricornia, will most probably eventually divide it-
self into two principal series, each containing three or four families :
in one of these series (distinguished by having four Malpighian
vessels with free ends, and other characters) Elateridee would
correspond to Carabide, Cyphonide to Dytiscide, and Lampy-
ride to Silphide and Staphylinide; whilst in the other series
(distinguished by possessing, amongst other peculiarities, six
Malpighian vessels, of which the ends are fixed to the intestine)
Buprestide would correspond to Cerambycide, Anobiide to
Curculionidee, Melyride to Chrysomelide, and Cleridze to Cocci-
nellide.

Arguments derived from the general impression of the out-
ward form, or from isolated considerations of some single
feature in the structure or habits of the animals, would not
avail against a comparison of this kind, which must be judged
from those points of view which have been explained in the pre-
ceding parts of this article. Looking at the matter in this light,
nobody can avoid being struck with the astonishing multiplicity

of Buprestidee and Elateride. 209

of combinations which the insect world exhibits also in this re-
spect, seeing*that in one single order at least four or five parallel
series of great natural families can be pointed out, presenting
so many cross combinations of characters in all their organic
systems, always different in type, always analogous in modifica-
tion, whilst the only other series of animals provided with true
limbs, in the modern creation, viz. Vertebrata, hardly exhibits
anything corresponding to this, except Marsupialia and Chon-
dropterygii.
X.

Tt has been explained above how the Elateride, by degrees,
as their habits of life associate them less with timber and wood,
are less developed for flight and nocturnal life, and more for
“clicking” and daylight life. The two extreme points of this
development are indicated by Melasis and Campylus, which are
connected by an infinite series of transitions; and Campylus
approaches not a little to Cantharis.

The development of the Elater-type in the direction of flight
and night life is characterized by the following features :—

1. The eyes become smoother, so that at last the facets pro«
trude so little that they are not to be distinguished except when
strongly magnified, and the whole cornea becomes quite shiny.

2. The sensitive pores of the antennz * are more closely ac-
cumulated on the lower part of both sides of the joints, whereby
well-defined poriferous spots are sometimes formed, usually
from the third or fourth joint. Such spots, however, are not
constantly distinguishable, except in Melanotus, Adrastus, Agri-
otes, Sericosomus, and Ludius. Amongst Diacanthi, D. eneus is
distinguished by very small and little-depressed poriferous spots;
and amongst the species of Athous, A. rhombeus is distinguished
by double spots—namely, besides a lower series beginning on
the third jomt, also an upper series beginning on the fifth joint.
The gigantic tropical species of the genera Oxynopterus, Tetra-
lobus, and Charitophyllus possess extensive naked poriferous
spots, particularly on the fan-branches of the male.

3. The forehead is more rounded downwards towards the
mouth, the antennz are more closely approached to one an-
other, the prothorax is shortened, and the “ springing-spine”
(mucro saltatorius) is more distinctly separated from the pro-
‘sternal spine; the legs are more completely arranged for being
folded up and accommodated inside the margins of the body ;
the general outline of the body assumes a higher and at the
same time more elongated oval shape, the edges are rounded off,

* 9 my treatise on Cerambycide, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist, ser. 3. vol. xv.
p. 193.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3, Vol. xviii. 15

210 Prof, J. C, Schiddte on the Classification

the ventral surface more vaulted, the marginal ribs of the elytra
effaced, their deflected lateral part (epipleura) is more bent
in and diminished in size behind the coxe ; the legs are more
arranged for running, with delicate feet and weak claws; the
hairy covering becomes more close and silky, the sculpture less
distinct, the ribs of the elytra lower, the colour duller, yellowish,
brown, red, but never strongly metallic.

The development of the Elater-type in the opposite direction,
towards springing and day life, is characterized by the following
marks :—

1. The eyes become less smooth, the facets protrude more,
and the appearance of the cornea becomes duller.

2. The sensitive pores are more equally spread over the whole
surface of the antenne.

3. The forehead slopes more gradually down towards the
mouth ; the antenne are further removed from one another ; the
prothorax is more elongated, the mucro saltatorius presents a
more direct continuation of the prosternal spine; the legs pro-
trude more to the sides ; the animal is less arched both above
and below, the margins are sharpened, the whole outline becomes
a more elongated ellipse ; the marginal rib of the elytra becomes
flatter and remains entire; the epipleura is more straight and
broader; the legs are more especially adapted for walking and
climbing, with club-shaped terminal tarsal joint and powerful
claws ; the body is more closely haired, the sculpture coarser;
the ribs of the elytra are raised at the base; the colour is
heightened often to metallic lustre, or to distinct design.

If every combination of characters drawn from this cirele were
used for the foundation of genera, we should reach that point
towards which modern classification for a long time has been
tending in this family as in others, viz. the identification in
most cases of genus and species; for all these features unite in
the most multifarious manner, constantly appearing in new
-cross combinations. In the following synoptical table of the
Danish species these characters are therefore considered sub-
ordinate, and only used for the classification of species within
the boundaries of the different genera. These latter are founded
on other characters, which have been explained in all essential
points in the preceding chapters, so that but little remains to
-be added here.

That Sternoxi exhibit similar differences in the composition of
the sockets of the middle pair of coxe to those observed in
Carabide has been noticed in an earlier treatise*. Since then,

* Proc, Royal Soc. of Copenhag. 1855, p. 360. See Ann. & Mag. Nat.
Hist. ser. 3. vol. x. pp. 377-379.

of Buprestidz and Elateridée. 211

Thomson has shown with much ability the details of this point
of structure in Elateride.

_ Throughout the whole series up to Campylus the ventral sur-
face of the abdomen retains the same peculiarities, being horny,
hard, arched, with sharp edges, and so- composed that only the
last segment is moveable—a circumstance which, even in dried
specimens, is distinguishable by the fact that the membrane
between the last two segments is bare. In Campylus, however,
the ventral surface is flatter and softer, particularly along the
side edges, where it is almost quite soft, and all the segments
are moveable. This is in itself an indication of the power of
clicking having in Campylus become a subordinate point, as in
Melasini and Eucnemidini, though there it is due to a develop-
ment of the type in an entirely opposite direction ; for whilst in
Campylus the faculty of springing yields the first place to the
development of the legs, it is in the two groups just mentioned
the power of flight which is increased at the cost of the “ click-
ing.” But in Campylus we meet also with another important
cireumstance—namely, that the elytra do not, as in other genera
of this family, fit into a groove on the pronotum, but protrude
freely above its posterior edge. Amongst the digging Elateride-
or Cebrionini this arrangement is only met with in Cebrio.
The preponderance which, in conformity with this, is accorded
to the legs, shows itself in several peculiarities—for instance, in
this, that the fore legs cannot, as in other Elateride, be accom-
modated inside the hind corners of the pronotum, which there-
fore are continued backwards in the form of a spout. These
remarkable and important peculiarities in the structure of Cam-
pylus have hitherto been overlooked ; and thus it has not only
been classed together with such genera as Hemiops and Plectro-
sternus, with which it has in reality nothing to do, but authors
have even placed in the genus Campylus itself such species as
E. homalismus, Illig., and others, which do not resemble C. line-
aris or C. denticollis in anything except in general outline and
habitus, but entirely differ from them in the structure of the
sternum, limbs, and abdomen, and therefore must. find their
proper places in other genera of Elateride.

Besides Campylus there is one other Danish genus of this
family in which the pronotum is not arranged for receiving the
base of the elytra in its hind margin, and in which, therefore, in
like manner the springing-joint is without the essential support
afforded by this articulation. Campylus shows by its whole
structure that this want is connected with a reduction of the
springing-faculty in all points, and an increased development
of the limbs, We might therefore at first sight be surprised to
find the same want of support in the articulation in a genus

; 15*

212 Mr. A. Murray on the Homologies of

including some of the most powerful springing beetles, namely
Cryptohypnus (circumscribed in the manner indicated below).
It is, however, clear that what is lost in firmness is gained in
freedom of movement, inasmuch as the articulation thus modi-
fied allows the animal to stretch the prosternum much farther
back. We observe also that this bold feature in the structure
of Cryptohypnus is combined with and compensated by the
highest development of everything else which contributes to
the springing-process, such as the long prothorax, elytra with
raised ribs, &c., the small size (2 lines) of the animal being
also an important element in this respect. No doubt this
immense development of the springing-apparatus is calculated
to suit the habits of the animal, because, living in sandy soil,
they cannot depend either on firm support for the body in
springing, or on a firm footing while running. In such locali-
ties these small “clickers” skip with such power (nearly a foot
in height), with such rapidity, and so many times consecutively,
that it is often difficult to catch them.

[To be continued. |

XXX.—On the Homologies of the Male and Female Flowers of
Conifers. By Anprew Morray, F.L.S,.

[Plate X. ]

NorwitTHSTANDING the numerous analyses to which the flowers
of Conifers have been subjected, the opinion of botanists regard-
ing the significance of their parts is by no means unanimous.
Any additional light upon the subject should therefore be wel-
come.

The hot and long continued summer of 1865 seems, by ripen-
ing the wood, to have induced a more plentiful flowering of
Conifers this year than usual—many species which had not
previously flowered, or at least not previously produced male
flowers, having done so this summer. The study of some of
these has. presented the relations of the different parts to me in
a clearer light than any in which I have hitherto seen them
placed ; and I venture to submit them to the reader in the hope
that I may thus contribute to the clearing up of the difficulties
which surround them.

If we take the male catkin of any Cypressine Conifer, say Wel-
lingtonia, which is one of those which have produced male flowers
in Britain for the first time this year, we find that it consists of
a few scales (Pl. X. fig. 1), with small rounded balls peeping out
between them. These scales are obviously a mere continuation
of the scales of the branch; but on examining them minutely,

the Male and Female Flowers of Conifers. 213

we find that they are a little larger and broader, their margins
somewhat laciniated instead of being smooth, their colour, in-
stead of being green, yellowish fawn or pale brown, and their
texture, more especially at the margins, petaloid. It is often
difficult to tell whether an organ is a petal, a sepal, a bract, or a
leaf; but, speaking in a general way, there are two characters
which are rarely absent from petals, and help to distinguish
them: one of these is colour, and the other a peculiar elongated
cell-structure which does not, indeed, essentially differ from
other cell-structures, but which has a different aspect and is
easily recognized. We all know the texture of a petal; and
where that texture is present, either in whole or in part, it
furnishes a presumption that the organ possessing it is a
petal. In Conifers it often suggests the fact at once where, but
for it, the petaloid nature of the part could only be determined
in some more roundabout and difficult way. For instance, in
Cunninghamia Stnensis, where what is called the scale (but what
in that particular instance is the petal) is, as plainly as can be,
a continuation of the hard leaves of the branch, and, bearing
stomata, traces of the petaloid structure will be found in the
laciniated margin. So in Wellingtonia and all the Cypresses,
the scales which form the male catkin, although merely the
continuation of the leaves of the branch, are the petals, each
petal being one flower, and the small rounded balls which peep
out at their base are the anthers ; these are sessile and grow at,
along, or on the inferior margin of the petal, as shown in Pl. X.
figs. 2 & 3. Of course it makes no difference physiologically
whether they are sessile or grow upon longer or shorter fila-
ments or foot-stalks. At first they grow facing inwards towards
the axis; but by-and-by, probably from there not being sufficient
space there, they are turned backwards, as shown in fig. 4. I
should here observe that figs. 2 and 4 are respectively of Wel-
lingtonia and Sequoia sempervirens (the flowers of which corre-
spond in all respects), the former being what I observed first in
Wellingtonia, and the latter what I saw at a somewhat later date
in S. sempervirens. Ihave no doubt that if I had had the oppor-
tunity of observing Wellingtonia at the same later date, I should
have found the anthers reverted as in the other, or that if I had
thought of examining S. sempervirens at the earlier date, I
should then have found the anthers facing as in fig. 2.

In firs and pines exactly the same arrangement subsists: the
male flower assumes the form of fig. 5 when young, and of fig. 6
when full-grown and the anthers have burst and the pollen been
shed. Tig. 7 shows the underside before it has burst; and the
longitudinal line on each anther shows where it bursts, having
previously thinned off, perhaps through having been rubbed by

214 . Mr. A. Murray on the Homologies of ;

resting on that point against the upperside of the next anther:
It will be seen how exactly the male flower when young (fig. 8)
corresponds with the flower of Sequoia sempervirens and Welling-
tonia. The petal in Sequoia is larger and of a stronger con-
sistence, and its anthers are rounder and comparatively smaller;
but the chief difference is that, in the firs and pines, the anthers
on each side, although still sessile, have extended themselves
backwards, and united to the flower-stalk, which has become more
elongated. The petal is now called the crest of the anther, and
its back is now spoken of as its front, the more prominent and
more highly coloured side being exposed outwards; but the same
arrangements remain as in the Cypresses. The ‘petal or crest
of the anther is more highly petaloid in structure than in the
Cypresses, and its colour is usually more bright and rich ; but,
as in them, it is concave towards the axis and convex on the
outer side. The stamens are sessile as before, and attached to
the inferior margin of the petal; but the union is continued
down the peduncle, which is comparatively longet} ; that is all
the difference.

With the key thus given, it is impossible to misunderstand
the homologies of the male flowers: they are monopetalous and
diandrous in the firs and pines, monopetalous and polyandrous
in the Cypresses and allied genera.

The female flower is also monopetalous. In the young state
the petal is a small bract, sometimes green, sometimes even
more richly coloured than the petal of the male flower, but
always petaloid in texture, at least at the margins. Various,
authors have, from considerations of development and analogy,
surmised the identity of this bract with the stamens in the male
flower; but this is rather more than the truth. It is not
with the stamens that they correspond, but solely with the crest
which surmounts them, or, rather, from the base of which they
spring. As it appears to me, it has no analogy, affinity, or
homology either with the anthers or their peduncle.

This petal or bract is always present, so far as I have seen,
although in the mature cone it is sometimes difficult to distin-
guish it. It is developed to the greatest extent in some of the
silver firs, as Picea bracteata and P. nobilis. In the mature
cedar it may be wholly overlooked, it having in it, by the pres-
sure of the seed behind it, been reduced to a mere pale ragged
scurf, interrupted in the middle. In the Cypresses it is often
reduced to a mere membrane or crust. If we open a young
green cone of Wellingtonia or Sequoia sempervirens, we see the
space between the scales filled with a bright claret-coloured
matter which looks like an exudation, fitting into the sinuosities
of the scales. This is the petal; and if examined with a lens,

the. Male and Female Flowers of Conifers. 215

the petaloid texture is very obvious : when the cone is mature, the

tal has been converted into a film or crust. In the pines the
petal takes the form of a small stiff bract, which in some is very
plain in the mature cone, in others less so, or more or less
Pog or obliterated by the pressure of the surrounding
scales.

Another evidence that this bract is the petal is the fact that,

as in other flowers, it appears first, and remains for a short
time before the seeds or their envelopes begin to show them-
selves. It is, no doubt, persistent both in the male and female
flowers; but we have plenty of other flowers with persistent
petals; and although it does not fall off at the same stage as in
most other flowers, we can estimate the termination of its flower-
ing by the appearance of the parts connected with the fructifi-
cation inside of it.
- In other plants the seeds are developed within the petal or
petals, and their envelopes take their place in a determinate
order or series of concentric layers. That order, I think, is pre-
served in the Conifers; and I shall first contrast the layers or
envelopes which encircle the seed in ordinary dicotyledonous
plants with what I consider the same parts in Conifers, and
then take each of the parts separately and endeavour to show
that they are what I suppose them to be. The envelopes, be-
ginning with the petal and looking inwards, then, are as fol-
lows :—

In ordin
dicotyledonous plants. In Conifers.

1. Outermost envelope or

. Petal. Bract.

its appendages.
2. Next envelope. Disk. Scale.
_3. First covering of fruit. Pericarp. Wing of seed.
4) Becond ditto. Mesocarp. Cellular substance between

3 and 5.

5. Third ditto. - Endotarp. Testa.

The remaining envelopes of the nucleus of the ovule in the
Conifers (primine, secundine, &c.) in no respect differ in appear-
ance or function from those of other seeds, and therefore need
not be specially noticed.

_ An examination of the above parts shows nothing inconsistent
with the above distribution of function which I have assigned to
those of the Conifers.

l. The Scale.

As with the stamens growing on the inferior margin of the
male petal, the ovary takes its rise on the inferior margin of the
female petal. Physiologically, perhaps its ultimate origin is to
be referred. further back; but this is the point where it comes

216 Mr. A. Murray on the Homologies of

into view. Its first appearance and subsequent growth have
recently been fully traced by various physiologists; and I need
not recapitulate their observations. I refer the reader to Payer’s
observations, Baillon’s paper in the ‘Annales des Sciences,’ to
Dr. Dickson’s translation of a part of it and to his own obserya-
tions on Dammara and Araucaria in the Transactions of the
Botanical Society of Edinburgh, for details on the growth and
development of the ovary.

Figure 18, copied from one of Baillon’s figures of the germ in
its earliest state, shows its appearance when the wing begins to
manifest itself. The bract. les behind the scale, its margin
being just visible over the top of it. The position and appear-
ance of the germ at this stage is, to my mind, proof that it is
equivalent to the pistil. The two ears are the commencement
of the pistil.

Prof. Caspary, in a paper in the ‘ Natural Hist. Rev. (1862),
expresses his dissent from Baillon’s observations. He has made
similar investigations on allied species, and not got the same
results. He found, in the larch, that what Baillon calls the ovule
appeared first “in the shape of a hemispherical boss, around
which, some weeks later, the integument is produced, not in the
form of two distinct horseshoes, but of a complete ring, uniform
in height all round;” and therefore he held that it was the nu-
cleus of the seed, and that what becomes the wing was one of the
integuments of the ovule. So it is, no doubt ; but it is the outer
integument of the ovule—that is, the pistil or pericarp. All the
other integuments can be traced within. I rather look upon
Caspary’s objection as affecting the question whether the wing
&c. is a converted dicarpellary leaf or a converted single carpel-
lary leaf than whether it is a carpel at all.

I may, however, say one word in support of Payer and Bail-
lon’s observations. Founding on his observation on the larch,
Prof. Caspary says, “ As it is incredible that the integument of
Pinus Lari# should from the first be a regular ring, while that
of the other Conifers examined by M. Baillon presents in its
earliest condition the appearance of two horseshoes, the observa-
tions of MM. Baillon and Payer appear to me more than doubt-
ful.” But it is not alone the observations of Payer or of Baillon,
nor the confirmation of them by Dr. Dickson, that would require
to be set aside; the very same thing was seen and figured by
the older writers. Lambert figures it very distinctly, in his
genus Pinus, as present im the cedar, and so does Richard in his
monograph ‘ De Coniferis, &c. ;’ and as he also figures different
modifications of it, we may be allowed to hope that the different
appearances are not so irreconcilable as Prof. Caspary supposes.

I think I find an unintentional and indirect support of the

the Male and Female Flowers of Conifers. 217

view I have taken of the nature of the scale in one of the results
announced by Baillon. No doubt we differ in some respects.
He holds, and so do I, that the fructification of Conifers is not
gymnospermatous, but that it possesses a true dicarpellary ovary ;
but he holds also that it is without floral envelopes, in which, as
already said, I do not agree. But the inference he arrived at
which has most interest to me is, that “the cupule, of various
consistence and form, which surrounds the ovary, and which in
several genera has received the name of aril, is a later produc-
tion, although anterior to fecundation, as is the case in those
floral organs (resulting from an ulterior expansion of the axis)
which have been termed disks.”

This seems to mean that the cupule of the yew is a disk. I
so hold it, and regard it as the homologue of the scale in the
pines ; only, the flower being here solitary, the seed is wholly
surrounded by the disk, instead of, as in the pine (where it is
not solitary), being confined to one side, its place on the other
being supplied by the back of the next disk, on which it leans.
If Baillon also meant to include the scale of the pines under the
term cupule, then he has anticipated me in the view which I
now propound, and I must content myself with the ejaculation
*‘ Pereant qui ante nos nostra dixerunt.” But I think I may
(indeed, in the interest of the hypothesis, I ought to) state that
my view is neither borrowed nor adapted from that of Baillon:
T arrived at it by the route I have above pointed out; and it
was only on turning back to Baillon’s paper, in order to verify
my statement of his other views, for the purpose of this paper,
that I noticed the bearing of the passage above quoted.

Thus arrived at by independent minds, and by a different
course of reasoning, the probability of its being the true solution
is materially strengthened.

If, then, the bract is the petal and the wing of the seed the
pistil, what is the scale? It cannot be the pericarp (which is
the most tempting and natural-looking idea), because the peri-
carp must necessarily be one of the coats of the pistil.. There
is only one thing that it can be; and that is, the disk. The
definition of a disk ‘is, that it is whatever intervenes between the
stamens and the pistil. To be sure, we have no stamens here;
but we know very well where they should be if the flower were
hermaphrodite, viz. springing from the base of the bract behind
the scale ; so that by no contrivance could they come between
the scale and the germ growing on its base.

The scale must therefore be the disk. That organ assumes great
variety of form, such as scales, hairs, glands, petaloid appendages ;
but that form which seems most parallel to the present case is the
inner lining of the hip of the rose. In fact the fruit of the Conifer

218: Mr. A. Murray on the Homologies of

is a hip whose disk, instead of enclosing the seed all round, lies,
like the petal, only on one side ; and the reason is plain. Nature
sets us all an example of economy. If she were about to build
a house, and the gable of another house would serve for one of
its walls, she would never be at the wasteful expenditure of
building a second wall parallel to it, but would use the old
gable to save space and expense. She has done so in the Coni-
fers; she has built her wall of disk leaning on the back of the’
next disk, making its back wall serve for the front of her house,
as shown in the section (fig. 17). |

The same one-sided arrangement follows into the seed; but
there it appears to be the result of its position and the physical
or mechanical consequences of the growth of the parts about it.
At first a mere rounded carpel with the apex of the pistil look-
ing downwards, it is soon compressed and flattened by the
growth of the scale outside of it and of the neighbouring scale
inside of it, and the epicarp dragged forward or pushed up (or,
what is the same thing, the growth is inclined in that direction)
so as to form the wing; and this in most cases is carried on until
it has left the endocarp itself bare on the inner side, and some-
times partially and at others wholly bare on the outer side too.

Looking at the scale in the above light, it may be desirable to
note one or two points in its structure and development which, I
think, have been overlooked. Not that they perhaps have any
bearing upon the question of its being a disk, but merely to
make a jotting of the facts.

In pines and those Conifers which have an exposed apophysis
and mucro, the first part of the scale which appears is the mucro
of the apophysis. Fig. 9 shows the young female cone of Wel-
lingtonia. much magnified; and figs 10 and 11 represent an in-
dividual scale seen from the exterior and sideways, with the
young seeds hanging from it on the inner side. At this stage
it is very apt to deceive the observer as to its homology, seeing
that it is not much larger than the male petal, and, like it, ap-
parently a continuation of the seale-like leaves of the branch:
one’s first idea naturally is that it is the homologue of the male
petal; but on examination, besides finding the true claret-
coloured petal behind it, we fail to perceive the petaloid texture
at the margin; the margin is not laciniated, and the texture is
the ordinary cell-texture of the leaf.

The subsequent growth of the scale is chiefly from the base.
This is the case with leaves too. The point of a leaf never
increases much in size; it is the middle or posterior half where
the chief growth takes place. In the male flower we have seen
that it is the peduncle which elongates, increasing and extend-
ing the dimensions of the anther with it, but carrying on the.

the Male and Female Flowers of Conifers. 219

petal or crest of the anther at its extremity without materially
adding to its size; so the same process of growth takes place
here. The apex of the scale is pushed on by the growth of the
lower part of the scale, and its shoulders are filled out and dis-
tended, by the accumulation of cell-growth behind them, until
they assume the form of a mature apophysis. It is in conse-
quence of the growth of the scale taking place in this manner
that in some Conifers, as the firs and pines, we have the seeds
growing upright in an orthotropal manner from the base of the
scale, while in others, as Wellingtonia and Sciadopitys, they
hang down from the upper part of the scale. The point of in-
sertion of the seeds is obviously close upon the boundary line
where the growth of the scale commences to act with vigour.
If it be below it, the seeds grow upwards, being determined in
that direction by their base or foundation being as it were
pushed downwards, and the body of the scale, by its lengthen-
ing upwards, giving an inclination to the seed resting on it to
follow in its growth the same direction. If the insertion, on the
other hand, is above the point of growth, their base, being at-
tached to the body of the scale, is carried upwards with it, and
their apex is turned downwards by the upward growth of their-
point of insertion, as, indeed, they could not well grow in any
other direction. If I am right in this interpretation of the cause
of the seeds in some species growing up, and in others growing
down, it deprives that fact of much of the significance which
systematists have sought to attach to it.

The growth of the scale is strengthened in the interior by a
woody core; but here, too, its appearance is very apt to mislead
us. Figs. 12 and 13 represent respectively.the core of a scale
of Wellingtonia and of a fir. It has a strong resemblance to
the flat branches which we often see in distorted shoots of the
spruce fir, where two or three twigs have become united ; and
hence many observers have adopted the view that the scale was
only a converted branch: but every part of a plant is only a
phase of another, all being referable to some modification of a
leaf; therefore the analogy to be drawn from its branch-like
core is no ground for holding the scale to be analogous to a
branch. The same objection would apply to all pericarps having
a woody core. .

It is to be observed, too, that although in the pines and
spruce firs this core remains, like a branch, and does not fall off
like most other pericarps, in the silver firs it does become con-
stricted at the base and drops off as they do.

The core is double, as is well shown in Richard’s figures ;
but while apparently a double central stem, each of which we
should expect to supply respectively the inner and outer halves

220 Mr. A. Murray on the Floral Homologies of Conifers.

of the scale, it is in reality allotted wholly to the inner half of
the scale. Fig. 14 shows the apophysis of the scale in Welling-
tonia, fig. 15 a section of a scale taken from a mature cone of
that species, and fig. 16 a section of a scale of Pinus patula ;
and it will be seen that the posterior ligneous plate in both cuts
in with rather an abrupt turn just behind the mucro. It would
appear therefore as if the greater strength was apportioned to
the inner portion of the structure rather than to the outer,
which is just what we find in other nuts, such as the cocoa-nut,
&e.

2. The Wing and Envelopes of the Seed.

I assume, then, as a fact already proved, that the covering of
the seed of which the wing is part is the carpel. In discrimi-
nating its different parts, the only difficulty is with regard to
the mesocarp. The testa is, of course, the endocarp, equivalent
to the stone of the peach or to the pip of the cherry. The wing
is equally, of course, part of the epicarp. It is double, and, as
already said, usually covers one side of the seed entirely, and
more or less of the other side. In the firs, and especially the
silver firs, it is folded like a sheet triangularly round the seed,
leaving a portion at each end more or less exposed. There is,
however, not much mesocarp ; but if the wing in some species
be cut across immediately above the seed, a moderate thickness
of cellular substance will be found there. This I consider the
mesocarp, which thins off on either side. .

Within the carpel are found, in Conifers as in other plants,
the ovule, consisting of a nucleus enclosed in its two coverings,
the primine (the outer) and the secundine (the inner), as diffi-
cult to distinguish as in other plants, but not more so; and the
tercine, quartine, and quintine of Mirbel, representing respec-
tively the albumen of the cotyledons, the circumvolution of the
embryo-sac, and the embryo-sac itself, are, of course, there too.

There remains to say one word, and only one, upon the cor-
puscles in the ovule. It appears to me that their significance
has not been fully apprehended. The corpuscles or embryo-sacs,
rightly taken, are the young cotyledons; and to say that an
ovule has only two cotyledons is merely saying in other words
that it has only one embryo-sac; or to say that it is polycoty-
ledonous, is equivalent to telling us that it has corpuscles in
the ovule. Brown says upon this point, “that each of these
opaque bodies terminating the trunk and branches of the funi-
culi are really rudimentary embryos, is proved by tracing them
from their absolutely simple state to that in which the divisions
of the lower extremity become visible, and those again into the
perfect cotyledon.”

Mr. A. W. FE. O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters. 221

_ This, therefore, is a character of the Gymmospermata which
must be withdrawn by those who wish to retain Gnetum,
Ephedra, or Welwitschia in the same group as the Conifers and
Cycads. I donot; but to give my reasons for that would be to
open another phase of the subject, which it is not my intention
to enter upon here.

XXXI.—On Green Oysters. By AntuuR W.E.O’SHAavucHnessy,
of the British Museum.

Pury tells us of red oysters being found in Spain, of others
of a tawny hue in Ilyricum, and of black ones at Circeii, the
latter being, he says, black both in meat and shell. More-
over these black oysters seem to have borne the palm of excel-
lence in ancient times, being mentioned by various writers,
amongst whom we may cite Horace; and, in spite of Mucianus,
who tries hard to puff the oysters of Cyzicus as “larger than
those of Lake Lucrinus, fresher than those of the British coasts,
sweeter than those of Medulle, more tasty than those of Ephesus,
more plump than those of Lucus, less slimy than those of Cory-
phas, more delicate than those of Istria, and whiter than those
of Circeii,” Pliny records it as an ascertained fact that there
were no oysters fresher or more delicate than those of Circeii.
So much for black oysters, which we have never seen, and do
not wish to deal with at present. Green oysters seem to be a
more modern invention, and, as far as we can learn, are in many
cases thoroughbred “ young natives”—that is, Britishers, which
appear to have made a rather unfavourable impression on the
palates of our neighbaurs across the channel.

Some time ago a considerable excitement was created in
France by the story of certain luckless individuals, who, having
eaten of poisonous green oysters in the market at Rochefort,
suffered accordingly. Upon inquiry, it was found that these
oysters came from Marennes, on the west coast of France.
Now Marennes, has long been famous for green oysters; but,
by the united exertions of the mayor of Marennes and his se-
cretary, M. Bourricaud, the fact was elicited that poisonous green
oysters came from Falmouth, in Cornwall. In a letter to the
‘Moniteur,’ on this subject, M. Bourricaud showed how “the
enormously increased demand forthe green oysters of Marennes,
so justly renowned for their delicacy, had rendered the oyster-
banks of that coast insufficient to supply the beds’”—how, under
these circumstances, it had become necessary to have recourse
to Spain, Brittany, England, and Ireland—and how the young
natives from Falmouth were not deemed presentable until they

222 Mr, A. W.E.O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters,

had been subjected to about six months sojourn in the company
of their French brethren, Coming, after this prefatory informa-
tion, to the case in point, he related how a certain tradesman,
actuated by the lawless desire of premature aggrandizement,
had been guilty of selling, in the market of Rochefort, oysters
from Falmouth which had remained only three weeks in the
French beds. By a prompt analysis of the remaining indivi-
duals belonging to this poisonous batch of oysters, made by
M. Cuzent, it was found that an average of “ 23 centigrammes
(about 34 grains) of salt of copper was yielded by a dozen of
these oysters”—a dose which, as M. Crosse remarks, in the
‘Journal de Conchyliologie,’ is more than sufficient to account
for the evil effects which are said to have manifested themselves.

The presence of so extraordinary a product as copper in these
oysters was soon accounted for by the discovery that the part of
the Bay of Falmouth whence they were brought was in the im-
mediate vicinity of a mine of copper then in process of working.
The waters which continually washed the bank, being strongly
impregnated with salts of copper, communicated a similar sea-
soning to the oysters, which, thanks to their obtuseness of or-
ganization, seem to have been very little affected by it them-
selves, and to have become in some sort acclimatized.

Very different, however, was the effect produced on the un-
suspecting dupes of the Rochefort merchant. According to all
accounts, it would appear to have been a veritable case of poi-
soning, although, we believe, fatal consequences were averted ;
and, in spite of the assurances of M. Bourricaud, that a “ com-
plete poisoning” by means of these oysters would be impossible,
we agree with the editor of the ‘ Journal de Conchyliologie’ that
an incomplete one is a sufficiently disagreeable affair,

In order to ascertain the presence of copper in the oyster,
M. Cuzent recommends that a sufficient quantity of pure am-
monia be ponred upon the flesh, which will soon declare its
poisonous qualities by assuming the dark-blue tint which dis-
tinguishes ammoniacal salts of copper. Another method is to
plunge a sewing-needle into the green parts of the oyster, and
immerse it so transfixed in vinegar. In a few seconds the parts
of the needle in contact with the flesh will become covered with
a coating of red copper reduced to the metallic state. It appears
that an oyster in which the green tint is peculiarly clear is
especially to be avoided, while those which are of a bluish green
colour are not only fit to eat, but are considered very choice.

_ Now the green tint frequently observable in the oyster has
attracted the attention of scientific men from time to time, long
before the serious occurrences just mentioned, which took place
in the spring of 1862; and it would seem that, in nearly all the

Mr, A. W. BE. O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters. 223

eases on record in which fatal consequences have followed their
use as an article of food, there is reason to suspect that copper
has been the chief cause of the evil.

So far back as the year 1713, mention is made of a certain

luxurious supper given by an ambassador at the Hague, who,
in order that no delicacies might be wanting, procured green
oysters from England. All who eat of them are said-to have
been immediately seized with severe colics, and to have been
cured with great difficulty. Lentilius, on whose authority this
account rests, states that it was afterwards ascertained that the
merchant, whom he anathematizes with his whole race, had
palmed upon the ambassador some common oysters tinted with
copper, for the true greens*.
_ Another case is recorded by Dr. Chisholm in the ‘ Edinburgh
Medical and Surgical Journal,’ vol. iv. p.400. He was informed
by Mr. William Newton, of St. Croix, that some time after the
British frigate ‘Santa Monica’ was cast away on the coast of the
island of St. John (one of the Virgin Islands), oysters grew on
her bottom, which was coppered. Many people ate of these
oysters ; and although the consequence was in no case fatal, it
was dangerous and unpleasant in a very great degree, producing
cholera and excruciating tormina.

With regard to those oysters in which the green tint is not
due to any such deleterious cause, but, on the contrary, rather
enhances their value as a delicacy, many very different explana-
tions have been offered of the manner in which that colour is
acquired. It has been said that the water in the artificial beds,
remaining stagnant in warm weather, becomes green, and soon
communicates the same colour to the oysters themselves ; and
Dr. Johnston, speaking of the French oysters, says that, in order
to communicate to them a green colour, which, as with us, en-
hances their value in the market and in the estimation of the
epicure, they are placed for a time in tanks or “ parks,” formed
_ in particular places near high-water mark, and into which the
sea can be admitted at pleasure by means of sluices; the water
being kept shallow and left at rest is favourable to the growth
of the green Conferve and Ulve; and with these there are
generated at the same time innumerable minute crustaceous
animalcules which serve the oysters for food, and tincture their
flesh with the desirable hue.

In 1820 M. Benjamin Gaillon made a series of observations
upon this subject, which he communicated to the Académie des
Sciences de Rouen, and which led him to the conclusion that
the green colour of oysters is due to the absorption of micro-
scopic animalcules allied to the Vibrio tripunctatus of Miiller,

* Dr. Johnston’s ‘ Introduction to Conchology,’ p. 19.

224 Mr. A. W.E.O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters.

for which he proposed the name of Vibrio ostrearius. These
creatures he described as gelatinous, linear in shape, pointed at
the extremities, rounded in the middle, being also contractile in
that part, and charged with a quantity of green fluid. He says
that they inhabit the water of the tanks or “ parks” in which
the oysters are preserved, in such immense abundance at certain
periods of the year that they can only be compared to the
grains of dust which rise in clouds and obscure the air in dusty
weather.

In a résumé of his observations on this subject which he con-
tributed to the ‘Journal de Physique,’ tome xci. (1820) p. 222,
he observes that the change of colour takes place only in the
“parks” or reservoirs of salt water, where the oysters are kept
on being brought from the sea. These “parks,” which are about
4 feet in depth, 200 to 250 feet in length by about 50 feet in
breadth, are capable of containing from 500,000 to 600,000
oysters: such are those of Marennes, Oléron, Courseulles, Caen,
Havre, Dieppe, Tréport, &. At certain seasons of the year,
particularly from April to June, and again in September, the
water becomes, in some of these reservoirs, of a dark-green tint ;
even the small stones at the bottom of the tanks are covered
with small green points or excrescences. Then, says M. Gaillon,
the oysters which are destined to assume the same colour are
placed, with great care, one by one, and side by side, in order
that none may rest upon any of the others, and the supply of
fresh currents of water is suspended for a longer or shorter
period, according to the required intensity of the green.

M. Gaillon rejects the supposition that the change of colour
is the result of disease, on the ground that, having compared
the green oysters with those of the normal tint, he found all the
organs quite as healthy in the former as in the latter.

To the opinion which has often been entertained, that the
green colour is due to the numerous minute particles of marine
plants which either themselves form the food of the oyster or
communicate their colour to the water absorbed by it, he objects
that the plants which most commonly find their way into the
reservoirs are the Ulva compressa and the Conferva litoralis,
which are known to turn yellow with age, and which, if mace-
rated and left for several days in jars of salt or even fresh water,
will not communicate the least tint of green to the fluid, whereas
both the mouth and stomach of the oyster are totally unfitted
for such food as Ulve or Confervee.

By the aid of the microscope, M. Gaillon discovered that the
little green excrescences with which the stones at the bottom of
the tank were constantly studded were nothing more than a
heap of the tiny animaleules which filled the water in myriads,

Mr. A. W. E. O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters, 225

and which, when thus collected together in a lump, became
visible to the naked eye. He says that, on placing a drop of
the water under the microscope, he perceived thousands of
Vibrios sporting about with every possible kind of motion—
sometimes with a sudden jerk or impulsion forwards or back-
wards, sometimes spinning round on their own axis like the
needle of a compass, sometimes standing straight up on one
end, or darting off with astonishing velocity at some other ani-
malcule, and sticking one of their pointed extremities into him
as if it were a lance.

That the green colour which makes its appearance in the
oyster is really due to the absorption of these living atoms, M.
Gaillon has expressed his firm conviction, both in the ‘ Journal
de Physique’ above cited, and in the ‘ Memoirs of the Linnean
Society of Calvados.’ He assures us that as soon as the fresh
water is again allowed to have free access to the reservoir the
oysters gradually lose both the green hue and the altered flavour
which accompanies it, although they are sometimes so thoroughly
impregnated with the green matter that they do not quite lose
it even in the winter, consequently long after the disappearance
of the Vibrios; there is, however, a gradual and sensible dimi-
nution in the tint. It is this duration of the green colour so
long after the animalcules have ceased to exist, says M. Gaillon,
which accounts for the assertion that green oysters may be ob-
tained all the year round; those, he observes, who have never
witnessed the intensity of the colour at certain seasons of the
year would probably designate as green oysters any which showed
the faintest remnant of that tint.

According to all observers, it is the region of the branchiz or
gills which exhibits this peculiarity the most strikingly. Now
M. Gaillon assures us, from having examined these organs with
the microscope, and compared the orifices of the tubular fila-
ments with the size of the animalcules, that the latter could not
possibly enter the system of the oyster in that region.

Perhaps one of the most significant facts recorded by M.
Gaillon as the result of his laborious observations is, that at dif-
ferent seasons of the year the water of the oyster-“ parks” pre-
sents very different tints, being sometimes brown, at others
green or yellow—both the brown and the yellow being equally
the result of the abundant presence of microscopical animalcules
of a different species from the green Vibrio ostrearius. The
brown species, we are told, has as striking an effect on the colour
of the oyster as the green one, and greatly improves its flavour ;
whereas the yellow are considered prejudicial.

With reference to these so-called animalcules, we need scarcely
state that the atoms hitherto referred to the genus Vibrio are

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvii. 16

226 =©Mr. A. W. E. O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters.

now recognized as being of a vegetable nature. The species
ostrearius appears in the last edition of Pritchard’s work on the
Infusoria as a Navicula.

In spite of the detailed observations and experiments of M.
Gaillon, we find M. Valenciennes remarking, at the commence-
ment’of a paper on the same subject at the ‘Comptes Rendus
de l’Académie des Sciences’ for 1841, “On sait combien les
explications données jusqu’a ce jour sur la coloration des huitres
laissent encore a désirer.’” The object of this paper is to prove
that the green colour is due to an animal matter which must be
quite distinct from all green organic substances hitherto known.

M. Valenciennes says that the only externally visible organs
which display this colour are the four leaflets of the branchiz.
On lifting the upper part of the mantle, the inner surface of
the labial palps alone appear coloured; and on extending the
examination to the internal organs, the intestinal canal beyond
the stomach is seen to be of a bright green colour; the liver is
of a blackish green tint instead of the usual red; but neither
the muscles, nerves, heart, nor even the juices of the body exhi-
bit any change of colour,

According to M. Valenciennes, the colouring matter offers
nothing remarkable when viewed under the microscope; but
when examined chemically it is found to possess certain proper-
ties which led him to the conclusion above quoted. His ob-
servations were made on the large green oysters of Marennes ;
but he says that like results have followed the application of
the same chemical tests to the so-called green oysters of Ostend,
which are less strongly coloured.

M. Dumas made some experiments in order to discover if the
green matter might not owe much of its colour to Prussian blue.
The result is stated to have been in the negative. However con-
clusive the observations of M. Valenciennes may appear, Prof.
Bizio, in a memoir read before the Institute of Venice in the year
1845, calls attention to the fact that some ten years previously
he demonstrated the existence of copper in the branchial organs
of the Ostrea edulis, at the time when a similar discovery was
made with reference to the spire of the Murer. He says that he
then hinted at the possibility of the green colour observed in the
branchiz being the effect of the copper which enters into the
composition of that organ, and that he has been confirmed in
that opinion by these very experiments of M. Valenciennes,
which, he says, tend to.make it evident, to anybody who knows
anything about copper, that the colouring matter is neither more
nor less than that metal combined with, and disguised in, the
organic substance of the oyster.

It might be somewhat tedious to the reader were we to give

Mr. A. W. E. O’Shaughnessy on Green Oysters. 227

a detailed account of the experiments made by Prof. Bizio with
a view to prove this assertion. These experiments, he tells us,
were begun in June and continued till the month of September ;
they appear to have been conducted with great care and precision,
and we would refer those anxious to pursue the investigation of
this curious and interesting subject at greater length than we
have space to do at present to Prof. Bizio’s paper, which will be
found in the fourth volume of the ‘ Transactions’ of the above-
named academy.

Suffice it to say that ammonia, which was one of the principal
tests employed by M. Valenciennes in his experiments, is also
the agent on which Prof. Bizio most relies; and the results
which the latter obtained certainly go to prove that the. effects
recorded by M. Valenciennes as having been produced by am-
monia on the coloured portions of the oyster, were, in part, due
to the presence of copper.

It is remarkable that, while M. Valenciennes particularly men-
tions the presence of the colouring matter in the intestinal canal
and liver of the oyster, Prof. Bizio’s remarks refer only to the
branchiez. Whether he would imply that the green colour,
wherever it shows itself in the oyster, is due to the presence of
copper, is a query we are not prepared to answer, but should
like very much to have answered for us, as, bearing in mind the
eases at Rochefort, we cannot but think this green-oyster ques-

- tion rather a serious one.

Fortunately there appears to be very little call for green
oysters in the English markets, and the great bulk of them are,
we believe, shipped over to France. Perhaps it is a good thing
they are so sparingly appreciated in this country.

It is singular that so little should be definitely known of the
cause of a phenomenon which takes place in a creature so easily
accessible to observation as the oyster. However, public atten-
tion has lately been so frequently drawn to this “ illustrious bi-
valve,” that we have no doubt there will soon be some new light
thrown upon this subject. We understand that Mr. Frank
Buckland, in reply to a question addressed to him by the House
of Lords some time since, stated that a professional chemist, to
whom he had submitted specimens of the green oyster, had
already found out the true cause of the coloration.

This, whatever it be, does not seem, however, to have been as
yet made public. Mr. Buckland himself seems to incline to the
opinion that a growth of green weed of some kind or other du-
ring certain times of the year only is the cause. It is now well
known that we have real green oysters, or rather green-bearded
oysters, in England. These have been long exported to various
countries, where the taste for such delicacies was more advanced

16*

228 Dr, J. E. Gray on the Skulls of Sea-Bears

than with us. It would seem that the greenness in the oysters
from the river Roach in Essex is, however, entirely confined to
the beard. The fact that another river (the Crouch), running
into the Roach, possesses oysters with white beards only renders
the whole question all the more curious and puzzling.

Meanwhile, until the actual properties of green oysters which
are neither plucked from the keels of ships nor fished up near
the copper-mines at Falmouth shall be discovered, we advise
any of our readers who are at all inclined to be nervous on the
subject to remember the valuable test afforded by ammonia,
and add a small bottle of it to the usual pepper and vinegar ac-
cessories, to be used in a case of doubt—though, if they have a
mind to eat the oyster in case their suspicions should prove
groundless, we would recommend the simple ordeal of the
sewing-needle as the more suitable.

XXXII.—Notes on the Skulls of Sea-Bears and Sea-Lions (Ota-
riadze) in the British Museum. By Dr. J. H. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Tue “Prodrome of a Monograph of the Pinnipedes” by Mr.
Theodore Gill, wherein he named several genera of this group,
and a paper by Dr. Peters on the O¢ari@ in the Berlin Museum,
in the ‘ Monatsbericht’ for May of this year, have induced me
to re-examine the skulls and skeletons in the British Museum; -
and I herewith send you the result of my observations. I may
observe that Dr. Peters considers all the Hared Seals one
genus, but has divided them into seven subgenera, to each of
which he gives a distinctive name. Dr. Peters’s paper is inter-
esting as determining the specimens described by Pander and
D’Alton, Johann Miiller, and other German naturalists, as well
as describing the more recently received specimens in the Berlin
Museum, which certainly is one of the most important on the
continent.

Capt. Thomas Musgrave, in a work entitled “Cast away on the
Aucklands,” 12mo, 1866, pp. 141 and following, gives a very in-
teresting account of the habits and manners of the Lion Seal,
showing how unlike they are in their habits to the Seals without
ears (Phocide). The female brings forth her young far inland,
and has to teach them to take to the water which is to be their
future home.

Capt. Weddell gives nearly the same account of the habits of
the Fur-Seal, as does also Mr. Hamilton (in Ann. & Mag. Nat.
Hist. 1839, p. 87).

Unfortunately, having no skull or other parts of the Lion
Seal of the Auckland Islands (the must southern of the New-

and Sea-Lions in the British Museum. 229

‘Zealand group), we are not able to determine whether it is the
same species as the Otaria jubata, the Sea-Lion of the southern
end of the American continent, or whether it is the Sea-Lion
of the southern end of the African continent (Arctocephalus
Delalandii), or the Sea-Lion of the Northern Australian seas
(Neophoca lobatus).

According to the observations of Dr. Peters, founded on the
examination of the typical skulls, Otaria ursina of Nilsson and
Otaria Lemarii of J. Miiller (Arch. f. Naturg. 1841, p. 334)
include the Arctocephalus Delalandii from South Africa and
A, cinereus of Australia.

Otaria Stelleri of Schlegel (Fauna Japonica, t. 22. f. 55) in-
cludes both the Australian Eared Seals, viz. Arctocephalus cinereus
and Neophoca lobata; and it is quite distinct from the Otaria
Stelleri of Lesson and J. Miiller, which is a combination of the
Sea-Bear and Sea-Lion of Steller (that is to say, Eumetopias
Stelleri and Callorhinus ursinus).

The males of these animals are described as twice as long and
broad (that is, four times as large) as the females. This may
explain the difference in size of the skulls from the same
localities.

The fur changes its colour as the animal grows, the young
being generally black; and the adult males and females also
differ considerably in the colour of the fur.

The Eared Seals (Otariade) must be considered a distinct
family from the Earless Seals (Phocide). They have more
power of using their limbs like the more typical mammalia,
walking on them with the body raised from the ground; they
rest with the hind limbs bent forwards. These habits are well
shown in Dr. Forster’s figures, engraved by Buffon; and they
have been verified by the study of the living Eared Seal in the
Zoological Gardens. Their scrotum and genital organs are ex-
posed as in the Dog.

The Morse is intermediate between the Eared and the Earless
Seals in several particulars. It rests with its hind limbs bent
forwards, but it does not use its limbs so freely as the Eared
Seals. Some of the older naturalists correctly figured the atti-
tude of the Morse when at rest, as shown in my paper on the
figures of that animal (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853, p.112). Buffon,
misled by theanimal-preservers, figures it with the limbs extended
behind. Pander and D’Alton represent the animal and the ske-
leton in their proper position ; but they represent the skeleton of
the Eared Seal with its hind limbs extended backwards, though
the articulating surfaces of the bones of the legs should have
shown an anatomist that this is not the natural position in either
the Morse or the Eared Seal. Mr. Gould, in his ‘Mammalia of

230 Dr. J.E. Gray on the Skulls of Sea-Bears

Australia,’ erroneously figures Eared Seals with the attitudes of
the Earless ones.

I. The palate produced behind to a line with the condyles. It is deeply
concave behind, and becomes deeper as the animal increases in age.
The hinder nostril is short, with a truncated front edge.

1, Orarta, Gray, Gill, and Peters.
Platyrhynchus, F. Cuvier.

Grinders 6/6. In the adult skulls the fourth upper grinder
is under the front edge of the orbit, and the sixth or last in a
line with the back edge of the zygomatic arch. The hinder
edge of the palate is in a line with the condyles, and truncated.

In the skull of the younger animal, about 8 inches long, the
hinder edge of the palate is rather in front of the line of the
condyles. The upper grinders are also differently disposed :
the third upper grinder is under the front edge of the orbit, and
the fifth tooth is in a line with the back edge of the zygomatic
arch, and the last or sixth tooth is far behind it. The teeth in
the younger skull are more lobed than in the adult. This
change is remarkable, as the teeth of the young and the adult
Zalophus Gilliespit are similar in number and position.

Otaria jubata. Southern Sea-Lion.

Phoca jubata, Forster.
Otaria leonina, Péron.
O. chilensis, J. Miller.

Hab. South America, Falkland Islands, Chili.

The oldest of the three adult skulls in the British Museum
differs from the other two in the pterygoid processes of the
hinder edge of the palate being closer together than in the rest;
but this character seems to depend on the greater age of the
animal, as it differs slightly in the two other specimens.

In all the younger specimens, varying greatly in size, the
pterygoid processes are far apart.

Dr. Peters considers (1) Platyrhynchus leoninus of F. Cuvier,
(2) Phoca Byronia of Blainville, and (8) an adult specimen which
is in the Hamburg Museum, and of which he described and
figured the skull as O. Geoffroyia, to be distinct species.

I cannot see any difference between the skull in the College
of Surgeons, on which Phoca Byronia was founded, and those
in the British Museum ; and the figure of the skull described as
Otaria Geoffroyia is very similar to the skull in the British
Museum collection which I have called O. jubata.

Il. The palate rather produced behind. The front edge of the hinder nasal
opening in a line with the middle of the zygomatic arch,

A. The grinders 5/5, the fourth upper (in adult) under the front edge of

and Sea-Lions in the British Museum. 231

the orbit, and the last in front of the back edge of the zygomatic arch.
Zalophina.

In the younger skull the grinders are placed rather further
back, the hinder part of the upper grinder being behind the
back edge of the zygomatic arch. The grinders all single-
rooted, as the last or sixth grinder in each jaw, which is generally
two-rooted, is absent. The face of the skull is considerably
produced, and the forehead is flat.

2. Zatopuvs, Gill, Peters.
Arctocephalus § 6 **, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 55.

Palate concave, narrow in front, wider at the line of the last
grinder, and then contracted behind. The hinder nares nar-
row, elongate, twice as long as wide, acutely arched in front,
front edge in a line with the front edge of the orbital process
of the malar bone.

mihe | Zalophus Gilliespii, Gill. -
Otaria Gilliespii, Macbain & Peters.
Arctocephalus Gilliespii, Gray, P. Z. S. 1859, t. 70 (skull).

Hab. California. Brit. Mus.

3. NEopHoca.
Arctocephalus § b ***, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 57.
Otaria, § Zalophus, part., Peters.

Palate concave, broad, as broad before as at the hinder part
of the tooth-line, then rather suddenly contracted. The hinder
nares broad, rather longer than broad, with the front edge
broadly arched, which is further back than the front edge of the
orbital process of the zygomatic arch, or malar bone, which is
thick and flat.

Neophoca lobatus. Australian Hair-Seal.

Arctocephalus lobatus, Gray, Spic. Zool. 1828, t. 4, f. 2 (teeth); Zool. E. &
he amm. t. 16,17. f. 3-5 (skull); Gray, Gould, Mamm. Austr. iii. t. 49 ;
Ts. :
Otaria australis, Quoy & Gaim. Astrol. t. 14, 15. f. 3,4 (skull). .
Otaria Stelleri, Schlegel, Abbild. t. 22. f. 1-4.
Arctocephalus australis, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 57.

The upper grinders all single-rooted, the root of the two last
(the fourth and fifth) being rather compressed, with an obscure
central longitudinal groove on the inner side; the two front
grinders of the lower jaw with oblong, the three last with
compressed roots, and the fourth and fifth with a slight longi-
tudinal central groove on the sides.

In the younger skulls the roots of the grinders are more ob-
long, less compressed, and do not show the lateral grooves, as far
as the teeth can be seen without being drawn from the sockets.

282 Dr. J. E, Gray on the Skulls of Sea-Bears

In the front part of the younger skull, which was received
from Mr. Gould, the teeth are placed rather further back than in
‘the adult skull from North Australia received from Capt. Grey,
the hinder part of the fifth tooth being behind the back edge of
the zygomatic arch.

4. ArcropHoca, Peters.

Dr. Peters described this subgenus from a specimen sent
from Chili by Dr. Philippi. It chiefly differs from Zalophus in
the palate being much narrower, but rather wider behind, and
the teeth rather far apart. I have not seen any skull agreeing
with these characters. |

Arctophoca Philippii, Peters, Monatsb. 1866, p. 276,
t. 2.4, B, c (skull and teeth).

Hab. Juan Fernandez. Dr. Philippi, Mus. Berlin.

According to the figures, the form of the skull and the large
size of the orbit are very similar to those of Phocarctos Hooker ;
but the number and form of the teeth are different.

B. The grinders 5/5, the third upper being under the front edge of the
orbit, the last or fifth separated from the rest by a broad space and
placed far behind the back edge of the zygomatic arch; the hinder
grinders two-rooted.

5. Eumerortas, Gill, Peters.
Arctocephalus § a***, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 51.

Palate flattish or rather concave in front, as wide in front as
at the end of the tooth-line, and then slightly narrowed behind.
Posterior nares oblong, elongate, broadly truncated in front, the
front edge being behind the line of the orbital process of the
zygomatic arch. The grinders have large oblong roots; the
second, third, and fourth upper ones have a subcentral longitu-
dinal groove on the outer side, and a less marked one on their
inner surface; the inner side of all but the first of the lower
ones are similarly grooved; the fifth upper grinder (or more
properly the sixth in the normal series) has two distinct roots.
The lower jaw much more elongate than that of Otaria jubata, the
hinder angle more oblique, and the lower margin long andstraight.

The skull of the young animal, which was sent by Mr. A. 8.
Taylor to Mr. Gurney from California, and which I first de-
scribed, with doubt, as A. Monteriensis, junior (P. Z. 8. 1859,
p- 357), and which in the ‘ Catalogue of Seals and Whales’ I
named Arctocephalus Californianus (see p. 51), agrees in every
respect in its dentition with the large skull which we received
from California, and which I described and figured as 4A. Mon-
teriensis (P. Z. S. 1859, p. 358, t. 72); but it differs greatly in

-and Sea-Lions in the British Museum. 233

the form of the hinder nares, which are extended much more for-
wards, so that the front end, which is very narrow and acute, is
much in front of the prominence of the orbit of the zygomatic
arch, being, in fact, about in a line with the middle of the lower
edge of the orbital concavity.

This skull is evidently that of a very young animal, for the
bones are separate ; but it has the same number and disposition
of the teeth as the large skull. ‘There is the same wide space
between the fourth and fifth upper grinders; but there is at the
back edge of the fourth grinder, on the right side of the skull,
a small pit, from which, no doubt, a small rudimentary tooth
has fallen out; and there is a much wider but shallow pit on
the other side, which may have been produced by the loss of a
rudimentary tooth; the last upper grinder has a large swollen
undivided root. If this is a young skull of Humetopias Monte-
riensis, that species is curious for having the teeth in the old and
young skulls in the same situation as regards the bones of the face.

The adult skull and the young one were from the same loca-
lity, and, I believe, collected by the same person; and this
bemg the case, I am inclined to regard them as the same, only
showing a curious peculiarity in the growth of the animal, and
also showing that the form and position of the hinder nostril
probably varies as the animal increases in age.

Eumetopias Stelleri. Northern Sea-Lion or Fur-Seal.

Arctocephalus Monteriensis, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1859, t. 72 (skull).
Eumetopias Californiana, Gill.

Otaria Stelleri, Gray; Peters; Miiller?

Leo marinus, Steller.

Phoca jubata, Pander & D’ Alton, t. 3. f. d, e,f (skull, not good).
Phoca Californica et P. Stelleri, Fischer.

Lion marin de la Californie, Chloris, Voy. Califor. t. 11.

Hab. California; Behring’s Straits.

The Sea-Lion of Steller has been one of the zoological para-
doxes. Professor Nilsson, like most preceding authors, regarded
it as a variety of the Otaria jubata; and therefore I supposed it
might be a second species of the restricted genus Ofaria. Dr.
Peters has solved the enigma by uniting it to the Seal which I
described from California, observing that the skull in the Berlin
Museum, figured by D’Alton under the name of “ Steller’s Sea-
Lion” (Phoca jubata), was received from Kamtschatka, and a
second skull of an old male in the Berlin Museum was received
from M. Brandt as coming from Behring’s Straits.

It is to be regretted that these skulls escaped the researches
of Professor Nilsson, who visited most museums in Europe to
examine the typical specimens.

The specimen of Callorhinus ursinus, now in the Museum, was
received-from St. Petersburg as Otaria leonina, or Leo marinus

234, Dr. J. E. Gray on the Skulls of Sea-Bears

of Steller, from Behring’s Straits; so they evidently confound
two species under that name.

The figure of Pander and D’Alton is so imperfect that it
would have been impossible to determine the species it repre-
sents without the examination of the original skull, and then
one sees that it might be intended for the species to which it is
referred. The same observation is applicable to the figure of
the skull of Steller’s Sea-Bear.

C. The grinders 6/5, the third upper under the front edge of the orbit, the
Jifth and sixth behind the back edge of the zygomatic arch ; the upper
hinder grinders two-rooted.

6. PHocarcrtos, Peters.
Arctocephalus § II., Gray, Proce. Zool. Soe. 1859, p. 109.

The skull elongate, forehead flat. The palate concave, deep,
with a thickened margin on each side in front, widest in the middle
part of the tooth-line, and gradually narrowed behind the teeth ;
the internal nares oblong, longer than broad, truncate in front,
the front edge in a line with the orbital process of the zygomatic
arch. Grinders large, compressed; the fifth and sixth upper
behind the back edge of the zygomatic arch. The grinders have
compressed roots ; some of them have a very indistinct longitu-
dinal groove on the side; the fifth upper grinder has two distinet
roots. The ear-bones scarcely prominent, with a flat lower surface.

I have not seen an adult skull of this genus. The skulls
described are 10 inches long, but the bones are not knit.

Phocarctos Hookeri, Peters, Monatsb. 1866, p. 262.
The Southern Hair-Seal.

Arctocephalus Hookeri, Gray, Zool. E. & T. t. 14, 15 (skull.)
The Hair-Seal of the sealers.

Hab. Falkland Islands and Cape Horn.

The skull of the young animal described and figured by Dr.
Burmeister as Arctocephalus Falklandicus (Ann. and Mag. N. H.
1866, xvii. p. 99, t. 9. f. 1 & 2) is probably the young skull of
this species. It agrees with it in the elongated form of the
skull, and in the large size and great development of the pro-
cesses of the orbits.

Dr. Peters regards the Otaria Ulloe of Von Tschudi (Fauna
Peruana, p. 186, t. 3) as a second species of this group. There
are two skulls which he refers to it in the Berlin Museum.

7. Cattornuinvs, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1859, p. 359; Peters.
Arctocephalus, Gill!
Skull elongate ; forehead rounded in front of the orbit, rather
swollen. Palate rather concave, as wide in front as at the end
of the tooth-line, rather narrowed behind. The sixth upper

and Sea-Lions in the British Museum. 285

grinder just behind the hinder edge of the zygomatic arch; the
grinders moderate, fifth and sixth upper and the fifth lower with
two diverging roots.

Callorhinus ursinus, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1859, p. 359, t. 58 (skull).
Northern Sea-Bear.
Ursus marinus, Steller. ~ .
Phoca ursina, Linn.; Pander & D’Alton, t. 7. f. 1 (not good).
Otaria ursina, Péron; Peters.

O. Kraschenninikowii, Lesson.
O. Stelleri, part., Lesson & Miiller.

Hab. Kartschatka. B.M.

D. Grinders 6/6, the third upper grinder under the front edge of the
orbit, the hinder ones far back behind the back edge of the zygoma.
Arctocephalina.

8. ArctocrepHaLus, F. Cuvier, Peters.
Halarcitus, Gill.

The face of the skull elongate; forehead flat. The palate con-
cave, especially in front, with a thickened margin on each side
near the teeth, about as wide in front as between the hinder
teeth, and then narrowed behind; the internal nasal opening
elongate, longer than broad, narrow and arched in front, the
edge in a line with the orbital process of the zygomatic arch,
which is large and well developed.

In the adult skull of A. Delalandii from the Cape the fifth
hinder grinder has only very short rounded callous roots, which
are slightly divided into two lobes; and the hinder or sixth
upper grinder seems to have a root of the same character. But
not having any skulls of younger animals, I am not able to de-
seribe what are the forms of the root of these two teeth in the
younger state.

In the skulls of the other species (which are not adult, as they
have the sutures between the bones still distinct), the fifth and
sixth upper grinders have two distinct diverging roots.

* The fifth and sixth upper grinders with two roots (?); the siath upper
partly behind the hinder edge of the zygomatic arch. Arctocephalus.
(Africa. )

1. Arctocephalus Delalandii, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1859, t. 69 (skull).
The Cape Fur-Seal.

Phoca ursina, F. Cuvier, Oss. Foss. t, 219. f. 5.

Arctocephalus ursinus, F, Cuvier.

Otaria ursina, Nilsson.

O. Peronii, Desm.

O. Delalandii, F. Cuvier.

O. pusilla, Peters.

Junior. Petit Phoque, Buffon, H. N. xiii. t. 53= Phoca pusilla, Schreb.

Hab. South Africa, Cape of Good Hope.

236 On the Skulls of Sea-Bears and Sea-Lions.

The two adult skulls in the British Museum differ greatly in
the width of the hinder nasal opening, in the form of the hinder
lower lateral processes of the occipital bone, in the form of the
back of that bone, and in the shape of the condyles.

** The fourth, fifth, and sizth upper grinders with two distinct diverging
roots ; the fifth in a line with the hinder edge of the zygomatic arch.
Euotaria. (America.)

2. Arctocephalus nigrescens, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 52.
The Southern Fur-Seal.

Hab. Falkland Islands ?

The two skulls of this species in the British Museum agree
in most particulars ; but they differ considerably in the form of
the hinder nostrils. The larger one is without its upper teeth,
but the form of the roots are well exhibited by their sockets ;
the front edge of the hinder nasal opening is produced rather
further forward, and is acutely angular. The other skull, which
is rather small and has the teeth in a good condition, has the
hinder nasal opening with a slightly arched, nearly truncated,
front edge.

Dr. Peters refers Phoca Falklandica (Shaw, Zool. i. p. 256) and
Otaria Falklandica (Hamilton, Ann. & Mag. N.H.1839, p.81,t.4;
Jardine, Nat. Lib. vi. p. 271, t. 25) to this species. But as neither
Dr. Shaw nor Dr. Hamilton describes the number or position of
the teeth, it is not possible to determine if this is the Fur-Seal
of the sealers, collected at the Falkland Islands, more especially
as the fact of the skull coming from the Falkland Islands is not
well ascertained. See the other synonyma which have been
established on the sealers’ descriptions and figures or the skins
collected for the furriers at the Falkland Islands (Gray, Cat. of
Seals & Whales, pp. 55,56). Dr. Hamilton, who prides himself
on his figure, represents the hind legs as extended behind ; but
they look very awkward in that position, the stuffer having
evidently had a difficulty in extending them.

*** Fourth, fifth, and sixth upper grinders with two diverging roots; the
Jifth upper grinder entirely behind the hinder edge of the zygomatic
arch. The palate narrow. Gypsophoca. (Australia.)

3. Arctocephalus cinereus, Gray, Cat. Seals & Whales, p. 56.
Australian Fur-Seal.
Otaria cinerea, Péron?; Quoy & Gaimard, Voy. Astrol. p. 89, t. 12, 13, 15
(animal and skull); Peters, Monatsb. 1866, p. 272.
Arctocephalus nigrescens, b & c, Gerrard, Cat. Bones B. M. p. 147.
Black Seal, Otaria, Cat. Sydney Museum, ii. p. 36.

Hab. Australia. John Macgillivray.
Black, greyer beneath; under-fur abundant, reddish brown.
There are the stuffed skin, with its skull, and the bones of the

On the Fossil Fishes of Mount Lebanon. 237

face of another young specimen of this Seal in the British
Museum, collected in the Australasian Sea by Mr. John Mac-
gillivray.

The Eared Seals are collected for their oil and skins. Most
of the species have very dense under-fur of soft erect hairs be-
tween the base of the longer hairs. These are called “ Fur-
Seals ;” and the skins, when deprived of their long hairs, are
very valuable. The dressed furs of the various species and loca-
lities are of very different commercial and economic value.
The skins of Neophoca lobata of Australia and Phocarctos Hookeri
of the Southern Ocean, being destitute of this under-fur, are
called Hair-Seals by the sealers. Their skins are of little com-
parative value, as they are only used like the skins of the Earless
Seals (Phocide).

I have not been able to identify the “Tiger Seal” of Musgrave
(‘Cast away on the Auckland Islands,’ pp. 7, 10, 18, 29, &c.),
which seems as abundant as the Sea-Lion of the same locality.
_ They are both probably undescribed.

XXXIITI.—Recent Researches on the Fossil Fishes of Mount
Lebanon. By MM. F. J. Picrer and A. HumBerr*.

Tart the fossil fishes of the coasts of Syria are among those
which have been longest known is shown by the mention of
them in De Joinville’s ‘ Histoire de Saint-Louis.’ This chro-
nicler tells us that, during the sojourn of the Crusaders at
Sayette (the ancient Sidon, now Sazda), “A certain marvellous
stone was brought to the king, in appearance like a quantity of
scales, of the which when one was raised you saw beneath, be-
tween the two stones, the shape of a fish of the sea. And the
fish was of stone, but nothing of its form was wanting, neither
eyes, nor fins, nor colour, any more than if it had been living.
The king asked for one of these stones, and found a tench in it,
of a brown colour and like any other tench.”

Various travellers, such as J. Korte, C. Lebrun, Volney, &c.,
have also mentioned these fishes; but Scheuchzer is the oldest
naturalist who, as far as we know, has paid any attention to
them. In his work ‘Piscium Querule et Vindiciz,’ published at
Zurich in 1708, we find a passage devoted to the fish figured in
Lebrun’s ‘ Voyage’ (Cornelius de Bruyn), and another referring
to a specimen in the Woodward Collection. The Zurich natu-

* Translated by A. O’Shaughnessy from a separate impression, com-~
municated by the Authors, from the ‘Archives des Sciences de la Biblio-
théque Universelle,’ Geneva, June 1866. See also ‘ Nouvelles Recherches
sur les Poissons Fossiles du Mont Liban,’ 1 vol., with plates, by F. J.
Pictet and A. Humbert : Geneva, 1866.

‘238 MM. Pictet and Humbert on the Fossil Fishes

ralist, however, teaches us nothing more than his predecessors,
as he does not describe these fossils or discuss their zoological
affinities. De Blainville was the first to study scientifically some
of the Lebanon fishes. He described two species belonging to the
genus Clupea, and called them Cl. Beurardi and Cl. brevissima.

De Blainville’s essay on the Ichthyolites was soon superseded
by the labours of Agassiz in 18383-1843. Nevertheless the
learned author of the ‘Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles’”
possessed actually very slender materials relative to the fauna of
Lebanon. He brought to light four new species only, and added
some details respecting the two Clupee described by De Blainville.

In 1845 Sir Philip Grey Egerton described a Ray from the
limestones of Hakel; and in 1849 Heckel made known four
or five species, brought from Syria by Th. Rotschy. In 1850
one of the present authors published a special memoir on the
fishes of the two deposits of Hakel and Sahel Alma, founded upon
important materials amassed by MM. E. Boissier and Blondel.
In this memoir twenty new species were described.

Since this there has been only one work on the fishes of Le-
banon, that of M. O. G. Costa, who has described and figured
four new species. ;

Researches made in 1860 by one of the authors (A. Hum-
bert), in the deposits of the coast of Syria, have greatly enriched
the collection of the Museum of Geneva, both in new species
and in more perfect examples of such as had been previously
described. We have thought it advisable to pass in general
review the fishes of Lebanon, completing, whenever we could,
the descriptions of the forms already known, and inserting the
new species.° : ;

We here extract a portion of what we have said in our intro-
duction concerning the age of the two deposits as attested by
geological and paleontological evidence; and we also reproduce
our general remarks on the two ichthyological faunas of Hakel

and Sahel Alma.
Geological data.

The beds which we have been considering are situated on the
eastern slope of Lebanon, between Tripoli and Beyrout, nearer,
however, to the last-named town. ‘The nature of the rock and
the fauna of these two deposits show that they belong to differ-
ent formations; their age and relative antiquity have, however,
not yet been satisfactorily determined.

MM. Agassiz and Heckel, in default of positive information,
have done no more than put forward certain hypotheses with
respect to the formation to which should be referred the few
species which they had within reach.

of Mount Lebanon. 239

M. de Tchihatcheff has found at Makrikoi, near the gates of
Constantinople, certain fossil fishes identical with those of Hakel.
Unfortunately this traveller never saw in situ the rock whence
the specimens were obtained ; and consequently his notices are
of little value, except so far as they attest the geographical
extension of the beds of Lebanon.

We are consequently almost reduced to the stratigraphical
data furnished by M. Botta in his memoir on Libanus and
Antilibanus*. M. Botta distinguishes three principal forma-
tions in the Lebanon. He refers the lowest of them to the
Upper Jurassic period, the following to the Greensand, and the
third, which covers this, to the Lower Cretaceous series. The
Lower Chalk is composed of an alternation of limestones and
caleareous marls. It is in one of the middle beds of this latter
formation that the fishes of Hakel occur. With regard to those
of Sahel] Alma, they belong, according to M. Botta, to the same
group, but may be slightly more ancient.

The observations made at Hakel by M. Humbert, although
very incomplete, tend to confirm the views of this learned French
. naturalist. We have, in fact, found fossils characteristically
Cenomanian (Upper Greensand), such as Orca Tailleburgensis,
Cardium Hillanum, &c.,in layers of alternate limestones and marls,
which are immediately overlain by the fish-beds. Possibly, in
spite of this superposition, these beds may form part of the same
group, and be only a phase of the Cenomanian. A circumstance
which would lead us to suppose this to be the case is the fact
that in proceeding from the bed of the river to a point situated
between the village and the deposit of fishes, and mounting per-
pendicularly the left flank of the valley, we find a series of cal-
careous lamine more or less compact, but without a trace of
the fish-bed ; the superior laminz seem, however, to be conti-
nuations of those which overlie that bed. We must thence
conclude that this latter is superior to the Cenomanian forma-
tion, or that it forms part of that formation. If, as we suppose,
the Hippurites lumbricalis (and perhaps H. socialis) obtained
between Djebail and Hakel are superior to the fishes of Hakel,
then these are inferior to the Turonian (Lower White Chalk)
formation.

The beds of Hakel would seem to be prolonged over a very
considerable space. The Clupea Beurardi was described by De
Blainville from a specimen brought from Gibel (Djebail), and
probably emanating from Hakel ; M. Agassiz studied a specimen
from Saint-Jean d’Acre. The Clupea brevissima, so abundant at
Hakel, is represented in the Museum of Geneva by specimens

* © Observations on Libanus and Antilibanus,” by M. P. E. Botta, jun.
(Mém. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tome i., lst part: Paris, 1833).

240 MM. Pictet and Humbert on the Fossil Fishes

labelled as coming from Mount Carmel ; M. Agassiz saw in the
Zurich Museum a specimen of this species sent from Saint-Jean
d’Acre*; Mr. Williamson} found it at Gebel-Suneen (very
probably Sannina), near Beyrout ; and, finally, as we have just
seen, M. de Tchihatcheff has procured it at Makrikoi near Con-
stantinople, where it is associated with Hurypholis Boisseri and
Cyclobatis oligodactylus.

The deposit of Hakel must have been formed at a very slight
distance from the land; for our late researches afforded a wing-
less orthopterous insect. )

With regard to the second deposit, we have nothing to add
to what Botta has said on the subject, with the aid of certain
opportunities for comparison which we have not had at our dis-
posal. oe
The convent of Sahel Alma, situated 17 or 18 kilometres
north of Beyrout, is erected on a sharp declivity which descends
to the sea. It is immediately beneath the walls of the convent,
in a field of mulberry-trees, and covered solely by the vegetable
earth, that the calcareous marl containing the fishes occurs.
With them we have collected Crustaceans and two Ammonites. —
These latter fossils are, unfortunately, not sufficiently preserved
to admit of a strict determination.

Valenciennes, in examining the fishes collected at Makrikoi
by M. Tchihatcheff, found a species of a new genus, which he
named, without, however, describing it, Strymonia siricat. It
comes from a light limestone perfectly identical with that of Sahel
Alma, while the other species occur in a limestone very similar to
that of Hakel. It would seem, therefore, that the two fish-beds
of Lebanon are found also at Constantinople.

Age of the two Ichthyological Faunas of Mount Libanus,
according to paleontological data.

We think we are able to establish as almost certain that both
these faunas belong to the Cretaceous period. It would be, on
special grounds, impossible to attribute them to the Jurassic.
The greater number of Teleostean fishes which they afford, to-
gether with the absence of Ganoids, show them to be unques-
tionably posterior to that period.

It seems to us no less evident that they are not Tertiary faunas.
For proof we have :—

1, The presence of two species of Ammonites in the beds of
Sahel Alma, and of an Aptychus in those of Hakel.

* It is very possible that Saint-Jean d’Acre and Mount Carmel corre-
spond to one and the same locality.

t+ Proceed. Geol. Soc. Lond. vol. iii. p. 291.

t Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, 2° série, 1851, t. viii. p. 301.

of Mount Lebanon. 241

2. The existence of a certain number of genera or groups,
which, as far as we know at present, characterize the Cretaceous
epoch. Such are the genera Scombroclupea and Leptosomus, the
groups of Dercetis and Eurypholis.

3..The great number of extinct genera which contribute to
give these faunas a special physiognomy. These are, at Hakel,
Pseudoberyx, Petalopteryx, Coccodus, Aspidopleurus, and Cyclo-
batis; and at Sahel Alma, Pyenosterinx, Cheirothriz, Rhinellus,
and Spaniodon.

4. The fact that among the genera which are still represented
by living species, those which are the most. abundant at the Le-
banon are precisely such as belong also to the Cretaceous epoch.
We may mention in particular the type Beryx, which is pre-
eminently Cretaceous, although represented at the present day
by some species in the warmer seas. We may also cite the
Clupea, the existence of which is demonstrated as far back as the
Cretaceous period, and the Chirocentrites, the maximum develop-
ment of which is equally characteristic of that epoch.

The fish which are not referable to one or other of these cate-
gories are very few in number, and occupy but a subordinate
position in the Lebanon faunas.

But, although we are tolerably certain of the general fact that
these faunas are Cretaceous, we find it a much more embarrass-
ing matter to decide to which of the subdivisions of this long
age they should properly be referred. The history of fossil fish
presents still too many breaks to admit of our applying here the
same methods as hold good in the case of Mollusks and Kchi-
noderms, and we are forced to content ourselves with a certain
degree of probability.

The first point to determine is that no species of Mount Li-
banus has ever yet been found in any other deposit, save certain
parts of Syria and Asia Minor which belong to the same epoch,
and of which we have already spoken. Consequently our com-
parisons become limited to the more uncertain relations between
genera and natural groups.

We have compared the faunas of Lebanon with that of Voi-
rons (as made known by one of the authors*), with that of Co-
men in Istria (as studied by MM. Heckel, Kner, and Stein-
dachner), with that of the Chalk of England, and finally with
that of the Chalk of Westphalia (the numerous species of which
have been described in an important memoir by M. von der
Marck),

Making allowances for insufficient data, we give the following
as the results of these comparisons :— ;

* F. J. Pictet, ‘ Paléontologie suisse,’ 1858, 1"* série. Description des
fossiles du terrain néocomien des Voirons.

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvi. 17

242 MM. Pictet and Humbert on the Fossil Fishes

1. The fauna of Hakel has greatest resemblance to that of
Comen in Istria. Nevertheless it presents a greater proportion
of living genera, and may thus be concluded to be the more
recent of the two.

2. The fauna of Sahel Alma is unquestionably related to: that
of the Chalk of Westphalia.

8. Both one and the other differ to a greater extent from that _
of the Chalk of England.

4, These differences and resemblances may be partly owing
to geographical causes, and partly to the respective ages of the
formations. The former would tend to augment the relations
with Comen, and to diminish those with the Chalks of more
northern countries, and would consequently weaken considerably
the importance to be attached to the resemblances.

In spite of doubts so engendered, the precise limit to which
it would be impossible to lay down, our general conclusion is
that the faunas of the Lebanon are, both the one and the other,
intermediate between those of Istria and those of the Upper
Chalk, and that, consequently, their position is most probably in
the Middle Cretaceous formation.

And here we have to deal with a question both difficult and
embarrassing. What is the relative age of our two Lebanon
faunas? And which is the more ancient ?

Had the labours of Botta resolved this question, and were we
already possessed of sufficient stratigraphical proofs, we should .
not now be forced to have recourse to the hazard of a paleeonto-
logical analysis, which is the more embarassing since it leads us
to a result quite opposed to that which the above-named author
somewhat prematurely regarded as probable. M. Botta be-
lieved the fauna of Sahel Alma to be the more ancient. The
comparisons which we have lately made, and which have brought
us to the conclusion that the fauna of Comen is more nearly re-
lated to that of Hakel, while that of Sahel Alma more especially
recalls the fauna of the White Chalk, lead us on the contrary to
consider the first the more ancient. It is to be hoped that a
complete geological survey of these countries will put an end to
this uncertainty.

General Paleontological Considerations.

The study of organic development throughout the course of
geological time shows that the different classes of the animal
kingdom are far from presenting. a history uniform in this re- _
spect. The epoch, in particular, during which the modifications
which have more powerfully affected the organism have taken
place would seem to have been by no means the same for the

of Mount Lebanon. 243

different classes. We see, at a given moment, a certain class be-
come modified to intensity, while a certain other class preserves
its general physiognomy intact, to become subject to a similar
process at another period.

The class of fishes is remarkable in this particular*. The last
extensive modification it has undergone corresponds to the trans-
ition between the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Now, with
regard to most classes, this transition is relatively of little im-
portance. We sce the Jurassic reptiles continuing a great many of
their types in the Cretaceous period, whilst the transition between
this and the Tertiary period is marked by the most striking
changes of form. We see the Mollusks, the Echinoderms, and
the Polypes of the cretaceous seas reproducing to a great extent
the types of their Jurassic predecessors. If we were to seek the
epochs when the greatest modifications in each of these classes
have taken place, we should never find them in the interval be-
tween the Upper Jurassic and Neocomian periods.

The importance of the change which took place at the termi-
nation of the Jurassic period has already been dwelt upon suffi-
ciently by M. Agassiz. Our learned friend has laid stress in
particular on the apparition somewhat suddenly at the com-
mencement of the Cretaceous period of the most perfect group
of fishes, the Teleostei, which form the large majority of the
population of the modern seas. Saving a certain measure of
restriction imposed by later researches upon the generality of
this assertion, the fact has in the main received every confirma-
tion. It gives a particular importance to the study of the Cre-
taceous fish-faunas, since these faunas are the origin and, in
some measure, the earliest expression of our present existing
ones. It is interesting to follow the gradual series of modifica-
tions through’ which they have passed, to note the earliest repre-
sentative types, the forms which have continued most constant,
and those which have been the last to appear. The most gene-
rally adopted classification of fishes is that of J. Miiller. Of the
six subclasses established by him, three have no fossil represen-
tatives (Leptocardii, Cyclustomi, and Dipnoi) ; the three others
alone enter the domain of the paleontologist.

Among these three subclasses, the Hlasmobranchi retain the
same general characters which they have presented throughout
all time. This is the group which has undergone the least mo-
dification. It is not represented very abundantly at Lebanon ;

* Prof. Heer has just called attention to a perfectly similar fact in the
history of the vegetable kingdom, ‘ Les Phyllites crétacés du Nebraska’
(Extrait des Mém. de la Soc. helvét. des Sc. Nat. 1866). He has shown
that the Upper Cretaceous flora is quite different from the Jurassic flora,
and allied rather to the Tertiary flora.

17*

244. MM. Pictet and Humbert on the Fossil Fishes

there are, however, the two principal types, Sharks and Rays.
These fishes are for the most part difficult of comparison with
other fossil species ; for, in most deposits, the Hlasmobranchi are
only indicated by isolated teeth : in the Lebanon, however, the
case is quite different ; there are no isolated teeth, but some few
entire bodies.

The subclass of the Ganoids is, in all known faunas of the Cre-
taceous period, in rapid course of extinction. This renders all
the more interesting the fact that the faunas of the Upper Jura
which immediately preceded this period are rich in numerous
and fine characteristic species of this subclass. We have not
found at Lebanon any true Ganoid; for we no longer retain in
that subclass the order Hoplopleuride established by one of our-
selves. This order belongs properly to the great series of Te-
leosteans.

This third subclass is consequently by far the most important.
It affords almost the total of the fauna, and it is with it that we
have more particularly to deal at present.

As we have said above, M. Agassiz did not place the existence
of the Teleostei further back than the Cretaceous period; the
greater number of authors now, however, recognize an exception to
this rule, and regard as Teleosteans in all probability the genera
Tharsis, Leptolepis, &c., with minute rounded scales. Taking
for granted the correctness of this view, which it would take us
too long to discuss here, we have to notice a very important
fact, which is that the Teleostean fishes of which M. Agassiz
forms his family Halécoides, and which we know under. the
names of Salmones and Clupee, are manifestly the nearest rela-
tives of these same Jurassic genera. The numerous family to
which these precious types of our present seas belong are actu-
ally the descendants of the Jurassic Teleosteans. ‘ They have a
history longer than-that of any other existing family, and may
be regarded as, in some sort, the trunk of the genealogical tree
of the fishes of our present seas.

It is, further, very interesting to find that these fishes are
the ones which present developed in the highest extent the
normal characters of their class, and that they thus im some
sort represent the archetype thereof. A theoretical anatomist,
wishing to set forth this archetype, would be inevitably led to
depict a figure almost exactly like that of a Halecoid, since he
would assign to it ventrals in the normal position far back on
the abdomen, and a mouth with the edge composed of both
maxillary and intermaxillary ; and nothing is more normal than
the fins of a salmon and its regular and fusiform body.

We may, then, assume that the most ancient Teleostean
fishes were the most normal in their forms, and that their cha-

of Mount Lebanon. 245

racters were continued in the Cretaceous and following periods
_ by the family of the Halecoids.

Our Lebanon faunas are rich in fishes of this family ; for out
of fifty-one species now known, nineteen belong to it.

Another important type is that of the Teleostean fishes with
serrated scales, united by M. Agassiz under the name of Ctenoids.
This denomination, which, at the present day, does not corre-
spond to an order of sufficient zoological value, may, however,
still be advantageously employed, in the general comparison in
which we are now engaged, to designate all those fish which
more or less approach the Perch-type in this serrated form of
scale, in the spinous rays of their fins, in the tendency of the
bones of the head to develope points, &c.

These fishes, less numerous at the Lebanon than the Hale-
coids, present, however, as we shall now show, certain very dis-
tinct forms ; they have, however, a common uniform physio-
gnomy, and resemble each other much more than the recent
Ctenoids. Variation set-in at a later period, and has gone on
constantly augmenting to the present day.

The types of prickly-finned fishes which we find at Mount
Libanus are the following :—

1. The group Beryz, the singular history of which has already
been made known by M. Agassiz. At the present day they form
part of a small cluster of genera (Holocentrum, Myripristis,
Beryx) specially belonging to the Indian seas, allied to the
Percoids by their more essential characters, but constituting in
that family a tribe characterized by the branchiostegal and
ventral rays, which exceed the normal number of seven. This
Beryz-group, comprising the -recent genus and. some extinct
ones, is the sole representative of the Percoid family during the
Cretaceous period. It then existed as the first expression of that
family, now so abundant; and after having then constituted it
entirely, now exists only as an accessory branch of the same.

2. An interesting and entirely new type, which we have de-
signated Pseudoberyz. To the normal characters of Berya it
unites that of having the ventrals abdominal—a circumstance of
rare occurrence in true prickly-finned fishes. May we not see
in this circumstance an indication of a rule similar to that which
we have established in the case of the Halecoids, and infer that
the first manifestations of types have in general exhibited the
tendency to approach the archetypal forms more than the later
generations have done?

8. The type of Pycnosterinz, already established by Heckel,
which in its characters approaches the family Chromide, formerly
associated partly with the Labroids, partly with the Sciznoids,
but subsequently recognized as distinct, and removed to the group ©

246 On the Fossil Fishes of Mount Lebanon.

Pharyngognathi, These fishes, in which Heckel discovered
pharyngeal teeth, belong to a type at present very distinct from
the Percoids; they approach these, however, through the Berya
of the Chalk, which they resemble in scales, fins, and general
appearance.

4. The genus Platax, of the family Carangide, also remark-
able for a resemblance in fins and contour to the Beryx above —
named,

Briefly, these four types, now so distinct, were related at the
epoch of their origin by certain common characters actually
diminished or effaced since then; so that we might represent
the history of the Ctenoids by means of a bundle of diverging
lines, between which should be inscribed all those families which
did not exist before the Cretaceous period.

Some other families of Teleosteans have a few rare representa-
tives at Mount Lebanon. We shall not linger over these, and
shall content ourselves with indicating one or two Sparoids, one
or two Gobioids, and a curious genus (Petalopteryx) belonging
probably to the Cataphracti.

In order to render complete this notice of the faunas of Leba-
non, it would only remain for us to say a few words relative to
an order which we have already named above—that of the Hop-
lopleuride, the relations of which have been contested: this,
however, would lead us too far. We would refer to our memoir
for the detailed treatment of this question; it will there be seen
that all arguments in favour of their affinity with the Ganoids
are highly contestable, and that these fishes are true Teleosteans.

The Hoplopleuride characterized by longitudinal series of
shields form a group at present proper to the Cretaceous period.
They themselves contribute largely to stamp the physiognomy
of the Lebanon faunas.

These various facts may further be summed up as follows :—

The Lebanon faunas have, like the other Cretaceous faunas,
in the more essential points, their relations entirely with the
subsequent, and never with preceding faunas. The commence-
ment of the Cretaceous period has been, as concerns this class,
a period of great modification and renovation of forms. The
principal general character consists in the sudden disappearance
of Ganoids, these being replaced by an abundance of Teleosteans.

If we compare them with subsequent faunas (tertiary and
modern) we find that they are composed of the same families,
only in different proportions.

The most important is that of the Halecoids (Salmones and
Clupee), which may be regarded as the continuation of certain
Jurassic genera. ‘This is the only family of Teleosteans with so

‘remote an origin. It is also the one which reproduces in the

Bibliographical Notices. 247

most marked degree the normal and typical forms of the Fish.
The salmon and herrings of our waters are, of all fishes, those
which have best preserved the original forms; they are also
those which have the longest known pedigrees.

The great Ctenoid division, so varied and important at the
present day, has no known root before the Cretaceous epoch.
It is represented by a certain number of types bound together
by numerous common characters, especially of general appear-
ance and external covering. These types form the base of a
large bundle or knot, the various threads of which have become,
through successive ages, gradually more and more differentiated
and widely removed from each other and the common stock.

The third group which has played an important part in the
history of these Teleosteans is that of the Hoplopleuride, more
isolated than the preceding ones. There is no indication of this
group in the Jurassic period, nor any continuation of it in the
Tertiary.

_ These three groups form almost the totality of the Teleosteans.
There would now only remain to add, in the present state of our
knowledge some few isolated genera with whose history we are
but incompletely acquainted, and which would seem to be sub-
ordinate to the preceding ones as much on the ground of this
isolation as on that of the small number of individuals repre-

senting them.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A History of British Sessile-eyed Crustacea; By C. Spence Bate
and J.O. Wesrwoop. Part XIII. 8vo. Van Voorst. London, ©
1866.

Tue appearance of a new part of this valuable work, after an in-
terruption of nearly three years (the twelfth part was published in
August 1863), leads us to say a few words about it, in the hope that,
however we may regret such delays, the interval in the present case
may have given time for the training of a new school of students, to
whom such a book as this will be welcome.

