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THE

SAN FRANCISCO BAY
MARINE PILING SURVEY

SECOND ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORT

PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE
SAN FRANCISCO BAY MARINE PILING COMMITTEE

OF THE
AMERICAN WOOD-PRESERVERS' ASSOCIATION

PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA

JANUARY 15, 1922

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 3

Division of work in 1921 3

Equipment 4

National Research Council Cooperation 5

Personnel 6

Howard Carleton Holmes — an appreciation 10

Service Records Section -. 12

Board of State Harbor Commissioners' Report 14

Untreated wooden piles 2 5

Metal protective coatings 29

Paint and batten protective coatings..:. .29

Concrete protections — ..... 31

Creosoted piling 3 4

Reinforced concrete cylinders 40

Reinforced concrete piles 42

Form of Service Record reports to the Committee 45

Standardized service records 47

Summary of conclusions 47

Wharf Construction Section 49

Specifications and inspections! 49

Preparation and treatment .... - 50

Handling creosoted piling ..50

Construction 51

Repairing damaged piles 52

Removing breeding grounds -52

Practical difficulties 53

Protections Section ....53

Chemical Section ....54

Specifications Section , ..58

Tentative specification covering creosoted Douglas fir

piling and lumber for use in marine structures 60

Notes on creosote oil specification 71

Biological Section 72

Action of Teredo in San Francisco Bay in 1921 73

Factors limiting the persistence and distribution of

Teredo navalis in San Francisco Bay in 1921 74

Specific status of the Teredo of San Francisco Bay 81

Future Work - ~- 82

THE

SAN FRANCISCO BAY
MARINE PILING SURVEY

SECOND ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORT

PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE
SAN FRANCISCO BAY MARINE PILING COMMITTEE

OF THE
AMERICAN WOOD-PRESERVERS' ASSOCIATION

PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA

JANUARY 15, 1922

LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

COPYRIGHT, 1922, HY THE
SAX FRANCISCO BAY MARINE PILING COMMITTEE

W

SAN FRANCISCO BAY MARINE PILING SURVEY
PROGRESS REPORT, SECOND YEAR

INTRODUCTION

The work of the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee
herein reported covers approximately the calendar year 1921. The
work of the year 1920, which was reported to the American Wood-
Preservers' Association at its Seventeenth Annual Meeting in San
Francisco on January 26, 1921, clearly demonstrated how large was
the field upon which the investigation had entered, and how urgently
desirable was the continuation of the work, in order that its largest
possible results might be realized. This led to a continuation of
the work by the Association. The Committee f6r the present year,
on assuming its duties in accordance with the Association's authori-
zation, carefully considered the problem before it and concluded that
adequate results could not be secured by an investigation continuing
for less than three years farther. It was also decided that in addition
to such engineering assistance as should prove necessary, the funda-
mental nature of the biological and chemical problems warranted the'
employment of both a biologist and a chemist for full time on the
Committee work. On this basis the Committee solicited financial
support in the amount of $30,000, or at the rate of $10,000 per year
for the three.year period, of which the quota for the year and the
major portion of the remainder has been secured- ''"At the end of .three
years it is anticipated that it will be desirable to reappraise the field
and determine what further work if any is necessary.

Division of Work in 1921

Upon the organization of the new Committee it was divided into
sub-committees for the better conduct of the several phases of the
work, as follows:

Executive

Finance

Service Records

Wharf Construction

Protections

Chemical

Specifications

Biological

Salinities

Supervision of Experiment Station
The field assigned to the several investigative sub-committees will
appear in the reports of their work which follow. This sub-division
of work is felt to have resulted in much more effective utilization of
the interest and energy of the large membership composing the main
Committee than could have been accomplished otherwise. In pur-
surance of its plan of work the Committee has employed year-long a
biologist and a chemist, with whom contracts have been entered into
reserving to the Committee the right of patent, or other disposal, of
any new ideas or inventions which may result from their direct em-
ployment by the Committee. During the latter part of the year also
a competent engineer has been employed full-time on the work of the
Service Records Sub-Committee.

Committee Equipment

Through the courtesy of the Southern Pacific Company, the Com-
mittee has been able to establish a biological field laboratory and
experiment station on that company's freight pier adjacent to the
Oakland Mole. Here, with running water both fresh and salt, marine
borers have been maintained in continuous health and activity, as well
as subjected to varying salinities down to perfectly fresh water. This
* work is permitting a most valuable controlled check upon the very
significant synthesis indicated by the field work this year in respect
to the critical factors operative in the survival and extension of
Teredo. Here also will be tested the toxicity upon marine borers of
various creosote constituents and other chemicals. Reached by ladder
below the field laboratory is a working platform at the approximate
level of high tide, from which experiments under actual tidal condi-
tions can be conducted. This platform and the surrounding piling is
also being used by the Sub-Committee on Protections for the exposure
to borer attack of the various piling protections which it is testing.

Through the similar courtesy of the California & Hawaiian Sugar
Refining Company the Committee is now being supplied with a second
biological field laboratory, at Crockett, Calif., just at the critical tension
point of Teredo's survival in Carquinez Strait during the past season
(as discussed in the Biological Section of this report). At this labora-
tory, at least during several months of 1922, a second biologist in the
employ of the Committee will carry on special investigations under
Professor Kofoid's direction with reference to the factors determining
this survival. Here also the Committee has installed a recording ther-
mometer for the study of the temperature factor.

In addition to the field laboratories, through the cordial coopera-
tion of the University of California, both the biologist and the chemist
of the Committee have the privilege, for Committee work, of the ex-
tensive facilities of the University laboratories in their respective
sciences.

Four test stations are maintained by the Committee, where test
specimens of wood treated with different oils or oil fractions are now
under regular observation, in exposure to borer attack. These stations
are at State Harbor Commission Pier No. 7, San Francisco, at the
Oakland Mole, the Mare Island Navy Yard, and Crockett- Eight sa-
linity stations are maintained, at Avon, Bulls Head Point, Martinez,
Port Costa, Crockett, Black Point, Greenbrae and Tiburon, from which
samples of water, in some cases at both high and low tide, are taken
and analyzed for salinity.

National Re.seai-^h Council Cooperation

The San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee has initiated the
project approved by the Executive Committee of the American Wood-
Preservers' Association which has resulted in the organization of a
special committee on marine piling investigation by the National Re-
search Council, which will thus be able to act as the guiding and cor-
relating center for widely distributed investigative activities in this
direction which are contemplated by cooperating agencies at many
marine centers of the United States, as well as to form a medium
of contact between such activities in the United States and other
countries. In furtherance of that project this Committee has enlisted
for its speciafically scientific activities the service of an Advisory
Committee composed of men of the highest scientific rank and attain-
ments, appointed by the President of the University of California from
the faculty of that institution; which will provide for this work the
authoritative scientific guidance required as a condition of its spon-
sorship by the National Research Council. This Committee is com-
posed of the following members:

E. C. Lipman, Professor of Soil Chemistry and Bacteriology, Chair-
man.

C. W. Parter, Associate Professor of Chemistry.

C. Derleth, Jr., Dean, College of Civil Engineering.

J. S. Burd, Professor of Agricultural Chemistry.

C. A. Kofoid, Professor of Biology and Assistant Director of the
Scripps Institution for Biological Research.

Walter Mulford, Professor of Forestry and head of the Division of
Forestry.

D. R. Hoagland, Associate Professor of Agricultural Chemistry,
Secretary.

Personnel

The Steering Committee appointed by the Association in pursu-
ance of the motion passed on the floor of the last Annual Meeting, "to
study the matter for a short time and perhaps plan what should be
undertaken for the year, and make recommendations to the Executive
Committee as to the nature, size and personnel of the larger Committee
which it might be desirable to appoint later", reported to the Execu-
tive Committee of the Association on March 10, 1921. The San Fran-
cisco Bay Marine Piling Committee for the present year was appointed,
upon its nomination, by the Executive Committee on March 15. Th<
large size of the Committee membership was designed to give repre-
sentation to all the contributors to and cooperators in the work of the
year. The sub-committee organization, which has been noted, has kepi
it from becoming unwieldy and has utilized its ability to the best effect.
The Committee as appointed has suffered some changes by removal
and, in one case, by death. These are indicated in the following list:

San I'lancisco Bay Marine Piling Committee, 1921

F. D. Mattos, Manager Treating Plants, Southern Pacific Company,
W. Oakland, Calif., Chairman.

A. A. Brown, Construction Engineer, California & Hawaiian Sugar
Refining Company, Crockett, Calif., Vice-Chairman.

W. C. Ball, Sales Manager, Chas. R. McCormick & Company, San
Francisco, Secretary-Treasurer.

C. L. Hill, in charge, Office of Forest Products, U. S. Forest Service,
San Francisco, Executive Officer.

H. A. Anderson,** Engineer, American Telephone & Telegraph
Company, New York.

Ernest Bateman, Chemist in Forest Products, Forest Products Lab-
oratory, Madison, Wisconsin.

A. M. Baxter, Vice-President, J. H. Baxter & Company, San Fran-
cisco.

H. J. Brunnier, Consulting Structural Engineer, San Francisco-

*J. S. Burd, Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of
California, Berkeley, California.

C. E. Cortes, Construction Engineer, Shell Company of California,
Martinez, California.

*H. O. Demeritt, Assistant Engineer, San Francisco-Oakland Ter-
minal Railways, Oakland, California.

*Honorary Member.
**Removed to New York during the year.

*Chas. Derleth, Jr., Dean, College of Civil Engineering, University
of California, Berkeley. California.

*W. W. DeWinton, Engineer, Moore Shipbuilding Company, Oak-
land, California.

*W. E. Dore, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, California.

*H. F. Faull, Sales Manager, Hammond Lumber Co., San Francisco.

*Emanuel Fritz, Assistant Professor of Forestry, University of
California, Berkeley, California.

*H. H. Hall, Chief Engineer, Standard Oil Company, San Fran-
cisco.

*G. H. Hicks, Acting Chief Engineer, Northwestern Pacific R. R.,
San Francisco.

*D. R. Hoagland, Associate Professor of Agricultural Chemistry,
University of California, Berkeley, California.

*Lieut. Allen Hoar, Corps- of Civil Engineers, U. S. Navy, Bremer-
ton Navy Yard, Bremerton, Washington.**

*Howard C. Holmes, Consulting Engineer, San Francisco. ***

Geo. M. Hunt, In Charge, Section of Wood Preservation, Forest
Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin.

W. M. Jaekle, Assistant Engineer, M. of W. £ S., Southern Pacific
Company, San Francisco.

*Capt. F. B. Jones, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, Fort Mason,
San Francisco.

L. D. Jurs, Chief Engineer, Associated Oil Company, San Francisco.

W. H. Kirkbride, Engineer M. of W. & S., Southern Pacific Com-
pany, San Francisco.

Dr. C. A. Kofoid, Professor of Zoology and Assistant Director of
the Scripps Institution for Biological Research, University of Califor-
nia, Berkeley, California.

*C. A. Kupfer, Consulting Engineer, Berkeley, California.

*C. B. Lipman, Professor of Soil Chemistry and Bacteriology, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, Calif., Chairman of Advisory Com-
mittee.

*Lieut. C. L. Macrae, Corps of Civil Engineers, U. S. Navy, Mare
Island Navy Yard, Mare Island, California.

Chas. R. McCormick, President, Chas. R. McCormick & Company,
Sr.n Francisco.

"Honorary Member.

**Recently Transferred from Mare Island.
*:::* Deceased October 30, 1921.

8

*Walter Mulford, Professor of Forestry, University of California,
Berkeley, California.

*Jerome Newman, Consulting Engineer, San Francisco.

H. S. Pond, Assistant Engineer, U. S. Engineers' Office, Rivers and
Harbors, San Francisco.

*C. W. Porter, Associate Professor of Chemistry, University of
California, Berkeley, California.

R. H. Rawson, Consulting Timber Engineer, Portland, Oregon.

*G. W. Rear, General Bridge Inspector, Southern Pacific Company.
^ San Francisco.

*Capt. H. W. Rhodes, In Charge, U. S. Lighthouse Service, San
Francisco.

*W. T. Richards, Assistant Engineer, San Francisco-Sacramento
Railroad, Oakland, California.

*F. B. Smith, Consulting Engineer, San Francisco.

*0. K. Smith, Assistant Superintendent Mountain Copper Com-
pany, Martinez, California.

R. G. Smith, Assistant Manager Fuel Oil and Asphalt Division.
Standard Oil Company, San Francisco.

0. R. West, Division Engineer, A. T. & S. F. R. R., Needles, Cal-
ifornia-**

F. G. White, Chief Engineer, Board of State Harbor Commissioners,
San Francisco.

J. W. Williams, Chief Engineer, Western Pacific Railroad Company,,
San Francisco.

Herman von Schrenck, Consulting Timber Engineer, Tower Grove
and Flad Avenues, St. Louis, Missouri.***

*Honorary Member.
**Transferred, November 26, 1921.
***Consulting Member.

Sub-Committees, 1921

Executive

C. L. Hill, Chairman

W. C. Ball C. E. Cortes H. H. Hall

F. D. Mattos A. A. Brown 0. R. West

C, A. Kofoid L. D. Jurs

C. L. Hill
F. D. Mattos

H. O. Demeritt
J. W. Williams
F. G. White
C. L. Macrae

C. E. Cortes
J. W. Williams
F. G. White
L. D. Jurs
W. H. Kirkbride

G. H. Hicks
H.. 0. Demeritt
F. G. White

C. W. Porter

W. C. Ball
E. Bateman
A. A. Brown
A. M. Baxter

F. D. Mattos
A. A. Brown
C. E. Cortes
F. G. White
Allen Hoar

Finance

W. C. Ball, Chairman
W. W. DeWinton
C. R. McCormick
A. M. Baxter

Service Records

L. D. Jurs, Chairman
G. W. Rear
C. A. Kupfer
H. W. Rhodes
F. B. Smith

Wharf Construction

A. A. Brown, Chairman
W. M. Jaekle
H. J. Brunnier
Allen Hoar

F. B. Smith
Chas. Derleth, Jr.

Protections

C. L. Hill, Chairman

G. M. Hunt
C. A. Kupfer
E. Fritz

Chemical Investigations

J. S. Burd, Chairman
W. E. Dore

Specifications

F. D. Mattos, Chairman
H. A. Anderson
R. H. Rawson
Chas. Derleth, Jr.

A. A. Brown
O. R. West

A. A. Brown
C. L. Hill
O. R. West
Howard C. Holmes

H. S. Pond
Jerome Newman
Howard C. Holmes
O. R. West

R. G. Smith
O. R. West
Howard C. Holmes

EVnest Bateman

F. G. White
H. H. Hall
O. R. West

Biological and Experimental Work

C. A. Kofoid, Chairman

O. K. Smith W. T. Richards

C. A. Kupfer H. W. Rhodes

R. G. Smith F. B. Jones

G. H. Hicks E. Fritz

H. F. Faull C. L. Hill

10

Salinities

C. E. Cortes, Chairman

A. A. Brown J. W. Williams C. A. Kofoid

F. D. Mattos H. S. Pond 0. K. Smith

In Charge of Experiment Station

W. H. Kirkbride, Chairman
C. A. Kofoid C. L. Hill F. D. Mattos

Committee Employees

Robert C. Miller, M. A., Biologist.

W. H. Hampton, Ph. D., Chemist.

H. M. Goodman, B. S. in Civil Engineering, Engineer.

Contributors to the Fund of the San Francisco Hay
Marine Piling Committee, 1921

Associated Oil Company,

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad.

Balfour, Guthrie & Company,

Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation

Board of State Harbor Commissioners,

California & Hawaiian Sugar Refining Company,

Hammond Lumber Company,

Matson Navigation Company,

Chas. R. McCormick & Company,

Moore Shipbuilding Company,

Pacific Creosoting Company,

San Francisco Bridge Company,

Schaw-Batcher Company,

Shell Company of California,

Southern Pacific Company,

Standard Oil Company.

Hovvaid Carleton Holmes

In the death of Mr. Holmes, on October 30, 1921, the San Francisco
Bay Marine Piling Committee suffered the loss of one of its most
eminent members. Mr. Holmes was 67 years old at his death and al-
most until that time was still in active professional service, being
stricken at his deck by the malady which caused his demise. He came
to San Francisco at the age of five years, and was associated with its
activities throughout his subsequent life. At the time of his death
he had been actively identified with engineering for a full half century,
and for more than half of that long period he was a national figure in
the engineering profession.

11

Throughout his career, but especially in its middle portion, Mr.
Holmes was interested in street railway construction, having built the
Powell Street, the Union Street and the lower end of the California
Street cable railways in San Francisco, the cable railways at Portland,
Oregon, Spokane, Wash., and the Madison Street cable line in Seattle,
besides electric railways in Oakland, Alameda and Stockton, California.

Port and terminal work, however, during most of his career was
his major interest, and that in which his national reputation was
made. Early in his career he was Assistant Engineer of the Califor-
nia Board of State Harbor Commissioners, resigning this position to
build the Alameda, Calif., mole and depot for what was then the South
Pacific Coast Railways Company. He designed a method of protecting
wooden piles from marine borers by encasing them in a concrete
sleeve, which has had extensive use in the San Francisco Bay region.
Asi Chief Engineer of the Board of State Harbor Commisisoners, from
1892 to 1901, he built many of the piers on the San Francisco water
front, including the water terminals of every railroad entering Sari
Francisco, excepting the Southern Pacific. And the latter road in-
stalled in its slips freight and passenger hoists designed by Mr. -Holmes.

