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INTERNATIONAL FORESTBY EXHIBITION,

WOKKS ON FOREST SCIENCE.

By the rev. J. C. BRO^YX, LL.D.

EDi>-BrRGH : OLIVER & BOYD.

LoNDO-x : SIMPKIX, MARSHALL, & CO., and W. RIDER & SON.

Mo.xtreal: DAWSON, BROTHERS.

I.— Introduction to the Study of Modern Forest
Economy. Price 5s.

In this there are brought under consideration the exten-
sive destruction of forests which has taken place in Europe
and elsewhere, with notices of disastrous consequences
which have followed — diminished supply of timber and
firewood, droughts, floods, landslips, and sand-drifts — and
notices of the appliances of Modern Forest Science success-
fully to counteract these evils by conservation, planting, and
improved exploitation, under scientific administration and
management.

Extract from Preface. — ' At a meeting held on the 2Sth of March
last year (1883), presided over by the Marquis of Lothian, while the
assemblage was representative of all interests — scientific, practical, and
professional — it was resolved : — "That it is expedient in the interests
of forestry, and to promote a movement for the establishment of a
National School of Forestry in Scotland, as well as with a view of
furthering and stimulating a greater improvement in the scientific
management of woods in Scotland and the sister countries which has
manifested itself during recent years, that there should be held in Edin-
burgh, during 1884, and at such season of the year as may be arranged,
an International Exhibition of forest products and other objects of
interest connected with forestry." It was then moved, seconded, and
agreed : — "That this meeting pledges itself to give its hearty co-opera-
tion and patronage to the promotion of an International Forestry Exhibi-
tion in Edinburgh in 1884 ; and those present resolve to give their best
efforts and endeavours to render the Exhibition a success, and of such
importance and general interest as to make it worthy of the name of
International.''

' It is in accordance with this resolution, and in discharge of obligations
which it imposed, that this volume has been prepared.'

2

II.— The Forests of Eng"land ; and the Management of
them in Bye-gone Times. Price 6s.

Ancient forests, chases, parks, warrens, and woods, are
described ; details are given of destructive treatment to
which they have been subjected, and of legislation and
literature relating to them previous to the present
century.

Extract from Preface. — ' Contrast with this [the paucity of works
in English on Forest Science], the richness of Continental languages in
literature on such subjects. I have had sent to me lately Ofversight of
Scenska Sko'jditeraturen, Bihliograliika Stxicheren of Axel Cuattingius, a
list of many books and papers on Forest Science published in Sweden ;
I have also had sent to me a work by Don Jos6 Jordana y Morera,
Ingenero de Montes, under the title of Apuntes Blhlmjraphico Forestale,
a catalogue raifionne of 1126 printed books, MSS., &c., in Spanish, on
subjects connected with Forest Science.

' I am at present preparing for the press a report on measures adopted
in France, Germany, Hungary, and elsewhere, to arrest and utilise drift-
sand by planting them with grasses and trees ; and in Der Europaeische
Flug-sand und Seine Cultur, von Josef Wessely General Domaenen-
Inspecktor, und Forst-Academk-D'irektor, published in Vienna in 1873,
I find a list of upwards of 100 books and papers on that one department
of the subject, of which 30, in Hungarian, Latin, and German, were
pnblished in Hungary alone.

' According to the statement of one gentleman, to whom application
was made by a representative of the Government at the Cape, for infor-
mation in regard to what suitable works on Forest Economy could be
procured from Germany, the works on Forst- Wissenchnft, Forest Science,
and Ford- Wirthchaft, Forest Economy, in the German language may be
reckoned by cartloads. From what I know of the abundance of works
ia German, on subjects connected with Forestry, I am not surprised
that such a report should have been given. And with the works in
German may be reckoned the works in French.

' In Hermann Schmidt's Fach Katalogue, published in Prague last
year (1876), there were given the titles, &c., of German works in Forst und
Jagd-Literatur, published from 1S70 to 1875 inclusive, to the 31st of
October of the latter year, amounting in all to 6oO, exclusive of others
given in an appendix, containing a selection of the works published
prior to 1870. They are classified thus :— General Forest Economy, 93 ;
Forest Botany, 60 ; Forest History and Statistics, 50 ; Forest Legislation
and Game Laws, 56 ; Forest Mathematics, 25 ; Forest Tables and
Measurements, &c., 1-18; Forest Technology, 6 ; Forest Zoology, 19;
Peat and Bog Treatment, 14 ; Forest Calendars, 6 ; Forest and Game
Periodicals, 27 ;■ Forest Union and Year Books, 13 ; Game, 91 ; Forest
and Game in Bohemian, 44. In all, 652. Upwards of a hundred new-
works had been published annually. Amongst the works mentioned is
a volume entitled Die Literatur der ktzten sieben Jahre (1862-1872) aus

dem Gesammtgebiete der Land-und Forst-wirthschaft mit Einschhiss der
landw. Geweher u. der Jagd, in d.eutscher, franzosischer u englisher
Sprache Herausg. v. d. Buchandl, v. Gerold and Co., m Wein, 1873, a
valuable catalogue filling 278 pages in large octavo.

' This volume is published as a small contribution to the literature of
Britain, on subjects pertaining to Forest Science.

*It is after due consideration that the form given to the work— that
of a compilation of what has been stated in works previously published
— has been adopted.

III.— Forestry of Norway. Price 5s.

There are described in successive chapters the general
features of the country. Details are given of the geo-
graphical distribution of forest trees, followed by discussions
of conditions by which this has been determined — heat,
moistur^e, soil, and exposure. The effects of glacial action
on the contour of the country are noticed, with accounts
of existing glaciers aiid snow-fields. And information is
supplied in regard to forest exploitation and the transport
of timber, in regard to the export timber trade, to public
instruction in sylviculture, and to forest administration,
and to ship-building and shipping.

Extract from Preface. — 'In the spring of 1877, while measures
were being taken for the formation of an Arboretum in Edinburgh, I
issued a pamplet eutitbd The Schools of Forestry in Europe : a Plea
for the Creation of a School of Forestry in connection with the Arboretum
in Edinburgh. After it was made known that arrangements were being
carried out for the formation of an International Exhibition of forest
products, and other objects of interest connected with forestry, in Edin-
burgh with a view to promoting the movement for the establishment
of a National School of Forestry in Scotland, and with a view of
furthering and stimulating a greater improvement in the scientific
management of woods in Scotland, and the sister countries, which has
manifested itself during recent years, the council of the East Lothian
Naturalists' Club resolved on having a course of lectures or popular
readings on some subject connected with forestry, which might enable
the members and others better to profit by visits to the projected Exhibi-
tion, and which should be open to the public at a modtrate charge. The
conducting of these was devolved upon me, who happened to be vice-
president of the club. The following treatise was compiled from
information then in my possession, or within my reach, and it constituted
the basis of these lectures.'

IV.— Finland : its Forests and Forest Management.
Price 6s 6d.

In this volume is supplied informatioD in regard to
the lakes and rivers of Finland, known as The Land of a
Thousand Lakes, and as The Last-horn Daughter of the
Sea;- m regard to its physical geography, including notices
of the contour of the country, its geological formations
and indications of glacial action, its flora, fauna, and
climate : and in regard to its forest economy, embracing a
discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of
Svedjande, the Sartage of France, and the Koomaree of
India ; and details of the development of Modern Forest
Economy in Finland, with notices of its School of Fores-
try, of its forests and forest trees, of the disposal of its
forest products, and of its legislation and literature in
forestry are given.

Extract from Preface,—' I happened to spend the summer of 1879
in St. Petersburg, ministering in the British and American Chapel in
that city, while the pastor sought relaxation for a few months at home.
I was for years the minister of the congregation worshipping there, and
I had subsequently repeatedly spent the summer among them in similar
circumstances. I was at the time studying the Forestry of Europe ;
and I availed myself of opportunities afforded hy my journey thither
through Norway, Sweden, and Finland, by my staj- in Ptussia, and by
my return through Germany and France, to collect information bearing
upon the enquiries in which I was engaged. On my return to Scotland
I contributed to the Journal of Forestry a series of papers which were
afterwards reprinted under the title Glances at the Forests of Northern
Europe. In the preface to this pamphlet I stated that in Denmark
may be studied the remains of forests in pre-historic times ; in Norway,
■luxuriant forests managed by each proprietor as seemeth good in his own
eyes ; in Sweden, sustained systematic endeavours to regulate the
management of forests in accordance with the latest deliverances of
modern science ; in Finland, Sarta<je disappearing before the most
advanced forest economy of the day ; and in Russia, Jardina^je in the
north, merging into more scientific management in Central Russia, and
Rehoisement in the south. This volume is a study of information which
I then collected, together with information which I previously possessed,
or have subsequently obtained, in regard to the Forests and Forestry of
Finland.'

Translation of Extracts from Letters from Dr A. Blomqvist, Director
of the Finnish National School of Forestry at Evois : — ' On my return
from Salmos three weeks ago I had the great pleasure to receive your
volume on the Forests and Forest Management in Finland. I return

you grateful thanks for the gift, and no less for publishing a description
of the forestal condition of our country. It is with sentiments of true
gratitude I learn that you had previously taken part in a work so
important to our country as the preparation of a new edition of the Xew
Testament in Finnish. Your descriptions of our natural scenery are
most excellent and interesticg. Personally I feel most interest in your
accounts of Koomaree. I value it much, and not less so your concurrent
final conclusion in regard to the effects of the exercise of it in Finland.'

Translation of Statement by M. De La Grye, in the Revue des
Eai'.x et Forets of January 1884 : — 'In an address delivered some weeks
since at a banquet of exhibitors in the French section at Amsterdam,
M. Herisson, Minister of Commerce, expressed an intention to publish
a series of small books designed to make known to French merchants
foreign lands in a commercial point of view. If the Minister of Commerce
wishes to show to our merchants the resources possessed by Finland, he
need not go far to seek information which may be useful to them, they
will be found iu a small volume which has just been published by Mr
John Croumbie Brown.

' Mr Brown is one of those English ministers, who, travelling over the
world in all directions [some at their own cost], seeking to spread the
Word of the Lord in the form of Bibles translated into all languages,
know how to utilise the leisure left to them at times while prosecuting
this mission. Some occupy themselves with physical science, others with
archaeology, some with philology, many with commerce ; Mr Brown has
made a special study of sylviculture. He has already published on this
subject many works, from amongst which we may cite these : Hydrology
of South Africa ; The Forests of England ; The Schools of Forestry in
Europe ; Reboisement in France ; Pine Plantations on Sand Wastes in
France.

'His last book on Finland is the fruit of many journeys made in that
country, which he visited for the first time in 1833, but whither he has
returned frequently since that time. Mr Brown gives narratives of his
voyages on the lakes which abound in Finland, and his excursions iu the
immense forests, the exploitation of which constitutes the principal
industry of the country. The School of Forestry at Evois has furnished
to him much precise information in regard to the organisation of the
service, and the legislation and the statistics of forests, which, added
to what he had procured by his own observation, has enabled him to
make a very complete study of this country, poetically designated The
Land of a Thousxnd Lakes, and which might also justly be called The
Kingdom of the Forest, for there this reigns sovereign.'

v.— Forest Lands and Forestry of Northern Russia.
Price 6s 6d.

Details are given of a trip from St. Petersburg to
the forests around Petrozavodsk on Lake Onega, in
the government of Olonetzj a description of the forests

6

on that government by Mr Judrae, a forest official of

high position, and of the forests of Archangel by Mr

Hepworth Dixon, of Lapland, of the land of the Samoides

and of Nova Zembla ; of the exploitation of the forests

by Jardinage, and of the evils of such exploitation ; and

of the export timber trade, and disposal of forest products.

In connection with discussions of the physical geography

of the region information is supplied iu regard to the

contour and general appearance of the country ; its flora,

its forests, and the palaeontological botany of the regions

beyond, as viewed by Professor Heer and Count Saporta ;

its fauna, with notices of game, and with copious lists of

coleoptera and lepidoptera, by Forst-Meister Gunther, of

Petrozavodsk.

Extract from Preface. — 'In the spring of 1877 I published a
brochure entitled The Schools of Forestry in Europe: a Flea /or the Crea-
tion of a School of Forestry in connection icith the Arboretum in Edin-
burgh, in which with details of the arrangements made for instruction in
Forest Science in Schools of Forestry in Prussia, Saxony, Hanover,
Hesse, Darmstadt, "Wurtemburg, Bavaria, Austria, Poland, Russia,
Finland, Sweden, France. Italy, and in Spain, and details of arrange-
ments existing in Edinburgh for instruction in most of the subjects in-
cluded amongst preliminary studies, I submitted for consideration the
opinion, " that with the acquisition of this Arboretum, and with the ex-
istincr arrangements for study in the University of Edinburgh, and in
the Watt Institution and School of Arts, there are required only facil-
ties for the study of what is known on the Continent as Forest Science
to enable these Institutions conjointly, or any one of them, with the
help of the other, to take a place amongst the most completely equipped
Schools of Forestry in Europe, and to undertake the training of foresters
for the discharge of such duties as are now required of them in India, in
our Colonies, and at home."

* This year has seen world-wide arrangements for an International
Exhibition of fore=!t products and other objects of interest connected
with forestry in Edinburgh, "In the interests of forestry, and to pro-
mote a movement for the establishment of a School of Forestry in Scot-
land, as well as with a view of furthering and stimulating a greater im-
provement in the scientific management of woods in Scotland and the
sister countries which has manifested itself during recent years."

' The following is one of a series of volumes published with a view to
introduce into English forestal literature detailed information on some
of the points on which information is supplied to students at Schools of
Forestry on the Continent ; and to make better known the breadth of
study whicl\is embraced in what is known there as Forstwissenscaft, or
Forest Science.'

VI.— French Forest Ordinance of 1669 ; with Historical
Sketch of Previous Treatment of Forests in France.
Price 4s.

The early history of forests in France is given, with de-
tails of devastations of these going on in the first half of
the seveQteenth century ; with a translation of the Ordi-
nance of 1669, which is the basis of modern forest econo-
my ; and notices of forest exploitation in Jardinage, in La
Methode a Tire et Aire, and in La Methode des Comparti-
ments.

Extract from Preface.— '" The Celebrated Forest Ordinance of
16G9 :" Such is the character and designation generally given at the
present day to the Ordinance in question. It is known, by reputation
at least, in every country on the Continent of Europe ; but, so far as is
known to me, it has never before been published in English dress. It
may possibly be considered antiquated ; but, on its first promulgation, it
was welcomed, far beyond the bounds of France, as bringing life to the
dead ; and I know of no modern system of Forest Exploitation, based on
modern Forest Science, in which I cannot trace its intlaence. lu the
most advanced of these — that for which we are indebted to Hartig and
Cotta of Saxony — I see a development of it like to the development of
the butterfly from what may be seen in the structure of the chrysalis ;
and thus am I encouraged to hope that it may prove suggestive of bene-
ficial arrangements, even where it does not detail what it may be deemed
desirable to adopt.

' In my translation I have followed an edition issued with Royal ap-
proval in 17-5.3, with one verbal alteration to bring it into accordance
with certain older approved editions, and with another verbal alteration
to bring it into accordance with editions issued in 1009, 1723, 1734, and
1747.'

Translation of notice by M. De La Grye for .July 1SS3 in the Bevue
des Eaux et Furets : 'England, which with her immense possessions in
India, in Canada, and in the Cape of Good Hope, is beyond all quesiiou
a State rich in forests, has never up to the present time given to this
portion of her domains more than a very moderate share of her attention ;
but for some years past public opinion is becoming alarmed, in view of
the immense devastations which have been committed in them, and the
forest question coming forward spontaneously has become the subject of
numerous publications : amongst which, after the excellent monthly
collection, the Journal of Fore-dri/ and E4ate Mana/j'-ment, comes the
Translation of the Ordinance of KiOO, which has just been published by
Mr John Croumbie Brown. This translation of a monument of juris-
prudence, well known in France, but which has never be*^ore been repro-
duced in English, lias furnished to Mr Brown an opportunity of giving a
hi.storicat sketch of French Forest Legislation, and an exposition of the

8

different methods of exploitation followed in our country. Drawn from
the best sources, and commented on with talent, these documents form
an elegant volume, which the author has made the more complete by
binding with it a summary of the treatise he has published on the
Forests of England.'

VII. -Pine Plantations on Sand Wastes in France.
Price 7s.

In this are detailed the appearances presented by the
Landes of the Gironde before and after culture, and the
Landes of La Solugne ; the legislation and literature of
France in regard to the planting of the Landes with trees ;
the characteristics of the sand wastes ; the natural his-
tory, culture, and exploitation of the maritime pine, and
of the Scots fir; and the diseases and injurious influences
to which the maritime pine is subject.

Extracts FROM Preface. — 'The preparation of this volume for the
press was undertaken in consequence of a statement in the Standard and
Mail, a Capetown paper, of the 2"2d July 1S76, to the effect that in the
estimates submitted to Parliament £1000 had been put down for the
Cape Flats, it was supposed with a view to its being employed in car-
rying out planting operations as a means of reclaiming the sandy tracts
beyond Salt River.

' This volume was originally compiled in view of what seemed to be
required at the Cape of Good Hope. It has been re\ised and printed
now, as a contribution towards a renewed enterprise to arrest and
utilise sand-wastes which stretch from Table Mountain to the Hottentot
Holland Mountains ; and additional information is forthcoming if it
should be desired.'

VIII.— Reboisement in France ; or, Records of the Re-
planting of the Alps, the Cevennes, and the
Pyrenees, with Trees, Herbage, and Bush,
with a view to arresting and preventing the de-
structive consequences of torrents. Price 12s.

In this are given a resume of Surell's study of Alpine
torrents, of the literature of France relative to Alpine tor-
rents, and of remedial measures which have been proposed
for adoption to prevent the disastrous consequences fol-

9

lowing from them — translations of documents and enact-
ments, showinor what ledslative and executive measures
have been taken by the Government of France m connec-
tion with reboisement as a remedial application against
destructive torrents — and details in regard to the past,
present, and prospective aspects of the work.

Extract from Preface. — ' In a treatise on the Hydrology of South
Africa I have given details of destructive effects of torrential floods at
the Cape of Good Hope and N'atal, and referred to the measures adopted
in France to prevent the occurrence of similar disastrous floods there.
The attention of the Legislative Assembly at the Cape of Good Hope
was, last j'ear, called by" one of the members of the Assembly to the
importance of planting trees on unproductive Crown lands. On learn-
ing that this had been done I addressed to the editor of the Cape Argus
a communication, of which the following is a copy : —

' "I have before me details of destructive effects of torrents which have
occurred since I left the Colony in the beginning of 1867. Towards the
close of that year there occurred one, the damage occasioned by which
to roads and to house property at Port Elizabeth alone was estimated at
from £25,000 to £30,000. Within a year thereafter a similar destructive
torrent occurred at Xatal, io regard to which it was stated that the
damage done to public works alone was estimated at £50,000, while the
loss to private persons was estimated variously from £50,000 to £100,000.
In the following year, 1869, a torrent in the Western Province occa-
sioned the fall of a railway bridge, which issued in loss of life and loss
of property, and personal injuries, for one case alone of which the rail-
way proprietors were prosecuted for damages amounting to £5000. In
Beaufort West a deluge of rain washed down the dam, and the next
year the town was flooiled by the waters of the Gamko ; and the next
year, 1871, Victoria West was visited with a similar disaster. Such are
the sums and the damages with which we have to deal in connection
with this question, as it aff^ects the case ; and these are only the most
remarkable torrents of the several years referred to. I have spoken of
millions of francs being spent on reboisement in France, and some may
be ready to cry out, ' Nothing like such an expenditure can be under-
taken at the Cape 1 ' Perhaps not ; but the losses occasioned by the
torrents seem to amount at present to about a million of francs in the
year. This falls in a great measure on individuals, that would fall oa
the community ; and the community in return would benefit by water
retained to fertilize the earth, instead of being lost in the sea, and by
firewood and timber being grown where now there is none. These are
facts well deserving of consideration in the discussion of the expediency
of planting Crown lands with trees."

' Towards the close of last year, 1874, still more disastrous eflfects
were produced by torrential floods. According to the report given by
one of the Colonial newspapers, the damages done could not be esti-
mated at much less than £300,000. According to the report given by

10

another, the damage done to public works alone was estimated at
£350,000, — eight milUons, seven hundred anel fifty thousand francs. And
my attention was called anew to the subject.

'On addressing myself to M. Fare, Director-General of the Administra-
tion of Forests in France, there was afforded to me every facility I could
desire for extending and verifying the information I had previously col-
lected in regard to the works of rehoisement to which I have referred.
Copies of additional documents were supplied to me, with copies of
works sanctioned by the Administration, and arrangements were made
for my visiting and inspecting, with every assistance required, the works
begun and the works completed ; and thus I have been enabled to sub-
mit a much more complete report than it would otherwise have been in
my power to produce,

' While the compilation I have prepared owes its publication at this
time to the occurrence of the inundations of last year at the Cape of
Good Hope, the publication has been undertaken in the hope that in
other countries besides South Africa the information may be turned to
practical account.'

Translation of extract from letter to the author by M. Alexandre
SuRELL, Inijenieur des Fonts et Chausses, chairman of the Compagnie des
Chemins des Fer du Midi et du Canal lateral a la Garonne, and author of
Etude sur les Torrents des Hautes- Alps, Ouvrage ConronneparVAcademie
des Sciences en 1842 : — " You are rendering an eminent service to society
in calling the attention of serious thinkers to the subject of reboisements
and gazonnernents. It is a vital question affecting our descendants,
specially in southern climates, there are useful truths which have to be
diffused there, and you have fulfilled this duty amongst your country-
men.

' In France public opinion, Jong indifferent, is now sufficiently en-
lightened on the question, and much has been done.

' I have been able to establish in the course of a recent journey
that, throughout a great part of Switzerland, in Styria, in Carinthia,
and in the Tyrol, the same phenomena which have issued in the desola-
tion of our French Alps are beginning to produce the same effects.
There have been recognised a number of extinct torrents which had
originated in the destruction of the forests. If people go on sleeping,
and the administration or the communes do nothing to arrest the evil,
posterity will have a sad inheritance devolved upon it.

' You have given, with very great clearness, a rtsurne of what I have
done in France, be it by my works, or be it by my workings, for the re-
generation of our mountains.'

lYanslation of extract from letter by the late M. Ernest Cezanne, In-
genieur des Fonts et Chausses, Representant des Hautes Alpes a rAsseniblte
Nationale, and author of Une Suite to the work of M. Surell. ' The
post brought to me yesterday your very interesting volume on Rehoise-
ment. I at once betook myself to the perusal of it ; and I am surprised
that a foreigner could digest so completely such a collection of our
French documents drawn from so many diverse sources. The problem

11

of rihoisement and the regeneration of the mountains is one of the most in-
teresting which man has to solve, but it requires time and money, and
with the authorities and political assemblies, technical knowledge which
is as yet but very sparingly possessed. It is by books so substantial as
yours, sir, that public opinion can be prepared to face the importance
of this great work. '

IX.— Hydrologry of South Africa ; or Details of the
Former Hydrographic Condition of Cape of Good
Hope, and of Causes of its Present Aridity, with
Suggestions of Appropriate Remedies for this
Aridity. Price lOs.

In this the desiccation of South Africa, from pre-Adamic
times to the preseat day, is traced by iadications supphed
by geological formations, by the physical geography or the
general contour of the country, and by arborescent pro-
ductions in the interior, with results confirmatory of the
opinion that the appropriate remedies are irrigation,
arboriculture, and an improved forest economy : or the
erection of dams to prevent the escape of a portion of
the rainfall to the sea — the abandonment or restriction of
the burning of the herbage and bush in connection with
pastoral and agricultural operations — the conservation and
extension of existing forests —and the adoption of measures
similar to the reboisement and gazonnement carried out in
France, with a view to prevent the formation of torrents,
and the destruction of property occasioned by them.

M. Jules Clave, of world-wide reputation as a student
of Poorest Science, wrote in the Revue des Deux Mondes of
1st May 1882:—

[Translated. '\ 'Since the first travels of Livingstone, the African
continent, hitherto inacessible, has been attacked on all points at once.
By the north, and by the south, by the east, and by the west, hardy
explorers have penetrated it, traversed it, and have dragged from it
some of its secrets. Travellers have paid tribute and done their work
in opening up a path ; it is now for science and civilisation to do theirs,
in studying the problems which present themselves for investigation ;
and in drawing in the current of general circulations the peoples and
lands, which appear as if destined to stand outside ; and in causing to

12

contribute to the increase of social wealth the elements of production
previously unknown. Thus are we led to receive with interest works
which can throw a new light on the condition of regions which may
have been known for a long time, and which make known the conditions
of their prosperity. It is under this title that the work of the Rev. J. C.
Brown on the Hydrology of South Africa appears deserving of notice ;
but it is so also from other points of view. Mr Brown, after a previous
residence in the colony of the Cape, whither he had been sent in 1S44
as a missionary and head of a religious congregation, returned thither
in lSti3 as Professor of Botany in the College of South Africa, and he
remained there some years. In both of these positions he had occasion to
travel through the colony in all directions, and had opportunities to col-
lect most valuable information in regard to its physical geography. Mr
Brown on going out to the Cape knew nothing of the works which had
for their object to determine the iniluence of forests on the climate, on
the quantity of rain, and on the river-courses in Europe ; he had never
heard mention of the work of M. Surell on the torrents of the Alps, or
of that of M. Mathieu on forest meteorology, nor of those of M.
Domontzey, Costa de Bastelica, and so many others on the subject of
rehoinement ; and yet in studying by himself, and without bias, the
climatic condition of South Africa, he came to perceive that the dis-
turbances in the regularity of the flow of rivers within the historic
period should be attributed in a large measure to the destruction of
forests ; and he meets in agreement on this point the savants whose
names have been mentioned. We have thought it might not be with-
out interest to readers of the Revue to l:ave in the lines of Mr Brown a
collection of phenomena which, in their manifestation at any speci-
fied point are not less due to general causes, the effects of which
may be to make themselves felt everywhere where there may be
existent the same conditions than to aught else.' And there follows a
lengthened article in illustration.

X.— Water Supply of South Africa, and Facilities for
the Storage of it. Price 18s 6d.

In this volume are detailed meteorological observations
on the humidity of the air and the rainfall, on clouds, and
winds, and thunder-storms ; sources from which is derived
the supply of moisture which is at present available for
agricultural operations in the Colony of the Cape of Good
Hope and regions beyond, embracing the atmosphere, the
rainfall, rivers, fountains, subterranean streams and reser-
voirs, and the sea ; and the supply of water and facilities
for the storage of it in each of the divisions of the colony

IS

— in Basutoland, in the Orange River Free State, m
Griqaaland West, in the Transvaal Territory, in Zululand,
at Natal, and in the Transkei Territory.

Extract from Preface.— ' Appended to the Report of the Colonial
Botanist at the Cape of Good Hope for 1866 was an abstract of a Memoir
prepared on the Hydrology of South Africa, which has since been
embodied in a volume which has been published on that subject, and an
abstract of a Memoir prepared on Irrigation and its application to
agricultural operations in South Africa, which eml traced a Report on
the Water Supply of the Colony ; its sources, its qnantity, the modes of
irrigation required in different circumstances, the facilities for the adop-
tion of these in different districts, and the difficulties, physical and
other, in the way of works of extensive irrigation being carried out
there, and the means of accomplishing these which are at command.

' In the following volume is embodied that portion of the Memoir
which related to the water supply, and the existing facilities for the
storage of this, with reports relative to this which were subsequently
received, and similar information in regard to lands beyond the Colony
of the Cape of Good Hope, which it has been sought to connect with the
Colony by federation, or otherwise ; and the information relative to
irrigation has been transferred to a Report on the Rivers of the Colony,
and the means of controlling floods, of preventing inundations, of
regulating the flow of rivers, and utilising the water by irrigation
otherwise.

'In the series of volumes to which this belongs its place is immedi-
ately after that on the Hydrology oj South Africa, which contains
details of the former hydrographic condition of the Cape of Good Hope,
and of causes of its present aridity, iclth suggestions of appropriate
remedies for this aridity : and it has been prepared to show that, not
in a vague and general use of the terms, but in strict accordance with
the statement, the severe, protracted, and extensive droughts, and
destructive floods and inundations, recorded in the former volume, find
their counterpart in constantly alternating droughts and deluges in
every district of the Colony, — and that, in every so-called divnsion of it,
notwithstanding the deluges, there were protracted sufferings from
drought, and, notwithstanding the aridity, there is a supply of water
at command, with existing facilities for the storage of the superabundant
supply which at present proves productive of more evil than good.'

Statement by R,e viewer in European Mail : — ' Dr Brown is well known
at the Cape, for in the exercise of his duties he travelled over the prin-
cipal part of it, and much, if not indeed the substance, of the bulky
volume before us, has been before the Cape public in the form of Reports
to the local Government. As these reports have been commented upon
over and over again by the local press there is little left for us to say
beyond the fact that the author reiterates his opinion that the only
panacea for the drought is to erect dams and other irrigation works for
the storage of water when the rains come down. There can be no doubt

14

that this is sage and wholesome advice, and the only question is, who
is to sustain the expense ? Not long ago, somewhere about the time
that Dr Brown was prosecuting his labours, it will be remembered that
General Wynard said that. "Nature had furnished the cups if only
science would take the trouble to make them secure." It is but to
repeat an oft-told story that with a good supply of water South Africa
would be one of the finest of nature's gardens, and would be capable of
producing two crops a year, in addition to furnishing fodder for sheep
and cattle. The question of the water supply for irrigation and other
purposes has been staved off year after year, and nothing has been done.
It is not too much to say, however, that the question must make itself
felt, as it is one of the chief factors in the ultimate prosperity of South
Africa. The author is evidently in love with his subject, and has con-
tributed a mass of facts to Hydrology which will be useful to all coun-
tries of an arid character.'

XL— Forests and Moisture; or Effects of Forests on
Humidity of Climate. Price 10s.

In this are given details of phenoraena of vegetation on
which the meteorological effects of forests affecting the
humidity of climate depend — of the effects of forests on
the humidity of the atmosphere, and on the humidity of the
ground, on marshes, on the moisture of a wide expanse of
country, on the local rainfall, and on rivers — and of the
correspondence between the distribution of the rainfall and
of forests — the measure of correspondence between the
distribution of the rainfall and that of forests — the distri-
bution of the rainfall dependent on geographical position,
or determiaed by the contour of a countr}^ — the distribution
of forests affected by the distribution of the rainfall — and
the local effects of forests on the distribution of the rain-
fall within the forest district.

Extracts from Preface. — ' This volume is one of a laeries. In the
first of the series — a volume entitled — published last year. Hydrology
of South Africa ; or, Details of the Former Hydrographic Condition of
the Cape oj Good Hope and of Causes of its recent Aridity, with Sugges-
tions of appropriate Remedies for this Aridity.

' This volume, on the effects of forests on the humidity of the atmos-
phere and the ground, follows supplying illustrations of the reasonable-
ness of the suggestion made in regard to the conservation and extension
of forests as a subordinate means of arresting and counteracting the
deaeccation and aridity of the country.'

16

Extracts from Letters to the author from the late Hon. George P.
Marsh, Minister of the United states at Rome, and author of The
Earth as Modified hji Human Action ;— ' I am extremely obliged to you
for a copy of your Rehoisement in France, just received by post. I hope
the work may have a wide circulation. . . . Few things are more
needed in the economy of cur time than the judicious administration of
the forest, and your very valuable writings cannot fail to excite a
powerful influence in the right direction. ...

'I have received your interesting letter of the oth inst., with the
valuable MSS. which accompanied it. I will make excerpts from the
latter, and return it to you soon. I hope the very important facts you
mention concerning the effect of plantations on the island of Ascension
will be duly verified.

. . . ' I put very little faith in old meteorological observations,
and, for that matter, not much in new. So much depends on local
circumstances, on the position of instruments, &c. — on station, in short,
that it is ouly on the principle of the tendency of some to balance each
other that we can trust to the registers of observers not known to be
trained to scientific accuracy. Even in observatories of repute, meteoro-
logical instruments are seldom properly hung and guarded from dis-
turbing causes. Beyond all, the observations on the absorption of heat
and vapour at small distances from the ground show that thermometers
are almost always hung too hiah to be of any value as indicating the
temperature of the stratum of the atmosphere in which men live and
plants grow, and in most tables, particularly old ones, we have no
information as to whether the thermometer was hung five feet or fifty
feet from the ground, or whether it was in any way protected from heat
radiated from near objects.'

Extract Letter from the late Professor Henry, of the Smithsonian
Institution, Washington :— ' The subject of Forest Culture and its in-
fluence on rainfall is, just at this time, attracting much attention in the
United States. At the last meeting of the American Association for the
advancement of science a committee was appointed to memorialise Con-
gress with reference to it. Several of the Western States Governments
have enacted laws and offered premiums in regard to it. The United
States Agricultural Department has collected statistics bearing on the
question, and Ave have referred your letter to that establishment.

' The only contribution that the Smithsonian Institution has made to
the subject is that of a series of rain-fall tables, comprising all the obser-
vations that have been made in regard to the rainfall in the United
States since the settlement of the country ; a copy of this we have sent
to your address.

• It may be proper to state that we have commenced a new epoch,
and have, since the publication of the tables in question, distributed
several hundred rain gauges in addition to those previously used, and to
those which have been provided by the Government in connection with
the signal service'

These notices and remarks are cited as indicative of the importance
which is being attached to the subject discussed.

16

Extract from Letter to the author from Lieut. -Col. J. Campbell
Walker, Conservator of Forests, Madras, then Conservator-in-Chief of
Forests, New Zealand ; author of Report on State Forests and Forest
Manaqernent in Germany and Austria :—' 1 am in receipt of j-ours,
along with the notices of j'our works on Forestrj-, by book post.
I think very highly of the scope of the works, and feel sure that they
and similar works will supply a want much felt by the Indian forest
officers.

* It contains many important data which I should have vainly sought
elsewhere, and it will be regarded by all competent judges as a real
substantial contribution to a knowledge of the existing surface, and the
changes which, from known or unknown causes, that surface is fast
undergoing. '

Copies of any of these Works will be sent post-paid to
any address within direct Postal communication with
Britain, on receipt by Dr JoHX C. Brown, Haddington,
of a Post-Office Order for the price.

SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY

IN

GERMANY,

WITH ADDENDA RELATIVE TO A DESIDERATED
BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY.

COMPILED EY

JOHN CROUMBIE BROWN, LL.D.,

Formerly Lecturer oil Botany in University and Kinr/'s College, Aberdeen,
subsequently Colonial Botanist at Cape of Good Hope, ami Professor
of Botany in the South African College, Cape Town ; Fellow of the
lAnnean Society ; Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society ; and
Honxyrary Vice-President of the African Institute of Paris.

EDINBURGH :
OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT.
LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL AND CO.
18 8 7.

KIRKCALDY :
PRINTBD BY J. CRAMB.

PREFACE

In" a brochure which I published in 1877, entitled The
Schools of Forestry in Europe • a Plea for the Creation
of a School of Forestry in Connection with the Arboretum
in Edinburgh; and in a volume which I published last
autumn (1886), entitled, School of Forest hJngineers in
Spain, indicative of a Type for a British National School of
Forestry, I expressed and re-affirmed the opinion that ,
with the acquisition of that Arboretum with existing
arrangements for study in the University and in the Watt
Institute, there were required only facilities for the study
of what is known on the Continent as Forest Science to
enable these institutions conjointly, or either of them with
the help of the other, to take a place amongst the most
completely equipped Schools of Forestry in Europe, and
to undertake the training of Foresters for the discharge of
such duties as are required of them in India, in our
Colonies, and at home.

The following volume shows what is implied in such a
statement. No one of the schools described is considered by
me of a type which should be followed in a British National
School of Forestry ; but the details may prove suggestive
of much which might be done in the creation of such an
institution.

I have ready for the press a companion volume on
Forestal Arrangements in Germany, comprising statements
of the views entertained in Germany in regard to
the position of Schools of Forestry in the educational
arrangements of the Empire, and in regard to the

iv PREFACE.

appropriate site for such institutioDS ; details of arrange-
ments and operations at Stations for Forestal Experimental
Research at the sites oi Schools of Forestry ; and a report of
arrangements for the administration and management of
State Forests 'm Bavaria. Bat the publication of the
volume is deferred till the discussion of the expediency
of estabUshing a British National School of Forestry
may be more advanced.

Information in regard to practicable arrangements by
which such a British National School of Forestry as is
indicated might to be created I have supplied in both
of the treatises cited, and in evidence given by me
before a Select Committee of the House of Commons
appointed to consider whether by the establishment of a
Forest School or otherwise our woodlands could be
rendered more productive : which evidence in so far as
it relates to this matter I have embodied in an Adden-
dum to this volume.

By that Committee, as by one appointed by
the previous Parliament, valuable information was
collected, and on the 18th June, 1886, they
agreed to report to the House of Commons : — ' Your
Committee have taken some evidence upon the matters
referred to them, but have not had sufficient time to
conclude their investigation on account of the dissolution
of the present ParUament ; they have therefore agreed to
report the evidence already taken to the House, and to
recommend that a Committee on the same subject should
be appointed in the next Parliament.'

JOHN C. BROWN.

Haddington, 14th February, 1887.

CONTE NTS.

PAGE

Introduction ... ... ... .. ... 1

Early Literature of Modern Forest Science ; and General
View of Modern Forest Economy.

Chapter I. — The Royal Saxon Forest Academy in

Ttmrand ... ... ... ... ... 12

Transference to Tharand of the School of Forestry commenced by
Cotta at Zillbach (p. 12); Subsequent changes till the
Celebration of the Jubilee of the Institution on 17th June,
1866 (p. 13) ; Scheme of Instruction sanctioned by the
Minister of Finance in December, 1871 (p. 38) ; Attendance
of Students (p. 44); Description of Locality (p. 45.)

Chapter II. — Royal Prussian Forest Academy at

Neustadt-Eherswalde ... ... ... 47

Historical Sketch of the Institution (p. 47) ; Regulations issued
by the Minister of Finance in April, 1875 (p. 49) ; Utiter-
richts Plan or Programme of Study in Curriculum of two
and a half years (p.54); Summary of Instruction given (p. 55);
Annual Attendance of Students (p. 61); Requirements for
Employment and Promotion in the Forest Service of
Prussia (p. 62) ; Description of the School and Locality (p.69).

Chapter III. — Royal Hanovei^an Fcnrst Academy in

Munden ... ... ... ... ... 65

Site (p. 75) ; Past History (p. 76) ; Forest Economy and
Administration (p. 78). Notice of Arrangements for the
Transference of Provision for Instruction in Forest Science
to the University (p. 113); and of the importance of the
Establishment of Provision for the Prosecution of Forestal
Experimental Researches (p. 114),

CONTENTS. vi

Chapter VI. — Royal Bavarian Central Forest Academy
at AscJw.fenhurg, and Classes for the Study of
Forestry in the Royal Ludivig- Maximilian Uni-
versity in Munich ... ... ... ... 115

Account of the former condition of the School (p. 115) ; Account
of the same from a Published Programme of what is
required of Candidates for Admission to the Forest Service
of the State (p. 120) ; History of the Institution from its
origin (p. 129), and Arguments subsequently advanced
for the entire transference of the Instruction to the
University (p. 139) ; Present Condition of Arrangements for
Instruction on Forestry in Bavaria, (p. 142. )

Chapter VII. — Royal Wurtemhurg Forestal and Agri-
cultural Academy at Hohenheim, and Forestal
Instruction in the University of Tubingen ... 145

Arrangements at Hohenheim, (p. 145) ; Former Arrangements
for Forestal lastruction io the University of Tubingen,
(p. 154) ; Transfer of Provision for Instruction in Forestry at
Hohenheim to the University, (p. 155.)

Chapter VIII. — Forestal Instruction in the Grand Duchy

of Baden in the Polytechnicum in Carlsruhe ... 160

Educational Appliances, (p. 161) ; Curriculum of Study,
(p. 163) ; Present Position, (p. 166.)

Chapter IX. — Requirements for Admission into the Forest
Service of German States, in which there do not exist
Schools of Forestry ... ... ... ... 167

Mecklenburg-Schwerin,(p 167); Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg,

Brunswick, Meinengen, (p. 168) ; Altenburg, Coburg-Gotha,
Anhalt, (p. 169) ; Schwartzburg-Sondershausen, Schwarz-
burg, kudolstadt, Waldeck, Reuss-Greitz, Schaumburg-
Ldppe, Lippe-Dethold, (p. 170); Alsace-Lorraine, (p. 171.)

Conclusion ... ... ... ... ... 173

Relation of Schools of Forestry to National System of Education
in Germany, (p. 172) ; Stations for Experimental Research,
(p. 175) ; Expense of Schools of Forestry on the
Continent, (p. 176.'

▼fi CONTENTS.

ADDENDA

Relative to a Desiderated British National School
OF Forestry.

I.— Suitable Site for a School of Forestry ... ... 179

II. — Educational Arrangements deemed suitable for a

British National School of Forestry ... ... 183

III. — School of Forest Engineers in Spain, cited as
indicative of a type for a British National School
of Forestry ... ... ... ... 193

IV. — Treatises on Matters Pertaining to Modem Forest
Science and Forest Economy, proffered for pub-
lication in the English Language ... .. 203

[Offers made to the Colony of the Cape of GocdHope (pp. 204 and 207) ;
Offer made to Citizens of the United States of America (p. 210) ;
Offer made to the Promoters of Edinburgh Forestry Exhibition
(p. 223) ; Offer made to the Council of the Scottish Arbori-
cultural Society (p. 225).]

V. — Proffered Gift of Works on Modern Forestry to
Free Public Libraries in any ofthe British Colonies,
and in any of the United States of America ... 229

VI. — Matters Pertaining to Schools of Forestry, on
which the Author is ready to supply information
to any Government OfiBcial, Public Association,
or Private Individual, desirous of Establishing a
British National School of Forestry ., . ... 231

S C H O (J L S OF FORESTRY IX
G E R M A N y.

INTRODUCTION.

The history of forests and of forestry in Germany is not
greatly dissimilar from that of forests and of forestry in
France. Of this I have given some details in a volume
entitled French Forest Ordinance of 1609, with Historical
Sketch of Previous Treatment of Forests in France; and
that forest ordinance marks the commencement of an
era in tiie history of the treatment of forests in the one
country and in the other.

Colbert of France, seeing the waste and destruction of
forests going on in his day, gave expression to hitter
feeling in words which have become famous : — ' France
perlra faiile ile Bois' — France will perish through lack
of wood.

And in 1721 Ri'aumur presented to the Academy of
Science a Memoir in which in reference to tins fear he
says : ' The feeliog of uneasiness is general, and it is
perhaps only too well founded. The interests of the
State demand at the least that the quantity of wood
should not be diminished while the consumption is being
increased. It is to be wished that the lands still left in
wood should be put into the highest possible condition in
regard to their value, and above all things, that their
produce should not be allowed to fall off.'

And he showed how by a series of experiments if was

2 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

possible to ascertain at what age coppice woods could be
felled with most advantage — regard beiog had to securing
the greatest supply, and the best material, from the
products of the forest.

In reference to the statement by Reaumur, which I
have ([uoted, M. Parade has remarked, ' This is not the
place to inquire whether the Government of that day did
all that might have been done to attain the end pointed
out by Reaumur ; but let us tell, to the honour of science,
that she was indefatigable in seeking out the proper
remedies for the evil, and thus to allay the alarm of the
country/

These could only be found in a more scientific culture
of treps ; and science showed what were the measures to
be successively adopted. These were, in a word, succes-
sive thinnings as a means of advancing and improving
the growth of the wood, while obtaining an immediate
produce ; and the prolongation of the term of years allotted
for the working of the forests to tho exact period neces-
sary to augment the products to the greatest extent in a
given time. This had to be determined, and science has
accomplished her task.

In 1757 a treatise on Forest Economy was published by
Moser, in which he brought before his countrymen the
method of management proposed by Reaumur four-and-
twenty years before. And from statements made hy
Pfell in a work entitled Die Forsitaxation in ihren ganzen
Umfanr/e, published in Leipzig in 1858, it appears that
from the publication of this work by Moser date the
earliest trials to determine with precision the future
probable increase of wood in standing forests which were
mad (3 in Germany.

In 1703 some of the works of DuhameJ, one of the
students of vegetable physiology in France, were trans-
lated into German by Schollenbach, and published.
About this time, say from 17G0 to 1780, evils which were

INTRODUCTION. 3

inherent in the so-called Regime a tire et aire (that to
which the French Ordinance of 1669 had special reference),
were making themselves apparent on all hands. In
Prussia, towards the end of the reign of Frederick the
Great, there was issued an Ordinance relating to the
management of forests, in which it was enjoined ' that the
fellings, instead of clearing all away, should be confined to
simple thinnings of the trees, having for their object the
removal at most of had wood and of matured wood in
trees upwards of 70 or SO years of age.'

And this has been considered an indication tliat it
began to be perceived that the artificial restorations, the
forced consequence of utter extermination, in the resin
yielding woods were difficult of accomplishment when
they had to be cairied out on ground of great extent, and
in circumstances little favourable to success.

Corresponding complaints ou other points arose against
the employment ot" the system in question in timber
forests of beech, the restor<ition of which was not secured
either by new shoots or by seeds ; and a final grievance
felt more particularly in the lesser states, in which
the forest products constituted often a great part of the
public revenue, came to demand a remedy for the great and
grievous ine([uaUties in the annual products which were
obtained by the continued carrying out of the system.

There was no unwillingness to persevere in the
mode of opf^ration sanctioned by the Ordinance ot 1669,
technically called a tire et aire, which was unquestionably
useful — namely, the orderly and regular exploitation of
the forest ; but it was indispensably necessary to modify
the application of this, so as to secure the most perfect
possible natural restoration of the forest, and to tarnish
to proprietors annual products pretty eqn il in amount or
value.

The forests which had been subjected to jardiuage,
writes M. Parade, of Nancy, of whose historical sketch of
the progress of the art of forest management the following-

4 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

notice may be considered a free translation :— The forests
^vhich Lad been subjected to jardbwge, in which were
felled here and there such trees as promised to supply the
material desired for whatever purpose this might be —
sale, shipbuilding, house carpentry, or aught else,
leaving all others to grow on, if haply they were not
crushed by the fall of the felled tree, or broken down in
the bringing out of the felled timber — presented standing
crops of most unequal density, and without any well-
marked gradation of age to which the system a tire et aire
could be strictly applied without giving rise to many
inconveniences, of which the most serious were these : —

1. A great inequality in the successive annual fellings.

2. Considerable loss of increase proceeding not only
from great differences in the soil and in the denseness of
the patches felled in successive years, but more especially
from the circumstance that some portions were cut down
too young, while in others many trees, and even entire
clumps, were liable to decay before they came within the
range of the regular series of fellings.

These were inconveniences to which it does not appear
that any attention had been given in France, but which
were felt by the foresters of Germany, and to remedy these
inconveniences they devised in succession a number of
measures, each of them, it may be, insutficient of itself to
remedy the evil, but which, combined, resulted in consti-
tuting a set of rules, applicable, some to coppice wood and
some to timber forests, which have given rise to the publi-
cation of numerous treatises on subjects which they
embraced, or were connected therewith, which works proved
useful not only at the time of publication, but also
subsequently, inasmuch as they prepared the ground, and
opened up the way for those master minds which have in
later times detinitely evolved the science of the art.
The rules referred to may be briefly described thus : —
1. In the management of coppice wood, they required
the division of these into as many fellings of equal extent
as there were years on the rotation to be maintained,

INTRODUCTION. 5

excepting in cases in which a ver^^ marked difference in
the f[aality of the soil and the growth of the wood, com-
bined with a necessity existing for obtaining annual pro-
ducts nearly equal in quantity, might require that the
extent of the tellings should be made in some respect
proportional to the production.

2. In the management of timber forests, these forests,
which were no longer the ioieHta Jardinees of a former day,
but which were coming, in whole or in part, under the
operation of the system d tire et aire, were subjected to the
following measures : —

1. A general cropping of the forest.

2. A classification, according to age, of all the standing
crops, the oldest of which constituted together the group
of exploitable woods, or of what were considered such.

*3. The determination of the period of time necessary
for the wood not yet matured to attain the predetermined
age for felling.

4. The replacement during the successive years of this
period of the products obtained from the group of work-
able woods, and with this in view the preparation of an
estimate of the actual solid contents of these woods, and
an estimate of their future cubic contents diminishing by
progressive arithmetical decrease proportionate to the
annual cuttings of the forest.