In the first volume, completed in 1863, the authors nearly finished
their descriptions of the British species of true Amphipoda, leaving
only the Hyperine forms for the commencement of the second vo-
lume. The Amphipoda aberrantia of Mr. Spence Bate, including
the Lemodipoda of Latreille, with the addition of the Dulichiide of
Dana, are completed in the part just published, which also contains
the general remarks on the lsopodous order.

In form, the Crustaceans here described are among the most sin-
gular of the inhabitants of the sea, although their relationship to the
true Amphipoda is so evident that one feels surprised they could

248 Bibliographical Notices.

ever have been separated therefrom as a distinct order. It seems to
us, however, that the authors have to a certain extent been in error
in placing the Dulichitde among the aberrant Amphipoda, their
true alliance being evidently to the typical section, with which they
are described as agreeing in every respect, except in having the last
two segments of the “‘ pereion’”’ fused into one, and the last segment
of the “pleon’’ absent. In all other characters, such as especially the
full development of the tail, the absence of rudimentary feet, and the
separation of the coxee from the segments on which they stand, the
Dulichiide agree with the higher Amphipoda, and differ in the same
proportion from the aberrant forms, whether we take the spectral
Caprelle or the louse-like Cyami as typical of the second ‘group.
This, however, is an objection easily got over; and we can only ex-
press a hope that the renewed publication of the book may now pro-
ceed regularly, and that it will find as many purchasers as its careful
elaboration and the beauty of its printing and illustration certainly
entitle its publisher to expect.

d Catalogue of Phytophaga (Coleoptera, Pseudotetramera). By
the Rev. Hamuer Cuarkx. Part I. With an Appendix, con-
taining Descriptions of new Species, by H. W. Bares and the
Rev. Hamiet Crark. 8vo. London: Williams and Norgate,
1866.

During the eighteen years that have elapsed since the completion
of Lacordaire’s classical Monograph of the Phytophaga, entomolo-
gists have been most industrious in describing new genera and spe-
cies of this most attractive group of beetles. The result of this
industry is the accumulation of a vast mass of more or less scattered
descriptions of newly discovered forms, which renders it exceedingly
difficult for an entomologist not making a special study of the group
to arrive at anything like a clear notion of the number of species and
genera already known. The Rev. Hamlet Clark (the author of the
Catalogue now before us) and Mr. J. S. Baly may be noted as among
the most active cultivators of this particular department of entomo-
logy, the latter especially exhibiting a power of production which
has already rendered his publications very voluminous. It is a ques-
tion, indeed, how far he may be regarded as doing good service to
science by the publication of such an infinity of detached notices ;
but it is quite clear that, until he begins to devote his energies to
some other group of insects, that monographic revision of the Phyto-
phaga which has already become almost an absolute necessity, and
which will undoubtedly bring about the suppression of a host of
modern so-called genera, had better be postponed.

In the meanwhile entomologists will be thankful to the Rev. Hamlet
Clark for the catalogue with which he proposes to furnish them, and
of which the first part, including the four Crioceride groups, Sagridee,
Donacidee, Crioceride, and Megalopidee, is now before us. In this
catalogue we find the generic and specific synonymy of the insects
belonging to these groups concisely but clearly set forth, with full

Royal Society. 249

bibliographic references and statements of habitat, and under each
genus references to the published descriptions, if any are in exist-
ence, of the transformations of the species.

From the careful manner in which it has been prepared, this work
cannot but be of the greatest service to future students of the Phyto-
phaga, more especially if the author be enabled, as we trust he may,
to finish the remaining (and far more difficult) portion of his task in
the same style.

The Appendix consists of descriptions of new species (cited in
their proper places in the catalogue) by the author and Mr. H. W.
Bates, the latter describing those Amazonian species which were col-
lected by himself. These descriptions are very numerous.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.
ROYAL SOCIETY.
June 21, 1866.—Lieut.-General Sabine, President, in the Chair.

“Observations on the Ovum of Osseous Fishes.’ By W. H.
Ransom, M.D.

In this paper the author has communicated the details of ob-
servations of which the principal results were stated in a short paper
published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1854, and of
further researches on the structure and properties of the egg in
several species of osseous fishes. The methods employed in deter-
mining the functions of the micropyle, and in conducting the various
inquiries entered upon, are described. The development of the ova-
rian ovum is traced in two species of Gasterosteus ; and the yelk-sac
is shown to increase by interstitial growth, and not by apposition
of layers on either surface. A minute description of the germinal
vesicle and its contents is given ; and the germinal spots are shown to
be drops of a thick fluid substance so apt to change their normally
round form and to vacuolate in their interior, that no perfectly in-
different medium was found in which to examine them. The pri-
mitive yelk first formed around the germinal vesicle is shown to
differ in some of its chemical and physical properties from that of
the ripe ovum ; it is solid, and does not consist of two distinguishable
portions. On its surface a yelk-sac was found in very early ova, but
in the smallest eggs examined it could not be separated.

The reactions of a variety of albumen allied to myosin, which the
author has found in variable proportions in the yelk of all the fishes,
amphibia, and birds which he has examined, are described, the yelk
of the salmon. being selected for experiment. This substance, to
which the name albumen C is given provisionally, is remarkable, in
addition to its being easily precipitable by water in excess, for form-
ing under certain conditions a solution in dilute nitric acid not
coagulable by boiling.

Some account is rendered of the reactions of an acid compound of

250 Royal Society :—

phosphoric acid with an organic substance also met with in the yelk
of various animals.

The phenomena which follow impregnation prior to the com-
mencement of cleavage are described, and are shown to be chiefl
due to the influence upon the yelk of water which has passed through.
the yelk-sac.

Some variations which occur in this respect in different species of
osseous fishes are described; and the ova of Gasterosteus are shown
to be remarkable in having a viscid mucoid covering derived from
the oviduct, which prevents the imbibition of water through the
yelk-sac, so that it only enters and forms a breathing-chamber
after impregnation, when it passes through the aperture in the apex
of the micropyle; whereas in the eggs of salmon and in those of
most other fishes, unimpregnated ova rapidly absorb water by the
whole surface of the yelk-sac, the yelk contracting at the same time
to form the breathing-chamber.

The concentration of the formative yelk, originally forming a thin
layer over the whole yelk-ball, at the germinal pole is also proved’
to be due to the action of water, of which it requires a free supply
sufficient to distend the yelk-sac, and to be independent of fecundation.

The contractions of the yelk are shown to be also independent of
the action of the spermatozoids, and to be reactions following the
entrance of water into the breathing-chamber—and this not only as
regards the rhythmic waves which pass over the surface of the food-
yelk, but also the fissile contractility of the formative yelk, by virtue
of which it cleaves into irregular and unsymmetrical masses, and
which the author conceives to be only regulated by the influence of
the seminal particles.

The cortical layer of the food-yelk or inner sac, which is shown to
resist in a remarkable manner osmosis, is found to be the rhythmically
contractile part, although requiring for its manifestation the presence
of acid food-yelk upon its inner surface.

Evidence is given to show that the contractile property of the yelk
of both kinds requires, as an essential condition of its manifestation,
the presence of oxygen in the surrounding medium, and that the
food-yelk, while the rhythmic waves are passing over it, consumes
less than does the formative yelk, while regularly cleaving after.
fecundation,—also that some product of oxidation is formed during
these movements, which itself tends to check them, but which the
author failed to determine the nature of.

Proofs are also given that a certain moderate rise of temperature
increases the activity of these contractions. Experiments are related
which show the extreme limits the yelk will bear without destroying
them, and the temperature at which commencing chemical change
prevents further contraction.

The reactions of the substance of the yelk under the stimulus of
galvanism are recorded, and evidence afforded that the food-yelk
and the cortical layer alone are excited to contraction by it, attempts
made to induce fissile or other contractions of the formative yelk
resulting in electrolysis of that highly unstable substance.

Dy. J. Davy on the Congelation of Animals, 251

Experiments made to ascertain the effects produced by poisonous
substances on the contractions of the yelk are recorded, and the
general fact ascertained of the extreme indifference to such agents of
yelk-protoplasm.

_ Carbonic acid, however, is shown to destroy the contractility
rapidly, and chloroform to arrest it for a time.

The process of cleavage is described, and experiments are given
which show that oxygen in the surrounding medium is an essential
condition of its occurrence. The influence of heat in quickening it,
and the comparative indifference which it shows to the action of a
galvanic current and to most poisons, are proved by a series of experi-
ments, in which also the remarkable and destructive activity of car-
bonic acid is evidenced.

The author has considered the egg as a cell, its contents as a
protoplasm, of which the firmer cortical layer is the equivalent of
the primordial utricle, and the fluid food-yelk of the liquid contents,
while the formative yelk is represented by the granular accumulation
around the nucleus. -Two stages or grades of development of proto-
plasm are conceived to be represented by the two forms of yelk ;
and a parallelism is attempted to be drawn between them and the
stages of development through which many amceboid organisms
pass, and which the author believes to have a wide if not a universal
existence in the organic world,—the lower grade, represented by the
homogeneous food-yelk with a cortical layer and possessed of
rhythmie contractility, passing into the higher, represented by the
formative yelk, of a granular structure and possessed of a fissile
contractile property only.

“On the Congelation of Animals.” By John Davy, M.D.,
F.R.S. &c. Received since the end of the Session.

In a very interesting and elaborate paper by M. Puget, entitled
“Sur la Congélation des Animaux,” published in the Number of
the ‘Journal de Anatomie et de la Physiologie’ for January and
February of this year, he refers to a statement of mine, made man
years ago*, that the leech may be frozen without loss of life. The
experiments which he has instituted, and which appear to have been
conducted with great care, have led him to an opposite conclusion—
viz. that congelation is not only fatal to the leech, but to animals
generally, without a single exception. He considers the cause of
death (the vera causa, to use his own words) to be an altered con-
dition of the blood. In consequence of this statement, I thought it
right to repeat the experiments on the leech, and to extend them to
some other animals. They were begun at Oxford in May, in the
laboratory of Professor Rolleston, with the kind assistance of Mr.
Edward Chapman and Mr. Robertson ; and since then, in the fol-
lowing month, they have been continued at home in Westmoreland.

At Oxford the trials were made on leeches and frogs; at home,
on these animals, and on the toad and some insects. The freezing-

* Researches Physiol. and Anat. ii. p. 121.

252 Royal Society :—

mixture was made of pounded ice and common salt ; the temperature
by it was commonly reduced to below 10° Fahr., or at times so low
as 2° or 3°. The results obtained were briefly the following :—

1. A leech was exposed to the mixture in a small glass tube just
large enough to hold it, using the tube for stirring the mixture.
Taken out when perfectly rigid and hard, and gradually thawed,
it showed when punctured a faint indication of irritability ; there
was a just perceptible contraction of the part punctured, the oral
extremity, and nowhere else. It did not revive.

2. Another leech was similarly exposed, but for a shorter time.
When divided by an incision, it was found not frozen throughout.
When punctured, it showed marks of irritability in a slight degree
stronger than the preceding: it soon died.

3. Two leeches were similarly treated at home, and for a some-
what longer time, the temperature reduced to 3°. These, when
gradually thawed, one exposed to the air, the other left in the mix-
ture, showed no marks of revival; but they retained a certain elas-
ticity, so that when bent they shortly recovered their former attitude,
after a manner somewhat resembling a vital movement; but inas-
much as they did not respond by the slightest contraction to punc-
ture, it may be inferred that the movement was not vital. They
resisted putrefaction for many days.

4. A frog in a thin glass vessel was kept in the mixture about a
quarter of an hour. It was very rigid when taken out ; thawed, no
part, on puncture, afforded any indications of life; watched two or
three hours, it proved to be dead.

5. The heart of a frog, removed immediately after decapitation,
whilst still pulsating, was subjected to the freezing-mixture in a
small glass tube. After having been frozen, on thawing it remained
motionless, even when punctured. It had been kept in the mixture
only a few minutes.

6. The inferior extremities of a frog kept extended by a bandage.
and thus introduced into a glass tube, were submerged in the mixture,
the body of the frog being held in the warm hand; taken out after
some minutes they were quite hard and motionless, whilst the body
and upper extremities did not appear to be affected. It moved
about, dragging the lower extremities as if they were dead. In about
four hours it recovered the use of its femoral muscles, on the fol-
lowing day the use of the muscles of the legs; the day after, it was
able to bend and extend these limbs ; but there was no proof that its
feet had recovered sensibility. On the fourth day it was found dead.

7. The lower extremities of a large toad were immersed in direct
contact with the mixture, the temperature falling to 3°. Gradually
thawed, the parts showed no marks of life. This toad, which before
the trial was in a dull state, afterward became almost torpid, and so
continued until the following morning, when it was apparently dead :
opened, the auricles were found feebly acting, ceasing after a few
seconds*.,

* This toad was a female which had shed her ova; the oviduct was still large ;
the stomach was distended with caterpillars, slugs, &c., seeming to show that

Dr. J. Davy on the Congelation of Animals. 253

8. A similar experiment was made on the lower extremities of an
active frog, and with a similar result, except that the vivacity of the
animal was for a short time but little impaired: after four hours it
was apparently dead; opened, its auricles contracted when punc-
tured. It may be right to mention that, before exposing the toad
and frog to the freezing-mixture in direct contact, it was ascertained
that the frog bore the immersion of its lower extremities in a satu-
rated solution of common salt without any apparent loss of sensibility
or motive power*.

9. The lower extremities of an active frog of a large size were
wrapped in tin-foil, and, together with one of its upper extremities not
so wrapped, were kept in a freezing-mixture about a quarter of an
hour. The frozen parts in thawing showed no marks of life. The
frog died in about three hours.

10. A cockroach, a flesh-fly, and a minute insect, an ichneumon ¢
(Celineus niger’), confined together in a small glass tube, were kept
some minutes in the mixture. Thawed, they were found all three

dead.

there was no diseased state. It is noteworthy that the apertures of the cutaneous
glands appeared to be closed; for when the animal was irritated, there was no
ejection of the acrid fluid, a circumstance I had before noticed in a female
during the breeding-season, suggestive of a condition of surface favourable to
the male in the generative act. When the tubercles were incised, they were
found to contain the acrid fiuid in plenty, and, judging from its bitter taste
and the irritating effects of an extremely small portion applied to the tongue,
not deficient in activity. The same state of the cuticular glands was found in
another female toad killed by congelation, which had shed few of its ova,—this
on the 23rd of June. It was of a lighter colour than usual. It was found like-
wise in two examined in July, in which some ova remained.

* The effect of immersion of the lower extremities of a frog in a saturated
solution of common salt varies, I find, according to the length of time; if
for a very few minutes, it is inconsiderable; if for many, it is well marked ;
and if much prolonged, it is fatal. In one instance, after a quarter of an hour’s
immersion, the limbs seemed paralyzed, the animal in a state approaching to
torpor: after having been well washed in fresh water it slowly recovered its
ricoh and the limbs their motive power and sensibility,—their motive power
first, their sensibility later—indeed not until the following morning, judging
from the effects of puncture. After a longer immersion, with a fatal result, the
limbs had become rigid and somewhat hard, especially the feet, as if their
juices had been extracted by osmotic action. Opened after three hours, even
the auricles were motionless, and this when punctured. The muscles of the
limbs no longer showed a striated structure, whilst those of the upper extremi-
ties displayed this structure distinctly.

The toad, with a thicker skin, was found to bear the immersion of its extremi-
ties for a longer time; but the difference seemed to be only in degree; much
longer continued, the same effects were produced, viz. rigidity, with loss of mo-
tion and sensibility, which (the immersion not being too long) were slowly
recovered after freshwater ablution.

The blood-corpuscles, acted on by the same solution, underwent a change,
contracting slightly, and acquiring a granular appearance, commencing in their
nuclei.

+ For the name of this insect I am indebted to Dr. Gray, F.R.S. It was se-
lected on account of its minuteness : it weighed hardly =4, of a grain ; it seemed
probable, on account of the minuteness of its vessels, that its fluids might escape
congelation, after the manner of fluids in capillary tubes, which may be reduced
many degrees in temperature without being frozen.

254 Royal Society.

These results, so far as the particular instances are concerned, are
sufficiently confirmatory of M. Puget’s; and on my mind they leave
little doubt that his general proposition (his inference from his ver
numerous experiments) is correct, that congelation is fatal to animal
life. Itis hardly worth while to attempt to account for the different
conclusion I had come to (that referred to by him relative to the
leech), it being partly founded on the fact that leeches which had
been enveloped in ice for many days. were not thereby killed, and
partly on witnessing some marks of vitality in leeches which were
believed to have been artificially frozen, and which very soon after
died.

Whilst admitting that congelation, thorough congelation, of an
animal is incompatible with life, the cause of death from congelation
seems open to question, and more especially that assigned by M.
Puget as the vera causa—a change in the blood, and chiefly in its
corpuscles. ‘That these corpuscles are changed by freezing in form
and condition seems to be certain. Before seeing M. Puget’s paper
I had ascertained ‘the fact, and not only that the corpuscles were
changed, but also that the entire blood was to some extent altered,
leading me at the time to ask whether some of the injurious effects
of frost-bite may not be mainly owing to the freezing of the blood
and the changes in consequence in the corpuscles and, in a less degree,
in the fibrin * ; and since, in examining the blood of the animals
exposed to the freezing-mixture, I have had this confirmed ; but the
change in these instances was comparatively slight ; even in those of
the congealed limbs of the frogs and toad the majority of the cor-
puscles appeared little altered; some few seemed ruptured, some
corrugated, and more contracted.

Judging from the effect of congelation on the heart of the frog
in experiment No. 5, and from the effects of congelation partially
produced, as in the extremities of the frog and toad, I would rather
attribute the death to the freezing of the organs, not excluding the
blood, than to the freezing of the blood alone; and I would ask, is
not this view most in accordance with the pathology of the subject,
with all that we know of frost-bite and its consequences in man, and
with the results of Mr. Hunter’s experiments on the local effects of
congelation in animals—those on the ear of the rabbit and wattle
of the cockt? and do not some even of M. Puget’s results give it
support, such as the opacity of the crystalline lens, he admitting
that, were it possible for an animal to revive after complete congela-
tion, it would be blind from cataract? Now, if the crystalline lens,
if the blood-corpuscles suffer and undergo an appreciable change
from congelation, it would be very remarkable indeed did not the
brain and nerves, and the organs generally, suffer from the same
cause, and experience changes incompatible with life. In the in-
stance of man, we know that a certain reduction of his temperature

* Physiological Researches, 1863, p. 371. See also Trans. Royal Society of
Edinburgh, 1865, vol. xxiv. p. 26.
+ Phil. Trans. 1778, p. 34.

Miscellaneous. 255

merely, not reaching to congelation, suffices to extinguish life *, and
that in the instances of other animals, especially the hybernating
and insects, a moderate reduction occasions torpor, ending in death
if too prolonged. That the organs generally suffer from congelation
M. Puget himself admits, as expressed in the subjoined paragrapht.
I have found, too, that the muscles, after having been frozen, ex-
hibit a marked change: thus, in one instance, that of a frog, in
which, after decapitation, an upper and lower extremity were frozen,
the muscles of these limbs, when thawed, compared with those which
had not been frozen, showed a well-marked difference under the
microscope; for whilst in the latter the striated structure was
very distinct, in the former it was no longer visible; and after a few
hours, viz. on the following morning, whilst the unfrozen muscles
had undergone no perceptible alteration, those which had been frozen
had become of increased tenderness, yielding to a slight rending
force, and breaking short, asif the coherence of the particles forming
the fasciculi had become greatly diminished.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On a Cranium of Ziphius found at Arcachon (Gironde).
By P. Fiscuer.

A MAGNIFICENT cranium of a Cetacean, found in 1864 at Lanton,
on the shores of the harbour of Arcachon, has been sent to M. Fil-
lioux. The most superficial examination of this is sufficient to show
that it belongs to an individual of the genus Ziphius of Cuvier.

If doubts have prevailed as to the origin of the Ziphius repre-
sented as fossil by the great.anatomist (Ossem. Foss. tome v. 1"
partie, pl. 27. fig. 3) from an imperfect specimen dug up at the
mouth of the Galégeon (Bouches-du-Rhéne), there can be none as
to the cranium from Arcachon. Its perfect state of preservation,
and the presence of fatty matters in its cerebral cavity, prove that
the death of this Cetacean cannot even be very remote.

The length of the cranium, from the occipital foramen to the
anterior extremity of the intermaxillary bones, is 89 centimetres ;
its breadth, from the orbital margin of the right frontal to that of
the opposite side, is 48 centimetres ; its height, from the base of the
cranium to the upper margin of the nasal bones, is 41 centimetres.

The upper surface of the head is remarkable for the enormous
_ development of the intermaxillaries, and their want of symmetry.
In front they surround a very thick and prominent ivory-like tu-
berosity of the vomer ; posteriorly they spread out, rise up and cir-

* Instances have occurred in the Lake District of persons who have perished
on the hills from prolonged exposure to strong wind and rain, storm-stricken, in
the language of the country.

t “... La congélation compléte a méme si profondément altéré les tissus
de Vorganisme que quand l’animal est tout-d-fait dégelé, son corps est flasque
et mou, ses cristallins sont blanes et opaques, et souvent. sa coloration est tout-a-
fait altérée”’ (p. 24).

256 Miscellaneous.

cumscribe the anterior orifice of the nostrils, which is dominated by
the nasal bones, also unsymmetrical, soldered together on the me-
dian line, and resembling in their totality a leaf of trefoil, in con-
sequence of the two notches which deeply divide them. The right
intermaxillary is considerably broader than the left one; in con-
sequence the nostrils are thrown down to the left.

Between the crests of the intermaxillaries and the margins of the
maxillaries which are concentric with them, there exists a broad
fossa, which may be denominated suborbital. The skull, seen from
above, therefore presents three enormous excavations—namely, a
median or nasal one, limited externally by the intermaxillaries, and
two lateral or suborbital ones, limited externally by the maxillaries.

On the lower surface of the cranium we find the intermaxillaries
in front forming the beak of the upper jaw, and much more deye-
loped than in other Cetacea. The vomer appears only as a very
thin lamina, placed on the median line, at a little distance from the
intermaxillaries.

The posterior orifice of the nasal fossee is situated on the median
line, and bounded in front and laterally by broad pterygoids.

The lateral surfaces of the cranium present a reduced orbital
cavity at the margin of the frontal ; posteriorly the zygomatic apo-
physis of the temporal does not become united to the postorbital
apophysis of the frontal; in front there exists a fragment of the
jugal, united to the upper maxillary. The jugal apophysis is want-
ing, and with it the inferior boundary of the orbit.

The maxillary passing above the orbital apophysis of the frontal,
causes a change in the position of the suborbital foramen, which
becomes supraorbital in Ziphius, as in the Cachalot.

The temporal fossee are deep, but not broad.

The posterior surface of the cranium is almost entirely composed
of the occipital bones ; it is subtriangular, terminated above by a nar-
rowed portion of the frontal articulated with the nasals. The occi-
pital foramen is situated at the lower third of its height. The
cerebral cavity is spacious and of considerable transverse diameter ;
the falx is very high. ©

I cannot at present give more than these imperfect details, which
are the result of a first examination; but I am struck with the
affinity of Ziphius to the Cachalots and Hyperoodons. It is, how-
ever, distinguished from them by the extreme elevation of the poste-
rior ascending portion of the intermaxillaries; in the Hyperoodons,
on the contrary, the parts most developed are.the maxillary crests.
Lastly, I shall call the attention of anatomists to the singular ivory-
like tuberosity of the vomer, the purpose of which seems very enig-
matical to me.

I suppose the cranium of Arcachon to be identical with that of
the Galégeon, although I cannot assert this to be the case, but hope
to arrive at a more positive conclusion after a comparative examina-
tion of the two specimens. ;

By this discovery we at least acquire a knowledge of an interesting
fact, namely the existence of living specimens of Ziphius in the

Miscellaneous. 257

Atlantic; for hitherto their remains have been found only on the
shores of the Mediterranean. In the fossil state, Ziphii (Chone-
ziphius, Duv.) abound in the Antwerp Crag.—Comptes Rendus,
Aug. 6, 1866, pp. 271-272.

Notes on the Domestic Animals and Plants of the Thirteenth and

Fourteenth Centuries. By James E. Tooroxp Rocers, M.A.,
&e. &e.

In Prof. Rogers’s recently published ‘ History of Agriculture and
Prices in England, compiled entirely from original and contemporary
Records, from 1259 to 1400,’ there are some interesting facts con-
nected with domestic animals, which, being derived from contempo-
rary records, are of undoubted authority :—

“ Partridges were plentiful enough, and were, it appears, generally
captured by hawks, and occasionally in nets. Hares may have
existed, probably did; but I have never seen an entry of them.
Pheasants were, it seems, unknown. Rabbits were found in some
localities, but they were very dear”’ (vol. i. p. 65).

**T do not doubt that these [hare and pheasant] existed, as they
are mentioned in chronicles and recited in deeds”’ (p. 33).

‘The banquet [the determination feast of Richard, the son of
Thomas Holland, Earl of Kent, on Shrove Tuesday, 1398] appears
to have lasted two days. The quantity of beef and mutton con-
sumed was not large ; no wonder, for the feast was held in winter ; but
pork, lamb, and veal were abundantly supplied. Kid is also found ;
a rare article of food with our ancestors. The poultry consumed in
the feast is the largest and most characteristic item. Fowls, capons,

se, ducks, swans, and peacocks are purchased. . Amongst wild
owl we find -partridges, teals, wild ducks, Gastrimargii (which I
cannot-identify), snipes, plovers, ousels (that is, blackbirds), thrushes,
and. fieldfares, and, lastly, Upupe, which should mean hoopoes,
though I can hardly imagine that these birds could have been found

dn this country in winter time. The swans and geese were fattened
~ In coops on oats and peas. Rabbits, bought as usual at high prices,
are also found, forty couple of which are brought from Bushey, in
Herts” (pp. 122-123). |

Chapter xvi., “The Price of Live Stock,” p. 326, contains some
most interesting particulars. We extract the following :—‘“ The same
kind of stock which is now kept on an English farm was kept five or
six hundred years ago. Oxen, cows, horses, pigs, sheep, and poultry
were almost invariably reared, though, of course, just as now, lands
which were either not available for sheep-farming, or were more
profitably occupied in the manufacture of dairy produce, maintained
no sheep”’ (p. 326). ‘Pigs, too, were the most important kind of
animal food. The necessity of using salted meat during a moiety of
the year led our forefathers to breed pigs largely, since no meat, it
appears, takes salt more readily or preserves its nutritive properties
after curing so fully as pork. And besides, poultry, to jadge from
the price and from the frequent recurrence of poultry-rents in the

nn. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii.

258 Miscellaneous.

rental of estates, must have been very common. A market also was
found for capons and geese. Ducks were comparatively rare; and
pigeon-houses, kept on most manorial estates, were, no doubt, a
nuisance and a wrong, similar if not equal to the dove-cots of France
during the monarchy” (p. 327).

‘It will be found, on investigating the table given in the second
volume, that the price of cows was considerably less than that of
oxen. Bulls, too, were cheap, though the entries are not numerous.
These facts seem to prove that no attempt was made to improve the
breed’ (p. 327). ‘There seems to be no great variety of breeds; at
least there is no notable difference of price between north and south
country cattle. In all likelihood the breed was the small ox now
found in Scotland and other mountainous regions. I have already
adverted to the fact that unless cattle had deteriorated in the six-
teenth century—a circumstance by no means probable—the carcase
was light; for the oxen bought for victualling the navy were not
more than 4 ewt. in weight on the average. Taking the hide, a very
valuable part of the animal in the middle ages, at an average of 2s. 6d.
(it was sometimes much dearer), the flesh of the average ox would
be worth 10s. 6d.” (p. 329).

‘*The horses used in medizeval husbandryare distinguished as afr ;
called also stotts and cart-horses. The former may perhaps be still
discovered in the coarsely shaped small horses still found in country
districts, and employed in the commonest drudgery, whose value
chiefly lies in the fact that they are able to subsist on very poor and
scanty fare, and can do a great deal of work at a very small cost.
These animals are a little, but not much, dearer than oxen, their
price being lowest in dear years—probably because when oxen were
costlier their use in draught increased, and the value of the small
horse declined. Occasionally, however, they sold at considerable
prices. Cart-horses are much more valuable than affri, and are
sometimes, speaking relatively, very dear. Saddle-horses were oc-
casionally very costly, but often sold at no higher prices than those
obtained for others employed in agricultural work only” (p. 330).

“Sheep are distinguished as muttons, 7. e. wethers, as ewes, hog-
gasts, hoggasters, hoggerels, or bidentes; hurtards or rams, and
lambs. Of these, lambs are, of course, the cheapest, though some-
times their price is so high that I have treated them as hoggasters.
Occasionally young ewes are quoted under the name of jercion. Ewes
are very low-priced. Hurtards or rams are not mentioned very often,
and are generally dear”? (p. 332). ‘‘Sheep were liable to several
diseases, and among them the rot and the scab” (p. 334).

“Towards the close of the thirteenth century sheep were for the first
time affected by a new disease, which has been handed down to our
own time under the name of scab. In the few last years of the same
century tar dressing was adopted, and has been, I believe, uninter-
ruptedly employed from that to the present time.

** While the sheep was valuable to the richer persons in medieval
society, the most important animal in medizeval economy was the
pig. Itis not easy, however, since no weights are given, to arrive with

Miscellaneous, 259

any accuracy at the money value of the animal’’ (p. 335). “ Pigs
are occasionally said to be leprous, and are especially liable to measles
—that is, to entozoa; and the accounts frequently allude to forced
sales of animals in which the latter disease was present and suspected,
= it does not appear that such a circumstance seriously depre-
ciated the market value of the animal ”’ (p. 337). ‘ Wild boars, though
rarely mentioned, are not unknown” (p. 337).

** There is abundant evidence as to the price of poultry. Of these,
the commonest are geese, capons, hens, and pigeons. All are rec-
koned by the head except the last, which are invariably quoted in the
accounts at so many a penny” (p. 338). ‘Besides the poultry, our
forefathers kept swans and peacocks ; the average price of the former
3s. 93d. Peacocks are bought at 2s. in 1278, and at 5s. in 1395”

p- 340).

**The animals [rabbits] are so dear as to suggest either that they
were at this time confined to particular localities, from which they
have subsequently spread over the whole country (a view which
seems to be countenanced by the fact that the price does not increase
in the later part of the period), or that they were, which we can
hardly believe, rigorously and effectuatly protected in the interest of
the great landowners. They were sold at 5d. each in 1270, and
from 3d. to 43d. afterwards” (p. 340).

“We know but little of the period at which animals now familiar
were introduced into England. Thus, though Iam far from saying that
they could not have been found, it is a little singular that I have never
met with any entry of hares or pheasants in the period before me ;
and it is the more remarkable in the earlier period, because the
Bigod and Clare accounts give considerable detail of the domestic
life and expenditure of the Earl of Norfolk and Gloucester” (p. 341).

** Fish, as the reader will discover, was by no means a cheap article
of food in the middle ages. It was so dear that in the time before
us it could hardly have been consumed by the poorer classes except
as a luxury or a relish. Nor does this observation apply only to the
better kind of fresh fish, as lamprey, salmon, pike, and eels.
Herrings and ordinary salt fish and stock fish were, on the whole,
relatively dear. The stories told of the exceeding plenty and cheap-
ness of salmon, if they are not purely local, even in later times,
would not, as far as can be inferred from the account before me, have
been true of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries” (p. 606),

** Most kinds of fish were sold salted as well as fresh ; the business
of a stock-fishmonger being a regular branch of trade in medieval
times. Thus we not only read of salt herrings red and white, but of
salmon, eels, sturgeon, lamprey, and haddock, lyng, moruca (which
are said to be cod), mulvells, melyns, hake, hoburden, cropling, dog-
drave, and hard, stock and salt fish, all of which are cured in this
manner” (p. 607).

**There may have been many other kinds of fish kept which do
not come generally into the market, or were not purchased by such
persons as supply us with information. Hence it is possible that

18*

260 Miscellaneous.

trout, perch, carp, and barbel may have been well known in the
fourteenth century; but I have seen none of these fish in my ac-
counts” (p. 608). i

‘The few entries of oysters (some in the earlier part of the inquiry,
some in the last few years), five of them. are taken from the roll of
Thorney in Sussex, the rate being uniformly a halfpenny the hun-
dred. Mussels and oysters are from Sharpness in Kent, each at 7d.
per bushel’’ (p. 617).

’ «The manor house possessed a garden and orchard. But the former
was very deficient in vegetables. The householder of the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries grew onions and leeks, mustard, and gar-
den or green peas. He probably also possessed cabbages, though I
have never found either seed or plant quoted. Apples and sometimes
pears are mentioned as part of the orchard produce; but we read of
no plums, except once of damsons. A regular part of the produce
of the orchard was cider, and its low price seems to suggest that it
was made in considerable quantities. Sometimes, too, wine was
grown in England, though not, perhaps, so frequently as has been
imagined, the word vivarium having been, it appears, often read vi-
narium. Crabs were collected in order to manufacture verjuice—an
important item in mediaeval cookery. Bees, though honey was dear
and wax very high-priced, do not seem to have been commonly kept,
though some few entries of hives and swarms have been found”’

. TBy.
© “The people lived on salt meat half the year; and not only were
they without potatoes, but they do not appear to have had other
roots which are now in common use, as carrots and parsnips ; onions
and cabbages appear to have been the only esculent vegetables. It -
will be found that nettles (if we can identify these with Urtice) were
sold from the garden. Spices (the cheapest of which was pepper)
were quite out of their reach ; sugar was a very costly luxury; and
our forefathers do not appear, judging from the rarity of the notices,
to have been skilful in the management of bees” (p. 66).

“The hay was gathered into ricks, and, as at present, cut into
trusses. It is hardly needful to observe that the grass was‘all native ;
it was long after the period before us that artificial or foreign
grasses were introduced. Hence the means of supporting winter
stock depended upon the supply of hay and such straw as was avail-
able for the animals kept on the farm. ‘The bailiff calculated his
resources, and killed down for salting at about St. Martin’s Day
(November 11) as many sheep, oxen, and calves as exceeded his
means of sustenance”’ (p. 16).

“It will be seen that the largest part of the land under the plough
was occupied by crops of wheat, barley, and oats. Wheat was the
customary food of the people of this country from the earliest times.
Even if the evidence were not abundant on this point, the breadth
sown annually would be conclusive proof. Barley was sometimes
mixed with wheat in the allowances made to farm-servants ; but its
chief use was in the manufacture of beer, which seems to have been

Miscellaneous. 261

continually brewed in small quantities and for immediate consumption.
_ Wheat is sometimes, but rarely, malted; oat malt is much more
common. ‘The chief use of the oat was for horse-food ; but oatmeal
was made for the broth or porridge of the house. Rye was very
scantily cultivated. A peculiar kind of barley called drageum is very
sdenerally cultivated, especially in the eastern counties ; drage, like
barley, was made into malt. The three leguminous plants, beans,
peas, and vetches, were generally not extensively cultivated, the
average being small in every case’’ (p. 27). ‘‘ Hemp was cultivated
to some extent; it was employed for the home manufacture of ropes”

(p. 28).

On Postfloration. By D. Cros.

It was only at the commencement of the present century that
attention was first paid to sestivation and its importance in classifica-
tion was recognized. But if the relative position of the floral parts of
the same whorl before the expansion of the flower deserves to be
taken into consideration, would it not appear @ priori that their
— appearances after anthesis should also possess some in-
terest

In 1859 M. Fermond indicated the part played in the act of
fecundation by the perianth of certain plants. But is there in cer-
tain families, genera, or subgenera something of a general character
in the arrangement of the floral organs, and especially of the petals,
after the accomplishment of fecundation? I have in vain consulted
the Aunals of Science on this question, and now communicate to the _
Academy my first observations on the subject.

There are some plants which lose their calyx or their corolla soon
after their expansion, and which, for this reason alone, have no
postfloration. Thus the sepals of the Papaveraceze and of many
Cruciferse, the petals of the Papaveraceze and Cistinex, and of Rhexia
virginica, and the corollas of Alonzoa, of the Chinese Primrose, &c.
fall very soon. -

Others have no distinct postfloration, their petals retaining, after
anthesis, the same arrangement which they possessed before ex-
pansion. Such are the Saxifrages, Lycium, Cestrum aurantiacum,
and Cajophora lateritia. In Pelargonium these organs become
slightly curled.

t is rarely that the postfloration reproduces the estivation.
Nevertheless the families Malvaceze and Oxalideze present us with
petals resuming, during their withering, the same twisted arrange-
ment that they had in the bud.

The following are the principal types of postfloration that I have
been able to distinguish :—

1. CLosep (postfloratio occlusa).—The petals of Echeveria,
after flowering, approach each other and close the orifice of the
corolla.

2. Parutous (postf#l. patula).—The perianth of Boussingaultia

262 Miscellaneous.

baselloides, and of the Clematites, which is wide open in flowering,
becomes still more widely spread after fecundation.

3. REFLEXED (postfl. reflexa), presented by the Begonia, espe-
cially B. semperflorens, and by Crassula spathulata and cotyledon.

4. SHRIVELLED (postfl. crispa).—The petals retain their posi-
tion and form, but become shrivelled in drying. Ex. : Pavia, Del-
phinium, Lythrum, and the corolla of the Campanule, Linaria, &e.
Sometimes the perianths in shrivelling become twisted irregularly :
this modification of the shrivelled postfloration is presented by
Clerodendron.

5. Puupy (postf. pulposa).—In Tradescantia virginica the petals
lose their membranous aspect and become pulpy.

6. Curxep or CrrcrnateE ( postfl. circinata).—The petals of the
Capparideze (Capparis, Cleome, Gynandropsis), which are twisted in
zestivation, become rolled into a crook after anthesis. This is also
the case with the corolla of the Peruvian Heliotrope and of Verbena
Melindres, chamedrifolia, and tenera.

7. Recircinate (postf. recircinata).—In Mesembryanthemum
and Cryptostemma calendulaceum the petals and ligule become
rolled into a crook, but from within outwards, or in an opposite
direction to the circinate form.

8. ConpupPLicaTE (postf. conduplicata), one of the lateral
halves of the inner surface of the petal applying itself to the other.
Ex. Ornithogalum Eckloni.

Postfloration may render some service to classification, especially
in the limitation of genera. Authors are not agreed as to the generic
denomination of the Agrostemma Celi-rosa of Linné. Desrousseaux
has placed it in Lychnis; it is a Silene with MM. Grenier and
Godron, and a Viscaria with others. It is distinguished from
Silene by the postfloration of its petals, the two borders of which
roll inwards, whilst that of Silene is shrivelled and contorted.

A Plumbagineous plant has been alternately described under the
names of Plumbago Larpente and Valoradia plumbaginoides. It
presents the same postfloration as Plumbago, namely the rumpled
arrangement of the limb of the corolla, which is in favour of its being
united with that genus.

The postfloration of the stamens deserves a special study. It is
remarkable in the genus Aloé, in which the filaments become undu-
lato-crispate in consequence of an unequal shrinking of the tracheal
system and of the long cells which surround it. The three first-
formed stamens become shrivelled before the others——Comptes
Rendus, 26th Dec. 1865, pp. 1177-1179.

Observations on the part played by the Nucleus in Animal Cells.
By M. Barsrant,

In 1864 the author detected in the ovules of several animals cer-
tain transparent cavities or vacuoles seated in the germinal spots,

Miscellaneous. 263

and endowed with alternate movements of contraction and expan-
sion. He has since succeeded in observing the contractions of the
spot in the living animal. Notwithstanding the analogy which these
phenomena present to those observed in the Infusoria and Rhizo-

oda, their signification remained obscure until the acquisition of a

tter notion of the morphological condition of cells. Thus the
movements of the germinal spot could not be assimilated to those
of which the contractile vesicle of the animals just mentioned is the
seat, as in the ovules and other cells of animals we were unacquainted
with any canals comparable to those connected with the contractile
vesicle of the Infusoria. These the author now professes to have
discovered, from which he considers we are justified in assuming the
existence of a true circulation in these elementary parts of the
organism.

The animal on the ovule of which the author’s observations were
made is Geophilus longicornis. When the fresh ovary of this My-
riopod is placed under the microscope, and the ovules are examined
through its walls, an organ is detected which possesses more bril-
liancy than the surrounding vitellus, and appears like a prolon-
gation of the germinal vesicle. With slightly acidulated water this
appears distinctly as an infundibuliform canal, more or less recurved,
of which the wider orifice is continuous with the membrane of the
vesicle, whilst the opposite extremity reaches the surface of the
vitellus. Generally the canal seems to terminate suddenly at this
point, opening by a circular orifice under the envelope of the ovule ;
but sometimes it appears to be continued into a delicate prolonga-
tion, emitting ramifications which spread more or less over the sur-
face of the vitellus. In certain positions the axis of the canal is
seen to be occupied by a much narrower interior canal, proceeding
from the germinal spot and narrowing rapidly after penetrating
into the outer canal.

The germinal spot is occupied by a greater or less number of va-
cuoles, capable of alternate contraction and expansion. At the
moment of the extreme expansion of one of these vacuoles its walls
appear to be directly continuous with those of the canal which ter-
minates at the spot, the vacuole then looking like the enlarged am-
pulliform end of the latter. When less dilated and seen in profile, it
vt to only to communicate with the canal by a narrow aperture_
like a pore.

The width and apparent length of the two canals are in relation
to the degree of development of the ovules; but they are to be seen
in the youngest. In older ovules they continue visible as long as
their transparency is not obscured by vitelline elements; and they
probably persist as long as the germinal vesicle and spot.

In seeking for similar structures in other ovules, the author ar-
rived at the following results :—In the ovules of the Bitch the vesicle
and spot each present a canal, as in Geophilus. In the Skate, the
ovules of which usually contain from one to four small germinal cor-
puscles with a central vacuole, each of these emits a variable number

264. Miscellaneous.

of small canals (usually two to four), which traverse the cavity of the
vesicle in different directions, pierce its wall, and lose themselves
in the surrounding vitellus.

In the bony fishes and Batrachia, in which there are a great number
of germinal spots adherent to the inner wall of the vesicle, and the
latter is surrounded by a system of canals radiating towards the sur-
face of the ovum. Lach canal is connected with one of the spots.

Multiple canals are generally met with in all ova which present
more or less numerous germinal spots.. Sometimes, as in some Crus-
tacea (Crayfish, Shore-crab), these multiple spots appear also to be
united to each other in the interior of the vesicle by canals.

In many Annelides, Turbellaria, Mollusea, and Acalephs the ova
contain only a simple germinal spot, often of considerable size, con-
nected with a single canal, which is enclosed in a second canal, starting
from the vesicle. The germinal spot also very commonly contains
one or more large vacuoles possessing a very manifest contractile
power (Helix, Prostomum, Vortex, &c.).—Comptes Rendus, December
26, 1865, pp. 1173-1177. 7 |

On the Lateral Canal of Lota.
By Professor Hyrrt.

The lateral canal-system of this animal possesses no orifices in the
skin on the lateral line, but forms a closed subcutaneous tube, sup-
ported by cartilage throughout its whole course, and which acquires
a moniliform appearance in consequence of the presence of alternate
wider and narrower spaces. The absence of lateral orifices enables
us to inject this canal. By this means its cephalic ramifications are
also demonstrable, and these have not yet been detected in their
perfect connexion in any Teleostean fish. The canal reaches the
occipital region of the head above the suprascapula, and is there
connected by a wide anastomosis with that of the opposite side; it
then runs above the eye to the nose, where. it becomes suddenly
narrowed, and. opens externally upon a capillary papilla in front of
the nasal aperture. During its course to this point it emits, behind
the eye, a large branch downwards; this passes forward round the
orbit, emits three czecal diverticula upon the suspensorium and to
the articulation of the lower jaw, and terminates cecally beneath the
nasal pit, forming a series of ampulliform dilatations. In front of
the eyes the two lateral.canals are united by a short transverse duct,
which forms a spherical dilatation (alveus communis) in its middle,
and close to this emits a blind diverticulum upon the anterior frontal
bone. When the canal is injected in a backward direction, we discover
that it has also a posterior terminal aperture, which, like the anterior
one, is to be seen upon a minute cutaneous papilla, about an inch
from the caudal fin. The canal-system of both sides of the body
has consequently only four cutaneous apertures.— Anzeiger der Akad.
der Wiss. in Wien, May 11, 1866, p. 119.

THE ANNALS
MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 106. OCTOBER 1866.

XXXIV.—On the Habits of the Prisopi.
By Anprew Murray, F.L.S.

Tue few entomologists who have studied the Phasmide (“leaf-
insects” and “ walking-sticks”) are familiar with the remarkable
form and organization of the Prisopi; but, although that genus
has occupied the attention of such acute entomologists as Stoll,
Burmeister, and Blanchard, and more recently been monographed
and its structure figured by that prince of entomological draughts-
men, Westwood, no suggestion has ever been made or explana-
tion offered of the purpose and meaning of their singular
organization.

It is not long since I obtained satisfactory information on this
point from my friend Mr. Alexander Fry ; and as he is too much
occupied at present to publish it himself, and I think it too in-
teresting to be kept back, I, with his permission, send you this
account of what he knows on the subject.

It only relates to the species named Prisopus flabelliformis, a
specimen of which he had obtained while in Brazil; but as all
the species are characterized by the same peculiarities of struc-
ture, the habits of one will doubtless be the habits of all.

I may premise that Mr. Fry has the fullest confidence in the
veracity of the person from whom he received the information,
who moreover had no temptation to deceive him, and was, be-
sides, too little acquainted with entomology to know that he was
solving an entomological puzzle. The habits which he ascribes
to the Prisopus, too, are not such as would readily occur to a
romancer to endow a flying insect with, although, as it turns
out, the structure is so admirably adapted to the purpose ex-
plained by him that it seems a wonder that the very perfection
of its adaptation did not suggest to entomologists what the
purpose was.

According to this observer, then, the insect was obtained by

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist, Ser.3, Vol, xviii. 19

266 Mr. A. Murray on the Habits of the Prisopi. ‘

him in the mountains of Brazil; and its habits were to spend
the whole of the day under water, in a stream or rivulet, fixed
firmly to a stone in the rapid part of the stream, but on the
approach of dusk to leave the water and to sally forth imto the
night air on its own affairs, one of which undoubtedly would
be to search for its lady love, whom it is reasonable to suppose
we already know under some other form and described under
some other name—judging, at least, from other Phasmide or
leaf-insects, the perfect male of which has usually ample wings,
while the female is not so well provided with organs for
flight. '
The creature is a large orthopterous insect, with wings of
unusual dimensions and, the under ones especially, of fine mem-
branous texture, apparently by no means well adapted for an
aquatic life. And yet we shall presently see they-are so arranged
that they can be folded up exactly like a well-cared-for umbrella,
placed under the protection of a waterproof cover.
Before passing the structure of the little creature under re-
view and pointing out how thoroughly each part of it is fitted
to the unusual mode of life ascribed to it, we may first pave the
way by reminding the reader that this is not the only winged
insect which has been ascertained to pass a great part of its life
under water. Stoll figured a singular species, which Westwood*
thinks belongs to the family of grasshoppers (Gryllide), under
the name of the “ Grillon aquatique cornu” (Henicus Stollit of
G. R. Gray) ; but Westwood adds that “it is quite evident, from
the saltatorial structure of the legs and the impossibility of the
insect executing a leap under water (from the natural resistance
of the element), that there must be a mistake in the statement
that it is aquatic in its habits.”
If I might hazard a conjecture on the subject, it would be
that Stoll, who also describes our Prisopus, had received a true
account of its habits, but had confounded it with the “ aquatic
cricket,” and transferred the story from the one insect to the
other. This is the less unlikely since we know that he had both
in his cabinet.
More recently Mr. Lubbock described to the Linnean Society
two aquatic Hymenoptera of small size, which he had observed
in a basin of pond-water. “Though most of the great orders,”
says he, “are more or less richly represented (in water), no
aquatic species of Hymenoptera or Orthoptera had till now been
discovered... .. Great, therefore, was my astonishment, on the
occasion to which I allude, when I saw in the water a small
Hymenopterous insect, evidently quite at its ease, and actually

* J.O. Westwood, Modern Classification of Insects, i. p. 456.

Mr. A. Murray on the Habits of the Prisopi. 267

swimming by means of its wings. At first I could hardly believe
my eyes; but having found several specimens, and shown them
to some of my friends, there can be no doubt about the fact”’*.

For an account of the structure and economy of this wonderful
creature, as well as of another similar species found at the same
time, which, although living under water, does not use its wings,
but its legs, for swimming, I must refer the reader to Mr. Lub-
bock’s paper. I shall only observe that, although the wings in
both are largely ciliated or fringed with hair, they are not more
_ so than the wings of their terrestrial allies. As Mr. Lubbock
says, “There is nothing in their structure to suggest the idea
that they are aquatic.”

Not so with our species when it is fairly examined with
reference to its supposed habits and means of carrying them
out.

The whole underside, even the head, is hollowed out like the
half of a reed. The surface of that side is flexible, smooth, and
finely polished. The margins are thinned off, and the segments
of the abdomen, where not fitted to the posterior legs, are pro-
vided with flaps or quasi claspers. All the legs fit most beauti-
fully and closely to the side of the abdomen. Their outer
margin is dentate and provided with a thick fringe of hair,
which, like the feathers of a duck, repels water. Moreover at
the knee-joint, where there is unavoidably an opening or unpro-
tected space, it is provided with a flap or side knee-pan—a
provision which occurs in no other insect with which I am ac-
quainted. This flap hangs down, filling up the opening, and is
furnished, like the rest of the outer margins of the leg and body,
with a supply of hair impervious to water. The posture of the
animal in the water is, fastened to the upper surface of a stone,
and with its head turned up stream in opposition to the current.
It sits with its fore legs extended forwards in front of the head,
and the inner side of the thighs is hollowed out exactly to fit
the sides of the head, and the thigh itself is bent down so as to
form the continuation of the sides of the long cup or saucer
which the underside of the animal represents. The antennee fold
back on the upperside of the head, where there is a depression
to receive them. In the other Phasmide the tegmina or upper
wing-cases are usually short, narrow, and coriaceous, and appa-
rently not fitted for much use. Here they are as long as the
body, so as to cover the whole of the large under wings when
folded up; they are broad enough to do so; and the whole are
only of a semicoriaceous texture, flexible and pergaminous, but
most so at the base, thinning away at the termination into a

* Trans. Linn. Soe. xxiv. p. 135,
19%

268 M.'T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

finer texture, approaching that of the lower wings. The claws
of the tarsi are strong, powerful, and well adapted for clinging.

In this animal we seem to have a combination of two plans of
adhesion: there are the claws and claspers and flaps for hold-
ing on by; there is the hollow underside for adhering by ex-
hausting the air between it and the stone it clings to, on the
principle of the air-pump. If, when it settles on the stone and
adjusts itself, its trachee are full of air, and it then expels
the air and by muscular power draws in the skin of the abdomen
and underside generally, it must, of course, leave a vacuum,
and consequently adhere like a sucker.

This species from the mountains of Brazil is the only one of
whose aquatic habits any account has been received; but the
genus, although individuals are rare (as with most species which
only show themselves at night), is widely distributed.

The following are the species known up to the present time,
with their localities, taken from Westwood’s recent Monograph
of the Phasmidee :—

Prisopus flabelliformis, Stoll. Brazil; Cayenne.

spiniceps, Burm. Do. do.
_—— Ohrimanni, Licht. East Indies.

horridus, Westw. Columbia.

Horstokkui, De Haan. Cape of Good Hope.

berosus, Westw. Panama.

phacellus, Westw. Brazil; Ega.

incertus, Westw. Samarang ; Java.

cornutus,G.R.Gray. — India.

cepus, Westw. Bolivia.

Guerini, Westw. Ile Maurice.

Now that their habits are made known, we may expect that
specimens will become less rare, and that we shall receive more
information regarding their economy and mode of life.

XXXV.—On Two European Argulide, with Remarks on the
Morphology of the Argulide and their Systematic Position, to-
gether with a Review of the Species of the Family at present
known. By T. Tuore.t.

[Continued from p. 169.]

III.

As the question of the position which the family Argulidz
should occupy in the system of the Crustacea is far from having
received a satisfactory solution, it will not be out of place here
to dwell somewhat further on this subject. Referred by Linné

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 269

to the genus Monoculus (which corresponds with almost all the
lower Crustacean orders or “ Entomostraca” with the exception
of the Cirripeds), the sole representative of the family Argulide
then known (A, foliaceus) held a place in the ‘ Syst. Nat.’ ed. 10,
between M. polyphemus and M. apus, consequently between a
Limulus and an Apus. In the ‘Fauna Suecica,’ ed. 2, a Caligus
(M. piscinus, L.) was located between Argulus and Apus. In
the ‘ Entomostraca’ of Miiller*, who first erected the genus Ar-
gulus, we find it between Polyphemus and Limulus, immediately
after which comes the genus Caligus.

From this time, however, it gradually became general to place
Caligus and Argulus near to each other, especially since Latreille
laid the foundation of the present prevalent division of the class
of Crustacea, and constituted the order Siphonostoma for those
forms which are provided with sucking-tubes, placing therein
the genera Argulus and Caligus in close proximity to each
other. This view of the systematic position of the Argulide
has been shared by most of the more modern authors, as Bur-
meister, Milne-Edwards, Baird, Dana, Heller, Cornalia, Claus,
Kroyer, &e. As Latreille’s Siphonostoma and Milne-Edwards’s
Lernéides have been united with that author’s Copépodes in a
single order by Zenker+, under the name Entomostraca, called
Copepoda by later authors, it is consequently among the para-
sitic suctorial Copepoda (Copepoda siphonostoma) that the
nearest affinities of the Argulide have been sought. But this
view of the affinities of the Argulide has been by no means
generally accepted: from more than one quarter have objections
to it been put forward, which render necessary a further exami-
nation of the reasons alleged in favour of it. Dana and Herrick
have already pointed out the great differences between the oral
organs of the Argulide and the true Siphonostoma, and express
their opinion that Argulus should perhaps hereafter become the
type of a new order, standing between the Siphonostoma and
the Peecilopoda or Xiphura. Their attempt to show a nearer
relationship between the Argulide and these last must, however,
be regarded as abortive, since it is pretty generally recognized
that such conditions of organization as may ally the Argulide
to Limulus are presented in a still more marked degree by the
Phyllopoda, especially the genus Apus. Limulus shows, more-
over, so many remarkable peculiarities in its structure, that it
must necessarily be regarded as the type of a separate order, in
spite of its being more nearly related to the Branchiopoda and

* Entomostraca seu Insecta testacea, quae in aquis Danis et Norvegie
reperit, &e. O. F’. Miiller (1785), p. 121.

+ Untersuchungen iiber die Organisation und Verwandtschaft der Co-
pepoden, p. 54,

270 M.T.Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

Argulide than to any other group of the Crustacea. Even
Vogt expresses himself against the union of the Argulide with
the Siphonostoma, on the ground that the organization of the
mouth is very different; but he says nothing further as to their
place in the system. ;

The order Branchiopoda only can claim a stronger affinit
to the Argulide on the ground of several leading points of
resemblance. The relation of these latter to that order had
already attracted the notice of authors who ranged them with
the Siphonostoma, as, for instance, Milne-Edwards, who says,
with reference to the swimming-feet of the Argulidee, that they
seem to be intermediate between those of the Branchiopoda and
of the ordinary Siphonostoma. Zenker is, however, the first
who made a decided step in this direction, and in his Crustacean
system united them with the Branchiopoda, at the same time
drawing attention to their marked agreement with these in cer- -
tain important points, as the structure of the eyes and digestive
apparatus, and showing also that the greater number of the
characters which were thought to justify their amalgamation
with the Copepoda are also to be found in many Branchiopoda.
This notion of Zenker as to the systematic position of the Argu-
lide has been shared by Gegenbaur and myself*, as also by
Steenstrup and Luetken, who ally Argulus to the Phyllopoda,
as the representative of parasitism in that group.

A renewed examination of the structure of the Argulide, as
compared with that of the Copepoda and the Branchiopoda, has
further convinced me of the correctness of Zenker’s view. I
have fancied that I could discover grounds for making the Ar-
gulidz a suborder of the Branchiopoda, consequently a group of
equal value with the Phyllopoda and Cladocera, although most
nearly allied to the former; and as I shall now proceed to an
exposition of those grounds, I have only to hope that such ma
in some measure contribute to the final solution of the question.
Such an examination has appeared to me all the more necessary
since Kréyer has lately become a champion of the old view of
the position of the Argulide, and has sought to prove their
affinity with the Copepoda by several considerations which have
been more or less overlooked by previous authors, who founded
their ideas of the propriety of inserting the Argulide among
the parasitic Copepoda exclusively on the suctorial formation of
the mouth and the parasitic habits depending thereon.

In order to form a clear notion of the relations of the Argu-
lidee to the Copepoda and Branchiopoda, it is necessary to
determine the reciprocal relations of these two groups; 7. e. to

* « Bidrag till kinnedomen om Krustaceer, som lefva i arter af slagtet
Ascidia, L.,” K. Vetensk.-Ak, Handl. Bd. iii. No. 8 (1859-1860), p. 14.

M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 271

_ define what is common to both types and what are the principal
characters which authorize their position as two distinct orders —
in the class, and then to see in what respect the Argulide assi-
milate to the one or the other group, or differ from both. We will,
in passing, merely recall the common bond which unites all the
lower orders of Crustacea, Xiphura, Branchiopoda, Ostracoda,
Copepoda, and Cirripedia, and which seems to us to warrant the
union of these orders into one large subclass, Entomostraca, in
Latreille’s acceptation of that term, in contradistinction to the
other, higher Crustacean orders, or Malacostraca. The Xiphura
incline towards the Phyllopods in the order of the Branchiopoda,
with which Zenker was disposed to unite them ; the near affinity
of the Ostracoda with the Cladocera is pretty generaily recog-
nized; moreover they are often placed in close connexion with
the Copepoda; and these latter show not only a great affinity
with the Ostracoda, but also with the Cirripedes on the one
ae, and the Branchiopods, especially the Phyllopods, on the
other.

This near relation of the Copepods and Phyllopods shows it-
self especially in their development. In both groups, the larva,
as far as is known, always goes through a Nauplius-stage, and
then shows three pairs of extremities of which the first two
develope into the first and second pairs of antenne, the third
into the mandible and its palp when such exists. The body is
always (except in the lower parasitic Copepods) conspicuously
segmented; the oral organs consist, when complete, of four
pairs of appendages—one pair of mandibles, one pair of maxille,
and two pairs of foot-jaws. The feet are cloven or lobed swim-
ming or respiratory organs. The Cladocera differ in their in-
distinctly segmented trunk, and in the fact that they go through
the metamorphoses which correspond to the Nauplius-stage in
the egg, and thus do not go through a (true) metamorphosis.
In this respect they approach the Ostracoda. The development
of the Argulide is midway between that of the Phyllopods (and
Copepods) on the one side, and that of the Cladocera (and
Ostracoda) on the other: their larve go through the earlier
phases of the Nauplius-stage in the egg-shell, and quit this in a
form which most nearly corresponds with what Claus calls the
final Nauplius-stage of the Copepoda ; whence the metamorphoses
of the Argulidee, as compared with those of the Phyllopods and
Copepods, may be called incomplete. For the rest, we find in
the Argulide also those characters which we have mentioned as
common to Phyllopods and Copepods.

If we would determine by what characteristics the Copepods
and Branchiopods may always and with certainty be distin-
guished from each other, we cannot at the outset fail to per-

272 M.'T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

ceive that the former constitute a much compacter whole than the
' latter, and that certain conditions of organization which in the
one type (that of the Copepoda) show a considerable degree of
constancy are in the other exceedingly variable. Thus the
number of body-segments in the Copepods varies within com-
paratively narrower limits than in the Branchiopods; and the
same thing is the case, and in a higher degree, with the number of
the legs. Since the trunk in Copepods always bears a definite
number, at the most (and most frequently) five pairs, of extremi-
ties, it would be an extremely remarkable variation if a form
appertaining thereto were detected with more than five pairs of
legs; whereas it is not at all surprising to meet among the
Branchiopods, which certainly are generally distinguished by
numerous extremities, with forms possessing only a few pairs of
legs (as, for instance, four in the Argulide), while their number
varies in the Phyliopods from ten to sixty, and in the Cladocera
goes down to six, five, or only four pairs.

The oral organs also are more constant in number in the
Copepods than in the Branchiopods, where the maxillary feet
are mostly rudimentary or entirely wanting. yen in cases
where both pairs are found, as in Apus, the posterior are always
rudimentary—a condition which is seldom observed in the Co-
pepods. Amongst these it is usually only in connexion with
parasitic habits that the number of the oral organs is reduced ;
but it is here worthy of remark that the parasitic nature in
general occasions a stronger development of the maxillary feet, and
always in those groups at least which possess suctorial tubes and
distinctly segmented bodies (i.e. Ascomyzontide, Caligide). This
would lead us to suppose that if parasitic Branchiopoda be found
analogous to the Copepod families just named, the maxillary
feet of these, as constituting the seizing-organs already men-
tioned, will also have received a stronger development than in
the free forms. Notwithstanding, therefore, that the Argu-
lide possess, as is well known, in correlation with their:para-
sitic habits, particularly strong maxillary feet, this character
would not forbid their approximation to the Branchiopoda on
the ground of their further agreement with that group.

In the Copepoda both mandibles and maxille are usually
furnished with a palp, whereas this is never the case in the
Branchiopod order, excepting in the genus Nebalia, which
differs in so many respects from them, and makes an approach
to the Decapoda (Mysis, Cuma). In Copepods the palpi
are certainly sometimes wanting, especially in the parasitic
forms; but in the higher Siphonostoma (Ascomyzontide and
Caligidz) there is generally at least one pair, while these organs
are altogether wanting in the Argulide.

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 273

__. Here it will be proper to make the two following remarks :—
In the parasitic suctorial Copepoda, the tube never contains
more than one pair of organs, the mandibles; in the Argulide,
on the contrary, most generally two pairs, both maxille and
mandibles, and these in form quite unlike the small saw- or
lancet-like mandibles of the Siphonostoma.

In the parasitic Copepoda it is always the antenne of the
second pair which are used as seizing-organs; in the Argulide,
on the contrary, it is the first pair which performs this function.

As something peculiar to the order Copepoda, the form of
the limbs of the trunk holds a prominent place. These consist,
as we know, of a basal piece, composed of two joints, with two
branches situated on this, each consisting of three joints. Ge-
nerally the feet belonging to one pair are united by means of a
median plate, so that they move in unison. The structure of the
legs may perhaps be simplified by certain parts becoming fused
together or further separated; but whenever the legs attain a
full development, they present the form here described. Such
is also the case with the parasitic forms—as, for instance, the
Caligide. In the Branchiopoda the structure of the legs is
highly variable, but is still referable to a common type: it is
sufficient to notice here that they never have the form charac-
teristic of Copepoda, and that the median plate is always absent.
This is also the case in the Argulidee, whose swimming-feet, as
we shall show further on, admit of an easy comparison with the
feet in Apus. The presence of “branchial appendages” on the
feet of the Branchiopoda is not a thoroughly constant character
in this order: they are wholly rudimentary or completely want-
ing in many Cladocera, as Polyphemus, Podon, Evadne, Bytho-
trephes, Leptodera, on the extremity of the tail in Nebalia: con-
sequently the absence of such appendages in an animal (as
in Argulus) does not show that it cannot belong to the Bran-
chiopoda.

Almost as distinctive of the Branchiopoda as the form of the
feet in the Copepoda is the structure of the visual organs in the
former as compared with the latter. The Branchiopods have
two large, generally moveable, lateral eyes (in the Cladocera
these coalesce into a single eye), composed of numerous crystal-
line cones, with the cornea at least externally unfacetted. No
Copepod has eyes that can be fully compared to these; for the
median single eye in the Copepod, which often contains two or
more crystalline bodies, corresponds to the ocellus situated be-
hind the lateral eyes in the Branchiopoda, and sometimes also
provided with crystalline bodies ; and the large paired eyes in cer-
tain Copepods (as the Pontellide and Coryczidz) show a struc-
ture entirely different from the compound eyes of the Branchio-

274 M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

poda, if indeed they morphologically correspond with these.
The eyes in Argulus are moveable, and agree in their structure,
as is well known, with those of the Phyllopods in their most
sharply defined form.

In the Copepoda we never meet with the shell armature which,
as a kind of supplementary integument on the anterior divisions
of the body, in the Branchiopoda so generally encloses or covers
the body. The large shield in the Argulide shows the greatest
resemblance to the carapace in Apus, and removes them far
from the Copepoda.

With regard to the internal structure, this in many instances
affords a more uncertain criterion for judging of the affinity of
the lower Crustaceans than do the characters which are drawn
from their external form. Thus the nervous system, the cireu-
latory apparatus, &c., in nearly related forms, may show very
striking discrepancies, to adduce an instance of which we will
only mention the known fact that, even in the strictly natural
group formed by the gnathostomous Copepods, the Calanidee
and Pontellide possess a heart, while the nearly allied Cyclo-
pide, with others, want a definite central organ of circulation.
At the same time, however, that the internal structure presents
such extraordinary variation and inconstancy even in the most
nearly related groups, it shows, on the other hand, in its general
features such striking correspondences in the Branchiopods and
Copepods, that it is difficult to fix any anatomical character as
belonging to one only of these two orders. The generative ap-
paratus in the Copepoda only furnishes two peculiarities which
are worth noticing here. The eggs are united in the Copepoda,
when they leave the ovaries, to form one or two external egg-sacs,
excepting in the spurious parasitic Notodelphyide and Bupro-
ride, in which they are received into a matriz, almost as in the
Cladocera. In the Branchiopoda such egg-sacs are never pre-
sent. In the Copepoda, impregnation takes place, as far as we
know, always by means of spermatophores, which are attached
externally to the body of the female close to the sexual orifice
or the mouth of a separate canal leading to the receptacle. The
Branchiopoda never show such spermatophores. In both these
points the Argulide depart from the Copepoda in general, and
from the analogous forms in that order, Caligidsee and Ascomy-
zontide in particular, in that they lack both egg-sacs and ex-
ternal spermatophores.

Notwithstanding the agreement which the Argulide present
with the Branchiopoda in respect to conditions of propagation,
they yet exhibit in this very direction both peculiarities and
analogies with other orders. Zenker has already pointed out
this: in respect to the form and products of its generative ap-

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 275

paratus, he says that Argulus makes a nearer approach to the
Ostracoda ‘‘in its thread-like zoosperms and the existence of
male accessory glands and of female seminal receptacles.” He
might have added that they here also approach the Copepoda,
which are also sometimes furnished with thread-like zoosperms
(I myself have observed them in Lichomolgus); accessory glands
are often met with in connexion with the male organs, and a
single or double receptaculum seminis apparently always, in the
Copepoda. Resemblances in these particulars, with the excep-
tion of the last named, are, however, relatively of little weight.
Meanwhile the generative apparatus in the Argulide is referable,
as we have seen, in certain points to the Branchiopods, in others
to the Copepods. But conditions in the highest degree peculiar
separate them from both these orders. Unfortunately, much
i: ge the propagation of the Argulide remains still obscure;
and even Leydig’s accurate researches on this subject* leave many
important questions unanswered. The signification of the
characteristic (probably copulatory) appendages on the two or
three posterior pairs of swimming-feet is undetermined, with
the exception of the capsule on the hinder part of the third pair
of feet, which, according to Leydig, is filled with sperm from
the opening of the ductus deferens, and afterwards, during the
act of copulation, presses its contents into the seminal reservoirs.
The function which belongs to the “hook” on the last pair of
legs, which in its structure so strongly recalls the copulatory
organ of the Spiders and Julus, is unknown. Leydig perceived
only that during copulation this was “closely pressed upon or
into the capsule of the last pair of legs but one,” and that it did
not serve in any way to retain the female. This latter function
may perhaps belong to the projections on the hinder part of the
second pair of legs, which occur in certain species, as A. coregoni.
As to the significance of the projections on the fore part of the
third pair of feet, I do not venture to guess.

The females of the Argulidz have, as has been said, two recep-
tacula seminis, which, each by means of a proper channel of
communication, opens out on a moveable papilla near the under-
side of the tail, behind the mouth of the ovarium ; and thus it
would seem that an immediate connexion between the receptacles
and the ovarium is here wanting. How the semen under these
conditions can come into contact with the eggs is still undis-
covered.

Another circumstance also brought to light by Leydig (with
reference to A. foliaceus) is of the greatest interest. ‘The
receptacle is,” he says, “in females which have never copulated,
empty and folded inwardly. After copulation there appears in-

* Ueber Argulus foliaceus, p. 339 &e.

276 M.T.Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

side this another stout vesicle, which is filled with spermatozoids.
A homogeneous sharply defined thread shows itself as a con-
tinuation of the skin of this enclosed vesicle, through the outlet,
to a papilla situated in a concavity.” On the nature of this
bladder nothing is said. But may we not see in this a sperma-
tophore which is not, as in the Copepods, attached externally to
the body of the female by means of a tubiform filament through
which the spermatozoids pass into the receptacle, but which is
altogether introduced into this latter? And if this supposition
be correct, where is the spermatophore produced? Possibly,
may we not think, in the capsule on the third pair of legs,
whence it must be supposed to have become transferred to the
receptacle? in effecting which the “hook” on the last pair of
legs would certainly play an important part. Or may not the
two accessory glands which open each upon the lower portion
of its own ductus deferens contribute the secretion to form the
walls of the spermatophore? And how can the spermatozoids
escape from this bladder or spermatophore if the channel of
communication be filled up by a “ homogeneous thread” ?

I have dwelt upon these circumstances chiefly with a view to
drawing to them the attention of those who have opportunities
and inclination to accord them a due investigation in living
Argulids. Especially suitable for such researches is the large
Argulus coregoni, which would seem to be tolerably frequent in
the larger lakes of Sweden.

Proper to the Argulidz is moreover the circumstance that the
eges come directly from the ovarium into freedom: they are
neither retained in a “uterus,” matrix, or any structure ana-
logous thereto, as is the case in most Branchiopoda; nor are
they attached to the projection of some of the legs, as in some
forms of this order. (See what we have said concerning the
ovarium of A. coregoni, p. 168.) This is, however, of subordinate
importance. The ovarium of Argulus may be regarded as cor-
responding to both uterus and ovarium in, for example, Bran-
chipus, forming, however, a single structure, in which the por-
tions set apart for the producing of the eggs and for their main-
tenance have not yet become separated in position from each
other.

The remaining peculiarities which the sexual apparatus of the
Argulide presents are not of very great importance, and are
always easily reducible to conditions commonly prevalent in the
Branchiopoda. They are mostly to be accounted for by the fact
that the tail is sharply separated from the trunk, whence also
the various parts of the sexual apparatus are more separated
from each other. Thus the ovarium is situated entirely in the
trunk, while the receptacles are in the tail; the testes are placed

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 277

here, while the seminal bladder and ductus deferentes lie in the
trunk. In the Branchiopods both ovarium and testes have their
position in the anterior portion of the tail *.

While we are on the subject of the sexual conditions of the
Argulide, we must not omit to mention a circumstance which
im some measure removes them from the Branchiopoda: propa-
gation by means of parthenogenesis, which seems to be so general
in that order, seems to be as rare among the Argulidz as among
the Copepoda.

Among the anatomical characters whereby the Copepoda may
pretty constantly be distinguished from the Branchiopoda, it has
been asserted, is the absence of gall-secreting branches in the intes-
tinal canal. However, according to Claus, many Copepods,
especially the genus Sapphirina, possess extremely strongly de-
veloped glandular liver-appendages; and since these in many
Branchiopoda (as, for instance, the Branchipodide) are but
feebly developed or (as in Limnadia and many Cladocera) alto-
gether wanting, we must not attribute to this character any
special importance. Still the strong branches of the intestinal
canal beneath the head-shield in Apus and Argulus certainly
afford further grounds for considering that these creatures are
nearly related.

Neither in the nervous nor circulatory system do I find any
characteristics which might contribute to fix the line of demarca-
tion between the Branchiopods and Copepods. The copious
supply of blood in the head-shield in Argulus, which Zenker
regards as attesting the Copepod nature of the Argulide,
depends only on the strong development of this shield, the form
of which meanwhile points, as has already been said, to a near
relation with the Branchiopoda. According to Leydig and Claus,
blood-corpuscles are wanting in the nourishing fluid of the
Copepoda, but are found in both Phyllopoda and Cladocera, as
also in Argulus. This difference, however, is not constant ;
for they are found also, according to Dana, in abundance in the
Ciligides in the first-named order. The well-marked separation
of the tail from the trunk, and its modification as a respiratory
organ, would seem to be the most prominent feature in their

* Leydig, “ Ueber Artemia salina und Branchipus stagnalis, Beitrag zur
anatomischen Kenntniss dieser Thiere,’’ Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche
Zoologie, Bd. ii. p. 297 &e. Leydig is guilty of a misrepresentation when
he says that Joly did not perceive the true ovaria of Artemia salina, but
only the uterus, which he mistook for the ovary. Joly expresses himself
thus :—* Sur les parties latérales des deux premiers anneaux de l’abdo-
men on s’apercoit.. . . deux sacs allongés, cylindriques, dont le fond est
tourné du cdté de la queue. Ces deux sacs sont les ovaires proprement dits.
Ils viennent déboucher dans une matrice ou ovaire externe, qui parait étre
une dilatation considérable de leur propre membrane.”

278 M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

entire organization. Leydig appears to be the first who recog-
nized in the tail-fin of the Argulide their principal and proper
respiratory organ, at the same time admitting that, as in the
lower Crustacea in general, respiration is here also effected in a
great measure by the thin integument of the body, especially
on the large membranous head-shield*. Of some use for re-
spiration are perhaps also the small leaf-like appendages which
are sometimes developed (as in A. purpureus, and, according to
Kroyer, in Gyropeltis longicauda) on the final segment of the
trunk, and which seem to be analogous to the leaf-like dorsal
plates in the Pandaride. The posterior surface of the last pair
of legs is often more or less flattened out and widened ; . but this
widening cannot functionally or morphologically be compared
with the so-called branchial appendages on the extremities of
the Branchiopoda. For the rest, the legs of the Argulide lack
any trace of such appendages, but in other respects do not
differ much from those of the Branchiopoda; and as it is with
the Phyllopoda amongst these that. they most agree in general
habit, so it is accordingly the extremities of these which are
most like the swimming-feet of the Argulide.

In order, however, not to overlook this likeness, we must not
select for comparison such extremities as, by their conversion
into “ respiratory feet,’ have lost the typical form of organs of
locomotion, but such as still present this form fully and com-
pletely. This is especially the case with the first pair of feet,
or the so-called swimming-feet, in Apus. They consist (in Apus
cancriformis) of a three-jointed prolonged basal part, which at
its extremity bears three long, inconspicuously jointed swimming-
branches or flagella). 'These parts evidently correspond both
in form and function to the three-jointed stem of the feet in
the Argulide, together with the swimming-branches and “ fla-
gella”’ attached to the end of this. The sole difference is that
this “ flagellum” in the Argulide is bent upwards and inwards;
but even this is not always the case; for in A. funduli it is,
according to Kroyer, directed similarly to the two swimming-
branches. Sometimes the flagellum is wanting, as in A. purpureus.
The two branchial appendages on the upper surface of the foot
in Apus, as also a pair of flagelliform appendages situated on
their lower surface, together with the so-called masticatory
piece at their base, are, however, entirely wanting in the Ar-
gulide: the supposition that the flagellum in these corresponds —
to the branchial appendage of the Branchiopoda is con-
sequently incorrect—a point which not only its attachment
but also its form evidently show. Moreover the parts just
mentioned are easily recognizable on the following pairs of feet

* Loe. cit. p. 338.

M. T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 279

in Apus; but as the swimming-branches become gradually
shorter and broader, while the branchial appendage proceeds in
development, the likeness in form which the first pair of feet so
strikingly shows to the swimming-feet of the Argulidee decreases
gradually with the likeness in function.

We may now pass on to a nearer examination of the grounds
on which Kréyer* sought to prove that the Argulide are sipho-
nostomous Copepoda most nearly related to the Caligide. His
first argument is that Gyropeltis presents a transition between
these two families in “certain essential particulars ;” by which
is meant that the species of that genus lack a sting, and have
the first pair of foot-jaws of a hooked form, not developed into
sucking-cups. To this it may be objected that the “sting” and
sucking-cups are altogether peculiar to the Argulide: they
neither occur again in Branchiopoda nor in Copepoda; and
thus Gyropeltis might as well be said to form a passage to the
Apodida, for instance, in the former order as to the Caligide in
the latter, on account of its wanting these structures. Through
the discovery of Gyropeltis, only two of the characters on which
it would be possible to base the position of the Argulide as a
separate order have lost their importance, inasmuch as they
cease to be constant; but no reason whatever for the union of
these animals with either of the two orders in question has hence
been obtained. With respect moreover to the distinct form of
the first pair of foot-jaws, these organs in Gyropeltis have only
remained at that stage which belongs to Argulus in the larval
condition.

Another reason for his view of the relation between the Argu-
lide and the Caligide has been drawn by Kroéyer from the
structure of the antenne: he endeavours, in fact, to identify the
first pair of antenne in the former with the second pair in the
latter, on the ground of their functional agreement as fixing-
organs. We have already had occasion to point out, on the
ground of their development, the incorrectness of this view of
their relations; and the Argulide demonstrate, in the fact that
in them not the second, but the first pair of antenne have be-
come the fixing-organs, that they are widely separated from the
Caligide and the other parasitic Copepoda. Kroyer further tries
to show that Argulus, like the Caligide, has two pairs of foot-

* Loe. cit. pp. 25-29. I have not been able to see the force of the
following objection against Zenker’s separation of the Argulide from the
Siphonostoma :—“ Zenker expresses as the result of his researches, that
Argulus must either form a separate order or be united with the Branchio-
poda. But, in admitting this alternative, he necessarily allows that if Argulus
may not be united with the Siphonostoma, neither may it be enrglled
amongst the Branchiopoda; else why think of erecting a new order for
this genus?”

280 M.T.Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide,

jaws. This we are the less disposed to dispute since we regard
two pairs of foot-jaws as belonging typically to all the lower
Crustacean orders; whence it follows that this character leaves
quite undetermined the question to which of these orders the
Argulide belong.

As we have already shown, Kroyer has mistaken these parts
so far as to regard the second pair of antennz as being the first
pair of foot-jaws, and the sucking-cups, or the true first pair, as
the second. Krdéyer has further, by drawing a parallel between
the tail in the Argulide and the genital ring in the Caligide,
thought it possible to establish a nearer affinity between these
families. 1 have already pointed out the incorrectness of this
comparison, and endeavoured to show that the tail of the Argu-
lidze corresponds to the entire tail, inclusive of the genital ring, —
in the Caligide and other Copepoda. This, however, is alto-
gether foreign to the question how far the Argulide are Cope-
poda or Branchiopoda. The Branchiopoda have a jointed or
unjointed tail like the Copepoda; and in many Phyllopoda (as,
for instance, Branchipus and Artemia) the first caudal segments
are much more subservient to the office of generation than in
the Copepoda and Argulus, since they contain, as already men-
tioned, both testes and ovaria. Even among the Cladocera,
which otherwise, with few exceptions (Leptodera, Bythotrephes),
resemble the Argulide in their unsegmented tail, we have an
example of this in Leptodera hyalina (of which, however, the
male is unknown), in which animal the ovaries at least are
situated in the anterior tail-segments*. —

- Kroyer further asserts that, since it is now known that the
sting” does not belong to the mouth-tube, the oral organs of
the Argulide offer no difficulty to their union with the Sipho-
nostoma. We have, however, shown that the only resemblance
betweea the oral organs in the two groups is that the mouth
forms a sucking-tube, as is the case so often amongst the parasitic
Articulata, not only among Crustacea of. different orders, but
also among Insects and Arachnids. That this character is of
extremely subordinate value in the determination of the sys- .
tematic position of the Crustacea is shown by the circumstance,
among others, that we are forced to unite in the order Copepoda
forms with free oral organs and forms with these enclosed in a
suctorial tube. Zenker, who showed the necessity of this, rightly
observes, with respect to Milne-Edwards’s subclass Crustacés
suceurs, “Is the form of the mouth to be regarded as of such
weight systematically in a case where parasitic habits call for
and produce a certain determinate form dependent thereupon ?

* Lilljeborg, “ Beskrifning Sfver tvenne markliga Crustaceer of ord-
ningen Cladocera,” Gify. af. K. Vetensk. Ak. Férh, 1860, p. 266.

M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 281

Whether the animals be related or not, the structure of their
mouth must necessarily be somewhat similar in appearance.
Circumstances which are modified in correspondence with pecu-
liar modes of life are not signs sufficient to determine original
affinity ; better as such are those taken from characters which
are as far as possible independent of the peculiarities of habits
and mode of life.”

The presence, therefore, of a suctorial organ shows merely
that Argulus is a parasitic Crustacean, but does not point out
to which order it should be referred. With reference to the
“sting,” Kroyer says that it “assuredly corresponds to the
poison-weapon in many of the lower Crustacea, both free-swim-
ming Copepods (as Cyclopsine castor) and parasites, although
peculiar both in form and position.” As Krodyer here mentions
Cyclopsine castor, which has no organ comparable to the sting
of the Argulide, I suppose he means the so-called shell-gland
(skalkGrteln) which has not only been observed in Argulus and
some Copepods*, amongst which is Cyclopsine castor, but which
occurs generally in the Branchiopoda, both Phyllopoda and
Cladocerat, in the Cytheride among the Ostracoda}, and which
is considered to be the same organ as that known as the green gland
in Decapoda and Amphipoda. Meanwhile the determination of
this “ shell-gland ” as a secretory and specially as a poison-organ
is in the highest degree uncertain, and the more so since we do
not as yet know for certain whether any channel exists in con-
nexion with it. Zenker certainly insists that it opens externally in
Cythere through a spine on the lower antennz ; and Kréyer has
a similar suggestion where he says § that in the Caligide the
claw on the second pair of antennz “ shows on the concave side
very frequently (perhaps always) a bristle or fine spine, which |
seems to be connected with an extensive internal apparatus
(gland, channel, and bladder).””? But he continues thus :—
“Whether this is to be referred to the category of the organs
lately pointed out in many of the lower Crustacea, and desig-
nated poison-weapon, must be left undetermined,” and adds that
he “has often found a perfectly similar apparatus on the hooked
second pair of feet,”—an addition which renders the propriety
of a comparison with the “ poison-organ” of, for instance, Cy-
clopsine very doubtful. Jf, meanwhile, these suggestions of
Zenker and Kroyer are correct, and if the “ shell-” or “ poison-

* Zenker, “ Ueber die Cyclopiden des siissen Wassers,” Archiv fiir
Naturgeschichte, xx. (1854) p. 98; also Claus, Joc. cit. p. 60,

tT Leydig, Naturgeschichte der Daphniden, p. 23 &c.

{ Zenker, “ Monographie der Ostracoden,” Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte,
xx. (1854) pp. 18 & 29.

§ Loe, cit. p. 105.

Ann. & Mag, N, Hist. Ser. 3. Vol, xviii. 20

282 M.T.Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

gland” in Argulus opens through the “ sting,” which has not
yet been attested from observation, then it is only the spine
just mentioned on the second pair of antenne in the Caligide
and Cytheridee (consequently in animals belonging to two dif-
ferent orders) which can be compared with the sting in Argulus.
As the “ poison-gland ” itself occurs in many widely separated
orders, it is easy to see that its presence in the Argulide in no
way points out their zoological affinity; and should it open
through a spine in some parasitic Copepoda, these would be in
the same relation to Cyclops and Cyclopsine (which lack such an
organ) as that which the parasitic Argulus with sting bears to
the free Branchiopoda without sting.

Kroyer produces two further reasons for his view of the sys-
tematic position of the Argulide, which it now remains for us
to remove. The first is “the absence in Argulide of external
egg-sacs—which finds its analogy in the genera Notodelphys,
Doropygus, &c.” It seems to us, on the contrary, quite obvious
that the absence of external egg-sacs goes to prove that the
Argulidge are not Copepods, since these, with the exception of
the Notodelphyidee and Buprorus, generally have external egg-
sacs, as is also the case in particular with the Caligide and all
the other Siphonostoma with which the Argulide would be ranged .
were they Copepods. The asserted analogy is, moreover, ve
feeble; for in the Argulide the eggs stand on the ovary itself
until they attain freedom, whereas in Notodelphys &c. they
pass from the ovaries into a matrix comparable with the
_ so-called uterus in the Branchiopoda, or, still better, with the
‘matrix of the Cladocera.

Kroyer finds the last attestation of the Copepod nature of the
Argulidee in “the simple eyes placed in a triangular form, which
recur not only in the free-swimming Copepods (Sapphirina),
‘but also in the parasites in the larval state.” With reference to
this, we have only to remark that an unpaired eye, retained after
‘the larval period, without or with two, three, or several crystal-
line bodies (“simple eyes’’), is quite usual, not only among the
Copepoda (where it generally constitutes the sole visual organ),
but also among Phyllopoda, Cladocera, and other lower Crusta-
ceans, and that consequently the presence of such an eye in
Argulus in no way proves its relationship to the Copepoda.
Further, Kréyer’s representation of the structure of this single
eye in Argulus is incorrect ; for what he calls three simple eyes
are in that animal a three-lobed prolongation of the brain itself,
bearing a pigment-spot, in which not a trace of crystalline bodies
or “simple eyes” is to be detected, at least in either A. folia-
ceus or A. coregoni. The unpaired eye in many Branchiopoda

(as Branchipus and Artemia) also shows itself as such a pigment-

M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 283

spot, placed on a perfectly similar trilobed projection from the
brain-ganglion*.

We have now gone through the proofs which have been put
forward by Kréyer as grounds for the union of the Argulide
with the siphonostomous Copepoda, and shown, we hope, that
not one of them can be regarded as in any measure convincing
or decisive. We will now briefly recapitilate the results to
which we have been led during the foregoing investigation, and
thence arrive at the conclusion respecting the systematic posi-
tion of the Argulide which those results seem to warrant.

I. The Argulide correspond with the Copepoda generally, be-
sides such points of their organization as are common to the
Branchiopoda and Copepoda, only in these particulars :—that

(1) The females possess receptacula seminis ; and that

(2) Parthenogenesis seems never to occur.

II. But they differ from the Copepoda generally in the cir-
cumstance that

(1) Their limbs want the intermediate plate (mellanskifva),
_ and do not show the form characteristic of Copepoda; that

(2) They have two moveable eyes composed of numerous
Oleg stemmata in front of the unsymmetrical larval eye ;
that

(3) The integuments of the head are developed into a bi-
ag shield, very often covering the larger portion of the body;

at

(4) The eggs are neither attached to external egg-sacs nor
are received into a matrix when they leave the ovaries; that

(5) Impregnation is not effected by means of spermatophores
attached externally to the body of the female; and that

(6) The larve leave the egg in a much more advanced state
of development than in the Copepoda.

III. Meanwhile they agree with the (higher) stphonostomous
Copepoda in certain particulars, which all, however, depend upon
their parasitic mode of life: they have, for instance,

(1) A depressed body ;

(2) A pair of the antenne modified as fixing-organs ;

(3) The mouth transformed into a sucking-tube ; and

(4) Strongly developed foot-jaws.

IV. They differ likewise from the Siphonostoma in the follow-
ing points :—
(1) The first, not the second, pair of antenne are the fixing-
organs ;
* Vide Leydig, loc. cit. p. 39 &e.
20*

284 M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide.

(2) Palpi are wanting ;

(3) A “sting” (gadd) is present in front of the mouth-tube ;

(4) Two pairs of oral organs may be enclosed in this tube ;

(5) The first pair of foot-jaws may have the form of sucking-
cups.

VY. The Argulide approach the Branchiopoda in general in

(1) The fundamental form of their extremities ;

(2) The structure of the visual organs ; .

(3) The tendency to a shell-structure, expressed in the shape
of the head-shield ;

(4) The absence of palpi;

(5) The absence of external egg-sacs; and

(6) The absence of external spermatophores.

VI. To the Phyllopoda in particular they make an approach in
(1) The conspicuous segmentation of the trunk ;
(2) The non-fusion of the symmetrical eyes into a single eye.

VII. To the Cladocera in particular they make an approach in
(1) The small number of the extremities; and
(2) The unsegmented tail.

VIII. They stand midway between the Phyllopoda and the
Cladocera by virtue of
(1) Their mode of development. |

TX. From both Phyllopoda and Cladocera they differ in th
following points :—

(1) They are organized for a parasitic existence ;

(2) The extremities are entirely without branchial appendages;

(3) The tail is transformed into a respiratory plate ;

(4) The generative apparatus shows some peculiarities, parti-
cularly the presence of receptacula seminis ;

(5) The eggs are ejected immediately after quitting the
ovary ;

(6) Parthenogenesis seems never to occur.