On resigning from the Harbor Commission position, Mr. Holmes
devoted special attention to dry dock construction, in which he became
a nationally recognized authority. As Chief Engineer of the San Fran-
cisco Dry Dock Company, whose dock was then the largest graving
dock on the Pacific Coast, he designed the Hunter's Point Dry Dock,
which is still one of the largest in the world. He was still Chief En-
gineer of this Company at the time of his death, although maintaining
also the most extensive consulting practice in the city, in water front
engineering lines. In 1904 Mr. Holmes was commissioned to report
for the Boston, Mass., Harbor and Land Board on the respective merits
of graving and floating docks. He planned the Canadian Government
dry dock at Victoria, B. C. Many other docks and terminals on San
Francisco Bay were also built by Mr. Holmes, including those of the
Oakland-San Francisco Terminal Railways and the Richmond Belt
Railway. For many years preceding his death he was consulting
engineer for an imposing array of institutions, including many of the
greatest international shipping and commercial companies having tide-
water structures on this Bay- No other engineer in this region had
probably a wider or more intimate acquaintance with every detail of
the complex history of port and waterfront development in this region
than had Mr. Holmes. The loss in his death is very great to the San
Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee, which unanimously joins in
this acknowledgement of its debt to him, and extends to the bereaved
widow and the business associates of Mr. Holmes its heartfelt sym-
pathy.

12

SERVICE RECORDS SECTION

In following out the program suggested in last year's report, ef-
forts in the Service Records work during the present year have been
directed toward three objectives: (1) to inspect for present condition
the now existing structures reported on last year, and thus bring up to
date their service record; (2) to uncover more of the great volume of
service record material which still lay buried in the files of the com-
panies and institutions having waterfront interests in San Francisco
Bay; (3) to develop an adequate but practical outline of what a ser-
vice record should include, for recommendation to the cooperators in
the Marine Piling Survey and any others in the San Francisco Bay re_
gion who should approve the idea, so that future service records in
this region may be both more adequate and more consistent and uni-
form in the data recorded than they have been in the past.

One of the gratifying results of the work of the San Francisco
Bay Marine Piling Committee and its report, as submitted to this As-
sociation last year, has been the stimulation of the California Board of
State Harbor Commissioners, who control the entire waterfront of the
city of San Francisco, to undertake and complete during the year
under present report a detailed inspection of all the piling on this
waterfront, comprising something like 140 acres of piers and wharves.
In addition to inspection of existing structures, the files and records
of the Board were reviewed for information bearing on the construc-
tion and history of the structures which preceded them; all of which
information has been summarized in a report prepared for the use of
both the Commission and the Committee. This report is accompanied
by the tabulated statement of service, completed to date by the inspec-
tions of the present year. The report necessarily repeats m some
cases information brought out in the report of this Committee last
year; but in its entirety the report is so valuable, and it is so diffi-
cult to dissect it without doing violence to it, that it is introduced ver-
batim as a part of the present report. There is no other organization
in this region the continuity of whose record is equal to that of the
Board of State Harbor Commissioners, their record going back in
some cases a little over forty years.

From the Harbor Commission report it can clearly be seen, as was
not realized last year from the more limited material then available,
that acute engineering, and even public, interest in better protection of
piling structures against marine borers in this region, has occurred
in nearly regular cycles of close to ten years each. The anxiety in
each case was caused by the failure of some scheme or schemes which
had been evolved, or to which faith had been pinned, as at last the per-
fect protection, at the preceding "awakening." And each wave evolved
one or more new processes, which were likewise acclaimed, in spite
of previous experience.

13

During the years 1888 to 1890 untreated wooden piling began to
be replaced by creosoted piling. This statement does not consider as
creosoted piling that treated in San Francisco as early as 1869, by the
Robins process of subjecting the wood, in a closed tank, to vapors of
creosote. The possibilities of the early creosoted piling at its best were
demonstrated by the Oakland Long Wharf piling, reported on at the
1920 convention of this Association, some of which lasted up to 29
years. But that few then realized how the service of potentially ex-
cellent creosoted piles could be cut in half, or even more nearly anni-
hilated, by puncturing the creosoted zone with dogs, pikes, axes, and
bolt holes is not hard to understand when it is still impossible to pre-
vent the piles from being thus abused. The percentage of creosoted
piling failures shown by the Harbor Commission report to be due to
dogging, it is believed will astonish even many who thought they
knew. So a great deal of creosoted piling failed prematurely, and was
blamed accordingly, in the decade of the nineties. During that de-
cade, also (or, like creosote, at the last end of the eighties), appeared
the first crop of the superficial bituminous coating methods.

The second big wave of anxiety about piling protection appeared in
the years from 1898 to 1900, although the introduction of concrete cas-
ings placed in steel cylinders had preceded this period by a couple of
years. During this time the first form of the Holmes' concrete encas-
ing cylinder with a wooden form was produced. This first form, as it
was not made clear in last year's report, was the large cylinder enclos-
ing a cluster of wooden piles. Unfortunately, this less perfect form of
the Holmes' pile was for a number of years believed by many engin-
eers of this region to be the one final answer to the problem.

In the decade beginning in 1908 attention continued to be focussed
strongly on the possibilities of concrete. The more efficient single-pile
form of the Holmes' cylinder appeared in that year, as did also .the
Black's Patent method, which was the forerunner of several forms now
used for pouring a concrete jacket around a wooden pile in place, sec-
tion by section, without contact with the water till after it is poured;
in the same year also appeared the Koetitz precast concrete cylinder
protection for wooden piles, which is shown by the service record to
have been so remarkably effective; and at about the same time was
introduced the concrete cylinder constructed in place inside a caisson,
and the modern precast reinforced concrete pile. In addition to the
concrete activity, this decade witnessed renewed and greatly extended
use of creosote, as well as a new crop of the superficial coating, or paint
and batten, methods.

The period since 1918, which has witnessed the disastrous appear-
ance of Teredo activity in San Francisco Bay, has brought renewed
development of protective and construction processes, which include
representatives of practically every class of process brought forward in
previous years. It seems often as if little has been learned, or taken

14

to heart, by such promoters from the experience of the past. But it
IF a healthful sign that much more effort than formerly seems now
being devoted toward securing technically correct workmanship in
treatment, construction and inspection, with a realization that only
thus can the best methods do themselves justice.

In preparing the statements which accompany the tabulated ser-
vice records for various classes of piles, which follow the special. re.
port of the Board of State Harbor Commissioners, presented herewith,
it has been endeavored not to repeat the information developed at
length in last year's report, except as becomes necessary for purposes
of intelligent comparison. In view, however, of the fact that this com-
mittee, by authority of your last year's meeting, has now embarked
upon a continuing program, it is felt that the service record tabula-
tions themselves should be cumulative, presenting from year to year
the total body of record which has been obtained for this region. The
tabulations herewith presented, accordingly incorporate last year's
data with that obtained this year. They also repeat the tabulated data
presented in the special report of the Harbor Commission, so as to
make it conveniently, available with respect to each separate class of
piles. A final summary, similar to that of last year, has also been,
stated, so as to keep up to date any modifications of conclusions which
may from time to time become necessary.

SERVICE RECORDS FROM STRUCTURES OF THE BOARD OF
STATE HARBOR COMMISSIONERS AT SAN FRANCISCO

The files of the Board of State Harbor Commissioners constitute a
forty years service record comprising almost all types of commercial
pile construction, which have been introduced in San Francisco Bay
during this period.

The efforts of the early Boards were largely directed toward re-
piling existing structures and contain frequent references to the enor-
mous expense of these replacements. In this work piles with the bark
intact and unbroken appear to have been the standard type used, al-
though some methods of preservation such as "built up" piles and
coatings were attempted. In 1888, in the report of the Board to Gov-
ernor Waterman, the first reference is made toward the adoption of a
policy of preservation, as follows:

"The Board has given much attention to the various meth-
ods for the preservation of piles and timber from the ravages
of teredo (#) and limnoria. The engineer of the Board is

#Where Teredo is spoken of as present on the Pacific Coast in
engineering publications of former years, Xylotrya is undoubtedly to be
understood. There is no biological evidence of the presence of Teredo
in San Francisco Bay until the invasion of recent years.

15

emphatic in his opinion that thorough creosoting is the best

remedy that has so far been used for this purpose and reports

that this has been demonstrated both in Europe and in this

country."

The biennial reports for 1891-2 contain the contracts for treated

piles. These were let to the Pacific Improvement Company for 14 Ib.

and 15 Ib. treatment with creosote and to the Paramne Paint Company

for coating piles. From this time the biennial reports list contracts

for both coated and creosoted piles.

In 1898 the biennial report to Governor Budd contains the follow-
ing reference to methods of preservation:

"The preservation of piles and timber is the one over-
shadowing question in the administration of waterfront affairs.
In the course of a trial recently, in the Superior Court of San
Francisco, involving a consideration of the merits of the var-
ious methods of preserving piles, the fact was brought out upon
the testimony of three of the foremost civil engineers on this
Coast that the methods of pile treatment adopted by this Board
will preserve the piles for from twenty to twenty-five years."
The methods of treatment referred to were apparently "coating"
and "creosoting", described as follows in the report:

"These patents embrace different forms of artificial cover-
ing for piles, while others call for the injection of antiseptics
and other chemical matter into the pile itself, which is accom-
plished after a degree of porousness is formed in the wood by
extraction of the sap and moisture therefrom."
Notwithstanding the testimony of the "three foremost civil engin-
eers", all of the treated and coated piles of this period failed long be-
fore the twenty to twenty-five year period expired. The report of the
Chief Engineer in the same biennial report (1898) contains the follow-
ing significant paragraph which may account for the unfavorable be-
havior of the preservatives:

"All authorities in writing on the preservation of piles
for marine work seem to ignore the existence of the Limnoria.
In my opinion, it is much more destructive on this coast than
the teredo, and while a pile that has been thoroughly creosoted
will resist the teredo even if somewhat checked, the limnoria
will find the slightest opening and destroy the pile."
That these protections, while not lasting the anticipated period,

were nevertheless beneficial is attested by the Chief Engineer in the

Biennial Report of 1900, as follows:

"With few exceptions, the piling of old structures has been
done with coated or creosoted piles, and although the same

16

have not proved to be of such irresistible nature against the
attacks of the teredo and limnoria as at first anticipated,
nevertheless the life of these piles will be greatly prolonged
and the present enormous expense for repiling somewhat
reduced in the future."

In the period from 1895 to 1900 the Board in addition to utiliz-
ing coated and creosoted piles made a beginning in concrete substruc-
tures. The foundations for the Ferry Building were completed Sept.
1st, 1895. In this construction clusters of green piles aggregating
5200 were encased in rectangular concrete piers which were constructed
inside of an open coffer dam. Following this construction the sub-
structure for Pier 5 and for Folsom St. Wharf were constructed in
1896 of green pile clusters which were encased with concrete placed
inside of a cylindrical shell of 3-16 inch boiler plate. These types of
construction have proven satisfactory and the sub-structure supports
are still in use.

About 1900 there was developed the concrete cylinder substruc-
ture known as the Holmes patent. In its earlier form this consisted in
the surrounding of clusters of green piles with a wooden stave cylin-
drical form driven into the mud and sealed at the bottom after which
concrete was poured for encasing the piles.

From 1901 to 1907 Piers 7, 11, 19, 21, 23, 25 and 27 were built of
this type of construction. In the Biennial Report of 1908 the As
sistant State Engineer reports as follows:

"There are practically two kinds of piers in existence on
the waterfront of San Francisco. One is the pier resting on
creosoted piles and comprises the remains of the old work, com-
pleted previous to the use of the Howard Holmes patent. The
other comprises the piers resting on piles protected by con-
crete according to Mr. Holmes' patent ....

"Those of the first kind are very hard to maintain, and it
has been the policy of the Board for a long time to construct

all new piers on the patented piles "

But speaking of the patented piles he later adds:

"In a few instances the concrete cylinder piers iiave failed
and fallen from their position. This latter failure is undoubt-
edly due to the practice of placing the concrete for a consider-
able portion of the bottom of the cylinders under iciter without
any special device to present a separation of the^ ingredients."
Since 1908 when the above was written the cylinder piers of this
type have likewise proven "very hard to maintain" and have been
generally repaired by replacement of faulty cylinders. These replace-
ments were due in part to the disintegration of poor concrete (proba-
bly poured into the sea water) but principally to failure to properly
seal the cylinders and encase the piles at the mud line. Numerous

17

cylinders were replaced with creosoted piles from 1913 to 1915 and ad-
ditional repairs were made in 1921, when all of these structures were
examined by diver. The number of cylinders remaining in servicea-
ble condition is recorded in the tabulated service records.

In 1908 an improved type of concrete cylinder was developed in
which the concrete was deposited inside of a steel coffer ram which
was driven into the bottom and pumped dry. After concreting, the
steel shell was pulled and re-used on succeeding cylinders. In this
manner the disadvantages of pouring concrete through water were
minimized. Piers 36, 38, 40, 39, 26, 28, 30 and 32 were constructed
under this system from 1909 to 1914. These piers are giving good ser-
vice except for construction defects due to careless workmanship.
The principal defects have resulted from the use of excessively wet
mixes, from insufficient tamping and failure to properly clean construc-
tion joints. Piers 26 and 28 were particularly faulty in respect to
construction joints at low water. The upper portions of these cylin-
ders were poured on top of an accumulation of laitance and silt which
was subsequently washed out and was replaced by grouting. Certain
cylinders show signs of disintegration due to excessively wet mixes
and lack of tamping. These cylinders have been repaired by encasing
them in a 3-inch shell of dense concrete deposited similarly to the
"Black Patent" process for concreting piles- The number of repaired
cylinders and general condition of the structures are recorded in the
tabulated service records.

A modified type of Holmes cylinder was also developed about 1908
and was incorporated in Pier 34 constructed in 1910. In this type a
single pile was encased in concrete with special gaskets for sealing the
bottom and facilitating the pumping out of the casings. A diver's ex-
amination has been made on alternate bents of Pier 34, the results
of which are tabulated in the appended service records. No repairs
have been made on this pier, which is in good condition after 11 years
exposure.

The Koetitz type of concrete protected pile was also developed
about 1908. In this type the green pile was encased in a pre-cast
concrete shell, the space between the shell and the pile being filled
with sand or grout. Between 1908 and 1910 approximately 250 lin.
ft. of concrete bulkhead wharf was constructed on this type of pro-
tected pile and in 1911 Pier 17 was constructed entirely on this type.
These structures have given good service and are in first class con-
dition. The piles in the bulkhead wharves have developed inconse-
quential defects in small cracks over the reinfocing of the cylinders.
Cracks of this nature are of less import than in the case of reinforced
concrete piles, as the casing is largely a protection for the green pile
and cracking occurs only above the water line. Neither the structural
efficiency of the encased pile nor the protective value of the casing is
greatly affected.

18

Still another type of concrete protected pile developed in 1908 is
the "Black Patent" type in which concrete is placed in sectional forms
above the water level which are lowered on the pile as the filling of the
form proceeds. Two small contracts for this protection were let in
1908-9; the remaining piles of which have been inspected and recorded
in the tabulated service records. In general these piles appear to be
sound to the mud line and those which have failed have been eaten off
at the mud line because the protection was not carried below that
point.

During the period from 1900 to 1910 while experimenting with the
various concrete supports outlined above, the Board also continued to
utilize considerable quantities of green piles, coated piles and creo-
soted piles. In 1908, 1200 eucalyptus piles, all of which were Euca-
lyptus globulus according to the report of the engineer, were purchased
and driven largely in the Ferry Slips. These- piles were a disappoint-
ment for this purpose, failing partly by breakage and partly by the
attacks of Xylotrya. They were all replaced by 19-12. Four of these
piles, however, installed as mooring and fender piles in Pier 38 have
been in place to date. These piles have been cut off by Xylotrya, at
the mud line, but show very little of the characteristic limnoria attack
at low water line.

All of the coated piles driven during this period have been replaced
or removed, a typical example being Pier 9. This pier originally of
green piles was rebuilt with coated piles in 1903. The coated piles
were replaced with creosoted piles in the period from 1911 to 1915.

Most of the creosoted pile construction of this period (1900-1910)
has likewise been removed or replaced. This construction included the
timber bulkhead wharves along the seawall which have been recently
reconstructed as concrete bulkhead wharves. Replacement was neces-
sitated both by deterioration of the creosoted piles and the decay of
the timber decks. There are a number of creosoted piles installed
during this period now in use in the ferry slips but they are so inter-
mixed with newer construction that a survey and report is unreliable.
The earliest creosoted pile structure which has been maintained intact
is the freight slip extension to Pier 36 constructed in 1909. These
piles are in fairly good condition as noted in the* appended tabulation.
Next in length of service are the creosoted piles used in repiling of
piers 7 and 9 and in the track extensions of piers 20 and 21 installed
about 1912.

