• February/March 1992 ** SAGE NOTES ** A Publication of the Idaho Native Plant Society ** Vol 15(1)

Annual Field Trip

Mark May 9 and 10 on your calendar for the INPS annual
field trip. Visit the beautiful Salmon River and view Idaho’s
* only federally endangered species, Mirabilis macfarlanei,
Macfarlane’s four o’clock. It and other spring flowering
species should be in full bloom. The field trip will begin at
11:30 (Pacific time, 12:30 Mountain time) at the Skookumchuck
Rest Area near the bottom of Whitebird Hill. After lunch, the
group will tour the Mirabilis sites. Camping is available at the
® BLM Hammer Creek campground near Whitebird Village.
Supper will be a potluck. Maps will be included in the April
SAGENOTES.

New Procedure lo Monitor Plants

—Jill Blake, Botanist
Idaho Panhandle National Forest

The Forest Service has recently adopted a new and creative
procedure to evaluate plant population dynamics. Last year in
September, seven monitoring plots were established on the
Priest Lake Ranger District in a population of deerfem
( Blechnum spicant), a Region 1 Forest Service Sensitive and
State Priority 2 plant species, using a "high tech" instrument.
The instrument itself is actually a land survey tool that engineers
and surveyors commonly use when measuring distances and
establishing land boundaries.

Imagine physically counting individual plants within a set

amount of space and manually
plotting each on a map, then
recounting the plants year after
year in this same manner.
This kind of technique will
generally give the researcher
the information desired, but
can sometimes be a very slow
process, and difficult to
duplicate accurately each time.

Three land surveyors with
the Idaho Panhandle National
Forest (IPNF) and myself
operated the surveying
instrument— one at the
instrument and one or two
within the plot holding "range
poles". The base of the range
pole is set upon each of the
individual deerfem plants
within the plot.

When the instrument cross
hairs focus in on the prism at
the top of the range pole, a
button is pushed and an

1

February/March, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 1

infrared beam measures the distance between the instrument and
the range pole. Each plant then has a unique x,y and z
coordinate along with a description and point number recorded
on a handheld data recorder. This information is later
downloaded to a PC where the data is organized, managed and
mapped in AutoCad (computerized graphic aid) which ultimately
produces a series of plot maps that show the number of plants
and their relationship to each other within the plot.

The Forest Service has recognized the importance of
maintaining the biological diversity of natural species found on
national forest lands. Threatened, endangered and sensitive
plants and animals are a part of this diversity, and though
controversial at times, the importance of each member of the
forest community is seen as an integral part of a healthy,
productive ecosystem.

This particular population of deerfern is found in a timber sale
area west of Priest Lake, and is one of only four populations
known for the IPNF. Portions of the population have been
affected by past timber harvest activity.

Observing these plants through time using this highly accurate
method will provide valuable information about the effects of
timber management on deerfern and its habitat. The success of
the procedure will surely have wider application in other similar
projects.

Rare Plant Conference: Musings

Kristin Fletcher Wood River Chapter

Each year I look forward to attending the annual Rare Plant
Conference in Boise, sponsored by the INPS. It’s a good
opportunity to shed a little of winter’s cabin fever and take a
road trip, see some old friends and make some new ones.

But for me it’s more than simply an excuse to journey forth in
the dead of winter to socialize with other plant lovers. It has
become an ongoing educational experience, an opportunity to

learn about the natural history of Idaho, its botany and geology
and the consequences of climatic change including glaciers,
mountain building and drought. It also is a chance to learn
about land use issues and the multiple agencies and individuals
involved in policy making.

The first thing I learned was what a rare plant was. As most
people know, plants require certain conditions be met in order
to flourish. Sometimes they are easy going in their
requirements and are widespread, like Great Basin wildrye
( Elymus cinereus ) which is found throughout the Intermountain
west.

Sometimes, however, they are very particular, and exist only
in isolated locations. Idaho’s only federally listed sjn. ^
MacFarlane’s four-o’clock (Mirabilis macfarlanei ) is a case in
point. Globally, it is only found in 12 locations, all within the
canyons of the Snake and lower Salmon Rivers in Idaho and
Oregon.

The participants at the Conference, which include botanists,
professionals from federal and state agencies, rare plant experts,
and other interested individuals (that’s me!), review the lists of
plants that are rare in the state. After discussing the current
status of a plant, and whether it is threatened by any activity, a
decision is made whether or not to change the plant’s
classification. These decisions are then forwarded to the Fish
and Wildlife Service, the agency responsible for the
implementation of the Endangered Species Act.

Sometimes the news is good. With the increased awareness
and legal requirements that come with being a federally listed
species, the populations of MacFarlane’s four-o’clock seem to
be enjoying a recovery. Sometimes species are dropped from
the lists altogether when further research shows their
populations are substantially greater than previously known or,
because of an increase in taxonomic understanding, the "rare"
species becomes known to be just a slight variant of a more
common species.

Sometimes the news is not so good. The Salmon
Twin Bladderpod ( Physaria didymocarpa var.
lyrata), an interesting little mustard with large,
very beautiful inflated fruits, is found (globally) in
only four sites near Salmon, Idaho. Although a
conservation agreement is in effect and the BLM
has begun several conservation efforts, threats to
the populations continue to be a concern. The
conference participants felt forced to request an
Emergency listing for the species to save it from
extinction.

But the real reason I go to the Rare Plant
Conference every year is because I have started to
care about these dam plants. I want to know what
happens to the little Salmon bladderpod. I want to
know about Aase’s Onion (Allium aaseae ), which
grows primarily in Boise’s sa&dy foothills directly
in the way of major development plans. Suddenly
motorcycle clubs, subdivision developers, city

2

February /March , 1 992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 1

The Washington Post reported that scientists at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison have cross-bred a wild Mexican bean gene into
a food variety of dried been and created a bean that is "resistant to
the weevils that often destroy much of the stored crop in Third
World countries". The secret is a protein called arcelin- toxic to
insects that feed on the unsprouted seed, but harmless once cooked.
"Plant breeders at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture
in Cali, Columbia., are installing the gene in other varieties of
bean and testing their safety," the Post continues. "Although
initially aimed at the countries of Latin America and East Africa
where beans supply half or more of the protein intake, the new
varieties could help industrialized farmers avoid the chemical
fumigation now used to protect stored beans from insects."

(From Doug las in XU (3). A newsletter of the Washington INI'S)

government, newspapers, as well as federal and state agencies
are very aware of Aase’s onion and are (maybe) beginning to
work together to discover creative solutions to prevent either its
demise or the very real possibility of listing it under the
Endangered Species Act.

I go to find out how the Pacific dogwood ( Cornus nuttallii) is
faring. A small tree with beautiful flowers, the dogwood is
common along the west coast. A small, isolated population
occurs along the Lochsa and Selway Rivers in northern Idaho
nearly 1,000 miles away from the rest, the result of climatic
changes brought about by the lifting of the Cascade Range.

Changes continue and Idaho’s dogwoods, which in earlier
decades brought flocks of tourists to enjoy the spring bloom, are
in a precipitous decline. Whether from drought or from many
years of fire suppression or from some as yet unknown factor,
we are close to losing this lovely and unique stand of trees.
Various remedies are being suggested including controlled bums
and artificial propagation to preserve the unique genetic material
of this disjunct (separated) population.

These are just a few examples of the waning and waxing of
plant species in our midst, of their special responses to geology,
moisture, disturbance and other factors based on their history
and genetic make-up. The Rare Plant Conference monitors
these changes as they affect the rarest and most sensitive plants
within the state of Idaho. By monitoring them we learn about
subtle and not so subtle changes^ affecting our environment and
we learn to differentiate between those we have the power to
change and those to which we must leam to adapt. And
perhaps, too, we will leam to care.

Another New Grass For Idaho?

As you may have heard, this past summer Bob Moseley of the
Idaho Conservation Data Center located little ricegrass
( Oryzopsis micrantha [Trin.&Rupr.] Thurber) on a limestone
outcrop near Blue Dome. That plant turned out to be a new
species for the state of Idaho. Now it seems another grass
species has been discovered which may also be new to Idaho.

Tall dropseed ( Sporobolus asper [Michx.] Kunth) was found
early this year below Milner Dam along the Snake River
corridor. Steve Popovich, a newly-hired botanist for the BLM’s
Shoshone District, discovered about 50 individuals. Tall
dropseed is an attractive perennial that looks similar to sand
dropseed (S. cryptandrus ) but with larger fruit and a more
compact inflorescence. The plants occur on sandy rock soils of
a weak ephemeral drainage in a small side canyon which feeds
into the Snake River. Associated species include sand dropseed,
needle-and-thread ( Stipa commata ), indian ricegrass ( Oryzopsis
hymenoides), three-awn ( Aristida purpurea ), bluegrasses (Poa
spp), snakeweed ( Gutierrezia sarothrae ) and Rocky Mt. Juniper
( Juniperus scopularum).

Steve views the area as a special place because of its
representation of native plant communities and the presence of
juniper, which is locally uncommon. He believes that
floristically the area is more similar to assemblages found
farther south in Utah and Nevada.

Tall dropseed is most common in the true prairie uplands of
the mid-west. It is known to occur infrequently in eastern
Oregon and Washington, and is more prominent during drought
years. Three days of searching BLM and private land in the
area revealed no additional plants. There is promising habitat
in other side canyons downstream from the site, and the BLM
plans to explore them this summer.

Endemism and Rarity in Plants

Thomas Kaye Corvallis Chapter, NPS Oregon

(Reprinted from the Bulletin of the Oregon NPS; March, 1989.)

Mention endemic species to a botanist and you are likely to
receive an enthusiastic response. Mention rare species, and the
response may be the same. Embodied in both terms is a hom-
of-plenty of potential research topics and fascinating stories of
ecology and evolution. Some discussions treat endemism and
rarity in the same breath. But they are distinct concepts,
overlapping only in certain cases. The recent passage of the
Oregon Endangered Species Act provides explicit protection for

The next issue of SageNotes will focus on
riparian systems and issues. These wetlands are
some of the most botanically rich areas of the
state r and are important contibutors to
biodiversity within Idaho. The management of
these areas is controversial.

Submission of articles on riparian areas, or on
other issues of interest to Native Plant Society
members is encouraged. Please send your
submissions to the editor by 15 April (P.0 Box
182, Carmen, ID 83462).

3

February/Mardi, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 1

many rare plants, a percentage of which are endemic to Oregon.
This note will discuss the difference between endemism and
rarity, then focus on endemism among plants with a few
examples from the flora of northwestern North America.
Endemism

An endemic species (or other taxonomic group) is one
restricted to a particular region, occurring nowhere else.
Among plants, biologists are generally interested in those
endemics limited to a small
area, the so-called "narrow
endemics" (Kruckeberg and
Rabinowitz 1985). Such
plants may have stringent
habitat requirements--
prospering only on limestone
or in bogs, for example— and
may maintain large or only
small populations where they
occur. Narrow endemism is a
special form of rarity.

Rarity

Rarity among organisms is
blessed with no single, simple
definition. While grappling
with the concept in her work
at the University of Michigan,
the late Deborah Rabinowitz deliniated at least seven forms of
rarity (Rabinowitz 1981). She based her distinctions on
geographic range (large vs. small), habitat specificity (wide vs.
narrow), and local population size (large, dominant vs. small,
non-dominant). If a species is diminutive in any of these traits,
it can be considered rare. With this multiplicity of definitions,
it seems reasonable that not all rare plants are endemics, nor
vice-versa. If narrow endemics are typically locally abundant
in a specific habitat and restricted geographically, imagine the
opposite extreme: a species constantly sparse but in several
habitats over a large range. Prickly phlox ( Leptodactylon
pungens ) has this sort of sparse but broad distribution east of the
Cascades in the Pacific Northwest. Such a plant may rightly be
considered "rare", but it is difficult to call it a narrow endemic.
Now consider a plant that is widespread and locally abundant
but occurs also as isolated populations beyond the margin of its
central range. Such a species is rare in these peripheral areas
only. Black lily (Fritillaria camschatcensis ) is most common on
Kodiak Island and coastal Alaska. Its range extends southward,
but populations are very infrequent by the time it reaches
Washington and Oregon. Rare plant lists often include this type
of rarity, usually under a heading such as "rare in our area, but
common elsewhere". Rabinowitz called plants in this category
"pseudo-rare". The types of rarity from a continuum between
narrow endemics and sparsely distributed, widespread species.
Not all forms warrant protection as endangered species.

Levels of Endemism

Endemism can be recognized on any spatial or taxonomic

scale, and reflect any level of abundance. Douglas fir
( Psuedotsuga menzeisii ) and sword fern ( Polystichum munition)
are species endemic to western North America. Note, however,
that no one would describe them as rare, nor are they narrow
endemics.

Not only may a species be endemic, but endemism may act on
the level of family, genus, subspecies and variety as well. For
example, the checkermallow genus {Sidalcea) is endemic to

northwestern North America.
The genus itself is not rare,
but some of its constituent
taxa may soon be near
extinction. In other cases, an
entire genus may be endemic
and rare. Kalrniopsis , for
example, has only one species
( K . leachiana ) and occurs only
in southwestern Oregon in a
rather specific habitat.

At the other taxonomic
extreme are narrowly
restricted (and rare) varieties
of widespread species.
Olympic milkvetch
(Astragalus australis var.
olympicus) is known from
only a few populations in the northern Olympic Mountains of
Washington, but the rest of the species is distributed from the
Rocky Mountains, through Alaska, into Eurasia and the Italian
Alps! Although one definition of endemism may suffice, the
scales we measure endemism with, taxonomic and geographic,
vary tremendously.

Causes of Endemism

The causes of endemism are diverse, even idiosyncratic. They
encompass all modes of speciation. Any discussion of these
mechanisms is in danger of becoming a description of all forms
of evolution— a monumental task rather beyond our scope. But
if, artificially, there is to be only one by-word in the evolution

WILDFLOWER BOOKS by Verna E. Pratt

Books are soft cover - arranged by color - full description*

noting confusing species - plant lists of specific areas

lists of poisonous and edible plants - pictoral glossary.

New _ spring 1990 Field Guide to ALASKAN WILDFLOWERS^

136 pages - 24P color photos - $15.00 shipping

A proven best seller incl.

NEW - May 1992 WILDFLOWERS along the Alaska Hy.

240 pages - 497 color photos - $19.95

Just in time for the 50th anniversay of
the . construction of the Alaska Hy.

SPECIAL Pre-publication pricebefore May 1,

$16.50 incl. shipping.

ALASKAKRAFTS INC., 7446 E. 20th. Ave. Anchorage Ak . 99504

The Washington Post reported that scientists from Genelabs, Inc.,
and the University of California, San Francisco, have shown that
"the root of a Chinese cucumber, used in China to induce abortion
and treat cancer, appears to kill AIDS-infected cells in laboratory
tests." The drug, called GLQ223, "inhibits AIDS virus production
in infected white blood cells called T-cells and perhaps more
importantly, kills chronically infected macrophages, the scavenger
cells which form a crucial reservoir of AIDS virus in the body."
Scientists hope to begin human clinical tests of GLQ233, a highly
purified form of the plant protein trichosanlhin. However, they
warn AIDS patients "against attempting to inject any crude plant
extracts," because such self-experimentation can be "dangerous,
even lethal."

( From Douglasla, XII(3). A newsletter of the Washington NTS)

4

February /March , 1 992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 1

of endemics, let it be isolation. Islands are notorious for high
levels of endemism in their biotias. In the Northwest, however,
our most conspicuous endemic floras occur in mountain ranges.
The Siskiyou Mountains are a center of endemism, as are the
Olympics, the Wallowas, and the Wenatchee Mountains.
Mountains, in a sense, are climatic islands rising above a
lowland sea. They are environmentally isolated from the
surroundings. Other forms of "islands" in the northwest are
odd or constrasting soil substrates that isolate a group of
organisms from a more common, more habitable surrounding
soil type. Outcrops of serpentine in California, Oregon and
Washington, for example, are known for unusual plants, some
of them local endemics, such as species of the mustard genus,
Streptanthus (Kruckeberg, 1984). One researcher (Omduff,
1965) has even described plants that grow only on bird fecal
deposits ("guano endemism")!

Much of the biogeographic isolation encountered in our area
is the result of historical factors, such as Pleistocene glaciation.
Previously widespread species were wiped out by glaciers in
intervening areas leaving only isolated populations in local
refugia. After the Pleistocene glaciations, a warm dry period
known as the Hypsithermal allowed the northward migration of
many species. Subsequently, climatic conditions cooled, and
these southern emigrants were eliminated in the north, except
for a few populations that persisted in local microhabitats they
could tolerate. Some cases of sudden speciation in isolated
populations of the genus Clarkia resulting in narrow endemics
may have been caused by climatic shifts of this type (Lewis,
1972). These sorts of processes, and I have only sketched
them, lead to fragmented distributions and isolation of the
remaining populations.

The most common process of evolution may be gradual
speciation through natural selection and random genetic drift.
Cut off from a stable population network, a group of organisms
on an island, mountain, or obscure soil type may continue to
evolve according to changing environmental conditions. Or,
such a population may simple "go its own way" through
accumulations of random mutations. Alas, a plant in this
hypothetical population may eventually have the misfortune to
be stumbled upon by a human, plucked, and described as a new
taxonomic entity.

Age of Endemics <

Historically, endemics have been divided in two main
categories: new and old. Neoendemics are youthful species,
only recently evolved from a parent taxon. Their limited
distribution may indicate time has not yet allowed them to
expand to their full potential. Alternatively, they may represent
unsuccessful evolutionary branches that, given their present
environmental conditions, never will increas in distribution.
Malheur skeletonweed ( Stephanomeria mcilheurensis ) is a
narrow endemic restricted to a single population on a small hill
in Harney County. A closely related but more common plant,
small skeletonweed (S. exigua var. coronaria ) reaches its
northern limit at this very place. There is strong evidence that

A new insecticide, offered under the trade names of Bioneem and
Neemisis is further evidence of the wonders residing in the plant
resources of the world. The insecticide, made from the seeds of
the neem tree [Azadirirachta indica) is safe for humans and wildlife,
yet kills or repels more than 170 kinds of harmful inseots. The
ingredients break down rapidly in sunlight, and within weeks in the
soil.

Seeds from the neem tree have been used in India for centuries
to keep insects from stored grain. The tree, also called Margosa
tree, is a member of the Mahogany family and is native to southern
and southeastern Asia. It is also cultivated as an evergreen shade
tree in Australia, parts of Africa and Central and South America.

(Based on an article in the March B issue of the Idaho Post Register .)

through some recent and rapid genetic changes, malheurensis"
was bom from "coronaria" (Gottlieg, 1973). This single
population has a very tenuous existence, however, shifting
yearly between several hundred to only a few, or zero, observed
individuals.

Paleoendemics respresent very old species that, at one time,
were more abundant in a world that has since changed. As
climates warm and cool through the millenia, widespread
species may be forced to retreat to small refugia. Populations
of Kalmiopsis leachiana occur in the Siskiyou Mountains on
Oregon’s oldest rocks. This unique plant is thought to be a
representative of an ancient flora, more common in the Miocene
epoch, which has since lost sway.

Endemism, rarity and humans

Rarity and endemism meet again today in what one person
(Gentry, 1986) has described as "anthropogenic endemism"--
highly restricted distributions due to human intervention and
habitat destruction. The golden paintbrush ( Castilleja levisecta)
once found from Vancouver Island to the Willamette Valley, is
now extinct in Oregon and known from pitifully few sites to the
north. Snake River goldenweed ( Happlopappus radiatus ), once
perhaps more common in northeastern Oregon and adjacent
Idaho, is presently restricted to a handful of degraded

NORTHPLAN/MOUNTAIN SEED

P.O. Box 9107, Moscow, ID 83843
(208)882-8040 or
Route 1, Eagle, ID 83616
(208)286-7004

Since 1974, NORTHPLAN has been supplying seed for
disturbed land restoration, i.e., erosion control, mined-
land reclamation, range revegetation, transmission right-
of-way, test drilling, pipelines, as well as landscaping for
highways, homes and ranches.

Send a large, self-addressed, stamped envelope for. THE NATIVE
SPECIES SEED LIST of wildflowers, shrubs and trees.

5

February /March, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 1

populations on overgrazed rangeland. Bradshaw’s desert
parsely ( Lomatium brads hawii), the Willamette Valley’s first
federally protected endangered species, was once a plant of
prairies and open savannah. Today it is a narrow endemic of
fence-rows and occasional grassland remnants. Largely because
of agricultural practices and rangeland grazing to support a few
alien food organisms at the expense of a diversity of native
species, anthropogenic endemics are common world wide.

Endemism is a fascinating phenomenon incorporating
evolution, genetics, population biology, biogeography and
politics. Not all endemics are rare, and not all forms of rarity
constitue endemism, but the two subjects often converge.
Today that convergence is acute, and will continue to intensify.
Rarity and endemism become synonymous, then dissappear
together, through extinction. Hopefully, with federal and state
legislation, better conservation practices and communication, we
can stave off this pernicious process.

Literature Cited

Gentry, A.H. 1986. Endemism in tropical versus temperate
plant communities. In Conservation Biology: the Science of
Scarcity and Diversity, M.E. Soule, ed. Sinauer Associates;
Sunderland, Massachusetts.

Gottleib, L. 1973. Genetic differentiation, sympatric speciation
and the origin of a diploid spcies of Stephanomeria. American
Journal of Botany 60:545-553.

Kruckeberg, A. R. 1984. California Serpentines. University
of California Press, London.

Kruckeberg, A.R. and D. Rabinowitz. 1985. Biological
aspects of endemism in higher plants. Annual Review of
Ecology and Systematics 16:447-479.

Lewis, H. 1972. The origin of endemics in the California
flora. In Taxonomy, Phytogeography and Evolution, D.H.
Valentine (ed.). Academic Press; London.

Omduff, R. 1965. Omithocoprophilous endemism in Pacific
Basin Angiosperms. Ecology 46:864-867.

Rabinowitz, D. 1981. Seven forms of rarity. In The
Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation, H. Synge, ed.
Wiley; New York.

Justifying Existence

—by Gary Finstad. This article was originally published in
Aquilegia, a newsletter of the Colorado NPS.

Natural resource conservation is not very glamorous, unless
one is working with rain forests, whales or pandas. It’s
unlikely that the public’s heart strings will ever be plucked by
Physaria bellii. And 1 doubt that we’ll be seeing appeals on
MTV for the preservation of prairie chicken habitat or the
Colorado squawfish anytime soon.

There are those among us who feel that all species should be
accorded a basic "right to exist". While some species have
more complex or interesting evolutionary histories than others,
the fact that a species exists now should be regarded with at
least a bit of reverence, if not amazement. It hasn’t been easy

to get to now.

Most Americans, unfortunately, are disconnected with the
land. Few can read a landscape, and Manifest Destiny still
makes perfect sense, especially in an oil pinch. So how do
conservationists get ecologically important jobs done in the
absence of public awareness and concern?

We normally must sell projects and programs using economic
benefits (including tax advantages). That’s often not an easy
task. In many cases, there are no economic benefits— or, at
least, none discemable in the short term. Can a species without
economic benefit have a value ? The answer should be obvious;
but most of us realize that the "bottomline mentality" usually
prevails. Until Homo sapiens evolves a bit further (or
disappears), an economic benefit argument must usually be won
to safeguard a wild species or to get a conservation project
funded.

Happily, there are some plants— and, we hope, habitats—
which may survive because someone has discovered a
characteristic which may economically justify their existence and
perpetuation.

One such person is James Duke, a scientist with the U.S.
Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Research Service
(ARS). He’s an economic botanist working at the ARS National
Germplasm Resources Laboratory in Beltsville, Maryland.
Some of Duke’s associates collect wild relatives of existing
crops— wheat, com, potatoes, soybeans— which may be useful
in improving our overly manipulated crop varieties. But Duke
is most concerned with the "odd crops". He works at finding
and salvaging germplasm from species which have some
potential to be grown commercially, at least on a limited basis.

Duke has files on nearly 1,000 different plants which could be
profitably grown as crops. Alternative crops are becoming
attractive to farmers mired in monocultures of wheat or com,
whose productivity only adds to an already glutted market. For
example, he suggests that every major city could support a basil
grower, although probably only one. Some day there might
even be farmers profitably raising a plant that is now considered
a weed, St. Johnswort ( Hypericum spp.). This may compel us

Gardener's Source Guide — new
1992 directory. 510 Nursery &
Seed mail order companies offering
FREE catalogs. Many full color!
Flowers, plants, vegetables, trees,
everything! $5.00 GSG, P.O. Box
206, Gowanda, NY 14070-0206.

6

February/March, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 1

to question the wisdom of
eradication campaigns against
any species.

About two years ago, the
National Cancer Institute came
to Duke for assistance because
it was interest in St.

Johnswort (also called
Klamathweed), which has a
long history in folk medicine
as an antidepressant and for
treating nervous disorders, bums and urinary infections. Two
compounds in the weed have been found to strongly inhibit the
AIDS vims. Although species are native to Europe, West Asia
and North Africa, and naturalized in North America and
Australia, no germplasm had ever been systematically collected
for inclusion in the germplasm bank. Since then, Duke has
collected five different species growing along a highway near
his Maryland home. The species appear to vary in the
concentrations of the active chemicals, so collecting them is
important to improving its potential as a pharmaceutical crop.