By these estimates it could be seen at a glance what
were the cubic contents of the forest then, and what it was
likely to be five years thereafter ; ten years thereafter ;
twenty years thereafter ; fifty years thereafter ; or at any
subsequentary intermediate period.

While the system of management of timber forests
which has thus been described was being followed, it was
found that tlie defects of the system were these : —

First of all, the end for the attainment of which the
whole system was devised — namely, the establisment of
a well-sustained relation of equalisation l)etvveen the
growth and the removal of trees was only impsrfectly,
and that very imperfectly accomplished. If, for example,

6 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

woods of a medium age were deficient in the series, the
period wbicli must elapse previous to the felling of the
younger woods must necessarily be very protracted, and this
must to a great extent tend to prevent the possibility of ac-
complishing the equalisation desired, as the old woods must
be made to last to the end of this period, after which there
would probably be a super-abundance ; or, if on the contrary,
the old woods were in excess, and those of a medium
age were of corresponding fewer numbers a beginning
would be made with an abundance which must ultimately
experience a great reduction. A. second and more serious
defect of the system was the entire absence of any pro-
\ ision for the improvement of the state or condition of the
wood, in so far as this might be effected by the gradation
of the ages, and the order in which they should succeed
one another on the ground ; for such as the forest was
found in both of these respects at the beginning of the
rotation, such must it have been found at the end.

In 1785 there appeared a remarkable work by Varenne
de Fenille on the management of coppice woods, in which
he thoroughly discussed the whole subject of production,
and developed a theory in regard to the simple or
absolute maximum of produce obtainable from coppice
wood, and the compound maximum of small wood and
of timber obtainable from such woods : — a theory which
is still quoted in works on forest science and on forest
economy, and which is known by his name.

Meanwhile the increasing scarcity of wood, and the
importance of securing as large a revenue as possible from
the sale of wood raised on Crown forests, combined to
secure in Germany a measure of attention to forest
economy v/hich led to an important application of science
to the regulation of forest operations. The attempts
to regulate there what in France is called the system
of jardinage, in accordance with which, as has been
stated, trees are felled then and there, ac3ording as
they seemed fitted to meet the requirements of the wood-

INTRODUCTION. 7

cutter, or showed symptoms of having begun to decay, had
failed to accomplish what was desired. Subsequently
the system of exploitation a tire et aire, according to
which system of management the foresters divided into
sections of approximately equal extent what are cleared in
succession in periods of equal duration, so determined
that by the time the last is cleared the forest will have
been reproduced on the section first felled, had also failed ;
and evils which were inherent in the system manifested
themselves in Germany as they had done elsewhere.
These forcing themselves upon the attention of Hartig, a
man deservedly held in great respect by students of Forest
Science, he set himself to study these evils with a view to
the discovery or the devising of some remedy.

About the year 1791 he published a treatise entitled
' Instruction in the Culiure of Woods,' in which he gave
his views on the clearing of woods, and on the reproduc-
tion of these by self-sown seeds. And in 1793 he
published his developed system of forest economy.

The work of Hartig was carried forward byCotta, under
whom the modern system of forest economy may be said
to have received its completed development, . if it be
understood that this does not imply that it has been so
perfected as to admit of no further improvement, and to
have need of none. In this, as in much besides, the
highest ever leads to a higher ; and improvements have
been devised, while others are still desiderated, but such as
it is it has become associated with the names of Hartig and
Cotta. As in the rising tide the advance made by each
successive wave may be noted, and even where no
apparent advance is made, but rather an appearance of
retrogression presents itself, the results in establishing
the hold of the tidal wave on the strips of shore previously
captured, may be made subject of record — so has it been
in the development of forest science and forest economy ;
but, compared with what is done by each, the advance of the
tide in its continuous flow so far transcends the advance
made by each wave or wavelet in succession on the shore,

S FORESTRY IN GERMAKY.

that it is this which cliiefly arrests and engages attention,
and calls forth remark ; and so it is here.

Let all honour be rendered to each and all of successive
promoters of forest science in bN^e-gone days! they laboured,
and we have entered on their labours, enjoying by inheri-
tance the fruits of these. But the passing allusions which
have been made to some of them have been made solely
with aviewto make apparent the requirements for educated
trained instructors to undertake the administration and
manaf^ement of forests, arising^ from the advancement of

o ...

forest science and its emb:>diment in practical forestiy,
and the consequent necessity felt, if not also formally
declared, for the organisation of Schools of Forestry in
which the necessary education, instruction, and training
might be obtained, which Schools of Forestry in their
turn, in their earlier development, were really schools for
foresters, and were made subservient to the still further
development of the science and art of forestry. It was
with this in view that they were called into being. In a
companion volume to this on the Scliools of F'orest
Engineers in Spain, I have had occasion to cite a work by
Senior Don Carlos Castel y Clemente, in his ' Noctioia sobre
la Fundacion y Desarrollo de la Escuela Especial de
Inyenieros de Monies', published in 1S77, an amplitication
of a memoir on the origin and development of the Special
School of Forest Engineers in Spain, which he had
prepared in accordance with orders received from the
higher authorities of the State. In that he says : —

' In the seventeenth century there originatedinsome ofthe
States of Germany the application of technical science to
the treatment of forest masses. The rules, the aphorisms,
and the "svhole of the directions which are comprised in
the forestal knowledge of the ancients, are principles
indefinite, obscure, uncertain, unconnected, destitute of
method or systematized relations. Moser created in 1757
the first boly of systematic teaching on the subject ; and
to the impulse given to this by him, and the w^eighty
energy of Langen, Laspar, Zanthier, and others, are we

iNTHObUCTlON. I

indebted for the formation of the first plans of scientitic
treatment of forests begun in 1731 in the forests of the
Dukedom of Brunswick. He, in his time, Langen being
the first to do so, perceiving the necessit}^ of entrusting
the management of the forests to a specially educated
and trained body of officials, possessing all necessary
knowledge and information, with a view to raising up a
liody of such men, established the first School of Forestry
in Wernigerode in the year 1772. But others consider as
the first school that founded by Zanthier in Ilsenberg,
which was followed some years later by the establishment
of that by Haase in Lauterberg, that which G. Hartig
founded in Hungen in 1791, that in Zillbach by H. Cotta
in 179o, and various others, all due to the efforts of
individuals, and manifesting that essentially practical
character which was so requisite to meet the requirements
of the time and the conditions in which the distinguished
founders were placed, but devoid of means whiclj would
allow of there beinor mven to them the influence and
development w^hich afterwards became needful'

While Cotta was preceeded, anticipate! if you will, by
others in feeling the need of appropriate instruction being
given to foresters if there were to be obtained from them,
and from their work, all the benefit to their country and
to the world which these might be made to yield — who
endeavoured to supply the desideratum, and did so
according to their means and opportunity — it is the
name of Cotta which has become most extensively
associated with Schools of Forestry, and not improperly
so, seeing that it is from the School of Forestry organised
by him there has been developed and produced the
advanced Schools of Forestry of the present day.

I have a feeling of great respect for Zanthier, who is
said to have been the first systematic teacher of forest
science and forest economy who taught on these subjects at
Ilsenberg, a town in the county of Stolberg in Upper
Saxony, situated not far from the Hartz mountains, and
within the precincts of the old Thuringden forest.

10 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

But, as stated in the work by Senor Castel, which 1
have cited : * The primary organisation of the schools
tbuuded in Ilsenburg, Wernigerode, Lauterberg, Hungen,
Zillbacl), Walterhauseii, Rottenhaus, Castel, &c., in the
period from 17G(3 to 1805, was that of several other
private centres of instruction, which did out with their
founders, or suffered the fate which befell these in the
course of their existence. All these made themselves
remarkable by the great impulse and development which
they gave to the ditfusion of forest science, and by their
having raised up a numerous and distinguished body of
men to assist and direct at a later time the work of
bringing into order the forests of the districts in which
they were situated. There stands out prominently
amongst all these the school founded by Cjtta. He, being
charged with the reduction to an orderly conlition of the
Forest of Fishbach, spent some years in the execution of
this work, and during these years giving theoretic and
practical instruction to the young men who assisted him
there : thus was instituted the new centre of forestal
instruction at Zillbach. Such reputation was acquired by
this establishment of modern times, that in llOo there
was granted to it a subvention from the State, thanks to
which he was able considerably to augment the means
available then for the prosecution of study.

*In IS 10 Cotta was appointed Director of Forest Manage-
ment in Saxony. He at once perceived and pointed out the
lack which existed of a staff of skilled officials, who should
execute and assist in the execution of his projects; and
with a view to meeting this desideratum tha promoted
School of Zillbach was transferred to Tharand in 1811,
and ceded to the Government on the 12th of May, 18 IG.
Converted into a Government academy, and furnished
with all necessary resources, the School of Tharand,
devoted to the instruction of the forest engineers of the
State, very soon fl)urishel beneficiently, attracting to
study there the studious youth of many different countries,
and serving as the sharp edge of a wedge for the general

iNTRODtrCTIOX. ii

diffusion of those truths which, spreading themselves a
little later in different countries, proved the occasion of
there being opened other schools which take pride in
calling themselves daughters of the Saxon Academy.'

CHAPTER I.

THE ROYAL vSAXONY FOREST ACADEMY IN THARAND.

The organisation of a School of Forestry was a natural
secjuence of the endeavours of Cotta to improve the
method of exploitation of forests. We lack the data
needful to enable us satisfactorily to differentiate
se({uences, which were most probably consequences of a
common cause. But this much is manifest from the records
— to impart to practical foresters the results of his cogita-
tions was at once necessary to the execution of his sclierae,
and to the acquisition of additional data which were
needed for the full develojDraent of his views.

As has been intimated, in 1786 Cotta began to give
instruction in regard to forests and forest products, and
more especially in regard to the proper mensuration of
woods and forests, and of forest trees, at Zillbach ; and
there in 1795 he organised a regular school for the study
of such subjects.

This school may be considered as the germ of the first
national School of Forestry, or as the see Uing which
having been transplanted elsewhere, developed into such
an institution, and reproduced its kind. This school he
may be said to have removed entire to Tharand, a
beautiful watering-place, a few miles from Dresden, the
capital of Saxony, on his being called to that kingdom as
Forstrath and Director of Fcrstvermessung, or Forest
Surveying. Thither followed him, along with his assistants
the greater part of his students at the time, and
they constituted the body of a new Forstlehranstalt , or
School of Forestry, whicli he opened on the 24th of May
of that year, l^ill. •

KOYAL SAXONY FOBEST ACADEMY. 13

It lias apparently been more or less the case with all
the Schools of Forestry in Europe that while they have
been designed primarily, and perhaps exclusively, to
educate and train foresters for the discharge of their
functions as foresters, forest warders, Forst-meisters, and
inspectors of forests, they have, by the coPection of
observations made being brought under the consideration
of learned men familiar with like phenomena, enjoying a
quietude and retirement favourable to study, called to
instruct others in regard to these very things, and taking
a special interest in such matters, done much to advance
the forest science, and to improve the forest economy of
the day ; and this was pre-eminently the case with the
Forstlehranstalt and the Forst Academt'e of Tharand, under
the direction of Cotta.

From an address delivered by Cotta at the opening of
the institute it appears he laid down as a principle that it
should supply to tlie young forester not only an oppor-
tunity to study the necessary accessary sciences, but also
that which was peculiarly forest science, and the natural
history of the game inhabiting the forest; and that this
end could only be gained by a judiciously arranged com-
bination of theory and practice. Apparently from the first
he associated his students with him in his researches.

The first Fo7\<itlehranfitah y\rt\m\\y consisted of a number
of forest commissioners, who in summer carried on opera-
tions in the difterent forests, under instructions from him
as their chief, and in winter re-asseml)led at his residence,
there to conduct, under his direction, the work of the
forest l)ureau, and prepare plans of operations for the
summer following. Such a group of educated, zealous,
and laborious men supplied a most desirable instruinen-
tality in the hands of such a master as he to be employed
by him for such a pui'pose.

In a report which was made by Cotta to the Koyal
Privy College of Finance, under date of 12th September,
1815, he gives the following account of the progress and
condition of the institute ;—

14 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

' Scarcely had I gone thither when so many young
n.(n tcck up the study of forestry and of the chase that
the number of my auditors, including land surveyors in
the seivice of the State, and selected members of the
joger corps, or huntsmen, during my first winter must
have numbered about a hundred. In the following year,
1812, the collective number was considerably diminished,
some of my older students having finished their course of
study, some of the others leaving because they did not
find here what they had in ample measure at the Zillbach
school— a forest within a forest, for practice in forestry
and in the chase, and many others leaving because they
considered they had learned in the course of a year's
attendance all that they needed to learn. Still the
collective number of my hearers in the winter of this
second year, inclusive of surveyors, was between 70 and 80.
* The war year, 1813, was, as it was to all othtr educational
institutions, exceedingly detremental tothe Forstlehransfah
at Tharand ; as the greater part of the students left the
institute, and it was almust only the teachers who
continued at their post. In the year 1814 some few
students assembled, and bye-and-bye the lecture room
gradually filled ; but not before the beginning of the
current year, 1815, when it was reported everywhere that
my Forsthhranstah was being changed into a Koyal Forsit
Acadcmie, and that therel)y the practical instruction in
the Tharand forest, should be entirely and more especially
taken into account.'

The change referred to was brought under the con-
.sideration of the Privy Finance College in 1814, in
consequence of a representation made by Cotta, and was
understood to be carried out in accordance with his
express desire.

In the so-called Private Institute of Cotta he himself
gave instruction in all departments of forest science,
forest technology, and forest l)otany ; and l)r John
Adam Reum, as second teacher, assisted in giving instruc-
tion in mathematics and in forest botanv.

EOYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 15

By a rescript of the 12th March, 1816, the transforma-
tion of the private institute into a national Forst Academie,
under the conjoint direction of the Privy Finance College
and the Oberhoffagersmeister — anglice Master of the
Hounds, was completed.

Cotta, who was at the same time raised to the dignity
of Oberforstrath, was nominated Director and forest
teacher; as ordinary teachers to share the duty of
instruction there w^ere appointed Drs Reum and Krutzsch,
both with the rank of professor ; and instruction in what
related practically to the chase and to forest mensuration,
in plandrawing, in the German language, in forest law, and
in financial economy, was entrusted to others, in all six
persons besides the director and professors. For the pur-
chase of books, specimens, instruments, and implements,
600 thalers was appropriated ; for the support of poor but
zealous students an annual allowance of 400 thalers was
granted. The Academy had no forest of its own, but the
forest lands of the Grallenberg Forest Circuit, and more
especially the Tharand forest, was made available for
practical instruction and demonstrations.

The lectures were begun in the month of June. The
number of students who had been entered while it was
under the direction of Cotta was 62, of whom 40 remained
in the school, the others were employed as assistants in
forest surveying and forest conservation.

By proclamation of 1.3th April, 18 L6, and by rescript of
10th June, 1816, the arrangements for study were
authoritatively prescribed.

The curriculum of study embraced mathematics, pure
and mixed, in all departments — arithmetic, geometry,
trigonometry, mensuration, levelling, building, hydraulic
engineering, in so far as this related to forestry, including
dams, waterleadings, drinking places for man and beast,
&c. ;

Natural Science in all its departments, connected with
forestry and the chase— zoology, forest botany, physiology
of vegetation, with a more especial reference to the growtli

16 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

of timber, orography, formation of earth and soil,
mineralogy, physics, and chemistry, in so far as they
might serve to illustrate anything and everything pertain-
ing to forests ;

Foratwisscnschoft, or Forest Science, inclusive of sylvi-
culture, forest conservation, and profitable exploitation,
forest technology, and the administration of forests ;

The chase, including the natural history of the game,
the use of firearms, training of dogs, &c. ; and

Business requirements— correspondence, and bookkeep-
ing, forest laws and game laws, and political economy, in
so far as this related to forest products of all kinds.

The course of study was comprehensive and appropriate.
In terms of the proclamation, practical instruction was to
be the principal object aimed at in the instruction given
to the students ; every lecture was to have practical
demonstrations so connected with it, that what was learned
in the class-room should be illustrated and expounded in
the forest ; and if it should happen that any unusual forest
operation, or proceeding in connection with the chase,
should occur in the time appropriated to class studies, for
that day the class studies should be suspended. The
proclamation, moreover, expressly specified that the
students should be called whenever the arranging of sites
of felling, or of sylvicultural operations were to be fixed,
or other important forest work was to be done ; and they
were to be informed what were the reasons for the work
being done, and for that course, and no other, being
adopted. The more advanced students were, according
to the judgment of the director of the school, to take
part in the work, to do other special work prescribed for
them, and otherwise to have opportunity of practising all
of the manifold operations required in the forest In
view of this the 0'>erforstmeuter, or c'lief forester of the
Grillenburg Forest Circuit was, by special rescript, ordered
not only to allow the students of the forest academy to
take part in forest operations, but also to give to the sub-
ordinate officials the necessary instructions; that they

ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 17

should not only give notice to the Oberforstrath Cotta of
the more important forest operations which were about to
be undertaken, but also of all fortst work, with specifica-
tion of time and place, of which he should desire to be
informed, that he might make the necessary arrangements
for the students obtaining in the best way the practical
instruction which these might be made to afford.

Moreover to those scljolars in the academy who mani-
fested satisfactory skill and interest in their studies an
opportunity was to be given to be present at the revision
in the laiger forest circuits, that thereby their knowledge
of foiestry and geneial inlbrujation might be expanded, as
well as a closer insight into forest operations and forest
management might be obtained. And with the same object
in view they had once a-year at least to make a forest-
excursion under the superintendence of a teacher, accord-
ing to a pre- arranged plan, that they might be
accustomed themselves to keep a journal of operations.

For fou rteen years thereafter the Forst A cademie was simply
a School of Forestry, in accordance with a proclamation of
13th April, 1816, and was devoted exclusively to the
scientific and practical training of foresters. By the terms
of that proclamation, besides the instruction given in
theoretical fonst science, there was required to be given
in it practical instruction in all departments of forestry
and the chase, and this, in a course of two years
instruction, and six months of special lectures. Real hob-
day rest was, according to the original prescription,
enjoyed only during the weeks of Christmas and Easter ;
but besides this, in place of the usual spring and harvest
holidays, six weeks after Easter and six weeks after
Michaelmas were spent in practical work in the forest, or
otherwise in forest excursions and in the varied works of
the chase. It being afterwards objected that in the lattor
end of harvest there was a lack of opportunity for th(^
.students being exercised m forest work, in ISIU the
harvest holidays were curtailed two weeks, and tlu^ pro-

18 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

gramme of study was so arranged tliat this should be
resumed regularly on the 1st of November. And in like
manner in 1828 the time spent in practical work was
siiortened, several years experience having shown that
this was desirable ; and the winter session was thereafter
closed with the month of March ; the month of April
was given to piactical work ; and the summer session
commenced on the 1st of May.

In 1822 there were instituted two distinct abgangs pru-
fangen, or exit examinations, at the close of the curricuhim
— a lower one, for Revierforsters or district foresters, and
a higher one for those aspiring to higher offices in the
forest service. It was optional with the students to which
of these they would submit themselves; and subsequently
it was left free to the students to choose at what time
they would submit themselves for examination.

To the Director of the Forest Academy it was entrusted
to see that the teachers discharged their duties, to direct
the general Ct)urse of study in the Academy, to carry out,
in concert with the other teachers, the discipline of the
school, and so far as possible, personally to conduct the
studies in forest science. In the absence of this official
any of the teachers might be elected to discharge these
functions.

The teachers were appointed by the Royal Privy
College of Finance, and were of twH) grades — the ordinary
academic teacher, with the designation profe.s.sor, and
assistant teachers.

The former met once a month under the presidency of
the Director, and with the assistance of the For.<tmeifiter,
or master f(H-ester of the Tharand Forest Circuit, for the
consideration of all that mio^ht relate to the o-ood of the
institution; and decisions were adopted in accordance with
the majority of votes.

Subsequently a special uniform, indicative of connection
with the forest service was appointed for all connected
with the Forest Academy.

As means, of education there were assicjned to the

ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 19

Academy all the Forest Circuit of Grettenburg, and
more especially the Tharand forest, with at that time in
all 9872 acres of Ibrest land, and the pine woods in five
Reviers or districts, and the partially completed arboretum
or forest botanic garden, with allowance for its main-
tenance, and provision for the purchase of necessary
books, collections illustrative of natuial history, imple-
ments, machinery, and apparatus, a physical and a
chemical laboratory, a valuable geological museum, and
a museum of woods and seeds. And from time to time
additions were made to the buildings.

The attention given to the combination of practical
training with scientitic instruction was maintained ; and
the former had more time allotted to it.

I have before me a copy of the time-table or Lthrstun-
den for 1816 and 1817. In this, in accordance with
the usage in Germany, is laid down the arrangement of
classes meeting at the different hours of the day, but it
is interesting now, chiefly as supplying, along with subse-
quently issued tables, authorative prescriptions indicative of
the gradations by which the existing system of study reached
its present development. Successive extensions of the
course of study continued to be made in the course of the
fifteen years following.

In 1821 Professor Kruzsch made a suggestion that the
object uf this academy should be so extended as to
embrace the study of rural economy. And seven years
later he submitted to the Royal Privy College of Finance
a scheme of instruction by which students could attend
together classes in which were studied subjects rc(piired
by both, and o'her classes for the subjects peculiar to each.
He afterwards showed that such a combination of schools
had been carried into practical effect both in the Kingdom
of Bavaria and the Grand Duchy of Meiningen, and the
measure was carried out by the appointment of Dr
Schweitzer to a chair of rural economy, and the estab-
lishment of a garden of economic botany, a library of rural

20 FOEESTBY IN GEEMANY.

ecoECiny, and a collection of models of agricultural imple-
ments, and other machines pertaining to rural economy.

SuIf( qv.cLtly, thiongh the advice of the body of

instnictors, and of the Eccncmical Society of Dresden,
arrangements were completed for the erection of a com-
bined Academy of Forestry and School of Rural Fconom}-,
and the foundation-stone of the extended buildings was
laid by His Koyal Highness Prince John, afterwards King
of Saxony, accompanied by high officers of State, on the
2')th June, 1829. The united colleges were opened on

the KUh ^Jay. I80O ; and the plan of the buildings was
successively extended in 1846, in 1852, and in 1862.

About the year 1830 the arrangements of the Academy
were extended to provide for the study of rural economy
as well as of forestry being pursued in the institution ;
and on the lOtli April, 1830, there was issued a Lehrplan
or scheme of study, which continued to be followed
for some sixteen years from that date.

This combination subsisted for forty years, but not
without changes. For sixteen years the tw^o schools were
distiuct ; but in 1846 they were interfused, and constituted
a combined School of Forestry and Bural Economy. But in
1870 the combination was teiminated, and the Academy
becam.e again one for the study of foiestry alone, and
such it has continued ever since.

In the J ehrphn issued in 1830 the object of the
School of Forestry was defined to be to train qualified
forest eccnomists, and more especially skilful foiest
masteis and district foresters, for the Eoyal service ; and
the object of the School of Ruial Economy to be to
supply to young men devoting themselves to rural
economy, or desiring to study rural economy as an auxiliary
science, and to obtain sound practical knowledge of this,
an opportunity of acquirij g sound knowledge of the
science required in the attainment of this.

Jn connection with the Forest Academy, two courses of
study were now arranged — one extending over two \ oars,

ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 21

the other one which could be passed through in one year.
The latter supplied the instruction deemed necessary for
a district forester in the Royal service ; the former, the
higher instruction required by forst-meisters ; while a
cjurse of three years' study was prescribed for those who
aspired to superior positions in the forest service.
According to a report of the institution, dated 4th
November, 1839, the details were somewliat modified,
but the principles were maintained, and the same may
be alleged of other modifications which followed.

Several other changes affecting the age, position, &c.,
of the student, the staff of teachers, the direction of the
studies, and the discipline of the school, were introduced.
Important among these was the establishment of a Chair
of Agricultural Chemistry, with a laboratory and provision
for the study of chemistry, the;.>retical and practical, in
all its applications to vegetation ; and provision for the
study of Veterinary Science, of Bjtany, Zoology, Ento-
mology, and Natural History. The buildings were
extended, and the educational appliances were increased.

In the middle of the century there were organised in
Saxony several so called Bsd-schulen, in regard to which
additional information wdl afterwards be given ; here let
it suffice to state that in these elementary instruction in
physical science, as well as other branches of common
school instruction, was given, and these Real-schalen were
made available for increasing the efficiency of the School
of Forestry by the provision made in them for the pre-
paratory training of students. The two coaabined schools
were again placed under different diractors. Other
changes in the internal arrangements were made affecting
both the course of stuly and the discipline of the school.
Increased attention was given to practical instruction in
forestry ; and with the establishment of these changes,
was completed the first half-century of the operations of
the School of Forestry in Tharand.

Modifications of the powers of the College Court of

^•i FORES niY IN GERMAN V.

discipliae were made from time to time. CaaQges in
tlie statF ot teacUers occurred throjgh deaths aad
removals ; aud improvements, or what were desigaed to
be such, were etfected iu the arboretum and other
educational appliances of the institution ; and from 18-30
to lyio the etHciency of the Academy steadily increased.
From 18 i6 to 1857 was a time of civil om.aotion, an J
the institution suffered iu cmsec[uence; but there were
also changes made in the Plans of mstruction. According
to one issued on 5th Februiry, i84<'o, it was arranged
that, insteal of takiug the form of two uniied schools, it
should take the form of ouicombinei Scaool of Forestry
aud Rural Economy, with a curriculum of study embracing
two years, after passing through which aspirants fur
superior appointments in the service were requireJ to
spend a third year at the University.

The studies prescribed were these : of Grundiolsenscaften,
or loundation sciences, there were studied in class
duriug the first year of the Coui'se — Simple and applied
arithmetic and algebra, for 4; hours a-week in summer ;
plane geometry and elementary mensuration, for 4 hours
a-week in winter ; physics, 4 hours in summer ; chemistry,
4 hours in winter, with 1 hours repititorum f geognosy, '1
hours in summer ; mineralogy, 4 hours in winter ; general
botany, 4 hours in summer ; vegetable physiology, 4 hours
in summer; zoology, and special natural history of animals
interesting to forestal and rural economy, 3 hours a-week
in winter.

In the second year of the Course— Trigonometry and
higher mensuration, 4 hours a week iu summer ; cubic
mensuration and iorest mathematics, 3 hours in winter ;
earth, soils, atmosphere, aud climatology, 4 hours in
suuimer; forest botany, 2 hours in summer ; agricultural
botany, '1 hours in summer ; Repititorum of natural history,

' The Repititorum is an examination; but iu so far as it has come under my attention
it seems desiyneil not to tost the attaunneuts of the students, but their defects ; and
this not for the humiliation of the stu lent, but to show the teajhjr w.ieruin hi^
teaching has been deficient, either in itself or in view of tbccapabiHties and attainme its
of different students.

ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 23

and especially of botany, 2 hours in winter ; entomology,
3 hours in winter j political economy, 5 hours during two
months in winter.

Hauptvmaenschaften or Special Sciences of Forestry in
the tirst year of the Cuurse —Foundations of furest science,

3 hours a-week in sumaier ; forest defence, 1 hour in
winter; the chase, '1 hours in winter; agriculture,
5 hours in summer ; pastoral husbandry, 4 hours in winter.

In the second year of the Course— Sylviculture,

4 hours in summer ; forest exploitation, or profitable
utihsation, and forest technology, 3 hours in summer ;
forest taxation, or estimation of produce and probai)le
proceeds, 4 hours in summer ; forest history and literature,
2 hours in winter; State forestry, 2 hours in winter;
forestal Repititoruin, 4 liours in summer and 2 in winter;
professional rural economy, 5 hours during three months
in winter; practical rural economy, 3 hours in summar.

HilfsLuis^enschafttu or Accessary Sciences during the
first year of the Course — Bookkeeping and correspondence
2 hours in winter.

In the second year of the Course— Technology of
rural economy, 1 hour in summer ; veterinary surgery,
&c., 3 hours in summer and 3 in winter ; rural constructions
and building, 2 hours in summer; legislation and juris-
diction relative to forest and rural economy, 2 hours in
summer and 3 in winter.

Besides these studies in the class-room, there are given
the following practical instructions :— Land Surveying, or
practice in mensuration, two afternoons in summer;
excursions for field studies in Natural History, 4 afternoons
in summer; forest management one day weekly in summer
and winter; exercises in shooting in summer, and in the
chase in winter ; demonstrations of rural economy on
Saturdays. Practical instruction in garden and forest
agriculture every year in the Botanic Garden in the
months of April and October.

2i FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

Changes or alterations in the plan of instruction thus
prescribed could only be made witli the permission of the
Royal Ministry ot Finance. With regard to the students,
there was now a distinction drawn between those wlio
entered with a view to attend the whole course of
instruction given in the Academy, regular students of the
Academy, designated in the corresponding language of the
country as Intaner, Esoterics ; and those who did not enter
themselves as full students were called Extraner, a
designation corresponding to exoterics : designations which
have given origin to corresponding designations in Schools
of Forestry in other lands. And along with this division of
the students, there were introduced some changes in the
conditions of admission to the Academy, Of every
applicant, it was required that he should be at least 17
years of age, and have spent at least a year in practical
work, pertaining to forestry or rural economy, and
produce evidence of his possessing the preparedness
necessary to his understanding the lessons to be given.
The certificates required were those of birth and domicile,
and of good character from the authorities of the place in
which he bad last resided, and of the school which he had
last attended ; and if not independent, a cei'tificate from
his father or guardian, attested by the local authorities^
that he had their permission to attend the Academy.

Saxon subjects, moreover, who wished to tit themselves
for the forest service of the country, and more especially
for the charge of a forest circuity were required, as they had
been from the year 1849 onward, to show by submitting
to examination, or by certiticate from a national school,
that they had attained the measure of scientific training
required for entrance on the highest class of a gymnasium
or Real-schule or other educational institution of the
same standing ; and also to establish by certificate,
attested by the Oherforstmeister of the district, that they
had acquired the required practical preparation by an
apprenticeship of at least one ^'■ear in the forests. Such
Saxon subjects, moreover, as desired to lit themselves for

ko^AL SAXONY FOREJ^T ACADEMY. ^

llie Jiigher departments of the forest service of the state,
were required to produce from a uatioual gymnasiuni a
certificate of fitness for entering a University, and besides
this, submit, if it should be desired, to an examination in
mathematical science ; and produce a certificate from
the highest forest official in the district that he had for
one year (or better for two years) been acquiring the
requisite practical knowledge in a Royal Saxon Forst-
revier or circuit, by personally engaging in the work.

All other students who, though they did not enter the
forest service of the State, desired to go through the
complete course of the Academy, and to receive on leaving,
an exit certificate, were required to prove, by presentation
of the necessary certificates from either Saxon or foreign
schools, or by submitting to the corresponding examinations,
that they possessed the required knowledge. But
ertraner were only required to show generally that they
were qualified for attendance with profit on the lectures
of the Academy.

With regard to other matters, the commencement of
the summer session remained the entrance time for Saxons
who desired to devote themselves to forestry, and go through
the entire course with a view to subsequently entering the
Royal State service of Saxons. Whilst extraner and
students of rural economy, and with them those
foresters who did not intend to enter the Royal State
Service, might also enter at the commencement of the
winter session. Some few unimportant changes were
also made in regard to matters of discipline ; but those
arrangements which were finally adopted, and are now in
force, seem alone deserving of special notice.

In anticipation of a jubilee festival to be held on 17th
June, 186G, in commemoration of the opening of the
School of Forestry at Tharand, by Cot'a, fifty years
before ; and as part of the preparations for the due
celebration of the event, there were prepared a number of

*A FORESTRY IN GERMAKV.

documents which were published as a ' Year Book '
specially designed for that year — the year of jubilee.

In the frontispiece is given a plate of the Royal Saxon
Academy for Forest and Rural Economy at Tharand, and in
the Hrst part of the volume is given a historical sketch
of the Academy, divided into five marked periods, with
an appendix containing a list of all the directors, professors,
and other instructors who had served in the Academy ;
a second appendix contains the names of all the
students wlio had attended the Academy, wdth their
nationalities and ti?ne of attendance ; and a tliird appendix
supplies additional information tabulated to show the
age of the several students at entrance, and several other
details, but these relate more to the forest economy of Saxony,
as developed by the studies pursued at Tharand, than to
the development of the school itf^elf, to which alone
attention is being directed here.

These carefully prepared statistics of attendants and
attendance during the first fifty years of the existence of
the School of Forestry, supply all the information which
could be desired in regird to the country, ago, attainments,
&c., of the student. But it may suffice here to state that,
besides students belonging to the kingdom of Saxony,
there were students from thirty-three other countries,
including, I may say, every country in Europe, five
students from America, and one from Britain.

The historical sketch is by Hofrath Dr Schober, Director
of the Rural Economy Department of the Academy,
and Professor of Rural Economy; and the historical
divisions supply detailed information in regard to :

I. The founding of the Academy and work previously
done by Cotta in Zillbach ;
II. The work of the school from 1816, when founded, to
1829, during which period it was exclusively a
School of Forestry, but had then an Agricultural
School, of School of Rural Economy, established in
the same buildin^j ;

kOYAt SAXONY f'OKEST ACADEMY. ^7

III. This from 1830 to 1845, when the School of Forestry
was combined with the School of Rural Economy ;

IV. From 1846 to 1851, a period of war and commotion ;
V. From 1852 to 1866, from the celebration of the 40th
anniversary of Cotta's commencement of his work
at Tharand, to the 50th anniversary and jubilee
of the opening of the Forest Academy in Tharand
as a State institution.

In the second part of this ' Year Book ' for 1866 are
given, with reference to a map, geognostic and climatic
descriptions of the region around Tharand within a
distance of three hours' excursion on foot — on the east to
Dresden, and on the west to the extreme limit ot the
Tharand forest towards Freiburg; specifications of the
altitudes of all the springs, streams, rivers, hills, and notable
places in the district above the Zero of the Elbepegel or
float measuring the flow of the Elbe at Dresden, and
its level above that of the German Ocean ; a list of plants
growing wild in the district, nearly 1000 in number, and
of arborescent shrubs and trees in the Botanic Garden of
the institution upwards of 500 in number; an account
of the distribution, physiugnomy, and flowering season of
the vegetation of the district, with arrangements of
excursions in the vicinity and to greater distances, and
notices of the new plants likely to be seen within the
different hours spent on these different excursions.

In the third part are given several memoirs or reports
which may be seen to relate rather to the forest economy
of the country than to the history of the Academy, but
which are intimately connected with this supplying
manifestations of the great development effected in torest
science and forest economy in the course of the previous
half-century by the teachers and the taught in connection
with the school.

The first is a report by Obcrforstrath Dr J. F.
Judeich, the Director of the Academy, and first teacher of

^ FORESTRY IN GERMAJs^Y.

Forstwissenschaft, embracing — 1. Finance; 2. The normal
method of exploitation and its results ; 3. The advanced
and perfected method, the Fachwerkesmethode, devised
by Cotta, an I matured by Hartig.

The second is a report by Professor Roch, second teacher
of Forsttviss'^jischaften. On the development of sylviculture
in Saxony, from the establishment of the Academy in
Thirand in 181G — ii which are reported in succession the
earli ir neglect of sylviculture anl the reasons of this ;
the culture of the birch, th3 fir, the larch, and the beech ;
the earlier methods of renovation of forests ; and the
methods of culture adopted since ISIG in regard to sowing
and in regard to planting.

The third is entitled ' A retrospect of the forestal and
chemical physiological researches ' undertaken in the
laboratory of the Academy as an encouragement to the
founding of forestal experimentation by Hofrath Professor
Dr. A. Stoeckhardt. In this are decussed — 1. Varieties
of mountains, and the action of the weather upon them ; 2.
Varieties of soil ; 3. Chemico-physiological researches ; 4.
Forestal technical investigations. The fourth is entitled
' The forest-borer of the newest construction for ascertaining
increase of growth' ; its importance and practical use for
technical forest researches, taxation, administration, and
exploration, by Hofrath Professor Pressler, in which
are discussed — 1. The advantage and necessity of
fundamental and special observations of increase of growth ;
2. The instrument in question, and the use of it, which
the writer feels himsolfcallel onto recommend; anl 3.
Contributions made to the theory of technical calculations
of increase, and observations of increase, with valuable
appendices.

An incident connected with the jubilee in anticipation,
of which these documents had been prepared, I may not
pass without notice. In accordance with the usages of the
nation, and the devout religious feelings under which the
work had been begun anil carried on, the jubilee falling

ROYAL SAXOKY FOREST ACADEMY. 29

Upon a Sabbath, the Sabbath was appropriated to the
soleruLity. It is a peaceful valley iu which the Academy
is situated ; but theie od that holy day, at the very hour
at which they had hoped tl at the students ot the past
and the present, and the patrons and friends of the
institution, would proceed in procession from the Church
of God to the Festal Hall, the van of the Prussian army
entered the vale I

Throughoutthe previous century (the eighteenth), French
students of forestry were steadily advancing to the
discovery and device made by Hartig and Cotta.

But war, civil war, and foreign wars, to which that gave
rise, compelled them to abandon their peaceful
studies at the very time when a new era of forest economy
was about to begin. And now, when after fifty years
peace, their fellows-students of forest science in Germany
were prepaiing to hold a jubilee in connection with their
peaceful triumphs, they must give place to the require-
ments of war, and make way for the march of the
warrior host !

The details which I have given of the history of the
School of Forestry may be uninttresting to the general
reader ; but I consider them not unimportant as indications
of the growth and development of the institution from
which the students of such establislmients may leara much
in addition to what may be learned from the study of a
Schcol of Forestry, created perfect in all its parts, as was
Minerva, aimed cop a pie, produced from the head of
Jupiter. More recent details have not been given, because
for the full appreciation of these, some knowledge of the
circumstances which gave rise to the changes would have
have been necessary, and information in regard to these
njight have proved distasteful to some who otherwise may
become interested in the subject. But I shall indicate
immediately whcie additional information may be obtained,
if it be desired.

Thus far the narration may be considered tlie history of

30 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

the origin and development through childhood and youth
to manhood of the first National School of Forestry.
The subsequent changes were not unimportant, but
like the changes which pass upon man from early
manhood to the full maturity of middle life, they arc
less marked than are some of those occurring in nian,
and in the earlier development of the school, within the
same number of years in early life In 1870 the School
of Agriculture, or Rural Economy, engrafted upon it in
1830, was, after forty years of companionship, separated
from it, and it was constituted again a School of Forestry
alone. In a letter which I received in the summer of 1883
from the honoured Director of the School, Oberforstrath
Dr Judeich, he mentions that in 1870 the agricultural
department was removed; and by an order of 14th
December, 1871, a new programme, or general plan of
instruction, was introduced, in accordance with which the
students were required only to spend half a-year in
preparatory practice, and twii and a-half years in class
studies in Tharand. As preliminaries to admission they
were required to produce a Maturita, or exit certificate,
from a gymnasium or a Eeal-schule of the first class.

In the scheme of instruction referred to by Dr Judeich,
which was sanctioned by the Minister of Finance on the
14th December, 1871,* it is declared :—

(1.) That the design of the institution is to supply to
foresters a comprehensive instruction in forest science, and
the other sciences upon which this is based, or which are
otherwise connected wiih it, so as to qualify them for the
efficient discharge of their duties, and to promote the
advancement of that science.

(2.) That for the time being the statf of teachers consistsof
the director, who is also teacher of forest science ; a secon I
teacher of t«>rest science, who is also manager of the
Tharand forest division ; three teachers of physical

' Re-i63ue(l substantially the same in 1872, and a^ain, with sUjfht modification in
I87a.

ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 31

sciences; two teachers of mathematics, and teacher of
rural economy and general economics, and of law and juris-
prudence ; and a manager of the arboretum, who is also
instructor in fruit culture ; and, as need may require, an
adequate number of assistants.

(3.) The duties of the Director are to exercise —

1. The control of the studies in accordance with the
the prescribed plan ;

2. The control of the museums and educational
apparatus, for which in subordination to him the several
teachers are responsible in so far as they are severally
concerned.

3. The immediate tenure of the property and inventories.

4. The payment of all accounts due from the funds of
the Academy.

5. The calling of conferences of the college of teachers,
and to preside and conduct these.

(4<.) The ordinary teachers, under the presidency of the
the director, constitute the College teachers.

The duties of this college, in the deliberations of whicli
the official agent in what relates to discipline, has a seat
and vote, embraces —

1. The examination of applications for admittance to
the course of study followed at the Academy, and decision
on the same.

2. Deliberation and decision in cases of discipline.

3. Deliberation and confirmation of the special LehrpUin
or scheme of study for the session.

4. The approval and granting of applications for
bursaries.

5. Deliberation and filling up of proposals to the
Minister of Finance relative to the filling up of vacant
situations of teachers, ordinary or extraordinary, and also
of aasist.mts.

6. All matters of importance which the Director declines
on any ground to -ecide by himself, or which may be
expressly assigned to the college by the Minister of
Finance.

32 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

As a rule, meetings are held once a month ; but special
meetiDgs may be calkd at any time by the Director.

On proposal by the college, privai-decanten, tutors, or
lecturers on special sultjects, may be appointed by the
Minister of Finance.

(5) To the College of Teachers, under the presidency of
the Director, is entrusted the examination of certificates
submitted by applicants for admission as students, and
decision on the same. The trial and decision of cases of
discipline, tlie consideration and decision of the Lehrplan
or scheme and distribution of studies throughout the day,
the session, and the curiiculum of study, the sanction and
allocation of money giants to students in aid of their
education at the Academy, the consideration and decision
ofpioposals to be submitted to the Minister of Finance
relative to stipends to teachers and assistants, and in
general, the consideiation and decision of all matters
which the Director may decline to decide on
his own responsibility, or which the Minister of
Finance may expressely assign to them for consideration.

(6.) The College of Teachers meet monthly, and at such
other times as may be necessary, and summoned by the
director.

(7.) Privat docfinten, or tutors, may, by appointment of
the Minister of Finance, be entrusted with specified
duties.

(8.) The curricidum extends over two and a-half years,
and embraces the following studies : —

1. — Fundamental Sciences.

1. Physical Sciences — including (a) Chemistry, Agricul-
tural Chemistry, Practical Chemistry ; (b) Mineralogy —
Geognosy, with a special reference to the study of soils;
(c) Botany, Structure and Physiology of Plants, and special
Forest B«.'any ; (d) Zoology, with a special reference to
important animals injurious, or the contrary, to forest
economy, embracing more particularly forest tntomology ;
(e) Physics and Natural Philosophy: (J) Meteorology.

ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 33

2. Mathematics — (a) Cursory revisal of Arithmetic and
Geometry, with a special treatment of sections in each
which may be of importance to the forester ; (6) Analytical
Geometry ; (c) Ditferential and Integral Calculus ; (d)
Mensuration, including the drawinsf of plans.

3. Mechanics and Machinery.

4. Architecture, Hydraulic Engineering, and Road-
making.

5. General Economics.

II.— Professional Sciences.

1. History and Literature of Forestry. 2. Forest
Culture, and Forest Conservation. 3. Forest Mathematics,
measurement of standing trees and of felled timber, cubic
increase of wood by annual growth, Forest financial
reckoning, -i. Forest Economy and Forest Technology.
5. Forest Partition in accordance with the requirements
of Scientitic Forestry. (3. Foiest Management and
Administration, with a special reference to these as carried
out in Saxony. 7. Forest Police. 8. Game Laws.

III.— Accessary or Complementary Sciences.

1. Science of Finance. 2. Law and Jurisprudence. 3.
Rural Economy.

4i. Meadow Culture,

5. Fruit Culture.

The lectures are illustrated, when necessary, by practical
exercises and demonstrations.

(9.) Amongst provisions for aiding in instruction
are : —

1. The Tharand Forest Eevier, or district, placed
under the inspection of the director, and managed under
the direction of the second teacher of forest science. 2. A
Botanic Garden. 3. A Library. 4. Museums illustrative
of Physical Science, Mathematics, and Forest and Rural
Economy.

5, A Chemical Laboratory.

D

34 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

(10.) Foi forest excursions, which can be accoQiphshed
in one or in two days, and which are made weekly in
summer, facilities are aftorded by Bevieren or forest
divisions of the forest of Tharand beyond that connected
with the Academy, and by the Dresden Haide or heath, and
many other State forests and private woods easily reached
by railway. And annually, at the close of the summer
session, in the month of August, there is undertaken,
under the guidance of one of the teachers, an excursion
extendiug over ten days or a fortnight, which is not con-
fined within the limits of Saxony.

(11.) The curriculum is begun annually on the loth
of October.

(12.) The holidays are Easter week, Christmas week,
three full weeks in March, between the close of the winter
session and the commencement of the summer session,
and from the middle of August till the middle of October,
the close of the summer and the commencement of the
winter session.

(13.) The Academy is open both to the subjects of
Saxooy and others. Saxons desirous of entering the
forest service of the State are required to submit —

1. A certificate of having completed the course of study
at a Saxon gymnasium, or a corresponding certificate
from some con'esponding Beal-schule.

2. A certificate that he has passed throuofh a preparatory
training for six months in some speciried Revier or circuit
of the State forests.

3. An extract register of birth.

4. If under age, a document from his father or guardian
giving consent to his studying at the Academy.

Of others there are required only a passport or corres-
ponding document ; and if the applicant be under age
a notarial certificate from a German Consul that he
believes the applicant has the consent of his father or of
his guardian to study at the Academy.

In the case of aspirants for employment in the forest
service, it is further considered desirable that they should

ROYAL SAXONY FOKEST ACADEMY. 3o

give evidence that tbey have attained theorectical and
practical instruction sufficient to enable them understand
the prelections.

(14.) The entrant promises to obey the laws of the
Academy, with a copy of which he is supplied. When
his name is entered on the roll he receives a ticket
certifying the same, for which he pays 5 Thalers.

In doubtful cases, the consent of the Minister of Finance
is necessary to admission.

(15.) Subjects of Saxony pay 25 ThaJers each half-year,
and others 37 Thalers 15 G^ro.sc/^^/i for instruction, irrespec-
tive of the number of classes they attend. Students entering
when half the session has passed pay only half fees ; and
students who are not preparing for the forest service of
the State pay each session for the use of the chemical
laboratory apparatus and re-agents : —

If used 4 hours per week, . 3 Thalers.

„ 8 „ . 5 „

,, 16 „ . 10 „

„ 24? „ . lo „

(16.) Students desirous of employment in the forest
service of the State submit to the following examina-
tions : —

1. At the close of the first years' studies a written, and, at
the option ot the several teachers, also an oral examination
on all the subjects which have engaged their study, except
the higher mathematics ; and any who do not obtain on
the average at least the mark 2, or Satisfactory, cannot
pass into the second division of the curriculum.

2. At the close of the curriculum a written and an oral
examination on all the subjects studied in the third,
fourth, and fifth sessions of the course, with the exception
of the higher mathematics, meadow culture, and rural
economy; and no one is passed who does not obtain
the average mark 2, or Satisfactory, or who receives for the
chief forest sciences — forest partitioning, forest culture,

36 FORESTRY IN GEKxMANY.

forest economy, and forest mathematics -the mark
Unsat iiff actor (/.

3. Exceptional cases may be committed to single
teachers to examine on specified subjects.

4. At both of the examinations students may voluntarily
ofier themselves for examinations on the subjects, the
examination on which is not obligatory — the higher
mathematics, meadow culture, and rural economy.

With students who have not determined to seek
employment in the forest service of the State it is
optional to submit to examination in any, or all, or none
of the subjects of study.

(17.) The marks assigned as the result of examination
of these —

Unsatisfactory, . . .0

Scarcely satisfactory, . . 1

Satisfactor}', . . .2

Good, . ... 3

Very good, . . . 4

Distinguished, . . . 5

And there is entered the average yielded by the marks
obtained in the whole of the examinations ; but this is
only granted when examinations on all the prescribed
subjects has been undergone.
The conduct marks are these —

1. Reprehensible.

2. Nothing very culpable.

3. Irreproachable.

Students not submitting to examination may obtain
certificates of the time they attended, the classes in which
they studied, and of their conduct ; and it they submit to
examination on one or more subjects, certificates of their
appearance in these are given.

(18.) Candidates for the State service failing in one or
other of the examinations, may present themselves for

ROYAL SAXONY FOREST ACADEMY. 37

examination a second time. But with a second failure
they lose all title to such employiuent.

(19.) For promising candidates of limited means there
are provided six whole and six half free scholarships —
holders of the first paying no fees, holders of the second
paying half fees ; and a fund has been created from which
a certain number, distiaguisiied for their zeal, progress,
and good behaviour may obtain an allowance of from 10
to 50 thalers towards their personal expenses. All
applications in both cases are submitted to the Minister
of Finance

Deserving students of limited means, who have a long
journey to make at the close of each session, may have
granted to them, by decision of the teachers, from GO
to 100 thalers for travelling expenses. And there have
been founded scholarships obtainable in accordance with
prescribed conditions.