A glance over this sketch of the relations of the Argulide to
the Copepoda on the one side, and to the Branchiopoda on the
other, will, we think, lead to the conviction that the Argulide
cannot possibly be referred to the first-mentioned order, but
that, on the contrary, they approach the Branchiopoda through
such important characters that their reception amongst these
must be regarded as fully warrantable. In our estimation, the
Argulide are parasitic Branchiopoda; and consequently we
cannot share the view that they ought to constitute a separate
order, in spite of the many points in which, as we have shown
above, they differ from both Phyllopoda and Cladocera. Thus
the characters which are both necessary and sufficient for de-

M.T. Thorell on the Systematic Position of the Argulide. 285

fining strictly the limits of the Branchiopoda among the other
lower Crustaceans—the compound eyes with unfacetted cornea,
the absence of palpi or branchial appendages on the oral organs,
lobed or cloven respiratory or swimming-feet without median
plates, distinct sexes—occur in the Argulide. The discrepancies
which depend on their parasitic habits cannot be put forward as
reasons for the isolated position of the Argulide, at least as long
as parasitic and free Copepoda are unanimously referred to the
same order. If we look at these differences, we find that be-
tween the Argulidz on the one side, and the Phyllopoda and
Cladocera on the other, no greater dissimilarities exist than
those which separate these two groups from each other. Al-
though indeed it must be admitted that the Argulide stand
nearer to the Phyllopoda than to the Cladocera, it seems to us
nevertheless that the differences we have mentioned (we would
recall in particular the form and function of the tail, and the
presence of receptacula seminis), in conjunction with the cha-
racters which are correlative to their parasitic nature, are suf-
ficiently strong to set aside the notion of the introduction of
the Argulidee among the Phyllopoda. We regard them con-
sequently as a group of the same systematic value as these and
the Cladocera—that is to say, a suborder, on a par with these, in
the order of the Branchiopoda,—and propose, since Argulide or
Argulina are only suitable as family names, for this suborder the
appellation Branchiura, drawn from the characteristic condition
of the tail in these animals. Just as the Cladocera are composd
of one family only (the Daphnidz), the Branchiura for the pre-
sent comprise only one family (the Argulide).

We think that the Branchiopoda (if we reserve the. fossil
Trilobites, which undoubtedly belong to them, and with whose .
oral organs and feet we are not sufficiently acquainted) may be
characterized as follows :—

BRANCHIOPODA.

Oris partes palpis fere semper carentes, appendicibus branchialibus
nullis ; maxillarum par 1-0, maxillipedum 2-0. COculi duo magni
laterales, seepe in unum coaliti, e multis bacillis crystallinis compo-
siti, cornea supra eequali preediti. Segmentorum et pedum numerus
valde varians: pedes fissi vel foliacei, appendicibus branchialibus
plerumque instructi, nulla lamina intermedia bini conjuncti. Corpus
testa membranacea, plerumque bivalvi, seepissime inclusum. Sexus

distincti.
I. PHYLLOPODA.

Oculi compositi plus minus sejuncti. Pedum paria 10-60. Meta-
morphosis completa. Libere natantia.

1. Brancuivopipz. 2.Apopipa. 3. Limnapipa. 4. Nr-
BALIDZ.

286 Mr. R. Swinhoe on a new Species of Beech-Marten.

II, CLADOCERA.

Oculi compositi in unum coaliti. Pedum paria 4-6. Metamor-
phosis nulla. Libere natantia.
1. DapHnip2.
III. BRANCHIURA.

Oculi compositi sejuncti. Pedum paria 4. Metamorphosis in-
completa. Parasitantia.
1, ARGULIDA.
[To be continued. }

XXXVI.—On a new Species of Beech-Marten from Formosa.
By Rosert Swinnog, H.B.M. Consul at Taiwan.

Wuen I read my paper “On the Mammals of the Island of
Formosa” before the Zoological Society (December 9, 1862), I
I noted that I had not at that time been made aware of the
existence of any species of Mustela in the island. Since then,
from the mountains of the interior towards the south, I have
procured, through my hunters, a fine species of forest-Marten,
which is perhaps the handsomest animal that I have had the
good fortune to obtain. Dr. J. E. Gray’s invaluable epitome of
the known species of the Mustelide (Proc. Zool. Soc. Jan. 24,
1865) has enabled me to determine, without much troublesome
research, that the Formosan animal is an undescribed species.
The Formosan Marten has, as might be expected, its nearest
ally in Martes flavigula (Bodd.), of the Nepal Hills. I would
propose to distinguish our species as the

Martes chrysospila.

Head blackish brown, the hairs on the occiput being tipped
with white. Centre of inside of ear white. Chin, sides of
head, throat, and central streak of underneck also white.
Sides of neck a fine bright golden colour. Body, above and
below, bright purplish brown, becoming nearly black on hind
quarters, hind legs, and tail. Fore legs blackish brown, pale
down their fronts. Claws whitish. Length, from muzzle to
base of tail, 203 inches ; from base of tail to tip of hairs at its
end, 17 inches. Top of shoulder to tip of fore foot about
8 inches.

Habitat, Mountain-forests of central Formosa.

Martes flavigula is thus briefly described by Dr. Gray, in the
paper above referred.to: “ Yellowish ; head, nape, rump, legs, —
and tail black ; chin and lower parts white.” 1 cannot remark
on the difference of the cranium and dentition of the two species,
as I have no specimen of the Nepalese species to compare with.

Amoy (China), June 22, 1866,

Dr, J, E. Gray on the “‘Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. 287

XXXVIT.—Note on the ‘Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. By Dr.
J. EK. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.8., F.L.8. &c.

In the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1835, p. 63,
I described and formed the genus Hyalonema for a specimen
that had been sent from China to the India House in London,
under the name of the Glass Plant. I afterwards procured a
_ specimen from Leyden, and found that it was an inhabitant of
the Japan seas, whence it had been procured by Dr. Siebold.
Since the trade with Japan has been opened, many specimens
of the coral have been received from the latter country, where
they do not seem to be uncommon, and where at least they are
collected, on account of their beauty, as objects of commerce.

In 1857, Prof. John Frederick Brandt, of St. Petersburg, de-

scribed a coral that had been brought from Japan by M. Possiet,
one of the officers of the Russian Expedition, which agrees with
the Glass-Rope of Japan in many particulars, but has the po-
lypes much more produced and crowded; therefore he formed
it into a genus, which he described under the name of Hyalo-
cheta Possieti, Bull. Scien. de l’Acad. d. Science. d. St. Pétersb.
xvi. n. 5, Mélanges, Biolog. 11. 606.
_ Both these Japanese corals and a species of Hyalonema which
he calls Hyalonema affine are described in detail and well figured
in a special work on the subject, entitled “ Joannes Fredericus
Brandtii Symbolz ad Polypos Hyalocheetides spectantes, tabulis
iy. illustrate. Petropoli 1859,” large folio.

My Ayalonema Sieboldi, of Japan, has been well figured and
described by Professor Max Schultze in ‘ Die Hyalonemen, ein
Beitrag zur Naturgeschichte der Spongien,’ von Max Schultze,
mit fiinf zum Theil in Farbendruck ausgefiihrten Tafeln: Bonn,
1860, 4to.

These works leave very little more to be said on the structure
of these corals.

Very recently a species of the genus has been discovered on
the coast of Portugal, which has been described and figured in
the ‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ in two papers by
Professor J. V. Barboza du Bocage, of Lisbon :—1. “ Note sur la
Découverte d’un Zoophyte de la Famille Hyalochetides sur la
edte du Portugal” (P. Z. S. 1864, p. 265); 2. “Sur Habitat
du Hyalonema lusitanicum” (P. Z. 8. 1865, p. 662).

The Japanese species, according to the observations of Prof,
Brandt, have only twenty tentacles, while Prof. Bocage describes
the Portuguese species as having forty, and also as seeming to
differ in its habits.

I may note that Dr. Leidy, who agrees with Valenciennes in
thinking the bark of Hyalonema a parasite, says there is a sponge

288 Dr.J. E. Gray on the “Glass-Rope’’ Hyalonema.

in the Museum of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia
which has a corona of twisted siliceous spicula, about 2 inches
long, which mainly differ from those of Hyalonema in size (Proe.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. 1860, p. 85). It is said to have come
from Santa Cruz. May this not be a young Hyalonema in the
sponge? The two specimens of the genus Hyalonema which
Dr. Leidy examined appear to have been without the sponges at
the base ; and as the genus is found on the coast of Portugal’as
well as Japan, there is no reason one may not be found at Santa
Cruz.

Before proceeding to make some observations on the extra-
ordinary theories that some zoologists, and some even of high
repute, have entertained respecting this genus, I wish to correct
an error into which I have fallen.

Misled by the dry and imperfect state of the bark of the
specimen which I first described, and also perhaps by a pre-
conceived opinion that then existed that a bark-coral must be
an Alcyonaria with pinnate tentacles, in the Synopsis of the
British Museum (1840), and in a paper, on the arrangement
of Corals, in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural Ilistory’
for 1859, I arranged the genus with the Barked Alcyonaria,
and formed an order for its reception, under the name of Spongi-
cole or Hyalophyta (Ann, & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. iv. p. 441).
Professor Brandt in his work has shown that they are Zoan-
tharia allied to Corticaria, or Polyzoa having many simple conical
tentacles in two rows; and Professor Bocage has also shown this
to be the case in the species found on the coast of Portugal.
The Japanese species have twenty, and the Portuguese forty
tentacles.

Professor Schultze also figured the conical tentacles of the
Japanese species, and. shows that they are, like other Zoantharia,
furnished with stinging darts (t.5.f.4.&5). This latter author
goes so far as to describe the animal as a species of Polythoa,
under the name of P. fatwa; but of this more hereafter.

I admit that I ought not to have made this mistake; for a
closer inspection of the contracted cell of the polypes ought to
have shown me that probably they had more than eight tenta-
cles; and now my attention is called to the fact, I am asto-
nished how it could have escaped my observation before.

The specimens which I first described from Japan had the
thinner tapering lower end of the coral inserted in a sponge of
the genus Halichondra, the lower end of the axis forming a
pencil of spicula at the base of the sponge.

Professor Max Schultze figured three specimens similarly at-
tached to a sponge, the outer surface of the sponge being in a
much more perfect condition, showing the oscula, than in the one

Dr. J. E. Gray on the “Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. 289

I described (t. 1, & t. 2. f. 1 & 2)—all the sponges having a flat
base, by which they were evidently attached to some marine

Pcteace Brandt also figured (t. 1. f.4.&5) a specimen which
has the basal part surrounded by a slender oblong mass of
sponge; but this sponge does not show any expanded base, and
seems only like a parasitic sponge attached to the base of the
coral, as sponges are often found on sea-weeds; and the figure
shows a sponge of a much finer texture, so that it does not seem
to be the same kind of sponge as that attached to my specimen
or those described and figured by Professor Schultze.

Observing that the polypes on all sides of the cylindrical coral
were equally developed, 1 came to the conclusion that the coral
must have grown in an erect position, so that the animals could
all have equal access to the sea and an equal opportunity of pro-
curing their food.

Again, the specimens being sunk in a sponge that had a flat
base by which it was attached to some marine body, I concluded
that the natural habit of the animal was to develope itself in a
sponge, so as to support itself in an erect position ; and this idea
was strengthened by finding that the sponge near the part where
the coral perforated it was of a more condensed and harder tex-
ture than the other parts of it. I concluded that there was a
kind of mutual understanding (such as we often find between
animals that are parasitic on one another) between the sponge
and the coral.

It was for that reason that I formed for the genus the order
before referred to, which I called Spongicole or Hyalophyta.
(See Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1859, iv. p. 489.)

It is true that the larger number of the specimens that are
imported from Japan are without any appearance of a sponge
at their more slender base; but I think it is very probable
that the Japanese, who collect them as ornaments for sale, and
who generally take off the larger part of the bark of the upper
portion of the coral, may also carefully remove any sponge which
they may think disfigures the specimen.

This habit of living sunk in a sponge does not seem to be-
long to all the species of the genus, and may not be univer-
sal, or even general among the species found in Japan; and
that may explain why the specimens imported are generally
destitute of any appearance of ever having been immersed in a
sponge.

Professor Barboza du Bocage specially observes that the Por-
tuguese species has never been found living in a sponge; his
words are,—‘ La cohabitation ou l’existence simultanée sur le
méme axis de polypes et d’éponges, qu’on a remarquée sur quel-

290 Dr.J.E. Gray on the “Glass-Rope’’? Hyalonema,

ques spécimens du Japon, n’a pas lieu sur aucun des exemplaires
du Portugal ;” and he further observes that the thin basal por-
tion of the axis which is inserted in the sponge in some of the
Japanese specimens is covered with the polype-bearing bark,
the polypes near the base being smaller. ‘Chez ces derniers
(les exemplaires du Portugal) le coriwm polypigerum enveloppe
Vaxis d’une maniére uniforme, il recouvre parfaitement Pune
des extrémités de axis, la plus étroite, et de lA il s’étend
sans aucune interruption jusqu’aux 7 ou les 3 de la longueur
totale. Les polypes placés sur l’extrémité de axis sont les
plus petits de tous” (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 663, & 1864,
t, 22. f, 2).

These observations seem to have been carefully made; and
they not only show that the living sunk in the sponge is not
universal in the genus, but they completely dispose of the theory
to which I shall have to refer, that what is called the axis of the
coral is in fact an integral part of the sponge, in which the
coral lives, and that what is called the bark is only a parasitic
Polythoa that accidentally grows on the elongated spicula of the
sponge.

It would be very interesting to know how the Portuguese
species lives, and how it keeps itself erect in the sea, as in those
species also the polypes seem to be equally developed on every
side of the cylindrical coral ; and this could not be the case if it
did not live erect or nearly so. It cannot float like the eylin-
drical compound Medusz, as the axis renders the coral too
heavy for that purpose, and there is no inflated float to overcome
the specific gravity of the coral.

It is to be hoped that Professor Bocage, who is still studying
the subject, will be able to explain this part of the history of the
animal.

The Japanese, who collect these ‘Glass Ropes” as ornaments,
are in the habit of inserting a bunch of them in the holes made
in the rock by the Pholades. A series of specimens so stuck
into a Pholas-hole was exhibited by Mr. Huxley at the Linnean
Society last year. Professor Brandt has figured a similar group
(t.2.f.1). But it is quite a mistake to suppose that this is the
way in which the “ Glass Rope” lives in the sea. In the speci-
men which I examined, the cement could be seen by whieh they
were attached to the holes; and the specimens in the same
group varied from 2 inches to 16 inches in length, and they
all had the bark pushed down so as to be near the surface of
the hole. I saw one specimen placed in a hole, affixed with
the thick end of the spicula and the broadest end of the rope
downwards.

In 1857, MM. Milne-Edwards and Haime, in the first volume

Dr. J. E. Gray on the “Glass-Rope’”? Hyalonema. 291

_ of the ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Coralliaires, ou Polypes propre-

ment’ ete., observe, ‘‘ Nous sommes portés a croire qu’il faudra
ranger dans ce sous-ordre des Zoanthaires sclérodermes, a la suite
des Antipathiens, un zocphyte trés-remarquable des mers du
Japon, qui se compose d’un ccenenchyme cortical, renfermant
un faisceau de baguettes siliceuses trés-gréles, tordu en spirale
comme une corde dont les crins seraient faits avec du cristal. Le
coenenchyme est farci de petits spicules, et porte des tubercules
déprimés dont le sommet est perforé et parait étre le calice du
polype. Souvent Vaxe fasciculé se dénude par sa base, et se
trouve implanté dans une éponge; mais, d’aprés M, Gray, celle-ci
' yest étrangére. Je dois ajouter cependant que suivant M. Valen-
ciennes ce singulier zoophyte appartiendrait 4 la famille des
éponges ” (p. 324). And in their Monograph of British Fossil
Corals, p. lxxxi, they observe, “The genus Hyalonema established
by Mr. Gray is also referred by some zoologists to the tribe
Gorgonie ; but the recent observations of M. Valenciennes tend
to establish that the fasciculus of siliceous thread which consti-
tutes the axis of this singular production belongs to the class of
Spongie; and the polypes which we have observed in a dried
state on different parts of the axis appear to be parasites belong-
ing to the order Zoantharia.”’

In 1860 Professor Max Schultze published the elaborate essay
above quoted ; and he regards the rope of siliceous spicula as
part of a sponge, and the polypes as parasitic on it, calling the
polypes “ Polythoa fatua mihi” (pp. 28 & 42).

Dr. Bowerbank, adopting the same view, in his lately pub-
lished work on British Sponges, gives the following as the ge-
neric character of the genus Hyalonema:—* Skeleton an inde-
finite network of siliceous spicula, composed of separate elon-
gated fasciculi, reposing on a continuous membrane, having the
middle of the sponge perforated vertically by an extended spiral
fasciculus of single elongated and very large spicula, forming
an axial skeleton of a columnar cloacal system” (vol. ii. p, 9).

I must confess that I do not understand this description, If
the fasciculus of fibres is ‘fa cloacal system,” how is it that the
fibres have no connexion with the sponges, but are separated
from the spiral fascicle by ,a hardened coat most closely
attached to the elongated spicula? And if the rope is entirely
covered with the zoophytes, as we have every reason to believe
is the case, and as M, Brandt’s figures show, what is the use of
a “cloacal system” which has no exit? It has occurred to me,
as Dr. Bowerbank does not take any notice of the polype-bear-

‘ing bark that covers the axis, that he confounds the polypes
with the oscula of the sponge, and, believing them to be oscula,
thinks they are the exits from the cloacal system he describes.

292 Dr. J. EH. Gray on the “Glass- Rope” Hyalonema.

The only pretence of a reason that Dr. Bowerbank gives for
considering “the basal sponge” an “undoubted part of the
animal”? is, that “the sponge in the specimens that I described
and the one attached to the specimen at Bristol are identical in
structure,’—as if it were not to be expected that the sponge
from Japan to which the various specimens of the Japan coral
are attached would most probably be of the same species. (See
vol, i. p. 196.) :

On referring to the explanation of the plates in the first vo-
lume, I see my suspicions are verified. Dr. Bowerbank observes,
“Figure 371, plate 35, represents a portion of the great cloacal
column, exhibiting part of the spiral axial fasciculus surrounded
by the remains of the dermal (!) coat with numerous oseula
projecting from its surface. Copied from the ‘ Zoological Pro-
ceedings’ for 1857” (vol. i. 197).

Unfortunately Dr. Bowerbank does not seem to have con-
sidered it necessary to examine the specimens, but simply copies
the plate, or to examine other genera of corals; or he would have
found that what he calls oscula are, as I called them in the de-
scription he quotes, polype-cells containing polypes having ten-
tacles and all the internal organization, including a distinetly
plicated stomach, exactly like the zoanthoid polype named Poly-
thea or Corticaria. Other naturalists, as Dr. Max Schultze, who
have considered the axis as belonging to the sponge, have
avoided this extraordinary error, and have regarded “the dermal
coat with oscula” of Dr. Bowerbank as a parasitic Polythoa.

Dr. Bowerbank also observes, ‘ There is a close approximate
alliance to the forms of the cloacal appendages of Hyalonema in
the corresponding organs of the British genus Ciocalypta, Bower-
bank”? (vol. i. p.197). If this comparison is correct, possibly
Ciocalypta is not a sponge; and the figure (vol. i. t. 80. f. 360
& 361) renders it doubtful. But all the descriptions of this
work are so indistinct and crowded with technicalities peculiar
to the author, that they are very difficult to understand, and
render a new examination of the species and a new work on the
subject requisite. :

I am not aware that any reason has been assigned for the
theory above referred to, unless the enigmatical description of
the genus above quoted of Dr. Bowerbank can be considered
one; and I can only suppose that it arose in M. Valenciennes’s
mind from the fact of the spicula being siliceous and in che-
mical composition like the spicula of the sponge to which some
of the Japanese specimens are attached.

Professor Max Schultze enters into a long description of the
spicula of the sponge, and figures several of them ; but I cannot
see what bearing that has on the subject; for he does not

Dr. J. E. Gray on the “ Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. 293

show that any spicula of a true sponge are like the spicula that
_ form the axis of the coral. They certainly have little affinity
to the elongated siliceous spicula of the genus Alcyonellum or
Euplatella, with which they have been compared.

The chemical part of the question I do not think of much
importance: we know so little of the power of animals to secrete
different substances. It is true that Hyalonema is the only
Zoantharian yet discovered that secretes siliceous spicula ;
but if the marine and freshwater sponges secrete both calca-
reous and siliceous spicula, and a horny axis more or less hard-
ened with calcareous matter, and the Aleyonaria and Zoantharia
secrete a horny axis more or less hardened with calcareous
matter and abundance of calcareous spicula, why should we say
that these much more highly organized animals have not also
the same power as the sponges to secrete from the sea-water
silica, and therefore that a Zoantharia-polype that lives on a
siliceous axis is a parasite, especially when we find that this
Zoantharian polype has its bark and polype-cell strengthened
by siliceous spicula, some of them exactly similar in form and
structure to the spicula of the axis, which must have been
secreted by the animal? And therefore it is, to my mind, most
unphilosophical to believe that the spicula of the axis are formed
by the sponge, and the similar spicula in the polypes formed by
the animal which the advocates of this theory regard as a para-
site haying only an accidental connexion with the axis.

The discovery of a species of Hyalonema on the coast of Por-
tugal has proved that there is a species of the genus (and a most
distinct one) that secretes siliceous spicula exactly like the spi-
cula of the Japan species, that has no sponge attached to it or
forming part of its body ; so that it cannot be the “ cloacal sys-
tem” of a sponge that does not exist.

Professor Max Schultze, who regards the bark and polype of
the Japanese species as a parasite, describes it as a species of the
genus Polythoa, under the name of Polythoa fatua; but it dif-
fers from all the species of the genus Polythoa that I have ex-
amined in having the parietes of the polype-cells strengthened
with siliceous spicules which are exactly similar in structure and
form to the spicula of the axis.

This peculiarity, which I should consider conclusive that the
axis is formed by the same animal as the bark, is common to
the Japanese and Portuguese species.

Professor Barboza du Bocage observes :—

* Le corium polypigerum et les polypes sont formés de plu-
sieurs tissus en couches superposées, dans lesquels on trouve
une quantité trés-considérable de spicules siliceux, dont les
caractéres morphologiques varient pour chaque couche.

294 Dr.J.E. Gray on the “Glass-Rope” Hyalonema.

“T/aspect granuleux, chagriné, que présente la surface exté-
rieure du corium et des polypes n’est pas le résultat d’une simple
incrustation de détritus de sable (comme on l’affirme pour les
individus du Japon), mais il est di a la présence d’un nombre
infini de spicules réguliers, en forme de massue et hérissés de
pointes. Ces spicules font partie intégrante de la couche la
plus extérieure ou tégumentaire.

*Chaque polype est soutenu par une charpente siliceuse ds
spicules filiformes, disposés longitudinalement et a intervalles
égaux sur la paroi interne de la cavité du corps.” (Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1865, p. 663).

The thickness of the elongated spicula of the axis is com-
mensurate with the size of the entire coral, they being thin in
the short young specimens, and thicker in the longer and more
developed specimens. As they increase in length, they gra-
dually become thicker by the deposit of fresh layers of sili-
ceous matter on the outer surface, which is, doubtless, deposited
by the flesh of the bark that surrounds each of the fibres;
and new spicules also appear to be developed as the coral be- |
comes thickened, as there are intermixed between the thicker
spicula thin ones of different degrees of thickness; but gene-
rally they are of the same length as the rest. This seems to
show that they are developed by the animal that lives in the
bark, and are not shot out from the sponge at the base. But I
might go on giving reasons without end, showing that the theory
of those that believe the animal is a parasite is at variance with
all parts of the organization of the coral and the animal that
forms it.

If we note the number of persons who have expressed an
opinion on this subject, there is no doubt that the general opinion
of zoologists, including some of high scientific reputation, as
Valenciennes, Milne-Edwards, Max Schultze, Leidy, Bowerbank,
and others, is against my view of the subject; but it is to be
observed that I am supported by Professor Brandt and by Pro-
fessor Barboza du Bocage, both of whom have paid great atten-
tion to the subject, and have given the reasons for their belief ;
while most of the others’ above quoted have only expressed an
opinion, without giving the facts on which it is founded.

I may add that, after much calm consideration of the ques-
tion, and with the utmost willingness to change my opinion, if
I found any evidence'to induce me to do so, I still believe that
the bark and the axis are parts of the same coral, and made b
the same animal. In a former paper I observed that ‘the idea
(that the bark of the coral is a parasite) requires the belief in
the existence of two peculiar bodies which are always found to-
gether and are unknown in any other state, instead of regard-

Dr. J. E. Gray on the “ Glass-Rope” Hyalonema. 295

ing them as parts of the same animal” (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.
1859, iv. 441). And the discovery of a second species in Japan,
and a third on the coast of Portugal, in all of which the bark
and axis are found together, I think entirely destroys any idea
that there is the slightest reason for believing the theory
propounded by Valenciennes, and which has been so readily
adopted, I may almost say without re-examination, by other
naturalists.

This theory has had the effect of confusing the nomenclature
of the Japanese species, which I first described as under :—

I. The coral consisting of the bark and azis.
Hyalonema Sieboldii, Gray, P. Z. 8. ii. 1835, p. 63 ; Brandt, Sym-
bole, &c. t. 1. f. 1, 10.
Halinema, Ehrenb. Monatsb. Berlin, 1840, p. 2 & 3 (a misprint ?).

II. The bark only, without the axis or sponge.
Polythoa fatua, Max Schultze, Hyaloneme.

III. The sponge without the rope-like axis or bark.

Spongia octancyre, Brandt, Symbole, 14, note; Ehrenberg,
Monatsb. 1860, p. 170.
Spongia crucigera, Ehrenb. Monatsber.

IV. The sponge and the elongated united axis without the bark and animal.

Hyalonema Sieboldii, Max Schultze, Die Hyalonemen, 9.
Hyalonema mirabilis, Gray, Bowerbank, Brit. Spongiade, 49.
Hyalonema, Valenciennes, Milne-Edwards and Haime.

This coral, which was first regarded as a plant and then as a
sponge, has been considered by one of the first microscopists
an artificial production! Thus Professor Ehrenberg, in an
elaborate paper in which he gives an abstract of the various
essays that have been written on the Hyalonema Steboldii, con-
eludes thus :—

*‘ Glass-corals must be considered an artificial production, not
less than those Indian idols produced in the shells of mother-of-
pearl. The long siliceous threads, widely distributed over the
Pacific, are with much labour collected in small quantities, pro-
bably from an unknown large species of Tethya; they are
formed into bundles, which are forced into or through the tubular
leather-corals allied to Polythoa, so that the fine end of the
bundle, which is first pushed through, remains simple, whilst
the remainder obtains a spiral form through the rotatory mani-

296 Rev. T. Hincks on new British Hydroida.

pulations. It is also possible that the bundles of fibres with
polypes attached are immersed into the sea, so that the leather-
corals (which always cover other objects) continue their develop-
ment, forming a larger or smaller covering. At all events, the
siliceous axis appears to be foreign, and not living. It is an
innocent fraud, which became a branch of industry, and which,
like the transplanted spur on the head of a living cock, may bea
source of silent pleasure to the sentimental-speculating Japanese”
(Monatsb. Berlin, 1860, pp. 181-182).

XXXVIII.—On new British Hydroida.
By the Rev. Tuomas Hinoxs, B.A.

Tue species that are briefly characterized in the following paper
will be more fully described and figured in the general history
of the British Hydroid Zoophytes on which I am now engaged,
and which I hope will soon be ready for the press.

Subkingdom CHLENTERATA,
Class HYDROZOA.

Order HYDROIDA.
Suborder TUBULARIDA.
Family Corynide.

Genus Cornyn.

C. vermicularis, n. sp.

Zoophyte forming dense shrubby tufts; hydrocaulus smooth,
branched dichotomously, of a very light straw-colour and deli-
cate texture, wavy, annulated, especially towards the base, the
branches and upper portions of the stem often smooth or
slightly wrinkled ; polypites of great length (about } inch when
mature), stout, almost cylindrical for half their length, when ex-
tended, and then tapering off very gradually towards the oral
extremity ; tentacles in irregular and very distant whorls, rather
stout, with large capitula, about twenty-five in number. Repro-
ductive sacg borne at the base of the tentacles over the lower
part of the body, spherical, shortly stalked.

Height of the tufts about 2 inch.

Distinguished by the great size and worm-like appearance of
its polypites and the sparing distribution of the tentacles over
the body.

Hab. Shetland, from deep water.

Rey. T. Hincks on new British Hydroida. 297

Suborder CAMPANULARIDA.
Family Campanularide.
Genus CaMPANULARIA.
a. With free gonozooids, of the Obelia type.
C. flabellata, n. sp.
are seamlae gelatinosa, Van Beneden, ‘ Les Campanulaires,’ 33,
pl. :

Hydrocaulus filiform, somewhat zigzag, branched, strongly
annulated above the origin of the branches, of a dark horn-
colour; branches given off at each bend of the stem, alternate,
flexuous, rather short and fan-shaped, divided and subdivided
dichotomously, and ringed above each division, forked imme-
diately above the point of origin, the arms of the fork tending
in opposite directions, and giving a subverticillate appearance
to the ramification. Hydrothece alternate, short and subtri-
angular, with a wide aperture and an entire margin, borne on
ringed and tapering pedicels of variable length. Gonothece
axillary, ovate, pedicellate, slightly flattened at the top, with a
short tubular orifice. The gonozooids are probably, like those of
C. geniculata and dichotoma, of the Obelia type.

This species seems to have passed as a variety of C. dichotoma.
It is, however, separated from it by a group of distinctive cha-
racters—the subverticillate habit, the flabelliform branches, the
flexuous stem, the short subtriangular calycle, and the much
larger size. C. flabellata attains a height of 8 or 10 inches.

Hab. Tenby, on rocks in tide-pools (Alder) ; Scotland (Sir J.
Dalyell).

* Gonozooids unknown.
C. gigantea, un. sp.

Stem delicate, of a very light horn-colour and papyraceous
texture, annulated at the base and below the calycle, irregularly
and sparingly branched; branches erect, copies of the primary
shoot, sometimes themselves branched. Hydrothece of enor-
mous size, deeply campanulate, very wide at the top and for
some way below it, and then tapering off gradually; length
about double the greatest width, the rim cut into numerous
broad and blunt teeth. Gonothece unknown.

Height about an inch.

The calycles of this well-marked form are many times as large
as those of any other British species.

-. Hab, Lamlash Bay, on shell (Prof. Wyville Thomson).

Genus Gonornyr#a, Allman.
G. hyalina, n. sp.

Shoots densely clustered on the creeping stolon, tall and
Ann, & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3. Vol. xviii, 21

298 Rey. T. Hincks on new British Hydroida.

much branched ; main stems very slightly flexuous, of a deep
horn-colour below, becoming white and very delicate towards
the upper extremity, strongly annulated at the base and above
each division, giving off branches at each bend; branches erect,
flexuous, very tender and hyaline, sometimes of great length
and much ramified, ringed above every calycle and ramule.
Hydrothece alternate, much elongated, slender, of very thin
texture, with nearly parallel sides for two-thirds of the length,
and then tapering off to the base, borne on ringed pedicels, the
rim cut into numerous shallow denticles of castellated form,
slightly indented at the top. Gonothece axillary, irregularly
ovate, flattened at the top, and supported on a ringed stalk.
Height about 2 inches. J;
I place this fine species provisionally in the genus Gonothyrea.
From the structure of the capsule I infer that this is its true
position ; but I have not traced the history of its reproduction.
Hab. Profusely investing Tubularia, Halecium, &c., from
Shetland. I am indebted to J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., for my

specimens,
CUSPIDELLA, nov. gen.

Hydrothece cylindrical or subcylindrical, sessile on a delicate
creeping stolon, with a conical operculum, composed of many
pieces. Polypites cylindrical, with a single verticil of filiform
tentacles. Reproduction unknown. :

C. humilis, n. sp.

Hydrothece very minute, subcylindrical, the upper portion
divided into ten or twelve convergent segments, which ‘form an
operculum. Gonothece unknown.

The calycles of this curious species are little cylinders, termi-
nating in a point above, and rising directly and without any
trace of a pedicle from the creeping stolon. .

Hab. On the stems of zoophytes: North Wales, Yorkshire,
Northumberland, Shetland, Connemara.

Suborder SERTULARIDA.
Family Sertularide.
: Genus SERTULARIA.

S. attenuata, n. sp.

Syn. Sertularia rosacea, Ellis, Corall. 9, pl. 4. fig. C; Johnston, Brit.
Zooph. 470. (Specimen from Orkney, Lieut. Thomas.)
Sertularia pinaster, var., Johnston, Brit. Zooph. 72, figs. ¢, d.
Hydrocaulus straight, somewhat rigid, pinuately branched, often
running out above into long tendril-like filaments, thickened

Dr. H. Burmeister on Glyptodon and its Allies. 299

and bifid at the extremity; branches simple, or bearing one or
two ramules, alternate, inclined upwards, sometimes furnished
with tendrils. Hydrothece opposite, tubular, slender and grace-
fully curved, about half their length free and divergent, but not
abruptly bent, with a plain suberect aperture. Gonothece (fe-
male) elongate-pyriform, tapering off below and expanding gra-
dually upwards, bristling with strong spines above, arranged on
six longitudinal ridges and extending down the upper third of
the capsule; (male) ovate, with six longitudinal ridges, termi-
nating above in angular points, the aperture central and sub-
conical.

Allied to S. rosacea, with which and S. pinaster it has been
confounded. It is more robust and rigid and of larger growth
than the former of these species, and wants its delicate mem-
branaceous texture. The reproductive capsules of the two are
totally dissimilar.

Hab. On other zoophytes : North Devon, Cornwall, Brighton,
Yorkshire coast, Peterhead (C. W. Peach).

I have also to record the occurrence of the following species
on our coasts :—

Clava leptostyla, Agassiz.

On a mussel-shell from Morecambe Bay; obtained by Mr. F.
H. West, of Leeds.

Gonothyrea gracilis, Sars.
Birterbuy Bay, Connemara; dredged by G. S. Brady, Esq.

XXXIX.— On Glyptodon and its Allies.
By Hermann BurMEIsTER.

From a recent French publication I learn that you have published
in your valuable Journal a translation of my observations on the
species of Glyptodon in the public museum of Buenos Ayres,
which I published here in the ‘ Pharmaceutical Review’ for 1863.
That paper was written in the beginning of the year 1863, when
I had in my possession only the entire skeleton referred to and
a very few portions of the two other species, at that time the only
ones known to me. Now, after the lapse of three years, I am
acquainted with eight species found in this country ; and I there-
fore send you these further remarks on the specific differences, in
order to complete and correct my first publication.

I begin my further notices of the skeleton by correcting an
error into which I have fallen in saying that the second bone of
the neck, which M. Serres has now named “ os mesocervicale,”

21*

300 = Dr. H. Burmeister on Glyptodon and its Aliies.

is composed of jive anchylosed vertebre. It consists only of
four, namely the second to the fifth ; and the sixth is free; but
the seventh is united with the first and second dorsal vertebra
to form a large piece, which Professor Huxley has named the
trivertebrated bone, and M. Serres the “os metacervicale.” This.
piece has always the same general construction in the four dif-
ferent species of which well-preserved examples are now before
me; but the mesocervical bone is not always composed of four
vertebree, but in some cases of five. The sixth vertebra is then
united with the four preceding ones, in the same way as these
with each other, and the animal has no free vertebra between the
meso- and metacervical bones.

Out of the four specimens of necks which I have seen belong-
ing to the same number of distinct species of Glyptodon, only
one is constructed in this way, of five united vertebre ; the other
three have only four vertebree anchylosed.

As we have other portions of the skeletons of these same indi-
viduals with scales of the carapace, I can affirm with certainty
that these three species with four anchylosed vertebre have a
short conical tail with large rings of conical tubercles, exactly of
the form described by me in the species which I have named
G. spinicaudus. As this is the case, I have decided to abandon
my first name, as indicating not a specific, but probably a generic
‘character, and to supply another name of more specific significa-
tion. Among the species described by other authors, I find in
the work of M. Nodot on Glyptodon (which was unknown to me
when I wrote my observations) that this author has formed
those with short conical tails of tuberculated rings into his genus
Schistopleurum; that his first species, S. typus, which is very
fully described, is the same that I had named in our museum
G. elongatus, on account of the narrow and elongated form of
the carapace, and especially of the pelvis; that the second spe-
cies, S. gemmatum, Nod., which has the surface of the carapace
much smoother, was therefore named by myself G. levis; and
that the third species, described by me as G. spinicaudus, is un-
known to Nodot, unless it be his G. subelevatus (p. 94, pl. 11.
fig. 1). As this species is smaller, and has the carapace of a
more spherical form and the surface of the scales very rough, I
now propose to name it G. asper.

Nodot’s S. tuberculatum is not a Schistopleurum, but a true
Glyptodon; for I suppose the tip of the tail figured in the ‘ Os-
téographie,’ pl. 1. fig. 5, and copied by Nodot, pl. 8. figs. 7 &8, ©
to belong to this species. We have in the museum here such a
tail as is figured in the ‘Ostéographie,’ pl. 1. fig. 4 (copied by
Nodot, pl. 8. fig. 6), and I am much inclined to affirm that this
and the other are of the same species, the construction of our

Dr. H. Burmeister on Glyptodon and its Allies. 801

tail being somewhat intermediate between -the two French
figures.

The mesocervical bone of four united vertebra was figured and
briefly described as containing from the second to the fifth ver-
tebra, by Lund in the Transactions of the Academy of Copen-
hagen, where the author names the animal to which this bone
belonged Hoplophorus euphractus. The genus Schistopleurum
must therefore be named Hoplophorus, the two genera being
perfectly identical, and Dr. Lund’s name the older one. His
other figures of the same animal prove its identity with Schisto-
pleurum as completely as that of the mesocervical bone.

As regards the fourth mesocervical bone, with five united ver-
tebre, I do not know exactly the species to which it belongs; but
from the general construction of the bone I am inclined to think
that it may belong to Glyptodon clavipes, Owen. We have of
this species a carapace not so well preserved as that figured by
Owen, awell-preserved pelvis,and some other bones. Somemonths
ago I communicated to Professor Owen figures of this pelvis and
of the pelvis of Schistopleurum gemmatum, then named by me
Glyptodon levis, as also of my G. spinicaudus, now to be named
Hoplophorus asper, in order to show him the great differences in
the construction of the pelvis in these three species. The pelvis
of G. clavipes is the strongest—the branch of the os pubis,
which forms the superior boundary of the foramen obturatorium,
especially being much thicker than in the other two species, in
which it is as thin as a pencil and much longer, and the foramen
obturatorium is much larger. As all these characters of the
pelvis in G. clavipes indicate a stronger and more solid construc-
tion of the skeleton, I think we are justified in believing that the
construction of the neck in this species was also stronger than
in the others.

The same character of strength, but still more strongly marked,
is presented by a pelvis of which I have only one side before me.
This pelvis is more than one-half larger than that of G. clavipes,
has the same strong pubic branch, anda much narrower foramen
obturatorium. From the construction of the bone, as well as from
the general size of the animal, I conclude that the pelvis belongs
to a very large species, of which we have in the Museum the
complete tip of the tail. This was described by me in my first
memoir as belonging to G. tuberculatus, Owen; but having since
seen this author’s figures copied in Nodot’s work (pl. 9), I find
that this was a mistake, and that this tail is identical with that
figured by Nodot, pl. 8. figs. 3-5, copied from the ‘ Ostéographie.’
Nodot has described, but not named, the species as belonging to
two different kinds (pp. 102 & 103). He also gives (p. 100) a
short description of two scales, figured (pl. 12. figs, 6 & 7) as G.

302 Dr. H. Burmeister on Glyptodon and its Allies.

verrucosus ; and these scales belong, in my opinion, to the same
animal, to which therefore this name may be applied.

The pelvis in question, which I regard as belonging to this
G. verrucosus, is well figured in Robin’s ‘ Journal d’Anatomie et
de Physiologie’ for March 1866, pl. 2, where M. Pouchet de-
scribes it as belonging to a new species, G. giganteus, founded
by M. Serres in a paper which I do not know. This well-
executed figure gives a good idea of the strength of the pelvis
and the great size of the animal. As the very well-preserved tip
of the tail in our public Museum is 2 feet 8 inches long and 7
inches in diam. at its commencement, we may calculate that the
animal was 10-12 feet in length, if not more, and that its body
was an enormous mass, like a large oval rock. Nevertheless
this species was not the largest of the family—the tail of G. tu-
berculatus, figured in the ‘ Ostéographie,’ pl. 1. fig. 4, and pre-
served in our Museum, being of double the size, comparing its
general figure with that of the former. Fromthe precise similarity
in the position of the elliptical and radially striated figures on
the two tails, I was at first inclined to believe that both belonged
to the same species; but as I have now seen three other speci-
mens of both tails of the same form, I must regard them as be-
longing to different species. To understand their difference in
general size, it is sufficient to compare the smallest lateral ellip-
tical figure, like a rosette, on the tails of the three species. In G.
clavipes this rosette measures 24 inches, in G. verrucosus 44, inches,
and in G. tuberculatus 52 inches. If this difference be truly
indicative of the general size, as I believe to be the case, the
last-mentioned species was one-fifth larger than that named G.
giganteus by M. Serres.

With regard to the general form of the tail, I will only repeat
what I have already said in my first communication—namely,
that the tail of every true Glyptodon had rings, probably six in
number, before the large cylindrical apex which alone was pre-
viously known. This apex contains in its interior ten small ver-
tebree ; and beyond the sacral vertebre the skeletons have always
three or four free vertebra covered by the hinder part of the cara-
pace. On comparing the size of the bodies of these vertebrae
with the first of the apex of the tail, it is evident that there was
between them a series of from six to eight vertebrae which were
covered by the free rings of the tail. In this way I calculate
the total number of the caudal vertebree of G. clavipes at 20-28.

As I am engaged upon extended descriptions of the species in
the Museum, to be published in the second part of the ‘ Anales
del Museo publico de Buenos Aires,’ which will soon be sent to
press, I will not here enter upon any further details, but conclude
this communication with a short revision of the species in question.

Dr. H. Burmeister on Giyptodon and its Allies. 308

I. Grypropon.

Tail elongated, conical, the rings before the apex formed of
flat shields or scales, the apex more or less cylindrical, with a
bulbous swelling at itscommencement. Mesocervical bone with
five united vertebre.

A. Scales or shields of the carapace with uniform warty sculp-
ture, only the marginal row of the carapace before the mar-
ginal tubercles with an elliptical rosette.

1. G. tuberculatus, Owen, Nodot.
2. G. verrucosus, Nodot (G. tuberculatus, nob., in former com-

munication). j

B. Scales or shields of the carapace with a central subhexagonal
rosette, and six smaller subpentagonal ones on the circum-
ference; the scales of the margin of the carapace before the
marginal tubercles with a very large central rosette, occu-

_ pying nearly the whole shield.
3 & 4. G. clavipes auctorum.

- Note.—We have in the Museum two different kinds of tails, —
the one shorter, broader, and flatter, with an elliptical transverse
section; the other longer, thinner, and higher, with a more cir-
cular section. I believe they belong to two different species ;
but as I do not know the exact form of the tail of Professor
Owen’s G. clavipes, I must leave it doubtful which of my species
is the true clavipes.

II. Hoptorpnorvs, Lund.
- Schistopleurum, Nodot.

Tail short, conical, with six rings of large conical tubercles on
the end of each ring of the upper side of the tail*. Mesocervi-
cal bone consisting of four united vertebre, the sixth free. Scales
of the carapace with one hexagonal figure in the centre, and six
pentagonal ones on the circumference.

- 5. H. elongatus, nob. (Schistopleurum typus, Nodot).
6. H. gemmatus, nob. (S. gemmatum, Nodot).
7. H. asper, nob. (G. spinicaudus, nob. anted).

_ 8. H. pumilio, nob., Anales del Museo publico de Buenos
Aires, i. p. 77. Of this last species I know only the lower jaw,
but, from its general figure, I suppose the species to belong to
this section.

* As we have in the Museum a well-preserved tail of the species which
has been described by Nodot as S. typus, with moveable central tubercles
on the rings, I can affirm that this construction is not natural, but caused
by the imperfect healing of the broken tubercles during the life of the
animal. This process is denominated in surgery artificial articulation,

504 Mr. A. Murray on the Homologies of

Note.—To the description of H. asper (=G. spinicaudus) I
will add that the number of ribs in this species is thirteen pairs,
not fourteen, and that the first two pairs of ribs are united to the
large excavated manubrium sterni. Thisis followed by a smaller
piece, to which two pairs of ribs are also attached, and which is.
united with the manubrium by a synchondrosis. Then follow two
small sternal vertebra, to which three pairs of ribs are attached;
and then comes the processus xiphoideus. Thus there are seven
pairs of true, and six pairs of false ribs.

XL.— Additional Remarks on the Homologies of the Flowers of
Conifers. By AnpRew Murray, F.L.S.

On looking over my paper on the above subject in last month’s
‘Annals,’ I see that I have scarcely sufficiently unbosomed my-
self on one point, which, on reperusal, seems to me to deserve
more remark than I gave it.

The point is, whether the bract is the equivalent of the petal
or of the calyx. That it is part of the floral envelope I have no
doubt ; and all that I said regarding it in that capacity (which
was the most important point of view in my inquiry) would
apply equally to it as either.

The main purpose.to which I put it was to prove that the
scale was equivalent to the disk, as lying between the pericarp
and the petal or floral envelope; and on that point I do not
think more need be said. But the question remains,—What
particular part of the floral envelope is represented by the
bract ?

In my last paper I pointed out that the appearance of the
scale of the female flower of Wellingtonia gigantea might lead
to the belief that it was the equivalent of the male scale, and
consequently must be the female petal; and I warned the reader
against adopting that view, because I considered that the more
petaloid character of the bract (a claret-coloured crust in Wel-
lingtonia) rendered it improbable that it should be the calyx,
and the green scale the petal. Having arrived at this conclu-
sion, I omitted to give, or, rather, I deleted from my paper,
an explanation which had occurred to me of the mode in which
the scale combined the functions of disk and petal.

On reconsideration, that explanation appears still to have so
much to recommend it that I now briefly submit it to the
reader as an alternative view of the homology of the bract.

We have seen that the petal of the male flower is merely a
continuation of the leaf-scales growing on the twig which bears.
the flower. That the scale of the female flower seems to be in

the Male and Female Flowers of Conifers. 805

exactly the same relation to the leaf-scales on its twig is a strong
argument in favour of that scale being a petal too.

If it really be so, then, of course, the bract must be the calyx.
Its texture (wholly or partially petaloid) is suggestive of no
character so much as that of part of the floral envelope.

There is nothing inconsistent with this being the case in the
bract appearing before the scale: the calyx’ always precedes the
corolla in development. But it would be inconsistent with the
process of development were the scale, if it be a petal, to con-
tinue increasing in size pari passu with the seed, as it in fact
appears to do; but the explanation of this growth may be, that
it is the disk which grows at the.base of the petal. I pointed
out that the growth of the scale was not equal all over, but took
place chiefly towards the base ; the apophysis, in short, may be
the outer coat of the petal resting like a mantle on the top of
the disk which has grown up under it, in the same way that the
hip of a rose increases in size, bearing up upon its crown the
decayed rose-petals, only that in the Conifers the substance has
penetrated between the outer and inner walls of the petal, and
filled out the space between them. And if we refer back to
the structure of the scale, as shown in Plate X., we shall see
that there is nothing in it inconsistent with this notion. The
scale is composed of two layers, as it were, with an indication of
an intermediate line running backwards between them from the
prickle in the midst of the apophysis—in other words, from the
supposed point of the petal. And if we examine a rose-hip, we
find it is composed of two layers also, with an intermediate one
wedged in near the apex, on which the petals and stamens grew.
In the Conifers the inner layer has a double woody core, like a
set of branches separated into blades. The rose-hip has a similar
set of ligneous fibres branching through its inner layer or disk ;
and what is noteworthy is, that these too are disposed in double
layers or blades.

The scale and bract of Cunninghamia Sinensis and Sciadopitys
verticillata come nearer to the hip of the rose than those of any
other Conifer which at present occurs to me. In these the
bract is united to the scale; so that we have the calyx, petal,
and disk all united, as in the rose, the petal being represented
by a woolly fringe on the crown of the scale.

Thus, as we have in some Conifers the bract united to the
scale, and in others not, it is plain that the union of these dif-
ferent parts is not essential to the relations of a disk, as indeed
we know from other facts ; and accordingly in the yew we have
the other extreme, in which the calyx, petal, and disk are all
separate and distinct.

The yew also shows us that although in cone-bearing Conifers

806° _ L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladonize

the flower is monopetalous, theoretically it is dipetalous, the half
of it only being present in them; for when, as in the yew, we
have the whole present, we then find a petal or scale on each
side, opposed to each other at the base of the disk, which only
begins to. grow after the petals or scales have attained their full
dimensions.

It may be that I am wrong in referring the claret-coloured
crust of petaloid texture which I observed between the scales in
Wellingtonia to the bract, and that it has not this relation at all,
and also that cypresses have truly no bract. Should that be so,
it would furnish a good distinctive character for separating the
cypresses from the pines.

I owe some apology to the reader for desiring to give ad-
ditional explanation on an opinion expressed so recently; but
in all new lines of thought the mind is at first apt to veer back-
wards and forwards as new objections or doubts suggest them-
selves; and although it may not be better for the scientific
reputation of the thinker, it is certainly better for the progress
of truth, that these vibrations should be candidly acknowledged,
so that the real weight of the objections may be estimated by
fresh and impartial minds.

XLI.—Notule Lichenologica. No. X. rae
By the Rev. W. A. Leicuton, B.A., F.LS.

CLADONIZ ACHARIANA,

Tue Rev. Abbé Eugéne Coémans, of Gand, Belgium, has re-
cently published, in the ‘Bulletins de Académie royale de
Belgique,’ sér. 2. t. xix., the results of an investigation of the
herbarium of Acharius, so far as regards the Cladonie. The.
herbarium of Acharius is preserved in the Museum of the Uni-
versity of Helsingfors; and its arrangement is precisely that of
the latest work of this author, the ‘Synopsis methodica Liche-
num,’ 1814. The collection comprises 43 genera and about
980 species, besides innumerable varieties. The localities
whence the specimens have been gathered are generally noted ;
but the specimens themselves are often small, and with respect
to those communicated by others we have no other clue to
whence they came than the peculiar handwritings of the corre-
spondents of the illustrious lichenographer. The Cladonie con-
stitute about a fifteenth part of the collection, and, although not
the most beautiful portion, is nevertheless exceedingly precious,
and contains a great number of the types of Flérke, Scherer,
and Léon Dufour.

The object proposed in this revision of the Acharian herba-

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 307:

rium (and also of those of Délise, in the Museum of Paris, and
of Flérke, at Rostock, the results of which will form separate
papers) is to fix the synonymy of the species and the diverse
varieties of these authors, to simplify the nomenclature by
the suppression of a great number of useless varieties, and to
indicate some new ideas on a certain number of the species,
—thus constituting a prodromus for a new monograph of the
genus Cladonia. ;

1. Cladonia papillaria, Hffm., (Ach.) Syn. p. 248 et hb. ejusd.

- This species, although poorly ‘represented in the Acharian
herbarium, is found there in all states of development, except
with perfect apothecia. The localities indicated, as for most of
the other species, are France, Germany, and Sweden.

2. Cladonia retipora, (Ach.) Syn. p. 248.

No specimen. Acharius knew it only from the description
and figure of Labillardiére.

3. Cladonia cespititia, (Ach.) Syn. p. 249 et hb. ejusd.

The specimens are very insignificant. A specimen from Lap-
land merits notice by reason of the high latitude of its habitat.

Most modern lichenographers consider C. cespititia to be a
distinct species, whilst others regard it as a variety of C. squa-
msoa. Frequetit study and observation of this plant in the
woods of Héverlé, near Louvain, and in the pine-forests of
Meirelbeke, near Gand, convince me that it is only a variety of
Cladonia pyxidata, pityrea. On some oaks in the wood of Hé-
verlé, now unfortunately felled, I have for many years observed
all the transitions between C. fimbriata (Ach.) and C. pityrea
(Ach.), and between this latter and C. cespititia. I believe,
therefore, we must henceforth regard C. cespititia as a variety
of C. pywidata (L.).

4. Cladonia strepsilis, (Ach.) Syn. p. 249 et hb. ejusd.

_ This Acharian species has always been problematical. Dr.
Nylander, who had examined the Acharian herbarium, refers it
to C. cespititia (Lich. Scand. p. 57, and Syn. p. 211); on the
contrary, Flérke, who had also examined the Acharian speci-
mens, recognizes it only as a sterile and macrophylline form of
C. cariosa (Comm. p. 14). In reality, boch these learned li-
chenologists have foundation for their opinions. The principal
specimen of C. strepsilis of Acharius (alone preserved entire, for
the others have been mutilated) is positively the C. cespititia ;
but the variety plumosa (Ach. Syn. p. 250) is a sterile form of

308 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladoniz

C. cariosa. Dr. Nylander refers it to C. delicata, Pik. (Nyl.
Syn. p. 211).

In the herbarium of Flérke, preserved in the museum of
Rostock, there are a great number of specimens of C. cariosa
with sterile and macrophylline thalli, perfectly similar to the
C. strepsilis b. plumosa. of the Acharian herbarium. He has_
therefore confounded two neighbouring forms, but belonging to
two different types.

The C. strepsilis (Ach.) represents only an insignificant form
of C. cespititia, and may therefore be neglected in lichenography.
As to the variety plumosa, it may be mentioned as a sterile form
of C. cariosa, without elevating it to the rank of a variety.

5. Cladonia alcicornis, (Ach.) Syn. p. 250 et hb. ejusd.

Under this name many different species are preserved in the
Acharian herbarium :—

(1.). Divers specimens of the true C. alcicornis, collected in
France, Germany, and Switzerland. There is no specimen from
Sweden, notwithstanding that this species grows in the Seandi-
navian peninsula, even to the 60th degree of latitude. I have
found it abundantly this summer, especially on the west side of
Sweden.

(2.) Two specimens of C. cervicornis received from Germany.
This error of determination is very easily explained by the diffi-
culty which very. often exists of distinguishing with certainty
the thallus of C. cervicornis from certain sterile forms of C. alci-
cornis which have the inferior surface of their leaflets rose-
coloured or purplish.

- (3.) Hight tufts of C. pungens, Flk. This error seems almost in-
explicable ; but the examination of the herbarium of the celebrated
Swedish lichenographer has proved to me that, to the end of
his life, he never rightly knew the C. pungens, and that the re-
proach which Flérke formerly addressed to him, that he did not
know the Cladonia well, was sometimes not without foundation.

Lastly, amongst the specimens of C. alcicornis in fructification
there is a specimen of C. degenerans, and another of C. pywidata,
fertile. Could it be through carelessness that Acharius placed
here these lichens ?

The C. gentilis, (Ach.) L. U. p. 580, which Acharius at first
made a variety of C. alcicornis, but which he withdrew in his
‘Synopsis,’ in consequence of the criticisms of Florke, most
certainly belongs to C. alcicornis. It constitutes, according to
the two small specimens in the herbarium at Helsingfors, a form
or even a variety with simple narrow leaflets having long blaek
fibrillee on their margins. The aspect of this variety reminds us
of that of Physcia leucomela, Mich.

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 809
6. Cladonia endiviefolia, Fr. (Ach.) Syn. p. 250 et hb. ejusd.

Two specimens of this species deserve to be cited here—one
from the isle of Aland, the most northern station known, and
the other from Tiflis, by the late Stevens, whose rich herbarium
is also in the museum of Helsingfors. The Acharian herbarium
comprises also some specimens from France, received from M.
Léon Dufour, and bearing this inscription: “ Affinis Cen. con-
volute, ast semper subtus cervino.” Acharius has ticketed these
thus: “var. major Cen. endiviefolie.” They are perfectly refer-
able to the var. firma of C. alcicornis (Nyl. Syn. p. 191).

There is also a pretended variety of C. endivicfolia or of C.
alcicornis, concerning which we have no certain information—
the variety cladomorpha. In his first works Acharius regarded
this as a variety of C, alcicornis; afterwards, in his ‘Synopsis’
(p. 259), he attaches it to C. degenerans ; and lastly, in the Sup-
plement to that work (p. 342), he joins it to C. endiviefolia.

The Acharian herbarium demonstrates undoubtedly that this
variety is only a form of C. degenerans, var. lepidota. For the
future, therefore, this variety must be suppressed. As to the
C. alcicornis, cladomorpha (Ach.), Rabenhorst, ‘Cladoniz Eu-
rope,’ tab. i.no. 5, it scarcely differs from the type of this
species.

The C. endiviefolia itself is not a good species, but forms only
a variety of C. alcicornis, as I have shown in my ‘Cladoniz
Belgice,’ No. 7 (1863).

7. Cladonia cervicornis, Scheer., (Ach.) Syn. p. 251 et
hb. ejusd.

This lichen is badly represented in the Acharian collection.

The var. prodiga, Ach. L. U. pp. 531-532, is, according to
the fragments still in the Acharian herbarium, only a small, in-
significant proliferous form of the type.

8. Cladonia verticillata, Flk., (Ach.) Syn. p. 251 et hb. ejusd.

This species, or, more correctly, this perfect form of the pre-
ceding type, has, in the herbarium at Helsingfors, representative
specimens from the principal countries of Europe, and even from
North America.

Flérke did not separate the C. cervicornis from C. verticillata,
and that justly. Acharius himself did not always know how to
distinguish these two forms from each other, as is proved by
certain hesitating determinations in his herbarium and the con-
fusion of the two types in this collection.

I regard, therefore, the C. verticillata as the type of the
species, and the C, cervicornis as a simple macrophylline variety.

310 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladonize
9. Cladonia pyxidata (L.), (Ach.) Syn. p. 252 et hb. ejusd.

Acharius, in his Synopsis, distinguishes four forms and one
variety of C. pywidata, all of which are found in his herbarium.

And first as to the forms. He designates under the name
simplex, spermogoniferous non-proliferous individuals; under
that of staphylea, apotheciferous individuals ; under that of syn-
theta, proliferous plants; and, lastly, under that of lophyra,
squamiferous specimens. These distinctions appear to me very
useless, and only serve to overload the nomenclature with new
names, and in effect only indicate that each species has a sper-
mogoniferous, fertile, proliferous, or squamulose state. These
Acharian forms ay therefore well be rejected.

With regard to the form l/ophyra, Acharius has applied this
name to two distinct forms, at first to C. pyaidata (Syn. p. 253),
and afterwards to C. fimbriata (Syn. Suppl. p. 342). The typi-
cal Acharian specimen belongs nevertheless to C. pywidata.

Amongst the C. pyxidata of the Acharian collection are found
many different species,—a Swedish specimen of C. cariosa; an-
other of C. cornucopioides from Switzerland ; a third of C. pi-
tyrea (Ach.), received from France; and, lastly, a specimen of
C. decorticata, Fr., collected in Norway. We must not infer,
however, from this inexactitude, that Acharius confounded all
these species. It merely shows that in reviewing his herbarium,
towards the close of his life, he did not always give the requisite
attention to the work.

As to the var. 8. coralloidea (Syn. p. 253), it is very difficult
to decide with certainty to what species it belongs, because the
specimens, or rather fragments in the Acharian herbarium are
particularly small and altogether insufficient. These specimens
are of the height and have nearly the aspect of C. papillaria
molariformis, and have short, abortive, granulose, and spermo-
goniferous branches. Acharius had only once met with a small
tuft of this variety*. No one since his time has rediscovered it;
moreover it is only an accidental form of C. degenerans or cris-
pata, and consequently may be neglected. The only developed
specimen which permits us to distinguish any characters exhibits ~
the summits of the branches perforated, as in this last species.

The C. coralloidea (Ach.), Rabenhorst, Clad. Europ. t. xi.,
has no resemblance to the plant of which we are speaking, and
is in fact C. decorticata, Fr., Nyl.

Acharius has not mentioned in his works a very important
variety of C. pyxidata, named by Flérke var. chlorophea; so

* The two small fragments from Switzerland, which equally bear the
name of C. coralloidea in the Acharian herbarium, do not belong to the
same type.

of the Herbarium of Acharius, 81]

that I was very curious to ascertain to what species he had re-
ferred it in his herbarium—+to C. pyzidata or to C. fimbriata.
I found that he had not distinguished this variety, and that he
had placed it sometimes under one, and sometimes under the
other of these Acharian species.

All lichenographers know of the controversy which existed
so long between Florke and Acharius on C. pywidata (L.). I
have examined the herbaria of these two masters, and I am
bound to say that, although Florke in general knew the Cla-
donie better than his rival, nevertheless he was wrong on this
question.

10. Cladonia pocillum, (Ach.) Syn. p. 2538 et hb. ejusd.

It is long since lichenographers considered C. pocillum as a
distinct species, they having more recently made it a variety of
C. pyxidata(l.). I find nevertheless that this form does not
differ sufficiently from the type to enumerate it as a variety,
especially in so polymorphous a group as the genus Cladonia.

When a station is examined where C. pyaxidata grows in
abundance, we see that all the young individuals approach more
or less to C. pocillum, and that intermediate forms passing into
pyxidata are auch more common than the two types. Acharius
himself had often a difficulty in distinguishing these two forms ;
and more than one specimen in his herbarium bears at the same
time the two names C. pyxidata and C. pocillum. I would
therefore recommend the var. pocillum to be erased from our
floras.

11. Cladonia pityrea, (Ach.) Syn. p. 254 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian types, although not numerous, are nevertheless
good and very characteristic; but his two varieties acuminata
and decorticata differ very little from each other, and represent
the same type. The former has the thallus subuliform, granular,
simple, or branched; the latter is a little more decorticated,
whiter, and sometimes bears squamose leaflets. This latter ap-
proaches sufficiently near to (. decorticata of Flérke to be
regarded as synonymous. The plants of Flérke have, however,
all the characters so well defined that I can easily conceive how
this author was tempted to make of it a distinct species.

The variety acuminata, Ach., is not sufficiently distinct from
the type of the species to deserve mention in our floras, as may
be seen in my ‘Cladonie Belgice,’ Nos. 93 & 94. The form
decorticata, on the contrary (not that, however, which is found
in the Acharian collection, but that which is represented in the
herbarium of Flérke), deserves to be cited, It may be easily
confounded with C. macilenta in a sterile condition, or, in the
squamulose forms, with C, squamosa frondosa of Délise.

312 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladonis

Florke (Com. p. 81. obs. 2) accuses Acharius with having
described, under the name of Cen. pityrea acuminata, only a
form of Clad. furcata; but the Acharian herbarium shows that
this reproach is unmerited.

The C. pityrea (Ach.), which, in my opinion, is nothing but a
variety of C. pywidata, gives rise to a great number of forms,
which are found nearly alike in all the countries of Europe.
These forms are, for the most part, wanting in the Acharian
herbarium. I have found therein only the form Isignyi sca-
brida, Dél., nixed with the var. acuminata, Ach., or designated
by M. Léon Dufour under the name of Cen. delicata.

Some specimens of C. squamosa from Switzerland are marked
in the Acharian herbarium, Cen. pityrea?

12. Cladonia fimbriata, (Ach.) Syn. p. 254 et hb. ejusd. -

All botanists know how polymorphous this species or, rather,
this var. of C. pywidata is. Thus Acharius, in distinguishing
the different modifications, established eight subvarieties or
forms of the type, and two varieties more remarkable. Never-
theless this author did not know many important forms of this
Cladonia, e. g. C. glauca, Flk., ochrochlora, Fik., pywidata fruti-
culosa, Flk., pyxidata fastigiata, Flk., and py«idata pterygota,
Fik.

As to the two Acharian varieties, they are so little remarkable,
that they may be, without any inconvenience, referred to the
type. The var. conista, especially, with its two subvarieties
exilis and macra, is in reality altogether insignificant. The var.
carneo-pallida is distinguished only by its pale or rose-coloured
apothecia—a peculiarity which is observable in many species of
this genus, e.g. in C. gracilis, furcata, furcata var. pungens,
squamosa, and degenerans, and which is frequently only the
result of a kind of etiolation. Moreover Acharius has con-
founded with this variety the C. carneola, Fr.

As to the forms of the type, they may be reduced to two—
the form tubeformis, comprehending the subvarieties carpo-
phora and prolifera of Acharius, and the form cornuto-radiata,
comprising the subvarieties radiata, abortiva, fibula, cornuta, and
nemoxyna of the same author.

In species so polymorphous as the present one, it is incum-
bent on us to avoid the creation of varieties with too narrow
limits, since otherwise the characters are applicable only to a
certain number of selected forms, whilst science is embarrassed
and our herbaria encumbered with the host of remaining inter-
mediate forms. Thus, although Florke has established more
than twenty varieties or forms of C. pyaidata, I have found in

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 313

his herbarium at Rostock hundreds of specimens which he was
unable to refer to any one of his types.

Some faulty determinations here also disfigure the Acharian
herbarium: thus we find in it an entire series of C. deformis,
from Sweden, under the name of C. fimbriata; and C. macilenta,
from Switzerland, under that of C. fimbriata fibula; the typical
C. pyxidata and its variety chlorophea are intermingled with
jimbriata; and some specimens of C. cenotea bear at the same
time, though with a mark of doubt, the two names of cenotea
and of fimbriata.

18. Cladonia gonorega, (Ach.) Syn. p. 258 et hb. ejusd.

When I examined, in the Acharian herbarium, and still more
in that of Flérke, the long series of specimens intended to justify
the varieties created by these authors, I could not refrain from
asking what advantage science could possibly derive from such
numerous and subtle distinctions. They rather serve to em-
barrass than facilitate lichenology, and are by no means suffi-
cient to denote all the forms of a species so variable as C. dege-
nerans. Moreover the herbarium at Helsingfors contains, under
the name of forme variantes, more than forty specimens of this
species which Acharius was unable to compress into his classi-
fication.

In my opinion, the forms aplotea, euphorea, anomea, pleolepis,
lepidota, cladomorpha, polyphea, scabrosa, virgata, and graciles-
cens do not deserve to be distinguished as particular forms; and
this is also the opinion of Acharius himself (Syn. p. 258), “ vix
sub nominibus singularibus denotari merentur.”

The form t¢rachyna is more remarkable, and especially more
easily recognizable ; it may therefore be retained by uniting
with it the forms /epidota, pleolepis, and virgata.

As to the variety nivea, Ach. (Syn. p. 260), it belongs to C.
pungens, Flk.; and Acharius, on revising his herbarium, after
his Synopsis was printed, unites it with that species.

Notwithstanding these diminutions, C. degenerans will still
reckon a certain number of varieties; for the forms hypophylla,
pleolepidea, and basima, recently described by Dr. W. Nylander
(Lich. Scand. p. 54), appear to me sufficiently remarkable to be
elevated to the rank of varieties. I have this summer found all
these forms in great abundance on the borders of the Baltic Sea,
both in Sweden and Russia,

The Acharian herbarium here also contains many erroneous
determinations: thus, under the name of gonorega appear a
specimen of C. turgida, from Sweden, two of C. pyaidata, in a
proliferous state, from Switzerland, and a tuft of C. furcata
crispatella, F\k., from Sweden. Two forms of C. glauca, Flk.,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 22

814 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladoniz

from Central France, and one of C. cenotea, from the Pyrenees,
are marked, by the hand of Acharius, Cen. gonorega virgata,
and Cen, gonorega vetusta. C. squamosa is also intermingled
with the forms scabrosa and gracilescens. Lastly, three speci-
mens, branched and tortuous, of C. furcata are ticketed Ceno-
myce gonorega? var. palmacea; and a small specimen of C.
amaurocrea from Switzerland is also marked Cen. gonorega. It
is very difficult to understand how the learned lichenographer
could possibly have united all these species with C. degenerans.

14. Cladonia peltasta, (Ach.) Syn. p. 261 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian herbarium contains only one specimen of this
rare species, gathered in the Isle of Bourbon and received from
Bridel. The specimen has been partially removed, but sufficient
still remains to recognize the characters of the species.

Acharius has erred in placing this Lichen amongst the sey-
phiferous lichens: its proper position is near to C. rangiferina.

15. Cladonia ecmocyna, (Ach.) Syn. p. 261 et hb. ejusd.

This species is now more generally known as Cladonia gracilis.

As in other species, so here also, many of the Acharian varie-
ties are of too little importance to be retained: e. g. amaura,
floripara, leucochlora, valida, elongata, and exoncera.

The var. corymbosa, Ach. (Syn. p. 263), does not belong to
C. gracilis, but. to C. furcata, as Dr. Nylander has already re-
marked, and as the Acharian herbarium confirms.

Making the var. hybrida (Ach.) the type of the species, four
forms or principal varieties may be distinguished, viz, :—

The form chordalis (gracilis, Ach.) for plants which are slen-
der, subuliform, or with narrow scyphi.

The form macroceras, to characterize those robust and gigantic
forms which attain, in arctic or alpine localities, to 25 centims.
in length. ;

The form aspera, to designate folioliferous specimens with
crisped, lacerated scyphi, and which remind us, by their general
appearance, of the var. trachyna of C. degenerans.

Lastly, the form cornuta, to indicate those forms which have
the upper portions of the stems subpulverulent, and which have
heretofore constituted a separate species under the name of
Cladonia cornuta, Fr.

The incorrect determinations observable in the Acharian
herbarium are as follows :—

1. Under the name of C. ecmocyna a. gracilis are found some
specimens of C. furcata, var. surrecta, Flk. (from France), and
three others of C. pyxidata cornuta (from Switzerland).

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 815

2. A robust specimen of C. furcata (from Switzerland) and
another of C. amaurocrea appear amongst the C. ecmocyna y.
macroceras e. exoncera.

3. A C. crispata (from Sweden) and a fragment of C. amauro-
erea (from France) are labelled as C. ecmocyna 6. corymbosa.

4. Amongst the C. eemocyna e. aspera we meet with a C. fur-
cata (fertile), which Acharius has ee subsequently Cen.
alcicornis ?

16. Cladonia oxyceras, (Ach.) Syn. p. 262 et hb. ejusd.

Acharius has confounded here, in his Synopsis, two species,
or at least two very distinct forms, C. uncialis (L.) and C. amau-
rocrea. Ata later period he recognized this error, and in the
herbarium has consequently indicated in pencil all the speci-
mens referable to C. uncialis. Bearing in mind these correc-
tions, the C. oxyceras of the Acharian herbarium may be re-
garded as synonymous with C. amaurocrea of Florke.

To regulate the synonymy, the specimens of the different
varieties of the Synopsis are here referred to their proper spe-
cies, viz. :—

Var. cladonioides (Syn. p. 264) is referable to typical C. amau-
rocrea in a sterile state.

Var. cetraroides (Syn. p. 264) is the same species in fructifi-
cation.

Var. dicrea (Syn. p. 265) is synonymous ih typical C. un-
cialis (1.).

Var. obtusata (Syn. p. 265) is a very robust form of C. un-
cialis (i.) with swollen extremities.

Var. medusina (Syn. p. 265) constitutes a proper species—
Cladonia medusina (Bory). The small specimen of the Acharian
herbarium has been removed.

Var. spiculata (Syn. p. 265). The specimen of this in the
Acharian collection has also been abstracted; it is therefore
impossible, in the absence of other information, to indicate the
species to which this variety may belong.

Besides these specimens, I have moreover found in the collec-
tion at Helsingfors a remarkable specimen of C. amaurocrea,
sent from the Grimsel by the late M. Scherer, having nearly the
appearance of Cladonia portentosa (Duf.), and named by Acha-
rius Cen. oxyceras crassipedia, and another of the same species,
with short stems swollen at the summits, called turgescens by
the Swedish lichenographer.

17. Cladonia sulphurina, (Ach.) Syn. p. 265.

I have not found this species either in the Acharian herba-
rium or in that of Flérke; but TI refer it to C. deformis, Hffm.,
22%

316 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladoniz

after Dr. Nylander, who has seen the authentic specimens of
Michaux.

18. Cladonia baccilaris, (Ach.) Syn. p. 266 et hb. ejusd.

The name Cladonia macilenta is now most generally used for
this species.

Amongst the Acharian varieties, the first. three (styracella,
carcata, and monocarpa) ought, in my opinion, to be neglected,
as approaching too closely to the type.

The var. clavata presents a modification more remarkable, and
may be retained.

The var. coronata is, according to the Acbicue specimens,
synonymous with C. polydactyla, Flk., as also another variety,
designated in his herbarium under the name of Cen. baccilaris
radiateformis.

I have not discovered amongst the Cladonia macilenta of the
herbarium at Helsingfors any specimen which is referable to
C. Flérkeana. Acharius therefore never knew this latter plant.

Dr. Nylander has already remarked the resemblance between
C. macilenta and digitata; and I am myself inclined to unite
these two species, and to regard C. macilenta as only a variety
analogous to C. pyxidata cornuta and fibula. The Ardennes, in
Belgium, has, during the past year, furnished me with beautiful
transitional forms between these two types.

19. Cladonia digitata (L.), (Ach.) Syn. p. 267 et hb. ejusd.

Of the five forms or varieties of this species mentioned in the _
Synopsis of Acharius, good examples are found in his herbarium,
but they only prove that nowhere is the distinction of varieties
less necessary than here. I therefore propose to erase the forms
brachytes, denticulata, cerucha, cephalotes, and monstrosa,

A specimen of C. deformis (from Sweden) is found intermixed
with C. digitata in the Acharian herbarium. This collection,
however, does not possess the intermediate forms passing into
C. macilenta; but I have found them in the herbarium of the
Museum of Finland, in the herbarium of Flérke, and in great
quantity on the rocks of the Ardennes.

20. Cladonia deformis (I..), (Ach.) Syn. p. 268 et hb. ejusd.
We may here also suppress the varieties crenulata, gonecha,
and pulvinata, proposed by Acharius.

21. Cladonia coccifera, (Ach.) Syn. p. 269 et hb. ejusd.

Acharius is heré more moderate in making varieties than his
rival Florke ; and for this he is deserving of praise. The only
two varieties which he makes do not, however, deserve to be

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 317

maintained, inasmuch as they depend solely on slight modifica-
tions in the mode of prolification.

The herbarium at Helsingfors contains many folioliferous
specimens of this species, and amongst them I observed a spe-
cimen of C. degenerans.

22. Cladonia pleurota, (Ach.) Syn. p. 270 et hb. ejusd.

This species is nothing more than a variety of the preceding.
All the Acharian specimens are referable to C. coccifera; and
Florke (Com. p. 91) has wrongly reproached him for having
confounded C. pleurota with C. deformis.

23. Cladonia bellidiflora, (Ach.) Syn. p. 270 et hb. ejusd.

The C. bellidiflora is the least polymorphous species of the
genus, and preserves sufficiently well in its diverse modifications
the typical characters of the species. Nevertheless Acharius
has mentioned four varieties ; but I must confess that his herba-
rium exhibits very little real difference between his forms am-
pullifera, ventricosa, and gracilenta, and that his var. polycephala
appears to me tobe only the type in fructification. For simplicity’s
sake, therefore, it is necessary to reject these artificial distinc-
tions.

Some specimens of C. bellidiflora v. polycephala, sent from
Grimsel by Scherer, seem to me to be rather C. degenerans.

24. Cladonia ceratophylla, (Ach.) Syn. p. 271 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian herbarium contains only a well-characterized
fragment of this species.

25. Cladonia cenotea, (Ach.) Syn. p. 271 et hb. ejusd.

The typical Acharian specimens present nothing remarkable.
As to the var. crassota, it differs so little from the type, that it
‘may be erased.

26. Cladonia parecha, (Ach.) Syn. p. 272 et hb. ejusd.
This Acharian species is synonymous with Cladonia turgida,

Hffm.

The Acharian specimens are not numerous, but sufficiently
pure, except a specimen of C. uncialis obtusata (Ach.).

The Lichen candelabrum of Bory de Saint Vincent, cited here
as a synonym, differs considerably from C. turgida, and consti-
tutes a distinct species—Cladonia candelabrum (Bor.).

27. Cladonia crispata, (Ach.) Syn. p. 272 et hb. ejusd.

All the specimens of the Acharian herbarium are perfectly
typical, and exhibit no approach to any other species.

318 L’ Abbé EK. Coémans on the Cladonize

My learned friend Dr. Nylander regards C. crispata as a
probable hybrid of C. furcata and gracilis. Is it not, rather, an
intermediate product of C. furcata and sguamosa? The herba-
rium of Flérke at Rostock possesses many mixed forms between
these two species. — Dene

28. Cladonia sparassa, (Ach.) Syn. p. 273 et hb. ejusd.

This species is more generally known under the name of
Cladonia squamosa, Hffm.

The Acharian herbarium contains only the most common
forms of this species, which probably explams why Acharius,
who was fond of multiplymg forms, is here so sparing of his
varieties. 3

Amongst his specimens are two beautiful specimens of C. de-
corticata, Fr. is

29. Cladonia cariosa, (Ach.) Syn. p. 273 et hb. ejusd.

This species is represented in the Acharian herbarium by a
dozen specimens, from different localities, and all perfectly
typical.

There is a young and undeveloped form of C. cariosa, which
is ordinarily given in Exsiccata under the name of C. cariosa,
var. symphycarpa (Ach.). This is not found in this place in the
Acharian collection, because he regarded it as belonging to the
following species.

Some authors still unite C. cariosa with C. pyxidata. Iam,
however, fully convinced that it forms a good and excellent
species.

30. Cladonia symphycarpa, (Ach.) Syn. p. 274 et hb. ejusd.

Under this name I found in the Acharian herbarium—

(1) Some young examples of C. cariosa from Sweden. This
is the form which Scherer, Desmaziéres, Rabenhorst, Hepp, and
Massalongo have published under the name of C. cariosa, var.
symphycarpa (Ach.). It does not differ sufficiently from the
type to constitute a variety.

(2) A fructiferous specimen, with small imbricated leaflets, of
C. alcicornis, var. firma, Ny)., from Switzerland.

(3) A small specimen of the same plant, gathered in ancient
Lusatia (environs of Gorlitz), and altogether similar to No. 13
of my ‘ Cladoniz Belgicee.’

(4) Some fragments of a short condensate form of C.macilenta
from North America.

(5) Lastly, a specimen of C. turgida, reduced to a dense and
microphylline thallus, as in my ‘ Cladoniz Belgice,’ No. 19.

Amidst this diversity, it is naturally very difficult to say what

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 319

this author intended by his Clad. symphycarpa. Nevertheless,
as the young specimens of C. cariosa of which I have first above
spoken were gathered in Sweden, and are the most ancient in
the herbarium, it is reasonable enough to consider them the

primitive types of Acharius. That which also confirms me in
_ this opinion is, that the types of C. symphycarpa in the herbarium
of Flérke, which have been compared with those of Acharius in
the herbarium of Willdenow at Berlin, are precisely this small
form of C. cariosa. Neither had Flérke a clear idea of the
typical symphycarpa, for he has intermingled his specimens with
many different species, as I shall have to remark in my forth-
coming work on the Cladonie existing in the herbarium of this
author.

I therefore regard the C. symphycarpa het) as only an in-
significant form of Cladonia cariosa.

81. Cladonia delicata, (Ach.) Syn. p. 274 et hb. ejusd.

This plant is, in the Acharian herbarium, placed under Ste-
reocaulon. Until 1824, Acharius had considered it a Cladonia,
but in arranging his herbarium, after the publication of the
Synopsis, he placed it under Stereocaulon, by inscribing on the
old ticket Stereocaulon delicatum.

This species is, in the estimation of most modern lichenolo-
gists, only a variety of C. sguamosa; and IJ participated in this
opinion until, during tbis summer, I had the opportunity of
studying it better in the herbarium of Florke, at Rostock. I
have never seen so many or such beautiful specimens. I then
remarked the affinities of C. delicata to C. pityrea, and I am
now convinced that the former is nothing more than a variety
of the latter. In the monograph of the genus Cladonia which
I am preparing I shall propose as a variety of C. pyzxidata the
C. pityrea with its two subvarieties delicata and cespititia.

32. Cladonia botrytes (Hag.), Ach. Syn. p. 274 et hb. ejusd.

This beautiful little species, so common in Sweden and in
Finland on decaying fir-stumps, is very richly represented in
the Acharian herbarium.

33. Cladonia leptophylla, (Ach.) Syn. p. 274 et hb. ejusd.

The herbarium of Helsingfors contains only two specimens of
this variety of Cladunia cariosa—one from England, the other
from Switzerland. The leaflets of their thalli are very small
and very dispersed.

34. Cladonia capitata (Mich.), (Ach.) Syn. p. 275.
This species is neither found in the herbarium of Acharius

820 L’Abbé E. Coémans on the Cladoniz

nor in that of Flérke. I am therefore unable to supply any
information concerning this problematical plant.

35. Cladonia acicularis, (Ach.) Syn. p. 275 et hb. ejusd.

This plant was generally regarded as belonging to C. maci-
lenta; but. now there is no doubt that it ought to be referred
to the genus Pilophorus, and form the P. acicularis of Th. M.
Fries.

36. Cladonia aggregata, (Ach.) Syn. p. 275 et hb. ejusd.

The Cladonia aggregata of Acharius and that of Flérke are,
according to the herbaria of these authors, two entirely different
plants. That of Acharius is the true C. aggregata, Eschw.
Brasil. p. 278, and that of Florke the C. gorgonea of the same
author, Brasil. p. 271.

The collection at Helsingfors contains only a miserable speci-
men of this species; another specimen has been abstracted.

37. Cladonia racemosa, (Ach.) Syn. p. 275 et hb. ejusd.

Under this name is found, in the Acharian herbarium, the
large and robust form of C. furcata known under the name of
the var. racemosa, and also a specimen of C. pungens nivea, Fik.,
from Guadeloupe.

88. Cladonia furcata, Hffm., (Ach.) Syn. p. 276 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian specimens represent the ordinary type. The
var. subulata is not distinguished in his herbarium, but is found
intermixed with other specimens. Many tufts of C. furcata
bear here also, some with a sign of doubt, some with that of
affirmation, the name of C. alcicornis, which proves that Acha-
rius entertained doubts, even to the end of his life, as to the true
characters of this species.

39. Cladonia uncialis, Hffm., (Ach.) Syn. p. 276 et hb. ejusd.

Here is found the true C. uncialis, which Acharius had con-
founded before with C. amaurocrea. The var. adunca is scarcely
different from the type, and may therefore be erased.

It must be remembered that the varieties dier@a and obtusata
of C. oxyceras (Ach.) are referable to this species.

40. Cladonia rangiferina, Hffm., (Ach.) Syn. p. 277 et hb.

ejusd.

The first two varieties of Acharius, gigantea and cymosa, may
be suppressed; for both represent the type—the first as the
sterile form, the second as the fertile or spermogoniferous form.
The largest specimen of the form gigantea in the Acharian her-
barium measures 12 or 13 centimetres in length.

of the Herbarium of Acharius. 821

The var. 8. sylvatica is a good variety, or perhaps even:a dis-
tinet species; but the var. alpestris must not be separated from
it. This form is by no means alpine, but merely that of most
individuals which grow isolated instead of in crowded tufts.

The var. 5. pungens, marked in the Acharian herbarium rangi-
cornis, belongs to C. furcata; and it is astonishing that Acharius
did not recognize its affinity to this latter species.

As to the var. pumila, it is nothing more than a small form of
C. rangiferina sylvatica.

Besides these varieties described in the Synopsis, I have found ..
also in the Acharian herbarium, an old specimen of C. rangi-
ferina sylvatica, deformed and glomeruliferous, marked by
- Scherer C. rangiferina, var. deformis, and a form of C. rangi-
ferina with short erect branches widened and united at the
summit, ticketed by Acharius var. incrassata. I have frequently
met with this form in the fir-woods of Sweden and Finland;
but it is not sufficiently notable to be distinguished from the
type. Acharius has confounded, in his herbarium, some of Cla-
donia pungens, Flk., with this latter form.

Lastly, the herbarium at Helsingfors contains also a beautiful
tuft of C. portentosa (Duf.), which Acharius must have received
after the publication of his Synopsis, for otherwise he would not
have failed to notice this remarkable form.

41. Cenomyce? vermicularis, (Ach.) Syn. p. 278 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian specimens were obtained from Lapland, Siberia,
Germany, and Switzerland.

The var. ¢aurica, in my opinion, does not deserve to be pre-
served distinct, since it is merely a swollen form of the type.

Acharius has proved his sagacity by placing this plant doubt-
fully among the Cladonie ; it constitutes at the present day the
type of the genus Thamnolia, of the tribe Siphulei, Nyl.

42. Cenomyce? ceratites, (Ach.) Syn. p. 279 et hb. ejusd.

The Acharian specimen was gathered in Lapland.

This species, which Acharius has wisely placed provisionally
among the Cladonie, is the sole European representative of the
genus Siphula, Fr.

Lastly, on the last sheet of the Cladoniacee of the Acharian
herbarium, we see pellmell many specimens of C. degenerans
and of C. pungens, Flk., which the learned lichenographer pro-
bably did not know what to make of, and which bear, with a
sign of doubt, the names of C. rangiferina, var. incrassata, C.
crispata, C. gonorega, and C. ecmocyna, var. exoncera.

822 = Prof. F. M‘Coy on a new Species of Halmaturus.

XLIL.—On a new Species of Halmaturus from East Australia,
By Freprricx M‘Coy, Professor of Natural Science in the
Meitiotiene University, ‘and Director of the National Museum
of Victoria.

Halmaturus Wilcoati (M‘Coy).

Male, Fur long and soft, grey at the base (everywhere except
on the breast, where the base is whitish), of a rich dark brown
slightly grizzled with grey and black on the back (from some

. hairs grey at base having a white ring beyond the middle, and
black tip), more uniform and slightly lighter on the shoulders,
back and sides of the neck, and becoming lighter still on the
cheeks, sides of the muzzle, and arms; the anterior feet, chin,
a band from the nostril to the eye, and the mid line of the head
darker brown; the apical two-thirds of the ears and the nape
of the neck very dark rich brown; basal third of the ears, and
a rounded space in front of the base of them, and a spot over
each eye of avery bright rusty chestnut, chestnut, or bay; a
very faint greyish band on hinder half of upper lip. The brown
of the back becomes ‘more rusty on the flanks, changing to the
same bright rusty reddish brown as the base of the ears on the
back of the hind legs, and also, though not so bright, where
the brown of the flanks joins the greyish white of the belly,
front margin of hind legs, underside of base of tail, and throat
nearly up to the chin; upper side of tail dark. brown, grizzled
with black and white hairs like those of the back, but lighter in
general tint at the base, darker towards the end, and whitish at
the tip; underpart and-sides of tail scaly and very sparingly set
with short fur-hairs.

Female. Smaller and slightly paler than the male, and the
whitish fur of the breast as grey at the base as that of other
parts of the body.

Male. Female.
Length from tip of nose to tip of tail 3 feet 4 inches | 3 feet 23 inches

ies OER RO: das ae pY Petes
» of tarsus and middle toe i in

cluding nail ..... Meats 52,
» of forearm and hand, in-

cluding She OA) ooo ek ‘mae 5S ayy
», from tip of snout to base of ear 43 ,, Give
», of ear from anterior basal

Tide iwi bail odie. 23 23,

Locality: Richmond River, New South Wales. Collected by
Mr. Wilcox, who forwarded a male and female to the Museum
at Melbourne, as probably new.

This beautiful species most nearly resembles the H. parma,

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Pronghorn Buck. 823

H. Thetidis, and H. Derbianus, but is easily distinguished from
them by the bright rusty red brown of the basal third of the
ears, the space about their base, the spot over the eye, and the
back of the hind legs, as well as by the greyish brown colour of
the neck and fore limbs. The proportional measurements are
also different,

XLITI.—Notes on the Pronghorn Buck (Antilocapra), and its
_ Position in the System. By Dr. Jonn Epwarp Gray,
F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., &e.

In the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1855, when
describing a pair of horns in the collection of the late Earl of
Derby, I mentioned that the horn of the Prongbuck was “ formed
of agglutinated hair, that it was lined internally with a close velvet-
like coat of short hairs, which were directed towards the top of the
cavity, and that the edge of the base of the horn was furnished
with a ring of hair.” I observed that the “ peculiarity in the
internal structure of the horns of the genus showed, like the
branched external form, a similarity to the horns of the deer,
the hairy horns being the analogue of the deciduous velvet of
the deer and the permanent hairy coat [on the horns] of the
giraffe.”

1. The peculiarity in the structure of the horn which isolates the
Cabrit or Prongbuck from the other hollow-horned Ruminants
seems to have been overlooked by the American naturalists; and
the spoils of the animal are very rare in European museums.

The hunters of America stated that the Prongbuck shed its
horns; but the systematic zoologists, who depended on the ex-
amination of the preserved skin and head for their facts, did
not believe the assertion; and, indeed, some went so far as to
deny the fact.