Another potential AIDS fighter is the Moreton Bay chestnut,
an evergreen legume that grows in the rain forests and along
streambanks in northeastern Australia. It’s one of the best
sources of castanospermine, a compound that appears to halt
reproduction of the AIDS vims. If the compound proves useful
against AIDS, the plant could be a lucrative alternative crop,
possible suited to Texas, Arizona, Florida, California and
Hawaii. In 1987, before its potential anti-AIDS activity was
announced, castanospermine was priced at $23 per milligram
($9 million per pound!). The seeds yield 0.2-0. 3% of the
compound.

Duke has been collecting varieties of evening-primrose for use
as an alternative to tobacco production in North Carolina. Oil
from the flower is a major source of gammalinolenic acid — a
fatty acid which is the precursor of prostaglandin El and is
thought to abate symptoms of several illnesses. It is best known
as a treatment for atopic eczema. Evening primrose oil is sold
in health food stores. The plant is grown commercially in 15
countries, but the U.S. and Canada account for only a small
share of total production. With a sales price of $22 per ounce
of oil, evening primrose could be a profitable alternative crop.
Currently about 400 acres is devoted to evening primrose
production in North Carolina.

Recently Duke submitted wild-harvested Huperzia lucidula
(= Lycopodium lucidulutn) for alkaloid analysis as a possible
treatment for Alzheimer’s disease. Plants in the clubmoss
family have been used as medicine in China for centuries for
such diverse ailments as muscle cramps, hemerrhoids and
pneumonia.

A wild mountain mint he’s collected may be the best source
of pulegone, the major ingredient in pennyroyal oil. This
highly pungent compound has been found to repel fleas and
birds and is being evaluated as a tick repellent.

Duke also has files on fast-growing tree species which may be

grown for firewood in Third
World countries and a plant
that has a resin which may be
used as a fuel in diesel
engines.

Economic justification will
save relatively few species, of
course; but the process may
help foster more thoughtful
and sustainable approaches to
managing land and natural
resources. Until we produce a video featuring the Physaria
bellii rap”, what else are we to do?

(Those interested in more information may write to Dr. Duke at:
USDA-ARS Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Room 133, Bldg
001, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center; Beltsvill, MD
20705.)

Ancient Forest Action in Congress

Susan Wood-McKean Ancient Forest Alliance

The stage is set for the U.S. Congress to protect the
Northwest’s ancient forest ecosystems and Idaho’s congressional
delegation has a key role to play.

House Interior Committee chairman George Miller is now
finishing legislation that will protect the ancient forest ecosystem
based on scientific criteria. Idaho’s first district representative
Larry LaRocco will be a key vote in the Interior Committee.
Please write LaRocco and ask him to support Miller’s package.

This legislation will also be referred to the House Agricultural
Committee where Idaho’s second district Congressman Richard
Stallings will be a key vote. Please write Stallings and ask him
to support strong ancient forest protection.

We are closer than ever to congressional action on ancient
forest ecosystem protection. Your can make it happen by
writing a letter now. Fore more information, or to sign up as
an activist on this issue please contact Susan in Boise at the
Wilderness Society office, phone # 343-8153 or fax number
343-8184.

Group Works to Preserve Natural Heritage

Dr. Ross Watson, Moscow

(Reprinted from Mariposa , newsletter of the Calochortus
Society; Volume Ill, #3; January 1991)

The objective of the Mariposa Foundation is to develop
educational programs which foster realistic and achievable
concepts of conservation and utilize and develop human
resources, especially retired persons.

The preservation of our natural heritage through native plant
resources development is the concern of all nature lovers and
requires various forms of conservation to identify the
ecologically valuable plants and to preserve them through all
available means. Our group will focus on developing

From the Challis Messenger, 1916:

"Two botanists were in town last week on their way to the
upper country for the purpose of conducting a search for
interesting specimens for the Smithsonian Institute. "

Who were they??? Send your guesses to SageNotes.

7

February /March, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 1

permanent "gene bank" plantings where annual harvest of seed
can be made for a sustained planting program without damage
to the wild stands or their natural increase.

The group will initiate a pilot conservation program using wild
lilies Calochortus and Camassia (sego and camas). These
important genera were once widespread and a part of the native
ecosystem. They formed an important part of the food supply
for the native Americans and later the trappers and pioneers.
They are also used by animals.

These species have been greatly restricted in their range and
some area strains are presumed to be lost. Many more strains
are endangered, with only remnants now existing. If lost, the
wide genetic variability may be reduced, thus limiting the
adaptability and hence the chances for survival.

Procedures for the pilot project are:

1) Locate native sites of the lilies in as many diverse locations

as possible for each species, and mark these locations for future
research, reference and for site improvement.

2) Collect seed from as many species and/or strains within each
genus and from as wide a variety of sites as possible to assure
a broad genetic base which will improve the chances of their
ultimate survival.

3) Develop methods for improving existing sites to prevent
further reduction of native stands.

4) Develop effective seed treatment procedures that will enable
the lilies to produce bulbs that are "disease free" for planting.

5) Establish permanent seed producing areas to conserve native
seed sources for natural increase on the site.

6) Establish new stands of each species and/or strain through
planting of seeds or bulbs in acceptable locations.

7) Conduct a basic taxonomic study of the wild strains of a
species that occur naturally on widely differing sites. Compare
these by growing them under the same conditions to determine
if there are significant differences among them.

(For more information contact Dr. Watson, Mariposa
Foundation for Conservation, Inc; 415 Residence St.; Moscow,
Idaho ; 83843.)

Species Profile: Calochortus nuttallii ( Sego Lily)

--By Pam Gontz. Originally published in The Calypso
Companion, the newsletter of the Calypso Chapter.

The name Calochortus comes from kalo, meaning beautiful
and chortos for grass. The species nuttallii was named for
Thomas Nuttall, a self-taught naturalist. The Sego Lily is the
state flower of Utah.

The flower is white and somewhat tuliplike, with a triangular
cup-shaped appearance. It has three sepals, three petals and six
stamens, which is a characteristic composition for members of
the Lily family. The base of the petals are yellow and are
marked with a crescent-shaped purple band or spot. Its stems
can be 8 to 20 inches high, have a few grasslike leaves.
Underground is a thin coated bulb. The plant blooms in late
spring and early summer.

The Sego Lily ranges from New Mexico and Colorado to the
Dakotas, west to Idaho and California. This species grows on
hillsides at low elevations and on well-drained plains. It may be
found among sagebrush, or on gravel slopes and terraces. The
genus Calochortus , consisting of 57 species, is found in western
U.S., Canada and as far south as Guatemala. Nine species
occur in the Rockies, some in mountainous habitats and others
in valleys and plains.

The bulbous root of the sego lily was used by Indians who
frequently ground it and made a bread from the starchy meal.
The bulb is sweet and nutritious and is the size of a walnut. It
can be eaten raw or cooked as an emergency food. It tastes like
a potatoe when boiled. The Mormon pioneers made much use
of this plant as a source of food. Bears and rodents also
consume the bulbs.

8

Febmary/March,1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 1

Chapter News

White Pine Chapter

April 11. We’ll venture to Palouse Falls and lower Snake
River. Meet at Reaney Park in Pullman at 9:30a. To get to the
park, take the Pullman Highway from Moscow into Pullman,
passing the WSU campus entrance and continuing across the
bridge. The park is on the right. The falls and channelled
scablands are spectacular, so bring your camera.

June 6. Field trip to Elk Creek Falls and Big Tree Cedar
Grove. Meet at the Moscow Mall parking lot at 9:00a. In the
morning we will walk the well-maintained trails and view
several of the Elk Creek waterfalls. In the afternoon we will
visit some of Idaho’s largest western redcedars. The largest
Thuja plicata in the state is in this grove.

Pahove Chapter

March 19. Presentation by Roger Rosentreter, BLM State
Botanist, on "Forest Structure and Diversity and How to
Measure It".

April 16. Dr. Dottie Douglas will show slides of the flora of
the Soviet Union. Dottie visited the Soviet Union last fall.
May 21. Nancy Cole will talk about the wetlands along the
Snake River.

July 18. Joe Duft will lead a field trip to Railroad Ridge.
Tentative upcoming field trips have been planned for May to the
Craters of the Moon with Wood River Chapter. In June, Kathy
Geier-Hayes plans to lead a trip to the wildfire area near
Lowman, and in August, Dr. Pat Packard plans to lead a trip to
some of the interesting spots in Caldwell. For more
information on Pahove activities, call Gale Green, 384-3407.

Calypso Chapter

April 18. Meet at Tubb’s Hill Nature Preserve in downtown
Coeur d’Alene at 9:00a. The buttercups are in bloom and the
ballhead waterleaf leaves are up so there should be a good
variety by mid-April.

May 16. National Wildflower Week. Meet at 10:00a at
Quemlin Trails in Post Falls for a field trip led by Jill Blake.
June 27. Field trip led by Rick Barth. Meet at Berlin Flats
Campground up the Coeur d’Alene River by 9:00a. The trip
will cover elevational zones between 2500 and 6000 feet.

July 18 and 19. Part of our field activity for 1992 will be
working with the Idaho Panhandle National Forest doing rare
plant survey work. This effort, led by IPNF botanist Jill Blake
and Conservation Data Center botanist Rob Bursik, will provide
information for future Botanical Area designation of some
unique bog areas. This is a joint project with the North Idaho
Audubon group in Bonner’s Ferry.

Good Stuff

WRITTEN MATERIAL

The Gardener’s Source Guide lists over 510 nursery and
seed mail order catalogs. The best thing is that each of the
offered catalogs is free. Each listing provides a full address,
the number of pages, color or black and white, and a note on
the company’s main product. Catalogs are listed in four
groups: veggies and flowers; berries and woodies; flower plants
and bulbs; bamboo, cacti and herbs. See add, this issue, for
more information.

The Xeriscape Flower Gardener, by Jim Knopf, describes
methods of landscaping with water conservation in mind. Plant
species are described in detail and include recommendations for
growing conditions and maintanence. Available from Johnson
Publishing Company, 1880 S. 57th Court; Boulder, CO 80301.
Soft cover, 187 page book is $14.95.

Landscape Linkages and Biodiversity by W.E. Hudson is an
edited volume that presents the recent controversies and theories
about landscape corridors, linkages and biodiveristy. Authors
include J. Michael Scott, Michael Soule, Reed F. Noss, Allen
Cooperider and Hal Salwasser. Softcover copies are available
from Island Press, Box 7; Covelo, CA 95428. $19.95.

Genetics and Conservation of Rare Plants, edited by D.A.
Falk and K.E. Holsinger, summarizes current understanding of
the genetics and population biology of rare plants. The book
includes chapters on the significance of genetic variation, the
implication of small population sizes, sampling design, and
conservation and management strategies. Copies are available
for $45.00 from Order Department, Oxford University Press,
2001 Evans Road, Cary, North Carolina 27513.

CONFERENCES

Management for Biotic Diversity Workshop will be held at
Colorado State, July 13-17. The workshop will include sessions
on viable population analysis, GIS applications and management
of biodiversity in fragmented landscapes. For more information
contact Luke George; Humbolt State University; Areata, CA
95521.

EMPLOYMENT

The Salmon District BLM is hiring a seasonal botanist for
this summer. The position will involve primarily rare plant
surveys, report writing, plant collecting, herbarium curation and
assisting the District Botanist. SF-171 applications are due by
March 30. Send them to State of Idaho Job Service, 1301-1
Main Street, Salmon Idaho 83467. For more information, call
Caryl Elzinga, 756-5441.

9

February /March, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 1

Housekeeping

The purpose of the Idaho Native Plant Society (INPS) is to
promote interest in native plants and to collect and disseminate
information on all phases of the botany of native plants in
Idaho, including educating the public to the value of the native
flora and its habitats.

Membership is open to anyone interested in our native flora.
Contributions to our Society, are tax deductible. Send dues and
all correspondence to I.N.P.S., Box 9451, Boise, ID 83707.

Please include

me as an Idaho Native Plant

Full Year

Half Year

Jan-Dec 31

July 1-Dec 31

_ Sustaining

$30

15

_ Individual

$ 8

4

_ Household*

$10

5

_ Student

$ 6

3

_ Senior Citizen $ 6

3

Name:

Address:

City/State:

Zip Code:

Telephone:

Chapter affiliation?

_ Pahove (Boise)

_ White Pine (Moscow)

_ Calypso (Coeur d’Alene)

_ Sah-wah-be (SE Idaho)

_ Upper Valley Chapter (Idaho Falls)

_ Wood River (Ketchum-Sun Valley)

(include $7 chapter dues)

_ None. Those who do not live near a chapter center are

especially encouraged to join. We can put you in touch with
other members in your area, and can coordinate with you on
any state level activities you may with to be involved in. New
chapters may be forming in eastern and northern Idaho.
♦Household memberships are allocated two votes.

Idaho Native Plant Society
P.O. Box 9451
Boise, ID 83707

L I B RA

APR 2 7 19°2

Ntw row

SAGE NOTES is published bimonthly by the Idaho Native
Plant Society, incorporated since 1977 under the laws of the
State of Idaho. Newsletter ads are $2.00 for personal ads;
Commercial advertisements: 1/8 page $5.00, 1/4 page $8.00,
1/2 page $15.00, and full page $25.00. Newsletter aas should
be camera ready and accompanied by payment.

MATERIALS FOR PUBLICATION: Members and others are
invited to submit material for publication in Sage Notes. Articles
in any form, even hand-written (if legible!), are encouraged.
Submissions on 5 1/4 or 3 1/2 inch floppy discs for an IBM
computer in WordPerfect, Multimate or ascii file format are
especially appreciated. Use a cheap disk- it will not be returned.
Illustrations and even good quality photos may be reduced and
incorporated into the newsletter. Provide a phone number in case
the editors have questions on your materials. Send submissions
directly to the newsletter editor: Caryl Elzinga; P.O. Box 182;
Carmen, Idaho 83462. Due date for material for the next
newsletter is 15 April 1992.

OFFICERS

State Officers, P.O. Box 9541, Boise, ID, 83707: President—
Susan Bernatas, Vice President— Kathy Geier-Hayes, Secretary—
Pam Brunsfeld, Treasurer-Pam Conley.

Big Wood Chapter, P.O. Box 4154, Ketchum, ID, 83340:
President— Kristin Fletcher, Vice President— Frances Naser,
Secretary/Treasurer— Carol Blackburn.

Calypso Chapter, 911 Pine Avenue, Coeur d’Alene, ID,
83814: President— Pam Jppnfzj Vice President— Tina Gospodnetich,
Secretary-Bob Shackelford, Treasurer— Jill Blake.

Pahove Chapter, -“P.O. Box^945 1 , Boise, ID, 83707: President-
Michael Mancuso, Vice President— Gale Green, Secretary— Laura
Bond, Treasurer— Sheri Ltesch.

Sah-Wah-Be Chapter, 603 Willard Ave, Pocatello, ID, 83201:
Treasurer— Harry Giesbrecht.

Upper Valley Chapter, President-Sylvia F. Reichel, Vice
President— Jeanne Anderson, Secretary— RebeccaCheek, Treasurer-
-Allen J. Thiel, Jr.

White Pine Chapter, P.O. Box 8481, Moscow, ID, 83843:
President— Pam Brunsfeld, Vice President— Loring Jones,
Secretary /Treasurer— Mark Krueger.

Newsletter Staff: Newsletter Editor— Caryl Elzinga, Technical
Editor— Bob Steele, and Circulation Manager— Mering Hurd.

IT'S

HEW YOUR MEMBERSHIP

10

April/May 1992 ** SAGE NOTES ** A Publication of the Idaho Native Plant Society ** Vol 15(2)

Chapter News

For information about field trips, contact one of the chapter
officers listed on the last page.

Calypso Chapter

June 27. Field trip led by Rick Barth. Meet at Berlin Flats
Campground up the Coeur d’Alene River by 9:00a. The trip
will cover elevational zones between 2500 and 6000 feet.

July 18 and 19. Part of our field activity for 1992 will be
working with the Idaho Panhandle National Forest doing rare
plant survey work. This effort, led by IPNF botanist Jill Blake
and Conservation Data Center botanist Rob Bursik, will provide
information for future Botanical Area designation of some
unique bog areas. This is a joint project with the North Idaho
Audubon group in Bonner’s Ferry.

Pahove Chapter

May 21. Nancy Cole will talk about the wetlands along the
Snake River.

July 18. Joe Duft will lead a field trip to Railroad Ridge. See
Wood River entry.

White Pine Chapter

June 6. Field trip to Elk Creek Falls and Big Tree Cedar
Grove. Meet at the Moscow Mall parking lot at 9:00a. In the
morning we will walk the well-maintained trails and view
several of the Elk Creek waterfalls. In the afternoon we will
visit some of Idaho’s largest western redeedars. The largest
Thuja plicata in the state is in this grove.

Wood River Chapter

May 30. "The Camas Prairie". John Shelly, a resource
assistant with the USFS, Fairfield District, will lead us into the
beautiful and historic Camas Prairie near Fairfield. We will
journey to Centennial Marsh to catch the camas blooming and
to watch for waterfowl. Last stop on the trip is Cat Creek
Summit, where we will explore the lovely blue-eyed grass
meadows.

June 6-7. "Craters of the Moon/Brass Cap Kapuka". This

special 2-day field trip will feature the incredible spring bloom
of the Cave. Park Interpreter David Clark will introduce us to
the Crater’s unique ecology and the plant species which thrive
in this seemingly barren environment. The night of the 6th we
will camp at Sunset Cone Group Campground along the Oregon
Trail. The next day Mike Mancuso, research biologist with the
Conservation Data Center, will lead us on a rather rough, one
hour walk to Brass Cap Kapuka, a proposed research natural
area. This fascinating area features an older lave flow now
covered with vegetation, surrounded by a newer, more rugged
flow. Cattle grazing has been limited on the older flow by the
rough terrain of the newer flow, leaving it in nearly pristine
condition.

June 23 and 30. Lisa Clark, botanist and baker extraordinaire,
will again teach this helpful plant identification class for
beginners on two successive Tuesday evenings. On the 23rd,
Lisa will show slides and discuss basic plant anatomy. Then on
the 30th, she will bring plants in for identification and introduce
us to the art of using a plant key. Please bring a hand lens or
magnifying glass to each class.

July 18. Joe Duft, alpine plant specialist and co-author of the
beautiful book Alpine Wildflowers of the Rocky Mountains,
will once again lead us to this spectacular, 10,000 foot ridge in
the White Cloud Mountains. Meet at Ketchum Park and Ride
(Warm Springs Road) at 8:30a for carpooling. We will then
head to the Sawtooth NRA office near Stanley to regroup prior
to the final 1.5 hour drive (accessible by high-clearance
vehicle). Be sure to bring lunch, water and clothing suitable for
rapidly changing weather conditions. Cosponsored with the
Sawtooth Wildlife Council and the Pahove Chapter.

August 8. "The Elhnobotany of Silver Creek”. Paul Todd,
botanist and assistant manager of Siver Creek Preserve, will
introduce us to ethnobotany, the study of the use of native
plants. We will learn how to make rope from bark, weave
reeds for baskets, gather plants and prepare them for lunch and
more! If you’d like to linger into the late afternoon and stay for
a potluck dinner at Paul’s house, bring a dish to share.

1

SAGE NOTES

April/May, 1992

Volume 15 Number 2

Sah-wali-be Chapter

June 19-21. Camp at USFS Riverside campground just south
of Harriman State Park (Island Park, Fremont County), and
venture up Savvtelle Peak. Sunday will offer trips to Mesa
Falls, Cave Falls, and/or Big Springs. Call Dave Burrup (397-
4606) for details; you may wish to reserve camping space early.
Good birding here too; the Portneuf Valley Audubon group has
been alerted to this trip.

July 25. 7 :00a, ISU Biology parking lot. Jensen Creek

drainage (Palisades Reservoir, Bonneville County) tour, another

of Karl’s annual favorites, and another all-day escapade. Call
Ruth Moorhead, 233-5011, to carpool or for overview of the
trip.

August 6. 6:00p, USFS Cherry Springs recreation area (by the
poison ivy table). Bring your own picnic dinner.

August 22. 10:00a, ISU Oboler Library parking lot, 10th and
Carter streets. Silver Creek Nature Conservancy preserve, west
of Picabo (Blaine County). Bring a lunch and look for early fall
color. Call Ruth Moorhead, 233-5011, to carpool.

Conservation of Idaho’s Pacific Dogwood

-by Juanita Lichthardt, Conservation Data Center

The creamy white blossoms of the graceful Pacific dogwood
{Comas nuttallii) are a familiar sight to those living on the west
side of the Cascade Mountains. However, as many Idahoans are
aware, the Pacific dogwood occurs naturally in one location far
to the east of the Cascades— along the lower Lochsa and Selway
Rivers, where they meet to form the Middle Fork Clearwater
River (Figure 1). In years past, the early-spring flowering of
these trees was a much-anticipated event that was announced in
local newspapers. Many people took yearly pilgrimages to
behold the spectacle produced by hillsides of blooming dogwood
trees.

The isolation of Idaho’s dogwood trees is extremely interesting
from a biogeographical standpoint. It reinforces the existence,
w thin the Clearwater Basin, of coastal refugia— areas where the
vegetation is indicative of a warmer, wetter climate than now
prevails. Floristically these areas have many similarities to the
northwest Pacific coast. The disjunct range of Pacific dogwood

defines one of the best examples of a coastal refugium. Pacific
dogwood is classified as a Sensitive Species by the Forest
Service because of its rarity in Idaho, declining abundance, and
biogeographic significance.

Pacific dogwood is closely related to the eastern flowering
dogwood ( Cornus florida ), which is native to the eastern US and
is a highly valued ornamental wherever it can be grown. These
two species are quite similar in appearance and likely diverged
from a common ancestor in response to geographic isolation.

The flowers of Pacific dogwood are rather inconspicuous.
What appear to be 4-7 large, white petals are actually bracts that
subtend a globose cluster of tiny flowers. In fall these flowers
produce shiny, red berries, and foliage becomes a striking, deep
red.

Pacific dogwood trees are usually multi-stemmed and our
inland trees usually do not exceed 30 ft in height. Although
trees growing in deep shade tend to have a single main trunk,

Figure 1 . Distribution of Pacific Dogwood. The population at the confluence of the Lochsa and Selway Rivers represents
the only occurrence of this species east of the Sierra/Cascade crest.

2

April/May, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 2

they frequently have a few smaller stems arising from the base.
In open shrubfield habitats along the Lochsa River, the species
takes on a very shrubby habit, with numerous basal stems.
Production of new stems is stimulated by death of, or damage
to, the main stem, such as from fire. Old trees, especially those
growing in openings in young conifer stands, can have as many
as 10 main stems.

Habitat and Ecology

In Idaho, Pacific dogwood is found between 1600 and 2800
ft. in the Thuja plicata (western redcedar) zone. It inhabits a
variety of communities including brushfields dominated by tall
shrubs, mature redcedar forest, young conifer stands, and
streamsides, but is mostly restricted to lower slopes near the
valley bottom. A distribution map by Roper (1970) showed that
dogwood trees occupied all aspects. It is most common on south
aspects, on slopes varying from flat to over 60%.

Although Pacific dogwood is shade-tolerant and can grow in
climax communities, it appears to be better adapted to
mid-successional serai habitats and is strongly associated with
the margins or openings of forest canopy. Fire appears to have
played a key role in the distribution and density of Pacific
dogwood in the Lochsa/Selway area (Roper 1970). Open or
lightly shaded habitats, such as those induced by fire, support
the greatest concentration of plants and produce more consistent
flowering than closed stands. Seedling establishment, however,
appears to require moderate shade of overstory conifers
(Johnson 1988). The possibility has been raised that natural,
successional changes could reduce or eliminate suitable habitat.
Declining Numbers Confirmed

It was apparently sometime after 1970 that our dogwoods
became afflicted by a serious malady that killed scores of trees.
In 1987, Steven Brunsfeld and Fred Johnson (Forest Resources,
University of Idaho) confirmed that a high rate of mortality had
occurred and that remaining trees were unhealthy. In subsequent
research by Johnson (1988), he estimated greater than 50%
mortality throughout the Idaho populations and noted that all
trees taller than 4 ft showed symptoms of a yet-unidentified
ailment.

Subsequent pathological work identified several root fungi as
possible causes of the observed mortality (Bertagnolli and
Partridge 1990). It is possible that the trees’ resistance to
pathogens was weakened by any number of factors including the
long-term drought experienced by the region or competition
from other plants brought about by successional changes in the
vegetation.

Populations of Pacific dogwood in the Lochsa/Selway area are
recovering slowly, if at all, and there is little evidence of
seedling establishment, leaving little hope that the species can
regain its previous abundance. In response, the Forest Service
has developed a Conservation Plan outlining research needs and
providing for off-site preservation of the gene pool through
long-term seed storage (Lorain 1991).

Off-site Preservation

Profuse flowering occurred in 1990 even though plants were
in a weakened state with many dead branches and trunks. The

following fall, Chris Lorain, working with the Conservation
Data Center, systematically collected fruits from throughout the
disjunct range of the species. Seeds were extracted and placed
in long-term storage at the Berry Botanical Garden in Portland,
Oregon, thus preserving a representative sample of the gene
pool and providing the potential for increase by growing-out
trees to maturity. Seedlings produced from this seed were doing
well after five months in pots.

Although seed of Pacific dogwood germinates fairly easily, the
species can be difficult to cultivate. John Edson, a researcher at
the University of Idaho, is successfully raising seedlings in the
greenhouse that can be used for his research in tissue culture for
possible reintroduction of the species, should that ever be
attempted. Due to the cost and uncertainty of growing a tree to
reproductive maturity, and the time involved, tissue culture
could offer a more dependable method of increasing the species
off-site.