(20.) Students are recjuired to conform to the rules of
the Academy. Eacli must be in his place at latest within
ten minutes after the hour of lectare. If later, the case
is reported to the Director. The provided means of study
must be used in accordance with the regulations, and all
injuries must be made good. Everything whereby the
laws or ordinances of the direction, the amenity of the
place, the public safety, order, and peace, may be compro-
mised, respect towards officials, superiors, or teachers,
impaired, or })rivate persons injured, must be avoided.

(21.) The punibhment to which transgressors are liable
are these—

(a) Reproof according to sentence, with or without
report to the officers of justice, or to the college of teachers,
in presence or in absence of the other students, with
or without report to parents or friends.
(6) Forfeiture of money grants,
(c) Imprisonment.

(c/) Warning, with threatening of expulsion froni the
Academy.

(e) Expulsion.

38 FORESTRY IX GERMANY.

Two or more of the punishments may be combined ;
and expulsion is always to be reported to the relatives.,

There is issued at the commencement of each session a
LehrpJan, or scheme of study, specifying how the lecture
hours of each day are occupied. The following are
translations of copies of those with which I "was
supplied : —

^ I
O ^

GO S

1

.. li

2 «2

1

Forest
Exploitation.

Agricultural
Chemistry.

1

Exercises

in

Mensuration

« 1

"2

Exercises

in

Mensuration.

I

i

<

1
1

1

1

1

i

Special Forest
Mathematics.

1

1

Forest
Exploitation.

Exercises in

computing

Produce and

Products of

Forests.

i

1
1

Geognosy

Anatomy & Phy-
siology of Plants.

General

Mathematics.

Part 2.

Mensuration.

Plan and

Architectural

Drawing.

1

Course 2.
4th Session.

General
Economics.

Sylviculture.

s

3

1

1 ^

Roadmaking.

Tractical
Zoology.

1
1

1

Differential
Calculus.

0

Geognosical and

Mineralogical

Excursions.

Hours
of the

(lay.

7-8
8-9

9-10

10-11
11—12

1 i 1 1 1

Cl CO 1 ''f ' »f5

CO

ci

e
.2

1
1

Actical Exercises.

RKS.

an on Tuesdays and
2 o'clock.

uesdays, as well as
ical Laboratory is
isposal of Students

sion begins on 9th
in the middle of

ion begins on the

i

s

a

1

1

1

REM A

The Library is op
Fridays from 10 to 1

In Summer, on T
Fridays, the Cheir
open, and at the d
for practice.

The Summer Ses
April, and closes
August.

The Winter Sess
15th August.

>>

1 1

94

1

£
■*

s 'S

o a

II

1

1
6

a

i
1

!

II

r

r

1
<

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44

FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

In the Lehrplan there is given also, under each subject of
lecture, the namo of the lecturer.

In the communication received from Dr Judeich,
already referred to, he mentioned that in 1869 there
was founded, through the enterprise of Professor Nobbe,
an Agricultural and General Physiological Experiment
Station.

Of the attendance of students, subsequently to the
Jubilee, he gives the following returns :—

1

SrMMKR Session.

Winter Session.

Vear.

Students of
Forestry.

Students
of Rural
Economy.

Total.

Students of
Forestrj-.

Students
of Rural
Economy.

13

14

12

6

Total,

Saxons.

Foreigners

Saxons

Foreigners

19
23
25
26

1866
1867

1868
1869

55
65
52
29

20
24
24
IS

17 i 92

12 : 101

11 87

8 55

56

64

49

' 26

88
101

86

58

After this, the Rural Economy Department having
been withdrawn, there were only students of forestry in
atttendance.

SVMMKR SeSSIOX.

Winter Session.

Tear

Saxons.

Foreigners

Total. 1

.Saxons.

Foreigners.

Total.

1870

20

23

43

19

30

49

1871

28

26

54

26 i

29

55

1872

32

28

1 60

36

25

61

1873

17

18

35

23

30

53

1874

20

32

1 52

29

34

63

1875

20

20

46

; 30

45

75

1876

23

37

60

33

51

84

1877

27

34

61

34

59

93

1878

2()

51

77

: 38

72

110

1879

25

53

78

j 46

75

121

1880

33

58

91

46

80

126

1881

37

50

87

57

69

126

1882

41

55

96

66

64

130

!

k6YAL SAXONY t'OKEST ACADEMY. 45

The occasion of my visit to Tharand was my attead-
ance at a Congress of German foresters, professors of forest
science, and administrators of forests, held in the neigh-
bouring capital, Dresden, in the autumn of 1881. I had
been made acquainted years before with the history of
the Academy. 1 found Tharand all that I had been led
to picture it to myself; and I shall not soon forget the
intercourse 1 enjoyed with the Director and his colleagues,
which intercourse was all too short to satisfy the cravings
which it gratified. 1 found Tharand, as I had read it
described by another :

'Tharand is beautifully situated at the junction of three
valleys, from two of which flow streams which unite and
flow through the Planenschegrund into the Elbe. The
neighbourhood abounds with pretty romantic w^alks. From
the ruins of the old castle, the remains of a liunting seat of
the ancestors of the Royal Family of Saxony, which may
be reached in ten minutes from the inn, you look down
from a promontory of rock on w^hich it is perched into a
deep and picturesque valley on either side.

* The Forest Garden is a nursery forest containing, it is
said, 1000 different species of trees and shrubs attached
to the Forest School. From this a fine view may be
obtained, and there are pretty walks in it The same
may be said of the Heilige Hall, an avenue of beech trees.'
In the history of the Academy at Tharand, published
on^the occasion of the Jubilee, it is stated in the conclusion
of the account given of the fourth period of the history : —
' On the 17th of June, 1851, forty years after the reuioval
of Cotta's private institute from Zillbach to Tharand, the
unveiling of the bust of the late Privy-Oberforstrath Gotta
in the Botanic Garden was solemnised. On the same
diy the bust of him by A. Reum was, in a becoming
manner, erected and consecrated in the centre of his crea-
tion, and in a place where he often taught — in front of
the so-called Rundetheiie^ or circus, in the Garden.'

The first-mentioned bust was presented by the Cabinet
Minister Count von Einsiedel ; the latter was erected at

46 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

the iQstance and expense of several admirers of the
distinguislied man.

On the summit of the tree-clad hill, which forms a
background to the Academy, stands the monument in
(question, surrounded by a wide circle of noble trees
planted as saplings on that occasion by admiring grateful
disciples, as a tribute to the honoured founder of the
Academy. Thither the members of the Congress were
conducted, many of us knowing not why or whither, and
many a quip and jest, and hiJarous laugh, seasoned our
reasonings by the way ; but as we drew near, and realised
the scene, every voice was hushed, even the footfall was
made in silence profound, and collecting in the sacred
enclosure, while more than one was apparently engaged in
silent worship, fancy seemed to hear once more the voice,
heard by the beloved disciple of our Lord in Patmos :
' And I heard a voice from heaven saying unto me, write :
Blessed arc the dead which die in the Lord from hence-
forth ; Yea, saith the Spirit, that they may rest from their
labours ; and their works do follow them.'

CHA.PTER II.

THE ROYAL FOREST ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-
EBERSWALDE.

The route which I followel ia going to the Congress of
German foresters and others held in Dresden in 1881,
my attendance at which gave me an opportunity of
visiting the Royal Saxon Forest Academy at Tharand, led
me through Berlin, and I availed myself of the oppor-
tunity to visit the Royal Prussian Forest Academy at
Neustadt-Eberswalde. It was one of the first of the
schools of Germany established after that of Tharaud. It
is situated on the Finow, a stream which is here connected
by a canal, with the Oder on one side and with the Havel
on the other. It is passed by the railway connecting
Stettin \\4th Berlin.

The following is a translation of a historical sketch of
the parent school, supplied some years ago by Dr
Dankelmann, the director of the institution : —

' As early as the close of the eighteenth century there
were, now and then, at the University of Berlin (if there
happened to be qualified persons), lectures given on
the science of forests, without, however, establishing a
permanent professorship for this object, or imposing
conditions upon candidates for the public forest service
for the completion of their studies in forest science. It
was then deemed sufficient to be conversant with the
keeping of accounts, mathematics, and the science of
natural history, thus entirely leaving technical education
to be acquired by practice. The number, however, of
qualified employees, thoroughly and systematically educa-
ted with regard to technical knowledge, growing, in

48 FORESTRY IN GERMAKV.

consequence of this system, constantly less and less, it
was deemed proper to establish, in 1821, an Academy for
forest instruction at Berlin.

' Dr Friedrich Wilhelm Leopold Pfeil, then Oberfor-
strath, was intrusted with the superintendence of this
institution, which, although organically not connected,
entered into such association with the university as to
employ the professors and means of instruction belonging
to the latter, for teaching the fundamental and accessary
sciences, while the lectures on the principal studies were
given by technical instructors. This organisation, how-
ever, soon proved inadequate. On the one hand the
much-extended study of the fundamental accessary
sciences produced an injurious effect upon the principal
studies, and, on the other, there being no suitable forests
in the immediate neighbourhood of Berlin, the theoretical
lectures could not be explained, nor supplemented with
practical illustrations. The more distant, but unfrequent
excursions and forest journeys, could not efficiently
remedy this inconvenience, and they proved insufficient to
secure a close connection between the theoretic study and
the living instruction of the forest.

' On the superintendent's advice, based upon these
considerations, and strongly supported by the intercession
of Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt, the Academy
was, in 1880, removed to Neustadt-Eberswalde, and
named the High Institution for Forest Science. In the
immediate neighbourhood of this place there are two large
forest districts which offer the students in high degree a
fine opportunity for becoming familiar with their various
features. Dr Pfeil continued to act as superintendent,
and, at the same time, he was intmsted with the administra-
tion of the said districts. In addition to Pfeil, who taught
the science of forestry proper, there were appointed two
other professors, one for the whole department of natural
sciences, and the other for both mathematics and
geodesy. In 1830 a chair was established for Prussian
jurisprudence, with particular reference to forest matters,

ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 49

and, in 1851, a second teacher of forest science was
appointed.* Pfeil remained in his position as superinten-
dent till autumn, 1856, when he was succeeded by Ober-
forstraeister Grunert. On the latter's resuming his
former position in the administration of public forests,
the direction of the institution was c )nferred upon Dr
Dankehnann, the present incumbent. Since l8o6 very
important changes have taken place in the organisation of
the Academy, with a large increase in the number of instruc-
tors. At present there are officiating at the Academy,
besides the Director, who occupies the first chair for forest
science^ two more teachers of this science, a teacher of
mathematics, physics, mechanics, and meteorology ; one
of chemistry, mineralogy, and geognosy ; one of botany,
one of zoology, and one of jurisprudence ; and, in addi-
tion, a royal chief forest officer, as assistant teacher of
roads, geodesy, and plan-drawing ; and also a c;i3mi>t as
assistant teacher of geology.'

The regulations for the Royal Forest Academy at
Newstadt-EberswaMe, and that at Mlinden in Hanover, at
present in force, were issued by the Minister of Finance
under date of 5th April, 1875. In accordance with these : —

The schools are under the control of the Minister of
Finance. The Oberland Forstineister is curator of both.
The staff of teachers in each is composed of a Director,
appointed by the King, who is instructor in forest
science, a second professor of forest science, a teacher of
mathematics, a teacher of natural science, and a teacher
of law, in its relation to forests and to game ; and per-
mission to any one to act as college tutor [Privatdocmt) in
a Forest Academy may be given with the sanction of the
Minister of Finance.

The arrangements in each of these Academics for the
study of every department of forest science is complete,
but part of an autumn vacation may be spent by the

* Notwithstandinu this, tliose who were destined for the superior functions of inspec-
tion and conversation had, besides their two > tars and a-half at the school, to follow a
course of 80in«^ years Rt the university.— (Sfe Bevxie des Eaux ft Foretf, M»y, l^Tfi.)

E

50 FORESTRY IN GERMANY,

stiiJeuts at one in the practical forest operations carried
on in connection with the other.

The course of study extends over two and a-half years,
and embraces fundamental science, special science, and
accessary science.

Under the head of Fundamental Science are included —

1. Pliysics, Meteorology, and Mechanics. 2. Chemistry,
inorganic and organic. 3. Mineralogy. 4-. Land Survey-
ing and Geology. 5. Botany, including the structure,
physiology, and pathology of plants ; special forest botany
and microscope demonstrations. 6, Zoology, including
special zoology, with a reference to forest economy and to
game, and especially to forest insects. 7. Mathematics,
including arithmetic, plane and cubic mensuration and
trigonometry, elements of analytical geometry, elements
of the higher analysis, land surveying and chart drawing.
8. Political Economy, witli a special reference to forests.

The special technical sciences in which instruction is
given are these —

1. History and literature of forests, 2. Local or
national doctrines of forests. 3. Exploitation of forests.
4. Forest protection. 5. Forest products and forest
technology. 6. Fore.^t taxation, mensuration of wood,
forest mensuration, an 1 all of those with special reference
to Prussian usage 7. Valuation of forests and forest
statics. 8. Fo:est statistics and forest management, with
a special reference to the classifying of forests in Prussia,
i). Forest rights, usages, and servitudes.

'1 he Accessary Sciences are —

1. Law, in theory and practice ; Prussian law, civil and
criminal, and civil and criminal processes. 2. Forest-
road making. 3. Game laws and the chase.

The study of fundamental and of accessary science is
strictly limited to what may be necessary to a scientific
practice of forest econ<jmy, but it embraces all that is
required for this. The means of instruction are —

1. The Royal forest districts of Biesenthal and Liepe, a
^er^menear Newstadt-ELerswalde, and those at Gabrenberg

ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 51

and at Cattenbuhl, near Munden. 2. Seed-kiln at
Newstadt-Eberswalde. 3. Botanic Garden, and
Arboretum illustrative of Forest Economy. 4. Chemical
laboratories ; and cabinets of collections illustrative of.
5. Natural Philosophy ; 6. Land surveyiog ; 7. Forestry
and the chase. 8. A Library.

The courseof .-t idy extending over two years auda-half,
is commenced with the summer session ; but students
who have no iutention of entering the forest service of
Prussia may enter either then or at the beginning of the
winter session. The summer session extends from Easter
till the 20th of August; the winter session from the L5th
of October till fourteen days before Easter. The arrange-
ments for lectures during each session is submitted to tlie
Minister of State some weeks previous to the commence-
ment of the session ; and it is published for general
information.

There are required of applicants for admission certifi-
cates: — 1. Of having passed with credit through a
German Gymnasium, or Prussian High School of the first
class; 2. Of not exceeding twenty-fuur years of age ; 'S.
Of a fitness for a forest life ; 4. Of i)lameless moral
character; 5. Of adequate means of support while at the
Academy ; 6. Of having passed a university examination,
or other equivalent examination, in land measuring ; and
of having spent a seven months preparation in forest
work.

Students from the Huntsman's Corps {Fiehljayerkorps)
required to attend the Academy are recpiired only 1o
produce the certificate No. 3, and to submit to the Direc-
tor certificates corresponding to Nos. 1 and G ; and of
students who do not intend to enter the forest service of
Prussia there are required only the certificates Nos 4, 5,
and 6.

Forest students and forest candidates, who have com-
pleted their curriculum, are permitted, without charge, to
go on the excursions, and to avail themselves of the
collections, &c., belonging to the Academy as menus of

52 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

instruction, so far as practicable, on authority obtained
from the Director ; and also to attend particular lectures,
&c., as Hospitanten — but tlie Director is authorised to
require of such, if he think proper, a fee of 9 marks
for every class attended ; and others, who have studied 2J
years in a foreign School of Forestry may be admitted to
the same privileges as Hospitanten on payment of 10
marks to the general fund as a fee for entrance ticket or
matriculation.

The entrance fee to either of the Academies is 15
marks, and for transference from the one to the other 10
marks ; and the fees for each session are 75 marks. But
memheis of the FeJdJagetkorps, and of the Jag erbataiUone,
or State-huntsman, required to attend the Academy, and
others holding Ladenherg bursaries, are exempted from
payment of these fees.

Appropriate means of maintaining discipline are pre-
scribed; and regulations are laid down in regard to students
leaving the Academy ; and bye-laws have been added
under the same authority regulating the use to be made
of the various educational collections, &c., belonging to
the Academy.

Previous to the promulgation of these regulations in
1875 there were in force corresponding regulations pro-
mulgated under date of 1st March, 1868. These were then
superseded ; and under date of 30th June, 1874, there were
issued prescriptions for the training and testing of officers
employed in the Royal Forest Service of Prussia; but
this subject is not one which comes under consideration
here, which is solely the educational arrangements in the
Forest Academies, by which in part that training was
provided for. There is, however, one point on which a
word of explanation may be necessary.

According to an Order of the Minister of Finance of 6th
April. 1871, and to sec. 1 of the prescriptions referred to —
As an examination in land-measuring is required to precede
that in regard to practical forestry, admission to that

ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 55

examination must be preceeded by two years occupation
with land measurement and levelling, and these two years,
in the case of students at the Forest Academy, intending
to enter the forest service is, along with seven months
attendance at the Academy, to reckon as one year in the
two and a-half years embraced by the curriculum.

In accordance with the practice generally adopted by
Schools of Forestry in Germany there is issued before the
commencement of each session a programme of the
studies to be pursued, for the information of any who may
have under consideration the expediency of seeking
aimission, as well as of those who have already entered
on the curriculum. The following is a translation of that
issued for the winter session 1882-83, at which there were
in attendance about 50 Prussian students, besides
foreigners.

First section of the course of study, designed for
students of the first year who had entered the school at
Easter 1882.

I. Forest Economy.

Culture of Woods. — Five hours a-week : and so with the
others. Wood-Cutting. — One hour a - week. Forest
excursions.

II. Natural Sciences.

Meteorology and Climatology. — One hour. Inorganic
Chemistry. — Three hours. Organic Chemistry. — One hour.
Mineralogy. — One hour. Chemistry applied to Tech-
nology.— One hour.

General Botany, Anatomy, and Vegetable Physiology. —
Four hours. Structural Demonstrations by aid of the
Microscope. — Two hours. Zoology. —Invertebrate Animals.
Five hours.

in. Mathematical Sciences.

Repetitions and Exercises in Mathematics. — One hour.
Geodesy. — One hour. Political Economy and Jurisprudence,
and Civil and Criminal Law. — Two hours.

54 t'ORESTRY IK GERMANY.

Second section of the course designed for students of
the second year who had entered the school at Easter
1881.

I. Forest Economy.

Redemption of Servitudes.— Two hours. Exploitation
of Woods and Technology. — Three hours. Rentahilitaets-
lehre, or estate and area, and theory of the greatest
return as an investment. — Two hours. History of
Sylviculture — Two hours. Cubic Measuremeut of Woods.
— One hour. Road Makiug, and Estabhshtnent of Net-
work of Forest Paths for the bringing out uf Wood. — Two
hours. Examination on Forest Economy. — One hour.

Forest excursions, with exercises in practice, consisting
of management of a regular timber forest ; management
of a forest by Jardinage ; and redemption of servitudes
burdening a large forest of woodland.

11. Natural Sciences.

Repititorum* of Chemistry, of Mineralogy, and Geodesy.
One hour. Practical operations in the application of
Chemistry to the analysis of soils. — Two hours. Repititorum
of Botany. — Two hours. Repititorum of Zoology. — One
hour.

III. Mathematics.

Elements of the Higher Analysis, — Two hours.
Elements of Analytic Geometry.^One hour. Political
Economy and Jurisprudence. Commercial Management
of Forests.— Two hours. Civil and Criminal Law.— Two
hours a-week.

The following is a translation of the Unterrichts-plan or
programme of study for the complete curriculum of two
years and a-half. It is one of an earlier date, extending
from Easter 1870, to autumn, 1873. These are issued
annually, but they are essentially the game.

Ilepititoruin, us I have already intimated, is a term applied to c!a-<3 eximiii-
tions, designed less to demonstrate the hei:^ht of attiiaments mide by the stuleuti
than their defects; and this less with a desire to expose the deficiency of thj studaut thm
that of the instruction given, that the teacher may know what he should say more or
gay differently than what he has said.

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ACADEMY At NEWSTADT.EBERSWALDE. 5d

' A fact is developed by this table, which is noticed in
many other institutions, that the two years' course had
become crowded by the unavoidable development of new
studies, so that before the enlargement to five semesters,
the recitations and exercises occupied 6.2 hours each day,
besides the time given to study. This requirement was
too much, and could not fail, if continue 1, to bring lassi-
tude and inattention. The course of law was introduced
in 1844, and that of forest constructions in 1873. Pro-
fessor Mathieu, of Nancy (frotn whose article in the Revae
des Eaux et Forets, 1874, p. 155, the above table is
derived), remarks concerning the more recent addition of
studies as follows : —

' " We would specify among other subjects recently
added to the programme of studies at Newstadt-Ebers-
walde, microscopic examinations of vegetable tissues, and a
general knowledge of the lower organisations, which, from
their parasitic habits, are a determinate cause of a great
number of maladies in plants and animals, and which are
likewise agents in fermentation. Furthermore, we might
specify the elements of organic chemistry, which are
indispensable to an understanding of the laws of vegetable
physiology ; some ideas of forest statistics, one of the
principal and most urgent of the desiderata of every well-
ordered administration; a glance at the history of forests,
and of the various phases through which the sciences
relating to it have passed ; and, finally, the elements of
meteorology, which, by setting the forest agents to the
pursuing of observations of tliis kind, will lead us to a
certain knowledge of the influence still so controverted, as
to the influence of the forests upon the climate of a
country, and upon the delivery and maintenance of the
sources of supply of the water which fertilizes it. All
these new ideas are doubtless useful, and may, without
difficulty, be included in our course of forest itistr action."

' Since 1872 the principal station for experimonts
relating to forest matters in Prussia, on which there is
conferred, at the same time, the management of the

60 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

transactions of the Association for German Experimental
Stations relating to forest matters, is connected with the
Academy at Newstadt-Eberswalde in this way, that the
latter's superintendent is also the director of the principal
station, and that, under his direction, the instructors of
the Academy are elaborating the different divisions of the
experimental work, viz., the forest technical, the chemical,
physical, the meteorological, the zoological observations,
and also what relates to physiology of plants.

'This opens, on one hand, a large field of scientific
researches to the teachers, putting at their disposal new
teaching matter, and gives, on the other hand, to students
the opportunity of studying how to prepare the scientific
solution of interesting and important problems, and of
taking their own share in the respective elaborations.

' The results of active instruction at this Academy during
the forty-six years of its existence are highly satisfactory.
Almost all the Prussian employe'es near the administration
of public forests — without, however, counting those from
the provinces added to Prussia in 1866, and who entered
into Prussian service — owe their perfection in forest
science to this Academy. Besides a considerable number
of private forest oflScers and forest proprietors of the
country have here acquired the necessary skill in admin-
istering their own forests or those committed to their
charge. Finally, many foreigners have applied themselves
at this Academy to the study of forest science. The
following table, showing the annual number of students
from 1830 to 1876, may be of service in judging of the
Academy's operation : —

ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBEESWALDE.

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62 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

The following details of the requirements for employ-
ment and promotion in the forest service in Prussia are
given in the Bestinimungen iiber Ausbildung unci Frufimg
fur den K'Oniglichen Staatsforstverwaitangsdiemt : Require-
ments for the education and examination of officials in
the Prussian State Forest Service. The applicant to be
received into the forest service must satisfy the following
conditions issued by the Minister of Financ eon 30th June,
1874, with some verbal changes subsequently odered : —

1. * He must have obtained a diploma of completed
study in a gymnasium of the German Fmpire or in a Real-
sckule. 2. Be not above twenty-two years of age. 3.
Have no bodily infirmity which would unfit him for the
forest service. 4. Be of good conduct. 5. Give proof of
possessing sufficient means to meet the expense of pre-
paration for the work.

* This preparation commences with practical work done
in the forest, under the direction of an Oberforster, during
at least seven months, generally from October to April.

' Tlie design of these preliminary exercises is to make
the aspirant acquainted with the work of exploitation,
and with the principal kinds of trees, to make him
practically acquainted with sylviculture, with the surveil-
lance of woods, and the police of the chase, and at the
same time with land surveying, all of which are things
which lie at the foundation of his subsequent theoretical
studies.

* To be appointed ForUbeflissener, or forest-aspirant, an
application must be made to the inspector, or to the con-
servator, of the administrative circuit; this application
must be transmitted by the Oberforster to whom the pupil
desires to be attached.

* The papers to be supplied are five in number. 1. The
diploma of study from a gymnasium or Real-schule of the
first class. 2. Certificate of birth or baptism. 3. A
medical certificate. 4. If the aspirant do not pass directly
from the gymnasium to the service, a certificate of good
conduct from the time of his leaving the gymnasium. 5,

ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBEESWALDE. 63

An engagemeDt by the father or guardian of the aspirant
to provide for the maintenance of him during at least
seven years.

* Further, the Oherforsier must supply special informa-
tion, in regard to the family and person ot the aspirant ;
and then if there be nothing to hinder the aspirant being
accepted, he receives his appointment from the inspector
or the conservator. These have a right reserved to
appoint the aspirant to another Oherforstt)- than the one
he has chosen, and even to remove him during the time of
his preparation, after haviug referred the matter to the

Minister of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests.

* If the aspirant on trial prove not quite satisfactory in
the triple point of view, physical, intellectual, and moral,
the Oherforster addresses a report to the inspector and to
the conservator, who judge whether the aspirant should
continue his studies ; in case of a difference of opinion
between them the minister decides.

* This stage passed, the Oherforsier delivers to the candi-
date a certificate testifying to the time spent in this
stage, and to the work done. This certificate confers on
the aspirant the title of forest pupil. To continue his
studies the forest pupil should follow for at least two years
and a-half the course of study of a School of Forestry, or of
a Forest Institute annexed to a university ; those wlio may
desire to follow that pursued in another school than those
of Eberswalde and Miinden should previously assure
theniselves from the office of the minister that the time
spent by them at this school shall be reckoned equivalent
to the studies prescribed by the regulations ; and further
they are required to study all the subjects conipiised in
the programmes of these said schools.

'These forestal studies completed, and, at latest within
six years after the commencement of the preparation, tlie
pupil addresses to the minister an application to be
admitted to the examinations, and attaches to this the
following papers : — 1. A curriculum vif'ie, or history of his
previous course of life, entirely in liis own handwriting.

04 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

2. The diploma of study ia a gymnasium or Eealsehde.

3. The certificate ot" being a forest pupil. 4. The certifi-
cate of his having attended a School of Forestry or a
University in the course of his studies 5. A certificate
that the pupil has taken the required part in works of land
surveving, and the preparation of charts, at the School of
Forestry or at the IJniversity. C. A chart prepared by
the hand of the candidate, of some Royal forest of at least
500 hectares, on the scale of 1 to 5003, and this chart
must be accompanied with an attestation that the
work has been done entirely by the pupil.

' The design of the examination is to make it be seen
that the pupil possesses the general instruction required,
and that he has made with success the technical studies
prescribed ; and to determine further that the pupil is fit
to continue his studies.

'The knowledge required at this examination are
these : —

' A. — In Special sciences.

* Exploitation, management, and esiimation of wuods,
technology, protection of the State forests, and forestal
history and bibliography.

' B.*— In Auxiliary sciences.

' 1. Mathematics. Elementary principles of statics and
mathematics. 2. Natural History. — Principles of the
classification of animals, plants, and minerals. A.
Zoology. — DivisioLs of the animal kingdom ; mammalia,
birds and insects looked at from a forestal point of view ;
entomological nomenclature, structure and habits of
insects in general, and special study of those which are
useless or hurtful to forests. B. Botany.— Classification,
description, physiology, and structure of plants, and
special knowledge of those which are useful from a
forestal point of view. C. Mineralogy.— General notions
of geognosy and geology ; general idea of the formation
ancl the upheaval of mountains : influence of the subsoil
on vegetation, and special study of the minerals and rocks
useful to the forester. D. Physics and Chemistry.—

ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 65

General properties of bodies ; views entertained in regard
to light, heat, magnetism, and electricity; carbonisation,
resin, and tannin.

* 3. Legislation and Jurisprudence. — History of Prussian
law ; notions of civil and criminal law as applied to forests.

' The examination takes place in general once a year,
in September or October, before a commission appointed
by theMinister of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests. This
examination is held, one part indoors, and another part in
the forests ; if it prove satisfactory, the forest pupil
receives the title of Forest Referendary.

' In case of failure he is allowed to recommence his
trials, in whole or in part.

' To continue his preparation, the forest referendary
should devote himself to personal studies in the forest,
and, moreover, take an active part in all forest w.)rks,
in order that he may acquire, under an Oh''7'forstn\ all
practical knowli^dgc relating to forest economy and forest
administration. In the fir.-,t instance, he is free to choose
the circuit in which he wishes to prosecute his studies ;
but the Minister reserves the right to send him officially
to any specified circuit.

' The Oherforster, near to whom the forest referendary is
sent, is his immediate superior, and the referendary should
take for his guidance in the .service the instructions issued
to forest overseers. Tiie duration of this stage imposed
on a forest referendary is at least two years, He should
pa.ss eight successive months, which should always com-
prise the interval between December and April, in
discharging the duties of a forest guard in the same
circuit, and in a particular part of the circuit. This part
is chosen by the Oh^-rf order according to the indications
made by the inspector, and the candidate should give
himself entirely to all the works of the guards engaging in
the surveillance, as well as in the exploitations, preparation
of estimates, measurement of trees, sales, and the cultural
operations going on.

66 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

' During these eight months he cannot be employed in
the office of the Oberforster.

' The referendary ought then to visit different circuits :
the design of these visits being to make him familiarly
acquainted with all the kinds of trees growing in the
forest, to give Ijim explicit conceptions of different modesof
exploitation and management, and in fine, to give him
practice in all kinds of forest business by making him
take part in all the operations of an Oherfonter.

' During this stage the referendary is required to keep a
journal. This journal ought to indicate the circuits in
which he has had a charge, their situation, their soil, and
the exploitations and works of culture in which he has
had to take part, &c.

' It ought, moreover, to contain notices of remarkable
fficts which have struck the referendary, and the observations
which have been suggested to him by the study of the
forest, and by the works which he has had to do in the
office of the Oherforster.

'The journal should be sent to the Oberforster on the
fir>t of every month, and submitted to the superior agent
in the -circuit, if such there be.

' In fine, when the referendary leaves the circuit, the
OherfovMir should indicate the date of his departure, and
give testimonials of his conduct. If there be occasion for
observations in regard to faults, to want of punctuality
and obedience on the part of the referendary, or especially
if he has shown a real incapacity for the w^ork of forest
service, the Oberforster is bound to make his report of
his to the inspector and to the conservator.

' The Minister of Agriculture and Forests can exclude
from the service any forest referendary who may have
manifested gross misconduct or negligence, or any
candidate whose progress may be considered unsatisfac-
tory.

' Every Oberforster ought to send to the inspector, at
latest on 5th January in each }ear, a statement of his
opinion of the candidates who have passed in the course

ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 67

of the preceding year more than four weeks in the circuit.
The inspector adds to this his own observations. When
the candidate has discharged the duties of an overseer,
the inspector should give the results of the examination
which he has made of the district entrusted to the
management of the referendary. These documents are sent
by him to the General Directory before the loth January ;
they are collated and compared with those furnished by
the conservator, and are then sent to the Minister to form
the file of papers relating to the candidate. When the
referendary has completed his course, done all the prescribed
works, and satisfied the requirements of the military ser-
vice, he may address to the Minister an application to be
all(Aved to pass the State examination ; the time allowed
fur this is five years from the passing of tlie last examina-
tion.

' To this application are attached the following papers :
1. A cnrnculum vide. 2 The diploma of study at a
gymnasium. 3. The diploma of forest pupil. 4. The
certificate of diligence in the course of a School of
Forestry. 5. The journal. 6. Lastly, for candidates who
belong neither to the corps oi fel'ljdger, nor to the batalHons
of chasseurs, a document attesting that they have satisfied
the military service.

' When there is nothing to hinder authorisation being-
given, the per.-on named is sent before a commission who
inscribe it, and fix for him the date of his examination.

' This examination is conducted according to the instruc-
tions and regulations of the minister, partly indoors, and
partly in the forest. The latter is by far the more import-
ant, as it determines whether the referendary has acquired
practice and knowledge of administrative qu-.-stions.

* The examination turns on all parts of forest science
and of forest economy in their connection, on the applica-
tion of special law and common law to forest matters, and
on the police and administration of the chase.

' The referendary having been subjected to this examina-
tion, at once receives from the commission the title of

68 FOEESTRY IN GERMANY.

Forst- Assessor, and is inscribed on the roll of officials
going through their course of training.

' If the referendary do not pass the examination with
success the commission decides whether or not he shall
recommence his trials in whole or in part after a delay
of at least six months, but which must not exceed twenty-
four months.

* The Forst- Assessor is employed in the royal adminis-
tration so far as is practical until he receives his
appointment, an<l he is bound to apply himself to the
forest works which the minister may entrust to him.

' If the Forst- Assessor undertake the administration of
communal forests, of public establishments, or even those of
private persons, he oughttocommunicatethistothe minister;
and this undertaking is not in any way a reason for
excluding him from the royal service ; but it is clear that
the years spent thus, are not to be reckoned to him as years
spent in the service.

'And in case a Forst-Assessor alter a certain lapse of
time passed thus beyond the royal service, should refuse a
work which the administration would give to him, he may,
on the proposition of the minister, be removed from the
roll of officials going through their course of training.

' Each Forst- Assessor is bound to make known, through
the 06e/7bro^^/-,hispresence to the inspector and to the conser-
vator of the circuit in which he finds himself, and whether
he belongs to the royal service, or he be administering
private forests. Likewise on each change of residence he
should make a similar communication to the same agents.

'In order to acquire a more extended instruction, and
perfect themselves in the general practice of business, aspir-
ants to the forest service should, beyond their technical
studies, go through a course of law and of political
economy at a University. The candidate is free to make
choice as to the time at which to pursue these studies,
as that which may best suit him while prosecuting his
preparation ; but it is preferable that he should take
them up while he is a Forst-Assessor.

ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 69

The Forest- Assessors who, besides the ordinary pre-
scribed forest studies, give themselves for at least two
half-year sessions to the studies of these political sciences,
can, after having been attached for one year to a Directory
of Finance, address to the Minister an application for
permission to submit to an examination on the matters
spoken of; which application should be accompanied by a
certificateof his having folio wed a course of study at a Univer-
sity. This examination is conducted before the superior com
mission of forests, by the Minister-adjunct of the special
examiners for legislation and political sciences. It tur is
on the applications of civil law in Prussia to the adminis-
tration of forests, and principally on the administration
of law and political economy. But this is no longer
required absolutely.

The trials ought to show whether the candidate possesses
the knowledge necessary to enable him to discharge in
a satisfactory manner the duties and functions of a Member
of a Forest Directory. The Forest- Assessors who pass this
trial successfully receive from the Minister the title of
Oberforster. The inspectors, or Fdrst-7neisters, are chosen
from amongr the Ob^rforsters, who must have distinguished
themselves in their service, and preferentially from
amongst those who have passed the last mentioned
examination.

Captain Campbell Walker, formerly deputy-inspector of
forests at Madras, writes of a visit paid by him to
Newstadt-Eberswalde : —

* I visited the Forest Academy at Newstadt-Eberswalde,
and had a most interesting conversation with the Director,
Herr Ober-forstmeister Danklemann, on various subjects
connected with the forestry in Europe and India. He is
assisted by a staff of seven professors, with assistants, and
there is an Experimental Garden attached to the Academy,
with Oberforster Beruhard in charge of the strictly tech-
nical portion, and other gentle meu for the meteoru logical,
Ecological, and chemical sections. The number of student*

70 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

at the Academy averages 65. Oberforester Berohard
kindly accompanied me round the gardens, and pointed
out everything of interest, inchiding a building where the
seed is dried and separated from the cones, known as a
" Sammeyidarre,'' extensive seed beds of spruce and fir sown
in parallel lines, with the help of boards specially adapted
for the purpose, which insure regularity, and the seed
being all the same depth ; seed beds of willow, and treat-
ment of the seedlings when transplanted ; and examples
of trees of every description for botanical study, including
many of the rarer description for the more advanced
students.

' Professor Dr Altum, the successor of the well-kuown
entomologist Ratzeburg, author of a large work on insects
destructive to trees and timber, accompanied me through
the museum, which is rich in specimens of all sorts of
birds, animals, and iusects found in the forests, very neatly
arranged in cases. Where the animal or insect does
damage to trees, specimens of the branch, bark, leaf, root,
or cone, in a healthy state, and after being attacked, are
exhibited close to each, so that the student can see at a
glance the nature of the damage, and connect it with the
animal which causes it. Thus we have squirrels, rats,
beavers, and mice, set up to represent nature, gnawing the
barks, grubbing at the roots, &c., &c. Insects are shown
in several stages of their existence, larvae, chrysalis, cater-
pillar, moth, with their ramifications in the stem or
branches of the tree. These, with specimen blocks of
almost all descriptions of timber, form a most instructive
and interesting collection, in which much time could be
spent with advantage.

' Nothing struck me as more remarkable than the
extent and varied nature of the studies required from the
forest candidates or probationers in Prussia, and the
number of years they are content to spend, first in studying,
and then in waiting for an appointment. The would-be
Oberforiter, which is the lowest of what we would call
the " gazetted appointments," must, after passing certain

ACADEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. n

terms at a Government school of the first class, spend a
year with an Oberforster in a revier, and then pass an
examination as forest pupil, after which there is a two
years' course at a Forest Academy, and an examination in
scientific forestry, land surveying, &c., on passinor which
the pupil becomes a '' Fordhandidat ;" then another two
years' practical study, during at least nine months of
which he must actually perform the duties of a forester,
after which comes the final Government examination,
on passing which he enters the grade of Oberforster-kan-
didat. Tue difference betwixt tlie two examinations is
explained to be that the first tests the candidate's know-
ledge of theoretical forestry and cognate sciences, whilst
the latter tests his ability to apply what he lias learnt,
and capability for employment as Oberforster and in the
higher grades,

' After passing the final examination, the Oberforster-
kandidat is employed as an assistant in the academies and
control offices, in making forest surveys and working plans,
and sometimes acting m charge of a revier, receivino-
certain daily or weekly allowances whilst so employed.
After five or six years of this probation, he may look for-
ward to being permanently appointed.

* Thus we have at least five years spent in study, and
another five years spent in probation; the former without
any pay, and the latter only with meagre allowances
whilst actually employed, before the would-be first officer
is installed ; and the time is generally much longer. Vet
so great is the desire for Government service, and particu-
larly forest service, in Prussia, and indeed in Germany
generally, that there is no lack of competitors.'

The impression made on my mind was similar. I was
struck with the completeness of the collections in the
several museums. The Aboretum, or Forest Garden, is
extensive, but it appei*,red to me that no use was being
made of it, beyond vhat could be made of one much Itss
extensive. The walks and drives seemed to minister

7^ FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

greatly to the amenities of the town, which is much
frequented in the summer months by families lodging
there, but at other times resident in Berlin ; and though
utilised for the instruction of the students, this appeared
to me to be done more because tliey were at command, than
as necessary and requisite.

I made inquiry here, as I did also elsewhere, in regard
to the design of giving instruction in rifle shooting, and
in much beside relating to the chase ; and the information
I received in reply was similar to what I received else-
where, which was substantially, that it was not without its
use, which was explained ; but that it was more as an
accomplishment than as a necessary qualification for
forest management that such instruction was given ; and
it had been observed that foresters who took an interest
in hunting took more heartily to life in the forest, and
felt less of the ennui and restlessness, and desire after city
life, from which some others suffered.

There are connected with the Academy, besides the
Forest of Eberswalde, three otliers, with a total area of
18,606 hectares, of which 17,148 are under wood. Of these
of timber forest —

447 are of Oak.
2,272 Beech.

217 Alder and Birch.
13,721 Pine.
29 Fir.
220 Plantations.

Of coppice wood their are 242 hectares.

The ground is of Tertiary formation. Diluvium, and
Alluvium. The contour of two is hilly and almost
mountainous.

The garden illustrative of forest botany is 190 hectares
in extent.

The Experimental Garden, illustrative of different
methods of annual plant culture, which, is 484 hectares in
extent, with iipon an average two millions and a half of plants;

ACAbEMY AT NEWSTADT-EBERSWALDE. 73

and ia Chorin, one of the forests, there is an Aboretum of
8 hectares.

Connected with the Academy is one of the most
important meteorological observatories in Germany.

The museum was founded by Dr J. T. C, Ratzeburg, at
that time Professor of Naturwissenschatt in the Academy,
a distinguished entomologist^ and author of a valuable
work entitled, Die Waldvei^erher uiul ihre Fiende, oder Be-
schreibunq und Ahhildiuig c/e?' Scfuiedlichtsten Forstinsrcten und
der uehrigen schaedlichen Wnldthnre, (ice. It is rich in
specimens of all sorts of quadrupeds, birds, and insects
found in the forests, and when tliey are injurious to trees,
there are specimens of branch, bark, leaf, root, and cone
— both in a healthy state and in the injured condition,
enabling students to see at once the effects, and the animal by
which they were produced. Insects are shown in the
several stages of their existence — larva, chrysalis, and
moth — with the erosions produced by each on leaves,
branches, stems, and bark of the trees infested by them.

From a report made by Dr J. A. Warden, a member of
the Scientific Commission of the United States, to the
International Exhibition at Vienna, in 1873, the
Academy cost the State 12,500 thalers, or well nigh
£2000 per annum.

There were issued by the Minister of Finance, under
date of 5th April, 1875, a series of statutes for the
regulation of students, and appended thereto regulations
relative to their studies and regulations, relative to the use
to be made of the library, museum, e^c. Subsequently
there was issued a programme of course of studies
to be followed ; and on 16th October, 1882, a
supplementary notice in regard to the examinations, to
which students were to be subjected on land surveying
and mensuration. The latest regulations in regard to the
preparation required for the forest service were issued in
August, 1883.

The number of students at Eberswalde in the summer

H iFORESTRY IN GERMANY.

session of 1885 was 140 ; and in the winter session
1885-86, 148, of whom in the former 46, and in the latter
47, were not studying with a view to entering the
Prussian forest service.

The statf of teachers in actual service numbers 11,
namely, along with the director, 10 professors ordocenten,
of whom 5, including 3 in charge of oberforsteries, and
the director of technological experimeuts in the stati<)n
for forestal experimental research, give instruction in
forest science i one in chemistry, mineralogy, and geonosy ;
one in statics, one in botany, one in zoology, one in physics,
and mathematics, and one in jurisprudence. All of whom
are provided with the necessary assistants.

As forest districts for instruction and excursion, four
oberforesteries of the Government circuit of Potsdam-
bhiesenthal, Chorin, Eberswalde, and Freienwalde, are
placed under the technical administration of the Director
of the Academy.

CHAPTER III.

THE KOYAL FOREST ACADEMY AT MUNDEN.

The Royal Forest Academy at Miiaden in Hanover was
inaugurated 27th April, 186S, under Dr Gustavus Heyer
as Director, and was riclily equipped by the Prussian
Government when Hanover became connected with
Prussia. Munden is situated at the confluence of the
Werra and the Fulda, whose united waters here take the
name of Weser, which is navigable from this point to the
sea.

It is the site of an old castle or Schloss, built in
1566 by Duke Erith 11., which was formerly a residence
of the Guelphie ancestors of the Royal Family of England.
It has now been used for a long time as a magazine.
The scenery around the town is pleasing, and has been
considered not unlike that of the vale of Llangollen in
North Wales.

For some years British candidates for appointments in
the forest service of India were allowed to pursue their
preparatory studies here.

The educational arrangements, and the course of study
and of training, are similar in all respects to those at tlie
Forest Academy at Newstadt-Eberswalde in Prussia.
In both they are in accordance with the regulations issued
by the Minister of Finance, under date of 5th April, 1875,
and 1st August, 1883 ; and the course of study is similar.
Like tliat at Eberswalde, this is subj 3Ct to the general
sunper vision of the Minister of Finance.

By Dr N. J. C. Miiller, Professor of Botany in tbeAcademy,
I was courteously supplied some years since with the
following ioformatioQ : — It was first opened in 1868. The

76 FORESTRY IN GERMAI^V.

iees are 150 marks a-year. The course of study embraces
tive semesters, or half-yearly sessions, three summer and
two winter sessions. A-spirants for employment under the
forest service are admitted only at Easter, students from
other Schools of Forestry at Easter, on the Monday after
Easter week, an I at Michaelmas (15th October).

Students must not be above twenty-five years of age,
and must hold a certiticate of having passed the final
examination at a gymnasium or Jiea/. schule of the first
rank ; testimony in regard to the previous seven months
having been spent in forest work ; testimony to hia good
behaviour and to his means of livelihood while prosecut-
ing his studies being provided.

Of the students m the Academy on 31st December,
1881, there were —

Free students, ... 5

Paying half fees, ... 7

Paying whole fees, ... 69

in all paying students 76.
Of these there were —
Subjects whose parents were engaged in husbandry, 5

Do. engaged in other callings, ... 71

Foreigners, ..... 0

The number of those who had been educated there since
the organisation of the Academy were —

Subjects, . . . .629

Foreigners, ... 23

The area of an Experimental Garden was 5 hectares ; the
grant from public funds, 57,4!4!0 marks.

The Director of the Academy gave instruction in forest
science ; besides whom there were five professors and
assistants giving instruction in mathematics and land
surveying, geology and mineralogy, chemistry and physics,
forest exploitation and botany.

In the teaching of botany there were devoted four
hours a week to the morphology, biology, and classification
of plants ; two hours a week to practice in the classification
and the microscopic study of plants; and a course of

THE ROYAL FOREST ACADEMY AT MUNDEN.

77

demonstration and microscopic studies, occupying in all
ten or twelve hours in the session. There were botanical
excursions of half-a-day weekly. Three hours weekly in
the winter session were spent in the study of the structure
and physiology of plants. One hour weekly in microscopic
demonstrations. And one hour weekly in winter in
Repititorum^ or examinations in botany.

The designation of the institute is ' The Royal Forest
Academy.'

The attendance of students at the Academy from 1868
to 1876 had been :—

Years.

Summer
semester.

^Vi°\^^ 1 Years,
semester

Summer
semester

Winter
semester

1868

1869

1870

1871

1872

44
60
62
64

81

52
61
75

78

1874

1875

1876

Average

113
106

78

78

86
61

70

1873

83

74

I enquired what reasons were assigned for the mainten-
ance of two forest institutes in Prussia — one here and
the other at Newstadt-Eberswalde. The reasons stated to
me seemed to centre themselves chiefly into considerations
of convenience ; but among.st others it was stated that in
the one district tlie forests were in a great measure forests
situated on Tiefebene, or plains of but sligl»t elevation above
the sea level, and in the other district the forest are in a
great measure forests situated on mountain rangts ; and
some advantage was gained by special studies, appropriate
to each, commanding special attention in the different
schools.

An important element to be taken into account in
judging of the appropiiateness of scholastic arrangements
for the study of forestry with the view to entering the

78 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

forest service of a State, is the number of men required for
that service. The writer of an article on forest manage-
ment in the F.dinlmrgli Review [No. 290, p. 373] states
that ' the staff for the administration of forests in Hauover
consists of two branches, which may be described as pre-
paratory and administrative. All preUminary arrange-
ments on taking a piece of forest kind into culture by the
State are conducted by the Einrichtungs -bureau or survey
office. This consists of a Verstand or superintendent,
draughtsmen, and clerks, who are generally practical
foresters ; and a staff of surveyors and valuators, who are
generally candidates for the office of Oberforester, the
third o-rade in the system of permanent administration.
The surveyor surveys the whole tract of forest, and
delineates, with the aid of the valuator, the blocks or sub-
divisions into w^hich it is to be divided for permanent
culture. A detaile»d plan is drawn up for the future
management, pointing out the mode in which the
successive periods are to be worked off, the roads which
it will become necessary to make for transport, and the usual
details of the condition of the forest. This plan, together
with a complete code of rules, is handed over for the
guidance of the permanent forest officers.