When the hunters at Fort Union said that the prong-horned
Antelope dropped its horns, Messrs. Audubon and Bachman
(Quad. North America, p. 198) considered it a sufficient reply
to show them that “the bony part of the horn and the hard
spongy membrane beneath were well attached to the skull and
perfectly immoveable.” They evidently had the deciduous
horn of the deer in their mind, and could not conceive any
other manner of shedding the horns, not foreseeing that the
horny sheath might drop off the cores, which, if they had ex-
amined the structure of the horn and observed its internal fur,
they might have anticipated as probable.

assin, in the ‘ United States Exploring Expedition’ (p. 63),
under Antilocapra americana, remarks, ‘ Dr. Pickering, in his

324 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Pronghorn Buck,

note under 24th August 1841, observes, ‘Dr. Marsh assures me |
that the horns of this animal are shed annually, like those of
the deer.’ ”

Dr. Colbert A. Canfield, who resides in California, sent an
account of the habits of the Prongbuck, in which he states as a
fact that “the horns drop off annually,” to Dr. Spencer Baird,
of the Smithsonian Institution; but his paper (which is dated
Sept. 10, 1858) was not published until after Mr. Bartlett had
recorded his observation of the same fact, observed on the ani-
mal in the Zoological Society’s Gardens.

Dr. Colbert Canfield’s paper is printed in the ‘ Proceedings
of the Zoological Society,’ 1866, p. 105, and contains many
very interesting particulars on the habits and manners of the
animal.

Dr. Canfield truly observes that the horns of sheep and goats
always have rings showing the growth of the horns, and that
such rings are not to be observed on the horns of the Prong-
buck.

When Dr. Canfield says that “the horns drop off annually,”
and observes to Dr. Spencer Baird, “To convince you of
this singular fact is my principal object in making you this
communication,” he only intended to say that the borny sheath
of the horns fell. The American hunters and Dr. Marsh must
have intended the same, though Dr. Bachman and M. Audubon
were deceived by the vagueness of the hunters’ words; and even
Dr. Marsh, when he added “ like the deer,” could only have in-
tended to say that the case of the horns falls annually, and not
that the entire horn or antler falls, as is the case with the deer.

Mr. Bartlett, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society ’
for 1865, p. 718, gave a very interesting and detailed account
of the manner in which the horny case of the horn separates
from the core, and how the new horny case is formed between
the inner surface of the old case and the core.

Mr. Bartlett in this paper endeavours “to prove that the Prong-
buck’s affinities are closer to the genus Cervus,” to which he
thinks “it is more nearly allied than to the Antelopes.” Indeed
he thinks he is “able to show that the horns of the Prongbuck
are a modification of the horns of Cervus.”

In this view I think that Mr. Bartlett is entirely mistaken,
and that this theory obscures the otherwise very interesting de-
tails which he gives of the peculiarities of this animal.

2. In the hollow-horned Ruminants the bony processes of the
frontal bone, which form the true-horns of this group of animals,
are permanent, and are covered, in the oxen, sheep, goat, and
antelopes, with a horny case, which is increased in size as the
core enlarges by the addition of new lamine of horny matter to

and its Position in the System. 325

the inner surface, especially near the edge of the sheath. The
giraffes, on the other hand, have the same permanent cores, which
are covered with a hairy skin, like the rest of the body, which
covers the horn during the entire life of the animal.

The horns of the deer, with which Mr. Bartlett compares those
of the Prongbuck, on the other hand, are only developed at a
certain season of each year ; and while they are being expanded,
they are covered with a soft velvety skin containing a number of
large blood-vessels: these vessels become obliterated and the
skin falls off when the horns are fully developed; and at the
end of the season the horns themselves fall off, leaving only a
burr on the frontal bones. -

Now in the Prongbuck the core of the horn is permanent,
vascular, and exactly like the core of the horns of ‘the true hol-
low-horned Ruminants, very unlike the deciduous horn of the
deer, and showing the true affinity of the genus to the antelope
and goat, with which it has been usually associated. It indeed
only differs from the normal structure of that of the animals of this
group in the core being covered with a case formed of aggluti-
nated hair, which falls off annually, and is replaced by another
ease formed between its cavity and the outer surface of the core.
The surface of the core is covered with a vascular skin, which
secretes this deciduous coat of agglutinated hair, like the vascu-
lar coat that secretes and gradually enlarges and thickens the
horny permanent case of the horns of oxen, sheep, and goats.

It is to be observed that the horny case of the core of all these
animals is formed of agglutinated hair; but the hairs of the
horns of the oxen, sheep, &c. are more closely agglutinated
and regularly placed, forming a denser substance than the
porous horny case of the Prongbuck, in which the several hairs
of which it is composed are to be seen by the naked eye, and
some of them projecting beyond its surface.

I think that the above observation proves that the Prongbuck
is more nearly allied to the typical hollow-horned Ruminants,
with which it has been placed, than with the deciduous-horned
deer, with which Mr. Bartlett proposes to unite it. Indeed it
only differs from them in the outer case of the horn being po-
rous and formed of loosely agglutinated or, rather, felted hairs,
and in the ease being deciduous and renewed annually, instead
of being permanent and strengthened by internal laminz so as
to form a hard horn.

There is no doubt that this peculiarity of the structure and
derivation of the sheath, or rather case, of the horns affords a
very good character to separate the Prongbuck from the other
Setbieshiored Ruminants; and I suggest that it should be formed
into a family, which should be called Antilocapride, of equal

326 Dr.J. EB. Gray on the Arrangement of the Ruminants.

rank with Bovide and Giraffide, between which families it
ought to be placed.

The Ruminants may be divided, according to their horns,
thus :—

I. The males and generally the females furnished with a
bony process on each frontal bone, which is permanent during
the lives of the animals.

In the Bovinz this bony process is covered with a permanent
horny coat.

The horn (coleocera) has the same appearance, form, struc-
ture, and is enlarged in the same manner as the hoofs over the
toes.

In the AnrrLocaprip& the bony process is covered with a
porous horny coat, which falls off and is renewed annually.

The horn or pseudo-horn (komecera) of the Cabrit is sui generis.
It seems to be formed of the matted or felted hair of the skin that
covers the core. It loosens and falls off in the mass when the
new coat of matted hair is formed beneath it. The horns may
be compared to the annual coat of matted hair which is shed by
the American bison. and some other ruminants; but in that
animal the hair only forms a kind of blanket, and falls off in
flakes of different sizes.

In the Grrarrip# the bony process is covered with a skin
like the rest of the body, and equally permanent, and the horn
(dermocera) covered with hair viet is shed and renewed like the
hair of the body.

II. The males and sometimes the females are periodically

furnished with horns, which, during development or expansion,
are covered with a vaselat skin coated with down, the skin
falling off when the horns are perfect and solidified, and the
horns themselves falling off at the end of the season. In some
few the horns spring from the end of a permanent elongated
bony process, as in the Muntjac. (Cexvip2.)
- The antlers (epochocera) of the deer differ from the horns of
the other ruminants in being periodical developments of bone,
which is at first covered with a hairy skin, that dries up and
falls off.

III. Neither sex provided with any horn-like process of the
frontal bone, as the musk (Moscur1p#), camels, llama (CamzE-
LIDZ).

Prof. J. C. Schiddte on Buprestide and Elateride. 327

- XLIV.—On the Classification of Buprestide and Elateride, with
special regard to the Danish Fauna. By Prof.J.C. Scu1épre.

(Continued from p. 212.]
Systematic Table of the Danish Buprestide and Elateride.

BUPRESTIDZA.

(Tarsi quinquearticulati. Antenne filiformes. Corpus durum.
Coxe antice globose. Coxe postice transverse, fixe. ~Pro-
sternum processu postico producto.)

Epimera mesothoracica inter episterna et humeros elytrorum
ad epimera prothoracis ascendentia et cum iis articulata.

Prosternum mucrone saltatorio nullo, mesosterno receptum.

Segmenta ventralia duo priora concreta.

Procursus ventrales laterales epimera metathoracica attin-
gentes, spiracula metathoracica in segmento mediali sita extror-
sum cingentes; procursus ventralis medius inter coxas posticas
ad mesosternum usque procedens.

Mandibule tetragonz, crassz, cochleariformes.

Ale in longitudinem plicate.

Pedes ambulatorii trochanteribus posticis simplicibus, tarsis
pulvillatis.

Oculi oblongi.

Tracheze vesiculose. Glandule salivales in capite site, fili-
formes, fasciculato-ramose. Ventriculus chylificus bicornis,
parte postica in spiram convoluta. Vasa malpighiana terna,
apice intestino ileo affixa. Folliculi testiculorum scroto inclusi,
gracillimi, longissimi, apice conjunctim in spiram contorti; ve-
sicule seminales bine. Receptaculum seminis feminz simplex,
glandula appendiculari nulla. Systema nervorum: ganglion
mesothoracis, cum ganglio metathoracis concretum ; ganglia ab-
dominalia quinque, duo priora in thorace sita; ganglion abdo-
minale primum a ganglio metathoracico discretum.

Mandibule acie et fimbriis carentes, fovea articulari superiore
ampla, condylo inferiore magno, prominente, collo distincto,
eapite globoso. Maxille malis coriaceis, dense breviter spinu-
losis. Lingua coriacea, crassa, pulvinata, integra, obtusa, spimu-
losa, stipite nullo. Antenne porifere. Prosternum procursu
labiali proprio nullo.

Tribus Anthaxiini.

Mandibule depressiuscule, apice lobatz, lobo terminali in-
trorsum sub apicem profunde excavato.

Partes oris graciliores ; male maxillarum triangule.

Sulci antennarii nulli.

328 Prof. J. C. Schiédte on the Classification

Aree poriferse antennarum in parte articulorum inferiore sitz,
deorsum spectantes.
(Esophagus sacculis utrinque appendiculatus.)

Curysosorturis, Eschltz.

Palpi mazillares articulo secundo elongato, terminali subcylin-
drico, truncato, peenultimum non complente, Palpi labiales clayati,
articulo ultimo truncato. Mentum trapezoideum, transversum, fulcro
brevi. Lingua ampla, late rotundata. Antenne articulo primo et
tertio productis, deinde profunde serratee, areis poriferis concavis.
Femora prima dentata. Tibie primee et medise incurvee. Pronotum
basi lobatum. yout:

(The space between the eyes in front much narrower towards the top. The
coxal process of the prosternum broad. Scutellum elongated, triangular,
pointed. First tarsal joint elongated. Second, third, and fourth abdominal
segments with denticulated hind corners; fifth joint with a keel in the
middle.)

(C. affinis, Fabr., r.; C. chrysostigma, L., r.)

Metanoruita, Eschltz.

Palpi maxillares articulo secundo brevi, terminali cylindrico, trun-
cato, peenultimum superante. Palpi labiales clavati, articulo ultimo
brevi, crassissimo, truncato. Mentum transversum, utrinque rotun-
datum, fulcro amplissimo. Lingua apicem versus angustata. An-
tenneé graciles, ab articulo tertio vel quarto obtuse serratee, areis
poriferis convexis. Tibia rectee. Pronotum basi lobatum.

(The space between the eyes in front slightly narrower towards the top.
The coxal process of the prosternum broad, with three points. Scutellum
small, triangular, with round corners. The abdominal segments without
teeth.) f

(M. cyanea, Fabr., in timber-yards ; M. appendiculata, Fabr., r.)

Antuaxta, Eschltz.

Palpi mazillares articulo ultimo ovato, apice truncato. Palpi
labiales filiformes, articulo ultimo conico, sesqui minore quam pe-
nultimo. Mentum trapezoideum, transversum, fulcro brevissimo.
Lingua late rotundata. Antenne inde ab articulo quarto profunde
serrate, areis poriferis convexis. Tibie rectee. Pronotum basi
truncatum.

(First pair of femora without tooth. Scutellum equilateral, triangular.
Prosternal spine broad, with truncated point. Abdominal segments eden-
tate.)

(A. quadripunctata, L., in timber-yards.)

Tribus Buprestini.

Mandibule cuneiformes, apice integra, parte interiore tota
profunde excavata, margine caverne utroque denticulato.

of Buprestidee and Elaterids. 829

Mentum breve, transversum, utringue rotundatum, medio
profunde emarginatum, fulcro labii amplo.
Maxillz mala exteriore ampla, fornicata, cardine piriformi,
libero. )
Palpi maxillares articulo secundo brevi, terminali clavato,
truncato, penultimum superante.

Palpi labiales integri, clavati.

Arez porifere antennarum in parte posteriore vel in utroque
latere articulorum site. ie

Burrestis, L.

Antenne breviores, profunde serratee ; arese poriferse minute, ro-
tundatee, profunde foveolate, sub angulum inferiorem lateris poste-
rioris articulorum sit. Prosternum pone coxas anticas utrinque
angulatum. Zpimera mesothoracica margine priore subrecto.

(B. meesta, Fabr., in timber-yards.)

Cuatcopuora, Sol.

Antenne graciliores, obtuse serrate ; arece poriferse ample, ob-
longze, vix excavatee, marginem inferiorem articulorum eequo inter-
vallo sequentes, in utroque latere obviee. Prosternum pone coxas
anticas utrinque angulatum. Lpimera mesothoracica margine ante-
riore angulato.

(Ch. mariana, L., in timber-yards.)

Ancyxocuira, Eschltz.

Antenne graciliores, obtuse serrate ; areze poriferse majores, pro-
funde excavatee, in angulo inferiore lateris posterioris articulorum
site. Prosternum sensim acuminatum. pimera mesothoracica
margine anteriore subrecto. Tibi@ anticee maris uncinate.

(1. A. splendida, Payk., r.; 2. A. rustica, L.; and 3, A. punctata,
Fabr., all three in timber-yards; 4. A. flavomaculata, Fabr., r.)

Tribus Agrilini.

Mandibule cuneiformes, apice integre, parte interiore tota
profunde excavata; marginibus cavernze inermibus.

Maxille cardine gracili, elongato, sub mentum condito, malis
obtusis.

Fulcrum labii evanidum.

Palpi labiales manci, articulo primo vel binis prioribus eyanidis.

Sulci antennarii capiti sub oculos impressi.

Are poriferee antennarum profunde excavate, in latere pos-
teriore articulorum sub apicem site.

Pronotum basi lobatum.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. i BS

330 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Clussification

Aeritvus, Meg.

Mandibule acute. Palpi mazillares filiformes, articulo ultimo
fusiformi, truncato. Mentum triangulum. Palpi labiales biarticu-
lati, articulo ultimo elongato, subcylindrico, truncato. Antenne inde
ab articulo quarto serrate. Sulci antennarii brevissimi, in tempora
non continuati. Tarsi postici longitudine tibiarum, articulo primo
producto. Unguiculi dentati. Scutellum manifestum, basi trans-
versum, postea subito acuminatum. Lpipleure prothoracice cari-

nate. Corpus productym.

(1. A. viridis, L., m. fr.; 2. 4. angustulus, Mlig., m. fr.; 3. A.
laticornis, Illig., r.)

Tracuys, F.

Mandibule obtusee, foveola interiore amplissima. Palpi mazil-
lares clavati, articulo ultimo magno, ovato. Mentum triangulum,
latere utroque angulato. Palpi labiales biarticulati, subcylindrici,
articulo ultimo brevi. Antenne inde ab articulo septimo serrate.
Sulci antennarii in tempora continuati. Tarsi brevissimi. Ungui-
culi dentati. Scutellum minutissimam triangulum. Corpus breve.

(1. 7. minuta, L., m. fr.; 2. T. troglodytes, Gyll., r.)

*ApHANIstICcUS, Latr.

Mandibule acutissime. Palpi mazillares clavati, articulo ultimo
ovato. Mentum breve, transversum, utrinque rotundatum. Palpi
labiales unico constantes articulo elongato, subcylindrico. Antenne
inde ab articulo octavo serrate. Sulci antennarit in tempora et
epimera prothoracis continuati. Tarsi brevissimi. Unguiculi in-
ermes. Scutellum minutissimum, triangulum. Corpus productum.
Tempora producta, oculis multo longiora. Femora dilatata.

(A. pusillus, Oliv., r.)

ELATERIDZ.

(Tarsi quinquearticulati. Antenne filiformes. Corpus durum.
Coxze antice globose. Coxe postice transverse, fixe. Pro-
sternum processu postico producto.)

Epimera mesothoracica epimera prothoracica non attingentia,
articulo cum prothorace non conjuncta.

Prosternum aut supra sub apicem mucrone armatum salta-
torio, aut in mucronem saltatorium sensim transiens. Meso-
sternum fovea profunda mucronem excipiens.

Procursus ventrales epimera metathoracica non attingentes,
spiracula metathoracica extrorsum libera, inter epimera et pro-
cursus ventrales sita; procursus ventralis medius brevis, ad
metasternum vix procedens.

Mandibule triquetre, fornicate, apicem versus extenuate.

of Buprestide and Elateride, 331

Ale in longitudinem et transverse plicate.
Pedes cursorii trochanteribus posticis fulcientibus.
Oculi rotundati.

Trachez vesiculis carentes. Glandule salivales proprie nulle.
Ventriculus chylificus simplex, subrectus. Vasa malpighiana
bina, apice libera. Folliculi testiculorum scroto- carentes, ob-
longi vel globosi; vesicule seminales tern, structura maxime
variantes. Receptaculum seminis femine structura valde va-
rians, seepissime duplex aut multiplex, glandula appendiculari
magna, sepissime ramosa. Systema nervorum: ganglia tho-
racica discreta; ganglia abdominalia octo, ‘duo priora in thorace
sita; ganglion abdominale primum ganglio metathoracico appli-
catum.

Sectio Prima.

Mandibule fimbriis carentes. Scrobiculi antennarii genis im-
pressi. Prosternum procursu labiali nullo.

(Epimera mesothoracica coxas attingentia. Epipleura ely-
trorum costa laterali obtusa. Segmenta ventralia preter termi-
nale immobilia).

Tribus 1. Melasini. .

Mandibulz basi tumidz, parte interna excavata; condylo in
teriore maximo, fovea articulari superiore amplissima.

Maxille stipite palpigero distante, articuliformi, mala unica,
tenui, apice brevissime barbata. ee

Lingua minuta, integra, obtusa, stipite nullo.

Palpi clavati, articulo ultimo magno, ovato.

Prothorax sulcis antennariis nullis; prosternum processu
postico acuto, mucrone saltatorio valde discreto, sursum ascen-
dente.

Me asts, Oliv.

Mandibule acute, basi valde tumide, tumore supra rotundato.
Palpi mazillares articulo ultimo apice summo truncato, articulum
terminalem palporum labialium duplo superante. Palpi labiales ar-
ticulo primo tenui, secundum longitudine superante. Mentum breve,
transversum. Antenne serrate, basi distantes. Tibie compresse
dilatate ; farsi compressi, articulo quarto integro. Coxe postice
lamina femorali ampla, extrorsum emarginata. Segmentum ultimum
ventris apice compresse carinatum.

(M. Buprestoides, L., m. fr.)

Xyzostvs, Latr.

_Mandibule trilobx, lobo intermedio introrsum excavato, basi tu-
midee, tumore dorso corniculato. Palpi subsequales, articulo ultimo
maximo. Mentum trapezoideum. Antenne teretes, basi vicine.

23*

332 Prof. J.C. Schiddte on the Classification

Tibia teretes. Tarsi graciles, articulo quarto trilobo. Segmentum
ultimum ventris apice rotundatum.

(X. Alni, Fabr., m. fr.)

Tribus 2. Eucnemidini.

Mandibule introrsum carinate.

Maxillee malis binis, membranaceis, breviter barbatis,

Lingua lata, tenuis membranacea, emarginata, stipites palpo-
rum labialium non multum excedens, stipite evanido.

Palpi securiformes.

Mentum transversum, trapezoideum.

Sulci antennarii in epimera prothoracis plus minusve con-
tinuati.

Prosternum mucrone saltatorio sursum ascendente.

Evenemis, Ahr.

Mandibule acute, integree, fovea articulari superiore amplissima,
condylo_inferiore maximo. Palpi mazillares articulo terminali
maximo, peenultimum sesqui superante, apice recte truncato. Palpi
labialesarticuloterminalimaximo, articulum ultimum palporum maxil-
larium sesqui superante, angulo interiore producto. Sulei antennarii
epimerorum marginales, valde profundi. Coxe posticee lamina femo-
rali ampla, post acuminata. Prosternum processu postico acumi-
nato. Mentum subquadratum.

(E. capucinus, Ahr., r.)

Microruacus, Chevrol.

Mandibule trilobee, dorso inferiore corniculato. Palpi mazillares
articulo terminali maximo, pzenultimum duplo superante, apice
oblique truncato, angulo exteriore valde producto. Palpi labiales
articulo terminali dimidiam palporum maxillarium articuli ultimi
magnitudinem vix superante, angulo exteriore producto. Sulei an-
tennarit epimerorum ad suturas prosternales levius excayati. Oore
lamina femorali brevi, introrsum dilatata, post rotundata. Proster-
num processu postico acuminato. Mentum trapezoideum.

(M. pygmaeus, Fabr., r.)

Turoscvus, Latr.

Mandibule integre, acutze, acie tenui, utrinque minute mucronu-
lata. Palpi articulo terminali magno, oblique truncato. ‘Sulei an-
tennarii prothoracis angulati, integri. Coxe postice lamina femo-
rali brevi, truncata. Prosternum processu postico marginato, apice
rotundato, mucrone saltatorio obtecto. Mentum subquadratum,
processu medio acuto. Tarsi articulo quarto bilobo. Antenne ab
articulo nono tantum serratee, clavam simulantes.

(1. 7. dermestoides, L., fr.; 2. T'. obtusus, Curtis, r.)

of Buprestide and Elateride. 833

Sectio Secunda.
Mandibule Nuthin. Scrobiculi antennarii capitis nulli.
Prosternum procursu labiali manifesto, ab epimeris incisura
acuta utrinque discreto.

Tribus 3, Elaterini

Mandibule bifide.

Maxille malis binis, triangulis, dense ARE eg

Mentum trapezoideum.

Lingua ampla, tenuis, membranacea, barbata, stipites palpo-
rum labialium valde excedens, biloba, lobis arcte contiguis, sti
pite angusto, corneo.

Prosterni processus posticus plerumque acuminatus, mucrone
saltatorio retroverso, processum superante, vel in mucronem
saltatorium sensim transiens.

I. Segmenta ventralia cornea, preter terminale immobilia. Scrobiculi
femorales prothoracis foris occlusi. Mesosternum apice bifidum.
Oculi immersi.

A. Epimera mesothoracica coxas non attingentja.
a. Sulci antennarii prothoracis nulli.

Carpiornorus, Eschltz.

Prosternum processu postico brevissimo, mucrone saltatorio crasso.
Coleoptera prothoraci innata, Scutellum cordatum, sulcatum.

(1. C. ruficollis, L., m. fr. ; 2. C. asellus, Erichs., m. fr.)

Cryprouypnus, Eschltz.

Prosternum processu postico elongato, in mucronem saltatorium
sensim transiens. Coleoptera prothoraci superposita. Scutellum
triangulum, integrum.

(1. C. quadripustulatus, Fabr., fr.; 2. C. sabulicola, Boheman, r.;
3. C. pulchellus, L., fr.)

b, Sulci antennarii prothoracis profundi, antennas curvatas excipientes.

Lacon, Latr.

Prosternum processu postico elongato, mucrone saltatorio pro-
ducto. Coleoptera prothoraci innata,

(L. murinus, L., fr.)

B. Epimera mesothoracica coxas attingentia.
a. Sulci antennarii prothoracis profundi, antennas totas excipientes.

Lissomus, Dalm.
Sulct antennarii prothoracis decurtati, antennas curvatas exci-

334 Prof. J. C. Schiddte on the Classification

* pientes. Prosternum processu postico marginato, apice rotundato,
- mucrone saltatorio obtecto. Tarsi articulis ternis intermediis pul-
villatis.

(L. equestris, Fabr., r.)

ApELOCERA, Latr.

Sulct antennarii prothoracis integri, antennas directas excipientes.
Prosternum processu postico elongato, in mucronem saltatorium
sensim transiens. Yarsi pulvillis carentes. Episterna metathoracica
epipleuris elytrorum tota obtecta.

(A. lepidoptera, Panz., in timber-yards, r.)

b. Sulci antennarii prothoracis brevissimi, obscuri vel nulli.

a. Unguiculi serrati. Antenne areis poriferis manifestis. Elytra
costa laterali evanida.

Me anorvs, Eschltz.

Palpi securiformes. Prosternum processu postico crasso, in mu-
cronem saltatorium sensim transiens. Sulci antennarit prothoracis
brevissimi. rons laminata.

(1. M. niger, Panz., r.; 2. M. brunnipes, Germ., r.; 3. M. cas-
tanipes, Payk., fr.*)
' Aprastus, Meg.

Palpi articulo terminali acuminato. Prosternum processu postico
acuto, mucrone saltatorio valde discreto. Sulci antennarii prothoracis
nulli. Frons deflexa.

(A. limbatus, F., fr.)

8. Unguiculi inermes.
‘+ Tarsi pulvillis carentes.

Exater, L.
TABULA SYNOPTICA SUBGENERUM.

1. Prosterni processus posticus mucrone saltatorio manifesto, discreto.
Elytra costa laterali evanida. :
A. Sulei antennarii prothoracis brevissimi.
a. Frons deflexa.
* Epimera prothoracis dentata. Anguli antici prothoracis deff exi.
Antenne utriusque sexus areis poriferis manifestis.

1. Agriotes, Eschltz.
(1. E£. aterrimus, L., fr. ; 2. E. pilosus, Panz., r.; 3. H. pallidu-

1 A, The eyes granulated ; posterior corners of the pronotum with short
dorsal ridge ; hind feet not longer than tibie ; hairy covering of antennz
the same in both sexes (M. niger, M. brunnipes). 3B. Eyes smooth, the
ridge on the hind corners of pronotum continued forwards along the sides;
hind feet longer than tibie ; antenne of male woolly underneath (M. cas-
tanipes). Prof. Schiddte does not admit Cratonychus rufipes, Erichs.
(Germar, Zeits. iii. 96. 8) as a species distinct from M. castanipes, Payk.,
and states that E. bicolor, Fabr., is a very different, southern species.

of Buprestide and Elateride. 335

lus, Mllig., fr.; 4. H. sputator, L., fr.; 5. EF. obscurus, L., fr. ;
6. EZ. lineatus, L., fr.; 7. H. ustulatus, Schaller, r.; 8. H. margi-
natus, L., fr.')

**Epimera prothoracis inermia, Anguli antici prothoracis por-
recti. Antefine maris poris indigestis, feminis areis poriferis
manifestis.

2. Sericosomus, Serv.

(Z. brunneus, L., m. fr.)

6. Frons laminata. Coxe postice lamina femorali ampla, abrupte
acuminata. Antenne poris indigestis, infra crebrioribus.

3. Ampedus, Meg.

(1. #. sanguineus, Fabr., m. fr.; 2. E. coccineus, Germ., r. ;
3. E. dibaphus, Schiddte, m. fr.; 4. E. cardinalis, Schiddte, r.’ ;
5. E. preustus, Fabr., m. fr.; 6. E. ephippium, Oliv., m. fr. ;
7. E. crocatus, Castelnau, r.; 8. EF. elongatulus, Fabr., fr.; 9. £.
elegantulus, Germ., r.; 10. E. balteatus, L., fr.; 11. #. nigrinus,
Payk, fr.; 12. H. ethiops, Boisd. & Lacord., r.)

B. Sulci antennarii prothoracis nulli.
a. Frons deflexa. Coxe postice lamina femorali magna, sensim an-
gustata. Antenne areis poriferis manifestis.

4. Ludius, Latyr.
(Z. ferrugineus, L., tr.)

b. Frons laminata. Coxe postice lamina femorali ampla, abrupte
acuminata. Antenne poris indigestis.

5. Ischnodes, Germ.
(BE. sanguinicollis, Panz., r.)

1 The species are thus arranged :—A. Prosternal spine gradually pointed.
Femoral lamina of posterior coxz gradually narrowed. Pronotum longer
than broad; a. lateral edges of pronotum entire, hind corners with sharp
ridge. *Antenne deeply serrated, as long as head and pronotum; eyes granu-
lated (E. aterrimus). **Antenne filiform, as long as head and pronotum ;
eyes smooth (Z. pilosus). 6. Side edges of pronotum interrupted in middle,
hind corners without ridge; antennz filiform, longer than head and pro-
notum; eyes granulated (E. pallidulus). 3B. Prosternal spine compressed
behind the cox; antenne filiform; tfemoral lamina of posterior coxz
gradually narrowing; a. antennz longer than head and pronotum; * pro-
notum longer than broad (Z. sputator); ** pronotum broader than long
(E. obscurus and E. lineatus). 6. Antenne shorter than head and pro-
notum ; pronotum of equal length and breadth (EZ. ustulatus) ; ++ femoral
lamina of posterior coxve pointed (E. marginatus).

2 Prof. Rchiddte rejects the earlier attempts at a separation of the spe-
cies of this subgenus with entirely red elytra: he shows that the characters
adopted are unstable, and more particularly that the triangular form of the
third joint of the antennz, on which Kiesenwetter founds his A. satrapa,
is a sexual peculiarity, the second and third joints of the antenne varying
considerably in shape and size according to the sexes. The synonymy of the

336 Prof. J. C. Schiédte on the Classification

2. Prosterni processus posticus in mucronem saltatorium sensim trans-
iens. Elytra costa laterali manifesta.
A. Epipleure elytrorum pone coxas posticas evanide.
a. Sulci antennarii prothoracis nulli.
#. Frons deflexa. Cox postice lamina femorali ampla.

6. Meyapenthes, Kiesenw.
(£. tibialis, Boisd., r.)
B. Frons laminata.
* Coxe posticee lamina femorali angusta, sensim acuminata.

7. Pheletes, Kiesenw.
(Z£. Bructeri, Fabr., r.)

** Coxe postice lamina femorali ampla, abrupte acuminata,
8. Hypolithus, Steph.
(EZ. riparius, Fabr., m. fr.)

b. Sulci antennarii prothoracis brevissimi. Frons laminata.
9, Limonius, Eschltz.

(1. L. minutus, L., fr.; 2. 2. nigripes, Gyll., m. fr. ; 3. £. eylin-
dricus, Payk., fr.)

B. Epipleure elytrorum manifesta. Sulci antennarii prothoracis nulli
vel levissimi. rons descendens.

10. Diacanthus, Latr.
(1. Z. tessellatus, L., fr.’; 2. L. bipustulatus, L., m. fr.; 3. £.

two first-named species is uncertain. E. cardinalis was first discovered by
Prof. Schiddte in Italy, but occurs also in Denmark. . dibaphus 8 has
the third joint of the antenne triangular. The four red species are dis-
tinguished principally by the proportions of length between pronotum,
elytra, and antennae. ‘The elytra are in £. sanguineus twice and a half
as long as the pronotum, in FE, cardinalis rather less; in E. dibaphus
the proportion is twice and three quarters, and in E. coccineus about three
times. The antenne are always about one-sixth shorter in the 2 than in
the 3; in E. sanguineus $ they equal the pronotum to the point of the
hind corners; in E. dibaphus 8 and E. coccineus 8 they exceed this mea-
sure not alittle; but in 4. cardinalis g they are not longer than the pro-
notum measured along the middle line; in E. cardinalis the pronotum
equals in length its own width measured over the hind corners, whilst it is
shorter inthe three other species, from which. cardinalisis also distinguished
by the punctures being much coarser on the head and pronotum, which are
quite dull, and by the sides of the body being parallel in the middle. The
transversal dip at the base of the pronotum is very marked in all these species
except . coccineus, where it is strikingly flat and shiny; but the extent
and depth of the middle groove varies in all four species. Nor is the co-
lour of the hairs of any value for the distinction of these difficult species.
The antenne are black in E. sanguineus and E. dibaphus, brown in E.
cardinalis, and light brown in E. coccineus.

? Linné’s E. tessellatus (Fauna Succ. 739) has, since the time of Olivier,

of Buprestide and Hlateride. 837

_-einetus, Payk., m.fr.; 4. 2. quercus, Gyll.,r.; 5. £. eneus, L., fr. ;

6. EL. cruciatus, L., m. fr.;. 7. EZ. impressus, Fabr., r.; 8. 2. metal-
licus, Payk.; 9. E. sjelandicus, r.; 10. £. pectinicornis, L., fr. ;
11. Z. castaneus, L., m. fr.*)

tf Tarsi pulvillati.
Arnovs, Eschltz.

_ Prosterni processus posticus in mucronem saltatorium sensim
transiens. Zlytra costa laterali manifesta. Sulei antennarii pro-
thoracis nulli. rons laminata.

(1. E. mutilatus, Rosenhauer, r.; 2. L. niger, L., fr.; 3. EL. rhom-

beus, Oliv., r.; 4. E. ruficaudis, Gyli., fr.; 5. EH. vittatus, Fabr., fr. ;
6. E. subfuscus, Gyll., fr.)

generally been misunderstood; and the species thus named by Linné has
been called EF. holosericeus, Oliv., whilst the Linnean name has been given
to a different species, which Linné most probably confounded with E. pec-
tinicornis 2, but which Miiller describes in his ‘ Fauna Fredrichsdalina’
under the name of E. sjelandicus. Prof. Schiodte has now restored the
original names to the proper species, and corrected the error which seems
to be founded on a mere mistake of Olivier’s.

* The species are thus classified :—A. Indistinct antennal grooves near
the margins of the prothorax; antenne serrated from the fourth joint;
the anterior corners of the pronotum prominent, pointed, somewhat flat-
tened, the posterior corners short, obtuse, with obsolete ridge. The pos-
terior margin of epimera prothoracica slightly arched and undulated ; pro-
sternal spine short, thick ; claw-joint of third pair of tarsi longer than their
first joint (EZ. tessellatus). B. No antennal grooves; a. antenne serrated
from the fourth joint; * hind corners of pronotum without ridge; anterior
corners of pronotum deflected, the posterior margin of pronotum obtusely
bidentate; prosternal spine short, thick; legs slender; claw-joint of hind
tarsi a little longer than the first jomt (2. dipustulatus) ; ** hind corners
of pronotum with sharp ridge; t posterior margin of epimera prothoracica
bidentate, the inner tooth pointed; anterior corners of pronotum more or
Jess deflected ; prosternal spine long, thin, pointed; legs slender; claw-
joint of third pair of tarsi longer than the basal joint (E. cinctus, E. quer-
cus); tt posterior margin of epimera prothoracica angulate or obtusely
bidentate ; anterior corners of pronotum pointed, produced ; prosternal
spine long, gradually acuminated, with a more or less prominent knob
before the point; legs powerful; claw-jomt of hind tarsi club-shaped,
longer than basal joint; claws long and powerful; § posterior. margin of
epimera prothoracica angulate; antennz with small, lightly impressed,
poriferous spots (EZ. @neus); §§ posterior margin of epimera prothoracica
obtusely bidentate ; antennz without poriferous spots (E. eruciatus, E.im-
pressus, E. metallicus). 6. antenne serrated from the third joint ; anterior
corners of pronotum produced, pointed; scutellum cordate; legs power-
ful; claw-joint of third pair of tarsi club-shaped, longer than basal joint ;
claws long, powerful ; * posterior margin of epimera prothoracica arched,
slightly undulated; prosternal spine long; posterior corners of pronotum
ridged (E. sjelandicus, E. pectinicornis); ** posterior margin of epimera
prothoracica obtusely bidentate ; prosternal spine short; hind corners of
pronotum without ridge (H, castaneus),

338 Miscellaneous,

II. Segmenta ventralia margine laterali membranacea, mobilia. Serobiculi
femorales prothoracis foris aperti, Mesosternum apice acutum. Oculi
exserti.

Campylus, Fisch.

Elytra prothoraci superposita. Lpimera mesothoracica coxas at-
tingentia. Oculi exserti, granulati. J’rons laminata. Swulei anten-
narti nulli. Prosterni processus in mucronem saltatorium sensim
transiens. Coxe posticee lamina femorali angustissima. E/ytra costa
marginali integra, planiuscula, recta, post coxas posticas non inflecta.
Segmentum quintum abdominis in femina post rotundatum, in
mare truncatum, medio productum, segmentum sextum haud ob-
tegens.

(1. C. linearis, L., fr.; 2. C. denticollis, Fabr., v.)

MISCELLANEOUS. .

Scheuchzeria palustris, Linn.
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—With great pleasure I am enabled to record that
the Rev. O. M. Fielden, incumbent of Welsh Frankton, Shropshire,
has this summer (1866) detected this rare plant growing in Welsh
Hampton Moss, Shropshire, and thus has added a second Shropshire
locality, and a fifth British one. Only three specimens were found,
one of which is now before me.

I am, Gentlemen, yours, &c.
W. A. LeicHron.

Shrewsbury, Sept. 24, 1866.

On the Long-eared or Mule Deer of North America (Eucervus).
By Dr. Joun Epwarp Gray, F.R.S., &e.

The Long-eared or Mule Deer of the Western States of North
America are very imperfectly known in Europe; and the examina-
tion of the horns, which I had not before seen, has shown me that
they have been very erroneously placed with the genus Cariacus.
Dr. Spencer Baird, in his excellent work on the Mammals of North
America, has formed for them a distinct section of his genus Cervus.

The Cariaci or Savanna Deer have the upper part of the beam
of the horns curved forward, with the upper branches arising from
its hinder edge ; they generally have a single subbasal snag some
distance from the base; and the outside of the metatarsus has a
short broad gland. The skull is elongate, narrow, and the subor-
bital pit is small. The Mule Deer, on the contrary, have a doubly
forked suberect horn, like the genera Blastocerus and Furcifer of
South and tropical America. They differ from both these genera in
having a large elongated gland on the outside of the metatarsus,
rather differently formed horns, and a broad short skull.

To this group I propose to give the generic name of Evcervus.

Miscellaneous. 339

It is characterized by the horns being doubly forked, the forks being
nearly equal. There is sometimes a small snag on the inner side of
the lower part of the beam; but this is often wanting. ‘The outside
of the metatarsus has a large elongated gland. Hoofs triangular,
narrow. The skull broad; suborbital pit large, triangular. The
skulls of both sexes are described in my ‘Catalogue of Ungulate
Mammalia in the British Museum,’ p. 283. There are two well-de-
scribed species found in the Western States of North America, viz.:—

1. Evcervus MACROTIS.
Cervus macrotis, Say; Spencer Baird, Mamm. N. A. 657, f. 19, 20
(horns), t. 23. f. 1 (feet).
C. auritus, Warden.
Rump white. “Tail cylindrical, a little longer than the ears, very
slender, naked beneath, except at the end, which is a black tuft.”

2. Eucervus CoLuMBIANUS.
Cervus Columbianus, Richardson, F. B.-A. t. 20; Spencer Baird, Mamm.
N. A. 659, f. 22, 23 (horns), t. 23. f. 2 (feet).

2C. Lewisii, Peale.

Rump like back. “Tail cylindrical, hairy and white beneath,
almost entirely black at the base.”

Mr. Titian Peale describes the hoofs of his Mule Deer as different
from those of the Black-tailed Deer ; but Dr. Spencer Baird says that
the hoofs of both the species he describes were alike and slender ;
so that perhaps Mr. Peale’s animal may be a third species of the
genus, characterized by the hoof, like the Elk and the Wapiti.

On the Development of the Myzostoma. By E. Mecznixorr.

The Myzostoma, parasites of the Comatule, notwithstanding re-
ari investigations, still occupy an uncertain position in the zoo-
ogical scale. ‘The most recent observers, such as M. Semper, seem
inclined to approximate them to the Arthropoda.

The author has arrived at a different conclusion. It is among the
Annelids that he seeks the nearest allies of the Myzostoma, found-
ing this view upon the development of the parasite, which he has
been able to investigate partially by the aid of artificial fecundation.
The young larva, which is at first ciliated, soon presents rudiments
of setigerous pedal rami. Such a larva certainly presents no resem-
blance to a Nauplius, nor does it possess the facies of an Acarian or
Tardigrade, which has been supposed to be recognizable in the figures
given by Semper.

The Myzostoma would therefore be parasitic Annelids. Their
skin, moreover, presents a structure similar to that of Annelids,: in-
asmuch as its cuticle is set with bundles of vibratile cilia, a character
_ which is not presented by other classes of worms. The papilliferous
trunk of the Myzostoma is hardly to be discriminated from that of
the Geryones or Phyllodocee. ‘Their ramified intestine is merely a

40 Miscellaneous.

repetition of that of the Aphroditacee. Their feet are simple rami,
which have no relation to the limbs of the Arthropoda.

It must, however, be admitted that the reproductive organs of the
Myzostoma differ considerably from those of the true Annelids.
Leaving out of consideration their hermaphroditism, which occurs
also among certain polycheetous Annelids, the existence of a cloaca
deserves to be especially indicated.

The deferent canals are also exceptional, at least unless we com-
pare them with the segmentary organs of those Cheetopoda which
have only a single pair (Parthenope). The existence of ventral
suckers is a peculiarity of little importance, and in accordance with
the conditions of parasitism. Moreover a sucking-disk is met with
in the Leucodore among Chetopoda.—Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool, xvi.;
Bibl. Univ. 1866, Bull. Sci. p. 153.

On the Synonymy and Geographical Distribution of Jussixa repens
(Linn.). By C. Martins.

Having for the last four years cultivated one of the species of
Jussiea under the most varied conditions of dryness and moisture
and shade and light, I have been able to demonstrate how the form,
the size, the pubescence of the leaves, the size of the flowers, and,
indeed, the entire habit of the plant were subject to vary. After
having familiarized myself with all these forms, I consulted the her-
baria, and personally visited those of the museum and of MM. De-
lessert and Cosson at Paris, of Delile and Cambessides at Montpel-
lier, and of M. de Candolle at Geneva. Dr. Hooker, at my request,
was good enough to go through that of Kew, and M. Boissier that
which he possesses at Geneva. From this examination it results
that Jussica repens, described by Linné in 1747*, has since received
twelve different names: namely, J. adscendens, Linn.; J. diffusa,
Forsk.; J. grandiflora, Mich.; J. peploides, H. J. Kunth; J. fluvialis,
Blume; J. ramulosa, De C.; J. swartziana, De C.; J. stolonifera,
Guill. et Per.; J. alternifolia, E. Meyer; J.australatica, Ferd. Mill. ;
and J. fluitans, Hochst.

I am not the first botanist who has perceived that some of these
names do not represent. species, but simple varieties. Linné, De
Candolle, Sir William Hooker, Schiede and Ehrenberg, ‘Torrey and
Asa Gray, Hasskarl, Miguel and Grisebach each united some of
them, but without regarding them all as mere modifications of one
and the same specific type.

This multifarious synonymy has nothing extraordinary in it; it
may be explained by the immense area which Jussi@a repens occu-
pies on the surface of the globe, as much as by the variability of its
form, every botanist hesitating to recognize an Indian species in an
African, American, or Australian plant. This great extension jus-
tifies the law laid down in the first place for Lapland alone by Linnéf,
and since extended to the whole world by A. de Candolle{—namely,

* Flora Zeylanica, p. 75. + Flora Lapponica, Prolegomena, § 31.
} Géographie botanique, p. 1005.

Miscellaneous. 341

that the aquatic plants have the most extended area. Setting
books aside, I have been able to follow this species from station to
‘station, by means of the authentic specimens deposited in the her-
baria, in Asia, Oceania, Africa, and America. In Africa it extends
without interruption from Bone (in Algeria) to the Cape of Good
Hope, over 61 degrees of latitude, and in longitude from the mouths
of the Senegal to the islands of Mauritius and’ Réunion—that is to
say, over 73 degrees. In Asia I have myself collected this plant in
the marshes of Alexandretta in Syria, and it may be traced into
India as far as Ceylon, and across the archipelago of the Philippines
and the Sunda Islands as far as the south of Australia. This area
includes 112 degrees of longitude and 73 degrees of latitude. In
America the extreme points are, in the north Kentucky, and in the
south the Rio de la Plata, giving 72 degrees; and from east to west
Mexico and Bahia, or 60 degrees of longitude.

Thus Jussiea repens occupies a broad band passing all round the
globe, of which the two extreme borders parallel to the equator, in
the northern and southern hemispheres, are distant each 35 degrees
from the equinoctial line.

Further investigations pursued in the same spirit will probably
show that this example is not isolated; and already M. Ernest Cos-
son* has indicated an aquatic grass, Leersia hexandra, Swartz, the
geographical extension of which is not less, and its botanical syno-
nymy equally complicated.—Comptes Rendus, 9th July, 1866,
pp. 39-41.

Note on a Regular Dimerous Flower of Cypripedium candidum.
By Asa Gray.

Mr. J. A. Paine, junr., of New York, who two years ago de-
tected an interesting monstrosity of Pogonia ophioglossoides, has
now brought to me, preserved in spirit, a monstrous blossom of
Cypripedium candidum, which demands a record,

‘The plant bears two flowers: the axillary one is normal; the
terminal one exhibits the following peculiarities. The lower part of
the bract forms a sheath which encloses the ovary. The labellum
is wanting ; and there are two sterile stamens, the supernumerary
one being opposite the other, 7. e. on the side of the style where the
labellum belongs.. Accordingly the first impression would be that
the labellum is here transformed into a sterile stamen. The latter,
however, agrees with the normal sterile stamen in its insertion as
well as in shape, being equally adnate to the base of the style.
Moreover the anteposed sepal is exactly like the other, has a good
midrib and an entire point. As the two sterile stamens are ante-
posed to the two sepals, so are the two fertile stamens to the two
petals, and the latter are adnate to the style a little higher than the
former. The style is longer than usual, is straight and erect; the
broad, disciform stigma therefore faces upwards; it is oval and
symmetrical, and a light groove across its middle shows it to be

* Flore Algérienne, 4to, t. i. p. 18,

842 Miscellaneous.

dimerous. The placente, accordingly, are only two. The groove
on the stigma and the placentee are in line with the fertile stamens,
Here, therefore, is a symmetrical and complete, regular but
dimerous orchideous flower, the first verticil of stamens not antheri-
ferous, the second antheriferous, the carpels alternate with these ;
and here we have clear (and perhaps the first direct) demonstration
that the orchideous type of flower has two stamineal verticils, as
Brown always insisted.—Silliman’s Journal, September 1866.

Boussingault’s Researches on the Action of Foliage.

A full abstract of the first part of these investigations, communi-
cated to the French Academy of Sciences, is given in the ‘ Comptes
Rendus,’ vol. lx. no. 18 (May 1865). Theodore Saussure had long
ago ascertained that, while plants prosper and. decompose carbonic
acid gas in an atmosphere containing as much as one-twelfth or even
one-eighth part of that gas, they promptly perish in unmixed car-
bonic acid, apparently without decomposing any of it. Boussingault
made his experiments in a better form, upon leaves only, avoiding all
complication of the action of the roots or other parts of the plant.
His results are :—

1. That leaves exposed to sunshine in pure carbonic acid do not
decompose this gas at all, or only with extreme slowness.

2. But in a mixture with atmospheric air, they decompose carbonie
acid rapidly. The oxygen of the atmospheric air, however, appears
to play no part. } e

3. Leaves decompose carbonic acid in sunshine as readily when
this gas is mixed with nitrogen or with hydrogen.

Although this decomposition of carbonic acid by green foliage must
be a case of dissociation—a separation of carbon from oxygen—yet
Boussingault recognizes an analogy here with an opposite pheno-
menon, viz. with the slow combustion of phosphorus at the ordinary
temperature. Phosphorus in pure oxygen emits no light, does not
-sensibly undergo combustion, but does so in a mixture of oxygen with
atmospheric air, or with nitrogen, hydrogen, or carbonic acid. The
analogy may even be carried further ; for while a stick of phospho-
rus is not phosphorescent in pure oxygen at ordinary or increased
pressure, it becomes so in rarified oxygen. And Boussingault equally
ascertained that leaves which exerted no sensible action upon pure
carbonic acid at ordinary pressure, decomposed it, with the liberation
of oxygen gas, under diminished pressure. That is, rarefaction and
mixture with an inert gas act alike in mechanically separating the
atoms, whether of carbonic acid, as in the one case, or of oxygen, as
in the other, so as to determine the action either of combination or
of dissociation. :

In a continuation of these investigations (Comptes Rendus, vol. Ixi.,
Sept. 25, 1865), Boussingault shows that carbonic oxide, whether
pure or diluted, is not decomposable by foliage, and that this inert-
ness of green foliage upon carbonic oxide goes to confirm the opinion
- maintained in his ‘Economie Rurale,’ that leaves simultaneously de-

Miscellaneous. 3843

compose carbonic acid and water, CO’, HO=CO, H, O°’: the O?
being liberated, CO, H expresses the relation under which carbon is
united with the elements of water in cellulose, starch, sugar, &c., 7. e.
in the important principles elaborated by the leaves, the composition
of which is represented by carbon and water. He goes on to prove
that a leaf which has been decomposing carbonic acid and water all
day long is capable of doing the same work the next day, if not
allowed to dry; but the losing of a certain amount of water annihi-
lates this faculty, and irremediably destroys the life of the cells of a
leaf, vegetable life in this state being far less tenacious than that of
some of the lower animals (Tardigrades, Notipes, &c.), which bear
wonderful desiccation.

The third instalment of the investigation is given in Nos. 16 and
17 of the same volume (Oct. 16 and 23,1865). It appears that de-
tached leaves, kept in shade for many days, with the cut end of the
petiole in water to prevent desiccation, preserve the power of decom-
posing carbonic acid whenever brought into sunshine. But for this
they must be kept in an atmosphere containing a supply of oxygen ;
without this they soon die, as Boussingault thinks, from asphyxia.
This oxygen in darkness is slowly transformed into carbonic acid,
through an operation which is presumed to go on continually, whether
in light or darkness, and to answer to respiration. Of course a health
and active leaf decomposes far more carbonic acid in the light than
it forms in darkness. In eighteen experiments with oleander-leaves
exposed to the sun from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. in an atmosphere rich in
carbonic acid, a square metre of foliage decomposed on the average
over a litre of carbonic acid per hour, while in darkness only +45 of
a litre of carbonic acid was produced per hour. In air which con-
tains oxygen and carbonic acid, leaves will go on indefinitely pro-
ducing oxygen in the presence of carbonic acid, and carbonic acid in
the presence of oxygen. But the latter, though relatively small in
amount, seems to be necessary to the preservation of their vitality.
In hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, or nitrogen, as well as in pure
carbonic acid, they soon lose their decomposing power, and die from
the impossibility of respiration, 7. e. are asphyxiated.

Leaves confined in a limited portion of atmospheric or other air
over mercury Jose the power of decomposing carbonic acid ; and the
experiments pretty clearly show that they lose it through the dele-
terious action of the vapour of mercury. It is thought remarkable
that the leaf does not under these circumstances at all lose the power
of transforming oxygen into carbonic acid; but that is what we
should expect; for the carbonic acid so evolved (whether its evolu-
tion be called respiration or not) must be a product of decomposition
of the leaf’s contents or substance.

We owe to Boussingault and his assistant Lewy the idea of deter-
mining the composition of the air contained in a fertile soil, and the
fact that this air in a strongly manured soil contains a very large
percentage of carbonic acid. Boussingault has now devised an ex-
periment by which the air contained in a branch of an oleander in
full vegetation was extracted. It proved to be, nitrogen 88°01 per

344 Miscellaneous.

cent., oxygen 6°64 per cent., carbonic acid 5°35 per cent., being about
the composition of the air from a well-manured soil. This carbonic
acid carried into the leaves with the sap, and also that which the
may absorb directly from the atmosphere, decomposed along wit
water under sunlight, must be the source of the glucose (C” H” 0”)
which it is the principal function of foliage to produce. This glu-
cose, in fixing or abandoning the elements of water, becomes sugar,
starch, cellulose, or other hydrates of carbon, which, in whatever part
of the plant accumulated or deposited, and however transformed or
retransformed, must always have originated from carbonic acid and
water in the green parts of plants. In closing his present paper
with some illustrations of this now familiar view, Boussingault an-
nounces that his more recent experiments will enable him to demon-
strate the direct formation of saccharine matter by the green parts of
vegetables exposed to the light.—Silliman’s American Journal, July
1866,

Observations on a Malady of the Cotton-plant, called ** Pelagra,’’
and on some Fungi which accompany it. By G. GASPARRINI.

In the summer of 1863 some cotton-plants cultivated in the pro-
vince of Naples were attacked by a disease which alarmed the eulti-
vators, who have become frightened about the attacks of Mucedineze,
in consequence of the ravages of Oidium. 'The author examined the
blackened stems of the plants attacked, and detected several Fungi
of the family Mucedineee—amongst others Alternaria tenuis. This
production did not appear to him to be autonomous, but one of the
conidic forms of a small fungus of higher order, namely Pleospora
(Spheria) herbacea. Ue regards Penicillium glaucum as a gonidie
form of Alternaria. These, however, are pure hypotheses.

M. Gasparrini does not attribute the disease of the cotton-plant
to these plants, but considers it to be due to meteorological condi-
tions. — Bib/. Univ. 1866, Bull. Sct. p. 167.

Fossil Meduse.

Professor Haeckel of Jena, who in 1865 called attention to the
existence of well-preserved Medusze in the lithographic slates of
Eichstadt, belonging probably to the families of Auquoridee and Tra-
chynemidee, has published, in a recent number of ‘ Leonhard und
Geinitz’s Jahrbuch,’ a second notice of two other species of Medasze
so well preserved that the family to which they belong can be ascer-
tained beyond doubt. They are from the same locality, and belong
to the Discophoree, to the family of Rhizostemide. The restoration
which Professor Haeckel has been able to make from the specimens
in his possession is quite satisfactory ; and the attention of geologists
having been called to this subject, we may expect further interesting
developments in the history of Acalephee, since it is now well known
that even at the present time a kind of petrifaction of jellyfishes,
when thrown upon sandy beaches, readily takes place.—Silliman’s
American Journal, July 1866.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.
[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 107. NOVEMBER 1866.

XLV.—Outline of a Theory of the Skull and the Skeleton; being
an Epitome. of a Paper read before the Cambridge Philosophical
Society, Feb. 26,1866. By UWarry G. Sexrey, F.G.S., of
the Woodwardian Museum in the University of Cambridge.

By a theory of the skull I mean a way of presenting a set of
well-known facts so that they explain themselves; for a theory
should ever be a continuity of facts.

The value and homology of bones varies so much with the
theoretical views used to interpret them, that, with the number
of cranial theories on record, it were hard clearly to describe a
skull without attempting to co-ordinate the rival views of its
structure. Differing in detail, these all affirm, and some attempt
to prove, one side or other of the antithesis, that either the skull
is a chain of vertebre or that it no more consists of a series of
vertebre than the vertebral column consists of a series of skulls.
There is much to be said in favour of both these views, from
every consideration they involve. Every one is familiar with the
beautiful way in which Professor Owen brought together brain
and brain-case from the whole vertebrate province, till the con-
viction dawned on his reader that a skull was but another name
for the first four of an animal’s vertebrae. Nor will Professor
Huxley’s lucid demonstration be less remembered, reiterated
through one vertebrate class after another till we willingly be-
lieve, as he would have us, that a skull is a skull—a complex
structure, with three segments forming one organ, a brain-case,
and two segments forming a face, while sets of bones for special
senses close up the eyes and the ears. To the human anatomist
considering the human skull it may be a very trivial matter
whether he accept one view or the other; but with the compa-
rative anatomist, ever discovering new animals, and often only
guided to their true affinities by the skull, different theories
give a very different value to arrangements and bones which are

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3. Vol, xviii, 24

346 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory -

new. And hence, until an attempt is made to discover how far
these theories may be different ways of presenting the same
truth, and how far they fall short of being true, it will be im-
possible to compare the facts which they attempt to explain.
When one master examines the lowest form of Vertebrate life,
the cranium appears to be a continuation of the vertebral column;
when another master expounds the highest forms of life, it ap-
pears to be a distinct structure, and not to consist of vertebra.
I do not propose to offer anything in this paper which shall be
in antagonism with either of these theories.

But it is no less remarkable than patent that, although one
Professor has long battled to show that the skull is so many
vertebree, and another Professor battles to show that it is not,
no one has discussed the nature of vertebrae, or considered whe-
ther it were possible to have a theory of the skull founded in
truth before making a theory of a vertebra. In all these specu-
lations a vertebra is regarded as a fundamental principle, as ele-
mentary as hydrogen or oxygen to the chemist; and though
Professor Owen has classified it into exogenous parts and auto-
genous parts, no attempt is made to show why it has these
parts; and until this is done, I fail to see how it is possible to
effect any kind of comparison between a vertebra and a skull;
for vertebre from different animals and from different parts of
the same animal vary so much among themselves, that until the
principle of the law of variation as well as the law of persistence
in structures is known, it will be hard to say whether the ele-
ments of vertebre are or are not modified into skulls, and whe-
ther, if so modified, the segments of skulls can in any rational
sense be called vertebrae. “ct

Now vertebre consist of several ossifications, %.e. of bones
which in various degrees grow.. This change and substitution
of structure is obviously due to force, and must either be of the
kind which assists the first development of seeds (in which
case it may perhaps at present fitly be called the embryonie or
developmental force), or it must be due to the mechanical force
of the atmosphere or water, or of one structure or function of
the animal modifying another. If it is found, from abstract
mechanical principles, that growth must take place under the
influence of certain mechanical forces, and if it is found, from
pathological observation, that growth does occur under these in-
fluences, then, should it be found in healthy structures that in-
‘tensity of growth varies with the intensity of the forces, it will
be proved that their action is a cause of normal growth. Then
it would be possible, from morphology, to show that the same
causes which developed the bones originally called them into
existence. And therefore, if it is found, in the development of an

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 347

animal after birth, that the developmental force and the other
forces jointly tend to produce growth in the same direction,
which depends on the morphology of the animal, coinciding in
results, they will be admitted to be different forms of the same
force, originally due to the same cause, namely motion. In
this way | shall first try to account for the growth of bone.

The forces acting on bones must be from within or from with-
out ; and therefore every such force will in its effect be either of
the nature of an impact or of an explosion. The forces acting on
the animal are the media in which it lives (as air and water), the
air it breathes and the food it eats; while the mechanical forces
acting within the animal will be the muscles, vessels, viscera, &c.
All these can only produce alternations of pressure and tension
and rest. These, therefore, are the stimulants to growth. But
growth is an enlargement in which the particles expand and in-
erease externally. And as this cannot be favoured, but rather
resisted, by pressure, it becomes evident that the actual increase
must take place when the pressure is removed. Therefore, since
rest must be purely negative as a force, the stimulant to growth
is pressure and tension.

The first and most obvious source of these powers is the
muscles; while the more they are used to propel the animal
through the resisting air or water, the greater will be the equi-
valent of general pressure on the bones.

Thus if we take a limb-bone (the humerus, for instance), it
will be found most extended in the direction between the radius
and the scapula, in which it has to support the weight of the
earcase; and if the ends of the bone are examined, where mus-
cles are attached or press tightly, it will be found that growth
has extended outward more rapidly than in the body of the
shaft, where there is no direct tension, but only a lateral pres-
sure.

But the resistance of the atmosphere produces a different
series of modifications. It appears to be a mechanical principle,
that if pressure be applied to the outside of a cylinder, it will in
effect be relatively equivalent to reducing the pressure within.
And it is found, from observations in paralysis and other affec-
tions, and in the aged skeleton, that when, from failing vitality,
motion is less and the muscles become less powerful (that
is, when the pressure is reduced), the bone to some extent
dies, and, from the dead part being carried away, becomes
smaller and lighter. Now, the effect of motion through the air
is relatively to diminish the pressure in the interior of the bones.
And therefore it is found, in the sluggish Sloth, that the limb-
bones are solid, that the active Mammals have large medullary
cavities, while in the more active class of Birds the cavities be-

24«

348 Mr. H. G. Secley on a Theory

come larger still. In this class, as in the subclass Saurornia,
founded on the Pterodactyles, the process goes on till even the
marrow disappears in the bones most used in motion, and their
wonderfully thin walls become filled with hot air from the
lungs.

~ Now it becomes necessary to consider in what manner pres-
sure from muscles and other internal forces can act on the bones
so as to produce growth; and here I would draw the illustration
from pathology. Inflammation, in effect, is pressure; and
whenever inflammation extends to the periosteum, that struc-
ture is excited to a morbid rapidity of action, and the bone
immediately beneath is thickened: hyperostosis is defined to be
a thickening and condensation of the shaft from inflammation.
Nor is the pathology of the heart and the lung less suggestive
where it shows, as is well known, that muscle may be inflamed,
indurated, and changed into cartilage, which undergoes a partial
change into bone, though, from the nature of the case, the last
change can never advance very far, except in the lung, which
may be replaced by muscle and well-developed bones.

Therefore, seeing that the effect of motion is a succession of
falls, every one of which gives a powerful blow to the bones, and
that no muscle can be moved without both pulling and pressing
bones, we have an irritating cause, similar in kind though less
in degree to that which results in abnormal growth. And
accordingly it is found that the greater the activity (that is, the
nearer the approach to an inflammatory condition) the more
extensive will be the ossification.

Thus in the wild animal, which uses its muscles more vigo-
rously than the tame animal, the ridges and processes for the
attachment of muscles are more developed. In the limbs a
trochanter appears as a separate ossification, where powerful
muscles are attached. The marsupial muscles, which are small
in man, become largely developed in the Didelphia, and create
the marsupial bones. .

- Now it remains to show that the intensity of growth depends
on the amount of the pressure and tension in the direction of
the increase. Dr. Humphrey tells us that bones are densest in
those parts which are subject to the greatest mechanical stress,
and hardest in those persons who are strongest and most active.
Here the intensity of ossification clearly depends on the pres-
sure. And, again, it is observed that bones are most curved in
those persons whose muscular strength is greatest—that is to
say, where the pressure resulting from muscular action is the
greatest ; while weak persons, on the contrary, have compara-
tively straight bones. And thus it is seen that, even in the
individual, the form of the bone varies with the relative power

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 349

of the muscles. And so when the humerus of an active burrow-
ing animal, like the mole, is compared with a humerus where
the limb is merely used as a prop and does not meet with the
like lateral resistance, it is found that it is so enormously
expanded laterally as to be nearly as broad as it is long, instead
of presenting a simple cylindrical shaft. But the best examples
will be found in animals which use the limbs differently. Thus
in the frogs, which use the hind limbs chiefly in leaping, it is
found that they are longer than the fore limbs: this, too, is
characteristic of the kangaroo and jerboas, of struthious birds,
and of man; nor can an example be cited where an animal uses
its hind limbs more than the fore limbs without their attaining
to a greater length,—because, as we saw at the outset, to use a
limb is to bring to bear on it the pressure of all its muscles and
the carcase, which were seen to be the stimulants to growth.
Thus, too, birds of powerful flight have the fore limbs developed
enormously; while in those which do not fly, and therefore’
where but little pressure can be brought to the bones, these
limbs are extremely small.

Thus it has been attempted to prove by various arguments
that pressure and tension is a cause of growth in bones.

To show that the same cause which developes bones originally
calls them into existence, it is only necessary to reverse the
argument, and show that the less the pressure the less the
ossification, until at last, where pressure and tension cease, the
bones are lost. |

But there are a few simple facts which, exhibiting the forma-
tion of osseous particles where they are normally absent, are
worth mentioning: one is ossification of the heart, and another
the union of fracture in the costal cartilages by bone, just as in
birds they become ossified normally ; and a third is the signifi-
cant fact that ossification in the foetal cartilage first appears
around the artery which supplies it—that is, at the first place
where pressure can be exhibited. And it seems indisputable
that if there had been no inflammatory pressure the heart would
never have ossified, and that, but for the pressure of the artery,
the fcetal cartilage would not have been converted into bone.
This, therefore, I take to be proved ; and we shall presently see,
when considering the ribs, that pressure is capable of producing
not only growth, but new bones also.

It remains now to show that the developmental force (if such
a power exist distinct from vitality, of which I see no easy proof)
is the same in effect as pressure, and must be regarded as
only an inherited result of pressure and tension. Thus Dr.
Humphrey tells us that in the foetal cartilage the curves and
processes are already modelled which afterwards characterize

350 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

the bones. Now this may either be a result, as. by all analogy
would seem natural, of the formation of the foetal muscles
which are attached to it, or may be referred to the same force
(if such is assumed to exist) which gives the individual his form.
But the foetal cartilage is a minute model of the adult bone. I
therefore cannot but conclude that the same forces which deve-
loped the adult bone also developed the foetal cartilage, and that
the pressure of the uterus and the tension of the muscular fibres
could not have failed to produce the same result at one period
of life as similar pressure and tension do at another.

Having thus glanced at the nature of growth in the abstract,
as seen in a single ossification, we will now briefly examine the
conditions exhibited by the more complex bones, which show
several distinct osseous parts. Thus, as is well known, the
humerus or femur or the bodies of vertebre consist, as a rule, of
threé pieces, each of which ossifies from a distinct centre, and is
therefore in that sense a distinct bone. Now, since it has been
seen that all ossification takes place under the influence of pres-
sure and tension, we have no other forces at command to which
to attribute the formation of these terminal parts called epi-
physes.

The turtle shows no epiphyses in its limbs; and in a section
of a femur of a young crocodile, kindly made for me by Mr. J.
W. Clark, I was unable to distinguish epiphyses ; and it is well
known that these sluggish animals do not subject the bones to
enormous pressure in their crawling motion: but when the ac-
tivity becomes greater and the pressure is increased, then epi-
physes appear, as in the frog, where they long remain. separate.
And in the case of a limb-bone, it is worth considering that
when the limb comes to the ground, it receives a blow at each
of its ends, equivalent to the weight it supports, and varying
with the power with which the limb strikes the ground. Here,
then, it is seen that special pressure, if powerful enough and
maintained, developes special ossification, just as the ordinary
pressure of the atmosphere, the muscles, and the weight of the
body developed the original bone. And hence it is found that
in the phalanges, metatarsals, and metacarpals there is commonly
but one epiphysis, because, from the way in which the bones are
applied to the ground, the pressure takes place at one extremity
only.
Nadine there can be no doubt that atmospheric pressure,
which holds the bones together so well, must also be a powerful
stimulant to ossification.

. The ligaments, too, by their resistance all help the epiphysial
formation.

And when it is seen that the trochanters appear under the

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 351

influence of the muscles, it is obvious that those muscles which
are inserted at the extremities of bones must exercise a powerful
influence on the formation of epiphyses. Therefore epiphyses
and processes are to be looked for wherever the pressure and
tension on a bone become more than sufficient to continue ossi-
fication. Now just as ossified epiphyses are not to be found in
bones where the pressure at the ends is small, so it would be
expected that in cases where the pressure and tension of the
bone is almost entirely at the ends, and the shaft does not
support the animal, the epiphyses should be enormously large,
while the shaft would be smal]. And in Plesiosaurs this is
actually found to be the case; for the large limbs, swimming
powerfully through the yielding water, have experienced an
enormous lateral tension at the ends of the long bones without
any greater pressure in the direction of length. And therefore
it happens that the ends of the epiphyses which are attached to
the shaft become conical and penetrate down the girdling shaft
till they meet in the middle of the bone; and, as might be anti-
cipated, that of the distal end is much the larger one. There-
fore it would seem possible, if the muscles attached were small,
and the bones so placed as only to experience tension and no
direct pressure, that the shaft might altogether disappear, and
only the two epiphyses remain, as I am inclined to suggest
may be the case with the bones which are called tarsal and
carpal—a conclusion to which I am led by a consideration of
the bones called the tarso-metatarsus in birds, which may be a
ease in which the tarsus does develope a shaft; and if so, then
the metatarsals, like the phalanges, as is usual in the other
Sauropsida, will be applied to the ground. There can be no
@ priori reason for supposing that the tarsals and metatarsals
should unite together to form one bone; and all the facts of
osteology point to their remaining separate; while an erect po-
sition for the metatarsal bone in a clawed animal is unusual,
and only partial even in jumping jerboas, which it characterizes.

The careful dissections of the leg in the ostrich and crocodile
&e. by Dr. 8. Haughton enable me to add a little evidence from
the muscles. The gastrocnemius muscle in the crocodile, as is
usual, is inserted in the os calcis (and tarsal bones). It weighed
0:14 02., while the tibialis anticus and extensor digitorum com-
munis weighed 0°11 oz. But in the ostrich the gastrocnemido-
soleus is inserted into the middle of the so-called tarso-meta-
tarsal bone, and weighs 1154 oz., while all the other muscles of
the limb and those attached from it to the body only weigh
220 oz., the tibialis anticus and extensor digitorum communis
weighing 14 0z. Now there is nothing to induce us to expect
that the gastrocnemius would be inserted in the metatarsal bone,

352 Mr. Hf. G. Seeley on a Theory

as it would be if the tarso-metatarsal explanation were accepted ;
for, terminating in the Achilles tendon, it is eminently the
muscle of the os calcis. And, seeing how the os calcis is elon-
gated by it in ordinary mammals, one cannot be blind to the
fact that, if the tension were increased to a power many times
as great as it is in mammals, the bone would be extended to
a much greater length. And therefore, when there is such
a great power as this huge muscle present in birds, capable of
elongating the tarsal bones, I fail to see any reason for supposing
that the laws of osteological development lave been departed
from in birds. Therefore, when the muscles become of sufficient
power, there is every reason to believe that the tarsal bones will
follow the same law as other bones, and become elongated, de-
veloping a shaft; and hence, and for reasons indicated, under
ordinary circumstances they present the condition of epiphyses
of bones where the shafts are never formed.

And all these considerations point alike to the same general
conclusion, that one ossification may develope another, if suffi-
cient pressure and tension can be applied to its surface. And
this law appears to be equally true for the entire animal as for
a single bone. © Thus in serpents, where the tension on the
vertebrae is enormous, the number of: vertebra increases pro-
digiously ; while in the frog, where progression is: so carried on
as scarcely to affect the spinal column, the vertebra are sur-
prisingly few. Among birds, too, where the number of vertebree
is extremely variable, it is found that those genera which use
their cervical or sacral regions most, have in those regions most
vertebree ; thus the emu and cassowary have each nineteen sacral
vertebra, while the emu has as many in the neck. And while
the swan has twenty-three cervical vertebra, and the average of
this region in Natatores, Grallatores, and Cursores is much
higher than in the other orders, on the other hand, in birds of
great flight the number of vertebre is small. Such facts appear
to lead to the conclusion that the different regions of the body
most used experience in consequence a tendency to increase in
development.

With these remarks on the relation of structures to functions
we may now examine the constitution of the vertebre.

The body of the vertebra, or centrum, follows the law of a typi-
cal bone, and is therefore made up of two epiphyses and a shaft.
And when it is seen with what ligaments the vertebre are con-
nected, to what vibrations they are subject in motion, and what
muscles bind them together and pull them about, these powers
are the forces which develope and account for the epiphyses.

The rib in a typical animal, as a Plesiosaurus, whether called
pleurapophysis or hemapophysis, is extremely short in the neck,

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 353

and supported on the lower part of the centrum. In the pec-
toral region, where the viscera first enlarge, it becomes a little
longer, and by the enlargement of the organs has its articula-
tion forced higher up the centrum. In the back, where the
viscera are at their maximum, it is found that the ribs are
longest, and that they are entirely attached to the neural arches.
In the tail these heemal arches ultimately disappear, and there
the vessels dwindle almost to nothing. Here there appears to
be an incontestable demonstration that as the internal pressure
increases so do the bones lengthen, and so do they give way be-
fore it, changing their articular place; and when the pressure
becomes reduced in the tail, the arch dwindles to two lateral
eminences, and at last is utterly lost. In other words, it is de-
ducible from observation that the development of the ribs de-
pends on the pressure to which the base of the centrum is sub-
jected by the vessels, counteracted, of course, by pressure from
the outer muscles and media. This, indeed, we are led to ex-
pect from the fact that the ribs are not developed in relation to
the same function in animals where the lungs are rudimentary.
Thus the frog has no ribs. And thus it is found that caries of
the ribs is often associated with disease of the lungs; while the
deformity of the chest called ectopia cordis consists in a partial
or st i absence of the sternum and ribs with more or less
deficiency in the pericardium, pleura, heart, and lungs. In ser-
pents the ribs are functionally innumerable limbs. The rib in
many animals terminates at its head in an epiphysis, which arti-
culates with another epiphysis on the neural arch; while at its
distal end, in birds, where the tension of the pectoral muscles on
‘the sternum pulls with great power, an epiphysis is ossified and
developed to a great length. Thus the rib appears to follow the
same general law as other bones; for the distention of the
thorax, both by growth and muscles and function in breathing,
performs the office of ever-acting muscles, while other muscles,
and the skin, and the atmosphere act as a great opposing power.
And in accordance with the same general law which produces
the simple ribs, it is found that between their distal ends there
is usually developed a common epiphysis, called the sternal are.
In Plesiosaurus and animals where the exterior force acting on
them was not great, they are arranged one behind another like
the rounds of a ladder; but in Saurornia and birds, where they
came to give attachment to an enormous overgrowth of the pec-
toral muscles; all are cemented together and modified into a
sternum, the greater muscular force having produced a larger
amount of ossification. The epiphyses of ribs appear only to be
developed when the costal girdle is large and somewhat complete.
And therefore, while cervical ribs may well be regarded as epi-

354: Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

physes of the body of the centrum, dorsal ribs, though the same
in origin, assume the appearance of separate bones. And thus to
alternations of pressure and tension and rest, growth of all kinds
seems to be due. Le

If the upper arches of the vertebral column are now examined,
they will be found united by a much more elaborate system of
hgaments than the ribs. There is the posterior common liga-
ment at the base of the arch, the supraspinous ligament above
the neural spines, the interspinous ligament, the capsular liga-
ment, and the ligamenta subflava ; and hence it is not surprising
to find that the neural arches often come close together and
underlock each other, and that the neural spines are much more
expanded in antero-posterior extent than is generally the case
with the ribs. But the neural arches present no correspondence
with the ribs in size, remaining small and singularly constant in
character. Development shows that they grow upon the first
appearance of the film of the nervous column, which growing
within and resisted by structures without produces the condi-
tions under which epiphyses are developed. Hence I conclude
that the lateral halves of the neural arch are also of the nature
of epiphyses. But the neural spine, in those animals where I
have had an opportunity of examining it, seems to be quite as
fortuitous an element as, and Jess constant than, the sternal are.
That bone was seen only to be developed under the combined
expansive and contractile action of the thorax or an equivalent
force ; and therefore its homologue is not to be looked for in con- -
nexion with an organ of such fixed character as the spinal column.
But separated bones for the neural spine unquestionably occur,
and seem rather to owe their existence to. the spinalis dorsi-
muscle and the supraspinal ligament.

It has been already remarked that in certain ribs of some
_ animals, as the buffalo and rhinoceros, there are well-marked
epiphyses at the ends. Now I conclude from this, that just as
these ribs behave themselves like separate bones in this cireum-
stance, so we are justified in believing that, like the centra and
limb-bones, they would have produced epiphyses in any other
direction if the forces had favoured it ; and, indeed, the lateral
processes of the ribs of birds may be cited as examples of such a
modification. And-it is quite possible to explain the formation
of the Chelonian carapace by regarding the plates as external
epiphysial overgrowths of the vertebral elements. And I sup-
pose that the neural arches do not develope such: structures be-
tween each other only because, owing to the weakness of at-
tachment to the centrum and the absence of ligaments and
muscles of sufficient power, the strain was never great enough
to produce active vida and the vibrating tension in which

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 355

the epiphysis takes its origin. But if it were possible that the
tension on the neural arches were ever sufficient to produce an
impact, then we might reasonably expect that the neural arch
itself, like the centrum, should have epiphyses, as, indeed, appears
sometimes to be the case between the zygapophyses. And in
fishes, where the head is very large and the connexion with the
body powerful, there appears sometimes to be such an epiphysis
developed, though it is, as perhaps was to be expected, rather an
i of the skull than of the atlas. Thus we are told, by
Mr. Robertson and others, that in the carp, for instance, if the
bar of bone which bounds the posterior extremity of the exocci-
pitals be traced from above downwards, distinct traces of sutures
will be seen between it and the exoccipitals on which it rests ;
and following it upwards another suture is found dividing it
from the supraoccipitals, so that the bars do not meet above to
form a complete arch, the supraoccipitals being prolonged back
between these two plates and forming the upper part of. this
neural arch, which has no centrum of its own, but rests on the
basioccipital. Thus it is seen that epiphyses are not limited to
the limb-bones and centra of the vertebra, but that they may
be developed on any bone if it is subjected to the requisite ten-
sion and pressure.

And from these considerations I deduce the following theory
of the vertebra—yiz., that it consists of a centrum or centre of
ossification which normally developes three (or more) pairs of
epiphyses, any of which may assume the appearance of separate
bones and develope epiphyses themselves. Thus in the majo-
rity of animals there are, Ist, one pair of epiphyses at the front
and back ends of the centrum ; 2ndly, one pair above, to enclose
the neural canal; and, 3rdly, another pair to enclose the viscera.
The upper epiphyses are observed to change their position a
little with function, while the lower epiphyses may ascend the
centrum and become articulated to, and seemingly developed
from, the upper epiphyses; all of them may be absent, and
the simple original osseous centre will still be accounted a ver-
tebra. But, as we shall hereafter see that the whole skeleton
may by this law be accounted for and derived from a single
ossification, it would be impossible to admit as a vertebra any
structure which varied in plan and function from that which is
found in the spinal column. |

With this conception of a vertebra it will now be possible to
determine what the skull and spinal column have in common,
and how far they differ.

Amphioxus lanceolatus appears to demonstrate that in certain
vertebrata, where the vertebrate structure is scarcely assumed, a
skull need not exist, and that there may be nothing in structure to

356 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

distinguish the more anterior or sensory part of the neural column
and canal from the part which is always more or less uniform,
and is called the spinal column; it also exhibits the fact that
a mouth may exist without having the least connexion with the
cranium,—thus showing that just as a skull must be a result of
functional development of the organs of sense at one end of the
nervous column, so by modification the apparatus around the
commencement of the digestive canal takes the form of jaws and
facial bones. Thus, however close the jaws may be brought in
contact with the cranium, and however the primitive cartilages
which form the prehensile end of the digestive canal may be
modified by adaptation to other ossifications, they constitute a
structure which can only owe its development, like everything
else, to the higher requirement, or differentiation, of the fune-
tion in which it took its rise; and so, though forming no part
of the original structure of the cranium in the lowest vertebrata,
it constitutes by adaptation in higher forms of life an essential
part of the skull. And, on the other hand, since the cranium
is sometimes wanting (and in Amphioxus there is nothing which
can be separated from the spinal cord as a brain), it would be hard
to regard any brain as more than a functional overgrowth of the
end of the spinal cord, and therefore to do otherwise than believe
that its osseous case would be originally formed on the same plan
with the vertebre, yet speedily and enormously modified by the
different functions which it subserves. Then, just as the brain,
from being inseparable from the spinal cord at first, comes
at last to be a structure as distinct as may be, there is here a
modification not unlike that which separates the segments of a
limb (only greater), so that, though both are parts of the same
organ, their structure and functions are very different. And there-
fore, although the covering of the brain may in some organisms
be inseparable from the vertebrae, there can only be expected to
be the same degree of correspondence between the skull and the
vertebral column that there is between the brain and the spinal
cord. Ifa brain has parts which have no representatives in the
spinal cord, it will not be surprising if the brain-case has parts
which are not found in the case for the spinal cord.

If a skull is examined, it will be found to be the outlet for, or
rather the entrance to, the nervous system ; this part is occupied
by the brain. Secondly, it is the entrance to the digestive sys-
tem; and this part is constituted by the jaws. And, lastly, it is
the entrance of the lungs, respiration being carried on through
the nasal apertures. All these several forces of eating, breathing,
and observing and thinking exercise great pressure and tension
on the regions they affect ; and it is precisely these which we have
already seen ossifying the skeleton. Seeing how the small epi-

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 357

physial elements of the neck in Plesiosaurus were observed to put
on an enormous and complex development under the increasing
pressure of the viscera in the thorax, I cannot but point out
that the brain presents to the spinal cord precisely the same
sort of relation which the viscera of the thorax do to those of
the neck, and therefore to anticipate that the formation of the
cranium will follow an analogous law. And it has already been
seen how, under the action of the lungs, &c. the ribs elongated
and formed epiphyses ; and therefore when this force used in
breathing comes to be narrowed to a small aperture it accounts
for the often osseous condition of the trachea, and, coming in
contact with other ossifications, could hardly fail to develope epi-
physes: and accordingly we shall see that the nares are gene-
rally surrounded by the same set of bones, quite regardless of
the place where they open in the skull, whether at the tip of the
jaws or near to the brain. And, finally, it would be superfluous
to insist on the force manifested in using the jaws; and thus we
shall see that the degree of development in the maxillary and
premaxillary bones will be entirely proportionate to the pressure
and tension allowed by the presence or absence of teeth, and
the mode in which the jaws are used.

If an ossified brain-case is examined, it will be seen to be
more or less easily divisible into three segments, as, indeed, is
generally admitted. The first of these, following Professor
Huxley, I take to consist of the basioccipital, the exoccipitals,
and the supraoccipital; the second consists of basisphenoid,
the alisphenoids, and the parietals; while the third is made up
of the presphenoid, orbitosphenoids, and frontals.

As compared with vertebre, it will be seen, as is remarked by
Mr. Robertson and others, that these segments differ in being
roofed in by bones (the supraoccipital, parietals, and frontals) to
which there is obviously nothing corresponding in the covering
of the spinal cord; and they also differ from most vertebre in
the arches touching each other at every point.

Thus, remembering that the brain was originally but the
anterior end of the spinal cord, and so far, as evidenced by the
law of pressure and tension which has been considered, must
have been roofed in by similar structures, we find that when the
brain expands in height and size above the proportions of the
spinal cord, it becomes roofed in by additional bones, just
as the thorax was when it expanded in depth below the limits
of the small neck. So that the alisphenoids are epiphyses of
the basisphenoid, just as the neurapophyses are epiphyses of
an ordinary centrum, and the parietals are epiphyses of the ali-
sphenoids, just as the sternal ribs or sternum in birds, for
instance, are epiphyses of the ordinary ribs; and it will hardly

358 Mr. H. G, Seeley on a Theory

be maintained that the inferior arch of a cervical vertebra of a bird
differs less from the inferior arch of a dorsal vertebra than does
the ordinary upper arch of a vertebra from the upper arch of a
segment of the skull. In the thoracic region the growth and
development of viscera is chiefly in depth, as is the weight of the
lungs; and in Amphiowxus .lanceolatus the notochord extends
anterior to the neural cord, whereas in mammals, even in a very
early embryonic state, the neural rudiment which becomes the
brain is prolonged far in front of the notochord; and thus it is
seen that with its development in height the brain undergoes a
development in length, which the thorax did not. And nothing ~
can be more evident than that, restrained by the structures in
front and by the vertebra behind, the growth in length must
exercise a pressure and tension in that direction exactly corre-
sponding to the forces which gave rise to the epiphysial bones
which roof in the brain as it developes in height. And there-
fore, since by the influence of such enormous and equable
pressure and tension epiphyses are developed in height, exactly
the same forces exerted in length cannot but have produced
epiphyses at each end; and so, remembering how, up to a
certain point, the plan of the brain and the spinal cord must
have been the same, it is curious to observe that while the basi-
sphenoid developes the basioccipital and presphenoid for its
epiphyses much after the plan of an ordinary centrum, the bones
of the neural arch also develope epiphyses in length just as they
do in height, as we saw was the case with some fishes—the en-
tire occipital segment answering to the posterior epiphysis, and
the entire frontal segment being the anterior epiphysis of the
parietal segment of the skull. And accordingly it is found that
the elementary bones of these epiphyses converge and close im
the brain at both ends, thus demonstrating that they owe their
growth to its growth, and extend no further than they are forced
by its pressure; and therefore, though the skull will obviously
develope quite regardless of the degree of growth in the several
parts of the brain, by the simple law of inheritance, yet in many
cases the relative size of several bones will be found to vary with
the size of the division of the brain which is underneath them.
Thus Mr. Robertson remarks that fishes may be divided into a
sluggish group, typified by Lophius, in which the cerebellum is
small, and an active group, in which the cerebellum is large,
typified by the Tunny; and finds that in skulls of equal length,
the occipital segment of the skull measures 43 inches long in the
Tunny, while in Lophius it only measures 2 inches: and, ascend-
ing in organization, it is seen that as the brain rapidly expands,
bones which before, in the lower forms, were quite exterior to
the skull become gradually introduced to form part of the
cranial walls.

of the Skull and the Skeleton. —S—89

Thus, excluding the sense-bones and dermal bones, I would
interpret the neural part of the skull as having been originally
developed from a single vertebral centrum and neural arch, fol-
lowing in its development, only in a more perfect way, exactly
the same laws as govern the formation of ordinary vertebral
arches. That it is a vertebra is not affirmed, because it presents
modifications of structure which are nowhere seen in vertebre ;
but these, which are the development of epiphyses by a neural
arch, are of a kind quite consistent with the vertebrate plan, and
certainly to have been expected under the influence of pressure.
Indeed it is not too much to say that, under the influence of
the requisite pressure, any other neural arch could have simi-
larly been developed into a cranial cavity; and therefore a
definition by Professor Huxley, “that the skull no more consists
of a chain of vertebre than the vertebral column consists of a
chain of skulls,” more faithfully expresses the kind of relation
between the neural regions of the two structures than any
statement that Ihave yet met with. And if the neural part of
the skull is considered to be a vertebra at all, it can only be an
ideal typical vertebra, where every possible part is present, and
to which, therefore, the ordinary uniformity of imperfect develop-
ment of most vertebral arches offers no near parallel. On the
whole, the differences and affinities are perhaps so well marked
as nearly equally to justify those who would call it part of a
skull and those who prefer naming it a transformed and
thoughtful vertebra, both of which statements would be equally
true.

If the cranium of a full-grown Gallus domesticus be boiled,
from the great intensity of ossification in the animal, it readily
separates into two portions—an anterior part, which is made up
of the bones of the face and jaws, and a posterior part, namely
the brain-case. And here it is seen that the interorbital septum,
which is formed from the trabecule, is embraced by the pre-
sphenoids and frontals reaching the orbitosphenoids so as to close
up the brain as in Mammals; so that the ethmoid presents the
relations of a cranial bone, and might be regarded as an ossifi-
cation produced by the olfactory ganglia—a sort of special
epiphysis. The bones which have been considered, it will be
remembered, only correspond to the neural arch of a vertebra.
Of the inferior arch, or that which corresponds to the ribs, it is
at first hard to see any indication. There are under the basi-
sphenoid of most animals two ossifications which Mr, Parker
has named basitemporals, which are clearly epiphyses of the
basisphenoid. In the subclass of birds called Pterodactyles,
these bones are anchylosed to the anterior margin of the basi-
occipital, and in Plesiosaurus they appear to form the inferior

260 Mr. H. G. Seeley on a Theory

surface of that bone, and to enter into the condyle. But they
differ from the inferior epiphyses of vertebre in being united and
never surrounding any vessels; and therefore, perhaps, they are
rather to be regarded as distinct ossifications peculiar to the skull.

As we have already remarked, the mouth is the prehensile end
of thedigestive canal, and in Amphioxus it is surrounded by jointed
rings of cartilage. And, ascending in organization, it were easy
to trace, by way of the lampreys and sharks, the gradual union
between the jaws and the skull; and therefore we have to dis-
cover the origin and the law which governs the uniformity of
development of these bones of the face.

And here I seek the aid of embryology to resolve the bones
into their natural groups, though somewhat reluctantly, because
the results from one tribe of animals cannot hold quite true for
another tribe where the organization differs ; but it is so conclusive
on the significance of the jaws, that I will give, in a translation
of Professor Rathke’s own words, his remarks on their origin.
He says, “ That part of the investing mass of the notochord in
which the basisphenoid is developed in many animals, sends
out a ‘ray’ or band downwards on each side, which presents
a remarkable similarity to a rib, not only in its mode of origin,
but in its original position and form.” These, then, it will be
seen, are the true epiphyses which correspond to ribs, and, as was
to be expected, they grow out of the basisphenoid, which was
the original centrum of the skull; and as the true ribs grow
down to enclose the posterior part of the digestive organ, so we
shall see these ribs grow down to embrace its anterior end, and
become modified into prehensile organs. Professor Rathke goes
on to say, “ But very early there grows out from near the
upper end of the ray a long thin process, which passes off at
an obtuse angle to it and applies itself to the inferior wall of the
future brain-case.” Thus the ribs, growing down on the diges-
tive canal, appear to become split, and the upper parts run along
the top of it and the lower parts run down the sides, thus
eventually coming to embrace the mouth without bringing it in
contact with the centrum ; but it ought to be remembered that,
in the adults of all the animals in which this is observed, union
has already taken place between the face and the brain-case.