During the years 1914-16 a very extensive creosoted pile program
was carried out by the Board. This program included the repiling of
Piers 11, 19, 21, 23, 25 and 27 and -the construction of Piers 14, 15, 16,
18, 20, 22, 37, 41 and 46. During the past year most of this construc-
tion has been carefully inspected and considerable repairing has been
carried out in the way of plugging the holes between tides, which

19

have been subjected to Limnoria attack. This is done with cement
mortar which is forced into the holes and then pointed with plaster
of paris to protect the cement mortar from the tide. A record of all
piers repaired is given in the tabulated service tests. In general it
may be stated that 80% of the abrasions attacked are produced by
pile dogs; about 15% by checks developed during or since driving and
the balance from miscellaneous defects. In some of the repaired
piers (19, 21, 25 and 27) steel staging bolts were used which were with-
drawn without pluging the holes. These openings were heavily at-
tacked. In all cases the piles of the repaired piers on the north side
of the Ferry Building contained larger holes and were more heavily
attacked than the piles in the new piers to the south. This is possibly
due to the increased abrasion of the piles where driven through the
roof and deck of existing work as compared with the unobstructed work
on new piers. It was impossible to patch the inaccessible portion of
the piles below the water line, but judging from the extent of the at-
tack which is visible it is thought that the stability of the piles will
not be appreciably reduced for at least another six year period, at which
time a percentage of the piles must be repaired or replaced. Xylotrya
or Teredo attack was visible only where piles had been split or checked;
in these cases it was more rapid and serious than the Limnoria attack
in small abrasions.

In 1911 pre-cast reinforced concrete piles were introduced in the
Bulkhead Wharf of Pier 17. This construction has been adopted for
all succeeding bulkhead wharf construction aggregating approximately
8500 feet of bulkhead. Following the destruction of Pier 46 by fire
in 1916, the creosoted pile construction was considerably curtailed, and
pre-cast concrete pile construction somewhat extended. Pier 35 was
constructed in 1915 and Piers 3, 29, 31 and 33 in the period from 1916
to 1918. In these piers concrete piles up to 100 ft. in length have been
satisfactorily handled and driven. This construction together with the
concrete cylinder construction has been periodically surveyed for de-
fects and deterioration. The later concrete pile structures show no
deterioration as yet, but the earlier bulkhead wharves are beginning
to show cracks due to the rusting of the reinforcing above the water
line- No deterioration has been discovered below the water line.

Summary

The following types of substructure support have given satisfactory
service and may be considered reliable when properly designed and
constructed:

1. Concrete piers and cylinders laid in open coffer dams;

2. Steel cylinder shells filled with concrete;

3. Single green piles encased in concrete;

20

4. Creosoted piles;

5. Pre-cast concrete piles.

The efforts of the Engineering Department in all new construction
are largely directed toward more exacting work than is necessary
in inland construction. In the case of concrete the principal desid
eratum is density and imperviousness which is obtained by proper
proportioning, by the exclusion of sea water or surplus mixing water
and by excess tamping. In the case of creosoted and protected piles
the principal desideratum is the preservation intact of the protective
shell or coating in order to prevent ingress of the borers to untreated
timber. The success or failure of each of the above types is directly
proportional to the degree of perfection with which these two re-
quirements are fulfilled.

Tabulation of Service Records
Existing Structures on the Waterfront of San Francisco

TYPE — Green Piles encased in rectangular concrete piers placed
in open coffer dams and carried 2 to 3 feet below mud line:

Date Number of Condition 1921

Structure Constructed Supports Inspected ~by Diver

Ferry 1895 5200 Concrete and piles in first class

Building Green Piles condition with exception of 5

Foundation piers opposite ferry slips where

mud has been partially removed
by scouring action of propellers.
5 Piles exposed to Xylotrya at-
tack.

TYPE — Green Piles encased in concrete deposited inside of steel
shells composed of 3/16" boiler plate:

Date Number of

Structure Constructed Supports Condition 1921

Pier 5 1896 130 All cylinders intact, — utilized in

construction of floor 1919 and 20.

Pier, 20 1896 120 - All cylinders intact and in ser-

vice. Some cylinders are hollow
at mud line according to diver's
report.

21

TYPE — Green Piles encased in concrete deposited inside of steel
shells composed of 3/16" boiler plate:

Date

Number of

Structure Constructed Supports

Boiler

Foundations,
Ferry Bldg., &
Supports for
Upper Deck
Apron, N. side
Slip 4.

1896-
1900

17

Condition 1921

Inspected by diver. One cylin-
der has hole near mud line. Cyl-
inders utilized in reconstructing
concrete floor, in 1921.

TYPE — Holmes cylinder supports consisting of green pile clusters
surrounded by 3' to 4' concrete cylinders:

Date Number of
Structure Constructed Supports Condition 1921

Pier 19 1903 234 181 Cyl. removed — 53 Cyl. re-

main in good condition.

Pier 21 1903 234 206 Cyl. removed— 28 Cyl. re-

main in good condition.

Pier 23 1903 234 168 Cyl. removed — 66 Cyl. re-

main in good condition.

Pier- 25 1903 273 172 Cyl. removed— 101 Cyl. re-

main in good condition.

Pier 11 1905 490 440 Cyl. removed — 50 Cyl. re-

main in good condition.

Pier 7 1903 486 353 Cyl. removed— 153 Cyl. re-

main in good condition.

TYPE — Holmes Pile consisting of single green pile encased in
concrete:

Date Number of
Mrncture Constructed Supports

Pier 34

1919

770

Condition 1921

All piles intact and giving satis-
factory service. Inspected on al-
ternate bents by diver with fol-
lowing results:
2.08% have pile exposed.
13.50% have minor defects such
as grooves 1" deep;
84.42% perfect.

22

TYPE — Concrete cylinders constructed inside of a steel coffer dam
shell:

Date Number of
Structure Constructed Supports

Pier 36 1909 427

Pier 38 1909 437

Pier 40 1909 440

Pier 28 1912-13 451

Pier 26 1912-13 664

Pier 39 1913 531

Piers 30-32 1913 1509

Condition 1921

All cylinders intact, minor re-
pairs necessary in some cases.
10 cylinders repaired by encas-
ing in a 3" shell of dense con-
crete.

All cylinders intact, minor re-
pairs necessary in some cases.
47 cylinders repaired by encasing
in a 3" shell of dense concrete.

*A11 cylinders intact, minor re-
pairs necessary in some cases.
51 cylinders repaired by encas-
ing in a 3" shell of dense con-
crete.

All cylinders intact, 142 cylin-
ders in depressed track and out-
side row defective at low water
joint; all repaired by grouting
or concreting joint. 76 cylin-
ders repaired by encasing in a
3" shell of dense concrete.

All cylinders intact, 161 cylin-
ders in depressed track and out-
side row defective at low water
joint; all repaired by grouting
or concreting joint. 27 cylinders
repaired by encasing in a 3"
shell of dense concrete.

Condition good. No repairs to
date but small amount of patch-
ing necessary.

Condition good. Cylinders have
rough surface but concrete is
sound and shows no disintegra-
tion.

TYPE — Concrete protected green piles — Koetitz method:
Date Number of

Structure Constructed Supports
Pier 17 1911 1130

Bulkhead
28 to 30

1909

2f»

Condition 1921

All supports in first class condi-
tion.

17 piles show small rust cracks
above high water. Otherwise
piles in first class condition.

23

TYPE — Concrete protected green piles — Koetitz method:
Date A' umber of

Structure Constructed Supports

Bulkhead

26 to 28 1909 33

Condition 1921

18 piles show small rust cracks
above high water. Otherwise,
piles are in first class condition.

TYPE — Concrete protected green piles — "Black Patent" method:

Date X umber of
Structure Constructed Supports Condition 1921

Fisherman's 211 have been removed because

Wharves 1908-09 250 of failure at mud line. 30 in

serviceable condition and now in

use.

Pier 7 Est. no. in con- 27 in serviceable condition. 7

Repairs 1909 tract, 50; 34 gone at mud line,

now in place.

TYPE — Creosoted pile construction:

Date X umber of
structure Constructed Supports

Pier 36
Outer End

1909

570

Condition 1921

Piles in fair condition.

113 Piles repaired between tides

by cementing limnoria holes.

17 Piles require replacement as

shown by inspection between

tides.

TYPE— Creosoted pile construction:

Date y umber of

Slnictitrr Constructed Supports

Pier 9

Repilin;

Pier 7
Reoiling
and Track
Extension.

Pier 20

Pier 19
Reconstr.

1911-15

1912

1912

Depressed
Track

1914

1680

936

84

528

Condition 1921

Piles in poor condition. Inspect-
ed by diver as follows: 518 piles
in good condition. 1010 have
limnoria holes between tides.
152 piles require replacement.

Diver's examination: 786 Piles
in good condition. 102 defective
above low water. 21 defective at
mud line. 27 defective at cut off.

19 piles replaced because of Xy-
lotrya attack.

Heavy Limnoria attack in dog
hnles. staging holes and checks.
329 Limnoria holes sealed with
cement.

24

TYPE — Creosoted pile construction:

Date Number of

Structure Constructed Supports
Pier 23 1914 511

Reconstr.

Condition 1921

Heavy Limnoria attack in dog
holes, staging holes and checks.
282 Limnoria holes between
tides sealed with cement.

Pier 25 1914 714 Principal Limnoria attack in

Reconstr. staging holes. 455 Limnoria

holes between tides sealed with
cement. 16 piles replaced.

Pier 27 1914 573 Considerable Limnoria attack

Track Ex. in dog holes. 200 Limnoria

and holes between tides sealed with

Reconstr. cement. 12 Piles replaced.

Pier 14 1914 1557 Light Limnoria attack in dog

holes and checks. 481 Limnoria
holes between tides sealed with
cement.

Light Limnoria attack in dog
holes and checks. 394 Limnoria

holes sealed with cement.
i
Light Limnoria attack in dog

holes and checks. 289 Limnoria
holes sealed with cement.

Light Limnoria, attack in dog
holes and checks. 190 Limnoria
holes sealed with cement.

Pier 21 1915 560 Heavy Limnoria attack in dog

Reconstr. holes and checks. 442 Limnoria

holes between tides sealed with

cement.

Pier 11 1915 1092 t Considerable Limnoria attack in

Reconstr. dog holes. 340 Limnoria holes

between tides sealed with ce-
ment.

Pier 22 1915 658 Light Limnoria attack in dog

holes and checks. 136 Limnoria
holes sealed with cement.

Pier 24 1915 1452 Light Limnoria attack in dog

holes and checks. 386 Limnoria
holes sealed with cement.

Pier 15 -1914 1379

Pier 16 1914-15 1381

Pier 18 1914-15 1381

25

TYPE— Pre-cast Concrete pile construction:

Date Number of
structure Constructed Supports Condition 1921

Pier 17 1911 135 41 Piles show rusting cracks

Bulkhead over the steel above the high

Wharf water line. Otherwise, in first

class condition.

Section 11-A 1912 141 36 Piles show rusting cracks

Seawall above high water. Otherwise,

all piles in good condition.

Pier 35 1915 2492 56 Piles badly cracked above

high water. 215 Piles slightly
cracked above high water. Other-
wise, piles in good condition.

Untreated Wooden Piles

Definite service records have this year been tabulated for a large
number of untreated wooden pile structures not listed last year. The
striking fact brought out is that every pile reported last year has
been torn out or replaced, and that practically all those now listed
have been likewise disposed of, except those, as in some cases, which
were revamped by the concrete jacket method.

That the results to be obtained with untreated piles are directJv
governed by their exposure has been very forcefully demonstrated in
the experience of the San Francisco-Oakland Terminal Railways. Their
original trestle was constructed in 1902 on untreated piles and for a
period of five years was equal to all demands. From this time forward
the severity of attack was increasingly pronounced. In the year 1913
some 30 untreated anchor piles were destroyed in a single season.
This would seem to indicate that an untreated pile structure in a lo-
cation isolated from structures known to be harboring marine pests can
be expected to last considearbly longer than an untreated pile struc-
ture in close proximity to structures known to be infested: This is
true in spite of the fact that the marine pests are present at all times.
Untreated piles are also more severely attacked at the outer end of
piers, or in deep water, than they are inshore or in shallower water.

This condition is very often altered by unusual local influences.
The experience of the Howard Company of Oakland illustrates the
point. Their original pier was built upon untreated piles in 1900 and
required little or no attention for about 8 years. They were so pleased
with the results obtained with this type of cheap construction that re-
placements were made with untreated piles. During these years the

26

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28

effluent from a gas plant at the foot of Market St., Oakland, was being
discharged into the Estuary and the useless by-products from the man-
ufacture of illuminating gas were deposited by tidal currents as a sur-
face coating on the untreated piles of the Howard wharves which are
adjacent. This practice was ordered stopped by the Fish & Game
Commission, together with the Oakland Port Authorities. The life of
these untreated repair piles, thereafter, was limited to what might
have been expected in waters where Limnoria are active. The Howard
Company are now using only creosoted piles under their wharf struc-
tures. In the fender systems untreated piles are still being used.

The findings of this Committee during the last year, pertaining to
bark as a protection to untreated piles do not materially alter the con-
clusions appearing in the last report (Plate 1, Fig. 1).

We now have service records for Eucalyptus piles that are worthy
of study. From the report of the Board of State Harbor Commissioners
which has been given, it will be noted that the large number of Euca-
lyptus globulus piles driven in 1909 failed, partly by breakage and part-
iy from Xylotrya attack, within four years. In Pier 38 four of these
piles (mooring and fender) are still in place, although gone at mud line
from Xylotrya action. The San Francisco-Oakland Terminal Railways
used a large number of Eucalyptus piles in their original trestle. In
the stub of original trestle fctill remaining in place there are standing
some few, number indeterminate, whose life has approximated ten
years. Conditions at the S. F.-O. T. Ry. pier are much less favorable
to Teredo and Xylotrya than on the San Francisco side, but Limnoria
is apparently much less affected.

Eucalyptus globulus piles seem from the present evidence to re-
sist the attack of Limnoria to a greater extent than does Douglas fir,
but of Teredo and Xylotrya little if any better. Any advantage which
this species might have in respect to borer resistance is in most cases,
however, negatived by mechanical failure, due to its excessive tendency
to split and check either in driving, or under the effects of weathering
or the impact of boats in subsequent service.

Untreated piles, unprotected, still have their use in temporary
marine structures, but extreme care must be used in investigating
local conditions. The principal things to note are: (1) exposure
to attack (see tables of salinity for locality; note proximity of infested
structures) ; (2) possibility of protection by local contamination which
may in some cases prove an unfavorable environment for pests. No
sufficient knowledge is yet available as to the nature of such con-
taminations. The purpose for which a structure is to be used will
determine whether it will have outlived its usefulness prior to the
time of anticipated collapse.

Untreated piles in uncontaminated salt water, known to be in-
fested, will withstand the attacks of Limnoria without losing their

29

structural usefulness for periods up to three years; in water containing
sewage or other contaminations where borers are known to be present
untreated piling appears in some cases to last longer than that- Lim-
noria, however, does not seem to be affected by sewage contamination
as much as Teredo and Xylotrya. Untreated piles in uncontaminated
salt water have been destroyed in as short a time as six months by
Teredo and Xylotrya. Untreated piles in salt water have had longer
than the average life in locations removed from other infestation or
where local conditions were unfavorable for marine borers.

Metal Protective Coatings

This type of protection is no longer in as common use as it is
known to have been in former years. No new information has come
to light during the period covered in this report to alter the conclu-
sions stated in the 1921 report. These conclusions are summarized
at the end of this section of the present report.

Paint and Batten Protective Coating's

The usefulness of this method of protecting untreated piles has
been shown in last year's studies and report. The report of the Chief
Engineer of the Northwestern Pacific Railroad Company covering an
installation at Petaluma Creek indicates some of the primary considera-
tions that determine their selection of this type of pile. These, brief-
ly stated, were: (1) lower initial cost as compared with creosoted
piles; (2) possibility of salinity being so reduced by a return of wet
years, and increased fresh water flow, as to kill off marine pests; (3)
possibility of structure becoming obsolete before the expected life of
pile would be reached; (4) sheltered location.

The difficulty in determining the life of piles protected by surface
coatings in this harbor, as noted in last year's report, is that most of
the installations have been removed without adequate record having
been kept. The several extensive installations of such piles made dur-
ing the years 1920 and 1921, as shown in the accompanying tabulation,
it is hoped can be kept under continuous observation and record.

With protected piles the importance of position of mud line cannot
be overlooked, as called to attention in last year's report. In the use
of this type of pile the mud line cannot be lowered or the protection
loses its effectiveness. A study into the causes that could bring about
a change of bottom conditions must be made before deciding in favor
of this type of bearing pile. The desirability should also be borne in
mind of using such construction in waters sheltered from excessive
storm action, on account of its susceptibility to abrasion.

The service records covering paint and batten protective coatings,
were pretty thoroughly canvassed and evaluated in the 1921 report.

30

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31

We have nothing new that would change the conclusions appearing
therein, which are summarized at the end of this report. Piles treated
with the better types of coating will always find a place in semi-tem-
porary marine construction- It should, however, be added that, since
the cost of paint and batten coatings is greater per linear foot applied
than is that of creosote treatment, the lower cost per pile of the former
mehod, which is usually assumed as compared with the latter, is condi-
tioned by the relative length of water section of the pile, decreasing as
the latter increases, especially when the increased water depth is ac-
companied by decreased bottom driving depth.

Concrete Protections

The report of 1921 described in considerable detail the numerous
types of concrete protection which have been utilized on San Francisco
Bay. These types are characterized by various ingenuities in apply-
ing the protection, but they may be roughly classified in two general
groups, pre-cast protections and cast-in-place protections.

The principal representative of the pre-cast group hitherto used
on San Francisco Bay is the Koetitz pile in which type the untreated
pile is surrounded with a concrete shell, cast separately and set in place
after the pile has been driven. (Plate 1, Fig. 2; Plate 2, Fig. 1.)