'The permanent administration consists of one Forst-
director and Oberforst- meister, who is also a counsellor ;
20 Forst-m^isters, in charge of circles or divisions, who
form also a consu'tative council; 112 Oberforstem in
charge of districts of about 17,000 acres each ; 403
foresters ; and 34-3 overseers and under-foresters, who
watch the forests, and supervise tlie work executed by
contract or by day labour. A cashier is attached to each
over-forester, who receives and disburses all money in
and from the forest cash chest, on the orders of the over-
foresters. A perfect financial check is thus maintained
under the cjntrol of the forest master. The duties of
these officials are confined to superititendence. The ovt-r-
foresters spend ilie greater purt of their time in the
forest supervising the actual operations. So regular and

THE ROYAL FOREST ACADEMY AT MUNDEN. 79

efl6cient is the entire system that the state of each block
of the forest is generally found to be in accordance with
the piogramme laid down on the original working plan.'

To make more clear what is referred to in the lai-t
sentence, it may be necessary to bring foiward a state-
ment, by which aie preceded, the statements made: —
' The aim of scientific forestry in its present most advanced
state, is to convert the irregular growth of woodland
district into what is called a GeschJoss Besiand, or
compact forest, divided into district blocks of trees of
equal age. The usual Umfrieh, or rotation for beech,
and Eochwald, or high forest, in Hanover, is 120 years.
The forest is so divided that there shall be as nearly as
possible six equal areas allotted to as many periods oj
twenty years' growth. Thus, one block will be full of
trees not exceeding twenty years old; a second, of trees
from twenty to forty years old, and so on. When a block
arrives at the last period felling commences by a Vorberei-
tung, or preliminary clearing, which is little more ihan
the ordinary thinning carried on from time to time in
former periods. The beech in these woods only ripens
its seed every third or fourth year. After the first seed
year in the final peiiod, a LichfenschJag, or clearing for
light, takes place, in order to afford light for the germina-
tion of young seedlings; the finest trees being left
standing. Wljen the ground is well covered with seed-
lings the old trees are felled, and carefully removed ; and
the block recommences grosvlh. The tendency to a
gradual removal of the old trees appears to b? on the
increase, so as to make the culture approach as nearly as
pos.sible to the natural growth of a wild forest.'

The twelve provinces of Prussia, several of which
represent kingdoms, are divided into thirty Regierungs-
bezirken ; and to each of these is appointed an Oberforst-
meister to represent the forest department in the council
of the local lieglerung, or administration ; the Forst-
mtisters number lOS, each in charge of a division, with an

80 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

average area of 25,000 hectares ; there are 706 Ohei'-
forsters, with cliaiges averaging 3000 hectares in extent,
to each of which is attached a Forstrendant, or collector
of forest revenue, and there are 3,640 Forsters, or
overseers, with langes of from 500 to 1000 hectares, in
the forest service of the country.

At the Acadeni}^ the number of students in the summer
session, 1885, was 57, and in the winter session, 1885-86,
41, of the former of whom there were 9, and of the latter
6, w^ho were not Prussian subjects.

Of the staff of teachers, 11 in number, there were, be-
sides the director, 10 professors : four for forest science, of
whom three had the direction of oberforsteries ; one for
mathematics and physics, one for chemistry, mineralogy,
and geonosy, one fur statics, one for botany, one for
zoology, one attending from the University of Goettin(n
for political econ-my and ficancial science, and likewise
one for jurispiudence, all with the necessary assistants.
Thefore>t districts appropriated for instruction, aid placed
under the direction of the Director of the Academy weie
the oberforsteries of Cattenblihl (in the province of
Hanover) and Gahrenberg of the Government circuit of
Cassel.

CHAPTER IV.

THE GRAND DUCAL FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH.

My return journey from Dresden, after my visit to
Tharand, brought me through Leipsic, Gotha, and
Eisenach.

At Eisenach, in the Grand Duchy of Saxe Weimar,
there was established, in the first decade of the present
century, a Forest Institute, or School of Forestry, which
may claim to be considered the oldest existing institution
of the kind in the world, though Tharand may justly claim
to be considered the representative of the earlier school
wliich was originated at Zillba'^h in 1795. Tharand
only celebrated her own jubilee in 1866, while Eisenach, in
the spring of 1880, celebrated, not her centenary indeed,
but the close of the hundredth session of the institute.

In a memorial statement issued on the occasion by Dr
Carl Frederick Augustus Grebe, the Director of the Insti-
tute, and Uberlandforstmeister of the Grand Duchy, it is
stated : —

' The origin of the School of Forestry at Eisenach dates
from the first decade of the present century. Heinrich
Cotta had previously established, as is known, a Forest
Academy in Zillbach in the year 1795, and maintained it
till he was called to Saxony in the year 1810. G. Koenicr
sought to supply what was thus withdrawn from the
arrangements for training young foresters for the work
in which they were called to engage. He had laid the
foundation of his knowledge of forest science under the
guidance of Cotta at Zillbach, in the years 1704-1796,
and subsequently qualified himself fully for the work,
partly by acting as assistant forester — under, amongst
others, Oetelt in Ilmenau, — and partly by taking part in the

G

82 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

Prussian arrangements for forest management. He was,
in 1805, as forester, appointed an official of the forest
administration of Rulila ; and here he commenced the
work of tuition in forestry by receiving young foresters
into his house as students in forestry. To these he gave
piactical instruction in all matters pertaining to the
management of forests ; and in the winter months he
gave to them oral discourses on the more important
branches of forest science ; and not only natives of the
Grand Duchy, but many foreigners were received thus
into his house as students. This was the origin of the
Forest Institute of Eisenach.

' A more formal character was given to this instruction
in 1813. Koenig solicited, through his official superiors,
permission to organise and establish in Ruhla a Theoretic
and Practical Institute of Forest Science ; this was readily
granted by Duke Carl Augustus on the 11th January, 1813,
along with the additional permission to arrange for this
use the spacious forest lodge of Rhula ; and on the same
occasion, under date of 5th January, 1813, Keonig was
appointed Oberforster*

' In regard to the instruction given in the private School
of Forestry opened by Koenig, detailed information is
given in Koenig's first published work, Anleitung zur
Holtztaxation, Gotha 1813. — Introduction to forest taxa-
tion, or estimate of the cubic measurement and probable
annual production of wood in a forest. According to
what is stated there, young candidates for employment in
the forest service were gradually thoroughly instructed in
everything relating to the management of forests and
game. After this tliey were, in some special forest district,
instructed in the practical application of what they
had acquired. All which was so done as to prepare them

^ A lar^e granite block, erected as a memorial stone in the Gloeckler district of the
Ruhla Forest, bears on its southern side as an inscription : In dein Jahren, 1809-1813,
Villi L. V. G. (Louis Von Gross), .4. J'. IJ. (Au^'ust ^'on Hopfgarten), L. V. H. (Ludwig
Von llopf^'arten), //. //. (Hciuiich Hopfmann), F. II. (Ferdiand Uagemann) ; and on
the eastern side .—ISIS. Wurde Liier Gcpjlanzt fuer 1871. Cut it ia alleged that this is
mislead! nij, as a private forest educational institute was or^'aniacd s^nd established by
^^oeuig in 1308.

FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 83

efficiently for the work to which they aspired. Within
doors, and more especially in winter, from three to four
hours daily were spent in theoretic instruction, with a
view to the practical application which was to be made of
this, the greatest impoitance beiug attached to mathe-
matics. Information as to what was done from this time
onwaid Is not at command ; but it is known that after the
establishment of the Grand Ducal Forest Taxation Com-
mission, in the year 1831 (with the direction of which
Koenig was entrusted, he having been meanwhile, on 27th
April, 1819, appointed Forstiath, or Forest Counsellor),
theoretical instiuction was given only in the winter half-
year, and the students belonging to the Grand Duchy
found their principal employment in surveying and makiug
measurements, and in the preliminary work required for
the taxation and management of the forests of the Grand
Duchy.

' In the year 1819 the Grand Duke Carl Augustus
entertained an idea of establishing, in the Grand Duchy,
instead of this private School of Forestry of Koenig, an
independent State School of Forestry. Koenig having
been applied to to supply information in regard to w^hat
would be required, submitted a detailed plan for such an
institution ; but, for financial reasons apparently, the
measure was not carried into effect. We must fores^o the
satisfaction we might have promised ourselves from con-
sidering minutely the interestiug proposals of Koenig, but
we may remark that Koenig at that time, in regard to the
question of a site fur tbe projected State institution (for
which Ruhla, Berka, llni, and Eisenach, had been named),
pronounced decidedly in favour of Eisenach; aud this he did
without hesitation or qualification ; before everything el>e
he desired for candidates for the forest service a superior
general preparatory instruction, and for forest officials an
improved social position.

* Immediately on the accession to power of the late
Grand Duke Carl Frederick, in January, 1828, he required
of Forstrath Koenig to draw up a scheme of instruction

84 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

appropriate for a Forest Institute in Eisenach ; and there
was submitted by him a detailed scheme of instruction
on the 1st November following.'

Dr Grebe gives a detailed outline of the programme
proposed by Koenig, and he goes on to remark : — ' All
that Koenig asked from the State, beyond the building,
was an annual grant of 100 thalers, and that principally
as a means of procuring such teaching appliances as
books and instruments, and collections of natural objects.
The scheme commanded high approval, expressed in a
ministerial order of 4th July, 1829, which was issued
with the following specifications : —

'1. The Forest Institute of Forstrath Koenig to be
erected at Eisenach is, and continues to be, a State-
supported private enterprise.

* 2. The support afforded by the State shall consist:
(o) In permission to make use for purposes of instruction
in the Institute of the staff of instructors employed by
the Forest taxation commission, (b) In granting a
building suitable for the purposes of the institution, or
the means of hiring such, (c) In an annual cash payment
of 100 thalers. (d) The use as training forest of the Grand
Ducal Forests of Eisenach, Wilhelmsthal, and Ruhla;
and it is granted to Forstrath Koenig, in the interests of
instruction, to have the control of the management of these
forests. Attention shall also be given in the appointment
of forest officials, especially in Eisenach, to select officials
apt and qualified to teach, (e) The Forest Institute shall
have the use of the botanical grounds, in the Karthaus-
garten, at Eisenach and Wilhelmsthal, for purposes of
instruction in forest botany.

*3. Persons engaging in the forest and game services of the
Grand Dukedom must have attended the Forest School at
least one year ; and can neither enter the Jiiger corps nor
otherwise be employed in the forest service, if thoy have
not left the School of Forestry with a good certificate.

' At the same time there was required the preparation by
Koenig of regulations relative to the preparation which

FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 85

should precede admissiou into the Graud Ducal Forest
Service, more particularly ia regard to the iastruction
of candidates, and more especially their iastruction in
forest science ; regulations in regara to the admission of
students to the School of Forestry, and their leaving it ;
and regulations in regard to tlie practicil traiaiag of
candidates for employment in the service.*

' On the basis of this arrangement, Koenig, after having
procured a house of his own in Eisenach (Schmelzerstrasse
No. 14<), opened the Forest Institute at Easter 1830, in
accordance witLi the approved progra-mne sub nitted by
him, and continued till his death, 22Qd Octob3r, 1849,
he having meanwhile been, on the 15th August, 1837,
appointed Oberforstrath.'

During the winter session following his death, the
direction of the Institute was entrusted to the oldest
of the teachers, Sculrathjobst, and in Easter 1850, it was
undertaken by Dr Grebe, the present director, who was
recalled from Griefswald to undertake, along with the
direction of the Grand Ducal Forest Taxation (Jommission,
the direction of the Forstlehranstalt, which was at the
same time transferred to the more spacious Grand Ducal
buildincr Frauenbero^.

Details of the educational arrangements ani appliances
of the Institute are given. The branches of forest science
in which instruction was required to be given, in the most
thorough manner and to the fullest extent, are these : —

1. Introduction to the stuiy of forest science, with a
glance at existing Schools of Forestry. 2. History of forests :
a condensed survey of the chronological development
of forest property, of forest economy, of forest science, and
of forest literature. 3. Forest culture in the most com-
prehensive application of the term, with Stumpfs Lehrbtich
des Waldbaaes as a text book, but with extensive supple-

* The regulations submitted by Koenig were ap|)rove(i by the supreme authority, and
published on the 16th February under the title Vorgchrift Wegen BUdinj derBewirber
uin ForscdieiutatcUen iin G''j-i-ifi:rz)jthuin S i;h.i'in-\V^:in,ir-E<Aieiii:n,, I'ropisils in
regard to the eda^tion and training of cindidatoi tor the Forest Sjrvice in the Gra'ii
Duchy of Saxe- Weimar- Eisenach ; and they continued to be acted on till the subsequent
issue under date of t3ih February, \Sbi, of the Order of waioh is n j v in ijca.

86 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

mentary information. 4. Forest protection and forest
management, with Koenig uiid Grebe's Waldschuiz und
Waldpf^ge as a text book. ^. Forest exploitation, with
Koenig und Grebe's Forstbenutzung as a text book,
6. Forest management and regulation of amount of pro-
duce to be withdrawn from the forest, (a) Preliminary
work : Forest surveys and measurement ; description of
the site and condition of the wood ; with statement of the
cubical measurement of the existing wood, and of the
probable annual production by growth. (6) Basis of
management : Selection of kind of wood and of regime
to be followed —that of coppice wood, timber forest, or
combination of the tvro ; determination of duration of
cycle of operiitions to be followed ; the renovation of the
forest and subsequent culture to be followed, (c) Method
of explo'tation ; partition of the forest into divisions for
successive fellings ; application of these to the fackwerks-
metliode of exploitation with the maintenance of forests in
good condition ; and preparation of plans of operation.
{d) Determination of produce to be obtained and of the
utilization of the remainder, (e) Securing of sustained
produce-, bookkeeping anj revision of programmes of
successive operations in subsequent years. As the basis of
instruction under this last head there are used Koenig s Forst
Mathematik and Grebe's Betriebs-und Ertragsregulierung
der Forsten. 7. Estimation of the value of the forest,
with a special reference to financial operations, to sales,
exchanges, exappropriation and the determination of
compensation to be given and required for damage done
with Koenig' s Forst Mathematik as a text book, with
supplemetary additions. 8. Forest economy in its appli-
cation to State forests ; general principles based on
political econom}^ financial and police science, the relative
importance of forests in national and State economy ;
forests in relation to different industries ; the area and
distribution of forests, local and general ; deficient and
excessive supply of forest products ; what sites are most
favourable for the practice of forest economy ; what measure

FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. S"?

of State control or of interference with all forests, so far as
to secure their conservation and the advancement of
forest culture, by the abolishing of servitudes and other
hindrances to this, and the advancing of the required
pecuniary means, &c., is expedient ; and, what are the
principles upon which a Government should proceed in
the administration and management of State forests
what superintendence a State should exercise over forests
belonging to communes, to endowments, and to private
parties ; the training of forest officials, &c. 9. Organisa-
tion of the forest service, and documentary corres-
pondence relating thereto. Instruction is also given in
regard to the method of conducting judical proceedings
and office or counting-house work.

' The scientific studies embrace mathematics in the
several departments applicable to forestry ; natural
philosophy, including inorganic, organic, and agricultural
chemistry ; mineralogy and elements of geology ; physics
and meteorology ; botany in several departments, and
agriculture ; zoology, with special attention being given to
entomolgy ; forestry in all its departments ; and juris-
prudence.

' The full course of study extends over two years. The
studies are so arranged that in resuming in one session
the study of any science begun in the preceding session
— by a review of the more important principles, and by
retrospective questions relative to what has been pre-
viously studied, and more especially by examinations on
tlie practical application, which may have been made, of
what has been taught — the student can, at the commence-
ment of each session, resume his studies without any fear
of interruption to his course of study. Tlie means
employeii in communicating instruction are : Lectures on
the several subjects of study, examinations, practical
applications of what has been acquired, and excursions.

' 1. Lectures. — The living voice is found in practice to
be the most stimulating and most efficient medium of
communicating instruction. Free delivery of lectures,

86 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

founded on the statements made in appropriate text
books, is the method of teaching which is generally
adopted, and only in so far as the text book may require,
some supplementary statement is recourse had to dictation.
The lectures on the different subjects of study are given
in the forenoon, in the hours from 7 to 9 and from 10 to
12.

'The subjects are so arranged that of the twenty-four
hours weekly thus occupied, upon an average from nine
to ten hours are devoted to forestry ; from seven to eight
hours to physical scienc ? ; from tive to six to mathematics ;
and about two hours to training injudicial procedure.

2. Examinations. — These have proved to be a means of
instruction no less efficient, in as much as they, when
properly conducted, reveal what deficiencies in the in-
struction given require to be supplied, give opportunities
for more ample explanation or illustration of difficult
subjects, assist greatly the weak, and prove to all a
wonderful stimulus to the prosecution of studies. To
examinations on each of the subjects of study there is
devoted at least one hour a week ; and towards the close
ot each session usually several hours a week are spent in
examinations on different subjects.

' 3. To practical applications and excursions are devoted,
without exception, every afternoon after two o'clock.

* (a) Summer Session. — In the summer session either
three or four afternoons in every week are devoted to
exercises in surveying, that expertaess may be acquired
in the handling and u>l' of the instruments, and an
acquaintance with the different methods of measuring
extensive plains, and limited patches, of taking levels,
and altitudes, &c. In favourable weather the results to
be obtained are wrought out in the class-room hy
loojariihm.s, and triLConometrical calculations, and the
preparation of charts and diagrams.

' (6) One afternoon in the week is devoted exclusively
to forest excursions; the first of these is employed in a
general survey of the conditions of the ground, and of

FOREST ACADEMY IN EISiENACH. 89

the forest trees, &c., in the wood appropriated to the
instruction of the students ; in succeeding excursions
each is devoted to the detailed study of some one object.
And it is sought so to arrange these that the excursions
shall be subservient to the instruction of the students by
sight, such, for example, as the fores tal peculiarities of
ditferent kinds of trees; the different ways of managing
forests ; the determining of sites for fellings, clearings, and
thinnings, seed beds, and nurseries ; different methods of
culture ; the measurement of trees, and estimation of
their increase by growth ; forest road-making, &c., com-
bining, as much as possible, theoretical and practical
instruction, that these may go hand-in-hand together.
And in order to every facility being given for this mode
of instruction, to the Director is committed the unlimited
direction and control of the forest production of the
forests assigned to the school for purposes of instruction.

' Besides the regular afternoon excursions, there are also
made regularly occasional longer excursions into the neigh-
bouring forest districts, partly to see the forestal peculiar-
ities of the different forest sites — gneiss, mica slate,
and porphyry, in the Ruhla forest ; sechstein, variegated
sandstone, and basalt, in the Alarkfuhl forest ; mussel
chalk, lias, and keuper, in the Kreusburg forest, &c. —
partly to obtain illustrations of those forms of manage-
ment which are not to be seen in the forests in the
vicinity of Eisenach, such as low coppice, medium coppice,
conversion of medium of mixed coppice in timber forests,
second growth of timber forests, the management of
mountain firs, &c., with the different devices practised in
the conducting of successive fellings, ike.

* (c) Moreover, there is in every summer session a com-
plete regulation management, for an appropriated portion
of Eisenach forest, gone through with all the preparatory
work, exclusive of measurings, which woidd consume a
great deal of time ; and, in this simple work, the
peculiarities of the different methods of taxation and
management are illustrated. This work serves, moreover,

90 FORESTRY IN GERMAN^.

as the basis of a detailed example of estimating the value
of a forest. While these more extended practical trainings
are going on, lectures are entirely suspended.

\d) On one afternoon weekly, during the summer session,
there is an excursion for the study of natural history,
more particularly of botany and geology, for which the
vicinity of Eisenach, with its manifold rare geological
formations, and its corresponding rich flora, presents an
excellent instruction ground. On the conclusion of these
natural history excursions, every summer session there is
carried out an excursion extending over some days, into
the geologically interesting parts of the Thuringian forest,
under the guidance of the teachers in this department of
study.

' (e) In the winter session there are, on every second
afternoon, exercises in mathematics, repetitions, or exami-
nations, forestal calculations, geometrical problems, &c.,
for practice, for assistance to the weak, and for the com-
pleting of the course of instruction of any who have not
entered the school at the commencement of the course.
Two other afternoons are set aside for practice in chart
drawing. The excursions in the forests are confined to
visiting fellings which are being carried on, in order to have
here practical illustrations of some of the more important
operations connected with fellings, such as the act of
felling, trimming, preparing, and measuring logs, &c.'

Dr Grebe says * the systematic illustration and extension
of theoretic instruction, by direct inspection and practice,
we consider, after well nigh forty y^ars experience, to be
by far the most efhcient and profitable mode of instruction,
and one which cannot be compensated by any other method
of instruction which may be adopted in a School of Forestry.
The possibility of making available, for pui-poses of instruc-
tion, the various incidents occurring constantly in the
management of a forest, such as the annucil preparation of
schemes of exploitation and of culture, the determination
of sites of fellings, of thinnings, and of preparatory clearings.
The work connected with seed beds and nurseries,

FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 91

sowings and plantings, and the preparation of inventories,
and estimates of the cubic measurement of wood in a forest,
and of the probable annual iucrease, by properly qualified
agents, for the administration and management, the con-
servation, exploitation, improvement, and extension of
existing forests.'

The experience of Dr Grebe, to which he appeals, shows
what advantage may be found in having forest operations
daily under review by students ; and of having every
facility for taking immediate advantage of incidents as
they may occur in connection with the management of a
forest attached to a school. But it may be found that
others, either losing sight of these, or in full view of these,
consider that the advantages derivable from having a
School of Forestry in connection with a University, or
some other site of learning, more than counter-balance
the advantage of h iving an independent site for such
an institute : seeing that facilities can otherwise be
obtained for the study and practice of the application of
the instruction received in school. And, without pre-
judice to the statement made by Dr Grebe, it may appear
that others, with like facilities to those enjoyed by him,
have attached more importance to other arr.ingcments for
securing the same advantage to students. My sympathies
are with these ; but I consider it a good preparation for
entering upon the account to be given of the discussions
which have taken place on this p jint, for the reader to
give its full weight to this testimony by Dr Grebe.

Growth, descriptions of the contents of the forest, and all
the work in a model forest required to secure the continuous
uninterrupted work which has to be done, can, he alleges,
only be secured in an independent institute— and never in
the complex system of education carried on in a University.
A circumstance, this he adds, of great weight, which has
been too much overlooked in the controversy which has
been going on for some time in regard to the proper site
for a School of Forestry.

&2 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

We are about to enter on the consideration of the con-
troversy to which Dr Grebe refers. His allusions to it
burst upon us like the boom of the first cannon fired at
dawn of a day of renewed strife in the assault and defence
of some fortress, upon the scene of which we have come
overnight, and we shall soon be looking upon the con-
tending foes in the thick of the battle ; each party and
each combatant contending for what he believes to be the
just, the true, and the best — the best for all, and best for
the interests of Europe and of the world ; in so far as
these may be involved in preparation for work.

The most important and most extensively used means of
instruction in the Eisenach institution, are the forests
attached to it ; and next to these, among such means may
be reckoned the library and the museums.

* 1 What is reckoned here an indispensible appendix to
a School of Forestry is a forest for field instruction. Here
there are, in the first line, the Grand Ducal forest reviers
or districts of Eisenach, Wilhelmsthal,and Ruhla ; and more
distant, but still adjacent, being upon an average within
range of a day's tour, the forest districts Marksuhl,
Frauensee and Kreuzburg, in the Grand Ducal forest.

' The first-mentioned comprise an agregate circuit of
61,146 hectares ; and extends partly over existing mem-
bers of primitive rocks —granite, gneiss, mica slate,
porphyry, &c. — partly, and that for the greater part over
the red clay, and lastly, partly on the borders, over diiTerent
members of the Sechstein formation, with an unusually
varied and complicated earthy covering. The second class
of fore-fts named, presents, on the other hand, in Marksuhl
and Frauensee, different localities of coloured sand-
stone, with basaltic eruptions of Muschelkalks in Kreuz-
burg, and of Keupers and Lias. With the exception of
the latest formation, there are also within reach of a
day's excursion represented all formations providing a
field full of instruction in geology, rural economy, and
more especially in forest economy, such as is hardly to be
found combined anywhere besides.

FOEEST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 93

'These diversified conditions present for botanical study
a very rich flora ; and, above all, a very varied condition
of forest existence. The higher lying parts of the Ruhla
forests have quite a mountain character, with a pre-
ponderating covering of coniferge, and supply an oppor-
tunity of studying the characteristic of this kind of wood ;
the phenomena of windfalls, and injuries done by frost and
snow ; the felling of such, and the manifold devices used
for the protection of forests against such calamities ; and
the regulation of the succession of fellings practised. In
the forests of Eisenach and Wilhelmsthal there pre-
dominate timber forests of beech. These supply, in
great variety, illustrations of the felling of timber, with
provision for the natural reproduction of the forest ; and
therewith are found illustrationsof the process of converting
broad leaved forests into forests of coniferse ; also, of
the measures taken to promote the growth of seedlings
and saplings, by the destruction of injurious weeds, and
by successive thinnings. And again, altogether different
is the tree growth and the treatment of this on the
coloured sand stone of the Marksuhl forest, and on the
Muschelkalk of the Kreuzburg forest : in the first of these
are located the seed beds and nurseries, while in the
latter are very instructive representations of the middle
timber forest, and of the conversion of such into timber
forests, and of the treatment of mixed timber and cuppice
woods.

' 2. The library of the institution has a tolerably com-
plete collection of all works treating of forestry, and of the
more important works treating of mathematics, natural
history, and political economy. It comprises, for example,
about 2100 independent wiitings; and a considerable
portion of the grant from Government is spent on the
maintenance and increase of the library. The use of the
library is, as may be understood, open to the students
under prescribed ruley.

94 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

' 3. In the museum are provided collections of different
kinds : (a) A pretty complete collection of all mathema-
tical and metrical implements in use in forest economy ;
the latter, for example, comprising several specimens of each
for use in practical instruction in surveying, for training
in which the students are divided into sections, (b) A
pretty complete collection of implements rnd of models,
especially of such as pertain to the culture of seedlings and
trees, the transport of wood, the economic use or sale of
wood, and the improvement of forest products — including
models of buildings, bridges, and sluices, of appliances for the
procuring of secondary products, charcoal-kilns and kilns
for the manufacture of pitch, tar, lamp-black, Sec. (c) An
instinctive mineial and geological collection, (d) A rich
herbaiium, comprising the more important kinds of
exotic wocds ; a collection of models of the more impor-
tant fungi — Her Royal Highness the Grand Duchess of
Saxony having presented to the institution a valuable
collection of the same, known as " The Arnold Collection
of Models ; " and collections of seeds and of different
kinds of wood, (e) A collection of the more important
insects, and specimens of their destiuctive work.

' But the collections of objects of natural history,
through limitation of space and of funds, are some-
what limited, and cannot be compared with those in some
of the larger forest academies. They are confined to what
are deemed absolutely indispensable lor purposes ofinsi ruc-
tion, and they only suffice for this tlirough the lichness of
the surrounding country in geolc>gical and botanical
specimens.'

With regaid to the expense of maintaining the institu-
tion, it is stated that, according to an arrangement in the
finance department of the Ministry of the State of the
Grand Duchy, there is given to the institute only an
auxiliary pecuniary contribution. 1 his has been for the
twenty years — 1830-1849— 5593-37 marks, a yearly aver-
age of 280 marks; for the thirty years — 1850-1879 —

FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 95

50228'29 marks, averaging 1668 marks a year ; for the
fifty years— 1880-1879 — 55821-66 marks, on an average
1116 marks a year.*

These contributions are used mainly in aid of salaries
paid to individual teachers, and the maintainance of
educational appliances, namely, the library and collections
of objects — on the latter, ior example, have been expended,
since 1850, not less than 17,541 marks or about thirty-
five per cent of the whole. But in connection with this
it should be borne in mind that the Director of the institu-
tion is at the same time president, and the teacher of
mathematics is a member of the Grand Ducal Forest Taxa-
tion Commission, and the payment of the salary of the
former has been entirely, and that of the latter to a great
extent, taken over by that court : and about half of what
is thus paid may be considered expenditure on the institu-
tion.

The conditions on which students are received into the
institution vary according as they may be aspirants for
employment in the State forest Service of the Ihuringian
States — those in the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Coburg Gotha,
in the Duchies of Saxe-Meinigen, &c., and in the princi-
pality Swarzburg-Rudolstadt, and Saxe-Sondershausen —
or aspirants from other countries— or, lastly, are received
as hospitanten.

According to existing arrangements, there are two
instructors in forest science ; the director, who is first
teacher in this department, and a teacher of mathematics ;
two of natural science ; one assistant as a teacher of political
economy. There is recjuired of students at admission
the exit certiticate of a gymnasium or of a real-gymnasium,
and one year's preparatory study. The course embraces
two years ; but aspirants are tree to attend some other

* in this liujt amount are included contributiona which were made from State funds
on the occasion c>f the Goneness of the foresters of Thurmyia beiny lieUI in Eiscnacli
ill LSfiy, and of the LViii;,rebs of the furQaters of Gerniany beiny held in Kisenaeh in

187«.

96 FOPvESTRY IN GERMANY.

School of Forestry, Annually, at the close of the winter
session, there is held a Tentamen, which extends to all the
branches of instruction in forestry. Special stress is laid
on nQatlieniatics, but without including the higher depart-
ments of that science. As forests appropriated to instruc-
tion, there are, as has been stated, the six forest reviers or
districts of the Eisenach inspection, with which the Director
is entrusted.

The number of students in the summer session of 1885
was 168 ; in the winter session of 1885-8G, 71 ; of whom,
respectively, 12 and 13 were from the Thuringian States.

The institution founded by Koenig in 1808 at Ruhla
was originally a private enterprise, and such it remained
till 1830, when it became a State establishment ; and such
it has remained.

Eisenach is the site of the palace of the G^-and Duke of
Saxe Weimar, and here, in the Wartzburg, Lather was
imprisoned. A relict of his imprisonment is shown to
travellers, in a black smutch upon the wall of his cell-
produced, it is said, by the ink in the inkstand, thrown
at the head of an apparation considered by him to be the
devil.

We are here in the centre of a forest region, to the
north-east are the Hartz mountains,also associated with tales
of diablery, and covered with the remains of the
Thuringian forest ; while to the south stretch away
successive vestiges of the Black Forest, scarce less
interesting to the w^orshipper of ancient remains.

A guide book well known to travellers tells : —

'The Thuringian Forests. — The Thuringarwald is a
hilly, wooded tract of country, extending from thesourcesof
the Werra, north-west to near Eisenach. It is a part of the
ancient Hircynian forest, and i^ about 70 miles long,
and a breadth varying from D to 16 miles. It is thinly
peopled ; but it is rich in metals, particularly iron and
cobalt. Its highest peaks range from 2000 feet to 3200
feet. It is covered with fruits in almost every direction.

FOREST ACADEMY IN EISENACH. 97

It is traversed by only two great roads. It gives rise to a
number of streams which flow into the adjacent plain, and
eventually into the Main, the Weser, and the Elbe.'

By proceeding from Eisenach to Frankford an oppor-
tunity of visiting several outlying portions of the
Thuringian forest may be had. From Gotha the Hartz
mountains may easily be reached. This was my route on
the occasion of a previous visit to Eisenach.

Shortly before crossing the boundary of Hesse Cassel,
in travelling to Giessen, the traveller passes throuo-h
Marburg, a town on the Lahu, built on the slopes of a
hillside, and the site of the first university founded in
Germany after the Reformation. It was founded in 1527.
It has, or had, forty professors, but not a proportionate
number of students.

On the Schlossberg rises proudly the ancient Casth of
the Landgraves of Htsse, a structure of the chivalrous
ages, now dismantled, commanding a fine prospect.

The houses inhabited by Luther and Zwingleu durino-
the theological discussions which they carried on in the
presence of the Langraves of Hesse, still exist ; but it is
Giessen which is now our destination.

CHAPTER V.

FORESTAL INSTRUCTIOiN AT GIESSEN IN HESSE-
DARMSTADT.

The several Forest Academies which have been brought
under our consideration, thus far are all of them properly
designated Forest Academies. They are technical insti-
tutions, designed exclusively for instruction in forestry,
aud fulfilling for a time, and that a long time, that
function alone. The study of rural economy was prosecuted
in the same institution as the study of forestry in the Saxon
Academy at Thavand ; but, since 1870, it has not been so.
At Giessen there was formerly such an institution, but
it has been combined with the University which is there
— a University well known by name at least in Britain,
as the seat of learning in which Liebig and his disciples
pursued their researches in agricultural chemistry, with
great benefit to the nations. And then there is brought
before us another phase of Schools of Forestry.

With regard to the School of Forestry in Giessen, as
with regard to that at Eisenach, I have to state that I had
only one evening, or rather part of an evening, and the
early morning of the following day to spare for seeing the
interesting town in which it is situated ; and beyond seeing
the locality, I could not, by personal observation, or
enquiry at the honoured officials entrusted with the
instruction of students, make myself acquainted with the
existing arrangements in connection with this ; but what
I thus missed learning on the spot, was subsequently
supplied by correspondence with Dr Hess, the professor of
forestry in the University, and by published and official
information supplied to me by him,

FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GTESSEN. 99

Giessen may boast of being the site of one of the
original Schools of Forestry, established a hundred years
ago, inasmuch as from 1795 till 1825, forestry appear
to have been taught in the University as a branch of the
instruction given in the study of political economy.

From the introduction to a pamphlet, written by Dr
Hess, on the organisation at present existing for the study
of forest science in the Ludwig University of the Grand
Duchy of Hesse, in Giessen, published in 1877, it
appears that the School of Forestry of Giessen was first
established as a distinct institution, by Ordinance dated
24th March, 1825. The first director was Dr Johann
Christian Hundeshageu, to whom was given the titular
rank of Oberforstrath, and who held the appointment of
ordinary professor in the University. Dr Hundeshagen
had, from ]818 to 1821, laboured in '1 iibingen as
Professor of State-Forest Management ; in 1821 ho was
called to the office of Director of the Forst- Lehr- Austalt
of the Electoral Principality of Hesse at Hersfeld, whence
he was called, and transported to Giessen by Decree of
19th May, 1824. By Decree of 24th March, 1824, Carl
Heyer, then Revierforster at Greinberg, was nominated
provisionally as second teacher in the institute. Dr
Hundeshagen announced two courses of lectures, and
one Fxaminatorium in the winter session 1824-25, but
whether these were actually held does not appear from the
records. The records preserve also both a manrscript and
a printed li.st of lectures, for the summer session of
1825. But after giving the prescribed notice, the pro-
po.«^al to lecture on forest science came to nothing, and he
delivered only his course of lectures on rural economy
(^Laiule-ivirtschajt und Lande-icirtscfwfilisihe JHolize.) And
in the winter session, 1825-26, the course of lectures
on forest science had the same fate. In the course of
these three sessions there only appeared as students one
Hessian, Gustav Hoffmann, from Biidingen, and two
foreigners.

It was not till the summer .session of 182G that the

100 FOEESTRY IN GEEMANY.

lectures en forestry were fairly established. In this
session Dr Hnndeshageo lectured on Forst Benutzung or
(xplc'itatioD. and Forst >'chufz or conservation ; and Carl
Heyer gave instruction in forest V)otaijy and Waldhan.
The latter appeared in the class-roc.ni ouly occasionally,
while he gave himself maiuly to his functions as
Bevierforster in the town forests of Giessen and other
communial forests ; and to him, on this account, it was
generally given to go on excursions wHth the students, and
to give to them piactical instruction in the forest. These
seem to have been first entered on in the summer session
of 1827, when ten new students enrolled themselves.
Here many students of previous years still remained.
What number of students attended during any one of the
earlier sessions does not appear from the records.

By Decree, beaiing the date of 20tb September, 1827,
Dr Johann Ludwig, Klauprecht, who had previously
taught forest science, mathematics, and forest natural
history in Asschaffenburg— the Forest Academy of
Bavaria — was licensed or installed as Privat-Docent, or
college tutor in Giessen, more especially for forest
science ; and he began his lectures in the winter session
of 1827-28.

The relative duties of the two recognised teachers in the
forest institute, Hundeshagen an<l Heyer, was further
regulated by instructions issued 17th November, 1830,
and the curricttlm was fixed as comprising three sessions.
As subjects of lectures, besides practical instruction to be
given by them, there were prescribed Foistans lattungs-
Kuiide, or instruction regarding the duration of continuous
supplies to be expected from forests in a given condition,
together with forest botany, Waldban or Sylviculture, and
Forst- Schutz, or forest conservation. Mtanwhile Heyer
had been promoted by Decree of 28th December, 3 829, to
be forest inspector at Giessen, together with his appoint-
ment of second teacher in the institute. But shortly
thereafter, in consequence of various misunderstandings
between the two teachers, by Decree of 12th April, 1831,

FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN. 101

he was released from both appointments that be might
enter on the office of ForH-Meister in the service of GrafiF-
von Erbach-Fiirstenau. And on his own application,
Hundesbagen was, by Decree of 14th June, 1831, relieved
of the direction of the forest institute, and it was
arranged that the teachers and students of forest science
should stand in every way in the same position and
relation as teachers and students in the other departments
in the State University.

'By this measure,' says Dr Hess, ' the Forest Institute,
which had existed for a few years as a distinct establish-
ment associated with the High School, was elevated in
every way ; and instruction in forestry became completely
incorporated with the instruction given in the University.
This arrangement continued unchanged ; and the terms
F orstiyistitut and Director des Forstinstitui, when they are
used, have a reference only to internal arrangements. He
writes : —

' The Forstgarden of the Institute which was transferred
to the University at this time, continued to require and
to receive appropriate management and superintendence
as an important means of instruction ; and the forest
museum, or collections of products, implements, &c., must
be maintained and increased. There are many grants for
these purposes to be expended. The sums expended for
the utilisation of the ai Is to instruction, for the annual
outlay on the management of the Aboretum, for the
engagement of labouerrs, and assistance when required in
the practical services and the excursions, &c., must be
regularly calculated and accounted for, and there is much
correspondence necessarily connected with all of these
matters. These business arrangements are laid upon the
first teacher for the time being, and are attended to by
him as Director of the Academy Administration Com-
mission. But the term Forest Institute and the Director
of the Forest Institute have nothing to do with the
instruction in forestry which is given.'

Such are the statements of Dr Hess in regard to
the historical development of the Giessen School of

102 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

Forestry, and he goes oa to state that Dr Hundeshagea,
after ceasing to be director of the institute, confined him-
self to the duties of his professorship of forest science.
Oberforster Dr August von Klipstein stepped into the
place of Dr Carl Meyer, and by Decree of 12th November,
1831, he was nominated as second teacher of practical forest
science in the University of the State, which position he
held till 1836, when, by Decree of 31st October, he was
appointed Ordinary Professor of Mineralogy in the State
V niversity.

Dr Klaupreclit, who, in connection with Hundeshagen,
had continued to give instruction in Forestry, was, by
Decree of 5th June, 1832, nominated Extraordinary
Professor of Forest and Political Economy ; but by Decree
of 20th November, 1834, he was released from this that
he might be free to accept a call to the Polytechnicum at
Carlsruhe, which had been given to him.

In the same year, on the 10th February, Hundeshagen
died, in the 51st year of his life ; greatly honoured by his
associates in the University for his profound learning, the
more commendable that his life was somewhat embittered
by nervous irritability arising from disease ; and the loss
sustained by the University through his death, was deeply
felt.

He was succeeded as Professor of Forest Science by his
former associate — Dr Carl Heyer. With hitn was asso-
ciated Dr Carl Zimmer ; and he attended mainly to the
theoretical, while the latter attended mainly to the
practical department.^ ot tlieir subject. Finding himself
unable to attend to ids own satistaction to his duties as
professor, and to those of forest inspector, to which he had
been appointed with the rank of Furstmeister, he got
assistance in the discharge of the latter duties ; and sub-
sequently his son, Dr Gustav Heyer, became successively
lecturer and successor of Dr Zimmer in his professorship
when he died, and after the death of his father, Professor
of Philosophy, and Extraordinary Professor of Forest
Science.

FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN. 103

With him was associated Dr Edward Heyer as second
teacher of forest science, till, in 1868, Dr Gustav Heyer
was called to the newly-established Royal Prussian Forest
Academy at Mtinden.

This led to the appointment of Dr Hess, who, in the dis-
charge of his duties, found that the assistance given by a
teacher holding an official appointment as a State forester
was productive of serious inconvenience, arising in part
from the circumstance that the University was under the
superintendence of the Minister of the Interior, while the
forest administration lay with the Minister of Finance.
The Senate of the University, at his instance, solicited,
through the Minister of the Interior, the establishment of
a special Extraordinary Professorship of Forest Science,
'free from the distracting influence of a forest charge',
and, in consequence of this. Forest Assistant Dr Tuisco
Lorey, of Darmstadt, now Professor of Forest Science in
the University of Tubengan, and Director of the station
for forestal experimental research there, was, by decree
of 13th October, 1873, nominated Extraordinary Pro-
fessor to the Faculty of Philosophy, and second teacher
of forest science.

In addition to what interest may attach to these details
in themselves, they acquire some interest from the circum-
stances that the expediency of combining Schools of
Forestry with educational institutions of a more com-
prehensive character, instead of organising and main-
taining them as separate establishments, was becoming
one of the questions of the day amongst forest officials on
the Continent of Europe, and may be one of some impor-
tance to those who may be disposed to advocate the
establishment of Schools of Forestry elsewhere. There
are national usages giving form to the evolution or
development, but the general principles underlying these
may be discerned ; and now only can the school be con-
sidered as having attained its special development.

104 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

Dr Hess has laboured zealously to perfect, if possible,
tho course of instruction in forestry, scientific and
practical, which is given at Giessen. Of the scheme of
instruction which is at present being carried out, the
following, embracing the time from Easter 1877, to
Easter 1879, are details as given by him : —

During the summer session of 1877, or the first session
of the course, daily from 10 to 11, or from 10 to 12, so as
to secure eight hours a week for the purpose, instruction
was given by him in the encyclopaedia and methodology
of forest science, in connection with a historical introluc-
tiou, and with a speci d reference to forest statistics, for
forest economists, rural economists, andfinancers; and the
Saturday afternoons were devoted to a course of practical
instruction in Waldbau, or Sylviculture.

During the same session Dr T. Lorey, the second
professor of forest science, twice a week, from 2 to 4
o "clock, gave instruction in forest road making, and spent
with the students the Wednesday afternoons in excursions
and demonstrations, and on one day in the week, from 11
to 1, in a Repititorum, or examination, on the application
of geodesy, or land-surveying, to the special requirements
of forest measurement and forest divisions for culture
and exploitation.

In the summer session of 1878, the third of this course,
instruction was given by Dr Hess one hour on five days
of the week, on WaiVtau,, or Sylviculture, with prictical
exercises and excursions, to which were devoted the
Saturday afternoons ; and by Dr Lorey instruction was
giveu for one hour twice a week on Forst-ajislialtiinj.'^hcnde,
or the time which forests in given conditions will hold
out in yielding products of a given quantity. And on
three days a week one hour was devoted to a liepititorum,
relative to forest road engineering, to the study of which
Wednesday afternoons also were devoted.

In the winter session of 1878 Dr Hess gave instruction
for one hour, five days a week, on forest conservation,
Forst Schutze, and on ForstbenuUung, or exploitation, with

J^ORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN. 105

practical exercises aad excursions, to which the Saturday
afternoons were devoted.

Dr Lorey, on four days a week, gave instruction for an
hour on wood mensuration, in connection with forest
surveying, &c. ; the Wednesday afcernoon-5 ware devoted
to the latter, and on Saturday two hours were spent by
him in oriviQcr instruction in matters relating^ to the
chase.

In the winter session of 1878-79 — the fourth of the
course, Dr Hess gave instruction for one hour, on four days
of the week in Waidertragsregelung, or regulation of the
produce of forests so as to secure sustained production ;
and one hour a day, on two days a week, to instruction
applicable to the management of State forests ; and a
practical course of instruction in Forstbenufzung or ex-
ploitation, to which were devoted the Saturday afternoons.

Dr Lorey, in the same session, gave on two days a week,
two hours' instruction in Waldtoert/irechaung, or the
estimating of the value of forests, and in forest statistics ;
and two hours on Tuesday to a Repititoruin relative to
exercises in wood measurement, to which Wednesday
afternoons were devoted.

Full courses of lectures were given every year by pro-
fessors in the University on the following fundamental
and accessary subjects pertaining to forest science —
Mathematics, geodesy or land surveying, physics, chemis-
try, zoology, systematic botany, physiology of plants,
mineralogy, geognosy or physicil gi)graph7, gjologv,
pohtical ecconomy, law in its various applications, civil
engineering, technology, &c. ; besides which, lectures were
given by professors and University tutors on mineralogy,
law, architecture, and civil engineering and on the
following subjects in botany in reference to the special re-
quirements of the forest department of study : —

1. An exposition of forest plants.

2. Discussion of diseases of cultivated plants, with a
special reference to lignous vegetables.

3. Mineralogy and soils, in relation to woods and
forests.

106 FORESTRY IN GERMANY,

4. Forest laws.

5. The drawing of diagrams, &c.

G. And agricultural analysis, &c., in the laboratory for
rurul and forest conomy.

And in every session an introductory lecture, open to
all; was delivered by the forest teacher.

The study of forestry was included in the Faculty of
Philosophy. As has been intimated^ their were two
professorships of forest science, a first and a second ; the
former an ordinary, the second an extraordinary
professor, being so appointed in accordance with a usage
in Germany — both being independent, but the ordinary
professor only having a seat in the Senatus Acadeniicus.

In a Verzeichniss, or notice of the lectures and practical
exercises in the department of forest science, and funda-
mental and accessary sciences pertaining to it, to be Ijeld
in the University, arranged as a Lehrplan, showing on
what days, and at what hours, in all of the sessions in the
course of study from Easter 1881, to Easter 1883, issued
by Dr Hess, these would be held — there are given the
classes held by between twelve and twenty different pro-
fessors which may be attended without interfering with
each other ; and in a preface he gives to students, who at
LFniversities on the Continent have much greater liberty
in regard to attending or absenting themselves from class
lectures than is the case in Scotland, his advice in regard
to the course of study which they should follow with a
view to the acquisition of instruction in forest science.
In this he says: -1. ' Li it be at all possible, the lectures
on mathematics, physics, chemistry, and land-survcymg,
should be attended in the first session, and even before
entering on the special studies of the department, if this
be practicable, in order that the preliminary examinations
which may be passed by candidates without having
attended a University for any specified period, may be
undertaken as soon as possible.
•, 2. * With advantage, other lectures in fundamental and

FOREStAL INSTRUCTION AT GtESSEN. 107

accessary sciences may be attended during the first
session : such as botany, theory of political economy, and
with this the science of finance, jurisprudenc, and forest
law ; and the encyclopaedic study of rural economy and
other accessary studies had better be deferred to a subse-
quent sesi-ion.

3. ' The Forest Science lectures, according to this pro-
gramme, will be most advantageously attended in the
second year of the course ; it would, however, be expedient
for students commencing at this time, Easter 1881, to
attend at least the encyclopaedic lectures on forest science
at once, as these are not again delivered until the summer
session of 1883 ; and moreover, they will thus be placed in a
position to undertake their true professional forestal studies
in any subsequent session which they may choose.

4. ' The attendance on the practical forestal course of
instruction, relative to sylviculture, forest exploitation,
the making of the forest roads, the science anil practice of
measuring timber, &c., with or without attendance on
lectures, presents itself for the same reason as a course of
instruction to be followed from the very commencement
of the course. Ttiis course of study is, in other lands,
required as a preliminary to entering a forest institute.

5. ' It is greatly to be desired that the students, with
a view to the utilisation of the advantages for general
culture, which the University offers in such abundance,
in comparison with the isolated Schools of Forestry, should
not rest satisfied with attending those lectures which
relate to subjects embraced in Hjchsc'iu/e or State
examinations : but that they should also attend the
lectures in the departments of forest zoology, history, and
philosophy strictly so called,'

It is added that the professors of forest science will
always be ready to give information and advice to students
in regard to their studies ; and there is appended to the
programme a list of treatises on different subjects of study
recommended to students.

At Giessen, as at several other Universities in

108 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

Germany, it has long beea the custom, and was the custom
then, that there is no required course of study prescriijad.
Every student is free to choose what course of lectures
he may wish to attend. He has only personally to wait
upon the teacher whose class he desires to attend at the
commencement of the session, and enrol himself on the
class list.

Without special permission of the teacher no one can
attend as a visitor above three times, and attendance
beyond this is considered equivalent to a declaration of a
purpose to attend as a regular student; but it does not
relieve him of the necessity of formally announcing this
to the teacher. A.nd on demand every student receives a
half-year's certificate in regard to the regularity, diligence,
and improvement with which he has attended the
meetings of the class.

The summer session begins, or did then, between the
middle and the end of April ; the winter session at the
end of October.