That the ribs really become split as they apparently do,
I do not see any reason for believing, and should rather regard
the upper portions of the forks as connate growths produced by
causes presently to be considered. The proximal end of the
cranial representative of a rib ossifies and becomes the quadrate
bone or incus; an intermediate part becomes the os articulare ;
while the distal end remains unossified, but developes bones on
its surface which become the lower jaw.

of the Skull and the Skeleton. 361

- So far, then, in its general plan the skull follows the vertebral

i But by the narrowing down of the bronchial tube, and
the resistance of the surrounding organs, the mouth below and
the brain-case behind, a powerful ossifying force, of which we
have already seen evidence in the trachea, comes into play,
different to that of the chest; for there the digestive canal is
enclosed by the breathing-apparatus, while here the breathing-
canal is small, and nearly shut in by the digestive canal below
and by the resisting vertebral centrum above. So that, seeing
what the result of the thoracic action was in the development of
ribs and in the development of the trachea, it must be antici-
pated that ossifications will likewise take place in the skull from
the same cause in the direction of greatest resistance, i.e. above
and below the termination of the trachea in the skull; and accord-
ingly we find a triple series of bones above and in front, and
another triple series below and behind. ‘The first series consists
of the nasal bones, the ethmoid; and the vomer, the nasal bones
and vomer being in the position of epiphyses of the ethmoid ;
and below these are the pterygoid and palatine bones, and an
unossified blastemous extension of the latter anteriorly, on which
the maxillary and premaxillary bones are developed, just as the
prehensile bones of the lower jaw were developed on a cartila-
ginous extension. ‘This, then, is clearly a distinct region of the
skull, to which there is obviously nothing even analogous in a
vertebra; and in reviewing its comparative osteology, I find no
reason for considering it less a fundamental essential of a deve-
loped skull than the neural region itself. And just as the brain-
case is known as the neural region, so this part may well be
called the bronchial region ; for just as the former is a modified
neural arch and its centrum, so the latter is a modified termina-
tion of the trachea: and thus, although the skull appears in this
matter to deviate from our conception of a vertebra as merely
an ossified structure, yet it conforms even in that deviation to
the plan of a segment of the body, and so brings the skeleton
into a closer and more natural unity.

The lower jaw and its upper appendages being a modified rib,
we thus exhaust all the vertebral elements without accounting
for the maxillary or premaxillary, or the distal elements of the
lower jaw exterior to Meckel’s cartilage. The maxillaries, by
development no less than by function, are the anterior epiphyses
of the palatines ; while the premaxillaries appear to be the lateral
epiphyses of the ethmoid. Such is the circumstance of their
origin, though no doubt their development is due to the same
pressure by which we have seen that all bones are formed. Thus
in the elephant, where the premaxillaries have to support the
enormous tusks, they attain an enormous development, covering

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3, Vol. xviii. 25

362 On a Theory of the Skull and the Skeleton.

the face, extending over the maxillaries, but entering, as in birds
and Ichthyosaurs and most animals, into the anterior nares. In
ruminants and pachyderms, where the pressure from the teeth
is more uniform than in some animals, it is seen that the maxil-
laries are deep and their upper and lower margins subparallel ;
and, as though illustrating the community of origin, mm some
animals the palatines and pterygoids both bear teeth. The
bones forming the elements of the oviparous lower jaw I believe
to have been developed as epiphyses of Meckel’s cartilage by
pressure ; the dentary element presents the aspect of a terminal
epiphysis, and the four other bones a superior and inferior and two
lateral epiphyses, which functionally are a diapophysis. And now,
of the important elements of the skull, there only remain the eyes
and the ears, which correspond, in their relations to the ali-
sphenoid, with the intervertebral nerves. The growth of the
eye is a sufficiently evident cause of pressure to account for
sclerotic, superorbital, and lachrymal bones; but the periotic
bones, which have been so laboriously elaborated by Pro-
fessor Huxley, appear to me to be nothing but ossifications
around the auditory canals which have afterwards grown by
contact with other ossifications. The quadrate bone is large
when placed between the jaw and the skull, but dwindles to the
incus when the pressure is removed; and so the mastoid, squa-
mosal, and petrosal obviously owe their development to their rela-
tions with the jaw. They are clearly sense-bones, and therefore,
forming no part of the skull except as such, may be here passed
over without further notice.

Such, then, is an outline of the mechanical theory of the skull;
and such are some of the chief points which I hope to illustrate
and demonstrate in the collections of fossil vertebrata which are
among the best treasures of the Woodwardian Museum. This
theory differs from others in the subordination of structure to func-
tion, and the belief that, except for the variation in organization,
similar functions will always develope similar structures. It differs
from other theories in giving a mechanical reason for the presence
of every bone. Its final conclusion is, that the skull is the terminal
segment of the body, and that, just as the adjacent segments
consist of the pharynx, the larynx, and a vertebra enclosing part
of the neural column, so also the skull, which is the termina-
tion of these three organs, and where their outlets are visible,
must consist of them also; that the brain-case, therefore (the
termination of the neural system), is a modified vertebra, that
the bronchial circle of nasal and palatine bones is a modification
of the trachea, and that the lower jaw is a modified rib developed
by the mouth. The respiratory circle of bones is the key to the
skull,

Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus. 3863

XLVI.—Notes on the Genus Menobranchus and its Natural
, Affinities. By J. van per Horven*.

Onze of the most important improvements in the natural distri-
bution of Reptiles is undoubtedly the separation, effected by
Merrem and F. 8S. Leuckart in 1820 and 1821, of that class into
two groups, named by the former Pholidota and Batracha.
ad systematis Amphibiorum, auctore Blasio Merrem,

arburgi, 1820.) The Batrachians have the skin naked, while
the Pholidota have the body covered with scales or enveloped in
two bucklers (Chelonia). Leuckart, by introducing the appel-
lation Dipnoa for the Batrachians, has seized and made use of a
more essential character, viz. the double respiration, the presence
of branchiz at an early stage, or the existence of branchiz perma-
nently with lungst. We owe to M. Fitzinger the name Monopnoa,

corresponding to that proposed by Leuckart, and serving to dis-

tinguish the other great division or that of the Pholidota of
Merrem f..

The researches of various authors have contributed more and
more to confirm this primary division. The celebrated physio-
logist Miiller has, above all, by drawing attention to certain
anatomical characters which had not been sufficiently regarded,
demonstrated the perfectly natural character of these groups.

There is, in fact, so great a difference between the reptiles of
these two divisions that Merrem considered them two distinct
classes—an opinion shared by De Blainville. It does not enter
into our present purpose to discuss this view; we would, how-
ever, remark that the doctrine advanced by a modern author,
according to which the Dipnoa should be united with the Fishes,
seems to us an exaggeration, and opposed to a truly natural
classification.

Among the reptiles with double respiration we must place

* Translated from a separate impression, communicated by the author,
from the ‘ Archives Néerlandaises, tome i. (1866), by Arthur O’Shaugh-

nessy.

+ Oken’s ‘ Isis,’ 1821, Litterarischer Anzeiger, 257-265 : “ Einiges tiber
die fischartigen Amphibien.”

t Neue Classification der Reptilien, von L. J. Fitzinger : Wien, 1826.

§ “ are zur Anatomie und Naturgeschichte der Amphibien,”
Zeitschrift fiir Physiologie, herausgegeben von F. Tiedemann, G. R. Tre-
viranus, und L, C. Treviranus, iv. Bd., 2 (1832), p. 190 &e. This remark-
able work dates at the commencement of the author’s scientific career; he
then oceupied the chair of Physiology at the University of Bonn. Amongst
the anatomical characters of the Dipnoa must be cancelled that of the
simple auricle formerly attributed ‘to the heart of Batrachians. (See the
author’s supplementary note, pp. 274-275.) It is, however, especially
worthy of remark, as a twofold embryological character, that both amnios
and allantois are here wanting, while they are present in all other reptiles,
as well as in birds and mammals,

25*

364 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus ~~

also a genus left by Cuvier among the Ophidians, but the
Batrachian affinities of which had not escaped that illustrious
naturalist, and had been remarked already at the commencement
of our century by his friend and collaborateur Prof. C. Duméril.
This genus, that of the Cecilie, was placed by Oppel* and
Merrem in the subclass which we are dealing with at present.
The important discovery of two branchial apertures, one on each
side, in a small specimen of Cecilia hypocyanea, made by Miiller
in 1831, effectually confirmed this view of their affinities, and
now consigns the genus to the vicinity of Amphiuma and Siren,
whose movements are effected by dragging the body along the
bottom of the waters which they inhabit, and whose very small
feet could not be of any assistance for walking.

The Batrachians furnished with extremities have been divided
by Duméril into Anoura and Urodela. The first, of which the
frogs and toads of our fauna may serve as examples, will not
detain us at present. Suffice it to observe that the external form
of these Anoura (Batrachians properly so called) departs entirely
from that of the Urodela (that, for example, of the aquatic
Salamanders), and that this difference shows us the slight value
due to external form in regard to primary groups in the natural
classification of the animal kingdom. We are now far from the
time when Linnzeus united the salamanders with the crocodiles
in his undigested genus Lacerta; but it is possible that the
vulgar eye and judgment unassisted by science will find this
union less strange than that of our.actual systems. The frog,
with its enormous head, its stunted trunk, and long claws, pre-
sents no resemblance whatever to the salamander, and less still
to the Proteus, while these latter genera would seem to be inti-
mately allied to the lizards, and, above all, to the scincoids.

The scalpel forces us, however, to alter our judgment; and the
transitional forms of the frogs during their development prove
indisputably that such appearances are deceptive, and that we
may not give credence to them without strict examination. ~

Amongst the Urodela it is well to make a principal division.
There are two groups or families of these Batrachians. One
comprehends the genus Salamandra, i. e. the terrestrial sala-
manders and the numerous subgenera of the aquatic salamanders
or tritons. The other might borrow its name from the genus
Proteus: such is the family of the Proteide or Ichthyoide.
At the commencement of our century Cuvier published a me-
moir on some reptiles of this division, which is inserted in the

* Die Ordnungen, Familien und Gattungen der Reptilien, von M. Oppel,
(Miinchen, 1811, 4to) p. 76.. These naked serpents are indicated by the
authors above named under the title of Batrachia apoda,

and its Natural Affinities. 365

“Recueil d’Observations de Zoologie et d’Anatomie comparée ”
of the Voyage of Humboldt and Bonpland*. The title of this
memoir gave occasion to naturalists to make use of the term
“doubtful reptiles” to indicate this group. That which was
then doubtful is not so, however, at the present day. Doubts
there will always be: what field of human research is free from
them? but these doubts at present affect other points. That
which was then unascertained, and which Cuvier sought to de-
termine, was whether the reptiles with branchiz were not larvee
destined to lose those organs. He examined the Axolotl, of
which Humboldt had given him two specimens which he had
brought from Mexico, and he compared it with the Siren of
South Carolina and the Proteus of the lakes and subterranean
waters of Carniola and Dalmatia. All these animals possessed
branchie and lungs. ;

As the result of his researches, Cuvier was convinced that the
Siren and the Proteus were adult animals, always retaining the
double organs of respiration}, while he regarded the Axolotl as
the larval state of some large unknown Salamander{. Sub-
sequently, however, he placed the Axolotl among the genera
with permanent branchie, along with Proteus and Sireng.

To these three species, which form as many genera, we must
now add some others, coming, like the Siren and Axolotl, from
North America. But, besides these genera with persistent gills,
we cannot refuse a place in this natural group for certain animals
very similar, but in which we find no gills, although there is a
branchial orifice on either side of the neck. A large reptile of
this division was already known to Cuvier when he published

* I., Paris, 1811, pp. 93-126: ‘Recherches anatomiques sur les Rep-
tiles regardés encore comme douteux par les naturalistes, faites a l’occasion
de ?Axolotl rapporté par M. de Humboldt du Mexique.” This was read
at the Institut National, January 19 & 26, 1807.

+ Prof. B. Smith Barton had independently arrived at the same convic-
tion.—‘ Some Account of the Siren lacertina’ (Philadelphia, 1807), abrochure
in the form of a letter to J. G. Schneider, and of which only fifty copies
were printed, one of which I obtained at the sale of Blumenbach’s library.

t Loe. cit. p. 116. This was still the opinion of Cuvier when he pub-
lished the first edition of his ‘ Régne Animal’ (1817, ii. p. 101).

§ Régne Animal, 2nd ed. 1827, ii. p. 119, note: ‘So many persons
affirm that it does not lose them, that 1 feel obliged to acquiesce.” How-
ever, more recently still, the distinguished American, Spencer Baird, re-
tained similar doubts (Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. of Philadelphia, Oct. 1849,
vol. i. ser. 2. p. 281, “ Revision of the North American Tailed Batrachia’’),
The author expresses himself as follows :—“ It is only because there is no
positive proof to the contrary that I retain the genus Siredon as real,
placing it at the bottom of the series. It so much resembles the larva of
Ambystoma punctata, im both external form and internal structure, that I
ange - believe it to be the larva of some gigantic species of this genus”

p. .

866 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus

his researches on the doubtful reptiles. This is the species to
which the inhabitants of the United States of North America
apply the name of Alligator or Hell-bender*, while the Delaware
Indians call it Tweeg or Tweche. At the commencement of our
century a specimen of this species, from the Leverian Museum,
was described by Dr.Shaw under the name of “ Leverian Water-
Newt”+. An individual of the same species, which the traveller
Michaux had obtained on the Alleghany Mountains and pre-
sented to the museum of the Jardin des Plantes, was described
by Latreille under the name of “Salamandre des monts Allé-
ganis”’t.

It is surprising that, throughout these descriptions, the
branchial orifice is not noticed. It is described in the tract of
Barton which we have just cited, and is apparent in the figure,
otherwise very mediocre, which accompanies the same§. Cuvier
speaks of a “cicatrice” on the sides of the neck, in precisely
the same position as the gills in Siren||.

All the naturalists who have recognized the two distinct groups
of the Urodela have placed the Hell-bender in the same division
with the doubtful reptiles. But it is necessary to seek for
further characters for this group of Ichthyoids than the persist-
ence of the gills. Such characters are found in the absence of
eyelids, in the conformation of the vertebrae (the bodies of

* Tn a tract by Prof. Barton, printed for his correspondents and friends
(Memoir concerning an Animal of the class of Reptilia or Amphibia,
which is known in the United States by the names of Alligator and Hell-
bender: Philadelphia, 1814), and which I procured from the same source
as that on the Siren, we read that the latter name was applied to this ani-
mal by the negroes of Virginia, on account of its slow oscillatory motions
in its natural habitation the water, and which the slaves thought suggestive
of the horrible tortures of the infernal regions.

+ General Zool.-vol. iii. pt. 1. pp. 303-304 : Lond. 1802.

} Hist. Nat. des Reptiles, par Sonnini et Latreille, (Paris, 1802) ii. p. 53,
pl. 54. fig. 1; Daudin, Hist. Nat. des Reptiles. tom. viii. (An xi., 1803)
pp. 231-232; (Bose) Nouveau Dictionn. d’Hist. Nat. tom. xx. (An xi.)
p- 48. The same lines occur, unaltered, in the last edition, revised and
augmented, of this Dictionary, tom. xxx. (Paris, 18)9) p. 61; the figure of
this species, pl. xii. fig. 1, in tom. xxxi. p. 317, the same as that of Latreille,
scarcely deserves reference.

§ This has been copied by Leuckart in his notice of the Ichthyoid
Amphibians (Isis, 1821, pl. 5), who adds another and much worse figure,
taken from a specimen stuffed with straw (!) in the Museum of Vienna.
We owe a better figure to J. R. Peale, appended to the observations on the
Salamander genus by Dr. Harlan (Annals of the New York Lyceum of
Nat. Hist. 1825, vol. 1. pl. xvii. p. 234). This figure has been copied in
the English remodelled and augmented edition of the ‘ Régne Animal’ by
Griffith (1831, vol. ix. p.475). I would also crave permission to cite that
published by me in the ‘Tijdschrift voor Natuurlijke Geschiedenis en
Physiologie,’ 1838, iv. pl. 5B. fig. 7.

|| Recherches, 7. c. p. 101.

and its Natural Affinities. 367

which are concave at both ends, as in fishes), in the cartilaginous
condition of the pieces forming the carpus and tarsus, and
probably also in the extraordinary size of the blood-corpuscles
(remarked in the first instance in the Proteus, but since then
found to prevail in all species the blood of which has been sub-
jected to microscopical examination). In 1821 a new genus was
added to the division of the Proteide. It is a North-American
genus, the elongated form of which has a certain resemblance
to that of the Proteus, and which also possesses four feet, but
even smaller than those of the Proteus. Without these indica-
tions of four extremities, the genus would present strong affini-
ties with Siren. But that which above all distinguishes it both
from Proteus and Siren is the fact of its not possessing gills,
but having a branchial aperture on each side of the neck. This
genus has been designated by the name Amphiuma*.

Our knowledge of the Proteidee had arrived at this point,
when Miiller took upon himself to unite this new genus, under
the name of Derotreta, in a subdivision with the Hell-bendert,
This union was an artificial one; for all that was then known
relative to the genus Amphiuma tended to secure it a place in
the vicinity of Siren. The Hell-bender, named successively
Abranchus, Menopoma, and Cryptobranchus, was imperfectly
known as regarded its internal structure. Moreover the cra-
nium, of which Cuvier had given an exact figure, presented only
remote relations with that of the Amphiumat. A large reptile
from Japan, the knowledge of which we owe to the zeal of M.
de Siebold, who succeeded in bringing over a living specimen §,
appearing to me to show a strong affinity with the Hell-bender
of North America, I felt driven to regard the former, not as a
species of a new genus, but as a new species of a genus long
known. Instead of proposing a new generic denomination, I

* It is worthy of note that this genus was really discovered before the
Hell-bender or Great Salamander of Michaux, by the same Dr. Alexander
Garden who made known the Siren. He sent this animal to Linneus
in 1771, under the name of Amphiuma. “These documents remained
among the papers of Linnzus, and were never brought to light but
through the edition published in 1821, by Sir James Edward Smith,
of the Correspondence of the great Swedish naturalist.”” (Cuvier, “ Sur le
genre de Reptiles batrachiens nommé Amphiuma, et sur une nouvelle
espéce de ce genre, Mémoire lu a l’Acad. des Se. Nov. 13, 1826,” Mém.
du Muséum, 1827, tome xiv. p. 2).

+ Derotremata, Miller, Zeitschr. f. Physiol. iv. p. 203.

_ Jt Miiller, who knew these skulls only through the figures of Cuvier,
himself made a similar remark (loc, cit. p. 204). The hyoid has been
figured by Harlan, /. c.

§ This reptile is still living in Holland, and has been for many years in
the rich zoological garden of Amsterdam. Several other zoological gardens
now possess specimens.

868 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus

thought it more proper to use the name Cryptobranchus, proposed
for the Hell-bender by Leuckart in 1821*.

It seems to me beyond doubt that, even if we demur to this
union, the two species in question cannot be referred to two
different families. As soon as we unite them, we must renounce
the distinction of the Derotreta. I would defer to the judgment
expressed in so clear and decided a manner by Prof. Hyrtl in
his ‘ Schediasma anatomicum’}.

In order to place this gigantic Batrachian in the family of the
Proteide or ichthyoid Urodela, it would be necessary to strike
out from among the characters of that division that of the
possession of permanent branchie or branchial fissures. The
genera are not numerous enough to render advisable a further
division. But there would still remain-to be determined the
actual disposition to be given to these genera in order that their
various relations might be clearly set forth according to the
several degrees of their reciprocal affinity. I entered upon this
question more than thirty years ago, when engaged upon the
class of Reptiles in connexion with the second edition of my
‘ Manual of Zoology.’ I considered it a second time when oppor-
tunity was offered me for studying two specimens of Meno-
branchus through the liberality of the Smithsonian Institution
of Washington.

I have not as yet spoken of this genus, which deserves a dis-
tinct place in the family which we are engaged upon at present.
It was constituted under its present name by Harlan, who at

* Oken’s ‘Isis,’ 1.c. The name Menopoma was proposed by Harlan,
who had previously given the name Adbranchus to this genus, which he
fancied was “‘ destitute of branchie at all periods of its existence” (p. 233),
This notion, contrary to all probability, has been refuted by facts. Mayer,
formerly Professor of Anatomy at Bonn, found branchial tufts, which,
however, were already on the eve of disappearing, in a specimen of 4 inches
6 lines, obtained through the Prince de Wied. (Analecten fiir vergleichende
Anatomie, von Dr. A. F. C. J. Mayer: Bonn, 1835, p. 95.) It would seem
that the name Menopoma owes its origin to the persistence of an oper-
culum, 7. e. of a prolongation of the skin extending over the aperture on
the sides of the neck (from pévew, to remain, and mépa, operculum).
As there is not any operculum properly so called, I think that the name
Cryptobranchus deserves to be retained, and that there is no necessity for
introducing a new name. ‘Tritomegas, proposed by the authors of the
‘ Erpétologie générale’ (Duméril et Bibron, 1854, ix. p. 153), even though
its actual composition were better than it is, would be inadmissible, as —
having been previously employed, though according to a very different
etymology, for a genus of Hemiptera (Hist. Nat. des Inseetes Hémiptéres,
by C. J. B. Amyot and Audinet-Serville : Paris, 1843, p. 98).

+ Cryptobranchus japonicus, ‘Schediasma anatomicum, Vindobone,
1865, 4to, p.4. “Cum Menopomate affinitas tanto argumentorum pon-
dere vindicata fuit, ut nulle amplius circa hanc questionem lites moveri
possint.””

and its Natural Affinities. 369

the same time designated by the name Abranchus the genus
which we now call Cryptobranchus*. As its name implies, the
Menobranchus presents a character afforded also by the Proteus
and Siren, viz. that of the persistence of the branchiz. It has,
in common with the Proteus, another character which distin-
guishes it from the Siren, viz. the possession of. four feet. It
was on this account that Lacépéde, who, in 1807, published a
description, accompanied by an indifferent figure, of a specimen
of this species, thought proper to give it the name of Protée
tétradactyle, adding, however, that in case it should turn out to
be a larva destined to lose the branchie, it might be called
Salamandre tétradactyle+. This creature has four toes on the
hind feet, while the Salamanders have five; now, however, we
know of some species of Salamanders which also have four toes
on all the feet t.

The origin of the specimen in the Paris Museum was uncer-
tain: Lacépéde knew only that it had been received from a na-
turalist of Bordeaux. However, the notice published by Lacé-
péde did not give the first description of this doubtful reptile.
The learned naturalist J. G. Schneider had most certainly seen
a specimen of the same species in the cabinet of Hellwig at
Brunswick, which specimen the latter had received from North
America (Lake Champlain). As the description given of this
by Schneider is both concise and at the same time sufficiently
explicit, it will perhaps be worth while to insert it entire, in a
note §.

* Annals of the New York Lyceum, i. p. 233. It had, however, been
previously named Necturus by Rafinesque (Blainville, Journ. de Physique,
tom. Ixxxviii. p. 418). Those who would restore the earlier names of
genera should consequently adopt this name of Necturus, unless, indeed,
they would prefer that of Sirena, which we find applied to the same rep-
tile by this very Rafinesque, in 1818 (Amer. Monthly Mag. iv. p.41). I
know this journal only through the citation of Mr. Spencer Baird (Journ.
Acad. Nat. Se. of Philadelphia, 1849, i.).

+ “Sur une espéce quadrupéde ovipare non encore décrite,” Annales du
Muséum d’Hist. Nat. x. (1807) pp. 230-233, pl. 17.

{ These species form the genera of aquatic Salamanders—Salamandrina,
Fitzinger, and Hemidactylum, Tschudi, or Desmodactylus of Duméril and
Bibron. See the ‘ Erpétologie générale,’ tome ix. pp. 68 & 117-120.

§ This description dates from 1799, and seems to be the earliest notice
we possess relative to the Menobranchus. ‘Corpus ultra 8 pollices
longum et fere pollicem crassum, molle, spongiosum, multis poris pervium,
in utroque latere tribus macularum rotundarum nigrarum seriebus varie-
gatum ; cauda compressa et anceps, utrinque maculata, inferiore acie recta,
superiore curvata, in finem teretiusculum terminatur. Caput latum et
planum ; oculi parvi; nares anteriores in margine labii superioris; maxille
superioris geminz ut inferioris dentes conici, obtusi, satis longi; lingua
lata, integra, anterius soluta; apertura oris patet usque ad oculorum lineam
verticalem ; labia piscium labiis similia. Pedes dissiti, quatuor, tetradactyli

870 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus

A figure much more characteristic than that of Lacépéde has
been given by the naturalist Harlan, in the first volume of the
‘Annals of the New York Lyceum’ already cited (pl. 16, Me-
nobranchus lateralis*).

Fitzinger, without adding anything to our knowledge of the
genus, gave it the new name of Phanerobranchus instead of
Menobranchus.

There can be no doubt that the first impression made by a
comparison of the Menobranchus with the Hell-bender is that
the two animals have a very great resemblance, and that it is
almost solely by the presence of the branchial tufts and the
tetradactyle hind feet that the Menobranchus is distinguishable
from the Cryptobranchus of the Alleghanies or from that of
Japan. Without having the enormous bulk of these two reptiles,
the Menobranchus is yet a very large species as compared with
the Tritons and Salamanders, and attains the length of fourteen
inches fT.

If we except the character of the branchial tufts and the lateral
fissures on the neck, we may arrange all these doubtful reptiles
in two groups,—one of which, by its elongated and cylindrical
form, approaches the Siren; the other, by its more depressed
and much shorter body, more nearly resembles the Salamander.
It was this method that I adopted in my Manual. The “Angui-
form” subdivision contains the genera Siren, Hypochthoa (or
Proteus), and Amphiuma; while that of the Cordylinit embraces
the genera Menobranchus, Cryptobranchus, and. Siredon (Axolotl),
However, as the result of my subsequent examination of Meno-

omnes, absque unguiculis. Ani rima in longitudinem patet. Branchize
utrinque tern extus propendent, apposite: superne totidem arcubus car-

tilagineis, quorum latus internum tubercula cartilaginea, veluti in piscium
_ genere, exasperant. Branchialis apertura gemina utrinque adest tantum ;
infimus enim et supremus arcus branchiarum cuti adnatus est.” (Historie
Amphibiorum naturalis et litterarize Fasciculus primus, Jenz 1799, 8vo,
pp. 50-51.) Cuvier was acquainted with this description, and speaks of it
in connexion with the Axolotl, to which he seemed rather inclined to appl
it, supposing that some error had arisen as to the number of the toes. It
is astonishing that, although attached to the same establishment, and
residing in the Jardin des Plantes, Cuvier was ignorant of the existence of
the animal which Lacépéde described almost about the same time.

* Copied in Griffith’s ‘Animal Kingdom,’ Rept. p. 476.

+ Lacépéde’s specimen was only 150 millimétres; but the smallest of
the two which I have received measures more than double that, and the
other one 362 millims. The best figure of this great Batrachian which I
am acquainted with is that published last year by Prince Maximilian of
Neuwied in the ‘ Nova Acta Acad. Cesar. Leopoldino-Carolinz,’ tom. xxxii.
1. tab. 7.

{ “We may apply to the larvee of the Salamanders the name of ‘ cor-
dyles,’ which, according to M. Schneider’s remark, they bore among the
Greeks.” (Cuv. Rech. sur les Rept. dout. p. 93.)

and its Natural Affinities. 371

branchus, I became convinced that this genus is much more in-
timately connected with Proteus than with Cryptobranchus. I
would again repeat that appearances in these matters are ex-
tremely deceptive, and that they are by no means to be depended
on in a natural system of classification. Such a system should
be the result of serious study and conscientious investigation.

I may hereafter give publicity to some results of my examina-
tion of Menobranchus—an examination undertaken, in the first
instance, solely with a view to my own instruction. It is to be
hoped that Dr. Fischer, of Hamburg, will soon bring out the
continuation of his researches on the anatomy of the doubtful
Reptiles*.

Some details relative to the anatomy of Menobranchus are to
be found in Mayer’s ‘Analecten fiir vergl. Anatomie,’ Bonn,
1835, 4to, pp. 82, 85, together with figures of the skull, brain,
and organs of generation of the male. This latter figure hardly
corresponds with my own actual observation. M. Gegenbaur
has given a description and figure of the carpus and tarsus
as well as of the claviculo-scapular apparatus in the Menobran-
chus. (Untersuchungen zur vergl. Anatomie, I. Heft. Carpus
und Tarsus: Leipzig, 1864; II. Heft. Schultergiirtel der Wir-
belthiere : 1865.)

Meanwhile I will be content to-notice that the skull and the
hyoid apparatus, the conformation of the bones or cartilages of
the shoulder, the disposition of the viscera, the form of the
lungs, and the structure of the organs of generation appear to
indicate that the subterranean and, so to speak, atrophied Pro-
teus of Europet finds its representative in a robuster and larger
creature which inhabits the lakes of the United States. It is,
however, proper to remark that the number of the vertebre
is greater in Proteus, which thus more nearly approaches the
Siren; while the attachment of the pelvis at the thirtieth or
thirty-first vertebra in Proteus shows a still greater departure
from the Menobranchus, in which the pelvis is attached to the
eighteenth or nineteenth vertebra, as in the Cryptobranchus Alle-
ghaniensis: this latter condition differs but little from that found
in the Japan species, in which the pelvis adheres to the twentieth
or twenty-first vertebrat, and in the Axolotl and Tritons, in

* Anatomische Abhandlungen iiber Perennibranchiaten und Derotremen,
von Dr. J.G. Fischer. Erstes Heft. Hamburg, 1864.

+ “Il [M. Schreiber] ajoute qu’il est plutét porté a regarder les Protées
comme des espéces d’albinos ou de crétins, que comme des larves; mais il
faudra toujours convenir bm ce ne peuvent pas étre des albinos d’espéces
connues, puisque leur ostéologie n’a rien de commun, pour le nombre et la
forme des piéces, avec celle d’aucun autre reptile.” (Cuv. Rech. sur les
Reptiles douteux, p. 123.)

f In the specimen of the Japan Cryptobranchus dissected some years

372 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus

which there are sixteen or seventeen vertebrae between the skull
and the pelvis.

We must therefore guard against expressing this relation
too strongly; and, while asserting that the nearest affinity of
the Menobranchus is probably with Proteus, we must, at the
same time, admit it as intermediate between this and Crypto-
branchus. I should incline even to regard Menobranchus as oc-
cupying the central position in the ichthyoid group. In fine,
we have in the present only another instance of what nearly
always occurs in families and groups composed of but few spe-
cies, and these spread over various and remote countries: there
are almost as many genera as species; and, in spite of the com-
mon bond of affinity, there is a very marked difference in the
general form and in the proportions of the body and its parts,

Those who would prefer to dispose the genera in a single
series, might perhaps do so by allowing Siren to follow Cecilia,
and the Axolotl to occupy a corresponding position on the other
side leading to the Salamanders (Urodela with eyelids). The
ichthyoids afford a very interesting illustration of the proposi-
tion that some animals present as permanent a form which is
only transitory in others; and Lamarck might have said that,
in the Axolotl, nature was on the point of forming the Triton.
Cuvier already in 1807 made -use of the happy expression larve
permanente ; and it was in accordance with this that he said that
the Siren might be regarded as a permanent larva of this family*.

We should thus have the following succession :—

Siren,
Amphiumat,
Proteus,
Menobranchus,
Cryptobranchus,
Sirenodon,

since at Rotterdam, the pelvis was found to be suspended, on the right,
from the twentieth, and on the left from the twenty-first vertebra. (Aan-
teekningen over de Anatomie van den Cryptobranchus japonicus, door Dr.
F. J. J. Schmidt, Dr. Q. J. Goddard en Dr. J. van der Hoeven, Jun. :
Haarlem, 1862, 4to, p.11.) The authors of this memoir cite an observa=
tion of C, A. Schultze, attesting a similar inequality or asymmetry as ob-
served in the skeleton of a Triton cristatus.. They might also have added
that the anatomist Mayer had recorded a like circumstance with regard to
the other species of Cryptobranchus, that from the Alleghanies. Although
it would seem to be normal in this species that the pelvis be thus suspended
from the twentieth vertebra, Mayer observed, in one of the skeletons pre-
pared by him, that it adhered only on the left side to this vertebra, but on
the right to the nineteenth (Analecten, &c. p. 78).

* Recherches sur les Reptiles douteux, p. 109.

+ These two genera depart more particularly from the true Salamanders

and its. Natural Affinities. 373

a suecession which I believe to be sufficiently natural, although,
strictly speaking, every arrangement in a single series is de-
fective.

_ Finally, since the anatomical materials respecting the genera
of North America are very much dispersed (being contained
partly in journals and memoirs of societies and academies not
always to be found in the very largest of public libraries), it
would be very desirable to have collected together all that has
been published upon these doubtful reptiles of America. There
would then remain another undertaking, viz. to arrange in a
systematic form all that we now know concerning the various
forms of this small group*; and this, though a work of com-
pilation, could be executed only by an able naturalist.

The labours of Rusconi with reference to the Proteus are well
known ; but, as regards the other genera, the Cryptobranchus of
Japan is almost the only one of which we have any complete
anatomical details, viz. those which we obtain through the re-
searches of the three physicians of Rotterdam, published by the
Société Hollandaise, and from the admirable work of one of the
greatest anatomists of our time, Professor Hyrtl of Vienna.

It is to be lamented that there still reigns some confusion
throughout much of what has been published respecting these
doubtful reptiles, and even in works of well-merited celebrity.
It is stated in the ‘Erpétologie générale’ that I have figured
the nuchal fissure in the Cryptobranchus of Japan}, whereas the
entire plate, and consequently also the figure cited, refers to the
North-American species. The work of Duméril and Bibron
having certainly a much more extended publicity than my
Dutch memoirf, I have thought it advisable not to neglect the
present occasion to remove this error, and the more so since I

by the great number of their vertebrae. Cuvier counted 86 vertebre in
the Siren, 99 in Amphiuma tridactyla, and 112 in Amphiuma didactyla
(Mém. du Muséum, xiv. p. 8).

* Unless we suppose that the genus Proteus contains several species
(Fitzinger, “ Ueber den Proteus anguineus der Autoren,” Sitzungsberichte
der mathem.-naturw. Klasse der Kaiserl. Akad. der Wissenchaften, October
1850), the entire group numbers scarcely ten species. I know not what
to think of the eight species of Necturus which Rafinesque affirms to
exist in the United States (Journal de Physique, Ixxxviii. p. 418); but
they have not been noticed by those who have written about the fauna of
North America since his time.

+ “Il n’y aurait done de différence que dans l’absence du trou collaire
que M. van der Hoeven a figuré pl. 2. fig. 8,” &e. (ix. p. 164).

{ I regret extremely that Prof. Dumétil, the venerable veteran who
honoured me with his friendship, did not consult my ‘ Fragments zoo-
logiques,” in the third volume of the ‘ Mémoires de la Société de Stras-
bourg’ (1840), where my memoir on the Pseudosalamander, the great
Japan reptile, is translated entire.

874 Prof. J. van der Hoeven on the Genus Menobranchus.

myself have insisted strongly upon this very difference between
two species which otherwise present so many points of reciprocal
relation. We would also remove a confusion which exists relative
to the reptile in the Museum of Hellwig, described by Schneider.
We have cited this reptile as a Menobranchus; and the authors
of the ‘ Erpétologie’ give it also among the synonyms of Meno-
branchus lateralis (p. 184); but they have at the same time
translated Schneider’s description into French and applied it
in the case of Siredon Harlanii, affirming that it accords per-
fectly with this latter (p.181). In order that it might do so,
however, the authors of the ‘ Erpétologie’ have added to the
account of the feet (tetradactyli omnes) the words “les pattes
postérieures en ont cing.” There is no reason whatever for acere-
diting Schneider with this error; and in any case his descrip-
tion should not be cited for two different species: it applies
properly to Menobranchus without any such modification.

It is perhaps not inadmissible to terminate a notice of the
doubtful reptiles by a speculation. There is a species of Batra-
chian from California, known to me only through the figure and
description in the Zoological Atlas* of Prof. Eschscholtz, and
which that author has named Triton ensatus.

This species has been referred to the Salamandra Jeffersoniana
of Green, of which Tschudi has constituted the genus Xiphonura.
Such, however, is not the opinion of one author, who is well
acquainted with these species from the United States of America,
Mr. Spencer Baird, and who does not place this figure of
Eschscholtz among the synonyms of his Ambystoma Jeffersoniana
(p. 283), but refers to Triton ensatus among the species which
are doubtful or known only through the descriptions of authors,
It is very desirable that this Californian species should receive
further examination. Its dimensions of 114 inches would lead
us to suppose that it belongs to the group we are at present
engaged upon ; and its skull, figured in the Atlas of Eschscholtz
and described by Rathke, presents (as this latter author has
already remarked) many points of relation to the Crypto-
branchus of the Alleghanies. It is to be lamented that the eyes
were ill preserved, and that the description does not inform us
whether they were furnished with lids or not. I am almost in-
clined to suppose that eyelids did not exist, but on this point I
feel a certain amount of doubt. In fine, I should be in no way
astonished were this animal, when better known, to call for the
establishment of a new genus, akin to Cryptobranchus.

* Zoologischer Atlas: Abbildungen und Beschreibungen neuer Thier-
arten wahrend des Flott-Capitams von Kotzebue zweiter Reise um die
Welt beobachtet von Dr. F. Eschscholtz, 5tes Heft. Berlin, 1833,

Prof. F. M‘Coy on new Species of Fossil Volutes. 375

_ The following is a synoptical table of the genera of the family
Proteide :— ;

“Feet four or only two anterior ones. Eyes small, and without lids.
Vertebrze biconcave.

" two; branchize persistent sain Siren.

much elongated, | » . nee

“dig Rg our; no persistent branchiz ; ;
lapel ret | two nuchal fissures ...+-+++- Amphiuma.
fo

ur; branchie persistent ... Proteus.

( persistent throughout life; four
Body toes on all the feet ......... Menobranchus.

moderately elon- | persistent throughout life, in
ted, more or the form of long tufts; four
ess depressed.{ toes on fore feet, five on
Feet four. Bran- Wine L666 eee caelbaieae. Sirenodon.
MMO awa dew dsc s'e

in early stages only; four toes
on fore feet, five on hind
EME toes haan esadancasasenene¢uaie Cryptobranchus.

XLVII.—On some new Species of Fossil Volutes from the Ter-
tiary Beds near Melbourne. By Frepericx M‘Coy, Professor
of Natural Science in the Melbourne University, Government
Palzontologist to the Geological Survey, &c.

Ficures of the following species, collected by the Geological
Survey under Mr. Selwyn, will shortly appear in the Decades I
am preparing on the recent and fossil zoology of Victoria. As,
for some years, I have prepared descriptions of nearly all the
known fossils of the colony, I have been pressed to send descrip-
tions of the more remarkable forms to the ‘ Annals’ for prelimi-
nary publication.

Voluta macroptera (M‘Coy).

Shell fusiform until nearly adult, when the outer lip becomes
dilated into a very large, thin-edged, triangular, flattened wing,
the outer margin of which is slightly convex, the posterior mar-
gin concave, running up halfway to the suture of the penultimate
whorl in a slight channel; the approximately rectangular junc-
tion of the outer and posterior margins broadly rounded. Apical
angle about 55° in middle-aged specimens, and 35° in young
ones 14 inch long. Spire with a concave outline of four rapidly
enlarging whorls and a mammillary cap-shaped pullus of one
and a half turn, the basal halfturn of the pullus less than half
the width of the next succeeding turn of the spire, the remain-

376 Prof. I. M‘Coy on new Species of Fossil Volutes

ing turn nipple-shaped, with a small eccentric projecting apex ;
the length of the pullus equalling once and a half the width of
the next following turn of the spire. Each turn of the spire
embracing the next preceding one at the suture, near which they
are concave, then ferming a convex shoulder and nearly parallel
with the axis of the shell below ; body-whorl fusiformly narrowed
in front, and marked with a broad siphonal notch, without an-
terior crest or ridge. Inner lip excessively thin, moderately
spreading; plaits of the columella four, widely separated, very
prominent, narrow, one smaller. Aperture moderately wide,
oblong, narrowed above and below, becoming effuse with age.

Pullus smooth ; the next two turns of the spire with exces-
sively fine spiral strie, only visible with the lens (about ten or
eleven in the space of 1 line) ; rest of the spire and body-whorl
smooth or marked with fine lines of growth. Length of pullus
4 lines, width of ditto 3 lines; length of adult (including the
. pullus, which is 3 lines) 6 inches; proportional length of body-
whorl 35; ; length of wing =22,; width of body and wing 74%;
width of body on inside of base of aperture 53,3;.

There is no living or fossil species at all like the present in
the large, thin, angular, wing-shaped outer lip and fusiform
body. Young specimens an inch and a half long are irregularly
fusiform, of two whorls in addition to the pullus of nearly two.

The layer of shell bearing the microscopic spiral strize seems
very liable to fall off, leaving the whorls only marked by the
lines of growth.

Not uncommon in the passage-beds of the tertiary sands,
Ad. 22, at Bird Rock, near Geelong.

Voluta Hannafordi (M‘Coy).

Fasciolaria Hannafordi, olim, MS.

Broad, fusiform ; pullus at apex of spire, very large, smooth,
spheroidal, of little more than one turn and a quarter; spire
conical, apical angle 70°, of four whorls (besides the pullus),
each obtusely angulated in the middle and bearing on the angle
from twelve to seventeen large nodose tubercles, obtuse and
conoidal on the body-whorl, on which the smaller number is
found, more elongate on those of the spire, on the upper of
which the greater number occur ; the oblique space between the
tubercles and the suture marked with narrow, slightly undulating,
thread-like, spiral ridges, irregularly alternating in thickness;
below the tubercles the body-whorl is smooth or marked with
obtuse lines of growth as far as the anterior extremity, which is
marked by thick obtuse spiral striz crossing the lines of growth;
but the young whorls or vertical portions of the smaller turns
-of the spire are marked with spiral strize slightly larger and less

from the Tertiary Beds near Melbourne. 377

distinct than‘those of the posterior portion ; and, finally, in very
large old specimens, the spiral striz on the space above the tu-
bereles are reduced to a few near the suture. Outer lip in
adults greatly dilated into an oblong wing, with a broadly
rounded auriculate posterior margin rising up for attachment
nearly to the suture of the penultimate whorl; outer margin
nearly straight, thin, and slightly inflected, ending at the nar-
rowed end with three large, equal, very prominent, compressed,
widely separated, oblique plaits, besides which, in some examples,
are one or two closer and smaller ones (usually absent); aperture
moderately large, oblong.

Length of small perfect specimen 6 inches, proportionate
length of body-whorl ;22;, of penultimate whorl +3;, ante-
penultimate whorl +,, preceding whorl +4; length of pullus
+3, diameter of pullus ;4°;; diameter of succeeding whorl at
suture +4; length of wing ;%°,; greatest width of body-whorl
and wing ;%%;, of penultimate whorl =32,; ordinary length of
pullus 6 lines, diameter 7 lines.

So disproportionately large and smooth does the pullus or
young nucleus on the top of the spire appear, that it looks like
a comparatively large Natica or Helia artificially stuck on the
comparatively slender, regularly nodulated, and striated spire,
its disproportion far exceeding the greatest living instance of
such an incongruity, the recent Voluta mamiilla. ‘The first very
large specimen seen was presented by Mr. Hannaford, of
Warnambool, an enthusiastic naturalist, after whom I have great
pleasure in naming the species. This specimen, having the
apex absent and the outer lip and the anterior end of the colu-
mella broken off, as well as possessing two unusual small plaits
behind the others, looked so much more like a Fasciolaria than
a Voluta, that in my manuscript I used the former generic name,
until I saw other specimens showing the true characters of the
notched anterior end, mammillary spire, &c.

There is no known recent or fossil species at all approaching
it in general characters.

Rare in Tertiary clays of Muddy Creek, near junction of
Grange Burn, five miles from Hamilton.

One very imperfect specimen, presented by Mr. Hannaford,
from the clays of Port Fairy, Warnambool, where it occurs with
several other species of the Mount Eliza beds. Rather rare in
the clays near the foot of Mount Eliza, in Hobson’s Bay, whence
the perfect specimen was obtained, as well as a few fragments of
the spire with the large nucleus attached. Rare in clays of the
Orphan Asylum Reserve, Fyan’s Ford, Ad. 28; rare in clays
near Mount Martha.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 26

378 Prof. F. M‘Coy on new Species of Fossil Volutes

Voluta antiscalaris (M‘Coy).

Ovate, moderately ventricose, rather abruptly attenuated to-
wards the front; spire moderately acute, apical angle 65° to 70°,
of four to five whorls, and a rounded, swollen, smooth, oblique
nucleus at the tip, of one turn and a half; body-whorl with
about sixteen to twenty-four angular, slightly sigmoid longitu-
dinal ribs extending rather less than halfway to the front, narrow
and sharp in the young, wider and more obtusely angular in
adults, becoming gradually obsolete in front, each ending in a
sharp conical tubercle crowning the obtusely angulated shoulder;
a second row of smaller, pointed, conical tubercles surmounts the
larger on each whorl; the space between the two rows is deeply
concave and rather wider than the interval between the correspond-
ing larger tubercles; the space between the upper row and the
suture is flattened, nearly horizontal, and about half as wide as
the space between the two rows, both spaces marked only by the
coarse lines of growth ; whorls, anterior to the tubercles, crossed
by deep, narrow, spiral sulci having flat spaces between them
about equal to half the distance of the longitudinal ribs from
each other; usually about three of these spiral striz visible on
each of the whorls of the spire, crossing the longitudinal ridges.
Pillar-folds slender, widely separated, oblique, three or four, the
third (or fourth, where it exists) posterior, abruptly smaller than
the two anterior plaits; outer lip thin, smooth. Length of large
specimens 2 inches; length of body-whorl 7435, penultimate
whorl =155; greatest width =45, to 74%. A specimen 8 lines long
gives all the same proportional measurements.

A careful comparison of specimens of the true V. scalaris
(Sow.), from the Middle Eocene beds of the Isle of Wight and
Barton, will show (what none of the existing figures or descrip-
tions would) that our species, which I have named V. antisealaris,
is not identical, but a most remarkable instance of a representa-
tive form, distinguished with apparent doubtfulness bya slightly
longer spire, less ventricose body, and the ribs less twisted at
their anterior end, but with perfect certainty by the spire, which
in the European species is sharply pointed (in accordance with
the genus Volutilites, Swa.) and of eight or nine gradually-and
regularly tapering whorls, the apical two or three smooth ; while
in the Victorian species it terminates in an obtusely rounded,
smooth, swollen nucleus or “pullus” of one turn and a half,
below which are only five sculptured whorls in adult individuals.
In accordance with the slightly more slender form, the pillar is
less curved than in the English species, and the plaits slightly
thinner and more oblique; the number of ribs in a whorl is
greater (being about fourteen or fifteen in the English species);

Jrom the Tertiary Beds near Melbourne. 379

but in all other characters the coincidence or representation of
characters is so complete that, if the tip of the spire were in
each case absent, the nicest eye could scarcely separate them ;
yet the distinguishing character is one of such importance, and
so invariable, that there czn be no doubt of its marking a per-
fectly distinct species.

This species is also closely allied to the V. nodosa (Sow.) of
the Hampshire Eocene Tertiary, Barton Clay, and Bracklesham
beds, but may be distinguished by the upper row of tubercles of
the spiral whorls being distinctly separated from the suture by
a space equalling about half the width of the space between the
upper and lower rows of tubercles on each whorl, as in V. sca-
laris : one or two very old thick specimens show a spreading inner
lip, and a very faint indication in some lights of a crenulation on
the edge of the outer lip; and the plaits are thickened, and in
one case an intermediate fifth plait appears.

- Common in the Tertiary clays of (Ad. 14) parish Moolap; a
variety not uncommon in Tertiary clays of Orphan Asylum
Reserve, Fyan’s Ford, Ad. 28, not uncommon in blue clays and
limestone near Mount Martha. Var. a. levior has the apical angle
65° to 70°, often a fourth small columellar fold, and the spiral
transverse sulci become nearly or quite obsolete near the spinous
‘shoulder, and sometimes over more than half of the body-whorl
as well as on the whorls of the spire ; it is also a little stronger, but
is certainly only a variety. In clays and limestone, Mount Martha.

Voluta anticingulata (M‘Coy).

Ovate; spire moderately acute (apical angle varying from 55°
to 65°, usually 60°), of five slightly convex, sculptured, gradu-
ally increasing whorls, and a smooth, rounded, small, swollen
nucleus of one turn and a half; sutures twisted or subcanalicu-
lated by a narrow flattened or hollow space separating the su-
tural line of conoidal tubercles, which are on the other side
separated from the obtuse tubercular ends of the nearly straight
longitudinal ribs by a deep spiral constriction or channel seem-
ing to cut the ribs to the depth of the spaces between them ;
body-whorl obtusely rounded at the shoulder, rounding abruptly
to the subsutural channel, and conoidally attenuated to a narrow
slightly emarginate front ; ribs thick, obtusely rounded (usually
nineteen, rarely fifteen, and in one case twenty-four in the last
whorl), usually becoming obsolete at about half the length of
_ body-whorl (sometimes shorter and often somewhat longer), but
becoming very prominent, and separated by rather wider, deep
concave spaces, at the shoulder, where each terminates in an ob-
tusely rounded end at the constriction or subsutural groove,
above which each rib seems continued as a blunt conoidal tu-

26*

380 Prot. F. M‘Coy on new Species of Fossil Volutes.

bercle ; a narrow, step-like, undulated, flattened or slightly con-
cave space extends to tle suture perpendicular to the axis;
lower or anterior half of body-whorl strongly marked with trans-
verse or obliquely spiral deep narrow sulci, having broader flat-
tened spaces between them, occasionally extending more faintly
a further variable distance towards the suture; mouth with a
slight posterior channel, oblong, narrowed in front; outer lip
smooth within (edge sometimes very faintly crenulated in old
individuals) ; inner lip slightly curved, with four slender, oblique,
nearly equal plaits about the middle, the anterior slightly longer
than the posterior; occasionally traces of a very small fifth plait
occur.

Usual length 1 inch 9 lines; body-whorl 342, to 7835, penul-
timate whorl +3, to +45; width +43, to 542,. Young, 5 lines
long, body-whorl ;2,3;, penultimate whorl +45 ; width 74%: at
this size only three sculptured whorls at the pullus, twenty-two
ribs on body-wlhorl. Some species show that the mouth was
dark violet within.

From the examination of a great number of specimens from
the Lower Miocene or “ Tongrien ” beds of Lattorq, near Bem-
berg, I long ago satisfied myself that the V. suturalis and V.
cingulata of Nyst were only extreme varieties of one species; and
Beyrich seems somewhat inclined to the same opinion, from ex-
amination of a larger number of specimens from other localities,
of one of the varieties at least, than Nyst seems to have had of
either, as he marks them both as rare in his ‘ Coquilles et Poly-
piers Fossiles de Belgique ;? and the latter name would be the
best to retain, as it indicates the remarkable girdling of the
whorls by the deep suleus or constriction which seems to cut off
a subsutural row of tubercles from the ends of the longitudinal
ribs in the most common variety; still, as in the V. bulbula,
Lam., to which Nyst likens the V. suturalis, specimens may be
found showing all the transitions between the most strongly
marked subsutural sulcus and its entire absence. The latter
variety I mark @. indivisa; and in it the ribs are often fewer and
more sigmoid, and the shell narrower, than in the ordinary forms,
though none of these characters are constant; in this variety,
too, the spiral striz are often confined to the anterior base of the
shell, leaving the body intact and the ribs smooth and polished.
Var. a. perstriata has the ribs rather more numerous and
straighter than in the ordinary type, and the spiral striz very
strongly marked over the whole body-whorl and spire, so as to
be in. this respect intermediate between the Hampshire Barton
Clay V. ambigua and V. digitalina. In this variety the teeth
sometimes reach six or seven; the obtuse swollen papillary
‘‘pullus”’ to the top of the spire readily separates it on compa-

Mr. J. F. Walker on a Phosphatic Deposit. 381

rison of specimens; and the sutural space of the Australian
species is never so deep or concave as in its European prototype,
in which also the plaits on the columella are very much less
conspicuous and more oblique, the anterior one alone approach-
ing the size of the four on V. anticingulatum. The spire has
one sculptured whorl, fuller than in the V. cingulata of Ger-
many. ‘There is no living species like it.

Very abundant, with occasionally the @ variety and more
rarely the « variety, perstriata, in the Tertiary sands of the
Bird Rock beds, Ad. 22 to 21, less so in Ad. 23. Both varieties
common in the sandy beds Ad. 24.

XLVIII.—On a Phosphatic Deposit in the Lower Greensand of
Bedfordshire. By J. F. Wauxer, F.C.S., Sid. Suss. College,
Cambridge*.

[Plate XIIT.]

Tue Lower Greensand formation in Bedfordshire consists of

extensive beds of variously coloured sands, more or less indu-

rated into stone.

In the vicinity of Sandy there exists a conglomerate which it
is proposed to discuss in this paper. A short account of this bed,
by the Rev. P. B. Brodie, appeared in the ‘ Geological Magazine’
for April. TI sent a short paper on the discovery of some fossils
in it to the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for July;
Mr. H. Seeley this month (August) also communicated his views
on this bed in a letter to the Editors of that Magazine.

This conglomerate was formerly quarried for mending the
roads, until two or three years since, when it was discovered that
it contained nodules of phosphatic matter, for which it is at pre-
sent extensively worked. Ata cutting near the Potton Railway
station the bed is from 9 inches to | foot in thickness; and the
following is the section, the strata here being slightly inclined.

1. Sand of different colours, in some places white.

2. Conglomerate bed, 9 inches to | foot in thickness.

3. Sand of various colours, containing layers of oxide of iron, 12 feet.
* Communicated by the Author, having been read before the British

Association, in Sections B. and C., at Nottingham, 1866.

382 Mr. J. F. Walker on a Phosphatic Deposit

At a coprolite-working on the left side of the line, looking
towards Cambridge, a few yards from the edge of the cutting,
the bed increases in thickness to 2 feet.

At a large working on the hill the conglomerate bed is about
6 feet thick; the section is as follows :—

1, Sandstone, on which conglomerate rests.
2. Conglomerate bed, 6 feet.

3. Flaggy sandstone, not exceeding | foot in thickness (often less), and
surface soil.

The lower part of the conglomerate is here darker in colour
and more indurated than the upper.

On the other side of the road is another working, where the
nodules lie in loose sand, and the phosphatic bed is about
1 foot thick.

There are several other workings in the neighbourhood.

The conglomerate contains phosphatic nodules and pebbles in
about equal proportions. The bed is dug out and sifted, washed
and laid in heaps, and then conveyed into sheds, where the no-
dules are picked out by hand. The quantity of phosphoric acid
in the nodules varies from fifteen to twenty-two per cent.

It seems to be the opinion of Mr. H. Seeley that this bed is
the southern extension of the Carstone, which, in a former
paper*, he has stated to represent the Gault and the Shanklin
Sands. But the Gault in this district is represented by a clay
lying beneath the Upper Greensand. Therefore, if his views
be correct, the term Carstone is inapplicable to this bed.

Mr. Seeley states that this deposit “reproduces earlier in time
the conditions of the Cambridge Greensand.”

The Greensand of Cambridge consists of a fine marl which
effervesces briskly with hydrochloric acid ; it also contains green
grains, angular boulders, and hard dark-coloured nodules of
phosphatic matter, often covered with Plicatule; lumps of iron
pyrites are occasionally found. All the fossil shells are filled
with the same material of which the nodules are composed. -

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Nov. 1864.

in the Lower Greensand of Bedfordshire. 383

The conglomerate of the Lower Greensand of Bedfordshire con-
sists of ferruginous sand more or less indurated (which does not
effervesce with hydrochloric acid), rolled pebbles, and light-brown
nodules of phosphatic matter, which have an earthy fracture and
often contain fragments of shells*. The nodules are often co-
vered with perforations, which Mr. A. Wanklyn discovered to be
the work of small bivalves+. Concretions of peroxide of iron
are also found in this deposit.

The fossil shells found in this bed exist in two different con-
ditions, some being casts composed of the same material as the
nodules, whilst the shells of others are replaced by oxide of
iron, and are filled with the same material of which the bed is
composed ; the indurated part of the bed also contains numerous
impressions of shells. It is difficult to see how two formations
presenting such marked points of difference can have been de-
posited under the same conditions.

The remains of organized bodies contained in this bed, as I
have before stated, exist in two different states of mineralization,
viz. as ferruginous shells and as phosphatic casts. The bed being
very porous (a well has been sunk 50 feet deep for water) and
largely impregnated with ferric oxide, shells (which, as is well
known, consist chiefly of animal matter and calcie carbonate)
would by the action of water have their calcic carbonate replaced
by ferric oxide. In cases where the action was more rapid, only
internal casts of the shells would remain.

Shells which lived in the sea whilst this bed was being formed,
and also shells derived from older formations, if deposited in
this bed, would undergo this change.

The phosphatic casts of shells must have been formed, or, at
least, the shells must have been filled with phosphatic matter, be-
fore they were deposited here, and the calcic carbonate afterwards
dissolved by the action of water. The tricalcic phosphate would
be protected from the solvent action of water by the presence of
calcic carbonate, as proved by the experiments of Mr. R. War-
rington, junr., described in a paper read to the Chemical Society.
The ferruginous shells and phosphatic casts are found inter-
mixed.

The conglomerate contains lumps of hardened clay ; and the
so-called coprolites contain a much larger percentage of alumina
than those of the Cambridge Greensand. The analysis of the
coprolites is made from a commercial sample, which contains the
shells, nodules, teeth, and bones, all ground up together. The

* In the interior of the nodules there are sometimes found specimens
of a small species of Lima and of Cardium.

+ Mr. Wanklyn has obtained several of these shells, which appear to be-
long to two or three different species.

384 Mr. J. F. Walker on a Phosphatic Deposit

amount of alumina with the fluorine and magnesia, in one ana-
lysis, is 6°64 per cent.; of course, if a special analysis of the
nodules and phosphatic casts (the adhering sand having been
carefully removed) were made, the percentage of alumina would
doubtless be greater. This would indicate that the phosphatic
nodules had been formed of clay soaked in decomposing animal
and vegetable matter, since the alumina could not be derived
from either animal or vegetable sources.

The question now to be considered is, whether all the remains
of organic life found in this deposit are coeval with the deposi-
tion of the bed.

Mr. Seeley states that he has never obtained from this bed a
fossil that is extraneous, and that they all appear to him to be
“denizens of the old sea-bed where they abound.”

There are obtained from this deposit large masses of silicified
wood resembling those found in the Purbeck, also small pieces
of wood mineralized with phosphoric acid, and often bored by a
new species of Pholas, which I have named Pholas Dallasii.

It seems improbable that wood existing in two such different

_ conditions should have been derived from the same source*.

Amongst the remains of animal origin we find rolled bones
and teeth of reptiles and fishes, also shells of Mollusca, existing
(as before mentioned) in two distinct conditions.

The phosphatic casts of shells are generally so much worn
that it is impossible to identify their species with precision. In
their general aspect they resemble those of the Kimmeridge and
Oxford Clays. They consist of casts of Rhynchonella, of Car-
dium, Arca, Pholadomya, &e., of Pleurotomaria, Chemnitzia,
Natica, &c.; three or four species of Ammonites occur, of
which Ammonites biplex is found in great abundance; several of
the Ammonites retain their nacreous lustre. Phragmaconesof
large Belemnites have also been found.

Part of the ferruginous shells also appear to have been derived
from extraneous sources: amongst these I have obtained a spe-
cimen of Exogyra virgula and numerous specimens of Gryphea
dilatata. These shells, on account of their shape, could not
contain phosphatic mud when they were deposited. They are
in a bad state of preservation, which may be due to two causes,
—first, to their having been rolled; and secondly, to their having
at the time of their deposition lost part of their animal matter;
therefore the removal of their calcic carbonate would be more
rapid, and its replacement by the ferric oxide less perfect.

The other ferruginous shells appear to be of the age of the

* Since this paper was read, I have obtained a fine specimen of a cone
probably belonging to a Cycadaceous plant of the Wealden age. Its
length is 2°6 inches, and its circumference is 2°75 inches. (Pl. XIII. fig. 5.)

in the Lower Greensand of Bedfordshire. 385

Lower Greensand, and do not present any traces of having been
rolled. Amongst these I have determined

T. (Waldheimia) Tamarindus, Sow. Pleurotomaria DeLahayesii, D’Orb.
—- celtica. Pecten Robinaldinus, D’Orb.
Spheera Sedgwickii, n. sp. Ostrea macroptera, Sow.

1 have also found ferruginous casts of other shells*. I have no
~ doubt that this list will be largely increased.

The remains of fishes seem to be principally derived from the
Kimmeridge Clay. I have obtained the following species, which
have also been found in the Kimmeridge Clay of Ely, specimens
of which may be seen in the Woodwardian Museum and in the
collection of James Carter, Esq., who kindly informed me of the
occurrence of these fishes at Ely :—

Spherodus gigas, Ag. (Palatal teeth.) Very common.

Py indas, Beaks tooth a
- Gyrodus, sp. (Palates.)

Asteracanthus ornatissimus, 4g. (Dorsal spines.) Common.

Leptacanthus. (Spine.)

Hybodus, sp. (Spines and teeth.)

Sphenonchus.

Lepidotus, sp. (Scales.)

Psammodus reticulatus, 4g. (Palatal teeth.) Common.

Edaphodon, sp.

The remains of reptiles consist chiefly of rolled bones and
teeth of Plesiosaurus and Ichthyosaurus ; water-worn teeth of
Pliosaurus (which reptile is characteristic of the Upper and
Middle Oolites) also occur in considerable quantities. Some
teeth of crocodilian character are found here as well as at Elyt.

I announced in the ‘ Annals of Natural History’ the discovery
in this bed of water-worn remains of the Iguanodon, which pro-
bably have been derived from the denudation of a deposit of
Wealden which formerly existed near this district. Since then,
I have obtained several more bones and teeth of this reptile.
Mr. Keeping has likewise collected’ some fine specimens for the
Woodwardian Museum, which previously contained no fossils
from this deposit.

Further evidence of the existence of the Wealden at some
period in this part of England has since been obtained by Mr.
Keeping, whose practical acquaintance with this formation is
well known: amongst the fossils collected by him are several

* Terebratula depressa, Lamk. = Modiola equalis, Sow.
Exogyra conica, Sow. Myacites plicata, Sow.
Plicatula, sp.
+ Mr. H. Woodward, of the British Museum, kindly informed me that
these teeth probably belong to a species of Dakosaurus (Quenstedt), which
genus occurs in the White Jura.

386 Mr. J. F. Walker on a Phosphatic Deposit.

pieces of the shelly limestone containing Cyrene, which in the
Wealden occurs in layers varying from 1 to 6 inches in thickness.

From a careful consideration of these facts, the conclusion
seems unavoidable, that the fossils contained in this deposit con-
sist of some coeval with its formation, and also of organic re-
mains derived from the denudation of the Wealden and of the
Kimmeridge and Oxford Clays.

The following are descriptions of the new species referred to
in this paper :—

Sphera Sedgwickii, n. sp. Pl. XIII. figs. 1 & 2.

Shell globose, nearly equilateral, slightly gibbous, concentrically
striated, the strie finer and more distinct towards the ventral
margin; ligament prominent ; lunule large, distinct, cordate, —
This shell is very plentiful, though it is rarely found perfect.

The largest specimens hitherto obtained do not exceed the fol-

lowing dimensions :—length 1:6 inch, breadth 1-5 inch, thick-

ness 1°3 inch.

In its general form this shell closely approaches S. corrugata,
Sby. (= Corbis cordiformis, D’Orb.); the striation of the surface,
however, is much finer, especially towards the margin; the
lunule is very distinctly marked. The anterior margin is also
destitute of the opening at the lower end of the lunule, repre-
sented in D’Orbigny’s figure. I have obtained two specimens
with the valves united, which show no traces of having been -
rolled. The other specimens are generally more or less frag-
mentary.

The fossil is named in honour of the venerable Professor who
first discovered Sphera corrugata.

Pholas Dallasii, n.sp. Pl. XIU. figs. 8 & 4.

Shell somewhat ovate, short, inflated, attenuated at the anal ex-
tremity, transversely divided by a single, nearly horizontal,
punctate furrow; the surface on each side of the furrow finely
striated ; the strize on the buccal side nearly parallel to the
margin, those on the anal side less distinct, abbreviated, and
obliquely directed towards the dorsal margin.

This little Pholas, which occurs in small pieces of wood mine-
ralized by phosphatic salts, is very nearly allied to P. Cornue-
liana, D’Orb., from which, however, it seems to differ abun-
dantly in its shorter form, which is more attenuated towards the
anal extremity, the more horizontal direction of its single punc-
tate furrow, and apparently the greater prominence of its um-
bones.

I have great pleasure in naming this fossil after my friend

W.S. Dallas, Esq., F.L.S.

Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides. 387 |

XLIX.—Report on Dredging among the Hebrides.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, F.R.S.

[As this Report embodies important and recent papers by
Professors Sars and Lovén, on the existence of animal life in
great depths of the sea, which do not appear to be known in
this country, I thought the subject would be sufficiently inter-
esting to publish it at once in this form, without waiting for the
appearance of the annual Report of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science.—J. G. J.]

This exploration lasted nearly two months, viz. from the 24th

of May to the 14th of July in the present year. It comprised
Sleat Sound, Lochs Alsh, Duich, Slapin, and Scavaig, and the
Minch from Croulin Island to Loch Ewe. I had a good cutter
yacht, the master of which had been employed by me for many
years as dredger and took considerable interest in the work, an
active and willing crew, four serviceable dredges, 300 fathoms
of new rope, machinery for hauling up the dredges, a large tub,
sieves, and various other apparatus. The Hydrographer of the
Navy obligingly supplied me with such charts as I required, to
show the depths and nature of the sea-bottom in the district
which I proposed to examine; and these were of great use in
dredging, as well as for navigation. The weather was too fine;
we were often becalmed for many hours together: and instead
of steady breezes, we had too many of those squalls which are so
prevalent, and occasionally dangerous, in the Hebrides.
- The Hebridean seas have often been searched, but not explored,
by zoologists. Their great extent, and the number of lochs and
inlets which indent the coast in every direction, would render
necessary an immense deal of money, time, and patience for a
complete investigation. There is little probability that the
subject of the present Report will ever be exhausted.

The invertebrate fauna of this district is of a northern charac-
ter, although there are a few exceptions. Such are, among the
Mollusca, Trochus umbilicatus, Phasianella pulla, Rissoa can-
cellata or crenulata, Odostomia lactea or Chemnitzia elegantissima,
and Pleurobranchus plumula. These may be regarded as south-
ern forms. The first and third occur as far north as Stornoway;
the second ranges to Dunnet Bay in Caithness ; of the fourth I
dredged a single specimen in the upper part of the Minch; and
the last lives between tide-marks in the Isle of Mull. As a set-
off to the above, I would mention the following species, which
have now for the first time been found so far south as the
Hebrides, viz. Montacuta tumidula (a new species, which I will
presently describe), Zrochus occidentalis, var. pura, Jeffreysia
globularis, and Odostomia eximia. The first is Swedish; the

388 Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides.

second is Zetlandic, Scandinavian, and North American, although
it has also been procured in the Orkneys and on the Aberdeen-
shire coast ; the third is Zetlandic, and the fourth Zetlandic also
and Norwegian. It must be borne in mind, as regards the
extent of geographical distribution, that the southern extremity
of the Shetland Isles is distant about 200 miles from the north-
ern extremity of the Hebrides “as the fish swims.” Besides
the four last-named species, the following seem to reach their
most southern limit in the Hebrides :—JLima elliptica, Leda
pygmea, and Trochus Grenlandicus. Leda pygmea has indeed
been dredged on the coast of Antrim ; but I am now inclined to
regard the specimens thus obtained as quaternary fossils.
Tethea cranium (a sponge not before known south of Shetland)
occurred in tolerable numbers on the Ross-shire side of the
Minch. Species of Mollusca, inhabiting the Hebridean seas,
which are in the main northern (although they have been found
somewhat further south, and some of them occasionally even in
the Mediterranean), are—Argiope cistellula, Pecten striatus,
Mytilus phaseolinus, Modiolaria nigra, Crenella decussata, Nucula
tenuis, Leda minuta, Arca pectunculoides, Montacuta ferruginosa,
Cyamium minutum, Cardium minimum, Cyprina Islandica, Astarte
compressa, Tellina pusilla, Scrobicularia nitida, Thracia convera,
Mya arenaria, M. truncata, Chiton Hanleyi, C. albus, C. ruber,
C.marmoreus, Tectura testudinalis, T. fulva, Propilidium ancyloides,
Puncturella Noachina, Emarginula crassa, Scissurella crispata,
Trochus helicinus, Lacuna divaricata, L. puteolus, L. pallidula,
Rissoa albella, Jeffreysia diaphana, J. opalina, Odostomia minima,
O. albella, O. insculpta, O. diaphana, Velutina plicatilis, V.
levigata, Trichotropis borealis, Purpura lapillus, Buccinum unda-
tum, Trophon Barvicensis, T. truncatus or Banffius, Fusus anti-
quus, F. gracilis, Nassa incrassata, Mangelia turricula, Defrancia
scabra, Cylichna nitidula, Amphisphyra hyalina, Philine scabra,
P. pruinosa, and P. quadrata.

For certain species, which are almost peculiar to the Hebrides,
I am not aware that any locality has been recorded between that
district and the Mediterranean. Such are Awinus ferruginosus,
Poromya granulata, Neera abbreviata, N. costellata, and Cylichna
acuminata. The first three of these were described by the late
Professor Edward Forbes, in the Report to the Association in
1843 on Aigean Invertebrata. Another Hebridean species
(Nucula sulcata) is not found southwards nearer than the coast
of Spain.

Some of our most conspicuous and prized shells, that are also
of a northern type, are wanting in the Hebrides. Sazxicava
Norvegica, Natica Grenlandica, Buccinum Humphreysianum,
Buccinopsis Dalei, Fusus Norvegicus, F. Turtoni, and F. Berni-

Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides. 389

ciensis are in this category. All the above (with the exception
of Buccinum Humphreysianum, which inhabits Shetland and the
coasts of county Cork) are met with on the Dogger bank; and
the first two are fossil in the Clyde beds. Six out of the seven
being univalves, I would venture to surmise that their non-exist-
ence in the western seas of Scotland may have arisen from the
circumstance that the diffusion of univalves is slower than that
of bivalves: The spawn of the former is attached to the spot
where it is shed, or in a few cases (e. g. Capulus and Calyptrea)
it is hatched within the shell of its sedentary parent; so that the
fry forms a colony, and need not roam to any distance, provided
their station yields a sufficient supply of food and has the other
requisites of habitability. Not so with bivalves. These shed their
ova into the water, or else (as in some of the Kellia family) hatch
them within the folds of the mantle, whence they are excluded
on arriving at maturity. Their fry swim freely and rapidly by
means of numerous encircling cilia. The metamorphic state lasts
many hours. During that period they can voluntarily traverse
considerable distances, or they may be involuntarily transported
by tidal and oceanic currents. Time is the only element neces-
sary for their widest dispersion over the adjacent seas, if no
barrier intervenes. Should, however, such an obstacle present
itself, whether in the shape of previously existing dry land, like
that which separates the North Sea from the Atlantic, or from
an upheaval and drying-up of the neighbouring sea-bed by
geological or cosmical causes, the further diffusion of any marine
animals in that direction must necessarily be stopped. An
opposite result would doubtless be produced by a smking and
submersion of dry land below the level of the sea, whereby the
diffusion of such animals would be greatly facilitated. This
appears to have been the fluctuating course of events since the
formation of the Coralline Crag, which was probably the cradle
or starting-point of our molluscan fauna—a period long antece-
dent to the last glacial epoch, and incalculably far beyond the
advent of man, unless his origin is much more remote than it is at
present supposed to be. Iam not inclined to attribute the north-
ern character of some of the Hebridean mollusca to the persist-
ence of what have been called “ boreal outliers.” The idea savours
more of poetry than of philosophy or fact. The boreal or truly
arctic species which once flourished in this district have become
quite extinct, probably in consequence of one of those revolutions
above suggested, by which the sea-bed was converted into dry
land. These boreal species consist chiefly of Rhynchonella psit-
tacea,Pecten Islandicus, Astarte crebricostata or depressa, Tellina
calearia, Mya truncata, var, Uddevallensis, Trochus cinereus, and
Astyris Holbéllii; and I have lately, as well as on a former

890 Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides.

cceasion, dredged them on the coasts of Skye and West Ross,
at depths of from 80 to 60 fathoms, or 180-360 feet. They
had a semifossilized appearance. Not one of the above-named
species has ever, to the best of my knowledge and belief, been
found in a living or recent state in any part of the British seas.
All of them occur in post-tertiary or quarternary deposits on the
west coast of Scotland, from a few feet above high-water mark*
to 820 feet above the present level of the seat. The greatest
subaérial height (320 feet) being added to the greatest submarine
depth as above (360 feet), gives an extent of elevation and sub-
sidence equal to 680 feet. But as Pecten Islandicus, for example,
now inhabits the arctic ocean at depths varying from 5 to 150
fathoms, let us take the average of these depths, viz. 774 fathoms
or 465 feet, and add it to the 680 feet. This would make 1145
feet, and probably represent the height at which the sea-level
may be supposed to have stood when P. Jslandicus lived on
the highest fossiliferous spot noticed by Mr. Watson. The
non-fossiliferous boulder-clay, indicating the simultaneous pre-
sence of arctic land which was also subject to glacial conditions,
is stated by Mr. Watson{ to be about 800 feet higher than the
marine deposit. The height of the layer of sea-shells on Moel
Tryfaen in Carnarvonshire (evidently the remains of an ancient
beach) exceeds that of the similar deposit at Cardigan by more
than 1300 feet; and the difference of height observed in the
case of other fossiliferous deposits in the north of England
(e.g. Manchester and Kelsey Hill) shows that the disturbing
movement has been unequal, and probably not synchronous, over
the samearea. It would seem that the extent of such oscillation
has not altogether amounted to 2000 feet in the British Isles,
taking Moel Tryfaen as the greatest height, and the Shetland
sea-bed as the greatest depth at which quaternary shells of
recent species occur. The Scotch and Irish deposits, however,
are on the whole far more ancient than those of Wales and
England, judging from their geographical nature; the former
are chiefly arctic, and the latter merely northern. Whether
other parts of the North Atlantic sea-bed have undergone a
much greater change of level since the tertiary epoch is not so well
established. Dr. G.C. Wallich, in bis admirable and philosophical
treatise §, with which all marine zoologists and geologists are, or
ought to be, familiar, believed that certain starfishes which he

* British Association Report, 1862, Trans. Sect. p. 73 : Jeffreys, *On an
Ancient Sea-bed and Beach near Fort William, Inverness-shire.”

+ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1864, p, 526: Rey,
R. B. Watson, “On the Great Drift-beds with Shells i in the South of Arran.”

{ Loe. cit. p. 524.

§ The North Atlantic Sea-bed, 1862.

- Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides. 391

had procured at a depth of 1260 fathoms (7560 feet) in lat. 59°
27' N., long. 26° 41' W., about halfway between Cape Farewell
and the north-west coast of Ireland, were originally a shallow-
water species, but had gradually, and through a long course of
generations, accommodated themselves to the abnormal conditions
incident on the subsidence of the sea-bed*. The starfishes in
question, which he refers to the Ophiocoma granulata of Forbes
(Asterias nigra of O. F. Miiller), appear, however, to belong to
a different species, which inhabits deep water. In an important
paper by Professor Sars, on the distribution of animal life in the
depths of the seat, he states that Ophiocoma nigra (O. granulata,
Forbes) is certainly found in shallow water, viz. from 2 to 30
fathoms, on the coast of Norway, but never at a greater depth
so far as is yet known, and that it does not range north of the firth
of Drontheim. He is of opinion that Dr. Wallich’s species is
Ophiacantha spinulosa of Miller and Troschel, a well-known and
Greenlandic species, which is not littoral, but rather a deep-water
kind, viz. from 20 to 190 fathoms; and he infers from Wallich’s
own account that the last-named species, instead of Ophiocoma
nigra or granulata, was the one taken by the ‘ Bulldog’-sounding
in 1260 fathoms. Dr.Wallich also adduces his discovery, at a
depth of 682 fathoms (4092 feet), in lat. 63° 31’ N., long. 13°
41’ W., of two testaceous Annelids, which he assumed to belong
to “known shallow-water forms,” as further evidence of an
extensive submergence of the North Atlantic sea-bed. These
Annelids were named by him Serpula vitrea and Spirorbis nau-
tiloides. But Professor Sars disputes their being shallow-water
species. The former he identifies with his Serpula polita
(= Placostegus tridentatus, Fabricius) ; the latter is referred by
Mércht{ to the Serpula spirorbis of Linné. The one is regarded
by Sars as a deep-water and not littoral species, being found on
the Norwegian coast in 20 to 800 fathoms; the other has a
wide bathymetrical range, from low-water mark to 300 fathoms.
I suspect, moreover, that there has been some mistake in the
determination of the Spirorbis, and that it belongs to another
species than that to which Wallich has assigned it. As to the
accuracy of his staternent that he procured living starfishes from
a depth of 1260 fathoms, under the circumstances which he has
described (viz. convulsively embracing a portion of the sound-
ing-line, which had been paid out in excess of the already
ascertained depth, and rested for a sufficient period at the bottom
to permit of their attaching themselves to it”), no reasonable

* Loe. cit. p. 41.

+ Vid.-Selsk. Forhandl. 1864: Hr.Sars, “Bemeerkninger over det dyriske
Livs Udbredning i Havets Dybder.”

t Naturhist. Tidsskr. 1863: ‘ Revisio critica Serpulidarum.”

392 Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides.

doubt can be entertained. I have myself seen a number of
Antedon (or Comatula) celticus clinging to the rope several feet
from the dredge when it was taken up from about 60 fathoms.
These starfishes must have crawled up the rope while the dredge
was in motion or being hauled in, because no part of the rope
had lain on the ground. Dr. Carpenter tells me that Antedon
rosaceus has the same habit of crawling up and clasping a rope
in shallow water.

The greatest depth marked on the Admiralty charts in-any
part of the Hebridean sea-bed which I examined is 132 fathoms,
Here I got several kinds of living Foraminifera. Nineteen
years ago I dredged near the same ground, in 116 fathoms, a fine
cluster of one of the compound Tunicata, Diazona Hebridica,
of a greenish-pink colour. I do not mention this as a great or
even considerable depth. Sars* and Korent+ have done much
more on the coasts of Norway; their dredging-explorations
extended to 800 fathoms. In the paper from which I have
extracted the above remarks as to the distribution of animal life
in the depths of the sea, Professor Sars has enumerated no less
_ than 52 species and distinct varieties of animals found by him
at the depth of 800 fathoms. They may be thus classified :—
Porifera (Sponges) 2; Rhizopoda (Foraminifera) 19; Polypi
(Actinozoa) 7; Mollusca (Polyzoa 8, Tunicata 1, Mollusca proper
10) 19; and Vermes (Annelida) 5. He has also specified several
Echinoderms, Cirripeds, and Crustacea, as inhabiting somewhat
less depths, viz. from 200 to 250 fathoms. The observations
of the learned Norwegian zoologist confirm those of Sir James
Ross and Dr. Wallich, namely :—

Ist. That the temperature of the sea is uniform (39°°5 Fahr.)
over the whole globe, below a certain line which forms an isother-
mal curve, with but slight oscillations caused by changes of the
atmosphere. This curve has its greatest depth at the Equator,
but reaches the surface of the ocean in lat. 56° 62', and dips
again as it approaches the pole from this point.

2nd. Although the pressure of the water is enormous at great
depths, and in 300 fathoms is equal to about 56 atmospheres
or 840 lbs. on the square inch t, yet the most brittle and delicate
animals (such as Polyzoa and Polyps) inhabiting such depths do
not appear to suffer the slightest injury. Their structure is
porous and permeable by liquids, or accessible to an endosmotic
influence by which the pressure is easily resisted.

* Reise i Lofoten og Finmarken, 1849.

+ Nyt Mag. Naturw. 1856.

{ The Norse skaalpund is 10 per cent. more than the English Ib. avoir-
dupois. Sixteen Norwegian square inches are equal to seventeen English
square inches.

Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides. 398

3rd. The want of light has always been considered an obstacle
to the existence of animal life at great depths—not so much
because light is directly essential to animal life, as on account of
its indirectly contributing to its maintenance, It is generally
supposed that animals are dependent on vegetable life. This
latter, as is well known, cannot exist without light, under the influ-
ence of which the absorption of carbonic acid and the evolution
of oxygen are effected. Light, however, exerts no such influ-
_ ence on animal life. Sea-weeds (the true Alge) disappear in
about 200 fathoms; and the only vegetable organisms which
descend to a greater depth, say 400 fathoms, are Diatomacez.
It may be observed, with respect to the action of light in pro-
ducing colour in animals, that although intensity of light may
produce a corresponding inténsity of colour under ordinary cir-
cumstances, yet the diminution or absence of light in the sea is
not necessarily followed by a diminution or absence of colour in
marine animals. Those taken from considerable depths have
frequently vivid colours. The animal of Lima excavata (a com-
paratively gigantic species), from 300 fathoms, is of the same
bright red colour as those of L. Loscombit and L. hians from
shallow water. It has been shown that red rays of light (7. e.
actinic contradistinguished from luminous rays) penetrate deepest
in the water. I will not here repeat what I have already pub-
lished* on this interesting subject ; but I may add that all the
animals recorded as living at great depths are zoophagous, none
of them phytophagous. The deep-sea dredgings of the Swedish
Expedition to Spitzbergen in 1861 yielded some valuable results.
Adjunct Professor Thorell and Professor Keferstein communicated
some short and imperfect notices to the northern journals; but
Professor Lovén has lately given us fuller information, which is
published in the ‘ Transactions of Scandinavian Naturalists’ at
their ninth meeting held tn 1863+. A Brooke’s lead and a
_* Bulldog’ machine, with several improvements, were used on this
occasion. Depths from 6000 to 8400 feet (1000-1400 fathoms f)
were thus explored. The sea-bottom at these depths was covered
with a fine greasy-feeling material of a yellow-brownish or grey
colour, rich in Diatomacez § and Polythalamia, and nearly devoid
of sand. Professor Lovén was furnished with the notes of

* British Conchology, vol. i. Intr. pp. xlviii-l, and vol. ii, Intr,
pp: Viii-xi.

+ Stockholm, 1865: p. 384,

{ The Swedish foot makes only 0°974 English foot. The Scandinavian
fathom is 6 feet.

§ This does not quite agree with the accounts of Wallich and Sars, which
give 400 fathoms as the limit of vegetable life ; but it does not appear that
the Diatomacez observed by Lovén had actually lived on the sea-bottom.
They might have been pelagic and floating kinds,

Ann. § Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3, Vol. xviii. 27

°

“894 - Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides.

Messrs. Chydenius and Malmgren, made during the expedition,
and with all the animals discovered in those great depths. The
latter comprised:—Annelida, viz. species of Spiochetopterus and
Cirratulus ; Crustacea, viz. a Cuma which appeared to be iden-
tical with C. rubicunda, Lilljeborg, and an Apseudes; Mollusca,
‘viz. a Cylichna ; Gephyrea, viz. a fragment of Myriotrochus Rinki,
Steenstrup, and another allied form with large and fewer star-
‘wheels, and of smaller wheels of the Myriotrochus-type; a spe-
cies of Sipunculus resembling S. margaritaceus, Sars ; and, lastly,
a sponge, in which were found a Copepod or Ostracod, and a
fragment of a Cuma resembling C. nasica. In the opinion of
Lovén these animals indicate, so far as can be judged by so
small a number, that in the abysses of the glacial seas there lives
a fauna which does not greatly differ from that which lives on
the same kind of bottom at much less depths. Proceeding up-
wards to the surface, from 50 or 60 fathoms the regions or zones
have a greater variety of animals, even over the same kind of
bottom. Taking this into consideration, and also recollecting
that in the Antarctic seas, at measurable depths, there are forms
of Mollusca and Crustacea which exhibit partly generic, partly
almost specific identity with northern and hyperborean forms, the
idea occurs to him that, from 60 or 80 fathoms down to the
‘greatest depth known to be inhabited by animals, the bottom is
everywhere covered with a soft and fine mud or clay, and that
there exists from pole to pole, in all latitudes, a deep-sea fauna
of the same general character, many species of which have a very
wide distribution. He also thinks it probable that in the vici-
nity of both poles such a uniform fauna approaches the surface ;
while in tropical seas it occupies the depths of the ocean, the
coast-line there being represented by vast regions of distinct
faunas, the circumferences or areas of which are much more li-
mited. But, in the face of the discovery made by Professor Sars
that large Brachiopoda, stony corals, and Polyzoa, as well as cer-
tain Mollusca (e. g. Anomia and Saxicava) which are peculiar to .
a hard or even toa rocky bottom, inhabit a depth of 300 fathoms, .
and. seeing that Dr. Wallich found a living Serpula attached to
a stone at the depth of 682 fathoms, I am not prepared to accept,
without considerable qualification, Professor Lovén’s notion that
. the sea-bottom from 60 or 80 fathoms downwards is everywhere
formed of soft material; indeed we need not go far from home
to seek a refutation of this idea. Captain Beechey’s dredgings
off the Mull of Galloway, in 145 fathoms (as reported by the
late Mr. Thompson, of Belfast, in the ‘Annals and Magazine of
Natural History’ for September 1842, p. 21), yielded live speci-
mens of Chiton fascicularis, C. cinereus, Trochus millegranus, and
Trophon Barvicensis, all of which are inhabitants of hard or

Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides. 895

stony, and never of soft ground, besides dead shells of the same _
and similar species. That is more than twice the average depth
supposed by Professor Lovén to be the limit of hard ground.
The Hebridean sea-bed, at very moderate depths (which Dr.
‘Wallich would call “ shallow water”), mainly consists of a soft
and more or less tenacious mud, mixed with stones of different
sizes, and resembling in its composition the boulder-clay or gla-
cial drift of Scotch geologists. It tells us of rocks ground down
by glaciers year after year in an arctic region—of the mud pro-
duced by such attrition being carried into the sea in the thawing-
season by overwhelming floods, “non sine montium clamore ”
(see Dr. Kane’s description of the great Humboldt glacier)—of
its dispersion over the sea-bed by the action of tides and curs
rents—of the deposit thus formed being inhabited by a variety
of animals of a high northern type during a long and quiet
course of time—of the sea-bed being elevated by slow degrees
‘above the surface of the water by an agency which we cannot satis-
factorily explain, but which may be volcanic, or perhaps caused
_ by steam*—of the consequent extermination of these marine
-animals—of an interval during which the raised sea-bed was
dry land—of a gradual amelioration of the climate—of another
‘oscillation of the earth’s crust in a downward direction, when
the surface of the land, covered by its former deposit, again be-
came the bottom of the sea—and of a fresh succession of life,
which is still in existence. Thus a cycle of similar events con-
‘tinually recurs. Nothing is lost or altogether perishes ; all the
old materials are used up, and assume new forms. It is the
fashion to quote Lucretius. I will only indulge in two lines;
they seem not to be inapplicable to the present subject :-——

*‘ Hue accedit uti quicque in sua corpora rursum
dissoluat natura neque ad nilum interemat res.”

_ The kind assistance of Mr. Alder, Dr. Carpenter, the Rev. A.
M. Norman, Messrs. Henry and George Brady, Dr. M‘Intosh,
and Mr. Peach—all of them experienced zoologists—enables me
‘to supplement this Report with notices of other departments of
the invertebrate fauna, which have resulted from the last grant
‘made to me. Several new species, especially among the smaller
Crustacea, have occurred; and our knowledge of geographical
distribution has been not a little advanced by the work. Mr.
‘Norman’s services especially deserve acknowledgment.
I have made my usual contribution to the British Museum.

_ * Vide Mr. R. A. Peacock’s pamphlet ‘On Steam as the Motive Power
in a and Voleanoes, and on Cayities in the Earth’s Crust.’
Jersey, 1866,

27%

396 Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys on Dredging among the Hebrides.

Description of a new species of Montacuta,
Monracura TUMIDULA*, Jeffreys.

Suezz rhomboideo-oval, rather gibbous, thin, semitransparent,
glossy, and prismatic: sculpture, numerous and close-set
delicate, microscopical concentric striz: colour yellowish:
epidermis fine and silky: margins, on the posterior side
extremely short and sloping downwards, without any of the
angularity which characterizes M. bidentata ; in front gently
curved; on the anterior side considerably expanding and
rounded ; on the back rising towards the anterior end: beaks
small, calyciform, blunt and prominent, incurved, but not
having any indentation below them; they are placed close to the
posterior side, which is the shortest and not one-sixth the size
of the anterior side: Ainge-line rectangular, occupying about
one-third of the circumference: cartilage as in M. bidentata:
hinge-plate narrow and strong, thicker in the middle, not ex-
cavated so deeply as in the last-named species, and scarcely at
all in the right valve: ¢eeth, in the right valve short, trian-
gular, slightly inclining inwards, not widely separated ; in the
left valve long, erect, laminar, and parallel with the hinge-
line; the anterior teeth are the largest in both valves: inside
iridescent and polished, very finely marked (more distinctly
on the anterior side) with slight lines which radiate from the
beaks: scars irregularly oblong, conspicuous. lL, 0°075.
B, 0-1.

- Hasirat. Muddy ground in the Minch off the north-west
coast. of Ross-shire, in 50-60 fathoms. I there found only a
single dead specimen ; but twenty years ago I dredged another
in Skye, which I deferred noticing until I was quite satisfied of
its differmg from M. bidentata. [Since this Report was pre-
sented, Mr. Dawson has found two more specimens in some
‘of the dredged sand which I had sent him.] Among the shells
procured by Professor Lilljeborg in Bohuslan, on the south coast
of Sweden, I observed two or three specimens of the present
species, one of which he kindly gave me.