The cast-in-place group includes the various simple methods of
concreting piles between the tides, the encasing of piles with steel
shells or pipes filled with concrete, the Holmes patent for depositing
concrete in a wooden casing driven into the bottom, and the various
modifications for lowering the plastic concrete casing down the pile as
the depositing of plastic concrete proceeds. (Plate 2, Fig. 2; Plate 2,
Fig. 1.)

During the year a new process has appeared which is sufficiently
unique to require separate classification and may become the proto-
type for a third group. This is the Newsom-Squire pile which is cast
simultaneously with the driving of the pile and which utilizes the
impact of the pile hammer both for securing penetration in the bottom
and for compacting the plastic concrete.

The service records which have become available confirm last
year's favorable report on the excellence of pre-cast protections of the
Koetitz type. Piles of this type have been exposed for twelve years in
trulkhead wharves and for ten years in Pier 17 of the San Francisco
Waterfront without a single repair or replacement and with no visible
deterioration other than a few small cracks above the high water
line.

With reference to cast-in.place protections, attention is directed
co the long service obtained from the steel shell cylinders of Piers 5
and 20 which have been in place for approximately twenty-five years.

32

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An examination by diver has verified last year's statement that the
Holmes piles of Pier 34, in contrast to the Holmes cylinders in other
piers, are in good condition and confirms the conclusion that satis-
factory results with this method depend largely on intelligence and
skill of execution which is difficult to obtain under working conditions.
Records of Black Patent pile repairs on the San Francisco Waterfront
indicate failures through neglect in penetrating the bottom at the mud
line- In the recent modification of this process, known as the Larsen
patent, as installed by Mr. Frank Camp at the California Wharf and
Warehouse, Port Costa, an attempt has been made to remedy this de-
fect by jetting the lower section into the mud bottom. In this partic-
ular structure 2259 piles were repaired and reinforced during the past
year and deducations with regard to durability cannot yet be made.
As shown in the table, 192, or 8.5% of the total, required patching or
repairing, either during construction or before acceptance of the job.
This job, however, illustrates one practical advantage of the method, in
that these extensive repairs were executed without the interruption of
a heavy grain warehouse business. (Plate 3, Fig. 2; Plate 4, Fig. 1.)

In general it may be stated that uniformly dense and impervious
coatings of concrete extending from well below the mud line to above
the water line and reinforced sufficiently to resist blows and internal
stresses offer a highly satisfactory method of protecting untreated
piles. The service tests bear out theoretical contentions that coatings
of the high quality required are readily obtained in pre-cast work
and that under favorable conditions they may be obtained by skill
and intelligence in cast-in-place methods.

Cast-in-place protections offer the only commercial method of re-
pairing defective piles and supports in place. Their value for tnis
purpose when applied between high and low tide is attested by the
numerous installations in all parts of the Bay. The durability of these
repair coatings below low water depends on the effectiveness with
which water, both sea water and excess mixing water, is excluded
from the concrete and a proper seal is made at the mud line. Nothing
.has developed during the year to alter last year's conclusions, that
such cast-in-place repairs are not certainly reliable for depths in excess
of fifteen feet.

Creosoted Piling

In adding the additional data brought to light during the present
year to the service records of creosoted piling in San Francisco Bay
presented in last year's report, occasion has been taken to segregate
the record of large structures according to years of installation of the
piling, instead of lumping them all in one record as was done last
year in the case of the Oakland Long Wharf. It is felt that such a pol-
icy will not only permit the determination of replacements by years,
and thus facilitate the pursuance of maintenance and depreciation

35

studies, but will prove a valuable safeguard against drawing erroneous
conclusions in respect to the life of any class of piling.

Service records are entered this year for 30 installations not en-
tered in last year's report, involving over 23,000 piles in 27 installations,
with 3 installations for which it has not yet been possible to obtain
the exact data on number of piles installed- This data, however, is
in most cases promised and will be obtained, it is hoped, in the far-
ther progress of the work. There are also certain unavoidable dis-
crepancies between this report and last year's in the number of piles
entered for some of the structures covered by both reports. This
year, also, the policy has been adopted of using only the service record
of bearing piles, since fender piles, of which many were entered in
the record of last year, are subject to such special hazards as seldom
or never to show a life which is representative of the service rendered
by the same class of pile in bearing service.

Perhaps the most important result of the increased volume of ser-
vice records presented this year is that the average life of creosoted
piling indicated by them is lower than that recorded last year. This
does not, in the view of the Committee, indicate that creosote treatment
is less valuable than was stated in last year's report, although the
statement of the Committee last year has been misinterpreted in some
quarters as promising for creosoted Douglas fir piling, as now used, or
for structures as a whole, the extreme life shown by the best examples
taken from the Oakland Long Wharf. Creosoted piling as now com-
monly found in marine structures is far from being piling "properly
handled in rafting, and not mistreated in the erection of the substruc-
ture" which was predicated in the la^t year's statement of the Commit-
tee.

Rather, in view of the very striking evidence given by the Harbor
Commission report, that of all the damage to piling noted and repaired
in this year's complete inspection 80 per cent was definitely caused
by dog holes (Plate 4, Fig. 2) through which the borers plainly gained
their entrance, do the service records now presented strengthen the
emphasis laid last year upon the critical necessity of care, both in the
handling of creosoted piling from the treating plant to the structure
and in driving it and building the superstructure upon it. Unquestion-
ably the use of poor oil or improper methods of treatment may also
shorten the life of creosoted piling and should be guarded against by
proper specifications. Thin treatment on one side of the pile (Plates
5 and 6) sometimes result when the piles are rafted before being treat-
ed, if the moisture is not properly removed in the treating process.
The evidence is also thoroughly established that knots frequently afford
points of entrance for borers (Plate 7, Fig. 1). The evidence of such
examples as the Oakland Long Wharf as to the life which a proper
creosote treatment, properly safeguarded in subsequent handling and
construction, may give to wooden piling still stands. Creosoted piling

36

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is a highly specialized product, and like all such products, its adapta-
tion to a special purpose involves greater care in protecting it against
other conditions. But the very greatly increased resistance ayninxt
marine borers given to wooden piling by good creosote treatment is cer-
tainly worth the price which must be paid for it in protecting it from
mechanical damage.

It seems justified again to emphasize the statement of last year
that a great need of the San Francisco Bay region is a creosoting plant
in this vicinity. A part of the remarkable record shown by the Long
Wharf piling was unquestionably due to the fact that it was possible
to creosote it in the Company's own plant close to the point where the
piling was to be installed, thus minimizing handling damage- The
rafting, storage and repeated handling, almost universally accompanied
by dogging, which is incident to obtaining piling at a distance, makes
damage from such sources almost impossible to prevent; and this is
the position occupied by all users of creosoted piling in the Bay region,
except the Southern Pacific Company, to whom the Long Wharf be-
longed. It is not surprising, therefore, that the Harbor Commission
found 80 per cent of all damages occasioned by dogging.

In the case of creosoted piling, as in that of other forms of piling,
the Committee feels that the volume of service records so far accu-
mulated does not represent a sufficient proportion of the whole body of
structures in this territory to warrant the stating of an average life.
A conclusion respecting the range of life which may reasonably be ex-
pected from creosoted Douglas fir piling in this region under c.rifttiuf/
conditions may,, however, be legitimately drawn, and will be found in
the summary at the end of this section of the report, for this as for
other types of piling.

Reinforced Concrete Cylinders

The information contained in the 1921 report regarding this type
of construction has been amplified by a detailed record of repairs to
existing structures on the San Francisco Waterfront (Plate 7, Fig. 2).
The defects noted appear to be the result of insufficient and improper
tamping and of negligence in cleaning construction joints where con-
creting was discontinued (Plate 8, Fig. 1). In both cases the negli-
gence was aggravated by the use of excessively wet consistencies of con-
crete which have been conclusively proven to produce inferior con-
crete, and which, although once considered good practice, are no longer
permitted in the best modern practice. Owing to the massiveness of
the columns, no defects have developed to date which materially af-
fect the structural stability of the piers. Defective construction joints
have been repaired by pointing and grouting, and inferior concrete
by encasing the cylinder in a shell of dense concrete. The cylinders
of the U. S. Army Transport Docks at Fort Mason and of Piers 30-32

41

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42

and 39 are in first class condition and indicate the possibilities of this
type of support when properly designed and when construction condi-
tions are favorable.

Reinforced Concrete Piles

The square reinforced concrete pile with chamfered corners des-
cribed in detail in the 1921 report has become a standardized construc-
tion type for the San Francisco Bay region (Plate 8, Fig. 2; Plate 9,
Fig. 1). Of the numerous installations made during the past ten years,
no defects have been noted in the portion of the piling below high
water. In the older structures, however, cracks due to the rusting of
embedded steel are beginning to appear between the high water line
and the deck. In this portion of the pile they are easily observed and
readily repaired as contrasted to deterioration below the low water
line which cannot be observed. The real concern of engineers experi-
enced with this type of construction is not so much with the pile as with
the concrete decks which usually accompany concrete pile construc-
tion. The Board of State Harbor Commissioners is keeping a careful
record of such deterioration, a portion of which relating to piles is re-
corded as a service record. As a result of experiments and observa-
tions, the engineers of the Board are confident that in all future
construction, deterioration due to rusting of embedded steel can be
retarded if not prevented by several simple expedients, such as the
use of galvanized steel, and periodic coating of the concrete surfaces
with asphalt, paraffin or other waterproofing coatings.

With reference to both reinforced concrete cylinder and reinforced
concrete pile construction, many engineers are of the opinion that the
increased cost of this construction is not justified by the degree of per-
manence so far exhibited. The principal factor which has influenced
the early development of this construction in this locality has been the
demand for fireproofing in waterfront structures where cargoes are con-
centrated aggregating in value many times the cost of the structures.
As frequently happens, the pioneer has paid heavily for the experience
of blazing the way. All the early structures were built before the
modern scientific studies of concrete construction were disseminated,
at a time when the danger of excessive water and sand contents were
not merely unknown but were even thought beneficial and when con-
crete of any thickness was considered an efficient protection from the
corrosion of steel.

Notwithstanding defects which will admittedly lessen the durabil-
ity of these structures, their value has been enhanced by the progres-
sive rise in construction costs, a tendency which is seldom taken into
account by advocates of more temporary construction. In general it
may be stated that high class reinforced concrete cylinder and rein-
forced concrete pile construction on San Francisco Bay gives promise

43

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of outlasting other types of sub-structure support with the exception
of mass concrete construction. It is necessarily limited by high cost
to structures in which long economic life, fire risk or difficulty of re-
placement justifies increased expense.

Form of Service Record Reports to the Committee

For the purpose of service record reports desired by this Commit-
tee the following revised form will be used in the future. It will be
mimeographed so that it can be sent out by the Committee for execution
and return. The form has been restricted in the data requested to
what has seemed the lowest possible limits, in view of the constantly
increasing range of information which continued study of service rec-
ord problems raises. Information on a few points may not be avail-
able for structures of many years' standing; but it is hoped that co-
operators can keep substantially such data in future records, in view
of the very great value which ten years' keeping of such information
throughout the Bay region will have. In filling out the form it is
hoped that on certain items, such as concrete manufacture, creosote
treatment, etc., detailed information will be furnished when it is avail-
able, as indicated in the footnote of the form, using separate sheets
wherever necessary, properly referenced to the form. In respect to
concrete manufacture, for example, it is often necessary, for a com-
petent judgment of results, to know what kind of sand and aggregate
were used, whether the aggregate was graded, what the mixing practice
was (as bearing upon thoroughness of mixing and wetness of mix), etc.

SERVICE RECORD REPORT

To the S. F. Bay Marine Piling Committee

I. Statistical Data:

a. Owner : Name

Address: Street City Calif.

b. Person in charge:

Name

Address: Street City Calif.

Phone

c. Location

d- Name of structure

II. Construction Data:

a. Type of structure

b. General dimensions: L x B Can you supply a

plan?

c. Distance of deck above high tide

d. Average depth of water Can you supply profiles?

46

e. Kind of Bearing Pile

f.v (#) Treatment of wooden piles:

Method

By whom

g. (#) Composition of concrete:

Mixture Reinforcement

Seasoning time allowed

h. Number of Bearing Piles

i. Date of completion

III. Exposure Data:

a. Distance to nearest structures

b. Do you keep a salinity record?.. Wijl you?

c. Sewage or other local contamination

d- Borer most numerous

e. Position with reference to shore

f. Tidal and current conditions

IV. Repair Data: (Furnish layout plan).

a. Repairs: Date Number Nature (#)

b. Replacements : Date Number Kind

(#)If wooden piles: Treatment

By Whom

Method .

(#)If concrete: Composition: ;

Proportions

Reinforcements

Seasoning Time .....

V. Inspection Data: (Furnish layout plan).

a. Date

b. By whom performed _

c. Nature of deterioration:

Mechanical Damage

Decay

Borers

VI. Have you photographs illustrating points of interest under any of

the above headings ? _

Report made by

Title

Place

Date

(#)For items thus indicated, as detailed information as
possible is desired. For example, for creosoted piles it is of
great value to know the origin and analysis of the oil used in
treatment, whether the piles were water stored before treat-
ment, etc. Use extra sheets if necessary.

47

Standardized Service Records

The experience of the present year has strengthened the convic-
tion of the Committee respecting the wisdom of the recommendation
made last year for the standardization of service records of marine
piling. The scope of the information respecting the history of piling,
through treatment or fabrication, handling and installation, as well as
subsequent inspection and repair or replacement, which is needed for
adequate interpretation and the greatest usefulness of service records
has increased with the study devoted to the subject. Present methods
in respect to service records are of all degrees of incompleteness, as
well as of lack of uniformity in the information which is recorded.
Much of the information which would now be valuable and which the
Committee would like to obtain respecting piling installed in the past
is doubtless irretrievably lost.

No engineer who has studied the matter, however, can doubt that
the keeping of adequate service records would save many times their
extra cost to any company, in the information preserved for future
guidance in design and contracts. Nor can he doubt that if such
records were kept on a mutually consistent basis and in harmonious
form, for the majority of marine structures in San Francisco Bay,
their value for future cooperative studies would be very great, in con-
tributing to the improvement of future piling and the increasing of
its service life.

The diversity of the needs of different concerns and their financial
limitations on the extent to which they can go, as well as the individ-
ual preferences of engineers, make the specific organization of service
record systems a matter which must largely be worked out for each
individual case. That greater harmony is desirable no one can doubt.

As to method, any recommendation toward this end must await
more intensive and detailed study than has yet been given to the
subject. In the meantime, however, much can be done toward in-
creasing the adequacy of service records by a study on the part of
engineers of the possibility of incorporating in their records items not
now recorded but for which it is seen (by even such limited question-
aires as the one which this Committee now presents) that there will
be future need. It is believed that a helpful scheme, often missing in
yirvice record systems, is a service record -central correlating or index
file, through which all service record data can be located, data which
for any reason must be filed elsewhere being represented by cross ref-
erence. The Committee's service record report form, it is hoped, may
offer some suggestions in regard to the contents and organization of
such a file.

Summary of Conclusions

In concluding the service records sections it seems desirable to re-
state the summary given in the report of last year, with the modifica-

48

tlons which seem to be required as a result of this year's work. All
changes of wording from that used last year are indicated by italic ft.

(1) Marine borers are very active in San Francisco Bay and
connected waters, and in places where their attack is severe will des
troy untreated piling in as short a time as six to eight months. In
ether places the untreated piling may last from two to four years.

(2) The information secured indicates that it is reasonable to
expect a life of five to eight years from paint and batten protections
in sheltered waters, if the work is well done. If it is not well done,
or if the covering is damaged by careless handling, or if unprotected
wood is exposed by mud scour, this range of life cannot be expected.

(3) The data so far in hand indicates that it is fair to r.n-jtecl
creosoted Douglas fir piling in Kan Francisco Bay to give a life of 15
to 20 years under present conditions. Certain piles are of authentic
record from the Oakland Long Wharf which were sound when removed
after a service of 29 years. Poor treatment, or damage to creosoted
piling by careless handling, rafting, storage or construction, will ma-
terially reduce the life which might otherwise be rendered by sucli
piling.

(4) Most of the attack on creosoted piling by marine borers,
which the Committe has observed throughout this survey, appears to
have begun in spots where untreated wood has been exposed by dam-
age in handling the piles or placing the superstructure. It is urgently
recommended that improvements be made in the methods of handling
creosoted piles and building structures upon them, so that damage to
the surface of the piles may be reduced to a minimum.

(5) Precast reinforced concrete piles and pile casings have not
been in use in San Francisco Bay a sufficient length of time to deter-
mine their ultimate life. A detailed examination of those structures
which have been in service for 10 years shows no evidence of deteriora-
tion below high water line, and they seem capable of a long further
life. The length of life to be expected from this type of construction
is largely dependent upon the quality of materials and workmanship
and the skill and care with which they are employed; and any laxity
in these particulars will materially shorten the length of service which
may be secured.

(6) Reinforced concrete cylinders cast in open caissons have been
in use for twelve years. Although the average life of many earlier
cylinders has been considerably shortened by 'construction defects,
these cylinders with minor repairs still give promise of a long period of
service. Similar cylinders designed and constructed in accordance
with best modern concrete practice should constitute a type of construc-
tion only excelled for longevity by solid fill or mass concrete.