The educational helps in the study of forestry consisted
of:—

1. Collections of wood, charcoal, seeds, insects, birds,
beasts, foods, stones, implements, models, &c.

2. The academy forest garden, or arboretum, 6
hectares, or 14 acres in extent, with a special forest
museum and overseers dwelling, all under the superin-
tendence of the forest teacher.

3. The forests of Giessen and SchufFenberg, both in the
immediate vicinity of the town.

And the helps in the study of general science were these :
— A chemical laboratory; cabinets of physical, meteoro-
lof^ical, surveying, mathematical, technological, and minera-
lo<>ical apparatus and substances ; a botanical museum ;
a botanic garden ; the institute of rural economy, the
institute of fine arts, the institute and cabinet of
zoology and comparative anatomy, the cabinet of art,
science, and antiquities, &c., &c., and finally the Univer-
sity library and reading-room.

FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN. 109

The forest exercises and excursions conducted by the
two teachers had for their object the execution of work
required in the management of forests connected with sow-
ing and planting, the determination of sites of fellings, and
the actual felling of trees ; or the execution of appointed
exercises in land mensuration, in forest surveying,
levelling, and staking out of forest roads ; or the profes-
sional inspection of characteristic or typical management
of forests in the vicinity, oak coppice, beech timber-
forests, pine clearings, &c. Of these excursions and
exercises, or at least of a portion of them, a formal report
was required from the students ; beside which, in every
summer session, a vacation tour, extending- over eight
days or a fortnight, was made under the guidance of one
' or other of the teachers, to some of the larger forest
districts at a greater distance.

The fees for attendance throughout the session for a
course of lectures, which occupied from two to three hours
a week, was eleven marks; if it occupied from four to six
hours a week, sixteen marks ; if from seven to nine
hours a week, twenty-one marks. The mark is equiva-
lent to a shilling.

For a course of lectures, with Avhich excursions and
associated experiments were combined, at least double
these fees were payable. Attendance a second year on
the same course was charged only half the amount of the
first fee.

In order to matriculation a native of the principality
was required to produce —

(a) A Maturitiitszeuginss, or certificate of complete
attendance at a gymnasium or at a real schule of the first
order— that is a school in which not only languages but
the arts and sciences are taught — or of some equivalent
institution.

(/)) A dismissal or exit certificate of some previou.sly
attended University or professional educational institute ;
— and as licenciatps, might be received tliose who, in lack
of such certificates, produced corresponding certificates in
regard to their general education.

110 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

A foreigner required, besides the education necessary to
understand the academy lectures on general science, only
a credible statement from his parents or guardians of
consent to his attending the University, and a certificate
from any educational institute which he might hava
previously attended.

Dr Hess has zealously and successfully made use of
the press to create, sustain, and intensify an interest in
their professional work amoogst students who have come
under his influence, and to diffuse a corresponding interest
in this amongst others ; and thus he has done much to
promote the study of forest science, and to facilitate this
by aspiraiiis for employment in the forest service of the
State.

In 1873 he published a scheme of lectures on tiie
encyclopaedic and methodology of Forest Science *
with copious — I had almost said innumerable —
citations of the titles of books, in which the subjects of
different chapters are treated of I do not know of a
more valuable repertory of the same, and from statements
in the preface something may bo learned of the conditions
of forest science at the time he enterel on his professional
duties.

In this preface, while stating that there did not exist
any such work which could be said to supply a simple and
exclusive encyclopaedic view of forest science, which could
be made the basis of acadium study, he says in regard
to the methodic scientific of forestry, that the work of the
immortal Hundeshagen, of which an edition had been
published by Klauprecht, must ever be assigned the first
position.*

[Hundeshagen : Encyclopaedie der Forstwissenchaft,
Herausgegeben von Klauprecht 3, Abtheilung, Fubengen.

1. 'Abtheilung : Forstliche Productionslehre, 4 Auflage,
1842.' (1821);

^ Grundriss zu Verlesung ilber Encydapcedie und Mtthodologie der Forstwisencha/t
4;c. GieBS^n : J. Recher'sche, Buchhandlu7id, 1873,

FOKESTAL INSTEUCTION AT GIESSEN. Ill

2. 'Abtheilungen : Forstliche Gewerbslehre, 4 Auflage,
1848.' (1822);

3. ' AbtheiluDg : Lehrbuch der Forstpolizei, 4 Auflage,
1859.' (1831).]

'The contents of this work, however, are to some con-
siderable extent antiquated, having been published
previous to the later forward bounds made by forest
science— since it has become an essential of all true pro-
gress to take into account mathematical data, to which
formerly less attention could be given.

The Gruvdriss of Cotta,"^ and the generally commend-
able, and, in some of its parts, most excellent and elaborate
Lehrbuch of Fischbach [Fischbach, C. : Lehrbuch der
Forstwissenschaft, 2 Auflage, Stuttgart, 1865,] are, at
least for the requirements of students at Giessen, insuffi-
cient, mainly on this account that they treat the dep^-rt-
ment of forest mathematics with neglect. In neither is the
subject of forest statistics treated of, and this on the
ground, it is alleged by Fischbach (p. 82), that this
department of forest science is, or was at the time he
wrote, as yet too imperfectly developed, and for beginners,
moreover, difficult to be understood. And the scheme of
lectures had been prepared with a special view to the re-
quire ments of students of forest economics and of finance, it
being his opinion that after the knowledge of EetriehsJehre
exploitation, and especially uf statistics, if not to be placed
in the same category, there is scarcely a more important,
or indeed more interesting branch of study than the
science of production.

' The Forstwir'hschaft of Pfeil, edited by Prissier [Die
Forstwirthschaft nach rein Practischer Ansicht, 6 Auflage
Herausgegeben von Prissier, Leipzig, 1870,] comes
very near to supplying wliat is wanted in a preparatory
school, in which the object is to instruct the students how
to obtain pecuniary returns from an appropriate manage-
ment of forests, and in a school of financial economy ;

* Cotta, H. : Grundn'sii der Forsttvisnenschaft, 6 Auflajfc, Herausgegeben von Seine
Eukk-na Heiurith \iud trust von C'otta. Leipzij,', 1S72. (ls31.)

112 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

but, as its title indicates, it was designed to supply a
desideratum other than that which is under consideration.
As a handbook siippljing the information generally
required by those who are, or purpo.se to be, forest
managers, it will do good service ; but it is not suitable as
a manual of instruction for academic lectures, and objec-
tion may be taken to the plan of the work.

' Hartig's System und Aleitung zum studium der Forst-
wirthschaftslehre [Leipzig, 1858], contains many excellent-
thoughts, but the peculiar form and manner of the entire
grouping is so very different from the system of the course
of instruction in forestry followed in the School of Forestry
at Gieiseti that I cannot base my course of instruction
upon it. The same remarks may be made in regard to
the last edition which has appeared of G. L. Hartig's
LeJlrhvh fur Forster [10 Auflage, herausgegeben von
G. L. Hartrior. Stutto^art, 1861,1 the first volume of which

scaiccly comes within the designation Fachwissenschaft.

The ttr&ihliie of Grunert is calculated to meet the
requirements of Prussian foresters. Also, the old Lehr-
hucli filr Forster of G. L. Hartig, re\i.sed by Berggreve
[1^71], can only be viewed in this light ; and, lastly, the
Forstencyklopcidie by Piischel, in consequence of the alpha-
betical arrangement followed, can only be used as a book
of reference.'

He says it was thus that it was rendered necessary for
him to prepare a Forest Encyclopcedia of seven volumes,
the publication of which was necessarily deferred ; and that
the brochure, which was little else thrn a table of contents,
was published for the assistance of his auditors. Funda-
mentally, the system first used was that of the Hundes-
hag^n school ; but in the working out of the several parts
he had followed the two Heyers, Carl and Gustav. In the
discussion of forest police, of which he had only to treat
within the narrow liaiits of Frivaiforsfwirthschaftshhre, he
had not followed the limits of any particular school, and
the same might be said in regard to certain portions

FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT GIESSEN. 113

whicli he had introduced in the introduction, and io the
parts relating to statistics.

With regard to the several works cited, he ?ays he
would by no means have it understood tliat these are all
the works published on the matters to which they severally
referred. To beginners the teacher, according to my
mind, says he, should only recommend tried leaders. This
volume, as stated, was published in 1873.

In the periodical, Deutsche Zeit-und Streit-Fragen, for
1874, published in Berlin, is a paper occupying two entire
numbers, entitled Die Forstliehe Unterridtts/roge, by Dr
Hess, in which are given details of the previous history
of the question whether Schools of Forestry should be
associated with Universities and Colleges, or be maintained
as independent institutions ; reasons for the combination
of the Schools of Forestry with the HochscTiuIen ; state-
ments of the a<ivantages offered by Universities for giving
instruction in forestry and forest science, and a review of
objections to the measures which have been raised.

To this subject much attention has been given of late
years ; and the combination of arrangements for the
study of forestry with those of existing Universities, and
similar institutions, should not be considered an innovation,
but a return to an early practice. It was [in the
University of Berlin that forestry was first taught in
Prussia, and thus was it in Giessen. And in view of that
early arrangement, not only may Giessen claim to have
been the first University in Europe in which this
arrangement has been restored, but it may lay claim to
be considered the first, or one of the firsts Schools of
Forestry established in Europe, taking precedence both
of that founded by Cotta in Zilbach in 1795, and of one
founded in Hungen by Martio in 1791, and long before
that giving origin to the Academy in Eisenach. In a
volume pubUshed by Dr. Hess in 1831, entitled Die
Forstwissenscaftlichen Unterricht an der Universitdt Giessen
in Vergangenheit und Oegenwart: Instruction in forest

I

114 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

science in the University of Giessen, in the past and in
the present — he divides the past history of instruction in
forestry in the University of Giessen into three periods—
the first of which he designates that of instruction in
forest science in the University in connection with
political economy, which he states to be the period
comprising from 1788 to 1824 ; the second period in
which this was taught in a special School of Forestry from
1825 to 1831, a comparatively short period of six years ;
the third period that of the existing university forest
instruction from 1832 to 1881 inclusive, comprising half
a century.

In this volume are given details of the existing
arrangements for the study of forestry ; of the expense
of the organisation and the instruction imparted ; and of
the duties of the teachers, with tabulated statements of
the nationalities of the students in each session since
1825 to the present time, and of the College attendance,
and present professional position of all surviving students.

In 1876 he published a Scheme of Lectures on Forest
Economy. And, in the same year, he published an intro-
ductory lecture, delivered before the University, Uber die
organisation die forstlichen Versuchswesens : On the
organisation of forestal researches — a matter which has of
late years commanded much attention.

He had previously published pamphlets on the same
subject in 1870 and in 1872. He has issued also
numerous fly leaves for the guidance and help of students
and foiest officials in making observations prosecuting
experiments and calculating results in furtherance of
the advancement of forest science, and larger works
designed to advance the same.

The instruction at Giessen is regulated by order of 31st
July, 1879, with alterations according to order of 22nd
December, 1883. As has been intimated, there is no
special forest district for purposes of instruction but
forests around Giet-sen, and the railway combinations
afford excellent facilities for reaching these. The number
of students in the i^ummor of 1885 was 44 ; in the winter
of 1885-86, 47; of whom 7 were not Hessian subjects.

CHAPTER YI.

THE ROYAL BAVARIAN CENTRAL FOREST ACADEMY AT
ASCHAFFENBURG, AND CLASSES FOR THE STUDY
OF FORESTRY IN THE ROYAL LUD WIG-MAXIMILIAN'S
UNIVERSITY IN MUNICH.

The University of Giessen in Hesse Darmstadt, has be-
came famous through the result of researches by Professor
Baron von Leibig, and the numerous students whom his
enthusiasm, and science, and skill, attracted to the
laboratory under his charge ; and the Royal Bavarian
Central Forest Academy at Aschatfenburg has been made
famous by the researches of Professor Dr Ernst Ebfermayer,
who here laboured as professor, and here began and con-
ducted observations and studies of climatology in connec-
tion with the meteorological influences exercised by forests,
which have commanded a world-wide commendation.

I have not had an opportunity of visiting Aschaffen-
burg, having passed through Bavaria much further to the
south, via Munich, en route to Vienna, to visit the
International Exhibition held there in IJ^TS ; but the
history of forestal studies in the Academy has been long
known to me.

Aschaffenburg is situated in the northern part of
Bavaria, and is easily reached by railway from Darmstadt,
or from Frankfort. It is a town which has had its origin
traced, or at least attributed, to its having been the
station of the 10th and 23rd legions of the Roman army.

The School of Forestry designated Der Kdnig/ich
Bayerischen Central- Forst-Lehranstalt, stands in the Alex-
andra Strasse. It is a three-storied building of freestone,

116 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

ISO feet long, standing in an open court; and behind this
is the botanic garden.

On the ground flat are two large lecture rooms, a
chemical laboratary, a hall containing objects and equip-
ments connected with the chase, and a collection of
models, with apartments for the use of the house steward
and the beadle. In the second storey there is the business
room of the director, the oflBce of the actuaries, a lecture
room, a large room for the drawing classes, the library, a
hall containing mathematical instruments and apparatus
pertaining to natural philosophy, &c. ; and in the third
storey are six halls containing other collections of objects
and apparatus used in the institution.

As may be gathered from some of these statements, there
is, or was, for I write of the past, provided for school pur-
poses a collection of instruments and implements, and
models of structures employed in forest ecconomy ; a
collection of forest products, natural and manufactured ;
a collection of objects connected with the chase, one of
agricultural implements, a zoological collection, a mineralo-
gical collection, a botanical collection and garden ; a
collection of mathematical instruments, and of apparatus
illustrative of all departments of natural philosophy ; a
collection of drawing instruments, a library of works in
all departments of forest science, and a chemical laboratory
with all requisite apparatus and requirements, and similar
work rooms for the study of zoology and other depart-
ments of natural history and physical science.

Thus was the Academy equipped when I had occasion
to make enquiries on the subject ; but there have been
changes of which more particular mention will after-
wards be made, and I have not at command information
in regard to effects which these have had on the equip-
ments which then existed.

In a brochure entitled The Schools of Forestry in
Europe : A Plea for the Creation of a School of Forestry in
connection with the Arboretum in Edinburgh, which I pub-

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 11?

lished in 1877, I stated that, preparatory to entering this
institution, students were required to have passed through a
gymnasium satisfactorily, and, with the sanction of
Government, to have passed through a preliminary instruc-
tion of eight months, extending from September to May,
under a revier, or district forester, approved and appointed
by Government ; to be not above 23 years of age ;
and to possess means of support during the period
required for attendance at the forest school.

The instruction given in the school embraced — (1) Forest
Science, or theory of forest administration in all that
relates thereto ; the physiology of arboreal and arbores-
cent vegetation; forest culture; forest economy and
technology, including road making, bridge making, and
house building, the preparation of charcoal, potash, tur-
pentine, tar, and lamp-black ; the theory underlying
forest conservation and forest management in the practical
regulations of operations throughout an extensive
district.

(2) Physical science, more especially general and
economic botany, the latter having special regard to
plants of importance to the well-being of the forest and
the interests of the country, with practical instruction in
gardening ; mineralogy, including geognesy and geology,
with the use of the blow-pipe ; zoology, embracing tlie
natural history of animals interesting to the forester, the
huntsman, and the agriculturist, and more especially that
of noxious insects and of game ; and finally, natural
philosophy, including organic, inorganic, and analytic
chemistry, in their application to forests and agricultural
operations, with experimental analysis of soil, of ashes of
plants, of water, of air, and of manures.

(3) Mathematics, including algebra, plane geometry,
cubic mensuration, trigonometry, statics, dynamics, optics ;
mensuration, with practical applications ; instruction in
preparation of charts, in taking levels, and in estimating
the condition and value of torests.

(4) The theory of State management of forests, forest

118 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

police, forest legislation, forest administration, and the
practical management of forests.

(5) Agriculture, with a special reference to soils, culture,
manure, meadow culture, grain culture, and the theory of
administration.

(6) A coujprehensive theory of the chase : principles
and rules for the management of game, raviern with deer,
boar parks, and pheasantries,and for the utilisation of game
— for the hunting or taking of game ; and those of thegame

laws.

Instruction was given by encyclopaedic lectures, with
illustrations of the practical application of theoretic state-
ments in excursions conducted by the professors, in forests
near and distant; and necessary assistance toward
meeting the expenses of such excursions was given to the
poorer students.

The year of study began fourteen days after Easter, and
extended over 2^ years. In addition to this, those who
aspired to the higher forest appointments —e.g., those of
forest master and upward— after finishing their course at
the forest school, were required to prosecute the study of
science at one or other of the State Universities at
Munich and Wurtzburg ; and after this, as at the conclu-
sion of their course at AschafFenburg, to undergo an
examination on the required subjects of study.

Promotion to a higher appointment in the forest service
was also dependent on a strict examination, and not more
than one opportunity of passing was allowed.

Non-professional students and foreigners might join the
forest school, but only on condition that they possessed the
necessary qualifications for understanding the instructions
given, and that they gave a wiitten declaration that it was
not their intention to enter the Bavarian forest service.

For Bavarian subjects the fee was 12J florins (25s), and
for foreigners 25 fls. (50s) per half-year. Besides this,
every candidate had to pay a matriculation fee of 4 fls.
(8s), and a similar fee for certificate at the close.

Candidates were subject to a rule of discipline, and were

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 119

bound to a prescribed college course. Foreigners might
obtain from the director a dispensation from particular
studies. For the sons of Government officials, and more
especially of those who were in the forest service, who were
without the meaus of meeting the expenses, there were,
provided five scholarships of 2 50 fls. (£25), ten of 200 fls
(£20), and ten of 150 fls. (£15), and also five scholarships
of 250 fls. (£25) for forest candidates of limited means
who desired to go to the Universities named to prosecute
their studies.

The college staff consisted of a director, who, together
with the first professor of forest science, had the rank of a
Government and Circuit Forest Councillor, and four other
professors with the rank of forest masters, and a revier or
district forester, who acted as lecturer and as actuary clerk.

The direction and control of the school was vested in the
Minister of Finance and the Church and School Depart-
ment of the Bureau of the Minister of the Interior; and in
subordination to them was the director of the school.

To the director pertained the maintenance of order, the
superintendence of the course of study and instruction,
the granting of certificates, and everything connected with
the management of the institution which had not been
specially and expressly committed to the director and
professors conjointly.

Students on finishing the curriculm at Aschaffenburg
either entered on further practical training in the forest or
in a forest office, or on attendance at a course of lectures
on Political Economy at the University ; and they after-
wards received appointments to Government employment
in the order of the excellence of the testimonials they
have obtained.

In general the practitioner was not allowed, without
forfeiture of all title to Government employment, to leave
the service till he had attained the first or lowest grade of
a Government official ; but in special cases exemption
from conformity to this requirement might be granted by
the Government of the Kreis, Circuit or District.

120 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

The following is a more detailed account of later
arrangements derived from the published Programm
und Satzungen filr die Candidaten,

The Institution was under the immediate control of the
Minister of Finance and the Minister of the Interior for
Religion and Education.

The body of teachers was comprised uf a Director, appoin-
ted by the Crown, and who was also first Professor of Forest
Science ; with two or three Ordinary Professors also
appointed by the Crown.

(a) A Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy, (b) A
Professor of Matliematics and Physics, (c) A Professor
of State Forest Economy and Surveying. And, (a) A
Lecturer on the Management of Forests. (6) A Lecturer
on Botany, (c) A Lecturer on Zoology, (d) A Lecturer
on Road-making and the Chase, {e) A Lecturer on the
Mensuration of Woods and Forests, and (/) A Lecturer
on Political Economy in its reference to Forest Science
and Forest Laws.

Of all candidates for admission to the Institution,
there were required —

1. Gymnasium certificate. 2. Certificates of having
spent eight months in forest work in the State forest.
3. Certificates of age and of baptism. 4. Certificates of
health and of possession of the bodily vigour requisite
f )r the forest service, and of perfect sight and hearing.
5. Declaration of consent of parents or of guardians,
when the candidate was not himself of age. 6. Legal
gUfirautee of the possession of means of subsistence
while under instruction.

Within eight davs after matriculation they must find
lodgings and report, their address, aud subsequently
report any change in this, and they must at all times be
prepared to produce, on demand, their ticket of residence
obtained from the police. Candidates who were foreigners
required only tu produce evidence of their possessing the
education necessary to enable tliem to understand the
instruction given, of their good moral character and of

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 121

the approval by their parents or legal guardians of their
attending the institution.

Aspirants to employment in the forest service of the
State, or of the lar^re forest proprietors, and also sons of
the latter, who could not produce all the pre-requisites to
admission as regular students, but who could produce
certificates of good moral character and of possessing the
education necessary to their understanding the instruction
given, might, as also might foreigners, be received at the
Institution as Hospitanlen.

Regular students were required to attend every class in
its order ; but to the Hospitanten, whether Bavarians or
foreigners, it was allowed to choose what classes they
should join, and of both of these classes there was required
a promise of submission to the laws and bye-laws of the
institution, copies of which were shown to them on their
entrance.

Thecurriculum of study at Aschaflfenburg embraced three
different courses, and extended over two and a half years.
The first course began eight days after Easter, and ended
on the 31st of July. The second and third began on the
31st October, and ended on the 31st July in the following
year — with a vacation of fourteen days at Easter.

In accordance with a resolution of the Minister of
State, under date of 24th January, 1865, No 415, slightly
modified subsequently as occasions required, the first
course consisted of introductory studies.

Three hours weekly were given to the study of botany,
the province of which science was explained, with the
terminology employed, combined with illustrations in tlie
gai-den ; the requisites of vegetation were shown to be
Foil, moisture, air, light, and lieat ; and the distribution of
plants was explained and accounted for.

Two hours a week were devoted to zoology, the organisa-
tion of animals, and the classification founded on this, and
the characteristics of the vertebrata.

Four hours a week were given lo chemistry, including
exposition of chemical affinity and chemical notation,

122 Forestry in Germany,

specific gravity, of combiaing proportions of elementary
substances, and the special study of the non-metallic
substances and their compounds, wliich have a special
interest as nutriment of plants, or as constituents of
tbe earth and of ditferent kinds of mountains.

Three hours a week were given to physics, more
especially statics and dynamics of solid bodies, with ex-
periments illustrative of the mathematical laws by which
these are regulated. Three hours a week were given to
mathematics, more especially to plain geometry ; and
three hours a-week to algebra.

Four hours a week were given to chart and plan
drawing, with instruction in the theory of projection ; and
in the nature of materials used in the construction of
instruments employed, and in illustration of the use of
them ; and two hours a week were given to the study of
political ecconomy.

The second course of instruction was carried through
two sessions.

In the first, or winter session, of the second course,
three hours a week were given to the study of forest
management, and the profitable production of wood.

Two hours a week to instruction in the game laws and
the chase.

Four hours to botany, embracing the study of embryos
and of forms of the elementary organs of plants, and the
functions of the several organs, the nourishment and growth
of plants, the classification of these, and forest botany, with
demonstrations in the garden.

Three hours a week were given to zoology, embracing
the natural history of vertebrate animals profitable or
injurious in connection with forests, and of forest game,
with demonstrations on collections of these belonging
to the institution.

Two hours a week were given to inorganic chemistry
and the study of the lighter metals, and of their more

THE BAVARIAN PORESt ACADEMY. l2S

important compounds, with a special reference to the
analytical decomposition of these.

Three hours a week were given to mineralogy — crystal-
lography, physical constitution of mJDerals, their pheno-
mena under the blow-pipe and in solution, and the
determination of different kinds of mineral substances.

Five hours a week were given to physics, embracing
the study of atomics, hydrostatics, pneumatics, heat,
accoustics, optics, magnetis m, electricty, and meteorology
and modes of making and recording meteorological
observations

Three hours a week were given to mathematics, trigo-
nometry, and the mensuration of solids, and four hours
weekly to plan drawing and the representation of various
natural and artifical objects and crops, by the pen.

In the summer session there were devoted to the study
of forest management four hours w^eekly ; and two hours to
forest protection, in so far as it does not come within the
range of forest management, zoology, and meteorology ;
two hours to matters pertaining to the chase ; two hours to
botany, with the use of the microscope, in studying the
histology of plants ; to zoology and the study of the
vetebrate two hours ; to inorganic chemistry and the
study of the heavy metals and their compounds two
hours ; the chemical anaylsis (qualitative) of soils, of
ashes, of plants, of limestone, and of water, &c., two hours,
and to mensuration three hours ; and to plan drawing of
various kinds four hours were given weekly in the course
of the session.

The third course of instruction also extended over two
sessions.

Jn the winter session of the third course four hours
were given weekly to the study of systematic forest
management, including the study of the object to be
arrived at in the work, and of the diticrent means V»y
which the attainment of it had been sought, and
the historical order of development of forest economy j

124 ^OHESTHY tN GERMANY.

three hours weekly to the pecuniary profit of woods,
including instruction in regard to the felling of trees, the
bringing out of timber, the transport of wood, and the
preparation and disposal of other forest products ; three
hours a week to the study of the management of State
forests, embracing the study of the function of forests in
nature and in States, and the duty of States in relation
to forests belonging to the State, to communes, and to
private proprietors ; two hours to zoology of insects, pro-
fitable or hurtful to forests ; two hours a week were given
to the study of organic chemistry, in vegetable products;
one hour weekly to agricultural chemistry, embracing
everything relating to the chemistry of vegetation; one
hour weekly was given to the study of soils and everything
relating to them, and two hours to geology and mineralogy ;
three hours to the study of forest engineering, embracing
road-making, levelling, bridge building, and dam-making;
three hours a week to mensuration in all its departments
and details, with two hours a week to the measurement
of cubic contents of growing trees, and of wood contents
of forests.

In the summer session of the third course — the fifth
and last of the curriculum — four hours a week continued
to be given to the study of systematic forest management,
embracing the practical application of instructions pre-
viously given, the description and the estimation of con-
tents of woods, and the whole round of forest operations were
more minutely studied in excursions ; three hours a week
were given to the study of forest laws, three to that of
forest administration, three to that of rural ecconomy,
soils, tillage, manures, theory of fallows, and of alternations
of crops, and the study of cerial and other crops and
meadows ; two hours a week to the estimation of
pecuniary value of forests ; and three hours a week to
forest engineering, embracing what of hydraulic engineering
relates to forests, and all connected therewith — hydro-
metry, evaporation, mensuration of water-flow in fountains
and streams, drainage and irrigation, consolidation of river

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 125

banks, &c. j erection of houses and other structures re-
quired in connection with forestry. Along with these
arrangements for the communication of instruction in the
class-rooms, corresponding arrangements were made for
demonstrations and exercises in the practical application
of what is learned in the academy — which was given
in the forest, there being very great facilities
presented in the immediate vicinity of Aschaffenburg.
In the immediate vicinity of the town were public parks,
presenting features characterstic of a scientific arboretum ;
not far off there were facilities for making geological,
observations on the western boundary of the Spessart;
and in this forest, which is the property of the State,
were upwards of a hundred thousand Tagwerhen, or well-
nigh a hundred and ticenty thousand acres of oak and
beech woods ; — while within the forest and around it
there were works in which forest products were used ;
andfacilitiespresented themselves forthe study of thechase.
At somewhat greater distance in Hesse, might be studied
the forest ecconomy of coniferse ; and various forms of
forest management might be studied in Odenwald, on the
plains of the Bhine to the west of Aschaffenburg, and in
the Palatinate. At a greater distance were the beech
forests of the mountains of the Rhone and of the Steiger-
wald, and the pine and fir forests of France, and those
of the Black Forest. And the railway intercommunication
is such that all of these could be reached with little
waste of time.

The arrangements for excursions were the following : —
The Director of the Academy, who was also first Professor
of Forest Science, in the second course of instruction,
illustrated and established his instruction in forest
management by practical operations in forests around
Aschaffenburg, and availed himself for this purpose of
every case of a forest district presenting anything remark-
able in its culture or exploitation ; and by experimental
Bowings and plantings of different kinds of seeds, and
this with different kinds of implements.

126 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

lu the third course of instruction he was required to
illustrate his instruction in systematic forest management
by devoting from fifteen to twenty days at least to
practical measuren ents, calculations of annual increase,
estimates of pecuniary value, determinations of vigour of
vegetation, and descriptions of trees. And he was required
every year to go through, with the students on the
ground, the whole system of management to which a
foiest is subjected, for which the public forests in the
vicinity supplied admirable facibty ; and a complete plan
of operations, founded ou this, had to be prepared by the
students.

The second professor of forest science in his excursions
with the students, had mainly to do with the ingathering
and utilisation of forest products, the manufacture and
disposal of these, the collection of accessary products of
woods, such as bark, peat, &c., and the fixation of sand
downs, and all that relates lo the chase.

The professor of botany and zoology gave his attention
to botanical demonstrations and exercises, the determina-
tion and classification of plants, according to the Linnean
and the natural systems, and to similar entomological
demonstrations, for which injured pine trees abounding
in some of the public forests in the vicinity of Aschaffen-
burg, presented a good opportunity.

The professor of mineralogy and rural economy took his
students on excursions for illustrations of his instiuctions
in these subjects. And the professor of mathematics
exercised the students in all departments of the practical
application of these required in the management of forests,
iu land surveying, levelling, and road projecting — with the
preparation of diagrams of the same, and calculations of
the cubic contents of earth required, or of earth to be
removed, «tc.

Besides the excursions which could be accomplished in
a single day, to which the Saturdays were as a general
rule devoted, there were excursions to the forest districts of
the Spessart, to the Odeuwald, to the plains of the

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 127

Rhine, the Black Forest, the Taunus mountains, and the
mountain ranges of the Rhine, which occupied from eight
to fourteen days, and which were determined by circum-
stances, and conducted by the professor of forest science,
with the assistance of the professor of geognosy or physical
geography. And while these were being carried out,
the other piofessors gave their time to all the students
who remained in the Academy.

As these excursions were an integral part of the course
of instruction, attendance was obligatory, and with this
view provision was made for the expense of the longer
journeys, being, in the case of students of limited means
supplied to them.

On approval, admission and matriculation. Bavarian
students, as has been stated, paid a fee of 12| florins for
the first part of a single session, and of 25 florins a year
for each of tlie other courses. Foreigners paid fees of 25
florins and of 50 florins for these respectively. Besides
this every candidate, without exception, paid 4 florins for
his ticket of matriculation, and a like amount for his
certificate on leaving the institution.

For sons of ofiicers of limited means, in the service of
the Crown, and more especially in the forest service,
attending: the institution, there were set aside annually : —
10 bursaries of - - 150 florins.

10 Do. - - 200 „

5 Do. - - 250

And, besides these, 4 bursaries of 250 florins yearly.

To forest candidates of limited means, who had acquitted
themselves well at the institution, and who wished to
attend the course of lectures on political economy at the
University in Munich or Wurzburg, and to candidates
in the first course of a single session a small portion of the
aforesaid bursaries might be advanced.

'i he bursaries might be forfeited by want of diligence
in study, or by culpable misconduct ; and to remove tempta-
tion to submit to undue privations, or culpably to contract
debt and injure their parents or creditors, the certificate

128 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

to be given at the close of the session might, with the
sanction of the director, be pledged in anticipation for
debts for medical attendance and medicine to the full
amount ; or for food, clothes, or books, to the amount of 20
florins ; for lodgings, goods, shoes, stationery, and
washing, to the anionnt ot 10 florius, but not more ; and
all pawning of possessions was prohibited.

General or trial examinations were held at Easter to
enable the professors to judge of the progress beiug made
by the students, and in autumn to determine their
admission to the more advanced course of instruction. It
was not compulsory on foreigners to submit to these exami-
nations, and it was allowed to them to undergo separate
trial examinations, for which special times were appointed
by the professors.

Numerical values were attached to the measures of
success with which students passed through the ditferent
examinations, autl, accord. iig to the sum of these, was the
certificate which was given to the student determined.
The certificate related to diligence, to attainments, and to
behaviour while in the institution.

In the exercise of discipline, various degrees of censure
were sanctioned. The simplest was admonition, and the
most severe was censure followed by expulsion. Records
were preserved of all censures and pnnishments inflicted,
and by these the terms of the certificate granted to the
students on leaving the institution might be modified.

Such was the School of Forestry at Aschaffenburg
when 1 had occasion to make myself acquainted with its
arrangements ; and as supplying information in regard to
such institutions, the report will hold good for all time.

Reference has been made to changes which have taken
place since these regulations were issued, and the history
of the school is not devoid of interest. The following is
a translation of a narration of this to the time at which
it was issued : —

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 129

In 1807 there came together at Aschaffenburg several
professional students, and administrators of forest
economy, to arrange a course of study which might
advantageously be followed at a forest school with a
view to the establishment of one there as a private institute.
In this they succeeded, and as such tlie institute exi^^ted
for a considerable time. The Prince Primate took a
hearty interest in the scheme, and adopted measures to
raise it to the position of a State Institute. He granted
for it a locale in the Schonthal, and a portion of the
Spessart for its maintenance and use.

There were political difficulties in the way of the
Prince Primate doing all he desired, and the elevation of
the institute to the position in question was a gradual
work.

In 1814, when the Principality and the City of Aschaf-
fenburg were embodied in the Kingdom of Bavaria, there
were seven teachers in the institute, of which one only
was appointed to teach forest science, and that relating to
the chase. The director was charged with the duties of
the Spessart Forstmeister. He, as well as the other
teachers of the institute, of which three were professors in
other schools in the place, and one a physician, were
remunerated by fees ; only ten drew a salary from the
State, and that amounted only to 150 florins— say £15.

The fees charged foreigners were one Caroline or
louis-d'or per session, others paying half that amount;
and there was allowed by the State, for experiments in
physics and chemistry, 110 florins; for an attendant, 10
florins ; and for fuel, 67 florins 20 kreutzer. With this
addition the institute was assisted by the State to the
extent of 1397 florins 2 kr. — say £140.

Of candidates for admission it was required that they
should be able to write legibly, swiftly, and free from
mistakes in spelling, be acquainted with the four simple
rules of arithmetic, and be able to read fluently.

Lectures in the first course of instruction were given
four days a week, from the beginning of November, till

K

130 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

the end of May. Friday was reserved for s tudy, and
Saturday for chart drawing. The month of May was
spent entirely in the Spessart forest. From the first of
June till the last of September was occupied with the
second course of instruction ; and October was spent in
practical work in the forest. And thus, in the course of
a year, the student completed his study of the forest
science of the day.

Aschaflfenburg, belonging now to Bavaria, by a
Rescript of 22nd September, 1815, it was announced that
the institute, having then nine students, should retain
the possession theretofore enjoyed ; but it was not
deemed equal to what was then required of a forest
institute, and considerable changes were devised and
submitted for consideration by the teachers : one special
ohject being to separate the course of instruction given to
candidates for the higher from that given to candidates
for the subordinate departments of the forest service
of the State, and this to be so effected that in
the first section youths to be employed as forest
warders or guards might pass through their pre-
paratory studies in six months, and then enter upon their
further training in the forest ; and that this course of
school instruction should prove preparatory ior superior
students passing into the second section of tlie institute, in
which they might be, in the course of a year, further
instructed, so as to be fitted for the administration service ;
and in a third section, by a course of two years' longer
instruction they might be trained for the inspector
service.

In view of this the teachers, in 1816, and again in
1817, commended the institute to the favourable con-
sideration of the Government; and, by petition under
date of 29th March, 1817, the magistrates of the city,
representing the depressed condition to which this had
been reduced by effects of war, and by the withdrawal of
officials from it as a seat of Government, prayed that it
might be assisted to recover a state and condition

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 131

befitting the See of a Bishop, by the founding of a
forest institute there.

Meanwhile, the Bavarian General Forest Administra-
tion had expressed an opinion which had an important
bearing on such a proposal. On loth March, 1816, they
had under consideration the question, ' In what way for
the future can suitable training and instruction be pro-
vided for forest officials employed in the different depart-
ments of the service?' And a report on the subject,
extending over 232 pages, prepared l)y the Oberforstrath
von Olsch lager, which was not altogether favourable to
the carrying out the proposal which had been made, had
been submitted to the King.

In regard to that it is remarked — 'An opinion to be of
value must proceed on the recognition of the fact that
what is required must 1 e contemplateil from two different
points of view according as it may be desired to have an
educational institution for the higher, or one for the
sul)or(iinate departments of the service. For the latter
it is to a great extent sufficient that the official learn in
a purely empirical way, under skilled forest officials, the
work which is to be done in the forest ; though it is the
case that the establishment of an institution for the
instruction of such has much to be said in its favour.
But, on the other hand, while this we admit, we cannot
assent to the opinion expressed by the teachers at
Aschaffenburg, that they have established the point that
there is a necessity for the existence of an institute for
the instruction of forest officials of every grade, and this
one alike thoroughly equipped for the teaching of theory
and practice. The provision for the one must of
necessity operate injuriously on the other; and more
especially do we affirm it to be impossible to send out young
men from tlie sch(»ol completely prepared for practical
woik. The school should only give theoretic or scientific
instruction as a preparation fitting both for the superior
and the subordinate appointments in the forest service.
And lor this a University recommends itself on the

132 FOEESTRY IN GEEMANY.

ground that the lack of practical training there, as is also-o'
to some extent the case in forest schools, is more than
counterbalanced by the greater advantage of the
generally higher scientific education there attainable,
while what is awanting may subsequently be acquired in
actual work in the forest.' This I may remark, in passing,
is an arrangement now strongly recommended.

This professional opiuion, published by the General Forest
Administration, states moreover, that ' on no account must
the fact be overlooked that scientific forest instruction
can only produce in such as possess the preliminary
instruction requisite for admission to a University, the
results which are desired ; and that only those who have
not attained so complete a preparation should be directed
to a special forest institute for instruction in forestry
adapted to their attainments and modes of thought, to
meet which, the whole method of instruction should be
adapted.'

The instruction for the lower departments of forest
science, the reported opinion goes on to state, after
giving a resume with careful consideration of the grounds
on which the opinion is based, 'might be handed over
to the forest institute specially organised for this ; but
the higher branches of forest science should be included
in the sphere of University studies.' And this latter
measure is advocated specially on the ground that ' only
thus can the felt want of scientific and systematically
educated forest practitioners, who are required for the
higher departments of the forest service, be expected to
disappear, and then there might be drawn into the lower
departments of the forest service of the districts men of
good school education ; and the forest schools which were
then (1817) indi.spensable * might be gradually reduced
in number, or altogether given up.'

It is stated in the report that the meeting of this
necessity for a University scientific instruction might

^ There were at that time in Bavaria several private Forest Schools at Kempten,
Jieufreuteii, and several plher places,

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 133

give a valuable impulse to the general improvement of
the forest economy of the country, and the introduction
of tlie new, securing the combination of tbis with the
old, where this has been tested by experience and proved
satisfactory. Care only being required in regard to
some matters lying outside the essential, the true worth
of which may be readily recognised.
It is laid down that : —

1. Aspirants for employment in the higher departments
of the service should go through a three years' course of
instruction in the University ; and

2. For the subordinate appointments a two years'
course of instruction in a Forest School ; but

3. Instead of this, for aspirants of limited means, three
years' instruction in forest labours might be accepted as a
valid qualification for the service.

What should be required in regard to 1 and 3 may be
easily specified says the report ; but with regard to 2, the
selection of a site for a School of Forestry, greater
difficulty might be experienced from the small number of
places being so situated as to combine all that is desirable
in the site of such an institution.

The General Forest Administration specifies the follow-
ing requirements in the situation of a Forest School : —

* 1. It should be situated as nearly as possible in the
centre of the country ; and

* 2. In a place in which rent and provision are moderate
in price.

' 3. There shoidd be meaus of securing life culture at
command without temptation to waste time in amuse-
ments ; and

' 4. It sliould be in the vicinity of forests, giving an
opportunity of learning much of tlie many-sided methods
of exploitation.

'In regard to I, 2, and 3, Ausbach, Bamberg, and
Eichstaed, might be mentioned ; in regard to 4, of these
three places, B.imberg otters the greatest advantages, and
next to it Eichstaed.

134 FORESTRY IN GERMAJJY.

'Against AschafFenburg it may be objected its general
position, and the aridity which prevails there. On the
other hand, the means of instruction existing there are
not unimportant : there is its proximity to the Spessart,
with its forest of broad-leaved trees; its facilities for flottage,
and its timber trade ; there are existing there the school
and its museums ; and above all there speaks in its
favour its attractions for foreigners ; while there is
already a school established there. It would be difficult in
Bamberg to compete against the attractions of the Forest
Schools at Dreissigacker under Bechsteiu, and at Tharand
under Cotta, as well as the newly-founded Forest School
at Fulda ; and at Bamberg we could only look for foreign
students from the Rhine, from Baden, and from Wurtem-
berg.'

The final proposal was to the efTect that for these last
reasons the preference should be given to Aschaffenburg ;
that the school to be established there should be
thoroughly equipped ; and that students of the country
should be allowed to visit those schools in other countries
with which they were competing ; but that AschaiTenburg
should only be considered a school for aspirants for
subordinate appointments in the forest service. The
National Universities-, which alone supplied the best means
of skilful scientific general educition for all departments
of the service of the State, supplying also for the training
of the higher forest officials, the most suitable means of
instruction in the higher forest science, and the funda-
mental and auxiliary sciences.

The report treats further of the organisation of the
forest institute, and of the instruction to be given in it
to aspirants for subordinate appointments in the service,
inclusive of that of revier, or district forester, so as to
secure, in the shortest time practicable, thorough instruc-
tion in the fundamental and auxiliary branches required
in the profession adapted to the capabilities of such
students.

An opportunity will afterwards present itself for a more

THfi BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 135

full description of the question raised in regard to the
most desirable site for a School of Forestry.

Let it suffice to state here that the report, which was m
favour of a University training and education being pro-
vided for forest officials, shows that the Forest Adminstra-
tion of that day (1817) had clear views of the importance of
the best and highest possible education being secured for
those who should be entrusted with the management of
the State forests.

In July the town of Aschaffenburg again addressed the
Minister of State with a pressing petition to the Crown
Prince Ludwig, praying him to support the prayer of the
petition they had addressed to the King sonie months
before, that the forest institution situated in that vicinity
might be maintained and extended — the first cost of
doing which would be inconsiderable, and the current
expense might be met out of the Aschaffenburg students
fund.

The District Government, on the other hand, proposed
that the education should rather be made more exclusively
technical, reducing the number of professors from seven to
four, giving up the study there of political economy, and of
land and water engineering And the Council of General
Forest Adminstration, in a subsequent report, advocated
the measure that in Aschaffenburg there should only be
a school for the training of ordinary subordinate officials,
on th(^ ground tliat only in a University, or similar
educational institution, can the broad and comprehensive
training and instruction required in the higher depart-
ments be secured.

It seemed to be considered impossible that a School of
Forestry so situated could ever become what a School of
Forestry might be made. But consideration was given to
the circumstance that a School of Forestry already existed
there ; that aid in the improvement of it was oti'ered
from a local fund ; and that the town had suftered from
its being incorporated in the Kingdom of Bavaria. And
in accordance with an urgent renewed application fn^m

136 FOUESTRV IN GERMANY.

the town, made under date of 3rd September, 1819, to the
King, by Rescript dated 29th September, 1819, the estab-
lishment of a new forest school was promised ; and in the
autumn of 1821 this was opened with provision for
instruction both for the higher and the subordinate
departments of the forest service. But it was maintained
afterwards that this had been done more from a regard
to the interests of the town, than from professional advice.
The staff consisted of a director, four professors, a
drawing master, an actuary, and a beadle.

Within a year the insufficiency of this school, for
accomplishing the purpose of its organisation, it was
alleged, began to appear : and in the autumn of 1823, at
the instance of the Minister of Finance, a re-organisation
of the school was called for. A two years' course of
study was required of candidates for subordinate offices in
the forest service, for entrance on which a gymnasium
certificate was required of the pupils; and a more
prolonged course of study was required of others, and of
selected pupils to qualify for higher appointments. An
increased allowance was made by the State, and the
number of professors was increased.

This was effected in the year 1823-24), but in August,
1824, the district government complained of the
management of the school, and in 1827 the director
resigned, and difficulty wis experienced in procuring
efficient teachers ; and by decree of 19th October, 1832,
the forest institute was closed as not having fulfilled the
expectations formed of the results to be obtained.

It was thought that something might be accompli.shed
by having a school for the training of subordinates in
vSome other and better situated locality, and by requiring
the superior officials to study in a Ho>-h-schule in
Munich, and transferring thither two of the professors
from Aschaffenburg — a forester and a mathematician.

Mothin<^ haviuor been done to fulfil the first mentioned
suggestion, in the Bavarian chamber, in 1840, Dr
Miiller brought forward a proposal that a special forest

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 137

school should be organised in which, by a course of study,
extending over a year and a-half or two years, candidates
might be fitted for the higher departments of the forest
service of the country.

In the sitting of the 28th March the Minister of State,
Von Adel, replied to the effect that the special forest
school at Aschaffenburg had died a natural death ; that
students of theoretical forest science had now every
facility afforded them in the Hoch-schule of Munich ;
that as to the practical instruction students had got little
or nothing of this at the special School of Forestry now
extinct; and that Government had created bursaries which
might be obtained by young foresters travelling for
observation or for studying practical operations under
forsi meisters or district foresters ; and that Dr Miiiler's
proposal was best,

But the desirableness of a School of Forestry for the
training of subordinates was not lost sight of by the Govern-
ment ; and in a memorial submitted to the King on 27th
May, 1842, it was stated that for the higher departments
of the forest service an appropriate education might be
obtained at the University, but that provision for the
education and training of subordinates who might not
have studied at a gymnasium, or required to do so to fit
them for their duties, was still a desideratum. It was
submitted that this might be supplied in connection with
the so-called Gewerbeschulen or Trades Schools of the
country; and four towns were proposed as sites for such
schools — Nurmberg, Bamberg, Kaiserslautern and Anspach,
It was suggested that to the Gewerbeschulen, in any place,
there might bo added two special teachers and an
assistant.

It was alleged that this would entail great expense;
and Aschaffenburg and Anspach, pleading the saving
which might be effected, petitioned the Minister of State
that one or other of them might be appointed the site of
such a school.

13S FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

In a note, dated 28th March, 1843, Anspach was
declared to be the preferable of the two places named.

On the 18th April a conjoint report as to the necessity
for some such institute was made to the King by the
Minister of Finance and the Minister of the Interior ; and
finally, on the 25th August, it was delivered that
Aschaffenburg should be the site of the school in
question.

I have before me details of the comparative advantages
of the two places, but I deem it enough to state the fact.
Not a little was done to give prominence to the secondary
character of the school, and to the superior education
provided at the University ; but at the LJniversity in the
year 1846-47 only seven students of forestry enrolled
themselves, and in the following year — 1867-68— none/
and the arrangements came to nought. The Aschaffen-
burg staff bestired themselves, introduced reforms and
improvements ; and by ordinances issued under date of
14th September, 1848, and 26th October, 1850, it was
declared that Aschaffenburg should be attended by all
candidates for the higher appointments in the forest
service, there to pursue the special technical or profes-
sional studies ; but that this should be followed by their
going through the University course of study of political
economy, with the pre-requisite study at a gymnasium,
or a certificate, No. 1, from the School of Forestry, which
would absolve them from this last.

In the discussion of this question in the Legislature of
Bavaria, the Upper Chamber of Landeshekorden, the
superior Forstbehorden, and the Ministry, spoke strongly
for the giving up of the Academy in Aschaffenburg, and
of transferring the instruction in forest science and
forestry to one of the two Nntional Univ^ersitics ; but
the Ultra-montane majority of the Chamber spoke
out as one man for the maintenance of the Academy, and
they voted hberally the money supposed to be necessary
for a re-organization of the institution to meet the
requirements of the times.

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 139

The School of Forestry — the inception of which dates
from 1807, dissolved in 1832, but re-organized under the
Ministry of Finance in 1874 -was, by decision of the
Government of .30th March, 1874, united to the University
of Munich. But this was not the last of the changes
which have passed upon this institution.

From a statement in the Centralblatt fur das gesammte
Forstwesen of November, 1877, I gather that the Minister
of Finance had then addressed to the Bavarian Chamber of
delegates a detailed printed memoir (filling 21 pages 4to),
in which he expressed his decision that the Forest
Academy at Aschaffenberg should be given up, and
arrangement be made for instruction in forest scieuce and
forestry being given in connection with the University of
Munich, stating the motive by which he was led to the
decision ; and, in doing this, he subjects the historical
development of forest institutions in Bavaria to an
exhaustive criticism.

The arguments pro and con are stated at great length
in the Dinkschriit Betreffend den Forstiichen Unferricht in
Bay em already cited, the result ultimately was the
arrangement at preserlt existent — a Forest School at
Aschatfenburg, with the theoretic and advanced studies
prosecuted in the University, with attendance at the station
lor experimental researches, in a royal order of 2 1st
August, 1881,. is enjoined.