On-Site Preservation

In 1991 the Conservation Data Center, in cooperation with the
Forest Service, initiated long-term demographic monitoring of
Pacific dogwood. Demography is the study of changes in
population size over time and their causes. Rates of birth, death,
growth and reproduction are some of the variables measured.
To obtain these data, permanent, tenth-acre plots were
established in Pacific dogwood stands along both the Selway and
Lochsa Rivers. Dogwood trees within the plots were mapped
and individual stems marked and measured so that they can be
followed over time. The plant community at each site was
quantitatively described.

Goals of this study are to determine the best management for
recovery of the species on site, determine the effect of site on
tree survival, and measure demographic variables which will
ultimately determine the fate of the species in its inland range.

The ability of Pacific dogwood to resprout following fire or
other damage means that an individual tree cannot necessarily
be aged by the diameter of the largest stem. Stem size does,

NORTHPLAN/MOUNTA1N SEED

P.O. Box 9107, Moscow, ID 83843
(208)882-8040 or
Route 1, Eagle, ID 83616
(208)286-7004

Since 1974, NORTH PLAN has been supplying seed for
disturbed land restoration, i.e., erosion control, mined-
land reclamation, range revegetation, transmission right-
of-way, test drilling, pipelines, as well as landscaping for
highways, homes and ranches.

Send a large, self-addressed, stamped envelope for: THE NATIVE
SPECIES SEED LIST of wildflowers. shrubs and trees.

3

April/May, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 2

however, give an estimate of the relative age of individual stems
and can give us an idea about the dynamics of stem production,
growth, and death.

Figure 2 is the size distribution (diameter at base) of all live,
Pacific dogwood stems measured in the first year of the study.
Note that many stems frequently make up an individual tree.
The distribution is strongly skewed toward the smaller sizes,
reflecting the fact that virtually all large stems (i.e. >4 inches)
are either dead or near death. Most of the smallest stems die
before they grow large enough to be included in a larger size
class. The largest stems are often alive only near the base where
they support a younger stem. Standing dead stems as large as
eight inches in diameter were observed.

Since fire appears to have played a major role in the
occurrence of Pacific dogwood within the canyons, succession
on these sites may pose an additional threat to our populations.
The Forest Service may choose to conduct habitat manipulations
such as thinning or burning on an experimental basis to explore
the possibility of using such practices as management tools.

2000

1500 -

1000 -

□ Sprouts < 1/4 Inch basal diameter
Basal stems (tagged)

to CD O CM to CO T-

Genetics Reinforces Uniqueness of Idaho Populations
New genetic studies being carried out by Steven Brunsfeld at
the University of Idaho will compare the genetic make-up of
Idaho populations to that of west-coast trees to determine
whether there has been divergence within the isolated range.
Comparisons of the genetic variation present in Lochsa and
Selway populations show a distinct difference. There is little
variation present among Lochsa trees, while those on the
Selway have a large amount. This indicates that Lochsa
populations experienced a crash in numbers, a genetic
bottleneck, sometime in the past, while those on the Selway
have not.

The underlying goal of all of this research is preservation of
the genotype of Idaho’s dogwoods, which appears to be distinct
from that of Pacific-coastal populations. In the best case the
dogwoods will eventually recover and persist on-site where they
can once again be enjoyed for their beauty and as a symbol of
Idaho’s unique botanical heritage. Since their survival, however,
may be out of our control, such off-site methods as long-term
seed storage and tissue culture can help assure that the
range of genetic variation now present within inland
populations will not be lost.

References

Bertignolli, C.L. and A.D. Partridge. 1990.
Mortality of Pacific dogwood, a coastal disjunct
population in northern Idaho. Unpublished report by
Idaho Dept of Fish and Game, Conservation Data
Center for the US Forest Service.

Johnson, F.D. 1988. Damage survey of Cornus
nuttallii in northern Idaho. Unpublished report by
Idaho Dept of Fish and Game, Conservation Data
Center for the US Forest Service. 30 pp.

Lorain, C.C. 1991a. Conservation Plan for Cornus
nuttallii (Pacific dogwood), in Idaho. Unpublished
report by Idaho Dept of Fish and Game, Conservation
Data Center for the US Forest Service. 15 pp plus
appendices.

Roper, L. A. 1970. Some aspects of the synecology
of Cornus nuttallii in Northern Idaho. MS Thesis,
Univ. of Idaho, Moscow.

co to cn cm io oo

CO CO

. till!

0)W10C0t-^SOP)(00)MI0

•••••••••••••

’“▼-*-C'4CMCMcocococo*r*r

Basal diameter (Increments of 0.3 Inch)

Figure 2. Stem size distribution of Pacific Dogwood.

What do you want to see in
your newsletter? Do you
enjoy the more technical
articles? Would you like to see
more Chapter News? Do you
have an idea for a regular
column? Do you have an
interest in certain subjects?

4

April/May, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 2

Biological Diversity in Idaho’s Future

- by Keith E. Evans

The author is the Assistant Station Director, Intermountain
Research Station, USFS, at Ogden, and co-chair of the
Research Natural Area committee of Region 4. This article is
adapted fiom a speech presented at the Idaho Natural Areas
Conference, Boise Idaho, 29 October, 1991.

I hear a lot of conflicting attitudes concerning the subject of
biological diversity--or the term I prefer— biodiversity. Some
say we can’t manage what we can’t define. Some say
biodiversity is complex and any attempt to simplify this
complexity will "misrepresent the concept." Some say there is
nothing new and we should continue "business as usual"— after
all, we are the greatest country in the world and we got here by
"harnessing" the powers of nature.

Well, my fellow earthlings, we cannot continue to "control"
and "exploit" our natural surroundings in the way our
forefathers thought necessary to survive, prosper, and be
comfortable. We are now in a high-tech society. This
technology will assist us in what we comfortably refer to as "the
easy life," but without our cooperation, the technology will not
provide a sustainable Earth ecosystem that will assure the
survival of our grandchildren, great-grandchildren, and
great-great-grandchildren. Be fully aware that children, infants,
and future generations cannot currently vote or promote change,
but when they become adults, they will either praise our
successes or pay for our failures.

You are now free to ask— what is this thing called biodiversity
and how does "it" affect me in Idaho? Biological diversity is
one topic where the concept is easy to define, but there will
continue to be a flurry of research, technology development,
computer modeling, and discussion before we have concise,
nonambiguous land management prescriptions that adequately
deal with the implications of the biodiversity concept.

The "concept" is defined as follows: BIODIVERSITY IS THE
VARIETY OF LIFE AND ITS PROCESSES. Therefore,
biodiversity refers to the conservation of the full variety of life,
from genetic variation within species to the "richness" of
ecosystems in the biosphere. The easiest segment of this
spectrum to understand is the "species" level where we can get
a reasonably good count of plant and animal species in an area
and use this information as a standard for management actions.
Species management is a start but is not the complete and
correct answer to the biodiversity question.

Aldo Leopold’s land ethic, which included "saving the pieces,"
offers many thoughts to contemplate. In my view, we need to
define the "pieces" as genetic diversity, community richness,
and ecosystem complexity, as well as the number of species.
It is also important to assess the risk of losing a "piece" and
prioritize our efforts on components with high risk (wetlands,
riparian values, endangered species, etc.).

Biodiversity is not an isolated cause dreamed up by some
radical environmentalists. Biodiversity has a lot of commonality

with the foundations in which Aldo Leopold based his land
ethic, in which the academic field of conservation biology is
based, and in which the concepts of ecosystem integrity and
long-term sustainability are built. In simpler terms, biodiversity
is the foundation for healthy ecosystems and therefore the
sustainability of natural resources and life as we would like to
know it. A sustainable society is one that satisfies its needs
without jeopardizing the prospects of future generations.

Why should we be concerned with the preservation of
biodiversity? Here are just three reasons— (1) for ethical and
esthetic reasons; (2) because humanity has already obtained
enormous direct economic benefits from biodiversity in the form
of food, medicine, and industrial products, and has the potential
for gaining much more; and (3) for necessity, as the array of
services provided by diverse functioning ecosystems are
essential to our survival. This last item is poorly understood
and inadequately evaluated; therefore, we are at great risk when
we continue to lose or simplify our diverse ecosystems.

Believe it or not, the greatest challenge for Idaho Native Plant
Society members is not how to preserve what Idaho has. A far
greater challenge is to change land management practices to
consider ecosystem-level management. This will require new
approaches in planning, monitoring, coordinating, and
administering. Yes, "saving the species" is still an important
first step. However, we need to develop and implement land
use strategies that provide an acceptable mix of commodity
production, amenity use, protection of environmental and
ecological values, biodiversity, and sustainability.

The direction of Idaho’s wildlands management, and therefore
conservation of biodiversity, can be changed if new ideas and
approaches are incorporated into management frameworks. To
succeed, we must be persistent in our demands. Perception
becomes reality, and currently "harbingers of change" will be
challenged with perceptions such as:

o Forest management must be done at the stand level,
because land managers cannot control a significant
number of the variables in a landscape setting,
o Planning and budgeting horizons are short term.
Therefore, time scales appropriate to ecosystem functions
cannot be addressed.

o Monitoring technology does not exist for judging
successes in conserving biological diversity. Without
targets we cannot hold our managers accountable,
o Not enough is known about the structure and functioning
of an ecosystem to formulate management practices.

We must all insist that "caring for the land" is based on what
is known, and not compromised by what is yet to be learned.
Promoting an adaptive management philosophy should be a way
of life. I don’t have "standardized" responses for the
above-listed factors that seem to limit the speed of change. My
recommendation is that you study the aspects of biodiversity and
be innovative and insistent in demanding changes.

In concept, think of biodiversity in terms of (1) genetic

April/May, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 2

diversity, (2) species sustainability/viability, (3) community
composition/function, and (4) landscape resiliency/integrity. In
practice, I suggest the following actions:

o Temper your demands based on ecological, economical,
and political potentials and realities. The concept of
sustainability is somewhere between preservation and
exploitation. Our challenge is to define this space and
progress toward a goal of sustainability,
o Think and act in terms of "new perspectives" that
promote integrated management plans and practice
adaptive management. With the concept of ecosystem
management, we should not expect changes to be
instantaneous. We can expect progress towards a desired
future condition.

o Consider the "context" as well as the "content" of the
area to be managed. What our "neighbors" are doing
with their land influences the options left open to Federal
land managers.

o Demand additional research and technology, but make
today’s decisions on what we have--Leopold’s land ethic,
principles of landscape ecology, species recovery plans,
wildlife habitat relationships models, seed ecology,
regeneration technology, and much more,
o Don’t plan on the luxury of following a totally logical
sequence of events. We must simultaneously operate
thinktanks to generate the questions, conduct research to
generate answers, and promote skunkworks to develop
prototypes. At times, this may confuse the issue, but
don’t let confusion deter needed actions,
o Serve as teachers and providers of knowledge,
o The time is NOW— put on your running shoes, radiate
enthusiasm, and try to stay ahead of the pack.

The public lands in Idaho hold the key to conserving
biodiversity. YOU have three points of
opportunity/responsibility to contribute to the management of
your public lands. First, work hard to develop information that
can be used in planning processes. Second, insist that the full
complement of appropriate knowledge is incorporated into
management plans. Third, demand that the concepts of best
management practices (BMP’s) and desired future conditions
(DFC’s) outlined in the plans are properly implemented.

My perception: Idaho has not yet entered into the arena of
massive extinction rates that are of great concern for some parts
of the planet. Your responsibility: assure that Idaho sets an
example that the entire nation can admire for a high standard of
ecosystem function and sustainability.

Good luck!

Don’t forget to pay your membership dues! Check your
lable.

The next issue of SageNotes will feature "great places" in
Idaho. Write about your favorite place to botanize.

Sedges Don't Always Have Edges and Other Stuff
About The Genus Carex.

-by Michael Mancuso, Conservation Data Center

Members of the genus Carex (sedge) are conspicuous in many
riparian communities, in some cases being the vegetational
dominant. No discussion of riparian wetlands would be complete
without at least a few words of homage about this interesting
and important group of plants.

Carex is a part of the Cyperaceae (sedge) family, which also
includes the genera Cyperus (flatsedge), Eleocharis (spikerush),
Eriophorum (cotton-grass), and Scirpus (bulrush), to name just
a few. Estimates of the number of Carex species varies from
around 1100 to nearly 2000, making it one of the largest genera
in the plant kingdom. Hermann (1974) estimated Carex to be
the largest genus in North America, with approximately 600
species. It takes Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973) 18 pages to
complete their key to the identification of all 134 sedge species
listed in their Flora of the Pacific Northwest! The sedges are
distributed worldwide and can occur in a wide array of habitats,
from tropical to high arctic areas, but they are most common in
the north temperate to arctic areas. Many, but by no means all
species, are restricted to wet or at least moist habitats.

All Carices are herbaceous perennials. Flowers are unisexual,
the plants mostly monoecious, but occasionally dioecious.
Individually, the flowers are typically inconspicuous. The
inflorescence, however, can be quite impressive, even attractive,
even if the group is often excluded or mentioned only in passing
in many wildflower books. A distinctive feature in Carex is the
closed perigynium, a highly modified bract which encloses the
pistillate flower. Features of the perigynium are important to
help distinguish and identify the many sedge species.

Besides reproducing by seed, sedges reproduce vegetatively by
rhizomes or occasionally some other means. Vegetative
reproduction can be extensive, with some species forming very
long-lived clones, or tufts, clumps, or tussocks of various size.
Most temperate and arctic species form shoots during the
previous year, some emerging in the fall, other species with
these shoots remaining underground until spring. Most
temperate species also develop flower initials during the fall. A
shoot will probably not flower the next summer if such
development does not occur the previous fall (Bernard 1990).

Sedges are typically thought of as grass-like plants, and
indeed, they are taxonomically closely related to grasses
(Poaceae). In fact, it can sometimes be difficult to tell if a
particular plant is a sedge or a grass, especially if only
vegetative material is available. The following field
characteristics are useful to differentiate between the two groups
when flowers are not present: 1) sedges have solid stems,
whereas grass stems are usually hollow; 2) sedge leaves are 3-
ranked, versus 2-ranked for the grasses; 3) the stems of sedges
are often angled ("sedges have edges", but remember - not
always), whereas grass stems are round in cross section.

Sedges are an important riparian component for many reasons.

6

April/May, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 2

jfc.

As part of the riparian vegetation they play a role in streambank
stabilization and other riparian dynamics, such as bank
morphology, sediment load and flood control. They are
important as wildlife habitat and forage, and from a general
biodiversity perspective as well.

Some of the more widespread and common wetland sedges in
Idaho include Carex aqucitilis (water sedge), C. interior (inland
sedge), C. lanuginosa (wooly sedge), C. lasiocarpa (slender
sedge), C. lenticularis, C. luzulina (woodrush sedge), C.
muricata (muricate sedge), C. nebrascensis (Nebraska sedge),
and C. rostrata (beaked sedge). Luckily, with a bit of practice,
most of these are pretty readily distinguishable sedges.

In Idaho, fourteen Carex species are currently recognized
worthy of conservation concern by the Idaho Native Plant
Society, either as State Priority 1, State Priority 2, State
Sensitive, or State Monitor species. An additional five sedges
are on the State Review list. Nearly all of these sedges are more
common elsewhere in their range, but to varying degrees are
rare in Idaho. Of special note is Carex aboriginum (Indian
Valley sedge), known from one historical population. This
species was collected by Marcus E. Jones in 1899, in what is
now Adams County, Idaho. Apparently, Indian Valley sedge has
never been collected or seen since Jones’ original collection.
This original population is now considered extinct due to
unknown causes (Moseley 1990). Indian Valley sedge is
considered possibly extinct, and is the only Idaho endemic
documented to have met this dubious fate.

Hopefully, you now have a little better appreciation for the
often conveniently overlooked sedges. So the next time you are
out and about in one of Idaho’s wetlands, look around, there is
a good chance you are stepping on a sedge.

To help identify sedges, the book How to Identify Grasses
and Grasslike Plants, by H.D. Harrington, is recommended.
It is published by Swallow Press, Chicago. Volume 1 of the
Vascular Plants of the Pacific Northwest, by Hitchcock, et al.
provides excellent descriptions and line drawings of the regions
sedges. Other publications with useful descriptions and line
drawings are: Manual of the Carices of the Rocky Mountains
and Colorado Basin, by F.J. Hermann (see literature cited); A
Field Guide to the Sedges of the Cariboo Forest Region,
British Columbia, available from the British Columbia Ministry
of Forests; and Riparian Dominance Types of Montana, by
Hansen, et al., and available from the School of Forestry,
University of Montana, Missoula, Montana (Misc. Publication
No. 49).

Literature Cited

Bernard, J.M. 1990. Life history and vegetative reproduction
in Carex. Canadian Journal of Botany 68:1441-1448.

Hermann, F.J. 1970. Manual of the Carices of the Rocky
Mountains and Colorado Basin. Agriculture Handbook No.
374. U.S. Dept, of Agriculture, Forest Service. 397 pp.

Hitchcock, C.L., and A. Cronquist. 1973. Flora of the
Pacific Northwest. University of Washington Press, Seattle.
730 pp.

Moseley, R.K. 1990. Report on the conservation status of
Carex aboriginum, in Idaho. Unpublished report on file at the
Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Conservation Data Center,
Boise, ID. 17 pp., plus appendices.

Good Stuff

WRITTEN MATERIAL

Dictionary of Gardening, the New Royal Horticultural Society.
This four volume set covers over 50,000 plants, including every
plant cultivated in North America, each with scientific and
popular names, description, native distribution, natural habitat,
line drawings, known cultivars and detailed cultivation notes.
The set also contains over 350 articles on various aspects of
gardening: soil husbandry, genetics, specialty gardens, and plant
families. The line drawings shown in the flyer are excellent,
and at 3,000 pages, it is likley to be a fairly complete reference.
Pricey. The four volumes are available for $725 from Stockton
Press; 257 Park Ave. South; 18th Floor; New York, NY
10010.

WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCES

Biodiversity and Climate Challenge will be held at Grand
Teton National Park, August 3-7. The workshop, designed
especially for those interested in environmental education, offers
graduate credit from the University of Wyoming. A major
emphasis will be given to field study, and to the development of
materials by teachers for use in their own teaching. Contact
Donn Kesselheim; Wyoming Outdoor Council; 201 Main St.;
Lander, WY 82520. *

The Greater Yellowstone Coalition will be holding their annual
conference May 29-30. Keynote speaker is Lorraine
Mintzmyer, former National Park Service Rocky Mountain
regional directer. Mintzmyer was moved from that position
after supporting the original "vision" planning document for the
greater Yellowstone area, which the natural values of the area
over its commodity values. Idaho state auditor J.D. Williams
will also speak on "Doing it Right in Greater Yellowstone".
Contact GYC, P.O. Box 1874, Bozeman, MT 59771.

COURSES

Malhuer Field Station. Dr. Karl Holte, INPS member, will be
teaching two courses at MFS. Students who take the course,
Hart Mountain Antelope Refuge Botanical Studies, June 14-
July 4, will learn to key plants in the field using hand lenses,
leam community sampling techniques, and compare grazed and
ungrazed communities using established exclosures. Students
will camp out at Hart Mountain Monday through Friday. The
course is available for 1-4 credits. Karl will instruct Riparian
Plants of Malheur Refuge, from July 5 to 1 1. The course will

April/May, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 2

emphasize field keying, with some use of dissecting scopes for
difficult grasses and sedges.

Botany of Steens Mountain (July 26-August 1), is taught by
another Idaho ootanist, Don Mansfield of College of Idaho.
The course will introduce students to the botany of Steens
Mountain. Advanced students will study the botanically
unexplored areas of Steens Mountain, while beginning students
will learn the more common plants while learning how to
identify plants through the use of keys.

Other MFS courses may also be of interest. Xeriscape Plant
Workshop, June 12-14, will provide hands-on instruction as
students plan and plant a drought resistent garden. Plant
Ecology Field Techniques, June 21-July 11, will explore the
relationships of vegetation distribution and physical
environment, disturbance regime and history. Students will
work with researchers on long term projects to learn sampling
techniques.

Additional courses in Environmental Photography, Field
Ethnohotany, Natural History of Southeastern Oregon,
Natural Science Illustration: Plants in Pen and Ink or
Watercolor, sound interesting. Call (503) 493-2629, or write
Malheur Field Station; HC 72 Box 260; Princeton, OR 97721,
for details.

National Audubon Society offers ecology courses in the Wind
River Mountains in Wyoming. University credit available for
the week long sessions. Sessions cost $650 per week, includes
meals. Contact Registrar; National Audubon Society; 613
Riversville Rd.; Greenwich, CT 06831.

SAGE NOTES is published bimonthly by the Idaho Native Plant Society,
incorporated since 1977 under the laws of the State of Idaho. Newsletter ads are
$2.00 for personal ads; Commercial advertisements: 1/8 page $5.00, 1/4 page
$8.00, 1/2 page $15.00, and full page $25.00. Newsletter ads should be camera
ready and accompanied by payment. Members and others are invited to submit
material for publication in Sage Notes. Articles in any form, even hand-written
(if legible!), are encouraged. Submissions on 5 1/4 or 3 1/2 inch floppy discs
for an IBM computer in WordPerfect, Multimate or ascii file format are
especially appreciated. Illustrations and even good quality photos may be
reduced and incorporated into the newsletter. Provide a phone number in case
the editors have questions on your materials. Send submissions directly to the
newsletter editor: Caryl Elzinga; P.O. Box 182; Carmen, Idaho 83462. Due
date for material for the next newsletter is 15 June 1992.

OFFICERS

State Officers, P.O. Box 9541, Boise, ID, 83707: President— Susan Bematas,
Vice President— Kathy Geier-Hayes, Secretary— Pam Brunsfeld, Treasurer— Pam
Conley. Big Wood Chapter, P.O. Box 4154, Ketchum, ID, 83340: President—
Kristin Fletcher, Vice President— Frances Naser, Secretary/Treasurer— Carol
Blackburn. Calypso Chapter, 911 Pine Avenue, Coeur d’Alene, ID, 83814:
President— Pam Gontz, Vice President— Tina Gospodnetich, Secretary— Bob
Shackelford, Treasurer— Jill Blake. Pahove Chapter, P.O. Box 9451, Boise, ID,
83707: President— Michael Mancuso, Vice President— Gale Green, Secretary—
Laura Bond, Treasurer— Sheri Lesch. Sah-Wah-Be Chapter, 603 Willard Ave,
Pocatello, ID, 83201: Treasurer— Harry Giesbrecht. Upper Valley Chapter,
President— Sylvia F. Reichel, Vice President— Jeanne Anderson, Secretary—
Rebecca Cheek, Treasurer— Allen J. Thiel, Jr. White Pine Chapter, P.O. Box
8481, Moscow, ID, 83843: President— Pam Brunsfeld, Vice President— Loring
Jones, Secretary /Treasurer— Mark Krueger. Newsletter Staff: Newsletter Editor-
-Caryl Elzinga, Technical Editor— Bob Steele, and Circulation Manager— Mering
Hurd.

The purpose of the Idaho Native Plant Society (INPS) is to promote interest
in native plants and to collect and disseminate information on all phases of the
botany of native plants in Idaho, including educating the public to the value of
the native flora and its habitats.

Membership is open to anyone interested in our native flora. Contributions
to our Society, are tax deductible. Send dues and all correspondence to
I.N.P.S., Box 9451, Boise, ID 83707.

Please include me as an Idaho Native Plant Society member.

Full Year Half Year
Jan-Dec 31 July 1-Dec 31

Sustaining $30 15

Individual $ 8 4

Household* $10 5

Student $ 6 3

Senior Citizen $ 6 3

Name: _

Address: _

City/State: _

Zip Code: _ Telephone: _

Chapter affiliation?

_ Pahove (Boise)

_ White Pine (Moscow)

_ Calypso (Coeur d’Alene)

_ Sah-wah-be (SE Idaho)

_ Upper Valley Chapter (Idaho Falls)

_ Wood River (Ketchum-Sun Valley)

(include $7 chapter dues)

_ None. Those who do not live near a chapter center are especially

encouraged to join. We can put you in touch with other members in your area,
and can coordinate with you on any state level activities you may with to be
involved in. New chapters may be forming in eastern and northern Idaho.

♦Household memberships are allocated two votes.

Idaho Native Plant Society
P.O. Box 9451
Boise, ID 83707

Non Profit Organization
U.S. Postage Paid
Boise, ID 83708

Permit No. 171

Don’t forget to pay your membership dues!

q .. LIBRARY

New York Botanical Gar.
Library

Bronx, NY 10458

JUN 1 5 1992

NEW YORK
botanical garden

8

June/July 1992 ** SAGE NOTES ** A Publication of the Idaho Native Plant Society ** Vol 15(3)

Endangered Species Act Funding
Reauthorization

(reprinted from The Native Plant Society of Oregon

® Bulletin ; Volume 25(6), June 1992 )

Every few years the Endangered Species Act (ESA)
must have its funding authority renewed by Congress.
This opens the door to amendments to the Act. In the
past this has resulted in a net benefit for endangered

® wildlife and plants. This time around more than one
attempt is being made to weaken the ESA.

Last summer a group of fourteen western Republican
congressmen submitted HR 3092, nicknamed the
"Human Protection Act", which would require "potential
economic benefits under the ESA outweigh potential

• economic costs". A group of anti-ESA lobbyists
reportedly is preparing a comprehensive revamping of
the Act to limit its power to protect endangered species.

On the other hand. Congressman Gerry Studds (D-MA),
chair of the Fish and Wildlife Subcommittee, has
introduced HR 4045, which embodies concerns of the

• environmental community. This would streamline the
listing of species, improve critical habitat designation,
strengthen enforcement of the act and insure adequate
funding for conservation work.