(7) Cast in place concrete piles jackets may be expected to give
satisfactory results if properly constructed of suitable materials and
if proper regard is given toward exclusion of sea water from forms.

40

The difficulties of this type of construction, however, are of such a
nature that the probability of securing a maximum length of life is
less than in the case of precast concrete piles or pile casings. [No.
(6) in last year's summary.]

(8) Copper sheathed piles have given very satisfactory service
in locations where (towage from abrasion and theft can be minimized.
s itclt piles care full y prepared and li an died fall into the class of best sur-
face ])rotectionf>, U'hen used under the conditions indicated.

(9) The selection of a type of piling or pile protection for a given
structure must be made upon the basis of cast and permanence of the
materials under consideration, the character of the structure and the
probable need for future alterations to meet the changing requirements
of commerce. When a comparatively short increase over the life of
•untreated wooden piling is sufficient, the surface protections will often
be found economical in waters not exposed to severe storm action;
if a moderately long physical life approximating the average economic
life of marine structures in this harbor is desired, a good creosote treat-
ment will provide it at the lowest annual cost, so far as present knowl-
edge goes; if conditions warrant building for the greatest permanence,
with less regard fof first cost, concrete construction has shown a Jiigh
value in this harbor. For the protection from further damage of
wooden piles already in place and showing attack by borers, not yet
severe enough to require condemnation, the concrete casing, precast
or poured in place, is the only means of salvage so far found by the
Committee.

AVHAHF rONSTKK TIOX SKCT1OX

Following this Committee's report of last year an insistent demand
arose for the formulation by the Committee of definite advice respect-
ing practical measures which should be taken to avoid, for example,
the damage to creosoted piling in careless handling and construction
which the report of the Committee so strongly condemned. This led
to the creation for this year of the sub-committee on Wharf Construc-
tion.

Specifications and Inspections

It should be obvious that specifications and inspections should be
co-extensive. The best specification is comparatively valueless unless
inspection is both thorough, and of sufficient scope to insure that
the specification has been complied with. With respect to piling this
should follow through the supply and preparation of the piles, their
transfer from source of supply to site, their handling to pile driver,
and finally their driving and fastening in the completed structure.
The suggestions herein offered are confined to creosoted piling, for

50

which a suggested specification is presented in the specifications sec-
tion of this report. The Committee believes that the best insurance of
right results is to have inspection of creosoted piling for final accep-
tance done as it hangs in the driver gins, where every defect may
be seen and examined. On the practicability of such a requirement see
further under Practical Difficulties.

Preparation and Treatment

Creosoted piling should be carefully inspected at the creosoting
plant, as to the dimensions, form and condition of the piling used, and
during treatment especially as to the oils, to see that they are free
from adulterants and otherwise fulfill specifications, and as to the
penetration of the piling by the oil as required. Creosoted piles should
be bored in the course of inspection, in accordance with the tentative
specification presented in this report.

Handling Creosoted Piling

After having the piling properly treated it is equally important
that it be carefully handled from the treating plant to the job. Too
much emphasis cannot be placed on the handling and care of creosoted
piling. Once the outer protective shell is penetrated, the value of the
'pile is largely destroyed, if it is not repaired.

It is very unfortunate that there is no commercial creosoting plant
located on San Francisco Bay. At present it is necessary to purchase
all of these materials from the plants located in the Northwest, in-
volving a maximum amount of transportation and handling and con-
sequent damage. Being so far from the source of supply, it is neces-
sary to keep creosoted piling on hand at all times, which also adds
to its chances of being damaged before being used. All of this hand-
ling and storage makes it very difficult to avoid damaging piles.

The work of this Committee will have been more than repaid if
a treating plant should locate in the bay region. In fact it would be
economical to pay premiums to have piles treated locally, as they are
required for use. Of the creosoted piles driven in structures of Long
Wharf, 13,000 pieces, or about 93 per cent were treated at the Southern
Pacific Creosoting Plant at West Oakland, and an average of about
30 per cent of all the piles in the structure were subjected to attack
by marine borers on account of physical damage to the protective shell.
These piles received a minimum of handling to the job, yet this large
number were found to be damaged. The extent of damage is likely to
be in direct relation to the extent to which it is necessary to handle
the piles.

Recently a pile-driving crew in this Bay had a raft of creosoted
piling dogged in the center of the raft (Plate 9, Fig. 2). As the rafts-

51 >

man worked the piles out of the raft up to the driver, he drove dogs
into the piles at five different points in their length. It has been a
common sight to see rafts of creosoted piling dogged diagonally across,
each pile being permanently damaged, as the holes made by the dogs
are rarely plugged. The dog is by far the worst enemy of creosoted
piling, as is definitely shown, it is believed for the first time, in the
service record report of the Board of State Harbor Commissioners
which has been presented in this report. Their use should be uncon-
ditionally prohibited, except within specified distances of either end
which will allow ample margin to protect the water section of the pile.
When creosoted piles are prepared for towing considerable distance,
boring and reeving should be the only method of fastening allowed.
The ax, the pike pole and the peavie also cause much damage. The
holes left by sinking an ax in the piling, as is frequently done in
handling, are much like those caused by the dog, and are particularly
dangerous. The use of pike poles and peavies should only be per-
mitted when their points are blunted. The use of boat hooks dur-
ing inspections by row boat or raft is also a source of considerable
damage to treated piles in place, and should be prohibited.

Construction

Driving Creosoted Piling. Again it is necessary to take precau-
tions against the puncturing of the protective shell with pike poles,
peavies, axes, etc. Unfortunately men handling creosoted lumber and
piling do not appreciate the necessity for preserving the protective
shell- Eternal vigilance is the price of a good job in this respect.

One of the most important duties of the pile-driving crew is to
drive the piles without puncturing the protective shell. There is al-
ways danger of checking the piling urier the hammer. In using a
steam hammer it is well to use piles of a minimum butt diameter of
14 inches. This permits the pile to be headed, trimming off all creo-
soted material so that the plate upon which the plunger strikes rests
entirely on untreated wood and is not so likely to cause checking. On
rocky bottoms, where there is little or no mud, great care must be
taken not to spit the pile (Plate 10). This can be done by avoiding
hard driving, and by tne use of various types of steel shoes and plates.

Cutting Off Piles. Creosoted piling should not be cut off below
high water line, thus exposing untreated wood to attack by borers, if
it can be avoided. Even tide slopping where piling is cut near to high
water level, may permit Limnoria attack, if water can settle where it
does not run off (Plate 11, Fig. 1). Furthermore, decay frequently oc-
curs in the untreated interior of piles when they are cut off at any level
above high water. Whenever piles are cut off, therefore, the untreated
wood should be protected by thoroughly painting the top of the cut-off
portion with hot creosote. Above the water line, a further coating of

52

thick asphalt may be applied, to prevent the penetration of moisture;
below water line the access of borers can be prevented by covering
tightly with sheet copper.

Bracing, Ribbing, etc. The only safe way is to have all bracing,
ribbing and other construction attachments well above high water
(Plate 11, Fig. 2). Where this cannot be done, dapping the piles, which
exposes untreated wood, should be prohibited, (Plate 12, Fig. 2), ex-
cept where it is absolutely unavoidable, letting necessary cutting or
framing be done, as far as possible, on the pieces to be attached to
the pile, since they are cheaper to renew. The braces, ribbing and
other attachment members should be creosoted if they will be exposed
to borer attack, and all boring and framing which can possibly be
done in advance should be made before the members are creosoted.
Otherwise all such holes or framing cuttings should be well swabbed
with hot creosote before putting the parts into the construction. All
holes for bolts or pins should be bored not larger in diameter than the
bolt or pin, to insure a driving fit. This will prevent borers from en-
tering the bolt holes, so far as it is possible to provide against it.
(Plate 12, Fig. 1; Plate 13; Plate 14.)

Fender Lines. Fender lines are always constructed of wooden
piling, usually untreated in this region but sometimes treated. Con-
nections to treated piling below the water line, where such connec-
tions expose untreated material, are dangerous. Bolt and spike holes
provide a ready means for borers to enter. Where it is necessary to
bore holes in creosoted fender piling the holes should be bored for a
driving fit, as above indicated for bracing.

Repairing Damaged Piles

When a treated pile is damaged it should be immediately repaired.
Holes should be plugged with creosoted material, and where repairs
cannot be made in this way the damaged place should be covered with
sheet copper. The Board of State Harbor Commissioners have re-
cently been filling such holes, as well as those of the initial attacks
of Limnoria working in them, with cement mortar. It is too early to
judge the effectiveness of the method, but it looks promising.

\
Removing lireeding Grounds

As a means of removing the breeding grounds of marine borers,
not only should the use be avoided, so far as practicable, of untreated
wood in waters infected by marine borers, but shores should be kepi,
clean of drift-wdbtf or other wooden debris, and pile stumps and similar
debris removed thoroughly from the sites of dismantled or. abandoned
structures. This seems to be a practical way of reducing progressively
the severity of the annual attacks which follow the breeding season,
in the fall of each year, in this harbor. This matter was emphasized

53

last year in the biological report of Dr. Charles A. Kofoid, but its
importance is felt to warrant its repetition in the present connection.
So important is it that the enactment of legislation for enforcing such
marine sanitation is a most urgent need.

Practical Difficult ies

Any such program as that above outlined will doubtless inconven-
ience those engaged in the handling of piling or the erection of piling
structures, and may increase the cost of their work. It thus may
cause irritation, or even evasion of instructions, alike on the part of
contractors and workmen who are used to more lax methods. Much
can be done to help, by personal explanation and discussion, as a sup-
plement to specifications or instruction orders, especially with respect
to care in handling, and it is time well spent for an engineer to seek
in this way to enlist the cooperation of rafting and construction crews.
Eternal vigilance is the price of safety in this respect. Inspection of
piling in the gins, which has been recommended, takes more time. It
is thus likely both to be opposed by contractors and evaded by inspec-
tors, and can only be secured by continuous insistence. But its re-
sults would be worth its cost.

Additional cost, if any, must of course be paid for; but if require-
ments are plainly stated in the specifications upon which bids are
taken, all bidders are on the same footing. Contractors cannot afford
to scrap valuable material, such as piling, which they have bought in
good- faith under previous conditions of practice, because of new re-
strictions. The increased cost of getting new requirements fulfilled
will be lessened, as well as the danger of having rejected piling slipped
in again, if provision is made for the acceptance of piling rejected
because of dog holes or similar injuries when properly repaired.

While carelessness as to penetration of the creosoted shell of piling,
in both handling and construction, has been universal in the past, bet-
ter practice is already appearing. The Committee is gratified to have
been informed of many cases in which this better practice has been
directly due to its work and report of last year. Many concerns in this
region are now rejecting piles which show holes made by dogs. The
Board of State Harbor Commissioners now permits the dogging of no
piles, green or creosoted, except within 3 feet of the butt or 10 feet
of the tip. These particular limits are dictated by local conditions of
driving depth, etc. The general principle should be to prohibit such
dogging within the water section, with an additional margin sufficient
for safety.

PROTECTIONS SIX TIOX

The object of the creation of a Sub-Committee on Protections was
primarily to install under the supervision of the Committee test speci-

54

mens of various methods for protecting wooden piling, most of which
have not been in use for a long enough time to make service records
available. These methods are mainly, although not exclusively, of the
class of paint and batten surface protections, and most of them involve
materials of patented or secret composition. Their number is consid-
erable, and the insistence with which they are being promoted in this
region creates a need among users o-f piling for such information
as can be obtained, on unprejudiced and reliable authority, for the
appraisal of values.

Progress in this work has been delayed by several unfortunate diffi-
culties. Material for installations of a number of protective processes
which are under negotiation is still to be received, either in whole or
in part. This is true of two cases involving impregnation of the wood
with new substances, of eastern origin, of one of which a test by the
Committee was requested by a member of the American Wood-Preserv-
ers' Association. The tests already in place include also specimens
of two untreated foreign woods said to have a high resistance to ma-
rine borers. These are turpentine wood and tallow wood, from Aus-
tralia or New Zealand. For the former, in particular, extraordinary
claims are made from many credible sources familiar with the wood.

Complete results from tests such as these can of course be ex-
pected only after a period of a number of years. In some cases,
however, the occurrence of settlement or initial attack by marine bor-
ers, if present, should be evident in a much shorter time. Detailed
account of installations will be possible in the next report.

CHEMICAL SKCTIOX

The work of the Chemical Sub-Committee and the Committee chem
ist has thus far been confined to the problems connected with the pres-
ervation of wood from marine borers, no attempt having been made to
attack problems raised by the disintegration of concrete in sea water,
the corrosion of reinforcing steel and various other materials, etc.
Within the field indicated, only those preservatives or preservative
methods have been considered which involve penetration of the pre-
servative into the wood. This has naturally resulted in centering
much of the work upon coal tar creosote.

The investigative work so far undertaken or planned is in the fol-
lowing directions:

1. Studies contributing to the determination of the constituents
of creosote which are the active bases of its preservative power.
This involves:

a. Laboratory separation, from original creosote oils, of

certain constituents or constituent groups (oil fractions), and

the preparation for each kind of oil of two sets of test timbers,

55

impregnated respectively with the whole oil from which the
given fraction has been removed, and the whole oil having the
same fraction added to it.

b. Cooperation with the Forest Products Laboratory of
the U. S. Forest Service in the experimental work which is
being carried on at Madison, Wis-, by its creosote chemist,
Mr. Ernest Bateman, in the determination of the solubility
partition of certain constituents of creosote (with reference to
solution in the whole oil as compared with water), and of the
toxicity of these constituents in varying concentrations in
"barren oil," or the non-toxic portion of creosote oil.

2. Determination of the laws governing both the absorption and
adsorption of creosote in wood, where the wood is exposed to air. This
experiment will also be used to determine, so far as possible, the na-
ture and extent of the loss by selective evaporation of creosote oil
from wood when exposed in air.

3. Determination of the laws governing the loss of absorbed (free)
and adsorbed (fixed) creosote components from wood when exposed
in salt water.

4. An investigation of the variation in composition of creosote
oil in wood with varying depth of penetration.

5. Investigation of certain inorganic inhibitants or poisons.
scJtt'tliilc /. The experimental test timbers indicated for l,a. are

of rather large size, designed for exposure in Bay waters under as
nearly service conditions as possible. Five, and in some cases six,
pieces were subjected to the same treatment, one each for four different
stations in the Bay, with one or two for laboratory use. There were
sixteen different treatments, which were synthesized according to the
following Table:

1. Fraction A (210°-235°C)

2. Fraction B (235°-315°C)

3. Fraction C (315°-355°C)

4. Fraction D (Residue above 355°C)

5. Whole creosote oil.

6. Whole oil + fraction A.

7. Whole oil + fraction B.

8. Whole oil + fraction C.

9. Whole oil + fraction D.

10. Whole oil fraction A.

11. Whole oil — fraction B.

12. Whole oil — fraction C,

13. Whole oil — fraction D.

14. Whole oil — tar acids.

15. Fraction D (repeated).

16. Oil tar distillate.

56

These oils were synthesized so that the several fractions were
added or subtracted in the proportions in which they occurred in the
whole oil, which were the following:

Fraction 210*°C-235°C 10%

Fraction 235°C-315°C 40%

Fraction 315°C-355°C 23%

Residue above 355°C 27%

In view of the difficulties incident to obtaining clear-cut separa-
tions by fractional distillation, and consequently to obtaining clearly
marked differences in inhibitive or destructive effects upon living or-
ganisms, it was felt that the doubling of effect gained by both adding
and subtracting the required fraction in each case to the whole oil
might so increase the decisiveness of this general method as to make
it yield useful results. A piece of untreated wood was attached as a
bait to each of those treated and a set of eight specimens so prepared
was placed in a rack. Racks containing test pieces of each of the six-
teen different treatments are now in place at the following stations
in the Bay: San Francisco Pier No. 7, Southern Pacific Oakland Pier,
Mare Island, and Crockett. An analysis of the oil from each of the
runs has been made, as well as of that extracted from one of the test
pieces after treatment. Similar extractions will be made of the oil
of each of the test pieces, as they are removed from time to time.

In addition to the rough indication of the relative value of the frac-
tions of creosote, and possible guidance in respect to creosote fortifica-
tion, which it seems legitimate to hope for from this series of experi-
ments, it has already proved of much value in furnishing information
for the guidance of the more carefully controlled series of experiments
indicated under schedules 2 and 3.

In respect to schedule 1, &, this Committee in the cooperation with
the Forest Products Laboratory will be expected to give specific at-
tention to the tar bases, endeavoring to develop for them more accur-
ate methods of analysis than are now available, as well as preparing
four specific bases and determining their solubility in water. Toxicity
tests will be carried on, in conjunction, by the Biological and Chemical
sub-committees, on various creosote constituents with reference to ma-
rine borers. In addition to their direct value in the study of marine
protection, these tests will afford a valuable comparison between the
toxicities of the materials tested, on marine borers and fungi, respec-
tively.

Schedules 2 and 3. The tests under these schedules are kept under
much more careful control than are those of schedule 1, a. This series
of experiments should show what constituents of creosote become fixed
in wood, what are not fixed, what vaporize out and what dissolve
away. The chemical constitution of the wood will also be studied, as

57

well as that of the creosote, so far-as that may appear profitable to the
main problems in hand.