Par. 1. In the Bavarian State forest service there will
only be received as candidates for admission such as possess
a certificate of having passed through the whole course of
study at the forest institute at Aschaffenburg, and the
iinal examination in theoretic f(irestry in the LFniversity
of Munich, with the State examination in practical foi-estry
with satisfaction.

Par. 2. The institute of forest instruction at AschalTon-
burg has the functon of preparing young men who desire to
give themselves to the Bavarian forest service, in the
funda-nental and accessary sciences, .so far as may be
neces.sary to qualify them for pursuing an exhaustive study

140 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

of forest science in a University, and in the forestal
experimental institute in Munich, besides which the forest
institute in Aschaffenburg otters an opportunity to
students fur pursuin^^ the study of forest science with
other designs that of entering tlie forest service of Bavaria.

Par. 3. The forest institute is immediately uuder the
control of the Minister of Finance, and the Minister of
Religion and Education.

The stafi' of teachers comprises : —

Par. 1. The Director, who, as principal of theinstitulion,bas
to take the direction of the instruction taking part in this
according to directions from the Ministers of State entrusted
with the charge of the institution.

Par. 2. The Royal Oberforster of the Kleiostheim district,
who has his residence in Aschaffenburg, whose subjects
of instruction are also determined by the Ministers named.

3. A professor of physics and of mensuration.

4. A professor or tutor for mathematics.

5. A professor of botany.

6. A professor of zoology.

7. A professor of chemistry and mineralogy.

8. An assistant in management, who is also teacher of
chart-drawing and librarian. Besides the teaching staff
there is a house steward, whose functions are specified in
special instructions relative to service.

Par. 9. Students who do not desire to enter the Bavarian
forest service may be received as E )spitaiiteii into the
forest institute. These must bring certificates of good
character, and prove tliat they have such education as will
enable them to understand the lectures given. They may
obtain certificates of satisfactory attendance on the entire
course, or of attendance and proficiency in particuhxr
departments ; but these certificates arc not available for
their admittance into the Bavarian forest servic3.

Par. 11. Aspirants for employment in the Bavarian
State forest service, possessing a complete certificate from
the Forest Institute at AscliatfenburLr, must continue
their studies for at least two years at a German Qniver-

THE BAVARIAN FOREST ACADEMY. 141

sity, and must attend one year at least at the piactical
exercises in the forestal experimental research station at
Munich. This attendance may be given during the last
year of their attendance at the University.

Par. 14. There shall be held every year in the Univer-
sity of Llunich a concluding final examination on theoretic
forestry, to which can be admitted only such students as
possess a complete certificate fiom Aschaffenburg, and
have met the requirements of par. 11 of this order. The
requirements in regard to these examinations will be
determined by the Ministers of State for Religion and
Education, and for Finance.

Candidates who have passed this examination satisfac-
torily shall receive a final certificate of their having passed
the whole of the professional studies, with a declaration of
their competency to enter on the practical work of the
State forest service. Candidates who have not been
declared fitted for this may present themselves yet again
for examination, but only after at the least one year, and
at the most two years study at the University, such
students may also be required again to attend the forest
experiment institute at Munich, and that for at least a
complete session. There may be admitted to these
examinations students at the University of Munich who
do not contemplate aspiring to the State forest service of
Bavaria. These will receive a certificate of the result of
this examination ; but this confers no right to enter the
Bavarian forest service.

By Bekanntmachung, or proclamation by the Ministers
of State, under date of 10th November, 1881, were
specified details of the arrangements thus made necessary.

As orignally in the University of Giessen the instruction
in forestry were given in connection with the faculity of
political economy, a similar arrangement has been adopted
in the University of Munich. According to the published
Verzeichnis, or programme of lectures in the Lud wig-
Maximilian's University, for the winter session of 1884-85,
five lectures, or more strictly speaking five hours of

142 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

lectures on sylviculture and forest conservation were
given weekly ; 4 hours lectures on earth and the
chemistry of these ; 3 hours on natural laws regulating
agriculture and sylviculture, with practical work m the
forestal chemistry laboratory ; 4 hours on the measurement
of wood with practical exercises in the art ; 3 hours on
Saturday in forest surveying ; 4- hours in forestal
calculations in connection with forest statistics ; 4 hours
structure and physiology of plants with microscope
demonstrations; 3 hours public practice in use of the
microscope, daily private practice in use of the microscope ;
5 hours State forest science, and 3 hours history of forestry.
And according to the programme of lectures for the summer
session of 1885 there v^'ere given 5 hours a week to lectures
on forest exploitation and forest technology ; 1 hour to
conservation of forests and woods, with excursions and
demonstrations on specified days ; 4 hours climatology
and meteorology, with introduction to meteorological
observations ; 3 hours chemistry of plants with regard to
forestal and rural economy ; 2 hours to forest statistics in
rentability or pecuniary returns from forests, with
excursions and practice in valuation of trees and all forest
produce on certain specified days ; 3 hours forest culture
plants ; 3 hours vegetable pathology with botanical
instructions ; 5 hours forest adminstration, with practical
exercise on specified days ; 2 hours road-making and
laying out of land, with practical exercises on specified
days ; land surveying 3 hours, with practical exercise on
specified days ; 2 hours forestal policy, and means of
transport in relation to private and political economy.

The latest information at my command in regard to
instruction in forestry in Bavaria is contained in a paper
by Dr Tuisko Lorey, Professor of Forest Science in the
University of Tubingen, On forestal instruction, and fores-
tal experini' n!al research, in a handbook of Forest Science
edited by him. In this it is stated that the latest
directions are contained in the Finance ministerialblatten
of 17th November, 1881, under tlie heading of royal order

THE BAVARIAN FOEEST ACADEMY. J 43

relative to forestal instruction 21, VIII. 81 ; and in a pro-
clamation relative to examinations in the University,
relative to practical examinations and relative to praxis
of IGth November, 1881.

Aspirants to the forest service are educated and
iDstructed iu the forest institute at Aschaffenburg, and in
the Univeibity of Munich, and as has been appointed since
1878 : first two years, or four sessions, being spent in study
at Aschaffenburg, and the result of this being shown by an
examination. This is follow^ed by two years' study at the
University, concluding with an examination in Munich ; of
this latter time spent in Munich at least one year must
be spent in attendance on practical work in forestal
experimental work. The requirements for admission and
Maturitdts Zeugniss, or exit certificate, from a gymnasium
or real-schule of the forest order.

In the forest educational institute at Aschaffenburg,
which is under the immediate supervision of the division
of the Minister of the Interior relative to church and
school affairs, and the Minister of Finance, the object,
in so far as the royal Bavaria State forest service
is concerned, is to impart the preparatory instruction
in the foundation and professional sciences requisite to
fit for profitable attendance at the University. In view of
this the instruction embraces elementary mathematics ;
in the higher mathematics, the analytical geometry of plane
surfaces, and the elements of differential and integral
calculus ; inorganic and organic chemistry, mineralogy,
botany, zoology, mensuration, and chart drawing; in like
manner, in regard to forestry, primary instruction in
sylviculture and in extenso forest protection, the science
of the chase and road-making. Of teachers there are in all
eifjht. Alono^ with the director, a second decent of forest
science, who is also manager of the attached forest instruc-
tion levier, or district of Kleiostheim, one for physics and
mensuration, one for botany, one for zoology, one for
chemistry and mineralogy, one for mathematics, one for
chart-drawincr. For chemistry there is also an assistant.

144 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

In the University of Munich, which is under the imme-
diate supervison of the Minister of the Interior for church
and school affairs, the forestal experiment institute
connected with tlie University is under the Minister
of Finance. The professional instruction, in so far as
this is not completed at Ascliafftnburg, is given;*
and with this the study of political economy and
jurisprudence is attended to. All the branches are treated
of every year. Forest science is comprised in the faculty
of political economy.

Specially adapted to forestal studies are six regular
professorships, four of which are specially forestal, with
one for forest botany and one for forest soil, climatology,
&c. All the holders of these belong to that faculty. Jn
consequence of excellent railway connections, the
excursion district is very extensive and instructive.t
The exit examination is held yearly. It is exclusively
oral ; and it embraces all the branches, the study of which
is not completed at Aschaffenburg. The examination
commission consists, under the presidency of a high^tate
forest official, of teachers from the University, and
occasionally from the technical Hoch-schule for particular
accessary sciences.

The number of students of forest economy in the
summer session of 1885 was 92; and in the winter of
1885-86, 94; of whom respectively 30 and 41 were not
Bavarian subjects.

* Several of the studies included in the Aschaffenburg programme, such as road-
making and mensuration, are also treated of in Munich, but this is done principally in
the interest of forest managers who are not Bavarian subjects.

t ITiere is an excellent article by Gayer, on the excursion district of Munich in the
Forstwissensca/tliches Centialblatt, for 1880, p. 73, and 1881, p. 1,

CHAPTER VII.

KOYAL WUPvTExMBURG FORESTAL AND AGRICULTURAL
ACADEMY AT HOHENHEIM, AND FORESTAL IN-
STRUCTION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF TUBINGEN.

In the history of the Schools of Forestry atGiessen in Hesse
Darmstadt, and Aschatfenburg and Munich in Bavaria,
we meet witk different phases of the evolution, or develop-
ment of such institutions, issuing in their incorporation
in tlie National Universities. In the kinirdom of Wur-
temberg we meet with another different phase of similar
transformation.

Until within a few years ago, the study of forest science
in Wurtemberg was provided for in the Royal Wurtera-
burg Academy of Land and Forest Economy at Hohen-
heim, about 11 kilometers distant from Stuttgart, the
capital of the kingdom, and near to the Wurtemberg
forest.

Hohenheim was formerly a Grand Ducal country
residence, with numerous out-buildings attached. It is
situated on the high level plateau of Filden, 390 meters
above the level of the sea, and 140 meters above the level
of the vale of Stuttgart. The inhabitants, inclusive of the
stufients, numbered in 1880 about 300. The number of
families was 30.

The palace buildings, with wings and out-l)uildings, con-
tain about 100 apartments for the aceoiumoJation of
students

In 1818 there were founded there two separate
Academies : an agricultural one and ji forestal one. In
June, 1820, these were united ; and the coml)iued schools
were re-organised September 9th, 18G5,

146 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

From an official publication entitled Ubersicht ilber die
Organisation, die Ziveck^, den Lehrplan,die Lehrmittel, Auf-
nahmehedbigungen iind sonstigen Verhaltnisse der K.
Wuertfemh. Land-und Fordivirfhs^chattUchen Akademie
Hohenheini, it appears that the Royal Wurtemberg
Academy of Land and Forest Economy at Hoherdieim is
a palatial edifice, and is supplied with all the requisites for
the study of rural economy, agriculture, and forestry ; it is
surrounded with ofrounds of considerable extent, includinor
experimental and botanic gardens ; and is supplied with
other facilities for the study of practical operations.
Instruction was at that time communicated by lectures,
exercises, excursions, and experimental work.

The curriculum extended over two years, divided into
four sevSsions, one commencing on October 15th, and
clo^insT on 9th March, the other commencinsc on 1st of
April, and closing on loth of August, and this was followed
b}' a vacation of two months.

There were three distinct departments of study — Land-
wirtschaftliche DiscipHnen, embracing what relates to
asjriculture and rural economy ; Forst-wirthschafdiche
DiscipHnen, embracing what relates to the treatment of
forests ; and Grund-and Hilfs-wissenchajten, or funda-
mental and accessary sciences ; and the arrangements were
such that students could avail themselves of the provision
for instruction in either the one or the other of the two
first-mentioned branches of study, or to the full extent of
the provision for instruction in one, and to some extent
partially of the provision for instruction in the other, —
an i in many of these cases with or without availing
themselves of the provision made for instruction in the
fundamental and accessary sciences.

The subjects of study were the following, the order
in which they were studied being definitely determined
by provision for the convenience of the professors and
students.

I. Rural economy.

A History and literature of rural economy.

ROYAL WURTEMBURG FOREST ACADEMY. 147

B Agricultural and rural productions. General
doctrine ia regards to agricultural productions, and to the
reclaiming and drainage of land.

a Agricultural implements and machines. 6 Special
doctrine in regard to cereals and similar products.
In addition to which, in the concluding session,
special lectures were given on thegrowtli and the produc-
tion of hops and of tobacco ; on lime-making ; on the
culture of fruit trees ; and on the culture of culinary
vegetables, c General doctrine in regard to the rearing of
animals, with application of the same to the breeding of
sheep and preparation of wool ; and in the last session special
instruction \Yas given in regard to the breeding of horses, of
oxen, and of small cattle, on silk-culture, and on the
keeping of bees.

C Rural economy.

a Treatment and disposal of economical products.
b Valuations, estimates, and exercises in drawing out
schemes of operation, c Bookkeeping.

L) Technology of rural economy.

In connection with these series ot'lectui'es there were given
appropriate illustrations in the collections of models, of
implements and of machines, in the museums of wood and
of soils, in the experimental fields, in the nurseries and
arboretum and different gardens, in the cattle-folds and
in the workshops of the institution, together with
practical exercises in making valuations, e-.ti mates, and
schemes of exploitation, excursions, cS:c., &c.

ir. Furest economy.

A Encyclopaedic view of forest economy, with a special
reference to the study by students of rural economy of
allied subjects in this department.

B History and literature of forest economy.

C Forest products.

a Forest botany, b Sylviculture, c Forest protection.
d Technical properties of timber, e Uses of forests ; and
forest technology.

D Forest economy.

148 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

a Mensuration of trees and forests, h Partition of
forests for exploitation, c Valuation of forests, d Prac-
tical management of forests.

E Administration of Crown forests. A special intro-
ductory lecture on the subject and exposition of the
forest la\vs of the kingdom of Wurtemburg.

F Encyclopaedic view of rural economy for the iustruc-
tion of foresters.

In connection with these series of lectures there
were given, in occasional extensive, and in regular
less extensive excursions, &c., similar to those con-
nected with instruction in rural economy, appropriate
demonstrations in different forest districts, in the Botanical
Garden and Museum of Forest Products, and practical
exercises in the calculation of cubic measurement of trees,
and cubic contents of woods, and in the laying out of forests
for ('xploitation.

III. Fundamental and accessary sciences.

A Political economy.

B Agriculture.

C Jurisprudence. Legislation in regard to Wurtem-
berg forest managenieiU , legislation in regard to rural
economy.

D Mathematics— arithmetic, algebra, plane geometry,
geometry of solids, trigonometry, practical application of
geometry. In connection with this there was regular
practice in land surveying and levelling, and in the men-
surati(^n of forests with ihe theodolite.

E Physical science — experimental natural philosophy ;
m-^toorology ; experimental chemistry; agricultural
chemistry; production of fodder; physical geography;
geology ; technical mineralogy ; botany ; anatomy and
physiology of plants ; di.<eases of plants: special botany;
anatomy and physiology of domestic animals ; zoology ;
special zoology ; introduction to the use of the microscope.
In connection with these studies there were practice in the
chemical laboratory, demonstrations in the botanical
museum and garden, and in the experimental fields of

HOYAL WURTEMBURG FOREST ACADEMY. 149

the rural economy experimental farm, and regular
botanical and geological excursions, &c.

F Veterinary science.

a Materia me iica aad formulas of recipes, h Pathology
an I therapeutics of domestic anioials. c Special lectures
oil epidemics. Veterinary assistance in the birth of
animals d Theory oi shoeing.

G Technical arts — rural architecture, preparation of
plans.

Besides these, from time to time lectures were given on
general science, and on subjects connected therewith.

The regular course of study of forest economy extended
over two years ; but every year the lectures were attended
by amateur students or others, who were not requir^^d to
go through the whole course ; and the director was always
rea'ly, as were also the collective body of instructors, to aid
such in determining how long they should remain, an<l
what classes they should attend, with a view to making
the most of the time they could spend there.

Of all students applying for admission there were
required —

1. Certificates tliat they were above eighteen years of age ;
but in rare exceptional cases, by special resolution of the
Senatus Acalemicus, youths who had not completed the
eighteeuth year of their age might be admitted.

2. Oertiticate in regard to previous course of study. In
case of the applicant having previously studied at the
University, or other superior educational instituti(jn, tliere
was required a regular certificate of disjunction from the
officials of the college.

3. In case of the applicant, according to the law of his

domicile not l)eing of age, a certificate from his parents or

guardians of their consent to his ioininof the Acadoinv, or

. . ... ■

otherwise residence of his being independent and free to

act for himself.

4. Subscription to obligation to conform to the statutes
issued for beljavionr of studc^nfs in tin,' AoMdomy, a
printed copy of which was sup[>licd to uvury student.

150 fORRSTRY IN GEtlMANY.

Foreigners were further required to produce a passport, or
a ticket of legimitation from the proper authorities.

From students of forestry designed for the forest service
of the State, in accordance with Royal Ordinance of 20th
January, 1868: In Betrtff der Forstdiens-prufung, and order
of the E. Ministorium des Kirchen, und Schul-wesens of the
19th June, 1873, in regard to the Matwltdts-prufu/ig,
there was required, in addition to what has been stated, a
certificate of Laving passed an examination of qualification
for entrance on advanced studies.

And from students of forestry who had no view to
entering the forest service of the State there was required,
as is required of the students of rural economy, satisfactory
testimony of their possessing the scholarship and training
necessary for profitably availing themselves of the instruc-
tions given in the Academy, When they did not already
possess a certificate of graduation, or diploma indicative of
tlieir attainments, this might be obtained in connection
with their attendance at the Academy, which was valid as
a qualification for the same.

Othersthanstudents, gentlemen whose views were to make
themselves acquainted with the discipline and teaching in
the Academy or other institutions at Hohenheim, might
remain as Hospitanlcn. The admission of such, as a rule,
did not take place at the commencement of a session,
but some six or more weeks thereafter, and the stay of
such as Hosjyiianten was limited to four weeks.

In case of students having to leave the Academy, at
least fourteen days notice had to be given of their inten-
tion, excepting in admitted cases of necessity.

On regular departure from the Academy, a certificate,
in a prescribed form, was given to any student^ .stating the
time he had spent in the Academy, the lectures he had
attended, the character of his behaviour, and if he deserved
it, the diligence with which he had prosecuted his studies.

Diplomas were granted at the close of their course to
students of rural economy, but some attended only a short
period. To these, and to students of forest economy, an

HOYAL WURTEMBURG FOREST ACADEMY. 151

opportunity was given at the close of each session, by
written exercises and viva voce examinations, to obtain
certificates iu regard to their attainments in such of the
branches of study as they might desire

Prizes also were offered as encouragements to study, and
the fact of one or more prizes having beeu taken relieved
the student of the necessity to prepare written exercises
while under examination for his diploma.

A certificate in regard to his attainments could be
obtained by the student only in the form of one or more
of the certificates given after examination, at the close
of each session: and only in the case of his having suV)-
mitted to one or more of these examinations. On special
application a student might, while pursuing his studies in
the Academy, obtain an interim certificate in regard to
his diligence and behaviour.

In case of any student being expelled, the fees, &c , paid
were not returned. This was also the case if permission to
leave in the course of a session were applied for and granted.
But in case of sickness, or of a summons to military
service, on special application, the fees, &c., in question
were re-paid.

For lodging, instruction, and the management of the
institution, students of rural economy, if subjects of
Wurtemburg, pay 180 marks (£9) per annum; if
foreigners, they pay 500 marks (£25) the first year, and
350 marks (£17 lOs) the second. Students of forest
economy, if subjects of Wurtemburg, paid also 180 marks
(£9) per annum ; if foreigners, 350 marks (£17 10s) each
year ; and by paying extra fees these latter might also
attend classes connected more immediately with rural
economy, which did not come within the range of their
prescribed studies.

Hospitanten, who are subjects of Wurtemburg, pay for
the use of an apartment one mark a day ; but they have
to provide their own bed and bedding, and they are free
to attend all lectures, and avail themsi'l vos (.f all (he
means of instruction offered by tlic Acailcmy. IJo^pila:-

^52 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

ten who are foreigners have the same liberty, and they
are provided with bed and bedding, for which, and the use
of the apartment, they are charged two marks a day.
Each of the students has a furnished room, and those who
are foreigners are supplied with bed, bedding, and
towels; these three requisites students, subjects of Wur-
teml)urg, provide for themselves. Arrangements may be
made for the occupation of better rooms, or for living
outside the Academy : these I need not detail. In regard
to food each student may make his own arrangements.
He may dine outside, or at the college table. The average
expense of board is about two marks a day. Those who
board in the Academy lodge with the house steward, and
pay 140 marks at the beginning of each session, from
which is deducted monthly the amouat of their monthly
bill.

It is made a special condition of the appointment of
the house steward that he, on due remuneration, must
provide food for sick students, whether they take their
food daily from him or not, and to prepare either such
food as they themselves may desire, or such as may be
prescribed by their medical attendant, preparing it well,
and serving it either in their own room, or in the hospital
of the Academy, as occasion may require.

Amongst the numerous provisions for facilitating study
at the Academy of Hohenheim, many of which relate
more especially to agriculture and rural economy, there is
a forest district of about 2,200 hectares or 5,500 acres,
partly composed of Crown f)rests and partly ot comtnuual
forests, embracing different kinds of soil, different forms
of management, and different modes of culture, which were
under the direction of one of the two professors of forest
economy; and besides this Forstrdver, there are others in
the vicinity of Hohenheim, to whicli access was had, and
also an arboricultural experimental garden.

There is a botanic garden of 4|- hectares or 12^ acres,
with some 2000 species and varieties of plants of impor-
tance in forest and in naval economy ; and a so-called

ROYAL WURTEMBURG FOREST ACADEMY. 153

exotic garden of about 8 hectares or 20 acres, laid out
with a special view to instruction in forest botany.

There is a collection of models of implements, machines
and structures pertaining to forest economy; a museum
of forest products, and one of forest manufactures, &c.
Some of the models are of full size and in working order,
others are in section, or constructed on a reduced scale.

A mineralogical cabinet, with a collection of geological
formations and fossils employed in illustration of lectures,
contains about 14,000 specimens,

A botanical museum contains different herbaria, num-
bering conjointly 10,000 species, with several specimens
of many, and a collection of numerous microscopic pre-
parations, a collection of vegetable pathological specimens
illustrative of diseased malformation, also many models of
flowers, fruits, furze, &c., and finally a collection of some
7000 specimens of fruits and seeds. There is a chemical
laboratory, with 16 double stations for students, provided
wdth all the necessary appliances for work. A cabinet of
natural philosophy containing instruments and apparatus
required for instruction of the students in mathematics,
mensuration, and natural pliilosophy. A library contain-
ing about 10,000 volumes, open io the use of the
students. An experimental forest station, with experi-
mental garden, and a station for making and recording
meteoroloGfical observations. For the use of the chemical
laboratory and chemical agents a charge of eight marks,
or eight shillings, per session, is made to the students of
practical chemistry.

There is also a reading-room provided with newspapers
and peiio licals, for the purchase of which a charge of four
marks each session is made.

An account of this Academy at Hohenheim is given in
detail in a publication relating to tlie meeting of Ger-
man agriculturists and foresters at Stuttgardt in hS42,
under the title of Die Kouiglicke Wnvh.inhenjischel.ehran-
stnlt far Land-und Forst'virtkschafctisc/ie Akoheiuie, HuIkjii-

154 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

heim, and in the published account of the semi-centennial
celebration of the institution, held 2()th November, 1868,
under the special title of Geschichtllches uher die Lund-und
forsfivirtkschafdlche Akadewie. Hohenhelin, von Professor
Dr V. Fleischer. A concise notice is also given in a
pamphlet prepared for the Vienna Exhibition of 1873,
Be?- Ilohere LandwirthschdftUche Unterricht in Wurtemberg,
by Professor Walter Funke.

Professor Mathieu, of Nancy, in describing this institu-
tion, in Becue de'i Eaux et borets, 1874, says: -'The little
kingdom of Wurtemberg, with scarcely two millions of
inhabitants, has spared nothing in providing it with what-
ever could contribute to the success of instruction or to
the progress of science. This truly liberal spirit has led
to the establishment of magnificent agricultural galleries,
where we tind collected to the number of sixteen hundred
the various tools and machines employed in labours of the
field ; elegant rooms filled with forestal collections, imple-
ments,, woods, and various products , cabinets in botany,
zoology, mineralogy, and geology ; instruments for use in
studies of physics and for geodesy ; a station for experi-
ments concerning woods, and another for meteorology. Its
library numbers 5,500 volumes, and its reading-room con-
tains numerous periodicals in all languages, of which 49
were scientific, agricultural, or forestal journals, and thirty-
five were of the political, literary, or illustrated class.'

It has been reported in a preceding chapter, relating to
the Royal Saxon Forest Academy at Tharand, that after
existing for a lengthened period as a school exclusively
devoted to instruction in forestry, there was introduced
into the Academy a School of Agriculture or Rural
Economy ; that the two were after a time combined ; but
that afterwards the two were dissevered, and the Academy
again restored to its primal condition of an exclusively
Forest Academy. In Hohenheini the School of Forestry,
originally an independent institution, was likewise brought
into combination with a School of Agriculture; and here,

HOYAL WUKTEMBURG FOREST ACADEMY. 155

too, a severance has been effected. And again, in Wur-
tcmberg, as in Hesse Darmstadt, there exi.^ted formerly
in the National University of Ttibingeu provision for the
study of forestry. Of this the Jate Dr Hough of the
United States forestry section of the Department of Agri-
culture has reported : —

'Since 1817 the University of Tubingen has had a
Chair of Agriculture and Forestry in its faculty for State
economy. It has for its object to furnish students with
the knowledge necessary for employment in financial and
administrative affairs, and therefore only the more impor-
tant points of information are presented in the lectures,
but they piuetrate deeper iuto the spirit of the different
systems of agricultural and forestal economy, with the
view of pointiQg out the motives concerned, and in this
manner of ren leriug their relations to fiaaacial matters
and to the public interests more fully understood.

' This course of instruction presents little of interest
in the practical business of the forester, as compared with
the abundant facilities and broad plan of education
atfbrdei at the school at Hohenheim. Many of the
students of the latter find it, however, to thi-ir advantage
to attend for some time the lectures of the University for
the purpose of gaining a fuller knowledge of the auxiliary
sciences/

Towards the close of 1880 arrangements were under
contemplation to combine the School of Forestry with
the University as an integral part of the same; and in
due time these being completed, the change was made.

Amongst the reasons for this were the following: —
Formerly there were two classes of foresters ; one of which
studied administration and law, besides the usual profes-
sional course ot study relating to the management of
forests ; while the other confined their studies to these :
mathematics, physical sciences, and forestry. But after a
time this second class almost disappeared in consequence
of the limitctl [uospuct they had for thuir future, and

156 FORESTRY IN GERNtANY.

almost all the young foresters, after having passed their
exit examination, went to study at the University.

As there was nowhere a complete curriculum of forestry
excepting at the University of Munich, the young VVur-
tembirg foresters went to Munich, studied there, and only
took at Hohenheim their final profesional stu lies, while
the different education of the young agriculturists, and of
the majority of the young foresters, also occasioned diffi-
culties. This state of things could not last, and in course
of time the study of forestry was transferred to the
University at Tubingen, and at Hohenheim was continued
the Agricultural Academy. Forstrath Professor Dr Nord-
lirig3r wrote to me two years and more after the change
had been made : — ' We have now more than forty
students of forestry, while at Hohenheim we had not
more than twenty. Instead of having two professors
ordinary we have but one professor extraordinary, which
suffices for the accessary and foun lation sciences. Our
students of sylviculture sit alongside the medical and
other students. In a word we constitute an integral part
of the University without being an in>;titucion apart ; our
collections, and our exercise ground, and forest arboretum,
are the only exception to this.

'Tubingen is exceptionally well situated forestally. We
find ourselves on the confines of the most extensive and
most interesting forests of the country — the Black Forest,
Schoenbuch, the White Forest of Swabia, &c.'

Subsequent experience justified the expectations which
had been entertained ui good being likely to be the
consequence of the change, one result of which is that the
number of students hns now risen from less than twenty
at Hohenheim to upwanls of fifty at Tubingen ;
and the staff of professors of forestry lias been increased,
from which other benefits have flowed. Unlike what
has generally been the case in other countries on the Con-
tinent of Europe, in which the whole body of forest
officials are educated upon the same principle, though not
to the same extent, this being secured by requiring them

ROYAL WURTEMBURG FOREST ACADEMY. 157

to be educated at national institutions in Wurtemberg,
previous to this change, while the necessity for a higher
education in men occupying the higher positions in the
service was recognised, there was no national provision
for this being given ; aspirants were accordingly allowed
to procure this where they might or where they choose —
it was enough that it was acquired. From this there
resulted a risk of want of unity and uniformity in the
views and plans of those who had the administration and
superior management of the State forests. This was less
likely to occur now than previously ; and the advantage
of a knowledge of what was being done in the forests of
other and adjacent countries could be secured by forest
excursions.

At the Aacdemy at Hohenheim it was found, as has
beeQ intimated, that the preliminary or preparatory
studies required in the two departments — forestry and
rural economy — did not always accord. To the students
of the former mathematics was absolutely necessary ;
while to the latter, vahiable as might be the educational
effects of the study of mathematics, these were not requi-
site as a practical preparation for rural economy, and
arrangements required in the interests of the one body of
students came occasionally into collision with the arrange-
ment required in the interests of the other: this was now
avoided.

Moreover, the advantage of general culture, the impor-
tance of which has been more and more recognised of late
years, had facilities for this being acquired presented by
the University greatly in excess of those offered by
Hohenheim — Universityassociations tending to expand the
mind ; while the general tendency of a special school is
understood to be to impair the general development of
the intelleccual and moral faculties. In the programme
of lectures in the University of Tubingen for the winter
session of 1885-86 there are specified upwards of two
hundred different classes, to any or all of which, in
accordance with arrangements in Universities in Ger-

Ic8 FORESTRY IN nERMAN7.

many, the students have access to an extent unknown in
our Scottish Universities ; and a greater number of
classes, upwards of two hundred and twenty, were open
to them in the same measure in the summer of 1886.

The studies are arranged as pertaining to one or other
of seven facuhies : evangelical ihcology, catholic
theology, law. medicine, philosophy, political economy,
and physical science. And there are classes for instruc-
tion in riding, rifle shooting and fencing, gymnastics,
dancing, music, and drawing. There are also forty
University institutes or educational appliances, inclusive
of the University library ; the Hoffman library for
exercises and discussions in political economy, in the
faculty of which forestry is included ; forest museum ;
museum of forestal and rural economy ; station for forestal
experimental research ; workshop of forest technology ;
technological musetmi ; botanic museum ; l)Otanic garden ;
and museums and laboratories of various kinds, pertaining
to the study of different departments of physical science.

In the University forestry pertains to the faculty of
political economy, with classes for instruction in matters
more immediately or more remotely connected there-
with. As pertaining to this faculty there are classes for the
study of the following subjects, which are strictly forestal :
cyclopsedia of forest science ; forest botany ; sylviculture:
fcirest management applicable to trees of different kinds;
forest protection and conservation; forest exploitation;
forest valuation and forest statistics ; forest economy
appropriate to State forests ; forest technology ; forest
road making ; structure, physiology, and histology of trees,
and in the classes of the faculty of physical science are all
the fundamental and accessary sciences generally included
in what is considered as complete course of instruction in
forestry and forest science.

In regard to forestal instruction in Wurtemberg, Dr
Tuisko Loicy, proicssor of forest science in the University
of Tubingen, reports: — 'The existing arrangements are
determined by order of 30th October, 1882, and order of

EO^AL WURTEMBURG FOREST ACADEMY. 159

7th October, 1885 ; the instruction is, under the supervi-
sion of the Minister of Ecclesiastical and Educational
affairs, imparted in the T^niversity of Tuhingen. All
professional subjects, with the exception of road -making
and the chase, are subjects of prelection every year, as
are also all the foundation and accessary studies, which
are treated fully in the University. Forest Science is
included in the faculty of political tconom}'. The prc-
requisities to admission to study are an exit certificate of
some Latin gymnasium, or of a Wurtemberger's real-
gymnasium!

An appointed period of study for aspirants to the State
forest service is as definitely specified as is the place of
study. The average of the latest promotions gives a
period of from seven to eight sessions. The examinations
are twofold : — .-1. An entrance examination held twice a year
in Tubingen by professors, in the presence of a commis-
sioner of the government. It embraces mathematics;
elementary mathematics, and analytic plane geometry ;
mensuration and levellins:, with drawinor of charts ;
physics chemiiitry, botany, zoology, and geology. And B.
First forest service examination, held twice a year in
Tubingen, in presence of a commissioner, like as is the
case with the entrance or preliminary examination, which
embraces forest discipline, national economy, and juris-
prudence. To conduct the studies in forest science there
are two ordinary and one extraordinary professors. There
is no forest revier or district appropriated for use in
instruction ; but the vicinity is rich in forests presenting
in this respect great variety and good opportunities for
excursions and demonstrations.

An account of the vicinity in respect of forests is given
in a paper by Dr Lorey in the Allgemeine Fort Blatter ioT
1882, entitled the Excursion Region of the University of
Tubingen.

The number of students in the summer session of 1885
was 16, and in the winter session 1885-86, 26, of whom
respectively 2 and 8 were not Wurtembergers.

CHAPTER VIII.

FORESTAL INSTRUCTION IN THE GRAND DUCHY OF
BADEN IN THE POLYTECHNICUM IN CARLSRUHE.

In Tharand, Neustadt-Eberswalde, Hanover, and
Eisenach, we have what may be characterised as the
germ — the forest school — developed into the Forest
Academy, Forestal School or School of Forestry. In
Giessen, in Bavaiia, and Wurtemberg, we have the School
of Forestry transformed into a section of the National
LTniversity. In Baden we meet with yet another phase
of development — the Scho( I of Forestry taking its place
ah initio as a section of a Polytechnicum, which has also been
the case elsewhere. This educational institution was
established in 1832 : and in 1834 Dr Klanprecht, who had
been associated with Hundeshagen and his successors in
giving instruction in forestry in Giessen, was called to
take charge of forestal instruction in the Polytechnicum
in Carlsruhe. It was established with a view to the
development and ditfusion of technical science and art;
and the instruction given is based on the principle that a
thorough preparation for any technical calling must be
founded on a AJalhemafischer, natur-wissienfchafiUclier,
luirthschafiswissenscliaftUcher, hislorischer, unci Ixunstlicher
Lildimg, or an education in accordance with mathematics,
science, the economical application of these and of art, and
a correct acquaintance with history.

It supplies to the engineer, the mechanican, the
architect, the ch'^mist, and the forester, opportunities for
acquiring elncarion and instruction in general, and in
special scieuco and arts ; while the finaMcier, the pharma-
cenlist, the land surveyor, the teacherof mathematics, and of
natural history^ and all who have devoted themselves to

FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT BADEN. 161

other industrial occupations than those named, may find
in attendance at it appropriate instruction ; and students
of pharmacy have the option of attending either the
Polytechnicum or the University, as a pre-requisite to
examination. The instruction required for different in-
dustrial occupations is arranged in accordance with the
following divisions : —

1. The School of Mathematics. 2 The School of En-
gineering. 3. The School of Machinery. 4. The School
of Architecture. 5. The Sohoul of Chemistry. 6. The School
of Forestry. The method of instruction takes the form of
lectures, examinations, practice in drawing and in con-
struction, work in the laboratories and workshops, and
excursions. Combined with the Polytnchnicum are the
following collections by which instruction is aided and
sustained : —

1. A cabinet of philosophical instrument-;. 2, A geological
and mineral collection. 3. A zoological and botanical
collection. 4. A collection of models belonging to the
School of Engrineerinor, 5. A collection of models belong-
ing to the School of Machinery. G, A collection of models
belonging to the School of Architecture. 7. A technological
collection. 8. A collection of instruments used in land
surveying, &c. 9. A collection of models for use in teaching
geometry. 10. A collection of plaster casts. 11. A
collection of objects connected with forests. 12. A library
and reading-room of science connected therewith.

There are also laboratories— (1) a chemical laboratory ;
(2) a laboratory of natural philosophy ; (3) a mineral
laboratory ; (4) a laboratory of organic chemistry; (o) a
laboratory of technological chemistry.

Further : — there is an arboretum, or forest gaiden ;

And finally, workshops :—(!) for making models in
clay ; (2) for making models in plaster-of- Paris ; and (3)
for making models in wood.

The Polytechnicum is under the immediate control of
tl)C Minister of the Interior, and is governed by adirertor
appointed annually by the Sovereign, on the ground of his

162 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

election by the professors ; a petit council, consisting of
the director, his predecessor in office, and three others,
elected and appoiated annually in the same way ; and the
grand council, consisting of the collective body of ordinary
professors.

The body of instructors, consisting of professors, lecturers,
college tutors, and assistants, numbers forty-nine in all.

There are two sessions in the year : the winter session
is from the 1st of October to the loth March ; the summer
session from the 15th of April to the 31st July ; and
provision is made for profitably employing the holidays and
vacations in excursions or tours of observation, with or
without the assistance of professors.

In illustration of the advantag^es of combining a School
of Forestry with other educational arrangements, 1 may
state that there are only two professors of forest science
in the Polythechnicum at Carlsruhe. Most of the classes
not taught by them attended by students of forestry are
classes taught in some of the other schools or faculties of
the institution. The exceptions are that the Professor of
Economics has a special meeting with the students of
forestry one hour a week during the summer session, and
the Piofessor of Rural Economy in the University of
Heidelberor has a meeting with them for two hours once a
week both summer and wdnter.

Where it is dc-^irable to minimize as much as possible
the staff of teachers, much may be effected by substitut-
ing for several separate professorships one of Economic
Botany and Forest Economy.

'The requirements for admission are as follows : citizens
of the State, who wish to enter the State forestry service,
after attending a full course at the gymnasium, are
admitted, and must pass through a course of four years, of
which the first two are devoted to those fundamental and
auxiliary studies which do not relate directly to forest
science, but which serve as a preparation for the remain-
ing two which embrace the forest course proper. Foreign-
ers may attend the first two years or not, as they prefer.

FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT BADEN. 163

The least age of admission is 17 years. At the close of
the second year the State students must pass an examina-
tion in natural philosophy and mathematics, and if they
fail they are allowed one more trial. This examination
entitles them to enter upon the last two years of special
forest studies in which they are taught agriculture, forest
jurisprudence, and the higher mathematics, when they are
again examined, and if passed, are qualified for a place in
the State service. The examination at the end of the
first two years is by the professors of the polytechnic school,
and the final one by the forest directors, a person skilled
in law, a professor of agriculture, one of forest manage-
ment, and two professors of mathematics.

' After passing all examinations the candidate is assigned
to the general district foresters as an assistant, to enable
him to become practically acquainted with his duties, and
he receives a tract of forest to manage. After six to ten
years, according to the number waiting, he gets a position
as general district forester. The number of these districts
in Baden is at present 110, and about four of these
appointments are made annually. The Forestry Direction
has its seat in Carlsruhe, and is composed of six members,
who are inspectors.'

The following were the arrangements for study in the
School of Forestry during the sessions from Isi
October, 1876, to 31st July, 1877 :—

Students of the First Year — Winter Session.

Geometry of solids, 3 hours per week ; drawing of plans
and diagrams, 2 hours ; botany : morphology, physiology,
and cryptogamic plants, 3 hours ; experimental physics,
4 hours ; repetitorum of the same with the assistant, 1
hour ; experimental organic chemistry, 4 hours : conver-
sational examination on the same, 1 hour; freehand
drawing, 2 hours.

Summer Session.

Arithmetic, 3 hours per week ; drawing of plans and

164 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

diagrams, 2 hours ; botany : special natural history of
phanerogamic plants, 3 hours ; botanical excursions and
practice in determining plants, from two to three half
days ; experimental physics, 4 hours ; repetitorum of the
^ame with the assistant, 1 hour ; organic experimental
chemi-try, 4 hours ; qualitative chemical analysis, 2
hours ; work in chemical laboratory, 5 hours ; freehand
drawing, 4 hours.
Students of the Second Year— Winter Session.

Plane and sphtrical trigonometry, 2 hours per week ;
analytical geometry of planes, 3 hours : drawing of plans,
2 hours ; practice in the handling and use of instruments
used in laud surveying, &c., 4 hours ; mineralogy, 4 hours ;
practice in mineralogy, 3 hours ; vegetable physiology, 3
hours ; use of microscope, 2 hours ; zoology : general
zoology and special natural history of vertebrata, 3 hours ;
work in chemical laboratory, 5 hours.
Summer Session.

Drawing of plans, 2 hours ; geology, 4 hours; practice
in mineralogy, 3 hours ; practice in agricultural chemistry
and vegetable physiology, 9 hours ; geographical distribu-
tion of plants, 1 hour ; zoology : natur.d history of in ver-
tebrata, 3 hours.

Students of the Third Year— Winter Session.

Differential and integral calculus, 4 hours ; practical
geometry, 3 hours ; forest improvement and technology,
4 hours ; forest protection, 4 hours ; forest soils and clima-
tology, 2 hours ; forest excursions and practical exercises,
Saturdays — encyclopaedic study of rural economy, 2 hours ;
political economy, 4 hours.

Summer Session.

Elements of mechanics, 5 hours ; exercises in practical
geometry, afternoons ; agricultural chemistry, 2 hours ;
forest exploitation and history of forest economy, 5 hours;
natural history of forest trees, 3 hours; forest excursion,
and practical exercises, Saturdays ; encyclopaedic study of

FORESTAL INSTRUCTION AT BADEN. 165

rural economy, 2 hours ; financial science, 3 hours
history of the German forest police, 1 hour.
Students of the Fourth Year— Winter Session.

Forest policy, 3 hours ; taking up of trees, means of
growth, and management of forests, 6 hours ; excursions in
woods and forests, with a view to the establishment and
completion of the lectures on the subjects mentioned,
vSaturduys and free afternoons ; forest roads and hydraulic
engineering, 3 hours ; encyclopaedic study of rural economy,
2 hours ; popular study of law, 8 hours.
Summer Session.

Forest engineering and history of forest science, 5 hours ;
history of the German forest policy, 1 huur ; pecuniary
valuation of forests, 3 liours ; forest police, 2 hours ; forest
statistics, 2 hours; forest administration and management,
2 hours ; encyclopaedic study of rural economy, 2 hours ;
forest and game laws, 2 hours ; excursions in woods and
forests, with a view to tbe establishment and completion
of the lectures on all the subjects mentioned above, Satur-
days and free afternoons.

To students in the forest school there is recommended,
moreover, attendance in the following classes : —
Winter Session.

Modern history, more especially of Germany since 181G,

t l( hours; modern history of German literature since the

< death of Schiller, 2 hours ; hygiene, or preservation of

\ health ; anthropological introduction and domestic hygiene,

2 hours.

Summer Session.

Roman historj^, 4 hours; Lessing's Nathan der Woisse.
1 hour; public liygieuc, or preservation of health, 2 hours.

The arningemonts in regard to aduiittancc, fees,
diplomas, holidays, &c., and in n.gard to hospiiaiiten are
similar to those in the Agricultural and Forest College at
Ilohcnheim, though varying in several particulars.

The area of forests in Baden is 510,924 hectares
(1,262,403 acres.)

166 FORESTRY tN GERMANS.

I visited the Polytechnicum at Carlsruhe in going to
the International Exhibition held in Vienna in 1877 ;
and I have had no opportunity of revisiting it.

According to the notice of this School of Forestry given
by Dr Lorey, it, together with the institution of which it is
an integral part^is under the control of the Minister of the
Interior. There are still only two professorships of forest
science, the holders of which alternately, in different years,
occupy the post of President of the School of Forestry.
The prescribed course of study extends over three years,
during which aspirants to the State forest service may
study at a Technical School, a University, or an Academy.

The requisite to admission is an exit certificate of pro-
ficiency from a gymnasium or a Real-schule of the first
rank. The instruction given comprises the special study
of prescribed fundamental sciences, and theoretic study of
special professional subjects. Proficiency in the first must
be determined by the entrance or preliminary examina-
tion, which takes place once a year in the Polytechnicum
before a commission composed of professional men. Pro-
ficiency in the strictly professional studies is tested by the
annual piinciple examination, before a commission
composed of some of the members of the commission for
the administration of the State domains, and other State
officials, and men of learning. Amongst subjects of
examination aro included rural economy, elementary
mechanics, aualt^tic geometry, differential and integral
calculus. J here is no special loioat Uevicr or district
appiopiiated for forest study. The excuisiou region is the
nearest zone of the neighbouring exteDsive forests of the
valley of the ilhine and ihe Black Forest. The number
of students in the summer session of 1885 was 16, and in
the winter session 1885-80 20, of whom respectively 2
and 8 were not subjects of the Grand Duchy of Baden.

CHAPTER IX.

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION INTO THE FOREST

SEHVICE OF GERMAN STATES, IN WHICH THERE DO

NOT EXIST SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY.

In States of Germauy ia wkicli there do not exist Schools
of Forestry, the lack is met by requiring aspirants lor
employmeat in the forest service of the State to study
at one ol" the Schools of Forestry in regard to which
information has been supplied, and otherwise to qualify
themselves for official appointments. Dr Lorey, Professor
of Forest Science in the University of Tubingen, reports
the following as the arrangements in the several states
named : —

In Mecklenburg-Schwerin the requirements for admission
to the forest service are determined by Order of the 10th
January, 1883. The service is divided into two sections —
the service of Revier, or district foresters, and tliat of
inspectors of State forests

For admission to the career of a Revier forester there are
required the qualifications necessary for entering the tirst
class of a gymnasium, or of a Reul schule of the first order,
one; years preparatory instruction, attendance througliout
a full course of study in a School ot Forestry, or at a
University in which there are professorships of forestry,
and an examination on theoretical forestry. Previous to
this examination the aspirant to the service must serve one
year as a volunteer in the Meckleubunj Jager battalion.
An examination in theoretical forestry is held twice a
year by a commision under the presidency of a Minister of
the Cabinet conducted by one or it may be two forest

168 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

inspectors, and two professional men for the examination
in mathematics, natural sciences, &c.

For the career of a forest inspector there is required, in
addition to what has been mentioned, a full Mataritilts
certificate from a gymasium or Real-schule of the first order,
and attendance for at least two sessions at a University in
the study of jurisprudence and p9litical economy, and with
these the qualifications of an officer of the Reserve.

In Mecklenburg- Strelitz for admission to the forest
service there is required a MatariUU certificate from a
gymnasium or a Real-schule of the first order, one years
preparatory instruction, atteudance at one of the Prussian
Schools of Forestry, and examinations at the same according
to the form prescribed for foreigners who are not Prussian
subjects, and experience in land-surveying and levelling
attested by a geometrician.

In Oldenburg the requirements for employment in the
forest service of the State is determined by law of 18th
April, 1864. There is required a certificate of fitness for
entering the first class of a gymnasium, or the equivalent
exit certificate of the Upper Burger school in Oldenburg,
one year's preparatory instruction, two years' study at a
superior School of Forestry, or at a University, and
examination by a Commission at the Ministry of Oldenburg.

In Brunswick instruction in forestry was given in the
Caroline College in Brunswick, for years previous to 1777,
but since that time this has been discontinued. The
present re((uirements for admission to the forest service of
the State are regulated by an Order ofCth Novembei', 1874.
Tliey are a Afafarilatfi certificate from a gymnasium, or a
Jieal-srhaU- of the first rank, with unexceptional entry in
regard to mathematics, one year's preparatory instruction,
attendance of at least two years at a course of study at an
Academy, a Polytechnicum, or a University, upon which
there follows once a year an entrance examination in
Brunswick.

In Meiningen the requirements are determined by Order
of 8th April, 1871. They consist of fitness to enter the

ADxMlSSION INTO FOREST SERVICE. 169

highest class in a gymnasium, or Real-gymnasium, one year's
forest training, attendance at a School of Forestry, the choice
of which is optional, but attendance at the full course of
study in which is required, and submissiou to the forest
examination in Meiningen, or instead of this, the production
of certificate of having passed the examination of the
forest institute in Eisenach.

In Alienbary the requirements are determined by Order
of 12th November, 1864. They are fitness for entering the
first class of the gymnasium, one year's forest training, at
least two years' course of study at a School of Forestry, the
selection of which is at the choice of the aspirant. Any
who study at Tliarand, and submit to the final examina-
tion required there, need no other testimonials ; otherwise
they must submit to an examination analogous to that, in
the College of Finance. For the higher appointments in the
service there are required a complete Maturitdt certificate
from a gymnasium, and at least one year's study at a
University.