The Nature Conservancy has stated its view that the
"battle to halt destruction of habitat and consequent loss

• of species will be won or lost by the turn of the
century". The upcoming tough fight over the ESA is a
crucial part of this battle. You can help in this by writing
your representative to support the Studds Endangered
Species Act amendments (HR 4045) and oppose HR
3092 and other attempts to gut the ESA.

• Remember that most politicians as well as
governmental agencies do listen to public comments,
and in fact, agencies are often happy to get support in

carrying out their legally mandated responsibilities. Only
a small percent of citizens ever contact their
representatives or agencies (1-2%), so each voice heard
really represents 50 to 100 who never speak up. It is
possible to make a difference, as past efforts by
environmentalists have demonstrated. A few more
voices heard may help our vanishing species hold on into
the next century and longer.

Native Bees: the Other Native Plant Enthusiasts

-by Vince Tepedino and Susan Geer. Reprinted from
the newsletter of the Utah Native Plant Society, Sego
Lily, 15(2), 1992.

Eccentric humans roaming the hinterlands in scruffy
hiking boots, hand-lenses and plant presses at the ready
are not alone in their enthusiasm for native plants. Other
enthusiasts are about, bootless but winged, noisily
investigating flowers with organic "hand lenses" and
other sensory equipment. In place of plant presses they
carry built-in "pollen baskets' and "nectar buckets" into
which they pack their booty. These other enthusiasts
are our native bees, and they were active in the flower
trade long before men could point to flowers and give
them names. Indeed, if native plant societies are
composed of beings that foster plant abundance and
diversity, then charter membership belongs to bees.

These six-legged soul mates of UNPS'ers are members
of the Hymenoptera, the large insect order which also
includes wasps and ants. The bees are 3000+ species
strong nationwide, with more than 800 species in Utah
alone. Native species range in size from 2-3mm to about
20mm, and in color from drab brown or black through
red, yellow and orange, to bright metallic blue and green.
Some are slight in shape
while the robust
dimensions of others bring
burly football players to
mind.

Despite their wide range
in aspect, several
attributes render them
immediately recognizable: a Dolly Parton-like "wasp
waist" (albeit without exaggerated anterioventral
prominence); four wings, two more than flies, which also
visit flowers with great frequency; a sting (most
noticeable if you attempt to pat them on the back or
butt); and general hairiness - if bees were the size of
beavers they would be prized for their fur. They are
most easily confused with the stinging wasps, their
close, but much less hairy, and frequently less friendly,
relatives. Indeed, they are commonly (and erroneously)
blamed for the sting more freely given by wasps. But
unlike their more pugnaceous relatives, these strict
vegetarians are uninterested in meals of flesh and do not
sting offensively.

Most of our native bees share a number of other,
poorly appreciated characteristics. The term "poorly
appreciated" is apt because the impressions that most
people have of bee life are formed from the notoriety of
the ubiquitous honeybee which is neither native nor
typical. For example, unlike the honeybee, most bees
are not social: there is no hive, no honey, no workers, no
caste system. There are queens, in a manner of
speaking, but in contrast to the honeybee queen whose

wish is the worker's command, the solitary bee queen
reigns over a subjectless realm. They can expect no
help in foraging, or in nest construction and upkeep. No
kamikaze viragos take to the air in defense of the nest.
Nor is support forthcoming from the rakish consort of
the queen, who, free of quilt and the threat of a
garnished salary, supplies only a brief moment of passion
and then moves on to try to impassion others. In bees
(and most other Hymenoptera ) even this male
"contribution" can be dispensed with because females
that do not mate still produce male (but not female)
offspring.

These "queens" toil alone: they excavate, construct or
select a nest (apartment), supply the requisite
furnishings and food, and rear their several offspring in
separate rooms termed cells. Furnishings may be a lining
of leaves that cover the cell walls, or a coat of glandular
material applied by the female's mouthparts to
waterproof the cell. Food is nectar and pollen collected
during frequent foraging trips. Nectar is carried
internally in the crop, pollen is carried on hairy pollen
baskets on the hind legs or on the underside of the
abdomen. The female molds a provision loaf from the
food accumulated over several collecting trips, and lays
an egg upon it when it is of sufficient size to support the

maturation of a single
offspring. Immediately
after egg-laying, she seals
the cell with a wall of silk,
leaves or other material,
and starts another cell in
the same nest. Mother
and offspring never meet;
by the time baby's development is completed to the
adult stage, mom is long since dead.

Our solitary "queens" construct or select nests of three
broad types. Some species excavate tunnels in soil or
wood. In soil, side branches usually emanate from the
main tunnel and end in one or more cells, but the variety
of nest floor plans is endless. Hard bare ground like that
of infrequently used dirt roadways is preferred by some
excavators; others are enamored of ground in sparsely to
heavily vegetated areas. Characteristics such as soil
texture, temperature, slope and aspect may also be
important in determining whether a site is attractive.
The alkali bee (Nomia melanderi), a species sometimes
used for the commercial pollination of alfalfa, prefers
bare but moist alkali flats in which to nest. These bees
use the same site from year-to-year and huge
aggregations of independently nesting females may build
up. There is so much noise from the activity at such

Number of known species that are flowering
plants: 250,000

Millions of species that biologists believe inhabit
the Earth: 5-30

Millions of species with scientific names: 1 .4

2

June/July, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 3

sites that they are usually heard before they are seen.

A second type is comprised by those species that seek
out vacant holes (frequently made by beetles) in dead
twigs, branches or stumps. These species typically
produce linear unbranched nests in which one cell is
directly behind another. Two commonly used
commercial pollinators. Megachile rotundata, the alfalfa
leafcutting bee, and the blue orchard bee ( Osmia
ligrtaria), a pollinator of apples, use exiting holes. Such
beneficial species are easily persuaded to use artificial
nesting blocks in backyards or agricultural fields.

A final group of species are the mason bees. These
aptly named artisans construct hard heavy nests of mud.
In areas with moist clayey soil, they can be seen rolling
little balls of mud with their mandibles and feet and
tucking them up under their chin for transport back to
the nesting site. Nest may be attached to rock, twigs or
branches, or to the walls, eaves or roofs of houses.
They are sometimes a problem in rural areas of southern
Europe where accumulations of nest material over many
years may be heavy enough to collapse less sturdy
roofs.

Bees are enthusiasts of flowers for compelling reasons:
over the last 1 00 million or so years, their very existence
has come to depend almost exclusively upon the
nourishment offered by pollen and nectar. Not

BOTANICAL NAMES

-Margaret Williams. From the Northern Nevada
Native Plant Society Newsletter, 16(4), 1990.

The suffix cephala used with an adjective describes
the kind of heads a flower has:

megalocephala, macrocephala large heads
eriocepha/um wooly heads
microcephala, microcepha/um little head
sphaerocephalus round head
ochrocephalum yellow head
polycephalus many heads
chlorocephalus green heads
phaeocephala dark colored head

The suffix -philus means loving:

namophi/um spring loving
petriphilus rock loving
anemophilus wind loving
oreophilus mountain loving

unexpectedly then, they are admirably attuned,
morphologically, physiologically and behaviorly to
manipulating flowers. But the bees that have rapidly
expanded into these new. niches eons ago have not
remained simple exploiters. Instead, they have become
winged appendages of flowering plants. Indeed, it was
really the plants that started the whole business,
probably because attracting insects was an effective
way of trading gametes with another member of the
species, i.e. reproducing sexually. After all, plants can't
just retract their roots and boogie down to the nearest
gathering place for some radical socializing. To get their
genes next to some fresh (not to mention cute) genetic
material, they need a go-between, a matchmaker. If
flowering plants are the organic world's Miles
Standishes, then bees are the flowering plant's John
Alde/is. Remember that next time you want to swat
one.

Russian imports Include Devastating
Pest

From the Bulletin of the Native Plant Society of Oregon,
March, 1992, Volume 25(3).

With the end of the Cold War and the great
improvements in relations with the former Soviet empire,
it has been hoped that trade with Siberia would bring
economic benefits to our region. Our loggers are at a
cost disadvantage in competition with the Canadian and
Southern timber regions, and historically have survived
by offering higher quality old growth lumber at higher
prices. Attempts are being made to import Siberian old
growth to fill in at the mills. Many other goods are being
imported also.

Whenever two geographical areas are linked by trade,
the possibility exists for accidental introduction of
disease or insect problems. In the case of Siberian
trade, it is already to late to say "oops". Trappings
indicate that the Asian gypsy moth has arrived in
Oregon, Washington and British Columbia. At this time
it appears numbers are small. Though technically the
same species ( Lymantria dispar ) as the European race
already present in this country, there are some important
differences between the two races. The Asian race
feeds on an even wider range of plant species than the
European (which chooses from a list only 500 species
long), and it grows faster. They are more cold hardy and
could migrate farther north. A more threatening
difference is that the female Asian gypsy moth can
actually fly long distances before laying eggs. The
European version can only glide a short distance. Hence

3

June/July, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 3

an infestation by Asian moths can spread very rapidly
compared to one of the European strains. Russian
officials state that the egg laying flights in Siberia can be
so massive that the branches of birches are snapped off,
as if covered by ice.

Regulatory agencies in both the US and Canada are
looking into their options for control of this pest. The
USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service is
coordinating efforts with Washington, Oregon, Idaho and
California to pool resources and strategies in a regional
project team. A detection and eradication plan is to be
implemented by early spring. Estimates of economic
damages possible from the Asian gypsy moth, including
lost forests, start at 35 billion and go up from there.

Saving Endangered Plants While
Stopping Grasshoppers

-by Kurt W. Gutknecht, Editor of Utah Science,
Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University.
Reprinted from the March 1992 issue of Sego Lily,
15(2), a newsletter of the Utah Native Plant Society.

When grasshoppers pillage rangelands, the fate of the
dwarf bearclaw poppy and the silver pincushion cactus
might hang in the balance.

Insecticides used to control grasshoppers may be the
problem. The poppy, the cactus and dozens of other
plants in Utah such as toad-flax cress and Jones
cycladenia are on the brink of extinction. Insecticides
that decimate pollinators along with grasshoppers could
mean the irretrievable loss of these species.

Researchers are trying to determine which of these
threatened and endangered plants depend on insects for
pollination. If so, it may be necessary to protect them
when insecticides are applied to control grasshoppers,
perhaps by creating a "buffer zone" around known plant
populations.

The problem is that no one knows how many of these
species rely on pollination to reproduce, and, if they are
pollinated, how they are pollinated, says Vince Tepedino,
research entomologist with the Bee Biology and
Systematics Laboratory (Agricultural Research Service)
at USU. And it isn't easy to find out.

Simply getting to the plants can be difficult. Some
isolated populations are reached only by backpacking to
a remote site and camping there for several weeks.
Once there, researchers spend hours on end hunkering
over plants, mimicking natural pollination and snagging
and identifying every insect that visits the flowers.

Since 1 988, researchers have been scrutinizing about
20 of the 40 plant species in Nebraska, Colorado, Utah,

Arizona and New Mexico that are listed as threatened or
endangered. Many of these species are found on
federally owned land where insecticides are occasionally
applied to control severe grasshopper infestations. (In
Utah, where the Bureau of Land Management and the
Forest Service administer almost 60 percent of the land,
1 7 plant species are listed as threatened or endangered.)

Each species must be studied for 2 to 4 weeks to
determine the type of pollination involved (plants can be
self pollinated, cross pollinated or a combination of the
two methods) and, if cross pollinated, which insects or
other organisms are responsible.

It's painstaking, tedious work. Determining the type of
pollination involves four or five treatments, each of
which must be repeated 15 to 20 times, in which
flowers are caged to exclude pollinators and grains of
pollen are transferred by hand from the anthers to
stigmatic surfaces. Some plants have such tiny
reproductive parts that they must be pollinated under a
microscope, no mean feat while hunched over a small
plant in the middle of rangeland, forest or desert.

Plant may present nectar or pollen several times a day,
so the insect visitors that are lured to these plants must
also be sampled several times a day. "The only way to
be sure that all potential pollinators have been collected
is to sample when all insects are active, which is usually
from sunrise to sundown," Tepedino says. Night
collection may be required for a few night blooming
plants.

"Surprisingly, almost all of the 20 species that we have
studied so far are pollinated by insects or other
organisms such as hummingbirds,” Tepedino says. That
was unexpected because insect visitation is generally
considered to be density dependent; that is, the greater
the number of plants of a species, the more insects they
should attract.

Theoretically, as the number of these plants dwindled,
there should have been a decline in the number of
insects that pollinated these plants, thus creating
selection pressure for self-pollination. Plants might also
become less showy as their ability to attract insects
becomes less important.

"This doesn't seem to be happening," Tepedino says.
What will happen if fewer pollinators visit plants? No
one knows for certain, but it probably won't auger well
for the plants. The detrimental effects depend on
several factors, including the proportion of pollinators
removed, the effectiveness of pollination, the seed bank
in the soil, and the life span of a plant.

"We're not talking about a sudden elimination but a
gradual decrease in recruitment. Short-lived perennials
might hang on for decades, while long-lived perennials

4

June/July, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 3

might not be affected for hundreds of years. The
situation would be much more critical for annuals and
biennials, such as the few remaining clay phacelia found
near Spanish Fork," Tepedino says.

The study is part of a larger integrated pest
management project to find better and safer ways to
control grasshoppers. The project involves several
federal agencies and departments, and universities in
several states.

Phase II of Bulb Labeling Agreement

(By Nina Marshall. Reprinted from the Berry Botanic
Garden Newsletter; Volume 5(2); Spring, 1992)

Over the past decade concern has grown over the
plight of bulbs and wildflowers collected for sale on the
U.S. horticultural market. For years, gardeners have
been buying plants such as the pink ladyslipper, the
trillium, the winter daffodil (Sternbergia spp.) and the
snowdrop (Ga/anthus spp.), without giving a thought to
origin. Although many of these plants are thought to be
propagated, in fact a significant proportion are collected
from the wild. In some ares populations of wild plants
are decreasing substantially because of collection
pressures. Fortunately, awareness about wild plant
conservation issues has increased in recent years.
Progress has been made towards getting better
information about the sources of plants in trade;
gardeners are now better able to make informed choices
about the plants they want to purchase for their
gardens.

Much of the recent progress has been with the Dutch
bulb industry, which is the largest in the world. In
1990, TRAFFIC (USA), the Natural Resources Defense
Council, and the Fauna and Flora Preservation Society
worked with industry representatives to develop a
labeling system for bulbs in trade. Largely the result of
pressure from the conservation community, this labeling
agreement requires all Dutch bulbs to be labeled as to
source by the year 1995.

The agreement is being implemented in three phases.
The first phase which requires labeling of certain minor
bulb species has already been implemented. Phase two,
which requires labels for aM minor bulbs, will came into
affect July 1, 1992. Specifically, all minor bulbs
exported from The Netherlands will be labeled either
"Bulbs from wild source" or "Grown from cultivated
stock". In the final phase, which will be implemented in
1995, all Dutch bulbs, including hybrids and cultivars,
will bear labels indicating source.

The significance of this agreement is that the consumer
now has information about whether the plants are of

wild or propagated origin. For certain species which are
rare or threatened, or for which information is lacking,
this is a significant development that will allow the
consumer to play a role in the conservation of wild
plants. Consumers can send a message to vendors by
restricting purchases to propagated plants or wild plants
with a management plan.

It is important to note that this labeling agreement only
pertains to the Dutch bulb industry. Although the Dutch
dominate the world bulb industry, brokers from the U.S.
and other countries buy bulbs and repackage them.
Since these brokers are not a party to the labeling
agreement, they are not obligated to comply with the
labeling requirements. - Consequently there are still
numerous inconsistencies in the system that may
confuse the consumer. Dutch packages will bear labels,
but American packages containing the same species are
likely not to. For this reason it is up to the gardeners not
only to request source data from the vendor, but also to
encourage American brokers to adopt the labeling
system discussed above.

Percentage of all species (excluding plants)
larger than a bumblebee: 1

Boise's Historical and Rare Tree Program

By Harold Robinson, Nursery Specialist, City of
Boise/Urban Forestry Unit. Reprinted from Taproot,
March 1992.

Trees have a popular appeal to almost everyone,
especially those trees with historical, aesthetic or
unusual qualities. The history of the United States
abounds with references to trees.

The intent of Boise's Historical and Rare Tree Program
is to increase public awareness of Boise's great tree
resources, which will hopefully lead to a higher standard
of appreciation and protection of trees throughout the
city.

In August of 1987, the Urban Forestry Unit of the
Boise Park System initiated a historical, rare tree search
of Boise's trees. Boiseans were invited to nominate
trees based on historical significance, rare botanical
qualities or other unusual characteristics.

Since then, a total of 28 trees have been highlighted in
a brochure, developed by the Urban Forestry Unit. We
welcome any nominations of trees which you feel are
worthy of special recognition. Together, we can work
towards promoting the important role trees play in the
City of Trees.

i

5

June/July, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 3

Examples of some of the types of trees found in this
brochure are the Kentucky coffeetree { Gymnocladus
dioicus), located in Julia Davis Park, northwest of the
band shell. This tree was planted by W.E. Pierce in
1907. Pierce was Mayor of Boise from 1895-1897. It
is the largest coffeetree known in our state. The name
coffeetree originated from the efforts of early pioneers
who tried to make coffee from the heavy, bitter seeds.

Another entry is a cucumbertree ( Magnolia acuminata),
located in Capitol Park across from the state capitol.
This tree gets its name from the fleshy two to three inch
long fruit which resembles a cucumber.

Still another entry is a giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron
giganteum) located on the grounds of St. Luke's
Regional Medical Center. This particular tree was
brought from its native range in central California by Emil
Grandjean, Idaho's first Regional Forester. It was a gift
from Dr. Fred Pittender, a respected Boise physician.
The tree has since grown to a height of more than 1 1 0
feet. Unfortunately, cold
temperatures in the winter
of 1990-1991 severely
damaged this specimen
tree, which was already
under stress due to a poor
rooting environment. Its
survival is still in question.

If you would like a copy
of Boise's brochure or a
nomination form, you can
contact the Boise Park
System, located at 1104 Royal Boulevard., or call 384-
4240.

According to a survey of botanists, the number
of U.S. plant species that face "a real risk of
extinction” within 5 years: 253.

Number of plant and animal species known to
have become extinct on the North American
continent since the arrival of European colonists
at Plymouth Rock in 1620: at least 500.

Of the approximately 75,000 known edible plant
species, the number that people have used for
food: about 5000.

Annual value of medicinal drugs that contain
active ingredients derived from plants: $40
billion.

Percentage of tropical plants that have been
screened for potential medicinal drug use: < 1 %.

Portion of plant species that scientists believe
contain compounds with ingredients active
against cancer: 1 out of 10.

Cactus

-by Chris Davidson. Reprinted from the newsletter of
the Idaho Botanical Garden; Fall 1991.

Contained in the cactus family (Cactaceae) are more
than 2,000 species in 50 to 1 50 genera, depending on
how finely one draws the distinctions. This is really a
fascinating group of plants and has drawn a world-wide
network of collectors, especially in Germany and Japan.

I once had a large collection of my own, assembled
during field trips in California, Mexico and South
America. I had to leave it in California when I moved
back to Idaho because the climate here is too severe for
most cacti. However, we do have a few native species
and can coax some more from farther south to survive
in the Intermountain region.

We are particularly pleased to have some of these on
display in our cactus and succulent garden. Designed

and installed, by David
Ballard, this garden was
completed in the fall of
1 990. By spring of 1991,
we knew which ones were
really hardy and which
were not-- after the -25 °F
cold crunch, all but one of
the species David had
given to us lived. Joel
Tannenholtz gave us
several more valuable
specimens this spring.

Because Idaho has only four or five native species of
cacti, compared with the 1,000 or more found in
Mexico, we are cactus-poor. Those who have
experienced the cactus defence may rejoice at this — but
wait. They don't really mean to injure you. The spine,
we presume, are a strong deterrent to browsers and only
incidentally jump into the hands of zealous weeders (me)
and careless wanderers (everyone else).

Our IBG cactus garden contains some very interesting
natives. Pediocactus simpsonii, from Owyhee County,
is found as single or clumped plants rising just above the
ground surface. In the early spring, yellow flowers
about 3/4 of an inch in diameter appear. A common
name is "hedgehog cactus", but this could as easily
apply to Coryphantha. We have two forms of
Coryphantha vivipara: one has pink to reddish flowers,
the other has yellowish-tinged flowers. The latter is
sometimes separated as C. missouriensis.

Of the Opuntias or prickly pears, we have only two
natives: O. po/ycantha and O. frag His, both represented
in the garden. The flowers are large and showy, but the

6

June/July, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 3

spininess is intimidating. I have seen hillsides covered
with large clumps of the former species near Imnaha,
Oregon, towards Hells Canyon. It must pull this kind of
stunt in Idaho too, although when I floated the Lower
Salmon and Snake rivers two years ago, I did not see
any.

Once you get used to the idea of succulence, i.e. the
fleshy water storage appearance of most catcti, it is
irritating to learn that there are tropical and subtropical
cacti with normal woody stems and typical broad green
leaves, just like any other non-cactus. These {Pereskia,
Pereskiopsis, Maihuenia ) are indeed very spiney and have
typical cactus flowers, but they are typically shrubby
and not at all succulent. We assume for the time being
that they are vestiges of the ancestral cacti from which
the vast array of fat and spiny catus creatures have
arisen.

There are also many tropical epiphytic cacti, typically
succulent but not especially spiny, festooning tree
branches throughout the moist and wet tropical forests
of the New World. The habitat of the epiphyte, often
high in the forest canopy, can be estremely hot and dry,
thus the succulent habit of the cactus is well positioned
for an invasion of this realm. Another interesting
epiphytic cactus that is often available from greens
dealers is Rhipsa/is. Its slender stems, not much thicker
than spaghetti in R. capilliformis, are gracefully pendant
from their host branch and remind one more of a
fountain than a cactus.

We can make a perfectly plausible argument that the
cacti are the most interesting of all the flowering plants.
That's really saying something because some other
groups do have their champions. So I avoid this
assertion and simply claim that the cacti are terrifically
interesting and that they are oriented toward water
conservation.

(Editor's Note: collecting of cacti from the wild is of
concern to conservationists. Some species are
threatened by collectors, and some local populations
have been brought to extinction by overcollecting.
Exercise care whenever you collect plants from the wild J

Favorite Places: North Fork of Hyndman Creek

-by Kristen Fletcher, Wood River Chapter

My favorite place to explore is the North Fork of
Hyndman Creek in the Pioneer Mountains. It's a
delightful, undulating moderate walk that offers a wide
variety of environments to enjoy. The path follows a
creek about 3 miles to a glaciated granite basin. On the
way, it passes through old aspen groves with Basque
arborglyphs from the turn of the century and through

sagebrush meadows with volcanic buttes dotting the
skyline which provides homes for a variety of raptors.
Little springlets gurgle down the hills making soggy
places for water-loving plants. Avalanche chutes are
common, and bring down interesting debris for
inspection. Heathers can be found on the dry hillsides
under spruce. A little higher the limber pines begin and
the views into the heart of the nearby Pioneers are
breathtaking.

A connecting loop can be made by going up the steep
switchbacks near the end of the canyon to Pioneer Cabin
(maintained by the Forest Service), down into Corral
Creek and on into Trail Creek, if a car has been left at
this end. Another loop for compass and cross-country
enthusiasts can be made by going through the basin and
connecting to Hyndman Creek for the last decent to the
parking area.

Learn the Gender of Your Genera

- by Dr. Ken Chambers, Corvallis Chapter of the Oregon
Native Plant Society. Reprinted from the newsletter of
the Washington Native Plant Society, Douglasia, Spring
1992.

The generic names of plants are derived from classical
Greek and Latin, and in those languages there are three
genders — feminine, masculine and neuter. Nouns are
the names of things; in Greek and Latin, every "thing"
must be a "she," a "he," or an "it". To the ancient
Romans, for example, each tree was a feminine "she"
[arbor), each shrub a masculine "he” ( frutex ), and each
stone a neuter "it” ( saxum ). Modern languages that are
derived from or related to Greek or Latin usually retain
masculine and feminine gender for a great many nouns
which, in English, have become neuter. In German, for
example, every plant has a feminine root { die wurtzel),
masculine stem [der stamm), and neuter leaf [das b/att).
French treats the stem as masculine [le tronc ) and the
root and leaf as feminine [la racine, la feuille).

Memorizing the genders of nouns is, to me, one of the

Number of taxa and distinct populations in U.S.
on the official endangered and threatened list as
of December 1,1991:617 .

At current rate, the number of years it would
take to officially list all U.S. species presently
considered to be in danger of extinction: 50
years.

7

June/July, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 3

hardest chores when learning a foreign language. In
English, we have done away with most of the gender¬
labeling of nouns, and nearly every object that is not
evidently a male or female animal is considered to be of
neuter gender (and hence an "it" -- the root, the stem,
the leaf). Of course, a cow is still "she" and a bull "he,"
and sailors may affectionately refer to their ship as
"she." Remember too that Jerome Kern wrote a song
about "Old Man River, he just keeps rollin' along."

Because English has only the vestiges of gender-
specific nouns, we may not realize how important
gender is to the scientific naming of plants. Every plant
has a two-word Latin name consisting of a "generic
name" and a "specific epithet." As in the Latin language
itself, each genus name has a particular gender, either
feminine, masculine or neuter. When you learned the
name Rhododendron
macrophyllum for the
common rhododendron,
you may not realize that
the final two letters of the
species epithet, -um, are a
clue to the gender of the
generic name. The word
macrophyllum is an
adjective meaning "large
leaved" in Latin, and the -
um ending is a neuter
suffix in the nominative
case; therefore.