The test pieces for these experiments so far prepared are of Doug-
las fir sapling, about 5 inches in diameter and 6 inches long. They are
weighed with an accuracy of 0.1% and are now being treated with a
good creosote oil. The size of pieces is sufficient to absorb oil enough
for a complete analysis on being extracted, and yet small enough so
that the whole piece can be made into shavings and thus carried
through the experiment, which is necessary to obtain data of sufficient
accuracy for this study. One piece will be used for the immediate
extraction of its oil; two pieces will be placed in the air, and seven in
the Bay, for removal and inspection or analysis from time to time.
Sawdust representative of the wood used for the test pieces is being
Analyzed as to its composition, and some of the test pieces will be
analyzed after extraction of their oil, to determine whether treatment
and exposure have made any change in the wood composition.

These two series should give information regarding the physical
and chemical nature of changes occurring in both the creosote and the
wood, under exposure of treated wood in air and water, respectively,
and regarding the relation of these changes to the creosote held in the
wood by absorption and adsorption, respectively. In particular, its
recorded compositions should permit a sufficiently accurate determina-
tion of the time-loss curves, both as to quantity and character, of
creosote lost from treated wood; which certain evidence seems to indi-
cate may be a critical factor in the explanation of the mechanism of
creosote protection.

Analyses have been made by the Committee Chemist, of oils ex-
tracted from piles which had been in service for periods of from one
to thirty years. The short-service piles used for analysis had been
treated and driven in recent years, and analyses of the original oils
with which they had been treated were available. The long-service
piling used was from Oakland Long Wharf. It is recognized that the
methods of analyzing extracted oils so far used involve certain ele-
ments of possible error; but the analyses made by the Committee were
identical in method, and checked very closely in results, with those re-
ported to this Association in 1920. Comparison of the analyses made
by the Committee seems provisionally to indicate that the oils extract-
ed from piling "of as short service as one year had already lost light
oils and reached a composition closely similar to that shown by the
Long Wharf piling after 29 years' exposure.

W'ork is already in progress in schedules 1, a, 2 and 3 above listed.
Work is projected in 1, fo, .) and 5, and mutual agreement is being
reached with respect to the details of the former. On the work already
started, it is believed that preliminary results of some value should be
available by June 30, 1922.

58

Miscellaneous. Besides the work listed above, numerous analyses
have been made of whole oils or fractions of them, as well as of ex-
tracted oils from service piling; most of which have been done cooper-
atively, for the Sub-Committee having in charge the formulation of the
tentative specification for creosote oil for the preservation of marine
piling. Special mention may be made of the analysis of a sample of
the oil-gas tar creosote which is mentioned in the Specifications Sec-
tion of this report. This analysis showed the following results:

Specific Gravity at 38° C 1.112

Fractionation:

0°— 210° C 0.0%

210°— 235° C 24.7%

235°— 315° C 11.3%

315°— 355° C 7.3%

Residue above 355° C 54-8%

Loss by volatilization .. 1.9%

100.0%
Specific Gravity of fraction 235° C —

315° C at 38° C 1,056

Specific gravity of fraction 315° C —

355° C at 38° C 1.094

Tar acids None

Unsulfonated residue None

Insoluble in benzol 0.24%

Float test of residue above 355° C., 5 seconds.

Remarks: Coke test was negative, no true coke being separated
in the residue.

SPECIFI CA TIG \ S S K ( T ION

The tentative specification severing creosoted piling and lumber
for use in marine structures which is herewith presented was under-
taken by the Committee only in response to insistent demands on the
part of contributors to the support of the Committee, and other local
cooperators, to whom the Committee was under primary obligation.
The Committee keenly realizes that the incompleteness of present
knowledge will make the establishment of satisfactory standards im-
possible until results become available of further investigations, such
as those now being undertaken by cooperating agencies throughout the
country, of which this Committee is one. But those who are respon-
sible for the installation and maintainance of marine piling feel equally
keenly the need of the best guidance which present knowledge can sup-
ply for their current purchases of creosoted materials.

59

The work of the Committee up to the present time has seemed to
indicate that certain factors existing in this region make desirable,
even in the light of present knowledge, certain modifications in exist-
ing specifications, in order to insure for marine construction a creosote
oil which shall be best suited to this specific purpose. The specifica-
tion presented is necessarily tentative and has been formulated speci-
fically for local needs. It is expected that it will be amended and im-
proved as further knowledge becomes available.

The specification as presented is practically the same as those in
current use, excepting in the creosote oil section, whose modifications
from existing specifications have been referred to. The chief consid-
erations with reference to local conditions which seem to require
modification of existing specifications, such as the standard specifica-
tion of this Association covering creosote for ties and structural
timbers, are the following:

1. Oil tar creosotes. Such creosote is now being offered for wood
preservation use on the Pacific Coast. Repeated analyses show that it
will pass every test embodied in the standard specification, except the
requirement as to origin. (See analysis at end of chemical section of
this report.) It is well known, however, that such oils do not contain
the tar acids which characterize coal tar creosote. In order, there-
fore, to provide a test for the compliance of oils with the requirement
of origin it has seemed necessary in this Committee's tentative specifi-
cation to restore the tar acid clause which was formerly in common
use but has been omitted from the specifications of recent years. It
is recognized that there is no conclusive evidence of lack of preserva-
tive value in oil tar creosotes, which have a composition so closely
similar to that of coal tar creosote; and some investigations in this
direction are being undertaken by the Committee. The Committee
heartily shares, however, the feeling now widely held with respect to
specifications for wood preserving creosotes, that, in view of the lack
of authoritative knowledge of the effective constituents in such creo-
sotes and the mechanism of their preservative action, it is the part
of wisdom to insure so far as is possible the obtaining for this purpose
of coal tar creosotes, similar to those which have proved effective in the
past. The tar acid clause cannot entirely guarantee a coal tar oil, but
it will insure that at least a certain percentage of the oil must be of
coal tar origin unless the producer of the oil knowingly sophisticates
it with the intent to defraud.

2. Whole creosote oils. The early creosotes, which retained their
wood preserving effectiveness for so many years, were whole oils. It.
may not yet be susceptible of proof to what extent the removal of naph-
thalene and anthracene derivatives, as is now common in foreign oils,
or of tar acids for the phenol group of synthetic drugs, which has more
recently taken place, will impair the wood preservative value of creo-
sote. The same considerations with respect to lack of present knowl-
edge which have just been stated have seemed to the Committee to

60

make wise the specification of an oil which shall contain as many as
possible of the constituents of an original distillate in sufficient amount
to make it representative of a whole oil, as far as it is possible to do so
without unduly restricting sources of oil supply or increasing the price.
This consideration has partly influenced the restoration of the naphtha-
lene clause formerly common in creosote specifications. With respect
to this, however, certain special considerations will be stated later.

3. High residue content. 'The tendency of recent years to increase
the distillation temperature limits in the production' of creosote oil
may doubtless have produced beneficial results, within limits. Oils
have recently been received on the Pacific Coast, however, in which
analysis shows the proportion of residue above 355° C. to be in excess
of 50 per cent- In one authentic case it reached 59 per cent. Practical
experience in the conduct of the treating process seems to indicate
that with so refractory a wood as Douglas fir, an oil having such an
excessive residue increases the difficulty of securing penetration and
the danger of insufficient penetration. Such an oil would be accepted
by the standard specification of the Association. It is believed, there-
fore, that the amount of residue should be restricted, at least until its
value or lack of value shall have been demonstrated either by service
tests or by scientific investigation.

The modifications herein presented respecting tar acids and the
limiting of residue, together with certain distillation limits then be-
lieved desirable, were referred to the Preservatives Committee of the
Association on July 29, 1921, and were approved by them for this pur-
pose. Certain further modifications have since appeared to be desira-
ble and are incorporated herein, as suggestions, from the trial of which
the ultimately desirable specification may be approached. The data
on which to base modification is in some cases manifestly meagre,
but it is hoped that experience with this tentative specification for
local application may contribute to the ultimate solution of the prob-
lem for all concerned.

SAN FRANCISCO BAY MARINE PILING COMMITTEE

TENTATIVE SPECIFICATION COVERING CREOSOTED DOUGLAS

FIR PILING AND LUMBER FOR USE IN

MARINE STRUCTURES

(Adopted by the Committee, October, 1921.)

MATERIALS TO BE TREATED

Piling, Green and Water Stored

Quality. Piles shall be cut from sound trees; shall be close
grained and solid, free from defects, such as injurious ring shakes,

61

large and unsound or loose knots, decay or other defects which in the
opinion of the inspector may materially impair their strength or dura-
bility.

Htntiylttness. Piles shall have a uniform taper and none with
swell or twisted butts will be accepted. Piling shall be so straight that
a straight line drawn from butt to tip will not deviate morq than one
(1) inch for each ten (10) feet in length; that is to say, a pile seventy
(70) feet in length may deviate seven (7) inches from a straight line
drawn from butt to tip. Piling with short or reverse bends, or kinks,
will not be accepted.

Tn-ists. No piling with spiral grain will be accepted which has
one complete twist in a length of forty (40) feet or less.

Trimming. Piling shall have all bark and inner skin removed.
Knots shall be cut flush, butts and tips trimmed squarely before treat-
ment, and in case piling has been stored in sea water, barnacles or
other similar forms of sea life shall be removed. Piling showing any
attack of insects or marine borers will not be accepted.

Sapwood Requirements. Only such piling will be accepted for
treatment as conforms with the following minimum sap wood require-
ments :

1. For a specified absorption ranging from twelve (12) pounds
to fourteen (14) pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot of timber, the
sapwood shall not be at any point less than one (1) inch in depth.

2. For a specified absorption of sixteen (16) pounds of creosote
oil per cubic foot of timber, the sapwood shall not be at any point less
than one and one-quarter (la/4 ) inches in depth.

EXCEPT THAT

3. Piling which does not meet the sapwood requirements specified
above will be accepted when treated separately, provided that the creo-
soting company will in each case guarantee the minimum penetration
of creosote oil specified.

Sizes. Shall be as specified by the purchaser. For information,
the following appropriate size combinations of length and butt and tip
diameters are listed by groups, of which the group to be selected will
depend upon the class of structure desired and the load for which it is
designed:

GROUP "A'

Minimum Diameter Minimum Diameter

Lengths Butts Tips

Up to 49' inclusive 12" 8"

50' to 64' inclusive 13" 8"

65' to 74' inclusive 14" 8"

75' to 100' inclusive 16" 8"

101' and up 16" 7"

62

GROUP "B"

Minimum Diameter Minimum Diameter
Lengths Butts Tips

Up to 60' inclusive 14" 9"

61' to 80' inclusive 15" 8"

81' to 100' inclusive 16" 8"

101' and up 17" 7"

No piling with butt diameter greater than twenty-two (22) inches
will be accepted unless otherwise stipulated. In determining the dia-
meter of a pile not having a circular cross section, the average of the
minimum and maximum measurements at that cross section shall be
taken.

Air Seasoned Piling

Piling stored on land and air seasoned shall in all particulars meet
the foregoing specification for green, freshly cut and water stored pil-
ing. Piling stored on land for air seasoning must be piled on skids or
other supports so as to keep the piling at least ten (10) inches above
the ground line, and each layer of piling shall be separated from the
other by strips not less than two (2) inches in trickness so as to permit
a free circulation of air. Piling stored in this manner will be con-
sidered thoroughly air seasoned when the moisture content of the piling
based on the even dry weight, has been reduced to twenty (20) per cent.

Air seasoned piling with checks of such size as will impair the
strength and durability of the piling will not be accepted, regardless
of the fact that such checking has taken place naturally.

Sawed Lumber and Timber

Quality and Grade. The purchaser shall specifiy commercial grade
desired which shall conform to Grading Rules standard or currently
recognized in the production and marketing of the species of timber
or lumber involved, and to so grade after treatment. The standard
commercial grade usually specified for creosoting purposes is that
known as #1 Common Douglas Fir, in accordance with Domestic List
#1, edition of 1917, published by the Pacific Lumber Inspection Bu-
reau, Inc.

PREPARATION FOR TREATMENT
Selecting Material for Loading Cylinder Charges

Sawed, Lumber and Timber. Care must be taken to secure ma-
terial of approximately the same moisture content for each cylinder
charge; that is, green or freshly cut lumber and timber must not be
mixed with seasoned or partially seasoned material.

Piling. As in the case of sawed lumber and timber, all piling to be

63

treated in the same cylinder charge shall be approximately of the same
moisture content. In loading piling into cylinder charges the following
classes of material shall be treated, each by itself:

1. Green or freshly cut piling.

2. Piling water stored for thirty (30) days or more.

3. Partially air seasoned piling.

4. Thoroughly air seasoned piling.

Any further separation or segregation of material shall be op-
tional with the creosoting company

Inspection of Material Before Treatment

Before the material is loaded into tram cars for treatment the in-
spector shall be given full opportunity to examine it and to check
the cubature records of the plant for each cylinder charge, and these
records shall be open for his inspection at all times.

Thermometers and Gauges

All the treating cylinders of the creosoting company which are
used on work covered by this specification shall be provided with the
following accurate reading instruments:

(1) Recording Thermometers.

(2) Recording Pressure Gauges.

(3) Recording Vacuum Gauges, or combination recording pressure
and vacuum gauges.

(4) Indicating Mercurial Thermometers as a check against the
Recording Thermometers.

(5) The creosoting company shall also provide accurate maximum
reading thermometers for use by the inspector from time to time in
checking the recording and indicating thermometers.

The inspector must check the recording thermometers as well as
the indicating thermometers at frequent intervals. This may be done
,by placing a maximum reading thermometer at some place on the
charge which will bring it as near as possible to the thermometer
which is to be checked.

When the charge is removed from treating cylinder after treat-
ment the maximum reading thermometers shall then be read and this
reading checked against the maximum temperature recorded by the
recording thermometer. Should there be a variation greater than five
(5) degrees Fahr. in the reading of the two instruments, the maximum
reading thermometer being correct, the recording thermometer shall
be adjusted.

64

CREOSOTE OIL

The oil shall be a distillate of coal-gas or coke-oven tar. It shall
comply with the following requirements:

1. It shall not contain more than 3% water.

2. It shall not contain more than 0.5% of matter insoluble in
benzol.

3. The specific gravity of the oil at 38° C. compared with water at
15.5° C. shall be not less than 1.045.

4. The oil shall contain from 5 to 10% tar acids.

5- The oil shall contain not less than 10% naphthalene.

6. The distillate, based on water-free oil, shall be within the
following limits:

Up to 210° C. not more than 5%

Up to 235° C. not more than 25%

Up to 315° C. not less than 45% nor more than 75%

Up to 355° C. not less than 70% nor more than 90%

7. The specific gravity of the fraction between 235° C. and 315° C.
shall be not less than 1.03 at 38° C. compared with water at 15.5° C.

The specific gravity of the fraction between 315° C. and 355° C.
shall be not less than 1.09 at 38° C. compared with water at 15.5° C.

8. The residue above 355° C. shall have a float-test of not more
than 50 seconds at 70° C.

9. The oil shall yield not more than 2% coke residue.

10. The foregoing tests shall be made in accordance wltn the
standard methods of the American Wood-Preservers' Association, with
the exception of those for tar acids and naphthalene, as specified in
clauses 4 and 5, which shall be made in accordance with the methods
of the American Railway Engineering Association.

TREATMENT AND INSPECTION

Treatment shall be by the Boulton process (boiling under vacuum).

Green or Fresh Cut, Water Stored and Partially
Air Seasoned Piling

Period of Artificial Seasoning. After the piles are placed in the
treating cylinder, they shall be immersed in creosote oil having a tem-
perature of about 160° F. and kept covered during the entire boiling
period of the process, the oil level being at least four (4) inches above
the topmost pile.

After filling the treating cylinder with creosote oil as above speci-
fied, connections between condenser and vapor drum on treating cylin-
der shall be opened, steam shall then be admitted through the heating
coils and shall be so regulated that the temperature inside the treating

65

cylinder is kept gradually rising, as. fast as the condensation will per-
mit, until a temperature of 215° F. is reached. Having reached this
temperature of 215° F., at least a twenty (20) inch vacuum shall be
produced and maintained in the treating cylinder, the escaping vapors
being drawn into the condenser, and this operation continued until such
time as the amount of condensation collected in the hot well of the
condenser does not exceed one-tenth (1-10) of a pound of water per
cubic foot of timber in charge per hour, with a vacuum of not less than
twenty (20) inches and a temperature of not less than 215° F., and
not more than 220° F. inside the treating cylinder, the latter tempera-
ture being regarded as the absolute maximum that will be allowed.

Pr(\isure Period. After the period of artificial seasoning has been
completed, as specified in the foregoing, the temperature inside the
treating cylinder shall then be allowed to drop to approximately 200°
F. The treating cylinder shall then be filled with hot creosote oil
(temperature about 170° F.) from the operating tank; the treating
cylinder being full, all vents shall then be closed and more oil pumped
into the treating cylinder from the operating tank, until the pressure
gauge on the treating cylinder records a five (5) pound pressure (this
to insure that the treating cylinder is full). Creosote oil from a meas-
uring tank shall then be forced into the piling by means of a pressure
pump at a pressure not to exceed one hundred and sixty (160) pounds
per square inch, and this operation continued until such time as the pil-
ing has absorbed the amount of creosote oil specified by the purchaser,
under such conditions as will insure its complete retention in the wood
after the treating cylinder has been drained- This having been accom-
plished, the piling may be removed from the treating cylinder, as soon
as- the temperature within the treating cylinder has dropped below
200° F. A final vacuum will be allowed for not to exceed one (1) hour,
to recover drip.