In Coburg-Gotha the requirements are determined by
law of 2-itli April, 1860. Tiiey are fitness for entering a
first class m a Reai-schule, satisfactory acquaintance with
mathematics and skill in arithmetic, one year's prepara-
tory instruction, attendance at the School of Forestry of
Eisenach, or other Forest Academy, or alternately at a
University, and an exit certificate from this school after
passing an exit examination in accordance with arrange-
ment between Weimar and Gotha-Coburg.

In Aniialt the reciuirements determined by Order of
20th October, 1877, are a full maturity ct^'tificate, one
year's preparatory instruction, a two years' course at least
of professional study, the choice of school being lel't
with the aspirant, and attendance of at least a year and
a-half at a University lor the study of jurisprudence and
political economy. In the case of a superior olticijJ appoint-
ment being desired, besides an examinati<ju in the theory of
forestry, a tentamen in forest science befare an examina-
tion commission of the Grand-Duchy, or alternatively at a
Forest Institute.

170 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen has the requirements
determined by Regulation of 24th March, 1876. They
are, fitness for entering a first-class in a gymnasium or Eeal-
gymndsium ; one year's preparatory instruction, at the
least a two years' course of study in an Academy or a
University, and examination at Eisenach.

In Schwartzhurg-Rudolstadt the requirements deter-
mined by Regulation of 16th March, 1871, are a matu-
rity certificate from a Real-schule of the second rank, or
thai for the first-class of a gymnasium ; and in other par-
ticulars such as are required in Schwartzburg-Sonders-
hausen.

In Waldeck the requirements are determined by
Order of the 12th December, 1883, supplementary to
Orders of 12th February, 1856, and 12th June, 1876. They
are, a maturity certificate of a gymnasium, or Eeal-
gymnasium ; one year's preparatory instruction, and, at the
least, two years' attendance at a superior forest institute,
and submission to a tentamen.

Reuss-Gratz has no particular specification, but the
younger branch of Reuss requires, according to Orders of
3rd May, 1875, and 6th December, 1882, a maturity certi-
ficate from a gymnasium, or Real -gymnasium or Real-schule
of the first rank, at the least six months' preparatory
instruction, the study of forest science at any German
School of Forestry, with, at the least, a course of five sessions,
and a certificate of having passed the whole of the
examinations of the same.

Sell- n imburg- Lip pe re([uires a maturity certificate,
preparatory instruction, attendance at a School <if Forestry,
and a forestal examination.

Lippe- 1 )etmold has the requirements determined by
Order of 13th January, 1886, which are a maturity certifi-
cate from a Latin gymnasium, or a Real-gymnasium, with
unexceptional statement in regard to mathematics, and a
year and a-half preparatory instruction, military service,
with the qualification required of a reserve officer, two
years' attendance at a School of Forestry, determined by

At)MiSSlON INTO FOREST SERVICE. 171

the Forest Directory, and a general examination at the
Academy in accordance with what is required in Prussia.

Alsace- Loraine has the requirements determined in
accordance with the law of oOth December, 1870, publica-
tion by the Chancellor of the Government of 24th March,

1874, Prescriptions for the examinations of 5th October,

1875, and Order of 13th November, 1883. They are, a
maturity certificate of a gymnasium, or Real-gymnasium,
or Real-schule of the first rank, with an exceptional state-
ment in regard to mathematics, at the least seven months'
preparatory instruction, two and a-half year's attendance
at a Forest Academy or University, and the passing of a
preliminary examination, which is held once a-year in
Strasburg, by a mixed commission, under the presidency
of the Landforstmeister. It is, moreover, determined that
Germans who submit to tlie preliminary examination,
and other examinations, are admissable to the practical
training, and subsequently to the State examination.
Moreover, Germans who do not exceed thirty-one years of
age, and have spent at least two y^arsin study at an
Academy, and have passed through all the requirements
for the superior grades in the forest service of their own
country, may be, after a year's perfectly satisfactory employ-
ment in the forest service of Alsace-Lothingen, admissible
to permanent appointment in the same.

Dr Lorey states that in every case in which no
special mention is made of phy.'-ical ([ualitication, the full
fitness fui' tiie military service is required ; and that this
applies also to the Ijefoie-niciitiuiu'd States, in which
Schools of Forestry have been established.

CONCLUSION.

The Schools of Forestry ia Germaay are so connected
with the general arrangements for primary, secondary,
technical, and university education, as to form an integral
part of the educational institutions of the country, which
affects both the organic constitution of the school and the
mode of study, and to some extent, the subject matter of
instruction. The School of Forestry in all its phases in
Germany is an institution adapted to the school system
of the country ; but arguments advanced in support of
the proposals to transfer the provision for instruction from
the special school to classes in the University, or other
superior educational institution of the country, may be
found applicable in other countries in which the
establishment of a School of Forestry may happen to be
contemplated as has been shown.

The subject was discussed in documents issued by
the Government of Bavaria in connection with the
question raised in regard to an erfkenburshe maintenance
of a special School of Forestry at Aschaffenburg, and the
e.stablishment of professorships of forestry in the Univer-
sity of Munich.

Alter lengthened consideration, in which as an aid to the
discovery of arrangements which might most satisfactorily
meet the requirements of tlie service, opinions were
solicited from distinguished students of forest science and
forest economy known to hold different views upon the
subject, which opinions were printed and fully considered,
and it was ultimately determined that in all the circum-
stances of the case it was expedient to maintain a School of

CONCLUSION. 173

Forestry at Aschaffenburo^, from which candidates for sub-
ordinate appointments in the forest service passing satis-
factorily the exit examination^ might be received into the
service, while students aspiring to appointments to
superior offices in the service should proceed to the
University of Munich, and if found qualified, prosecute
there the study of forest sciences required to fit them for
the efficient discharge of the duties pertaining to the
offices to which they aspired.

The arguments may be considered as resolving them-
selves into these two : in a University or Polytechnicum
there may be secured at less additional expense superior
and more comprehensive professional teaching and
instruction than at a special School of Forestry,
while the iacility with which forests at a short distance,
or more remote, may be visited by the students
under the guidance of a teacher, or made the
field of actual work, compensates any advantage by a
special school located in or adjacent to a forest and does
so without distractingtheattention of thestudentsfrom their
studies. And at a University, or similar institution, there
may be secured the general culture becoming a Govern-
ment official, and advantageous to the individual and to
the community in many ways, while the tendency ol resi-
dence and study at an isolated special school is to cramp
and warp the intellectual development and social virtues.

The position in the educational system of the
country which is most desirable lur a School of
Forestry to occupy in the country was more comprehensively
discussed in a Congress ot German ItJfesters, forest
administrators and professors, and students of forestry,
held at Freiburg in the autumn of 18.74.* The question
was submitted in this form : Forst-AkacUmie oder xillyevitine
Ilocli-schnle ? Under this latter designation are
comprised the Polytechnicum and the University in con-

' 111 icu'iinl to this discussion some additional information is jfivcn in a volume
entitifd Sihoid o/ Fon-xt t:)iijiueeri> in Spain^indicutive n/ atype/ur a (iritLsh Ji/alionai
School of Fun')>try, i>p. 21 l-.il7.

174 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

tradistinction to which is the Fach-schule or training
school for some one profession like the Forest Academy,
which may be considered as differing as completely from
the primary, and secondary, and superior common schools,
as from the gymnasium, the Real-schule, the Bilger-
schule, the Geirerbe-srhule, and the Allegemeine Hoch-schule
if not more so, the difference between the Fach-schule and
tliesebeingthis— the /•acA-sc^wZeprovideseducation, instruc-
tion, and training for some one special /ac^, trade, or pro-
fession ; the Polytechnicura does so for several, it may
happen to be for many such ; while the University, as its
designation implies, contemplates provision for the study of
everything, or at least of every department of study, and
preparation for all, or each of all, the so-called learned pro-
fessions.

It is in view of this difference mainly that the ques-
tion Ahadetiiie oder- Allegemeine- Hoch-schule'i has been
discussed in Germany. This once decided in favour of
the Allegemeine Hoch-schule \ it may have been the case
that there may have been in some places local discussions as
to the relative advantages of the Polytechnicum and the Un-
iversity ; but I have never heard of such, excepting in one
case, which will be mentioned immediately. The ques-
tion seems to have been generally determined by the
accidental circumstance of which was at command. Where
there was a Tolytechnicum but no University the Poly-
technicum supplied a home for the School of Forestry.
Where there was a University and not a Polytechnicum,
there was no room for question ; where, as was the case in
Munich, there was both a University and Polytechnicum
tlie preference was given in accordance with the guiding
principle to the University, in the absence of anything
creating a reason why this should not be done.

in rcg;ird tu all the Schools of Forestry in Germany, of
which uiuution has been made, it is reported by Dr Lorey,
that besides the regular demonstrations, forest exercises,
and forest excursions, there are more extensive excursions
for study and observation undertaken in the same over
other States,

CONCLUSION. 175

The early history of the movement, issuing in the
organisation and establishment of Schools of Forestry,
shows that it was desired to found forest economy upon a
scientific basis; and the arrangements adopted at
these stations for forestal expeiimental research,
established at the sites of existing Schools of Forestry,
justify the designation Forst-Wissenschaft, or Forest
Science, given to the basis upon wliich the advanced forest
economy of the day is based. It is inductive in its
method ; it has been so from the first organisation of the
embrio forest schools of a hundred years ago ; and it had
been so for a long time before. The schools of Hartig
and Cotta were in reality associations of enthusiastic
young foresters, acting under the influence of sagacious
experienced seniors, by whom they were instructed as to
what observations to make while eno^ao^ed in the execution
of their ordinary work; to whom they communicated the
results; and with whom conjointly they sought by mathe-
matical calculations and otherwise to evolve the laws
regulating the growth and increase and natural reproduc-
tion of forests, and of trees of different kinds orowinor
under diff'eient conditions. i\nd tlie importance which is
attached to having a true scientific basis, for everything
that is done is indicated by the expenditure bestowed
upon stations for experimental research, which are
established at the sites of several Schools of Foiestry.

I have not at command details of the expenditure upon
each and all of these. I find it reported in 18G3 that
the expense of maintaining tlie stations vary greatly.
For the year ending 1882 the expenses of the stations in
Prussia amounted to 27,000 marks = £l,3o() ; Bavaria,
44,000 = £2,200 ; Saxony, 14,000 = £700 ; Wurtemburg,
7000 = £3,500.

The total amount expended annually for the main-
tenance of forestal experimental stations in Germany
some years ago was about XGOOO.

The importance attached to the instruction given in

176 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

Schools of Fuiefctry in regard to the practical application
of forest science as formulated in the past, and as being
extended in the present, is indicated by the requirement
of attendance at foreign schools by forest officials in States
in which there is no national provision for such instruc-
tion ; and it is further indicated by the amount of
expenditure iiicaned in the organisation ana maintenance
of such institutions where they have been established.

I have mentioned elsewhere * ' there is some difficulty in
stating what may be considered the total expense
incurred in the maintenance of almost any of the Schools
of Forestry on the Continent,' from this circumstance
among others — in the published accounts no mention is
made of what might be considered the equivalent of rent
lor the preniises m which the school is located, and of
the grounds connected witli these— whether a simple
aiboretum, or an extensive forest, as the case may be. 1
know not an exception. Ihe premises and grounds,
sometimes a mansion, sometimes a palace, with corres-
ponding appointments, is granted by the Government free
of reckoning. The rent of such piemises, if charged,
would add greatly to the actual expenditure.

'On examination i find in the Forest Budget of Spain
for 1882, and 1 have no reason to suppose that that was in
any way an exceptional year, the ciedit asked and granted
for the School of Forestiy was oo. 750 pesetas or francs ;
but this did not include the salaries drawn by the
directors, prolcbsors, and assistant professors, as members
of advanced grades in the corps of forest engineers,
amounting to a much greater sum, prubably about 70,000
pesetas ; in all, 103,750 pesetas, say £4',G00.

' In the French Foresi Budget for 1880, and in that of
the preceding year, 187D, there was asked and granted for
instiuctii)n in forestry 208,785 francs, about £8,700, of
which ^uni 98,800 francs were designed for the School ot
Forestry at Nancy.

* School (<J For cat Engineers in Spain, indicative of a type /or a British National
SchiKd oj I'urentry. Edinburgh : Oliver 5: Bu\d. London : Simpkin, Marsliall, dc Co.
1§S(>.

CONCLUSION. 177

' There existed at that time an organisation for
imparting what is called secondary instruction in forestry
in other schools situated at Villers-Cotterets, Grenoble,
and Toulouse, to which forest engineers under forty years
of age were admitted without being subjected to an
entrance examination. The course of instruction extended
over seven months ; this was attended by men in active
service, and any who passed satisfactorily the final or exit
examination were eligible for appointment as guar de-
general adjoint. But it was found by a sub-committee of
the Chamber, to which had been submitted questions
relative to the instruction in forestry, that the system
followed at these schools failed generally to produce men
fitted for the duties which the holders of that office were,
by the forest regulations, required to discharge ; and the
committee recommended that these schools should be
given up as not accomplishing the object for which they
were organised. The instruction given in these schools
represented an annual expense of 22,300 francs.

' The credit granted also included provision for the Ecole
Forestierre at Des Barres-Loiret, founded by M. Vilmorin,
and so designated by him in contradistinction on the one
hand to a nursery, a designation borrowed from domestic
life; and in contradistinction on the other hand to a
plantation or forest, it being a collection of trees raised
from seed obtained from forests or from nurserymen or
seedsmen of note, and reared with a view to the study of
their habits, their identity, and their differences — an
establishment such as an arboretum might be made.
Subsequently to the death of the founder it became State
property. Since then it has been greatly extended, and
there are received into it, after passing satisfactorily an
entrance examination, sons of forest overseers, for two
years' study, to prepare them for employment as gardeners
or as forest warders ; instruction being given to them in
French, drawing, mathematics, land surveying, sylvi-
culture, and all details of forest service. For this instruc-
tion there was allotted 20,610 francs to cover the salaries

N

178 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

of a director, of a garde-general or warder, and of a
brigadier, the wages of the students, and other expenses
for materials. The grant for the whole of the schools was,
as has been stated, 208,785 francs— say £9280.'

ADDENDA

RELATING TO THE PROJECTED ESTABLISHMENT OF A
BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY.

I.— Suitable Site for a School of Forestry.
While the details given in preceding pages may possess
some value as information in regard to an important
movement resulting in organisations which have been
extending over the length and breadth of Continental
Europe, they have been compiled and translated chiefly
in view of the possibility of their proving useful in the
event (>f a British National School of Forestry being
established at some future time, and in the hope of
promoting measures for the accomplishment of such an
object.

With regard to a site I may say : With a high sense of
the appropriateness of the arrangement adopted in the
initiation and early development of Schools of Forestry in
Germany, and a high appreciation of what was then
effected through work done in connection with forests
adjacent to the schools, and appropriated to them as edu-
cational appliances, I sympathise entirely with the views
now entertained extensively and almost universally in
regard to the surpassing importance in the present day
attaching to the provision for forestal instruction being
combined, if not also incorporated, with universities or
similar superior educational establishments.

In visiting Schools of Forestry, and in reading of their
origin and existence, it appeared to me, most, if not all,
of the old-established irstitntions were adjacent to forests,
while most, if not all, of the later founded schools wore
not; and that some of these m.ide much more use of
forests somewhat remote from them for the practical train-

180 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

ing of students than did some of the former appear to me
to make of like facilities for the work at their own door.
It certainly was the case that practical training was not
neglected by any ; and I never heard a complaint of want
of facility for securing this.

The distinction I have drawn between old-established
schools, and later founded schools, receives an illustration
which may be cited. I have often met with convictions
in favour of different forms of ecclesiastical creeds and
organisations prevailing on one side, and on another of
geographical boundaries ; and so have I seen it with these
conflicting opinions in regard to these Schools of Forestry.

That the reader may be able to make any allowance
which he may think proper for the influence of prejudice
or pre-possession, I may here state clearly what I have
often indicated or stated elsewhere: my opinion is de-
cidedly in favour of the education and technical instruction
being prosecuted in connection with facilities for prose-
cuting, without interruption, higher studies, with other
months spent annually in observing, and, if possible, in
practising, forestal operations under properly qualified
teachers of practical forestry.

And having made this statement, I feel free to advance,
and state that I have never known of a forest official in
the south of Germany advocate a return to the old model
in so far as it was essentially a school organised in connec-
tion with a forest ; and 1 have never known such a location
for a School of Forestry advocated in Germany, or out of
Germany, by any one known to me to be acquainted with
the details of instruction in different existing Schools of
Forestry, who had not himself been educated at a School
of Forestry so located. I do not call in C[uestion the fact
that such may have had far better opportunities of form-
ing a satisfactory opinion on the subject from experience
than I have from limited personal observation and hear-
say ; and I mention the fact cited in the full knowledge
that it may tell both ways.

In more than one case on visiting a School of For«.stry,

ABDilNDA. 181

I have looked in vain for a forest, or even for an arboretum,
such as that in Edinburgh is becoming, and yet may
become ; and even where a removal of location has been
made to the site now occupied by a school adjacent to a
forest, it has never been from a university town to an
exclusively forest district

In Denmark, the School of Forestry is connected with
tlie School of Agriculture and Rural Economy in Copen-
hagen. In Sweden, the principal School of Forestry is in
Stockholm, and the practical training is effected at a dis-
tance. In Finland, the School of Forestry is at Evois,
adjacent to a forest ; but the practical training is conducted
elsewhere. In Russia, the principal Schools of Forestry
are in St Petersburg and Moscow ; the practical training
is at Lissino. In Saxony, the School of Forestry is at
Tharand, adjacent to a forest. In Prussia, the School of
Forestry is at Eberswalde, adjacent to a forest. In
Hanover, it is at Munden. In Hesse-Darmstadt, the
School of Forestry, after mature deliberation, was incorpo-
rated with the University of Giessen. In Baden, the
School of Forestry is connected with the Polytechnicum
of Carlsruhe In Wurtemburg, it was formerly part of
the Royal Academy of Rural and Forest Economy at
Hohenheim, and is now combined with the University of
Tubingen. In Bavaria, the School of Forestry a<)quired a
high reputation at AschafFenburg, but it has been in part
removed to be combined with the University of Munich.
In Austria, the School of Forestry has been removed from
Mariahrum to Vienna In Italy, the Scliool of Forestry
is at Vallambrosa, in the midst of a forest. In Goth a, the
School of Forestry is in Eisenach, not far from a forest.
In Switzerland, the School of Forestry is combined with
the Polytechnicum at Zurich. In France, the School of
Forestry is in Nancy, adjacent to a forest. In Spain, the
School of Forestry has been removed from Villaviciosa to
the Escurial, wliere an effort is being made to establish an
arboretujn, but with little prospect of success ; and the
maintenance of a Crown forest in a distant province, as a

182 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

special school for practical instruction, has been aban-
doned ; and looking at the experience of Schools of
Industry on the Continent, I ara satisfied that there is no
necessity for the organisation of a School of Forestry in
Britain b'3ing clogged with the supposition that it must
be located in a forest.

II. —Educational Arrangements deemed suitable
FOR A British National School of Forestry.

I was called to give evidence before a Select Committ(3e
of the House of Commons, appointed 12th May, 1886, to
consider whether by the establishment of a forest school
or otherwise our woodlands could be rendered more
remunerative. I was asked among other things —

Q. 202. How far do you think a forest school for the
use of Great Britain should be formed upon the model of
the modern Contiuental schools'? To which I answered—
I am acquainted with every School of Forestry upon the
Continent, and have visited several. There are many
upon the type of which a British school might be formed
there is no one to which as a type the British school
should be conformed, much less any one which would
serve as a model. I was then asked —

Q. 203, Which of their forest schools, upon the whole,
do you think would be the one most nearly adapted to our
requirements? — If in Edinburgh, I should think the
school in Spain.

Other questions followed, which I quote with the
answers given.

204. If the school were established in Edinburgh what
arrangements do you suggest sliould be made in regard to
it? — It depends very much upon the form that it may
take. If it were a private enterprise, managed by the
Arboriculture Society, or the Highland Agricultural
Society, one form ; if it were connected with the Watt
Institute, another; if connected with the University, a
third; if connected with the Museum of Art and Science
under the Committee of Council on Education, a fourth.

205. Which, upon the whole, do you think would be
the best ? — I have a very strong conviction that, upon the

184 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

whole, it is best that it should be connected with the
Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council
on Education, if it were founded upon some such model
as the School of Mines in London, or the School of Science
in Dublin.

207. Would you be prepared to give the Committee a
rather more definite sketch as to how you would propose
to arrange the system?— One great advantage of its being
in connection with the Committee of Council on Educa-
tion is this : it is desirable to have young Scotch foresters
thoroughly educated. They are fitted by heredity, and by
early training, for giving themselves entirely to forest
work; it is, therefore, desirable that they should be
specially trained. In connection with the School of Mines
in London, and the School of Science in DubUn, there is
ample provision made for the support of any of the
students who require support, and yet it is not given as a
dole, or as an alms, but as the result of competitive
examination and merit.

194. Do you consider it would be necessary to have a
tract of wood land closely contiguous to such a school ?—
Not at all.

195. But you would be of opinion, would you not, that
it would be necessary to have control of a tract of woodland,
although it need not necessarily be immediately on the
spot or contiguous P-Imay state my opinion, and that is
the opinion of tho majority of the forest officials, forest
administrators, and professors of forest science on the
Continent-

I'JG. That the management of this particular tract of
forest should be under the control ot those who were
charged with the instruction in theforestschool ; is that so ? —
No ; not at all. The question has come up on the Continent
in this form : a conference of German foresters, forest
adniinistrators, and professors of forest science was held
when the question was discussed : Is it desirable to have
Schools of Forestry as separate and special institutions,
or to have them connected with the higher schools and

ADDfit^DA. 185

universities of the Continent ? It was only incidentally
that the question of forests came up in that connection.
There were only three or four in favour of maintaining
the old special schools in connection with the forests ; the
rest, to a man, were opposed to it.

197. Then you do not tliink it necessary that the
management of the woodlands in which the instruction is
given should be under the control of those who give that
instruction?— Although it is not necessary that it should
be under the control of tho.se communicating the
instruction, it is desirable that tliere should be forests
to which the students along with the professor may have
■access. They may be in the neighbourhood of a school ;
if in such neighbourhood, so much the better; but they
may be 100 miles off, or they may be 200 miles otF. It is
desirable that they should have forests to which they have
access, but it is not necessary ihat those should be under
the control or direction of those communicating the
instruction.

210. Have you prepared a detailed curriculum which
you would suggest. I assume a three years' course of
study ? — 1 have. My suggestions are as follows : —

First Year. — In the Winter Session, let instruction be
given in the structure and physiology of trees and shrubs,
and in the geographical distribution of forests ; in the
treatment of forests by vSartage, by Jardinago, by a tire et
aire, by les comparlnieuts, or the Fachwerke Methods of
Germany; in the appllcaticju of tins to coppice wood, with
a view to securing, along with other a Ivantages, a sustained
production of wood ; and in the application of it to timber
forests, according as tlie object may be to secure from
these a maximum size of timber, or a maximum produce
of wood, or a maximum pecuniary return, along with
natural reproduction, sustained production, and progressive
improvement of the woods; and in m.'asures to be
employed in the conversion of coppice wood into timber
forest, of timber forest into coppice wood, of mixed woods
into either, and of either into mixed woods.

186 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

With attendance on the classes in the University for
the study of natural history, of mathematics, and of
engineering ; or, with attendance on the classes in the
Watt Institution and School of Arts for the study of
mechaoical philosophy and of mathematics.

Summer Session.— Attendance on the classes in the
University for the study of botany and vegetable histology;
and of practical natural history, and of practical
engineering; or attendance on classes, if open, in the
Watt Institution for the study of botany, and of mechanical
and geometrical dra^ving.

Autumn Months.— Tours of observation, with or
without the teacher, in woods and forests in Britain, in
France, in Germany, or in the north of Europe.

Second Year : Winter Months. — Instruction in
regard to forest economy, forest legislation, and forest
literature in Britain, and in France and Germany, countries
in advance of all others in forest science, and in the
practical application of it to the management of forests ;
in Russia, where arrano^ements are being made to
introduce and to carry out extensively the improved
forest management practised in Germany and in France ;
in Finland, where arrangements have been made to
manage the forests in accordance with the requirements
of forest science ; in Sweden, where the latest arrangements
suggested by forest science are being carried out with
vigour; in British colonies, in America, and in India,
where liave been introduced many of the sug^^estions of
modern forest science, and the forest economy practised
on the Continent of Europe.

With attendance on the classes in the University
for the study of theoretic chemistry and practical
chemistry, natural philosophy, and the practical application
of the same ; or with attendance at the classes in the Watt
Institution and School of Arts for the study of chemistry
and practical chemistry, of engineering, and of geology.

Summer and Autumn Months. — Practical experience

ADDENDA. 18?

in the management of woods, or in the management of
nurseries, to be acquired under the direction of approved
foresters, or approved nurserymen.

Third Year : Winter Session" Only. — Instruction in
the chemistry of vegetation and of s nls ; in the meteoro-
logical effects of forests on moisture, on temperature, and
on constituents of the atmosphere ; in sylviculture, as
applied in Belgium, &c., to utilise waste lands ; in the
lands of France, to arrest and utilise drift sands ; in the
Alps, the Cdvennes, and the Pyrenees, to prevent the
disastrous effects and consequences of torrents; on the
Karst, in Illyria^ to restore fertility to land rendered
sterile by the destruction of trees ; in the United States
of America, to prevent anticipated evils ; in India, to
secure desiderated good ; in Britain, to increase amenity,
covert, and shelter;— and instruction in the injurious
effects of cattle, insects, and various diseases on trees.

With attendance on the classes in the University for
the study of geology, of agriculture, and, if it be desired,
any of the following : for the study of political economy,
of conveyancing, or of bandaging and surgical appliances ;
or with attendance on the classes in the Watt Institution
for the study of animal physiology, of German, or of
French. I may add, that in connection with the above
studies I would advise that a course of instruction should
be given in forest botany, in forest mycology, or the study
of fungi, in forest entomology, in forest ornithology, and
in furest masology.

214. This elaborate course of study that you suggest, I
presume, was only for those foresters who are to be
employed abroad in public work ? — My view is that the
students should b^ trained as stu lents, and, if necessary,
fitted for any appointment in India and the colonies, or
at home, by their baing thoroughly qualified scientific
students of forestry, with the full knowledge of the
practical application to be made of the science.

188 J'ORESTRY m GERMANY.

215. What interests proprietors in Scotland more is the
kind of smaller education to be given to the foresters to
whom we pay, say, from £80 to £100 a-year ; have you
any plan to suggest which would lay down the principles
for the systematic training of such men ? — I consider that
if such an idea as I have thrown out were followed such
students could attend the Watt Institute at comparatively
small expense. They might attend one year or more, and
arrangements might be made for giving them instruction
in the evening, so that they might support themselves by
workiufTj in the nurseries in the nei<2fhbourhood of
Edinburgh. If it were considered unadvisable that they
should go through a two and a-half years' course, there
could be no difficulty in the professor giving a short
summary of forest science in its application to practical
forestry in 50 lectures, or in 100 lectures ; and the
attendance upon such lectures, of course, would clearly
meet the case of such persons as you have referred to. I
have been long desirous that forestry should be introduced
into our primary schools. The arrangements made at
Kensinorton are such as would facilitate this beino^ done
at very little expense, and thus there would be raised up
a body of well-instructed woodmen, forest labourers, and
others.

216. Colonel Pearson told us that he thought a
sufficiently practical course might be given to foresters of
this stamp in three mouths ; do you agree with that i? — I
do not believe it- Referring to the views that are
entertained by foresters, forest administrators who are
Government officials, and professors of forest science, their
general impression appears to me to be that it is desirable
that when students are at college they should be at
college, and that when they are in the forest they should
be in the forest ; that they should be at the school the
whole time, except on Saturday afternoon excursions to
the forest, and then spend some time, say three months,
six months, or whatever time may be allovved them in
practical work in the forests.

ADDENDA. 189

217. Where would you propose that they should go for
their practical work from the Watt Institute ? — For
practical work there are a number of forests which are
conducted in an excellent way, and the foresters there, I
have no doubt, would be willing, with the consent of the
proprietors, to make arrangements for receiving such
students for three months if there be a winter and a
summer session, or six months if they have only a winter
session. But, apart from that, an idea thrown out by
Captain Mackenzie, who has charge of Epping Forest,
was that a school should be established in connection with
Epping Forest. And he suggested that the students
should be engaged in practical wrrk in Epping Forest,
and that, after a year there, the students should ^o on to
W^indsor Forest for twelve months, or to some other of
the Crown forests. J asked him if he would be willing to
engage students from Edinburgh, paying them wages and
engaging them in the same way as students from the home
college, and he said, * Certainly.'

229. Have you formed any idea as to the probable
expense of such an undertaking ; how much the Govern-
ment would be called upon to contribute ? — I consider
that the cheapest arrangement would be one connected
with the Watt Institute, towards which the Government
would not be called upon to contribute anything ; but
then there is the want of prestige, and 1 refer to the
effect of prestige in preventing distinguished teachers
getting pupils, and getting employment for the pupils,
when once they have passed through the course. 'J'he
cheapest arrongement, combined with prestige, would
be the establishment of a professorship in the
University, because then we would have a definite
sum, and we could not go beyond it. It would be more
expensive, I believe, having a School of Forestry organised
in connection with the Committee of Council on Education;
but it need not be much more expensive at first. The
great expense would be, when once it has been seen, as I
have no doubt it will be seen in a year or two >ears, that
it is desirable to go on increasing the training stati".

190 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

230. But you have no doubt that a professor in the
University of Edinburgh would answer the present
pui-poses ? — A great deal would depend upon the professor.
You have no security that you would have a professor
with the necessary encyclopaedic information to succeed
the first or the second professor, and there is very great
danger of the piofcssorship degenerating into a mere
respectable sinecure. There is less risk of that, I consider,
in connection with the Council of Education.

231. You would hardly expect, from a practical point
of view, a forester who had not had any great training in
this way, except practically, to attend classes in Edinburgh
over a space of three years?— Hence the advantage of
having what I may call an experimental or tentative
course of lectures for one year and seeing what could be
done, and then entering upon a larger course subsequently
if this be found successful.

232. It is your opinion that they could get sufficient
information in the course of one year's lectures
independently of the practical experience in the forest?
— They would get the scientific information with illustra-
tions of its practical application.

233. Then you propose that they should go into the
practical work of forestry at a subsequent period of their
education? — Yes, and if they would attend the summer
course they might keep the autumn free for this. The
autumn should certainly be spent in practical work ; and
if there is not a summer course they should spend the
whole summei- in practical work. But, as has been
mentioned by Colonel Pearson, on the Continent
the students go great distances with the professors ;
they frequently go into other countries, and if they
had a professor qualified to take them to any of the
countries upon the Continent of Europe, and acquainted
with the languages, I have no doubt that this might be
satisfactoiily ai ranged. In the last number of Forestry
it is suggested that they should go even to Canada.

234. Your view would be that these young men should

ADDENBA. I9I

attend classes at the College, as they attend other classes
for the purpose of general education ?— Yes ; I consider
that if in connection with the Museum of Science and
Art it is only necessary to have classes in forestry, all the
accessary studies can be pursued either at the University
or at the Watt Institute according to the means of
students. If a student be able to go to the University,
and attend the University classes, he can do so ; if he
have not the means or the dispositioQ to attend the
University he can go to the Watt Institute and get a
thorough instruction upon the accessary subjects, leaving
no necessity for anything more being done but to provide
for what are strictly forest professional studies.

235. But you assume that the student would have to
give up both time and attention to that particular study
while at the University ?— That \\ould be exceedingly
desirable; but there are many young men who support
themselves by teaching while at the University ; and if
the arrangements of the hours were such, and a forester
wished to support himself by engaging in work in the
nursery, he might then attend the evening classes of the
Watt Institute for all the accessary subjects, mathematics,
geology, road-making, and everything of that kind.

236. Then he would pursue his course of instruction
during the ordinary curriculum of his University education?
— Yes.

211. Hitherto I have asked you questions with regard
to the advantages which might be derived from the
instruction given to the students ; would you suggest that
in such a school, if established, there should be any
opportunity for research as to the different circumstances
atiecting forest products ? — I consider that it would be
exceedingly desirable. There are now established at the
seats of several of the Schools of Forestry upon the
Continent stations for research ; they are not connected
with the school, they are supported by the Government,
but placed at the seat of the school in order that the
students may have the benefit of the professor there ; and

192 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

in some of the schools I have referred to, as in that in
Spain, where they have failed to secure such an
experimental station, very great advantage has resulted
from the students being encouraged by the professor to
engage in research upon a smaller scale.

212. Would you propose that such a school should
likewise make any experiments with regard to the
suitability of particular soils, exposure, the combination or
association of different trees one with another, and other
similar problems ? — There are no objections to their doing
so. These stations for research, to which I have referred,
have an international connection; when one is formed
they communicate with the others, and state the particular
department to which they intend to give their attention,
and they leave the rest to the others, so that no two of
them shall bo occupying the field of research.

III. — School of Forest Engineers in Spain, Cited
AS indicative of a Type for a British National
School of Forestry.

In 1877 I published a brochure, entitled Schools of
Forefitri/ in Europe : a Plea for the Erection of a School
of Forestry in connection with the Arboretum in Edinburgh,
in which I stated that with the acquisition of that arboretum,
and existing arrangements for study in the University, and
in the Watt Institute, there were required only facilities
for the study of what is known on the Continent as Forest
Science, to enable these institutions conjointly, or either
of them, with the help of the otlier, to take a place
amongst the most completely equipped schools of forestry
in Europe, and to undertake the training of foresters for
the discharge of such duties as are required of them in
India, in our Colonies, or at home.

In May, 1886, I gave evidence on the subject before
a Committee appointed by the House of Commons to con-
sider whether by the establishment of a Forest School
or otherwise, our woodlands could be rendered more
productive, and in illustration of a statement made by me
in doing so, I subsequently published a volume entitled
School of Forest Engineers in Spain, indicative of a type for a
British School of Forestry. In this I have given informa-
tion in regard to advantages offered by Edinburgh as
an appropriate site for such an institution ; information
in regard to what might be done by the organisation of a
School of Forestry tliere under the Science and Art
Department of the Committee of Council on Education, or
by the establishment of a Professorship of Forestry in the
University, or a lectureship on that subject in the Watt
Institute, or in connection with some public body, with
details of the advantages offered by each of these alter
native measures, inclusive of the question of expense.

0

194 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

The characteristic type of the Schools of Forestry
in Germany is that they are adapted to fit into the other
educational arrangements of the country, which are
different from what have as yet been introduced into the
transitional development of national education in Britain.
But the arrangement of the Schools of Forest Engineers
in Spain are free from all trammels which might operate
prejudicially if imposed on students of forestry in this
country. The similarity of the climate and conditions
of soil in Spain to what exist in more than one of our
colonies, and the encyclopaedic character of the education,
iustruction, and training given under the conditions of
of Spain to fit the aspirants for admission into the Corps
of Forest Engineers, seemed to me, when questioned on
the subject by a Committee of the House of
Commons, to indicate a type of the kind of school
required in Britain.

I have in common, I presume, with all who know them,
an unbounded admiration for students of forest science in
Germany engaged in the prosecution of investigations
pursued in the stations for forestral experimental
research at the sites of several of the Schools of Forestry
in Germany and elsewhere, and for the professors and
practitioners of forest science and forest economy in
that land, and I consider it no disparagement of their
attainments or of their work to consider that what meets
the requirements of their country would not exactly meet
the requirements of ours. Again, my testimony was not
of a model but of a type which may be reproduced
with divergences which could be inconsistent with con-
formity to a model, — conformity to a type, leaving the
projector free to incorporate in his scheme anything and
everything compatible with ideas which he may find
anywhere if it can be shown to be desirable for the
accomplishment of what is designed ; and I have referred to
the School of Forest Engineers in Spain only as indicative
of tbe kind of school, which, according to my views, is
required to meet our case ; and it is all the more so that it

ADDENDA. 195

admits of the incorporation of an indefinite number of sug-
gestions which may result from the most extensive
acquaintance with what is being done in Schools of
Forestry anywhere.

It has been gratifying to me to find that my volume
the School of Forest Engineers in Spain has been approved
by competent authorities there ; and as the volume may
be considered to possess some interest as an account of
that School, irrespective of the suggestion that it may
supply a type for a British School of Forestry, I cite
the following notices of the volume which have appeared
in Spanish Reviews : —

Notice in Revista Contemporanea, by Senor Don Rafael
Alvarez Sereix, Engineer of the First Class in Corps of
Forest Engineers, Member of the Spanish Geographical
and Statistical Commission, and author of the following
works : —
Determinacion de la masa l^Fiosa (h un inoate, por P. Nico (tiwd.

del Italiano) — Madrid, 1860.
Elemenios de tasacion forestall por P. Piccoli (tcad. del Italiano).

—Madrid, 1880.
Cartas de Navarra^ — Madrid, 1880.
La desamortizacibn forestal. — Madrid, 1883.
Estudios hotdnico — forestales (1.^ serie). — Madrid, 1884.
Geografia botdnica — Lugo, 1884.

Estudios hotdnico — forestales (2.* serie). — Madrid, 1885.
Cuestiones cientificas. — Madrid, 1885.

La opinion de la prensa sohre los montes puhlicos. — Madrid, 188G.
Discursos p7'onunci<idos en la Asociacion de Agricultores de

Espaiia. — Madrid, 1886.
Adiciones y enmiendas d la idtima edicion del Diccionaaio c/^ !a

Academia Es2xuwla. — Madrid, 1886.

'If we had not known long the distinguisbed author of
this work ; if we had not known that he is a naturalist of
advanced age, of great erudition and of wondrous activity
Professor for some years in Capetown, Cape of Good
Hope, and in the University of Aberdeen ; if we bad not

196 FOEESTBY IN GEBMAKY.

read before now valuable works by him on a multitude ef
questions, mainly forestal, in which he gives an exposition
of modern ForestEconomy, describesthe Forests of England,
of Norway, of Finland, and of Northern Russia, treats of
the celebrated French Ordinance of 1669, of the planting
of the sandunes of the adjacent Republic, of the works of
reboisement in that country, of the hydrology of South
Africa, and of the influence of forests on humidity of
climate, &c. — even if all these had been unknown to us,
the publication of this work, School of Forest Engineers in
Spain, would have been sufficient to awaken in us interest
and to quicken affectionate sympathy. For how can we do
other than feel an extraordinary interest in a respected man
of science, who, well-nigh an octogenarian in age, undertakes
a journey to Spain, establi^^hes himself at the Escurial,
examines in detail the School of Forest Engineers there—
that school of which many Spaniards are oblivious, and,
sad to tell, utterly unknown by not a few --going through its
cabinets, examining its rich library, studies with diligence
the Spanish language, and, supplied with many of the
works which have been published in regard to our forests,
liberally presented to him by the authors, returns to his
home in Haddington, glances through them full of
enthusiasm, reads and re-reads, meditates upon them for
hours, and at last composes the work to which we refer ?

' In this he first gives an account of the origin of the
Corps of Forest Engineers of Spain. In the second and
third chapters he occupies himself with the oiigin and
development of the School of b'orestry, from its being
founded in the village of Villaviciosa de Odon to the
present time ; details the branches of study taken each
vear, the extent to which this is carried, and the manner
in which the instruction is given. Dr Brown devotes the
fourth chapter to an examination of some of the valuable
wor^s in the library, and, with a prediliction for those
written by the foiest engineers, he devotes attention
on these. With a view to methodising this work he
divides this chapter into seven sections, in which he

ADDENDA. 197

treats successively of those relating to mathematics,
chemistry, meteorology, botany, sylviculture, &c. ; and in
succeeding chapters he applies what had been seen in
Spain to demonstrate the indubitable benefit which would
result to the United Kingdom from the organisation of a
National School of Forestry, and the abandonment of the
system of sending young meu who are required for the
service of the Government in management of State forests
to study in the School at Nancy.

' It is now a good many years since Dr Brown, impressed
with the necessity of some such reform to meet the re-
quirements of his country, first directed his energies to
demonstrate the benefits to his country which might
thence result, and to endeavour to provide for its being
effected. Adhering ever since unwaveringly to his con-
viction on this point, he has been called on to take part
in several commissions created in view of this ; and besides
giving evidence before a Committee of Parliament, in
illustration of which evidence this volume has been pub-
lished, he has supplied trustworthy information on this
question in other works which he has published ; and now
in that country, parsimonious hitherto in what it has
done, the idea seems to be making way ; and already not
a few consider that at least a trial to give effect to it
should be made.

* We trust that ere very long this will be done, bringing
much, good to that powerful nation; and that Dr Brown
may live to hail the day as one of the most happy in his
long and useful life.

' We who feel ourselves honoured by his devoting a
volume to the study of our School of Forestry, pray
fervently that that day may come ; and meanwhile we send
to him in his quiet home, in which he is engaged in tho
preparation of other works, an expression of our gratitude,
and an assurance of our admiration.

(Signed) R. ALVAREZ Seheix.'

198 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

Notice in Revista de Monies, by lUustrisimo Seuor Don
Castel y Clemente, Chief of Second Class in the Corps of
Forest Engineers, Deputy to the Cortes, Superior Deputy
Chief of the Civil Administration, Chevalier of Isabel, the
Catholic, &c., and author of the following works : —
Mmwgrajia dasogrdjica del hay a. — Madrid, 1873.
Memoria sohre la inliiLencia de la lujia en la vegetacioii. — Madrid,

1875.
Noticia sohre la fundacwn y desarollo de la Escuela especial de

liigenieros de Monies. — Madrid, 1877.
Estudios sohre el tanino. (Memoria premiada por la Real

Academia de Ciencias). — Madrid, 1879.
Descnpcion fiscia, geogmstica, agricola y forestai de la provincia

de Guadaljara. (Publicada por la Comisioa del Mapa

geologico de Espauc/). — Madrid, 1882.
Memoria sohre la^ condiciones naturales y produccion agricola y

forested de la Peninsula Escandijiava. — Madrid, 1883.
Comhiistibles vegetales : Teoria y pra/^tica de la combustion,

carhonizacion y destilacion de la madera. — Madrid, 1885.
* The surprise which undoubtedly will be felt by the
greater part of the readers of the Revista on the
announcement of this work I experienced, and candidly
acknowledge that such was the case, on my receipt of the
neatly-bound volume, -svith a most kind dedication, for
which I am truly grateful to the distinguished and learned
author of it, who has during some years past devoted his
great activity to the study and diffusion of Forest Science,
and to the advocacy of the establishment of a School of
Forestry in Britain. The name of Dr John Croumbie
Brown is familiar to all students of that science following
the literary movements in connection with it during these
late years.

'The Revista de Modes — Forest Review — has
repeatedly taken occasion to bring under considera-
tion the more important works amongst the publica-
tion of this distinguished naturalist ; and on more than
one occasion, while expressing admiration of the prodigious
fecundity, and remarkable persisting perseverance of the
author, intimated the satisfaction that a writer of such

ADDENDA. 199

authority, and one who has such an acquaintance with the
organisation of the other Schools of Forestry in Europe,
should give his attention, and concede special importance
to that of Spain as one indicative of a type deemed
suitable to be followed in the organisation of some future
School of Forestry in Britain, the creation of which was
being advocated by him. To add that Dr Brown, in his
last published volume, speaks of things in Spain as one
well acquainted with them, detailing facts and citing
data which have not previously been published in Spain,
will not appear to be an extravagant statement to those
who know on the one hand the searching diligence of the
forestal chronicler from the other side of the British
Channel, and on the other hand the indifference with
which is regarded amongst ourselves what relates to the
prestige of that which we, having such important interests
involved, should take special care to secure that it receives
due appreciation in the country.

' The first chapter of the book to which we refer treats
of the origin and development of the Corps of Forest
Engineers, and of the special school of the Department in
our country. He is a faithful chronicler of facts, coincid-
ing in his judgment with the auhor of the Notitia sobre el
origen y desarrollo de la Escmla de Ingenieros de Monies en
Espanna — Notices of the origin and development of the
special School of Forest Engineers in Spain. The first
part serves as a requisite introduction to the other parts
of the volume ; and it also serves to show that the neces-
sary reforms have not been impositions practised on the
villages, but that in these, and in their evolution or suc-
cessive developments, they have given a permanent
influence to the special character and inherent conditions
of the primary impulse at the time of the creation. He
describes, in continuation of the School of the Escurial,
the studies pursued there by the students, giving
in an abbreviated resumS the programmes of study
in the different branches, and the subjects which consti-
tute the course of instruction required to be given to the

^ FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

engineers. Taking occasion of the examination of this,
and in methodic order based on the different departments
of science taught to them, the author gives an analysis,
with considerable detail in most cases, of all and each of
the works written by the Spanish Forest Engineers, and
of some which are not so, in reference to tlie subject
matters of this instruction, constituting with regard to
this the most complete bibliography which has been pre-
pared and published on this important department of the
sci entitle activity of the forest officials of onr country.

' I shall not say a word in commendation of the ele-
vated standard and the careful solicitude with which Dr
Brown has prepared this chapter of his work, as the cor-
respondence of our views gives me a personal interest in
the matter.

' In the chapter headed Excursions, the respected
Ex -Professor from the Cape gives an account of all of the
more important excursions made from the founding of
the school till now by the professors or students for the
study of forest practice ; and also those which have been-
made by professors and forest engineers into foreign
lands, either in connection with commissions to visit the
International Exhibitions held in London, Vienna, and
Philadelphia, or to study particular points connected with
instruction, the reboisement of dunes, forest industries, &c.

'Dr Brown, who under the snow of age, gallahtly sustained
by a vigorous constitution, knows what it is to carry a
heart always open to recollections and enthusiasm, not
depressed by disappointment, but elevated by hope, has
made his own the hymn of the first foresters of Spain,
transcribing first in Spanish and then in English that
hymn with its opening strophe A I campo marchemos ! Nor
less thrilling than the concluding strophe was the effect
produced on me by reading in English that anti-strophe or
chorus so often sung in our excursions in 1867 to the
forests of the Guadarama —

•'Cotta the learned I thy children in Spain
Invoke thy name which is now immortal."

ADDENDA. 201

'The remaining chapters are devoted to making manifest
the conveniences which exist for establishing forestal
instruction in Britain, discussing all the questions which
present themselves at once relative to the choice of a site
for the establishment of a school, the extent and form of
instruction required, the expense which provision for this
would entail, &c.

' It is nothing new for us to hear well-
merited commendations bestowed upon the establishment
and organisation of the School of Forestry in Spain. We
know the opinions of illustrious foresters in Germany,
published some years ago, in accredited reviews of that
country, according to which our former school in Villa-
viciosa, for its programme of study, its regulations, the
riches of its museums, and the special stamp which has
always characterised it, w^as presented as a model in that
classic land of forest science, which delights to see order,
method, and discipline, as the distinctive characters of all
its institutions ; but it is none the less satisfactory that
that judgment should be maintained in the present: and
after all, throwing aside all idea of presumption, which
would be ridiculous, it is always pleasing and strengthen-
ing to conviction to see that there is something deemed
deserving of imitation in a country looked upon with such
indifference, and that perhaps not altogether unjustified,
by its own not unjustifiable neglect.

* The continuous advocacy by Dr Brown during these
latter years has been followed with the effect that the
opinion is spreading in his country with manifest indica-
tions of conviction that the views whicli he urges in this
matter are of grave import to Great Britain, not only
in relation to its home territory, but more and more par-
ticularly in order to the increase of commerce and pro-
duction in the vast territories of her colonies. In this
matter, if I be not greatly mistaken, it is my belief that at
no distant time there will be established a School of
Forestry in Edinburgh ; and meanwhile, without waiting
for that, I invite all my associates, who see in Dr Brown

202 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

an enthusiast in our science, and a loving friend of the
Forest Engineers of Spain, to unite in fraternal saluta-
tions to him ; and in conclusion, in the behalf of these
foresters, we send to him, with sincere gratitude, these
pages of this Revista,

' Madrid, 25th October, 1886.

' (Signed) CARLOS Castel.'

IV. — Treatises ox ^Iatters pertaining to Modern
Forest Science and Forest Economy, Proferred
FOR Publication in the English Language.

Pending the creation of a public opinion in favour of
the establishment of a British National School of Forestry,
useful information in regard to Forest Economy, based on
the advanced forest science of the day may be disseminated
through the press ; and thereafter the publications em-
bodying this may prove helpful to students desirous of
extending their studies beyond the instruction communi-
cated in the classes attended by them.