Rhododendron must be a
noun of neuter gender.

The grammatical rule being
followed here says that an adjective must agree in
gender with the noun it modifies.

For species epithets that are adjectives, the most
commonly seen suffixes are the feminine -a, the
masculine -us, and the neuter -um. Also quite common
is the suffix -is, indicating either feminine or masculine,
versus -e indicating neuter. Generic names of trees offer
good examples of the feminine gender; with few
exceptions {e.g., Acer, neuter gender), all genera of
trees a^e feminine, even if their names end with the
seemingly masculine suffix -us. Note the feminine
endings on the specific epithets of Pacific yew, Taxus
brevifo/ia, red alder, A/nus rubra, and western larch,
Larix occidentalis. Generic names of shrubs and herbs,
however, can be masculine, feminine or neuter; no easy
rules allow you to tell which is correct in a given case.

I might as well admit that my interest in this "problem"
was stimulated by the discovery that I have consistently
been using the wrong gender for two common plant

genera in Oregon -- devil's club (Oplopanax) and
woodland star ( Lithophragma ). For both genera, the
spelling of the specific epithets is incorrect in nearly all
the floras and reference books for Oregon! Oplopanax,
which the "books" say has a neuter gender, is actually
masculine; hence the plant's name must be spelled
Oplopanax horridus (not " horrid um”). Lithophragma has
almost universally been considered to be feminine
(standard references use feminine species epithets like
"parvif/ora, ” " tene/la ” affinis ”, etc.), but it is actually
a neuter name. This means that we must change the
spellings of all its epithets to a neuter form. A complete
list of Lithophragma species in Oregon therefore
becomes: L. affine, L. bulbiferum, L. campanu/atum, L.
g/abrum, L. parvif/orum, L. tennellum. In 1963, the
monographer of this genus, R.L. Taylor, pointed out that

because of the Greek
stem-word phragma
(meaning fence or wall;
compare "diaphragm") has
neuter gender, the generic
name Lithophragma (a
compound word meaning
"stone wall") must also be
neuter, not feminine. The
error goes back to 1840,
when John Torrey and Asa
Gray first published the
genus name and assigned
feminine gender to it.
Their usage went against
the classical (i.e., ancient
Greek) gender of the word,
and therefore it must now be corrected. Dr. Taylor's
discovery has unfortunately been overlooked in botanical
works published since 1 963.

A useful review of guidelines for assigning gender to
generic names was published recently by Bruno Manara
(Taxon 40:301-308, 1991). He echoed the advice given
in the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
(1988, Article 76), that "a generic name retains the
gender assigned by its author, unless this is contrary to
botanical tradition." The "unless" is a very big
exception, however, because "botanical tradition" is
considered to extend back to the writings of the ancient
Greeks and Romans! This is why Lithophragma, a
compound name containing the Greek neuter stem-word
phragma, cannot be feminine in gender as was
previously thought.

Readers should be aware that not all specific epithets
are adjectives agreeing in gender with the generic name.
Some epithets based on personal names ( Dodecatheon

Dispersal

Most conifer seeds are winged and are dispersed by
the wind. Limber pine and white bark pine are not
winged, but depend on stellar and pinyon jays and,
most commonly, the darks nutcracker.

The trees bear their cones turned up, with the tip of
the cone easily accessible. The nutcracker carries
seed up to several miles in a special pouch below its
bill and buries them one to several at a time with its
bill. The winter food supply for a single bird may
consist of over 30,000 seeds. The seeds that the
bird fails to recover may grow into new trees.

8

June/July, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 3

hendersonii, Penstemon barrettiae ) have a suffix such as
-i or -ae indicating possession (genitive case),
irrespective of the gender of the genus. Other species
epithets are nouns rather than adjectives and are called
"substantive epithet". For these, the gender of the
epithet is independent of the generic name. Examples in
the Oregon flora include Berberis aquifolium (the epithet
is an old out-of-use generic name, not an adjective;
Arctostaphylos uva-usi (same origin as above); and
Sida/cea hirtipes (the epithet is a noun meaning "hairy
foot").

As an exercise in identifying genders, here are three
examples of Oregon plant genera, with samples of
specific epithets and their translations:

Amsinckia intermedia ("intermediate;" the -a ending
shows that the genus name has feminine gender)
Amsinckia menziesii ("of menzies;" the -i ending is the
genitive [possessive] case in Latin and is masculine
because Dr. Archibald Menzies was himself of male
gender)

Amsinckia lycopsoides ("resembling Lycopsis", a genus
of Boraginaceae; the -oides ending shows that the
epithet is a substantive which need not agree in gender
with a genus)

Mimulus guttatus ("spotted;" the -us ending shows that
the genus name has masculine gender)

Mimulus washingtonensis ("from the state of
Washington"; the -ensis ending is masculine)
Delphinium trollifolium ("with leaves of Trollius," a
genus of Ranunculaceae; the -um ending shows that the
genus name has neuter gender)

Delphinium viridescens ("becoming green;" the -ens
ending marks tlie epithet as a participle [a verb form],
spelled the same regardless of gender)

Delphinium occidentale ("western;" the -e ending is
neuter).

Due date for the next newsletter is September 15.
The issue focus will be those less familiar "plants":
mosses, fungi and lichens. Summaries of summer
activities and field trips are encouraged. Early
submissions will help get the newsletter back on
schedule. Submission deadlines for the next three
issues are as follows:

Issue Submission Date Subject

Aug/Sept 1 5 September Mosses, Fungi, Lichens

Oct/Nov 20 October Agency Programs

Nov/Dec 20 November suggestions??

Field Trip Highlights: Saw-wah-be Chapter
-by Dave Burrup

Seven members of the Sah-wah-be chapter met at
Riverside Campground on June 1 9 to look at the flora
and fauna of Sawtell Peak. Sawtell Peak, south of
Henry's Lake and west of Yellowstone National Park,
rises to 9866 feet. The lower slopes are covered with a
logged and unlogged lodge pole pine (Pinus contorts)
community. Major components are common juniper
( Juniperus communis) , common snowberry
( Symphoricarpos a/bus), ballhead sandwort [Aren aria
congesta ), sticky geranium [Geranium viscosissimum),
valley cinquefoil [Potentilla arguta), silvery lupine
[Lupinus argenteus) , fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium),
Penstemon sp., elk sedge (Carex geyeri), pinegrass
( Calamagrostis rubescens), and Idaho fescue ( Festuca
idahoensis). Drier mid-slopes are covered with Douglas
fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii ) communities with
understories of russet buffalo berry [Sheperdia
canadensis ), snowbrush [Ceanothus ve/utinus), birchleaf
spiraea [Spiraea betulifo/ia) , grouse huckleberry
[Vaccinium scoparium) , sweetroot [Osmorhiza sp.), silver
lupine [Lupinus argenteus), Penstemon sp., heartleaf
arnica [Arnica cordifo/ia), elk sedge [Carex geyeri), and
pinegrass [Calamagrostis rubescens) . Cooler wetter sites
have subalpine fir [Abies lasiocarpa), Englemann spruce
(Picea engelmanii), red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa),
snowberry [Symphoricarpos sp.), stickseed (Hackelia
micrantha), slim larkspur [Delphinium depauperatum ),
valerian [Valeriana dioeca), bracted lousewort
(Pedicularis bracteosa), cinquefoil [Potentilla sp.),
Penstemon sp., sickletop lousewort [Pedicularis
racemosa), and sheep fescue [Festuca ovina). Near the
tree line the forest community changes to whitebark pine
[Pinus albicaulis), alpine prickly currant [Ribes
montigenum) , sickletop lousewort [Pedicularis
racemosa), dogtoothed violet [Erythronium grandif/orum) ,
spring beauty [Claytonia lanceo/ata), and sheep fescue
(Festuca ovina). The summit of the mountain, nearly
devoid of woody species, is composed of flowery phlox
(Phlox multiflora), groundsel (Senecio dimorphophylus),
moss campion [Silene acaulis), varileaf cinquefoil
(Potentilla diversifolia) , alpine smelowskia (Sme/owskia
calycina), alpine dusky maiden (Chaenactis alpma),
Wyoming kittentails (Besseya wyomingensis), silky
phacelia (Phacelia sericia), Parrys townsendia
(Townsendia parryi), Erigeron sp., and diamondleaf
saxifrage (Saxifraga rhomboidia).

We also saw deer, elk, moose, and 81 species of birds,
the highlight being red-necked greebes on Silver Lake
and great grey owls at Ponds Lodge.

9

June/July, 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 3

SAGE NOTES is published bimonthly by the Idaho Native Plant Society,
incorporated since 1977 under the laws of the State of Idaho. Newsletter ads are
$2.00 for personal ads; Commercial advertisements: 1/8 page $5.00, 1/4 page
$8.00, 1/2 page $15.00, and full page $25.00. Newsletter ads should be camera
ready and accompanied by payment. Members and others are invited to submit
material for publication in Sage Notes. Articles in any form, even hand-written
(if legible!), are encouraged. Submissions on 5 1/4 or 3 1/2 inch floppy discs
for an IBM computer in WordPerfect, Multimate or ascii file format are
especially appreciated. Illustrations and even good quality photos may be
reduced and incorporated into the newsletter. Computer disks, photos and
illustrations will not be returned unless specifically requested. Provide a phone
number in case the editors have questions on your materials. Send submissions
directly to the newsletter editor: Caryl Elzinga; P.O. Box 182; Carmen, Idaho
83462. Due date for material for the next newsletter is 15 September 1992.

OFFICERS

State Officers, P.O. Box 9541, Boise, ID, 83707: President— Susan Bematas,
Vice President-Kathy Geier-Hayes, Secretary-Pam Brunsfeld, Treasurer-Pam
Conley. Big Wood Chapter, P.O. Box 4154, Ketchum, ID, 83340: President-
Kristin Fletcher, Vice President— Frances Naser, Secretary/Treasurer— Carol
Blackburn. Calypso Chapter, 911 Pine Avenue, Coeur d’Alene, ID, 83814:
President— ftm Gontz, Vice President— Tina Gospodnetich, Secretary— Bob
Shackelford, Treasurer-Jill Blake. Pahove Chapter, P.O. Box 945 1 , Boise, ID,
83707: President— Michael Mancuso, Vice President— Gale Green, Secretary—
Laura Bond, Treasurer-Rim Conley. Sah-Wah-Be Chapter, 603 Willard Ave,
Pocatello, ID, 83201: Treasurer— Harry Giesbrecht. Upper Valley Chapter,
President— Sylvia F. Reichel, Vice President— Jeanne Anderson, Secretary—
Rebecca Cheek, Treasurer-Alien J. Thiel, Jr. White Pine Chapter, P.O. Box
8481, Moscow, ID, 83843: President— Rim Brunsfeld, Vice President— Loring
Jones, Secretary /Treasurer— Mark Krueger. Newsletter Staff: Newsletter Editor-
-Caryl Elzinga, Technical Editor— Bob Steele, and Circulation Manager— Am
Conley.

Idaho Native Plant Society
P.O. Box 9451
Boise, ID 83707

The purpose of the Idaho Native Plant Society (INPS) is to promote interest
in native plants and to collect and disseminate information on all phases of the
botany of native plants in Idaho, including educating the public to the value of
the native flora and its habitats.

Membership is open to anyone interested in our native flora. Contributions
to our Society, are tax deductible. Send dues and all correspondence to
I.N.P.S., Box 9451, Boise, ID 83707.

Please include me as an Idaho Native Plant Society member.

Full Year Half Year
Jan-Dec 31 July 1-Dec 31

Sustaining $30 15

Individual $ 8 4

Household* $10 5

Student $ 6 3

Senior Citizen $ 6 3

Name: _

Address: _

City /State : _

Zip Code: _ Telephone: _ Renew? _ New?

Chapter affiliation?

_ Pahove (Boise)

_ White Pine (Moscow)

_ Calypso (Coeur d’Alene) Include $6 chapter dues

_ Sah-wah-be (SE Idaho)

_ Upper Valley Chapter (Idaho Falls)

_ Wood River (Ketchum-Sun Valley) Include $7 chapter dues

_ None. Those who do not live near a chapter center are especially

encouraged to join. We can put you in touch with other members in your area,
and can coordinate with you on any state level activities you may with to be
involved in. New chapters may be forming in eastern and northern Idaho.
'Household memberships are allocated two votes.

Non Profit Organization
U.S. Postage Paid
Boise, ID 83708
Permit No. 171

Don’t forget to pay your membership dues!

G —

New York Botanical Gar.
Library

Bronx, NY 10458

library

SEP 14 rag?

10

Sept/Oct 1992 * SAGENOTES * A Publication of the Idaho Native Plant Society * Vol 15(4)

* Chapter News

PAHOVE

During the weekend of September 19 and 20, the Pahove
Chapter had a booth at the Hyde Park Street Fair in Boise. We
had a native plant seed display and also gave away several
® hundred native seed packets. Some people could not believe
how small individual sagebrush or sand dropseed seeds are, and
children enjoyed comparing and feeling the various seeds
between their fingers. We also gave away lots of information
on xeriscaping, rare plants in the Boise foothills, and
membership brochures for the Society. The public’s response
ft at the street fair was positive, with landscaping and gardening
with native plants probably generating the greatest interest.

Thanks to Pam Conley, Nancy Cole, Walter Hankins, Helen
May, Agnes Miller, Paul Shaffer, Helen Ulmschneider and
Linda Williams for their volunteer efforts to make the weekend
a success. Special thanks to Ann DeBolt and Roger Rosentreter
ft for donating the seeds.

October 15. Susan Borchers, plant ecologist for the Payette
National Forest, presented "Flora and Ecosystems of Prince
William Sound, Alaska".

November 19. Dr. Tim Smith, new botany professor at BSU
ft will present a gentle initiation into the field of plant systematics.
Take advantage of this introduction to a sometimes bewildering
field, and meet the new botanist in town. BSU Science
Building, Room 218, 7:30p.

SAH-WAH-BE

Q The Sah-Wah-Be chapter visited the Idaho Nature
Conservancy’s Silver Creek Preserve west of Picabo. Ruth
Moorhead, interim president, led the day’s activities for 16
members and guests from Pocatello, Blackfoot, Inkom and
Denver.

They observed an intensive stream habitat restoration effort
£ and the completion of the preserve’s first year of water quality
monitoring. A half-mile long self-guided nature trail has been
developed, beginning and ending at the visitor’s center.

A trail guide for the nature trail explains seven stops that

include information on the area’s geology, hydrology, vegetation
(upland and riparian/wetland), native species, fisheries and
water quality.

Members discovered numerous dried pale Solomon’s seal with
their dark berries. Fruits of other species were also observed.
Highlights included blooming individuals of gentian, scarlet
gilia, aster and evening primrose. There was a variety of
aquatic plants seen.

Silver Creek Preserve is one of the last remaining examples of
a high desert cold-spring ecosystem. The hundreds of springs
that form Silver Creek emanate from huge underground
aquifers. The chapter hiked to the headwaters to watch the
springs bubble up and see the fish in the clear water.

-Lois Bates

BLM Joins Center for Plant Conservation
to Protect Rare Plants

-by Leslie Robinette

To safeguard against the extinction of plants native to the
Northwest, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management has joined
efforts to sponsor rare plant species through the national Center
for Plant Conservation (CPC). The Center maintains a
comprehensive program of plant conservation, research, and
education through cooperating regional centers.

In a June 9 ceremony, the Center presented BLM with a pair
of original watercolors in recognition of the Vale District’s
sponsorship of two endangered eastern Oregon plant species.

Don Falk, Director for the Center for Plant Conservation,
presented the paintings to BLM’s Oregon/Washington State
Director D. Dean Bibles, and to Vale’s Associate District
Manager Geoffrey Middaugh and district botanist Jean Findley.

The event took place in Portland at the Berry Botanic Garden,
responsible for CPC’s regional seed bank. The seed bank now
contains more than 200 species, subspecies, and varieties of the
region’s rarest plants.

The efforts of dedicated botanists like Jean set a good example
for other districts and other agencies to get involved in
protecting and preserving rare plants throughout the region, said

1

Sept/Oct 1992

Volume 15 Number 4

SAGE NOTES

Bibles. Only by ensuring their survival can we maintain the full
variety within native ecosystems.

The watercolors, created by botanical artist Bobbi Angell,
depict smooth blazing star and Biddle’s lupine, both species
sponsored by BLM. The agency is also a sponsor of Mulford’s
milk -vetch and Malheur wire-lettuce.

These paintings take the plants out of the background and
focus on their beauty and uniqueness, said Dr. Linda McMahon,
Executive Director of the Berry Botanic Garden.

Smooth blazing star, a small annual with yellow flowers,
grows only on fragile ash outcrops in the desert of southeastern
Oregon, northern Nevada and southwestern Idaho. The plant
was petitioned as a threatened species in 1991 because of its
extreme rarity, its narrow range and specific habitat, and its
vulnerability to disturbance.

Biddle’s lupine, which grows primarily on the border of
Malheur and Harney counties, is a perennial lupine with light
yellow flowers that bloom in early spring. The species,
vulnerable to both rodents and human activities, grows only in
Oregon.

BLM’s Vale District became a sponsor of the rare plants in
1990 by contributing $5,000 per plant, an amount matched by
the Mellon Foundation. Sponsorship contributions are used to
maintain permanent seed banks kept at sub zero temperatures,
as well as a living collection of endangered flora under
protective cultivation. This strategy will prevent the total
extinction of rare species and provide plants for reintroduction
or studies as necessary.

The willingness of the BLM and others to sponsor rare plants
provides continuing opportunities for scientists and
biotechnicians to study them, explained McMahon. From the
core collection, plants can be propagated for research that the
wild populations are too fragile to endure. Conservationists
managing these species in the wild can learn from horticultural
experiments how to strengthen and increase those populations,
helping them persist.

An Introduction to The "Weird" Plants

- by Caryl Elzinga, PhD.

Lichens, mosses, fungi, algae. This issue of SageNotes
contains articles on some of these unfamiliar groups. Many
folks who love botany are also interested in these organisms.
What are they anyway? Are they plants?

Actually all have been or are plants, that is, classified with the
more typical green vascular plants in the kingdom Plantae.

Fungi have been, and are still by some authors, considered
plants but because there are some fundamental differences most
taxonomists place fungi in a separate kingdom. First, fungi lack
photosynthetic capabilities, although there are plants that are
saprophytic also, relying on dead material for carbohydrates.
Second, the cell walls of fungi are composed primarily of chitin
(also found in the shells of arthropods— spiders, insects, ticks.

crayfish, lobsters), differing from the cellulose walls of plants.
Last, fungi are not multicellular like plants and animals. The
cell walls, if present at all, tend to be incomplete and the cell
liquids thus tend to be continuous.

Fungi reproduce by spores, which are single cells containing
one set of chromosomes, a condition termed "haploid" (most
cells in your body and in plants contain two sets ["diploid"],
except for eggs and sperm). These single cells can multiply and
grow and spread through the soil or through dead material,
forming hairlike "mycelia". When two mating types of mycelia
meet, they can form fruiting bodies — the visible mushroom —
containing diploid cells. These divide into haploid spores,
which you see as the powder released from mature mushrooms.

Species of fungi come in a diversity of forms, many of which
are not easily seen. The most familiar are the mushrooms
bought at the supermarket, but a variety of shapes and colors
occur in the wild.

Algae are usually classified as plants, since they are
photosynthetic. Algae can be unicellular or multicellular, thus
some authors classify the unicellular algae as part of the
kingdom Protista, along with unicellular animals. Multicellular
algae are often differentiated into structures that serve similar
functions to roots, leaves and stems. Seaweeds, for example,
are multicellular algae with holdfasts to attach to a surface,
flattened structures that look like leaves, and gas bladders that
function as floats. Most have no structures, however, that are
similar to the internal transportation system of vascular plants.
Movement of nutrients, water, oxygen, and metabolic wastes is
dependent on cell to cell movement, although some algae have
tissue similar to the phloem (sugar highway) of vascular plants.

Mosses, or bryophytes (which includes homworts and
liverworts) are universally considered plants. They live on
land, but lack the vascular system of the more familiar land
plants.

Lichens look like plants, since they are often green. In
reality, lichens are the happy union of two kingdoms, Plants and
Fungi. Lichens are usually comprised of an algae and a fungus,
or sometimes a photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria) and a
fungus.

Many of the differences between vascular plants, algae,
mosses and lichens can be understood in terms of adaptations to
their habitat. Algae and mosses both require moist to aquatic
habitats. To live in a terrestrial world, plants need to be able
to move water from the moist part of their environments (soil)
to the dry aerial parts. Xylem performs that function. Algae
and mosses lack xylem. Thus they must live in water, like the
large seaweed, or be small enough that transportion is relatively
easy, like mosses. Moving photosynthetic products from the top
(leaves) down (roots) also requires a highway system in vascular
plants (phloem). Multicellular algae solve this problem by
being all green— most of their biomass is photosynthetic.
Terrestrial plants also must have some means of support since
they are no longer supported by water. That means specialized

2

Sept/Oct 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 4

tissue and structures to hold the plant up. Algae depend on the
water for support, mosses remain small enough to avoid the
problem.

The main problem, however, that land plants need to
overcome is to carry out reproduction without water through
which a flagellated sperm can swim, and to protect the early
embryo from dessication. As
you might guess the sex life
and the life cycle of vascular
plants differ radically from
that of mosses and algae.

The life cycle of most
multicellular algae follows this
sequence: The plants develop spores which are haploid (half the
number of regular chromosomes). These "plants" are one-
celled and have a flagella, a little tail, that enables them to swim
happily about for awhile until they settle down and grow into a
visable "plant", sometimes larger than the original diploid plant,
but usually smaller. Some cells in this haploid plant will
specialize to form gametes (eggs and sperm are gametes, but in
algae there is no real male or female). Gametes from different
plants can fuse in fertilization
and form a single-celled,
flagellated embryonic "plant".

Again the plant can swim
around until it eventually
settles down and grows into a
more plantlike multicellular
diploid plant, which can form
haploid spores.

Mosses still need to swim for sex, but they have developed
some special structures to help. The life cycle is easiest to
explain starting with the haploid plant. This is the leafy green
part that is most familiar, but remember, this structure has only
half the chromosomes. This plant developes two types of
reproductive structures. Some will form flagellated gametes,
others non-motile gametes. If there is a film of moisture on the
"leaves" of the plant, such as from heavy dew, the flagellated
gametes swim to the specialized structures containing the non-
motile ones, and a happy union occurs. This now diploid cell
will grow into the diploid plant that is attached to, and slightly
parasitic on, the haploid plant below. These are the little brown
stalks with caps that you see on the top of leafy green moss.
These diploid plants produce haploid spores, just like algae.
Instead of swimming around, however, these spores are encased
in a specialized wall that resists drying out.

In most familiar land plants, the haploid generation never
forms a distinct "plant". The pollen grain can be considered the
male haploid generation, the eggs and parts of what will become
the seed can be considered the female haploid generation.
Instead of the male gamete swimming to the egg, a pollen grain
that lands on a stigma will sprout a pollen tube that grows down
to the egg in the ovary, where fertilization takes place. None

of this swimming freely about stuff. Seeds are packages that
encase the embryonic diploid plant.

The algae living in lichen have developed an alternative
approach to dealing with life on land. Structurally, the lichen
consists of algal cells that are surrounded, or sometimes even
infiltrated by filaments of fungi. Both partners can grow alone,

although their partnership
allows both to live where they
otherwise could not.

Lichens can inhabit some of
the harshes environments on
earth, places a moisture loving
alga could never dream of
occupying on its own. The common arctic reindeer moss, for
example, is no moss at all, but is the lichen Cladonia. The
associated fungi provides a suitably moist environment for the
algae. Conversely, the fungi derives the benefits of a food
source from the photosynthetic activity of the algae.

Lichens reproduce through fragmentation of the body, or by
the production of specialized structures called soredia. These
generally consist of a few algal cells surrounded by fungal

hyphae. They are sometimes
light enough to float in the air,
thus dispersing long distances.

Lichens demonstrate a range
of diversity in color and form.
Hair lichens are long and
stringy. Crustose lichens
form colorful plaques on
rocks. Some rangeland lichens look like mint green cauliflower
florets.

Lichens, algae, mosses, fungi are different, but fascinating
"plants". Hopefully articles in this issue, and perhaps in issues
to come, will spur you to learn about organisms that all have at
one time been considered the domain of botanists.

The Role of Microbiotic Plants in the
Sagebrush Steppe

-by Roger Rosentreter , PhD.

Microbiotic plants include mosses, lichens and algae that grow
directly on the soil. They occur among and beneath the
scattered clumps of shrubs and perennial grasses. These plants
cushion the impact of rain drops and increase soil moisture
infiltration. Once moisture is in the soil, microbiotic plants act
as an organic mulch by shading, cooling, and decreasing
evaporation of soil moisture. Thus, sites with well developed
microbiotic plants will retain more soil moisture within the soil
profile.

Some of the organisms in the soil and within the lichens are
blue-green bacteria or "cyanobacteria" (note that these are
sometimes called "blue-green algae"; they are not algae at all).

Hair lichens are most abundant in old moist
forests, where they may produce up to 1.3 tons
per acre.

Since to a hair lichen, prolonged snow cover
means death, the lower limit on trees provides a
rough estimate of winter snow depth.