This shell is smaller than M. bidentata; it may also be dis-
tinguished from that species by its narrower shape, being con-
vex instead of compressed, having a glossy surface, and by the
posterior side being extremely small, with almost a perpendicular
truncation. That side in M, bidentata is invariably squarish,
and more or less angulated. The teeth in the right valve of
M. tumidula are much smaller, and less widely separated by the

* Somewhat swollen.

Dr. Bowerbank on Hyalonema mirabilis. 897

cartilage-pit ; they are triangular instead of leaf-like, and slightly
incline inwards instead of being erect.

M. truncata of Searles Wood, from-the Coralline Crag, is a
comparatively large, squarish, and flattened shell, and has long
‘cardinal teeth.

L.—On Hyalonema mirabilis, in reply to Dr. Gray.
By Dr. Bowrrsank.

In the ‘Annals and Magazine’ for October 1866, p. 287, Dr.
Gray has published a note “ On the ‘Glass-rope’ Hyalonema,” in
which he has criticised the short observations on that genus in
the first volume of my Monograph of the British Spongiade.
Those observations were never meant to be taken as a history of
‘the anatomy and physiology of that curious animal, but simply as
‘an introduction to the genus Hyalonema among the Sponges, and
as a reason for figuring the numerous interesting forms of its sili-
ceous spicula among those of various other species of Sponges.
‘The detailed account of these organs, except as far as it was neces-
sary to illustrate the specimens selected for figuring, was reserved
for a paper shortly to be published, and especially devoted to a
‘minute investigation of the whole of the organization of the
animal, including the basal mass of sponge-tissue, the spiculous
axis, or rope, and its coriaceous envelope, with a view to establish
the organic unity of these parts as portions of one and the same
animal. ia

The criticisms of Dr. Gray are therefore somewhat premature ;
‘and in some respects he has so far misrepresented my opinions
as to render a reply to his observations necessary. But in thus
answering his remarks it must be understood.that I shall not at
present attempt to decide the questions in dispute, as to whether
it be a single animal or two animals, the one parasitical on
the other, and that I shall reserve the structural proofs and the
reasonings necessary to such a decision for a paper on the sub-
ject, which I have long had in preparation and which I hope
shortly to be able to publish.

In page 289 Dr. Gray writes, “Again, the specimens being
sunk in a sponge that hada flat base by which it was attached
to some marine body, I concluded that the natural habit of the
animal was to develope itself in a sponge, so as to support itself
in an erect position ; and this idea was strengthened by finding
that the sponge near the part where the coral perforated it was
of a more condensed and harder texture than the other parts of
it. I concluded that there was a kind of mutual understanding
-(such as we often find between animals that are parasitic on one

898 Dr. Bowerbank on Hyalonema mirabilis,

another) between the sponge and the coral.” But, if this theory
of Dr, Gray’s be correct, the “ mutual understanding” must have
been carried very much further than the Doctor supposes—even
to the extent of sharing the spicula of their respective skeletons —
between them, as the remarkable cylindro-cruciform siliceous
spicula, so abundant in the inner coat of the envelope of the
siliceous rope of spicula, are still more so in the body of the
basal sponge. This uniformity in their anatomical structure, to
an unprejudiced naturalist, would seem rather to identify them
as parts of the same animal than of two distinct species, how-
-ever closely attached by ties of “ mutual understanding.” But
the truth appears to me to be, that, although Dr. Gray has had
the British Museum specimen with the spongeous base under his
care for many years, he has never yet made a careful micro-
scopical examination of the tissues of its basal mass.

In page 291 he writes, “ In 1860 Professor Max Schultze
published the elaborate essay above quoted; and he regards
the rope of siliceous spicula as part of a sponge, and the
polypes as parasitic on it, calling the polypes Polythoa fatua
mihi ;” and he continues, “ Dr. Bowerbank, adopting the same
view, in his lately published work on British Sponges, gives the
following as the generic character of the genus Hyalonema.”
This asertion is incorrect, as I have always maintained that the
‘siliceous axis, its envelopment, and the basal sponge were all
parts of the same animal, as the following generic characters I
have proposed will prove.

Hyatonema, Gray.

“Skeleton an indefinite network of siliceous spicula, composed
of separated elongated fasciculi, reposing on continuous mem-
branes, having the middle of the sponge perforated vertically by
‘an extended fasciculus of single, elongated, and very large spi-
cula forming the axial skeleton of a columnal cloacal system ”
(vol. i. p. 196).

I will not at present follow the author of the paper through
all his reasonings on the subject, as mere opinion or mere
argument form by-no means the best mode of settling such
disputes, and as I shall shortly publish a full detail of my
examinations of the anatomy and physiology of Hyalonema, in
which, I trust, I shall be able to prove that the basal sponge, the
‘spiral axis, and its coriaceous envelope are really parts of one and
the same animal. There is another misreprésentation which I
cannot allow myself to pass without comment. Dr. Gray, in
page 292, writes, “ Unfortunately Dr.Bowerbank does not seem
to have considered it necessary to examine the specimens, but
simply copies the plate, or to examine other genera of corals; or

in reply to Dr. J. E. Gray. 399

he would have found that what he calls oscula are, as I called
them in the description he quotes, polype-cells containing polypes
haying tentacles and all the internal organization, including a ~
-distinetly plicated stomach, exactly like the zoanthoid polype
named Polythoa or Corticaria.’ How the stomach of the sup-
posed polype can be like that of Corticaria, a genus of Coleo=
pterous insects, is beyond my comprehension; but it may be
that the author meant to write Corticifera, a generic name
of Lesueur for Zoanthus. The assertion that I did not seem
to have considered it necessary to examine the specimens is also
inaccurate ; and it must have escaped the memory of Dr. Gray.
that in 1860 the specimens alluded to were, by his direction,
placed in my hands for examination, that for two days, during
_ nearly four hours of each, I was engaged in the Entomological
Department in a careful microscopical examination of their
anatomical structures, and that a portion of the results of those
examinations were published in the second part of my paper “On
the Anatomy and Physiology of the Spongiade” in the ‘ Philo-
sophical Transactions’ for 1861, and were illustrated by no less
than thirteen figures in two of the plates accompanying that
Part. In plate xxxi., figures 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, and in plate
xxxvi. figures 12, 20, 30, 34, 35, 36, 37, and 38, are all from the
specimen of Hyalonema in the British Museum, excepting fig. 7,
plate xxxi., which is from the specimen in the Bristol Museum.
I did not deem it necessary to refigure the specimen in the
British Museum, as it had been so accurately and beautifully
drawn by Mr. Ford for the ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.’ for 1857, plate ix.
Radiata.

Dr. Gray blames me for supposed hasty conclusions and
inaccuracies, and at the same time exhibits the like symptoms
in his own observations: thus in page 288 he writes Halichondra
in place of Halichondria, Alcyonellum (p. 298) instead of Alcyon-
cellum, and Euplatella in place of Euplectella, and, throughout the
whole of the paper, Polythoa* apparently instead of Polyzoa, or
of Palythoa, Lamouroux, a genus of Zoanthidee.

Dr. Gray adopts the idea of M. Barboza du Bocage, that the
protuberant bodies from the bark of Hyalonema are allied to
Zoanthus, and that they bear on their summits the tentacles of
the polypes; and the figure of those parts by M. Barboza du
Bocage in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1864,
plate xxxiii. fig. 3, if he thinks fit to assume that as a correct
representation of tentacula, would seem to justify him in that
idea; but a little consideration would have informed him that
the tentacles of polypes are always situated on the oral portion
of the animal, and not on the surrounding portions of the

* [For this mistake the printer is to blame. It should have been
Palythoa throughout, instead of Polythoa.—Ep. }

400 Dr. Bowerbank on Hyalonema mirabilis.

polypidom ; and it may be observed that Dr. Gray, in p. 292,
himself designates the protuberances which I have termed
oscula as “ polype- cells,” and not as polypes. I have abundant
specimens of Corticifera, and have had several of the polype-cases.
of Zoanthus Couchii in my possession, and in all my examina-
tions of them I could never ascertain that the polypidoms of
either secreted siliceous spicula. These bodies, in every case
that has come under my observation, have been formed of
aggregated adventitious materials, principally sand, with occa-
sionally a stray spiculum amidst the heterogeneous material
adhering to, and incorporated in, the fleshy cases of the
polypes.

Dr. Gray is also mistaken in his belief that I have not paid
sufficient attention to the structure of corals to enable me to
escape such errors of judgment as he imputes to me; but the
truth is, that in the course of the preparation of my paper “On
the Organic Tissues in the Bony Structure of the Corallidee,”
published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society,’ vol. exxvii. p. 215, I examined microscopically speci-
mens of a great number of ‘corals belonging to different genera,
as well as many of the Gorgoniade, but have never succeeded
in finding a single species of either of them which secreted silex
as a material of its skeleton. Nothing was more common than
to find a mixture of various forms of siliceous sponge-spicula
deeply buried in the interstices of corals, and minute siliceous
coating-sponges covering the bases and sometimes surrounding
the stems of Gorgonias ; but.in. both cases such spicula were
decidedly either adventitious or parasitical; and I think I may
safely challenge Dr. Gray to produce a single instance of either
a true coral or a Gorgonia secreting siliceous matter as the
base of its skeleton, or, indeed, of any other polype-bearing
animal the earthy base of which is siliceous. The fact of the
presence of siliceous spicula in the inner coat of what he terms
the bark of Hyalonema should have warned him that it could
not belong to either of the genera ‘‘ Corticaria” (qu. Cortici-
fera) or Zoanthus. Excepting among the Protozoa, I do not
think Dr. Gray will find a single animal which secretes silex
in its skeleton.”

Dr. Gray writes, p. 290, that M. Barboza du Bocage states
that the basal portion of the axis which is inserted in the sponge
in some of the Japanese specimens is covered with the polype-
bearing bark, the pelypes near the dase being smaller; but the
passage quoted from M. Barboza du Bocage’s paper by no
means bears out this assertion of Dr. Gray. The quotation is
as follows :—‘Chez ces derniers (les exemplaires du Portugal)
le corium polypigerum enveloppe l’axis d’une maniére uniforme,
il recouvre parfaitement Pune des extrémités de Vaxis, Ja plus

On the Systematic Position of the Pronghorn. 401

étroite, et de ld il s’étend sans aucune interruption jusqu’aux 2 ou
les 2 de la longueur totale. Les polypes placés sur l’extrémité
de V’axis sont les plus petits de tous (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865,
p: 663, and 1864, t. 22. fig. 2).” This misunderstanding of the
passage quoted by Dr. Gray tends more than ever to confuse our
ideas on the subject, whether we consider Hyalonema a coral,
a zoanthoid polype, or a sponge. M. Barboza du Bocage cer-
tainly does not mean in the passage to infer that the thin end of
the column covered with protuberances was the basal end, and
was accordingly originally immersed in the basal spongious
mass.

Dr. Gray has been pleased to say of my recently published
Monograph of the British Sponges, “But all the descriptions
of this work are so indistinct and crowded with technicalities
peculiar to the author, that they are very difficult to understand,
and render a new examination of the species and a new work on
the subject requisite.” I regret that I cannot furnish: the
learned author with any means of comprehending my descrip-
tions except those contained in my volumes; but it is consola-
tory to know that there are other naturalists who can do so.
No one has advocated the necessity of every newly discovered
animal having a definite name more strongly than Dr. Gray ;
but that which is applicable to the whole animal does not, in
his opinion, seem equally so to its parts. On this question I
must beg leave to differ from him. I found a great portion of
the British Sponges were new to our Fauna, and nearly all of
their parts without names by which to designate and describe
them. I was therefore. compelled to name and describe both
the component parts and the species; and whether I have or
have not succeeded in employing suitable designations, I can
assure the author of the paper that I should hail the accom-
plishment of a similar work to mine, exhibiting a greater
amount of talent and research, with unfeigned pleasure, for the
sake of the advancement of a branch of natural history the
study of which has afforded me many years of pleasure and
satisfaction.

LI.—On the Systematic Position of the Pronghorn (Antilocapra
americana). By P. L. Scrarer, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Secre-
- tary to the Zoological Society of London*.

Tue author stated that his chief object in the present commu-
nication was to bring into more prominent notice a very impor-

. * Abstract of a paper read before the British Association, Section D.,
Aug. 23, 1866. Communicated by the Author.

402 ‘Dr. P. L. Sclater on the Systematic Position

tant discovery regarding this animal, that had been made in the
Zoological Society’s Gardens in the Regent’s Park during the
past year, and had formed the subject of a paper read by Mr,
Bartlett, the Superintendent of the Gardens, at one of the So-
ciety’s meetings in 1865*. This discovery was, that the horns
of the Pronghorn were naturally shed every year—a phenomenon
hitherto quite unknown among the Bovide or hollow-horned
Ruminants, with which the Pronghorn had always hitherto been
associated, and only occurring in the allied Deer-family or Cer-~
vide. Mr. Bartlett’s observations had been made upon a young
male of this scarce mammal, which had been acquired for the
Society in January 1865+, and had since lived in good health
in the Menagerie. This animal had shed both its horns on the
7th of November, 1865; and a finer pair had since grown, which
would, no doubt, be shed in like manner in Nov. 1866. Since
Mr. Bartlett’s publication of this novel fact, full confirmation of
it had been received by the Zoological Society, in a communica-
tion from their Corresponding Member, Dr. Colbert A. Canfield, —
of Monterey, California, who had come to the same conclusion

as Mr. Bartlett, from observations on this animal in a state of

nature made in the county of Monterey, in some parts of which

the Pronghorn was very common f.

The author exhibited a skull of the Pronghorn with the horns.
fully developed and ready to be cast off shortly, and explained
the mode in which he supposed the shedding to be effected.
After the old horn was cast off, the horny matter, which was
at first entirely confined to the upper end of the new horn,
gradually spread itself down to its base, enveloping the nu-
merous hairs with which the new horn was clothed when first
appearing, and ultimately checking their growth and destroying
their vitality. After the horn was perfected and hardened,
new hairs developed themselves beneath the epidermis, and,
not being able to force their way through the horny co-
vering, became, as the author believed, the chief agent in
eausing the shedding of the horn. As regards the general
structure of the horns of the Pronghorn, it was quite evident
that they had little-or nothing in common with those of the
Deer. The latter were formed of bone developed upon a
process of the frontal bone, and were more correctly termed
antlers, whereas the horn of the Pronghorn consisted of true
horn (like those of the ordinary Bovide) gradually developed

* «Remarks upon the Affinities of the Prongbuck,” by A. D. Bartlett,
Superintendent of the Society’s Gardens. (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 718.)

t See notice and figure, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 60, pl. oi

t See Dr. Canfield’s paper “On the Habits of the Prongbuck, and the
periodical shedding of its horns,” Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 105. :

. of the Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). 403

a the epidermis, the skin remaining complete underneath
them. .
Two other points in which the Pronghorn differed from all
_ the other known Bovide were the fureation of the horns and in
the absence of the “ false hoofs,” as the stunted terminations of
_ the rudimental second and fifth digits of each foot are termed,
in which latter respect it resembled the Giraffes (Camelopardalis).
‘These three important modifications of structure, when taken
together, induced the author to believe that it would be neces-
sary to raise the genus Antilocapra to the rank of a family in
the series of Ruminantia, which he proposed to arrange some-
what as given in the subjoined table. a

Order ARTIODACYLA.

‘Division RUMINANTIA,
TI. RuMINANTIA PHALANGIGRADA,

“Placenta diffusa. Stomachus tripartitus: dentes
_ primores = canini =: molares = aut a
pedes didactyli ........sssseseseceseceesene panskashidnse 1, Camelide,

II. RuMINANTIA UNGULIGRADA,

a, Placenta polycotyledonaria. Stomachus quadri-
partitus: dentes primores = canini a aut
3 molares = ‘
a', Pedes didactyli, ungulis succenturiatis nullis.
a". Cornua in sutura coronali posita, ossea,
brevia, pelle tecta ......sssseesesseeseeeeeoes 2. Camelopardalide,
b’. Cornua ex osse frontali orta basi ossea,
parte superiore cornea, fureata, decidua . 3. Antilocapride.
b’. Pedes tetradactyli, ungulis succenturiatis
duabus.

-e”. Cornua ex osse frontali orta, basi ossea,
parte superiore cornea, non furcata, per-
MUNOMIEL naa, Lo cedacesaseesaty bones 4, Bovide,
; d". Cornua ex osse frontali orta, omnino
GESCA, GECIDUA ..2...ccrcccsescsecccccvsevcceens 5. Cervide.
e’. Cornua nulla, dentes canini marium
SINE Sia SAS cade ks vasss¥Gavids Got voesdhi nes 6. Moschide,

b. Placenta diffusa. Stomachus tripartitus; dentes
i 0—0 ». 1-1 6—6
primores ;—3; canini ;—,, molares g—g; pedes

tetradactyli; cornua nulla ...... iepat dunes sesseseee 2 Tragulide,

In conclusion the author called attention to the geographical
distribution of the Ruminants, as shown in the subjoined table,
in which the geographical divisions employed were the same as
those used by the author in his paper on the distribution of

404
Birds*, but which he believed to be equally applicable to the

class of Mammals.

Prof. E. Suess on Hyalonema in a Fossil State.

Table of the Distribution of Ruminants.

ORBIS NOVUS. OrBIS ANTIQUUS,
Regio Regio Regio Regio Regio Regio ;
Neotropica.| Nearctica. || Palzearctica.| Zthiopica. Indica. | Australiana.
Vs CARCI oc. .04, deledecccacsaso|ntanetecanetons Camelus
‘ Auchenia
B. Cameipperdalide { sates ced ekts fs stawevadeokn cet) MRernensene Camelopardalis
3. Antilocapridae.....|......sec008 Antilocapra
OR AS (Haplocerus) || Antilope | Antilope Antilope
Veeeeas ves dh eaburuemieeeies Capra Capra Capra
A, Bovidee ctavesccaeleseceonse one Ovis Ovig i) Repeater ene Ovis
paucresvopne Ovibos ‘
..|Bos Bos Bos Bos
Phiaccwenee Tarandus Tarandus
5. Cervide .....000 Cervus ...| Cervus Cereus "| s.0cssassceecetane Cervus
ia cige ince cel iwcnbe chose eb ul iecdtelen dames] eee leer eneik ae Cervulus
Bs NEORCOIOLS 5 sas shag cepacotsdes| ocecavsecueeons Moschus
i oo EE I co sscssebPwrnsnes seboaseer||"Seeesewosbee'| Rileaiueenee cme Tragulus
9- TRRGRROR +020» { cckacs wach chuectaanat nese ll agamaageaas Hyomoschus

LII.—On the Existence of Hyalonema in a Fossil State.
By Prof. EK, Suxss, of Vienna.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

A very interesting note on the “ Glass-Rope Hyalonema,” by
Dr. Gray, in your last Number induces me to give the following
supplement.

A very common fossil of the Yorkshire Mountain Limestone,
described by M‘Coy under the name “ Serpula parallela,” is, in
fact, a true “Glass-Rope.” Specimens of this curious fossil
were first given to me by my excellent friend Mr. Edw. Wood,
of Richmond, in 1861 ; and I took a good number of specimens
with me to Vienna, because the siliceous nature of the fossil, in
a rock the other fossils of which are not changed into silex,
seemed to me to deserve some closer observation. I soon found
out the cause of this curious difference, and published a note on
the true relations of Serpula parallela in the ‘ Verhandlungen ’ of
the Vienna Zoological Society for 1862 (vol. xii. pp. 85 & 86).
I hope that English paleontologists, after having read this note
and reexamined the fossil, will agree in naming it Hyalonema
parallelum.

Yours most respectfully,
Epwarp Svgss,

: Vienna, Oct. 13, 1866. University, Vienna.

* Journ. Proc. Linn. Soe. ii. p. 130.

Determination of the Cladoniei by Hydrate of Potash, 405

LIII.—Notule Lichenologice. No. XI.
By the Rev. W. A. Leicuron, B.A., F.L.S.

On the Examination and Rearrangement of the Cladoniei, as
tested by Hydrate of Potash.

In no case is the new reactive, hydrate of potash (see Annals &
Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xvii. p. 169), of greater practical
_ utility than in’ the difficult tribe of the Cladoniei, that crua of
lichenologists, where its application enables us with admirable
precision and exactness to determine the various species, to re-
distribute the confounded species, and to refer to their proper
systematic places the innumerable varieties and forms and endless
modifications which may resemble each other in external charac-
ters, This will be amply manifest to the student by the follow-
ing result of its application to the specimens in my herbarium.
Where the reactive produces a yellow colour, it may be indicated
by this sign, K+; where no reaction takes place, or only a slight
fuscescence, thus, K—.

Tribe CLADONIEI, Nyl.
I, Pycnoruenta, Ach., Duf., Nyl. (K+).

1. P. papillaria (Hoffm.) (Dill. t. xvi. f. 28, E. Bot. t. 907)
=Scher. L. H. 511,512; Nyl. Lich. Paris. 107; Moug. &
Nestl. 259; Leight. Brit. Lich. 208; Mudd, Brit, Lich. 32;
Mudd, Brit. Clad. 80; Coémans, Clad. Belg. q, 2, 3, 4; Auzi,
Clad. ‘Cisalp. ea by "M. Fr. Lich. Scand. 16; Spruce, Lich,
Pyren.

a addition to the above published collections, my herbarium
contains the plant from Bagnéres (Dr. Philippe), Genoa (Prof.
DNtrs.), Smoland, Femsjé (Dr. T. M, Fries), Eperjes, Hungary
(Dr. Holzinger), Westmoreland (Mrs. Stanger), Yorkshire (Mr,
G. Dixon), Bournemouth, Hants (Rev. A. Bloxam),.

2. P. mascarena, Nyl. Of this plant I have seen no specimen;
but Dr, Nylander informs me (en Jitt.) that it has the same
reaction (K+) as P. papillaria.

_ I, Craponta, Nyl. (thallus leafy: see Flora, 1866, p. 178,
and Ann. & Mag. Nat, Hist. 3 ser. xviii. p. 105")

* Pheocarpe (K+).

1. C. endiviefolia, Fr. (Mich. Gen. t. 24. f. 3, EH. Bot. t. 2361),
The under surface of the thallus becomes of a faint yellow with
hydrate of potash, which is not the case with C. alcicornis, thus
showing them to be distinct. =Nyl. L.P.106; Scher, L. H.
456; M. & N. 1062; Anzi, C.C. 1,2; Coém. "620 ; Welw.
Crypt. Lusit. 35, 105 ; Mudd, B. C. A.

My herbarium has it also feom Rome (Dr. Deakin), Médling,

406 Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Determination of the ~

Lower Austria (Dr. Holzinger), Algeria (Mr. @. Bentham),
Genoa (Prof. DeNotaris); and, in Great Britain, from Gilton
Point, Tenby, South Wales, and Haughmond Hill, Shropshire.

2.6. cervicornis, Scher. (E. Bot. t. 2574) = Scher. L. H.
457; M.& N.749; Bohl. Br. Lich. 88; Anzi, C. C. 12, 18,19;
Mudd, L. Br. 9.

Under this name two plants, alike externally, have been. com-
prised hitherto, but must now be separated as distinct species.
The one has the reaction K +, the other is destitute of reaction,
K—. Dr. Nylander (in litt.) informs me that the C. cervicornis
of Délise’s herbarium in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, has K+,
whilst the C. sobolifera of the same herbarium has K=—,
and to this latter Coém. Cl. Belg. 14, 15, 16 are referable.
The C. cervicornis K + is, of course, kept distinct from gracilis
and verticillata by the reaction.

I possess this plant also from Bruyéres (Scherer), from
Goétteborg and Christiania and Klippan, from ?Abbé Coémans (as
* C. degenerans v. basima, Nyl. L. Scand. 54”), and from Shrop-
shire, Yorkshire, and Barmouth, North Wales.

3. C. cariosa, Fk. (E. Bot. Suppl t.2761)=Fr. L.S. 149 (fide
specim. a Nyl.); Fellm. Lapp. 27; Coém. Cl. Belg. 20; M. &
N. 850; Massal. L: Ital. 54; A C.C. 4; Hepp. B4l, 542 ;
Scher. in H. 510; Richardson: Arctic Awie: Lich. 10.

I possess this also from Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Holm (Dr.
Nylander), and from near the 49th parallel of latitude, Oregon
‘Boundary Commission (Dr. Lyall).

The reaction K+ keeps this quite distinct from C. pyaidata,
; eeans

4. C. lepidota (Ach. )=Fellm. Lapp. 35. This Acharian var.
of degenerans has K+, and, in Dr. Nylander’s opinion, ought
probably to be distinguished as a distinct species.

5. C. ecmocyna, (Ach.) Syn. p, 261=Fellm. Lapp. 28, 29;
Anzi, C. C. 10.4 & 8 (in part); Scher. L. H. 65. 271,

T have it also from Peklin (Dr. Harslingsky). Dr. Nylander
(in litt.) remarks that this species grows as far as Greenland and
Siberia. It is distinguished from gracilis by the reaction.

6. C. dactylota, Tuck. = Wright’s Lich. Cub. 30. Distin-
guished from jfimbriata, gracilis, ‘and botrytes by reaction (K+),
but may be probably added as a form to ecmocyna.

_ 7. C. turgida, Hoffm. = Fr. L. 8. 147 (fide specim. a Nyl. &
T. M. Fries); Fellm. Lapp. 37; Tuck. L. Am. Sept. 24.

This also may be added to ecmocyna as a state.

_ 8. C. pungens, Fr. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 80) = Fr. L. 8. 318 (fide
Nyl.); Scher. L. H. 459; M. & N. 754; Bohl. Br. Lich. 23;

Coém. 1035; Cl. Belg. 189; Bourgeau, Pl. Can. 605 ; Mudd,
Br, Clad. 54, 55,56; Anzi,C,C.24; Leight. Exs. 16. 369, 374;

Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 407

Wright, Cuba, 33; Wel. Cr. Lus. 26; Massal. It. 191, 196;
Dietrich, Lich.

This T have also corti Bagni di Lucca (Dr. Deakin); Blae-
berry Hill, Perth (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), and from Barmouth,
North Wales ; also from Untersontheim (Kemler), Basingstoke,
Kent, and Winchfield, Hants (Mr. R. 8S. Hill).

Distinguished from furcata (K—) by the reaction (K+).

Dr. Nylander communicates (in litt.) the following notes of
reaction in specimens in the herbarium of Délise, which are
referable here :—C. racemosa, Dél., K+ (this Dr. Nylander con-
-siders to be a C. pungens validior, and not belonging to the true
racemosa). CC. racemosa, var. rangifera, Dél., represents two
oe man “—— major spermogonifera (K+); (2) corym-
bosa (K—). C. racemosa var. macropoda, Dél., has K+.

Fries, L. 8. 318, * C. pungens,” has K+.

Var. foliosa, Flk. =Coém. 1036; Coém. Cl. Belg. 181, 183.
_ IT possess this in addition from Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam),
Launceston (Sir W. J. Hooker), Hampshire (Mr. R. S. Hill),
-and from Algeria (Mr. G. Bentham), Salzburg (Dr. Schwartz).

Var. coralloidea (Ach.) = C. muricata, Dél. (Nyl. Syn. i. 207),
‘Dr. Nylander (in litt.) says. that muricata, Dél. herb., has K+,
and is identical with coralloidea, Ach.

9. C. corymbescens, Nyl. (Nov. Caled. p.40). This, Dr. Ny-
lander says (in Uitt.), has the reaction K+ very distinct, and is
much nearer to C. pungens than to C. degenerans.

10. C. diplotypa, Nyl. in Flora, 1862, p.475. This has a beau-
tiful reaction (K +), and, according to Dr. Nylander (in litt.), is
near to C. furcata in appearance, but altogether distinct.

11. C. delicata, Fik. (E. Bot. t. 2052) = Scher. L. H. 75; M.
& N. 753; Nyl. L. P.14; Hepp.112; Tuck. 29; Mass. 217,
2928; Spruce, L. Pyren.; Anzi, C. C. 21 pn; Coém. Cl. Belg.
106, 107; Mudd, L. Br. 15, Br. Clad. 43; Leight. 382.

The reaction (K+) distinguishes this from cespiticia, Flk.
(K-), from squamosa, Hoffm. (K—), and from pyzwidata, var.
pityrea (Ach.) (K—).

I possess specimens also from Smolandia, Femsjé (Dr. T. M.
Fries), Germany (C. Fuisting), and from Oswestry (Rev. T.
Salwey), Bagot’s Park, Staffordshire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Cold
Weston, Shropshire, and Aymestry, Herefordshire.

Var. subsquamosa, Nyl. (KE. Bot. t. 2362) =Scher. L. H. 74;
Anzi, C. C. 21 8; Bohl, Br. L. 16; Mudd, Br. L. 14, Br.
Clad. 41 (part.) ; Leight. 405.

In my herbarium are also specimens from Tatra, Hungary
(Dr. Harslingsky), Stogdale, High Cliff, Cleveland, Yorkshire
(Mr. Mudd), Bolsley, near Thirsk (Mr. Fh) Baker), Leicester-
shire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Northern Island, Australasia — J.D.
Hooker).

408. Rev. W. A. Leighton on the Determination of the

The yellow reaction (K+) is observed in C. delicata and its
varieties in the herbarium of Délise and also in his C. syrtarum
and C. squamosa var. anomea, Dél. (Dr. Nylander i in lise.)

See remarks under C. squamosa, Hoffm. posted.

12. C. Santensis (Tuck.). Of this Dr. Nylander says (in litt. ,
“Decidedly, after a renewed examination, C. Santensis, Tuck.
Suppl. ! and Nyl. Syn., is a Cladonia near to delicata, and not a
Pycnothelia. Its reaction is strongly K+.

*k Pheocarpe (K—),

13. C. alcicornis, Flk. (Dill. t. xiv. f. 12 a; Vaill. Paris. t. 21.
f. 3) = Scher. L. H. 455; Leight. Exs. 15; Coém, Cl. Belg.
5, 6,7, 8,9; 10.

My herbarium contains this also from Bagni di pe and
Rome (Dr. Deakin), Pont du Gard (Mr. G. Bentham), Lheris
-(Dr. Philippe), Ayton, Yorkshire (Mr. Mudd), Aberdovey (Rev.
A. Bloxam), and from Bodbury Ring, near Church Dineliem,
Shropshire. |

The want of reaction (Kv) separates this from C. enter
folia (K+).

14. C. firma, Nyl. ie p- 191). This, acciediesl to a spe-
cimen from Dr. Nylander himself (gathered by H. de la Perrau-
diére on Teneriffe in 1855), has a peculiar red-brown, almost
sanguineous, reaction, which I have noticed in no other planta.
=Coém. Clad. Belg. 11, 12, 13.

_ L possess similar specimens from Tatra, Lower Austria (Dr.
Harslingsky), and from Christmas Harbour, Kerguelen’s Laas
(Dr. J. D. Hooker).

15. C. ceratophylla, Eschw. = Wright’s Cuba, 25; Spruce
Lich. Amaz. 151.

I have it also from Mount Corcovado, near Rio de Janeiro
(M. Casaretti).

16. C. verticillaris, Mnt. (fide spec. a DNtrs. collected by
M. D. Casaretti in sylvulis Restinga de Taypti prope Rio de
Janeiro, labelled C. perfoliata, Flk.) (Dill. t. xvi. f, 23) =
Wright, Cuba, 27; Spruce, Amaz. 29.

In my herbarium are also specimens from Hong Kong (Mr.
Wilford) and New Granada (Mr. Blagborne).

Var. Dilleniana, Flk. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 23) = Wright, Cuba,
34, 35.

The reaction here is peculiar, being, as Dr. Nylander remarks
(in litt.), “thallus (vel podetiorum cortex) hydrate kalico fere,
mox dilute fuscescens,” as is the case also in C. furcata and C,
calycantha. In the var. Dilleniana I should mention that the
podetia exhibit no reaction, whilst the folioles become slightly
tinged with yellow, which dries into a pale tawny colour.

Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate-of Potash, 409

- 17. C. calycantha, Dél. Of this Dr. Nylander has commu-
nicated a specimen from Bolivia, and informs me (in /itt.) that
the reaction is similar to that in verticillaris and furcata.

- 18. C. pyzxidata, Fr. (Dill. t. xiv. f. 6 a, f. 6c, f. 6 1-, f. 9 4)
=Tuck. Am. Sept. 25; Scher. L. H. 58, 54, 268, 270; Coém.
Cl. Belg. 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,29; Mudd, Br. Clad. 6; Nyl.
L. P. 19; Rich. Arct. Am. 7, 12; Anzi, C.C.34,c; M.&N.
1235, 1236 (part.),1155 (part.); Massal. 128, 129; Arnold, 264;
Leight. 407.

Specimens in my herbarium from Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz),
Eperjes (Dr. Harslingsky), Sweden (Dr. T. M. Fries), Norway
(Dr. W. L. Lindsay), and from Kent, Cumberland, Hants,
Leicestershire, and Shropshire.

f. leptophylla (Flk) = Coém. Cl. Belg. 22; Hepp. 543.

- Dr. Nylander writes (in litt.) that Fellm. L. Arct. 25 is that
which he has called cervina in his Syn. p. 193.

f. pityrea (Ach.) = Mudd, Br. Cl. 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33;
M. & N. 1235 (part.),1155 (part.); Mudd, Br. L. 7,8; Coém. Cl.
Belg. 47; Bohl.32; Wright, Cub. 31; Scher. L. H. 266, 267.

Specimens in my herbarium from Salut (Dr. Philippe),
Leicestershire, Shropshire, Yorkshire, Hants, and North Wales.

f. decorticata (F lk.) = Coém. Cl. Belg. 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92,
93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98,99, 100, 101, 102, 103,104; Wright, Cuba,
32 (part.) ; Coém. 63, 1016, 1024.

- Specimens in my herbarium from Untersontheim (Kemler),
Engstlen Alp (Scherer), Grimsel (Scherer), and from Aberdovey,
North Wales, and Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Kilmory,
near Fermoy, Ireland (Mr. I. Carroll).

f. chlorophea, Fk. = Scher. L. H. 51*, 52, 54 (part.), 55;
Mudd, Br. Cl. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11; Spruce, Amaz. 28; Coém. Cl.
Belg. 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 29, 40; M. & N. 1235
(part.); Leight. 399.

Specimens in my herbarium also from Shropshire.

f. cespititia, Flk. (E. Bot. t. 1796) = Leight. Exs. 368; Anzi,
C.C.21£; Mudd, Br. Cl. 44; Coém. Cl. Belg. 105; Bohl. 72;
M. & N. 1154; Spruce, Lich. Pyren.; Hepp. 544; Arnold, 271;
Scher. 269, 280.

Specimens in my herbarium from Holyhead Mountain, Angle-
sea, Caradoc, Lawrence, and Haughmond Hills, Shropshire;
Pamber Forest, Hants (Mr. R. 8S. Hill) ; Bagni de Lucca (Dr.
Deakin) ; Louvain, Bois de Héverlé (Abbé Coémans).

f. fimbriata, Hoffm. (Dill. t. xiv. f. 8, t. xvi. f. 16, a, B,
D, F, @; Vaill. Par. t. xxi. f. 6-8; E. Bot. t. 2438) = Mudd,
Br. Cl. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22; Richardson,
11; Coém. Cl. Belg. 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51,
52, 58, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser, 3, Vol, xviii. 28

410 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the Determination of the

68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 78, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80; Anzi, C. C.
7; Scher. L. H. 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 265, 589; Leight,
Exs. 825, 376, 877; Bohl. 24; Fellm. Lapp. 26; M. & N,
1157, 1156; Nyl. L. P. 20, 21, 47, 48; Massal. 154, 155.
Spruce, Lich. Pyren.

Other specimens in my herbarium from Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz),
Salut (Dr. Philippe), Hperjes (Dr. Harslingsky), Genoa (Prof,
De Notaris), Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Australasia (Dr. J. D.
Hooker), Fermoy, Ireland (Mr. I. Carroll), Leicestershire and
Aberdovey, North Wales (Rev. A. Bloxam), Hants (Mr. R, S.
Hill), Yorkshire (Mr. Mudd), Scotland (Dr. W. L. Lindsay),
and Shropshire. .

In all the polymorphous forms and states of C. pyaidata the
reaction was K—, leaving a brownish stain when dry,

19. C. subdelicata, Nyl. Dr. Nylander writes (im Hitt.) that
he is acquainted with a lichen from Tropical America which
he has named C, subdelicata, analogous to delicata, but the
cortex of whose podetia exhibits the reaction K—, Before
knowing the difference of reaction he had mistaken it for delicata,
This subdelicata is known to him as coming from the West Indies
and Brazil. This is a correction which he wishes to be made
in his Syn, p. 211.

20. C. gracilis, Hoffm. (E. Bot. t. 1284) = Richardson, Aret.
Amer. 13, 14, 15, 16,17; Mudd, Br. Cl. 34, 35, 36, 37 ; Mudd,
Br. L. 10, 11, 12; Bohl. 7; Fellm. Lapp. 30; Coém. 1021,
1022; Scher. L. H. 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 641; Massal. It, 18;
19; Tuck. Am. Sept. 27*,28; Anzi, C. C. 10 a (part.) c, D, B
F,G; Leight. Exs. 296,402; M. & N. 849; Welw. Lusit. 119.

The above references comprise the forms chordalis, macroceras,
and aspera, which I have also from the Pyrenees (Dr. Deakin),
Lisponner (Dr. Philippe), Province of Pallantiensi (Prof. De No-
taris), Tatra, Hungary (Dr. Harslingsky), Grimsel (Scherer),
Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz), Upsal (Dr. T. M: Fries), Unterson-
theim (Kemler), Aldershot, Hants (Mr. R. 8, Hill), Yorkshire
(Mr. Mudd), Shropshire (Rev..T. Salwey), Keswick (Mrs.
Stanger), Sedan, in Ardennes (Dr. C. Montagne), Barmouth,
North Wales; Long Mynd, Stiperstones, and Wrekin, Shropshire.

Dr. Nylander states (in litt.) that Fr. L. 8. 53, “ C. gracilis,”
has K—, and comprises hybrida and chordalis.

Var. cornuta (C. cornuta, Fr. Ny]. Syn. i, p. 198) = Fr. L. 8.
116 (fide spec. a Nyl.); Anzai, C, C. 9; Fellm, Lapp. 31;
Richardson, Arct. Am. 18.

My herbarium contains also specimens of this form from
Jerkin and Sneelhatten, Norway (Dr. W. L, Lindsay), Upsal
(Dr. T. M. Fries), Holm (Dr. W. Nylander), Salzburg (Dr,
Schwarz), Untersontheim (Kemler). RS

Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 411

Var. ochrochlora, Fik. (Nyl. Syn. i. p. 198) = Arnold, 265 ;
Scher. 640; Anzi, C. C. 8; Coém. 1019; Hepp. 540; Coém.
Cl. Belg. 54, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 110; Mudd, Br. Cl. 23,
24, 25, 26. : |
_I possess also specimens from Austria (Dr. Holzinger),
Lheris (Dr. Philippe), Bagni di Lucea (Dr. Deakin).

21. C. verticillata, Fik. (Vaill. Par. t. xxi. f. 5; Dill. t. xiv.
f. 6, G, u) = Coém. 1020; Tuck. Am. Sept. 26; M. & N. 644;
Coém. Cl. Belg. 17; Wright, Cuba, 28; Scher. L. H. 458;
Mudd, Br. Cl. 3. :

In my herbarium are also specimens from Untersontheim
(Kemler), and Barmouth, North Wales.

Var. sobolifera, Dél. (in Dub. Bot. Gall. p. 681) = Scher. L. He.
62, 63, 274,275; Tuck. Am. Sept. 27; Coém. Cl. Belg. 14, 15,
16; Leight. Exs. 14; Mudd, Br. Cl. 2.

I have also specimens from Tatra, Hungary (Dr. Harslingsky),.
Subat (Dr. Philippe), Caer Caradoc and Lawrence Hill, Shrop-
shire, Barmouth, North Wales.

The reaction K— is in the above fuscescent. Coémans (Clad.
Achar.) regards verticillata as the type of the species, and. cer-
vicornis (our sobolifera) as a simple microphylline variety. . The
true cervicornis has a reaction K+, which separates sobolifera
(K—), which has hitherto, from external aspect, been confused
and intermingled with it. Dr. Nylander (in ditt.) informs me.
that C. cervicornis of Délise herb. has K+, and C. sobolifera of
the same collection has K—.

22, C. decorticata (Fr) (Nyl. Syn. i. 199) = Scher. 2795
Hepp. 545; Anzi, C. C.5; Coém. Clad. Belg. 21.

. This I possess also from Upsal (Dr.T.M. Fries), Dageré, Fin-
land (Abbé Coémans). Distinct from cariosa (K+) by reaction
K—, and from pyzidata var. decorticata (Flk.) by the different
squamules,

. Dr. Nylander (in litt.) says C. decorticata (Fr.), Nyl. (of
which C. Mougeotii, Dél., is a spermogoniferous state), has K—..

23, C. degenerans, Fik. = Fr. L. 8. 54 (fide spec. a Nyl.);
Richardson, Arct, Am. 19, 20, 21, 22, 28, 24, 25; Anzi, C. C,
13; var. trachyna(Ach.) = Fellm. Lapp. 34.

Of this species I have specimens also from Holm (Dr. Ny-
lander), Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Untersontheim (Kemler),
Mount Spliigen, Grimsel, Vall. Gastern (Scheref), Leicestershire
(Rev. A. Bloxam), Basingstoke, Kent (Mr. R. 8. Hill).

Dr. Nylander (in litt.) says C. degenerans, Fr. L. 8. 54, has
K—, and that C. coralloidea, Ach., which in his Lich. Scand. -
p- 54, he regarded as a variety of degenerans, is identical with
muricata, Dél., and a variety of C. pungens (K+). All the
degenerans of herb. Délise have K—, Ce

28

412 Rev. W.A. Leighton on the Determination of the

24. C. conchata, Nyl. According to Dr. Nylander (in litt.)
this has K—.

25. C.carneola, Fr. = Fr. L. 8. 115 (fide spec. a Nyl.); Hepp.
1; Anzi,C.C.6; Zwackh. 378.

This I possess also from Upsal (Dr. Nylander and T. M. Fries),
Onega (Kullhem), Untersontheim (Kemler).

Var. bacilliformis, Nyl.

Var. cyanipes, Fr=T. M. Fr. L. Se. 15.

Var. cerina, Nag. (Korbr. Par. 11). This, according to a spe-
cimen communicated by Dr. Holzinger, as received from Nagel.
himself, with the locality “near Dresden,” has K—.

Dr. Nylander (in litt.) says, “Ex rev. Coémans in litt, Cl,
straminea, Smef. non specie differt a Cl. carneola.”

26. C. botrytes, Hoffm. (Hag. Hist. Lich. t. 2. f.9)=Fr. L. 8.
80 (fide spec. a Nyl.) ; eae 539; Massal. 180; Fellm. 36;
Korbr. 242; T. M. Fr. L. Se.

Upsal (Dr. Nylander and T. M. Fries), Gratz, Austria (Dr.
Holzinger), Onega (Kullhem).

27. C. pileata, Mont. This, according to Dr. Nylander, has
K—. =Spruce, Amaz. 37 (non typica); 27 (f. lepidotella, Ny].).

28. C. mitrula, Tuck.= Wright, Cuba, 40.

The reaction K— keeps this distinct from C. cariosa K+.

29. C. substraminea, Nyl. According to Dr. Nylander (in litt.)
this has K—.

30. C. athelia, Nyl. (Syn. i. p. 204) = Spruce, Amaz. 26;
Wright, Cuba, 26 (f. macrophylliza, Nyl.). Dr. Nylander writes
(in htt.) that this is a true Cladonia and not a Pycnothelia, and
that its reaction is K—.

31. C. furcata, Hoffm. (Dill. t. xvi. £27. 4 & ¢) = ‘Tuck.
33; Coém. Cl. Belg. 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182,
184, 187, 188, 190, 191, 192, 193, ‘194, ‘195, 196, 197, 198 ;.
Mudd, Cl. Br. 49, 50,51, 52,53; M. & N. 852; Leight. Exs.
16, 401 ; Richardson, 26 ; Coém. 1029, 1033, 1084; Anzi, C. C.
23, EB, F; Scher. 81; Mudd, Br. L. 16.

Also from Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Liibeck (Dr. Holzinger),
Inniscary, Cork (Mr. I. Carroll), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam),
Kent (Mr. R. 8. Hill), and Shropshire.

Var. racemosa, Fk. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 27 8) = Tuck. 82; Nyl.
L. P. 23; Mass. 158; Mudd, Br. Cl. 46?, 47; Anzi, C. C. 23,
A, B, D; "M. & N. 851; Scher. 80.

Also from Subat (Dr. Philippe), Stundschiipf (Scher.), Rome
(Dr. Deakin), Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz), Eperjes (Dr. Hars-
lingsky).

Dr. Nylander notes (in litt.) the following i in herb. Délise :—
C. racemosa, var humilis, Dél. K—. C. racemosa, var. foliolosa,

Dél, K—,

Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 418

- f. adspersa, Fik. = Coém. Cl. Belg. 175. In my herbarium
_ Ihave this state from Gand (Abbé Coémans), Isus, Sima (Wil-
ford), Australasia (Colenso).

f. recurva (Hoffm.) (Dill. xvi. f. 27 p) = Richardson, 26;
Mudd, B. C. 48, 49; Coém. Cl. Belg. 185.

This state I have from Louvain (Abbé Coémans), Bagni di
Lucca (Dr. Deakin), Pyrenees (Dr. Deakin and Mr. Spruce),
Yorkshire (Mr. Mudd), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), and
Shropshire.

Var. corymbosa, Nyl. = Coém. Clad. Belg. 184, 187, 188,
190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195; Coém. 1030; Ny]. L. P. 22.

This I have from Northern and Middle Islands and St. Pa-
trick’s River (Colenso), Australasia (Dr. J. D. Hooker), British
Columbia (Dr. Lyall), Subat (Dr. Philippe). ,

Dr. Nylander notes these reactions in herb. Délise :—C. race-

mosa, var. microcarpa, Dél., K—= (mihi corymbosa); C. racemosa,
var. thyrsoidea, Dél.. K— = (corymbosa) ; C. tortuosa, Dél.,
K— = (corymbosa); C. racemosa, var. rangifera, Dél., is

partly corymbosa, K—; and that Fries, L. 8.58, “ C. racemosa,’’ has
K dilute fuscescens (= corymbosa) ; and also Fries, L. S. 117,
“ C, subulata,’”’ K dilute fuscescens, and comprises (1) subulata
(= ¢), (2)corymbosa (= 2), and (3) furcata, tenuis fuscescens

Var. spinosa, Fik. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 25) = Coém. Clad. Belg. ©
180, 186.

This I have also from Kifferschwyl (Scherer), Genoa (Prof.
De Notaris).

Dr. Nylander (in Uitt.) remarks that it will be necessary to
separate the C. spinosa (Flk.), given in Coém. Clad. Belg. 180,
under the name C. furcata, avd with the synonym “ C. fur-
cata » racemosa suby. spinosa in hb. Flk.,” and again in No. 186
under the name of “ C. furcata,”’ inasmuch as these two numbers
have the free reaction K+, which here indicates only a distinct
variety ; for there is frequently in furcata and corymbosa a slight
yellowish reaction which quickly turns to fuscescent. See also
remarks under C. verticillaris, anted.

Var. crispata, Flk.=Scher. 276, 277 ; Tuck. 831; Mudd, Br.
C.45 ; Coém. Cl. B. 199, 200; Richardson, 27,28, 29; Fellm.
32, 33; Anzi, C. C. 22. :

Dr. Nylander (in litt.) remarks that he considers crispata
to be nothing more than a variety of furcata; just as amau-
rocrea is of uncialis.

I possess also specimens of crispata from Lheris (Dr. Philippe),
Peklin (Dr. Harslingsky), Bagni di Lucea (Dr. Deakin).

32. C. grypea, Tuck. (in Agass. Journey to Lake Superior,
App.), is, according to Dr. Nylander (in litt.), distinct from ¢ur-

~

414. Rey. W. A. Leighton on the Determination of the

gida, and approaches C. furcata in the same way as ¢urgida
-approaches to pungens. C. grypea has K—.

33. C. cenotea, Scher.= Fr. L. 8. 55 (fide spec. a Nyl.) ; Anzi,

-C. C. 20; Zwackh. 329; Massal. 156; Scher. L. H.71; Coém.
Cl. Belg. £10; 137; 118, 119.
My herbarium also comprises specimens from Upsal (Dr. Ww.
Nylander and Dr. T. M. Fries), Jerkin, Norway (Dr. W. L.
Lindsay), Untersontheim (Kemler), Mahourat, Pyrenees —
Spruce).

Var. glauca, Fik. = Scher. L. H. 460; Zwackh. 330; Com.
Clad. Bele. 111, 112, 118, 114, 115 ; Coém. 1028.

I have it also from Untersontheim (Kemler).

34. C. squamosa, Hoffm. (B. Bot. t. 2862) = M. & N. 645;
Anzi, C. C. 21, a,c; Scher. L. H. 72, 73,278; Massal. 292,
A. C.; Mudd, L. Br. 13; Tuck. 30 ; Coém. #1025, 1026, 1027 ;
Zwackh. 879; Mudd, Br. Cl. 40, 4a (part.), 42.

In my herbarium are also specimens from Upsal (Dr. T: M.
Fries), Kirjavalaks, Finland (Kullhem), Untersontheim (Kemer),
Pyrenees (Dr. Deakin), Mount Gaillard, Pyrenees (Mr. Spruce),
Subat (Dr. Philippe), Bagni di Lucca (Dr. Deakin), Nisay
(Breutel), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), and Shropshire.

Here is another instance of two different plants being united
by external characters under the same name, but which are
readily separated and arranged properly by the hydrate of
potash.

Dr. Nylander (in /itt.) remarks that the name squamosa, being
the best-known and the most common one, ought to be defi-
nitely reserved for that lichen which is the most “developed, $..e.
that which. does not manifest the yellow reaction with the
hydrate of potash. The lichen, on the contrary, the cortex of
whose podetia becomes yellow with this reactive’(K+), and
which has frequently the aspect of squamosa, but is much more
rare, can be nothing more than a variety (/uaurians or subsqua-
mosa) of C. delicata, which, by the reaction (K+), shows itself
to be distinct from sguamosa (K—).

In the herbarium of Délise, Dr. Nylander has noted with the
reaction K— the following varieties of his sguamosa, viz: tenui-
uscula, scabrosa, simplea, muricella, crassa, elegans, paschalis,
frondosa, flabellata, rigida, as well as his type of this species.
The same absence of reaction is visible in his C. euewllata (which
scarcely differs from sguamosa, var. frondosa, and which Dr. Ny-
lander says he has, in his Syn. p. 210, incorrectly referred to
delicata) and speciosa.

On the other hand, the yellow reaction (K+) is observed in
C. delicata and its varieties in the herbarium of Délise as well as
in his C. syrtarum and C. SPURNS, Vet CORE, Dél,

_ Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash, 415

RK Erythrocarpe (K+).

35. ©. digitata, Hoffm.=Fellm. 45; Anzi, C.C.18; Scher.

‘L. H. 48, 44,46; Tuck. 39; Nyl. L. P. 25; M.& N. 751 (in
part); Mudd, Br. Cl. 68, 69, 79. .
~ his I also possess from Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Unterson-
theim (Kemler), New Zealand (Mr. Allan Cunningham), Kotze-
‘hue Sound (Dr. J. D. Hooker), Subat (Dr. Philippe), Salzburg
(Dr. Schwarz), Tatra, Hungary (Dr. Harslingsky), Hichstatt
(Dr. F. Arnold), Popertfort (Dr. Harslingsky), Canaries (P. B.
Webb), Australasia (Dr. J. D. Hooker), Wallington (Sir W. C.
Trevelyan), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Oswestry, Shrop-
shire (Rev. T. Salwey).
Dr. Nylander writes (in litt.) that the digitata of Délise’s
herbarium, with its varieties, has the yellow reaction with hy-
drate of potash (K+), except the variety mucronata, Dél.,
which does not manifest any reaction (K—), This mucronata
belongs to bacillaris.

Var. * macilenta, Hoffm., p. p.= Hepp. 113; Bohl. 8; Anzi,
€.C.19 3, c; M.& N. 750; Scher. L. H. 33, 34; Mudd,
‘Br. L. 23, Br. Cl. 72, 74, 75, 76.

Subat (Dr. Philippe), Austria (Dr. Holzinger), Craigforda,
‘Shropshire (Rev. T. Salwey), Westmoreland (Mrs. Stanger),
Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Moel y Golfa and Barmouth,
North Wales, Wrekin and Long Mynd Hills, Shropshire.

f, clavata, (Ach.) E. Bot. 2028; Diil. t. xv. p. 14 B=Scheer.
85; Leight. Exs. 297, 371, 275, 403 ; Mudd, Br. L. 29, Br. Clad.
68, 69, 79.

* Also from Austria (Dr. Holzinger), Leicester (Rev. A. Bloxam),
Guisbro’ Moor, Yorkshire (Mr. Mudd), Nescliffe Hill, Wrekin
Hill, Long Mynd, Laurence Hill, Shropshire.

f. polydactyla, Fik.= Mudd, Br. L. 28, 27, 26; Hepp. 537;
“Mudd, Br. Cl. 77, 78; Leight. Exs. 274; Scher. 454.

- Also from Fontainebleau (Abbé Coémans), Untersontheim
(Kemler), Cumberland (Mrs. Stanger), Leicestershire (Rev. A.
Bloxam), Craig-y-Barns, Dunkeld (Dr. W. L. Lindsay).

* Here is another instance of two different plants having been
‘confused under one and the same name. On detecting their
distinction by the hydrate of potash, I communicated with Dr.
Nylander as to the proper nomenclature, and he replies (in litt.)
‘thus :—“ The ‘ macilenta K—’ is more common and better de-
“veloped than the ‘macilenta K+, and is most frequently found
‘in the ancient herbaria under the name of C. bacillaris. Call it,
then, C. Flérkeana *bacillaris, Ach. et auct. pro max. p.
“The name *C. macilenta, Hffm. pr. p. will then be appropriated
‘to the other (K+), which certainly passes into digitata. The

416 - Rev. ‘W. “A. Leighton on the Determination of the

C. bacillaris var. clavata, Dél. bb. gives K+, which proves that
it must be united with macilenta. In Fries (L. Suec. 52) the
speeimens of macilenta and bacillaris are intermingled, but the
ticket bears the name ‘ C. macilenta.’ There exists also a state
of macilenta with granulated cortex and with the reaction (K +)
analogous to Fldrkeana.” C. albicans varr. carcata and pine
cornuta of Délise have K+.

36. C. rigida, Tayl. (in Lich. Antaret. 119; Nyl, Syn, 1
224 n.).

Of this antarctic species I have seen no specimen. Dr. Ny-
lander (in litt.) says it belongs to the series K+, and is near to
C. digitata.

OE Erythrocarpe (K—).

37. C. sanguinea, Flk. Of this I only possess a small fertile
specimen from Dr. J. D. Hooker, without locality,

Var. anemica, Nyl. (Syn.i.219). This, Dr. Nylander informs
me (in hit.), has the reaction K—.

38. C. insignis, Nyl. This, Dr. Nylander says, has K—,

39. C. cornucoptoides, Fr. (E. Bot. t. 2051) = Richardson, 30,
31, 32, 33, 47, 48, 49; Scher. 50,51; Heppe, 538; Fellm.
43 ; Anzi, C.C. 14, 15; M. & N. 751 (in part), 752; Massal.
It. 213; Tuck. Am. Sept.37; Mudd, Br. Cl. 65, 66, 67 ; Leight.
Exs. 376, 404; Spruce, Amaz. 32, 33 (f. gracilescens, Nyl.).

My herhieuin contains also specimens of this, in its various
modifications and states, from Untersontheim (Kemler), Upsal
(Dr. T. M. Fries), Labrador (Breutel), Australasia (Dr. J. D.
Hooker), Subat and Lheris (Dr. Philippe), Leicestershire and
Aberdovey, North Wales (Rev. A. Bloxam), Yorkshire (Mr. G.
Dixon), Basingstoke, Kent (Mr. R.8. Hill), Barmouth and Cader
Idris, North Wales, Wrekin, Caradoc, Long Mynd, Stiperstones
Hills, Shropshire.
| 40. C. bellidiflora, Scher. (E. Bot. t. 1894) = T, M. Fries,
L. Scand. 12; Massal. 173; Anzi, C.C. 16; Scher. L. H. 39,
40, 41,42; Fellm. 46.

Of this my herbarium contains specimens also from Savoy
(Dr. W. Nylander), Newfoundland (Sir W. J. Hooker), Tatra,
Hungary (Dr. Harslingsky), Grimsel (Scherer), Ben Lomond,
Scotland, 1823 ft. (Sir W. J. Hooker).

Var. Hookeri, Ny]. (Syn. i. 221) =Spruce, Amaz. 36, 38.

I incline to think that this and the following, deformis, may
be united with cornucopioides, as being states only of the same plant
under different development resulting from locality, situation,
and humidity.

41. C. deformis, Hoffm. (E. Bot. t.1894; Dill. t.xv. f.184)=
Fellm. 44; Anzi, C. C..17; Richardson, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54;

Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 417

Scher. L. H. 45, 47, 48, 49; Mudd, Br. L. 25; Bohl. 39;
Tuck. 38.

This I possess also oe Mount Spliigen and Engstlen Alp
(Scherer), Jerkin and Sneelhatten, Norway (Dr. W. L. Lindsay),
Kotzebue Sound (Dr. J. D. Hooker), Subat (Dr. Philippe),
Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz), Untersontheim (Kemler), Leicester-
shire (Rev, A. Bloxam).

Is not this also a state of cornucopioides ?

- 42. C. muscigena, Eschw. = Wright, Cuba, 42; Spruce, Amaz.
34.
. 48. C. gracilenia, Tuck. (Obs. Lich.) = Wright, Cuba, 43.

44, C. Flérkeana, Fr.=T. M. Fr. L. Scand. 13 (in part).

_ My herbarium contains it also from Bahusia (Dr. T. M. Fries),
Lochrmoos (Scherer), Germany (Dr. Dietrich), Yorkshire (Mr.
G. Dixon), Doveraile Mountains, Ireland (Mr. I. Carroll).

Var. *bacillaris, Ach. & auct. pro max. p. = Scher. L. H.
36, 37; Mudd, Br. L. 24, Br. Cl. 70, 71,73; Leight. Exs. 56.

This also I have from Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz), Austria (Dr.
Holzinger), Belgium (Abbé Coémans), Leicestershire (Rev. A.
Bloxam), Cheshunt, Hants (Mr. Archer), Basingstoke, Kent
(Mr. R. 8. Hill), Craigforda, Shropshire (Rev. T. Salwey), Bar-
mouth, North Wales, Long Mynd, Wrekin, Stiperstones, Lau-
rence, Peradoc, Abdon Burt Hills, Shropshire.

This has been hitherto, by external aspect, confused with C.

macilenta (K+), but is separated by different reaction (K—),
and is only a var. of Florkeana analogous as pleurota is to cornu-
copioides. For various remarks connected with it, see under C.
macilenta, antead.
_ The following remarks are from Dr. Nylander’s annotations
on the types of Cenomyce of Délise, in his herbarium at the
Jardin des Plantes, Paris, which he has liberally communicated
_ (in litt.) to me:—C. digitata var. mucronata, Dél. hb., has K—,
and C. albicans, Dél., has K—, and therefore are referable to
bacillaris. The C. bacillaris, Dél., and his varieties styracella,
macrocarpa, densiflora, paleata, coronata, according to the speci-
mens in herb. Délise, have K—, and belong to C. Flérkeana
* bacillaris.

Var. ostreata, Ny}. (Syn. i. p. 225)=Nyl. L. P. 108.

Of this Dr. Nylander writes (in Jitt.), a Ob podetia Cladonie
bacillaris immixta squamis parum MRS Lecidee ostreate ste-
rilis, olim credidi Lichenem in L. P. 108 datum varietatem
sistere Cladonia illius squamis recedentibus, Quod corrigendum
est, et varietas nomine ‘ostreata’ delenda.”

45. C. spherulifera, Tayl.=Spruce, Amaz. 31. K—.,

46, C. cetrarioides, Schwein. =Spruce, Amaz, 35,39. K—.

418° Rev. W. A, Leighton on the Determination of the

III. Craprna, Nyl. Thallus leafless. (See Flora, 1866, p. 178,
and Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. xviii. p. 105.)

* Pheocarpe (K+).

- 1. G. rangiferina, Hoffm. (E. Bot. 173; Dill. t. xvi. £. 29
a & 8) =Scher. L. H. 76, 77; Anzi, C. C.25 a (in part) ; Spruce,

L. Amaz. 17; Richardson, L. Arct, Am. 31, 32; Wright, Cub.
38, 389; Mudd; Br. L. 19; Wagner, Lich. 22; Fellm. Lapp.
38; M. &. N. 72 (part.) ; Mudd, Br. Cl. 58; Coém. Clad. Belg.
134, 135, 186, 137, 188, 140, 141, 142, 148, 144, 145, 146,
147, 149, 172. os

Tt has long been suspected that rangiferina and sylvatica,
although classed together, were in reality two distinct species 5
and the different reaction in the two plants proves this suspicion
to have good foundation. ;

. The reaction (K+) separates this from sylvatica, portentosa,
and alpestris (K—), and unites pycnoclada (K +) with it.
_.My herbarium has it also from Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz),
Jerkin, Norway (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Holm (Dr. Nylander),
Bagni di Lucca (Dr. Deakin), and from Leicestershire (Rey. A.
Bloxam), Glen Callater, Braemar (Dr. W. L. Lindsay). r

Dr. Nylander says (in litt.) the C. rangiferina is decidedly a
distinct species from C. sylvatica. That which M. ’Abbé Coé-
mans calls “ C. rangiferina, var. sylvatica forma intermedia inter
typum et var. sylvaticam.—C. rangiferina, y. tenuis, 6. fuscescens,
Fk. Comm. p. 165,” and gives in his Cl. Belg. 149, is evidently
a form of rangiferina, and exhibits the reaction K+.

2. C. gorgonea, Eschw. According to Dr. Nylander (in litt.)
this has K+. +

_ ** Pheocarpe (K—).

3. C. sylvatica, Hoffm. = Leight. Exs. 57; Richardson, 80,
33, 35; Massal. 192, 193; Welw. Lusit. 80; Scher. L. H. 78;
Mudd, Br. L. 20; Br. Clad. 57, 59,60; Bohl.6; M. & N. 72;
Anzi, C. C, 25 a (in part) B ; Coém. Clad. Belg. 129, 180, 181,
182, 133, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161,
162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171.

Of this in my herbarium are also specimens from Untersont-
heim (Kemler), Upsal (Dr. T. M. Fries), Salzburg (Dr. Schwarz),
Lheris (Dr. Philippe), Algeria (Durieu), Jerkin, Norway (Dr. W.
L. Lindsay), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Yorkshire (Mr.
G. Dixon), Blaebery Hill, Perth (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Basing-
stoke (Mr. R. S. Hill), Forfarshire (Rev. T. B. Bell), and Shrop-
shire. © es
‘ Some of the above specimens exhibit-a slightly fuscescent
reaction ; nevertheless none of them have the decided yellow

‘Species of the Cladoniei by the action of Hydrate of Potash. 419

geaction (K+) which satisfactorily distinguishes the true rangi-
ferina from all the other plants which have hitherto been con-
founded with it. See remarks under rangiferina, antea.

_ £. alpestris, Scher. (Dill. t. xvi. f. 29 2, ¥)=Anzi, C. C. 25 p;
Fellm. 89; Krbr. 272; Scher. 79; M. & N. 1068; Richard-
son, 34; Coém. Cl. Belg. 155.

Of this state my herbarium comprises specimens also from
Kroten (Dr. Harslingsky), Tatra, Hungary (Dr. Holzinger),
Jamaica (Dr. J. D. Hooker), Northern Island, Australia (Sin-
clair), Jerkin, Norway (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Balliton, Kildare
(Mr. I. Carroll). —

f. pumila, Ach. = Anzi,C.C.25 c ; Coém. Clad. Belg. 150, 151.
. Of this also my herbarium contains specimens from Leicester-
shire and Shropshire.

f. portentosa, Duf.=Coém. Clad. Belg. 165.

This very remarkable form also I have from Leicestershire
(Rey. A. Bloxam).

4. C. peltasta, Spr.=Spruce, Amaz. 25.

5. C. Salzmanni (Dél.). According to Dr. Nylander (in
litt.), this has K~.

6. C. divaricata, Nyl. According to Dr. Nylander (én hit.),
. this has K—.
7. C.uncialis, Hoffm. (E. Bot. t.174) = Leight. Exs. 58; Fellm.
40; Anzi,C.C. 26; Scher. 82, 83, 84, 513,514; Tuck. 84,35 ;
M. & N. 165 ; Coém. 1039; Massal. 69; Bohl. 15,81; Mudd,
Br. L. 21, Br. Clad. 61, 62, 63, 64; Coém. Clad. Belg. 120, 121,
122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128.

My herbarium comprises also specimens from Upsal (Dr. T.
M. Fries), Saeblen (Dr. Philippe), Tatra, Hungary (Dr. Hars-
lingsky), Arschot, Belgium (Abbé Coémans), Jerkin, Nor-
way, 4595 ft. (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Austria (Dr. Holzinger),
Vosges (Dr. C. Montagne), Basingstoke, Kent (Mr. R.S. Hill),
Yorkshire (Mr. G. Dixon), Crookham Common, Hants (Mr. R.
§. Hill), Ben Mac Dhu, Braemar (Dr. W. L. Lindsay), Kildonery
and Coachford, co. Cork, and Doneraile Mountains (Mr. I. Cars
roll), Leicestershire (Rev. A. Bloxam), Blaebery Hull, Perth,
Ben Nevis, 4406 ft. (Dr. W.L. Lindsay), and Barmouth, North
Wales and Shropshire.

' Var. lacunosa, Nyl. (Syn. i. 215) =Tuck. Am. Sept. 36.

Var. amaurocrea, Scher. (Nyl. Syn. i. 216) =Anzi, C. C.11;
Fr. L..S. 347; Fellm. 41, 42; Scher. L. H. 70. 272, 273;
Richardson, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46.

I have also specimens from Upsal (Dr. W. Nylander and
Dr. T. M. Fries), Jerkin, Norway, 4594 ft. (Dr. W. L. Lindsay).

Dr. Nylander regards amaurocrea as only a variety of uncialis.

8. C. medusina, Bory =Spruce, Amaz. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.

420 On the Determination of the Cladoniei by Hydrate of Potash.

9. C. schizopora, Nyl. According to Dr. Nylander (in Uitt.),
this has K—.

10. C. aggregata, Eschw.=Spruce, Amaz. 18.

Of this fine species my herbarium contains specimens from
Middle Island and Port Nicholson (Dr. Lyall), Australasia (Dr.
C. Knight), St. Patrick’s River, Australia (Colenso), Pavians-
kloof, South Africa (Breutel), Valparaiso (Dr. Puccio).

11. C. retipora, Fik. Of this beautiful species I have speci-
mens from Tasmania, Australia, Mount Wellington, Van Die-
men’s Land.

*kk Hrythrocarpe (K—).

12. C. leporina, Fr.= Wright, Cuba, 44.
Of this Dr. Nylander (i Hitt.) says that it is a Cladina, Nyl

IV. Prrornoron, Tuck.

1. P. robustum, Th., Fr. (Ster. Pil. t. 10. f. 3)=T. M. Fries,
L. Scand. 11.

This has the reaction K+.

2. P. aciculare, Tuck. (Ach. Meth. t, 8. f.4;. Th. Fr. Ster.
Pil. t. 10. f. 4).

The only specimens I have seen of this were collected by
Dr. Lyall in Sumass, British Columbia, 1859, and have K+.

3. P. fibula, Tuck. Of this I have seen no specimens; but
Dr. Nylander says it has K+.

V. Hereropea, Nyl. |
1. H. Mullerii, Nyl. (Lich. Nov. Caled. p. 89) has K—.

Of the following Cladonie, described in Dr. Nylander’s Syn-
opsis, I have seen no specimens, and am also ignorant of their
reaction :—

Pheocarpe.

C. stenophylla, Nyl., C. candelabrum, Bory, C. Caroliniana,
Tuck.
Erythrocarpe.
C. leptopoda, Nyl., C. areolata, Nyl., C. angustata, Nyl., C.
ertstatella, Tuck., C. macilenta var. seductriz, Nyl.

Rey. T. Hincks on a new Genus of Hydroida. 421

LIV.—On Ophiodes, a new Genus of Hydroida.
By the Rey. Tuomas Hincxs, B.A.

[Plate XIV.]

Waite dredging this autumn in Swanage Bay, on the coast of
Dorset, I have obtained a new Sertularian Hydroid, which offers
some very interesting peculiarities. Of these the most remark-
able is the presence of an organ which takes the place of the
nematophore, but is unique in appearance and structure. The
polypite, too, differs in form from that of any other Hydroid
with which I am acquainted, and is furnished with webbed ten-
tacles—a character which has only been noticed hitherto among
the Campanularida.

This very curious Zoophyte must be referred to a new genus,
to which I shall assign the name Ophiodes. It may be thus
characterized :—

Subkingdom CHLENTERATA.
Class HYDROZOA.
Order HYDROIDA.
Suborder SERTULARIDA.
Family Halecide.

OPHIODES™, nov. gen.

Hydrocaulus simple or branched, rooted by a creeping stolon.
Hydrothece vase-shaped, terminal ; polypites not retractile within
the calycle ; the body deeply constricted a little below the base
of the tentacles; tentacles in a single verticil, muricate, webbed
for about a quarter of their length, and surrounding a conical
proboscis ; tentaculoid organs borne singly on the hydrocaulus
(near the calycles) and on the stolon, highly extensile, protected
at the base by a small chitinous cup, and terminated at the
upper extremity by an enlarged capitulum, armed with thread-
cells. Reproduction unknown.

The remarkable tentacular organ with which the Ophiodes is
furnished, and which may be regarded as the equivalent of the
nematophore, consists of a very extensile, snake-like appendage,
with an enlarged head, attached at the lower extremity by an
extension of the coenosarc. The base is protected by a small
chitinous tube, which expands from its point of origin upwards,
and answers to the theca of the ordinary nematophore. The
capitulum contains numerous thread-cells, from which a barbed
sheath and a very long thread are emitted.

* Der, ddiwdis, snake-bearer.

422 Rey. T. Hincks on a new Genus of Hydroida,

These organs are capable of great elongation and contraction,
and execute the most vigorous movements, stretching themselves
out with apparent eagerness, and twisting in all directions. My
attention was first drawn to the zoophyte by a number of them, —
disposed on the creeping stolon, which were in a state of most
lively excitement, and manifesting a large amount of muscular
energy,

One of these organs is almost always attached to the hydro-
caulus a little below the calycle, and when in a state of exten-
sion it rises above it; and as it twists itself about, with its for-
midable armature ready for instant action, it has all the appear-
ance of a puryeyor to the polypite. Many of them are also
distributed upon the hydrorhiza. .

A striking feature of the genus Ophiodes is the constriction
of the body of the polypite, dividing it into two well-marked
regions—the oral, including the mouth and the tentacular
circle and a kind of quasi pharynx, and the aboral, traversed by
the digestive cavity.

The polypite does not extend to the bottom of the hydrotheca,
but rests on a membranous diaphragm that shuts off the upper
third of it and forms a cup-shaped chamber. This diaphragm
is perforated in the centre, and through the orifice the body is
linked on to the ccenosarc, that traverses the lower portion of
the calycle.

O. mirabilis, n. sp.

_ Hydrocaulus erect, slightly branched, rudely annulated at the
base, and jointed at intervals throughout. Hydrothece in the
form of a vase, bulging slightly immediately above the base;
the sides incurved, expanding gradually towards the top, with
an everted rim ; a single ¢entaculoid organ on the stem a little
below the calycle, and many distributed on the stolon ; polypites
tall, the inferior portion of the body clavate, the oral funnel-
shaped; tentacles about fifteen, a brownish cluster of thread-
cells between each pair on the connecting web. Reproductive.
organs unknown.

Height about ;4, of an inch.

The branching of the Ophiodes mirabilis, as I have seen it, is_
of the simplest kind, usually consisting of a single division of
the stem. It may possibly attain a more luxuriant growth; but
I have examined a considerable number of specimens, and have
always found it to be either simple or furnished with one or two
short branches.

The polypite, when fully extended, is a singularly beautiful
object, imitating to some extent the form of a tall and graceful
candelabrum. Only the base of the body is within the calycle.

Bibliographical Notice. 423

Immediately below the constriction there is a slight tinge of
’ yellowish colouring.

_ The web that unites the lower portions of the tentacles forms
a rather deep cup round the proboscis, and is coloured by the
batteries of thread-cells that occur between.each pair of arms.
These intertentacular thread-cells are similar to those which
thickly cover the capitulum of the snake-like organs. They
emit a very long thread, with a barbed sheath at its base,
These slender filaments may be seen cast forth beyond the ten-
tacles, and intermingling with them, and must constitute an
effective auxiliary force for the capture of prey. The arms are
held alternately elevated and depressed.

The chitinous tube that encloses the base of the tentaculoid
appendages is small and somewhat trumpet-shaped.

The Ophiodes, it will be seen, combines a large number of
interesting characters; and one or two of its most striking fea-
tures are unique. It presents a really remarkable array of
curious structures—the distinct funnel-shaped head crowning
the tapering body, and itself crowned by the tentacular verticil
with its battery of thread-cells at every embrasure, the elegant
calycle, the strange snake-like organ near it, either resting
motionless and sentinel-like or twisting vehemently about,
bristling aboye at times with barbs, and casting abroad its fatal
threads, and the number of similar organs below, twirling them-
selves about in the maddest fashion, as if to scare away any
invaders.

- Hab. On weed, dredged in shallow water (5-8 fathoms),
Swanage Bay, Dorset. Not uncommon.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.

Figs. 1 & 2, Ophiodes mirabilis, Hincks, highly magnified.
Fig. 3. One of the tentaculoid organs.
Fig. 4. A portion of the tentacular circle, showing the connecting web
with its clusters of thread-cells.
Fig. 5, A calycle, showing the cup-shaped chamber which encloses the
: base of the polypite.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE,

Annuario della Societa dei Naturalisti in Modena. Annol. Mo-
' dena, Maggio 1866. 8vo, pp. 152, with 8 plates.

Tue political development of Italy is attended by a gradual and
steady progress of science. Scientific publications have been until
lately comparatively few in number; and such as have appeared have
been more or less marked by some irregularity in the manner of their

424, Miscellaneous.

publication, many being most difficult to obtain, and apparently
reserved for private circulation. In consequence of the limited in-
tercourse between Italian naturalists and those of other countries,
the labours of the former have remained sometimes for years un+
known to the latter. Among those who have been most influential
in effecting a change in all this, we must mention Professor Canestrini
of Modena. He started the ‘ Archivio per la Zoologia, l’ Anatomia,
e la Fisiologia,’ a work by this time weil known to most biologists,
from the original and important articles contained in the four vo-
lumes which have as yet appeared. Among his numerous zoolo-
gical and archzeological memoirs, we would direct special attention
to that on Italian Freshwater Fishes *, invaluable on account of the
author’s acquaintance with the literature, and critical discernment of
species. There is now a Society of Naturalists of Modena, under
the presidency of the same gentleman, which, by publishing the
memoirs read at the meetings in an annual volume, promises to be a
source of general benefit to science. The volume now before us
contains the following memoirs :—

Prof. Canestrini—Archeeological objects from the Modenese dis-
trict.

Prof. Generali.—On a case of Induration of a Bovine Foetus.

Prof. Rondani.—On Hymenopterous Parasites of Cecidomyia fru-
mentaria.

Prof. Salimbeni.—Practical hints on the Culture of the Silkworm.

Prof. Ragona.—On the “ iseeoric”’ Lines (inee iseoriche, from isos,
equal, and aiwpa, oscillation) of the Italian Peninsula, and some
other questions regarding the distribution of temperature in Italy.

Prof. GhisellimNew views on Madness of Dogs.

Dr. Boni.—-Descriptions of objects of Art of high antiquity re-
cently discovered in the Modenese district.

Prof. Generali.—On the Changes of Colour in the Blood of some
Insects when exposed to Atmospheric Air.

Prof. Canestrini.—Catalogue of the Freshwater Fishes of Italy.

MISCELLANEOUS.
“ CAPTURE OF A RARE FiIsH (dusonia Cuviert) AT FALMOUTH.

* To the Editor of the ‘West Briton.’

‘**Srr,—It affords me great pleasure to be able to record the capture
of another rare and interesting addition to the fauna of the British
Isles. Yesterday, about noon, as some fishermen were scanning the
bay with their glasses, carefully watching for the approach of pil-
chards, their attention was attracted to a strange commotion about.
low-water mark, between the Castle Point and Gyllyngvase. They at

* “ Prospetto critico dei Pesce d’ Acqua dolce @ Italia,” Archiv. per la
Zool. 1866, iv. pp. 47-187.

Miscellaneous. 425

once proceeded to the spot, where to their astonishment they found
a large fish, in about four feet of water, lashing away with its powerful
tail, evidently intent on beating a hasty retreat. After an obstinate
resistance, in which the men were half drowned, and one of them
severely wounded, this strange visitor was secured, and brought with
all dispatch into the Falmouth fish-market. Fortunately I was close
at hand when sent for, and consequently had an excellent opportunity
of making a minute examination of the creature while still alive. It
measured 4 feet in length, and weighed over a hundredweight. It
was without exception one of the most beautiful sights the eye could
ight upon, the whole surface of the body presenting the appearance
of most highly polished silver, having a most brilliant coating of the
richest scarlet. The silvery colour of the belly, as in the mackerel,
&c., presented a variety of evanescent tints, which with the death of
the fish totally disappeared. A month or so since, a scarlet and
silver fish was taken at Gorranhaven and examined by Mr. Couch;
but of this example I have never seen a detailed or authenticated
report, consequently I am wholly at a loss to decide as to whether
the two examples are identical or not. Iam strongly of opinion
that the fish captured here yesterday is no other than the scarlet and
silver fish of the Mediterranean, although there is a strange discre-
pancy in the size of this and Mr. Couch’s example. I have taken a
sketch and also a minute description of the creature as it appeared
whilst alive; so that I have no doubt whatever of being able ina
day or two to assign it its legitimate place in our British fauna.
** Yours very truly,

“W. K. Butumore, M.D.”
1 Stratton Place, Falmouth.
* Oct. 1, 1866.”

[To Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. Se.)

Dear S1r,—It will be a matter of interest to you, and perhaps of
surprise, to be informed that another example of Cuvier’s Ausonia
has presented itself to us. It came among the rocks close to Fal-
mouth, and, after a stout resistance, was safely landed. It is about
the same size as the former example, and resembles the drawing I
sent for comparison, but with some differences, mostly, however, as
regards colour, which was a bright scarlet over silver, the dorsal,
anal, and border of the tail blue. A coloured figure of it is in my
possession, and the fish itself will be preserved at Penzance.

‘It seems not a little remarkable that two examples of so rare a fish
should run themselves ashore, at places not distant from each other,
within comparatively so short a time.

I am, dear Sir,
Yours truly,

JONATHAN Covucn.
Polperro, Oct. 6, 1866. -

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xviii. 29

426 Miscellaneous.

Additions to the Zoophytes of Devonshire.
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—I observe a notice from the Rev. T. Hincks in the
‘Annals’ for last month, respecting the finding of Sertularia attenuata,
Hincks, in North Devon and Cornwall. Mr. Hincks must have for-
gotten that he had a specimen of mine, for twelve months at least,
which was found on the south coast of Devon, and which was not
returned to me in time for publication in my ‘Catalogue of the
Zoophytes of Devonshire.’

I must ask those gentlemen who kindly purchased my ‘Catalogue’
to add the South Coast to the geographical distribution of this spe-
cies, and also to add to the freshwater species Plumatella emarginata,
Allm., and P. fruticosa, Allm., both of which I met with in the river
Clyst, Bishop’s Clyst, September 5, 1866.

I am, Gentlemen,
Yours obediently,

Devon and Exeter Institution. Epwarp Parfitt.
Oct. 6, 1866.

On the Use of the Genus Potamogale.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Dr. Giinther, in the ‘Record of Zoological Literature,’ 1865,
vol. ii. p. 33, observes, ‘We fully agree with Dr. Gray as regards
the principle on which he objects to the name Potamogale ;’ and
then proceeds, “ but since he has adopted the specific name of velow,
given by Du Chaillu at the same time, and as in this case the generic
and specific names refer to the same individual specimen, succeeding
srr ea have no other choice but to recognize or to reject both
alike.”

The latter observation is incorrect, and, like several other remarks
on mammalia and reptiles in the work, must have been made on a
very imperfect recollection of the paper to which they refer. A very
cursory inspection of Du Chaillu’s paper in the Boston Society’s
Proceedings (which is copied in the paper commented on in the
‘Annals,’ vol. xvi. p. 426) would have shown Dr. Giimther that the
generic name of Potamogale and the specific one of velox do not
rest on the same basis. The animal is described in the paper, with
some details, under the name of Cynogale velox, quite sufficiently,
especially when one has the type specimen to confirm the descrip-
tion, to establish the specific name of velox. In a note to this de-
scription, Du Chaillu observes that, on account of its African habitat
and a difference in the shape and proportion of the tail, he thinks it
may be the representative of another genus, for which “I proposed
the name of Potamogale, preferring, however, to wait until I can
procure the skull and skeleton ;”’ so that the statement that “‘ succeed-
ing naturalists have no other choice but to recognize or to reject both

“alike” is a most erroneous one. I regret to have to make these
observations ; but a ‘ Record’ is of little use unless it is prepared
with care, so that naturalists can place confidence in its accuracy.

Miscellaneous. 427

Note on West-African Species of Hemirhamphus.
By Dr. A. GinTHer.

I have just observed that I omitted, in my account of Hemirham-
phus, to mention the West-African species described and figured by
Dr. Bleeker in “‘ Poissons de la Céte de Guinée,” Mém. Soc. Holl.
Haarlem, 1862.

1. The species described by him (p. 118, tab. 21. fig. 2) as H.
vittatus (Val.), and identified with Zsox brasiliensis (Brown), is most
probably the Linnean Esoxr brasiliensis (see Catal. Fish. vi. p. 270),
but distinct from H. vittatus (Val.).

2. Hemirhamphus guineensis, n. sp., Blkr. p. 119, tab. 25. fig. 2,
is identical with H. vittatus (Val.), Giinth. Fish. vi. p. 269.

3. Hemirhamphus Schlegelii, Blkr. p. 120, tab. 25. fig. 1, is a
very distinct species, to which I have, unfortunately, given another
name, viz. H. calabaricus (Fish. vi. p. 266).

On the Organs of Secretion in the Hemiptera.
By J. Kincxet.

The most voluminous of the salivary glands are supported on the
stomach, and occupy the whole upper part of the thoracic cavity,
and extend into the abdomen. Each of them is divided into two
by a constriction, and from this point the ejaculatory duct issues

eneath. This duct divides at once into two branches, the largest
of which runs almost directly to the head, passing beneath the
esophagus, where it approaches that of the opposite side. These
ducts become fixed in a small cylindrical piece, of solid texture, and
finally open by distinct orifices. The smaller branch descends into
the abdomen, forming numerous sinuosities, and then ascends towards
the head; on arriving in front of the cesophagus, being suddenly
turned aside, it passes beneath a large coriaceous piece, which plays
a great part in the movements of the parts of the mouth and in the
acts of suction and deglutition.

The glands of the second pair, concealed beneath the principal
glands, are formed each of a simple cecal tube rolled upon itself
and ‘Nena at the outer angle of the coriaceous piece just men-
tioned.

The superior salivary apparatus contains a secreting membrane
covered throughout with utricles of equal size. The anterior part,
often inflated, looks as if it formed a reservoir for the hinder part,
which is generally racemose; but this is not the case, as the histo-
logical constitution shows that the same functions are performed b
both parts. The second salivary apparatus shows much analogy wit
the preceding in its structure, but its utricles are more stattered.
The two glands of which it is formed are the seat of a special secre-
tion, and not, as supposed by Léon Dufour, reservoirs for that of the
superior glands. The salivary secretion, when introduced into plants,
produced none of the effects ascribed to the attacks of Hemiptera.

428 Miscellaneous.

The liquid is probably exclusively an agent in digestion ; it is alkaline,
and renders reddened litmus-paper slightly blue.

The odorific apparatus, which has long been well known in the
adult Pentatomites, is a sac situated at the base of the abdomen, and
opening in the metathorax by two ostiola, at the level of the last
pair of legs. In the larvee and nymphee this organ does not exist,
and yet, like the perfect insects, they diffuse their peculiar odour.
In the young individuals, from their hatching to the period of their
last transformation, there are, in the upper part of the abdomen, below
the skin, two glands presenting the same characters as the inferior
gland of the adults. The presence of these organs is indicated upon
the arches of the dorsal region by two shields; and each of these
shields presents two ostiola, through which the liquid is ejaculated.
—Comptes Rendus, September 3, 1866, pp. 433-436.

Fossil Spider from the Coal-formation. By Dr. F. Ramer.

Dr. Roemer has described and figured, in the ‘Jahrb. Min. of
Leonhard & Geinitz,’ 1866, p. 136, a very perfect specimen of a
Spider from the Coal-formation of Upper Silesia. It is called the
Protolycosa anthracophila, a name that implies a near relation in
general habit to the modern Lycosa. The body is about an inch
long. Appended to this paper is a notice of a specimen of Arthro-
pleura armata, Jordan, from the Carboniferous beds of Zwickau, by
Dr. Geinitz. The specimen is sufficient to show that the animal was
a Crustacean ; it is evidently part of the carapace, and probably of
a Decapod.—Silliman’s American Journal, July 1866.

On the Course followed by a Fungous Mycelium in the living trunk
of Acacia dealbata. By G. GAsPARRINI.

The author examined the trunk of a fine plant of Acacia dealbata
which, when in full flower in the Botanic Garden at Naples, was broken
at the level of the soil by a slight gust of wind. The heart of the
wood, from the collar for 2} decimetres upwards, was found to be
rotten and blackish, whilst the alburnum and bark were in good con-
dition. A microscopic examination showed in the altered part a
brownish, ramose, articulated mycelium. This mycelium was traced
up into the branches as far as about 5 metres above the soil. It
did not attack the medullary rays, or the pith, or the spiral fibres
surrounding it, or the fibrous cells, but only the dotted ducts.

M. Gasparrini inquires how this mycelium could have introduced
itself into the trunk of the Acacia. He refers to the observations
made by him upon the radicles of various Liliacese, several of which,
having lost their spongioles, were open to foreign bodies of extreme
tenuity.

He thinks that the extremely minute filaments of the mycelium
occurring in the soil surrounding the Acacia might penetrate by the
opening of the fibrous filament of the centre of these radicles into
the interior of the bush, and thus ascend even to the summit of the
trunk.— Bibl. Univ. 1866, Bull. Sci. p. 168.

T Hi E ANNALS
MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.
[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 108. DECEMBER 1866.

LY.— On the Structure and Habits of Anthophysa Miilleri, Bory,
one of the Sedentary Monadiform Protozoa. By H. James-
Cxark, A.B., B.S.*

Durine the last five years, and more especially within the
latter eighteen months, [ have been engaged largely upon an in-
vestigation of the relations of the monadiform animalcules to
the zoospores of the true Alge; and of all the numerous in-
stances of the former that I have more or less thoroughly stu-
died I have never met with one which could be said to bear but
very moderate resemblance to the latter: I refer to the true Alye ;
I scarcely need add that I mean by this to except those doubtful
forms which seem to be related to Volvox and Gonium, such as
Pandorina, Protococcus, Stephanosphera, Chlamidococcus, &c.

Those who have become accustomed to these creatures, and
have learned to look upon them, through long years of patient
study, as old and familiar friends, know well the value of using
the best lenses that the opticians of the present day can afford,
and never doubt for a moment the utter worthlessness of an
opinion which is founded upon a few fitful glances through a
so-called ordinary working microscope. There is no other group
of animals which so essentially seems to need the prolonged de-
votion of a specialist as the Protozoa—and above all, the lower
members of that grand division. To write a monograph upon
any single one of these flagellate forms may seem like devoting
a volume to the structure and phases of a dot ina sunbeam ; but
no good microscopist need be told that the optical instruments
of the present day are no less efficient than was the scalpel in
the hand of Cuvier when he displayed to the world the organi-
zation of the larger and more elevated animals which he found
on the southern shores of France.

Moreover it is particularly desirable that elaborate investiga-
tions should be made, and unstinted minutie set forth in illus-

* From Silliman’s American Journal for September, 1866.