Inspection of Treated Material

Physical Condition. After the piling has been removed from the
treating cylinder and allowed to cool in the air for not less than six
(6) hours, it must be free from all heat checks, water bursts, and other
defects due to improper treatment, which would, in the opinion of the
inspector, impair its usefulness or durability for the purpose intended.

Absorption. Shall be as specified by the purchaser.

Penetration. Piling shall be accepted upon the showing of pene-
tration of creosote oil in each pile. This penetration must be based
on black or very dark oil and in no case will a light discoloration of
the wood due to treatment be taken into consideration in measuring the
depth of penetration upon which the piling is to be accepted. The test
for penetration shall be made by boring the piling midway between ends
with either an increment borer, or a five-eights (5-8) inch auger, the
choice of which shall be optional with the inspector. All holes so bored

66

shall be plugged with a tight-fitting creosoted plug furnished by the
creosoting company. Should the inspector, upon boring the piling, find
that the borings contain free moisture, he shall reject any such piling
and have same retreated under the conditions hereinbefore specified.
The inspector must in all cases bore every pile in the charge for pene-
tration and at least six (6) of these piles must be bored from two differ-
ent angles in order that he may satisfy himself that the piling have the
minimum specified penetration on all sides.

The minimum depth of penetration with specified amounts of creo-
sote oil shall be as follows:

12# of oil per cubic foot — %" penetration.

14# of oil per cubic foot — 1" penetration.

16# of oil per cubic foot — 1 *4 " penetration.

The curves shown on Diagram I are given for information and show
the theoretical relationship between the amount of creosote oil injected
per cubic foot and the average depth of penetration in inches.

Treatment of Air Seasoned Piling

In the treatment of air seasoned piling, where artificial seasoning
is unncessary, the piling shall be held in the hot oil under the same
conditions as specified for green and water stored piling, until such
time as it has been heated sufficiently to permit impregnation without
the use of excessive pressures- This having been accomplished, the
specified amount of creosote oil may then be injected as in the fore-
going case of green or water stored piling, and upon being removed
from treating cylinder, under similar conditions, this piling shall stand
the same detailed inspection.

When air seasoned piling is found to be case hardened, preliminary
steaming will be allowed for a period not exceeding four (4) hours at
a pressure of not to exceed twenty (20) pounds.

Green or Freshly Sawed Lumber and Timber

As hereinbefore specified, this material must be treated separately
and must not, under any circumstances, be loaded with partially sea-
soned or thoroughly air seasoned material for the same cylinder
charge. In loading sawed lumber and timber into cylinder tram cars
for treatment, stickers or separators must be placed between all the
layers as the material is placed on the tram car, in order to insure
complete access of the creosote oil to all surfaces of the wood.

The process of treatment shall be identical with that specified for
green or water stored piling, with the exception that the minimum and
absolute maximum temperatures allowed will be 180° F. and 190° F.
respectively. This temperature shall be maintained constantly under

67

68

at least a twenty (20) inch vacuum during the period of artificial sea-
soning, until such time as the water accumulating in the hot well of
the condenser is not in excess of one-tenth (1-10) of a pound of water
per cubic foot of timber in charge, per hour.

Air Seasoned Sawed Lumber and Timber

This material, as in the case of green or freshly sawed lumber and
timber, shall be treated separately and in no case shall it be mixed
and treated together in the same 'ieylinder charge with other material
of different moisture content.

In this case, the period of artificial seasoning may be dispensed
with, but the material must be held in the hot oil, under the same tem-
perature limits outlined for green lumber and timber until it is heated
sufficiently to permit proper treatment. This having been accom-
plished, pressure may be applied until the specified absorption has been
reached.

When air seasoned sawed lumber and timbers are found to be case
hardened, preliminary steaming will be allowed, at atmospheric pres-
sure only, until the case hardening is relieved.

Inspection of Treated SaVved Lumber and Timber

Physical Condition'. After the material has been removed from the
treating cylinder and allowed to cool in the air for not less than six
(6) hours, it shall be free from excessive checking, water bursts, warp-
ing, shrinkage, or any other defects due to improper treatment and
which, in the opinion of the inspector, would impair its strength and
durability for the purpose intended.

Absorption. Shall be as specified by the purchaser.

Penetration. The . treated material shall be accepted upon the
showing of black or very dark oil penetration, slight discoloration of the
wood due to treatment not being considered in determining penetration.
If, upon boring the material, it is found that the borings contain free
moisture, the inspector shall reject any such material and have the
same retreated. The acceptance of lumber shall be based on the pene-
tration shown by boring at least twenty-five (25) per cent of the lumber
in each charge.

The penetration for any given absorption shall be based on the
surface area exposed. The theoretical depth to be obtained with a spec-
ified amount of creosote oil is shown for information on the curves for
various sizes of lumber and timber, in Diagram II.

60

70

Condition of Materials

No treated piling, lumber or timber will be accepted that has been
injured during treatment by rubbing or scraping against tram arms,
rivet heads or due to rough handling.

Handling of Oeosoted Materials

In handling creosoted material extreme care should be used so as
not to damage the edges of lumber and timbers, or to break through the
portion penetrated by the creosoted oil and thus expose untreated
wood. Sharp pointed tools, such as cant hooks, peavies, pickaroons
and crowbars, must not be used except in the ends of sawed material
and in the ends, or within three (3) feet from the ends, of creosoted
piling.

In the rafting of creosoted piling, the use of dogs will be permitted,
provided the dogs are driven within three (3) feet of either end of the
pile. Shrould the creosoting company place these dogs farther from
the ends than above specified, the pilling may be rejected.

No creosoted material carried in stock by the creosoting company
can be applied on the purchaser's contract without the consent of the
purchaser. If agreeable to the purchaser to apply stock material on his
contract, such material must stand the same rigid inspection as here-
inbefore specified for the various classes of material.

GENERAL CONDITIONS

1. The Creosoting Company shall furnish an affidavit giving a des-
cription of the material furnished — if lumber, the grade, treatment and
tally of same; if piling, the butt and tip measurements, lengths and
treatment; and in all cases an analysis of the creosote oil with which
the material was treated.

When material is purchased subject to tally and inspection by the
creosoting plant, such inspection at the plant, as evidenced by sworn
certificate, shall be final.

2. An inspector may be appointed by the purchaser to make such
inspection at the creosoting plant as will enable him to accept such
material, before and after treatment, as meets the requirements of this
specification.

3. All facilities and reasonable assistance which the inspector
may need to execute his work shall be given by the creosoting company
free of cost to the purchaser.

4. The creosoting company shall supply the inspector from time to
time with such samples of the creosote oil which is being used or is to
be used in the creosoting of material for the purchaser, and at such in-
tervals, as the inspector may direct; these samples to be taken from

71

treating cylinder, measuring tanks,, operating or storage tank, at the
option of the inspector. The samples of creosote oil thus taken are to
be sent to the purchaser for analysis, unless the inspector be qualified
by both training and experience to make these analyses and the pur-
chaser authorizes him in writing to conduct such analyses at the plant.
In this case the creosoting company shall provide the inspector with
the necessary chemicals and laboratory equipment for carrying on this
phase of the inspection.

5. The fact that the purchaser has an inspector at the plant will
not relieve the creosoting company of the responsibility of seeing that
the treatment of all material is properly done, and the agreed penetra-
tion of oil secured in each case as specified for the contract absorption.

6. The inspector shall have access to all parts of the plant which
have to do with the treatment of material under his charge.

Notes on Creosote Oil Specification

The detailed modifications of the standard specification of this As-
sociation for ties and structural timbers which are involved in the
tentative specification above given are embraced in the following
clauses:

Clause 3. The specific gravity of the oil at 38° C. com-
pared with water at 15.5° C. shall be not less than 1.045.

Clause 4. The oil shall contain from 5 to 10% tar acids.
Clause 5. The oil shall contain not less than 10% naph-
thalene.

Clause 6. (new distillation limits). Up to 315° C. not less
than 45% or more than 75%. Up to 355° C. not less than 70%
or more than 90%.

Clause 7 (second paragraph). The specific gravity of
the fraction between 315° C. and 355° C shall be net less than
1.09 at 38° compared with water at 15.5° C.

Clause 3. This clause is largely dependent upon clauses 6 and 7
and will be discussed in connection with them.

ChniHc .'/. Records are available in San Francisco to show that 20
years ago the average tar acid content of creosote oils was in the neigh-
borhood of 8 or 9 per cent. In the analyses of Long Wharf piling the
tar acid content of the extracted oils averaged nearly 4 per cent, and
was doubtless higher than that in the original oils before treatment.

Clause "). The requirement of a moderate naphthalene content is
again based upon the conservative position with rer-pect to the incom-
pleteness of present knowledge, that it is desirable to require in the
oil those constituents which were present in considerable amount in
the whole oils which in past years have proved effective; of which

72

napthalene is one. The minimum limit of 10% for napthalene has been
selected after careful study of the analyses of a large number of oils.
It is possible to meet this requirement with any average grade of whole
oil.

The probable value of napthalene in an oil for the preservation of
marine piling is increased by the observed fact that the rate of loss
of napthalene from treated wood submerged in water is very slow, in
contrast to its rapid loss from treated wood exposed in air. Whatever
value the napthalene has will therefore be longer effective in marine
work than in land work.

Clause (L The analyses of a large number of oils used in the past
show that at least 50% distilled below 315° C., and that the residue
above 355° C. rarely exceeded 30%. This has determined the minimum
limits of 45% for the amount distilling below 315° C. and 70% for the
amount distilling below 355° C. The maximum limit of 90% for the lat-
ter rests upon the conclusion, as a result of our work, that some residue
above 355° C. is desirable to give stability to the oil, by minimizing
leaching.

Clause 7 (second paragraph). There seems to be substantial
agreement in the industry that the specific gravity limit of 1.10 set, in
the standard specification, for the fraction between 315° C. and 355° C-,
is too high. It has often failed of fulfillment in practice. The limit of
1.09 herein specified has been selected after careful study of a large
number of oils, as permitting the use of the widest practicable number
of otherwise satisfactory oils, both domestic and foreign.

Clause ;?. The specific gravity of the whole oil is largely deter-
mined by the requirements made for the several fractions. The dis-
tillation percentages required for the fractions in Clause 6 and the
specific gravities required for them in Clause 7 necessitate for the whole
oil a specific gravity of approximately 1.045, as specified. The large
number of records examined by the Committee do not indicate that any
large percentage of oils will be barred by this specific gravity. The
aim of the Committee has been to assure the users of creosoted material
for marine structures against defective oils, while on the other hand
to leave the field as open as possible to the producers of creosote oil.

BIOLOGICAL SK( TK>\

By Charles A. Kofoid and Robert C. Miller

The biological report for the present year is restricted to Teredo
i) aval in, including a brief statement of its action in San Francisco Bay
during 1921, a preliminary discussion of the factors limiting the per-
sistence and distribution of this borer in the bay with reference to sa-

Unities, some notes on the breeding season and a statement regarding
its specific identity. For locations mentioned herein the reader is re-
ferred to the map accompanying last year's report.

The data and graph of salinities utilized in this discussion were
prepared under the direction of the Sub-Committee on Salinities,
Charles E. Cortes, Chairman. The analyses at Crockett were made in
the laboratory of the California and Hawaiian Sugar Refining Com-
pany; at Martinez in the laboratory of the Shell Oil Company; at Avon
in the laboratory of the Associated Oil Company; at Bull's Head Point
in the laboratory of the Mountain Copper Company; at Port Costa,
Black Point, Greenbrae and Tiburon in the laboratory of the Wood
Preserving Plant of the Southern Pacific Company.

Action ol Teredo in San Francisco Bay in 1921

The destructive action of Teredo in San Francisco Bay in 1921
lias continued in unprotected timbers wherever available, as is shown
by the infection of experimental timbers in the bay proper, and in
Carquinez Strait as far up as Rowe Island Light, opposite Bay Point,
eleven miles above the lower entrance of the Strait and well into Suisun
Bay. Since there is far less unprotected piling accessible to the borer
this year than in the previous years, the infection and the number
of larvae available for new settlement .are both reduced in extent.
Their action in favorable localities, as for example in Carquinez Strait,
has been typically destructive. New untreated piling driven in April,
1921, in 36 feet of water at Crockett were attacked so heavily, especially
near the mud line, as to be broken off in December. The first settle-
ment of larvae at Crockett was detected on the test timbers on August
8. Penetration of piling to a depth of 1% inches was attained by No-
vember 8 and specimens 4 inches in length were found in test timbers
on that date.

In 1920, piles driven at Crockett in January were attacked by
Teredo at some time in the spring and were penetrated to a depth of
two inches by May. This indicated conclusively the settlement of lar-
vae within that period. The interpretation was then made that these
were larvae of the year and not holdovers from 1919. However, in 1921
no settlement was detected on test timbers examined at monthly inter-
vals until July 20, as is shown in Table 8.

74

TABLE 8

First Settlement of Teredo in San Francisco Bay and
Corresponding Salinities, 1921

Mean salinity

Location of Date of first for 5 days preceding,

test timber settlement parts per 1000

Dumbarton July 20

Goat Island Aug. 15

Oakland Harbor Light Aug. 15

Black Point Sept. 15 24.3

Mare Island Strait Aug. 26

Crockett Aug. 8 21-1

Port Costa Aug. 23 20.3

Benicia Sept. 22

Martinez Nov. 15 17.9

Rowe Island Light Nov. 15

It appears from these records that the breeding season of Teredo
began several months later in 1921 than in 1920 or that larvae of 1919
survived to a later date in 1919-20 than in 1920-21. Data are lacking
to determine with certainty which of the two conditions prevailed. The
lower salinities of the winter of 1920-21 might explain the delay in Car-
quinez Strait, but not elsewhere in the Bay region. It is possible that
temperatures might explain this contrast, but unfortunately we have
complete records only of air temperatures, not of those of the Bay
waters. The spring season of 1921 was delayed and vegetation showed
the depressing effect of the prolonged lower temperatures.

Factors Limiting the Persistence and Distribution of Teredo navalis
in San Francisco Bay in 1921

The adequate determination of the environmental conditions which
limit the persistence and inhibit the extension of Teredo navalis in San
Francisco Bay will require much more investigation than has been thus
far accomplished. Certain facts bearing on these problems are here
presented as a progress report, since they may be of value in the con-
sideration of preventive measures here and elsewhere.

Two distinct phases of these problems suggested themselves for in-
vestigation in our locality. The first is the relationship of salinity to
the survival of Teredo in Carquinez Strait, where summer salinities
are high, permitting the rapid growth and even more startling invasion
of this pest, and where salinities during the winter months are greatly
reduced. This problem is complicated by the fact that the period of low
salinity coincides with that of the seemingly normal annual dying off
of many individuals here and elsewhere, and is still further compli-
cated by other environmental factors, such as changing food supply and
disease. The lowered salinity is therefore only one of several factors

75

operating to reduce and destroy Teredo in Carquinez Strait in the win-
ter months.

Examinations of piling at several localities along Carquinez Strait
during the period from January to April, 1921, have shown no living
Teredo above Crockett. These borers were apparently all dead at local-
ities above Crockett by about the middle of February, whereas in the
preceding November they had extended upstream for twenty-two miles
to Antioch with the invasion of sea water. By midwinter they were
apparently exterminated, not only in the expanded region of Suisun
Bay, including its lower end near Martinez, where the influence of the
fresh water run-off dominates, but also well down the narrower Car-
quinez Strait where tidal flow from San Pablo Bay brings periodically,
at spring and midtides, considerably increased contributions of sea-
water. There was, however, a sufficient amount of sea-water at Croc-
kett, and at the Carquinez Strait Light on the opposite side of the
Strait, to permit a small number of Teredo to survive at this point,
which is thus established as the winter or flood survival barrier in 1921.

At the Carquinez Strait Light Station, on April 25, 1921, a living
Teredo was found in a pile in shallow water near low tide level, which
was doubtless a survivor from the previous autumn. As only one pile
was pulled for examination here, it seems extremely probable that this
solitary speciment was a representative of others which had lived
through the winter in neighboring piles. In the Mare Island dyke, near
Carquinez Light, which is more directly exposed to the influx of fresh
water from Napa Creek, all Teredo were found to be killed off and a
subsequent inspection of a number of piles pulled for the Committee at
various points along the Mare Island Channel failed to show any living
specimens.

At Crockett, on June 10 and 11, numerous healthy Teredo were
found in two piles pulled at different points along the waterfront of the
California and Hawaiian Sugar Refinery. These specimens averaged
rather more than 4 inches in length and must certainly have repre-
sented an infection of the previous autumn, as test timbers planted here
in March had up to that date showed no infection. No evidence of
breeding activity, as shown by larvae in parent adults and by attacks
of young Teredo on test timbers, were detected anywhere in the bay
until some time later than this. It should be mentioned that nine other
piles pulled at Crockett at this time contained only the shells and occa-
sional pallets of specimens some time dead, indicating that only a small
minority of the many Teredo present in November had survived the
lowered salinities prevailing in this region during the winter months.
The living Teredo at Crockett were all found within six feet of the mud
line in twenty feet of water.

Above Crockett, as has been indicated, no living Teredo were found,
although field work was carried on as far up as Avon. In the upper

Straits and in Suisun Bay the water evidently becomes sufficiently fresh
during the rainy season to prove lethal to the borers, as it does to most
other marine life.