3

Sept/Oct 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 4

Cyanobacteria will fix atmospheric nitrogen and change it into
a form (nitrate) that other plants can utilize. Nitrogen is the
second most limiting factor after moisture in the sagebrush
steppe. Therefore, the additional input of nitrogen by the
bacteria and lichens is important for them and for their
neighbors. These lower plants lack a waxy epidermis for
retaining the nitrogen, so it is simply "leaked out" into the
surrounding soil.

Studies have shown that fewer seeds germinate in areas
covered by microbiotic plants, but more total plants become
established compared to bare soil sites (Harper and St. Clair,
1985). Without the microbiotic plants, the bare soil sites are
harsh, with greater temperature extremes and less moisture
retention. Microbiotic plants may also serve as a check for
invasion by exotic annuals. For example, cheatgrass will invade
bare soil sites much more densely than it will a site colonized
by microbiotic plants.

During much of the summer and fall, the sagebrush steppe is
dry and susceptible to extreme wind erosion. Where colonies
of microbiotic plants are intact, they protect and hold the soil in
place, reducing this wind erosion. When they are absent, much
valuable topsoil is lost.

When microbiotic plants are moist, they are pliable and
resistant to livestock trampling. Once the soil surface dries,
however, trampling will break apart the plant’s network of
microscopic, root-like rhyzoids, severely damaging the crust
they form. Historically, it appears that the native ungulates,
such as deer and pronghorn antelope, stayed in the higher
country until winter weather drove them down to the sagebrush
steppe. With moist or frozen surface soils, the animals could
walk on the microbiotic plants with minimal impact. In spring,
the animals moved to higher elevations before the soils
completely dried, again with minimal impact. Season of use for
livestock should include consideration of microbiotic plants and
soil moisture, for protection of the plants, and ultimately, for
protection of the watershed.

Literature Cited

Harper, K.T. and L.L. St. Clair. 1985. Cryptogamic soil
crusts on arid and semi-arid rangelands in Utah: effects on
seedling establishment and soil stability. BLM contract report;
Utah State Office; Salt Lake City, Utah.

Fungi can be classified into three groups. The
first are the parasites which feed on, and
eventually kill, their hosts. The second group
are the saprophytes, which decompose dead
material. The third group are the mycorrhizal
fungi, which form a symbiotic relationship with
their host organism.

On Finding Something Strange in the
Woods

-By Bob Chehey, Southern Idaho Mycological Association

Let’s say you’re walking through the woods on a spring day.
The sun is shining. Calypso bulbosa is in bloom. Tender
fiddleheads and nettle shoots are beckoning for you to make a
soup of them. Suddenly you almost step on some weird thing
that looks like a conical sponge or a dropped plate of dark
brown spaghetti or tiny stainless steel umbrellas or a goat’s
brain dyed tan. You step back and say "What in the heck is
that?!"

That, my friend, may well be a mushroom. Sure, it doesn’t
look like the kind you buy in the store, but then all wild plants
don’t look like cabbage. Wild mushrooms come in a huge
variety of edibility, color and form, just as wild plants and
animals do.

What are mushrooms? Mushrooms are the sexual fruiting
bodies of some of the most highly evolved fungi. Most fungi
haven’t even heard of sex yet, but the mushrooms have. The
sexes live apart for much of their lives, invading soil, compost,
wood, and even living plants and animals with fine, thread-like
mycelia. When two mycelia of opposite sexes (or mating types,
as mycologists unromantically call them) meet, they combine
and produce a larger, coarser type of mycelium. You may well
have seen it as a cottony mass on logs near melting snow or
holding together the needles on the forest floor. And, as in all
such unions, they usually bear fruit.

Fungi, and especially mushrooms, have been treated as plants
for most of the time they’ve been known. Plants, however, are
one thing fungi are not - stationary. Many fungi really do
move. Fungi also differ from plants in that their cell walls are
more like a lobster shell than wood. Recently, nucleic acid
studies have shown them to be more closely related to animals
than higher plants, so generally taxonomists now place fungi
into their own kingdom.

That kingdom is not a small one. Sure, fungi are usually
small in stature, but they are huge in terms of biomass. They
are pretty big in the number of species department as well.

Mushrooms can be found anywhere you look for wild plants.
They are found in tundra, taiga, forest, scrub, prairie, steppe
and desert. They are found from the tropics to the arctic. In
fact, you’re more likely to find them in a place you look for
plants because they are usually associated with plants in one
way or another.

Some, like the honey mushroom ( Armillariella mellea ) or the
fairy ring ( Marasmius oreades) can actually suck the life out of
living plants. Some, like Cordyceps militaris, kill and feed off
the bodies of insects. Many more feed on the leaves and wood
of dead plants. Some of these are so specialized that they feed
only on the cones of one species of spruce or magnolia. Some,
contrary to our purposes, cause dry rot in old floor joists or

4

Sept/Oct 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 4

bridge timbers. But most are symbiotic with higher plants,
providing minerals and water in return for carbohydrates.

There is a certain kind of person who has to ask, "What are
they good for?" I’ve already alluded to the facts that they are
important decomposers in the environment, and that most plants
cannot thrive without a fungal partner, but they have other uses
as well. Many have been used for dyes, poisons, medicines
from folk remedies to anti-cancer drugs and antibiotics, and, of
course, some are just dam good to eat.

This brings up one of the most commonly asked questions that
any amateur or professional mycologist faces: "How do you
know which ones to eat?" The correct answer satisfies no one
who asks. My version is, "Don’t eat any mushroom you cannot
accurately name, and don’t believe any rules anyone has ever
told you, except this one." Most berry pickers use this rule,
even if they don’t know it.

Probably only ten percent of wild mushrooms are dangerously
poisonous. Another ten percent are edible and good to
outrageous. The rest range from harmless, but taste like
cardboard, to "I’ve been in this bathroom for six hours and I’m
afraid to leave. "

If you would like to find out more about mushrooms, Southern
Idaho Mycological Association (SIMA) meets in the botany lab
on the second floor of the new science building at BSU. Their
meetings are held the second Monday of each month, except
June and September when forays replace the meetings. Similar
clubs are found in Coeur d’Alene and Pocatello. In addition,
classes in amateur mycology are usually taught in the spring
through community education programs. BSU and UI and
probably ISU offer mycology courses as well.

Returning to the question you asked in the first paragraph, the
umbrellas are Lyophyllum montanum (better not eat it). The
goat’s brains are Gyromitra gigas - edible, good and popular,
the spaghetti may be its sometimes deadly cousin, Gyromitra
esculenta. But the conical sponge is likely to be a mushroom
that is so desirable that forests have been burnt just to induce its
fruiting, so popular that many people will not tell you where
they find it, the ingredient that can turn your cream of
fiddlehead and nettle soup into nectar fit for the gods, Morchella
esculenta , The Morel.

Poikilohy dries -vs- Homoiohydrics

-by Roger Rosentreter, PhD.

What type of land plant would you like to be? A
Poikilohydric or a Homoiohydric? Homoiohydrics need to
maintain water within their cells at all times to continue to
persist. They can not totally dry up. Many of these types of
plants are damaged or die from the drought conditions we are
currently experiencing. These include plants such as forbs, and
pine trees.

Poikilohydrics can totally dry up without harm or damage.

They have cells which are tolerant of completely drying up.
They are not damaged by drought conditions. These plants
include some of the mosses and lichens and even certain algae.

How can poikilohydrics survive the drought? Homoiohydrics
have large cells with internal water vacuoles that rip apart and
are destroyed if they dry out. Poikilohydrics have smaller cells
and many small water vacuoles within each cell. Poikilohydric
plants match their water content with the humidity of their
surroundings. The humidity threshold for activity is species-
specific and determines the preferred range of distribution of the
various species.

Poikilohydrics can compete in sites that are frequently dried
up or have harsh weather conditions. The frequency of drying
may determine the type of plant that occurs in a given site and
substrate. Recent volcanic rocks and thin soil over rock are
often sites dominated by Poikilohydrics. So think about your
favorite site, to watch the sunset and dream about being a
Poikilohydric plant. Think fast, though, before you dry up!

Woven-spore Lichen , a Biotic Soil Crust
Rarity

-by Ann DeBolt, Pahove, BLM Boise District Botanist

Woven-spore lichen ( Texosporium sancti-jacobi ), the only
species within the genus Texosporium. is a globally rare plant,
rated by the INPS as a Priority 1 species. Based upon 1991
survey results, the lichen was recommended as an addition to
the USFWS list of federal candidate species. It would thus
become the first non-vascular candidate plant species for Idaho.

Woven-spore lichen is known from three general locations
worldwide, including: Ada County, Idaho, near Boise and
Kuna; Pinnacles National Monument in California; and sites
near Culver, Oregon (McCune 1992). A historic site near San
Diego, CA has not been revisited, but it is likely that most or
all of those populations have been destroyed (McCune 1992).
A total of ten known populations are known from the three
principal worldwide locations.

To find this lichen is a true challenge, best done by crawling

WANTED TO PURCHASE

Seeds or plants of Peony broxvnii and P.
calif omica. Please reply with price and
availability to:

E. Halas
P.O. Box 2682
Detroit, MI 48231

5

Sept/Oct 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 4

on one’s hands and knees. It forms an inconspicuous greyish
crust on soil and organic matter, especially dead Sandberg's
bluegrass (Poa secunda ) clumps, and in some cases, old rabbit
pellets (McCune 1992). In Idaho, the habitat consists of
Wyoming sagebrush, Thurber’s needlegrass, and bluebunch
wheat grass. Interestingly, three of the four Idaho populations
occur on sites where slickspot peppergrass ( Lepidium
papilliferum ), a federal candidate (C2) plant, is also present.

While woven-spore lichen has small reproductive structures
(apothecia), they are a distinctive greenish-yellow color, readily
distinguishable from any other component of the soil’s biotic
crust. The name Texosporium refers to the Latin texere , to
weave, in reference to the woven appearance of the spore coat
(Tibell and Hofsten 1968).

Several factors may contribute to the geographic rarity of
woven-spore lichen (McCune 1992). First, it appears to be
intolerant of saline and calcareous substrates, both widespread
in the arid west. Secondly, it is intolerant of heavily disturbed
sites. Grazing disrupts the biotic soil crust, promoting habitat
conversion from sagebrush-bunchgrass communities to annual
grasslands dominated by Bromus species, especially B.
tectorum. Suitable microhabitats may also contribute to the
lichen’s very restricted range.

Woven-spore lichen is potentially valuable as an indicator
species for sagebrush steppe communities (McCune 1992). Its
presence may serve as an indicator of extended periods without
fire and overgrazing. However, much more must be learned
about the dynamics of biotic crusts and their resilience to
various types of disturbance before we can understand
Texosporium' s place in arid ecosystems.

Literature Cited

McCune, B.P. 1992. Status of a globally ranked (G2) rare
lichen species, Texosporium sancti-jacobi. Unpublished report,
Cooperative Challenge Cost Share Project, Boise District BLM.
38 pages.

Tibell, L. and A.V. Hofsten. 1968. Spore evolution of the
lichen Texosporium sancti-jacobi ( Cyphelium sancti-jacobi ).
Mycologia 110:553-558.

Mycorrhizal fungi are symbiotic organisms- they
form partnerships. The fungi grows as a network of
fine threads, some of which surround or even
penetrate the cells within the root tips of its partner
host. The roots and the fungi together are called
mycorrhizae, or "fungus roots". The fungus helps
the host plant by extracting phosphorus and other
nutrients from the soil. The host plant provides
carbohydrates to the fungus.

Tumbleweed Lichens

-by Roger Rosentreter, PhD.

Rolling across the desert comes the biggest tumbleweed lichen
I have ever seen. I peer out from behind the sagebrush looking
for another tumbleweed lichen, as the wind blows my hat off
into the dirt. Why are these lichens blowing around? Don’t
they have a home, a habitat? How can they set up shop and
start reproducing without settling down?

These lichens occur in cool windy habitats over shallow,
sometimes ephemerally flooded soil, or on calcareous gravel.
They prefer windswept, sparsely vegetated sites with little or no
accumulation of litter.

How do these lichens reproduce? Some will produce spores,
but most species merely fragment into pieces and begin growing
larger again. In fact, most of these species have no common
sexual form of reproduction. Nor do they have specialized,
asexual forms of reproduction. Perhaps they are all clones of
each other?

Idaho has more than its share of tumbleweed lichens. There
are many different species within a number of genera, including
Xanthoparmelia, Rhizoplaca, Aspicilia, and Dermatocarpon.

Montana Lichens.. The Big Picture

—by Bruce McCune, PhD. , Oregon State University.
Reprinted from Kelseya, the newsletter of the Montana Native
Plant Society, Volume 3(1), Fall 1989.

Vascular plant botanists who tend to view the end of summer
as the beginning of the doldrums (leading inevitably to cabin
fever season) should take advantage of the next few Indian
Summer days to step outside and enjoy a bit of lichenizing.

Montana is so diverse environmentally that a casual observer
can see large differences in the lichen flora over short distances.
Although they respond to very small scale differences (such as
bark furrow vs. ridge), you can also see differences across such
larger gradients from your car at 55mph. Here are a few
observations about regional differences in the lichen flora of
Montana.

The continental divide sets up a major contrast between the
heavy lichen flora on trees on the west slope as opposed to
sparse epiphytic flora on the east slope. The best pass I know
for seeing this is Marias Pass, just south of Glacier Park (Chief
Joseph, Rogers and Logan Passes are OK too; Homestake Pass
is poorer for the road down to Butte is cut into exposed south
and west-facing slopes). There are lodgepole pine forests on
both sides of Marias Pass. On the west side they are heavily
clothed with lichens, the most prominent genus from a distance
being Bryoria. There are about a dozen species of Bryoria in
Montana and all are brown to blackish and stringy in
appearance; they were formerly in the genus Alectoria, which
now includes just straw to green colored stringy species.

6

Sept/Oct 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 4

Bryoria varies in appearance from horsehair to more kinky —
somewhat like steel wool. There, you’ve just learned your first
lichen genera. That didn’t hurt, did it?

The east side of Marias Pass is by no means a total loss. You
just have to turn your eyes from the trees to the rocks, where
you’ll see a great diversity of species, many of them crustose.
Pick any exposed outcrop — you should see from one dozen to
several dozen species on the typical square meter of rock.
Limestones have almost completely different lichen communities
from non-calcareous rocks. In general, lichen are more
prominent on siliceous rocks, although there are exceptions to
this. For instance, wherever the Madison Limestone outcrops,
you are likely to see some huge areas splattered by the small
orange foliose lichen Xanthoria. Good spots are 1) the Clark
Fork valley between Drummond and Bearmouth; 2) along the
Big Hole River between Wise River and Divide; and 3)
Jefferson Canyon between Cardwell and Three Forks (all of
these on Madison Limestone). This species is also common on
acidic rock, but generally doesn’t develop the same level of
dominance as on calcareous rock.

Another kind of lichen "paint" easily seen on distant rocks is
the yellowish-green
Acarospora chlorophana.

This crustose species is a
vivid fluorescent yellow green
when seen up close. It is
mainly found on acid rocks,
especially vertical or
overhanging cliff faces on
granite (both sides of the Divide). Virtually every siliceous
rocky summit in Montana has some of this lichen.

The color of A. chlorophana is similar to the most garish of
Montana lichen, the genus Letharia. These are bushy fruticose
species, colored a stunning fluorescent chartreuse. Most often
they grow on trees. The common name is wolf lichen" — so
named because the compound responsible for the garish color,
vulpinic acid, is toxic to animals, and reportedly has been used
to poison wolves in Scandinavia. There are two species in
Montana. Letharia Columbiana is almost always fertile, having
brown apothecia (fruiting disks), and is found most often in
subalpine forests and on isolated ridgetop trees. L. vulpina
closely resembles L. Columbiana but reproduces asexually by
(and can be identified by) its powdery to granular propagules
(soredia). It can be found at all elevations where there are trees
and is more common than L. columbiana.

You can tell you’re under strong oceanic influence when you

Mycorrhizal fungi often produce fruiting bodies.
These are called "mushrooms" when they occur
above ground and "truffles" when they grow
below.

see long streamers of greenish to yellowish Alectoria
sarmentosa hanging from the conifers. Good places include the
northern Swan Valley, the Lake McDonald area of Glacier
Park, and just over the Idaho border in the Lochsa Valley.
Another genus that is most prominent in the wetter climates of
Montana (but also throughout western Montana forests) is
Hypogymnia. From a distance, this genus gives tree branches
a grayish wooly appearance. All members have hollow lobes
(appearing inflated) and are generally white to gray above and
black below. Although there are eight or so species in
Montana, each with its own distribution pattern, the genus is
generally most abundant west of the Divide. Moist forests of
low- to mid- elevations have the greatest diversity of
Hypogymnia.

But in south central Montana, yellow-green is the color of
lichenized tree branches. The yellowish tinge is the color of
usnic acid, the dominant secondary chemical in the genus
Usnea. Up close, these are tufted or drooping fruticose species,
generally with lots of small, erect branchlets. Because Bryoria
and Hypogymnia are much less abundant and Unsea dominates,
trees of the Gallatin Canyon and around the Madison Valley

look yellowish green below
the living branches.

Lichens on soil also show
interesting regional patterns in
Montana. East of the Divide
on noncalcareous soils, there
is a common vagrant lichen,
Xanthoparmelia chlorochroa.
This yellowish green lichen (also containing usnic acid) is
foliose but forms tufts about 2-4cm broad. These lie loose on
the ground. Look for them on open sites (sagebrush,
rabbitbrush, grasslands), though you will seldom see this species
west of the Divide. Calcareous soils have a variety of
interesting crustose and small foliose lichens, one of the most
prominent being the nitrogen-fixing, dull black Collema tenax.
This one forms soil crusts on arid soils, usually in mixture with
mosses, lichens and algae.

In western Montana, the most prominent ground lichens are in
two genera: large-lobed, sprawling Peltigera and a genus with
upright stalks (often tipped with cups), Cladonia. There are
about 20 species of Peltigera in Montana and 50 species of
Cladonia. There are two main groups of Peltigera: one group
with a dominant green alga, giving the lichen a bright green
appearance when wet (they look like they belong in a salad but
are actually barely edible), the other group with a dominant
blue-green "alga" which gives the lichen a grayish, blue-gray or
blue-green color when wet.

In some ways, the distributional patterns in lichens seem to
parallel those of vascular plants: Pacific coastal, boreal,
cordilleran, intermountain, arctic-alpine, and Great Plains
floristic elements are all represented. There are some other
curious patterns, however, that may or may not be parallelled

Some conifers can have as many as a 100 different
species of fungi that serve as mycorrhizal
partners.

7

Sept/Oct 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 4

by vascular plants. For instance, a few lichens are known only
from the western American alpine and the southwest coast of
Greenland. One of these species, Bryoria subdivergens, is a
ground-dwelling species that is so far known only from
Greenland and several granitic summits in the Bitteroot Range.
One of the few aquatic foliose lichens, Hydrothyria venosa, is
known only from the Appalachians, a single site in the northern
Rockies, and the west slope of the Cascades-Sierra axis.

Lichenology in Montana is in an exciting state of rapid
discovery. Range extensions and new records for North
America are fairly common. There are frequently new species;
however, most of these are few — if any -- lichen species
endemic to Montana. There are certainly rare species of
lichens, but with our present level of knowledge, it is sometimes
difficult to be sure which are the rare and which the poorly
known species.

Because there is no lichenological equivalent to Hitchcock and
Cronquist (Vascular Plants of the Pacific Northwest), serious
lichen identification requires a good collection of the primary
literature, a big obstacle to beginners. Novices should use
Mason Hale’s How to Know the Lichens and a hand lens or
dissecting scope. For Montanans, the second edition is much
improved over the first edition, partly because the second
incorporates Hale’s teaching experience at the Flathead Lake
Biological Station. The recent book by Vitt, et al on Mosses,
Lichens and Ferns of Northwest North America has some
good photos but many common Montana lichens have been
omitted. (See Good Stuff for ordering info, —ed) Some
lichenologists, including myself, are happy to exchange our
identifications for well-labeled duplicates. My address is:
Department of General Science, Oregon State University,
Weniger Hall 355, Corvallis, OR 97331-8605.

Genetically Altered Fungus Used on
Missoula Weeds

—from Kelsey a, a newsletter of the Montana Native Plant
Society, Volume 3(1 ), Fall 1989. While this article is somewhat
dated, it may be of interest to readers. More information is
likely available from MSU or the Missoula County CD.

Two strains of a genetically altered fungus were used in weed
control experiments at sites in Missoula this past summer.

The applications were made to weeds in vacant lots of the Big
Flat area of Missoula under the direction of Gregory Kennet,
Missoula County Conservation District officer and project
coordinator for the experiments.

Montana State University plant pathologist Dave Sands says
the goal of the release in Missoula is to control broadleafed
weeds in a manner that is environmentally safer than chemical
herbicides.

"This fungus occurs naturally on food crops and will not grow
at human body temperature," says Sands. Other research has

shown it to have no adverse effects on mammals.

These fungi would not even harm nearby fields of
wildflowers. However, if the wildflowers were broad leaved
and in the field to which the fungi and a "vitamin" were added,
the wildflowers would die along with the weeds.

Both applications involve strains of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
that have been altered by ultraviolet light.

Three years ago, these strains were released at a range site at
the MSU Agricultural Experiment Station’s Red Bluff Research
Ranch in Madison County. As hoped, they did not survive the
winter. From hundreds of selections of altered fungi, Sands,
together with MSU plant pathologists Gene Ford and Vince
Miller, chose these because their survival will be limited unless
humans help them.

The first strain, called Al-PYR, was altered so that it can only
live and reproduce if the area in which it is applied also
contains a chemical that is not freely available in nature; without
human help, it self-destructs.

The second strain, referred to as SL-1, cannot survive through
the winter.

Creating biological control agents that self-destruct is the
newest approach researchers are using to ensure that altered
organisms have a minimum impact on our environment, says
Sands.

Sands has been working with Kennet and University of
Montana environmental analyst Don Bedunah for the last six
years on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.

One of the earliest indications that the fungus might be
effective in weed control was its effect in nature on spotted
knapweed that was observed in an irrigated alfalfa field in the
Bitteroot Valley, according to Sands. He, Bedunah and Kennet
released an unaltered form of the fungus on knapweed near the
Lubrecht Experimental Forest two years ago and got about 80
percent control at one of the sites and less control at the other
site, according to Bedunah.

The alterations in the Sclerotinia strains allow them to be
contained on only specifically-treated areas, says Sands. The
release was done under an Environmental Protection Agency
permit issued to MSU.

A Bouquet of Algae

-by Loren Bahis. Reprinted from Kelseya, the newsletter of
the Montana Native Plant Society, Volume 5(4), Summer 1992.

The number of plant species living in pristine streams in the
Rocky Mountain Region of Montana is significantly smaller than
the number in least-impaired streams in the Great Plains
Region. This is one of the findings of the Montana Reference
Stream Study currently being completed by the Montana
Department of Health and Environmental Sciences (MDHES).

Algae, especially diatoms, account for most of the plant
diversity m Montana streams. Often fifty or more species of

8

Sept/Oct 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 4

algae inhabit a single riffle. By comparison, not more than a
few species of aquatic vascular plants or mosses are typically
found in any given reach of a Montana stream.

The MDHES study conclues that the lower biotic diversity of
mountain streams is mainly due to a more harsh habitat than
that of prairie streams. Factors such as lower temperatures,
faster flows and lower nutrient concentrations limit the number
of niches available for plant species.

Fish also exhibit this same pattern in species richness. A
pristine mountain stream typically has only two or three species
of native fish (usually cutthroat trout and sculpin, and maybe
bull trout). Its least-impaired counterpart on the plains,
however, may support twenty or more species of fish, most of
which are native.

Mountain streams and plains streams also support different
types of algae. While blue-green algae (Phylum Cyanophyta)
often dominate the algal biomass of mountain streams, green
algae (Phylum Chlorophyta) dominate in plains streams. This
is probably because blue-greens have a competitive advantage
in nutrient poor streams becasue of their ability to "fix"
atmospheric (molecular) nitrogen. Diatoms (Phylum
Bacillariophyta) are abundant in streams of both regions.

Other data collect by MDHES shows that when an otherwise
pristine stream receives a slight to moderate amount of
disturbance or pollution (e.g. from logging, mining or
agriculture), plant diversity actually increases. This increase is
usually due to an influx of "trash" or "weed" species - the
diatom equivalents of dandelions - which may displace
indigenous species adapted to the harsh environments of our
mountain streams. The net effect is an increase in plant
diversity at the local (stream) level, but a decrease in regional
and global diversity.

Heavy pollution caused by problems such as acid mine
drainage or the discharge of untreated sewage will reverse this
trend. Instead of increasing diversity, a decrease in species
richness results. Disturbance or pollution, especially nutrient
enrichment, causes a shift in dominance from blue-green to
green algae.

Environmental specialists at MDHES hope to better define the
ecological impacts of common pollutants such as nitrates left
over from blasting in hard rock mines. By measuring features
of impaired and unimpaired communities, we are refining the
use of algae and aquatic insects as monitors of ecological
integrity in streams. For now, we know that diversity in
aquatic plants and insects is a very good gauge of our surface
water quality.

Please note, the new address for the editor is
P.O. Box 64, Tendoy, Idaho 83468.

Good Stuff

Three good sources of books are the Garden Book Network,
Island Press and Patricia Ledlie, Bookseller. The Garden Book
Network carries some gardening with native plant books, and a
large number of books on gardening and landscaping. Patricia
Ledlie carries a broad range of natural history books botany,
plant ecology, floras- each with a short description. Prices are
reasonable. Island Press publishes many environmental books
and their booklist includes books produced by other publishers.