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3, Vol. xviii. 30

430 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Structure and

trations and descriptions, because there are yet among zoologists
those who suppose that there is so little in the organization of
Protozoa that no tangible characters can be found by which
they may be typified or assimilated in a group by themselves, -

The taxonomic relations of the organs of the InrusorIA FLA-=
GELLATA have received so little attention from investigators, that
there is no small difficulty, with our present knowledge of them,
in tracing the typical plan which is so eminently exemplified
among the ciuiaTa. I hope I shall-be pardoned, therefore, if I
attempt to give a strict topographical view of the positions of
the various organs of one among the most lowly of the whole
group of animalcules. —

A considerable portion of the second volume of the great
work of Messrs. Claparéde and Lachmann, ‘ Etudes sur les Infu-
soires,’ &c., is occupied by a discussion of the animality of cer-
tain doubtful forms of Monad-like Infusoria. The tests which
these authors offer as determinatives of the zoological relations
of the forms in question are, the possession by them of a con-
tractile vesicle, and the introception of food. By means of either
the one or the other of these criteria they succeed in satisfying
themselves that the Volvocina, Astasie (Euglene included), and
the Dinobrya are true animals; but in regard to other forms
they are unable to decide. Among those which are left in the
latter category, there is a singular infusorian which, as is usually
supposed, was originally named Epistylis vegetans by Ehrenberg,
and Anthophysa Miilleri by Bory de St. Vincent. Dujardin gives
a scarcely recognizable figure of it in the atlas of his work on
Infusoria, but. very properly places it among the monadiform
animalcules. This is done, however, upon its general resem-
blance to the latter (alike undetermined at that date as to their
animal nature), and not because he had by direct observation
decided it to be a genuine animal. The figures of Cohn (‘ Mikro-
skopische Algen und Pilze,’ Nov. Acta Acad. Cas. Leop. 1854,
taf. xv. figs. 1-8) are not much better than those of Dujardin.

Habitat and general appearance.—I have been so fortunate as
to determine the animality of Anthophysa by both of the tests
above mentioned; and there rests not the least doubt in my
mind that this infusorian is as truly a member of the zoological
kingdom as any of the well-known Protozoa. I would state,
for the information of those who are not acquainted with the
habits of this animalcule, that it is quite common among the
freshwater weeds. It may be most advantageously studied
when it is attached to Myriophyllum or Ceratophyllum—a small
piece of the tip of the filiform leaf of either (which seems to be
covered by an irregular floccose deposit) usually affording abun-
dant specimens. | ; .

Habits of Anthophysa Miilleri. 431

- Under a low magnifying-power this floccose matter ‘appears
to consist of clusters of very jagged, irregularly branching and
contorted, semitransparent, intertwined stems, and projecting
tapering and flexible twigs. Each of the tips of the latter sus-
tains a single more or less globose mass of spindle-shaped
‘bodies, which radiate from a common centre of attachment, and
are kept in a constant agitation by the spasmodic jerks of a
long, stout, usually rigid, arcuate filament, with which the free
end of each one is endowed. The whole bristling mass revolves
alternately from right to left and from left to right, whirling
upon its slender pivot with such a degree of freedom that one
might almost suspect that it merely rested upon it and had no
truer adhesion to it than the juggler’s top to the end of the
bdton upon which it spins. The largest of these twirling groups
contains as many as fifty fusiform bodies; but most frequently
not more than half that number are grouped together, and from
this they vary in decreasing quantities down to only one or two
upon each filamentous twig. In the last instances the bodies
are comparatively quiet, scarcely moving out of focus at each
spasmodic twitch of the arcuate filament. -On this account, and
because they offer an unobstructed view, the latter are by far
the most available as objects for the investigation of their internal
organization.

The relationship of the individual monads to the whole colony
must, however, be studied where they are more numerously con-
gregated, since, as will be shown presently, each monad sus-. .
tains a definite relation to every other one, and to the twig to
which it is attached. The larger colonies are frequently to be
found swimming freely, with a rolling motion similar to that
with which Volvox progresses. As anatural concomitant to this:
fact, twigs are to be met with here and there which do not bear
anything at their tips. The colonies seem to break away very
easily ; and on this account the specimens should not be lifted
out of the water when transferring them to the watch-glass or
whatever sort of observing-trough is used.

Form, &c.—The adult monads have a truncate fusiform shape,
and are slightly but quite appreciably flattened on two opposite
sides, so that in an end view they appear to be broadly oval
transversely. The attached end tapers gradually to a point;
and on this account it is difficult to determine where the body
ends and the twig begins. All of the members of a group radiate
from a common point of attachment, to which they adhere by
their tapering filamentous ends. The free end is truncate ; but
one corner of it, as if in continuation of the line along which
the opposite flattened sides meet, projects in the form of a
rather blunt triangular beak. At the inner edge of the base of »

30*

432 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Structure and

this beak lies the mouth, to which the former (as frequent ob-
servation has proved) acts asa lip or prehensile organ when food
is taken into the body. The prevailing tint is a more or less
uniform light gamboge, without the least trace of an eye-spot
of any colour. .

A most singular uniformity prevails in the arrangement of
the several members of a group. Hach monad is attached to its
mooring in such a position that its flattened sides lie parallelwise
with those of its nearest neighbour; and the beak projects from
that corner of the head which is most distant from the twig.
To give a full idea of the peculiarity of this arrangement, it
must be stated here that the rigid, arcuate, spasmodically twitch-
ing filament mentioned above is attached close to the mouth,
and invariably curves away from the beak, and consequently
always toward the pedicel of the colony. One is forcibly re-
minded by this of the systematic relation of some of the flowers
of Labiate, with their stamens projecting far beyond the upper
lip of the corolla. The globose heads of the Menthe are particu-
larly good examples for illustrating this similitude.

Prehensile organs. —The only motile organs which this animal-
cule possesses are preeminently prehensile in character; and
their apparent appropriation to the office of propulsion, when a
colony breaks loose from its attachment, I can scarcely doubt is
an accidental one, inasmuch as the arcuate cilium continues its
spasmodic twitching without any apparent deviation from its
usual mode of action.

There are two cilia, of very unequal size, attached to the trun-
cate end of the body.. The larger one of these has already
been mentioned casually, as a rigid, arcuate filament.. It does
not-taper, but has a uniform thickness from base to tip, and is
about, half as long again as the body. It arises near the base
of the triangular beak, but appears to be separated from the
latter by the intervening mouth. When quiet it appears like a
bristle, and projects in a line with the longer axis of the body—
at the base bending slightly toward the beak, and then sweeping
off in a moderate but distinct curve in the opposite direction, so
that on the whole it presents a long drawn-out sigmoid flexure.
The plane of this curve lies in strict parallelism with the plane
of the greater diameter of the body ; in fact it may be said to be
a direct continuation of it. It does not appear to have the cha-
racter of a flagellum, except when assisting the smaller cilium to
convey the food to,the mouth; and then it lays aside its rigid
deportment and assumes all the flexibility and wavy vibration
of the prehensile organ of an Astasia.

The smaller cilium is an excessively faint body, and almost
defies the detective: powers of the highest objectives. This is

Habits of Anthophysa Miilleri. 433

partly due to its almost incessant activity ; for when it is quiet,
or nearly so (which happens when food is passing into the
mouth), it becomes comparatively quite conspicuous under a
one-eighth-of-an-inch objective. It is scarcely as long as the
greater diameter of the truncate end of the body. It arises
close to the base of the larger cilium; but whether on the right
or left, or nearer or more distant from the mouth than the latter,
cannot be said positively. Most frequently it was observed to
be flexed in the same direction as its companion ; and occasion-
ally it seemed to be quite evident that it was attached nearer to
the mouth than the latter. It is highly flexible, and vibrates
with great rapidity in what appears to be a gyratory manner.

The mouth.—This organ is never visible except when food is
passing through it. It then may be seen that it lies close to the
beak, which acts as a sort of lip by curving over the introcepted
particles as they pass into the body. The mouth is highly dis-
tensible, at times allowing particles as wide as two-thirds the
greater diameter of the body to pass in without any apparent
extra effort. It seems undeniable that it possesses discrimina-
tive powers in regard to the quality of its food. This one may
readily judge of for himself, by seeing the unerring precision
with which the particles of floating matter are thrown, by the
spasmodic incurvature of the larger flagellum, against the mouth,
where, if they are not swallowed, they are detained but for an
instant by the smaller cilium, quickly adjudged to be worthless,
and then thrown off with a twirl of the organ which held them
in temporary abeyance. If, however, the captured morsel prove
to be agreeable, the larger cilium assists the operations of the
smaller one and the lip, by abruptly bending itself at its pomt
of attachment and laying its basal part across the food and
pressing it into the mouth, while the terminal portion is kept in
a constant wavy vibration, and curved toward the posterior end
of the body. This is usually done in three or four seconds ; and.
then the cilia return to their usual positions, while the intro-
cepted edible passes toward the centre of the body, and is there
immediately enclosed in a digestive vacuole. For a while the
food dances about in this vacuole with a very lively motion, but
finally it subsides into quietude.

The contractile vesicle——There is a twofold difficulty in dis-
covering the presence of this organ. In the first place, it is com-
paratively quite small; and secondly, it pulsates so slowly that
it is very rarely possible to see it contract twice in succession
between any two of the abrupt lateral deviations of the body
which the spasmodic twitching of the arcuate flagellum pro-
duces. On this account it has not been possible to determine
the precise rate of its systole and diastole. It seems to contract

434, Prof,.H. James-Clark on the Structure and

from three to four times a minute. It lies near the surface,
about halfway between the two ends of the body, and nearly
midway betwixt the two extremes of its greater diameter. At
the completion of its diastole it has a circular outline, and ap-
pears like a clear colourless vesicle in the midst of the yellowish
tissue of the body. Upon contraction it disappears and leaves
no trace of its presence. The systole progresses slowly, as in
Anisonema (A. sulcata, Duj.?, and A.nov. sp.), Cyclidium (C. nov.
sp.), and Phacus pleuronectes, Duj., and in this respect contrasts
strongly with the same process in Heteromita fusiformis, Jas.-Clk.,
Astasia tricophora, Clap., and Cryptomonas (C. nov. sp.), in which
the last half of the systole i is very abrupt and marked.

The stem.—In addition to what has already been said of the
general appearance of this part of the organism, it may be added
that the older and basal portions of the branches are flat, and
have a distinct longitudinal irregular striation, to all appear-
ance made up of the older, laterally agglutinated twigs. The
youngest, terminal portions of the branches which, under the
name of twigs, have been described in this paper as the imme-
diate supporters of the colonies of monads, are evidently tubular.
They appear to be as flexible as a spider’s thread, and are usually
quite irregular in outline, and in the calibre of the canal which
permeates them. The wall of these tubular twigs is quite thick,
and is alike rough on the exterior and interior faces. The sub.
stance within the tubes appears homogeneous, but whether it is
solid or fluid could not be determined. ‘The oldest part of the
stems is of a reddish-brown colour; but as they taper off into
branchlets they gradually assume a gamboge-colour, and finally
terminate in scarcely coloured twigs.

Reproduction by fissigemmation is the only method of propa-
gating individuals which I have observed. As a preliminary.
to this process the monad gradually loses its fusiform shape,
assumes at first an oval contour, and finally becomes globular.
During this transition, both of the prehensile cilia become much
more conspicuous than usual, and the body developes a closely
fitting hyaline envelope about it, thus passing into a sort of en-
cysted state. The contractile vesicle, however, does not seem
to cease its pulsations during this period, and moreover it be-
comes quite conspicuous. ‘This arises mostly from the fact that
the body is in a nearly quiet state, and allows the: observer to
obtain a prolonged and undisturbed view of it. Unfortunately
the rate of the pulsations of this organ was not ascertained when
the following observations were made, because the whole time
was occupied in watching and drawing the various and rapidly
changing phases of self-division.

After the body assumes a globular shape, as above mentioned,

Habits of Anthophysa Miilleri, =~ 435

both the larger and smaller cilium seems to be undergoing a
change, and becomes indistinct in outline*. Presently two larger
flagella burst upon the view, apparently by the longitudinal
splitting of the previously single one of the same kind, and rapidly
separate from each other by the broadening of the body, and
leave between them the smaller cilium. The latter at this time
appears much thicker than usual, and seems to be composed of
two closely approximated parallel threads.. By this time the
contractile vesicle has also divided into two, which lie closely side
by side.

At this moment the time noted in one series of observations
was 2.30 p.m. By 2.35 p.m. the larger flagella had separated
still further, and the smaller cilium had split into two very con-
spicuous filaments, as yet, however, attached to a common point
of the body. From this time forth to the completion of the
process of fissigemmation all of the cilia kept up a slow vibra-
tion, in which they undulated from base to tip with a sort of
snake-like motion. By 2.45 p.m. the body had become quite ap-
preciably broader than long, the contractile vesicles were widely
Separated, and the smaller cilia had left between them a consi-
derable space, and each one had approximated quite near to the
base of a larger flagellum. At 2.50 p.m. the body had become
nearly twice as broad as long, and the space between the two
. pairs of cilia was nearly twice as great as in the last phase, and
considerably depressed in the middle, so that the body had a
broadly cordate outline. By 2.52 p.m. the posterior end of the
body (at a point a little to one side of the spot where it was

* Tn a new freshwater genus (see note 2) of sedentary, monadiform
Protozoa (possessing two contractile vesicles, and only the sigmoid flagellum,
the latter arising within a deep bell-like flange or projecting rim which
embraces the anterior end of the body) this arcuate filament disappears
altogether, by a sort of withering down from tip to base, reminding one of
the shrivelling of the end of a cotton thread in the flame of a lamp, pre-
liminary to the commencement of the longitudinal fissigemmation of the
body and its bell-like flange ; and then the new flagellum of each resultant
of self-division grows out in about twenty minutes.
- 2 Codosiga: kadwv, a bell, cvydw, to be silent. C. pulcherrima, n. sp.
Body obliquely obovate, and tapering at its posterior end into a slender

dice] ; truncate and abruptly constricted in front where the base of the
bell meets the body. Sigmoid arcuate flagellum as long as the body and
bell. The two contractile vesicles in the posterior third of the body;
superficial, large, and quite conspicuous, each contracting, alternately
with the other, once in about half a minute. Bodies attached, in groups
of from two to eight, by their pedicels to the tip of a slender stem ; erect
or divergent, but not pendent, Mouth at the base of the flagellum, 7. e. ter-
minal. Anus near the mouth. No eye-spot. Bell slightly flaring ; half
again deeper than broad ; fully as deep as the length of the body ; highly
contractile. Colour of the body (excepting the hyaline bell), pedicels, and
stem deep yellow. Common on fresh-water weeds about Cambridge, U.S.

436 M.'T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

attached to the pedicel) was also slightly indented, so that in
outline it presented a guitar-shaped figure, each rounded half of
which bore a pair of unequal cilia, and contained a contractile
vesicle. In one minute more the contraction had increased to
such an extent that the body was divided about halfway through.
By 2.54 p.m. the animal had a dumb-bell shape, and the pedicel
was attached to one of the segments near the point of con-
striction. Still the process went on very rapidly, and by 2.55 P.M.
the new bodies were widely separated, but still attached to each
other by a mere thread. At 3 p.m. the body which was attached
to the pedicel was left alone, and its companion swam away to
seek a new attachment and build up its stem. we

To the last moment the hyaline envelope remained about the
segments, and in fact so long afterwards that time and circum-
stances did not allow me to ascertain its final disposition. I
would remark, however, that when the ovate bodies of the half-
grown monads are contracted temporarily into a globular shape,
they appear identical (excepting that they lack the hyaline en-
velope) with these recently fissated forms. In all probability,
therefore, the latter lose their envelope and assume the shape of
the former.

As to the development of the stem, I think it quite certain
that it grows out from the posterior end of the body. The best
proof of this is, that I have frequently found a monad (especially
in the condition of the one which I described above as breaking —
loose from its companion) nearly sessile upon a clean spot, and
attached by a very short, faint, film-like thread. From this
size upward I had no difficulty in finding abundant examples as
gradually increasing in diameter as they did in length—thus
furnishing a pretty strong evidence that the stem grows under
the influence of its own innate powers, and is not, therefore, a
deposit emanating from the body of the monad, except, perhaps,
as far as it may be nourished by a fluid circulating within its
hollow core,

LVI.—On Two European Argulide, with Remarks on the
Morphology of the Argulide and their Systematic Position, to-
gether with a Review of the Species of the Family at present
known. By T. THorEe.y.

[Concluded from p. 286.]
TV.

I sHALL now pass in review the species of Argulide hitherto -
known, although many of them are so incompletely described
that it is not without difficulty that they can be determined,

M.T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide. 437

The arrangement which I have adopted can therefore-be only
provisional, and is put forward merely with a view to draw
attention, on the part of those who have opportunities for
examining new or incompletely known Argulide, to the cha-
racters which have seemed to me the most important for the
systematic arrangement of these animals. Excepting in the
ease of the three European species, which. I have had occa- ,
sion to examine myself, the diagnoses are compiled from the
descriptions and figures of others. I shall first range the fifteen
(or sixteen) known Argulids in the order which seems to me the
most natural, and then briefly particularize each species sepa-
rately,

BRANCHIURA.

Corpus depressum, capite in scutum magnum, postice ple-
rumque bifidum dilatato; oculi compositi longe sejuncti. An-
tenn breves; primi paris unco incuryo armate, cum maxilli-
pedibus primi paris ad figendum apte; secundi paris simplices,
articulis paucis (4-5). Os in siphonem productum, mandi-
bulas et, si que adsunt, maxillas quoque includentem ; maxilli-
pedes fortissimi, anteriores plerumque cotyledones formantes.
Truncus segmentis 4, distinctis; pedum paria 4, natatoriorum,
biramium, appendicibus branchialibus carentium. Cauda non
segmentata, plana, foliacea, respirationi inserviens, testes aut
receptacula seminis includens. Metamorphosis incompleta.

Animalia in cute externa, in cavitate branchiali vel in bran-
chiis piscium (et batrachiorum) parasitantia.

Fam. Arcutipa#, Leach, cet. (Argulina, Kr., Burm., cet.).
Character subordinis etiam familise unice,

Gen. I. Arauxvus, Miller (1785).

Monoculus, Linn., cet.; Binoculus, Geoffr., cet.; Ozolus, Latr.; Agenor,
Risso. :

Maxillipedes primi paris in adultis cotyledones formantes.

a. Pedes flagello carent. Stimulus ante siphonem adest.
Sipho mandibulas et maxillas continet. (Agenor, Risso.)

1. A. purpureus (Risso).
22. A. giganteus, Lucas.

B. Pedes parium 1™ et 2% flagello instructi. Stimulus adest.
Sipho mandibulas et maxillas continet. (drgulus, Mill.)

3. A. foliaceus (Linn.).
4. A. coregoni, Thor.
25. A. pugettensis, Dana.
6. A. catostomi, Dana et Herr.

438 M. T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

y- Pedes parium 1™ et 2% flagello instructi. Stimulus adest.
Sipho mandibulas tantum includit. (Camulus*, nob.)

_ %, A, Nattereri, Hell. ;
d. Pedes perine 1™ et 24 flagello instructi. Stimulus nullus?
Sipho?
- 8. A, salmini, Kr.
9. A. chromiilis, Kr.
10. A. funduli, Kr.
211. A. alose, Gould.
?12. A. elongatus, Hell.

Gen. II. Gyrorextis, Heller (1857).

_ Maxillipedes primi paris apice unco forti armati (cotyledonibus
nullis), Pedes parium 1-3" flagello instructi. Stimulus nullus.
Sipho mandibulas tantum includit.

1. G. longicauda, Hell.
- 2. G. doradis, Corn.
' 8. G. Kollari, Hell.
[? 4. G. Lacordairet (Aud.) ]

I. Arcuxus, Miller.

1. A. purpureus (Risso).
See p. 158.

2. A. giganteus, Lucas.

Syn. Argulus giganteus, Lucas, Exploration scientifique de Algérie;
Hist. Nat. d. Animaux Articulés, Premiére Partie : Crustaeés, (1845)
p. 83, pl. 8. fig. 9.

“A. ovatus, flavescens, subtiliter rubro punctatus; testa dilata-

’ tissima, membranacea, utrinque fusco-rubescente unilineata.

Long. 11 millim., latit. 7 millim.”

Hab. in Mari Mediterraneo, ad oras Africe (Algeriz), in Raje sp. inventus.

_ I have been obliged to present the above diagnosis as Lucas

has given it: it is certainly accompanied by a sort of description,

but from this we get no further knowledge respecting the ani-

mal. The description, which is taken from a dried specimen, is

so defective that, were it not that the author expressly says that

he observed “de chaque cdté de la base du bec, un appendice

gros et court terminé par une ventouse.cupuliforme,” we should

hardly be able to recognize the animal as belonging to the Ar-

gulide. “Il ne me reste,” says he, “de ce crustacé curieux

que le test.... Les antennes n ’existent plus, et les organes e la

* Nomen propr. mythol.

‘

M.T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide. 489

locomotion ainsi que abdomen étant en trop mauvais état pour

que je puisse en décrire la forme, je n’en parlerai pas.” By the

word bec is probably meant the sting, not the mouth-tube. All
further information respecting this animal is summed up as
follows :—* Cette espéce est bien moins discoidale quel’ A. folia-
ceus.... Jaundtre, la téte est grande, trés-allongée, et parait
arrondie & ses parties antérieure et postérieure ; elle est forte-
ment sillonnée longitudinalement entre les yeux, et ceux-ci, qui
sont noirs, affectent une forme discoidale. Le test est trés-dilaté,
membraneux, transparent et parait postérieurement ne pas étre
dépassé par Vabdomen; il est jaune, finement pointillé de rou-
geatre, et parcouru longitudinalement, de chaque cété, par une
ligne d’un brun rougedtre.”

_ Of more value than this description is the statement that the
animal was procured “en mai sur une Raie qui avait été prise
dans la rade d’Alger, entre Je fort de ’Eau et le cap Matifou.”
The figure gives no clearer idea of the characters of the animal
than the description. I have placed it next to A. purpureus on
the ground of the elongated form of the shield, and because, as
would seem to be expressed above, it appears to stretch over and
cover the tail, as in that species. Both occur, moreover, in the
same sea, |

3. A. foliaceus (Linn.).

Syn. Monoculus foliaceus, Linné, Syst. Nat. ed. 10, tom. i. (1758) p. 634.

Argulus Charon, Miller, Entomostraca, (1785) p. 723, tab. 20. figg.
1, 2 (larva).

— delphinus, id. ibid. p. 123.

— foliaceus, Jurine, Ann. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. tome vii. (1806)
p. 431, pl. 26. figg. 1-21; Milne-Edwards, Hist, Nat. d. Crus-
tacés, iii. p. 444; Baird, British Entomostraca, p. 255, pl. 31.
figg. 1, 2 a-l.

Scutum cephalicum subovatum, antice utrinque parum sinuatum,
pedes omnes, ultimi paris exceptis, tegens ; cauda ovata, lon=
gitudine circa } reliqui corporis, vix usque ad medium incisa,
laciniis apice rotundatis; stimulus longus; sipho subclavatus}.

- art. primus antennarum secundi paris aculeo valido armatus ;
cotyledones parvi, diametro circiter 4 corporis longitudinis
eequantes; pecten plaga media oblongo-rotundata scabra,
‘dentibusque 8 fortibus acutis; alii dentes 2 inter maxilli-
pedes secundi paris adsunt.—Longit. 6-7 millim., latit. circa
34 millim. (¢ 9).

Hab. in aquis dulcibus fere totius Europe, in cute externa et in cavitate
branchiali (?} piscium (Gasterosteorum, Cyprini carpionis, Abramis
brame*, Leucisci rutili, Tince vulgaris, Esocis lucii, Perce fluviatilis,

_ Salmonis trutte), et in larvis Ranarwm parasitans.
For a more complete synonymy we would refer to the works

* According to Mag. Widegren.

440 M. T, Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

of Milne-Edwards and Baird above cited. It is not impossible
that, under the appellation 4. foliaceus, two separate species
have been confounded. The figures which Vogt * has given of
this animal differ from the Swedish (and consequently from the
genuine) form in having the tail much smaller and almost bent
inwards laterally. Jurine and Baird represent the tail such as
I have found it in my own specimens,

4. A. coregoni, Thor,
See page 162.

5. A. pugettensis, Dana.
Syn. Argulus pugettensis, Dana, United States’ Exploring Expedition,
Crustacea, (1853) ii. p. 1351, pl. 94. figg. 2 a et d.

Scutum cephalicum oblongum, ellipticum, pedes omnes tegens ;
cauda magna, oblonga, longitudine circa 2 reliqui corporis,
et latitudine 2 latit. seuti fere equans, usque ad medium in-
cisa, laciniis subacuminatis; stimulus longus; sipho sub-
clavatus ; cotyledones sat magni, diametro 1-1 corporis lon-
gitudinis equantes; pectinis dentes 3 subconici; dentes 2
inter maxillipedes secundi paris adsunt.—Long. circa 17,
latit. 10 millim. (¢ ?).

Hab. in America boreali (ad oras occid.: “ Puget’s Sound”). Hospitium
ignotum,

This very scanty description contains nothing respecting the
oral organs; but the accompanying figures, which seem to be
good, and which present the animal both from the dorsal and
ventral aspects, show so strong a likeness to the two species im-
mediately preceding, that I have not hesitated to place it in the
same subdivision of the genus with them. ‘The tail is propor-
tionally larger, and especially broader at the base, than in A,
coregoni.

6. A. catostomi, Dana et Herr.
Syn. Argulus catostomi, Dana et Herrick, Silliman’s Amer. Journ. (1837).
xxxi. p. 297. figg. 1-11; Milne-Edwards, Hist, Nat. d. Crustacés,
iil. p. 445.

Scutum cephalicum amplum, suborbiculatum, paullo latius quam
longius, antice utrinque subsinuatum, pedes quoque ultimi
paris ad partem tegens; cauda lata, rotundata, longitudine
circa 4 reliqui corporis, postice non usque ad medium incisa,
laciniis late rotundatis ; stimulus longus; sipho ovatus ; coty-
ledones mediocres; pecten.plaga media scabra subtriangula,
dentibusque 3 late truncatis ; inter maxillipedes secundi paris
dentes nulli. Ramus inferior pedum primi paris articulis 3,

* Loc. cit.

M. T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide. 441

quorum 2 ultimi brevissimi; flagella pedum verticula media
preedita.—Long. circa 10, lat. 9 millim. (?).

Hab. in America boreali (Connecticut, New Haven), in flumine Mill River,
etiam ubi aqua marina estu crescente aque dulci admiscetur. In cavi-
tate branchiali et in ipsis branchiis Catostomi sp. (C. bostoniensis, Le-
sueur, aut communis, ejusd.) inventus.

7. A. Natiereri, Hell.

SYN. Argulus Nattereri, Heller, Sitzungsberichte d. Kais. Akad, d. Wis-
sensch., Math.~Naturwissensch. Cl., (1857) xxv. p. 103, taf. 1.
figg. 4-12; Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidskr. 3die Rekke, (1863) i.
pp- 97, 103, tab. 1. fig. 3 a—d.

Scutum cephalicum amplum, suborbiculatum, paullo latius quam
longius, lobo frontali paullo prominenti, supra denticulis et
setis scabrum, pedes omnes et basin caude tegens; cauda

parum prominens, brevissima, longitudine cirea +5 reliqui

corporis, transverse elliptica, vix usque ad medium incisa ;
sipho magnus, subclavatus ; cotyledones magni, diametro fere
% longit. corporis equantes; pectinis dentes 3 longi, sub-
acuminati.—Longit. circa 12, lat. 13 millim. (?).

Hab. in America meridionali (Brasilia) : in branchiis et cute Salmini (Hy-
drocyonis) brevidentis, Cuv. (Salmini Cuvieri, Val.), inventus.

_ This well-marked species is fully described and figured both
by Heller and Kréyer. The former has given special attention
to the oral organs; and his description is more complete on this
point than Kroyer’s, which, however, is in other respects ampler
and accompanied by better figures.

8. A. salmini, Kr.*

Syn. Argulus salminei, Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidskr. 3die Raekke, (1863) ii.

pp- 89, 103, tab. 1. fig. 2 a~c.

Scutum cephalicum amplum, suborbiculatum, parum latius quam
longius, lobo frontali lato, prominenti, pedes omnes, exceptis
ultimi paris, tegens; cauda rotundata, paullo latior quam
longior, fere ad tertiam longitudinis partem incisa, longit. 1}

~ reliqui corporis zquans; cotyledones magni, diametro circa +
totius corporis longitudinis equantes; pectinis dentes trun-

_ cati, latiores quam longiores.—Long. circa 13, lat. 11 mil-
lim. (?).

Mas differt magnitudine plus duplo minore, scuto cephalico el-
liptico, cauda paullo longiore quam latiore.

Hab. in America meridionali (Brasilia, Minas Geraés), in branchiis Sal-

mint sp. inventus.

Of both this and the two following species Kroyer has given

* Kroyer has Salmineus, Argulus salminei, which is probably a mistake.

442 M.T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

exact and complete descriptions. It is only to be regretted that
the oral organs have been neglected.

9. A. chromidis, Kr.

Syn. Argulus chromidis, Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidskr. ddie Rekke, (1863)
ii. pp. 92, 102, tab. 1. fig. 2 a—-c.

Scutum cephalicum breve, ad segmentum trunci tertium tantum
pertinens, fere inverse ovatum, parum longius quam latius,

_ lobo frontali angustius rotundato; cauda ‘subovata, longit.
4-1 reliqui corporis, paullo longior quam latior, postice vix
ad tertiam longitudinis partem excisa, laciniis apie subro-
tundatis ; cotyledones mediocres, diametro circa + corporis.
longitudinis eequantes; dentes pectinis multo longiores quam
latiores, medio acuto, lateralibus obtusis; ova non truncum
tantum, sed totum fere scutum occupantia.—Longit. cirea 6,
latit. 4 millim. (9).

Hab. in America centrali (Nicaragua), in branchiis Chromidis sp. ex lacu
Nicaragua semel inventus.

10. A. funduli, Kr.

Syn. Argulus funduli, Kroyer, Netaritte Tidskr. 3die Rekke, (1863) iy.
pp. 94, 103, tab. 2. fig. La
Scutum cephalicum parvum, aoa circa dimidii corporis,
paullo latius quam longius, antice angustatum, stipitem pedum’
primi paris saltem tegens, dorso postice gibbo; cauda longa,
dimidiam reliqui corporis longitudinem fere equans, duplo
circiter longior quam latior, postice profunde, at non usque_
ad medium incisa, laciniis apice rotundatis; cotyledones
magni, diametro cirea } corporis longitudinis equantes; art.
primus maxillipedum secundi paris dentibus caret.—Long.
circa 8, latit. versus 2 millim. (¢ 92).

Hab. in America boreali (Louisiana, New Orleans), in cavitate branchiali
Funduli sp. inventus.

11. A. alose, Gould.

Syn. Argulus alose, Gould, Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts,
one the Mollusca, Crustacea, Annelida, and Radiata, (1841)
P
Scutum cephalicum parvum, dimidio corpore paullo longius, in-
verse ovatum vel subcordatum, parum longius quam latius,
_ stipitem pedum primi paris tegens; cauda longa, 3 reliqui
corporis longitudime superans, circiter duplo longior quam
_ latior, usque: ad basin fissa, laciniis subacuminatis; cotyle-
dones mediocres; truncus angustus, pedes longi ng
circa 13, latit. 6 millim. ( 2 ?)

Hab. in America boreali (Massachusetts), i in branchiis Alose sp. (A. fren’
_Dekay?) semel inyentus.

M. T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide. 443

This extremely short and meagre description is accompanied

by a coarse woodcut representing the animal from beneath, but
in which we can distinguish neither antenne, “ sting,”’ nor shape
of the mouth-tube. There seem to be no comb-like teeth on the
hinder foot-jaws. The tail is described in the following words :—
“Then [on the abdomen] follow two short folia, covered by two
others, each of them nearly as long and as broad as the exposed
part of the abdomen.” The species undoubtedly stands near
A. funduli, but seems to be distinguished by a somewhat longer
head-shield, a longer and more deeply cloven tail, with more
pointed lobes and smaller sucking-cups. Whether the feet
possess flagella (gissel) or not, is not to be learnt from either
description or figures.
_ This Argulus is, according to Gould, found on the “ Alewife,”
which he identifies with the European Alosa vulgaris. Probably
the fish in question was an Alosa tyrannus, Dekay, which, ac-
cording to Valenciennes *, is the Alewife of the United States.

In ‘Silliman’s Journal,’ (1839) vol. xxxvi. p. 393, under the
title “‘ New Species of Argulus; notice from Dr. T. W. Harris,”
we find the following remarks :—“ It may interest some of your
readers to be informed of the discovery of another species of
Argulus in this country. It was found in the gills of a herring
caught upon Brighton Bridge, from Charles River, during the
month of June last. It differs from Argulus foliaceus of Europe,
and from the species described in a former number of your
Journal, vol. xxxiv. p. 2257, in the size and form of the body and
in the shortness of the legs. Having presented the specimen to
Dr. A. A. Gould for description, I shall not attempt to anticipate
him by giving a detailed account of its specific characters at this
time.”

It is undoubtedly 4. alose which is here alluded to; for
Gould says, with reference to this specimen, that it was presented
to him by Dr. T. W. Harris, who found it on the branchie of the
“Alewife,” which fish in America, like the Alosa vulgaris with us,

_is often confounded under the general name of “herring” or
“sill” Gould has described no other species of Argulus. That
the species differs from A. foliaceus in the shortness of the legs,
is a mistake. See the diagnosis.

12. A. elongatus, Hell.

Syn. Argulus elongatus, Heller, Sitzungsber. d. Kais. Akad. d. Wissensch.,
Math.-Naturwissensch. Cl., (1857) xxv. p. 106, taf. 3. figg. 1-4.

Scutum cephalicum minimum, longitudine trunci, inverse sub-

_ * Cuvier et Valenciennes, ‘Histoire Naturelle des Poissons,’ (1847)
tom. xx. p. 421.

+ This probably means yol, xxxi, p. 297, where A. catostomi, Dana, is

444, M. T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

cordatum, postice parum sinuatum, non excisum, neque trun-
cum nec pedes tegens; ‘cauda circa } longitudinis reliqui cor-
poris equans, profunde incisa, lobis sat longis, lanceolatis ;
cotyledones parvi; art. primus maxillipedum secundi paris
dentibus caret.—Longit. 10 millim., latit. 6 millim. ( ¢).

Hab. in America meridionali (Brasilia), Hospitium ignotum.

Amongst all known species of Argulids this one has the head-
shield least developed, and its appearance is therefore very dif-
ferent from that of the others. Heller’s description is very
brief, and leaves undetermined, as does also his figure, whether
the animal has a sting (gadd), and whether its feet are provided
with flagella or not.

Obs. Argulus armiger, Mill. (Entomostraca, p. 124) = Mono-
culus armiger, Slabber*, is no Argulus, but the larva of a Cirri-
pede.

II. Grropztris, Heller.

1. G. longicauda, Hell.

Syn. Gyropeltis longicauda, Heller, Sitzungsberichte d. Kais. Akad. d.
Wissensch., Math.-Naturwissensch. Cl., (1857) xxv. p. 191, taf. 1.
figg. 1-19; Kroyer, Naturhist. Tidskr. 3die Rekke, (1863) ii.
pp. 99, 103, tab. i. fig. 4 a-e.

Scutum cephalicum suborbiculare, amplum, omnes pedes tegens ;
cauda longissima, 14—2-plo longior et duplo angustior quam
scutum et reliquum corpus, fere usque ad basin in duas laci-
nias angustas, sensim lanceolato-acuminatas fissa; pectinis
dentes 8 conici, acutii—Longit. 28, latit. 11 millim. (¢ 9).

Hab. in America meridionali (Brasilia), in branchiis Salmini brevidentis
(Cuy.) inventus.

2. G. doradis, Corn.

Syn. Gyropeltis doradis, Cornalia, Mem. del R. Istit. Lombardo, (1860)
viii. pp. 161, tab. 2. figg. 1-18.
Scutum cephalicum suborbiculare, pedes ultimi paris vix tegens;
cauda sat longior, reliqui corporis dimidiam longitudinem
circiter eequans, fere usque ad basin in duas lacinias angustas,
sublanceolatas fissa; pectinis dentes 3 breves, acuti.—Longit.

22, latit. 11 millim. (¢?).

Hab. in America sequinoctiali, in corpore Doradis nigri Valence. inventus.

described. That described in vol. xxiv. p. 225 is a Caligus (C. ameri-
canus, Pickering & Dana), not an Argulus.

* Natuurkundige Verlustigingen, behelzende microscopische waarnee-
mingen, &e. (1769), cited from P. L. St. Miiller’s German translation :
Physikalische Belustigungen, &c. (1775) p. 19, tab. 6, fig. 1.

M.T. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide. 445

8. G. Kollari, Hell.

Sex, Gyropeltis Kollari, Heller, Sitzungsberichte d. Kais. Akad. d. Wis-
sensch., Math.-Naturwissensch. Cl., (1857) xxv. p. 102, taf. 1.
figg. 20, 21; taf. 2. figg. 1-3.

Seutum cephalicum inverse subcordatum, amplum, omnes pedes
et basin caude tegens; cauda brevis, 4-} reliqui corporis
longitudinis equans, inverse rotundato-ovata, postice parum
profunde incisa, laciniis brevibus obtusis; pectinis dentes 3
breves, obtusi.—Longit. 12, latit. 9 millim. (¢).

Hab. in America meridionali (Brasilia). Hospitiym ignotum.

24, G. Lacordairet (Aud.).

Syn. Dolops Lacordairei, Audouin, Annales de la Soc. Entomol. de France,
sér, 1. t. vi. (1837), Bull. p. 13,

Long. plus 15 millim.
Hab. in America meridionali (Cayenne), in pisce Aymara dicto parasitans.

Concerning this animal we have the following remarks from
the above-cited source :—

“ M.Audouin présente deux individus d’un crustacé singulier,
qui a beaucoup d’analogie avec l’Argule foliacé de Jurine, mais
qui en différe surtout par Pabsence de ventouses aux pattes an-
térieures, et par sa taille, qui dépasse un centimétre et demi.

“Ce crustacé a été trouvé a Cayenne par M. Lacordaire ; il
est parasite sur un poisson nommé Aymara, dont la chair est
trés-estimée, et qui vit dans toutes les riviéres. M. Audouin
en donne la description et le regarde comme le type d’un nou-
veau genre, auquel il assigne le nom de Dolops. Il dédie cette
espace & M. Lacordaire :

“ Dolops Lacordairei. Ce nouveau genre sera décrit en détail
et figuré.”

That this Dolops Lacordairei is a Gyropeltis, or at least stands
very near this gens, may be regarded as certain. But although
the name Dolups is older than Gyropeltis, it seems to me in every
respect more desirable to retain the latter appellation, inasmuch
as Audouin did not determine or clearly point out the characters
on which he founds the genus Dolops. No description of the
species has, as far as I can discover, been published.

As at the most sixteen species of the family Argulide are as
yet known, and as this number will undoubtedly be considerably
increased, it would be premature now to attempt to draw, from
what is known of the localities of these species, any general
conclusions as to the geographical range of the family. We may,
however, suppose with Kroyer that the great American. continent

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3, Vol, xviii. 31

%

446 M.'. Thorell on the Species of the Argulide.

is its proper habitat, since three-fourths of the species which be-
long to the genus Argulus, together with all the species of the
genus G'yropeltis, are limited thereto. The greater number be-
long to the warm parts of that continent: only one species (A.
pugettensis) is known from the west coast of (North) America.
Of the four non-American species enumerated in our list, Hurope
has afforded three, and Africa one species (inhabiting the Medi-
terranean).

It is further of importance to note the relative numbers of th
species which live in fresh and in salé water. We perceive
at once that, as in the other Branchiopoda, the number of
Jreshwater forms preponderates. If we except the four species
(A. pugettensis, funduli, and elongatus, with Gyropeltis Kollari)
concerning which information in this respect is wanting, it will
be seen that of the remaining species only two (A. purpureus
and giganteus) are found on fishes which live exclusively in the
sea; all the others are procured from fresh water. It would be
of great importance to learn whether or not some of these fresh-
water forms can also live in salt water, and, in particular, whether
the species (A. coregoni and alosa, for instance) which live on
fishes which undertake journeys from the sea up the rivers
follow their hosts when these betake themselves again to the
sea. We have already stated that A. catostomi lives also in the
brackish water near the mouths of rivers.

In close connexion with the consideration that the larger
number of the Argulide belong ty lakes and rivers, and only a
small portion to the sea, is the result which we obtain from an
inquiry how they are distributed amongst the various groups of
fishes. That the Argulids are not always (perhaps never)
confined to a single sort of fish is shown in the case of the
three European species, which live on fishes of different genera,
even of widely separated families—especially A. foliaceus, the only
Argulid of whose habitat and mode of life we have a tolerabl
satisfactory knowledge. This species not only attaches itse
to freshwater fish of wholly different orders (Acanthopteri,
Pharyngognathi, and Physostomi), but even attacks the larve
of frogs, which is not known to be the case with any of the
other species. We are ignorant as to the animals on which
three of these (A. pugettensis, A. elongatus, and G. Kollari)
occur. The rest have all been found on fishes, and, with
the exception of a single species, on Teleostei or bony fishes.
Of the other subclasses only one (viz. the Selachia) has figured
in our list. .4. giganteus is found upon a Ray. Amongst bony
fishes it is, as we might almost conclude @ priori, especially the
order Physostomi which is affected by these parasites. A spe-
cies of the Siluroid family harbours G.doradis ; many Cyprinoids

M. T. Thorell on the Arrangement of the Copepoda. 447

_ are attacked by A. foliaceus, one by A. catostomi. Cyprinodonts
have afforded A. funduli; the Characinide A. Nattereri, A. sal-
mini and G. longicauda. Salmonoids are affected by A. coreyoni
and A. foliaceus, which has also been taken on an Esocoid ; ‘the
Clupeidz finally have contributed a species, A. alose. Among
the Pharyngognathi the family Chromide has a parasite in A.
chromidis ; and among the Acanthopteri it is the families Scom-
bride (for A. purpureus and foliaceus), Sparide (for A. pur-
pureus), and Percids (for A. foliaceus) on which representatives
of the Arguloid family have been hitherto observed.

I avail myself of this occasion to refute some objections which
have lately been put forward by Claus* against the attempted
arrangement of the order Copepoda communicated by me in my
memoir above cited—‘ Contribution to our knowledge of the
Crustacea which live on the species of the genus Ascidia, L.”’ +
This arrangement (in three parallel series, Gnathostoma, Peeci-
lostoma, and Siphonostoma) is based upon the structure of the
organs of the mouth, which, he says “in the first division are
adapted for chewing, in the other two for piercing and sucking.
The arrangement of the free and parasitic in parallel series
renders the formation of the subordinate groups more difficult,
the three forms of mouth presenting numerous cases of transi-
tion. It separates nearly allied forms, and, if strictly adhered
to, produces an unnatural and one-sided system. Further, the
character imputed to the Peecilostoma—‘ Os mandibulis et si-
phone earens, maxillarum paribus 3—1(-0) instructum’—rests
on an error, since the mandibles are very well developed.”

To begin with the last remark, which seems to contain a charge
of especial weight, since it would appear that Claus represents
me as overlooking in the Poecilostoma the preseace of the very
organs (the mandibles) on the presence or absence of which the
differences between the Gnathostoma and Pcecilostoma depend.
That such, however, is not his meaning, is apparent from an
expression on p. 28, where we read, “ Here [in the Coryceide]
the maxille are reduced to very simple plates furnished with
several bristles, and have been regarded by Thorell as appendages
ofthe mandibles.” In effect the differences between Claus’s and
my notions of the oral organs ofthe Peecilostoma reduce themselves

* Die frei lebenden Copepoden, p. 9.

+ Prof. Kroyer (Bidrag til Kundskab om Snyltekrebsene, p. 82) also,
but more summarily, attacks this attempt. As, however, he brings for-
ward no sufficient objection, either against the principle adopted or the
mode of its application, but rather confines himself to bitter invectives
against those zoologists who, not troubling themselves with “mere de-
seriptive work,” are yet bold enough to “ put forward systems,” I shall
treat his criticisms as they deserve.

31*

448 M.T.Thorell on the Arrangement of the Copepoda.

to the circumstance that what he calls mandibles I regard as
maxille, and his maxille are, according to my view, the appen-
dages of the maxilla, maxillary palpi. The reasons on which I
base my view are the following :—First and foremost, the organs
in question are sometimes fused together, as in the genera Cory-
ceus and Lichomolgus ; and it is more especially apparent in the
last genus that the posterior ones are nothing more than appen-
dages of the anterior ones, from the fact that they are not di-
rected towards the opening of the mouth, but have their free
border turned backwards. Now, since I know of no example in
the Copepoda of the maxille taking the form of mandibular
appendages, but several (among the parasitic forms) in which
the palp separates itself from its union with mandible or maxilla,
I have thought this sufficient reason for the supposition that the
organs mentioned belong to the same pair. That I explain them
as mazille,and consequently regard the mandibles as wanting, not
the opposite, depends partly on the fact that they are situated
further backwards than the mandibles of the Gnathostoma, partly
and principally on the circumstance that I have found in two
species of the genus Lichomolgus, precisely in the position occupied.
in the Siphonostoma by the proboscis with its enclosed man-
dibles, a half-rostrum, which I conceive should be regarded
as a rudimentary sucking-tube. Were Claus’s view correct, it
would follow that “the mandibles” in the Copepoda in question
must always want the mandibular palpi, and the “ maxille”
similarly always be without maxillary palpi. On the other hand,
there is no lack of instances among the lower Crustacea of the
absence of the mandibles. Among the Ostracoda the mandible
is represented in Cypridina by an appendage on the maxilla, and
is altogether wanting in Philomedes. In the Copepoda I will
only recall (to say nothing of the parasitic forms) the genera
Sapphirinella, Claus, which for oral organs possesses only a
pair of maxillary feet, and Monstril/a, Dana, which wants al/ the
oral appendages.

I have not been able to find, either among the forms known
to me from autopsy or representations, any instance of actual
transition between the oral organs of the Gnathostoma and
Poecilostoma. Certainly, in the genera Candace, Dana, and
Hemicalanus, Claus, the mandibles, in their longer and slenderer
shape, and in offering only two teeth at the extremity, differ not
a little from the usual form of the mandibles in the Gnathosto-
mous series; and it is probable that they are used more as
plercing- than as chewing-organs. But the presence of a strong
two-branched mazillary palp, besides separate many-lobed maxille
of the usual nature, shows at once that this genus cannot be
referred to the Poecilostoma, but is essentially Gnathostomous.

M.T. Thorell on the Terminology of the Argulide. 449

Neither am I acquainted with any transition betweem the Poeci-
lostoma and Siphonostoma. It is freely granted that, in such
forms as lack the appendages of the mouth, it may be sometimes
difficult to determine to which series they should be referred ;
but in such instances correspondences in other parts of the ge-
neral structure must decide the question: for example, it is
easy to see that Monstrilla is a Peecilostome and approaches the
Coryczidee, to which family it is, indeed, referred by Claus.

From what has now been said, it follows that I cannot admit
that my arrangement of the Copepoda renders difficult the forma-
tion of subordinate groups, families, and genera. On the other
hand, it is conceded that it sometimes removes from each other
forms which in habitus stand tolerably near together; but this
inconvenience is in a great measure compensated by the paral-
lelism of the series. Certain it is that by the division of the
Copepoda into Copepoda carcinoidea and C. parasitica, adopted
by Claus, this inconvenience is not avoided : any definite limita-
tion of these two groups based upon characters drawn from the
form is not to be thought of. Claus himself admits this, but
consoles himself with the consideration that the impossibility of
a sharp definition of limits lies in the very nature of any system
which would be true to nature. Many, however, will be found
who will agree with me in not resting content with such reason-
ing, but in regarding fixed principles for the forming of divisions
as necessary for any systematic arrangement. And if the source
of such division be sought in the modifications of organs which
are constant in their nature and significance throughout the
entire life of the animal, which has seemed to me to be the case
with the oral organs, a sharp definition of the limits of groups
will not necessarily make the system one-sided and unnatural.

- [ Note. Ina rather lengthy footnote appended to the preceding
paper, Prof. Thorell makes the following important remarks re-
ative to the nomenclature of the various portions of the body
in the Argulids. Reverting to p. 150, we find that Prof. Thorell
applies the terms head or head-shield, trunk, and tail to the prin-
cipal divisions of the body in Argulids, calling the pieces at-
tached posteriorly to the latter appendages, not postabdomen. In
connexion with this he says :—

“Such a terminology differs somewhat from the now generally
received division of the Crustacean body into head, thorax, abdo-
men, and postabdomen. ‘There are several objections to this divi-
sion. Thorax and abdomen are divisions founded (throughout
the greater portion of the Articulate series) on notions almost
exclusively drawn from the class of Insects, and are not properly
applicable to any but that class and the Arachnids, where they

450 M.T.Thorell on the Terminology of the Argulidee.

correspond to distinct sections of the bodily functions. This is
not the case in either Myriopods or Crustaceans, where, how-
ever, the head is distinctly separated from the trunk; and, in
Crustaceans at least (as in the Scorpions), the hindmost segment
of the trunk is usually distinct, both in form and function, from
the others, thus forming a tai/ or postabdomen so called. With
the first three segments of the trunk, corresponding to the tho-
rax of insects, this, however, is by no means the case; conse-
quently the term ‘thorax’ seems quite inapplicable, since there
is really no definite division of the body to apply it to; and with
the rejection of the appellation ‘thorax,’ the terms ‘ abdomen?
and ‘ postabdomen’ also must necessarily be laid aside.

“The anterior segments of the trunk, on the contrary, show
here, as in the Myriopods, a strong tendency to coalesce with
the genuine head, and their extremities are thus most eee
metamorphosed into organs used for chewing or holding food,
i.e. foot-jaws. Hither it is only one such segment which thus
loses its own independent character, and becomes tributary to
the head (Edriophthalma), or it is two, unless both pairs of foot-
jaws belong to.the same segment, as in Copepoda and Argulide,
or all. three of the so-called thoracic segments (Decapoda).
Sometimes these segments, with their appendages, become more
or less rudimentary, or would seem to disappear altogether, as
in the Branchiopoda. (In the Squillidee all the first five segments
of the trunk are subordinate to the head.) In all these cases
it seems better to call any anterior division of the body, however
formed by such fusion of one, two, or three posterior segments,
head. In the Decapoda, where three segments are united with
the head, the term cephalothoraz is perhaps a suitable one, if not
that of cephalocormus, which I would apply to designate the
complete fusion of the whole trunk with the head as a single
piece. There is, however, even better reason for using ‘ cephalo-
thorax’ in connexion with the Argulids and many of the para-
sitic Copepods, as the Caligide, where the extremities or “ foot-
jaws” which have become coalescent with the head are not ac-
cessory oral organs, but genuine fixing- or seizing-organs. It
should, however, be observed that every possible transition is —
found between such fixing-organs and the ordinary foot-jaws,
and that only one, or at most two, segments of the trunk can
Ms regarded as entering into the composition of any such cephalo-
thorax.

“Often, indeed, amongst the Copepoda one of the trunk-seg-
ments is united with the head and the foregoing ones; but in
this case the extremities of the segment are always of the same
form as those of the preceding trunk-segments, 1. e. swimming-
feet, not. foot-jaws, and such a segment belongs consequently to

Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders. 451

the same division of the body as those preceding it. It may
even be taken as a rule that all the Jower Crustaceans (Xiphura,
Branchiopoda, Ostracoda, Copepoda, and Cirripedia) have typi-
cally two pairs of foot-jaws, never more, while the Malacostraca
have either three pairs or only one pair,—and, further, that the
former have only one pair of maxille, while the Decapoda and
other Malacostraca have generally two pairs.

_ © Thus in order to obtain at the same time a uniform and prac-
tically useful terminology for the class Crustacea, it seems to
me advisable to abolish in that group the utterly meaningless
divisions thorax and abdomen, and to adopt those which I have
now put forward, viz. head, trunk, and ‘ail.

LVIIL.—A List of Spiders captured in the South-east Region of
Equatorial Africa; with Descriptions of such Species as ap-
- _ be new to Arachnologists. By Joun BuackwALL,

My friend Mr. Meade having transmitted to me for examination

a second collection of spiders, made in the south-east region of

equatorial Africa by the late Mr. Richard Thornton and Mr.

Horace Waller, the result of my investigation of the specimens

contained in it is given in the following list.

Tribe Octonoculina.
Family Lycosipa.
Genus Crrenvs, Walck.
Cienus vagus, 0. sp.

Length of the female 14 inch; length of the cephalothorax 4,
breadth 4; breadth of the abdomen 2; length of an anterior
leg 22; length of a leg of the third pair 14.

The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalo-
thorax in three transverse rows ; the two anterior ones, with the
two intermediate ones of the four constituting the second row,

_. describe a trapezoid whose shortest side is before; and each of

the two eyes forming the posterior row, with a lateral one of
the second row, is seated on a tubercle; the intermediate eyes
of the second row are the largest, and the lateral ones, which
are in a line with them, much the smallest of the eight. The
eephalothorax is compressed before, truncated in front, rounded
on the sides, which are depressed and marked with furrows
converging towards a narrow indentation in the medial line of
the posterior region; it is clothed with short brownish-yellow
hairs, and is of a dark reddish-brown colour, with narrow, brown
lateral margins. The falces are powerful, conical, vertical, and

=

452 Mr. J, Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

armed with teeth on the inner surface ; the maxille are straight,
enlarged at the extremity, which is rounded on the outer side
and obliquely truncated on the inner side, where it is supplied
with long hairs; the lip is short, broad, and somewhat quadrate,
but rounded on the sides; the sternum has a broad oval form,
with small eminences on the sides, opposite to the legs. These
parts are of a dark-brown colour, the falces, which are much
the darkest, being supplied with red hairs at the base, in front.
The legs are long, robust, provided with brownish-yellow hairs
and strong sessile spines, and are of a red-brown colour; the
first pair is the longest, then the fourth, and the third pair is
the shortest ; the metatarsi and tarsi have brown hair-like papilla
on their inferior surface, and the latter are terminated by two
curved claws, pectinated at their base. The palpi are long,
and rather lighter-coloured than the legs, with the exception of
the digital joint, which has a brown hue. The abdomen is ovi-
form, densely covered with brownish-yellow hairs, convex above,
and projects a little over the base of the cephalothorax ; a series
of broad, curved, angular lines of a brown colour, having their
convex sides towards each other and their vertices directed for-
wards, extends along the middle of the upper part ; and on each
side of it there is a row of four depressed dark-brown spots:
the sexual organs, which are well developed, and of a red-brown
colour, have a large process directed backwards from their an-
terior margin, whose extremity is dilated. .

This large Ctenus was the only individual of the species in-
cluded in the collection.

Genus SPHAsvs, Walck.
Sphasus pulchellus, n. sp. r

Length of the female } of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax =8,, breadth 3; breadth of the abdomen 4; length of
an anterior leg 2; length of a leg of the third pair -%.

The abdomen is oviform, somewhat pointed at the spinners,
very convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalo-
thorax ; it is clothed with adpressed hairs, and is of a red-brown
colour mingled with yellowish white ; the under part, which is
of a yellowish-white hue, has a dark-brown band extending
along the middle; the sexual organs are moderately developed,
with a longitudinal septum in the middle; they are of a dark
red-brown colour, the posterior margin being much the palest,
and that of the branchial opercula is brown. | The eyes are dis-
posed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax, high above the
frontal margin; the four posterior ones form a greatly curved
transverse row, whose convexity is directed upwards and some-
what backwards, and ‘the: other four describe a trapezoid whose

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 458

shortest side is before; the posterior eyes of the trapezoid are
the largest, and the anterior ones are much the smallest of the
eight. The cephalothorax is slightly compressed before, trun-
cated in front, rounded on the sides, convex, glossy, with a slight
indentation in the medial line; it is of a brown colour tinged
with red, and has an irregular dark-brown band on each side,
and a spot of the same hue behind the medial indentation ; the
space comprised between the posterior eyes of the trapezoid and
those of the transverse curved row, and a spot on each exterior
angle of the frontal margin, are of a dark-brown colour; the
lateral margins and the front are provided with yellowish-white
hairs, and some of a pale-red hue occur on the abruptly sloped
base. The falces are powerful, subconical, vertical, supplied
with dull-yellowish hairs in front, and armed with one or two
minute teeth on the inner surface; the maxille are long,
obliquely truncated at the extremity, on the outer side, and
slightly inclined towards the lip, which is broader towards the
extremity than at the base, and truncated at the apex; the
sternum is heart-shaped, and clothed with short yellowish-
white hairs intermixed with long ones of a darker hue. These
parts are of a brown colour tinged with red. The legs are
slender, provided with hairs and long spines, and are of a pale,
brown hue, with a few annuli of a deeper shade; the first pair
is the longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest;
each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two superior ones
are curved and pectinated, and the inferior one is inflected near
its base. The palpi, which are without annuli, resemble the
legs in colour, and have a curved, pectinated claw at their
extremity.

- A single specimen of this species was included in the collec-
tion,
. Family Crnirtonip2,

Genus OrirnyiA, Blackw.
Orithyia Williamsii.
Orithyia Williamsii, Blackw. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. ii. p. 331,
and vol. viii. p. 443.
The collection contained three females of this species. Both
sexes of Orithyia Williamsii have been received from Pernambuco,

Genus Erusvus, Walck.
Eresus africanus, n. sp.

Length of the female 4% of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax =4;, breadth +; breadth of the abdomen -',; length of an

anterior leg 3; length of a leg of the third pair 2.
The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax;

454 Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

a large quadrilateral figure, formed by the four exterior ones,
whose anterior side is the longest, includes a small trapezoid
described by the four intermediate ones; the posterior eyes of
the trapezoid are the widest apart and the largest of the eight,
and the anterior ones, each of which is seated on a small tuber-
cle, form with the anterior eyes of the quadrilateral figure a
transverse row in front. ‘The cephalothorax is large, yery con-
vex in the cephalic region, depressed behind, clothed with
brownish-yellow hairs, and of a red-brown colour, the lateral
margins being the palest. The falces are short, powerful, cu-
neiform, vertical, densely covered with reddish-yellow hairs at
the base, in front, and of a red-brown colour, the extremity
being much the darkest. The maxille are straight, enlarged at
the extremity, which is rounded on the outer side and somewhat
produced on the inner side; the lip is triangular, and the ster-
num is oval. These parts have a pale red-brown hue. The legs
are moderately long, robust, clothed with hairs, and are of a
yellowish-brown colour, the under part of the femora and tibize
of the first and second pairs having a dark-brown hue; the first
pair is the longest, then the fourth, and the third pair is the
shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two
superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the inferior one is
inflected near its base, where there are several minute teeth;
the metatarsus of each posterior leg is provided with a calamis-
trum. ‘The palpi, which are short, resemble the legs in colour,
and have a curved, pectinated claw at their extremity. The
abdomen is oviform, convex above, projecting over the base of
the cephalothorax ; it is clothed with brownish-yellow hairs, and
is of a yellowish-brown colour, the under part being much the
brownest ; four dark-brown depressions, connected by a sinuous |
line of the same hue, extend along each side of the medial line
of the upper part : the sexual organs are moderately developed, -
and of a red-brown colour; the spinners are eight in number;
those of the inferior pair, which are the shortest, consist of a
single joint each, and are united throughout their entire
length.

An adult and an immature female of Eresus africanus were
included in the collection. This species is provided with eight
spinners and calamistra; and I am informed by the Rev. O. P.
Cambridge that Dr. Ludwig Koch, of Niirnberg, has observed
that some other species of the genus are similarly organized.
Should all of them be found to be provided with these parts,
the entire genus should be comprised in the family Ciniflonide ;
but if they are possessed only by a portion of the species, a new
genus, founded on such species, should be transferred to that
family.

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 455

Family Sauricorp2.
Genus Satticus, Latr.
Salticus cornutus, n. sp.

Length of the female (not including the spinners) 4 of an
inch ; length of the cephalothorax ~3,, breadth 4; breadth of the
abdomen +; length of a leg of the third pair 4; length of a
leg of the second pair ~,.

The cephalothorax is somewhat quadrate, but rounded on the
sides; it is convex and glossy, but slopes abruptly at the base,
and gradually to the front, which projects a little beyond the
mandibles; it has a small indentation near the middle, and is
provided with a few scattered black hairs, eight, longer than the
rest and closely grouped, having the appearance of a slightly
curyed horn, situated near the minute intermediate eye of each
lateral row on its outer side; the falces are short, subconical,
and vertical ; the maxille are straight, and enlarged and rounded
at the extremity; the lip and sternum are oval, the latter being
broader at its posterior than at its anterior extremity; the legs
are robust, particularly those of the first and second pairs, and
are "provided with hairs and spines, two parallel rows of the
latter occurring on the inferior surface of the tibize and meta-
tarsi of the first and second pairs; the third pair is the longest,
then the fourth, and the second pair is the shortest ; each tarsus
is terminated by two curved, slightly pectinated claws, below
which there is a small scopula; the palpi are slender, and are
supplied with numerous whitish hairs, especially on the digital
joint. These parts are of a yellowish-brown colour, the sternum
and palpi being the palest. The eyes are nearly encircled by
_ short, coarse, white hairs; the lateral eyes are seated on tuber-
cles placed on dark reddish-brown patches, the minute one of
each row being nearer to the anterior than to the posterior eye
of the same row. The abdomen is oviform, pointed at the spin-
ners (which are prominent), densely clothed with hairs, mode-
rately convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalo-
thorax; the upper part is of a brownish-yellow colour tinged
with red on its margins, thé posterior margin forming~a-curve
above the spinners whose convexity is directed forwards ; a line
composed of minute black spots borders each lateral margin of
the upper part, and a band of the same hue, which is supplied
with white hairs having a silvery lustre, extends along the mid+
dle ; this band increases in breadth to its extremity, which is
crescent-shaped ; the sides and under part have a pale dull-
yellow hue; the former are clothed with white hairs, and have
a broad, irregular, brownish-black band extending along each,
whose continuity is interrupted at its posterior extremity; a

‘

456 . Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

short fine line in the middle of the under part, a rhomboidal
spot near its extremity, and the superior pair of spinners have a
dark-brown hue: the sexual organs are well developed, have a
dull pale-yellow septum in the middle, and are of a red-brown
colour.

Two females of this remarkable Salticus were comprised in the
collection, one of which was adult, and the other immature. It
appears to have a near relation of affinity to the Attus bos of
Sundevall, ‘ Conspectus Arachnidum,’ p. 27.

Family Toomisip&.
Genus THomisus, Walck.
Thomisus candidus, n. sp.

Length of the female +4, of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax +, breadth; breadth of the abdomen -3,; length of a
leg of the second pair +4,; length of a leg of the third pair -3,.

The abdomen: is broad, oviform, somewhat pointed at the
spinners, corrugated on the sides, glossy, convex above, project-
ing over the base of the cephalothorax, and has a white hue; a
transverse line in front of the upper part, two transverse sinuous
lines situated above the spinners, the anterior one being the
longer, two spots on each side of the medial line, describing a
large quadrilateral figure, whose shortest side is formed by the
anterior pair, which are much the smallest, two spots on each
side of the posterior extremity, the coccyx, and the upper sur-
face of the two superior spinners are of a dark red-brown colour:
the sexual organs, which are not. highly developed, have a red-
brown hue; and a row of minute, indented, pale-brown spots,
on each side of the medial line of the under part, extends to the
spinners, where the two meet. The eyes are disposed on the
anterior part of the cephalothorax in two transverse, slightly
curved rows, forming a crescent whose convexity is directed
forwards ; the eyes of each lateral pair are seated on white tu-
bercles united at their base, the anterior one being the largest,
and the two intermediate ones of the posterior row the smallest
of the eight. The cephalothorax is slightly compressed before,
truncated in front, rounded on the sides, very convex near the
middle, depressed at the base, gradually sloped to the front, and
glossy ; the falees are strong, cuneiform, and vertical; the
maxillz are enlarged where the palpi are inserted, obliquely
truncated at the extremity, on the outer side, and inclined to-
wards the lip, which is triangular, but rounded at its apex; the
sternum is heart-shaped; the legs are provided with a few
spines; the first and second pairs are longer and more robust —
than the third and fourth pairs, the second pair rather surpass-

~

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 457

ing the first, and the third pair is the shortest; each tarsus is
terminated by two curved, pectinated claws ; the palpi are short,
and have a curved, pectinated claw at their extremity. The co-
lour of these parts is pale dull-yellow, the sternum being the
palest ; there is a minute brown spot near the base of the falces,
in front, and their extremity is whitish; two small black spots
occur on the under side of the femora of the first pair of legs,
one near the base and the other near the extremity, and there is
a black transverse streak, which does not form an annulus, at
- extremity of the genual, tibial, and metatarsal joints of each
eg.

Only one specimen of this pretty Thomisus was included in
the collection.

Genus Oxtos, Walck.

Olios leucosius. .
Olios leucosius, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. i. p. 566.
Thomisus venatorius, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Insect. tom. i. p. 114.
Numerous specimens of both sexes of this species, in various
stages of growth, were comprised in the collection.

Genus Srarassus, Walck.
Sparassus abnormis, n. sp.

- Length of an immature female 55, of an inch; length of
the cephalothorax 3, breadth $; breadth of the abdomen 3;
length of a leg of the second pair 2; length of a leg of the third
pair 3. :

The legs are slender, provided with hairs and long spines,
and are of a brownish-yellow hue; there are two minute black
spots on the upper surface of the tibiz, three on the metatarsi
of the first and second pairs, and two on the metatarsi of the
third and fourth pairs ; the second pair is the longest, then the
first, and the third pair is the shortest; each tarsus is termi-
nated by a single slender, curved, pectinated claw, below which
there is a small scopula. The eyes are seated on black spots,
and are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax in
two transverse rows;-the four anterior ones, which are the
largest, form a straight row, situated near the frontal margin,
and the other four constitute the posterior row, which is rather
the longer and slightly curved, having its convexity directed
backwards. The cephalothorax is compressed before, truncated
in front, greatly rounded on the sides, convex in the middle,
sloped to each extremity, with a narrow longitudinal indentation
in the medial line of the posterior region, and is of a yellow-
brown colour, the lateral margins being much the palest. The
falees are powerful, conical, vertical, and armed with teeth on

458 Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

the inner surface; the maxille are short, straight, and rounded
at the extremity ; the palpi are robust, and terminated by a fine
minutely pectinated claw; the lip is semicireular; and the ster-
num is heart-shaped. These parts are of a yellowish-white co-
lour, the base of the lip being tinged with brown, and the ster-
num with green. The abdomen is oviform, convex above, and
projects over the base of the cephalothorax; it is of a pale-
yellow colour, reticulated with pale brown, the under part being
the least distinctly marked, and has a ramified band of a brown
hue extending from the anterior extremity of the upper part ,
about half its length. ,

This Sparassus, the only specimen of the genus in the collec-
tion, is especially remarkable for having only a single claw at
the extremity of each tarsus. ;

Family Tuerip1pz.
Genus THERip1on, Walck.
Theridion trahax, n. sp.

Length of the female -8, of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax +!;, breadth ;4,; breadth of the abdomen +5; length of
an anterior leg +; length of a leg of the third pair —3,.

The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalo-
thorax in two transverse rows, high above the frontal margin ;
the four intermediate ones nearly form a square, the two anterior
ones (which are placed on a slight protuberance, and are rather
nearer to each other than the two posterior ones) being the
darkest-coloured of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are
seated on a tubercle, and are contiguous. The cephalothorax is
compressed before, rounded on the sides, convex, glossy, with
an indentation in the medial line of the posterior region; the
falces are conical and vertical ; the maxille are obliquely trun-
eated at the extremity, on the outer side, and inclined towards
the lip, which is semicircular; the sternum is heart-shaped,
pointed at its posterior extremity, and has small eminences on
the sides, opposite to the legs ; the legs are long, and provided
with hairs; the first pair is the longest; then the fourth, and
the third pair is the shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by three
claws ; the two superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the
inferior one is inflected near its base; the palpi are short, and
have a curved, pectinated claw at their extremity. These parts
are of a brownish-red colour; the extremity and inner margin
of the maxille and the apex of the lip have a yellowish-white
hue, and the digital joint of the palpi is tinged with brown.
The abdomen is oviform, clothed with longish scattered hairs,
convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalothorax ;

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 459

it is of a dull-brown colour, the sides and under part being the
palest, and has two irregular yellowish-white spots on each side
of its posterior half, and three others of the same hue disposed
in a longitudinal row above the spinners: the sexual organs are
well developed, rather prominent, and of a dark reddish-brown
colour, that of the spinners being pale brown.

The only specimen of this species comprised in the collection
was an adult female. 7

Genus Puotcus, Walck.
Pholcus pallidus.

Pholeus pallidus, Blackw. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. i. p. 433,
and vol. vill. p. 444.

A single female of this species was included in the collection.
Both sexes of Pholcus pallidus have been received from Pernam-
buco.

Genus Artema, Walck.

, , Artema convexa.
Artema convexa, Blackw., Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. iis p. 332.

. Length of the female % of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax +, breadth 3; breadth of the abdomen 4; length of an
anterior leg 2,5, ; length of a leg of the third pair 1,75.

The sexes are similar in colour; but the male, though the
smaller, has longer legs, an anterior one measuring 27, inches.
The falces are short and irregular in figure, being hollowed on
the inner side, and having a strongly arched, tuberculated, dark-
brown ridge in front, which terminates in a point; below the
ridge they are of a brownish-red hue, and their extremity is
armed with a short, slightly curved fang, and a single, pointed
tooth on the inner surface. The palpi are glossy, very robust,
and their prevailing colour is brownish-yellow, the axillary joint,
the base and extremity of the humeral joint, the remarkably
short cubital joint, the inferior surface and extremity of the
radial joint, and the entire digital joint having a dark-brown
hue tinged with red; the axillary joint is short, and produced
at its extremity, on the under side; the humeral joint is greatly
dilated, convex on the upper side, with a pointed protuberance
at its base, on the outer side; the radial joint is nearly hemi-
spherical; and the digital joint is small, with a large apophysis
on its outer side of a dark-brown colour tinged with red; this
apophysis has a proniinent process near its base, on the upper
side, and its broad, somewhat depressed extremity is irregular in
form; the palpal organs, which are connected with the inferior
surface of the digital joint, are subglobose, glossy, of a brownish-
yellow hue, and project from their outer side a large curved

460 . Mr.J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

process having a short pointed spine in contact with its base, on
the inner side, and have a strong obtuse process in front; these —
processes and the spine are of a dark-brown colour tinged with
red.

The large brown-black spots in the medial line of the upper
part of the abdomen of both sexes are commonly bisected, and
form two distinct longitudinal rows.

Adult and immature females and an adult and immature
male of this species were comprised in the collection. Adult
females and an immature male of Artema convera have been ~
received from Pernambuco. On a comparison of the dimensions
of females from Africa and South America, the African specimens
will be found to be somewhat the larger, and to have longer legs.

Family Linypuip 2.
Genus Linypura, Latr. .
Linyphia lepida, u. sp.

Length of an immature female ;; of an inch; length of the
cephalothorax =, bréadth ~,; breadth of the abdomen >;
length of an anterior leg +; length of a leg of the third pair 1.

The cephalothorax is slightly compressed before, rounded in
front and on the sides, convex, glossy, with an indentation in
the medial line of the posterior region ; it is of a brownish-yel-—
low colour, with a broad brown band extending from each lateral
pair of eyes nearly to its base. The eyes, which are seated on
black spots, are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalo-
thorax in two transverse rows; the four intermediate ones form
a-square, the two anterior ones being rather the largest of the
eight ; and those of each lateral pair are placed obliquely on a
small tubercle, and are near to each other, but not in contact,
The falces are conical, vertical, armed with a few teeth on the
inner surface, and of a brownish-yellow hue, the extremity being
the darkest. The maxille are somewhat quadrate, having the
exterior angle, at the extremity, curvilinear; the lip is semi-
circular, and slightly pointed at the apex; and the sternum is
heart-shaped. ‘These parts are of a dark-brown colour, the
extremity and inner margin of the maxille, the apex of the lip,
anda broad band in the middle of the sternum, which is pointed
_ at its posterior extremity, having a brownish-yellow hue, The

legs are long, slender, and of a pale-yellow colour, the extremity
of each joint being tinged with brown; the first pair is the
longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest ;
each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two superior ones
are curved and slightly pectinated, and the inferior one is in-
flected near its base. ‘The palpi are short, rather paler than the

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 461

legs, and the digital joint, which is tinged with brown, has a
slender, slightly curved claw at its extremity. The abdomen is
somewhat oviform, the posterior part, which is rather the broadest,
sloping abruptly downwards at its extremity; it is moderately
convex above, projects over the base of the cephalothorax, and is
of a yellowish-white colour, faintly reticulated with brown; a
dark-brown spot, which comprises a small yellowish-white one,
occurs near the middle of the upper part, and is succeeded by
two curved lines, which meet in an angle whose vertex is directed
backwards; the abruptly sloped posterior extremity is of a
brownish-black colour, with a series of minute yellowish-white
spots on each side of the medial line; a brownish-black spot
oceurs on the anterior part of each side, and is followed by
oblique curved lines, of a browner hue, whose lower extremities
are enlarged and more or less confluent; a broad, deeply
indented, brownish-black band, bordered with white, extends
along the middle of the under part, and the branchial opercula
and spinners have a dark-brown hue.

_ An immature female of this Linyphia was the only specimen
of the species contained in the collection.

Family Errinipz.
Genus Errira, Walck.

Epeira solers.

Epéira solers, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. ii. p.41; Blackw.
Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, part ii. p. 336, pl. 24. fig. 243.

agalena, Hahn, Die Arachn. Band ii. p. 29, tab. 4. fig. 115.

Atea sclopetaria, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p.4; Koch,

_ Die Arachn. Band xi. p. 134, tab. 390, figs. 934, 935.

_ All the specimens of Epeira solers contained in the collection
were females, and were larger and darker-coloured than those
which are indigenous to Britain.

Epeira decens, n. sp.

Length of an immature male -%, of an inch; length of the
cephalothorax +4, breadth +1,; breadth of the abdomen +4;
length of an anterior leg ~; length of a leg of the third pair 4.

The abdomen is oviform, moderately convex above, and pro-
jects over the base of the cephalothorax ; a yellowish-white band,
that tapers to its extremity, and is bisected longitudinally by an
obscure yellowish-brown band, extends along the middle of the
upper part, and comprises a fine, black, angular line, whose
vertex is directed forwards, situated about a third of its length
from the coccyx; on each side of this band there is a broad,
parallel, brownish-olive band, whose exterior margin is sinuous,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3, Vol. xviii. 32

462 Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders ~

each convex curve of the sinuosity including a black spot; the
sides have a yellowish-white hue, their lower part being densely
marked with pale-brown streaks and spots; the under part is of
a dull-yellow colour, and comprises three longitudinal dark-
brown bands, which meet at the spinners. The eyes are seated
on black spots, and are disposed on the anterior part of the
cephalothorax in two transverse rows; the four intermediate
ones describe a trapezoid, the two anterior ones, which are placed
on a protuberance, and are much wider apart than the posterior
ones, being the largest of the eight; the eyes of each lateral
pair are seated obliquely on a minute tubercle, and are near to
each other, but not in contact. The cephalothorax is compressed
before, rounded in front and on the sides, convex, glossy, with,
an indentation in the medial line of the posterior region ; it is of
a yellowish-brown colour, the cephalic region being much the
palest, and has a narrow brown band extending along the mid-
dle. The falces are conical, vertical, armed with teeth on the
inner surface, and have a pale brownish-yellow hue. The
maxillz are straight, and rounded at the extremity; and the lip
is semicircular, but slightly pointed at the apex. These organs
are of a brown colour at the base, that of their extremities being
pale yellow. The sternum is heart-shaped, with eminences on
the sides, opposite to the legs, and has a dark-brown hue tinged
with red. The legs are moderately long, sparingly provided
with hairs, and of a dull brownish-yellow colour; the first pair
is the longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest;
the tarsi are terminated by claws of the usual number and
structure. The palpi are short, and paler than the legs. The
very tumid digital joint of this specimen indicates that it had to
undergo its final ecdysis before it arrived at maturity.

The immature male described above was the only individual
of this species comprised in the collection.

Epeira dorsuosa, 1. sp.

Length of the female + an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax +, breadth 4; breadth of the abdomen +4; length of an
anterior leg +4,; length of a leg of the third pair 2. a

The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalo-
thorax in two transverse rows ; the four intermediate ones, which
are the largest, are seated on a prominence, and nearly form a
square ; and the eyes of each lateral pair are placed obliquely on
a tubercle, and are separated by a moderately wide interval.
The cephalothorax is compressed before, rounded: in front and
on the sides, convex, clothed with hoary hairs, and has an m-
dentation in the medial line of the posterior region; it is of a
yellowish-brown colour, with a longitudinal dark-brown band in
the middle, which is broadest in the cephalic region, and anothe

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 463

of the same hue parallel to each lateral margin. The falces are
powerful, conical, vertical, armed with teeth on the inner sur-
face, and are of a yellow-brown colour tinged with red at the
extremity. The maxille are short, straight, and broadly rounded
at the extremity; and the lip is semicircular, but somewhat
pointed at the apex. These parts are of a dark-brown colour,
that of their extremities being yellowish-white. The sternum is
heart-shaped, pointed at the extremity, and has prominences on
the sides, opposite to the legs; it is clothed with hoary hairs,
and has a yellowish-brown hue, the medial line being the palest.
The legs are robust, provided with hairs and spines, and are of
a brown colour, with annuli of a darker hue; the first pair is
the longest, then the second, and the third pair is the shortest ;
the tarsi are terminated by claws of the usual number and struc-
ture. The palpi resemble the legs in colour, and have a curved,
pectinated claw at their extremity. The figure of the abdomen
is somewhat quadrilateral, but the sides are rounded, and the
anterior is broader than the posterior extremity; it is clothed
with short hairs, projects over the base of the cephalothorax,
and has two prominent tubercles on each side, and two large,
parallel, obtuse ones situated above the spinners; the upper
part, on which there are numerous circular glossy convexities,
of various dimensions, in bas-relief, is of a yellowish-brown
colour, an obscure, strongly dentated, yellowish-white line pass-
ing from each anterior tubercle to the two obtuse posterior tu-
bercles ; the lower part of each side is strongly tinged with dull
yellow, and the under part has a dark-brown hue mingled with
dull yellow, and a curved yellow band on each side: the sexual
organs are well developed, and of a dark-brown hue tinged with
red; their anterior margin is semicircular, and below it there
are two glossy protuberances placed transversely ; the branchial
opereula are of a pale brown colour, and on each side of the
spinners there are three dark-brown triangular spots, which are
united at their bases.

Three females of Epeira dorsuosa, two of which were adult
and the other immature, were comprised in the collection. This
species differs from the Epeitra opuntie of Dufour (see Walcke-
naer’s ‘ Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt.’ tom. ii. p. 140), to which it
is closely allied, in various particulars, and may readily be dis-
tinguished from it by the glossy convexities on the upper part
of its abdomen.

Genus GastrracaNnTHa, Latr.

Gasteracantha frontata.
Gasteracantha frontata, Blackw. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.ser.3.vol.xiv. p.40.

_ The collection contained two females of this species, specimens
32*

AGA Mr. J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

of which, of a somewhat smaller size, have been received from
India.

The numerous instances of the distribution of spiders of the
same species over extensive and widely distant regions of the
globe may be explained by their having been conveyed across
intervening oceans in ships and by the action of currents of air,
especially of those known as the trade-winds and monsoons, on
the silken filaments emitted from their spinners.

Genus Arcyorss, Savigny.
Argyopes gracilis, n. sp.?

Length of an immature female = of an inch; length of the
cephalothorax 4+, breadth $; breadth of the abdomen +; length
of an anterior leg +; length of a leg of the third pair 3.

The abdomen is of an elongated slender figure; its anterior
extremity, which has the appearance of having been cut directly
across, has a minute tubercle on each side, and projects over the
base of the cephalothorax ; the posterior extremity, which almost
tapers to a point, extends greatly beyond the spinners, and has
a small protuberance on each side; the upper part is of a yel-
lowish-white colour, with a dark-brown crescent-shaped mark at
its anterior extremity, whose convexity is directed upwards, and
spots and irregular streaks of the same hue on each side of the
medial line, the latter being most conspicuous on its posterior
half; three strong, conical, yellowish-white prominences, marked
in front with a curved, oblique, dark-brown line that passes over
their summit, project from each side, and below them there are
numerous irregular longitudinal lines of the same hue; from
each minute anterior tubercle a dark-brown line passes below
the first lateral prominence; the under part, which is irregularly
bordered with white, is of a brownish-black colour, and com-
prises some small white spots, three of which are disposed in a
triangle near the spinners ; these latter organs, with the branchial
opercula, have a red-brown hue, and the inferior surface of the
elongated tail-like extremity is densely freckled with black spots.
The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalothorax
in two transverse rows; the four intermediate ones are placed
on a protuberance, and nearly form a square; and the eyes of
each lateral pair are seated obliquely on a tubercle, and are near
to each other, but not in contact, the anterior one being much
the smallest of the eight. The cephalothorax is compressed be-
fore, rounded in front and on the sides, slightly convex, with a
shallow, brown indentation in the medial line of the posterior
region ; it is of a pale dull-yellow hue, with a broad brown band.
extending from each side of the cephalic region to the base,

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 465

where the two are united by a transverse bar of the same hue ;
two pale brown spots occur behind the posterior pair of eyes,
and the whole is clothed with white hairs having a silvery lustre.
The falces are powerful, conical, vertical, armed with teeth on
the inner surface, and of a pale dull-yellow colour, with an ob-
scure brown line extending along their inner side, and passing
obliquely above their extremity. The maxille are short, strong,
and greatly enlarged and rounded at the extremity; the lip is
semicircular, but somewhat pointed at the apex; and the ster-
num, which is heart-shaped and hairy, has eminences on the
sides, opposite to the legs. These parts are of a dark-brown
colour; the extremity of the maxilla and the apex of the lip
have a brownish-yellow hue; and a band extending along the
middle of the sternum, from each side of which a streak is directed
obliquely backwards and outwards, is of a pale dull-yellow co-
lour. The legs are long, slender, provided with hairs and a few
spines, and are of a dark-brown hue, with broad brownish-yellow
annuli; the first pair is the longest, then the second, and the
third pair is the shortest; the tarsi are terminated by claws of
the usual number and structure. The palpi are long, of a pale
dull-yellow colour, and have a curved, pectinated claw at their
extremity.

Although this spider differs remarkably in form and in some
other particulars from Argyopes caudatus (see the ‘Annals and
Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3. vol. xvi. p. 346), yet it possibly may
be an immature individual of that species, to which it bears
some striking points of resemblance.

Genus Evrysoma, Koch.

Eurysoma vicina, n. sp.

Length of the female 1-1, inch ; length of the cephalothorax 4,
breadth .2,; breadth of the abdomen *8,; length of a posterior
leg 1,5; length of a leg of the third pair 18.

The eyes are disposed on the anterior part of the cephalo-
thorax in two transverse rows; the four intermediate ones are
seated on a protuberance, and form a trapezoid, the two anterior
ones, which are nearer to each other than the posterior ones,
being the largest of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are
placed apart on a strong tubercle, and are distant from the four
intermediate ones. The cephalothorax is large, compressed be-
fore, truncated in front, and rounded on the sides, which are
marked with furrows converging towards the middle; the
cephalic region, which is greatly elevated above the posterior
part, has four conical glossy tubercles disposed in a transverse

466 . Mr.J. Blackwall on new Species of Spiders

row behind the eyes, and is densely clothed with hoary hairs ;
the falces are short, very powerful, subconical, vertical, and
armed with teeth on the inner surface; the maxille are short,
strong, straight, and greatly enlarged and rounded at the extre-
mity ; the lip is semicircular; and the sternum is heart-shaped,
with small eminences on the sides, opposite to the legs. These
parts are of a brownish-black colour, the base and lateral mar-
gins of the cephalothorax being tinged with red. The legs are
moderately long and robust, the genua, tibiz, and: metatarsi
being somewhat depressed ; they have a very dark brown. hue,
are provided with hoary hairs on the upper surface, and have a
patch ‘of white hairs at the base of the tibiee, and at the base
and extremity of the metatarsi on the under side; the fourth
pair, which is the longest, very slightly surpasses the first pair,
and the third pair is the shortest; the tarsi are terminated by
claws of the usual number and structure. The palpi are rather
short, somewhat depressed, of a very dark brown hue, provided
with hoary hairs intermixed with some of a brownish-red colour
on the upper surface, and have a curved, pectinated claw at their
extremity. The abdomen is circular, without spines, truncated
in front, moderately convex above, and projects greatly over the
base of the cephalothorax; the upper part is of a brownish-
yellow colour; three conspicuous, depressed, brown spots form
a row on each side of the medial line, and numerous smaller
depressed spots of the same hue occur in front and on the sides;
four conical tubercles form a curved row on each side of the
‘anterior part, the anterior one being much the smallest; three
other tubercles form a transverse row between the posterior ones
of the two curved rows; two others are placed wide apart on
the posterior half, and four more, nearly deseribing a square,
are situated above the spinners; the sides and front are paler
than the upper part, and are densely clothed with hoary hairs ;
the under part has a brown hue, the sexual organs and spinners
being the darkest, and the branchial opercula the palest, and
there is a transverse pale-buff band immediately behind the
sexual organs, which are well developed, with a convex protube-
rance on each side, and between them a fine, pointed process
connected with their anterior margin.

The collection contained a single adult female of this fine
Eurysoma, which is very closely allied to the Hpetra imperialis
of Walckenaer, ‘Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt.’ tom. u. p. 147
(Eurysoma sexcuspidata, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst., fiinftes
Heft, p. 10), but differs from it in various particulars, and espe-
cially in the number and disposition of the tubercles on the
abdomen.

from the South-east Region of Equatorial Africa. 467

Genus Nepuria, Leach.
Nephila geniculata.
Epeira geniculata, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. ii. p. 96.

_ Adult and immature females of this handsome Nephila were
included in the collection.

Genus TetraGNnatHa, Latr.
Tetragnatha festiva, n. sp.

Length of the female ;*; of an inch; length of the cephalo-
thorax 4, breadth +!;; breadth of the abdomen 1. _

The cephalothorax is compressed before, rounded in front and
on the sides, slightly convex, glossy, with a large indentation in
the medial line of the posterior region ; it is of a yellowish-brown
colour, with a red-brown band parallel to each lateral margin,
and another in the medial line, whose greatly enlarged anterior
extremity comprises the whole of the cephalic region. The
falces are powerful, conical, vertical, very convex in front, glossy,
armed with teeth on the inner surface, and have a red hue tinged
with brown. The maxillz are straight, enlarged at the extremity,
which is somewhat angular on the outer side, and of a brownish-
red colour. The lip is semicircular and prominent at the apex;
and the sternum is heart-shaped, with prominences on the sides,
opposite to the legs. These parts are of a dark-brown colour
tinged with red, the apex of the former and the lateral margins
of the latter having a yellowish-red hue. The legs are long,
slender, provided with hairs, and of a brown colour, the base of
the femora being the palest; their relative length could not be
ascertained, as they were detached and mutilated; but, judging
from the relative size of the coxe, the first pair should be the
longest, then the second, and the third pair the shortest. The
palpi are long, slender, of a brownish-yellow hue, and have a
slightly curved, minutely pectinated claw at their extremity.
The eyes are seated on black spots on the anterior part of the
cephalothorax; the four es tiaie ones nearly form a square ;
the two anterior ones, which are placed on a slight protuberance,
are rather nearer to each other than the posterior ones, which
are the largest of the eight; the eyes of each lateral pair are
seated near to each other on a small tubercle, the posterior one
being the smallest, The abdomen is subcylindrical, tapering
somewhat to the extremity, which is obtuse, slightly curved
upwards, and extends beyond the spinners ; and there is an ob-
tuse protuberance on each side of the anterior extremity, which
projects over the base of the cephalothorax ; the upper part and
sides have a silvery lustre, with a slight golden tinge, and on

468 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Antilocapride.

each side of the medial line there is a red band having a bright
golden lustre; in the space between these bands another band
extends, that projects from each side three short streaks directed
obliquely backwards, and has a small spot on each side, near its
posterior extremity; the band, streaks, and spots, with the two
anterior protuberances, have a black hue; the under part has a
silvery lustre, with a slight golden tinge, and is bounded on
each side by two longitudinal dark-brown bands, comprising
between them another of a dull-red hue: the sexual organs
form a transverse oval; a small process is connected with their
posterior margin, and their colour is pale reddish-brown; the
branchial Opercula have a yellow hue, and that of the spinners
is brown.

The collection contained an adult female of this brilliant
Tetragnatha.

Tribe Senoculina.
Family Scyropip2.
Genus Scyropss, Latr.

Scytodes thoracica.

Scytodes thoracica, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. tom. i. p. 270;
Latr. Gen. Crust. et Insect. tom. i. p. 99; Blackw. Spiders of Great
Britain and Ireland, part 2. p. 380, pl. 29. fig. 272.

~—— tigrina, Koch, Die Arachn. Band v. p. 87, tab. 167. fig. 398.

One adult female of this species was included in the collection.