In the lower bay Teredo may be found at any season of the year.
Investigations in the spring and early summer, however, showed many
of the burrows to be empty, thus supporting the conclusion that the
annual autumnal or winter death rate is extremely high, only a limited
number surviving to propagate at the opening of the next breeding
season.

The- environmental conditions destructive to Teredo are therefore
to be sought above Crockett, or in the surface waters in the Straits
near Crockett itself. The following tables and the salinity graphs
(Plates 15 and 16) present the available data from the records of
salinities at Crockett, Port Costa (one mile above), Martinez (five
miles above) and at several other points which are of significance in
the destruction of Teredo. It is well known that Teredo survives in
its burrows for some days both in fresh water and out of water. In
the Committee's laboratory normal Teredo in their burrows placed in
running fresh water in November and December were all killed off
within nine days, most of the deaths occurring on the eighth and ninth
days, at 50°-65° F. Controls in standing and running salt water sur-
vived. In Carquinez Strait, Teredo in piling are subject for varying
periods to water of varying degrees of salinity. This is due mainly to
the interaction between tides entering from San Pablo Bay, and run-
off from the rivers entering Suisun Bay above Martinez. At each re-
current flood tide more highly saline water enters from San Pablo Bay
along the bottom and at the ebb the fresher water pushes down the
straits from Suisun Bay on the surface. The average difference between
the salinities at high tide at surface and bottom at Port Costa for Janu-
ary, February, March and April, 1921, was 2.9, 2.7, 3.7 and 4.0 parts per
1000, respectively, while the minimum and maximum differences be-1
tween surface and bottom on any one daily tide were 0.2 and 6.0, 0.3
and 6-4, 0.0 and 9.0, and 0.6 and 9.1, respectively. Teredo near the
mud line have a better chance of survival than those nearer the sur-
face, since the salinities are higher there than at the surface.

The borers are able to protect themselves for a certain period of
time against the invasion of much fresh water by closing the orifice of
the burrow with their pallets and thus retaining the salt water in their
burrows. In time their respiratory needs compel a resumption of the
circulation through their siphons. The repetition of this process in time
dilutes the salt water and the animal becomes relaxed, no longer with-
drawing the siphons when irritated/ and soon dies.

The sense organs at the tips of the siphons apprize the animal of
the relative salinity of the water at the orifice. With each returning
flood tide and increased salinity the circulation of water through the

siphons is resumed, provided the salinity is high enough or the respira-
tory need great enough to stimulate its resumption.

The lethal action upon Teredo of brackish or fresh water is thus a
function of two variables, the salinity (or lack of it) and the length of
time between recurring periods of higher salinities which permit re-
sumption of more normal functioning. A Teredo might be able to
survive completely in repeated exposure to fresh water, provided sea
water of sufficient saline content was available between times. A sep-
aration of the relative action of these two factors can be made only by
carefully controlled experiments. Both factors operate continuously in
Carquinez Strait owing to tidal changes.

It is obvious from the above consideration that mean salinities do
not fully reveal the lethal factors or their operation. These are best
revealed by the minimum salinities on the one hand and on th\e other
by the length of the intervals between recurring spring and midtides
of the month or other fluctuations which permit a sufficient restoration
of normal respiration and feeding to continue the life of the borer.
The survival of Teredo for 9 days in fresh water suggests an approxi-
mate adaptation to survival from the spring to the middle and vice
versa. From the records of the Dutch investigators of pile worms it
has appeared that a minimum salinity of 9 parts of salt per 1000 per-
mits the occurrence of Teredo. Our records indicate that Teredo sur-
vived here in the winter of 1920-21 in salanities which were much lower
than this, at least for much of the time from December to April. The
mean salinity at Crockett at the surface at low tide from November 19,
1920, to April 30, 1921, was 2.76. At high tide, it was probably 2.5 to 5
parts higher. Teredo survived near the surface in approximately these
conditions at Carq-uinez Strait Light, one mile below Crockett, and at
the bottom, up to within 14 feet of the surface, at Crockett itself.

We have available this year continuous records of salinities at sur-
face and bottom at high and low tides, at Port Costa three times per
week, and daily at Martinez, but records only at the surface at low tide
daily at Crockett.

These salinities are analyzed in the accompanying tables, with ref-
erence to the total number of days, from November 19, 1920, to April
30, 1921, the flood period of lowest salinities above and below each of
the parts per 1000" of salt from 1 to 15, at the bottom at high tide at
Port Costa, 2.5 miles above Crockett, and at Martinez, 5 miles above.
Bottom waters at high tide exhibit the maximum available salinities
most favorable to Teredo. The number of days of recurrent periods of
salinity at or above each of the parts per 1000, and the average and the
maximum days of lower salinities, between these periods, are also
tabulated. The number of periods and total number of days of given
salinities (or above) represent opportunities for nore normal respira-
tion and feeding. The number of days below represent less favorable

78

periods, periods of more of less suspended activities or of deteriorat-
ing influences, while the most critical factor of all is the maximum
number of days between periods of given salinities, especially the lower
ones. It is during these intervals of low salinities that the more saline
contents of the water in the wood and in the burrow and the mantle
cavity of the Teredo are being gradually or intermittently diluted.

This table shows that at both Port Costa and Martinez at the bot-
tom at high tide, that is, under most favorable conditions, for the period
of low salinities of 163 days from November 19 to April 30, the salinity
was at the lowest level (below 1 part per 1000) for 33 and 17 days at
Martinez and Port Costa, respectively, with an average of 3 and 3.4
days between recurrent higher salinities, and a maximum stretch of
15 and 12 days, respectively. These results approximate those of the
laboratory tests. The number of days at or below a given salinity and
the average and maximum length of periods of tension between recur-
rent higher salinities steadily increase as the parts, per 1000 increase.
In other words, at the mud line and all points above, at Port Costa
and Martinez, from November 19 to April 30 Teredo was repeatedly ex-
posed to a tension of salinities which were lowered beyond the experi-
mentally determined breaking point, that is, for more than nine days.
Exposures to higher salinities were insufficient in saline content and
too far apart, at least in one instance within this period, to permit
Teredo to survive.

The survival of Teredo in minimal amount near the surface at the
Carquinez Strait Light about one mile below Crockett is indicative that
salinities at that level represent approximately the survival level of
these environmental conditions for this species of borer in an area of
changing tidal waters. The graphs of salinities of > samples taken at
low tide at Crockett from four feet below the surface are shown in plate
16, and are analyzed in the accompanying table.

79

TABLE 9

Conditions of Respiration and Feeding for Teredo at Port Costa and
Martinez, Nov. 19, 1924) to April 3O, 1921.

Salinities at high tide, bottom

Port Costa

Parts

Ayg. days

Greatest No.

per

No. of

Days at

Days

between

days between

1000

periods

or above

below

periods

periods

15

2

4

159

79.5

162

14

3

5

158

52.7

103

13

3

7

156

52.0

103

12

4

12

151

37.8

102

11

4

17

146

36.5

102

10

7

28

135

19.3

64

9

9

37

126

14.0

27

8

9

49

114

12.7

26

7

11

77

86

7.8

24

6

9

101

62

6.9

24

5

9

112

51

5.5

21

4

8

130

33

4.1

18

3

7

139

24

3-4

15

2

6

143

20

3.3

14

1

5

146

17

3.4

12

Martinez

Parts

Avg. days

Greatest No.

per

No. of

Days at

Days

between

days between

1000

periods

or above

below

periods

periods

15

2

5

158

79.0

162

14

2

5

158

79.0

162

13

4

7

156

39.0

86

12

4

7

156

39.0

86

11

5

10

153

30.6

85

10

6

11

152

25.3

83

9

9

13

150

16.7

45

8

14

24

139

9.9

30

7

18

36

127

7.0

27

6

18

44

119

6.6

27

5

16

64

99

6.2

27

4

20

80

83

4.1

26

3

16

95

68

4.2

19

2

13

115

48

3.7

16

1

11

130

33

3-0

15

80

The salinity in Carquinez Strait increases from Suisim to San
Pablo Bays, which it connects. As shown in the graphs of last year's
report (plate 36), it is generally about two and sometimes five parts
per thousand higher at the upper than at the lower end. Crockett
lies near the lower end, about one mile above Vallejo Junction and the
Carquinez Straight Light on the opposite side. The increase in salinity
at comparable tides between Carquinez Straight Light over that at
Crockett is therefore small, probably less than 1 part per 1000. For
practical purposes salinities at Crockett at the surface present ap-
proximately the survival level.

The following table analyzes the salinities at low tide, or the period
of maximum freshness of the water, at Crockett. Unfortunately we
have no records at high tides, when Teredo might be expected to avail
itself of water of higher saline content for respiration and feeding.
An additional complication in introduced by the fact that the days
of minimum salinity at low tide which occur at the spring tides are
also those of maximum salinity at high tide.

TABLE 10
Conditions of .Respiration ami Feeding for Teredo at Crockett,

Parts

per

1000

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5 -

Nov. 19, 192O to April SO, 1921

Salinities at low tide, surface

Avg. days

No. of Days at Days between

periods or above below periods

1
1
1
1
2
2

3
7

10
10
14
15
17
13

1
1

2
2

4
5
7

12
20
26
41
55
85
109

162
162
161
161
159
158
156
151
143
137
122
108
78
54

79.5

79.0

52.0

21.6

14.3

13.7

8.7

7.2

4.6

4.1

Greatest No.

days between

periods

103
102
102

71
40
27
25
18

According to the table there were at Crockett from November 19
to April 30 in surface waters, 13 periods averaging 4.1 days in length
and totalling 54 days, with salinities of less than 1 part per 1000, with
a maximum length of 5 days. Below 2 parts the maximum length was

81

8 days, below 3., 18 days. Teredo survived at approximately the salini-
ties shown in the table at Carquinez Strait Light, and at Crockett near
the mud line in 14 feet of water where recent analyses show the sa-
linities to range from 0 to 6 parts per 1000 higher than at the surface.
Since the intervals of 25 and 27 days in the table represent the inter-
val between the monthly spring tides, it is evident that Teredo sur-
vived for these periods in water of a salanity at no time above 4 or 5
parts per 1000, or adding 1 part for the distance to Carquinez Strait
Light, 5 or 6 parts per 1000, while in 14 feet of water at Crockett it sur-
vived for tensions of somewhat shorter periods.

Specific Star us of the Teredo of San Francisco Bay

The boring mollusk responsible for the extensive destruction of
piling in San Francisco Bay in 1917-20 was identified by us in our re-
port for 1920 as Teredo navalis Linnaeus, the well known pile worm of
European waters. It has since been described by Bartsch* as Teredo
bcachi, new species, but without designation of the characters which
differentiate it from Teredo navalis. We have not had specimens of
T. navalis from the U. S. National Museum for comparison, but through
the kindness of European specialists we have been able to obtain named
specimens of T. navalis from Plymouth, England, Copenhagen, Den-
mark, Helder, Holland, and Naples, Italy. Comparison of the T.
navalis from San Francisco Bay with these European specimens con-
firms our identification. Specimens from San Francisco Bay which we
haye sent to Paris have been identified by Dr. Lamy of the National
Museum of Natural History at Paris as T. navalis. Dr. W. T. Caiman,
specialist for the British Committee on Marine Structures, writes that
our figures are undoubtedly of T. navalis.

The Pacific Coast has been ransacked for decades by conchologists
such as Cooper, Dall, Stearns, Williamson, Hemphill, the Oldroyds,
and many others, but no one found T. navalis. It was not met with
in the survey of San Francisco Bay by the U. S. Steamer Albatross,
nor in any of the extensive collections made by the Scripps Institu-
tion of the University of California in coastal waters of California.
Its behavior in Carquinez Strait in 1917-1920 and in 1921 is of such
intensity that it is highly improbable that it could have been present
in earlier years and have escaped notice-
It appears that there are thus sound biological grounds for re-
garding this Teredo as a new introduction from some other area of
distribution. Other introduced mollusks are well known in San Fran-
cisco Bay, such for example as Ih/annassa o~bsoleta Say. Additional
evidence that it is a new intruder arises from the fact that untreated

*Bartsch. P. A. A new classification of the shipworms and descrip-
tions of some new wood-boring- mollusks. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing-ton,
vol. 34, pp. 35-42. March 31, 1921.

82

piling at Port Costa driven prior to 1870 was untouched by Teredo
prior to the recent outbreak, although several periods of low rainfall
similar to the recent one have intervened, which might have permitted
an outbreak.

Teredo navalis lives in a wide range of salinities in San Francisco
Bay and is subject, therefore, to considerable variation, which does not,
however, obliterate its specific identity with the European species,
T. navalis.

The fact that this notorious pest of marine piling in European
waters has established itself in San Francisco and San Diego Bays,
where it repeats its history of destruction of marine piling elsewhere,
is indicative of the possibility of its invasion of other regions. Hence
engineers in charge of the construction and maintenance of marine
structures in marine and brackish waters at present free from Teredo
navalis should be on guard against its occurrence and provide against
its destructive activities by suitable protective or preventive measures.

FUTURE WORK

The scope of the work now contemplated by this Committee will
be sufficiently clear from the reports on the several phases of the work.
No statement will therefore be repeated here. The considerations
which indicate the necessity of a continuation of the work, it is believed,
will also have been made clear. The Committee feels that they are
of urgent weight. It therefore desires to recommend to the Associa-
tion, in the strongest manner possible, the granting of its authority
for such a continuance.

For the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee,

(Signed) F. D. MATTOS,
A. A. BROWN,
W. C. BALL,
C. A. KOFOID,
L. D. JURS,
C. E. CORTES,
H. H. HALL,
C. L. HILL, Chairman,

Executive Committee

PLATE 1

Fig. 1. Pile from Associated Oil Co. wharf, Port Costa; driven
with bark on, presumably in 1910, removed in 1921. Borers at-
tacked where bark protection was damaged.

Fig. 2. Concrete protected pile, Koetitz type, showing typical
rusting crack above high tide level. From bulkhead between
Piers 28 and 30, San Francisco; driven 1909.

PLATE 2

Fig. 1. Concrete protected piles, Koetitz type, Pier 17, San
Francisco. 10 years exposure, good condition.

Fig. 2. Concrete protected piles, Holmes single-pile type,
Pier 34, San Francisco. 11 years exposure, good condition.

PLATE 3

Fig. 1. Concrete protected pile, concrete casing defective
due to improper tamping.

Fig. 2. California Wharf and Warehouse, Port Costa. Un-
treated wooden piles protected 1921 by Larsen-Camp concrete
casing applied in place.

PLATE 4

Fig. 1. Concrete protected piles, California Wharf and Ware-
house; Larsen-Camp process, installed 1921.

Fig. 2. Creosoted pile, Western Pacific Ferry Slip, Alameda,
attacked by lAmnoria at bolt and dog holes.

PLATE 5

Fig. 1. Cross-section of pile, showing thin treatment through
which Xylotrya penetrated to interior of pile.

Fig. 2. Surface of same pile as in Fig. 1, showing entrance
holes of Xylolrya.

PLATE 6

Fig. 1. Section of new creosoted piles delivered on San Fran-
cisco Bay, 1921, showing uneven penetration of creosote.

Fig. 2. Attack on pile by Limnoria and Xylotrya, made pos-
sible by thin creosote penetration.

PLATE 7

Fig. 1. Perfectly treated pile attacked by Xylotrya which
entered through the small knot (about % inch in diameter).

Fig. 2. Reinforced concrete cylinders placed in open caissons,
Pier 38, San Francisco. 12 years exposure, excellent condition.

PLATE 8

Fig. 1. Concrete cylinders, Pier 28, San Francisco. Disinte-
gration of concrete due to poor workmanship and improper tamp-
ing. These cylinders were repaired by encasing in dense concrete.

Fig. 2. Reinforced concrete piles, Pier 35, San Francisco. 6
years exposure, excellent condition.

PLATE 9

Fig. 1. Bulkhead, Pier 17, San Francisco. Foreground, rein-
forced concrete piles, 10 years exposure. Background, Koetitz
cylinders. All in good condition.

Fig. 2. Creosoted pile raft, dogged and chained across water
section of piles.

PLATE 10

0

Fig. lr vertical section; Fig. 2, cross-section, through portion
of a perfectly treated pile which was split and broomed during
driving. Teredo entered splits and worked through untreated
heartwood to the creosoted outer shell, which was attacked in a few
spots as shown by smaller pieces. (Bottom of photos is left side
of plate.)

PLATE 11

Fig. 1. Section through corbel and creosoted pile cut off too
close to the water. Pile and corbel both attacked by Limnoria,
where water stood from wave-slop. Creosoted shell of pile not
attacked.

Fig. 2. Ferry slip, San Francisco Bay. Ribbing attached
below high water, as shown by bolt heads. Destruction due to
Limnoria.

PLATE 12

Fig. 1. Creosoted chock attacked by Linnwria, which gained
entrance through the bolt hole.

Fig. 2. Creosoted pile attacked by Linnioria where pile was
dapped for attaching ribbing.

PLATE 13

Fig. 1. Section of creosoted girt, in which untreated wood was
exposed in framing.

Fig. 2. End view of same girt section as in Fig. 1, showing
attack by Teredo which entered through the untreated wood ex-
posed by framing.

PLATE 14

Fig. 1. Section through creosoted fender pile attacked by
Limnoria, which gained entrance through bolt hole.

Fig. 2. Creosoted pile destroyed by Limnoria, which entered
through a bolt hole and adjacent dog holes.

2 =

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