Garden Book Network; Horticultural Publishing Co.; Ill N.
Canal St.; Suite 545; Chicago, IL 60606-7203.

Patricia Ledlie Bookseller, Inc. One Bean Road, P.O. Box
90, Buckfield, ME 04220. 207-336-2778.

Island Press; P.O. Box 7; Covelo, CA 95428.

Guide to Information Sources in the Botanical Sciences by
E.B. Davis may be just the book you need to determine what
references you might want to have in your library. Davis gives
brief descriptions of 720 titles, organized into the following
categories: Bibliographic Tools (Abstracts, Indexes, Databases),
Current Awareness Sources; Dictionaries and Encyclopedias;
Handbooks, Method and Technique books; Dictionaries;
Identification Sources (Atlases, Field Guides, Floras, Keys);
Historical Materials; Textbooks; Publishers. The book is
thorough, practical and very informative. It is available for
about $35 from Libraries Unlimited; Littleton, Colorado. 175
pages. ISBN 0-87287-439-7.

Discovering Wild Plants: Alaska, Western Canada, The
Northwest by Janice Schofield. 1989. Alaska Northwest
Books, 354 pp, $35 hardcover. This book profiles the
medicinal, cosmetic, historic and other uses of 130 plants.
Each is well illustrated with line drawings and photographs.
Habitat and range information, along with season of harvest is
included. Directions for recipes, liqueurs, toddies, cakes,
smoking blends, tinctures and other uses are outlined for each
species. The book also has a summary of harvesting and drying
herbs, flower essences, an herb directory and treatments for
acute poisoning.

Mosses, Lichens and Ferns of North America by Dale Vitt,
Janet Marsh and Robin Bovey. Available from University of
Washington Press, P.O. Box 50096, Seattle, WA, 98145-5096
for $17.50 plus $2 p&h (price from a review in ’89). More
recently advertised as available from Lone Pine Publishers; 414,
10357-109 St.; Edmonton, Alberta T5J 1N3; 403-424-1278 for
$24.95 The book is a non-technical field guide to ferns,
bryophytes and lichens. The book covers the area from Alaska
to southern Oregon, from the Pacific to Montana. The 288
page book has 410 color and 35 black and white illustrations of
370 species. Major vegetation zones associations are described
and distribution maps are included.

9

Sept/Oct 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 4

SAGE NOTES is published bimonthly by the Idaho Native Plant Society,
incorporated since 1977 under the laws of the State of Idaho. Newsletter ads are
$2.00 for personal ads; Commercial advertisements: 1/8 page S5.00, 1/4 page
$8.00, 1/2 page $15.00, and full page $2.5.00, Newsletter ads should be camera
ready and accompanied by payment. Members and others are invited to submit
material for publication in Sage Notes. Articles in any form, even hand-written
(if legible!), are encouraged. Submissions on 5 1/4 or 3 1/2 inch floppy discs
for an IBM computer in WordPerfect, Muilimale or ascii file format are
especially appreciated. Illustrations end even good quality photos may be
reduced and incorporated into the newsletter. Computer disks, photos and
illustrations will not be returned unless specifically requested. Provide a phone
number in case the editors have questions on your materials. Send submissions
directly to the newsletter editor: Caryl Elzinga; P.O. Box 64; Tendoy, Idaho
83468. Due date for material for the December newsletter is 30 November
1992.

OFFICERS

State Officers, P.O. Box 9541, Boise, ED, 83707: President-Susan Bematas,
Vice President -Kathy Geier-Hayes, Secretary-Pam Brunsfeld, Treasurer-P&m
Conley. Big Wood Chapter, P.O. Box 4154, Ketchum, ED, 83340: President-
Kristin Fletcher, Vice President-Frances Naser, Secretary/Treasurer-Carol
Blackburn. Calypso Chapter, 911 Pine Avenue, Coeur d’Alene, ID, 83814:
President-Pam Gontz, Vice President-Tina Gospodnetich, Secretary-Bob
Shackelford, Treasurer-Jill Blake. Pahove Chapter, P.O. Box 9451, Boise, ID,
83707: President-Michael Mancuso, Vice President-Ann DeBolt, Secretary-
Uura Bond, Treasurer-Pam Conley. Sah-Wah-Be Chapter, 603 Willard Ave,
Pocatello, ID, 83201: Treasurer— Harry Giesbrecht. Upper Valley Chapter,
President— Sylvia F. Reichel, Vice President— Jeanne Anderson, Secretary—
Rebecca Cheek, Treasurer-Alien J. Thiel, Jr. White Pine Chapter, P.O. Box
8481, Moscow, ID, 83843: President— Pam Brunsfeld, Vice President— Coring
Jones, Secretary /Treasurer-Mark Krueger. Newsletter Staff: Newsletter Editor-
-Caryl Elzinga, Technical Editor— Bob Steele, and Circulation Manager— Rim
Conley.

Idaho Native Plant Society
P.O. Box 9451
Boise, ID 83707

The purpose of the Idaho Native Plant Society (INPS) is to promote interest
in native plants and to collect and disseminate information on all phases of the
botany of native plants in Idaho, including educating the public to the value of
the native flora and its habitats.

Membership is open to anyone interested in our native flora. Contributions
to our Society, are tax deductible. Send dues and all correspondence to
I.N.P.S., Box 9451, Boise, ID 83707.

Please include me as an Idaho Native Plant Society member.

Full Year Half Year
Jan-Dec31 July 1 -Dec 31

Sustaining $30 15

Individual $ 8 4

Household* $10 5

Student $ 6 3

Senior Citizen $ 6 3

Name: _ _ _

Address: _

City /State : _

Zip Code: _ Telephone: _ Renew? New?

Chapter affiliation?

_ Pahove (Boise)

_ White Pine (Moscow)

_ Calypso (Coeur d’Alene) Include $6 chapter dues

_ Sah-wah-be (SE Idaho)

_ Upper Valley Chapter (Idaho Falls)

_ Wood River (Ketchum-Sun Valley) Include $7 chapter dues

_ None. Tnose who do not live near a chapter center are especially

encouraged to join. We can put you in touch with other members in your area,

and can coordinate with you on any state level activities you may with to be
involved in. New chapters may be forming in eastern and northern Idaho.
♦Household memberships are allocated two votes.

Non Profit Organization
U.S. Postage Paid
Boise, ID 83708
Permit No. 171

Don’t forget to pay your membership dues!

G —

New York Botanical Garden
Library

Bronx, NY 10458

LIBRARY

uto 7 19S2

NEW YORK
BOTANICAL UrtKDtlM

10

• November 1992 * SAGENOTES * A Publication of the Idaho Native Plant Society * Vol 15(5)

State News

The Annual 1NPS Rare Plant Conference will be held in
Boise on the 9th and 10th of February. More details will be in
® the next newsletters.

State INPS Elections will be coming up in early spring.
Submit nominations for state officer positions to the Nomination
Committee by January 10. They can be sent to the INPS
address (back page).

The next newsletter should be printed on recycled paper.

® Anyone with an idea for the 1993 annual meeting should
contact a chapter or state officer.

Chapter News

Pahove Submitted by Michael Mancuso, President
^ December 17, 7:00p. The chapter enjoyed a Christmas
dessert potluck at Kathy Geier-Hayes’ home. Roger Rosentreter
gave a talk on lichens.

January 21, 7:30p. The January meeting will feature Ann
DeBolt, who recently completed her M.S. degree
(congratulations, Ann!): "Everything you always wanted to
^ know about Hackberry but were afraid to ask".

Pahove members should be on the lookout for a questionaire
coming soon.

Calypso Submitted by Pam Gontz, President

The Calypso Chapter, in this, its second year, had a very
productive and rewarding agenda.

^ Early last spring we learned that the biology department of
one of our local school districts collected quite a few
wildflowers for one of their projects. We wrote to that school
district pointing out possible problems with the continual
collection of our wildflowers and the drastic loss of habitat we
are experiencing due to our fast development and growth. We
^ also included in the letter possible alternatives to collecting.
They responded favorably with several changes to their
curriculum. Besides using films and slides, and educating the
students on rare plants, they will be collecting weeds and a
limited amount of the more prolific wildflowers for their spring

project.

We also personally invited these biology students to the public
Wildflower Walk we sponsored during National Wildflower
Week. We had a wonderful turnout of approximately 30
people. Chapter members led small groups throughout the trails
and pointed out various flowers, trees and shrubs. The
enthusiasm to learn was incredible ~ many of these people even
wanted to learn more about grasses and sedges. We had
handouts printed by the Idaho Panhandle National Forest with
illustrations and descriptions by Pam Gontz. Pamphlets entitled
"Summer Wildflowers of North Idaho", "Edible and Medicinal
Plants of North Idaho", "Early Spring Wildflowers of North
Idaho", and a "Wildflowers of North Idaho Coloring Book"
were handed out to each individual. There was also a beautiful
wildflower display at the forest service office designed by Jill
Blake using photos by Pam Gontz. Jill Blake reported at our
November meeting that our local effort during National
Wildflower Week was commended by Washington D.C.
Colorful camas to Jill Blake for spearheading this effort and to
all those who volunteered at the wildflower walk.

A bluebell buttonaire to Bob Mathiasen for making all the
arrangements and teaching the Wildflower Identification Class
the Calypso Chapter sponsored last spring at North Idaho
College. Bob put in a lot of work structuring the class which
covered the major plant families, and donated his time so the
money received, minus expenses, went to our chapter fund.
Buttercup bouquets also go to John McMullen for adding his
talents and assisting in teaching this class along with other
chapter volunteers.

For Earth Day in April, the Calypso Chapter had an
informational display at North Idaho College and handed out
INPS brochures. Stunning Shooting Stars go to Pat Coleman
for organizing this display and to Jill Blake, Cathy Snider and
John Bentley for helping with this project.

We had several wonderful field trips this past summer. Our
April trip led by John Bentley and Pat Coleman took in a
popular natural area in downtown Coeur d’Alene. This Tubb’s
Hill outing presented a variety of spring flowers and shrubs.

1

November 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 5

Our trip to Berlin Flats campground near the Coeur d’Alene
River for a habitat-type field outing was a success and was a
great follow up to Rick’s wonderful program on forest habitat
types given in May.

Our second overnight outing took us into the
beautiful Cow Creek area northwest of
Bonners Ferry. Our leaders were Rob
Bursick and Jill Blake. Monitoring plots were
established in the area to study the effects of
cattle and timber harvest on the bog area of
Cow and Smith Creeks. We saw several rare
and sensitive plants. One I’m sure we will all
remember is Carex leptalea (Bristle-stalked
sedge). The trek to see this rare sedge turned
into a memorable one as we gently crossed
bogs and high-centered on the deadfalls. This
little excursion added to the excitment of
seeing this rare sedge. Another interesting
rare plant shown to us by Rob and Jill was
Scirpus hudsonianus (Hudson’s Bay bullrush).

The only other known population of this tiny
bullrush is found in Glacier Park.

Orchids and ovations to all those who led
our field trips and to those members who
participated in these these outings.

I would also like to hand out mosses and lichens to Pat
Coleman for putting in a lot of time and effort in our
newsletter, the Calpyso Companion, as well as all the other
little things she does. The newsletter is a vital communication
link to our members and Pat has done a wonderful job of
keeping all informed.

Christmas Poinsettias and cheers to all the Calypso members
for their support. If we didn’t have members who generously
share their time and expertise, we wouldn’t have had the
successful year that we did. We had great programs, wonderful
field trips and interesting projects. Let’s face it Calypso
Chapter members, "we dun good"!

Christmas Plant Lore

-by Kathy Geier-Hayes , Pahove Chapter . This was originally
printed in the December 1989 issue of SageNotes. Many new
members have joined since then so it seemed appropriate to
print it again so more people can enjoy it.

Few holidays are as closely associated with plants as
Christmas. Holly, mistletoe and the scent of an evergreen tree
all remind many of us of the holiday season. Many of these
plants are ingrained as part of our celebration because they have
been a part of Christmas as long as there has been Christmas;
in fact, many of these plant traditions are older than Christmas.
Most uses are based on early pagan practices which have merely
persisted as the Church would allow.

In 336 A.D. the Church assigned December 25th as the

birthdate of Christ. No one knew the actual date and a great
deal of speculation and mysticism was used to arrive at this date
as well as a little political savvy (historians now believe that
Jesus was bom sometime between May and October 7 B.C. - 5
B.C.). Throughout the "conversion" of the
masses from paganism to Christianity most
Church leaders recognized that they could not
persuade the people to convert if they did
away completely with popular traditions, so
the Church attempted to supplant the pagan
rituals with sacred rituals. The selection of
December 25th by the Church appears to have
been an attempt to turn the celebration of
several secular feasts, which occurred near the
end of December and the beginning of
January, into a more sacred celebration. Four
major events were celebrated from December
17 to January 1:

Saturnalia - the remembrance of the
"Golden Age";

Sigillaria - the Feast of Dolls when
children were showered with toys;
Brumalia - the celebration of the
solstice;

Kalendae Januarii - the special feast of Childhood and
Youth (rebirth) when gifts were given to everyone.

As long as the Church could endow celebration traditions with
sacred meaning, the people were allowed to practice them.

The significance of evergreen boughs at Christmastime dates
back to the Saturnalia. The Romans used the boughs to
decorate their homes as an offering of winter hospitality to the
spirits that haunted the forests; if they were kind to the spirits,
the spirits would be kind to them in the following year. Though
the early Church allowed many of the original traditions to
remain in place, later Church officials forbade the use of
greenery as a dangerous pagan custom. Decorating with
evergreen boughs again became popular in the 16th century.
However, it was considered foolhardy to bring the boughs in
before Christmas Eve since once in the house, the mischievous
spirits might create an uproar. The spirits revered the Christ
Child, and by placing the boughs on Christmas Eve, one could
hope that the Christ Child would appear before the spirits were
able to organize their merriment.

Holly and ivy were also very commonly associated with
paganism; holly was the talisman for men and ivy the symbol
of women. In England, it was traditional for a maiden to
protect herself from goblins on Christmas Eve by placing a
berried holly sprig under her bed. The Church eventually
assigned very sacred meaning to holly. With its prickly leaves
and blood red berries, holly came to represent the Crown of
Thoms worn by Christ.

For many years, holly and ivy were always used together.
Early tradition espoused that whoever in the household brought

2

November 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 5

the most of their symbol during the holiday season (holly for
men, ivy for women) should rule the house for the next year.
Eventually, however, the two become antagonists. While holly
became associated with life and immortality, ivy was associated
with death and mortality. Eventually, ivy was kicked out of the
house during the Christmas season while holly was given a
place of honor. This parting of the ways may have been
exacerbated by the Church; holly was considered very sacred
while ivy never gained a foothold in Christian custom.

Other traditionally popular plants have lost favor at Christmas
over the years. Rosemary was once considered one of the most
important (and sacred) of all Christmas decorations. The odor
of rosemary was thought to be very offensive to evil spirits, and
the possessor of a sprig could consider themselves well
protected. According to legend, rosemary acquired its fragrance
when the swaddling clothes of the infant Jesus were laid on the
plant to dry. The color of rosemary, which was originally
white, changed to blue when the Virgin Mary, fleeing from
Herod with Joseph and the baby, laid her blue cloak on a
rosemary. For some unknown reason, use of rosemary fell out
of favor during Victorian times.

Christmas trees have always had a place of honor in most
Christian houses. Though pagan religions honored trees as
symbols of eternal life, Christmas trees came about out of a
Christian sentiment. The earliest story of Christ’s association
with trees comes from George Jacob, a 10th century Arabian
geographer who described a miraculous event. On the night
Jesus was born, all trees, even those weighed down by snow
and ice, burst forth into bloom. From that, it became popular
to force branches of hawthorn and cherry to bloom at
Christmas. In wealthy households, whole trees were moved
indoors for the festivities, and there was a great deal of rivalry
as to who displayed the biggest tree. The use of evergreen trees
started in Germany with a German folktale. The story goes that
one lonely, bitterly cold Christmas Eve, a cold, hungry child
appeared at the door of a German forester. He was warmly
welcomed and treated with the best the meager household could
offer. The next morning the family, roused by a choir of
angels, found that they had
entertained the Christ Child.

As a gift for the hospitality,

He took a fir twig, planted it
in the ground and said "I have
gladly received your gifts, and
here is mine to you: this tree
will never fail to bear fruit at
Christmas and you shall
always have abundance. "

Eventually, naturally
blooming trees were replaced
by artificially decorated trees
in Germany, and it was here
that the Christmas tree began

to come into its own. The "modem" Christmas tree is ascribed
by some to Martin Luther, who, on a Christmas Eve, was
entranced by the wonder and beauty of a starry night sky. As
a tribute, he set up a tree illuminated with candles to represent
the heavens from which Christ came for his children. The first
mention of decorated Christmas trees was from Strassburg in
1604. The popularity of decorated trees spread from there
throughout Germany and eventually throughout Europe.
Christmas trees made their debut in Paris in 1840 and Queen
Victoria set up a tree in Windsor Castle in 1841. Early
emigrants from Germany and England introduced the custom of
Christmas trees in America. In 1925, at noon on Christmas
Day, the famous General Grant Giant Sequoia was designated
as the Nation’s Christmas Tree. The lighting of the Christmas
tree in Washington D.C., however, has supplanted its
importance.

While the set-up of Christmas decorations was traditionally
done on Christmas Eve, the removal was determined by local
customs and beliefs. The disposal of Christmas plant material
was another ritual in itself. Decorations were never tossed
willy-nilly into the yard to decompose or set out with the
garbage. While some were carefully saved, or in some parts of
Europe burned in sacred burnings (in other areas never burned),
most were used somewhere in the household.

Though many of the plants that we associate with Christmas
have come to us through popular legends and folklore, some are
merely utilitarian. For example, few homes are without a
poinsettia at Christmas. Poinsettias have become popular only
because of their red and green color. To provide some
significance for poinsettias, the Junior League developed a story
about a little orphan girl, Maria, who was invited on Christmas
Eve to the cathedral with some friends. She hesitated to go,
having nothing to offer the Christ Child as a gift, but her
friends assured her that they would find something on the way.
Along the road they found a plant and gave it to Maria to take,
telling her that even the humblest gift given with love is
beautiful. Maria was upset about having to take a simple weed,
but she gathered some and they went along. At the church she

laid the dried brown stems in
front of the nativity at the
alter, offering them with love
and respect. As she turned to
go, the dead stems turned
green and the upper leaves
changed to a beautiful scarlet.
The humble plant had changed
into the miracle flower, the
Flower of the Nativity.

Enjoy your holiday traditions
and have a safe and happy
holiday and New Year!

Museum of Natural History
Monthly Workdays

The Orma J. Smith Museum of Natural History
needs volunteers for a number of museum tasks.
People are also need to adopt old display cases for
rebuilding/refinishing. Come to the workdays,
January 9 and February 6 at the Boone Science
Building. Enter via west end basement door, 7am
until evening. For more information call Bill
Clark (375-8605) or Eric Yensen (459-5331).

3

November 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 5

Get a Handle on
Pronouncing Scientific Names

-by Larry Mellichamp. Reprinted from the Newsletter of the
Northern Nevada Native Plant Society, Volume 18(4), May
1992.

Whythesolongnames? Whatever your reaction to the preceding
"word" is probably your reaction to Latin names of plants. Did
you try and figure it out, or did you just take one look and say:
"not for me!"

Scientific names can, of course, be difficult to pronounce and
understand, especially if you don’t use them every day. You
probably accept that the two-part name of each plant -- a genus
and a species name — is a necessary component of botanical
science and that they are widely used and understood by
professionals; but you hesitate to use a name when you want to
talk with someone because you are afraid you’ll say it wrong.
Take heart, you are not alone. Just remember, Linnaeus began
using this binomial nomenclature in 1753, not because he
wanted to make things harder for you, but because Latin was
the language of science and medicine (as well as religion and
other fields) at the time. Believe me, his two part name for
each species was a great simplification over the multi-word
phrase names used earlier (sometimes involving a dozen or
more Latin words, literally a mini-description of the plant).
Today, Latin allows knowledgeable people around the world to
communicate about plants, no matter what their native tongue,
and without the confusion of common names.

Actually Latin names are not as difficult to pronounce as you
might think. After all, most of the vowel sounds are similar to
those in English words (that is, with long i and e); and you can
think back to Latin names you already know when trying to say
a new one, such as the familiar Rosa, Tulipa, Astilbe,
Geranium, Hosta, Spiraea (remember this one for later!),
Salvia, Sedum, Lobelia, Cyclamen, Crocus , and many more.
There are long or short a’s, u’s, etc., and enunciation is
controlled by these sounds. The other thing you can do is break
the work into syllables, just as you would an English word,
putting a vowel between two consonants and trying to sound
them out. English has a great many difficult words and
pronunciations, so we shouldn’t let the fact that a Uitin word
looks different give us the notion that it is more troublesome to
pronounce. I get more variations on "Mellichamp" than most
Latin names I hear people trying to pronounce.

Latin names still give us problems, just because they are
usually so unfamiliar. How do you learn to correctly pronounce
a strange scientific plant name? The question is analogous to
asking someone how to get to Chapel Hill. You ask three
different people and you will get three different answers. It all
depends on where you are coming from, how well you can
remember details, your past experience, how much time you
have, and whether you can practice. My advice is that you ask

three experienced people, and take the best two out of three
pronunciations. Much of the way people say Latin names
depends on their experience — how they first heard it
pronounced. You can apply various rules of Latin
pronunciation, but there will always be variations and
differences of personal preference. There are two ways of
pronouncing Latin: the so-called original Roman way, practiced
by Latin scholars, and the modem adaptation more-or-less to the
speech people use today. We tend to "Anglicize" Latin words
to make them easier for us to pronounce; and since not all
scientific names originally come from Latin, we have to
"Latinize" these words to fit our way of talking. For example,
the genus name for pine is Pinus. In strictly correct Latin you
would say PEA-noose; whereas, we tend to say PIE-nus. The
latter is certainly easier to remember. [In this article,
capitalizing a syllable indicates it’s the one to stress.]

I encountered frustration as an undergraduate student taking

Using its own priority ranking system, as of 1990
Fish and Wildlife Service had identified 136 plant
species as being "high priority" for recovery
efforts. Yet, in that year, FWS spent only
$256,200 on these plant species -- less than 1 % of
its total recovery expenditure of $35 million.
Sixty-nine of the "high priority" species — half -
received no funds. All federal agencies reported
spending only $792,800 on these plants.

my first systematic botany course where we had to identify wild
species using the "Guide to the Flora of the Carolinas" in the
late sixties at University of North Carolina-Charlotte. I had not
paid much attention to pronouncing scientific names before, but
I did not hesitate to try. As usual, you leam much more from
your mistakes -- and I learned a great deal! My first eager
effort was to pronounce Cardamine (spring cress) as "CARD-a-
meen", by referring back to the more familiar word
"histamine". You wouldn’t think of saying "hist-AM-in-ee",
but that is exactly how you pronounce Cardamine. One of the
rules of Latin is to pronounce as many syllables as you can, by
pronouncing every vowel. So that extra "e" on the end gets
pronounced. There are significant exceptions, as we’ll see, but
that is a good rule to start with. Practice on Silene, Chelone,
Anemone.

The second rule of pronunciation requires you to break the
word into syllables, which can be a feat in itself, and then to
enunciate the third from last (the antepenultimate) syllable,
unless you know better. That is, you have to decide which
sylLAble to put the emPHAsis on. Thus Cardamine would be

4

November 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 5

pronounced: "car-D AM-in-ee, " not "car-da-ME-knee". There
are many familiar examples you can recall such as kris-ANTH-
e-mum ( Chrysanthemum ), LIL-e-um ( Lilium ), ah-NEM-on-ee
(Anemone), del-FIN-ee-um (Delphinium), PRIM-you-la
(Primula), ger-AIN-ee-um (Geranium) and cam-PAN-you-la
(Campanula). See how funny they would sound if you but the
emphasis on the second-ffom-last syllable? There are plenty of
exceptions to this rule, though, both familiar and unfamiliar.
Try Rho-do-DEN-dron, Cor-ee-OP-sis, Hi-BIS-cus, Ver-BE-na
and Por-tu-LA-ca. See how these would sound if you tried to
enunciate the third from last syllable. In summary, the rules
are: there are as many syllables as vowels; words of two
syllables are stressed on the first; of three or more syllables, on
the next-to-last (penultimate) if the vowel in this syllable is
long; if the vowel is short, accent may be on the third from last
(antepenultimate). How many of the above names follow the
rules?

So, how do you know which is the correct way on an
unfamiliar name? You don’t, until you hear someone
pronounce it and then accept it for yourself as sounding right.
Take the evening primrose genus, for example, Oenothera. I
learned to pronounce it een-oh-THEAR-ah, but was shocked to
later hear a British botanist say ee-NOTH-er-ah. Which is
correct? The third from last syllable would be in keeping with
the rules, but here in America, most experts emphasize the
second from last in this case. There are many examples of this.
Is it just traditional, or what? Perhaps it has to do with making
the words sound more like they would as ordinary English
words. I recently worked with a high school student on tree
identification. He had taken three years of Latin and he
pronounced plant names somewhat differently from me; he was
applying rules I didn’t even know. We almost had a breakdown
in communication.

Two examples of mispronunciation that hurt my ears the most
involved Crass ula and Clematis. These are very common
generic names, and frequently used. The "correct" way is to
emphasize the antepenultimate syllable in both: CRASS-you-la
(not crass-OO-la) and CLEM-a-tiss (not cle-MA-tiss). Think
about it.