LVIII.— Additional Note on the Antilocapride.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

ArtER my notes on this family were written and the manuseript
sent to the printer, I heard that Dr. Sclater had made some
observations on the genus at the British-Association Meeting at
Nottingham. The paper is published in the last Number of
the Annals. I am very glad to find that Dr. Sclater agrees
with mein the necessity of forming the genus into a peculiar
family.

Dr. Sclater has adopted Dr. Sundevall’s division of the Rumi-
nants into two groups, according to the form of the foot; but
I think his change of Sundevall’s term Digitigrada into Pha-
langigrada is to be regretted, as adding a useless synonym.

There is no doubt that the form of the placenta is an interest-
ing physiological fact ; but I doubt its applicability to zoological
classification. It is only to be observed at one period of the
animal’s life, and is only known in a very few species: for ex-
ample, I am not aware that it is known in Andéilocapra, the

M. F. Plateau on the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia. 469

genus under consideration; and if it differs in two genera so
nearly allied as Tragulus and Moschus, which many modern
zoologists consider only species of one genus, what right have
we to assume that it is similar in all the genera of Bovide and
Cervide, more especially as the placenta of very few species of
the large group of Antelopes and Deer is known.

Dr. Sclater proposes to divide the Ruminantia unguligrada
with placenta polycotyledonaria into pedes didactyli and pedes
tetradactyli; but this character will not separate Antilocapride
from Bovide, unless he proposes to arrange several animals
which have been called Antelopes, and which have simple horns
with a permanent horny sheath, and which therefore do not agree
with his other characters of the group, in the family Antilocapride;
for the genera Nesotragus and Nanotragus, and one species of
the genus Calotragus are as destitute of false hoofs as the genus
Antilocapra. Dr. Sundevall considers the absence of this false
hoof of so little importance that he places two species in the
genus Calotragus, one having large and the other being en-
tirely without false hoofs. Dr. Sclater must have overlooked
this fact when he says, “two other points in which the Prong-
horn differs from all the other Bovide,” and proceeds, “in the
absence of the ‘false hoofs,’ as the stunted terminations of the
rudimental second and fifth digits of each foot are termed.”

LIX.—On the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia.
By Féuix Prateav*.

Tue eyes of animals have formed the subject of a great number
of investigations, which, however, have been almost always di-
rected to a purely anatomical end. In studying the physiology
of vision, observers have, so to speak, confined themselves to man,
and the question of the vision of animals, interesting as it is,
has only been lightly touched upon; moreover physiologists
have generally proceeded by analogy, very rarely supported by
experiment. ‘There are especially two groups of living creatures
which, differmg so much in their habits from man, merited in-
vestigation from the point of view of their vision, namely the
Fishes and Amphibia; and it is these which I determined
specially to examine.

In order to show to what kind of investigations and experi-
ments I have subjected the eye of these animals, let us conceive
for a moment an ideal typical eye of a fish. Its cornea will be
perfectly flat, its crystalline spherical, and the aqueous and

* From the Mém. Cour. et Mém. des Savants Etrang. de Acad. Roy.
de Bruxelles, tome xxxiii. Communicated by the Author.

470 M. F. Plateau on the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia.

vitreous humours of the same density as water and in small
quantity. Let us place this eye successively in water and in the
air, and examine what will be the course of the rays traversing
the organ in these two different media. In water, whatever be
the form of the cornea, as the aqueous and vitreous humours
have, by hypothesis, the same density as this fluid, the cornea
will play the part of a transparent lamina with parallel faces
bathed with water on both sides; it will therefore by no means
serve to render the luminous rays convergent or less divergent,
and the crystalline alone will remain to combine in one point
upon the retina the rays of each bundle. It must therefore be
very convex and of relatively considerable density.

Will this eye, organized for distinct vision in water, be un-
fitted for distinct vision in the air? By no means. Let us
suppose, in the first place, a bundle of parallel rays falling upon
the anterior surface of the eye; these rays will arrive at the crys-
talline retaining their parallelism, as the two surfaces of the cornea
are flat and parallel, and it will be seen that, both in air and water,
it is solely to the crystalline that is deputed the function of
picturing the image at the bottom of the globe of the eye.

Let us suppose, further, that the axis of the eye is of the proper
length for the vision of objects sufficiently distant to allow the
rays composing each bundle to be regarded as parallel. A fish
furnished with a visual apparatus constructed on the above plan
would see as distinctly in air as in water objects situated at a
great distance, of course assuming the water to be of perfect
transparency.

Let us now examine the case of near objects. Although Fishes
in general have very large eyes, the orifice of the pupil never
presents a very great diameter; hence, supposing the object
looked at to be near the eye (a few centimetres ‘from it for
example), the cones of rays emanating from each point of this
object would still present a very small base in comparison to their
length, and the rays constituting them will form but very small
angles with the axes of these same cones. From this it follows
that, even if we ascribe to the axis of our typical eye a length
corresponding with the distinct vision of objects at a few centi-
metres’ distance, this vision will still be as distinct in air as in
water, except that the distance of the object must be rather less
in the air. There, in fact, the slight divergence of the rays
emanating from one point of the object will be necessarily some-
what diminished as they penetrate into the aqueous humour, and
consequently, after their refraction by the crystalline, they will
converge at a point somewhat nearer the cornea than if the object
were in water. It will therefore be necessary to diminish slightly
the distance of the object in order to give the rays a greater di-

M. F, Plateau on'the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia. 471

vergence and thus compensate the slight refraction produced at
their entrance into the eye.

As I shall show hereafter, the actual eye of Fishes closely
approaches our ideal type, so that we are entitled to conclude
theoretically that these animals can see distinctly in the air, and
that their distance of distinct vision must be nearly the same in
this medium and in water. Although Fishes, with the excep-
tion of some privileged species, such as the Hel, the Chironectes,
and the climbing Perch, have hardly any need for combining -
the faculty of seeing distinctly in water with that of seeing dis-
tinetly in the air, this double faculty is evidently indispensable
to the Amphibia.

It will be easily understood that if we suppose the eye of
these latter animals to be constructed exactly like that of animals
living exclusively in the air, their vision in water will be con-
fused. In fact, as I have already said, when once the eye is im-
mersed in water neither the cornea nor the aqueous humour has
any action, and the crystalline remains alone ; but, asin the sup- ~
position which we have just made its curvature would be slight,
it would no longer suffice to cause the rays to converge upon the
retina, or, in other words, its focus would be far behind this.
This, as is well known, is what happens in the eye of aman, for
example, when diving in the water.

Have the Amphibia so great a power of adaptation as to render
their crystalline spherical? This appears, @ priori, to be
doubtful.

It is, on the other hand, very easy to assume that the eye of
the Amphibia is organized exactly, or very nearly, like that of
creatures living exclusively in water, since in that case the
distance at which the animal sees distinctly without effort of the
eye must be pretty nearly the same in water and in air.

The purpose of my investigations is to show that the eye of
Fishes closely approaches our ideal type, and that that of the
Amphibia is almost exactly like it, and, finally, to prove experi-
mentally that distinct vision takes place at sensibly equal
distances in air and in water, and with the same perfection in
both media, in all the animals under consideration.

I therefore, in the first place, examine what is the exact form
of the cornea in Fishes. By simple examination, by the reflec-
tion upon this membrane of a dark rectilinear object standing
out from a luminous ground, and the image of which, when the
eye is looked at from the side, is incurved by the curvature, and,
finally, by the actual measurement of the radius of this curve
upon a model of the eye taken immediately after the death of
the animal, I find that the cornea of Fishes, although rather
variable as regards its projection upon the surface of the head,

472 M.F. Plateau on the Vision of Fishes and Amphibia.

is always flat, or at least much flattened in front of the erys-
talline and over a space equal to the diameter of that lens, whilst
the lateral portions may be much curved. As to the crystalline,
I have always found it very nearly a sphere, as, indeed, is well
known. Lastly, Cuvierand Monrolong sinceproved that in Fishes
the humours of the eye may be assimilated to water. In other
words, I prove, by a sufficient number of measurements detailed
in one of the tables of my memoir, that the eye of Fishes is
always constructed evidently on the plan of the ideal type which
T have described above, even in those species which some authors
have indicated as exceptional.

I subject the eyes of the Amphibia (that is to say, of the
animals which must make use of their organs of vision indif-
ferently in water and in air) to the same investigations, and I show
that in all, Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, Batrachia, &c., the eyes,
' with the exception of some slight differences, exhibit a structure
identical with that of these organs in Fishes. As regards
Insects, whether terrestrial, aquatic, or amphibious, they all,
according to modern researches, possess eyes with flattened
corneze and the crystallines very convex, at least on the inner
surface. Here the anatomical portion of my investigation ter-
minates ; and then follows the experimental part, in which I de-
termined the distances of distinct vision of ten species of
Fishes of different genera, and of some Batrachia, in air and
in water.

' The method which I have employed is, in few words, as follows,
supposing we have to do with a fish, and the process is the samewith
other animals. After rapidly killing the individual to be experi-
mented on, one eye is carefully removed from its orbit without
alteration of its shape, and then fixed by means of pins and of
the fragments of the conjunctiva and muscles upon a plate of
cork, in such a manner that the cornea shall be vertical. A suit-
able aperture is then made at the bottom of the eye, by removing
with fine scissors a portion of the sclerotic and retina, and in
this aperture is fixed a small glass cup slightly roughened, upon
which the image of an external object may be depicted as upon
an artificial retina. The object employed is the extremity of a
fine iron wire thrown out by the flame of a lamp. The experi- |
ment must of course be made at night, or in a room with closed

shutters, and the image of-the iron wire on the hinder part of
the eye is observed by means of a lens. By varying the distance
from the iron wire to the cornea, we may always at last attain a
position in which the image is distinct. The experiment is re-
peated a certain number of times to give a mean, and is per-
formed successively in air and water ; in the latter case, of course,
the iron wire is also immersed in the water. I need hardly add

Dr. A. Giinther on a new Siluroid Fish from Ceylon. 473

that this liquid is contained in a little box, of which the anterior
and posterior surfaces are made of thin glass.

The numbers which I have obtained in the same medium and
for the same individual are very close, which justifies our having
confidence in the results of experiments so delicate ; but, more-
over, as may be seen from the table which I give in my memoir,
the distances of distinct vision in the air and in water are always
very nearly the same. Fishes, therefore, as I have already said
from the consideration of the structure of the eye, see as well
in the air as in water.

Hence, also, the vision of Amphibia finds a natural explana-
tion, as the visual organs of those animals resemble those of
Fishes. Nevertheless, as a confirmation of the theory, I have
subjected to the same experiments the eyes of some Batrachia ;
and in these also the distances of distinct vision in air and in
water are, so to speak, identical. I shall only remark, in con-
cluding this analysis, that, in the Amphibia, distinct vision, which
is necessarily very short in water in consequence of the imper-
fect transparency of that medium, must, on the contrary, be able
to extend itself in the air to very variable distances, which ne-
_ cessitates the existence of a faculty of accommodation; and ac-
cordingly the presence of the ciliary muscle, the chief agent of
that faculty, has been recognized in their eyes.

LX.—Description of a new Siluroid Fish from Ceylon.
By Dr. Atsert GUNTHER.

[Plate XV.]

A sMALt collection of freshwater fishes, made by the Rev. Ban-
croft Boake in Ceylon, and kindly submitted to my examination
by F. Layard, Hsq., contained two Siluroid fishes of the genus
Arius, which are of great interest, inasmuch as they prove that
the peculiar habit which I have described in an American species,
A. fissus (Fish. v. p. 178), viz. the mode in which the parent fish

takes care of its progeny, is not confined to South-American spe-
’ cies, but exists also in the East-Indian ones. The mature ova are
of the same large size in all these fish; and in all it is the male
which carries them in the spacious cavity of its mouth. Accord-
ing to Mr. Boake, who has published an account of the habits
of these fish, they are called Angaluwa. Three specimens were
in the collection, belonging, however, to two very distinct
species, new to science. Two of these, a male and a female,
14 inches long, are Arius Boakii, so named by Mr. W. Turner,
who also had received examples, and read an account of them
at the last meeting of the British Association, We may there-

474 Dr, A. Giinther on a new Siluroid Fish from Ceylon.

fore be satisfied with mentioning here that this species is, eu-
riously enough, so closely allied to the A. fissus, that, but for
the remoteness of their respective habitats, we should almost
have hesitated to separate them specifically. The female may
be externally distinguished by a broad oblique fold of the skin
on the inner side of the ventral fins. The second species is

Arius Layardi, sp.n. Plate XV.

This species is closely allied to A. tonggol and A. argyropleu-
ron, from the East-Indian archipelago, but differs in having no
trace of vomerine teeth, and in possessing longer maxillary
barbels.

Di WA A 1, By Lae

The height of the body is contained four times and four-
fifths in the total length (without caudal), the length of
the head three times and one-third; head depressed, broader
than high, its width being three-fifths of its entire length,
or equal to its length without snout. Head above nearly
entirely covered by skin, only the ridge of the occipital pro-.
cess being granular. Occipital process triangular, with the
lateral margins straight, longer than broad; it is raised into a
median ridge along the middle, which, on the head, is continued ~
as a narrow, deep, uninterrupted groove, terminating on the
snout. Basal bone of the dorsal spine narrow. Vomerine teeth
none; teeth on the palate coarsely granular, in two pear-shaped
groups, situated as far back as in A. tongyol (see Giinth. Fish.
v. p. 164), and much convergent behind. Snout much de-
pressed, produced; the upper jaw somewhat prominent, but
rather shorter than the postorbital portion of the head. The
maxillary barbels extend to the root of the pectoral. The
soft dorsal fin is as high as the body; its spine is rather slen-
der, as long as the head without snout; granulated in front
and serrated behind. Pectoral spine as strong as, and rather.
shorter than, that of the dorsal fin. Caudal deeply forked, with
the lobes subequal in length. Colour immaculate.

A male, 11 inches long, is in the collection.

We may add the Ceylonese names of several species sent by
Mr. Boake :—Rallia=Etroplus maculatus; Corallia=Etroplus
suratensis ; Loola = Ophiocephalus striatus ; Connia = Ophioce-
phalus Kelaartu ; Hoonga= Clarias Teysmanni ; wag ac,
bas oligolepis; Pooloota = Polyacanthus signatus; Kanaya =
Channa orientalis.

The Cyprinoids will be described in the seventh volume of
the ‘ Catalogue of Fishes.’

Prof. Owen on an Incisor of Nototherium Mitchellii, 475

LXI.—On an Upper Incisor of Nototherium Mitchellii.
By Professor R. Owen, F.R.S.
[Plate XVI.]
- To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

I have received, through the kindness of Sir Daniel Cooper,
Bart., from the freshwater beds of Gowrie Creek, Darling Downs,
Queensland, an upper front incisor, right side, of the Nototherium
Mitchellit (P|. XVI.), which so closely accords in size with the
dimensions of the tooth described and figured in the December
Number of your volume xvi. (1865) p. 448, by Prof. M‘Coy,
that I am disposed to ascribe that tooth also to the species near
the remains of which it was found, “at Murchill, not far from
Geelong, Victoria.”

My specimen is 5 inches 1 line long in a straight line,
1 inch 7} lines in the greatest (fore-and-aft) diameter, which is
about the middle of the root; 10 lines in greatest transverse
diameter. The enamelled crown, e, is 1 inch in length, be-
velled off, chiselwise, from before downward and backward,
and shows the partial application of enamel usual in such
teeth; the free margin on the outer side of the crown (fig. 4)
extends further back than that on the inner side (fig. 1 e),
and is slightly everted: it is also thicker than the even
inner border. The breadth of the unenamelled back part of
the crown (figs. 1, 3, 4d) at its base is 64 lines: owing to the
difference in extent of enamel on the sides of the crown, the
abraded surface slopes from without inward and backward, as
well as from above downward and backward. The enamel is
4 of a line in thickness at the outer side of the crown: the
whole outer surface is smooth. The crown is broadly convex
anteriorly, rather flatter on the inner than on the outer side.
The root is more thickly covered by cement, and increases in
every dimension, chiefly from before backwards, as it recedes
from the crown, until at a little below its midlength it attains
the dimensions above given: it then diminishes to the pulp
end. ‘The outer side begins to be impressed by a longitudinal
shallow channel about an inch and a half below the crown;
and this channel increases in breadth, but not in depth, be-
coming, indeed, shallower near the pulp end of the root. On
the inner side, the longitudinal channel begins somewhat
nearer the crown, and sinks deeper as it recedes, besides
becoming wider. The tooth is “compressed and gently in-
curved,” or, rather, “recurved,” the front margin describing
a greater convexity, lengthwise, than the hind margin: the root

476 Prof. Owen on an Incisor of Notothcrium Mitchellii. —

contracts to an antero-posterior diameter of 1 inch 3 lines,
and a transverse diameter of 44 lines, at the end of which it is
excavated by the shallow remnant of the pulp-cavity (fig. 6).
The breadth here, owing to the opposite lateral channels, is
least at the middle of this end, where it contracts to 3 lines ;
the part anterior to this gives the breadth of 44 lines. Thus
the present tooth is less “fusiform” than Prof. M‘Coy’s spe-
cimen, which may be due to its having come from a less-aged
individual. The Professor’s description of the “crown, worn
down obliquely almost to the base, only about an inch of it re-
maining,” applies, however, equally to my specimen. The
cement-covered outer surface of the root is marked by the same
“short, irregular, interrupted longitudinal grooves,” with inter-
vening ridges about a line in breadth.

The difference between the Professor’s specimen and the
homologous tooth of Thylacoleo carnifex is, first, in dimensions.
The figure given at p. 448, loc. cit., is reduced to nearly half the
natural size of the tooth there described, and of the Professor’s
original “ pen-and-ink sketch ;” and a notice of such reduction
in the woodcut has been omitted. As it stands, it nearly re-
presents the natural size of the upper front incisor of Thylacoleo
carnifexz, the root of which is about 2 inches in length, and
10 lines in greatest breadth. But the crown is relatively
longer, the enamel is twice as thick, and its free end is not
bevelled off chiselwise, as in Professor M‘Coy’s specimen and
in mine of Nototherium Mitchellii.

Reduction of figures of single or detached teeth should, if
possible, be avoided: it detracts much from the facility of com-
parison. ‘The figures of the tooth here described are of the
natural size. ,

I may add that the tooth supposed to be a canine of Thyla-
coleo is shown to be an incisor, in my second memoir on that
genus in the Philosophical Transactions for 1866,

I am, Gentlemen,
Yours faithfully,

Ricuarp Owen.
British Museum. |

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.

Fig. 1. Side view of anterior incisor, right side, upper jaw, of Nototherium
Mitchellii.

Fig. 2. Back view.

Fig. 3. End view of crown.

Fig. 4. Outer-side view of crown.

Fig. 5. Section of middle of root,

Fig. 6, Free extremity of root.

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera. 477

LXII.—WNotes on Spherion and Mallocera.
By Francis P. Pascos, F.L.S., F.Z.S8., late Pres. Ent. Soc., &e.

Many of the tropical American genera of the Longicorn family
Cerambycide are crowded with discrepant species, most of which,
although undescribed, have manuscript or catalogue names in
collections. As a rule, these species seem to have been referred
to such of the comparatively few published genera to which they
appear most approximate, without regard to their technical cha-
racters. I have been recently examining Spherion and Mallo-
cera, two allied genera belonging to the same subfamily as the
typical Cerambyx, and I find under each of those names forms
that could never be held together by any definitive formule.
The following notes are only the results of the working out of
my own limited number of examples, aided, however, by the
examination of those in the British Museum, including M.
Chevrolat’s, in which so many of the celebrated Baron Dejean’s
“ catalogue-types”’ are found.

Mr. Newman’s genus Nephalius*, which has been regarded
almost invariably as purely synonymous with Spherion, ought,
I think, to be preserved for those of his species which have the
elytra imperfectly embracing the abdomen, or, in other words,
elytra without or with very slightly deflected sides. The
type would then be N. cassus, and the genus would include
NV. serius and N. exutus; of his other species, N. amictus is un-
known to me, and N. blandus is a true Spherion. The remain-
ing species of Spherion which I have examined are :—S. cyani-
penne, Serv. (the type), S. armigerum, Wh., S. terminatum, Per-
roud, S. suturale (Dej.), S. plicicolle, Germ., 8. geniculatum, n.sp.,
S. pubescens, Ol., S. Erichsonii, Wh., S. subpiceum, Wh., and
S. Poéyi, Chev. SS. orientale, Wh., S. inerme, Wh., S. triste,
Guér., and S. insulare, Wh., may be regarded as degraded mem-
bers of the genus. Two species (S. melanura and 8S. procerum),
described by Erichson in Schomburgk’s ‘ Reisen in Britisch-
Guiana, are unknown to me; so also is S. rustieum, lately
published by Prof. Burmeister in the ‘ Stettiner Entom. Zeitung’
(1865, p. 167). Of the undescribed Spherions I have selected
those only for description for which new genera will be neces-
sary, and have characterized two species hitherto only known by
their catalogue-names.

* Entom. p.93. The genus, however, can scarcely be said to be charac-
terized by Mr. Newman. M. Thomson afterwards described ‘‘ Nephalius”
in his ‘ Essai’ (p. 245), but in his later work, ‘ Systema Cerambycidarum,’
he revokes the name with the note “‘nec Newman,” and proposes ‘ Peri-
beum’ for the generic name of the species previously published by him as
Nephalius acuminatus.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 33

478 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera.

In the genus Mallocera, which Serville places between Eury-
merus and Purpuricenus, we may include M. opulenta, Newm.,
although the apices of the elytra are not in accordance with
Serville’s description ; but the three Peruvian species described.
by Erichson (Wiegmann’s Arch. 1847, pp.140-141) must remain
doubtful for the present. M.undulans and lateralis of White have
been separated by M. Thomson to form his genus Appula: but
this seems to me to be synonymous with Stizocera, Serv. ; indeed
M. lateralis stands under the name of “ Stizocera armata, Sery.” |
in some collections, but the species scarcely agrees with that
author’s description. Appula, or rather Stizocera, only differs
from Mallocera in the four posterior femora terminating in
spines—a character of possibly only specific importance. Mal-
locera eburioides, Wh., is better placed among the allies of Hburia,
as the fourth joint of the antenne is as long as the succeeding
one, which is not the case in the Spherion set; and it has the
habit of Eburia, including the raised ivory-like spots of that
genus. A species well known as Mallocera obliqua (Dej.), but
described by Serville as a Trichophorus, is now the genus Eury-
sthea, Thomson. Another well-known species, Mallocera virgata
(Chev. MS.) I have here separated under the generic name of
Limozota. M. simplex, Wh., can only be regarded as a very
aberrant member, if one at all, of the genus in which Mr. White
has placed it. fe

Before describing the new genera, the following short dia-
inten formula will serve to distinguish Spherion as it is here
imited :—

SPHARION,

Antenne elongate (in fem. corpore eequales) ; art. 3%-6™ vel 7™
spinosis.

Prothorax subdepressus.

Tibie postice subcompresse vel vix subcompresse, calcaratee.

It should be observed that the prothorax, Cont in being
cylindrical, as opposed to depressed, affords no characters of
generic value, for it is found to vary considerably in closely
allied species: the basal antennal joints are often longitudinally
grooved ; but this character also is not to be relied on. Nearly
all the species referred to Spherion and Mallocera are natives of
the tropical parts of North and South America*.

The first of the two species here described is, I believe, S.
suturale of Dejean’s Catalogue.

* §. orientale, Wh., represented by a single specimen in the British
Museum, is said to be from India.
-

Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera. 479

Spherion suturale.
S. leete rufo-castaneum, nitidum ; elytris testaceis, sutura spinisque
nigris ; antennis, scapo excepto, tibiis tarsisque nigris.

Hab. Brazil.

Head, prothorax, femora, and body beneath bright glossy
reddish chestnut ; elytra testaceous, the suture and apical spines
black; prothorax subcylindrical, the disk with four obtuse tu-
_ bereles; elytra finely punctured, with three scarcely apparent
pale lines on each; antennz, except the scape, tibi, and tarsi,
dull black. Length 10 lines.

Resembles in general coloration S. ¢erminatum, Perroud, but
with black antennz, suture, tibie, &c., and the prothorax en-
tirely different in form, and without the central tubercle ; above
all, with the posterior femora nearly linear, as in Elaphidion.

Spherion geniculatum.
S. testaceum, nitidum ; capite prothoraceque castaneis, hoc oblongo-
ovato ; disco transversim plicato; femoribus apice nigris.

Hab. Brazil.

Testaceous, shining; head and prothorax reddish chestnut,
the latter oblong ovate, without spines or tubercles, finely plicate
across the disk; elytra with small distant punctures, the suture
near the apex and spines black; body beneath pale chestnut ;
femora with their apices glossy black ; antenne pale testaceous.
Length 7 lines.

Spherion plicicolle, Germ., its nearest ally, has a broad pro-
thorax, scarcely shining, with much coarser sculpture, the punc-
tures on the base of the elytra larger and crowded together, and
the femora nearly unicolorous.

Meparitvs.
Caput inter antennas projectum.

Prothoraz subdepressus.
Tibie compressee, posticee apice haud spinosz.

The compressed tibie, which are strengthened by a strong
ridge on each side for their whole length, and the absence of a
true spine to the hinder pair (replaced, however, by a broad
angular process) cut off this genus from all its allies. The
head is very short, and between the bases of the antenne there
is a prominent roll, formed apparently by the antennary tubers,
which are otherwise obsolete; the antenne are longer than the
body, fimbriated beneath, the third, fourth, and fifth joints
deeply grooved, and they are also spined at the apex; the pro-
thorax is slightly transverse, obscurely tuberculate on the disk,
the sides projecting into a short spine nearly in the middle ; the

33*

480 Mr. F, P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera.

elytra are flattish, terminating in a median spine; the femora
are rather fusiform than clavate, and the basal joint of the pos-
terior tarsi is as long as the rest together. The type is a toler-
ably large insect, and is the Spherion cinerascens of Dejean’s
Catalogue, but has never, I believe, been described.

Mephritus cinerascens.
M. brunneus, pube subtili cinerea omnino indutus.
Hab. Rio Janeiro.

Reddish brown, everywhere covered with a delicate ashy or
ashy-grey pubescence ; head and prothorax nearly free from
punctures. Scutellum semicircular; elytra rather closely and
finely punctured, towards the apex impunctate; antenne, tibie,
and tarsi blackish. Length 14 lines.

CASTIALE.

Antenne elongate, art. 3"°-6™ apice spinosis ; tuberibus antenniferis
horizontalibus.

Prothoraz breviter ovatus, subdepressus.

Femora tenuiter fusiformia, quatuor posteriorum apice bispinoso.

In this genus the femora are slender and fusiform, the four
posterior bispinous at their apices; the head has a little more
muzzle than usual, and the antennary tubers are projecting in
front, and divided by a narrowly impressed line; the antennz
are much longer than the body, and the third to the fifth joints
are grooved and spined, as in the preceding genus; the pro-
thorax is oblong, with a slightly raised central line, and four
obscure tubercles on the disk ; the elytra terminate in an exterior
spine; the tibiz and tarsi are slender, the basal joint of the
posterior tarsi not longer than the two following. The type is
a beautiful insect bearing the name of “ Spherion elegantulum,
Bugq.,” in the British Museum collection.

Castiale viridipennis.
C. rufescens; elytris leete viridibus; antennis pedibusque fuscis.
Hab, Columbia.

Brownish red, clothed with scattered pale-greyish hairs; head
sparsely punctured ; prothorax transversely corrugated, the disk
with four flattish unicolorous tubercles, and a short central ele-
vated line; scutellum semicircular ; elytra rich green, shining,
minutely shagreened, the scattered punctures each giving
origin to a long slender hair; body beneath reddish; legs and
antenne blackish, with scattered slender hairs, the latter nearly
twice as long as the body. Length 7 lines.

Mr. F. P. Paseoe on Spherion and Mallocera, 481

GoryBIA.

Caput fere ad oculos insertum.
Antenne corpore vix longiores, inermes.
Prothorax subdepressus.

Tarsi postici breves.

The retracted head and unarmed antenne are the chief dia-
gnostic characters of this genus; the former is very short, with
the eyes prominent and adding considerably to its breadth; the
antenne are unarmed, but the third, fourth, and fifth joints
have each above half a dozen longitudinal ridges ; the prothorax
is very much constricted posteriorly, and is without tubercles
and spines; the elytra have the usual external spine at their
apices ; the femora are clavate ; the posterior tarsi shorter than
the intermediate ; the first abdominal segment is twice as long
as the second, instead of being only about the same length or a
little longer. The specimen here described is probably a female.

Gorybia martes.

G. ferruginea ; capite, prothorace, pedibusque fuscis, opacis; apici-
bus elytroram nigricantibus, nitidis.

Hab, Espiritu Santo.

Ferruginous, with sparse greyish hairs; head and prothorax
opaque, brown, the former obscurely, the latter very distinctly
reticulately impressed ; scutellum rounded ; elytra rather coarsely
Herta at the base, ferruginous towards the apex, impunctate,

lackish, and glossy; propectus dull brown, rest of the under
and clavate portions of the thighs glossy reddish brown; an-
tennee, tibiee, and tarsi dull brownish, Length 4 lines,

PsyRassa.

Antenne breviuscule, vel corpore vix longiores, art. 3“°-6™ apice
spinosis.

Prothorax oblongus, subcylindricus, haud tuberculatus, basi an-
gustior.

Llytra angusta, elongata, apicibus bispinosis.

Femora haud clavata.

This is a narrow form, more resembling Jdidion in habit than
Spherion ; the antenne in the typical species are much shorter
than the body, distant at their base, with their tubers nearly
obsolete; the eyes are prominent, and give the head a greater
breadth than the prothorax; the latter is elongate, subcylin-
drical, and without tubercles or spines; the elytra are narrow
and nearly parallel, the apex of each terminating in two spines ;
‘the femora are a little thickened in the middle, but not clavate ;

482 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera.

the tarsi are rather short, with the basal joint of the posterior
not longer than the two next together. The type is an insect
collected in some abundance in Central America by M. Pilate,
who gave it the MS. name of Spherion basicorne, What the
specific name is in allusion to, I am not aware; as, however, it
is so known in collections, I have not altered it. Stenocorus
unicolor, Randal, may be referred to this genus.

Psyrassa basicornis.
P. ferruginea, nitida, dimidio apicali elytrorum nigricante.
Hab. Yucatan.

Ferruginous, shining, with sparsely scattered hairs, rather
coarsely punctured above, less so on the head; scutellum equi-
laterally triangular, covered with a close silvery pubescence ;
elytra with the posterior half blackish, each apex with two short
spines; body beneath brownish, the abdomen darker, very
glossy ; legs with long stiffish hairs. Length 6 lines.

Limozota,

Antenne mutice ; tuberibus antenniferis approximatis.
Prothoraz cylindricus, elongatus, lateraliter inermis.
Elytra parallela; apicibus emarginatis, haud spinosis.

The type of this genus is well known under M. Chevrolat’s
name, Mallocera virgata; but from Mallocera it differs in every
one of the above diagnostic characters. The head is very short
in front, its breadth being considerably increased by the large
prominent eyes ; the antennz are twice as long as the body in
the male, and without any trace of spines; the prothorax is
slender and cylindrical, with three small tubercles on the disk,
giving it that “ personate” appearance of eyes and nose, and
sometimes of mouth, so common in this subfamily; the elytra
are narrow, parallel, and rounded at the apices; the legs are
somewhat slender, the femora slightly thickened, but not cla-
vate ; the basal joint of the posterior tarsi slender, and not longer
than the two next together.

Limozota virgata.
L. pallide flavescens ; elytris lineis flexuosis brunneis ornatis.

Hab. Columbia.

Pale yellowish or straw-colour ; head and prothorax with a
close greyish pubescence mixed with long hairs; the prothorax
with two black, round, shining tubercles on the disk, and an
oblong one behind them; scutellum smooth, cordate; elytra
with scattered hairs only, irregularly punctured, one principal

Mr. F. P. Paséoe on Spherion and Mallocera. 483

flexuous line from the shoulder to near the apex throwing off
two transverse branches, one behind the shoulder, the other
near the middle; body beneath, legs, and antenne fulvous,
covered with long slanting hairs. Length 8—10 lines.

The genus Centrocerum (Dej.), described by M. Chevrolat in
the French ‘ Annales’ (1861, p. 189), and which has for its type
Elaphidion exornatum, Newm., approaches in coloration some
species of Spherion—S. Poéyi, for example. A Bolivian Longi-
corn was afterwards distributed by the late M. Deyrolle under
the same generic name. It belongs, however, to a very distinct
form, which, in its entire anterior acetabula and elongated pro-
thorax, approaches the Ibidionine. It may be named and cha-
racterized as follows :—

Ruysium.

Antenne mutice.
Prothorax oblongus, subdepressus.

Elytra angusta, apicibus rotundatis.

Mesosternum declive.

The head is short and concave in front ; the antennary tubers.
are stout and divergent ; the eyes are broadly emarginate; the
antenn are without spines, as long as the body in the female,
and half as long again in the male, the scape 1s subpyriform,
the third joint is twice the length of the scape in both sexes ;
the rest of the joints in the female are not longer than the
scape, in the male they are considerably longer ; the prothorax
is oblong, broader in the middle, its disk marked with three
nearly obsolete tubercles; the elytra are narrow and elongate,
and rounded at the apices; the legs are compressed, the femora
thickened, the four posterior tarsi equal; the pro- and meso-
sterna depressed, the latter elongate. For the only known spe-
cies I have adopted M. Deyrolle’s name.

Rhysium bimaculatum.

R. brunneum, nitidum, sparse griseo pilosum; singulis elytrorum
macula mediana flava.

Hab. Bolivia.

Glossy brown, inclining to umber, clothed with short, scat-
tered, greyish hairs ; the elytra with a large yellowish spot on
the middle of each; head roughly punctured on the vertex ;
prothorax nearly impunctate, covered with a loose greyish to-
mentum ; elytra finely and irregularly punctured ; body beneath,
legs, and antenne with a short greyish pile. Length 7 lines.

484 Mr. F. P. Pascoe on Spherion and Mallocera.

The position of the following genus must for the present be
considered doubtful.

ALcYoPIs.

Caput valde exsertum ; collo constricto.

Antenne mutice ; tuberibus antenniferis validis, intus productis,
basi contiguis.

Prothoraz elongatus, cylindricus, irregularis.

Mesosternum antice productum.

Femora clavata.

I have received the species constituting the type of this genus
under the name of “ Spherion cyanipenne, Serv.” But it is not
that insect, nor can it be regarded as belonging to Spherion at
all in any sense, its head constricted behind the eyes giving it
the aspect of a Leptura-form, and especially, if also we regard its
colour, of Rhamnusium salicis ; it has, however, entirely rounded
anterior acetabula, and globose coxe. The head is very short in
front, the antennary tubers so projecting as to give that part of
it a vertical direction ; the scape is pyriform, the third joint the
longest, and the fourth shorter than the fifth ; the eye is broadly
emarginate, the lower lobe large and prominent, the upper small
and remote from its fellow on the vertex; the palpi have the
terminal joint triangular ; the prothorax is broader behind, its
length half as much again as its breadth; the elytra are flattish,
and nearly parallel at the sides, the apices each terminating m a
median point; the femora are rather abruptly clavate, and the
posterior and intermediate are equal and a little longer than
the anterior; the mesosternum is strongly produced.

. Alcyopis cyanoptera.
A, flavo-castanea, nitidissima ; elytris lete cyaneis.
Hab. Brazil.

Bright yellowish chestnut, very glossy, nearly glabrous ; head
sparsely and finely punctured; prothorax impunctate, deeply
and broadly constricted anteriorly ; the disk behind the constric-
tion with five prominent tubercles—one anterior and median,
the two external prolonged beneath at the side; scutellum semi-
circular ; elytra rich blue, very glossy, minutely and irregularly
punctured, each apex terminating in a short median spine ; legs
and antennz with scattered hairs, the latter rather longer than
ak ; sterna ferruginous; abdomen blackish. Length

ines.

- 485

LXII1.—Notes on Dr. Bowerbank’s Paper on Hyalonema.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.

I HAvE no desire to enter into a controversy with Dr. Bower-
bank on this subject, for I have always highly estimated him as
an enthusiastic collector, a good microscopist, and always willing
to communicate all he knows; and I shall be glad to study his
promised paper, premising that I am not aware that there is
much to be added on the subject to what has been said by Dr.
Max Schultze, Dr. Brandt, and Senhor Bocage. At present I
only wish to explain what Dr. Bowerbank calls my “ misrepre-
sentations.”

To establish the first, Dr. Bowerbank, doubtless unintention-
ally, misquotes my paper, and makes me appear to say what I
did not intend to convey. After referring to the zoologists who
have regarded the “glass rope” of the coral as part of the
of the sponge, in a separate paragraph I observed, “‘ Dr. Bower-
bank, adopting the same view,” &c.; and, as I am always anxious
to fairly represent what any one who differs from me on a scien-
tific subject has to say, 1 quoted at length the characters that
Dr. Bowerbank reprints in his note, and his other observations
on the genus. So I do not see how I could misrepresent him.

Secondly, Dr. Bowerbank says I “ misrepresent him,” as I
ought to have recollected that he examined the specimens of
Hyalonema in the British Museum in 1860. I may observe
that I do not keep any note or record of what specimen any
visitor examines. Dr. Bowerbank appears to have confined his
examination to the structure of the spicula, and it is only the
spicula that are figured in the plates in the ‘Philosophical
Transactions’ which he quotes. I can hardly call such a study
of the specimens “a careful microscopical examination of their
anatomical structure.” If Dr. Bowerbank has examined anato-
mically the animal structure, it is most extraordinary that he
did not discover that what he calls “the oscula” of his “ cloacal
system” were social Zoanthi with plicated stomachs, retractile
conical tentacles, and all the anatomical structure of that type
of animals—more especially as Professor Brandt, in his essay
published in 1859, a year befure Dr. Bowerbank’s examination,
had described and figured these parts in detail; and Brandt’s
observations have more recently been confirmed by Senhor
Bocage.

Dr. Bowerbank is unfortunate in his observations on my
paper. Thus he observes, “ The fact of the presence of siliceous
spicula in the inner coat of what he [Dr. Gray] terms the bark
of Hyalonema should have warned him that it could not belong
to either of the genera ‘ Corticaria’ (qu. Corticifera) or Zoan-

486 Dr.J.E. Gray on Dr. Bowerbank’s Paper on Hyalonema.
thus.’ It is Professor Max Schultze, MM. Milne-Edwards,

Haime, and Valenciennes (all zoologists of great eminence) who
regard the animal of Hyalonema as a, parasitic species of Cor-
ticifera or, as they call it, Palythoa, or of Zoanthus; so it is
these zoologists, and not I, that should have been warned;
for I have always regarded the animal of the Glass Rope as a
peculiar genus for the very reason Dr. Bowerbank assigns, and
called it Hyalonema, the name he quotes! I can only consider
this, like the other charges in his paper, a proof of the haste
in which he must have penned his reply to my observations ;
and I am convinced that, when he has properly examined the
anatomy of the specimen, and considered the subject, he will
find that he cannot establish his theory against the unaninfous
opinion of such experienced zoologists. Indeed one cannot
understand how Dr. Bowerbank ever could have fallen into the
unaccountable zoological blunder of describing as an osculum of
a sponge the large well-developed zoanthoid polype which had,
before he published a word on the subject, been referred to its
proper group by the celebrated naturalists above named, while
its anatomy had been figured by Professor Brandt, unless it be
assumed that he is very imperfectly acquainted with the litera-
ture of the subject on which he writes—an assumption that
would explain many lacunz in his work on British Sponges, and
the fact of so many names in that work being followed by
“‘Bowerbank :” in some entire pages the name occurs as every
third word.

I think, if Dr."Bowerbank will read Senhor Bocage’s paper
with care, he will find that he has misunderstood it, an that
Senhor Bocage does mean by the thin end the one that in the
Japan specimen is inserted in the sponge ; otherwise I should
fear that Dr. Bowerbank lays himself open to the accusation
which he makes against Professor Owen in his description of
Euplectella.

Whatever theory may be entertained about the rope-like
bundle of spicula which I consider the axis of the coral, there
can be no doubt that the bark on the axis is a zoophyte allied
to Zoanthus. Dr. Bowerbank alone amongst.naturalists denies
this fact: he considers that “the basal sponge, the spiral axis,
and its coriaceous-envelope are really parts of one and the same
animal,” and that animal a sponge. He should recollect that
this is not the first time he has made a mistake of the kind,
as when he described the case of the egg of a leech as a sponge.
I cannot but regard the “columnal cloacal system and its
oscula” in Hyalonema as the myth of a microscopist.

Is Dr. Bowerbank certain that none of the Gorgoniade secrete
silica? Some French zoologists have stated that they do.

Dr. J. E. Gray on Euplectella speciosa. 487

LXIV.—Venus’s Flower-basket (Euplectella speciosa).
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. ;

Tux British Museum has lately received a very beautiful speci-
men of this interesting siliceous Sponge., There are several
other specimens in London; they were obtained from the Phi-
lippine Islands. The specimens are subcylindrical, varying a
little in the extent to which they are dilated upwards, and in
the width of the fringe round the upper aperture of the tube;
they are all more or less curved on one side near the base. The
base is evidently attached to some marine body, perhaps small
shingle, as it is more or less dilated into a swollen oblong bag,
formed of interwoven siliceous spicula, similar to but closer
together than the longitudinal spicula of the body of the vase:
this bag encloses a number of fragments of shells, small stones,
and some sand; and in the fresh specimens it may be an ex-
panded base attached to the mud and sand. The broad end of
the tube is covered with a reticulated convex lid, which is also
to be found in a sponge from Malacca, described by me under
_ name of Apiirocallistes Beatrix (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858, p. 115,
t.11).

Like all showy and beautiful natural productions, it has had
many describers; and there is a confusion in its history which,
it is to be hoped, is not shared by that of many others.

This sponge was first described and figured, in 1833, by
MM. Quoy and Gaimard, in the ‘ Voyage of the Astrolabe,’ p.302,
Zoophytes, t. 26. f. 3, under the name of Alcyoncellum speciosum,
from a very imperfect specimen which had lost the netted lid,
the fringes on the outside, and a considerable portion of the
smaller, lower end of the tubes. It was given to the travellers
by M. Merkus, the Governor of Molucca. They observe: “ En
voyant l’élégante blancheur et la régularité d’un tel tissu on a
de la peine & se persuader, qu’il est le produit d’une réunion
@animaux. On aime mieux en voir un seul au fond de la mer
travailler & se faire ce logement pour un but quelconque, en
tirant de sa propre substance, comme le font certaines chenilles,
la matiére qui se pétrifie aussitdt qu’elle est en contact avec
Peau” (p. 308).

There can be no doubt of the imperfect state of this sponge,
from a comparison with a worn and crushed specimen in the
British Museum, that was obtained by Capt. Sir Edward Belcher,
and purchased at the sale of his shells.

MM. Quoy and Gaimard refer the sponge to the genus Alcyon-
cellum of De Blainville, and quote at length the generic charac-
ter given by that author. A very cursory reading of that character
shows how little it fits their specimen; and it is very difficult

488 Dr. J. E. Gray on Euplectella speciosa.

to understand how and why they referred it to that genus,
which seems to have been established on another sponge
which they brought home, and which is not noticed in the
‘ Zoology’ of their ‘Voyage ;’ hence we can only suppose that it
was overlooked.

In1836, M. Milne-Edwards, in the second edition of Lamarck’s
‘ Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertébres,’ vol. ii. p. 588,
adds, at the end of the Sponges, a note on the genus Aleyon-
cellum, obviously compiled from Quoy and Gaimard’s imperfect
figure: he refers to <Alcyoncellum speciosum of the ‘Voyage
of the Astrolabe’ as the type, evidently overlooking the original
description of the genus in Blainville’s ‘ Zoophytes, quoted in
Quoy and Gaimard’s work.

In 1841 Professor Owen, in the Transactions of the Zoological
Society (vol. iil. p. 2038, t. 18), described and figured a nearly
perfect specimen, under the name of Huplectella aspergillum,
which was obtained by Mr. Cuming in the Philippines, and is
now in the British Museum; and in the Transactions of the
Linnean Society (vol. xxii. p. 117, t. 21) he describes and figures
a very nearly allied species, under the name of Euplectella
cucumer, from a specimen (in the collection of Dr. Farre) which
was obtained from the Seychelle Islands.

The genus Alcyoncellum was established by De Blainville, in
1832, in the ‘ Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, and again
in his ‘Manuel d’Actinologie,’ p. 529, on a marine specimen
brought to Paris by MM. Quoy and Gaimard, with the following
characters :—“ Body fixed, soft, gelatinous, solidified by tricuspid
spicules, tree-like, with few branches, cylindrical, fistulous, with
a terminal orifice; the substance thick, composed of regular
granules, polygonal, alveoliform, pierced with an exterior and
internal pore.” The type is Alcyoncellum gelatinosum, figured at
t. 92. f. 5 of the Atlas of plates to the Manual. It is.clear from
the above description that it has nothing in common with 4,
speciosum ; and A. gelatinosum seems to be most probably a cal-
careous sponge nearly allied to the genus Grantia of Fleming.

Professor Owen’s description and figure of Euplectella asper-
gillum leave little to be desired. The cornucopia is put on the
plate with the broad end downwards. Perhaps the artist was
deceived by the name “Aspergillum,” and thought that, like the
shell so named, the sponge lived with its broader, fringed, and
perforated end sunk im the sand. In the figure of #. cucumer
the sponge is represented erect and attached. Professor Owen,
by a slip of the pen, writes Quoy and Gaimard’s Alcyoncellum
as Alcyonellum, and then says the name cannot be used for the
sponge, because Lamarck has applied the name Alcyonella to a
genus ‘‘of freshwater Polypes.”

Dr. JE. Gray on Euplectella speciosa. 489

_ Professor Owen, from the manner he quotes Alcyoncellum gela-
tinosum of De Blainville and A. speciosum of Quoy and Gaimard,
evidently considers that they are synonyms of the same species
instead of two genera belonging to different families of sponges.
He gave a new name to the genus because the specimen figured
by Quoy and Gaimard had neither a netted lid to the tube nor
fringes; but this only arose from the imperfect state of their
specimen ; the new name, however, was required in consequence
of their mistake in referring it to the genus Alcyoncellum of
De Blainville.

Dr. Bowerbank, in the ‘ Introduction to the British Sponges,’
which is chiefly a reprint of his papers in the ‘ Philosophical
Transactions,’ makes some observations on this beautiful sponge,
and is very severe on Professor Owen, accusing him of a mis-
take he did not make, because he called the widest part of a
cone its base. As usual, when he leaves his microscope and
goes to the book, he is in confusion. He at once sets aside
Professor Owen’s generic name, and adopts that used by MM.
Quoy and Gaimard; but it is easy to see how this mistake
arose. In consulting their work he entirely overlooked the
generic character quoted from De Blainville. He evidently does
not know, or at least quote, the ‘Manuel’ of M. de Blainville;
nor does he recognize the figure of the sponge on which the
genus Aleyoncellum is established, either under the name of
Euplectella or Grantia. Dr. Bowerbank quotes the generic cha-
racter of Aleyoncellum given in Lamarck as “the generic de-
scription of Quoy and Gaimard.” He gives, as the type of the
genus Euplectella, “ E. corbicula, Quoy and Gaimard,” a name
not to be found in their work ; he goes on to regard E. corbicula
and E. speciosa as two species, and he thinks that Huplec-
tella is a parasitic sponge, and clings to other marine bodies.
But it is useless to continue to quote “the singular number of
errors into which he has fallen in the description of this beautiful
sponge,” as he says of Professor Owen.

A crab is generally found in the cavity of the sponges. The
Spaniards in Manilla regard them as formed by the crabs for
their protection, and they do not consider the specimens perfect
unless a crab is contained therein. I have, within the last few
days, had a pair offered to me for an extravagant sum (£200),
because they contained the crab that formed them. The crab
must take up its place in the tube before the network in the
upper end of it is formed, as, when that part is added, it
becomes imprisoned in the tube.

490 Bibliographical Notice,

The synonyms of the genus and species are as follows :—

Alcyoncellum, sp., Quoy & Gaimard; not Blainville, ‘ Zoophytes,’ 1832,
nor ‘ Manuel,’ 1834. :

Aleyoncellum, Milne-Edw., Lam. An. s, Vert. ed. 2. ii. 3889 (1836) ;
Bowerbank, British Sponges, i. 174.

Alcyonellum, Owen (misprint).

Euplectella, Owen, Trans. Zool. Soe. iii, 203 (1841); Trans, Linn. Soe.
xxii. 117.

1. Euplectella speciosa (Venus’s Flower-basket).

Alcyoncellum speciosum, Quoy & Gaimard, Voy. Astrolabe, iv. 302
(Zoophytes, t. 26. f.5); Lam. Anim. s. Vert. ii. 389,

Euplectella aspergillum, Owen, Trans. Zool. Soc. iii. 203, t, 13.

Alcyoncellum aspergillum, Bowerbank, Brit. Sponges, i. 177.

Alcyoncellum corbicula, Valenc. Mus. Paris; Bowerbank, British
Sponges, i. 176. .

Hab. Philippines.
2. Euplectella cucumer, Owen, Trans. Linn, Soc, xxii, 117,

t, 21.
Hab, Seychelles.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

The Record of Zoological Literature. 1865, Vol. II. Edited by
Ausert C.L. G. Ginrner, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.Z.8., &.,
Van Voorst, 1866.

Our readers, from the review which we last year gave of the first
volume of this work, will know that the ‘the object of the ‘ Record’
is to give, in an annual volume, reports on, abstracts of, and an index
to, the various zoological publications which have appeared in the
preceding year; to acquaint zoologists with the progress of every
branch of their science in all parts of the globe; and to form a re- —
pertory which will retain its value for thé student of future years.”
In all these respects the second volume fully bears out the promise of
the first. The ‘ Record’ is, in fact, invaluable ; and zoologists owe
a debt of gratitude to Dr. Giinther and his coadjutors for the able
way in which they carry out the task which they have proposed to
themselves, and for the benefit which they thus confer upon their
brother naturalists. The volume now before us contains a brief
(necessarily very brief) summary of all that has been written in 1865—
the cream, in fact, of no less than 35000 pages of zoological literature,
It consists of a bulky octavo of 800 pages, and thus exceeds in size
the ‘ Record’ for 1864 by nearly one fourth. The reports on the
Coelenterata and Protozoa, which were omitted in the first volume, are
now supplied for the year 1864 as well as for 1865. A slight change
has been made in the list of Recorders : Dr. Cobbold and Mr. J. Reay
Greene have ceased to take part in the work; and the cooperation
of Dr. E. P. Wright has been. secured, who has taken in hand

Bibliographical Notice. 491

those classes on which the previously named gentlemen had last. year
reported, as well as the Coelenterata and Protozoa.

We would especially call the attention of the editors of scientific
journals and that of the secretaries of the learned societies to a very
important plea urged by Dr. Giinther in his Preface. Probably there
is no zoologist among our readers who has been in the habit of
writing on any branch of natural history who has not experienced
the great inconvenience which arises from the fact that the separate
copies of authors’ papers have, in this country, always been repaged,
instead of retaining, as they ought to do, the original pagination
either alone or side by side with the repaging of the separate pam-
phlet. In order to quote such papers, therefore, it has hitherto been
necessary to refer to the journal from which each paper has been
extracted. Now such additionally required reference is in all cases
attended with inconvenience, and to the naturalist resident in the
country often impossible. The result is (a paper received by us this
very morning supplies an instance), when such authors’ copies are in
the hands of subsequent writers they are frequently treated and
referred to as separate publications, and no allusion whatever is
made to the original work in which the paper appeared, and where
alone it can be generally consulted. Most warmly, then, would we
commend the suggestion of Dr. Giinther, that, “‘as regards separate
reprints of papers from Journals, Proceedings, or Transactions of
learned societies, a most excellent plan, adopted for many years by
the K. K. Zoolog.-botanische Gesellschaft of Vienna, and lately by
the Zoological Society of London, should be more generally followed,
viz. that of indicating the original pagination either at the bottom of
the page or at the top within brackets. The value of separate copies
is much increased thereby, as the time wasted in searching for the
original pages is saved.”

In the following table we give, first, the number of pages which
relate to each class of animals in the volume before us, and, secondly,
within brackets, the number of pages in the original publications
of which the foregoing supply an abstract :—

‘Mammalia,..,..., 53 (2400) en ee 330 (14300)
AVES .eseeeeee,++ 85 (8500) Annelida ......+5 28 C180}
Reptilia ......0+++ 24 (1300) Scolecida .,...,.. 12 (460
aE 48 (3100) Echinodermata..., 17 (600
Mollusea .,...... 87 (4400) Coelenterata ...... 16 (750)
Molluscoida ...... 8 (800) ProtozOB oones oes 14 (1030)
Aone ere es 60 (1500)

Arachnida and

Myriopoda..,... 44... 480)

It would be easy enough, no doubt, for a reviewer to find points
for criticism as to imperfection in the analysis given of some particu-
lar work or paper, or to cavil at some expression of opinion on the

art of the Recorder himself; but to do this would be most unfair.
t would be difficult to find men more competent for their work than
the several Recorders have proved themselves to be; and it is mere

492 Bibliographical Notice.

justice to say that they have conscientiously, honestly, and ably dis-
charged a most difficult task.

On a previous occasion we pointed out to our readers that it is
impossible this work can be continued unless it be upheld by a large
amount of support. Its publication is necessarily very costly ; and
an extensive sale is required to prevent a heavy loss falling upon
that most enterprising of publishers, Mr. Van Voorst, from whose
publications natural history has already received so great an im-
petus in this country. We cannot too strongly again insist upon
the fact that it is the duty of every person interested in science, who
can possibly afford to do so, to purchase the ‘ Record.’ Dr. Giinther
and Mr. Van Voorst have commenced this annual solely in the inter-
est of the progress of zoology; it remains for others, by their sup-
port, to enable them to continue it. The real student requires no
instigation to purchase a book which he cannot do without, and the
continued publication of which he knows to be of the greatest im-
portance to himself; but, alas! the real scientific workers are few
in number, and a sale among them alone would not suffice to prevent
a heavy loss falling on the publisher, which would, of course, neces-
sitate the discontinuance of the work. Let every friend of science,
then, come forward and support the ‘ Record.’

It will give some idea of the character of the summaries of papers
in the ‘ Record,’ if we conclude this notice by giving an example.
We shall select for this purpose what is told us in the two volumes —
on the migration of the mollusk Dreissena polymorpha. ‘There are
two mollusea, the steady diffusion of which has been the subject of
most interesting and careful investigation for many years past. One
of these, a marine Gastropod, is Lottia testudinalis, of which the
gradual migration southwards down the eastern and’western coasts
of Great Britain has been clearly and distinctly traced. The other
is one of the Acephala, Dreissena polymorpha. ‘This is a freshwater
species, nearly allied to the Mussel, which is rapidly spreading
itself throughout the rivers and canals of this country, as well as _
those of the continent of Europe. The first volume of the ‘Record’ —
supplies us with the following particulars :— ;

“The immigration of Dreissena polymorpha into parts of Europe
where it was originally unknown, has continued during the year
1864. Its occurrence in tributaries of the Rhine, Mosel, and Main
is recorded by Messrs. Noll, Mandel, and Greim (Zoolog. Gart.
Frankf. 1864, pp. 30, 89, and 124), with the addition of the dates of
its first detection (1855-61); its presence in the middle part of the
Rhine, at Knielingen near Carlsruhe, is testified by Hr. Kreglinger
(Verh. ntrw. Verein. Karlsr. vol. i.); its appearance higher up in the
Rhine, near Huningue, where it was found by Hr. Seul, is announced
by Hr. P. Merian (Verh. ntrf. Ges. Basel, iv. 1864, p. 94); and,
finally, its immigration into the Loire near Orleans, by way of
canals, in 1864, has been observed by Capt. Morlet (Journ. Conch.
pp- 309-314). Towards the end of last year the Recorder” (Dr. E.
von Martens) ‘collected all the facts and observations concerning
the immigration (or rather importation) of this mollusk which had

Bibliographical Notice. 493

come to his notice, but the paper was not published until this year
(Zool. Gart. Frankf. 1865, pp. 50-59, 89-97). Dreissena poly-
morpha is, according to Hr. Merian (J. c.) accompanied by Neritina
Jluviatilis in the Upper Rhine, where it never occurred before. The
Recorder is enabled to confirm this by a communication from Prof.
Braun, who says that it was not found in the Rhine near Carlsruhe
some twenty years ago”’ (pp. 191-192).

In the second volume of the ‘ Record,’ pp. 216-217, we have the
following additional particulars on this most interesting subject :—

“Martens, E.v. Eine eingewanderte Muschel. Zoolog. Gart.
Frankf. 1865, pp. 50-59, 89-95. Dreissena polymorpha was not
known in the northern and western halves of Europe some forty
years ago, The numerous treatises on the mollusk-faunas of these
countries published at the close of the past and in the first two
decades of the present century do not mention it. All at once it
was observed for the first time in tributaries of the Baltic, the
Niemen and Weichsel, in the year 1825, in tributaries of the Elbe in
1828, in the terminal branches of the Rhine in 1826, and in England
in 1824. Several direct observations, and the comparison of the
localities and times in which it has been observed for the first time
in the several conntries, establish the fact that it has been introduced
into all those parts of Europe, along artificial, navigable canals, by
means of ships or timber, and even across the Channel to England.
The belief that it was observed already towards the close of the past
century in south-western Germany is founded on a very superficial
description of a shell by Sander and contradicted by the negative
evidence given by Prof. Alex. Braun for the years 1824-46, and b
Hr. Gysser for the present time, both agreeing in never having met wit
Dreissena in that part of Germany. As regards the rivers near to the
Black and Caspian Seas, no reliable or sufficiently complete record
of their faunas has been preserved from the commencement of this
century; and there is consequently no reason to think that a
recent migration has taken place into the Danube and the rivers of
Southern Russia. At present it inhabits nearly all the tributaries
of the Baltic, the Elbe upwards to Halle, the Rhine upwards to
Huningue, the rivers of northern France, including the Loire, the
British Islands, Hungary, a part of European Turkey, and almost
the whole of Russia. It is very desirable that the attention of
conchologists should be directed to the further advance of this shell,
and that accurate statements should be made as regards the time
at which it first appears in the lists of local faunas, not having been
mentioned by previous accurate observers. This species is really a
freshwater shell; it does not live in the Baltic itself, but only in the
brackish water near the mouths of the rivers. The breakwater
leading to the lighthouse at Swinemiinde, for instance, is occupied
on the river side by Dreissena, on the sea side by Mytilus edulis.

“Hr. Jackel, Hr. C. Staude, and Dr. Fr. Buchenau have con-
tributed further observations on this subject in the same journal,
pp. 196, 228, and 278, in which they state that this shell is found
at present in the Weser and in the Bayarian tributaries of the Main,

Ann. & Mag, N. Hist. Ser.3, Vol. xviii. 34

494 Miscellaneous.

even in the canal by which the Main has been connected with a
confluent of the Danube; so that Dreissena will shortly be an
inhabitant of the upper and lower portions of the Danube without
being found in the middle part of its course.

«Prof. E. A. Rossmissler, in his popular journal ‘Aus der Heimath,’
pp. 71-78 and 347-350, alludes to the same subject, principally its
first appearance in Northern Germany, and states that the animal is
able to detach the filaments by which it fixes itself to other objects,
and that it is frequently found attached to the tail of crayfishes.

“Dr. Mérch (Ueber Pinna fluviatilis (Sander), Malak. Blatt. xii.
pp- 110-117) defends his opinion (alluded to in the preceding note),
viz. that a shell described by Sander in the year 1780 from a rivulet
near Carlsruhe, is Dreissena, by an analysis of Sander’s account, and
by the analogous fact that the occurrence of the genus Unio in
Denmark remained unknown to so careful an observer as O. F. Miiller
(1773). But we cannot accept this as a very convincing argument,
inasmuch as Unio has been included in all the faunas of the sur-
rounding countries published at that time (of the Baltic provinces,
Russia, North Germany, and England) ; whilst Dreissena is not
mentioned in any of them.

“Hr. A. Gysser (Mal. Blatt. 1865, Literatur-Blatt, p. 38) also
discusses this question. THe lives at the place indicated by Sander,
and expresses it as his opinion that the rivulet is a locality unfit for
Dreissena, that Sander’s shell is a Unio batavus, his description
entirely agreeing with specimens from that locality, with regard to
size (two inches) as well as to coloration. A Dreissena of two
inches would be a great rarity.”

MISCELLANEOUS.
Theory of the Skull and the Skeleton.
To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—In the ‘ Reader’ newspaper for the 24th of March
of this year, Mr. Seeley published a letter containing an abstract of
the paper, then recently read by him, which was published at length
in the last Number of your Journal. After reading Mr. Seeley’s
communication, I wrote to the editor of the ‘ Reader’ the following
note, which was published on the 31st of March :—

** March 27, 1866.

‘Sir, —If Mr. Seeley will refer to the ‘ British and Foreign Medico-
Chirurgical Review’ for October 1858, he will find, at the close of a
criticism on Prof. Owen’s ‘ Archetype and Homologies of the Verte-
brate Skeleton,’ a brief outline of the theory that the vertebrate
skeleton is a product of mechanical actions, the effects of which have
been continually accumulated by inheritance.

“The doctrine which I had there space to present in general out-
line only, is more fully worked out in the last number of the ‘ Prin-
ciples of Biology,’ issued in December 1865.

‘©HxeERBERT SPENCER.” |

Miscellaneous. 495

Mr. Seeley having published his view in the ‘ Reader,’ I concluded
that he would see my letter; but I presume that he has not done so,
since, in his contribution to your last Number, he makes no reference
to the facts alleged in that letter.

Let me add that, while there is identity between Mr. Seeley’s
doctrine and my own, in so far as both ascribe the formation of bone
to tensions and pressures, there is but little community between our
interpretations of the physical process by which tensions and pressures
have produced their effects.

. HERBERT SPENCER.

37, Queen’s Gardens, Bayswater,
Noy. 8, 1866.

On the “ Fulerum’”’ of Calamoichthys.
To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—I shall feel obliged if you can find space in your
valuable Magazine for the following note.

In the abstract of my paper on the new Ganoid Fish from Old
Calabar (Calamoichthys calabaricus), published in the ‘ Annals’ for
August last (No. 104), the word fulcrum bas been unfortunately
used, and may lead to a mistake. The anal fin is described as fol-
lows :—‘‘anal (with fulcrum at base anteriorly) in male large, in
female small, &c.”’ The fin has a triangularly shaped and thickened
portion, covered with scales, at the anterior base of the fin-rays;
there are, however, no true fulcral scales or bones. The words
within parentheses had therefore better be deleted. A detailed descrip-
tion of the fish is published in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh,’ vol. xxiv. part 2.

I am, Gentlemen, :
AY Your most obedient Servant,
Joun Auex. Smita.
Edinburgh, Oct. 29, 1866.

The Patagonian Finner. By Dr. BurRMEISTER.

In August last a large Finner Whale was taken at the mouth of
the River Plata, which I thought might be a Sibbaldius; but after
studying the body more exactly, I think it is the same as the Phy-
salus named P. Patachonicus in the Catalogue of Seals and Whales
in the British Museum. I have made a good drawing of the animal;
but the skeleton is lost, because it was impossible to preserve such a
large animal, upwards of 58 feet long, without any assistance of
good workmen, who are entirely wanting in the locality.

On the Phoceena communis of the North Sea.
By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e,

Professor Lilljeborg writes to me that the Porpoise (Phocena
communis) of the North Sea has “the front edges of the dorsal fin

496 Miscellaneous.

finely denticulated near the end ;” so that it appears to be the same as
the species, described by Pliny and figured by Camper, that we have
in the Thames, and which I described under the name of Phocena
tuberculifera. In the last edition of the ‘Catalogue’ (p. 402) I
stated that the species without the spines on the dorsal fin appears to
be very rare; and it is doubtful if it is a distinct form, and if my
name will not have to sink into a synonym.

The Stuffed Whale in the Swedish Museum.

In reply to my inquiry, Professor Lilljeborg observes, “ Vous
m’avez prié de vous instruire de la méthode au moyen de laquelle la
Baleenoptére du M. Malm a été conservée. La peau de la méme a
été divisée en plusieurs morceaux, et a été depuis étendue sur un
modéle de bois exactement de la méme forme et grandeur que de l’ani-
mal lui-méme. L’épiderme est conservé sur la peau, et il est pour-
tant trés-peu lésé. La couche graisseuse de la peau a sans doute
été trés-menue, autrement I’ épiderme en se desséchant aurait été plus
plein de fentes et de rides qu’il ne présente maintenant.” —J. E. Gray.

Observations on the Reproduction of the Cecidomyide. —
By F. Mernert.

In an article “‘On the Orgin of the Germs in the Larvee of Mias-
tor’’ (Naturhist. Tidsskr. ser. 3. vol. iii.) I maintain, in opposition
to the opinion of M. Pagenstecher, that the germs of the larvee ori-
ginate in the adipose tissue. In another paper, entitled “A few
more words on Miastor,” after some remarks upon the formation of
germs in another Cecidomyide larva, and on the formation and de-
velopment of the ovum in animals in general, I more particularly
indicate the relations of the germs to the adipose tissue. Here it
must be remarked that we have to do with two different forms, spe-
cies of two genera differing widely from each other, which have been
the subjects of investigations made by different authors. I have
been fortunate enough to be able to examine both forms; and as I
was the first to classify the Cecidomyide examined by M. Wagner
(Miastor), I have also succeeded in rearing the perfect insect from
the larva referred to by MM. Pagenstecher and Leuckart, to which
I give the following name and diagnosis :— ie

Oxicarces. Haustellum nullum; palpi nulli. Tarsi 2-articulati.
Antennz moniliformes, 11-articulate. Alee costis binis vel ternis
abbreviatis, evanescentibus.

O. paradoxus. Ochraceus, capite atque mesonoto nigrescentibus.
Femina: antennz corpore quadruplo breviores. Ovipositor brevis-
simus. Long. 1°25~1'5 millim. Larva habitat sub cortice populi
gregatim.

The cells which become developed into ova and germs, are usually
in connexion with the adipose tissue, of which they form part; but
whilst this union persists for a certain time in Miastor (Wagner’s

Miscellaneous. 497

larva), these cells, on the contrary, separate speedily to a certain ex-
tent from the adipose tissue in Oligarces (the larva of Pagenstecher
and Leuckart), although they do not, as Leuckart maintains, constitute
a true ovary either in Miastor or in Oligarces. In fact, all the cells
become developed into ova and larvee, and none of them serves for
the formation of the stroma, for the formation of the envelopes of
the ova, or for any other analogous purpose.

In order to explain the peculiarities of these animals, I have en-
deavoured to establish a theory of the formation and development of
the ova in the whole animal kingdom, of which the following is an
abridgemnt.

The ovum is composed either of a single cell, ‘‘ the germinal cell,”
or of the germinal cell accompanied by several other “ vitelline éells,”
or by the secretion of the latter, ‘the vitelline mass.’ The ovum
of the Mammalia, and that of most of the inferior animals, belongs to
the first category; that of other animals, and especially that of
Birds, belongs to the second; and that of most Insects to the third
kind. The “germinal cell” alone, the nucleus of which is the
“germinal vesicle,” is subject to the vitelline segmentation which is
so often discussed. The “vitelline cells” and the ‘ vitelline mass”
are not segmented, but pass, without any other form of development,
into the nutritive vitellus. The germinal cell divides by segmentation
into minute cells (embryonal cells). A portion of these, not absorbed
by the formation of the embryo, furnish material for the new ovaries
and testes, inasmuch as in general some of the cells form a stroma
which separates and encloses a greater or smaller quantity of the
other cells. The remaining non-separated cells form, in Insects,
what is called the adipose tissue.

A second element, the semen, is necessary in most animals, to en-
able the ovum, or rather the germinal cell of the ovum, to develope
itself; but this stimulus is not always necessary in a great number
of the inferior animals. The development of the ovum without
stimulus or fecundation is by no means dependent upon a certain
more or less advanced point of development of the maternal animal,
or of its ovary; for sometimes the maternal animal attains a com-
plete development even with external and internal genital characters
(parthenogenesis, as in the bee), sometimes it propagates only in

the state of a larva without genital characters, and this may be re-
peated through several generations, either under the same larval
form (as in our Cecidomyides) or under a different exterior form
(alternate generations of metagenesis—Trematoda). I by no means
assume that there is any well-marked limit between parthenogenesis
and metagenesis; for example, the mode of reproduction in the
Aphides might be explained in both ways.

As compared with other insects, I also regard it as characteristic
that, whilst in general we must make a distinction between the epi-
thelial and vitelline cells, and the latter serve only for the nourish-
ment of the embryo, in the present case the epithelial cells serve at
once as epithelium and as vitelline celle +> thes larvee,

498 Miscellaneous.

I haye thus given a summary of the principal results of my inves-
tigations, and shall only add that in the first part of my last treatise
I have endeavoured to. maintain my diagnosis of Miastor in opposi-
tion to Schiner, Siebold, and Loew. Whatever might appear to be
remarkable in the fact that Miastor had only four joints in the tarsi
and two joints in the palpi, vanishes before the circumstance that
Oligarces has only two joints in the tarsi, and possesses no palpi at
all.— Ann. Sci. Nat. sér. 5. tome vi. pp. 16-18.

A Last Remark on the. Generic Name Potamogale.
By Dr. A. Ginruer.

Dr. Gray, in a note “ On the Use of the Genus Potamogale,”’ pub-
lished in the preceding Number of this Journal, p. 426, refers to the
following remark, in which I had expressed my view on the same
subject :—‘‘ Since he [Dr. Gray] has adopted the specific name of
velox, given by Du Chaillu at the same time [as Potamogale|, and
as in this case the generic and specific names refer to the same indi-
vidual specimen, succeeding naturalists have no other choice but to
recognize or to reject both alike’ (Zool. Record, ii. p. 33). He
states that “the latter observation is incorrect,” and “that the
generic name of Potamogale and the specific one of velox do not rest
on the same basis.”

By this time all zoologists interested in the subject must be so
fully acquainted with the history of this case, that the matter might ©
have been safely left where it stands; however, as Dr. Gray says
that I had come to this conclusion ‘on a very imperfect recollec-
tion of his paper,” I must add a few words in further explanation.

In questions of this kind I am guided by a rule which is adopted
by the majority of naturalists, viz. that ‘‘a name which has never
been clearly defined in some published work should be changed for
the earliest name by which the object shall have been so defined.”
Accordingly 1 asked myself, would it have been possible for a
zoologist like Dr. Bocage or Prof. Allman to recognize Potamogale
from Du Chaillu’s original description, if the typical specimen (a
mutilated skin, without skull) had been lost. I thought, and am still
inclined to think, that identification would have been, for these
zoologists, impossible or at least a matter of uncertainty, and there-
fore, that the first binomial name given by one of them should have
superseded that proposed by Du Chaillt. In this respect I am so
fortunate as to agree with Dr. Gray when he says, ‘‘ M. du Chaillu’s
description of the Cynogale veloz is so incorrect that, if the skin had
not fortunately come into the possession of the British Museum, the
animal must have remained .. . . one of the puzzles of zoologists” (this
Journal, 1865, xvi. p. 426). For this reason I was and am still of
opinion that both names might have been rejected alike, and that a
new dinomial name given by Dr. Gray would have been upheld by
all naturalists adhering to the rule quoted above.

But in his last note Dr. Gray states, ‘The animal is described in

Miscellaneous. 499

the paper (of M. du Chaillu), with some details, under the name of
Cynogale velox, quite sufficiently, especially when one has the type
specimen to confirm the description, to establish the specific name
of velox.” Although this may appear, at first sight, a contradiction of
the previous passage, it is not so in reality, as in the first Dr. Gray
argnes on the assumption of the possible loss of the type specimen,
- and in the second this specimen is admitted as an essential item in
the consideration of the matter. Ifthe description, with the addition
of the type specimen, be sufficient to establish the fact that the ani-
mal is swift, and therefore to justify the specific velox, that descrip-
tion with the type specimen was alike sufficient to establish the fact
that it was a river-animal, and therefore to justify the generic
Potamogale; for if a ——mys be admitted as a generic name for
a carnivorous animal, a gale cannot be rejected for a suspected
Rodent. Dr. Gray draws a line of distinction between the part of
Du Chaillu’s description referring to the species and that referring
to the genus. I need not quote the passage again in which Du
Chaillu justifies his proposal of the genus Potamogale: however
unfortunate his comparison with Cynogale may have been, it im-
plied at least that it was a carnivorous mammal; and he appealed to
the shape and proportion of the tail and its West-African habitat.
‘Surely many a generic name proposed and adopted by naturalists
has been introduced into the system with less accurate elements of a
generic diagnosis! Look, on the other hand, at his detailed descrip-
tion of the species Cynogale velox: it contains all those errors
pointed out by Dr. Gray; nay, it is even perfectly insufficient as a
specific description, such descriptions requiring considerable detail to
ensure the distinction of a species from its congeners. If the type
specimen had been lost, a succeeding naturalist, who might have re-
nized the genus Potamogale, would still have been at a loss to
know whether he had to deal with the same species or not. And
yet, although the chances of a recognition would have been more in
favour of the generic than of the ‘specific name, Dr. Gray prefers
to use his advantage of having the type specimen for confirming the
description and name of the species, rather than that of the genus,
It was for these reasons that I stated my opinion that if one name
be adopted, the other cannot be rejected ; and for these same reasons
I now state that the generic name has (ou the merits of the original
description alone) a better right to be adopted than the specific.

If zoologists should ever unite in the proposed revision of the
‘rules of zoological nomenclature,” I shall not regret having been
forced to this discussion, which may induce them to give a share of
their attention to cases like the present.

509

INDEX to VOL. XVIII.

Asuanzs, new species of, 26.

Acacia dealbata, on the course fol-
lowed by a Fungous mycelium in
the trunk of, 428.

Acmostomum, new species of, 59,

Agaricus, new British species of, 53.

Ahezetulla, new species of, 28.

Alaurina prolifera, observations on,

Aleyopis, description of the new ge-
nus, 484

Amphibia, on the vision of, 469.

Animals, on the congelation of, 251;
on the domestic, of the 13th and
14th centuries, 257.

Anthers, on the structure of, 138.

Anthophysa Miilleri, on the structure
and habits of, 429.

Antilocapra, on the position of, in
the system, 323, 401, 468.

Aphides, on the reproduction and
embryogeny of the, 62, 106.

Apyrenium, new British species of 56.

Arctocephalus Falklandicus, on the
skull of, 99.

Argulide, on the morphology and
systematic position of the, with de-
scriptions of new species, 149,268,
436.

Argyopes, new species of, 464.

Arius Layardi, description of, 473.

Aroidez, on the structure of the an-
thers in the, 138.

Aspidiotes, new species of, 29.

Atractaspis, new species of, 29.

_ Ausonia Cuvieri, on the capture of,
near Falmouth, 424.

Baird, S. F., on the interchange of
birds between America and Eu-
rope, 141.

Balbiani, M., on the reproduction and
embryogeny of the .Aphides, 62,
106; on the part played by the
nucleus in animal cells, 262.

Berkeley, Rev. M. J., on British
Fungi, 51, 121.

Blackwall, J., on new species of Afri-
can spiders, 451.

Birds, on some new genera of fossil,
109 ; on the migration of, 141.
Books, new:—Ramsay’s Geological
Map of England and Wales, 129;
Spence Bate and Westwood’s Ses-
sile-eyed Crustacea, 247; Clark’s
Catalogue of Phytophaga, 248 ;
Annuario della Societa dei Natu-
ralisti in Modena, 423; Record of
Zoological Literature for 1865, 490.

Boussingault, M., on the action of
foliage, 342. j

Bowerbank, Dr., on Hyalonema mi-
rabilis, 397.

Brachiopoda, on the morphology and
affinities of the, 133.

Brandt, H., on the Mammoth, 136.

Broome, C. E., on British Fungi, 51,
121.

Bullmore, Dr. W. K., on the capture
of Ausonia Cuvieri near Falmouth,
424,

Buprestide, on the classification of
the, 173, 327.

Burmeister, Dr. H., on some Ceta-
ceans, 99; on Glyptodon and its
allies, 299; on the Patagonian
Finner, 495.

Calamaria, new species of, 25,

Calamelaps, on the new genus, 26.

Calamoichthys, description of the
new genus, 112, 495.

Campanularia, new British species of,
297.

Cantharellus, new British species of,
54. :

Castiale, description of the new ge-
nus, 480 ’ :
Cecidomyide, on the reproduction

of the, 496. pinay

Cells, on the part played by the nu-
cleus in animal, 262.

Cetaceans, observations on some, 99,
495, 496.

Cladonia, on a proposed division of
the genus, 105.

Cladoniz of the herbarium of Acha-
rius, on the, 306.

a

INDEX. 501

Cladoniei, on the examination and

_ rearrangement of the, as tested by
hydrate of potash, 405.

Clambus, characters of the genus, 16.

Cloéon, notes on some species of the
genus, 145.

Clos, D., on postfloration, 261.

Codosiga, description of the new ge-
nus, 435.

Coémans, L’Abbé E., on the Acha-
rian Cladoniz, 306.

Conifers, on the homologies of the
male and female flowers of 212,304.

Corallinez, on the amylaceous glo-
bules of the, 117.

Coryne, new British species of, 296.

Cotton-plant, on a fungoid disease of
the, 344.

Couch, J., on the capture of Ausonia
Cuvieri near Falmouth, 424.

Crustacea, on the vascular and ner-
vous apparatus of marine,7; on

_ the metamorphoses of the, 69.

Ctenus, new species of, 451.

Cuspidella, description of the new
genus, 298.

Cyclea, characters of the genus, 17.

Cynodon, new species of, 30.

Cypripedium candidum, on a regular

imerous flower of, 341.

Davy, Dr. J., on the congelation of
animals, 251.

Dawkins, W.B., on the dentition of
Rhinoceros leptorhinus, 131.

sree microps, observations on,
101

Dredging among the Hebrides, re-
port on, 387.

Eaton, A. E., on some species of the
genus Cloéon, 145.

Elaphurus, new species of, 71.

Elateridz, on the classification of the,
173, 327.

Entomostraca, on the carboniferous,

Epeira, new species of, 461.

Eresus, new species of, 453.

Eucervus, on the North-American
species of, 338.

Euplectella speciosa, observations on,
487.

Eurysoma, new species of, 465.

Ferania, new species of, 28.

Fischer, P., on a cranium of Ziphius
found at Arcachon, 255.

Fishes, new, 30, 473, 495 ; recent re-

searches on the fossil, of Mount
Lebanon, 237 ; on the ovum of
osseous, 249 ; on the vision of, 469.
Floridez, on the amylaceous globules
of the, 117.
Folge researches on the action of,
2

Fossils, new, from the Lower Green-
sand of Bedfordshire, 31, 381.

Fungi, notes on British, 51, 121.

Gasparrini, G., on a malady of the
cotton-plant, 344; on the course
followed by a fungous mycelium in
pe living trunk of Acacia dealbata,

8.

Gerbe, Z., on the vascular and ner-
vous apparatus of the marine Crus-
tacea, 7; on the metamorphoses
of the marine Crustacea, 69.

Gleeosporiaun; new British species of,
Ba

Glyptodon and its allies, observations
on, 299

be ap new British species of,
297.

Gorybia, description of the new ge-
nus, 481

Gray, Dr. A., on a regular dimerous
flower of Cypripedium candidum,
341

Gray, Dr. J. E., on the skulls of Ota-
riade in the British Museum, 228 ;
on Hyalonema, 287, 397, 485;
on the Pronghorn Buck and its
position in the system, 323, 468 ;
on the Long-eared Deer of North
America, 338 ; on the genus Pota-
mogale, 426; on Venus’s Flower-
basket, 487; on the Phocena
communis of the North Sea, 495.

Giinther, Dr. A., on new species of
snakes in the collection of the
British Museum, 24; on some
new fishes from the river Amazons,
30; on West-African species of
Hemirhamphus, 427; on a new
Siluroid fish from Ceylon, 473;
on the genus Potamogale, 498.

Gymnetrus Banksii, note on the cap-
ture of, 136.

Gyropeltis, on the species of, 444.

Haeckel, Prof., on fossil Medusz,
344.

Halmaturus, new species of, 322.

Halopithys, on the amylaceous glo-
bules of, 117.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. 35

502

Helotium, new British species of, 127.
Hemiptera, on the organs of secre-
tion in the, 427.

Hemirhamphus,
species of, 427.

Herpetzethiops, characters of the new
genus, 2 :

Hesse, M., on a new parasitic Crus-
tacean, 73.

Hincks, Rev. T., on new British Hy-
droida, 296; on Ophiodes, a new
genus of Hydroida, 421.

Hogg, J., on the capture of Gymne-
trus Banksii near Whitby, 136.

Humbert, A., on the fossil fishes of
Mount Lebanon, 237.

Hyalonema, observations on, 287,
397, 485; on the existence of, in a
fossil state, 404.

Hydroida, on new British, 296, 421.

Hymenoptera, on the development
and position of the, 82.

Hyrtl, Prof., on the lateral canal of
Lota, 264.

Insects, on the morphology of; 82.

James-Clark, Prof. H., on the affini-
ties of Peridinium Cypripedium
and Urocentrum Turbo, 2; on the
structure and habits of Anthophysa
Miilleri, 429.

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, on dredging among
the Hebrides, 387 ; on a new spe-
cies of Montacuta, 396.

Jones, T.R., on the paleozoie bi-
valved Entomostraca, 32.

Jussiza repens, on the synonymy and
geographical distribution of, 340.
Kirkby, J. W., on the palzozoie bi-

valved Entomostraca, 32.

Krefft, G., on the dentition of Thy-
lacoleo carnifex, 148.

Kiinckel, J., on the organs of secre-
tion in the Hemiptera, 427.

Lacaze-Duthiers, H., on the morpho-
logy and affinities of the Brachio-
poda, 133.

Lecidea, new British species of,
103.

Leighton, Rev. W. A., Notule Li-
chenologice, by the, 23, 103, 169,
306, 405; on a new locality for
Scheuchzeria palustris, 338; on
the examination and rearrangement
of the Cladoniei, 405.

Leposphilus, on the characters and
habits of the new genus, 73.

on West-African

INDEX.

Lichens, descriptions of new, 23, 103,
on new chemical tests for, 169, 405.

Limozota, description of the new ge-
nus, 482

Linyphia, new species of, 460.

Lota, on the lateral canal of, 264.

Lycophidium, new species of, 29.

M‘Coy, Prof. F., on a new species of
Halmaturus, 322; on some new
species of fossil Volutes, 375.

Macrornis, new species of, 110.

ap ike observations on the genus,

Mammoth, observations on the, 136.

Martes, new species of, 286.

Martins, C., on the synonymy and
geographical distribution of Jus-
sizea repens, 340.

Mecznikow, E., on the Rhabdoccela,
57; on the development of the
Myzostoma, 339. 4

Medusz, on fossil, 344.

Meek, F. B., on the microscopic
shell-structure of Spirifer cuspida-
tus, 144.

Megatheroid animals, on the diseo-
very of the dermal shield in, 137.
Meinert, F., on the reproduction of

the Cecidomyide, 496.
a ter on the genera of the,
2.

Menobranchus, notes on the genus
and its natural affinities, 363.

Mephritus, description of the new
genus, 479.

Miers, J., on the Menispermacee, 12.

Milne-Edwards, A., on the Mi-lou or
Sseu-pou-siang from the north of
China, 71.

Montacuta, new species of, 396.

Murray, A., on the homologies of the
male and female flowers of Coni-
fers, 212, 304; on the habits of -
the Prisopi, 265.

be ea on the development of,

Nototherium Mitchellii, on an upper
incisor of, 475.

Notule Lichenologicer, 23, 103, 169,
306, 405.

Nylander, Dr. W., on three new spe-
cies of Thelocarpon, 23; on new
British Lichens, 103; on two new
chemical tests for Lichens, 169.

Oligarces, description of the new ge-
nus, 496

INDEX.

Ophiodes, description of the new ge-

- nus, 421.

Orea, new species of, 101.

Otariadz, notes on the skulls of
some, 228.

Owen, Prof., on an upper incisor of
Nototherium Mitchellii, 475.

Oysters, on green, 221.

Packard, Dr. A. S., on the develop-
ment and position of the Hymeno-
ptera, 82.

Parfitt, E., on a new species of ma-
rine worm, | ; on two new species
of freshwater Polyzoa, 171; on
some Zoophytes of Devonshire,
426.

Pascoe, F. P., on Spherion and Mal-
locera, 477.

Peltidea venosa, on the cephalodia
in, 104.

— characters of the genus,

sa characters of the genus,

21.

Peridinium Cypripedium and Uro-
centrum Turbo, on the affinities
on 2,

Peziza, new British species of, 122.

Phenacia, on a new British species
of, 1,

Phoczena communis, note on, 495.

Pholas, new species of, 386.

Physalus Patachonicus, note on, 495.

Pictet, F. J., on the fossil fishes of
Mount Lebanon, 237.

Plants, on the domestic, of the 13th
and 14th centuries, 257.

Plateau, F., on the vision of fishes
and Amphibia, 469.

Pleuronectidze, on the, 72.

2 = —goae new British species of,

2.

Polyzoa, on two new species of fresh-
water, 171.

Postfloration, observations on, 261.
— on the genus, 426,
498. ‘

Prisopi, on the habits of the, 265.

Prostomum lineare, on the organiza-
tion of, 57.

Protolycosa anthracophila, note on,
428.

Protozoa, on a new genus of, 435.

Psilonia, new British species of, 122.

Psyrassa, description of the new ge-

nus, 481.

503

Ransom, Dr. W. H., on the ovum of
osseous fishes, 249.

Reinhardt, Prof., on the discovery
of the dermal shield in Megathe-
roid animals, 137.

Reticularia, new British species of,

Rhabdoccela, on the, 57.

Rhinoceros leptorhinus, on the denti-
tion of, 131.

Rhysium, description of the new ge-
nus, 483.

Reemer, Dr. F., on a fossil Spider
from the Coal-formation, 428.

Rogers, J. E. T., on the domestic
animals and plants of the 13th and
14th centuries, 257.

Royal Society, proceedings of the,
131, 249.

Salticus, new species of, 455.

Scheuchzeria palustris, new locality
for, 338.

Schiddte, Prof. J. C., on the classifi-
cation of Buprestide and Elate-
ride, 173, 327.

Selater, Dr. P. L., on the systematic
position of the Pronghorn, 401.
Seeley, H., on some new genera of
fossil birds, 109; on the fossils of
the Carstone formation, 111; on
a theory of the skull and the ske-

leton, 345.

Sertularia, new British species of, 298.

Shaughnessy, A. W. E. O’, on green
oysters, 221.

Skull and skeleton, outline of a
theory of the, 345, 494.

Smith, Dr. J. A., on a new genus of —
Ganoid Fish from Old Calabar,
112, 495.

Snakes, new species of, 24.

Sparassus, new species of, 457.

Spencer, H., on a theory of the skull
and the skeleton, 494.

Spermogonia, on the value of, as a
distinctive character, 105.

Spheera, new species of, 386.

Spheeria, new British species of, 128.

Spherion, new species of, 478.

Sphasus, new species of, 452.

Spider, on a fossil, from the Coal-
formation, 428.

Te new, from Equatorial Africa,

Spirifer cuspidatus, on the micro-
scopic shell-structure of, 144.

504

Sporidesmium, new British species of,
121.

Steenstrup, J., on the structure of
the branchial cavity of the Zeugo-
pteri, 72.

Stephania, characters of the genus,
13.

Suess, Prof. E., on the existence of
Hyalonema in a fossil state, 404.
Swinhoe, R., on a new species of

Martes, 286.

Taylor, Rev. R., on the habits of
Soakcrbins dorsalis, 140.

Tetragnatha, new species of, 467.

Tetragonopterus, new species of, 30.

Thelocarpon, new species of, 23.

Theridion, new species of, 458.

Thomisus, new species of, 456.

Thorell, T., on the morphology and
systematic position of the Argulide,
149, 268, 436.

Thylacoleo carnifex, on the dentition
of, 148,

Tieghem, M. van, on the amylaceous
globules of the Floridee and Co-
rallinez, 117; on the structure of
the anthers in the Aroidez, 138.

INDEX.

Traquair, Dr. R. H., on the anatomy
of Calamoichthys, 114.

Trichia, new British species of, 56.

Tursio Eurynome, note on, 100.

Unger, Prof., on the organic bodies
contained in ancient Egyptian
bricks, 141.

Urocentrum Turbo and Peridinium
Cypripedium, on the affinities of,
2

Van der Hoeven, J., on the genus
Menobranchus and its natural affi-
nities, 363.

ere new British species of,
104.

Volutes, new species of fossil, 375.

Walker, J. F., on some Lower-Green-
sand fossils, 31, 381.

Whales, notes on some, 495.

Zamenis, new species of, 27. RF

Zeugopteri, on the structure of the
branchial cavity of the, 72.

Ziphius, on a cranium of, 255.

Zoophytes of Devonshire, additions
to the, 426.

Zosterops dorsalis, on the habits of,
140.

END OF THE EIGHTEENTH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, f
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

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