In the volume entitled School of Forest Engineers in
Spain, indicative of a type for a British National School of
Forestry, I had occasion to state ; ' We have an extensive
and valuable literature relative to A.rboriculture. For this
there is, and ever has been, a demand : but with works on
Sylviculture, Modern Forest Science, and Modern Forest
Economy, it is otherwise. Nor is there yet such a demand
for works of this kind as would make it pecuniarly
remunerative to any to engage largely in the publication
of such works ; but as the demand increases so will the
supply.

' But a beginning has been made. In so far as I have
taken part in this I have done so in anticipation of a
future demand, and not in consequence of any manifesta-
tion of a felt want. In reference to the rapid supply of
works on forestry in the Spanish language of late years,
which I have noted, I may remark that this did not occur
until after several successive batches of students had
entered upon the active duties of their profession. It was
then that it became manifest wherein the existing forestal

204 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

literature of the country was deficient in view of the
requirements of the day ; and then that the desire for infor-
mation induced purchase and perusal. And it is note-
worthy that even still in connection with the publication
of almost all of the Spanish works referred to, including
the most expensive and least popular of them, the writers
are relieved of the expense of publication. It is not so
with us.'

In connection with this statement there are given notices
of the contents of several treatises which I have published.
I am prepared to proceed with the publication of others ;
but I am straitened by lack of funds. Silver and gold
have I not ; but what I have I am prepared to give.

My attention was first given to the Forestry and Hydraulic
Engineering of Spain, in consequence of the similarity of the
climatic conditions of the Peninsula to those of South
Africa, which I had studied with some attention, and of a
perception that the remedial measures adopted in Spain
were adapted to meet and counteract corresponding evils in
South Africa. With both I have long been familiar, but
I had occasion to visit Spain in the summer and autumn
of 1885, when I had many facilities afforded me of verifying
and extending information I had previously procured ; and
in the end of the year I sent a letter in triplicate to
editors of newspapers, published at the Ca;)e of Good
Hope, of which the following is a copy :

' Haddington, 16th Deer., 1885.

* Sir, — May I ask of you in the interests of the Colony
to give publicity to the following statement ?

' During the years 1863-1866 I held at the Cape of Good
Hope, along with the Professorship of Botany in the
South African College, the office of Colonial Botanist, —
an office established in 1858, created with the twofold
object — 1st, of ascertaining and making generally known
the economic resources of the Colony as regards its indi-
geneous vegetable productions, and its fitness for the

ADDENDA. 205

growth of valuable exotic trees and other plants ; and
2nd, of perfecting a knowledge of the flora of South
Africa, and thus contributing to the advance of botanical
science.

'Appended to my report as Colonial Botanist for the
year 1886 was a list of upwards of 460 names of South
African trees, shrubs, and arborescent herbs, upon the
natural history, or botanic characters, or economic uses of
which a report was forthcoming, if desired ; the list consist-
ing of English, Dutch, Kaffir, Sechuana, Damara, or Hotten-
tot names, by which these are known at the Cape, alpha-
betically arranged with their botanic synonyms. 2. An
abstract of a memoir prepared relative to the forests and
forest lands of South Africa. 3. An abstract of a memoir
prepared relative to the forest economy of the Colony.
4. An abstract of a memoir prepared relative to arbori-
culture in the Colony. 5. An abstract of a memoir pre-
pared on the hydrology of South Africa. 6. An abstract
of a memoir prepared on irrigatioii and its application to
agricultural operations in South Africa. And, 7. Observa-
tions on the agricultural capabilities of the Colony, and
requirements for the developments of these.

* Since my return to Europe 1 have repeatedly, in cor-
respondence with South Africa, made mention of the
similarity of the climate and physical conditions- of Spain
to those of the Colony, and of the appropriateness for
adoption in South Africa, of the measures adopted in
Spain to secure the conservation and scientific exploitation
of forests, and the retention and economic application of
the water furnished by the rainfall, as conjointlv means of
arresting the desiccation, and counteracting the aridity of
the country.

' Similar measures 1 advocated unceasingly during my
tenure of office at the Cape, and in a volume which I pub-
lished in 1875, entitled: ' Hydrology of South Africa, or
Details of the Former Hydrographic Conditions of the Cape
of Good Hope, and of Causes of its Present Aridity, with
Suggestions of Appropriate Remedies for this Aridity,' I

206 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

endeavoured to show that the appropriate remedies are
the erection of dams to prevent the escape of a portion of
the rainfall to the sea ; the abandonment or restriction of
the burning of the Veldt ; the conservation and extension
of existing forests : and the adoption of measures similar
to the reboisement and gazonnement carried out in
France, with a view to prevent the formation of torrents,
and the destruction of property occasioned by them.

' This year I spent two months in Spain in frequent
intercourse with distinguished members of the Corps of
Forest Engineers, with some of whom I have had correspon-
dence on such matters for years ; and by them I was
afforded every facility I could desire for verifying and in-
creasing the information I had previously collected. I
have now completed the arranging of the information I
thus procured, and incorporating w4th it the information
I had previously obtaiued ; and the whole I have em-
bodied in a series of treatises or reports on the following
subjects, viz.: 1. Forestry in Spain; 2. Forestal and
Hydraulic Engineering ; 8. Forestal and Rural Industries,
including, amongst others, the production of cork — the
collecting of resin from conifers — the collecting of esparto
grass — the treatment of merino sheep — the culture of the
olive — the preparation of silk — and the making of wine.
4. The natural history of the phylloxera, and appliances
adopted to prevent its ravages. 5. The natural history of
the locust, and measures applicable to its destruction.

' It is not m}^ intention to publish these on my own
account, or otherwise, than as a contribution towards the
development of the agricultural capabilities and rural
economy of South Africa, in furtherance of the design of
the office of Colonial Botanist which 1 held at the Cape;
and I am prepared to carry through the press, free of all
expense, beyond the charge of the printer for paper and
work, an edition of 100 copies, or of such other number as
may be desired, if provision be made for meeting that
expense, leaving me free, if I think proper, to have at my
own expense other copies thrown off before the types may

ADDENDA. 207

be distributed : these extra copies to be at my disposal
for distribution by sale or otherwise.

' I take the liberty to offer through you to do this, and
to add I shall feel gratified if that offer be accepted. —
I am, Sir, respectfully yours, John C. Brown.'

The offer has lapsed, but I now renew it, and extend
the offer to all -who may be willing to co-operate with me
in the enterprise.

In the communication made in triplicate to newspapers
published at the Cape of Good Hope there are mentioned
several memoirs or reports which I prepared while hold-
ing the office of Colonial Botanist and Government Botanist
in that Colony. One of these related to rivers of South
Africa, with notices of inundations by wliich they are
characterised, and of irrigation works by which they
might be utilised, and of difficulties, physical and other,
in the way of works of extensive irrigation being carried
out at the Cape, and the means of accomplishing these
which are at command. To this I have since added
similar notices of the most important rivers of Africa— the
Zambesi, the Congo, and the Nile. In regard to that
memoir I addressed, under date of 15th September, 1881,
a memorial to the Legislative Assembly, stating that, m
view of what had been accomplished in Spain, I con-
sidered that it would be pecuniarly advantageous to the
Colony that the Commissioner of Crown Lands and Public
Works, the Members of the Legislature, and others, should
have access to ihe information embodied in it, and offer-
ing to carry through the press an edition of it, free of all
expense to the Colony, beyond w4iat might be charged by
the printer for his work, and for paper and binding.

Others related to forest management at the Cape of Good
Hope in times past, latterly, and at present ; to the forests
and forest lands of South Africa, from the Cape of Good
Hope to the Zambesi — to which I liave since added similar
information in regard to the forests of Central Africa

208 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

between the Zambesi and the Sahara ; and with regard to
these the Report on South African trees, arborescent shrubs,
and bushes; and the memoir on arboriculture in South
Africa, with details of what has been done, and
of what may be done, in planting trees at the Cape
of Good Hope, with a view thereby to securing
ornamentation, moisture, shelter, fuel^ or timber. I
addressed to the Legislative Assembly, under date
of 13th September, 1881, a memorial stating that
abstracts of these were appended to the Report of the
Colonial Botanist for 1866, which was submitted to Parlia-
ment while it was engaged in carrying out sweeping
measures of retrenchment ; that in the light
of the information I had obtained in regard to the
advanced forest economy of Continental Europe,
and in view of the reported appoiutment of a
Forest Commission in the Colony, 1 considered it would
be pecuniarly advantageous to the Colony that the said
Commission, and also the Commissioner of Crown Lands,
the Members of the Legislature, and others, should have
access to these Memoirs, and offering to carry through the
press copies of the original reports, which were still in my
possession, and to do so free of all expense to the Colony,
beyond what might be charged by the priuter for his
work, and for paper and binding what copies might be
required.

In illustration of the importance of the matters
to which these refer, I may mention that Count de
Vasselot, now Superintendent of woods and forests in the
Colony, reported in 1882 of these, which twenty years
before were being recklessly destroyed, and were bringing
in to the treasur} a clear revenue of but a few hundreds of
pounds. ' The first step in enlisting professional
knowledge has been taken, allowing us to begin .systematic
forestry ; minor considerations should not be allowed to
tiun us aside, or impede progress in the path on which
we have entered. I may, in conclusion, once more repeat
my opinion that the Crown Forests, regularly worked,

ADDENDA. 209

would produce a revenue of at least £235,000 — this being
the sum which leaves the country every year to pay for
imported wood. Its forests ought to be a mine of gold to
the Colony ; while the plantations, and re-foresting of
mountains will, in conjunction with hydraulic works, turn
to the best account the rainfall of the country. Irrigation
would then be easier, and agriculture a veritable mine of
diamonds.'

In illustration of the importance of what is thus
alluded to, and of the subjects treated of in the
memoir On the Ewers of Africa, I may cite the following
statement from the Preface to a volume entitled :
Rehoisement in France, or Records of the Replanting of the
Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees, with Trees, Berthage,
and Bush, with a view to arresting and preventing the
destructive consequences and effects of Torrents, published in
1876 — ' I have before me details of destructive effects of
torrents which have occurred since I left the Colony in
the beginning of 1807. Towards the close of that year
there occurred one, the damage occasioned by which to
roads and to house property at Port Elizabeth alone was
estimated at from £25,000 to £30,000. Within a year
thereafter a similar destructive torrent occurred at Natal,
in regard to which it was stated that the damage done to
public works alone was estimated at £50,000, and the loss
to private persons was estimated variously from £50,000 to
£100,000. In the following year, 1869,atorrent in the West-
ern Province occasioned the fall of a railway bridge, which
issued in loss of life and loss of property, and personal
injuries, for one case alone of which the railway pro-
prietors were prosecuted for damages amounting to
£5000. In Beaufort Wtst a deluge of rain wiished down
the dam, and the next year the town was Hooded by the
waters of tlie Gamka ; and the next year, 1871, Victoria
West was visited with a similar disaster. Such are the
sums and the damages with which we have to deal in con-
wectiou with this question, as it affects the case; and

?

210 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

these are only the most remarkable torrents of the several
years referred to.

* Towards the close of last year, 1874, still more disas-
trous effects were produced by torrential floods. Accor-
ding to the report given by one of the Colonial news-
papers, the damages done could not be estimated at much
less than £300,000. According to the report given by
another, the damage done to public works alone was esti-
mated at £350,000.'

There are other countries, besides South Africa,
in which the information embodied in these
treatises might be useful ; and I am prepared to carry
through the press an edition of any one or more of them
on the same terms as those stated in the offer made to the
Cape Parliament : That is to say, free of all charges
beyond those of the printer for paper and work, provided
I be allowed, before the types be distributed, to have
extra impressions thrown off, at my own expense, for dis-
tribution by me, by sale or otherwise as I may deem
expedient.

Some years since, in correspondence with the late
Dr Franklin B, Hough, when he was at the head of the
Forestry Division of the Department of Agi'iculture, in the
Government of the United States in America, I had occa-
sion to state what aid I could give in the accomplishment
of an enterprise in which he w^as engaged heart and sou],
calmly and coolly, but with all the self-denying energy
manifested by not a few of his compatriots in endeavours
to serve their generation according to the will of God. In
connection with this correspondence, I prepared a letter
to be addressed to five or six of my correspondents in
America, who were like-minded, more than one of whom
pre-deceased Dr. Hough, and more than one have followed
him to the great gathering— the General Assembly of the
First-born in Heaven. It was found preferable to writing
out copies to have the letter printed ; and this being done

ADDENDA. 211

extra impressions were ordered, and these were somewhat
extensively distributed. Of this letter the following is a
copy : —

'Haddington (Scotland), 10th December, 1879.

' My Dear Sir,

' In view of the interest you have manifested in the
advancement of Forest Science and Forest Economy, I take
the liberty to solicit your kind aid in the matter referred to in
the following lines.

* I expect to be able in the course of this winter to bring
toward completion a compilation, and. when necessary, transla-
tion, of oflBcial and other notices of Forestry in the diflfereut
countries of Europe, a work on which I have been engaged for
several years past. 1 have made such arrangements that
these compilations shall, I hope, in no case prove to have been
made altogether in vain ; but, by the death within these last
few months, of more than one of my near relatives of the same
age, by the death, withiu a period somewhat longer, of more
than one of my correspondents in this work, and by a cou-
eciousness of my strength being less than it has been, I am
reminded that I must not lose time in publishing these com-
pilations if I would have them carried through the press
before I die. For reasons, which I shall state immediately, I
wish that they could be published in the United States of
America; and I wish much that you would bring the matter
under the consideration of some enterprising publisher in
America, with such remarks on the subject as you may think
fit to offer.

' My attention to the official documents, and ether works from
which these compilations and translations have been made,
was given mainly in consequence of having seen, during a pro-
fessional engagement at the Cnpe of Good Hope, the reckless
way in which vahmble forests were being exploited and
debtro)'ed, and { my inability, after my return to Europe, lo
specify any work in the English language in which thoj»e who
were interested in the conservation, the more economic exploi-
tation, and the extension of these forests, might find detailed
information in regard to the treatment of forests in accordance
with the advanced forest science of the day ; and having the
kisure of old age, I sought to supply the desideratum as I best

212 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

could. I possessed, perhaps, exceptional opportunitiea r ior
doing so ; of these I availed myself; others presented theaa*
selves ; they -were not allowed to slip past unimproved ; and
throughout these years I have had correspondence and personal
intercourse in their own lands, with many who were engaged
in the study, the direction, the administration, or the manage-
ment of forest operations on the Continent of Europe and
elsewhere.

' My desire to have my compilations published in the United
States may be in part the result of a life-long intercourse with
American friends, whom I have highly esteemed, and of sym-
pathy with the spirit and the principles of American institu-
tions; but it comes more immediately from my knowledge
that much is being done to secure the conservation, economic
exploitation, and extension of forests in several of the States.
It is my persuasion that the information I have to communi-
cate will be more valued, and this by a much greater number
of individuals in America, than it will be by the populations of
any of our British Dependencies ; while in Britain, from the
large local supply of coal, and the existing facilities for import-
ing timber of all kinds which may be required. Arboriculture
is virtually the one department of forest economy to which
attention is chiefly given, while much more is required in the
economic treatment of natural forests.

' By the Hon. George P. Marsh, Minister of the United States
at the Court of Rome ; by General the Hon. C. C. Andrews,
who was for many years Minister of the United States at the
Court of Stockholm ; by Dr John A. Warder, who was the
Member of the Scientific Commission of the United States,
appointed to observe and report on forest products at the In-
ternational Exhibition in Vienna, in 1873; by the Hon. Dr B.
G. Northrop, Secretary of the Connecticut Board of Education,
who was commissioned to visit Schools of Forestry and other
technical schools in Europe in 1877 ; by Dr Franklin B.
Hough, writer of the Report upon Forestry, prepared under
the direction of the Commissioner of Agriculture, in pursuance
of an Act of Congress, published in 1878, and it may be
others,* much information in regard to'the Forestry of Europe

* I may not in silence pass such ofiBcial documents as that entitled American Forests ;
their destruction and preservation, by the Rev. Frederick Starr, St. Louis, Missouri,
included in the Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture ff r the year 1865, of which
ahxmdred and sixty-five thousand copies were printed by order of Congress— or the

ADDENDA. 213

has been published in America ; and from the extensive
jndiciously devised correspondence which Dr Hough, has had,
and still has, with the administrators, and managers of state
forests on the Continent of Europe, and other countries, there
must be in his hands an immense collection of valuable infor-
mation on all subjects connected with forest economy, over and
above what is embodied in the report referred to. Bat the
subject is so comprehensive, and the mine in all its ramifica-
tions is so rich, that it is scarcely possible that two indepen-
dent workers can fail to bring to light important facts and
observations to which attention has been given by one, while
they may never have happened to come ander the cognizance of
the other.

* In illustration of the wealth of the mine, I may cite the
following statement which I made some years ago in a
pamphlet which I published under the title of The Schools of
Forestry in Europe.

*' ' I have had sent to me lately Ofversight af Svenska
Skogsliteraturen, Bibliograjiska Studieren af Axel Cn^ttingius,
a list of books and papers on Forest Science, published in
Sweden ; I have also had sent to me a work by Don Jose
Jordana y Morera, Igenero de Montes, under the title of
Apuntes Bibliographico Forestales, a Catalogue raissone of 1126
printed books, MSS., &c., in Spanish, on subjects connected
with Forest Science.

" ' I am at present preparing for the press a report on
measures adopted in France, Germany, Hungary, and else-
where, to arrest and utilise drift-sand by planting them with
grasses and trees ; and in Der Enrop^iische Flug-saud and
Seine Kaltur, von Josf Wessely, General Domafiefi- Inspector, und
Forst-Academie-Direktor, published in Vienna in 1873, I find a
list of upwards of 100 books and papers on that one depart-
ment of the subject, of which 30, in Hungarian, Latin, and
German, were published in Hungary alone.

*' ' According to the statement of one gentleman, to whom
application was made by a representative of the Government

Report on the Statistics of Forestry, embodied in the Report of the Minister of
Agriculture, for the year 1S65— with many other documents, both official and unofficial,
which have been sent to me from many of the States in thu Union, and from the
British Dominion in North America. Bnt these all relate to Forestry in America ;
those I have cited refer extensively, and soma of them exclusively, to Forestry iu
Europe ; and with such alone I have to do at present.

2U FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

at the Cape for information in regard to what suitable works
on Forest Economy could be procured from Germany, " the
works on Forst-W'i8se?isckoft^ Forest Science, and Fort-
Wirthschaft, Forest Economy, in the German language, may be
reckoned by cartloads." From what I know of the abundance
of works in German on subjects connected with Forestry, I am
not surprised that such a report should have been given. And
with the works in German may be reckoned numerous works
in French.

'* * In Hermann Schmidt's Fach Katcdogue, published in
Prague last year (1876), there are given the titles, (fee, of Ger-
man works in Forst-und Jagd-Literatur, published from 1870 to
1875 inclusive, to the 31st of October of the latter year,
amounting in all to 650, exclusive of others given in an appen-
dix, containing a selection of the works published prior to
1870. They are classified thus: — General Forest Economy,
93; Forest Botany, 60; Forest History and Statistics, 50;
Forest Legislation and Game Laws, 56 ; Forest Mathematics,
25 ; Forest Tables and Measurements, <fec., 148 ; Forest
Technology, 6 ; Forest Zoology, 19 ; Peat and Bog Treatment,
H ; Forest Calendars, 6; Forest and Game Periodicals, 27 ;
Forest Union and Year Books, 13 ; Game, 91 ; Forest and
Game in Bohemian, 44. In all 652 : upwards of a hundred
new. works published annually. Amongst the works men-
tioned is a volume entitled Die Literatur der letzen nehen Jahre
(1862-1872) aus dem Gesammtgehiete der Land und Forst-wirth-
i''.haft mit Finschlusz der latidw. Gewerhe u. der JcLgd^ in
deutscker, franzosischer u. englisher Sprache. Herausg. v. d. Buohr
handl. V. Ceroid <fe Co., in Wein. 1873, which is a valuable
catalogue, filling 278 pages in large octavo.

" * Were I to give a like statement in regard to similar lists
now before me, it would be much more extensive."

* I enclose a list of compilations, with any one or more of
which I am prepared to go to press at once ; and to this is
subjoined a list of volumes and pamphlets which have already
appeared. Applying to the latter a designation suggested by
the title of one of the works of Professor Max Miiller, I would
describe them as chips from the trunk, and boughs and twigs
from the tree. From any of these, if known to you, you may
gather the character of the others ; and should any of these
seem to you to promise to supply a desideratum in American

ADDENDA. 215

literature, I ask of you to bring the matter under the considera-
tion of any publisher who may be likely to further the
enterprise.

* I am at present free from all engagements, and am prepared
to contract at once for the publication of any one or more of
the compilations in question, altogether irrespective of the
order in which they appear on the list. I am open to any
proposals in regard to terms ; but I should like to have a
specified number of copies placed at my disposal for presenta-
tion to personal friends, to writers cited, and to others who
may have aided me in the enterprise, or whose co-operation I
may have occasion to solicit, and to public libraries at the
Cape of Good Hope, in the interest of which Colony the work
was begun and prosecuted ; aud besides this, I should like to
have (1) a royalty on all copies printed, or (2) a percentage on
all sales, or (3) a share in any profits which may be realised.

* Should it be thought expedient to print the whole, or a
selection of them, as a series of uniform size, for transmission
by post, this may be secured by sub-division, or bv excision, to
any extent necessary ; and if it should be desired that the
printing should be executed in America, I can get " copy ''
printed in slips, and corrected in Scotland, at a charge of about
is 2d per thousand words.

* Soliciting your good services, I am. My Dear Sir, dec'

Appended List of Projected Publications.

I. — Forest MaTiagemeiit and Arhoriculture in Great Britain
ami Ireland.

In this it is shown in regard to England, that from the
earliest times Forest Laws were exclusively Game Laws, aud
how, in later times, forest economy was subordiuated to the
chase. Ancient terms and usages are explained ; progressive
legislation is traced ; detailed information is supplied in regard
to the several Crown Forests, and in regard to woods and
plantations, and the management of these.

With regard to Scotland, there are given abstracts and
copies of old forest laws ; details in regard to modern extensive
plantations; with notices of the forest literature of the
country.

Sae FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

With regard to Ireland, there are given notices of extensive
forests, and abstracts of the old forest laws of the land.

II. — The Forestry of France.

In successive chapters are given — The early history of forest
treatment and forest legislation in France — the Forest Ordi-
nance of 1669 — the mediaeval history of forest economy and
legislation in France, including Defraichment, Jardinage, Sar-
tage, and forest litigation of the period ; notices c^ the con-
tinued destruction of forests, and of the remedies devised for
the evil ; the Code Forestier ; the Ordonnance Reglementaire —
The recent history of forest economy and legislation in France,
including notices of the forest administration ; of servitudes, or
rights of usage ; of Communal woods ; of concessions and
appropriations given to public works ; of thefts of forest pro-
ducts of forest fires; of the exploitation of forests; of the
planting of landes aud dunes ; and of the rehoisement of the
mountains ; the forests of France ; notices of the literature of
forest science and forest economy in France, embracing works on
vegetation, vegetable anatomy, and vegetable physiology — on
subjects connected with forest science — on forest economy, and
works on legislation, relative to the treatment of forests ; and
the School of Forestry at Nancy.

III. — Development of Modern Forest Science and Instruction
communicated in Schools of Forestry in GermdJiy.
After notices of mediaeval forestry in Germany, and of earlier
endeavours to improve it, details are given of the development
by Hartig and by Cotta of the Fachwerks-Methodey known in
France as La Methode d«s compartiments, and of the organisa-
tion and development of Forest Schools in diflferent German
States, and of Stations for Experimental Researches. And
there follow notices of the forest lands and the literature on
forestry in Germany.

IV. — Introduction to the Study of Modern Forest Science and the
Forest Economy of Continental Europe^ as followed in
France.
In successive chapters information is supplied in regard to
forest clearings, effected by Sartage and otherwise : the acci-
dental destruction of forests by fire ; the reckless destruction
of forests for their products \ and the prevention of their

ADDENDA. Hll

reproduction by usages incompatible therewith. There is
described the exploitation of forests by Jardiiiage, by La
Methode a tire et aire, and by La Methode des compartiments.
Information follows in regard to planting, with a view to
obtaining a supply of timber or firewood; with a view to
arresting and utilising sand drifts ; with a view to the preven-
tion of the formation of destructive torrents ; with a view to
securing humidity of soil and climate ; and with a view to
producing amenity and shelter.

V. — Sylviculture in France,

In this is given a resume of the course of instruction in the
plantation and culture of woods, followed in the School of
Forestry in Nancy, comprising the artificial creation of woods,
with information in regard to doing this with seeds, with
seedling plants, and with cuttings and layers ; the sylviculture
to be practised in forests, and the exploitation of timber
forests, and of coppice woods ; the measures to be adopted in
various forms of the conversion of coppice woods into timber
forests, and of timber forests into coppice woods ; and infor-
mation in regard to the natural history, seed sowing, subse-
quent treatment, and exploitation of the more generally culti-
vated forest trees of Europe.

VI. — Forest Management in France.

In this is given a resume of the course of instruction in the
management of forests followed in the School of Forestry in
Nancy, comprising requirements common to all systems of
forest management followed in France ; the arrangement of
sections of forest for successive exploitation ; the ages of the
trees at which they are felled ; the application to trees of the
method of exploitation to be followed in the case of timber
forests, of these in an irregular condition, of coppice woods, and
of timber forests with an undergrowth of coppice, the object
aimed at being, by every operation, to subserve conjointly the
amelioration of the forest, its sustained productiveness, and its
natural reproduction by self-sown seed.

VII. — Sylviculture on Sand Wastes and Saiul Plains of Belgium^
Holland, and Northern Germany.
Information is supplied in regard to tree planting with

ii8 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

success ou the waste lands of Belgium ; in regard to the herbage
by which sand dunes have been bound down in Holland, to
sand drifts in Prussia, which have been arrested by planting
them with trees ; and in regard to the management of forests
on the sand plains of Northern Germany.

VIII.— ^S'a^icZ DHfts.

In this attention is given to the natural history of sand,
what it is, whence and how the constituents of sand have been
obtained and brought into the existing condition and places in
which we find them ; to the phenomena presented by sand
wastes ou the shores of the German Ocean, and of the Baltic,
and by inland dunes ; to the effects produced by herbage
naturally spreading over them, and by trees self-sown or planted
upon them ; and to legislation and literature relative to the
arrest and utilisation of drifting sand.

IX. — Danish Peat Bogs and Fwests.

Attention is given to the order in which different kinds of
trees have, in a succession which may be naturally accounted
for, constituted the forests of Jutland, which, so late as the
eleventh century, was characterised as a silva horrida ; to the
natural history of the peat bogs, in which remains of trees have
been preserved from pre-historic times ; to indications of the
habits of the early inhabitants, supplied by implements and
ornaments there preserved from the so-called stone period,
bronze period, and early iron period of these pre-historic times ;
to the present condition of the forests or woods of Den-
mark ; the modern exploitation of these forests or woods,
and their products ; and the forest literature of the country.

X. Forestry in Norvtay : loith Notices of the Country and its

People.

In successive chapters are given details of forest operations,
of the consumption and exportation of wood, of forest scenery,
of the distribution of forests, and of different kinds of forest
trees ; of forest botany ; of the tenure of land and forest rights ;
of agriculture, trade, commerce, and shipping; of the game
and game laws of Norway ; and of the forest literature of the
country. These are followed by like details in regard to the

ADDENDA. 219

physical geography of the country ; the early history, mediaeval
developments, and modern civil and political organisations of
its inhabitants ; the number, distribution, and occupations of
these ; and the finances of the country.

XI. — Sweden : its Forests^ Forest Management, the Country, and
its People.

In this are traced the successive measures by which the
management of forests has in recent times been brought from
what may be described as reckless waste into conformity with
the most approved forest economy of the day. Details are
given in regard to the forests, their geographical distribution,
the home consumption and exportation of their products, the
game and game laws, and the agriculture of the country ; with
information in regard to the general aspect, geology, hydro-
graphy, and meteorology of the country ; and like information
in regard to the history, political constitution, finances, trade,
and commerce, and education of the nation.

XII. — The Films and Forests of Finland.

There are described the general appearance of the country
and its inhabitants, of its mountains, and of its lakes, which
have procured for it the poetic designations of The land of a
thousand lakes, and The last born daughter of the sea ; its
flora, and its forests ; its primitive forest treatment, that of
Rhoedens or Sartage ; and the successful introduction of the
most advanced forest management of Central Europe ; its
primitive and modern agriculture, its mines, and its minerals ;
its exports, and its timber trade. And there are added ethno-
graphical notices of the Finns, and the Lapps, and the Letts ;
notices of the state of education in Finland ; and of the legends
and literature of the people.

XIIL — Forests, Forest Lands, and Forest Work in Russia.

Details are given in regard to forests, forest lands, and forest
work in Noithem Russia, comprising the Governments of
Olonetz and Archangel, the principal seat of the timber trade ;
in Central Russia, the north agricultural zone, in which are
situated many of the mines ; in Eastern Russia or Siberia, ex-
tending from the Ural Mountains to Karaschatka ; in Southern
Russia, including the Steppes, the Crimea, and the Caucasus ;

220 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

and in Western Russia, comprising Poland, Lithuania, and the
Baltic provinces of Livonia ; the whole supplying illustrations
of practical working of Jardinage, of a tire et aire, of les com-
partiments, and of reboisement and sylviculture. There follows
a general survey of forestry in Russia, in which are given
details in regard to the distribution of forests, and of different
kinds of trees, the economic uses to which their products are
applied, the relation of the total annual production to the
total annual consumption of wood, the Forest Administration,
the Forest Code, the Forest Society, and the Schools of
Forestry, and the forest literature of the country.

XIV. — Trandation of a Report on the Forests of Greece^ and
their Products^ by Professor Theodore Orphanides^ of the
University of Athens.

There are given in this Report information in regard to the
extent of forests in Greece ; the different kinds of trees of
which they are composed ; and their economic products. And
there is superadded some notices of forests in Turkey.

XV. — Sylviculture and Forest Man/xgement in the Atcstrian
Empire.

This comprises details of extensive works on the sand-drifts
of the Bannat in Hungary, of the natural history of these, of
the legislation for which they have given occasion, with uotices
of Hungarian literature on the subject of sand-drifts ; details
of observations made in connection with works of hydraulic
engineering to effect a rectification of the course of the Danube;
details of extensive works of reboisement in the Karst, a district
on the coast of the Adriatic, undertaken with a view to coun-
teract disastrous desiccation which has followed the destruction
of forests ; and details of successful forest management, with a
glance at the forest lands of Austria, and the arrangements
followed in the Royal and Imperial School of Forestry in
Vienna.
XVI. — Forest Administration in Bavaria.

Trained and instructed administrators and officials being
required to carry out forest operations judiciously and
efficiently, the Forest administration uf Bavaria has been
selected as illustrative of the forest administration of Ger-
many, and detailed with annotations suggested by a discussion

ADDENDA. 221

now in progress in France on the Forest administrations of
that country. Details are given in regard to the organisation
of the forest service, and the training and instruction of forest
officials, with information in regard to the schools of forestry
at AschafFenburg and in Munich ; the functions of forest
officials in State forests, in forests belonging to communities
and corporations, and to private individuals ; the forest legis-
lation of the country ; matters pertaining to the chase ; and
matters pertaining to sales of wood, and of other forest produce.

XVII. — Eehoisement and Forest Management in the Alps.

Information is supplied in regard to the rehoisement of the
French Alps by the planting of mountain basins with trees,
shrubs, and herbage, as a means of arresting the destructive
consequences of torrents, and the formation of new ones ; in
regard to the management of forests in Switzerland, and the
instruction in forestry given in the Polytechnicum at Zurich j
and in regard to the evil effects of depasturing forest lands ;
with notices of forests and forest management in the Austrian
Alps.

XVIII. — Forest Economy, Irrigation, and Sylviculture, in Italy.
Information is supplied in regard to the forests of Italy ; the
School of Forestry at Valambrosa ; the forest legislation of
Italy ; extensive irrigation works in the north of Italy ; and
plantations of the Eucalptus globulus in the south.

XIX. — The Aridity of Spain : its Causes and Remedies.

The aridity of Spain is attributable primarily and
chiefly to the situation and contour of the country, but
secondarily greatly to the destruction of forests. Existing
forests are described ; details are given of a struggle to prevent
a threatened extensive destruction of these being carried into
effect ; of projects, or proposals of extensive replenishing, and
of extensive works of irrigation being executed. Information is
supplied in regard to the literature of forest science in tlie
country ; in regard to the Merino sheep, and the
injurious effects of the mcsta ; in regard to sericulture, wine
making, fruit, esparto grass, and otlier vegetable products of
Spain; and in regard to the ethnography of the Spanish people.

222 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

XX. — Meteorological Effects of Forests.

There is detailed the chemistry of vegetation, and it is shown
that by this the humidity of the atmosphere may be increased,
while by shade evaporation from the soil is prevented, and by
roots and stems the superficial flow of water may be arrested, and
that the general effect of forests is to produce a more equable
distribution of rainfall, both in time and in space. The
general and local effects of forests in equalising the temperature
is next illustrated, with notices of the correlation of temperature
and humidity in their meteorological eflfects. The effects of
vegetation in replacing carbonic acid by oxygen, and of forests
in preventing or arresting miasmata are described ; and details
are given of practical measures which have been adopted in
different countries, with a view to secure more extensively for
the benefit of man meteorological effects which may be pro-
duced by forests.

XXT. — Application of Advanced Modern Forest Science to the
Conservation, Exploitation^ and Extension of Forests in
India.
There are given ofiBcial reports of sylviculture and forest
management in the Presidencies of Madras, Bombay, and Ben-
gal ; in the North-West Provinces, in Simla, Ajmere, the
Punjaub, and Oude ; in the Central Provinces, in Berar, Hydera-
bad, Mysore, Courg, Burmah, Assam, and Ceylon."

Measures which I approved were adopted by Dr. Hough
to carry out the suggestions submitted in my letter ; but
occurences, which it is not necessary to detail, prevented
effect being given to his arrangements ; and the offer
made by me lapsed. But I am equally ready now as
then to carry through the press any one or any number
of the treatises mentioned on the terms stated ; and 1
shall feel grateful for any assistance which may thus be
given me in making available for others the information J
have compiled, i have drawn upon the mass of this
material for a number of popular works, published in con-
nection with the International Fore.>>try Exhibition, held
in Edinburgh in 1884; but the remainder, or any portion
of it, is foithcuming if it be desired,

ADDENDA. 223

The treatises mentioned in the preceding pages were
designed to be of a character sufficiently popular to be
interesting to any one desirous of information on the sub-
jects to which they severally refer; but I consider some-
thing still more popular might be useful in awakeniLg an
interest in such studies ; and I question whether, if
a School of Forestry were established soon, there exists
amongst young men so dififused an interest in forestry as
would induce many to avail themselves of the provision
for study which such an institution would supply.

In view of this contingency, when it was resolved in the
spring of 1883 to promote an International Forestry
Exhibition in Edinburgh, as a means of promoting a move-
ment for the establishment of a National School of
Forestry in Scotland, I submitted to the projectors,
through one of their number, for consideration, one
measure whereby to some extent young men, such as those
to whom I have referred, might have been interested in
the matter, and prepared afterwards to judge intelligently
whether or no they should take advantages of pro-
vision which might be made for imparting systematic
instruction in forestry. Another measure, seemingly
similar, but essentially different, was ultimately resolved
on and carried out. When this was resolved on, I wrote
to one of the projectors : —

* I am very glad you have secured lectures from foreign
students of Forest Science, but I consider that in order to
secure from the Exhibition all the good possible, it is
desirable to combine with these such lectures as I sug-
gested.

* I would state my argument thus : — In Denmark there
is great interest in Archaeology manifested even by the
peasantry. This is attributed to Professor Thomsen, M.
Worsaac, and others, men of the highest attainments in
antiquarian lore, having, on holidays and at other times,
joined little groups of country peasants in the Museum,
and accompanied them on their rounds, directing
their attention to what was interesting, and explaining to

224 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

them the teachings of different objects. While the second
luternational Exhibition was being held in Paris, there
was held an International Congress of Botanists, which I
attended. And at specified times members of this Congress
from different countries attended the former to give explana-
tions of the articles exhibited from the countries whence
they came. Similar arrangements in connection with the
British Museum and the Royal Academy have been advo-
cated by the Rev. H. R. Haweis, the Rev. Chas. Kingsley,
and others. The measure which I have proposed is a
modification of this adapted to our circumstances ;
and I anticipate it would frequently lead to
adjournment to the Exhibition, attracting others who
would cluster round to hear what was being said. At
Forestry Exhibitions which I have attended in Paris, in
Vienna, and in St. Petersburg, again and again 1 have
seen students of Forestry take in at a glance the teaching
of some object exhibited ; and some one, to whom the
subject was new, with catalogue in hand, try laboriously
to spell out that teaching ; and others simply pass through
the compartment as if they felt they ought to see every
thing, but had no interest in the objects there. I deem
it of importance that these should be interested, that the
enquirer should be supplied with the information he is
desiring, and that the information possessed by the
advanced student should be utilised for the instruction of
the others ; and all this might thus be done. Not only are
the panoramas exhibited in the country accompanied by a
lecturer, but the menageries have some one to go round
and tell the names and the characteristics of the different
animals, and the crowd crushing after him, and the pennies
with which he is rewarded, tell how much his few words
have added to the enjoyment of the visitors.

' Should any such arrangement be made, I think it
expedient that each lecture should be printed and sold on
the day after delivery, in order that any attending one
lecture may be able to purchase copies of any or all of
those previously delivered, A half-hour's lecture of 5000

ADDENDA. 225

words would fill 16 pages — the printing of which, with a
cover, would cost for 1000 copies, 45s. If 500 copies of
each were sold this would cover the expense of printing ;
and there would be secured the distribution, by sale, of
3000 tracts on forestry a week, to be dispensed over the
country, with this beneficial result amongst others. The
difficulty, I anticipate, to be encountered in maintaining
at first a School of Forestry, is not in getting teachers but
in getting students ; and by such a distribution of tracts the
subject will come under the notice of a great many more
young men, and their parents or guardians, than at present.'

Nothing having come ofthis proposal, and the Exhibition
being closed without provision being made for the con-
tinued exhibition of articles made available for the pur-
pose, I addressed, under date of 23rd October,
1883, a letter to the Council of the Scottish Arboricul-
tural Society, of which the following is a copy : —

* Gentlemen,

* I am informed that at last meeting of the Society
it was resolved, amongst other things, that you should be
instructed to take into consideration the expediency of
getting prepared and published some simple treatises on
subjects pertaining to forestry.

' I am, as you are probably aware, carrying through the
press a series of works on forestry for which there
Ife no such demand as would remunerate a publisher,
towards which enterprise the Society last year contributed
j£10. I enclose tables of contents of those volumes which
have already been published. I have now in the press one
' On the Forest Lands and Forestry of Northern Russia.'
T contemplate following this with others ' On the Schools of
Forestry in Germany,' ' On the Modern Forest Economy of
France,' the adoption of ' Modern Forest Economy in
Sweden,' * Scientific Sylviculture in Denmark,' the adop-
tion of ' Forest Management in accordance with Modern
Forest Science in South Africa, in Australia, and in India,'

Q

226 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

&c , &c. The expense of the execution of this enterprise
will be far beyond the amount of money I can spend upon
the work ; aud I am prepared to accept from any quarter
assistance in the undertaking in any form, and under any
conditions which may be agreed upon.

' But irrespective of this, on the assumption of the cor-
rectness of the information I have received in regard to
the resolution of the Society referred to, I desire to state
that I am prepared, if you will meet the expense, to carry
through the press, on such arrangements, as may be agreed
upon, for distribution next year, monthly, among all members
of the Society a series oi brochures on any twelve subjects
which you may select from a list which I send enclosed, each
pamphlet to consist of 48 pages, and the issue to com-
mence on the 1st or the 31st of January, as may be found
most convenient.

*1 believe that an edition of 1000 copies of each, similar
in every respect to the volumes 1 have already published,
may be printed for £6, or with a cover for £6 6s ; the
postage of each copy would be a half-penny ; and should
the enterprise prove satisfactory, it might, by subsequent
arrangement, be continued in succeeding years, till the list
be exhausted. — I am, &c.'

The following is a copy of the list of subjects appended to
the letter : —

1. Forestry in England in the Nineteenth Century.

2. The Caledonian Forest ; and Early Sylviculture in
Scotland.

3. Forest Laws of Ireland, and Modern Sylviculture in
tliat Country.

4. Scientific Management of Forests in Australia.

5. Forests in Tasmania, and Economic Management of
them.

6. Forestry in New Zealand.

7. Reckless Waste in Exploitation of Forests at the
Cape of Good Hope, and the adoption there of the
advanced Forest Economy of the day.

ADDENDA. 227

8. Destruction of Forests by Fire in South Africa ; and
consequences which have resulted from this.

9. Forests in Natal,

10. Forests in South Africa, between the British
Colonies and the Zambesi.

11. Adoption of Advanced Forest Economy in India ;
and the results.

12. Exploitation of Forests in Honduras and British
Guiana.

13. Forests in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.

14. Forests in Lower Canada.

15. Forests in Upper Canada.

16. Forests in Manitoba.

17. Forestry in the United States of America.

18. Arbor Day in America, and Sylvicultural Opera-
tions there.

19. The Training of Forest Officials for Forest Service
in India.

20. A School of Forestry for Britain.

21. Ancient Forests of Europe.

22. Remains of successive Forest Trees which have
grown in the locality, and been preserved in Peat Bogs in
Denmark.

23. Fossil Remains of Pre-Adamic Trees in Northern
Europe.

24. Norway and its Forests.

25. Clearing of Forest Land for Agriculture in Finland,
with Notices of its Forest Scenery.

26. Forest Exploitation, by Jardinage, in Northern
Russia.

27. French Forest Ordinance of 1669.

28. Development of Modern Forest Economy in Saxony.

29. Schools of Forestry in Germany.

30. Adoption of Advanced Forest Economy in France.

31. Sylviculture in France in accordance with the
Advanced Forest Economy of the day.

32. Scientific S}'lviculture in Denmark.

33. Adoption of Modern Forest Economy in Sweden,

228 FORESTRY IN GERMANY.

34. Forest Operations in the Mining Districts of
Eastern Russia.

35. Sylviculture on the Steppes of Southern Russia.

36. Forestry in Poland and Lithuania.

37. Forestry in Hungary, aod the Arrest of Drift Sand
in the Bannat.

38. Forestry in Austria, and the Replanting of the
Karst with Trees, with a view to counteract the desicca-
tion which has followed the destruction of trees there.

39. Switzerland, and the Replanting of Trees on the
Alps to prevent the occurrence of torrents and inundations.

40. Italy, and the Planting of its Marsh Lands with the
Eucalyptus, to counteract malaria.

41. Spain : the Causes or Occasion of its Aridity, and the
Remedial Measures which are being adopted, including
the Conservation and Extension of Forests.

42. Algiers, and adjacent countries on the Southern
Coast of the Mediterranean, and the Extensive Planting
Operations which are being carried on there.

43 Former Forests of Palestine.

44. Forestry in Turkey and Greece.

45. Forests and Moisture,

46. Natural History of the Eucalyptus Globulus, or Blue
Gum, its properties, and effects produced by the cultiva-
tion of it.

47. Tree Culture on the Sand Plains of Northern
Europe, with Notices of the Composition of Sand.

48. Manufacture of Wood Pulp, and uses to which the
product is applied.

This offer, also, I renew, and in doing so extend it to
any who may be disposed to co-operate in the execution
of such a scheme— publishers or others, including editors
or proprietors of periodicals who may see their way dear,
in accordance with a practice more prevalent on the Con-
tinent than in Britain, to append such brochures to the
successive issues of their publications, taking this into
account in the. price charged.

v.— Proferred Gift of Works on Modern Forestry
TO Free Public Libraries in any of the British
Colonies, and in any of the United States
OF America.

While a British National School of Forestry might be
made available for instruction in Modern Forestry
to any party who may desire this through the medium
of the English language, I know of no insuperable diffi-
culties in the way of such institutions being o-ganised in
any of the States of the American Union, or in any of the
Colonies of the British Empire, in connection with
existing educational arrangements of their own. As a
contribution of information, which might be of use to any
residents in these, in determining what might be done in the
matter, I am prepared to deliver free, to any address in
Edinburgh or London, which may be given to me, a
copy, in sheets, of any or all of the following
works, to be placed in a Free Public Library
in any of these States or Colonies, on an application
to me certified by the Government of the State or Colony.

1. Origin and History of Schools of Forestry in Ger-
many, with Addenda relating to the Desiderated School of
Forestry in Britain— T^i5 volume.

2. The School uf Forest Engineers in Spain, indicative
of a type for a British School ot Forestry.

3. Introduction to the Study of Modern Forest Economy.

4. French Forest Ordinance of 1669, with historical
Sketch of Previous Treatment of Forests in France.

5. The Forests of England, and the Management of
them in by-gone times.

6. Forestry of Norway.

7. Finland— its Forests and Forest Management.

8. Forestry and Forest Lands in Northern Russia,

230 ADDENDA.

9. Forestry in the Mining Districts of the Ural Moun-
tains in Eastern Russia.

10. Forestry in Poland, Lithuania, and the Baltic
Provinces of Russia.

11. Pine Plantations on Sand Wastes in France.

12. Reboisement in France ; or Records of the
Replanting of the Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees,
with Trees, Herbage, and Bush, with a view to arresting
and preventing the destructive consequences of torrents.

13. Hydrology of South Africa; or Details of the
former Hydrographic Conditions of Cape of Good Hope,
and of Causes of its Present Aridity, wdth Suggestions of
Appropriate Remedies for this Aridity.

14. Water Supply of South Africa, and Facilities for the
Storage of it.

15. Forests and Moisture; or Effects of Forests on
Humidity of Climate.

The editions of some of the works are nearly exhausted,
and I deem it expedient to reserve a limited supply of
each for any demand which may ari^e for them in Britain ;
but subject to this Hmitation, copies of all will be sent to
early applicants in the order in which their applications
may be received.

In some States or Colonies there may be more than one
Free Public Library to wdiich such a grant might be
acceptable. To any such certified by the Government,
subject to the limitations which have been stated, I am
ready to send copies of Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and copies of
selections from the others, determined by the greater or
kss numbers of them which may happen to remain in
stock. The expei diture which I have already incurred,
is my excuse for iiot offering to deliver the copies bound ;
but arrangements have been made according to which any
may be bound here at a uniform charge of sevenpence per
volume ; and I shall bold myself bound by this proffer for
six months from the date of publication of this volume.

VI. — Matters Pertaining to Schools of Forestry, on
WHICH THE Author is ready to Supply Infor-
mation to any Government Official, Public
Association, or Private Individual, desirous
OF Establishing a British N'ational School of
Forestry : —

1. The need of scientific training in forestry for the
administration of indigenous forests in British colonies.

2. The difference between British Forest Economy and
what is required for such forests.

3. The advantages of scientific training for British
Foresters.

4. The origin and development of Schools of Forestry.

5. The instruction in political economy and jurisprudence
given in Schools of Forestry on the Continent.

6. Stations for Experimental Research attached to
several Schools of Forestry on the Continent.

7. The extent to which a British School of Forestry
should be conformed to the model of such Schools on
the Continent of Europe.

8. The expediency of combining with such, facilities for
research, and the expediency of including in these
carpenters^ workshops, &c.

9. Where an eligible site for a British National
School of Forestry might be found, irrespective of the
contiguity of a forest.

10. What eligible arrangements could be made in Edin-
burgh if this were made the site of a School of Forestry?

11. The advantages and disadvantages of a School of
Forestry founded by private enterprise.

12. The advantages and disadvantages of a Professor-
ship in a University.

13. The advantages and disadvantages of a Class for
the Study of Forestry in the Watt Institute in Edinburgh.

232 ADDENDA.

14. The special advantages of forming a School of
Forestry in the Museum of Science and Art under the Com-
mittee of Council on Education, in Edinburgh.

15. The salaries paid to instructoi-s in Schools of
Forestry on the Continent.

16. The entire expense of some existing Schools of
Forestry.

17. The curriculum of study appropriate for a British
School of Forestry.

18. Where qualified Teachers might be found, and
salaries which might be offered to such.

19. What has been done of late years, and what pre-
vious endeavours have been made to secure the
establishment of a School of Forestry in Britain.

20. What has been done to originate some small classes
for the study of Forestry.

21. What has been done of late years to introduce the
study of Forestry, &c., into Primary Schools".

22. What has been done through the Press to make
known Modern Forestry.

23. What has been done to raise money to establish a
School of Forestry.

24. The propriety of spending State funds on the
establishment of a British National School of Forestry.

THE END.

Date Due

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FORESTRY

AGRICULTURE

LIBRARY

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