Before we get too far away from the British style, let me point
out another difference upheld by the Atlantic Ocean (but often
heard in Canada). It is the pronunciation of the "ch" as a hard
"k" versus a soft "ch" as in "church. " Americans tend to prefer
the hard sound. Thus in Britain you will hear Chioanthus
(fringe tree), Cheilantes (hairy lip fern), and Chenopodium
(pigweed) with a "ch" sound as in "chutney"; we in the states
would be more familiar with "ch" as in "chiropractor. But
then we tend to say Chaptalia (sun bonnets) and Chelone (turtle
head) with a soft "ch" (as in chapstick and cheese). Where is
consistency? Makes things harder, doesn’t it?

These two rules take care of many ordinary pronunciations,
but here are additional cases you will encounter. Many species
are named after people. There are two situations: generic

names and specific names. It would be nice if we could
pronounce the Latin plant name so as to preserve the name of
the person being commemorated. Sometimes that works well,
as in Lobelia (after the 17th century herbalist l’Obel),
Trades cantia (after 17 th century royal gardener John
Tradescant) and Sarracenia (after 18th Century Quebec botanist
Michael Sarrasin). But what about our silverbell tree, Halesial
It was named after the Rev. Stephen Hales, yet we usually say
it hal-EES-cia, rather than HALES-ee-ah. And beautiful garden
perennial Stoke’s aster: some say stoke-EES-cia, rather than
STOKES-ee-ah. Would people like to know about Dr. Jonathan
Stokes? Or would they even know what name you were saying.
When you say the words the way they look, you often lose
something.

Similar variations concern the hard and soft pronunciation of
the "ti" of such genera as Stewartia, Tradescantia and Sabatia.
We say stew-ARE-tee-ah (or stew-ART-sha) and trad-es-CAN-
tee-ah (or trad-es-CANT-sha), but sa-BAIT-she-ah (or sa-BAIT-
sha); can the "ti" go either way in every case? Or should we
try and preserve personal names?

The second situation deals with species names ending in "i" or
"ii", like Senecio smallii, Lilium grayi and Sarracenia jonesii.
Those i’s are added to Latinize a non-Latin word and they
should be pronounced, both of them. Thus: SMALL-ee-eye

Experience Hells Canyon and its Endemic Flora
with the Wallowa Llamas, sponsored by the Wm.
Cusick Chapter of the Oregon Native Plant
Society.

Trip dates April 21-24. Cost is $375 per person
for the three day expedition. Wallowa Llamas
Outfitters provide everything but sleeping bags
and pads. Llamas will carry up to 20 lbs of
personal gear.

Trip Itinerary: At 8:00a we leave Halfway, OR
and head down to Hells Canyon Dam. We boat
down to Butler Bar just above Wild Sheep Rapids
on the Idaho side, hike 4 miles and camp at
Granite Creek for 2 days. A day hike towards the
rim of the canyon takes us through several
vegetation zones. The third day we hike 5 miles
downstream to Bernard Creek where the boat
picks us up and takes us back up to Hells Canyon
Dam.

If interested, contact Berta Youtie, P.O. Box
1188, La Grande, OR 97850 or call 963-4907.

5

November 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 5

(not just SMALL-eye), GRAY-ee-eye (the "y" counts as one
"i"), and JONES-ee-eye (not Joan-ESS-ee, as I have heard).
Here preserving the person’s name, with one or two "eye"
sounds added, should be the rule. The tendency among
inexperienced people is to pronounce only one "eye".

Sometimes, given alternative ways of emphasizing syllables,
you would want to preserve a component of the name that refers
back to a structure for which the name was chosen to reflect.
For example, in the white-top pitcher plant, Sarracenia
leucophylla (the species name means "white leap) should be
pronounced lew-co-PHILL-ah to preserve the Latin word
"phyll" that means leaf (rather than saying lew-COPH-ill-ah as
the antepenultimate Latin rule would have). And in another
example, the genus of filmy fern Trichomanes , so-called
because it has a hair-like, or trichome-like, central vein in the
spore capsule, should be pronounced trike-OHM-an-knees,
rather than trike-oh-MAIN-ees.

Now for the important exception I alluded to earlier: when
NOT to enunciate every vowel. There are plenty of examples
in Latin, just as in English, of diphthongs, a double vowel
pronounced together as one. The most important diphthong in
Latin names is "ae", though you will find plenty of examples of
"eu" ( Eupatorium ), and "oe" ( Coelogyne — here you do
pronounce all of the latter vowels: sea-LODGE-eye-knee, a
tropical orchid).

The first place you encounter "ae" is in plant family names:
Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Geraniaceae, etc. The "ae" is
pronounced invariably as a long "e", as in "bee". (The classical
Roman pronunciation would be a long "i", as in "eye".) So, as-
ter-A-see-ee and ger-ain-ee-A-see-ee. All family names end in -
aceae, which is pronounce -A-see-ee (not A-see-ah), but as if
it is written "a-c-e" and given the pronunciation of those exact
letters.

There are countless examples of generic and species names
with the "ae" diphthong: enchanters nightshade, Circaea (sir-
SEE-ah); Chamaecyparis (came-ee-SIP-ah-rus); and hawthome,
Crataegus (krat-EE-gus). Do not be confused by the occurrence
of "ea", which is not a diphthong normally, such as in the
genera New Jersey Tea, Ceanothus (see-ah-NOTH-us) and
chestnut, Castanea (cast-TAIN-ee-ah, not cass-tan-EE-ah). As
a self quiz on this rule, try to pronounce the family of climbing
fern: Schizaeaceae.

[By the way, all family names are plural and should be
accompanied by plural verbs. For example: the Schizaeaceae
are a family of ferns.]

Answer: sky-zea-A-sea-ee.

I hope this brief lesson has helped. I’m sure you will know
more examples, exceptions and variation than I have listed here.
I realize it is tedious to try and put in writing the pronunciations
of words and syllables, but if you are interested, you will spend
many hours reading and trying to learn them.

A Tribute to the Amateur in Botany

-by Dr. Herbert G. Baker , Professor of Botany at University
of Calif ornia-Berkeley. Reprinted from Sego Lily, a publication
of the Utah Native Plant Society, Volume 15(3), May/June
1992.

Although I have been a professional botanist for forty years,

I feel very much more in tune with the amateur botanist than
you might expect. I have a personal reason to believe that
amateurs do good science because I myself had only two years
of formal education- and did my PhD research without a major
professor- in the London University system that allows so
called "External Degrees" to be earned while one is working
full-time in unrelated employment. Also, thanks to World War

II and the subsequent hard times in Britain, my wife and I grew
up as researchers in an environment where expensive equipment
was out of the question. Consequently, we have always tried to
keep the equipment necessary for our research as simple as
possible, and to be economical as we can be in operating
expenses.

On this basis, we believe that amateurs could contribute much
more to plant science than they do at present. And we feel that
they only need encouragement. In some respects, amateurs are
hardly less well-placed to do research than professionals.

In academia, administrative work and innumerable
committees take up much of the so-called "research time", and
professionals stay productive only to the extent that they work
evenings and weekends, and take vacations in botanically-
determined places. Thus, in reality, the amateur has almost as
much time available for research as the professional.

Here I see a big difference between the Botanical Society of
America (to which I have belonged for 23 years) and the
Botanical Society of the British Isles. This is not just a matter
of numbers of members (between two and three thousand) even
though the population of the British Isles is only about a quarter
of that of the USA. The difference is that the Botanical Society
of America is almost entirely made up of professionals, in
institutions, whereas the Botanical Society of the British Isles is
an amalgam of professionals and amateurs who are often very
competent. I will return to this matter of membership in
botanical societies later.

But how did this apparently greater emphasis on amateur
botany in the United Kingdom come about? Perhaps we can get
some insight by looking at the historical features of British
botany.

In Britain, the 18th and 19th centuries were formative times.
While botany was becoming established as a science in Europe,
there were few professional botanists except for apothecaries,
who produced their own supply of properly identified drug
plants. Other botanists were amateurs, in the sense that they
were not paid for their work with plants. Some were
independently wealthy, such as Sir Joseph Banks, whose
influence was felt widely in the 18th and 19th centuries. His

6

November 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 5

dedication to botany was such that he could never be considered
a dilettante. Banks was the self-sponsored leader of a botanical
team on Captain James Cook’s first voyage to the South Seas,
in HMS Endeavor. This voyage, from 1768 to 1771, was of
enormous scientific and geo-political importance. Sir Joseph
Banks was a great figure in British botany for many years

afterwards. Since he was the _ _

fortunate possessor of great
wealth and excellent political
contacts, in addition to his
own botanizing, he provided
financial and organizational
assistance for many other
collectors in their overseas
activities.

He was the President of the
Royal Society for many years
and his herbarium and library
were presented to the British
Museum, where they served
as part of the foundation of its
comprehensive collections.

For a while, Banks was
Honorary Director of the
Royal Botanic Gardens at
Kew- when they were
literally Royal Gardens. The
Australian genus Banksia is
named after him. He also
travelled to Iceland and to
Newfoundland (but I’m sure
the Newfoundland Banks were
not named after him).

Charles Darwin was a man
of independent means-- at
least after the voyage of the
Beagle-- but few other persons
have had such an impact on
biology: evolution, breeding
systems, pollination biology,
plant physiology, the study of
insectivorous plants and much
more. Except for his thinking
on the early stages of

evolution by natural selection, all his ideas were worked on
during the years he spent at home in Down House, in Kent.
With his shyness and illness, he could never have survived in
the rat-race which we suffer today in the academic world.

Darwin succeeded as a scientist partially because he had
money enough to publish. This can prove to be a hurdle not
easily overcome by the amateur botanist— particularly in these
days of high publishing costs.

Many of the other 18th and 19th century botanists were

How ’bout them botanists
ain’t they a show?

Runnin’ here and there
to where the green things grow.

Sluggin’ through the spring mud,
muckin’ through the mire,
off to see an orchid
like their pants is on fire.

Them down-home botanists
take you for a ride,
find themselves a flower
and look inside.

Lookit that pistil,
stamens by the ton,
pokin at the privy parts
sure is fun.

How ’bout them botanists,
ain’t they funny?

Can’t get ’em clean
for love nor money.

How to be a botanist?

It’ll make you sick.

Go and lose your shoes
where the mud’s real thick.

professionals, although not professionals in botany. For them,
botany was, at least at first, a relief from the stresses of daily
work. However, in this connection it should be noted that these
people were mostly in professions that left ample time for the
indulgence of their hobby. Often they were country doctors or
members of the clergy who travelled frequently along country

roads and paths. They could,
and did, appreciate floristics,
phenology and the more
obvious aspects of pollination
biology.

An outstanding example of
the country doctor in Britain is
Charles Darwin’s grandfather,
Erasmus Darwin, who, among
other accomplishments, was a
very competent doctor, a
philosopher, an agriculturalist,
a pioneer conservationist, and
a political reformer. He is
well-remembered for his
biologically-inspired poetry,
and for his two large books,
Phytologia and Zoonomia.
Erasmus Darwin had more
philosophical influence on his
grandson than Charles was
originally willing to admit,
even though some of his
ideas, expressed in
Phytologia, in which he treats
plants as degenerate animals,
now seem quaint.

Slightly earlier, in 1776,
another country doctor,
William Withering, wrote a
popular manual called The
Botanical Arrangement of the
Vegetables in Great Britain.
Despite its title, this was the
first manual of wildflowers to
be written in English. Though
we remember Withering
particularly as the discoverer
of the heart-stimulating power of an extract of foxglove
(Digitalis purpurea), his now largely forgotten book ran through
many editions and had a strong public influence.

A later variant on the country doctor type was the naval
surgeon. Henry B. Guppy was surgeon on HMS Lark when he
first made significant observations on the dispersal of plants in
the West Indies and in the Pacific Ocean. Naturally, he gave
closest attention to dispersal by the sea itself.

The author and philanthropist Priscilla Bell Wakefield wrote

7

November 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 5

a textbook entitled Introduction to Botany in a Series of
Family Letters with Illustrative Engravings, which was first
published in 1796. The letters in the book are between one
sister at home in the country and another away visiting an aunt.
Seasonal changes in the flora, plant structure and the details of
the Linnaean classes are discussed. This was a popular book
for the education of young ladies, and was printed in eleven
editions, the last in 1841. Wakefield felt strongly that botany
was a healthy and wholesome activity and hoped that her book
would "cultivate a taste in young persons for the study of
nature, which is the most familiar means of introducing suitable
ideas of the attributes of the Divine Being by exemplifying them
in the order and harmony of the visible creation. "

Country parsons contributed nobly to British botany. This was
to be expected because, in Nature, they could see the handiwork
of God. J.C. Loudon, in the early years of the 19th century,
wrote in the Magazine of Natural History that he published:
"The naturalist is abroad in the fields, investigating the habits
and searching out the habitats of birds, insects or plants, not
only invigorating his health but affording him ample opportunity
for frequent conversation with his parishioners. In this way, the
clergyman at last becomes an advisor and friend, as well as a
spiritual teacher. "

In Britain, it is notable that the country clergymen included the
Reverend Miles J. Berkeley, who is said to have personally
named over 6,000 species of fungi, making him Britain’s
leading 19th century mycologist. However, the contributions of
most of the clergymen were to the production of local floras of
vascular plants and bryophytes.

Most plant collectors who have been responsible for
introducing exotic species to horticulture have been
professionals, but there have been some amateurs who were in
foreign lands primarily for some other purpose. These have
included religious missionaries, such as the Reverend William
Colenso, who in 1834 went out from England to the colony of
New Zealand. There he collected and described species of
plants for 65 years, giving special attention to those of the
mountainous regions. He was elected, presumably in absentia,
to Fellowship in the Royal Society of London, and Sir Joseph
Hooker dedicated one volume of the Flora of New Zealand to
him.

1-ess completely in the country, lawyers have made their
contribution. Probably the most famous of these in the 19th
century was George Bentham, a taxonomist and flora composer
whom we most readily think of as part of the team of Bentham
and Hooker. This team represents the perfect example of the
ability of an amateur and a professional to work together in
harmony- which they did at Kew. Bentham was the compiler
of the floras of Hong Kong and of Australia, as well as a
contributor to many others, and he wrote a British Flora, which
was subsequently revised by Hooker. The greatest work of this
team was the production of Genera Plantarum- a conspectus
of the world’s great flora at the generic level, and a new

systematic arrangement of families of plants.

Among the statesmen who were botanists, one man stands out-
- Sir John Lubbock, later Lord Avebury. A neighbor of
Charles Darwin, he was, among other accomplishments, a
banker, a member of Parliament, a Privy Councillor, an
essayist, an archaeologist, and an entomologist— as well as a
botanist. Between 1870 and 1905 he wrote more on these
subjects than anyone, and became renowned as an expositor of
biology for the amateur. His rewards were elevation to
peerage, many honorary degrees, and election to scholarly
societies.

Anne Pratt wrote several instructional books for younger
readers. The Pictorial Catechism of Botany was published in
London as early as 1842. In it, the structure of the flower is
described and the necessity of pollen for seed-setting is stated
although the details of pollination and fertilization are omitted.

( Continued in the next issue of SAGENOTES)

The Form of Leaves

—by Peter Lesica. Reprinted from Kelsey a, the newsletter of
the Montana Native Plant Society; Volume 4(2); 1991.

Most of us recognize different plants by their flowers, and we
pay less attention to the not-so-showy but equally variable
leaves. We all know that the myriad shapes, sizes and colors
of flowers function as attractants to insect or animal pollinators,
assuring cross-fertilization without wasting pollen. But why are
leaves so variable? Leaves serve to capture carbon (in the form
of CCh) and light. They are also the principal site of
photosynthesis where light energy converts C02 and water into
carbohydrates used in growth. A plant’s environment plays a
major role in dictating what leaf shape will best fulfill these
functions. Many observed trends in leaf size and shape can be
explained in terms of trade-offs between efficiency of water use,
photosynthesis and C02 absorption. Understanding the
relationship between environment and function can be helpful in
explaining why leaves are shaped the way they are.

Large areas provide more resistance to surface air movement.
As a result, broader leaves will have higher temperatures and
thus higher rates of water evaporation from tissues.
Consequently, plants from dry, warm or sunny habitats tend to
have smaller, narrower leaves than those from shadier, moister
sites. For example, the yellow prairie violet ( Viola nuttallii)
and western violet (V. adunca ), species of relatively dry open
habitats, have smaller narrower leaves than our common deep
forest species: pioneer violet (V. glabella), Canada violet (V.
canadensis) and round-leaved violet (V. orbiculata). The leaves
of showy aster ( Aster conspicuous), our most common forest
aster, are broader and larger than those of common meadow or
grassland species such as smooth aster (A. laevis), mountain
aster (A. Occident ale) and western aster (A. campestris). Our
common woodland pussy toes - field pussy toes (Antennaria

8

November 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 5

neglecta ) and raceme pussytoes (A. racemosa) -- have relatively
larger, spoon-shaped leaves while those of rosy pussytoes (A.
microphylla ) and umber pussytoes (A. umbrinella ), common dry
grassland species, are smaller and narrower.

Large leaves, if they are deeply dissected, behave as a
collection of small leaves. Thus the same trade-offs that affect
leaf size also affect the degree of lobing or dissection. In
addition, areas of tissue on the leaf margins between the veins
are the most prone to desiccation. In dry environments these
regions of the leaf become too costly to maintain and may be
eliminated by natural selection, resulting in lobed or toothed
margins. Like small leaves, lobed leaf margins are more
pronounced in dry sunny habitats. For example, thimbleberry
(Rub us parviflorus ), with broad shallowly lobed leaves,
generally occurs in cooler and shadier habitats than raspberry
(R. idaeus) which has divided leaves. Our two woodland
species of Clematis , C. Columbiana and C. ligusticifolia, have
leaves that are less dissected than the two prairie species, C.
hirsutissima and C. tenuiloba. Sierra sanicle ( Sanicula
graveolens ) has highly dissected leaves and is found in open
habitats, while black snakeroot (S. marilandica), with less
lobing, occurs in woodlands and riparian forests. Not only are
plants with lobed leaves more common in dry or sunny habitats,
but leaves on the shady side of trees or shrubs are often less
deeply lobed than those on the sunny side.

Interestingly, plants with small, narrow leaves are also
common in environments with waterlogged or nutrient-poor
soils. In these habitats the efficiency of the roots in acquiring
nutrients and water can be inhibited, making the production and
maintenance of large leaves too costly. Bog blueberry
(Vaccinium occidental ) has smaller, narrower leaves than our
common upland huckleberry (V. globulare). The species of
water-hemlock found in bogs, Cicuta bulbifera, has much
narrower leaflets than those of common water-hemlock (C.
douglasii), which occurs in less waterlogged environments.

Until now I have compared species from the same genus, but
the same trends can be observed between floras of different
habitats. For example, as you walk from a Douglas-fir forest
into a grassland, more of the common species have small or
divided leaves. These trends are also found between regional
floras; lobed leaves are more common in trees of temperate
forests than those of the humid tropical lowlands.

It is more difficult for plants to obtain sufficient C02 from
water than from air. One solution to this problem is to increase
the area over which the gas is absorbed in relation to the
volume of tissue being supported. Thus, in aquatic plants, the
submersed leaves are often long and narrow or highly divided.
Common aquatic species such as water-milfoil (Myriophyllum
spicatum ) and bladderwort ( Utricularia ) have highly dissected
leaves. Furthermore, many species of pondweed ( Potamogeton )
have narrow submersed leaves and broader floating leaves.

None of these trends are absolute, and exceptions to all of
them can be found. Furthermore, many factors such as

thickness, evergreeness and defense against herbivores have not
been considered. I have also ignored the important factor of
genetic constraints: roses always have divided leaves, whether
they occur in forests or grasslands. Nonetheless, the above
generalizations are robust enough to explain a good deal of the
variation in leaf form that we see around us. Perhaps next time
you stop to admire a flower, you’ll think about the leaves as
well.

Suggested Reading

Bailey, I.W. and E.W. Sinnott, 1916. The climatic
distribution of certain types of leaves. American Journal of
Botany 3:24-39.

Givnish, T. 1979. On the adaptive significance of leaf form.
In: O.T. Solbrig, S. Jain, G.B. Johnson and P.H. Raven (eds.),
Topics in Plant Population Biology. Columbia University
Press, NY.

Givnish, T. 1987. Comparative studies in leaf form:
assessing the relative roles of selective pressures and
phylogenetic constraints. New Phytologist 106: 131-160.

Talbert, C.M. and A.E. Holch. 1937. A study of the lobing
of sun and shade leaves. Ecology 38:655-658.

Good Stuff

New book: The propagation of Alpine Plants and Dwarf
Bulbs, 1992 by Brian Halliwell. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
294 pp, hardbound, $24.95. This guide covers more than 1000
genera suitable for rock gardening. Detailed propagation
techniques are supplemented by line drawings. This is the first
such comprehensive book published since 1950.

The fourth edition of Suppliers of Beneficial Organisms in
North America lists 60 companies that sell biological controls.
Write Larry Bezak, California Department of Food and
Agriculture, Biological Control Services Program, 3288
Meadowview Road, Sacramento, CA 95832; (916) 427-4590.

The Center for Plant Conservation has just updated their
publication listing individuals and organizations involved in
conserving native plants in the U.S. The publication includes
listings of local federal and state government officials who can
provide information, botanists and other contacts in the state
Heritage Programs, rare plant laws by state and sources for
obtaining state lists of rare and endangered plants. To order,
send $15 to Center for Plant Conservation, Missouri Botanical
Garden, P.O. Box 299, St. Louis MO 63166.

9

November 1992

SAGE NOTES

Volume 15 Number 5

SAGE NOTES is published bimonthly by the Idaho Native Plant Society,
incorporated since 1977 under the laws of the State of Idaho. Newsletter ads are
$2.00 for personal ads; Commercial advertisements: 1/8 page $5.00, 1/4 page
$8.00, 1/2 page $15.00, and full page $25.00. Newsletter ads should be camera
ready and accompanied by payment. Members and others are invited to submit
material for publication in Sage Notes. Articles in any form, even hand-written
(if legible!), are encouraged. Submissions on 5 1/4 or 3 1/2 inch floppy discs
for an IBM computer in WordPerfect, Multimate or ascii file format are
especially appreciated. Illustrations and even good quality photos may be
reduced and incorporated into the newsletter. Computer disks, photos and
illustrations will not be returned unless specifically requested. Provide a phone
number in case the editors have questions on your materials. Send submissions
directly to the newsletter editor: Laura Bonn, P.O. Box 9451, Boise 83707.

OFFICERS

State Officers, P.O. Box 9541, Boise, ID, 83707: President-Susan Bematas,
Vice President— Kathy Geier-Hayes, Secretary— Pam Brunsfeld, Treasurer— Pam
Conley. Big Wood Chapter, P.O. Box 4154, Ketchum, ID, 83340: President-
Kristin Fletcher, Vice President— Frances Naser, Secretary/Treasurer— Carol
Blackburn. Calypso Chapter, 911 Pine Avenue, Coeur d’Alene, ED, 83814:
President-Run Gontz, Vice President— Tina Gospodnetich, Secretary— Bob
Shackelford, Treasurer— Jill Blake. Pahove Chapter, P.O. Box 9451, Boise, ID,
83707: President-Michael Mancuso, Vice President-Ann DeBolt, Secretary—
Laura Bond, Treasurer— Run Conley. Sah-Wah-Be Chapter, 603 Willard Ave,
Pocatello, ID, 83201: Treasurer— Harry Giesbrecht. Upper Valley Chapter,
President— Sylvia F. Reichel, Vice President-Jeanne Anderson, Secretary-
Rebecca Cheek, Treasurer— Allen J. Thiel, Jr. White Pine Chapter, P.O. Box
8481, Moscow, ED, 83843: President— Rim Brunsfeld, Vice President-Loring
Jones, Secretary /Treasurer— Mark Krueger. Newsletter Staff: Newsletter Editor-
-Caryl Elzinga, Technical Editor-Bob Steele, and Circulation Manager-Rm
Conley.

Idaho Native Plant Society
P.O. Box 9451
Boise, ID 83707

The purpose of the Idaho Native Plant Society (INPS) is to promote interest
in native plants and to collect and disseminate information on all phases of the
botany of native plants in Idaho, including educating the public to the value of
the native flora and its habitats.

Membership is open to anyone interested in our native flora.- Contributions
to our Society, are tax deducti&le. Send dues and all correspondence to
I.N.P.S., Box 9451, Boise, ID 83707.

Please include me as an Idaho Native Plant Society member.

Full Year Half Year
Jan-Dec31 July 1 -Dec 31

Sustaining $30 15

Individual $ 8 4

Household* $10 5

Student $ 6 3

Senior Citizen $ 6 3

Name: _ _

Address: _ _

City/State :_ _

Zip Code: _ Telephone: _ Renew? _ New?

Chapter affiliation?

_ Pahove (Boise)

_ White Pine (Moscow)

_ Calypso (Coeur d’Alene) Include $6 chapter dues

_ Sah-wah-be (SE Idaho)

_ Upper Valley Chapter (Idaho Falls)

_ Wood River (Ketchum-Sun Valley) Include $7 chapter dues
_ None. Those who do not live near a chapter center are especially
encouraged to join. We can put you in touch with other members in your area,
and can coordinate with you on any state level activities you may with to be
involved in. New chapters may be forming in eastern and northern Idaho.
♦Household memberships are allocated two votes.

Non Profit Organization
U.S. Postage Paid
Boise, ID 83708
Permit No. 171

Don’t forget to pay your membership dues!

G —

New York Botanical Garden
Library

Bronx, NY 10458

library

JAN 1 1 1993

botaEa^gardeiv

10